i 102 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 
 
 LIBRARY OF THE 
 
 Semitic Department, 
 
 SEVER HALL. 
 
 3 3U. Kr?z 
 
" ■ • «A : .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 Getty Research Institute 
 
 https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofislaOOhugh_O 
 
A 
 
 DICTIONARY OF ISLAM 
 
 BEING 
 
 A CYCLOPAEDIA OP THE DOCTRINES, RITES, CEREMONIES, AND 
 CUSTOMS, TOGETHER WITH THE TECHNICAL AND 
 THEOLOGICAL TERMS, OP THE MUHAMMADAN RELIGION. 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES, B.D., M.R.A.S. 
 
 WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 THE KA'BAH. (Btt i'ton.) 
 
 Cs. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE, PALL MALL. S.W. 
 
 1885. 
 
 (All rights reserved.) 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 (WITH PERMISSION) 
 
 TO 
 
 RIGHT REVEREND THOMAS VALPY FRENCH, D.D., 
 
 FIRST BISHOP OF LAHORE, 
 
 WITH MUCH AFFECTION AND ESTEEM, 
 
 BV HIS LORDSHIP’S OBEDIENT SERVANT, 
 
 THOMAS PATRICK HUGHES. 
 
V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The increased interest manifested in relation to all matters affecting 
 the East, and the great attention now given to the study of compara¬ 
 tive religion, seem to indicate that the time has come when an attempt 
 should be made to place before the English-speaking people of the 
 world a systematic exposition of the doctrines of the Muslim Faith. 
 The present work is intended to supply this want, by giving, in a tabu¬ 
 lated form, a concise account of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and 
 customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of the 
 Muhammadan religion. 
 
 Although compiled by a clergyman who has had the privilege of 
 being engaged in missionary work at Peshawar for a period of twenty 
 years, this “Dictionary of Islam” is not intended to be a contro¬ 
 versial attack on the religious system of Muhammad, but rather an 
 exposition of its principles and teachings. 
 
 Divided, as the Muslim world is, into numerous sects, it has been 
 found impossible to take into consideration all the minor differences 
 which exist amongst them. The Dictionary is, for the most part, an 
 exposition of the opinions of the Sunni sect, with explanations of the 
 chief points on which the Shiah and Wahhabi schools of thought differ 
 from it. Very special attention has been given to the views of the 
 Wahhabis, as it is the Author’s conviction that they represent the 
 earliest teachings of the Muslim Faith as they came from Muhammad 
 and his immediate successors. When it is remembered that, according 
 to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt’s estimate, the Shiah sect only numbers some 
 ten millions out of the one hundred and seventy-five millions of Mu¬ 
 hammadans in the world, it will be seen that, in compiling a Dic¬ 
 tionary of Muhammadanism, the Shiah tenets must of necessity occupy 
 a secondary place in the study of the religion. Still, upon all 
 important questions of theology and jurisprudence, these differences 
 have been noticed. 
 
 The present book does not profess to be a Biographical Dic¬ 
 tionary. The great work of Ibn Khallikan, translated into English by 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Slane, supplies this. But short biographical notices of persons con¬ 
 nected with the early history of Islam have been given, inasmuch as 
 many of these persons are connected with religious dogmas and cere¬ 
 monies ; the martyrdom of Husain, for instance, as being the foundation 
 of the Muharram ceremonies; Abu Hanifah, as connected with a 
 school of jurisprudence ; and the Klialifali 'Umar as the real founder of 
 the religious and political power of Islam. In the biographical notice 
 of Muhammad, the Author has expressed his deep obligations to Sir 
 William Muir’s great work, the Life of Mahomet. 
 
 It is impossible for anyone to write upon the subject of Muham¬ 
 madanism without being largely indebted, not only to Sir William 
 Muir’s books, but also to the works of the late Mr. Lane, the author 
 of Modern Egyptians, new editions of which have been edited by Mr. 
 Stanley Lane Poole. Numerous quotations from these volumes will 
 be found in the present work. 
 
 But whilst the Author has not hesitated in this compilation to 
 avail himself of the above and similar works, he has, during a long 
 residence amongst Muhammadan peoples, been able to consult very 
 numerous Arabic and Persian works in their originals, and to obtain 
 the assistance of very able Muhammadan native scholars of all schools 
 of thought in Islam. 
 
 He is specially indebted to Dr. F. Steingass, of the Univer¬ 
 sity of Munich, the author of the English-Arabic and Arabic-English 
 Dictionaries, for a careful revision of the whole work. The interesting 
 article on writing is from the pen of this distinguished scholar, as 
 well as some valuable criticisms on the composition of the qur’an, and 
 a biographical sketch of the Khalifah ‘Umar. 
 
 Orientalists may, perhaps, be surprised to find that Sikhism has 
 been treated as a sect of Islam, but the Compiler has been favoured with 
 a very able and scholarly article on the subject by Mr. F. Pincott, 
 M.R.A.S., in which he shows that the "religion of Nanak was really 
 intended as a compromise between Hinduism and Muhammadanism, if 
 it may not even be spoken of as the religion of a Muhammadan 
 sect,”—the publication of which in the present work seemed to be 
 most desirable. 
 
 At the commencement of the publication of the work, the Author 
 received i'ery valuable assistance from the Rev. F. A. P. Shirreff, 
 M.A., Principal of the Lahore Divinity College, as well as from other 
 friends, which he must gratefully acknowledge. 
 
 Amongst the numerous suggestions which the Author received for 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Vll 
 
 the compilation of this Dictionary, was one from a well-known Arabic 
 scholar, to the effect that the value of the work would be enhanced 
 if the quotations from the Qur’an, and from the Traditions, were given 
 in their original Arabic. This, however, seemed incompatible with 
 the general design of the book. The whole structure of the work is 
 intended to be such as will make it available to English scholars unac¬ 
 quainted with the Arabic language; and, consequently, most of the 
 information given will be found under English words rather than under 
 their Arabic equivalents. For example, for information regarding the 
 attributes of the Divine Being, the reader must refer to the English 
 God, and not to the Arabic allah ; for all the ritual and laws 
 regarding the liturgical service, to the English prayer, and not to 
 the Arabic salat; for the marriage laws and ceremonies, to the Eng¬ 
 lish marriage, and not to the Arabic nikah. It is hoped that, in this 
 way, the information given will be available to those who are entirely 
 unacquainted with Oriental languages, or, indeed, with Eastern life. 
 
 The quotations from the Qur’an have been given chiefly from 
 Palmer’s and Rodwell's translations; and those in the Qur'anic narra¬ 
 tive of Biblical characters (moses for example) have been taken from 
 Mr. Stanley Lane Poole’s edition of Lane’s Selections. But, when 
 needful, entirely new translations of quotations from the Qur’an have 
 been given. 
 
 The “ Dictionary of Islam” has been compiled with very con¬ 
 siderable study and labour, in the hope that it will be useful to many; 
 —to the Government official called to administer justice to Muslim 
 peoples ; to the Christian missionary engaged in controversy with Mus¬ 
 lim scholars; to the Oriental traveller seeking hospitality amongst 
 Muslim peoples; to the student of comparative religion anxious to 
 learn the true teachings of Islam;—to all, indeed, who care to know 
 what are those leading principles of thought which move and guide one 
 hundred and seventy-live millions of the great human family, forty 
 millions of whom are under the rule of Her Most Gracious Majesty 
 the Empress of India. 
 
 July 23rd, 1885. 
 
The Arabic Letters in this Volume have been Transliterated 
 
 as follows :— 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Roman. 
 
 Pronunciation. 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 A 
 
 a, i, u, at the beginning of a word. 
 
 y 
 
 Ba 
 
 B 
 
 As in English. 
 
 
 Ta 
 
 T 
 
 A soft dental, like the Italian t. 
 
 cL? 
 
 Sa 
 
 s 
 
 Very nearly the sound of th in thing. 
 
 5 
 
 Jim 
 
 J 
 
 As in English. 
 
 £ 
 
 Ha 
 
 H 
 
 A strong aspirate. 
 
 C 
 
 KM 
 
 Kli 
 
 Guttural, like the Scotch ch in loch. 
 
 
 Dal 
 
 D 
 
 Soft dental. 
 
 3 
 
 Zal 
 
 Z 
 
 A sound between dh and z. 
 
 J 
 
 Ea 
 
 E 
 
 \ 
 
 j 
 
 Zfi 
 
 Z 
 
 > As in English. 
 
 U* 4 
 
 SI a 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Shin 
 
 Sk 
 
 J 
 
 
 Sad 
 
 S 
 
 A strongly articulated s; in Central Asia 
 as sw. 
 
 
 Zad 
 
 Z 
 
 Something like the foreign pronunciation 
 of the th in that ; in Central Asia and 
 India z or zw. 
 
 L 
 
 Ta 
 
 T 
 
 A strongly articulated palatal t. 
 
 
 Za 
 
 z 
 
 A strongly articulated z. 
 
 
 ‘Ain 
 
 t 
 
 A guttural, the pronunciation of which 
 must be learnt by ear. 
 
 £ 
 
 Grhain 
 
 Gh 
 
 A strong guttural gh. 
 
 
 Pa 
 
 P 
 
 As in English. 
 
 o 
 
 Qaf 
 
 Q 
 
 Like ch in stuch. 
 
 <*) 
 
 Kaf 
 
 K 
 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 L 
 
 
 r 
 
 M Im 
 
 M 
 
 
 a 
 
 Nun 
 
 N 
 
 >As in English. 
 
 t 
 
 Ha 
 
 H 
 
 
 } 
 
 Wau 
 
 W 
 
 
 lS 
 
 Ya 
 
 Y 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 Fathah 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 — 
 
 Kasrah 
 
 i 
 
 c As in Italian. „ 
 
 —1- 
 
 Zammah 
 
 u 
 
 ) 
 
 £> 
 
 Hamzah 
 
 > 
 
 Pronounced as a, i, u, preceded by a very 
 slight aspiration. 
 
DICTIONARY OF ISLAM 
 
 AARON. Arabic Hdrun 
 
 The account given of Aaron in the Qur’an will 
 be found in the article on Moses. In Surah 
 xix. 29, the Virgin Mary is addressed as “ the 
 Sister of Aaron.” [mary, moses.] 
 
 ABAD Eternity; without 
 
 end, as distinguished fromAzal (JA)> 
 
 without beginning. 
 
 ‘ABASA “ He frowned.” 
 
 The title of the Lxxxth chapter of the Qur’an. 
 It is said that a blind man, named ‘Abdu’llah 
 ibn Umm Maktum, once interrupted Muham- 
 mad in conversation with certain chiefs of 
 Q.uraish. The Prophet, however, took no 
 notice of him, but frowned and turned away ; 
 and in the first verse of this Surah, he is 
 represented as reproved by God for having 
 done so :—“ He frowned and turned his back, 
 for that the blind man came unto him.” 
 
 ‘ABBAS The son of ‘Abdu 
 
 'l-Muttalib, and consequently the paternal 
 uncle of Muhammad. The most celebrated 
 of the “Companions,” and the founder of the 
 Abbaside dynasty, which held the Khalifate 
 for a period of 509 years, namely, from a.d. 
 749 to a.d. 1258. He died in a.h. 32. His 
 son Ibn-‘Abbas was also a celebrated autho¬ 
 rity on Islamic traditions and law. [ibn 
 ‘ABBAS, ABBASIDES.] 
 
 ABBASIDES. Arabic al-‘Abbdsiyah 
 The name of a dynasty of 
 Khalifahs descended from al-‘Abbas, the son 
 of ‘Abdu ’l-Muttalib, and a paternal uncle of 
 Muhammad. On account of their descent 
 from so near a relation of the Prophet, the 
 Abbasides had, ever since the introduction of 
 Islam, been very high in esteem amongst the 
 Arabs, and had at an early period begun to 
 excite the jealousy of the Umaiyade Khalifahs, 
 who after the defeat of ‘All occupied the 
 throne of the Arabian Empire. The Abbas- 
 
 ides had for some time asserted their claims 
 to the Khalifate, and in a.d. 746 they com¬ 
 menced open hostilities. In 749 the Abbaside 
 Kh aliifah Abu ’l-‘Abbas, surnamed as-Saffah, 
 “the blood-shedder,” was recognied as Kha- 
 lifah at al-Kufah, and Marwan II., the last of 
 the Umaiyade Khalifahs, was defeated and 
 slain. 
 
 Thirty-seven Khalifahs of the Abbaside dy¬ 
 nasty reigned over the Muhammadan empire, 
 extending over the period from a.h. 132 (a.d. 
 749-50) to a.h. 656 (a.d. 1258). 
 
 The names of the Abbaside Khalifahs are:— 
 Abu ’l-‘Abbfis as-Saffah (a.d. 749), al-Mansur 
 (a.d. 754), al-Mahdi (a.d. 775), al-Hadi (a.d. 
 785), Harun ar-Rashid (a.d. 786), al-Amin 
 (a.d. 809), al-Ma’mun (a.d. 813), al-Mu‘tasim 
 (a.d. 833), al-Wasiq (a.d. 842), al-Mutawakkil 
 (a.d. 847), al-Muntasir (a.d. 861), al-Musta‘in 
 (a.d. 862), al-Mu‘tazz (a.d. 866), al-Muhtadi 
 (a.d. 869), al-Mu‘tamid (a.d. 870), al-Mu‘tazid 
 (a.d. 892)) al-Muktafi (a.d. 902), al-Muqtadir 
 (a.d. 908), al-Qahir (a.d. 932), ar-Razi (a.d. 
 934), al-Muttaqi (a.d 940), al-Mustaqfi (a.d. 
 944), al-MutI‘ (a.d. 945), at-Tai‘ (a.d. 974), 
 al-Qadir (a.d. 994), al-Qaim (a.d. 1031), al- 
 Muqtadi (a.d. 1075), al-Mustazhir (a.d. 1094), 
 al-Mustarshid (a.d. 1118), ar-Rashid (a.d. 
 1135), al-Muqtafi (a.d. 1136), al-Mustanjid 
 (a.d. 1160), al-Mustazi (a.d. 1170), an-Nasir 
 (a.d. 1180), az-Zahir (a.d. 1225), al-Mustansir 
 (a.d. 1226), al-Musta‘sim (a.d. 1242 to a.d. 
 1258). 
 
 In the reign of al-Musta‘sim Hiilaku, grand¬ 
 son of Jingiz Khan, entered Persia and 
 became Sultan a.d. 1256. In 1258 he took 
 Baghdad and put *he Kh alifah al-Musta‘sim to 
 death, [khalifah.] 
 
 ABDAL (JW). “Substitutes,” 
 
 pi. of Badal. Certain persons by whom, it is 
 said, God continues the world in existence. 
 Their number is seventy, of whom forty 
 reside in Syria, and thirty elsewhere. When 
 one dies another takes his place, being so 
 
 1 
 
2 ABDU ’LLAH 
 
 appointed by God. It is one of the signs of 
 the last day that the Abdal will come from 
 Syria. (Mishkat, xxiii. c. 3.) No one pre¬ 
 tends to be able to identify these eminent 
 persons in the world. God alone knows who 
 they are, and where they are. 
 
 ‘ABDU ’LLAH (dW). The father 
 
 of Muhammad. lie was the youngest son of 
 ‘Abdu i-Muttalib. During the pregnancy of 
 his wife Arninah, he set out on a mercantile 
 expedition to Gaza in the south of Palestine, 
 , and on his way back he sickened and died at 
 al-Madinah, before the birth of his son Mu¬ 
 hammad. ( Katibu 7- Waqidi, p. 18 ; Muir’s 
 Life, of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 11.) 
 
 ’ABDU ’LLAH I BN SA‘D 
 jus- y.?). One of Muhammad’s secre¬ 
 taries. It is related that, when Muhammad 
 instructed ‘Abdu ’llah to write down the 
 words (Surah xxiii. 12-14), “ We (God) have 
 created man from an extract of clay . . . 
 then we produced it another creation,” ‘Abdu 
 ’llah exclaimed, “ And blessed be God, 
 the best of creators”; and Muhammad told 
 him to write that down also. Whereupon 
 ‘Abdu ’llah boasted that he had been inspired 
 with a sentence which the Prophet had ac¬ 
 knowledged to be part of the Qur’an. It is of 
 him that it is written in the Qur’an, Surah vi. 
 93, “Whois more unjust than he who devises 
 against God a lie, or says, ‘ I am inspired,’ 
 when he is not inspired at all.” 
 
 ‘ABDU ’L-MUTTALIB (^IU5D* C ). 
 
 Muhammad’s grandfather and his guardian 
 for two years. He died, aged 82, a.d. 578. 
 His sons were ‘Abdu ’llah (Muhammad’s 
 father), al-Haris, az-Zuhair, Abu Talib, Abu 
 Lahab, al-‘Abbas, and Hamza. 
 
 ‘ABDU ’L-QADIR AL-JlLANl 
 
 The celebrated 
 
 founder of the Qadirlyali order of darweshes, 
 surnamed Pir-Dastaglr. He died and was 
 buried at Baghdad, a.h. 561. 
 
 ‘ABDU ’R-RAHMAN IBN ‘AUF 
 ('—One of the Com¬ 
 panions who embraced Islam at a very early 
 period, and was one of those who fled to 
 Ethiopia. He also accompanied Muhammad 
 in all his battles, and received twenty wounds 
 at Uhud. He died a.h. 32, aged 72 or 75, 
 and was buried at Baql‘u ’1-Gharqad, the 
 graveyard of al-Madinah. 
 
 ABEL. Arabic Hctbil (J*»Ia), Heb. 
 
 Hebei. In the Qur’an “ the two 
 sons of Adam ” are called Habil wa Qabil, 
 and the following is the account given of 
 them in that book (Surah v. 30-35), together 
 with the remarks of the commentators in 
 italics (as rendered in Mr. Lane’s Selections, 
 2nd ed., p. 53), “ Recite unto them the history 
 of the two sons of Adam, namely, Abel 
 and Cain, with truth. When they offered 
 [their] offering to God {Abel's being a ram, and 
 Cain's being produce of the earth), and it was 
 accepted from one of them (that is, from Abel; 
 
 ‘abid 
 
 for fire descended from heaven, and devoured 
 his offering), and it was not accepted from the 
 other, Cain was enraged; but he concealed his 
 envy until Adam performed a pilgrimage, when 
 he said unto his brother, I will assuredly slay 
 thee. Abel said. Wherefore 1 ! Cain answered, 
 Because of the acceptance oj thine offering to 
 the exclusion of mine. Abel replied, God only 
 accepteth from the pious. If thou stretch 
 forth to me thy hand to slay me, I will not 
 stretch forth to thee my hand to slay thee; 
 for I fear God, the Lord of the worlds. I 
 desire that thou shouldst bear the sin [which 
 thou intendest to commit] against me, by 
 slaying me, and thy sin which thou hast com¬ 
 mitted before, and thou wilt be of the compa¬ 
 nions of the fire.—And that is the recompense 
 of the offenders.—But his soul suffered him to 
 slay his brother: so he slew him; and he 
 became of [the number of] those who suffer 
 loss. And he knew not what to do with him ; 
 for he was the first dead person upon the face of 
 the earth of the sons of Adam. So he carried 
 him upon his baek. And God sent a raven, 
 which scratched up the earth with its bill 
 and its talons and raised it over a dead raven 
 that was with it until it hid it, to show him 
 how he should hide the corpse of his brother. 
 He said, 0 my disgrace! Am I unable to be 
 like this raven, and to hide the corpse of my 
 brother?—And he became of [the number 
 ofj the repentant. And he digged [a grave] 
 for him and hid him. —On account of this 
 which Cain did We commanded the children 
 of Israel that he who should slay a soul (not 
 for the latter's having slain a soul or committed 
 wickedness in the earth, such as infidelity, or 
 adultery, or intercepting the way, and the like) 
 [should be regarded] as though he had slain 
 all mankind ; and he who saveth it alive, by 
 abstaining from slaying it, as though he had 
 saved alive all mankind.” 
 
 “ The occasion of their making this offer¬ 
 ing is thus related, according to the common 
 tradition in the East. Each of them being 
 born with a twin-sister, when they were 
 grown up, Adam, by God’s direction, ordered 
 Cain to marry Abel’s twin-sister, and Abel to 
 marry Cain's; (for it being the common 
 opinion that marriages ought not to be had 
 in the nearest degrees of consanguinity, since 
 they must necessarily marry their sisters, it 
 seemed reasonable to suppose they ought to 
 take those of the remoter degree;) but this 
 Cain refusing to agree to, because his own 
 sister was the handsomest, Adam ordered 
 them to make their offerings to God, thereby 
 referring the dispute to His determination. 
 The commentators say Cain’s offering was a 
 sheaf of the very worst of his corn, but 
 Abel’s a fat lamb of the best of his flock.”— 
 Sale’s Koran , I., p. 122. 
 
 ‘ABID (a>Vc). “ A worshipper [of 
 
 God].” A term generally used for a devout 
 person. The word frequently occurs in the 
 Qur’an; e.g. Surah ii. 132: “ The baptism 
 (sibghah) of God 1 And who is better than 
 God at baptizing? We are the worshippers 
 ('■abidun) of God.” The word sibghah is trans- 
 
ABTQ 
 
 ABLUTION 
 
 3 
 
 latecl by Professor Palmer“dyc”and " dyeing," 
 but Salo, following the Muslim commentators, 
 al-Baizawi, Jalfilu 'd-dln, and Husaini, who 
 say it refers to the Christian rite, translates it 
 “ baptism.” Others say that it means fitrah 
 or din , the religion of God, with an adapta- 
 tation to which mankind aro created. See 
 Lane’s Lexicon, [baptism.] 
 
 ABIQ A runaway slave. 
 
 [absconding of slaves.] 
 
 ABJAD The name of an 
 
 arithmetical arrangement of the alphabet, the 
 letters of which have different powers from 
 one to one thousand. It is in tho order of 
 the alphabet as used by tho Jews as far as 
 400, the sis remaining letters being added 
 by the Arabians. The letters spell the 
 words— 
 
 cibjad kawivaz hutti kalmnan 
 
 sa'f'us qarashat sakhciz zazigh 
 
 The author of the Arabic Lexicon ,al-Q5mus, 
 says that tho first six words arc the names 
 of celebrated kings of Madyan (Midian), and 
 that the last two words were added by tho 
 Arabians. Some say they are the names of 
 the eight sons of the inventor of the Arabic 
 character, Muramir ibn Murra. 
 
 The following is a list of the letters with 
 their English equivalents, and the power of 
 each in numbers :— 
 
 1 a ( i , u) 1 
 
 2 6 v* 
 
 3 j E 
 
 4 tl J 
 
 5 h ^ 
 
 6 w j 
 
 7 z 3 
 
 8 h t 
 
 9 t L 
 
 10 y ^ 
 
 20 k *s3 
 30 Z J 
 40 m j* 
 
 50 n o 
 
 [exorcism.] 
 
 ABLUTION. Arabic, ivazu’, wuzu ’ 
 (oj-ij), Persian, dbclast (et~Ablu¬ 
 tion is described by Muhammad as “the half of 
 faith and the key of prayer ” (Mishfcat, iii. 3c), 
 and is founded on the authority of the Qur’an, 
 surah v. 8, “ O Believers! when ye prepare 
 yourselves for prayer, wash your faces and 
 hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads 
 and your feet to the ankles.” 
 
 These ablutions are absolutely necessary as 
 a preparation for the recital of the liturgical 
 form of prayer, and are performed as follows: 
 The worshipper, having tucked up his sleeves 
 a little higher than his elbows, washes his 
 hands three times ; then he rinses his mouth 
 three times, throwing the water into it with 
 his right hand. After this, he, with his right 
 hand, throws water up his nostrils, snuffing 
 it up at the same time, and then blows it out, 
 
 compressing his nostrils with the thumb and 
 finger of the left hand—this being also per¬ 
 formed three times. He then washes his 
 face three times, throwing up the water with 
 both hands. He next washes his right hand 
 and arm, as high as the elbow, as many times, 
 causing the water to run along his arm from 
 the palm of the hand to the elbow, and in 
 the same manner he washes the left. Then 
 ho draw's his wetted right hand over the 
 upper part of his head, raising his turban 
 or cap with his left. If he has a beard, ho 
 then combs it with the wetted fingers of his 
 right hand, holding his hand with the palm 
 forwards, and passing the fingers through his 
 beard from the throat upwards. He then 
 puts the tips of his fore-fingers into his ears 
 and twists them round, passing his thumbs at 
 the same time round the back of the ears 
 from the bottom upwards. Next, he wipes 
 his neck with the back of the fingers of both 
 hands, making tho ends of his fingers meet 
 behind his neck, and then drawing them for¬ 
 ward. Lastly, he washes his feet, as high as 
 tho ankles, and passes his fingers between the 
 toes. During this ceremony, which is gene¬ 
 rally performed in less than three minutes, 
 the intending worshipper usually recites some 
 pious ejaculations or prayers. For example:— 
 
 Before commencing the wazu ':—“I am 
 going to purify myself from all bodily un¬ 
 cleanness, preparatory to commencing prayer, 
 that holy act of duty, w'hieh will draw my 
 soul near to the throne of the Most High. 
 In the name of God, the Great and Mighty. 
 Praise be to God who has given us grace to 
 be Muslims. Islam is a truth and infidelity 
 a falsehood.” 
 
 When washing the nostrils :—“ O my God, if 
 I am pleasing in Thy sight, perfume me with 
 the odours of Paradise.” 
 
 When washing the right hand:—“ O my 
 God, on the day of judgment, place the book 
 of my actions in my right hand, and examine 
 my account with favour.” 
 
 When washing the left hand :—“ O my God, 
 place not at the iesurrection the book of my 
 actions in my left hand.” 
 
 The Shiya‘Is, acting more in accordance 
 with the text of the Qur’an quoted above, 
 only wipe, or rub ( mosah ) the feet, instead of 
 washing them, as do the Sunnis. 
 
 The ablution need not be performed before 
 each of the five stated periods of prayer, 
 when the persoji is conscious of having 
 avoided every kind of impurity since the last 
 performance of the ablution. The private 
 parts of the body must also be purified when 
 necessary. When water cannot be procured, 
 or would be injurious to health, the ablution 
 may be performed with dust or sand. This 
 ceremony is called Tayammum (q.v.'). The 
 washing of the whole body is necessary after 
 certain periods of impurity, [ghusl.] The 
 brushing of the teeth is also a religious duty. 
 [miswak.] The benefits of ablution are 
 highly extolled in the sayings of Muhammad, 
 e.g., “ He who performs the wazu' thoroughly 
 will extract all sin from his body, even though 
 it may be lurking under his finger nails.” “ In 
 
 60 
 
 s 
 
 u- 
 
 70 
 
 t 
 
 £ 
 
 80 
 
 f 
 
 
 90 
 
 s 
 
 u° 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 200 
 
 r 
 
 ) 
 
 300 
 
 sli 
 
 
 400 
 
 t 
 
 Cl 
 
 500 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 600 
 
 kh 
 
 i 
 
 700 
 
 z 
 
 j 
 
 800 
 
 -y 
 
 
 900 
 
 z 
 
 
 1000 
 
 gh 
 
 £ 
 
4 
 
 ABORTION 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 the day of resurrection people shall come 
 with bright faces, hands and feet, and there 
 will be jewels in every place where the waters 
 of the wazu’ have reached.” ( Mishkat , iii. 1.) 
 
 VESSELS FOR ABLUTIONS USED IN AFGHAN¬ 
 ISTAN AND INDIA 
 
 VESSELS FOR ABLUTIONS USED IN EGYPT. 
 
 (LANE’s “ EGYPTIANS.”) 
 
 In all the principal mosques there are 
 tanks, or wells, which supply water for the 
 purposes of legal purification, [purification.] 
 
 ABORTION. Arabic Isqdt. There 
 
 is no mention of the subject in the Qur’an, 
 but according to the Fatawi ‘Alamgiri (vol. 
 iv. p. 238), it is forbidden after the child is 
 formed in the womb. Muhammad is related 
 to have ordered prayers to be said over an 
 abortion, when supplication should be made 
 for the father and mother, for forgiveness 
 and mercy. ( Mishkat , v. c. 2.) 
 
 ABRAHAM. Arabic IbrdMm 
 One of the six great pro¬ 
 phets to whom God delivered special laws. 
 The “ Friend of God,” Kh alifa ’llah, to whom 
 were revealed twenty portions (safyfaK) of 
 Scripture. 
 
 Abraham is very frequently mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, together with Ishmael and Isaac. 
 
 The following are Mr. Lane’s selections (giving 
 in italics the remarks of Muslim commenta¬ 
 tors) :— 
 
 “ Remember when Abraham said to his 
 father Azar (this tons the surname of Terah), 
 Dost thou take images as deities ? Verily J 
 see thee and thy people to be in a manifest 
 error.—(And thus, as We showed him the error 
 of his father and his people, did We show 
 Abraham the kingdom of the heavens and the 
 earth, and [We did so] that he might be of [the 
 number of] those who firmly believe.) And 
 when the night overshadowed him, he saw a 
 star (it is said that it was Venus), [and] he said 
 unto his people, who were astrologers, This is 
 my Lord, according to your assertion. —But 
 when it set, he said, I like not those that set, 
 to take them as Lords, since it is not meet for a 
 Lord to experience alteration and change of 
 place, as they are of the nature of accidents. 
 Yet this had no effect upon them. And when 
 he saw' the moon rising, he said unto them, 
 This is my Lord.—But when it set, he said, 
 Verily if my Lord direct me not (if He con¬ 
 firm me not in the right way), I shall assuredly 
 be of the erring people.— This was a hint to 
 his people that they were in error; but it had no 
 effect upon them. And when he saw the sun 
 rising, he said, This is my Lord. This is 
 greater than the star and the moon. —But when 
 it set, and the proof had been rendered more 
 strong to them, yet they desisted not, he said, 0 
 my people, verily I am clear of the [things] 
 which ye associate with God; namely, the 
 images and the heavenly bodies. So they said 
 unto him, What dost, thou worship ? He 
 answered, Verily I direct my face unto Him 
 who hath created the heavens and the earth, 
 following the right religion, and I am not of 
 the polytheists.—-And his people argued with 
 him; [but] he said, Do ye argue with me 
 respecting God, when He hath directed me, 
 and I fear not what ye associate with Him 
 unless my Lord will that aught displeasing 
 should befall me ? My Lord comprehendeth 
 everything by His knowledge. Will ye not 
 therefore consider? And wherefore should 
 I fear what ye have associated with God, 
 when ye fear not for your having associated 
 with God that of which He hath not sent 
 down unto you a proof ? Then which of the 
 two parties is the more worthy of safety ? 
 Are we, or you ? If ye know who is the more 
 worthy of it, follow him .— God saith. They 
 who have believed, and not mixed their belief 
 with injustice (that is, polytheism), for these 
 shall be safety from punishment, and they are 
 rightly directed.” (Surah vi. 74-82.) 
 
 “ Relate unto them, in the book (that is, the 
 Quran), the history of Abraham. Verily, he 
 was a person of great veracity, a prophet. 
 When he said unto his father Azar, who wor¬ 
 shipped idols, 0 my father, wherefore dost 
 thou worship that which heareth not, nor 
 seeth, nor averteth from thee aught, whether 
 of advantage or of injury ? O my father, 
 verily [a degree] of knowledge hath come 
 unto me, that hath not come unto thee: 
 therefore follow me: I will direct thee into a 
 right way. 0 my father, serve not the devil, 
 
ABRAHAM 
 
 ABRAnAM 
 
 5 
 
 by obeying him in serving idols ; for the devil 
 is very rebellious unto the Compassionate. 0 
 my father, verily I fear that a punishment will 
 betide thee from the Compassionate, if thou 
 repent not, and that thou wilt be unto the 
 devil an aider, and a companion in hell-fire .— 
 He replied, Art thou a rejector of my Gods, 
 0 Abraham, and dost thou revile them ? If 
 thou abstain not, I will assuredly assail thee 
 with stones or with ill words; therefore beware 
 of me, and leave me for a long time.— Abra¬ 
 ham said, Peaco from me be on thee ! I will 
 ask pardon for thee of my Lord; for He 
 is gracious unto me: and I will separate 
 myself from you and from what ye invoke 
 instead of God; and I will call upon my 
 Lord: perhaps I shall not be unsirccessful in 
 calling upon my Lord, as ye are in calling 
 upon idols. —And when ho had separated him¬ 
 self from them, and from what they wor¬ 
 shipped instead of God, by going to the Holy 
 Land, We gave him tivo sons, that he might 
 cheer himself thereby, namely, Isaac and Jacob ; 
 and each [of them] We made a prophet; and 
 We bestowed upon them ( namely, the three), 
 of our mercy, wealth and children; and We 
 caused them to receive high commendation.” 
 (Surah six. 42-51.) 
 
 “We gave unto Abraham his direction for¬ 
 merly, before he. hud attained to manhood; and 
 We knew him to be worthy of it. When he 
 said unto his father and his people, What are 
 these images, to the worship of which ye are 
 devoted ?—they answered, We found our 
 fathers worshipping them, and ice have fol¬ 
 lowed their example. He said unto them, 
 Verily ye and your fathers have been in a 
 manifest error. They said. Hast thou come 
 unto us with truth in saying this, or art thou 
 of those who jest? Ho answered, Nay, your 
 Lord (the being who deserveth to be worshipped) 
 is the Lord of the heavens and the earth, 
 who created them, not after the similitude of 
 anything pre-existing; and I am of those who 
 bear witness thereof. And, by God, I will 
 assuredly devise a plot against your idols 
 after ye shall have retired, turning your 
 backs.—So, after they had gone to their place 
 of assembly, on a day when they held a festival, 
 he break them in pieces with an axe, except 
 the chief of them, upon whose neck he hung the 
 axe; that they might return unto it (namely, 
 the chief) and see what he had done with the 
 others. They said, after they had returned 
 and seen what he had done, Who hath done 
 this -unto our gods? Verily he is of the 
 unjust.— And some of them said, We heard a 
 young man mention them reproachfully: he 
 is called Abraham. They said, Then bring 
 him before the eyes of the people, that they 
 may bear witness against him of his having 
 done it. They said unto him, when he had 
 been brought, Hast thou done this unto our 
 gods, 0 Abraham ? He answered, Nay, this 
 their chief did it: and ask ye them, if they 
 [can] speak. And they returned unto them¬ 
 selves, upon reflection, and said unto them¬ 
 selves, Verily ye are the unjust, in worship¬ 
 ping that which speaketh not. Then they re¬ 
 verted to their obstinacy, and said, Verily 
 
 thou knowest that these speak not: then 
 wherefore dost thou order us to ask them ? He 
 said, Do ye then worship, instead of God, 
 that which doth not profit you at all, nor 
 injure you if ye worship it not? Fie on you, 
 and on that which ye worship instead of God ! 
 Do ye not then understand?—They said, 
 Bum ye him, and avenge your gods, if ye 
 will do so. So they collected abundance of fire¬ 
 wood for him, and set fire to it; and they bound 
 Abraham, and put him into an engine, and cast 
 him into the fire, Put, saith God, Vie said, 0 
 fire, be thou cold, and a security unto Abra¬ 
 ham ! So nought of him was burned save his 
 bonds: the heat of the fire ceased, but its light 
 remained; and by God's saying, Security ,— 
 Abraham was saved from dying by reason of 
 its cold. And they intended against him a 
 plot; but he caused them to be the sufferers. 
 And we delivered him and Lot, the son of his 
 brother Haran, from Pl-Lrdq, [bringing 
 them] unto the land which We blessed for the 
 peoples, by the abundance of its rivers and 
 trees, namely, Syria. Abraham took up his abode 
 in Palestine, and Lot in JLl-Mutefikeh, be¬ 
 tween which is a day's journey. And when 
 Abraham had asked a son, We gave unto him 
 Isaac, and Jacob as an additional gift, be¬ 
 yond what he had asked, being a son's son ; and 
 all of them We made righteous persons and 
 prophets. And We made them models of reli¬ 
 gion who directed men by Our command unto 
 Uur religion ; and We commanded them by 
 inspiration to do good wrorks and to perform 
 prayer and to give the appointed alms ; and 
 they served Us. And unto Lot We gave 
 judgment and knowledge; and We delivered 
 him from the city which committed filthy 
 actions; for they were a people of evil, 
 shameful doers ; and We admitted him into 
 our mercy; for he was [one] of the righteous.” 
 (Surah xxi. 52-75.) 
 
 “ Hast thou not considered him who disputed 
 with Abraham concerning his Lord, because 
 God had given him the kingdom ? And he 
 was Nimrod. When Abraham said, (upon his 
 saying unto him, Who is thy Lord, unto whom 
 thou invitest us ?), My Lord is He who giveth 
 life and causeth to die,—he replied, I give 
 life and cause to die.— And he summoned two 
 men, and slew one of them, and left the other. 
 So when he saw that he understood not, Abra¬ 
 ham said, And verily God bringeth the sun 
 from the east: now do thou bring it from the 
 west.—And he who disbelieved was con¬ 
 founded ; and God directeth not the offending 
 people.” (Surah ii. 260.) 
 
 “ And Our messengers came formerly unto 
 Abraham with good tidings of Isaac and 
 Jacob, who should be after him. They said, 
 Peace. He replied, Peace be on you. And he 
 tarried not, but brought a roasted calf. And 
 when he saw that their hands touched it not, 
 he disliked them and conceived a fear of 
 them. They said, Fear not: for we are sent 
 unto the people of Lot, that we may destroy 
 them. And his wife Sarah was standing 
 serving them, and she laughed, rejoicing at the 
 tidings of their destruction. And we gave her 
 good tidings of Isaac; and after Isaac, Jacob. 
 
6 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 ABRAHAM 
 
 She said, Alas! shall I hear a child when I 
 am an old woman of nine and ninety years, 
 and when this my husband is an old man of 
 a hundred or a hundred and twenty years ? 
 Verily this [would be] a wonderful thing.-— 
 They said, Dost thou wonder at the com¬ 
 mand of God ? The mercy of God and His 
 blessings be on you, 0 people of the hoiise (of 
 Abraham )! for Pie is praiseworthy, glorious. 
 —And when the terror had departed from 
 Abraham, and the good tidings had come 
 unto him, he disputed with Us (that is, with 
 Our messengers') respecting the people of 
 Lot; for Abraham was gentle, compassionate, 
 repentant. And he said unto them, Will ye 
 destroy a city wherein are three hundred be¬ 
 lievers? They answered, No. He said. And 
 will ye destroy a city wherein are two 
 hundred believers ? They answered, No. He 
 said, And will ye destroy a city wherein are 
 forty believers ? They answered, No. He said, 
 And will ye destroy a city wherein are fourteen 
 believers ? They ansivered, No. He said, And 
 tell me, if there be in it one believer ? They 
 answered, No. He said, Verily in it is Lot. 
 They replied. We know best, who is in it. And 
 when their dispute had become tedious, they 
 said, 0 Abraham, abstain from this disputa¬ 
 tion; for the command of thy Lord hath come 
 for their destruction, and a punishment not [to 
 be] averted is coming upon them.” (Surah si. 
 72-78.) 
 
 “And when Our decree for the destruction of 
 the people of Lot came [to be executed], We 
 turned them (that is, their cities ) upside- 
 down ; for Gabriel raised them to heaven, and 
 let them fall upside-down to the earth ; and 
 We rained upon them stones of baked clay, 
 sent one after another, marked with thy Lord, 
 each with the name of him upon whom it should ’ 
 be cast: and they [are] not far distant from 
 the offenders ; that is, the stones are not , or the 
 cities of the people of Lot were not, far distunt 
 from the people of Melckeh.” (Surah xi. 84.) 
 
 “ And [Abraham] said [after his escape 
 from Nimrod], Verily I am going unto my 
 Lord, who will direct me unto the place 
 whither He hath commanded me to go, namely, 
 Syria. And when he had arrived at the Holy 
 Land, he said, 0 my Lord, give me a son 
 [who shall be one] of the righteous. Where¬ 
 upon We gave him the glad tidings of a mild 
 youth. And when he had attained to the 
 age when he could work with him (as some 
 say, seven years; and some, thirteen), he said, 
 
 0 my child, verily I have seen in a dream that 
 I should sacrifice thee (and the dreams of pro¬ 
 phets are true; and their actions, by the com¬ 
 mand of God) ; therefore consider what thou 
 seest advisable for me to do. He replied, 0 
 my father, do what thou art commanded: 
 thou shalt find me, if God please, [of the 
 number] of the patient. And when they had 
 resigned themselves, and he had laid him 
 down on his temple, in [the valley of] Mind, 
 and had drawn the knife across his throat (but 
 it produced no effect, by reason of an obstacle 
 interposed by the divine power), We called unto 
 him, 0 Abraham, thou hast verified the 
 vision. Verily thus do We rewai'd the well¬ 
 
 doers. Verily this was the manifest trial. 
 And We ransomed him whom he had been com¬ 
 manded to sacrifice (and he was Jshmael or 
 Isaac; foi there are two opinions) with an 
 excellent victim, a. ram from Paradise, the 
 same that Abel had offered: Gabriel (on whom 
 be peace!) brought it, and the lord Abraham 
 sacrificed it, saying, God is most great! And 
 We left this salutation [to be bestowed] on 
 him by the latter generations, Peace [be] on 
 Abraham! Thus do We reward the well¬ 
 doers : for he was of Our believing servants.” 
 (Surah xxxvii. 97-111.) 
 
 “ Remember when Abraham said, O my Lord, 
 show me how Thou will raise to life the 
 dead.—He said, Hast thou not believed? He 
 answered, Yea: but I have aslced Thee that 
 my heart may be at ease. He replied, Then 
 take four birds and draw them towards thee, 
 and cut them in pieces and mingle together their 
 flesh and their feathers ; then place upon each 
 mountain of thy land a portion of them, then 
 call them unto thee: they shall come unto 
 thee quickly; and know thou that God is 
 mighty [and] wise.— And he took a peacock 
 and a vulture and a raven and a cock, and did 
 with them as hath been described, and kept their 
 heads with him, and called them; ivhereupon 
 the portions flew about, one to another, until 
 they became complete: then they came to their 
 heads." (Surah ii. 2G2.) 
 
 “ Remember, when his Lord had tried Abra¬ 
 ham by [certain] words, commands and prohi¬ 
 bitions, and he fulfilled them, God said unto 
 him, I constitute thee a model of religion unto 
 men. He replied, And of my offspring con¬ 
 stitute models of religion. [God] said, My 
 covenant doth not apjjly to the offenders, the 
 unbelievers among them. —And when We ap¬ 
 pointed the house (that is, the Ka'bah) to he 
 a place for the resort of men, and a place of 
 security (a man would meet the slayer of his 
 father there and he would not provoke him [to 
 revenge],) and [said], Take, 0 men, the sta¬ 
 tion of Abraham (the stone upon ivhich he stood 
 at the time of building the House) as a 
 place of prayer, that ye may perform behind it 
 the prayers of the two rak‘ahs [which are or¬ 
 dained to be performed after the ceremony] 
 of the circuiting [of the Ka‘bah].—And We 
 commanded Abraham and Ishmael, [saying], 
 Purify my House (rid it of the idols) for 
 those who shall compass [it], and those who 
 shall abide there, and those who shall bow down 
 and prostrate themselves.—xVnd when Abra¬ 
 ham said, 0 my Lord, make this place a 
 secure territory (and God hath answered his 
 prayer, and made it a. sacred place, wherein the 
 blood of man is not shed, nor is any one op¬ 
 pressed in it, nor is its game hunted [or shot], 
 nor are its plants cut or pulled up), and supply 
 its inhabitants with fruits (ivhich hath been 
 done by the transporting of at-Tdif from Syria 
 thither, when it [that is, the territory of 
 Makkah] was desert, without sotvn land or 
 water, such of them as shall believe in God 
 and the last day.— He mentioned them pecu¬ 
 liarly in the prayer agreeably with the saying 
 of God, My covenant doth not apply to the 
 offenders .— God replied, And I will supply 
 
ABRAHAM 
 
 ABU HANIFAH 
 
 7 
 
 him who disbolieveth : I will make him to 
 enjoy a supply o f food in this ivorld, a little 
 ivhile: then I wiil force him, in the world to 
 come, to the punishment of the fire ; and evil 
 shall be the transit.” (Surah ii. 118-120.) 
 
 “ And remember when Abi'aham was raising 
 the foundations of the House (that is, build¬ 
 ing it), together with Ishmacl, and they said, 
 0 our Lord, accept of us our building; for 
 Thou art the Hearer of what is said, the 
 Knower of ivhat is done. 0 our Lord, also 
 make us resigned unto Thoe, and make from 
 among our offspring a people resigned unto 
 Thee, and show us our rites (the ordinances 
 of our worship, or our pilgrimage'), and be pro¬ 
 pitious towards us; for Thou art the Very 
 Propitious, the Merciful. (They begged Him 
 to be. propitious to them, notwithstanding their 
 honesty, from a motive of humility, and by way 
 of instruction to their offspring.) 0 our Lord, 
 also send unto them (that is, the people of the 
 House) an apostle from among them (and God 
 hath answered their prayer by sending Muham¬ 
 mad), who shall recite unto them Thy signs 
 (the Qur’an), and shall teach them the book 
 (the Qur’an), and the knowlege that it con- 
 taineth, and shall purify them from polytheism; 
 for Thou art the Mighty, the Wise.—And 
 who will be averse from the religion of 
 Abraham but he who makoth his soul foolish, 
 who is ignorant that it is God’s creation, and 
 that the worship of Him is incumbent on it; or 
 who lightly esteemeth it and applieth it to vile 
 purposes; when We have chosen him in this 
 world as an apostle and a friend, and he shall be 
 in the world to come one of the righteous for 
 whom are high ranks ?—And remember when 
 his Lord said unto him, Resign thyself:—ho 
 replied, I resign myself unto the Lord of the 
 worlds.—And Abraham commanded his chil¬ 
 dren to follow it (namely, the religion) ; and 
 Jacob, his children; saying, 0 my children, 
 verily God hath chosen for you the religion 
 of al-Islam ; therefore die not without your 
 being Muslims.— It was a prohibition from 
 abandoning Islam and a command to persevere 
 therein unto death.’’ (Surah ii. 121-126.) 
 
 “ When the Jews said, Abraham wus a Jew, 
 and we are of his religion,—and the Christians 
 said the like, [the following] was revealed :— 
 0 people of the Scripture, wherefore do ye 
 argue respecting Abraham, asserting that he 
 was of your religion, when the Pentateuch and 
 the Gospel were not sent down but after him 
 a long time? Do ye not then understand the 
 falsity of your saying? So ye, 0 people, have 
 argued respecting that of which ye have 
 knowledge, concerning Moses and Jesus, and 
 have asserted that ye are of their religion: 
 then wherefore do ye argue respecting that 
 of which ye have no knowledge, concerning 
 Abraham? But Goa knoweth his case, and. 
 ye know it not. Abraham was not a Jew nor 
 a Christian: but he was orthodox, a Muslim 
 [or one resigned], a Unitarian, and he was not 
 of the polytheists.” (Surah iii. 58-60.) 
 
 ABSCONDING OF SLAVES. 
 Arabic Ibaq An absconded 
 
 male or female slave is called Abiq, hut an 
 
 infant slave who leaves his homo is termed 
 zall, a word which is also used for an adult 
 slave who has strayed. The apprehension of 
 a fugitive slave is a laudable act, and the 
 person who seizes him should bring him be¬ 
 fore the magistrate and receive a reward of 
 forty dirhams. (Hamilton’s Ilidayah, vol. ii. 
 p. 278.) 
 
 ABSTINENCE. Arabic Taqwd 
 (ihff’)- Is very frequently enjoined in 
 the Qur’an. The word generally applies to 
 abstinence from idolatry in the first instance, 
 but it is used to express a life of piety. An 
 excessive abstinence and a life of asceticism 
 are condemned in the Qur’an, and the Chris¬ 
 tians are charged with the invention of the 
 monastic life. (Surah lvii. 27.) “ As for the 
 monastic life, they invented it themselves.” 
 [monasticism, fasting.] 
 
 ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH 
 
 Muhammad ibn Isma’Il al-Bukharl, the author 
 of the well-known collection of traditions re¬ 
 ceived by the Sunnis, [bukuari.] 
 
 ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH AIIMAD IBN 
 HANBAL -wA aU\.ue 
 
 [hanbal.] 
 
 ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH IBN ANAS 
 
 (y*«B [malik.] 
 
 ABU ‘ABDI ’LLAH MUHAM¬ 
 MAD IBN AL-IIASAN (aJMcue 
 
 Known as Imam 
 Muhammad. Born at Wasit, a city in Arabian 
 ‘Iraq, A.n. 132. He studied under the great 
 Imam Abu Hanlfah, and had also studied 
 under Imam Malik for three years. He is cele¬ 
 brated as one of the disciples of the Imam 
 Abu Hanlfah, from whom he occasionally 
 differs, as is seen in the Hidayah. He died 
 at Rai, in Khurasan, where his tomb is still 
 to be seen, a.h. 189. 
 
 ABU BAKE (,& f\). Of the 
 
 origin of his name, there are various explana¬ 
 tions. Some think that it means “ the father 
 of the maiden,” and that he received this 
 title because he was the father of ‘Ayishah, 
 whom Muhammad married when she was only 
 nine years old. His original name was ‘Abdu 
 ’1-Ka‘bah (which the Prophet changed into 
 ‘Abdu ’llak) Ibn AbLQuhafah. He was the 
 first Khallfah. or successor of Muhammad. 
 [shi'AH.] Muhammadan writers praise him 
 for the purity of his life, and call him as- 
 Siddiq, the Veracious. He only reigned two 
 years, and died August 22nd, a.d. 634. 
 
 ABU DA’UD yj). Sulaiman 
 
 Ibn al-Ash’as al-Sijista.nl; born at al-Basrah 
 a.h. 202, and died a.h. 275. The compiler of 
 one of the six correct books of Sunni tradi¬ 
 tions, called the Sunnan Abl Da’ud, which con¬ 
 tains 4,008 traditions, said to have been care¬ 
 fully collated from 500,000. [traditions.] 
 
 ABU HANlEAH (yUxJj Aiu^ y\). 
 
 Abu Hanlfah an-Nu‘man is the great Sunni 
 Imam and jurisconsult, and the founder of 
 
8 
 
 ABU HUEAIRAH 
 
 the Hanxfl sect. His father, Sabit, was a 
 silk dealer in the city of al-Kufah, and 
 it is said his grandfather, Zuta, was a native 
 of Kabul. He was horn at al-Kufah, a.h. 80 
 (a.d. 700), and died at Baghdad, a.h. 150. He 
 is regarded as the great oracle of Sunni juris¬ 
 prudence, and his doctrines, with those of his 
 disciples, the Imam Abu Yusuf and the Imam 
 Muhammad, are generally received through¬ 
 out Turkey, Tartary, and Hindustan. It is 
 related that Imam Malik said that the Imam 
 Abu Hanlfah was such a logician that, if he 
 were to assert a wooden pillar was made of 
 gold, he would prove it by argument. 
 
 ABU HUEAIRAH yl). One 
 
 of the most constant attendants of Muham¬ 
 mad, who from his peculiar intimacy has 
 related more traditions of the sayings and 
 doings of the Prophet than any other indi¬ 
 vidual. His real name is doubtful, hut he 
 was nicknamed Abu Hurairali on account of 
 his fondness for a kitten. He embraced Islam 
 in the year of the expedition to Khaibar, a.h. 
 7, and died in al-Madmah, a.h 57 or 59, 
 aged 78. 
 
 ABU JAHL (Js^ J*t). An im¬ 
 placable adversary of Muhammad. His real 
 name was ‘Amr ibn Hisham, but he was sur- 
 named, by the Muslims, Abu Jahl, or the 
 “ Father of Folly.” He is supposed to be 
 alluded to in the Qur’an, Surah xxii. 8:— 
 “ There is a man who disputeth concerning 
 God without either knowledge or direction.” 
 He was a boastful and debauched man, and 
 was killed in the battle of Badr. 
 
 ABU LAHAB (s-tf yl). One of 
 
 the sons of Abu Muttalib, and an uncle to 
 Muhammad. He was a most bitter enemy to 
 the Prophet, and opposed the establishment 
 of Islam to the utmost of his power. His 
 name was ‘ Abdu T- Uzza, but he was surnamed 
 by Muhammad, Abu Lahab, “The Father of 
 the Flame.” When Muhammad received the 
 command to admonish his relations, he called 
 them all together, and told them he was a 
 warner sent unto them before a grievous 
 chastisement. Abu Lahab rejected his mis¬ 
 sion, and cried out, “ Mayest thou perish! 
 Hast thou called us together for this ? ” and 
 took up a stone to cast at him ; whereupon the 
 exith Surah of the Qur’an was produced :— 
 
 “ Let the hands of Abu Lahab perish, and 
 let himself perish ! 
 
 His wealth and his gains shall avail him 
 naught. 
 
 Burned shall he be at a fiery flame, 
 
 And his wife laden with fire wood, 
 
 On her neck a rope of palm fibre.” 
 
 Abu Lahab is said to have died of grief and 
 vexation at the defeat which his friends had 
 received at the battle of Badr, surviving that 
 misfortune only seven days. His body was 
 left unburied for several days. 
 
 Zaid and Abu Lahab are the only relatives 
 or friends of Muhammad mentioned by name 
 in the Qur’an 
 
 C AD 
 
 ABU ’L-HUZAIL ZUFAR IBN 
 AL-HUZAIL (Jjj*n ?S). 
 
 Celebrated as the Imam Zufar, and as a con¬ 
 temporary and intimate friend of the great 
 Imam Abu Hanlfah. He died at al-Basrah, 
 a.h. 158. 
 
 ABU ’L-QASIM (r-W “ The 
 
 father of Qasim.” One of the names of Mu¬ 
 hammad, assumed on the birth of his son 
 Qasim, who died in infancy, [mohammad.] 
 
 ABUSIVE LANGUAGE is for. 
 
 bidden by the Muslim law, and the offender 
 must be punished according to the discretion 
 of the Qazi. Abu HanTfah says : “ If a person 
 abuse a Musalman by calling him an ass or 
 a hog, punishment is not incurred, because 
 these expressions are in no respect defama¬ 
 tory of the person to whom they are used, 
 it being evident that he is neither an ass 
 nor a hog. But some allege that in our 
 times chastisement is inflicted, since, in the 
 modern acceptation, calling a man an ass 
 or a hog is held to be abuse. Others, again, 
 allege that it is esteemed only to he abuse 
 when the person of whom it is said occupies a 
 dignified position.” According to Abu Hanlfah, 
 the greatest number of stripes that can be 
 inflicted for abusive language is thirty-nine. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. 78.) 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said, 
 “ Abusing a Muslim is disobedience to God, 
 and it is infidelity for anyone to join such an 
 one in religious warfare.” ( Mishkat , xxii. 2.) 
 
 ABU TALIB yl). Muham¬ 
 mad’s uncle and guardian ; the father of 
 ‘All. He is believed to have died as he had 
 lived, an unbeliever in the Prophet’s mission; 
 but for forty years he had been his faithful 
 friend and guardian. He died in the third 
 year before the Hijrah. 
 
 ABU ‘UBAIDAH j?\) IBN 
 
 AL-JARRAH One of the Companions, who 
 was with the Prophet in all his wars, and 
 distinguished himself at the battle of Uhud. 
 He was highly esteemed by Muhammad, who 
 made him one of the •Asharah al-Mubash- 
 sharah, or ten patriarchs of the Muslim faith. 
 He died a.h. 18, aged 58. 
 
 ABU YUSUF (Uu.fi y\). Known 
 
 also as Ya‘qub ibn Ibrahim Born at Bagh¬ 
 dad, a.h. 113. Studied under the Imam Abu 
 Hanlfah, and is celebrated, together with the 
 Imam Muhammad and the Imam Zufar, as 
 disciples of the great Imam; from whose 
 opinions, however, the three disciples not un- 
 frequently differ, as will be seen upon refer¬ 
 ence to the Hidayah. He died a.h. 182. 
 
 ‘AD (Ac). A tribe located to the 
 
 south of Arabia, to which the prophet Hud is 
 said to have been sent. See Qur’an, vii. 63:— 
 
 “ And to ‘Ad we sent our brother Hud, 
 ‘ 0 my people,’ said he, ‘ worship God : ye 
 have no other god than Him : Will ye not 
 then fear Him ? ’ 
 
 “ Said the unbelieving chiefs among ■ his 
 
ADA 
 
 ADAM 
 
 9 
 
 poople, *We certainly perceive that thou art 
 unsound of mind ; and we surely deem thee 
 an impostor.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ 0 my people 1 it is not unsound- 
 noss of mind in me, but I am an Apostle 
 from the Lord of the Worlds. 
 
 The messages of my Lord do I announce 
 to you, and I am your faithful counsellor. 
 
 “ 1 Marvel ye that a warning hath come to 
 you from your Lord through one of yourselves 
 that He may warn you? Remember how he 
 hath made you the successors of the people 
 of Noah, and increased you in tallness of 
 stature. Remember then the favours of God, 
 that it may haply be well with you.’ 
 
 “ They said, ‘ Art thou come to us in order 
 that we may worship one God alone, and 
 leave what our fathers worshipped ? Then 
 bring that upon us with which thou threat- 
 onest us, if thou be a man of truth.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ Vengeance and wrath shall sud¬ 
 denly light on you from your Lord. Do ye 
 dispute with me about names that you and 
 your fathers have given your idols, and for 
 which God hath sent you down no warranty ? 
 Wait ye then, and I too will wait with you.' 
 
 “ And we delivered him, and those who 
 wore on his side, by our mercy, and we cut 
 off, to the last man, those who had treated 
 our signs as lies, and who were not believers.” 
 
 Also, Surah lxxxix. 5 : “ Hast thou not seen 
 how thy Lord dealt with ‘Ad at Iram, 
 adorned with pillars, whose like have not 
 been reared in these lands.” [hud, iram.] 
 
 ADA’ Payment; satisfac¬ 
 
 tion ; completing (prayers, &c.). 
 
 ADAM. Arabic, Adam The 
 
 first man. Reckoned by Muslim writers as the 
 first prophet, to whom ten portions of scrip¬ 
 ture ( sahifah) are said to have been revealed. 
 He is distinguished by the title of Saflyu’llah, 
 or, the “ chosen one of God.” He is mentioned 
 in the Qur’an in the following Surahs, which 
 are taken from Mr. Lane’s Selections (new 
 edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole ; Triibner, 
 1879), with the commentary in italics :— 
 
 “ Remember, 0 Muhammad, when thy Lord 
 said unto the angels, I am about to place in 
 the earth a vicegerent to act for me in the 
 execution of my ordinances therein, namely, 
 Adam, —they said, Wilt Thou place in it one 
 who will corrupt in it by disobediences, and 
 will shed blood (as did the sons of Kl-Jann, 
 who were in it; where ore, when they acted 
 corruptly, God sent to them the angels, u-ho 
 drove them away to the islands and the moun¬ 
 tains), when we [on the contrary] celebrate 
 the divine perfection, occupying ourselves with 
 Thy praise, and extol Thy holiness ? There¬ 
 fore we are more worthy of the vicegerency .— 
 God replied, Verily I know that which ye 
 know r not, as to the affair of appointing Adam 
 vicegerent, and that among his posterity will be 
 the obedient and the rebellious, and the just will 
 be manifest among them. And he created 
 Adam from the surface of the earth, talcing a 
 handful of every colour that it comprised, which 
 was kneaded with various waters ; and he com¬ 
 
 pletely formed it, and breathed into it the soul; 
 so it became an animated sentient being. And 
 he taught Adam the names of all things, in- 
 j fusing the knowledge of them into his heart. 
 Then Ho showed them (namely, the things) to 
 the angels, and said, Declare unto me the 
 names of these things, if ye say truth in your 
 assertion that I will not create any more know¬ 
 ing than ye, and that ye are more worthy of the 
 vicegerency. They replied, [ We extol ] Thy 
 perfection ! We have no knowledge excepting 
 what Thou hast taught us ; for Thou art the 
 Knowing, the Wise.— God said, 0 Adam, tell 
 them their names. And w’hen he had told 
 them their names, God said, Did I not say 
 unto you that I know the secrets of the 
 heavens and "the earth, and know what ye 
 reveal of your words, saying. Wilt thou place 
 in it, etc., and what ye did conceal of your 
 words, saying, lie will not create any more 
 generous towards Him than we, nor any more 
 knowing ? ” (Surah ii. 28-31.) 
 
 “ We created you ; that is, your father Adam : 
 then We formed you ; we formed him, and you 
 in him: then We said unto the angels, Pro¬ 
 strate yourselves unto Adam, by way of salu¬ 
 tation ; whereupon they prostrated them¬ 
 selves, except Iblees, the father of the jinn, 
 who was amid the angels: he was not of those 
 who prostrated themselves. God said, What 
 hath hindered thee from prostrating thyself, 
 when I commanded thee ? He answered, I 
 am better than he: Thou hast created me of 
 fire, and Thou hast created him of earth. 
 [God] said, Then descend thou from it; that 
 is, from Paradise; or, as some say, from the 
 heavens; for it is not fit for thee that thou 
 behave thyself proudly therein: so go thou 
 forth : verily thou shalt be of the contempt¬ 
 ible. He replied, Grant me respite until the 
 day when they (that is, mankind) shall be 
 raised from the dead. He said, Thou shalt 
 be of those [who are] respited: and, in another 
 verse [in xv. 38, it is said], until the day of 
 the known period ; that is, until the period of the 
 first blast [of the trumpet]. [And the devil] 
 said, Now, as Thou hast led me into error, I 
 will surely lay wait for them (that is, for the 
 sons of A dam) in Thj’ right way, the way that 
 leadeth to Thee : then I will surely come upon 
 them, from before them, and from behind 
 them, and from their right hands, and from 
 their left, and hinder them from pursuing the 
 way (but, saith Ibn ‘Abbas, he cannot come 
 upon them above, lest he should intervene be¬ 
 tween the servant and God's mercy), and Thou 
 shalt not find the great number of them 
 grateful, or believing. [God] said, Go forth 
 from it, despised and driven away from 
 mercy. Whosoever of them (that is, of man¬ 
 kind) shall follow thee, I will surely fill 
 hell with you all; with thee, and thy off¬ 
 spring, and with men.'" (Surah vii. 10-17.) 
 
 “ And we said, 0 Adam, dwell thou and 
 thy wife (Howiva [or Eve], whom God created 
 from a rib of his left side) in the garden, and 
 eat ye therefrom plentifully, wherever ye 
 will; but approach ye not this tree, to eat 
 thereof; (and it was wheat, or the grape-vine, 
 or some other tree j) for if ye do so, ye will be 
 
 2' 
 
10 
 
 ADAB 
 
 ADORATION 
 
 of the number of the offenders. But the devil, 
 Iblees, caused them to slip from it, that is 
 from the garden, by his saying unto them, Shall 
 I show you the way to the tree of eternity ? 
 And he sware to them by God that he was one 
 of the faithful advisers to them; so they ate 
 of it, and He ejected them from from that 
 state of delight in which they were. And We 
 said, Descend ye to the earth, ye two with the 
 offspring that ye comprise [yet unborn], one 
 of you (that is, of your offspring) an enemy 
 to another; and there shall be for you, in the 
 earth, a place of abode, and a provision, of 
 its vegetable produce, for a time, until the 
 period of the expiration of your terms of life. 
 And Adam learned, from his Lord, words, 
 which were these :—0 Lord, we have acted 
 unjustly to our own souls, and if Thou do not 
 forgive us, and be merciful unto us, we shall 
 surely be of those who suffer loss. And he 
 prayed in these words; and He became pro¬ 
 pitious towards him, accepting his repentance ; 
 for He is the Very Propitious, the Merciful. 
 We said, Descend ye from it ( from the garden) 
 altogether; and if there come unto you from 
 Me a direction (a book and an apostle), those 
 who follow my direction, there shall come no 
 fear on them, nor shall they grieve in the 
 world to come; for they shall enter paradise: 
 but they who disbelieve and accuse our signs 
 of falsehood, these shall be the companions 
 of the fire: they shall remain therein for 
 ever.” (Surah ii. 33-37.) 
 
 The Muhammadans say, that when they 
 were cast down from Paradise [which is in 
 the seventh heaven], Adam fell on the isle of 
 Ceylon, or Sarandlb, and Eve near Jiddah 
 (the port of Makkah) in Arabia; and that, 
 after a separation of two hundred years, 
 Adam was, on his repentance, conducted by 
 the angel Gabriel to a mountain near Mak¬ 
 kah, where he found and knew his wife, the 
 mountain being then named ‘Arafat; and that 
 he afterwards retired with her to Ceylon.— 
 Sale. 
 
 ADAB (v>A). Discipline of the 
 
 mind and manners ; good education and good 
 breeding; politeness ; deportment; a mode 
 of conduct or behaviour. A very long section 
 of the Traditions is devoted to the sayings 
 of Muhammad regarding rules of conduct, 
 and is found in the Mishkatu ’l-Masabih under 
 the title Bdbu 'l-Adah (book xxii. Matthew’s 
 Mishlcdt). It includes—(1) Salutations, (2) 
 Asking permission to enter houses, (3) Shak¬ 
 ing hands and embracing, (4) Rising up, (5) 
 Sitting, sleeping and walking, (6) Sneezing 
 and yawning, (7) Laughing, (8) Names, (9) 
 Poetry and eloquence, (10) Backbiting and 
 abuse, (11) Promises, (12) Joking, (13) Boast¬ 
 ing and party spirit. The traditional sayings 
 on these subjects will be found under their 
 respective titles. l Ilmu 'l-Adah is the science 
 of Philology. 
 
 ‘ADIYAT (cyLhlc). “Swift horses.” 
 The title of the 100th Surah of the Qur’an, the 
 second verse of which is, “ By the swift 
 chargers and those who strike fire with their 
 
 hoofs.” Professor Palmer translates it 
 “ snorting chargers.” 
 
 AD‘IYATU ’L-MASURAH 
 S)j>U5\). “The prayers handed down 
 by tradition.” Those prayers which were 
 said by Muhammad, in addition to the regular 
 liturgical prayers. They are found in diffe¬ 
 rent sections of the traditions or Ahadis. 
 
 ‘ADL (Jac). Justice. Appointing 
 
 what is just; equalising; making of the 
 same weight. Ransom. The word occurs 
 twelve times in the Qur’an, e.g.. Surah iv. 128, 
 “ Ye are not able, it may be, to act equitably 
 to your wives, even though ye covet it.” 
 Surah ii. 44, “Fear the day wherein no soul 
 shall pay any ransom for another soul.” Surah 
 ii. 123, “ And fear the day when no soul shall 
 pay any ransom for a soul, nor shall an equi¬ 
 valent be received therefrom, nor any inter¬ 
 cession avail; and they shall not be helped.” 
 Surah ii. 282, “ Write it Ao^rn faithfully . . . 
 then let his agent dictate faithfully.'” Surah v. 
 105, “ Let there be a testimony between you 
 when any one of you is at the point of death— 
 at the time he makes his will—two equitable 
 persons from amongst you.” Surah vi. 69, 
 “And though it (soul) compensate with the 
 fullest compensation it would not be accepted.” 
 Surah v. 115, “ The words of thy Lord are 
 fulfilled in truth and justice Surah xvi., 78, 
 “ Is he to be held equal with him who bids 
 what is just, and who is on the right way?” 
 Surah xvi. 92, “Verily God bids you do 
 justice.” Surah xlix. 8, “Make peace with 
 them with equity and be just.” Surah lxxxii. 
 8, “ Thy generous Lord, who created thee and 
 moulded thee and disposed thee aright .” 
 
 al-‘ADL (Ja*B). One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It signi¬ 
 fies “ the Just.” It does not occur in the 
 Qur’an as an attribute of the Divine Being, 
 but it is in the list of attributes given in the 
 Traditions. (Mish/cat, book x.) 
 
 ‘ADN The garden of Eden. 
 
 Jannatu i Adn. The garden of perpetual 
 abode. The term is used both for the garden 
 of Eden, in which our first parents dwelt, 
 and also for a place in celestial bliss, [jan¬ 
 natu ‘adn.] 
 
 ADOPTION. Arabic Tabanni 
 (i_An adopted son, or daughter, 
 of known descent, has no right to inherit 
 from his, or her, adoptive parents and their 
 relatives,—the filiation of this description 
 being neither recommended nor recognised by 
 Muhammadan law. Such son or daughter is, 
 however, entitled to what may be given under 
 a valid deed in gift or will. In this particular 
 the Muhammadan agrees with the English, 
 and the Hindu with the Roman law. (Tagore 
 Law Lectures, 1873, p. 124.) 
 
 ADORATION. The acts and 
 
 postures by which the Muslims express 
 adoration at the time of prayer are similar to 
 those used by the ancient Jews (vide Smith’s 
 Dictionary of the Bible, in loco), and consist of 
 
ADULTERY 
 
 ‘AFU 11 
 
 Ruku', or the inclination of the body, tho 
 hands boing placed on tho knees ; and Sujud, 
 or prostration upon tho earth, the forehead 
 touching tho ground, [prayer.] The adora¬ 
 tion of tho black stone at Makkah forms 
 an important feature in tho coremonios of tho 
 pilgrimago. [hajj.] 
 
 ADULTERY. Arabic aincV (<ASj). 
 
 The term zinS includes both adultery and 
 fornication, but there is a difference in tho 
 punishment for those offences, [fornication.] 
 
 Adultery is established before a Qazi, either 
 by proof or confession. To establish it upon 
 proof, four witnesses are required. (Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. 1.) When witnesses come forward, it 
 is necessary that they should be examined 
 pai-ticularly concerning the nature of the 
 offence. When tho witnesses shall have borne 
 testimony completely, declaring that “ they 
 have seen tho parties in tho very act of carnal 
 conjunction,” the Qazi passes sentence. 
 
 A confession of adultery must be made by 
 the person who has committed the sin, at 
 four different times, although, according to tho 
 Imam ash-Shafi‘i, one confession is sufficient. 
 Some of the doctors hold that if a person 
 retract his confession, his retraction must be 
 credited, and he must be forthwith released. 
 
 At the commencement of Muhammad’s mis¬ 
 sion, women found guilty of adultery and for¬ 
 nication were punished by being literally 
 immured— Suratu’n-nisa (iv.) 19, “ Shut them 
 up within their houses till death releaso 
 them, or God make somo way for them.” 
 This, however, was cancelled, and lapidation 
 was substituted as tho punishment for adul¬ 
 tery, and 100 stripes and one year’s banish¬ 
 ment for fornication. 
 
 When an adulterer is to be stoned to death, 
 he should be carried to some barren place, 
 and the lapidation should be, executed, first 
 by the witnesses, then by the Qazi, and after¬ 
 wards by the by-standers. When a woman 
 is stoned, a hole or excavation should be dug 
 to receive her, as deep as her waist, because 
 Muhammad ordered such a hole to be dug 
 for Ghandia. 
 
 It is lawful for a husband to slay his wife 
 and her paramour, if he shall find them in 
 the very act. If a supreme ruler, such as 
 a Khalifah, commit adultery, he is not subject 
 to such punishment. 
 
 The state of marriage which subjects a 
 whoremonger to lapidation, requires that he 
 be free ( i.e. not a slave), a Muslim, and one 
 who has consummated a lawful marriage. 
 
 It will be seen that Muhammadan law is 
 almost identical with the divine law of the Jews 
 with regard to adultery (Deut. xxiii. 22, Lev. 
 xix. 20); but the Mosaic penalty applied as' 
 well to the betrothed as to the married 
 woman. 
 
 AFFINITY. Arabic Qardbah (^bs). 
 
 The prohibited degrees ( [hurmah ) with regard 
 to marriages are as follows:—Mother, 
 daughter, paternal aunt, maternal aunt, bro¬ 
 ther’s or sister's daughter, grandmother, 
 granddaughter, mother-in-law, step-mother, 
 
 j daughter-in-law, granddaughter-in-law. Nor 
 j can any man many any who stand in any of 
 i these relationships from fosterage. The mar¬ 
 riage of two sisters at the same time is for¬ 
 bidden, but the marriage of a deceased wifo’s 
 sister is allowed. Marriage with a deceased 
 brother’s wife is very common in Muslim 
 countries, such marriages being held to be a 
 very honourable means of providing for a 
 brother’s widow. The marriage of cousins is 
 also considered most desirable, as being the 
 means of keeping families and tribes together. 
 The passage of the Qur'an on the subject of 
 affinity, is as follows (Surah v. 27):— 
 
 “ Marry not women whom your fathers 
 have married: for this is a shame, and hate¬ 
 ful, and an evil way:—though what is past 
 (i.e. in times of ignorance) may be allowed. 
 
 “Forbidden to you are your mothers, and 
 your daughters, and your sisters, and your 
 aunts, both on the father and mother’s 
 side, and your nieces on the brother and 
 sister’s side, and your foster-mothers, and 
 your foster-sisters, and the mothers of your 
 wives, and your step-daughters who are your 
 wards, born of your wives to whom ye have 
 gone in: (but if ye have not gone in unto 
 them, it shall be no sin in you to marry 
 them;) and the wives of your sons who pro¬ 
 ceed out of your loins ; and ye may not have 
 two sisters; except where it is already done. 
 Verily, God is Indulgent, Merciful! 
 
 “ Forbidden to you also are married women, 
 except those who are in your hands as 
 slaves : This is the law of God for you. And 
 it is allowed you, beside this, to seek out 
 wives by means of your- ealth, with wmodest 
 conduct, and without fornication. And give 
 tbose with whom ye have cohabited their 
 dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no 
 crime in you to make agreements over and 
 above the law. Verily, God is Knowing, 
 Wise! ” 
 
 AFFLICTION. Arabic huzn (pf-), 
 ghamm ({**)■ The benefits of affliction 
 are frequently expressed in both the Qn’ran 
 and Traditions. For example: Surah ii. 150, 
 “ We will try you with something of fear, and 
 hunger, and loss i>f wealth, and souls and 
 fruit; but give good tidings to the patient who, 
 when there falls on thepi a calamity, say, 
 ‘Verily we are God’s and verily to Him we 
 return.’” This formula is always used by 
 Muhammadans in any danger or sudden cala¬ 
 mity, esjieeially in the presence of death. 
 
 In the traditions (see Mishkatu H-MasabiK), 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ A 
 Muslim is like unto standing green corn, 
 which sometimes stands erect, but is some¬ 
 times cast down by the wind.” “ No affliction 
 befals a servant of God but on account of the 
 sins which he commits.” 
 
 AFSUN The Persian 
 
 term for F)a‘wah or exorcism, [exorcism.] 
 
 ‘AFU Lit. “erasing, cancel¬ 
 
 ling.” The word is generally used in Muham¬ 
 madan books for pardon and forgiveness. It 
 
agjSnt 
 
 AL 
 
 12 
 
 occurs eight times in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah 
 ii. 286, “ Lord, make us not to carry what we 
 have not strength for, but forgive us and par¬ 
 don us and have mercy on us.” Surah iv. 
 46, “ Verily God pardons and forgives.” 
 
 Al-‘Afu is one of the ninety-nine special 
 names of God. It means “ one who erases or 
 cancels;” “ The Eraser (of sins).” See Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. 51. 
 
 AGENT. Arabic waMl One 
 
 legally appointed to act for another. For the 
 Muhammadan law regarding the appointment 
 of agents to transact business, or to negotiate 
 marriages, see Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. 
 p. 1; Baillie’s Digest. Ilamfi Code, p. 75; 
 Imamiyah Code, p. 29. The author of the 
 Hidayah says, “ It is lawful for a person to 
 appoint another his agent for the settlement, 
 in his behalf, of every contract which he 
 might lawfully have concluded himself, such 
 as sale, marriage, and so forth ; ” and he then 
 proceeds to lay down rules for guidance in 
 such matters at great length. A woman who 
 remains in privacy and is not accustomed to 
 go into Court, ought, according to the saying 
 of Abu Bakr, to appoint an agent and not 
 appear herself. A slave or a minor may be 
 appointed agent for a free man. 
 
 ab-AHAD (a^\). “ The Oue.” A 
 
 title given to Gcd. [names of god.] 
 
 AHADlYAH (^). Unity, con¬ 
 cord. Al-Ahadiyah is a term used by Sufi 
 mystics to express a condition of the mind, 
 completely absorbed in a meditation on the 
 Divine Unity. (See ‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dic¬ 
 tionary of the Technical Terms of the Sufis. 
 Sprenger’s edition.) 
 
 AHQAE( \). The name of a 
 
 tract of land in Sihr in Yaman. The title of 
 the XLVith Surah of the Qur’an. 
 
 AHLU ’L-BAIT (o-»5\ >\). “ The 
 
 people of the house.” A term used in the 
 Qur’an (Surah xxxiii. 33), and in the Hadis 
 (Mishlcat, xxiv. 21), for Muhammad’s house¬ 
 hold. 
 
 AHLU ’L-HAWA’ (A } £\ >\). A 
 
 visionary person;,a libertine. 
 
 AHLU’L-KITAB J*\). Lit. 
 
 “ The people of the book.” A term used 
 in the Qur’an for Jews and Christians, as be¬ 
 lievers in a revealed religion. Some sects of 
 the Shl‘ahs include the Majusi (Magi) under 
 this term. 
 
 AHMAD (a*=A). The name under 
 
 which Muhammad professes that Jesus Christ 
 foretold his coming. Vide Qur’an, Surah Ixi. 
 6, “And remember when Jesus the son of 
 Mary said, 1 0 children of Israel! of a truth I 
 am God’s Apostle to you to confirm the law 
 which was given before me, and to announce 
 an apostle that shall come after me, whose 
 name shall be Ahmad.' ” Muhammad had, no 
 doubt, heard that Our Lord had promised a 
 Paracletos (7rapaKApros), John xvi. 7. This 
 title, understood by him. probably from the 
 
 similarity of sound, as equivalent to Periclytos 
 (7repiKAuros), he applied to himself with 
 reference to his own name Muhammad, the 
 praised or glorified one. Muir thinks that in 
 some imperfect Arabic translation of the 
 Gospel of St. John, the word 7rapa/<A'pTOs 
 may have been translated Ahmad, or praised. 
 (Life of Mahomet, vol. i. 17.) 
 
 AHZAB (s-d)^d). “Confederates.” 
 
 The title of the xxxmrd Surah of the Qur'an, 
 which is said to have been written when 
 al-Madlnah was besieged by a confederation of 
 the Jewish tribes with the Arabs of Makkah. 
 A.H. 5. 
 
 AIYUB (^'). [job.] 
 
 AJAL (J=-\). The appointed time 
 of death, said to be ordained by God from 
 the first. Qur’an, Surah xxxv. 44, “He 
 respites them until the appointed time. 
 When their appointed time comes, verily God 
 looks upon His servants.” [death.] 
 
 AJlB, (y^\). A term used in Mu¬ 
 
 hammadan law for a person hired for service. 
 
 [iJ AR AH.] 
 
 AJNABl (^^d). A foreigner; 
 
 any person not of Arabia. 
 
 AKHIR-I-CHAHAB-I-SHAMBAH 
 j[qc*. ff). The last Wednesday 
 
 of the month of Safar. It is observed as a 
 feast in commemoration of Muhammad’s 
 having experienced some mitigation of his 
 last illness, and having bathed. It was the 
 last time he performed the legal bathing, for 
 he died on the twelfth day of the next 
 month. In some parts of Islam it is cus¬ 
 tomary, in the early morning of this day to 
 write verses of the Qur’an, known as the 
 Seven Salams (q.v.), and then wash off the ink 
 and drink it as a charm against evil. It is 
 not observed by the Wahhabis, nor is its ob¬ 
 servance universal in Islam. 
 
 AKHLAQ (o^). The plural of 
 
 Khulq. Natures, dispositions,habits, manners. 
 The general term for books on morality, 
 e.g. AJchlaq-i-Jalali, Alchlaq-i-Muhsini, the 
 name of a dissertation on Ethics by Husain 
 Wa’iz KashifI, a.h. 910, which has been trans¬ 
 lated into English by the Rev. H. G. Keene 
 (W. H. Allen & Co.). 
 
 AKHUND (a[j=A). A maulawi; a 
 
 teacher. A title of respect given to eminent 
 religious teachers. One of the most cele¬ 
 brated Muhammadan teachers of modern 
 times was the “ Akhund of Swat,” who died 
 a.d. 1875. This great religious leader resided 
 in the village of Saidu, in the district of 
 Swat, on the north-west frontier of India. 
 
 AKHUNDZADAH The 
 
 son of an Akhund. A title of respect given 
 to the sons or descendants of celebrated reli¬ 
 gious teachers, [akhund.] 
 
 AL (Jl). Lit. “ offsjn'ing, or pos- 
 
 teritjr.” Used in Muslim works for the off¬ 
 spring of Muhammad 
 
‘ALIM 
 
 13 
 
 AL-A e LA 
 
 al-A‘LA “ The Most 
 
 High.” The title of the Lxxxvuth Surah of 
 the Qur’an, in the second verso of which 
 the word occurs : “ The name of thy Lord the 
 Most High is celebrated.” 
 
 ‘ALAM (^ c ). A standard or 
 
 ensign. A term used for the flags and stan¬ 
 dards paraded during the Muharram. [.mu- 
 
 ll.VRRAM, STANDARDS.] 
 
 ‘ALAM (^5Us). The universe; 
 
 world ; condition, state of being. 
 
 ‘Alamu ’ l-arwah . The world of spirits. 
 
 • Alamu 'l-hr hair/ . The world ; this life. 
 'Alarm 'l-baqi . The future state. 
 
 1 Alamu 'l-u'-zamah . The highest heaven. 
 
 ‘Alamu 'sh-shahadah The visible world. 
 
 ‘Alamu 'l-ghaib . The invisible world. 
 
 ‘Alamu '1-ma‘qul . The rational world. 
 
 The four mystic stages of the Sufis arc— 
 
 ‘Alamu ’h-nasut . The present world. 
 
 ‘ Alamu ’ l-malakut . The state of angels. 
 
 ‘Alamu 'l-jabarut . The state of,power. 
 
 ‘Alamu 'l-lahut . The state of absorption 
 into the Divinity. 
 
 [scfiism.] 
 
 ‘ALAMAT (ci>W\e). The greater 
 
 signs of the resurrection. [‘alamatu ’s- 
 
 SA‘AH, RESURRECTION.] 
 
 ‘ALAMATU ’N-NUBUWAH 
 oLk). “ The signs of Pro¬ 
 phecy.” A term used for the supposed mi¬ 
 racles and other proofs of the mission of 
 Muhammad. The title of a chapter in the ! 
 Traditions. ( Mishkat , xxi. c. vi.) 
 
 ‘ALAMATU ’S - SA‘AH (>Uk 
 aeLJ!). “ The signs of the hour,” 
 
 i.e. the signs of the time of the Resurrection 
 and of the Day of Judgment. The title of a 
 section of the Traditions. ( Mishkat, xxiii. 
 c. 3.) [resurrection.] 
 
 ‘ALAQ ( 1 jG). “Congealed blood.” 
 
 The title of the xcvrth Surah, the first five 
 verses of which are generally allowed to be 
 the earliest portion of the Qur’an. 
 
 al-BALDAH (JaUI). “ The City.” 
 
 A name sometimes used in the Hadis for 
 Makkah. 
 
 ALCHEMY. Arabic Kimiyd 
 According to the Kaslifu 
 ’z-zunun , in loco, learned Muslims are not 
 agreed as to the existence of this occult 
 science, nor are they of one opinion as to its 
 lawfulness, even if it should exist. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 Mentioned in the Qur’an as Zu’l-Qarnain, i.e. 
 
 “ He of the two horns,” with which he is 
 represented on his coins. (Surah xviii. 82.) 
 He seems to have been regarded by Muham¬ 
 mad as one invested with a divine commis¬ 
 sion:—“Verily we established his power 
 upon earth ”; but commentators are not agreed 
 whether to assign to him the position of a 
 Prophet, [zu ’l-qarnain.] 
 
 al-HAMD (a-*.*,!!). “Praise.” A 
 
 title given to the first Surah, so called because 
 its first word is Al-liamd. This chapter is 
 also called Fatihah, which term is used by 
 modern Muslims for the Surah when it is said 
 for the benefit of the dead, Al-hamd being 
 its more usual title, [fathiau.] 
 
 al-HAMDU-LPLLAH (Ab A^ll). 
 
 “ Praise belongs to God.” An ejaculation which 
 is called Tal.imid, and ■which occurs at the com¬ 
 mencement of the first chapter of the Qur’an. 
 It is used as an ejaculation of thanksgiving— 
 “ Thank God!” It is very often recited with 
 the addition of Rabbi ’l-‘dlamln, “Lord of the 
 Universe.” [taiimid.] 
 
 al-‘ALI (JaJI). One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It means 
 “ The Exalted One.” 
 
 ‘ALl The son of Abu- 
 
 Talib, and a cousin-german to Muhammad, 
 who adopted him as his son. He married 
 Eatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, and 
 had by her three sons, Hasan, Husain, and 
 Muhassin. He was the fourth Kli alifah, and 
 reigned from a.h. 35 to a.u. 40. He was 
 struck with a poisoned sword by Ibn Muljam, 
 at al-Kufah, and died after three clays, 
 aged fifty-nine years. The Shrahs hold that, 
 on the death of Muhammad, ‘All was entitled 
 to the Khalifate, and the respective claims of 
 Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Usman on the one hand, 
 and of ‘All on the other, gave rise to the 
 Shl‘ah schism. ‘All is surnamed by the Arabs 
 Asadu 'llah, and by the Persians Sher-i- 
 Khuda, i.e. “ The Lion of God.” [siii-aii.] 
 
 AL1F. The letter Alif (\) is a 
 
 monogram frequently placed at the head of 
 letters, prescriptions, &c. It is the initial 
 letter of the woi-d Allah “ God.” 
 
 ALIF LAM MIM. The Arabic 
 letters ^1, corresponding to A L M, 
 which occur at the commencement of six 
 Surahs, namely Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), Suratu 
 Ali ‘Imran (m.), Suratu ’l-‘Ankabut (xxix.), 
 Suratu ’r-Rum (xxx.),Suratu Luqman (xxxi.), 
 and Suratu ’s-Sijdah (xxxii.). Muhammad 
 never explained the meaning of these myste¬ 
 rious letters, and consequently they are a 
 fruitful source of perplexity to learned com¬ 
 mentators. Jalalu ’d-din gives an exhaustive 
 summary of the different views in his Itqan 
 (p. 470). Some suppose they stand for the 
 words Allah, “God”; Latif, “gracious”; 
 Majid , “ glorious.” Others say they stand for 
 Ana ’Haim a‘lamu, “ I am the God who knoweth,” 
 Others maintain that they were not meant to 
 be understood, and that they were inserted 
 by the Divine command without explanation, 
 in order to remind the reader that there were 
 mysteries which his intellect would never 
 fathom. 
 
 ALU ‘IMRAN (oV* JI). “ The 
 
 family of ‘Imran.” The title of the third 
 chapter of the Qur’an. 
 
 ‘ALIM (fJhs), pi. ‘ulama. A learned 
 
14 
 
 AMULETS 
 
 AL- C ALIM 
 
 man. The term usually includes all religious 
 teachers, such as Imams, Muftis, Qazis, and 
 Maulawies ; and in Turkey it denotes the poli¬ 
 tical party led by the religious teachers. 
 
 al-‘AL 1M One of tlie 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ 
 quently occurs in the Qur’an, and means “ The 
 Wise One.” 
 
 ALLAH (*Ut). [god.] 
 
 ALLAHU AKBAE aU\). 
 
 “ God is great,” or “ God is most great.” An 
 ejaculation which is called the Talcbir. It 
 occurs frequently in the liturgical forms, 
 and is used when slaying an animal for food. 
 [takbir.] 
 
 ALMSGIVING. The word gene¬ 
 rally used for alms is Sadaqah, or that which 
 manifests righteoirsness; the word zakat,, or 
 purification, being specially restricted to the 
 legal alms, [zakat.] Sadaqatu ’l-Fitr are 
 the offerings given on the Lesser Festival. 
 The duty of almsgiving is very frequently en¬ 
 joined in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 274-5, 
 “ What ye expend of good (i.e. of well- 
 gotten wealth), it shall be paid to you 
 again, and ye shall not be wronged. (Give 
 your alms) unto the poor who are straitened 
 in God’s way and cannot traverse the earth. 
 
 . . . Those who expend their wealth by night 
 and by day, secretly and openly, they shall 
 have their hire with their Lord.” 
 
 The following are some of the sayings of 
 Muhammad on the subject of almsgiving, as 
 they occur in the Traditions :—“ The upper 
 hand is better than the lower one. The 
 upper hand is the giver of alms, and the 
 lower hand is the poor beggar.” “ The best 
 of alms are those given by a man of small 
 means, who gives of that which he has earned 
 by labour, and gives as much as he is able.” 
 “ Begin by giving alms to your own relatives.” 
 “ Doing justice between two people is alms ; 
 assisting a man on his beast is alms ; good 
 words are alms.” “A camel lent out for 
 milk is alms ; a cup of milk every morning and 
 evening is alms.” “Your smiling in your 
 brother’s face is alms ; assisting the blind is 
 alms.” “ God says,Be thou liberal, thou child 
 of Adam, that I may be liberal to thee.” (See 
 Mishkat, Matthew’s edition, vol. i. p. 429.) 
 
 ALWAH (eV')» pl- of Lau] T “ The 
 
 tables” (of the Law). Mentioned in the 
 Qur’an, Surah vii. 142, “ We wrote for him 
 (Moses) upon the Tables ( al-Alwdh ) a monition 
 concerning every matter.” 
 
 Muslim divines are not agreed as to the 
 number either of the tables, or of the Com¬ 
 mandments. The commentators Jalalain say 
 they were either seven or ten. [ten com¬ 
 mandments.] 
 
 ‘AMAL-NAMAH (a-\» Jke). The 
 
 Persian word for Sahifatu ’ 1-A‘mdl , or record 
 of actions kept by the recording angels. 
 
 [SAHIFATU ’l-A‘MAE, K1RAMU ’L-KATIBIN.] 
 
 AMAN Protection given 
 
 by a Muslim conqueror to those who pay 
 Jizyah , or poll tax. [jihad.] 
 
 AMB1YA (A-A), p l. of NaU. 
 
 “ Prophets.” The title of the xxist Surah. 
 [prophets.] 
 
 AMIN Hebrew Au 
 
 expression of assent used at the conclusion of 
 prayers, very much as in our Christian wor¬ 
 ship. It is always used at the conclusion of 
 the Suratu T-Fatihah, or first chapter of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Amin, “ Faithful.” Alt Aram is the title which 
 it is said was given to Muhammad when 
 a youth, on account of his fair and honour¬ 
 able bearing, which won the confidence of the 
 people. 
 
 Aminu ’ l-Bait, one who wishes to perform 
 the pilgrimage to Makkah. 
 
 AMINAH (<LA\). Muhammad’s 
 
 mother. She was the wife of ‘Abdu Tlah, and 
 the daughter of Wahb ibn ‘Abdi Manaf. 
 She died and was buried at al-Abwa, a place 
 midway between Makkah and al-Madinah, 
 before her son claimed the position of a Pro¬ 
 phet. 
 
 AMlR (y^), Anglice, Emir. “A 
 
 ruler; a commander ; a chief ; a nobleman.” 
 It includes the various high offices in a Muslim 
 state; the Imam, or Kh alifah, being styled 
 Amiru ’ l-Umara ’, the ruler of rulers; and 
 Amiru ’ l-Mu’minin, the commander of the 
 believers. 
 
 AMIRU ’L-HAJJ (g^n^V). The 
 
 chief of the pilgrimage.” The officer in charge 
 of the pilgrims to Makkah. [hajj.] 
 
 AMIRU ’L-MU’MINlN ( 
 
 “The Commander of the 
 Believers.” A title which was first given to 
 Abdu Tlah ibn Jahsh after his expedition to 
 Nalthlah, qnd which was afterwards assumed 
 by the Khalifahs (first by ‘Umar) and the 
 Sultans of Turkey, [khalifah.] 
 
 ‘AMR IBN AL-‘ASl 0,s^*c). 
 
 One of the Companions, celebrated for his 
 conquest of Syria, Palestine and Egypt, in the 
 reigns of Abu Bakr and ‘Umar. He died 
 (according to an-Nawawi) a.h. 43. 
 
 AMULETS. Arabic Hamd'il 
 (J>LA), “ anything suspended ” ; 
 
 Ta‘wiz, “ a refuge ”; Hijab, “ a cover.” 
 
 Amulets, although of heathen origin, are 
 very common in Muhammadan countries. The 
 following are used as .amulets: (1) a small 
 Qur’an, encased in silk or leather, and sus¬ 
 pended from the shoulder; (2) a chapter or 
 verse of the Qur’an, written on paper and 
 folded in leather or velvet; (3) some of the 
 names of God, or the numerical power (see 
 abjad) of these names ; (4) the names of pro¬ 
 phets, celebrated saints, or the numerical power 
 of the same; (5) the Muhammadan creed, 
 engraven on stone or silver. The chapters 
 of the Qur’an generally selected for Amulets 
 are: Surahs i., vi., xviii., xxxvi., xliv., lv., 
 
AMULETS 
 
 ANGEL 
 
 15 
 
 lxvii., lxxviii. Five verses known as the 
 Ayatu ’l-Hifz, or “ verses of protection,” are 
 also frequently inscribed on Amulets. They 
 are Surahs ii. 256 ; xii. 64 ; xiii. 12 ; xv. 17 : 
 xxxvii. 7. [ayatu ’l-hifz.] 
 
 These charms are fastened on the arm or 
 leg, or suspended round the neck, as a pro¬ 
 tection against evil. They are also put on 
 houses and animals, and, in fact, upon any¬ 
 thing from which evil is to be averted. 
 Strictly, according to the principles of Islam, 
 only the names of God, or verses from the 
 Qur’an, should be used for amulets. Informa¬ 
 tion regarding the formation of magic squares 
 and amulets will be found in tho article on 
 Exorcism, [exorcism, da'waii.] 
 
 tb 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 Jb 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 AN AMULET OF THE ATTRIBUTE OF GOO — Hafiz, 
 “ THE PROTECTOR.” 
 
 A SMALL QURAN SUSPENDED AS AN AMULET. 
 
 al-AN‘AM ((.UsSt). “The Cattle” 
 
 The title of the vith Surah, in verse 137 of 
 which some superstitious customs of the 
 Meccans, as to certain cattle, are incidentally 
 mentioned. 
 
 ANANlYAH (AiVil). From ana, 
 “I.” “Egotism.” Al-ananiyah is a term used 
 by the Sufis to express the existence of man. 
 
 ANAS IBN MALIK 
 uA3U). The last of the Companions 
 of Muhammad, and the founder of the sect of 
 the Malikls. He died at al-Basrah, a.h. 93, 
 aged 103. 
 
 al-ANFAL (JtoW). “The Spoils.” 
 
 The title of the vmth Surah which was 
 occasioned by a dispute regarding the spoils 
 taken at the battle of Badr, between the young 
 men who had fought and the old men who 
 had stayed with the ensigns. 
 
 ANGrEL. Arabic maVah or malak 
 <AL»). Persian Firishtah 
 
 “ It is believed,” says Ibn Majah, “ that the 
 angels are of a simple substance (created of 
 light), endowed with life, and speech, and 
 reason ; and that the difference between them, 
 the Jinn, and Shaitans is a difference of 
 species. Know,” he adds, “ that the angels 
 are sanctified from carnal desire and the dis¬ 
 turbance of anger: they disobey not God in 
 what He hath commanded them, but do what 
 they are commanded. Their food is the cele¬ 
 brating of His glory ; their drink, the pro¬ 
 claiming of His holiness ; their conversation, 
 the commemoration of God, Whose name be 
 exalted; their pleasure, His worship; and 
 they are created in different forms and with 
 different powers.” ( Arabian Nights, Lane’s 
 edition, Notes to the Introduction, p. 27.) 
 
 Four of them are archangels, or, as they 
 are called in Arabic, Karubiyun (Cherubim), 
 namely, Jabra'il, or Jibril, (Gabriel), the 
 angel of revelations; Mika'il, or MiJcal, 
 (Michael), the patron of the Israelites; 
 Israjll, the angel who will sound the trumpet 
 at the last day; and ‘Izra’il, or ‘Azra’il, 
 the angel of death. Angels are said to be 
 inferior in dignity to human prophets, be¬ 
 cause all the angels were commanded to 
 prostrate themselves before Adam (Surah ii. 
 32). Every believer is attended by two record¬ 
 ing angels, called the Kirarnu ’l-katibln, one of 
 whom records his good actions, and the other 
 his evil actions. There are also two angels, 
 called Munkar and Naklr, who examine all 
 the dead in their gra ves. The chief angel who 
 has charge of hell is called Malik, and his 
 subordinates are named Zabaniyah, or guards. 
 A more extended account of these angels will 
 be found under their pai-ticular titles. 
 
 The angels intercede for man: “ The 
 
 angels celebrate the praise of their Lord, and 
 ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth.” 
 (Surah xlii. 3.) They also act as guardian 
 angels: “ Each hath a succession of angels 
 before him and behind him, who watch over 
 him by God’s behest.” (Surah xiii. 12.) “ Is 
 
 it not enough for you that your Lord aideth 
 you with three thousand angels sent down 
 (from on high)?” (Surah iii. 120,) “He 
 is the supreme over His servants, and sendeth 
 forth guardians who watch over you, until, 
 when death overtaketh any one of you, our 
 messengers receive him and fail not.” (Surah 
 vi. 61.) 
 
 There are eight angels who support the 
 throne of God, “ And the angels shall be on 
 its sides, and over them on that day eight 
 shall bear up the throne of thy Lord.” (Surah 
 lxix. 17.) Nineteen have charge of hell. 
 “ Over it are nineteen. None but angels have 
 we made guardians of the fire.” (Surah Ixxiv. 
 30, 31.) 
 
 The names of the guardian angels given in 
 the book on Exorcism ( da‘ivah ), entitled the 
 Jciwdhiru ’/-Khamsah. are Israfil, Jibra’Il, Kal- 
 ka’il, Darda’Il, Durbail, Baftma’il, Sharka’Il, 
 Tankafll, Isma’il, Sarakika’il, Kharura’il, 
 Tata’il, Ruya’Il, Hula’il, Hamwakil, ‘Itra’il, 
 
ANIMALS 
 
 16 
 
 Amwakil, ‘Amra’il, ‘Azra’il, MIka’Il, Mahka’il, 
 Harta’il, ‘Ata’Il, Nura’il, Nukha’il. [exor- 
 
 CISM.] 
 
 ANIMALS. Arabic Hayawdn 
 According to tbe Qur’an, 
 Surah xxiv. 44, “ God hath created every 
 animal of water.” “ An idea,” says Rodwell, 
 “perhaps derived from Gen. i. 20, 21.” 
 
 It is believed that at the Resurrection the 
 irrational animals will be restored to life, that 
 they may be brought to judgment, and then be 
 annihilated. See Qur’an, Surah vi. 38, “No 
 kind of beast is there on the earth, nor fowl 
 that flieth with its wings, but is a community 
 like you ; nothing have We passed over in the 
 book (of the Eternal decrees) : then unto their 
 Lord shall they be gathered.” 
 
 al-‘ANKABUT “The 
 
 Spider.” The title of the xxixth Surah, 
 in which there is a passing reference to 
 this insect in the 40th verse:—“ The like¬ 
 ness for those who take to themselves guar¬ 
 dians besides God is the likeness of the spider 
 who buildeth her a house; but truly the 
 frailest of all houses surely is the house of 
 the spider.” 
 
 al- ANSAR (jUN). “The Helpers,” 
 
 a term used for the early converts of al- 
 Madlnah ; but when all the citizens of al- 
 Madinah were ostensibly converted to Islam, 
 they were all named Ansar, while those 
 Muslims who accompanied the Prophet from 
 Makkahto al-Madlnah were called Muhajirun, 
 or exiles. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol iii. 
 p. 26.) [MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 ANTICHRIST. [masihtj ’d-daj- 
 
 .JAL.] 
 
 APOSTASY FROM ISLAM. 
 Arabic irtidcid (oU>)\). According to 
 Muslim law, a male apostate, or Murtadd, is 
 liable to be put to death if he continue obsti¬ 
 nate in his error; a female apostate is not 
 subject to capital punishment, but she may 
 be kept in confinement until she recant. 
 (Hamilton’s Hi day ah, vol. ii. p. 227.) If 
 either the husband or wife apostatize from 
 the faith of Islam, a divorce takes place ipso 
 facto; the wife is entitled to her whole dower, 
 but no sentence of divorce is necessary. If 
 the husband and wife both apostatize together, 
 their marriage is generally allowed to con¬ 
 tinue, although the Imam Zufar says it is 
 annulled. But if, after their joint apostasy, 
 either husband or wife were singly to return 
 to Islam, then the marriage would be dis¬ 
 solved. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 183.) 
 
 According to Abu Hanifah, a male apostate 
 is disabled from selling or otherwise dispos¬ 
 ing of his property. But Abu Yusuf and 
 Imam Muhammad differ from their master 
 upon this point, and consider a male apostate 
 to be as competent to exercise every right as 
 if he were still in tbe faith. ( Hiddyali , vol. 
 ii. p. 235.) 
 
 If a boy under age apostatize, he is not 
 to be put to death, but to be imprisoned until 
 he come to full age, when, if he continue in 
 
 ‘AQILAH 
 
 the state of unbelief, he must be put to death. 
 Neither lunatics nor drunkards are held to 
 be responsible for their apostasy from Islam. 
 (Hidayah, vol. ii. 246.) If a person upon com¬ 
 pulsion become an apostate, his wife is not 
 divorced, nor are his lands forfeited. If a 
 person become a Musalman upon compul¬ 
 sion, and afterwards apostatize, he is not to 
 be put to death. ( Hidayah, vol. iii. 467.) 
 
 The will of a male apostate is not valid, hut 
 that of a female apostate is valid. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. iv. 537.) 
 
 ‘Ikrimah relates that some apostates were 
 brought to the Khalifah ‘All, and he burnt them 
 alive; but Ibn ‘Abbas heard of it, and said 
 that the Khalifah had not acted rightly, for 
 the Projihet had said, “ Punish not with God’s 
 punishment (i.e. fire), but whosoever changes 
 his religion, kill him with the sword.” ( Sahihu 
 'l- Bukhari.) 
 
 APOSTLE. Arabic rasul 
 hawari The term rasul 
 
 (apostle or messenger) is applied to Muham¬ 
 mad, that of hawari being used in the Qur’an 
 (Surah iii. 4, 5; Surah iv. Ill, 112 ; Surah lxi. 
 14) for the Apostles of Jesus. The word 
 hawari seems to be derived from the iEthiopic 
 liora, “ to go ”; hawarya, “ apostle ” ; although, 
 according to al-BaizawI, the commentator, it is 
 derived from haiuira, “ to be white,” in Syriac, 
 hewar, and was given to the disciples of Jesus, 
 he says, on account of their purity of life and 
 sincerity, or because they were respectable 
 men and wore white garments. In the Tra¬ 
 ditions ( Mishkat, book i. c. vi. part 2) hawari 
 is used for the followers of all the prophets. 
 [prophets.] 
 
 al-‘AQABAH (La*h). A sheltered 
 
 glen near Mina, celebrated as the scene of the 
 two pledges, the first and second pledge of 
 al-‘Aqabah. The first pledge was made by ten 
 men of the tribe of Khazraj and ten of Aus, 
 when they plighted their faith to Muhammad 
 thus:—“ We will not worship any but one 
 God; we will not steal; nor commit adul¬ 
 tery ; nor kill our children; nor will we 
 slander our neighbour; and we will obey the 
 Prophet of God.” The date assigned to this 
 pledge by Sir W. Muir is April 21, a.d. 621. 
 The second pledge was a few months after¬ 
 wards, when seventy-three men and two 
 women came forward, one by one, and took 
 an oath of fealty to the Prophet. Muhammad 
 named tv'elve of the chief of these men, and 
 said:—“ Moses chose from amongst his people 
 twelve leaders. Ye shall be sureties for the 
 rest, even as vrere the Apostles of Jesus ; and 
 I am surety for my people. And the people 
 answered, Amin, So be it.” (Muir’s Life of 
 Mahomet, vol. ii. pp. 216, 232.) 
 
 ‘AQIB (s-Ac). “A successor or 
 deputy.” “ One w r ho comes last.” Al-‘aqib is 
 a title given to Muhammad as being styled 
 “ the last of the prophets.” 
 
 ‘AQILAH (&Ac). The relatives 
 
 who pay the expiatory mulct for man¬ 
 slaughter, or any other legal fine. They must 
 
AQIQAH 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 17 
 
 be relatives descended from one common 
 father. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. pages 
 449, 452; Baillie’s Law of Sale, p. 214.) 
 
 ‘AQIQAH (&Lac). A custom 
 
 observed by the Arabs on the birth of a 
 child ; namely, leaving the hair on the 
 infant’s head until the seventh day. when it is 
 shaved, and animals are sacrificed, namely, 
 two sheep for a boy and one for a girl. ( Misli- 
 leaf, xviii. c. 3 ) It is enjoined by Muhammadan 
 law, and observed in all parts of Islam. 
 
 ARABIA. Bilddu ’l-‘Arab 
 Jazlratu ’l-‘Arab (s-y^ 
 ‘Arabistan The peninsula 
 
 bearing, amongst the Arabs, these names is ; 
 the country situated on the east of the Red 
 Sea, and extending as far as the Persian Gulf. 
 
 The word probably signifies a “ barren 
 place,” “ desert ” (Heb. nmy)- 
 
 t t —: 
 
 Ptolemy divides Arabia into three parts, 
 Arabia Petr®a, Arabia Felix, and Arabia 
 Deserta ; but Arabian geographers divide it 
 into Tihamah, al-Hijdz, an-Najd, a/-‘Aruz, 
 and al-Yaman. 
 
 The races which have peopled Arabia are 
 divided into three sections, al-'Arabu 'l-Ba'I- 
 dah, al-‘Arabu 'I-‘Aribali, and al-'Arabu ’/- 
 Musta‘ribah. 
 
 I. Al-‘ Arabv ’l-Ba’idah, are the old “ lost 
 Arabs,” of whom tradition has preserved the 
 names of several tribes, as well as some me¬ 
 morable particulars regarding their extinction. 
 This may well be called the fabulous period of 
 Arabian history; but, as it has the sanction of 
 the Qur’an, it would be sacrilege in a Muslim 
 to doubt its authenticity. According to 
 this account, the most famous of the extinct 
 tribes were those of ‘Ad, Samud, Jadis, and 
 Tasm, all descended in the third or fourth 
 generation from Shem. ‘Ad, the father of his 
 tribe, settled, according to tradition, in the 
 Great Desert of al-Ahqaf soon after the con¬ 
 fusion of tongues. Shaddad his son succeeded 
 him in the government, and greatly extended 
 his dominions. He performed many fabulous 
 exploits ; among others, he erected a magnifi¬ 
 cent city in the desert of ‘Adan, which had 
 been begun by his father, and adorned it with 
 a sumptuous palace and delightful gardens, 
 in imitation of the celestial paradise, in order 
 to inspire his subjects with a superstitious 
 veneration for him as a god. This superb 
 structure was built with bricks of gold and 
 silver alternately disposed. The roof was of 
 gold, inlaid with precious stones and pearls. 
 The trees and shrubs were of the same pre¬ 
 cious materials. The fruits and flowers were 
 rubies, and on the branches were perched 
 birds of similar metals, the hollow parts of 
 which were loaded with every species of the 
 richest perfumes, so that' every breeze that 
 blew came charged with fragrance from the 
 bills of these golden images. To this para¬ 
 dise he gave the name of Irani (see Qur’an. 
 Surah lxxxix. 0). On the completion of all 
 this grandeur, Shaddad set out with a splendid 
 retinue to admire its beauties. But heaven 
 
 would not suffer his pride and impiety to go 
 unpunished ; for, when within a day’s journey 
 of the place, they were all destroyed by a 
 terrible noise from the clouds. As a monument 
 of Divine justice, the city, we are assured, 
 still stands in the desert, though invisible. 
 Southey, in his Thalaba, has viewed this and 
 many of the other fables and superstitions of 
 the Arabs with the eye of a poet, a philo¬ 
 sopher, and an antiquary. According to at- 
 Tabari, this legendary palace was discovered 
 in the time of Mu‘awiyah, the first Khalifah of 
 Damascus, by a person in search of a stray 
 camel. A fanciful tradition adds, that the 
 Angel of death, on being asked whether, in 
 the discharge of his duties, an instance had 
 ever occurred in which he had felt some com¬ 
 passion towards his wretched victims, ad¬ 
 mitted that only twice had his sympathies 
 been awakened—once towards a shipwrecked 
 infant, which had been exposed on a solitary 
 plank to struggle for existence with the winds 
 and waves, and which he spared; and the 
 second time in cutting off the unhappy Shad¬ 
 dad at the moment when almost within view 
 of the glorious fabric which he had erected 
 at so much expense. No sooner had the 
 angel spoken, than a voice from heaven 
 was heard to declare that the helpless 
 innocent on the plank was no other than 
 Shaddad himself; and that his punishment 
 was a just retribution for his ingratitude 
 to a merciful and kind Providence, which 
 had not only saved his life, but raised him 
 to unrivalled wealth and splendour. The 
 whole fable seems to be a confused tradition 
 of Belus and the ancient Babylon; or, rather, 
 as the name would import, of Benhadad, men¬ 
 tioned in Scripture as one of the most famous 
 of the Syrian kings, who. we ore told, was 
 worshipped by his subjects. 
 
 Of the ‘Adites and their succeeding princes, 
 nothing certain is known, except that they 
 were dispersed or destroyed in the course of a 
 few centuries by the sovereigns of al-Yaman. 
 
 The tribe of Samud first settled in Arabia 
 Felix, and on their expulsion they repaired 
 to al-Hijr, on the confines of Syria. Like the 
 ‘Adites, they are reported to have been of a 
 most gigantic stature, the tallest being a hun¬ 
 dred cubits high and the least sixty ; and such 
 was their muscular power, that, with a stamp 
 of the foot in the driest soil, they could plant 
 themselves knee-deep in the earth. They 
 dwelt, the Qur’an informs us, “ in the caves of 
 the rocks, and cut the mountains into houses, 
 which remain to this day.” In this tribe it is 
 easy to discover the Thamudeni of Diodorus. 
 Pliny, and Ptolemy. 
 
 The tribes of Tasm and Jadis settled be¬ 
 tween Makkali and al-Madinah, and occupied 
 the whole level country of al-Yaman, living 
 promiscuously under the same government. 
 Their history is buried in darkness ; and when 
 the Arabs wish to denote anything of dubious 
 authority, they call it a fable of Tasm. 
 
 The extinction of these tribes, accord¬ 
 ing to the Qur’an, was miraculous, and a 
 signal example of Divine vengeance. The 
 posterity of ‘Ad and Samud had abandoned 
 
 3 
 
18 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 the worship of the true God, and lapsed into 
 incorrigible idolatry. They had been chastised 
 with a three years’ drought, but their hearts 
 remained hardened. To the former was sent 
 the Prophet Hud, to reclaim them and preach 
 the unity of the Godhead. “ 0 my people ! ” 
 exclaimed the prophet, “ ask pardon of your 
 Lord; then turn unto Him with penitence, 
 (and) He will send down the heavens upon 
 you with copious rains, and with strength in 
 addition to your strength will He increase 
 you.” Few believed, and the overthrow of 
 the idolaters was effected by a hot and suf¬ 
 focating wind, that blew seven nights and 
 eight days without intermission, accompanied 
 with a terrible earthquake, by which their 
 idols were broken to pieces, and their houses 
 thrown to the ground. (See Qur’an, Surah vii. 
 G3, xi. 53.) Luqman, who, according to some, 
 was a famous king of the ‘Adites, and who 
 lived to the age of seven eagles, escaped, with 
 about sixty others, the common calamity. 
 These few survivors gave rise to a tribe 
 called the Latter ‘Ad ; but on account of their 
 crimes they were transformed, as the Qur’an 
 states, into asses or monkeys. Hud returned 
 to Hazramaut, and was buried in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood, where a small town, Qabr Hud, 
 still bears his name. Among the Arabs, ‘Ad 
 expresses the same remote age that Saturn or 
 Ogyges did among the Greeks ; anything of 
 extreme antiquity is said to be “ as old as 
 King ‘Ad.” 
 
 The idolatrous tribe of Samud had the 
 prophet Salih sent to them, whom D’Herbelot 
 makes the son of Arphaxad, while Bochart 
 and Sale suppose him to be Peleg, the 
 brother of Joktan. His preaching had little 
 effect. The fate of the ‘Adites, instead of 
 being a warning, only set them to dig caverns 
 in the rocks, where they hoped to escape the 
 vengeance of winds and tempests. Others 
 demanded a sign from the prophet in token of 
 his mission. As a condition of their belief, 
 they challenged him to a trial of power, 
 similar to what took place between Elijah 
 and the priests of Baal, and promised to 
 follow the deity that should gain the triumph. 
 From a certain rock a camel big with young 
 was to come forth in their presence. The 
 idolaters were foiled; for on Salih’s pointing 
 to the spot, a she-camel was produced, with a 
 young one ready weaned. This miracle 
 wrought conviction in a few ; but the rest, far 
 from believing, hamstrung the mother, killed 
 her miraculous progeny, and divided the 
 flesh among them. This act of impiety sealed 
 their doom. “ And a violent tempest overtook 
 the wicked, and they were found prostrate on 
 their breasts in their abodes.” (Qur’an, 
 Surah vii. 71, xi. 64.) 
 
 The tribes of Jadls and Tasm owe their 
 extinction to a different cause. A certain 
 despot, a Tasmite, but sovereign of both tribes, 
 had rendered himself detested by a voluptuous 
 law claiming for himself a priority of right 
 over all the brides of the Jadisites. This 
 insult was not to be tolerated. A conspiracy 
 was formed. The king and his chiefs were 
 invited to an entertainment. The avengers 
 
 had privately hidden their swords in the 
 sand, and in the moment of mirth and fes¬ 
 tivity they fell upon the tyrant and his 
 retinue, and finally extirpated the greater 
 part of his subjects. 
 
 II.—The pure Arabs are those who claim 
 to be descended from Joktan or Qahtan, whom 
 the present Arabs regard as their principal 
 founder. The members of this genuine 
 stock are styled al-‘Arabu 'l-‘Aribah, the 
 genuine Arabs. According to their genealogy 
 of this patriarch, his descendants formed two 
 distinct branches. Ya‘rub, one of his sons, 
 founded the kingdom of al-Yaman, and Jurkum 
 that of al-Hijaz. These two are the only sons 
 spoken of by the Arabs. Their names do not 
 occur in Scripture ; but it has been conjec¬ 
 tured that they were the Jerah and Hadoram 
 mentioned by Moses as among the thirteen 
 planters of Arabia (Gen. x. 26). 
 
 In the division of their nation into tribes 
 the Arabs resemble the Jews. From an early 
 era they have retained the distinction of sepa¬ 
 rate and independent families. This partition 
 was adverse to the consolidation of power or 
 political influence, birt it furnishes our chief 
 guide into the dark abyss of their antiquities. 
 The posterity of Ya‘rub spread and multi¬ 
 plied into innumerable clans. New accessions 
 rendered new subdivisions necessary. In the 
 genealogical tables of Sale, Gagnier, and 
 Saiyid Ahmad Kli an. are enmnerated nearly 
 three-score tribes of genuine Arabs, many of 
 whom became celebrated long before the time 
 of Muhammad, 1 and some of them retain their 
 names even at the present day. 
 
 III.—The ‘Arabu ’1-Musta‘ribah, the mixed 
 Arabs, claim to be descended from Ishmael 
 and the daughter of al-Muzaz, King of 
 al-Hijaz, whom he took to wife, and was of the 
 ninth generation from Jurhum, the founder of 
 that kingdom. Of the Jurhumites, till the 
 time of Ishmael, little is recorded, except the 
 names of their princes or chiefs, and that 
 they had possession of the territory of al-Hijaz. 
 But as Muhammad traces his descent to this 
 alliance, the Arabs have been more than 
 usually careful to preserve and adorn his 
 genealogy. The want of a pure ancestry is, 
 in their estimation, more than compensated 
 by the dignity of so sacred a connexion; for 
 they boast as much as the Jews of being 
 reckoned the children of Abraham. This 
 circumstance will account for the preference 
 with which they uniformly regard this branch 
 of their pedigree, and for the many romantic 
 legends they have grafted upon it. It is not 
 improbable that the old giants and idolaters 
 suffered an imaginary-extinction to make way 
 for a more favoured race, and that Divine 
 chastisements always overtook those who 
 dared to invade their consecrated terri¬ 
 tories. 
 
 The Scripture account of the expulsion and 
 destiny of this venerated progenitor of the 
 Arabs is brief, but simple and affecting. 
 Ishmael was the son of Abraham by Hagar. 
 an Egyptian slave. When fourteen years of 
 ! age, he was supplanted in the hopes and 
 affections of his father by the birth of Isaac. 
 
ARABIA 
 
 ARABIA 
 
 19 
 
 through whom the promises were to descend. 
 This event made it necessary to remove the 
 unhappy female and her child, who were 
 accordingly sent forth to seek their fortune 
 in some of the surrounding unoccupied dis¬ 
 tricts. A small supply of provisions, and a 
 bottle of water on her shoulder, was all she 
 carried from the tent of her master. Direct¬ 
 ing her stops towards her native country, she 
 wandered with the lad in the wilderness of 
 Beer-sheba, which was destitute of springs. 
 Here her stock failed, and it seemed impos¬ 
 sible to avoid perishing by hunger or thirst. 
 She resigned herself to her melancholy pro¬ 
 spects, but the feelings of the mother were 
 more acute than the agonies of want and 
 despair. Unable to witness her son's death, 
 she laid him under one of the shrubs, 
 took an affecting leave of him, and retired 
 to a distance. “ And she went, and sat 
 her down over against him, a good way off, 
 as it were a bow-shot; for she said, Let 
 me not see the death of the child. And she 
 sat over against him, and lifted up her voice 
 and wept." (Gen. xxi. 10.) At this moment 
 an angel directed her to a well of water 
 close at hand,—a discovery to which they 
 owed the preservation of their lives. A pro¬ 
 mise formerly given was renewed, that 
 sh mael was to become a great nation—that 
 ho was to be a wild man—his hand against 
 every man, and every man's hand against him. 
 The travellers continued their journey to the 
 wilderness of Paran, and there took up their 
 residence. In due time the lad grew to man¬ 
 hood, and greatly distinguished himself as an 
 archer, and his mother took him a wife out of 
 her own land. Here the sacred narrative 
 breaks off abruptly, the main object of Moses 
 being to follow the history of Abraham's 
 descendants through the line of Isaac. The 
 Arabs, in their version of Ishmael's history, 
 have mixed a great deal of romance with the 
 narrative of Scripture. They assert that 
 al-Hijaz was the district where he settled, and 
 that Makkah, then an arid wilderness, was the 
 identical spot where his life was providentially 
 saved, and where Hagar died and was buried. 
 The well pointed out by the angel, they be¬ 
 lieve to be the famous Zamzam, of which all 
 pious Muslims drink to this day. They 
 make no allusion to his alliance with the 
 Egyptian woman, by whom he had twelve 
 sons (Gen. xxv. 12-18), the chiefs of as many 
 nations, and the possessors of separate towns; 
 but as polygamy was common in his age and 
 country, it is not improbable he may have 
 had more wives than one. 
 
 It was. say they, to commemorate the 
 miraculous preservation of Ishmael that God 
 commanded Abraham to build the Ka‘bah, 
 and his son to furnish the necessary 
 materials. 
 
 Muhammadan writers give the following 
 account of Ishmael and his descendants :— 
 Ishmael was constituted the prince and first 
 high-priest of Makkah, and, during half a 
 century he preached to the incredulous Arabs. 
 At his death, which happened forty-eight 
 years after that of Abraham, and in the 137th 
 
 of his ago, he was buried in the tomb of his 
 mother Hagar. Between the erection of the 
 Ka‘bah and the birth of thoir Prophet, the 
 Arabs reckon about 2,740 years. Ishmael 
 was succeeded in the regal and sacerdotal 
 office by his eldest son Nebat, although the 
 pedigree of Muhammad is traced from Kedar, 
 a younger brother. But his family did not 
 long enjoy this double authority ; for, in pro¬ 
 gress of time, the Jurhumites seized the go¬ 
 vernment and the guardianship of the temple, 
 which they maintained about 300 years. 
 These last, again, having corrupted the true 
 worship, were assailed, as a punishment of 
 their crimes, first by the scimitars of the 
 Ishmaelites, who drove them from Makkah, 
 and then by divers maladies, by which 
 the whole race finally perished. Before 
 quitting Makkah, however, they committed 
 every kind of sacrilege and indignity. They 
 filled up the Zamzam well, after having 
 thrown into it the treasures and sacred 
 utensils of the temple, the black stone, the 
 swords and cuirasses of Qala‘ah, the two 
 golden gazelles presented by one of the 
 kings of Arabia, the sacred image of the ram 
 substituted for Isaac, and all the precious 
 movables, forming at once the object and 
 the workmanship of a superstitioirs devo¬ 
 tion. For several centuries the posterity 
 of Ishmael kept possession of the supreme 
 dignity. 
 
 The following is the list of chiefs who 
 are said to have ruled the Hijaz, and to have 
 been the lineal ancestors of Muhammad, as far 
 as ‘Adnan:— 
 
 a.I). 538 ‘Abdu ’llah, the father of Muhammad. 
 
 505 ‘Abdu ’1-Muttalib. 
 
 472 Hashim. 
 
 439 ‘Abd Manaf. 
 
 406 Qusaiy. 
 
 373 Kilab. 
 
 340 Murrah. 
 
 307 Ka - ab. . 
 
 274 Luwaiy. 
 
 241 Ghalib. 
 
 208 Fihr or Quraish. 
 
 175 Malik. 
 
 142 an-Nazr. 
 
 109 Kinanah. 
 
 76 Khuzaimah. 
 
 43 Mudrikah. 
 
 10 al-Ya’s. 
 
 B.c. 23 Muzar. 
 
 56 Nizar. 
 
 89 Ma‘add. 
 
 122 ‘Adnan. 
 
 The period between Ishmael and ‘Adnan is 
 variously estimated, some reckoning forty, 
 others only seven, generations. The authority 
 of Abu’l-Fida, who makes it ten, is that gene¬ 
 rally followed by the Arabs, being founded on 
 a tradition of one of Muhammad’s wives. 
 Making every allowance, however, for patri¬ 
 archal longevity, even forty generations are 
 insufficient to extend over a space of nearly 
 2,500 years. From ‘Adnan to Muhammad 
 the genealogy is considered certain, compre¬ 
 hending twenty-one generations, and nearly 
 
ARABIC 
 
 AL-A C RAF 
 
 ‘20 
 
 160 different tribes, all branching- off from 
 the same parent stem. 
 
 (See Abu '1-Field; Gagnier’s Vie, cle Maho¬ 
 met ; Pocock, Specim. Arab. Hist.; Saiyid 
 Ahmad Khan’s Essays; Sale’s Koran, Prelim. 
 Dis ; Crichton’s Hist. Arabia.') 
 
 ARABIC. Lisdnu- l- 1 Arab ; Lu- 
 
 ghatu ’/-‘Arab. The classical language of 
 Arabia is held to be the language of the 
 Qur’an, and of the Traditions of Muhammad, 
 and by reason of its incomparable excellence 
 is called al-lughah, or •• the language.” 
 (See Qur’an, Surah xvi. 105, •• They say, Surely 
 a person teacheth him \_i.e. Muhammad]. But 
 the tongue of him at whom they hint is 
 foreign, while this [i.e. the Qur’an] is plain 
 Arabic.”) 
 
 This classical language is often termed, by 
 tho Arabians themselves, the language of 
 Ma‘add, and the language of Muzar, and is 
 a compound of many sister dialects, very 
 often differing among themselves, which 
 were spoken throughout the whole of the 
 Peninsula before the religion of Muhammad 
 incited the nation to spread its conquering 
 armies over foreign countries. Before that 
 period, feuds among the tribes, throughout 
 the whole extent of their territory, had pre¬ 
 vented the blending of their dialects into one 
 uniform language; but this effect of disunion 
 was counteracted in a great measure by the 
 institution of the sacred months, in which all 
 acts of hostility were most strictly interdicted, 
 and by the annual pilgrimage, and the yearly 
 fair held at ‘Ukaz, at which the poets of the 
 various tribes contended for the meed of 
 general admiration. 
 
 Qatiidah says that the Quraish tribe used to 
 cull what was most excellent in the dialects 
 of Arabia, so that their dialect became the 
 best of all. This assertion, however, is not 
 altogether correct, for many of the children 
 of the tribe of Quraish, in the time of Muham¬ 
 mad, were sent into the desert to be there 
 nursed, in order to acquire the utmost 
 chasteness of speech. Muhammad himself 
 was sent to be brought up among the tribe of 
 Sa‘d ibn Bakr ibn Hawazin, descendants of 
 Muzar, but not in the line of Quraish ; and he 
 is said to have urged the facts of his being a 
 Quraish, and having also grown up among 
 the tribe of Sa‘d, as the grounds of his 
 claim to be the most chaste in speech of the 
 Arabs. Certain it is that the language of 
 Ma'add was characterised by the highest degree 
 of perfection, copiousness, and uniformity, in 
 the time of Muhammad, although it after¬ 
 wards declined. 
 
 The language of the Qur’an is universally 
 acknowledged to be the most perfect form of 
 Ara'bic speech. At the same time we must 
 not forget that the acknowledged claims of the 
 Qur’an to be the direct utterance of the 
 Divinity have made it impossible for any 
 Muslim to criticise the work, and it has be¬ 
 come the standard by which other literary 
 compositions have to be judged. (See Lane’s 
 Introduction to his Arabic Dictionary, and 
 Palmer’s Qur'an.) 
 
 ARABIC LEXICONS. The first 
 
 Arabic lexicon is that which is generally 
 ascribed to al-Khalil, and entitled Kitdbu'l 
 ’•Ain. The following are the most celebrated 
 Arabic dictionaries composed after the ’Ain. 
 
 The Jamharah, by Ibn Duraid, died a.h. 321. 
 
 The Tahzib, by al-Azhari, died a.h. 370. 
 
 The Muhit, by the Sahib Ibn ‘Abbad, died 
 a.h. 385. 
 
 The Mujmal, by Ibn Faris, died a.ii. 395. 
 
 The Sihah, by al-Jauharf, died a.h. 398. 
 
 The Jdmi ‘, by al-Qazzaz, died a.h. 112. 
 
 The Mii'(d), by Abu Ghfilib, died a.h. 13G. 
 
 The Muhkam , by Ibn SIdah, died a.ii. 158. 
 
 The Asds, by az-Zamakhsharl. died a.ii. 
 538. 
 
 The Maghrib, by al-MutarrizI, died a.ii. ' 
 G10. 
 
 The ‘ Ubdb, by as-Saghanl, died a.h. 600. 
 
 The Lisdnu ’l-'Arab, by Ibn Mukarram, died 
 a.ii. 711. 
 
 The Talizibu 't-Tahzib, by Mahmud at- 
 Tanukhi. died a.h. 723. 
 
 The Misbah, by Ahmad ibn Muhammad 
 al-Faiyuml, compiled a.h. 731. 
 
 The Mughni ’l-Labib, by Ibn Hisham, died 
 a.ii. 761. 
 
 The Qdmus, by al-Fairuzabadi, died a.h. 
 81G. 
 
 The Sihah (says Mr. Lane in his Preface 
 to his Dictionary), is among the books of 
 lexicology like the Sahib of Al-Bukliari 
 amongst the books of traditions; for the point 
 on which turns the title to reliance is not the 
 copiousness of the collection, but the condi¬ 
 tion of genuineness and correctness. 
 
 Two well-known dictionaries, compiled in 
 modern times in Hindustan, are the Ghiyasu 
 Lueyhat, by Maulawi Ghiyasu ’d-dfn of Ram- 
 pur, and the Muntaha ’l-’Arab, by ‘Abdu ’r- 
 Rahfm ibn ‘Abdu T-Karim of Saflpur. These 
 are both Arabic and Persian lexicons. 
 
 The Arabic-Latin dictionary of Jacob 
 Golius, was printed at Leyden, a.h. 1653; 
 that of Freytag at Halle, a.d. 1830-35. 
 
 The Arabic-English and English-Arabic 
 dictionaries extant are— 
 
 Richardson’s Persian-Arabic-English, a.h, 
 1777. 
 
 Richardson’s Englisli-Persian-Arabic, a.h, 
 1810. 
 
 Francis Johnson’s Persian-Arabic-English, 
 a.h. 1852. 
 
 Oatafago’s Arabic-English and English- 
 Arabic, new edition, 1873. 
 
 Lane’s Arabic-English, a.h. 1863 to 1882, 
 imperfect. 
 
 Dr. Badger’s English-Arabic, a.h. 1881. 
 
 Dr. Steingass’s English-Arabic, a.d. 1882. 
 
 al-A‘RAF (1) The 
 
 partition between heaven and hell, described 
 in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 14, “ Betwixt the two 
 (heaven and hell) there is a partition; and on 
 al-A‘raf are men who know all by their marks ; 
 and they shall cry out to the inhabitants of 
 Paradise, ‘ Peace be upon you! ’ (but) they 
 have not (yet) entered it, although they so 
 desire. And when their sight is turned towards 
 the dwellers in the Fire, they say, ‘ O our Lord, 
 
ARAFAH 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 21 
 
 placo us not with the unjust people.’ ” Accord¬ 
 ing to Sale, al-A‘raf id derived from tho verb 
 iarafa, which signifies “ to distinguish between 
 things, or to part them”; though some com¬ 
 mentators give another reason for tho imposi¬ 
 tion of this name, because, say thoy, thoso who 
 stand on this partition will know and distinguish 
 tho blessed from tho damned by their respec¬ 
 tive marks or characteristics : and others say 
 tho word properly intends anything that is 
 elevated, as such a wall of separation must 
 be supposed to be. Some imagine it to 
 be a sort of limbo for tho patriarchs and pro¬ 
 phets, or for tho martyrs and those who havo 
 boon most eminent for sanctity. Others 
 place hero thoso whose good and evil works 
 are so equal that thoy exactly counterpoise 
 each other, and therefore deserve neither 
 reward nor punishment; and those, say thoy, 
 will on tho last day bo admitted int o Paradise, 
 after they shall havo performed an act of 
 adoration, which will be imputed to them as 
 a mei'it, and will make the scale of their good 
 works to preponderate. Others suppose this 
 intermediate space will be a receptacle for 
 those who have gone to war, without their 
 parents’ leave, and therein suffered mar¬ 
 tyrdom ; being excluded from Paradise for 
 their disobedience, and escaping hell because 
 they are martyrs. (2) The title of Surah vii. 
 (3) A term used by Sufi mystics to express 
 a condition of tho mind and soul when medi¬ 
 tating on tho existenco of God in all things. 
 
 ‘ARAFAH (&,*). The vigil of the I 
 ‘Idu '1-Azha, or Feast of Sacrifice, when the 
 pilgrims proceed to Mount ‘Arafat, [‘idu 
 ’l-azha.] 
 
 ‘ARAFAT (cuU^c), or ‘ ArafaJi A 
 
 The “ Mount of Recognition,” situated twelve 
 miles from Makkah; the place where the 
 pilgrims stay on the ninth day of the pil¬ 
 grimage, and recite the mid-day and after¬ 
 noon prayers, and hear the Khutbah or 
 sermon. Hence it is a name given to the 
 ninth day of the month Zu ’1-Hijjali. Upon 
 the origin of the name given to this mountain, 
 Burton says, “ The Holy Hill owes its name 
 to the following legend:—When our first 
 parents forfeited heaven for eating wheat, 
 which deprived them of their primeval purity, 
 they were cast down upon earth. The ser¬ 
 pent descended upon Ispahan, the peacock at 
 Cabul; Satan at Bilbays (others say Semnan 
 or Seistan), Eve upon ‘Arafat, and Adam at 
 Ceylon (Sarandib). The latter, determining 
 to seek his wife, began a journey, to which 
 the earth owes its present mottled appear¬ 
 ance. Wherever our first father placed his 
 foot, which was large, a town afterwards 
 arose ; and between the strides will always 
 be country. Wandering for many years, he 
 came to the Mountain of Mercy, where our 
 common mother was continually calling upon 
 his name, and their recognition of each other 
 gave the place the name of ‘Arafah .” 
 
 ARAZl Lit. “lands”; the 
 
 sale of lands. Tombs are not included in the 
 Sale of lands. A place or station for casting 
 
 the harvest is not considered to bo amongst 
 the rights and advantages of land, and there¬ 
 fore does not enter into tho sale of it. 
 (Baillio’s Law of Sale, pages 54, 55.) 
 [land.] 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. The term Sara- 
 
 cenic is usually applied by English writers to 
 Muhammadan architecture. But though tho 
 stylo may be traced to tho Arabians, thoy 
 cannot themselves be considered the inventors 
 of it. They had, in fact, no distinctive stylo 
 of their own when they made their rapid con¬ 
 quests, but adapted existing styles of archi¬ 
 tecture to meet tho religious and national 
 feelings of the Muslims. 
 
 Muhammad built a mosque at al-Madinah, 
 but it was an exceedingly simple structure, 
 and he left no directions in the Qur’an or in 
 the Traditions on the subject. 
 
 The typical varieties of tho earlier Muham¬ 
 madan architecture are those which appeared 
 in Spain and in Egypt; its later form 
 appeared in Constantinople. The oldest 
 specimen of Saracenic architecture in Spain is 
 the mosque of Cordova, which now serves as 
 the cathedral of the city. It was commenced 
 by tho Khalifah ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman, 786 a.d., 
 
 IN T1IE SANCTUARY OF THE CATHEDRAL OF 
 CORDOVA. 
 
 with the avowed intention that it should bo 
 the finest mosque in the world, and Byzantine 
 architects are said to have been specially 
 invited to superintend its construction. 
 
 The earliest of the Muhammedan buildings 
 in Egypt, of which any portions still remain, is 
 the Mosque of ‘Amr at old Cairo, begun 
 about a.d. 642, but greatly altered or rebuilt 
 about sixty years later. 
 
 On the capture of Constantinople, St. Sophia 
 was converted by the Muslim conquerors into 
 their chief Mosque, and made their architec¬ 
 tural model. The older Saracenic style, as 
 seen at Cordova and old Cairo, continued to 
 be the basis of the new, but it was modified 
 throughout by Byzantine influence. In Persia 
 
22 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 we may clearly trace in Muhammadan build¬ 
 ings the older Persian type, and in India 
 
 the Saracenic architects showed the same 
 pliancy in adopting the styles of the various 
 peoples amongst whom they settled. It thus 
 happens (says Fergusson, in his History of 
 Indian Architecture ), that we have at least 
 twelve or fifteen different styles of Muham¬ 
 madan architecture in Central Asia and in 
 India. 
 
 IN THE TAJ MAHALL, AGRA. 
 
 A striking and distinctive feature in early 
 Muhammadan architecture is the horse-shoe 
 arch, which in time gives way to a cusped or 
 scalloped arch, strictly so termed, the outline 
 being produced by intersecting semi-arches. 
 Another variety of Saracenic arch is the cir¬ 
 cular-headed and stilted form. The pillars are 
 commonly of exceedingly slender proportions. 
 
 almost to apparent insecurity; but owing to 
 the style of the embellishment, this lightness 
 
 j of particular forms tends to heighten the 
 j general luxuriance. Some have imagined that 
 j this element of slenderness in regard to 
 | pillars indicates a tent origin of the style, 
 i This tent-like character has been further kept 
 ] up by concave ceilings and cupolas, embla¬ 
 zoned with painting and gilding. Decorations 
 composed of animal and human figures, being 
 interdicted by Muhammadan law [pictuees“| 
 j are not found in Saracenic architecture : 
 j but their geometrical patterns exhibit sin¬ 
 gular beauty and complexity, inexhaustible 
 variety of combinations, and a wonderful 
 degree of harmonious intricacy, arising out of 
 very simple elements. Lattice or open trellis 
 
 EARLY PATHAN STYLE IN THE QUTB BUILDINGS 
 AT DELHI. 
 
 work is another fertile source of embellish¬ 
 ment, and is similar to the tracery met with 
 in Gothic buildings. Another characteristic 
 of Saracenic style is that of the dome. For 
 the most part domes occur in mosques and 
 tombs, and are of Byzantine origin. Minarets 
 are also a special feature in Muhammadan 
 mosques, and contribute much to the pic¬ 
 turesqueness of these buildings. They arc 
 
ARIYAH 
 
 ASTT AB 
 
 23 
 
 found in mosquos of the later Saracenic style. 
 (See Fergusson’s Indian and Eastern Architec¬ 
 
 ts A HOUSE IN PESHAWAR. 
 
 ture, Mr. Owen Jones’s Alhambra Palace , Her- 
 semer’s Arahische Bauverzierungen.') 
 
 ‘ARlYAH A kind of sale 
 
 permitted in Islam, namely, when a person 
 computes what quantity of fruit there is on a 
 tree and sells it before it is plucked. ( Mish• 
 hat, xii. c. v.) 
 
 ‘ARIYAH (&». (1) A loan for 
 
 the use of anything of which Qarz cannot be 
 made : e.g. the loan of a horse is ‘ Anyah ; 
 the loan of mone}' is Qarz. (2) A gift, of 
 which the following is an example:—A person 
 makes a gift to another of the dates of a 
 palm-tree in his garden; but having after¬ 
 wards some doubt of the propriety of that 
 person coming daily to his garden where 
 his family usually are, and being at the 
 same time unwilling to depart from his 
 promise, or to retract his gift, he gives 
 some of the dates that have already been 
 pulled in lieu of those upon the tree. 
 (Baillie’s Law of Sale, p. 300.) 
 
 ARK, NOAH’S (cy «sUi). It is 
 
 mentioned in the history of the Deluge, as 
 recorded in the Qur’an, in two places—Surah 
 xi. 39, “ Build the ark under our eye and after 
 our revelation,” and Surah xxiii 27. There 
 is also supposed to be an allusion to the ark 
 in Surah xxxvi. 41, “And a sign to them is 
 that we bare their offspring in the laden ship.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says that Noah was two years 
 building the ark, which was 300 cubits long, 
 50 wide, and 30 broad, and which was made 
 of Indian plane-tree; that it consisted of 
 three storeys, the lowest for beasts, the middle 
 for men and women (-who were separated 
 from each other), and the highest for birds. 
 
 The ark is said to have rested on the moun¬ 
 tain al-Judi. [noah.] 
 
 ARK OP THE COVENANT. The 
 
 Hebrew word for “Ark” is J-Qpi (i.e. 
 
 T •• 
 
 a chest, a coffer), Chald. NrnH' i rb 
 
 T •• 
 
 Arabic See Qur’an, Surah 
 
 ! ii. 249, “ The sign of his (Saul’s) kingdom is 
 I that there shall come unto you the ark 
 | ( Tahut ) ; in it shall be security (or the Shechi- 
 
 nah, sakinah, Hob. nrstf) from your 
 
 t * : 
 
 Lord, and the relics of what the family 
 of Moses and the family of Aaron left; the 
 | angels shall bear it.” Jalalu ’d-din says 
 j this ark contained the images of the prophets, 
 and was sent down from heaven to Adam, 
 and at length came to the Israelites, who put 
 I great confidence therein, and continually car¬ 
 ried it in front of their army, till it was taken 
 by the Amalekites. But on this occasion the 
 | angels brought it back in the sight of all the 
 people, and placed it at the feet of Saul 
 (Talut), who was thereupon unanimously 
 received as king. 
 
 ARMS, The Sale of. The sale of 
 
 armour or warlike stores to rebels, or in their 
 camp, is forbidden, because selling aims into 
 the hands of rebels is an assistance to defec¬ 
 tion. But it is not forbidden to sell the mate¬ 
 rials for making aims to such persons. 
 (Hamilton’s Iliddyali, vol. ii. 225.) 
 
 ARSH (y*)!). (1.) A legal term 
 
 for compensation. (2.) Amulet; a fine: par¬ 
 ticularly that which is paid for shedding of 
 blood. (3.) A gift for conciliating the favour 
 of a judge; a bribe. (4.) Whatever a pur¬ 
 chaser receives from a seller after discover¬ 
 ing a fault in the a rtiele bought. 
 
 ‘ARSH (ijVO- The term used in 
 
 the Qur’an for the throne of God. Surah ix. 
 131, “He is the Lord of the mighty throne.’' 
 HusainT, the commentator, says the throne 
 has 8,000 pillars, and the distance between 
 each pillar is 3,000,000 miles. 
 
 ‘ASAJBAH (A~* £ ). A legal term 
 
 for male relatives by the father’s side, 
 agnates. 
 
 ASAP (<—a-A). The wazir or prime 
 minister of Solomon. Alluded to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxvii. 40, as He with whom 
 was knowledge of the scripture.” Muham¬ 
 madan commentators say he was the son of 
 Barkhlya. 
 
 ASAR (y\). Relating; handing 
 
 down by tradition. Generally used for a 
 Hadis related by one of the Companions, as 
 distinguished from one of the Prophet's own. 
 
 al-ASARU ’SH-SHARIF (p\ 
 <-hi.ySA\). The sacred relic. A hair 
 
 of either the beard or mustachios of Muham¬ 
 mad, or a foot-print of the Prophet. One of 
 these sacred relics (a hair of his beard) is 
 exhibited in the great mosque at Delhi, 
 
 I another in a mosque in Cashmere. 
 
 i ASHAB ( V W), pi. of Sahib. 
 
 The Companions or Associates of Muhammad. 
 
 / 
 
24 
 
 ASHABU 
 
 AL-ASH AR1YAH 
 
 The term used for a single companion is 
 sahdbi. Concerning the title of “ Companion,” 
 there is considerable controversy as to the 
 persons to whom it can be applied. Sa‘id 
 ibn al-Musaiyab reckoned none a “ Com¬ 
 panion,” but those who had been a year or 
 more with Muhammad, and had gone on a 
 warlike expedition with him. Some say that 
 everyone who had attained puberty, had em¬ 
 braced Islam, and had seen the Prophet, was 
 a “ Companion,” even though he had attended 
 Muhammad but an hour. Others, however, 
 affirm that none could be a “ Companion ” 
 unless Muhammad chose him and he chose 
 Muhammad, and he adhered to the Prophet 
 at all times. The general opinion is that 
 every one who embraced Islam, saw the Pro¬ 
 phet, and accompanied him, even for a short 
 time, -was a “ Companion.” 
 
 It is related that the Prophet marched to 
 Makkali with 10,000 Muslims, to Hunain with 
 12,000, and that 40,000 accompanied him on 
 the farewell pilgrimage. The number of the 
 “ Companions ” at his death is said to have 
 been 144,000. 
 
 In point of merit, the refugees ( Muhajirun ) 
 are more worthy than the auxiliaries ( Ansar ) ; 
 but by way of precedence, the auxiliaries are 
 more worthy than the later refugees. 
 
 The “ Companions ” have been arranged in 
 thirteen classes, which are given by Abu ’1-Fida 
 as follows:—1. Those who first embraced 
 Islam, such as Khadijah, ‘AH, Zaid, and Abu 
 Bakr, and those who did not delay till he had 
 established his mission. II. The Companions 
 who believed in him after his mission had 
 been fully established, amongst whom was 
 ‘Umar. III. Those who fled to Abyssinia. 
 IY. The first Companions of ‘Aqabah, who 
 preceeded the Auxiliaries. V. The second 
 Companions of ‘Aqabah. YI. The third Com¬ 
 panions of ‘Aqabah, -who were seventy. YII. 
 The refugees who went to the Prophet after 
 his flight, when he was at Quba, before the 
 erection of the temple. VIII. The soldiers of 
 the great battle of Badr. IX. Those who 
 joined Islam between Badr and lludaibiyab. 
 X. Those who took the oath of fealty under 
 the acacia tree at Hudaibiyah. XI. Those who 
 joined after the treaty of Hudaibiyah, but 
 before the conquest. XII. Those that embraced 
 Islam on the day of conquest. XIII. Those 
 who w r ere children in the time of the Pro¬ 
 phet, and had seen him. 
 
 Muhammad frequently commended the 
 “ Companions,” and spoke of their excellences 
 and virtues, a chapter in the Traditions being 
 devoted to this subject. ( Mishkat , xxiv. c. 
 xiii.) He is related to have said, “ My com¬ 
 panions are like stars by which roads are 
 found, for which ever companion you follow 
 you -will find the right road.” 
 
 al-ASH ABU ’L-FIL v W). 
 
 “ The Companions of the Elephant.” A term 
 used in the Chapter of the Elephant, or the 
 cvth Surah :—“ Hast thou not seen how thy 
 Lord dealt with the companions of the elephant ? 
 Did He not eause their stratagem to miscarry ? 
 
 And He sent against them birds in flocks, 
 small stones did they hurl down upon them, 
 and he made them like stubble eaten down ! ” 
 This refers to the army of Abrahah, the 
 Christian king of Abyssinia and Arabia Felix, 
 said to have been lost, in the year of Muham¬ 
 mad’s birth, in an expedition against Makkali 
 for the purpose of destroying the Ka‘bah. This 
 army was cut off by small-pox, and there is no 
 doubt, as the Arabic word for small-pox also 
 means “ small stones,” in reference to the 
 hard gravelly feeling of the pustules, what is 
 the true interpretation of the fourth verse of 
 this Surah, which, like many other poetical 
 passages in the Qur’an, has formed the start¬ 
 ing point for the most puerile and extravagant 
 legends. 
 
 ASHABU ’L-KAHF 
 
 “ The-Companions of the Cave,” i.e. the Seven 
 Sleepers, mentioned in the Suratu ’1-kahf, or 
 Chapter xviii. of the Qur'an. The story, as 
 told by early Christian writers, is given by 
 Gibbon (Rise and Fall, Chapter xxxi.). When 
 the Emperor Decius persecuted the Christians, 
 seven noble youths of Ephesus are said to 
 have concealed themselves in a cave in the 
 side of a mountain, where they were doomed 
 to perish by the tyrant, who gave orders that 
 the entrance should be firmly secured with a 
 pile of huge stones. They immediately fell 
 into a deep slumber, which was miraculously 
 prolonged, without injuring the powers of life, 
 during a period of 187 years. This popular 
 tale, which Muhammad must have heard 
 when he drove his camels to the fairs of 
 Syria, is introduced into the Qur’an as a 
 divine revelation. 
 
 ASHABU ’S - SUFFAH 
 
 “ The sitters on the bench” 
 of the temple at Makkali. They are thus de¬ 
 scribed by Abu ’1-Fida: “ They were poor 
 strangers, without friends or place of abode, 
 who claimed the promises of the Apostle of 
 God and implored his protection. Thus the 
 porch of the temple became their mansion, 
 and thence they obtained their name. When 
 Muhammad went to meals, he used to call 
 some of them to partake with him; and he 
 selected others to eat with his companions.” 
 
 ’ASHARAH MUBASHSHARAH 
 jyi.fi). “ The ten who received 
 glad tidings.” Ten of the most distinguished of 
 Muhammad’s followers, whose certain entrance 
 into Paradise he is said to have foretold. 
 They are Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, Usman, ‘All. 
 Talhah, az-Zubair, ‘ Abdu T-Rahman, Sa‘d-ibn- 
 Abu-Waqqas, Sa‘id ibn Zaid, Abu ‘Ubaidah 
 ibn al-Jarrah. ( Mishkat , book xxiv. c. xx., part 
 ii.) Muhammad declared it presumption for 
 anyone to count upon an entrance into 
 heaven with absolute certainty, but he made 
 an exception in favour of these ten distin¬ 
 guished persons. 
 
 al-ASH‘AR 1YAH (k’jyiA), A sect 
 formed by Abu ’l-Hasan ‘Ali ibn Isma‘11 
 al-Ash‘ari. born a.h. 2G0 (a.ti, 873-4). 
 
AL-ASH c ARIYAH 
 
 ASWAD 
 
 25 
 
 They hold that the attributes of God are 
 distinct from His essence, yet in such a 
 way as to forbid any comparison being 
 made between God and His creatures. They 
 say they are not “ l ain nor ghaij/\" not of His 
 essence, nor distinct from it: i.e. they cannot 
 be compared with any other things. They 
 also hold that God has one eternal will, 
 from which proceed all things, the good 
 and the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The 
 destiny of man was written on the eternal 
 table before the world was created. So far 
 they go with the Sifatis, but in order to 
 jmeserve the moral responsibility of man, they 
 say that he has power to convert will into 
 action. But this power cannot create any¬ 
 thing new, for then God’s sovereignty would 
 be impaired; so they say that God in His pro¬ 
 vidence so orders matters that whenever “ a 
 man desires to do a certain thing, good or 
 bad, the action corresponding to the desire is, 
 there and then, created by God, and, as it 
 were, fitted on to the desire.” Thus it seems 
 as if it came naturally from the will of the 
 man, whereas it does not. This action is 
 called Kasb (acquisition), because it is acquired 
 by a special creative act of God. It is an 
 act directed to the obtaining of profit or the 
 removing of injury: the term is therefore in¬ 
 applicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr al-Bakil- 
 liinl, a disciple of ai-Ash‘ari, says: ‘ The 
 essence or substance of the action is the 
 effect of the power of God, but its being an 
 action of obedience, such as prayer, or an 
 action of disobedience, such as fornication, 
 are qualities of the action, which proceed 
 from the power of man.” The Imam Al- 
 Haramain (a.h. 419-478) held “that the 
 actions of men were effected by the power 
 which God has created in man.” Abu Ishaq 
 al-Isfarayinl says : “ That which maketh im¬ 
 pression, or hath influence on action, is a 
 compound of the power of God and the power 
 of man.” They also believe that the word of 
 God is eternal, though they acknowledge that 
 the vocal sounds used in the Qur’an, which are 
 the manifestation of that word, are created. 
 They say, in short, that the Qur’an contains 
 (I) the eternal word which existed in the 
 essence of God before time was ; and (2) the 
 word which consists of sounds and combina¬ 
 tions of letters. This last they call the created 
 word. 
 
 Thus Al-Ash‘arl traversed the main posi¬ 
 tions of the Mutazilites, denying that man can, 
 by the aid of his reason alone, rise to the 
 knowledge of good and evil. He must exer¬ 
 cise no judgment, but accept all that is re¬ 
 vealed. He has no right to apply the moral 
 laws which affect men to the actions of God. 
 It cannot be asserted by the human reason 
 that the good will be rewarded or the bad 
 punished in a future -world. Man must always 
 approach God as a slave, in whom there is no 
 light or knowledge to judge of the actions of 
 the Supreme. Whether God will accept the 
 penitent sinner or not cannot be asserted, for 
 He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law. 
 (Sale, from Jbn Khaldun ; Die Midtaziliten 
 oder die. Freidenker in Islam, von H. Steiner, 
 
 1865: Zurlleschichte Abu’l-IIasan al-ash'ar'ish, 
 von W. Spitta, 1876 ; De Strijd over het Dogma 
 in den Islam tot op El-ash'ari, door Dr. M. '1'h. 
 Houtsma, Leiden, 1875 ; and Exposd de la 
 Rcforme de I'Islamisme, by M. A. F. Melireu 
 Leiden, 1878.) 
 
 ‘ASHURA Lit. “ the 
 
 tenth.” A voluntary fast day, observed on the 
 tenth of the month of Muharram. It is related 
 that Muhammad observed it, and said it was 
 a day respected by Jews and Christians. 
 ( Mishkat , vii. c. vii. 1.) 
 
 It is the only day of Muharram observed 
 by the Sunni Muslims, being the day on which 
 it is said God created Adam and Eve, heaven 
 and hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, life, 
 and death. It is kept by the Sunnis as a fast. 
 [muharram.] 
 
 ASIYAH The wife of 
 
 Pharaoh. One of the four perfect women 
 (the Virgin Mary, Khadljali, and Fatimali, 
 being the other three). See Mishlcatu 7 -Ma- 
 sdbih, xxiv. c. 22. She is mentioned in the 
 Qur’an (Surah Ixvi. 11): “ And God striketh 
 out a parable for those who believe : the wife 
 of Pharaoh, when she said, ‘ My Lord, build 
 for me a house with Thee in Paradise, and 
 save me from Pharaoh and his works, and 
 save me from the unjust people.” 
 
 ASL Cause, first principle, 
 
 foundation. Asl-wafar 1 , “ cause and effect,” 
 “ fundamental and derivative principle.” 
 
 ASMA’U ’LLAH (*U\ . [god, 
 
 NAMES OF.] 
 
 ‘ASR (j-ac). The afternoon 
 prayer, [prayers.] The title of the ciurd 
 Surah of the Qur'an. 
 
 ASS. According to the Imam 
 
 Abu Hanifah, the ass is an unclean animal, and 
 its flesh and milk are unlawful; nor is zakdt to 
 be given on an ass. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 vol. i. 16, iv. 74, 80.) 
 
 ASSISTANTS, [ansar.] 
 ASTROLOGY. Arabic ‘Ilmu ’n- 
 
 nujurn. Qatadali says, referring to the Qur’an, 
 that God has created stars for three uses ; 
 (1) as an ornament to the heavens (Surah 
 Ixvii. 5) ; (2) to stone the Devil with (Surah 
 Ixvii. 5) ; and (3) to direct travellers through 
 the forests and on the sea (Surali xv. 16). 
 Muhammad condemns those who study the 
 stars for any other purpose ( Mishkat , xxi. 
 c. iii. pt. iii.), and consequently the science of 
 Astrology is not considered lawful in Islam. 
 
 ASWAD An impostor 
 
 who, in the time of Muhammad, claimed 
 the prophetic office. His name was ‘Aihalah 
 ibn Ka - b, and he belonged to the tribe 
 of ‘Aus, of which he was an influential chief. 
 He was surnamed Zu ’l-IIimdr, or “ The 
 Master of the Ass,” * because he used 
 
 * But. another reactin';- is <?«. ’l.Khimdr. or, “He 
 with the veil.” 
 
 4 
 
26 
 
 ATHEIST 
 
 AYATU L-FATFT 
 
 frequently to say, “ Tlie master of the ass 
 is coming unto me,” and pretended to receive 
 his revelations from two angels, named Suhaik 
 and Shuraik. Being a good hand at legerde¬ 
 main, and having a smooth tongue, he gained 
 mightily on the multitude by the strange 
 feats which he shewed them, and the elo¬ 
 quence of his discourse. By these means he 
 greatly increased his power, and having made 
 himself master of Najran and the territory of 
 Ta’if, on the death of Badhiin, the governor 
 of Yaman for Muhammad, he seized that pro- 
 vince also, killing Shahr, the son of Badhan, 
 and taking to wife his widow Azad, whose 
 father he had also slain. The news being 
 brought to Muhammad, he sent to his friends 
 and to the tribe of Hamdan, a party of whom 
 conspiring with Qais ibn ‘Abd Yaghuth, who 
 bore Aswad a grudge, and with Firuz and 
 Aswad’s wife, broke by night into his house, 
 where Firuz surprised him and cut off his 
 head. While dying, it is said that he roared 
 like a bull, at which his guards came to the 
 chamber door, but were sent away by his 
 ■wife, who told them that the prophet was 
 only agitated by the divine inspiration. This 
 was done the very night before Muhammad 
 died. The next morning the conspirators 
 caused the following proclamation to be 
 made. viz. “ I bear witness that Muhammad 
 is the Apostle of God, and that ’Aihala is a 
 liar ”; and letters were immediately sent 
 away to Muhammad, with an account of 
 what had been done; but a messenger from 
 heaven outstripped them, and acquainted the 
 prophet with the news, "which he imparted to 
 his Companions a little before his death, the 
 letters themselves not arriving till Abu Bakr 
 was chosen Khalif. It is said that Muham¬ 
 mad on his occasion told those who attended 
 him that before the Day of Judgment thirty 
 more impostors, besides Musailimah and As¬ 
 wad, should appear. The whole time from 
 the beginning of Aswad’s rebellion to his 
 death was four months. 
 
 ATHEIST, [dahri.] 
 
 ‘ ATI RAH (Sj-xe). The sacrifice 
 
 offered by the idolatrous Arabs in the month 
 of Rajab. It was allowed by the Prophet at 
 the commencement of his mission, but was 
 afterwards abolished. Mishkat, book iv. c. 50, 
 “ Let there be no Fara‘ nor ‘ Atirali.” 
 
 AT-TAHlYAT (^W^). Lit. “the 
 
 greetings.” A part of the stated prayers, 
 recited after the Talcbiru '/-Qu‘ud , after 
 every two raJc‘ahs. It is recited whilst the 
 worshipper kneels upon the ground. His left 
 foot bent under him, he sits upon it, and 
 places his hands upon his knees, and says:— 
 “ The adorations (i.e. at-tahiyatu ) of the 
 tongue are for God, and also of the body and 
 of alms-giving. Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, 
 with the mercy of God and His blessing. 
 Peace be upon us, and upon God’s righteous 
 servants.” ( Mishkat , iv., c. xvi.) [crater.] 
 
 AUGURY, [fa’l.] 
 
 AULlYA («L^), pi. of wait. 
 
 “ Favourites of God.” The expression occurs 
 in the Quran in the following verse, “ Are not 
 the favourites of God those on whom no fear 
 shall come, nor shall they be put to grief ? ” 
 (Surah x. 63). 
 
 AUTAD Lit. “props or 
 
 pillars.” A term used by the Sufis for the 
 four saints, by whom the four corners of the 
 world are said to be supported. 
 
 A‘UZU BILLAH (alhj *f\). An¬ 
 other name for the Ta‘auwuz, or the prayer 
 in the daily liturgy : “ I seek refuge with God 
 from the cursed Satan.” [prayer.] 
 
 AVENGER OF BLOOD. In the 
 
 Muhammadan law, as in the Jewish, the 
 punishment for wilful murder is left to the 
 next of kin; but in the Jewish code 
 the avenger of blood was compelled to take 
 the life of the murderer, whilst in the Muslim 
 code he may accept compensation, vide 
 Qur’an, Surahii. 173, “0 believers! retaliation 
 (Qisas ) for blood-shedding is prescribed to 
 you: the free man for the free, and the slave 
 for the slave, and the woman for the woman ; 
 but he to whom his brother shall make any 
 remission is to be dealt "with equitably ; and 
 a payment should be made to him with 
 liberality. This is a relaxation (i.e. of the 
 stricter lex talionis ) from your Lord, and a 
 mercy.” [qisas.] 
 
 AYAH (<V)). Lit, “a sign, or 
 
 miracle.” The term used for one of the 
 smaller portions of the chapters of the Qur’an, 
 which we call verses. The number of verses 
 is often set down after the title of the chapter, 
 but the verses are not marked in the text as 
 they are in our English Bibles. The number 
 of verses in the Qur’an is variously estimated, 
 but they are generally said to be about six 
 thousand two hundred, [qur'an.] 
 
 al-A‘YANU ’S-SABITAH 
 
 pi. of l ayn , in the sense of 
 “ the essence ” of a thing. The established 
 essences. A term Used by the Sufi nasties 
 to express figures emblematic of the names 
 of God. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of 
 Technical Terms of the Sufis. Sprenger’s 
 edition.) 
 
 AYATU ’L-FATH &J). Lit. 
 
 “ The verse of victory.” The fifty-ninth 
 verse of the Suratu ’1-An‘am (vi.) of the 
 Qur’an. The powers of this verse are said to 
 be so great, that if a person constantly recite 
 it he will obtain his desires. It is generally 
 recited "with this object forty times after each 
 season of prayer. It is as follow's :—“ And with 
 Him are the keys of the secret things ; none 
 knou'eth them but He ; and He knoweth what¬ 
 ever is on the land and in the sea; and no 
 leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neither is there 
 a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a 
 green thing nor a dry thing, but it is noted in 
 a clear book.” 
 
AYATU L-HIFZ 
 
 27 
 
 AYATU’L-HIFZ The 
 
 verses of protection.” Certain verses of 
 the Qur’an which are usually inscribed on 
 amulets. They are :—Surah ii. 256, “ And 
 the preservation of both (heaven and earth) is 
 no burden unto Him.” Surah xii. 64, “ God 
 is the best protector.” Surah xiii. 12, “ They 
 guard him by the command of God.” Surah 
 xv. 17, “ We guard him from every devil 
 driven away by stones.” Surah xxxvii. 7, 
 “ A protection against every rebellious devil.” 
 
 AYATU’L-KURSl &>\). 
 
 “ The verse of the throne.” Verso 256 of 
 the Suratu ’1-Baqarah, or chap. ii. of the 
 Qur’an. It is related {Mishkat, book iv., 
 c. xix., part iii.) that ‘All heard Muham¬ 
 mad say in the pulpit, “ that person who 
 repeats the Ayntu 'l-Kvrsi after every prayer, 
 nothing prevents him ontoring into Paradise 
 but life; and whoever says it when he goes to 
 his bed-chamber, God will keep h.m in safety, 
 together with his house and the house of his 
 neighbour. The verse is as follows :—“ God ! 
 There is no God but He; the Living, the 
 Abiding. Neither slumber seizeth Him, nor 
 sleep. To Him belongeth whatsoever is in 
 heaven and whatsoever is in earth. Who is 
 he that can intercede with Him but by His 
 own permission? He knoweth wliat hath 
 been before them, and what shall be after 
 them ; yet nought of His knowdedge do they 
 comprehend, save what He willeth. His 
 throne reacheth over the heavens and the 
 earth, and the upholding of both burdeneth 
 Him not; and He is the High, the Great.” 
 
 AYATU’L-MAWARLS^l^ &>\). 
 
 “ The verse of inheritances.” The twelfth 
 verse of the Suratu ’n-nisa, or fourth chapter 
 of the Qur’an. It relates to inheritance, and 
 is the foundation of the Muslim law on the 
 subject. It is given in the article on Inhe¬ 
 ritance. [inheritance.] 
 
 AYIMMATU’L-ASMA 
 
 “ The leading names.” The seven principal 
 names or titles of God, namely:— 
 
 Al-IIayy 
 
 Al- l Alim 
 
 A l-Murid 
 
 A/-Qadir 
 
 As-,Sami‘ 
 
 Al-Basir 
 
 Al-Mutakallim 
 
 The Living. 
 The Knowing. 
 The Purposer. 
 The Powerful. 
 The Hearer. 
 The Seer. 
 
 The Speaker. 
 
 ‘AYISHAH (£&*>). 
 
 The daughter 
 
 of Abu Bakr, and the favourite wife of Mu¬ 
 hammad, to whom she was married when 
 only nine years of age. She survived her 
 husband many years, and died at al-Madinah, 
 a.h. 58 (a.d. 678), aged sixty-seven, and 
 obtained the title of Ummu 'l-Mu'minin, “ The 
 Mother of the Believers.” 
 
 AYMAN ph of Yamin. 
 
 [< >ATHS.] 
 
 AYYAMU’L-BIZ “ The 
 
 days of the bright nights,” mentioned in the 
 Mishkat (book vii. c, 7, part 8), as days on 
 
 ‘AZAJBU’l-QABR 
 
 which Muhammad did not eat, whether halt¬ 
 ing or marching. They are the 13th, 14th, 
 and 15th nights of the month. (See Lane’s 
 Diet., p. 284.) 
 
 AYYAMU ’L-QARR (yM <^\). The 
 
 day of rest after the day of sacrifice at the 
 Pilgrimage, [iia.jj.] 
 
 AYYAMU’N-NAHR (^si\ r M). 
 
 The season of sacrifice at the Pilgrimage. 
 [iiajj.] 
 
 AYYAMU’T - TASHRIQ (fV—^ 
 The three days after the 
 feast of sacrifice at Mina during the Pilgrim¬ 
 age. So called because the flesh of the 
 victims is then dried, or because they are not 
 slain until after sun-rise, [hajj, pilgrimage.] 
 
 AYYIM A legal term for 
 
 a woman having no husband, whether she be 
 a virgin or a widow. 
 
 ‘AZABU’L-QABR (^SK vdAn). 
 
 “ The punishment of the grave.” That all 
 persons, whether believers or not, undergo 
 some punishment in their graves, is a funda¬ 
 mental article of the Muslim belief. These 
 punishments are described in the following 
 Hadis on the authority of Abu Hurairah 
 
 “ The Prophet of God said, When a corpse 
 is placed in its grave, two black angels come 
 to it, with blue eyes. The name of the one is 
 Munkar and of the other Nakir, and they inter¬ 
 rogate the dead person concerning the Prophet 
 of God. If he be a Muslim, he will bear 
 witness to the Unity of God and the mission 
 of Muhammad. The angels will then say, 
 ‘ We knew thou wouldst say so ’; and the 
 grave will then expand seventy times seventy 
 yards in length, and seventy times seventy in 
 breadth. A light will then be given for the 
 grave, and it will be said, ‘ Sleep.’ Then the 
 dead person will say, ‘ Shall I return to my 
 brethren and inform them of this ? ’ Then 
 the angels will say, ‘ Sleep like the bride¬ 
 groom, till God shall raise thee up from the 
 grave on the Day of Resurrection.’ But if 
 the corpse be that of an unbeliever, it will 
 be asked, 1 What savest thou about the 
 Prophet ? ’ and he will reply, ‘ I know 
 him not.’ And theri the angels will say, 
 ‘ We knew thou wouldst say so.’ Then the 
 ground will be ordered to close in upon him, 
 and it will break his sides, and turn his right 
 side to his left, and he will suffer perpetual 
 punishment till God raise him therefrom.” 
 In another tradition, recorded by ‘Anas, it is 
 said, “ The wicked will be struck with a 
 rod ( mitraqah ), and they will roar out, and 
 their cries will be heard by all animals that 
 may be near the grave excepting man and the 
 genii.” ( Mishkat , book i., c. x.j. 
 
 All Muhammadan doctors of the orthodox 
 schools (whether we apply the term orthodox 
 to Sunni or Slii'ah) believe in the literal inter¬ 
 pretation of these punishments in the grave, 
 which are said to take place as soon as the 
 funeral party has left the grave-yard. A 
 
28 
 
 AZAL 
 
 AZAN 
 
 perusal of the various traditions on the sub¬ 
 ject must convince any unprejudiced mind 
 that Muhammad intended to teach a literal 
 interpretation of his sayings on this subject. 
 It is related that on one occasion, when the 
 Prophet was riding through a grave-yard, his 
 mule, hearing the groans of the dead, tried to 
 throw his master. On that occasion, Muham¬ 
 mad said, “ If I were not afraid that you 
 would leave off burying, I would ask God to 
 give you the power of hearing what I hear.” 
 Shaikk ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, in his commentary on 
 the Mishlcat, says, “ The accounts which are 
 here given of the punishment of the grave, 
 are undoubtedly true, and they are not either 
 imaginary or figurative.” (Mishkat, book i., 
 chap. v. ; see Persian edition with ‘Abdu ’1- 
 Ha'qq’s commentary.) 
 
 AZAL (Jj\). Eternity with re¬ 
 spect. to the past, as distinguished from abaci 
 (jqj), eternity without end. 
 
 A.ZAN(yUV). Lit. “announcement.” 
 
 The call or summons to public prayers pro¬ 
 claimed by the Mu’azzin (or crier)—in small 
 mosques from the side of the building or at 
 the door, and in large mosques from the 
 minaret. 
 
 It is in Arabic as follows :— 
 
 j4\ MM -yS\ MM MM MM 
 
 MM SI Ml S jaM-aIM S\ Ml S 0 1 
 W 1 ^1 _ MM 1 ^jl Ag£i! — I 
 
 — 1 _ 5 ^ — 
 
 .MM SI Ml S - r <M MM MM | 
 
 Allahu alcbar! Al/dhu akbar! AUahu 
 akbar! AUahu akbar! Ashhadu an la ildha 
 illa'Uah! Ashhadu an la ildha ilia'Hah! Ash¬ 
 hadu anna Muhammadan rasulu-llah ! Ash¬ 
 hadu anna Muhammadan rasulu-llah ! Hayya 
 ‘ala 's-saldti ! Hayya ‘ala 's-safati ! Hayya 
 ‘ala 'l-faldh! Hayya ‘ala 'l-falah! AUahu 
 akbar! AUahu akbar ! La ildha ilia 'lldli! 
 
 Which is translated 
 
 “ God is most great! God is most great! 
 God is most great! God is most great! I 
 testify that there is no god but God ! I tes¬ 
 tify that there is no god but God! I testify' 
 that Muhammad is the Apostle of God ! I 
 testify that Muhammad is the Apostle of God ! 
 Come to prayer ! Come to prayer! Come to 
 salvation ! Come to salvation! God is most 
 great! God is most great! There is no god 
 but God!” 
 
 In the Azan in the early morning, after the 
 words, “ Come to salvation i ” is added sy-n J 
 
 • IfcP* - pyM! y-i- 
 
 As-salatu khairun mina ’h-naumi! As-saldtu 
 khairun mina ’n-naumi! “Prayer is better 
 than sleep ! Prayer is better than sleep ! ” 
 
 The ShTalis make a slight alteration in the 
 Azan, by adding the words, 
 
 (.s'" “ (J^Ml Hayya ‘ala 
 khain 'I-‘amah ! Hayya ‘aid khairi 'l-‘arnali ! 
 
 “ Come to the best of works 1 Come to the 
 
 best of works ! ” and by repeating the last 
 sentence of the Azan, “ There is no god but 
 God,” twice instead of once, as in the Sunni 
 Azan. 
 
 When the Azan is recited, it is usual for 
 men of piety and religious feeling to respond 
 to each call, as, for example, when the 
 Mu’azzin cries :— 
 
 “ Allahu akbar! Allahu akbar ! Allahu 
 akbar ! Allahu akbar ! ” 
 
 Those who hear it repeat:— 
 
 “ Allahu akbar ! Allahu akbar ! Allahu 
 akbar! Allahu akbar! ” 
 
 The Mu’azzin says— 
 
 “ I testify that there is no god but God ; I 
 testify that there is no God but God.” 
 
 They reply— 
 
 “I testify that there is no God but God ; 
 I testify that there is no god but God.” 
 
 Mu’azzin.—“ I testify that Muhammad is 
 the Apostle of God.” 
 
 Reply.—“ I testify that Muhammad is the 
 Apostle of God.” 
 
 Mu’azzin.—“ Come to prayer.” 
 
 Reply.—“ I have no power nor strength but 
 from God the most High and Great.” 
 
 Mu'azzin.—“ Come to salvation.” 
 
 Reply'.—“ What God willeth will be; what 
 He willeth not willeth not be,” 
 
 The recital of the Azan must be listened to 
 with great reverence. If a person be walk¬ 
 ing at the time, he should stand still; if re¬ 
 clining, sit up. Mr. Lane, in his Modern 
 Egyptians, says, “ Most of the Mu’azzins of 
 Cairo have harmonious and sonorous voices, 
 which they strain to the utmost pitch ; yet 
 there is a simple and solemn melody in their 
 chants which is very striking, particularly in 
 the stillness of the night.” But Vambery re¬ 
 marks that “ the Turkistanees most carefully 
 avoid all tune and melody. The manner in 
 which the Azan is cried in the west is here 
 (in Bokhara) declared sinful, and the beautiful 
 melancholy notes which, in the silent hour 
 of a moonlit evening, are heard from the 
 slender minarets on the Bosphorus, fascinat¬ 
 ing every hearer, would be listened to by the 
 Bokhariot with feelings only of detestation.” 
 
 The summons to prayer was at first the 
 simple cry, “ Come to public prayer.” After 
 the Qiblah was changed, Muhammad be¬ 
 thought himself of a. more formal call. Some 
 suggested the Jewish trumpet, others the 
 Christian hell; but neither was grateful to the 
 Prophet’s ear. The Azan, or call to prayer 
 was then established. Tradition claims for 
 it a supernatural origin, thus :—“ While the 
 matter was under discussion, ‘Abdu ’llah, a 
 Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man clad 
 in green raiment, carrying a bell. ‘Abdu ’lltih 
 sought to buy it, saying that it would do well 
 for bringing together the assembly of the 
 faithful. “ I will show thee a better way,” 
 replied the stranger ; “ let a crier cry aloud, 
 
 ‘ God is most great,’ &c.” Waking from 
 sleep, ‘Abdu ’llah proceeded to Muhammad, and 
 told him his dream. (Muir, from Katibu 7- 
 Wakidi.') Hishami recites the story as if 
 ‘Abdu’llah had actually met the man. 
 
 Bingham, in his Antiquities (vol. ii.. hook 
 
AZAB 
 
 viii. chap, vii.), relates that, in the monastery 
 of virgins which Paula, the famous Roman 
 lady, set up and governed at Jerusalem, the 
 signal for prayer was given by one going 
 about and singing “Hallelujah!” for that 
 was their call to church, as St. Jerome 
 informs us. 
 
 The Aziin is proclaimed before the stated 
 times of prayer, either by one of the congre¬ 
 gation, or by the Mu’azzin or crier, who is paid 
 for the purpose. He must stand with his face 
 towards Makkah, with the points of his fore¬ 
 fingers in his ears, and recite the formula 
 which has been given above. 
 
 It must not bo recited by an unclean 
 person, a drunkard, a madman, or a woman. 
 
 AZAR (jjl). Terah, the father 
 of Abraham. Surah, vi. _74, “ And when 
 Abrahim said to his father Azar, Takest thou 
 images as gods ? ” 
 
 “ The Eastern authors unanimously agree 
 that he was a statuary, or carver of idols; 
 and he is represented as the first who made 
 images of clay, pictures only having been 
 in use before, and taught that they were to be 
 adored as gods. However, we are told his 
 employment was a very honourable one, and 
 that he was a great lord, and in high favour 
 with Nimrod, whose son-in-law he was, be¬ 
 cause he made his idols for him, and was 
 
 BACKBITING 29 
 
 excellent in his art. Some of the Rabbins say 
 Terah was a priest and chief of the order.”— 
 (Sale.) 
 
 al-AZARIQAH A sect of 
 
 heretics founded by Nafi‘ ibn al-Azraq, who 
 say that ‘All was an infidel, and that his 
 assassin was right in killing him. (See ash- 
 Shahrastam, ed. Curoton, p. a^, Haarbruecker’s 
 translation, I,, p. 133. 
 
 al-‘AZBA’ The slit-eared; 
 
 one of Muhammad’s favourite camels. 
 
 al-AZHA [‘idu’l-azha.] 
 
 al-‘AZIM One - of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. “ Tho 
 great One.” 
 
 ‘AZlMAH (<L*oy:). An incanta¬ 
 
 tion. [exorcism.] 
 
 al-‘AZIZ One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ 
 quently occurs in the Qur’an. It means “ the 
 powerful, or the mighty One.” 
 
 ‘AZRA’IL The angel of 
 
 Death. Mentioned in the Qur’an under the 
 
 title of Malalcu ’l-Maut, Surah xxxii. 11, “ The 
 angel of death who is charged with you shall 
 cause you to die.” [malauu ’l-mact.] 
 
 B. 
 
 BABEL. Arabic JA> Btibil. Men¬ 
 tioned once in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 96: 
 “ Sorcery did they teach to men, and what 
 had been revealed to the two angels Harut and 
 Marut at Babil.” Babel is regarded by the 
 Muslims as the fountain-head of the science of 
 magic. They suppose Harut and Marfut to be 
 two angels who, in consequence of their want 
 of compassion for the frailties of mankind, 
 were sent down to earth to be tempted. They 
 both sinned, and, being permitted to choose 
 whether they would be punished now or here¬ 
 after, chose the former, and are Still sus¬ 
 pended by the feet at Babel in a rocky pit, 
 and are the great teachers of magic, (Lane’s 
 Thousand and One Nights, ch. iii. note 14.) 
 Vide Tafsir-i-‘Azizi in loco. 
 
 BABB' ’L-ABWAB My SI M). 
 
 Lit. “ The door of doors.” A term used by the 
 Sufis for repentance, (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq'a 
 Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 BABB ’S-SALAM v*W). 
 
 “ The Gate of Peace.” The gateway in the 
 sacred mosque at Makkah through which 
 Muhammad entered when he was elected by 
 the Quraish to decide the question as to 
 which section of the tribe should lift the 
 Black Stone into its place. It was originally 
 
 called the Bab Bam Shaibah, “ the Gate of 
 the Banu Shaibah,” the family of Shaibah ibn 
 ‘Ugman, to ■whom Muhammad gave the key 
 of the Ka‘bah. Burkhardt says that there are 
 now two gateways called by this name. 
 Burton says, “ The Babu’s-Salam resembles in 
 its isolation a triumphal arch, and is built of 
 cut stone.” (Burton’s Pilgrimage, vol. ii. 
 p. 174. See Muir’s Life of Mahomet, pp. 
 28, 29.) 
 
 ^ BABU 'N-NISA, MK ^A>), “ The 
 
 Women’s Gate.” In later years, as Muhammad 
 added to the number of his wives, he provided 
 for each a room or house on the same side of 
 the mosque at al-Madlnah. Prom these he 
 had a private entrance into tne mosque, used 
 only by himself, and the eastern gate still 
 bears in its name, Babu ’n-Nisa’, the memory 
 of the arrangement, (Muir’s Life of Maho¬ 
 met, iii. p. 20.) 
 
 BACKBITING, Anything secretly 
 
 whispered of an absent person which is cal¬ 
 culated to injure him, and which is true, is 
 called Ghibah, a false accusation being ex¬ 
 pressed by Buhtan. Abu Hurairah says, 
 “ The question was pat to the Prophet, ‘Do 
 you know what backbiting is ? ’ and he replied, 
 
 ‘ It is saying anything bad of a Muslim.’ It 
 was then said, ‘But what is it if it is true?’ 
 
30 
 
 BADAWI 
 
 And he said, ‘ If it is true it is Glnbah , and if 
 it is a false accusation, it is Buhtan (i.e. 
 slander).’ ” ( Mishkat ., xxii. c. x.) 
 
 The following are sayings of Muhammad on 
 the subject:—“The best of God’s servants 
 are those who when you meet them speak of 
 God. The worst of God’s servants are those 
 who carry tales about, to do mischief and 
 separate friends, and seek out the defects of 
 good people.” “ He who wears two faces in this 
 world shall have two tongues of fire in the day 
 of the Resurrection.” “ It is unworthy of a 
 believer to injure people’s reputations, or to 
 curse anyone, or to abuse anyone, or to talk 
 vainly.” “The best atonement you can make 
 for backbiting is to say, ‘ 0 God pardon me 
 and him (whom I have injured).'” Mishkat., 
 xxii. c. x. 
 
 BADAWI (^aj). A name given 
 
 to the Bedouin Arabs, or the Arabs of the 
 desert. Bedouin is only a corruption of the 
 plural of this word, which is derived from 
 Badw = Bddijjah, “ a desert.” 
 
 al-BADI‘ is one of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It means 
 “He who originates.” It occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah ii. Ill, “ He is the wonderful originator 
 of the heavens and the earth; when He 
 decreeth a matter, He doth but say to it, 
 ‘ Be,’ and it is.” 
 
 BADS., Tlie battle of. Arabic, 
 Ghazwatu 'l-Badr. The first battle of Badr 
 was fought in the month of Ramazan, a.h. 
 2 (March, a.d. 624), between Muhammad 
 and the Quraish. Many of the principal men 
 of the Quraish were slain, including Abu 
 Jahl, whose head was brought to the Pro¬ 
 phet, and when it was cast at his feet, he 
 exclaimed, “ It is more acceptable to me than 
 the choicest camel of Arabia.” After the 
 battle was over, some of the prisoners were 
 cruelly murdered. Husain says the losses of 
 the Quraish at Badr were seventy killed and 
 seventy prisoners. This victory at Badr con¬ 
 solidated the power of Muhammad, and it is 
 regarded by Muslim historians as one of the 
 most important events of history. An account 
 cf this celebrated battle will be found in the 
 article on Muhammad. 
 
 The second battle of Badr was a bloodless 
 victory, and took place in the month Zu ’1- 
 Qa‘dah, a.h. 4 (April, a.d. 626). 
 
 BAHIE.A 0;*^.)- A Nestorian 
 
 monk whom Muhammad met when he was 
 journeying back from Syria to Makkah, and 
 who is said to have perceived by various 
 signs that he was a prophet. His Christian 
 name is supposed to have been Sergius (or 
 Georgius). 
 
 Sprenger thinks that Bahira remained with 
 Muhammad, and it has been suggested that 
 there is an allusion to this monk in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xvi. 105 : “ We know that 
 they say, ‘ It is only a man who teacheth 
 him.’” Husain the commentator says on this 
 passage that the Prophet was in the habit of 
 
 bal‘ 
 
 going every evening to a Christian to hear 
 the Taurat and Injil. Tafsir-i-Husaini ; 
 Sale, p. 223 ; Muir’s Life of Mahomet, 
 p. 72.) 
 
 BAH IB. AH (1.) Ashe-camel, 
 
 she-goat or ewe, which had given birth to a 
 tenth young one. (2.) A she-camel, the 
 mother of which had brought forth ten 
 females consecutively before her. 
 
 In these and similar cases, the pagan 
 Arabs observed certain religious ceremonies, 
 such as slitting the animal’s ear, &c., all of 
 which are forbidden in the Qur’an: “ God 
 hath not ordained any Bahlrah.” (Surah v. 
 102 .) 
 
 BAI‘ (<**? , pi. buyu‘). A sale ; 
 
 commercial dealing; barter. Bai‘, or “sale,” in 
 the language of the law, signifies an exchange 
 of property for property with the mutual con¬ 
 sent of parties. For the rules concerning 
 sales and barter, see Hamilton’s Hidayali, 
 vol. ii. 360; Baillie’s Muhammadan Law of 
 Sale ; The Fataioa. ‘A/amgiri. 
 
 Sale, in its ordinary acceptation," is a 
 transfer of property in consideration of a 
 price in money. The word has a more com¬ 
 prehensive meaning in the Muhammadan 
 law, and is applied to every exchange of pro¬ 
 perty for property with mutual consent. It, 
 therefore, includes barter as well as sale, and 
 also loan, when the articles lent are intended 
 to be consumed, and replaced to the lender by 
 a similar quantity of the same kind. This 
 transaction, which is truly an exchange of 
 property for property, is termed qarz in the 
 Muhammadan law. 
 
 Between barter and sale there is no essen¬ 
 tial distinction in most systems of law, and 
 the joint subject may in general be consider¬ 
 ably simplified by being treated of solely as a 
 sale. A course has been adopted in the 
 Muhammadan law, which obliges the reader 
 to fix his attention on both sides of the con¬ 
 tract. This may at first appear to him to be 
 an unnecessary complication of the subject, 
 but when he becomes acquainted with the 
 definition of price, and the rules for the pro¬ 
 hibition of excess in the exchange of a large 
 class of commodities, which apply to every 
 form of the contract, he will probably be of 
 opinion that to treat of the subject in any 
 other way would be attended with at least 
 equal difficulties. 
 
 The first point which seems to require his 
 attention is the meaning of the word “ pro¬ 
 perty ” as it occurs in the definition of sale. 
 The original term (mat), which has been thus 
 translated, is defined by Muhammadan 
 lawyers to be “ that which can be taken 
 possession of and secured.” This definition 
 seems to imply that it is tangible or corpo¬ 
 real, and things or substances are accordingly 
 the proper subjects of sale. Mere rights are 
 not mal, and cannot therefore be lawfully sold 
 apart from the corporeal things with which 
 they may happen to be connected. Of such 
 rights one of the most important is the right 
 
BAI 
 
 BA I 
 
 31 
 
 of a creditor to exact payment of a debt, 
 which is not a proper subject of sale. In 
 other words, debts cannot, by the Muham¬ 
 madan law, any more than by the common 
 laws of England and Scotland, be lawfully 
 sold. 
 
 Things are commonly divided into move- 
 able and immoveable, the latter compre¬ 
 hending land and things permanently attached 
 to it. But the distinction is not of much im¬ 
 portance in the Muhammadan law, as the 
 transfer of land is in nowise distinguished 
 from that of other kinds of property. 
 
 A more important division of things is that 
 into misll and kammi. The former are things 
 which, when they happen to perish, are to be 
 replaced by an equal quantity of something 
 similar to them; and the latter are things 
 which, in the same circumstances, are to be 
 replaced by their value. These two classes 
 have been aptly styled “ similars ” and “ dis- 
 similars ” by Mr. Hamilton, in his translation 
 of the Iiidayah. Similars are things which 
 are usually sold or exchanged by weight, or 
 by measurement of capacity, that is, by dry 
 or liquid measure ; and dissimilars are things 
 which are not sold or exchanged in either of 
 these ways. Articles which are nearly alike, 
 and are commonly sold or exchanged by 
 number or tale, are classed with the first 
 division of t lings, and may be termed “ simi¬ 
 lars of tale”; while articles which differ mate¬ 
 rially from each other, yet are still usually 
 sold or exchanged by number, belong to the 
 second division, and may be called “ dissimi¬ 
 lars of tale.” Dirhams and dinars, the only 
 coined money known to the old Arabs, are 
 included among similars of weight. 
 
 Similars of weight and capacity are dis¬ 
 tinguished in the Muhammadan law from all 
 other descriptions of property in a very re¬ 
 markable way. When one article of weight 
 is sold or exchanged for another article of 
 weight, or one of measure is sold or ex¬ 
 changed for another of measure, the delivery 
 of both must be immediate from hand to hand, 
 and any delay of delivery in one of them is 
 unlawful and prohibited. Where, again, the 
 articles exchanged are also of the same kind, 
 as when wheat is sold for wheat, or silver for 
 silver, there must not only be reciprocal and 
 immediate delivery of both before the separa¬ 
 tion of the parties, but also absolute equality 
 of weight or measure, according as the articles 
 are weighable or measurable, and any excess 
 on either side is also unlawful and prohibited. 
 These two prohibitions constitute in brief the 
 doctrine of reba, or “ usury,” which is a marked 
 characteristic of the Muhammadan law of sale. 
 The word reba proporly signifies “ excess,” 
 and there are no terms in the Muhammadan 
 law which corresponds to tho words “ interest ” 
 and “ usury,” in the sense attached to them 
 in the English language; but it was expressly 
 prohibited by Muhammad to his followers to 
 derive any advantage from loans, and that 
 particular kind of advantage which is called 
 by us interest, and consists in the receiving 
 back from the borrower a larger quantity 
 than was actually lent to him, was effectuallv 
 
 prevented by the two rules above-mentioned. 
 These, like some other principles of Muham¬ 
 madan law, are applied with a rigour and 
 minuteness that may to us seem incommen¬ 
 surate with their importance, but are easily 
 accounted for when we know that they are 
 believed to be of divine origin. 
 
 Similars of weight and capacity have a 
 common feature of resemblance, which dis¬ 
 tinguishes them in their own nature from 
 other commodities, and marks with further 
 peculiarity their treatment in the Muham¬ 
 madan law. They are aggregates of minute 
 parts, which are either exactly alike, or so 
 nearly resemble each other, that the differ¬ 
 ence between them maybe safely disregarded. 
 For this reason they are usually dealt with in 
 bulk, regard being had only to the whole of a 
 stipulated quantity, and not to the individual 
 parts of which it is composed. When sold 
 in this manner they are said to be indeter¬ 
 minate. They may, however, be rendered 
 specific in several ways. Actual delivery, or 
 production with distinct reference at the time 
 of contract, seems to be sufficient for that 
 purpose in all cases. But something short 
 of this would suffice for all similars but 
 money. Thus, flour, or any kind of grain, 
 may be rendered specific by being enclosed 
 in a sack; or oil, or any liquid, by being put 
 into casks or jars ; and though the vessels 
 are not actually produced at the time of con¬ 
 tract, their contents may be sufficiently par¬ 
 ticularised by description of the vessels and 
 their locality. Money is not susceptible of 
 being thus particularised, and dirhams and 
 dinars are frequently referred to in the fol¬ 
 lowing pages as things which cannot be ren¬ 
 dered specific by description, or specification, 
 as it is more literally termed. Hence, money 
 is said to be always indeterminate. Other 
 similars, including similars of tale, are some¬ 
 times specific and sometimes indeterminate. 
 Dissimilars, including those of tale, are always 
 specific. 
 
 When similars are sold indeterminately, 
 the purchaser has no right to any specific 
 portion of them until it be separated from a 
 general mass, and marked or identified as 
 the subject of the contract. From the 
 moment of offer till actual delivery, he has 
 nothing to rely upon but the seller’s obliga¬ 
 tion, which may, therefore, be considered the 
 direct subject of the contract. Similars taken 
 indeterminately are accordingly termed dayn, 
 or “ obligations,” in the Muhammadan law. 
 When taken specifically, they are classed 
 with dissimilars, under the general name of 
 l ayn. The literal meaning of this term is 
 “ substance or thing ” ; but when opposed to 
 dayn it means something determinate or spe¬ 
 cific. The subject of traffic may thus be 
 divided into two classes, specific and indeter¬ 
 minate ; or. if we substitute for the latter the 
 word 11 obligation,” and omit the word “ spe¬ 
 cific ” as unnecessary when not opposed to 
 “ indeterminate,” these classes may, according 
 to the view of Muhammadan lawyers, be 
 described as things and obligations. 
 
 There is some degree of pi'csumption in using 
 
32 
 
 BA l‘ 
 
 a word in any other than its ordinary accepta¬ 
 tion; and it is not without hesitation that (Mr. 
 Baillie says) I have ventured to employ the 
 word “ obligation ” to signify indeterminate 
 things. My reasons for doing so are these : first 
 it expresses the exact meaning of the Arabic 
 word dayn, and yet distinguishes this use of 
 it from another sense, in which it is also 
 employed in the Muhammadan law ; second, 
 it preserves consistency in the law. Thus, it 
 will be found hereafter that the effect of sale 
 is said to be to induce a right in the buyer to 
 the thing sold, and in the seller to the price, 
 and that this effect follows the contract im¬ 
 mediately before ieciprocal possession by the 
 contracting parties. Now, it is obvious that 
 this is impossible with regard to things that 
 are indeterminate, if the things themselves are 
 considered the subject of the contract , and cases 
 are mentioned where it is expressly stated that 
 there is no transfer of propertytothe purchaser, 
 when similars of weight of capacity are sold 
 without being distinctly specified, until actual 
 possession take place. The difficulty dis¬ 
 appears if we consider not the thing itself 
 but the obligation to render it to be the sub¬ 
 ject of contract; for a right to the obligation 
 passes immediately to the purchaser, and the 
 seller may be compelled to perform it. If we 
 now revert to the division of things into simi¬ 
 lars and dissimilars, money—which, it has 
 been remarked, is always indeterminate—is 
 therefore an obligation; dissimilars, which 
 are always specific, are never obligations; 
 and other similars, except money, being some¬ 
 times specific and sometimes indeterminate, 
 are at one time obligations, and at another 
 time things or substances. 
 
 Before proceeding farther it is necessary to 
 advert more particularly to the other sense in 
 which the word dayn is frequently employed 
 in the Muhammadan law. It means strictly 
 “ obligation,” as already observed; but the 
 obligation may be either that of the contract¬ 
 ing party himself, or of another. In the 
 former sense deyn is not only a proper sub¬ 
 ject of traffic, but forms the sole subject of 
 one important kind of sale, hereafter to be 
 noticed. But when dayn is used to signify 
 the obligation of another than the contracting 
 party, it is not a proper subject of traffic, 
 and, as already observed, cannot be lawfully 
 sold. In the following pages dayn has been 
 always translated by the word “ debt ” when it 
 signifies the obligation of a third party, and 
 generally by the word “ obligation,” when it sig¬ 
 nifies the engagement of the contracting party 
 himself, though when the things represented by 
 the obligation are more prominently brought 
 forward, it has sometimes been found neces¬ 
 sary to substitute the expression, “ indeter¬ 
 minate things.” 
 
 Though barter and sale for a price, are con¬ 
 founded under one general name in the Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, it is sometimes necessary to 
 consider one of the things exchanged as more 
 strictly the subject of sale, or thing sold, and 
 the otner as the price. In this view the former 
 is termed mabi‘, and the latter Saman. 
 fiaman, or “ price,” is defined to be dayn ft 
 
 BAl‘ 
 
 zimmah, or, literally, an “ obligation in respon¬ 
 sibility.” From which, unless the expression 
 is a mere pleonasm, it would appear that the 
 word dayn is sometimes used abstractly, and 
 in a sense distinct from the idea of liability. 
 That idea, however, is necessaryto constitute 
 price ; for though cloth, when properly de¬ 
 scribed, may, by reason of its divisibility and 
 the similarity of its parts, be sometimes 
 assumed to perform the function of price in a 
 contract of sale, it is only -when it is not im¬ 
 mediately delivered, but is to remain for some 
 time on the responsibility of the contracting 
 party, that it can be adopted for that pur¬ 
 pose. 
 
 It is a general principle of the Muham¬ 
 madan law of sale, founded on a declaration 
 of the Prophet, that credit cannot be opposed 
 to credit, that is, that both the things ex¬ 
 changed cannot be allowed to remain on the 
 responsibility of the parties. Hence, it is 
 only with regard to one of them that any 
 stipulation for delay in its delivery is lawful. 
 Price, from its definition above given, admits 
 of being left on responsibility, and accord¬ 
 ingly a stipulation for delay in the payment 
 of the price is quite lawful and valid. It 
 follows that a stipulation for delay in the 
 delivery of the things sold cannot be lawful. 
 And this is the case, with the exception 
 of one particular kind of sale, hereafter 
 to be noticed, in which the thing sold is 
 always indeterminate, and the price is paid 
 in advance. It may, therefore, be said of all 
 specific things when the subject of sale, that 
 a stipulation for delay in their delivery is 
 illegal, and would invalidate a sale. The 
 object of this rule may have been to prevent 
 any change of the thing sold before delivery, 
 and the disputes -which might in consequence 
 arise between the parties. But if they were 
 allowed to select whichever they pleased of 
 the articles exchanged to stand for the price, 
 and the other for the thing sold, without any 
 regard to their qualities, the object of the 
 last-mentioned rule, whatever it may have 
 been, might be defeated. This seems to have 
 led to another arrangement of things into 
 different classes, according to their capacities 
 for supporting the functions of price or of 
 the thing sold in a contract of sale. The first 
 class comprehends dirhams and dinars, which 
 are always price. The second class comprises 
 the whole division of dissimilars (with tho 
 single exception of cloth), which are always 
 the thing sold, or subject of sale, in a con¬ 
 tract. The third class comprises, first, all 
 similars of capacity; second, all similars of 
 weight, except dirhams and dinars ; and, 
 third, all similars of tale. The -whole of this 
 class is capable of supporting both functions, 
 and is sometimes the thing sold, and some¬ 
 times the price. The fourth class comprises 
 cloth, and the copper coin called fu/us. 
 
 Sale implies a reciprocal vesting of the 
 price in the seller and of the thing sold in 
 the purchaser. This, as already remarked, is 
 called its legal effect, and sale may be divided 
 into different stages or degrees of complete¬ 
 ness, according as this effect is immediate, 
 
BAI 
 
 BAI 
 
 33 
 
 suspended, invalid, or obligatory. Thus, sale 
 must first of all be duly constituted or con¬ 
 tracted. After that, there may still be some 
 bar to its operation, which occasions a sus¬ 
 pension of its effect. This generally arises 
 from a defect of power in the seller, who may 
 not be fully competent to act for himself, or 
 may have insufficient authority, or no autho¬ 
 rity whatever, over the subject of sale. In 
 this class of sales the effect is dependent on 
 the assent or ratification of some other person 
 than the party actually contracting. But 
 whether the effect of a sale be immediate or 
 suspended, there may be some taint of ille¬ 
 gality in the mode of constituting it, or in its 
 subject, or there may be other circumstances 
 connected with it, which render it invalid. 
 The causes of illegality are many and 
 various. But even though a sale should be 
 unimpeachable on the previous grounds, that 
 is, though it should be duly constituted, 
 operative or immediate in its effect, and free 
 from any ground of illegality, still it may 
 not be absolutely binding on the parties. 
 This brings us to another remarkable pecu¬ 
 liarity of the Muhammadan law, viz. the 
 doctrine of option, or right of cancellation. 
 The Prophet himself recommended one of his 
 followers to reserve a locus penitentice, or 
 option, for three days in all his purchases. 
 This has led to the option by stipulation, 
 which may be reserved by either of the 
 parties. But besides this, the purchaser has 
 an option without any stipulation, with 
 regard to things which he has purchased 
 without seeing, and also on account of defects 
 in the thing sold. The greatest of all defects 
 is a want of title or right in the seller. The 
 two last options to the purchase constitute 
 a complete warranty of title and against all 
 defects on the part of the seller, in which 
 respect the Muhammadan more nearly re¬ 
 sembles the Scotch than the English law of 
 sale. 
 
 There are many different kinds of sale. 
 Twenty or more have been enumerated in the 
 Nihayah, of which eight are mentioned and 
 explained. Four of these, which have refer¬ 
 ence to the thing sold, may require some 
 notice in this place. The first, called Mu¬ 
 qayazah, is described as a sale of things for 
 things, and corresponds nearly with barter ; 
 but the word “ thing ” Qayn ) is here opposed 
 to obligations, and muqayazah is therefore 
 properly an exchange of specific for specific 
 things. So that if the goods exchanged were 
 on both sides or on either side indeterminate, 
 the transaction would not, I think, be a 
 muqayazah, though still barter. The second 
 sale is called sarf, and is defined to be an 
 exchange of obligations for obligations. The 
 usual objects of this contract are dirhams and 
 dinars, which being obligations, the defini¬ 
 tion is generally correct. But an exchange of 
 money for bullion, or bullion for bullion, is also 
 a sarf, and every sale of an obligation for an 
 obligation is not a sarj, so that the definition 
 is redundant as well as defective. It is essen¬ 
 tial to the legality of this kind of sale, that 
 both the thiugs exchanged should be delivered 
 
 and taken possession of before the separation 
 of the parties, and that when they are of the 
 same kind, as silver for silver, or gold for 
 gold, they should also be exactly equal by 
 weight. These rules are necessary for the 
 avoidance of reha, or .“usury,” as already ex¬ 
 plained ; and the whole of ?arf, which is 
 treated of at a length quite disproportionate 
 to its importance, may be considered as a 
 continued illustration of the doctrine of reha. 
 The third kind of sale is salam. It has been 
 already observed that there can be no lawful 
 stipulation for a postponement of the delivery 
 of the thing sold, except under one particular 
 form of sale. The form alluded to is salam. 
 This word means, literally, “ an advance ” ; 
 and in a salam sale the price is immediately 
 advanced for the goods to be delivered at a 
 future fixed time. It is only things of the 
 class of similars that can be sold in this way, 
 and as they must necessarily be indetermi¬ 
 nate, the proper subject of sale is an obliga¬ 
 tion , while, on the other hand, as the price 
 must be actually paid or delivered at the 
 time of the contract, before the separation of 
 the parties, and must, therefore, even in the 
 case of its being money, be produced, and in 
 consequence be particularised or specific, a 
 salam sale is strictly and properly the sale of 
 an obligation for a thing, as defined above. 
 Until actual payment or delivery of the price, 
 however, it retains its character of an obliga¬ 
 tion, and for this reason the price and the 
 goods are both termed “ debts,” and are 
 adduced in the same chapter as examples of 
 the principle that the sale of a debt, that is, 
 of the money or goods which a person is 
 under engagement to pay or deliver, before 
 possession, is invalid. The last of the sales 
 referred to is the ordinary exchange of goods 
 for money, which being an obligation, the 
 transaction is defined to be the sale of things 
 for obligations. 
 
 There is another transaction which comes 
 within the definition of sale, and has been 
 already noticed, but may be further adverted 
 to in this place. It is that which is called 
 Qarz in the Arabic, and “ loan ” in the English 
 language. The borrower acquires an abso¬ 
 lute right of property in the things lent, and 
 comes under an engagement to return an 
 equal quantity of things of the same kind. 
 The transaction is therefore necessarily 
 limited to similars, whether of weight, capa¬ 
 city, or tale, and the things lent and repaid 
 being of the same kind, the two rules already 
 mentioned for the prevention of reba, or 
 “ usury,” must be strictly observed. Hence 
 it follows that any stipulation on the part of 
 the borrower for delay or forbearance by the 
 lender, or any stipulation by the lender for 
 interest to be paid by the borrower are alike 
 unlawful. 
 
 Notwithstanding the stringency of the rules 
 for preventing usury, or the taking any inter¬ 
 est on the loan of money, methods were found 
 for evading them and still keeping within the 
 letter of the law. It had always been con¬ 
 sidered lawful to take a pledge to secure the 
 repayment of a debt. Pledges were ordi- 
 
 5 
 
34 
 
 AL-BA‘IS 
 
 BAI C 
 
 narily of movable property ; when given as 
 security for a debt, and the pledge happened 
 to perish in the hands of the pawnee, the debt 
 was held to be released to the extent of the 
 value of the pledge. Land, though scarcely 
 liable to this incident, was sometimes made 
 the subject of pledge, and devices were 
 adopted for enabling the lender to derive 
 some advantage from its possession while in 
 in the state of pledge. But the moderate 
 advantage to be derived in this way does not 
 seem to have contented the money-lenders, 
 who in all ages and countries have been of a 
 grasping disposition, and the expedient of a 
 sale with a condition for redemption was 
 adopted, which very closely resembles an 
 English mortgage. In the latter, the condi¬ 
 tion is usually expressed in one of two ways, 
 viz. either that the sale shall become void, 
 or that the lender shall resell to the seller, on 
 payment of principal and interest at an 
 assigned term. The first of these forms 
 would be inconsistent with the nature of sale 
 under the Muhammadan law, but a sale with 
 a covenant by the lender to reconvey to the 
 seller on repayment of the loan seems to 
 have been in use probably long before the 
 form was adopted in Europe. It is probable 
 that a term was fixed within which the re¬ 
 payment should be made. If repayment 
 were made at the assigned term, the lender 
 was obliged to reconvey ; but if not, the pro¬ 
 perty would remain his own, and the differ¬ 
 ence between its value and the price or sum 
 lent might have been made an ample compen¬ 
 sation for the loss of interest. This form of 
 sale, which was called Bai‘u ' l-wafa , seems to 
 have been strictly legal according to the most 
 approved authorities, though held to be what 
 the law calls abominable, as a device for 
 obtaining what it prohibits. 
 
 In constituting sale there is no material 
 difference between the Muhummadan and 
 other systems of law. The offer and accept¬ 
 ance, which are expressed or implied in all 
 cases, must be so connected as to obviate any 
 doubt of the one being intended to apply to 
 the other. For this purpose the Muham¬ 
 madan law requires that both shall be inter¬ 
 changed at the same meeting of the parties, 
 and that no other business shall be suffered 
 to intervene between an offer and its accept¬ 
 ance. A very slight interruption is sufficient 
 to break the continuity of a negotiation, and 
 to terminate the meeting in a technical sense, 
 though the parties should still remain in per¬ 
 sonal communication. An acceptance after 
 the interruption of an offer made before it 
 would be insufficient to constitute a sale. 
 This has led to distinctions of the meeting 
 which may appear unnecessarily minute to a 
 reader unacquainted with the manners of 
 Eastern countries, where the people areloften 
 very dilatory in their bargains, interspersing 
 them with conversation on indifferent topics. 
 It is only when a meeting has reference to the 
 act of contracting that its meaning is thus 
 liable to be restricted; for when the word 
 occurs in other parts of the law, as, for 
 instance, when it is said of a sarf contract 
 
 that the things exchanged must be taken pos¬ 
 session of at the meeting, the whole period 
 that the parties may remain together is to be 
 understood. As personal communication may 
 be inconvenient in some cases, and impossible 
 in others, the integrity of the meeting is held 
 to be sufficiently preserved when a party who 
 receives an offer by message or letter declares 
 his acceptance of it on receiving the commu¬ 
 nication and apprehending its contents. 
 
 When a sale is lawfully contracted, the 
 property in the things exchanged passes im¬ 
 mediately from and to the parties respec¬ 
 tively. In a legal sale, delivery and possession 
 are not necessary for this purpose. Until 
 possession is taken, however, the purchaser is 
 not liable for accidental loss, and the seller 
 has a lien for the price on the thing sold. 
 Delivery by one party is in general tanta¬ 
 mount to possession taken by the other. It 
 is, therefore, sometimes of great importance 
 to ascertain when there is a sufficient deli¬ 
 very ; and many cases, real or imaginary, on 
 the subject, are inserted in the Fat.awa 
 ‘Alamglrl. It sometimes happens that a 
 person purchases a thing of which he is 
 already in possession, and it then becomes 
 important to determine in what cases his 
 previous possession is convertible into a pos¬ 
 session under the purchase. Unless so con¬ 
 verted, it ymild be held that there is no 
 delivery under the sale, and the seller would 
 of course retain his lien and remain liable for 
 accidental loss. 
 
 Though possession is not necessary to com¬ 
 plete the transfer of property under a legal 
 sale, the case is different where the contract 
 is illegal; for here property does not pass till 
 possession is taken. The sale, however, 
 though so far effectual, is still invalid, and 
 liable to be set aside by a judge, at the 
 instance of either of the parties, without any 
 reference to the fact of the person complain¬ 
 ing being able to come before him with what 
 in legal phraseology is termed clean hands. 
 A Muhammadan judge is obliged by his law 
 to interfere for the sake of the law itself, or, 
 as it is more solemnly termed, for the right 
 of God, which it is the duty of the judge to 
 vindicate, though by so doing he may afford 
 assistance to a party who personally may 
 have no just claim to his interference. ( The 
 Muhammadan Law of Sale, according to the 
 Haneefee Code, from the Fatawa Alamgiri, by 
 Neil B. E. Baillie. Smith, Elder & Co., 
 London.) 
 
 BAIL. Arabic Icafdlah. Bail 
 
 is of two descriptions : Kafdlah bi-’n-nafs , or 
 “ security for the person Kafdlah bi-l-mdl , or 
 “ security for property.” In the English courts 
 in India, bail for the person is termed 
 Hazir-zamdni, and bail for property Zamanah, 
 or “ security.” Bail for the person is lawful 
 except in cases of punishment ( Hudud) and 
 retaliation ( Qisas ). (Hidayah, voi. ii. p. 576.) 
 
 al-BA‘IS (<iucL5\). One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God, It means 
 
BAITD ’L-HAMD 
 
 BANUN 
 
 35 
 
 “Ho who awakes”; “The Awakoner” (in 
 the Day of Resurrection). 
 
 BAITTJ ’L-HAMD «**»). 
 
 “ The House of Praise.” An expression which 
 occurs in the Traditions ( Mishkat v. 7). 
 When the soul of a child is taken, God says, 
 “ Build a house for my servant in Paradise 
 and call it a house of praise." 
 
 BA ITU ’L-HARAM ( r ^J\ o*). 
 
 “ The Sacred House.” A name given to the 
 Meccan mosque, [masjidu ’l-hakam.] 
 
 BAITU ’L-HIKMAH c^o). 
 
 Lit. “ The House of Wisdom.” A term used 
 by Sufis for the heart of the sincere seekers 
 after God. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of 
 Sufi Terms.) 
 
 BAITU ’L-LAH (dN «**»). “The 
 
 House of God.” A name given to the Meccan 
 mosque, [masjidu ’l-hakam.] 
 
 BAITU ’L-MAL (JUJ1 Lit. 
 
 “ The House of Property." The public trea¬ 
 sury of a Muslim state, which the ruler is not 
 allowed to use for his personal expenses, but 
 only for the public good. 
 
 The sources of income are : (1) Zakat , or 
 the legal tax raised upon land, personal pro¬ 
 perty, and merchandise, which, after deduct¬ 
 ing the expense of collecting, should be ex¬ 
 pended in the support of the poor and destitute. 
 (2) The fifth of all spoils and booty taken 
 in war. (3) The produce of mines and of 
 treasure-trove. (4) Property for which there 
 is no owner. (5) The Jizyah, or tax levied 
 on unbelievers. ( Hidayah , Arabic ed., vol. i. 
 p. 452.) 
 
 al-BAITU ’L-MA‘MUR (c^j \ 
 Lit. “ The Inhabited House.” 
 
 A house in the seventh heaven, visited by 
 Muhammad during the Mi-raj or night- 
 journey. It is said to be immediately over 
 the sacred temple at Makkah. [mi-raj.] 
 
 BAITU’L-MIDRAS (^^M 
 
 “The House of Instruction.” A term (used in 
 a tradition given by Abu Hurairah) for a 
 Jewish school. ( 'Mishkat , xvii. c. xi.) In 
 
 Heb.tthTan run 
 
 t : • — •• 
 
 al-BAITU ’L-MUQADDAS 
 y^AaJ)). “ The Holy House.” A 
 
 name given to the temple at Jerusalem. 
 [al-masjidu ’l-aqsa.] 
 
 BAITU ’L-QUDS (y-xaN c^o). 
 
 Lit. “ The House of Holiness.” A term used 
 by the Sufis for the heart of the true seeker 
 after God when it is absorbed in meditation. 
 (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 BAI‘U ’L-WAFA £*>). The 
 
 word wafa means the performance of a pro¬ 
 mise, and the Bai‘u ’l- Waja is a sale with a 
 promise to be performed. It is, in fact, a 
 pledge in the hands of the pawnee, who is 
 not its propritor, nor is he free to make use 
 of it without the permission of the owner. 
 
 There are different opinions about the legality 
 of this form of sale, but it is now the common 
 form of mortgage in use in India, where it is 
 usually styled Bai‘ bi-l-wafd. (See Baillie’s 
 Muhammadan Law oj Sale, p. 303.) 
 
 al-BAIYINAH Lit, “ The 
 
 Evidence.” A title given to the xcvxnth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in which the word 
 occurs. 
 
 BA‘L (J*}), Heb. l - e - “ Lord.” 
 
 The chief deity worshipped by the Syro- 
 Phcenician nations. It is known to the 
 Muhammadans as an idol worshipped in the 
 days of the Prophet Elisha. (See Ghiyasu 7- 
 Luyhah.) 
 
 BALAAM. There is said to be an 
 
 allusion to Balaam in the Qur’an, Surah vii. 
 174, “ Recite to them the story of him to 
 whom we gave our signs, and he departed 
 therefrom, and Satan followed him, and he 
 was of those who were beguiled.” 
 
 The commentary of the Jalalain says that 
 he was a learned man amongst the Israelites, 
 who was requested by the Canaanites to 
 curse Moses at the time when he was about to 
 attack the Jabbdrun or “ giants,” a tribe of the 
 Canaanites. Balaam at first refused to do so 
 but at last yielded, when valuable presents 
 were made to him. (See Tafsiru ’l-Jalalain, 
 p. 142.) 
 
 BALAD (^i;). Lit. Any country, 
 
 district, or town, regarded as an habitation. 
 Al-Balad, the sacred territory of Makkah. A 
 title given to the xcth Surah, in which the 
 word occurs. 
 
 BALIG-H “Of years of legal 
 
 maturity; adult.” [puberty.] 
 
 BANISHMENT. Arabic 
 
 Taghrib. Expatriation for fornication is 
 enjoined by Muhammadan law, according to 
 the Imam asli-Shafi‘1, although it is not allowed 
 by the other doctors of the law, and it is also 
 a punishment inflicted upon highway robbers. 
 
 BANKRUPT. There is no pro¬ 
 vision in the Muhammadan law for declaring 
 a person bankrupt, and so placing him beyond 
 the reach of his creditors ; but the Qazi can 
 declare a debtor insolvent, and free him from 
 the obligation of zakat and almsgiving. 
 
 BANUISRA’lL (^>\ r \ y*). “The 
 
 Children of Israel.” A title of the xvnth 
 Surah or chapter of the Qur’an, called also 
 Suratu ’1-Mi‘raj. 
 
 BANUN (afi)- The plural of ibn 
 (Heb. “ Sons > posterity ; 
 
 tribe.” The word is more familiar to English 
 readers in its inflected form Bani. The tribes 
 whose names occur frequently in the early 
 history of Islam, and are mentioned in the 
 Traditions, are the Banu-Quraish, Banu ’n- 
 Najjar, Band - Quraizah, Banu - Kinanah 
 Banu ’n-Nazr, Banu- Khuzd-gh. Banu-Bakr 
 
36 
 
 BAPTISM 
 
 BARNABAS 
 
 Banu-‘Amir, Banu - Asad, Banu - Fazarah, 
 Banu-Lihyan, Banu-Tamim, Banu-Umaiyah, 
 Banu-Zahrah, and Banu-Isra’il. 
 
 BAPTISM. The only allusion to 
 
 baptism in the Qur’an is found in Surah ii. 
 132: “ (We have) the baptism of God, and, who 
 is better to baptise than God ? ” The word 
 here translated baptism is sibghah, lit. 
 “ dye,” which, the commentators al-Jalalain 
 and al-Baizawi say, may, by comparison, refer 
 to Christian baptism, “ for,” says al-Baizawi, 
 “the Nasara (Christians) were in the habit of 
 dipping their offspring in a yellow water which 
 they called al-Ma'mudtyah and said it purified 
 them and confirmed them as Christians.” (See 
 Tafsiru ’ l-Jalalain and Tafsiru ’l-Baizdwi, in 
 loco.) 
 
 al-BAQI One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It means 
 “ He who remains ; ” “ The Everlasting One.” 
 
 al-BAQAEAH (4/451). “The Cow.” 
 
 The title of the second Surah of the Qur’an, 
 occasioned by the story of the red heifer 
 mentioned in verse 63, “ When Moses said to 
 his people, God commandeth you to sacrifice 
 a cow.” 
 
 BAQTU ’L-GHARQAD e /»)> 
 or for shortness al-Baqi (g/ 4 H). The 
 burying-ground at al-Madinah,which Muham¬ 
 mad used to frequent at night to pray for for¬ 
 giveness for the dead. ( Mishkat , iv. c. 28.) 
 
 BARA’AH (4»1/). “ Immunity, or 
 
 security.” A title given to the ixth Chapter 
 of the Qur’an, called also Suratu ’ t-Taubcih , 
 “ The Chapter of Repentance.” It is remark¬ 
 able as being the only Surah without the 
 introductory form, “ In the name of God, the 
 Merciful, the Compassionate.” Various reasons 
 are assigned for this omission. Some com¬ 
 mentators say that the prayer of mercy is not 
 placed at the head of a chapter which speaks 
 chiefly of God’s wrath. 
 
 BARA H-I-WA FAT (^ 4 ; b). 
 
 Barah (Urdu) “ twelve,” and Wcifat. The 
 twelfth day of the month Rabbu ’1-Awwal, 
 observed in commemoration of Muhammad’s 
 death. 
 
 It seems to be a day instituted by the Mu¬ 
 hammadans of India, and is not observed 
 universally amongst the Muslims of all coun¬ 
 tries. On this day Fatihahs are recited for 
 Muhammad’s soul, and both in private houses 
 and mosques portions of the Traditions and 
 other works in praise of the Prophet’s excel¬ 
 lences are read. 
 
 The Wahhabis do not observe this day, as 
 it is believed to be an innovation, not having 
 been kept by the early Muslims. 
 
 al-BARA IBN ‘AZIB (e/ »\jJ\ 
 One of the Companions who 
 accompanied Muhammad at the battle of the 
 Ditch, and in most of his subsequent engage* 
 ments. He assisted in conquering the district 
 
 of Rai, a.h. 22, and was with the Kh alifab 
 ‘All at the battle of the Camel, a.h. 36. 
 
 al-BARI’ “The Maker.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine special names of God. 
 It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah lix. 24 : “ He is 
 God the Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner. 
 His are the excellent names.” 
 
 BARIQAH (iijh). Lit. “Refulgence, 
 
 lightning.” A term used by the Sufis for that 
 enlightenment of the soul, which at first comes 
 to the true Muslim as an earnest of greater 
 enlightenment. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary 
 of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 BARNABAS, the Gospel of. The 
 
 Muhammadans assert that a gospel of Bar¬ 
 nabas existed in Arabic, and it is believed by 
 some that Muhammad obtained his account 
 of Christianity from this spurious gospel. 
 
 “ Of this gospel the Moriscoes in Africa 
 have a translation in Spanish, and there is in 
 the library of Prince Eugene of Savoy a 
 manuscript of some antiquity, containing an 
 Italian translation of the same gospel, made, 
 it is supposed, for the use of renegades. This 
 book appears to be no original forgery of the 
 Muhammadans, though they have no doubt 
 interpolated and altered it since, the better to 
 serve their purpose; and in particular, 
 instead of the Paraclete or Comforter (St. 
 John xiv. 16, 26 ; xv. 26 ; xvi. 7), they have 
 in this apocryphal gospel inserted the word 
 Periclyte, that is, “ the famous or illustrious,” 
 by which they pretend their prophet was 
 foretold by name, that being the signification 
 of Muhammad in Arabic ; and this they say 
 to justify that passage in the Qur’an (Surah 
 61) where Jesus is formally asserted to have 
 foretold his coming, under his other name of 
 Ahmad, which is derived from the same root 
 as Muhammad, and of the same import. 
 From these or some other forgeries of the 
 same stamp, it is that Muhammadans quote 
 several passages of which there are not the 
 least footsteps in the New Testament.” 
 (Sale.) 
 
 After Mr. Sale had written the extract 
 which we have quoted, he inspected a Spanish 
 translation of the Italian copy of this apocry¬ 
 phal gospel, of which he gives the following 
 account: — 
 
 “ The book is a moderate quarto, in Spanish, 
 written in a very legible hand, but a little 
 damaged towards the latter end. It contains 
 two hundred and twenty-two chapters of un¬ 
 equal length, and four hundred and twenty 
 pages ; and is said, in the front, to be trans¬ 
 lated from the Italian by an Aragonian 
 Moslem named Mostafa de Aranda. There is 
 a preface prefixed to it, wcherein the discoverer 
 of the original MS., who was a Christian 
 monk called Fra Marino, tells us that, having 
 accidentally met with a writing of Irenseus 
 (among others), wherein he speaks against 
 St. Paul, alleging for his authority the gospel 
 of St. Barnabas, he became exceedingly desi-> 
 rous to find this gospel; and that God, of his 
 mercy, having made him very intimate with 
 Pope Sixtus V., one day, as they were toge- 
 
BARNABAS 
 
 BARNABAS 
 
 37 
 
 ther in that Pope’s library, his Holiness fell 
 asleep, and he, to employ himself, reaching 
 down a book to read, the first he laid his 
 hand on proved to be the very gospel he 
 wanted; overjoyed at the discovery, he 
 scrupled not to hide his prize in his sleeve, 
 and on the Pope’s awaking, took leave of him, 
 carrying with him that celestial treasure, by 
 reading of which he became a convert to 
 Muhammadanism. 
 
 “ This Gospel of Barnabas contains a com¬ 
 plete history of Jesus Christ, from His birth 
 to His ascension, and most of the circum¬ 
 stances of the four real gospels are to be 
 found therein, but many of them turned, and 
 some artfully enough, to favour the Muham¬ 
 madan system. From the design of the 
 whole, and the frequent interpolations of 
 stories and passages, wherein Muhammad is 
 spoken of and foretold by name, as tho mes¬ 
 senger of God, and the great prophet who 
 was to perfect the dispensation of Jesus, it 
 appears to be a most bare-faced forgery. One 
 particular I observe therein induces me to 
 believe it to have been dressed up by a rene¬ 
 gade Christian, slightly instructed in his new 
 religion, and not educated as a Muhammadan 
 (unless the fault be imputed to the Spanish, 
 or, perhaps, the Italian translator, and to the 
 original compiler). I mean the giving to 
 Muhammad the title of Messiah, and that not 
 once or twice only, but in several places; 
 whereas, the title of Messiah, or, as the Arabs 
 write it, al-Masih, i.e. Christ, is appropriated 
 to Jesus in the Qur’an, and is constantly 
 applied by the Muhammadans to him, and 
 never to their own Prophet. The passages 
 produced from the Italian MS. by M. de la 
 Monnoye are to be seen in this Spanish ver¬ 
 sion almost word for word.” 
 
 The Rev. Joseph White, D.D., in his Bamp- 
 ton Lectures of 1784, gives a translation of 
 those chapters in this spurious Gospel of Bar¬ 
 nabas, which relate to the supposed cruci¬ 
 fixion of Judas in the place of our Lord, 
 and which we insert:— 
 
 “Judas came near to the people with whom 
 Jesus was; and when He heard the noise He 
 entered into the house where the disciples 
 slept. And God, seeing the fear and danger 
 of His servant, ordered Gabriel and Michael 
 and Rafail and Azrail to carry Him out of the 
 world. 
 
 “ And they came in all haste, and bare Him 
 out of the window which looks towards the 
 south. And they placed Him in the third 
 heaven, where He will remain blessing God, 
 in the company of angels, till near the end of 
 the world.” (Chapter 216.) 
 
 “ And Judas the traitor entered before the 
 rest into the place from which Jesus had just 
 been taken up. And the disciples were 
 sleeping. And the Wonderful God acted 
 wonderfully, changing Judas into the same 
 figure and speech with Jesus. 
 
 “ We believing that it was He, said to him, 
 Master, whom seekest thou ? And he said to 
 them, smiling, Ye have forgotten yourselves, 
 since ye do not know Judas Iscariot. 
 
 “ At this time the soldiery entered; and 
 
 seeing Judas so like in every respect to Jesus, 
 laid hands upon him,” &c. (Chapter 217.) 
 
 “ In which (Chap. 218) is related the passion 
 of Judas the traitor. 
 
 “ The soldiers afterwards took Judas and 
 bound him, notwithstanding he said with 
 truth to them that he was not Jesus. And 
 soldiers mocked him saying, Sir, do not be 
 afraid; for we are come to make thee King 
 of Israel; and we have bound thee, because 
 we know thou hast refused the kingdom. And 
 Judas said, Ye have lost your senses. 
 
 “ I came to show you Jesus, that ye might 
 take Him; and ye have bound me, who am 
 your guide. The soldiers lost their patience, 
 hearing this, and they began to go with him, 
 striking and buffeting him, till they reached 
 Jerusalem,” &c. &c. (Chapter 218.) 
 
 “They carried him to Mount Calvary, 
 where they executed criminals, and crucified 
 him, stripping him asked for the greater 
 ignominy. Then he did nothing but cry out, 
 0 my God, why hast thou forsaken me, that 
 I should die unjustly, when the real male¬ 
 factor hath escaped ? I say in truth that he 
 was so like in person, figure, and gesture to 
 Jesus, that as many as knew Him, believed 
 firmly that it was He, except Peter; for 
 which reason many left his doctrine, believing 
 that it had been false; as He had said that 
 He should not die till the end of the world. 
 
 “ But those who stood firm were oppressed 
 with grief, seeing him die whom they under¬ 
 stood to be Jesus : not recollecting what He 
 had told them. And in company with His 
 mother, they were present at his death, weep¬ 
 ing continually. And by means of Joseph 
 Abarimatheas (sic), they obtained from the 
 president the body of Judas. And they took 
 him down from the cross, burying him 
 with much lamentation in the new sepulchre 
 of Joseph ; having wrapped him up in linen 
 and precious ointments.” (Chapter 219.) 
 
 “ They all returned, each man to his 
 house: and he who writeth, with James and 
 John, went with the mother of Jesus to 
 Nazareth. And the disciples, who did not 
 fear God with truth, went by night and stole 
 the body of Judas, and hid it; spreading a 
 report that He (i.e. Jesus) had risen again, 
 from whence sprung great confusion among 
 the people. 
 
 “ And the High Priest commanded, under 
 pain of anathema, that no one should talk of 
 him ; and on this account raised a great per¬ 
 secution, banishing some, tormenting others, 
 and even stoning some to death : because it 
 was not in the power of anyone to be silent 
 on this subject. And then came news to 
 Nazareth, that Jesus had risen again. And 
 he that writeth desired the mother of Jesus 
 to leave off her lamentation. And Mary 
 said, Let us go to Jerusalem, to see if it is 
 truth. If I see Him I shall die content. 
 (Chapter 220). 
 
 “ The Virgin returned to Jerusalem with 
 him that writeth, and James and John, the 
 same day that the decree of the High Priest 
 came out. 
 
 “ And as she feared God, though she knew 
 
38 
 
 BARNABAS 
 
 BARZAKH 
 
 the command was unjust, she entreated those 
 who talked with her not to speak of her Son. 
 Who can say, how we were then affected? 
 God, who knows the heart of man, knows 
 that between the grief for the death of Judas, 
 whom we understood to be Jesus, and the 
 pleasure of seeing him risen again, we almost 
 expired. And the angels who were the 
 guardians of Mary went up to heaven the 
 third day, and told Jesus what was passing. 
 And He, moved with compassion for His 
 mother, entreated of God that He might be 
 seen by His disciples. And the Compas¬ 
 sionate God ordered His four favourite angels 
 to place Him within His own house, and to* 
 guard Him three days ; that they and they 
 only might see Him, who believed in His doc¬ 
 trine. Jesus descended, surrounded with 
 light, into the house of His mother, where 
 were the two sisters, Martha and Mary, and 
 Lazarus, and he that writeth, and John and 
 James, and Peter. And when they saw Him, 
 they fell with their faces on the earth as if 
 dead. And Jesus lifted them up, saying, 
 Fear not, for I am your Master. Lament not 
 henceforth, for I am alive. They were asto¬ 
 nished at seeing Jesus, because they thought 
 Him dead. And Mary -weeping said, Tell me, 
 my Son, why, if God gave Thee power to raise 
 up the dead, did He consent that Thou 
 shouldest die, with so much reproach and 
 shame to Thy relations and friends, and so 
 much hurt to Thy doctrine, leaving us all in 
 desolation? Jesus replied, embracing His 
 mother, Believe me. for I tell thee the truth, 
 I have not been dead ; for God has reserved 
 Me for the end of the world. In saying this 
 He desired the angels to manifest themselves, 
 and to tell how He had passed through every¬ 
 thing. At the instant they appeared like four 
 suns; and all present prostrated themselves 
 on the ground, ovei'come by the presence of 
 the angels. And Jesus gave to all of them 
 something to cover themselves with, that they 
 might be able to hear the angels speak. 
 
 “ And Jesus said to His mother, These are 
 the Ministers of God. Gabriel knows His 
 secrets ; Michael fights with His enemies ; 
 Asrafiel will cite all to judgment; and Azrael 
 receives the souls. And the holy angels 
 told how they had, by the command of God, 
 taken up Jesus, and transformed Judas, that 
 he might suffer the punishment which he 
 wished to bring on Jesus. And he that 
 writeth said, Is it lawful for me to ask of 
 Thee, in the same manner as when thou wast 
 in the world? And Jesus answered, Speak, 
 Barnabas, what thout wishest. 
 
 “ And he said, I wish that Thou wouldest 
 tell me how God, being so compassionate, 
 could afflict us so much, in giving us to 
 understand that Thou wast he that suffered, 
 for we have been very near dying ? And 
 Thou being a prophet, why did He suffer 
 Thee to fall under disgrace, by (apparently) 
 placing Thee on a cross, and between two 
 robbers ? Jesus answered, Believe Me, Bar¬ 
 nabas, let the fault be ever so small God 
 chastiseth it with much punishment. And as 
 my mother and faithful disciples loved me 
 
 with a little earthly love, God chastised that 
 love by this grief; that He might not chastise 
 it in the other world. And though I was 
 innocent, yet as they called Me God, and His 
 Son, that the devils might not mock Me on 
 the Day of Judgment, He has chosen that I 
 should be mocked in this world. 
 
 “ And this mocking shall last till the holy 
 Messenger of God ( i.e . Muhammad) shall 
 come, who shall undeceive all believers. 
 And then He said, Just art Thou, 0 God! and 
 to Thee only belongeth the honour and glory, 
 with worship, for ever.” (Chapter 221.) 
 
 “ And then He said, Barnabas, that thou 
 by all means write my gospel, relating every¬ 
 thing which has happened in the world con¬ 
 cerning Me; and let it be done exactly; in 
 order that the faithful may be undeceived, 
 knowing the truth. He that writeth said, 
 Master, I will do it as Thou commandest me, 
 God willing: but I did not see all that hap¬ 
 pened with Judas. Jesus answered, Here 
 stand Peter and John, who saw it, and will 
 relate it to thee. 
 
 “ And He told James and John to- call the 
 seven apostles who were absent, and Nico- 
 demus, and Joseph Abarimatheas (sic), and 
 some of the seventy-two disciples. When they 
 were come, they did eat with Him; and on 
 the third day He commanded them all to go to 
 the mount of Olives with His mother: because 
 He was to return to heaven. All the apostles 
 and disciples went, except twenty-five of the 
 seventy-two, who had fled to Damascus with 
 fear. And exactly at mid-day, while they 
 were all in prayer, Jesus came with many 
 angels (blessing God), with so much bright¬ 
 ness that they all bent their faces to the 
 ground. And Jesus raised them up, saying, 
 Fear not your Master, who comes to. take 
 leave of you; and to recommend you to God 
 our Lord, by the mercies received from His 
 bounty: and be He with you! 
 
 “ And upon this He disappeared with 
 the angels; all of us remaining amazed at the 
 great brightness in which he left us.” 
 (Chapter 222). 
 
 al-BARR (jvB). One of the ninety- 
 nine special names of God. In its ordinary 
 sense it means “ pious,” or “ good.” As 
 applied to God, it means “ The Beneficent 
 One.” 
 
 BARTER. [bai‘.] 
 
 BARZAKH (ijf). (1) A thing 
 
 that intervenes between any two things; a 
 bar; an obstruction ; or a thing that makes a 
 separation between two things. In which 
 sense it is used in the Qu’ran in two places. 
 Surah xxv. 55, “ He hath put an interspace 
 between them (i.e. the two seas), and a barrier 
 which it is forbidden them to pass.” Surah 
 lv. 20, “ Yet between them (the two seas) is a 
 barrier." 
 
 (2) The interval between the present life 
 and that which is to come. See Qur’an, 
 Surah xxiii. 99, “ And say, My Lord, I seek 
 refuge with Thee from the incitings of the 
 devils, and I seek refuge with Thee from their 
 
BAZAQ 
 
 39 
 
 ba‘s 
 
 presence. Until when death comes to any 
 one of them, he says, My Lord! send me 
 back (to life), if haply I may do right in that 
 which I have left. Not so ! A mere word that 
 he speaks ! But behind them there is barzalch 
 (a bar), until the day when they shall he 
 raised. And when the trumpet shall be 
 blown, there shall be no relation between 
 them on that day, nor shall they beg of each 
 other then.” Upon this verse the commentator 
 Baizawi says: “ Barzakh is an intervening state 
 ( hd'il , ‘ a barrier ’) between death and the Day 
 of Judgment, and whoever dies enters it.” The 
 commentator Husain remarks: “ Barzakh is 
 a partition ( mdni‘ ) between the living and the 
 Day of Judgment, namely, tho grave in which 
 they will remain until the resurrection.” The 
 commentators al-Jalalain speak of it as a 
 hajiz, or intervening state between death 
 and judgment. ‘Abdu’r-Razzaq in his Dic¬ 
 tionary of Technical Terms of the Sufis 
 (Sprenger’s Edition), gives a similar defini¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The word is employed by Muhammadan 
 writers in at least two senses, some using it for 
 the place of the dead, the grave, and others 
 for the state of departed souls botween death 
 and judgment. 
 
 The condition of believers in the grave is held 
 to be one of undisturbed rest, but that of unbe¬ 
 lievers one of torment; for Muhammad is 
 related to have said, “ There are appointed 
 for the grave of the unbeliever ninety-nine 
 serpents to bite him until the Day of Resur¬ 
 rection.” (Mishkat, i. c. 5, p. 12.) The word 
 seems generally to be used in the sense of 
 Hades, for every person who dies is said to 
 enter al-Barzakh. 
 
 BA‘S (‘^-'*0. Lit. “ Raising.” (1) 
 
 The Day of Resurrection. (2) The office of 
 a messenger or prophet. 
 
 BASE MONEY. The sale of one 
 
 pure dirham and two base ones in exchange for 
 two pure dirhams and one base one is lawful. 
 By two base ones ( ghalatain ), are to be 
 understood such as pass amongst merchants 
 but are rejected at the public treasury. 
 (.Hidayah , vol. ii. 560.) 
 
 al-BASlR One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It fre¬ 
 quently occurs in the Qur’an, and means 
 “ The All-seeing One.” 
 
 BASIRAH Lit. “ Penetra¬ 
 
 tion.” The sight of the heart as distinguished 
 from the sight of the eye ( Basarali or Basar). 
 A term used by theologians to express that 
 enlightenment of the heart “ whereby the 
 spiritual man can understand spiritual things 
 with as much certainty as the natural man 
 can see objects with the sight of the eye.” 
 The word occurs twice in the Qur’an, Surah 
 xii. 108, “ This is my way; I cry unto God, 
 resting on clear evidence ; ” Surah lxxv. 14, 
 “ A man shall be evidence against himself.” 
 
 al-BASIT (L-LJ1). One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It means 
 
 “ He who spreads, or stretches out,” and 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xiii. 15. As 
 applied to God, it means, “ He who dispenses 
 riches,” &c. 
 
 BASTARD jJj waladu’z-zina). 
 
 An illegitimate child has, according to Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, no legal father, and conse¬ 
 quently the law does not allow the father to 
 interfere with his illegitimate child, even for 
 the purposes of education. He cannot inherit 
 the property of his father, but he is acknow¬ 
 ledged as the rightful heir of his mother 
 (Baillie’s Digest, p. 432). The evidence of a 
 bastard is valid, because he is innocent with 
 respect to the immorality of his parents ; but 
 the Imam Malik maintains that his testimony 
 is not to be accepted with respect to a charge 
 of whoredom. ( Iliddyah , vol. ii. 692.) 
 
 BATHING. The Arabic term for 
 ordinary bathing is (J~~c) ghasl. and 
 that for the religious purification of tho whole 
 body ghusl. In all large mosques, and in most 
 respectable dwellings in Muhammadan coun¬ 
 tries, there are bathing-rooms erected, both 
 for the ordinary purposes 'of bathing and 
 for the religious purification. An account 
 of the legal purification will be found in the 
 article ghusl. Although purifications and 
 bathing form so essential a part of the Muslim 
 religion, cleanliness does not distinguish 
 Muhammadans, who are generally in this 
 respect a striking contrast to their Hindu 
 fellow subjects in India. According to the 
 saying of Muhammad, decency should be 
 observed in bathing, and the clothes from the 
 waist downwards should not be taken off at 
 such times. ( [Mishkat , ii. c. iv.) 
 
 BATIL (JA>). That which is false 
 in doctrine. 
 
 al-BATTN (1) One of the 
 
 ninety-nine special names of God. It means 
 “ that which is hidden or concealed,” “ The 
 Hidden One,” or “ He that knows hidden 
 things.” (2) A term used in theology 
 for that which is hidden in its meaning, in 
 contradistinction to that which is evident. 
 
 BATUL (Jy=>). Lit. “ A shoot or 
 
 offset of a palm-tree cut off from its mother 
 tree; ” “ a virgin ” (as cut off or withheld from 
 men). The term al-Batul is applied to 
 Fatima.h, the daughter of Muhammad, because 
 she was separated from the other women of 
 
 her age by her excellences. Heb. rtara 
 Bethulah. 
 
 BA‘US (<A^eb). A Syriac word, 
 Nfiiiyn (*•«■ “petition, prayer”), 
 
 T T 
 
 which, in the dictionary al-Qamus. is said to 
 mean the Christian Easter : and also prayers 
 for rain, or the Istisqa of the Christians. 
 (Majmu ’l-Bihar, p. 101.) 
 
 BAZAQ or BAZIQ (job). A pro¬ 
 hibited liquor. The juice of the grape boiled 
 
40 
 
 BEARD 
 
 BELIEVERS 
 
 until a quantity less than two-thirds evapo¬ 
 rates. 
 
 BEARD. Arabic <L.«J lihyah or 
 
 zaqan. The beard is regarded 
 
 by Muslims as the badge of the dignity of 
 manhood. The Prophet is related to have 
 said, “Do the opposite of the polytheists' and 
 let your beard grow long.” ( Mishlcat , xx. iv.) 
 And the growing of a beard is said to be 
 Fitrah, or one of those customs which have 
 been observed by every Prophet, [fiteah.] 
 
 BEAUTY, Female. “ The maiden, 
 
 whose loveliness inspires the most impas¬ 
 sioned expression in Arabic poetry and prose, 
 is celebrated for her slender figure; she is 
 like the cane among plants, and is elegant as 
 the twig of the oriental willow\ Her face is 
 like the full moon, presenting the strongest 
 contrast to the colour of her hair, which (to 
 preserve the nature of the simile just em¬ 
 ployed) is of the deepest hue of night, and 
 descends to the middle of her hack. A rosy 
 blush overspreads the centre of each cheek ; 
 and a mole is considered an additional charm. 
 The Arabs, indeed, are particularly extrava¬ 
 gant in their admiration of this natural beauty- 
 spot, which, according to its place, is com¬ 
 pared to a globule of ambergris upon a dish 
 of alabaster, or upon the surface of a ruby. 
 The eyes of the Arab beauty are intensely 
 black, large, and long, of the form of an 
 almond ; they are full of brilliancy; hut this 
 is softened by a lid slightly depressed, and by 
 long silken lashes, giving a tender and languid 
 expression, which is full of enchantment, and 
 scarcely to be improved by the adventitious 
 aid of the black border of the kuhl; for this 
 the lovely maiden adds rather for the sake of 
 fashion than necessity, having what the Arabs 
 term natural kuhl. The eye-brows are thin 
 and arched, the forehead is wide, and fair as 
 ivory ; the nose straight, the mouth small ; 
 the lips are of a brilliant red, and the teeth 
 “ like pearls set in coral.” The forms of the 
 bosom are compared to two pomegranates; 
 the waist is slender ; the hips are wide and 
 large; the feet and hands small; the fingers 
 tapering, and their extremities dyed with the 
 deep orange-red tint imparted by the leaves 
 of hinna. 
 
 The following is the most complete analysis 
 of Arabian beauty, given by an unknown 
 author, quoted by Al-IshaqI:— 
 
 “ Four things in a woman should be black : 
 the hair of the head, the eye-brows, the eye¬ 
 lashes, and the dark part of the eyes ; four 
 white : the complexion of the skin, the white 
 of the eyes, the teeth, and the legs ; four red : 
 the tongue, the lips, the middle of the cheeks, 
 and the gumz; four round: the head, the 
 neck, the fore-arms, and the ankles; four 
 long : the back, the fingers, the arms, and the 
 legs; four wide: the forehead, the eyes, the 
 bosom, and the hips ; iomfine : the eye-brows, 
 the nose, the lips, and the fingers ; four thick-. 
 the lower part of the back, the thighs, the 
 calves of the legs, and the knees ; four small : 
 the ears, the breasts, the hands, and the feet.” 
 (Lane’s Arabian Nights, vol. i. p. 25.) 
 
 BEGGING. It is not lawful for 
 
 any person possessing sufficient food for a 
 j day and night to beg ( Durru ’ l-Mukhtar, p: 
 
 [ 108), and it is related that the Prophet said : 
 “ Acts of begging are scratches and wounds 
 with which a man wounds his own face.” “ It 
 is better for a man to take a rope and bring 
 in a bundle of sticks to sell than to beg.” 
 “ A man who continues to beg will appear in 
 the Day of Judgment without any flesh on 
 his face.” ( Mishlcat , Book vi. chap, v.) 
 
 BEING-S. According to Muham¬ 
 madan belief, there are three different species 
 of created intelligent beings : (1) Angels 
 
 ( Mald’ilcah ), who are said to be created of 
 light; (2) Genii (Jinn'), who are created of 
 fire ; (3) Mankind ( Insan ), created of earth. 
 These intelligent beings are called Zawu 7- 
 ‘■Uqul, or “Rational beings,” whilst unintelli¬ 
 gent beings ” are called Ghair Zawi 7-‘ Uqul. 
 Hayawani-Natiq is also a term used for 
 rational beings (who can speak), and 
 Hay award- 1 Ajam for all irrational creatures. 
 [jinn.] 
 
 BELIEVERS. The terms used 
 
 for believers are— Mu’min, pi. Mu'minun; and 
 Muslim, pi. Muslimun. The difference ex¬ 
 pressed in these two words is explained in the 
 Traditions, in a Hadis, given in the Sahih of 
 Muslim (p. 27), where it is recorded by ‘Umar, 
 as having been taught by Muhammad, that a 
 Mu'min is one who has iman, or “ faith 
 Faith being a sincere belief in God, His 
 angels, His inspired books, His prophets, the 
 Day of Resurrection, and the predestination 
 of good and evil; and that a Muslim is one 
 who is resigned and obedient to the will of 
 God, and bears witness that there is no god 
 but God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle, 
 and is steadfast in prayer, and gives zakat, 
 or “ legal alms,” and fasts in the month of 
 Ramazan, and makes a pilgrimage to the 
 Temple (Bait) at Makkah, if he have the 
 means. 
 
 The rewards in store for the believer are 
 as follows (see Suratu ’ l-Baqarah , Surah ii. 
 76) :— 
 
 “ They who have believed and done the 
 things that he right, they shall be the inmates 
 of Paradise,—therein to abide for ever.” 
 
 Surat ’n-Nisa , Surah iv. 60 :— 
 
 “ Those who have believed, and done the 
 things that are right, we will bring them into 
 gardens ’neath which the rivers flow—therein 
 to abide eternally ; therein shall they have 
 wives of stainless purity: and we will bring 
 them into shadowing shades.” 
 
 Suratu ’l-A'-raf, Surah vii. 40:— 
 
 “ Those who have believed and done the 
 things which are right, (we will lay on no one 
 a burden beyond his power)—these shall be 
 inmates of Paradise: for ever shall they abide 
 therein; 
 
 “ And will we remove whatever rancour was 
 in their bosoms ; rivers shall roll at their feet; 
 and they shall say, ‘ Praise be to God who 
 hath guided us hither! We had not been 
 guided had not God guided us ! Of a surety 
 
BELLS 
 
 BESTIALITY 
 
 41 
 
 the Apostles of our Lord came to us with 
 truth.’ And a voice shall cry to them, ‘ This 
 is Paradise, of which, as the meed of your 
 works, ye are made heirs.’ 
 
 “ And the inmates of Paradise shall cry to 
 the inmates of the Fire, “ Now have we found 
 what our Lord promised us to be true. Have 
 ye too found what your Lord promised you to 
 he true?’ And they shall answer, ‘Yes.’ 
 And a Herald shall proclaim between them : 
 1 The curse of God be upon the evil doers, 
 
 “ Who turn men aside from the way of 
 God, and seek to make it crooked, and who 
 believe not in the life to come ! ’ 
 
 “ And between them shall bo a partition; 
 and on the wall al-A‘raf, shall be men who 
 will know all, by their tokens, and they shall 
 cry to the inmates of Paradise, ‘ Peace be on 
 you 1 ’ but they shall not yet enter it, although 
 they long to do so. 
 
 “ And when their eyes are turned towards 
 the inmates of the Fire, they shall say, ‘ 0 
 our Lord! place us not with the offending 
 people.’ 
 
 “ And they who are upon al-A‘raf shall cry 
 to those whom they shall know by their 
 tokens, ‘ Youramassmgs and your pride have 
 availed you nothing. 
 
 “ ‘ Are these they on whom ye sware God 
 would not bestow mercy ? Enter ye into 
 Paradise ! where no fear shall be upon you, 
 neither shall ye put to grief.’ 
 
 “ And the inmates of the fire shall cry to 
 th,e inmates of Paradise: ‘ Pour upon us some 
 water, or of the refreshments God hath given 
 you?’ They shall they, ‘Truly God hath 
 forbidden both to unbelievers.'’ 
 
 For a further descriptions of the Muham¬ 
 madan future state the reader is referred to 
 the article paradise, which deals more 
 directly wdth the sensual character of the 
 heaven supposed to be in store for the 
 believer in the mission of Muhammad. 
 
 The following is a description of the 
 believer which is given in the Qur’an, Suratu 
 'UMuminin, the xxrnrd Surah, v. 1 
 “ Happy now the Believers, 
 
 Who humble themselves in their prayer, 
 And who keep aloof from vain words, 
 
 And who are doers of alms-deeds ( zakat ), 
 And who restrain their appetites, 
 
 (Save with their wives, or the slaves whom 
 their right hands possess ; for in that case 
 they shall be free from blame: 
 
 But they whose desires reach further than 
 this are transgressors:) 
 
 And who tend well their trusts and their 
 covenants, 
 
 And who keep them strictly to their 
 prayers: 
 
 These shall be the heritors, who shall in¬ 
 herit Paradise, to abide therein for ever.” 
 
 BELLS, [naqus.] 
 
 BENEFICE, [waqf.] 
 BENEFICENCE (Arabic 
 
 samahah') is commended by Muhammad as 
 one of the evidences of faith. ( Mishlcat , Book 
 i. c. i. part 3.) 
 
 Amr ibn ‘Abaratah relates : “ I came to 
 the Prophet and said, ‘ 0 Prophet, what is 
 Islam ? ’ And he said, ‘ It is purity of speech 
 and hospitality.’ I then said, ‘ And what is 
 faith ? ’ And he said, ‘ Patience and bene¬ 
 ficence." 
 
 BENJAMIN. Heb. Arabic 
 
 Binyamm. The youngest 
 of the children of Jacob. He is not men¬ 
 tioned by name in the Qur’an, but he is 
 referred to in Surah xii. 61), “ And when they 
 entered in unto Joseph, he took his brother 
 (i.e. Benjamin) to stay with him. He said 
 Verily I am thy brother, then take not that 
 ill which they have been doing. And when 
 ho had equipped them with their equipment, 
 he placed the drinking-cup in his brother’s 
 pack,” &c. [joseph.] 
 
 BEQUESTS. Arabic tvasii/ah, 
 
 pi. wasdyd. A bequest or will can be made 
 verbally, although it is held to be better to 
 execute it in writing. Two lawful witnesses 
 are necessary to establish either a verbal 
 bequest or a written will. A bequest in favour 
 of a stranger to the amount of one-third of 
 the whole property, is valid, but a bequest to 
 any amount beyond that is invalid, unless 
 the heirs give their consent. If a person 
 make a bequest in favour of another from 
 whom he has received a mortal wound, it is 
 not valid, and if a legatee slay his testator the 
 bequest in his favour is void. A bequest 
 made to part of the heirs is not valid unless 
 the other heirs give their consent. The 
 bequest of a Muslim in favour of an unbe¬ 
 liever, or of an unbeliever in favour of a 
 Muslim, is valid. If a person be involved in 
 debt, legacies bequeathed by him are not 
 lawful. A bequest in favour of a child yet 
 unborn is valid, provided the feetus happen to 
 be less than six months old at the time of the 
 making of the will. 
 
 If a testator deny his bequest, and the 
 legatee produce witnesses to prove it, it is 
 generally held not to be a retractation of it. If 
 a person on his death-bed emancipate a slave, 
 it takes effect after his death. 
 
 If a person will that “ the pilgrimage in¬ 
 cumbent on him be performed on his behalf 
 after his death,” his heirs must depute a 
 person for the purpose, and supply him with 
 the necessary expenses. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 vol. iv. 466.) 
 
 BESTIALITY is said by Muslim 
 
 jurists to be the result of the most vitiated 
 appetite and the utmost depravity of senti¬ 
 ment. But if a man commit it, he does not 
 incur the Hadd, or stated punishment, as the 
 act is not considered to have the properties 
 of whoredom ; the offender is to be punished 
 by a discretionary correction (Ta‘zir). Ac¬ 
 cording to Muslim law, the beast should be 
 killed, and if it be of an eatable species, it 
 should be burnt. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. 27.) 
 Ohs. According to the Mosaic code, a man 
 guilty of this crime was surely to be put to 
 death. (Ex. xviii. 19.) 
 
 6 
 
42 
 
 BETROTHAL 
 
 BIRTH 
 
 BETROTHAL, [khitbah.] 
 
 Bl‘AH (^o). A Christian church. 
 
 The word occurs in a tradition in the Mishlcat 
 (iv. c. vii. 2), and is translated by ‘Abdu T- 
 Haqq “ Kalisah.” [chuech.] 
 
 BID‘AH (aca>). A novelty or in¬ 
 
 novation in religion ; heresy ; schism. 
 
 BIER. Arabic SjW jindzah and 
 
 janazah. The same word is used for the 
 corpse, the bier, and the funeral. In most 
 Muhammadan countries the ordinary charpoy, 
 or “ bedstead,” is used for the bier, which, in 
 the case of a female, is covered with a canopy. 
 [burial.] 
 
 BIHISHT The Persian 
 
 word for the celestial regions, [paradise, 
 
 JANNAH, FIRDAUS.] 
 
 BILADU ’L-ISLAM th). 
 
 ■■ The countries of Islam.” A term used in 
 Muhammadan law for Muslim countries. It 
 is synonymous with the term Daru T-Isiam. 
 [daru ’l-islam.] 
 
 BILAL The first Mvfazzin 
 
 or caller to prayer appointed by Muhammad. 
 He was an Abyssinian slave who had been 
 ransomed by Abu Bakr. He was tall, dark, 
 and gaunt, -with negro features and bushy 
 hair. Muhammad honoured and distinguished 
 him as the “ first fruits of Abyssinia.” He 
 survived the Prophet. 
 
 BILQIS (^h). The Queen of 
 
 Saba’, who visited Solomon and became one 
 of his queens. An account of her, as it is 
 given in the Qur’an, will be found in the 
 story of King Solomon, [solomon.] 
 
 BINT LABtTN ( or J “ The 
 
 daughter of a milk-giver.” A female camel 
 two years old ; so called because the mother 
 is then suckling another foal. The proper 
 age for a camel given in zakat, or “ legal 
 alms,” for camels from thirty-six in number 
 up to forty-five. 
 
 BINT MAKHAZ 
 
 “ The daughter of a pregnant.” A female 
 camel passed one year; so called because 
 the mother is again pregnant. This is the 
 proper age for a camel given in zakat, or 
 “ alms,” for camels from twenty-five in number 
 up to thirty-five. 
 
 BIOGRAPHERS OF MUHAM¬ 
 MAD. Although the Qur’an may be said to 
 be the key-stone to the biography of Muham¬ 
 mad, yet it contains but comparatively few 
 references to the personal history of the Pro¬ 
 phet. The Traditions, or Ahaclis, form the 
 chief material for all biographical histories. 
 [tradition.] The first who attempted to 
 compile an account of Muhammad in the 
 form of a history, was az-Zuhrl, who died 
 a.h. 124, and whose work, no longer extant, 
 is mentioned by Ibn Khallikan. The earliest 
 biographical writers whose works are extant 
 are—Ibn Ishaq, a.h 151; Al-Waqidl, a.h. 
 
 207; Ibn Hisham, a.h. 218; Al-Bukhari 
 (history), a.h. 256; At-Tabari, a.h. 310. 
 Amongst more recent biographies, the most 
 noted are those by Ibnu ’1-AsIr, a.ii. 630, and 
 Isma‘il Abu ’1-fida’, a.h. 732. Abu ’1-fida’s 
 work was translated into Latin by John 
 Gagnier, Professor of Arabic at Oxford, a.d. 
 1723, and into English by the Rev. W. Murray, 
 Episcopal clergymen at Duffus in Scotland, 
 and published (without date) at Elgin. The 
 first life of Muhammad published in English 
 is that by Dean Prideaux, which first ap¬ 
 peared in 1723, and afterwards passed through 
 several editions. Dr. Sprenger commenced a 
 life of Muhammad in English, and printed the 
 first part at Allahabad, India, a.d. 1851; but 
 it was never completed. The learned author 
 afterwards published the whole of his -work 
 ! in German, at Berlin, 1869. The only com¬ 
 plete life of Muhammad in English which has 
 any pretension to original research, is the 
 well-known Life of Mahomet , by Sir William 
 Muir, LL.D. (First Edition, four vols., London, 
 1858-61 ; Second Edition, one vol., London, 
 1877). 
 
 BIOGRAPHY. A Dictionary of 
 Biography is called asmd’u 
 
 ’r-rijal (lit. “ The Names of Men”). The most 
 celebrated of these is, amongst Muslims, that 
 by Ibn Kh allikan. which has always been 
 considered a work of the highest importance 
 for the civil and literary history of the Mu¬ 
 hammadan people. Ibn Khallikan died a.h. 
 681 (a.d. 1282), but his dictionary received 
 numerous additions from subsequent writers. 
 It has been translated into English by Mac- 
 Guckin De Slane (Paris, 1843). 
 
 BIRDS. It is commonly believed 
 
 by the Muhammadans that all kinds of birds, 
 and many, if not all, beasts, have a language 
 by which they communicate their thoughts to 
 each other, and in the Qur’an (Surah xxvii. 
 16) it is stated that King Solomon was taught 
 the language of birds. 
 
 BI’R ZAMZAM ( ry *j ; s>). The 
 
 well of Zamzam. [zam-zam.] 
 
 BI’R MA'UNAH (&yw y=>). The 
 
 well of Ma'unah. A celebrated spot four 
 marches from Makkah, where a party of 
 Muhammad’s followers were slain by the 
 Banu ‘Amir and Banu Sulaim. He professed 
 to have received a special message from 
 heaven regarding these martyrs, which runs 
 thus :—“ Acquaint our people that we have 
 met our Lord. He is well pleased with us, 
 and we are well pleased with Him.” It is a 
 remarkable verse, as having for some reason 
 or other been cancelled, and removed from 
 the Qur’an. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. 
 iii. p. 207.) 
 
 BIRTH, Evidence of. According 
 to the Imam Abu Hanifah, if a married woman 
 should claim to be the mother of a child, her 
 claim is not to be valid unless the birth of 
 of the child is attested by the testimony of 
 one woman. But in the case of a father, inas- 
 
B1SHARAH 
 
 BRIBERY 
 
 43 
 
 much as the claim of parentage is a matter 
 which relates purely to himself, his testimony 
 alone is to be accepted. 
 
 The testimony of the midwife alone is suf¬ 
 ficient with respect to birth, but with regard 
 to parentage, it is established by the fact of 
 the mother of the child being the wife of the 
 husband. 
 
 If the woman be in her ‘iddah ['Iddah] 
 from a eomplete divorce, the testimony of the 
 midwife is not sufficient with respect to birth, 
 but the evidence of two men, or of one man 
 and two women, is requisite. (Hamilton’s 
 Hiddyah, vol. iii. p. 134.) 
 
 It is also ruled that it is not lawful for a 
 person to give evidence to anything which he 
 has not seen, except in the cases of birth, 
 death, and marriage. (Yol. ii. 676.) 
 
 BISHARAH (5,Uio). [bushka.] 
 
 Bl-SHAR‘ (Zf- ^0- Lit. “ With¬ 
 out the law.” A term applied to those 
 mystics who totally disregard the teaching of 
 the Qur’an. Antinomians. [scfi.] 
 
 BISMILLAH (aU\ ,*->). Lit. “ In 
 
 the name of God.” An ejaculation frequently 
 used at the commencement of any under¬ 
 taking. There are two forms of the Bis- 
 millah:— 
 
 1. Bi-’smi ’llahi ’r-rahmani 'r-rahvn, i.e. 
 “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the 
 Merciful.” This is used at the commencement 
 of meals, putting on new clothes, beginning 
 any new work, and at the commencement of 
 books. It occurs at the head of every chapter 
 or surah in the Qur’an, with the exception of 
 the ixth (i.e. the Suratu ’l-Bara’ah ). 
 
 2. Bi-’smi ’Hahi 'llahi ’l-alcbar, i.e. “In the 
 name of God, God the Most Great.” Used at the 
 time of slaughtering of animals, at the com¬ 
 mencement of a battle, &c., the attribute of 
 mercy being omitted on such occasions. 
 
 The formula Bi-’smi 'llahi ’r-rahmani V- 
 rahim is of Jewish origin. It w T as in the first 
 instance taught to the Quraish by Umaiyah 
 of Ta’if, the poet, who was a contemporary 
 but somewhat older than, Muhammad, and 
 who, during his mercantile journeys into 
 Arabia Petrsa and Syria, had made himself 
 acquainted with the sacred books and doc¬ 
 trines of Jews and Christians. (Kitabu 7- 
 Aghani, 16, Delhi; quoted by Rodwell.) 
 
 BIZA‘AH (ichoj). A share in a 
 
 mercantile adventure. Property entrusted to 
 another to be employed in trade. 
 
 BLACK STOKE, [al-hajaru ’l- 
 
 ASWAD.] 
 
 BLASPHEMY. Arabic y* hu.fr. 
 
 Lit. “ to hide ” (the truth). It includes a denial 
 of any of the essential principles of Islam. 
 
 A Muslim convicted of blasphemy is sen¬ 
 tenced to death in Muhammadan countries. 
 [apostasy.] 
 
 BLEEDING. Arabic hija- 
 
 mah. The two great cures recommended by 
 Muhammad -were blood-letting and drinking 
 
 honey ; and he taught that it was unlucky to 
 be bled on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, 
 , the most lucky day being Tuesday, and the 
 1 most lucky date the seventeenth of the 
 month. ( Mishkat, xxi. c. 1.) 
 
 BLIND, The. Arabic A‘ma, pi. 
 
 ‘ Umyan. It is not incumbent upon a blind 
 man to engage in Jihad, or a religious war. 
 And, according to the Imam Abu Hanifah, the 
 evidence of a blind person is not admissible, 
 but the Imam Zufar maintains that such 
 evidence is lawful when it affects a matter in 
 which hearsay prevails. Sales and purchases 
 made by a blind person are lawful. (Hamil¬ 
 ton’s Hiddyah , vol. ii., pp. 141, 402, 682.) 
 
 BLOOD. The sale of blood is 
 
 unlawful. (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. ii. 
 p. 428.) 
 
 BLOOD, The Avenger of. [qisas.] 
 BLOOD, Issue of. [istihazah.] 
 BOASTING. Arabic 4y=-lA* mufti- 
 
 kharah. Muhammad is related to have said, 
 “ I swear by God, a tribe must desist from 
 boasting of their forefathers; for they are 
 nothing more than coals from hell-fire (i.e. 
 they were idolaters) ; and if you do not leave 
 off boasting, verily you will be more hateful 
 in the sight of God than a black-beetle. Man¬ 
 kind are all the sons of Adam, and Adam was 
 of the earth.” (Mishkat, xxii. c. 13.) 
 
 BOOKS OF MOSES, [taurat.] 
 BOOKS, Stealing. The hand of a 
 
 thief is not to be cut off for stealing a book, 
 whatever be the subject of which it treats, 
 because the object of the theft can only be the 
 contents of the book, and not the book itself. 
 But yet, it is to be observed, the hand is 
 to be cut off for stealing “ an account book,” 
 because in this case it is evident that the 
 object of the theft is not the contents of the 
 book, but the paper and material of which 
 the book is made. (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. 
 ii. 92.) 
 
 BOOTS. [shoes.] 
 
 BREACH OF TRUST. Arabic 
 khiydnali. The punishment of 
 amputation of the hand is not inflicted for a 
 breach of trust. And if a guest steal the pro¬ 
 perty of his host w liilst he is staying in his 
 house, the hand is not cut off. Breach of 
 trust in Muslim law being a. less offence than 
 ordinary theft, the punishment for breach 
 of trust is left to the discretion of the judge. 
 (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. ii. pp. 93-102.) 
 
 BRIBERY (Arabic tyy; rishwah ) 
 
 is not mentioned in the Qur’an. In the Fatawa 
 ‘Alamgiri it is stated that presents to magis¬ 
 trates are of various kinds ; for example, if a 
 present be made in order to establish a friend¬ 
 ship, it is lawful; but if it be given to influence 
 the decision of the judge in the donor’s 
 favour, it is unlawful. It is also said, if a 
 present be made to a judge from a sense of 
 
44 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 bu‘as 
 
 fear, it is lawful to give it, but unlawful to 
 accept it. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. 
 p. 332.) _ 
 
 BU‘AS, Battle of. Arabic 
 
 Harb Bird/!. A battle fought between the 
 Banu Khazraj and Banu Aus, about sis 
 years before the flight of Muhammad from 
 Makkah. 
 
 BUHTAN A false accu¬ 
 
 sation ; calumny. 
 
 The word occurs tw'ice in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah iv. 112: “ Whoso commits a fault or 
 sin, and throws it upon one who is innocent, 
 he hath to bear calumny ( buhtan ) and mani¬ 
 fests in.” 
 
 Surah xxiv. 15 : “ And why did ye not say 
 when ye heard it, ‘ It is not for us to speak of 
 this’? Celebrated be Thy praises, this is a 
 mighty calumny (buhtan).” [backbiting.] 
 
 BUKA (sA£>). Heb. ^ ie wept. 
 
 Weeping and lamentationfor the dead. Immode¬ 
 rate weeping and lamentation over the graves 
 of the dead is clearly forbidden by Muham¬ 
 mad, who is related to have said, “Whatever 
 is from the eyes (i e. tears), and whatever is 
 from the heart (i.e. sorrow), are from God; 
 but what is from the hands and tongue is 
 from the devil. Keep yourselves, 0 women, 
 from wailing, which is the noise of the devil.” 
 (Mishkat , v. c. vii.) The custom of wailing at 
 the tombs of the dead is, however, common in 
 all Muhammadan countries. (See Arabian 
 Nights, Lane’s Modern Egyptians, Shaw’s 
 Travels in Barbary.) [burial.] 
 
 al-BUKHARI A short 
 
 title given to the well-known collection of 
 Sunni traditions by Abu‘Abdu’llah Muham¬ 
 mad ibn Isma'ii ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Mughirah 
 ai-Ju‘iI al-Bukhari, who w as born at Bukhara. 
 a.h. 194 (a.d. 8i0), and died at the village of 
 Khartang near Samarqand, a.h. 256 (a.d. 
 870). His compilation comprises upwards of 
 7,0b0 traditions of the acts and sayiQgs of the 
 Prophet, selected from a mass of 600,000. His 
 booK. is called the Sahi(i of al-Bukhari . and 
 is said to have been the result of sixteen 
 3 r ears labour. It is said that he was so 
 anxious to record only trustworthy traditions 
 that he performed a prostration in worship 
 before the Almighty before he recorded each 
 tradition. 
 
 BUKHTU In ASS A K 
 
 “ Nebuchadnezzar.” It is thought by Jalalu 
 ’d-din that there is a reference to his army 
 taking Jerusalem in the Qur’an, Surah xvii. 8, 
 “ And when the threat for the iast (crime) 
 came (to be inflicted, we sent an enemy) to 
 harm your faces, and to enter the temple as 
 they entered it the first time.” The author 
 of the Qamus says that Bulcht is “ son,” and 
 Nassar, “ an idol,” i.e. “the son of Nassau” 
 
 BULAS “ Despair.” The 
 
 name of one of the chambers of hell, where 
 the proud will drink of the yellow water of 
 the infernal regions. ( Mishkat, xxii. c. 20.) 
 
 BURAQ (oV). Lit. “The bright 
 
 one.” The animal upon which Muhammad is 
 said to have performed the nocturnal journey 
 called Mi'rdj. He was a w'hite animal, be¬ 
 tween the size of a mule and an ass, having 
 two wings. (. Majma'u ’l-Bihdr, p. 89.) Mu¬ 
 hammad’s conception of this mysterious animal 
 is not unlike the Assyrian gryphon, of which 
 Mr. Layard gives a sketch. [mTkaj.] 
 
 the assyman grython (Layard ii. 459). 
 
 BURGLARY is punished as an 
 
 ordinary theft, namely by the amputation of 
 the hand, but it is one of the niceties of Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, according to the Hanafi code, 
 that if a thief break through the wall of the 
 house, and enter therein, and take the pro¬ 
 perty, and deliver it to an accomplice standing 
 at the entrance of the breach, amputation of 
 the hand is not incurred by either of the 
 parties, because the thief who entered the 
 house did not carry out the property. 
 (Hidayah, vol. ii. 103.) 
 
 BURIAL OF THE DEAD (SjU* 
 
 Jinazah or Jandzali). The term Janazah is used 
 both for the bier and for the Muhammadan 
 funeral service. The burial service is founded 
 upon the practice of Muhammad, and varies 
 but little in different countries, although the 
 ceremonies connected with the funeral proces¬ 
 sion are diversified. In Egypt and Bukhara, for 
 instance, the male relations and friends of the 
 deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female 
 mourners follow behind. In India and Afghan¬ 
 istan, women do not usually attend funerals, 
 and the friends and relatives of the deceased 
 walk behind the bier. There is a tradition 
 amongst some Muhammadans that no one 
 should precede the corpse, as the angels go 
 before. Funeral processions in Afghanistan 
 are usually very simple in their arrange¬ 
 ments, and are said to be more in accordance 
 with the practice of the Prophet, than 
 those of Egypt and Turkey. It is considered 
 a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and 
 four from among the near relations, every now 
 and then relieved by an equal number, carry 
 it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian 
 custom of walking slowly to the grave, the 
 Muhammadans carry their dead quickly to 
 the place of interment; for Muhammad is 
 related to have said, that it is good to carry 
 the dead quickly to the grave, to cause the 
 righteous person to arrive soon at happiness. 
 
BtTRIAL 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 45 
 
 and if he be a bad man, it is 'well to put 
 wickedness away from one’s shoulders, tu- 
 nerals should always be attended on foot; for 
 it is said that Muhammad on one occasion 
 rebuked his people for following on horse¬ 
 back. “ Have you no shame?” said he, 
 
 “ since God’s angels go on foot, and you go upon 
 the backs of quadrupeds ? ” It is a highly 
 meritorious act to attend a funeral, whether 
 it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian. 
 There are, however, two traditions which 
 appear to mark a coange of feeling on the 
 part of the Prophet of Arabia towards the 
 Jews and Christians. “ A bier passed by the 
 Prophet, and he stood up ; and it was said to 
 the Prophet, this is the bier of a Jew. • It is 
 the holder of a soul,’ he replied, ‘ from which 
 we should take warning and fear.’” This 
 rule is said to have been abrogated, for, “ on one 
 one occasion the Prophet sitting on the road 
 when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked 
 that the bier of a Jew should be higher than 
 his head, and he therefore stood up.” (Mish¬ 
 ka t, v. c. v.) Notwithstanding these con¬ 
 tradictory traditions, we believe that in all 
 countries Muhammadans are wont to pay great 
 respect to the funerals of both Jews and 
 Christians. 
 
 The Muhammadan funeral service is not 
 recited in the graveyard, it being too polluted 
 a place for so sacred an office; but either in 
 a mosque, or in some open space near the 
 dwelling of the deceased person or the grave¬ 
 yard. The owner of the corpse, i.e. the 
 nearest relative, is the proper person to 
 recite the service; but it is usually said by 
 the family Imam, or the Qazl. 
 
 The following is the order of the service :— 
 
 Some one present calls out,— 
 
 “ Here begin the prayers for the dead.” 
 
 Then those present arrange themselves in 
 three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse, 
 with their faces Qi blah-wards (i.e. towards 
 Makkah). The Imam stands in front of the 
 ranks opposite the head (the Shi‘ahs stand 
 opposite the loins of a man) of the corpse, if 
 it be that of male, or the waist, if it be that 
 of a female. 
 
 The whole company having taken up 
 the Qiyam, or standing position, the Imam 
 recites the Niyah. 
 
 “ I purpose to perform prayers to God for 
 this dead person, consisting of four Takbirs." 
 
 Then placing his hands to the lobes of his 
 ears, he says the first Takbir. 
 
 “ God is great 1 ” 
 
 Then folding his hands, the right hand 
 placed upon the left, below the navel, he 
 recites the Subfian :— 
 
 “ Holiness to Thee, 0 God, 
 
 And to Thee be praise. 
 
 Great is Thy Name. 
 
 Great is Thy Greatness. 
 
 Great is Thy Praise. 
 
 There is no deity but Thee.” 
 
 Then follows the second Takbir: — 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 Then the JDurud :— 
 
 “ 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and 
 upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow 
 
 mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compas¬ 
 sion, and great kindness upon Abraham and 
 upon his descendants. 
 
 “ Thou art praised, and Thou art great! 
 
 “ 0 God, bless Muhammad and his de¬ 
 scendants, as Thou didst bless and didst have 
 compassion and great kindness upon Abra¬ 
 ham and upon bis descendants.” 
 
 Then follows the third Takbir :— 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 After which the following prayer (Du‘a) is 
 recited:— 
 
 “ 0 God, forgive our living and our dead 
 and those of us who are present, and those 
 who are absent, and our children, and our full 
 grown persons, our men and our women. 0 
 God, those whom Thou dost keep alive 
 amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those 
 whom Thou causest to die, let them die in 
 the Faith.” 
 
 Then follows the fourth Takbir :— 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 Turning the head round to the right, he 
 says:— 
 
 “ Peace and mercy be to Thee.” 
 
 Turning the head round to the left, he 
 says:— 
 
 ‘■Peace and mercy be to Thee.” 
 
 The Takbir is recited by the Imam aloud, 
 but the Subhan, the Sa/ain, the Durud, and 
 the Du'a , are recited by the Imam and the 
 people in a low voice. 
 
 The people then seat themselves on the 
 ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer 
 in behalf of the deceased’s soul, and after¬ 
 wards addressing the relatives they say, “ It 
 is the decree of God.” To which the chief 
 mourner replies, “ I am pleased with the will 
 of God.” He then gives permission to the 
 people to retire by saying, “ There is permis¬ 
 sion to depart.” 
 
 Those who wish to return to their houses 
 do so at this time, and the rest proceed to 
 the grave. The corpse is then placed on its 
 back in the grave, with the head to the north 
 and feet to the south, the face being turned 
 towards Makkah. The persons who place 
 the corpse in the grave repeat the following 
 sentence: “We commit thee to earth in the 
 name of God and in the religion of the Pro¬ 
 phet.” 
 
 The bands of the shroud having been 
 loosed, the recess, which is called the lahd, is 
 closed in with unburnt bricks and the grave 
 filled in with earth. [grave.] In some 
 countries it is usual to recite verse 57 of the 
 xsth Surah of the Qur’an as the clods of 
 earth are thrown into the grave: but this 
 practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and 
 by many learned divines. The verse is as 
 follows:— 
 
 “ From it (the earth) have We (God) 
 created you, and unto it will We return you. 
 and out of it will We brmg you forth the 
 second time.” 
 
 After the burial, the people offer a fatihah 
 (i.e. the first chapter of the Qur’an) in the 
 name of the deceased, and again when they 
 have proceeded about forty paces from the 
 grave they offer another fatihah : for at this 
 
4G 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 BURIAL 
 
 juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkir 
 and Naklr examine the deceased as to his 
 faith, [punishments of the grave.] After 
 this, food is distributed to beggars and reli¬ 
 gious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to 
 God, in the name of the deceased person. 
 
 If the grave be for the body of a woman, it 
 should be to the height of a man’s chest, if for 
 a man, to the height of the waist. At rhe 
 bottom of the grave the recess is made on the 
 side to receive the corpse, which is called 
 the laliid or lahd. The dead are seldom 
 interred in coffins, although they are not jiro- 
 hibited. 
 
 To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks, 
 or to write a verse of the Qur’an upon them, 
 is forbidden in the Hadis ; but large stone 
 and brick tombs are common to all Muham¬ 
 madan countries, and very frequently they 
 bear inscriptions. 
 
 On the third day after the burial of the dead, 
 it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave, 
 and to recite selections from the Qur’an. 
 Those who can afford to pay Maulavis, 
 employ these learned men to recite the whole 
 of the Qur’an at the graves of their deceased 
 relatives; and, the Qur’an is divided into 
 sections to admit of its being recited by the 
 several Maulavis at once. During the days 
 of mourning the relatives abstain from wear¬ 
 ing any article of dress of a bright colour, 
 and their soiled garments remain unchanged. 
 
 A funeral procession in Egypt is graphic¬ 
 ally described by Mr. Lane in his Modern 
 Egyptians. We give the account as it con¬ 
 trasts strikingly with the simple processions 
 of Sunni Muhammadans in India. 
 
 “ The first persons are about six or more 
 poor men, called ‘ Yamaniyah,’ mostly blind, 
 who proceed two and two, or three and three, 
 together. Walking at a moderate pace, or 
 rather slowly, they chant incessantly, in a 
 melancholy tone, the profession of faith 
 (‘ There is no deity but God ; Muhammad is 
 God’s Apostle; God favour and preserve him!’). 
 They are followed by some male relations 
 and friends of the deceased, and, in many 
 cases, by two or more persons of some sect 
 of darweshes, bearing the flags of their order. 
 This is a general custom at the funeral of a 
 darwesh. Next follow three or four or more 
 schoolboys; one of them carries a mushaf 
 (or copy of the Qur’an), or a volume consist¬ 
 ing of one of the thirty sections of the Qur’an, 
 placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm- 
 sticks, and covered over, generally with an 
 embroidered kerchief. These boys chant, in a 
 higher and livelier voice than the Y T amani 3 rah, 
 usually some words of a poem called the 
 Hashriyah, descriptive of the events of the 
 last day, the judgment, &c. The school¬ 
 boys immediately precede the bier, which 
 is borne head-foremost. Three or four 
 friends of the deceased usually carry 
 it for a short distance; then three or four 
 other friends bear it a little further ; and 
 then these are in like manner relieved. Casual 
 passengers, also, often take part in this ser¬ 
 vice, which is esteemed highly meritorious. 
 Behind the bier walk the female mourners; 
 
 sometimes a group of more than a dozen, or 
 twenty ; with their hair dishevelled, though 
 generally concealed by the bead-veil; crying 
 and shrieking, as before described ; and often, 
 the hired mourners accompany them, cele¬ 
 brating the praises of the deceased. Among 
 the women, the relations and domestics of the 
 deceased are distinguished by a strip of linen 
 or cotton stuff or muslin, generally blue, 
 bound round the head, and tied in a single 
 knot behind : the ends hanging down a few 
 inches. Each of these also carries a hand¬ 
 kerchief, usually dyed blue, which she some¬ 
 times holds over her shoulders, and at other 
 times twirls with both hands over her head, 
 or before her face. The cries of the women, 
 the lively chanting of the youths, and the 
 deep tones uttered by the Yamaniyah, com¬ 
 pose a strange discord. 
 
 “ The funeral procession of a man of wealth, 
 or of a person of the middle classes, is some¬ 
 times preceded by three or four’ or more 
 camels, bearing bread and water to give to 
 the poor at the tomb, and is composed of a 
 more numerous and varied assemblage of 
 persons. The foremost of these are the 
 Yamaniyah, who chant the profession of the 
 faith, as described above. They are generally 
 followed by some male friends of the deceased, 
 and some learned and devout persons who 
 have been invited to attend the funeral. Next 
 follows a group of four or more faqlhs, chant¬ 
 ing the ‘ Suratu ’1-An‘am ’ (the vith chapter of 
 the Qur’an); and sometimes, another group, 
 chanting the ‘Surat Ya-sln’ (the xxxvith 
 chapter) ; another, chanting the ‘ Suratu T- 
 Kahf ’ (the xvnith chapter); and another 
 chanting the ‘ Suratu ’d-Dukhan ’ (the XLivth 
 chapter). These are followed by some mun- 
 shids, singing the ‘ Burdah ; ’ and these by 
 certain persons called ‘ Ashabu T-Ahzab,’ who 
 are members of religious orders founded by 
 celebrated shaikhs. There are generally four 
 or more of the order of the Hizbu ’s-Sadat, a 
 similar group of the Hizbu ’sh-Shazill, and 
 another of the Hizbu ’sh-Sha‘rawI; each group 
 chants a particular form of prayer. After 
 them are generally borne two or more half- 
 furled flags, the banners of one or other of 
 the principal orders of darweshes. Then 
 follow the school-boys, the bier, and the 
 female mourners, as in the procession before 
 described, and, perhaps, the led horses of the 
 bearers, if these be men of rank. A buffalo, 
 to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh 
 is to be distributed to the poor, sometimes 
 closes the procession. 
 
 “ The funeral of a devout shaikh, or of one 
 of the great ‘Ulama, is still more numerously 
 attended, and the bier of such a person is not 
 covered with a shawl. A ‘ wall ’ is further 
 honoured in his funeral by a remarkable 
 custom. Women follow his bier, but, instead 
 of wailing, as they would after the corpse of 
 an ordinary mortal, they rend the air with the 
 shrill and quavering cries of joy called 
 ‘ zagharlt ’; and if these cries are discontinued 
 but for a minute, the bearers of the bier pro¬ 
 test that they cannot proceed, that a super¬ 
 natural power rivets them to the spot on 
 
BURIAL 
 
 BURNING 
 
 47 
 
 which they stand. Very often, it is said, a 
 ‘ wall ’ impel? the bearers of his corpse to a 
 particular spot. The following anecdote, 
 describing an ingenious mode of puzzling a 
 dead saint in a case of this kind, was related 
 to mo by one of my friends. Some men were 
 lately bearing the corpse of a ‘ wall ’ to a tomb 
 prepared for it in the great cemetery on the 
 north of the metropolis, but on arriving at the 
 gate called Babu ’n-Nasr, which leads to the 
 cemetery, they found themselves unable to 
 proceed further, from the cause above-men¬ 
 tioned. 1 It seems,’ said one of the bearers, 
 
 1 that the shaikh is determined not to be 
 buried in the cemetery of Babu ’n-Nasr, and 
 what shall we do ? ’ They were all much 
 perplexed, but being as obstinate as the saint 
 himself, they did not immediately yield to his 
 caprice. Retreating a few paces, and then 
 advancing with a quick step, they thought by 
 such an impetus to force the corpse through 
 the gateway ; but their efforts were unsuccess¬ 
 ful ; and the same experiment they repeat d in 
 vain several times. They then placed the 
 bier on the ground to rest and consult; and 
 one of them, beckoning away his comrades to 
 a distance beyond the hearing of the dead 
 saint, said to them, ‘ Let us take up the bier 
 again, and turn it round several times till the 
 shaikh becomes giddy; he then will not know 
 in what direction we are going, and we may 
 take him easily through the gate.’ This they 
 did ; the saint was puzzled as they expected, 
 and quietly buried in the place which he had 
 so striven to avoid. 
 
 “ In the funerals of females and boys, the 
 bier is usually only preceded by the Yamanf- 
 yah, chanting the profession of the faith, and 
 by some male relations of the deceased; and 
 followed by the female mourners ; unless the 
 deceased were of a family of wealth, or of 
 considerable station in the world ; in which 
 case, the funeral procession is distinguished 
 by gome additional display. I shall give a 
 short description of one of the most genteel and 
 decorous funerals of this kind that I have 
 witnessed : it was that of a young, unmarried 
 lady. Two men, each bearing a large, furled, 
 green flag, headed the procession, preceding 
 the Yamaniyah, who chanted in an unusually 
 low and solemn manner. These faqlrs, who 
 were in number about eight, were followed by 
 a group of fakihs, chanting a chapter of the 
 Qur’an. Next after the latter was a man 
 bearing a large branch of ‘Nabq’ (or lote- 
 tree), an emblem of the deceased. On each 
 side of him walked a person bearing a tall 
 staff or cane, to the top of which were at¬ 
 tached several hoops ornamented with strips 
 of various coloured paper. These were fol¬ 
 lowed by two Turkish soldiers, side by side, 
 one bearing, on a small round tray, a gilt 
 silver ‘ qumqum ’ of rose-water, and the 
 other bearing, on a similar tray, a ‘mibkharah’ 
 of gilt silver, in which some odoriferous sub¬ 
 stance (as benzoin, or frankincense) was 
 burning. These vessels diffused the odour of 
 Iheir contents on the way, and were after¬ 
 wards used to perfume the sepulchral vault. 
 Passengers were occasionally sprinkled 
 
 with the rose-water. Next followed four 
 men, each of whom bore, upon a small tray, 
 several small lighted tapers of wax, stuck in 
 lumps of paste of ‘ hinna.’ The bier was 
 covered with rich shawls, and its shahid was 
 decorated with handsome ornaments of the 
 head, having, besides the safa, a ‘ qussah 
 almas ’ (a long ornament of gold and dia¬ 
 monds worn over the forehead), and, upon its 
 flat top, a rich diamond qurs. These were 
 the jewels of the deceased, or were, perhaps, 
 as is often the case, borrowed for the occa¬ 
 sion. The female mourners, in number about 
 seven or eight, clad in the usual manner of 
 the ladies of Egypt (with the black silk 
 covering, &c.), followed the bier, not on foot, 
 as is the common custom in funerals in this 
 country, but mounted on high-saddled asses ; 
 and only the last two or three of them were 
 wailing; these being, probably, hired mourners. 
 In another funeral-procession of a female, the 
 daughter of a Turk of high rank, the Yama¬ 
 niyah wero followed by six slaves, walking 
 two by two. The first two slaves bore each 
 a silver qumqum of rose-water, which they 
 sprinkled on the passengers; and one of them 
 honoured me so profusely as to wet my 
 dress very uncomfortably; after which, he 
 poured a small quantity into my hands; and 
 I wetted my face with it, according to custom. 
 Each of the next two bore a silver mibkharah. 
 with perfume; and the other two carried a 
 silver ’azqi (or hanging censer), with burning 
 charcoal of frankincense. The jewels on the 
 shahid of the bier were of a costly description. 
 Eleven ladies, mounted on high-saddled asses, 
 together with several naddabahs, followed.” 
 
 BURNING THE DEAD. There 
 
 is no express injunction, in either the Qur’an 
 or the Traditions, regarding the burning of 
 dead bodies, although the burning of the 
 living is strictly forbidden. For Muhammad 
 said, “ Punish not with God’s punishment 
 (which is lire), for it is not fit for anyone to 
 punish with fire but God.” ( Mislikat, xiv 
 c. v. part 1.) 
 
 The teaching of the Traditions is that a 
 dead body is as fully conscious of pain as a 
 living body, for ‘Ayishak said, that the Prophet 
 said, “ The breaking of the bones of a corpse 
 is the same as doing it in life.” ( Mishkat , v. 
 c. vi. part 2.) 
 
 It is, therefore, pretty clearly established 
 that cremation of the dead is strictly forbidden 
 by the Muhammadan religion. There is, 
 however, nothing to confirm the impression 
 that the burning of a corpse in any way pre¬ 
 vents its soul entering paradise. 
 
 BURNING TO DEATH is strictly 
 
 forbidden by Muslim law. ‘Ikrimah relates 
 that some apostates from Islam were brought 
 to the Khalifah ‘All, and he burnt them ; and 
 when Ibn ‘Abbas heard of it, he said, “ Had 
 they been brought to me, I would not have 
 burnt them ; for the Prophet said, ‘ Punish 
 not with God’s punishment. Verily it is not 
 fit for anyone to punish with fire but God.’” 
 (Mishkat, xiv. c. v. part 1.) 
 
48 
 
 BURQA' 
 
 CALEB 
 
 BURQA‘ The veil or cover¬ 
 
 ing used for the seclusion of -women when 
 walking abroad, [veiling of women.] 
 
 BURUJ ( S;; 0. Lit. “Towers,” 
 
 which some interpret as real towers wherein 
 the angels keep watch. A term used for the 
 twelve signs of the zodiac, [signs of the 
 zodiac.] Al-Buruj is the title of theLxxxvth 
 Surah of the Qur’an. 
 
 BURYING OF THE BEAD. It 
 
 is said by commentators that God taught 
 mankind to bury their dead when “ God sent 
 a crow to scratch the earth, to show him 
 (Cain) how he might hide his brother’s body.” 
 (Qur’an, Surah v. 34; Tafsir-i-lJusaini, in 
 loco.') The custom of burying their dead is 
 universal in Islam. The ceremonies con¬ 
 nected with funerals will be found in the 
 article on Burial, [burial.] 
 
 BURYING-GROUND. Arabic V s - 
 
 maqbarat or maqbarah, “ The place of graves.” 
 Persian Qabr-gah, or Qabristan. They are 
 sometimes spoken of by religious Muslims as 
 Marqad, a “cemetery” or “sleeping-place,” 
 but the name has not obtained a general 
 
 application to burial-grounds in the East as it 
 has in the West. They are generally situated 
 outside the city, the graves being covered 
 with pebbles, and distinguished by headstones, 
 those on the graves of men being with a 
 turban-like head. The graves are dug from 
 north to south. The grave-yards are usually 
 much neglected. The Wahhabis hold it to 
 be a meritorious act, in accordance with the 
 injunctions of the Prophet, to neglect the 
 graves of the dead, the erection of brick tombs 
 being forbidden. (Hiddyah, Arabic ed., vol. i. 
 p. 90.) A grave-yard does not become public 
 property until the proprietor formally makes 
 a gift or bequest of it. ( Hiddyah , vol ii., 
 
 р. 357.) 
 
 BUSHRA ((_sV>)- “ Good news ; ” 
 
 “ the gospel.” A word used in the Traditions 
 for the publication of Islam. (Mishlcat,xxiv. 
 
 с. i.) “ Accept good news, 0 ye sons of 
 
 Tamim,” which ’Abdu T-Haqq says means 
 “ embrace Islam.” 
 
 BUYING. [bai‘.] 
 
 BUZURG (c%) Lit. “ great.” A 
 
 Persian word used in the East for a saintly 
 person, an old man, or a person of rank. 
 
 c. 
 
 CAESAR. The Arabic and Persian 
 
 form of the Latin Caesar in Qaisar. The 
 word occurs in the traditions of the Sahihu ’/- 
 Muslim (vol. ii. p. 99), where it is applied to 
 the Emperor Heraclius, who received a letter 
 from Muhammad inviting him to Islam, when 
 he was at Edessa on his way to Jerusalem, 
 August, a.d. 628. The origin of the title is 
 uncertain. Spartianus, in his life of Aelius 
 verus (c. ii.), mentions four different opinions 
 respecting its origin: (1) That the word sig¬ 
 nified an elephant in the language of the Moors, 
 and was given as a surname to one of the .Tulii 
 because he had killed an elephant; or (2) That 
 it was given to one of the Julii because he had 
 been cut ( caesus ) out of his mother’s womb 
 after her death; or (3) Because he had been 
 born with a great quantity of hair (caesaries) 
 on his head ; or (4) Because he had azure- 
 coloured ( caesii ) eyes. Of these opinions the 
 second is the one adopted by the Arabie- 
 Persian Dictionary the Ghiyd.su ’l-Lughat. 
 
 The first of the Julian family who occurs 
 in history as having obtained the surname of 
 Caesar is Sex. Julius Caesar, praetor in b.c. 
 208. It was first assumed as an imperial 
 title by Augustus as the adopted son of the 
 dictator, and was by Augustus handed down 
 to his adopted son Tiberius. It continued to 
 be used by Caligula, Claudius, aod Nero, as 
 members, either by adoption or female 
 descent, of Caesar’s family; but though the 
 family became extinct with Nero, succeeding 
 emperors still retained it as part of their 
 
 titles, and it was the practice to prefix it to 
 their own name, as, for instance, Imperator 
 Coesar Domitianus Augustus. Tne title was 
 superseded in the Greek Empire under 
 Alexis Commenus by that of Sebastocrator. 
 In the west, it was conferred on Charles the 
 Great, and was borne by those who succeeded 
 him on the imperial throne. Although this 
 dignity came to an end with the resignation 
 of Francis II. in 1806, the title Kaiser is still 
 assumed by the Emperors of Austria and 
 Germany, and more recently by the Queen of 
 England as Qaisar-i-Ilind, or Empress of 
 India. 
 
 CAIN. Arabic JAs Qabil ( Qabil ). 
 
 The account of Cain and Abel as given in the 
 Qur'an, Surah v. 30, will be found in the 
 article abel. The Commentators say that 
 the occasion of making the offering was as 
 follows : Each of them being born with a twin 
 sister, Adam by God's direction ordered Cain 
 to marry Abel’s twin sister, and Abel to marry 
 Cain’s, but that Cain refused. They were then 
 ordered to submit the question by making a 
 sacrifice, and Cain offered a sheaf of the very 
 worst of his corn, whilst Abel offered the best 
 fatted lamb of his flock. ( Tafsiru ’l-Baizawi, 
 in loco.) 
 
 CALEB. Arabic Kalab. The son 
 
 of Jephunneh (Yufannah). He is not men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, but his name occurs in 
 the Tafsiru ’l-Baizawi, in Surah iv. 13. 
 
CALF 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 49 
 
 CALF, GOLDEN, The, which the 
 
 Israelites worshipped, is mentioned five times 
 in the Qur'iin. Surahs ii. 48, 88; iv. 152; 
 vii. 146 ; ss. 90. In Surah sx. 90, the person 
 who made it is said to be as-Siimiri. [moses.] 
 
 CALIPH, [khalifah.] 
 CALUMNY is expressed by the 
 
 word Ghibah. which means anything whis¬ 
 pered to the detriment of an absent person, 
 although it be true. Bulitan, expressing a 
 false accusation. It is strictly forbidden in 
 both the Qur’an and Hadis, [ghibah.] 
 
 CAMEL. Arabic Tbil. In the 
 
 Qur’an (Surah Ixxxviii. 17), the institution of 
 camels to ride upon is mentioned as an 
 example of God’s wisdom and kindness : “ Do 
 they not look then at the camel how she is 
 created.” As a proof of the great usefulness 
 of the camel to the Arabian, and of the 
 manner in which its very existence has in¬ 
 fluenced his language, it is remarkable that 
 in almost every page of the Arabic Dic¬ 
 tionary Qdmus (as also in Richardson’s 
 edition), there is some reference to a camel. 
 
 Camels are a lawful sacrifice on the great 
 festivals and on other occasions. And al¬ 
 though it is lawful to slay a camel by zabh, 
 or by merely cutting its throat, the most 
 eligible method, according to Muslim law, is 
 to slay a camel by nahr, or by spearing it in 
 the hollow of the throat near the breast-bone, 
 because, says Abu Hanlfali, it is according to 
 the sunnah, or practice of Muhammad, and also 
 because in that part of the throat three blood¬ 
 vessels of a camel are combined. (Hamil¬ 
 ton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 72.) There is zakat, 
 or legal alms, on camels, [zakat.] Muham¬ 
 madan law rules that the person who leads a 
 string of camels is responsible for anything 
 any one of the camels may injure or tread 
 down. (Ibid., iv. 379.) 
 
 CANAAN. Arabic Kan‘dn. Ac¬ 
 cording to al-Jalalain and al-Baizawi, the 
 commentators, Canaan was the unbelieving 
 son of Noah, but, according to the Qdmus 
 dictionary, the grandson, who was drowned 
 in the flood, and whose case is recorded in 
 the Qur’an (Surah xi. 44). He is said to be 
 a son of Noah’s wife Wa‘ilah, who was an in¬ 
 fidel. “ And the Ark movfed on them amid 
 waves like mountains: and Noah called to 
 his son—for he was apart—‘ Embark with us, 
 0 my child! and be not with the unbelievers.’ 
 He said, ‘ I will betake me to a mountain that 
 shall secure me from the water.’ He said, 
 ‘None shall be secure this day from the 
 decree of God, save him on whom He shall 
 have mercy.’ And a wave passed between 
 them, and he was among the drowned.” 
 
 CAPTIVES. A sir, pi. TJsdrd and 
 
 Usara’. With respect to captives, the Imam, 
 or leader of the army, has it in his choice to 
 slay them, “ because the Prophet put cap¬ 
 tives to death, and also because slaying them 
 terminates wickedness ” ; or, he may if he 
 choose make them slaves. It is not lawful 
 
 for the Imam to send captives back to their 
 home and country, because that would be to 
 strengthen the cause of infidelity against 
 Islam. If they become Muslims after their 
 capture, they must not be put to death, but 
 they may be sold after their conversion. A 
 converted captive must not be suffered to 
 return to his country, and it is not lawful to 
 release a captive gratuitously. The only 
 method of dividing plunder which consists of 
 slaves, is by selling them at the end of the 
 expedition and then dividing the money. 
 (Hidayah, ii. 160.) [slavery.] 
 
 CARAVAN. Persian Kdrwdn, 
 
 Arabic Qdfildh. As the roads in the East 
 are often unsafe and lead through dreary 
 wastes, merchants and travellers associate 
 together for mutual defence and comfort. 
 These companies are called both kdrwdn 
 and qdfilah. The party is always under the 
 direction of a paid director, who is called 
 Karwan- or Qafilah-HdsAi. If a caravan is 
 attacked on the road, the Muhammadan law 
 allows the punishment of crucifixion for the 
 offence. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 131.) But it is a 
 curious provision of the Muslim law that if 
 some of the travellers in a caravan commit 
 a robbery upon others of the same caravan, 
 punishment (i.e. of amputation) is not in¬ 
 curred by them. (Vol. ii. 137.) 
 
 CARRION (Arabic Maitali ) is for¬ 
 
 bidden in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 80. “ That 
 
 which dieth of itself, and blood, and swine’s 
 flesh, and that over which any other name 
 than that of God hath been invoked, is for¬ 
 bidden. But he who shall partake of them 
 by constraint, without lust or wilfulness, no 
 sin shall be upon him.” 
 
 CASTING LOTS. Zalam, or 
 
 casting lots by shooting arrows, was an 
 ancient Arabic custom, which is forbidden by 
 Muhammad in his Qur’an, Surah v. 4 : but 
 qur‘ah, or casting lots, in its ordinary sense, 
 is not forbidden, for ‘Ayishah relates that 
 when the Prophet went on a journey, he used 
 to cast lots as to which wife he should take 
 with him. (Mislikat Babu ’l- Qasam .) 
 
 CATS. Arabic Hirrah. Accord¬ 
 ing to a Hadis of Abu Qutadah, who was one 
 of the Companions, Muhammad said, “ Cats 
 are not impure, they keep watch around us.” 
 He used water from which a cat had drunk 
 for his purifications, and his wife ‘Ayishah 
 ate from a vessel from which a cat had eaten. 
 (Mishkdt, book iii., c. 10, pt. 2.) 
 
 CATTLE. Arabic An‘dm. They 
 
 are said in the Qur’an to be the gift of God, 
 Surah xl. 79, “ God it is who hath made for 
 you cattle, that ye may ride on some and eat 
 others.” 
 
 Cattle kept for the purpose of labour, such 
 as carrying burthens, drawing ploughs, &c., 
 are not subject to zakat, neither is there zakat 
 on cattle who are left to forage for one half 
 year or more. (Hidayah, i. 18.) 
 
 Al-An‘am is the title of the sixth Surah of 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 7 
 
50 
 
 CAVE 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 CAYE, The Companions of the 
 
 (Arabic Ashabu ’l-Jcahf), or the Seven Sleepers 
 of Ephesus, form the subject of one of the 
 chapters of the Qur’an, Surah xviii. 6. 
 [ashabu ’l-kahf.] 
 
 CELIBACY (Arabic £ Uzubah), 
 
 although not absolutely condemned by Mu¬ 
 hammad, is held to be a lower form of life to 
 that of marriage. It is related that ‘Usman 
 ibn Maz‘un wished to lead a celebate life, and 
 the Prophet forbade him, for, said he, “ When 
 a Muslim marries he perfects his religion.” 
 (Mishlcat , book xii. c. xx.) 
 
 C EYLON. Arabic Sarancllb. The 
 
 Commentators say that when Adam and Eve 
 were cast out of Paradise, Adam fell on the 
 island of Ceylon, and Eve near Jiddah in 
 Arabia, and that after a separation of 200 
 years, Adam was, on his repentance, con¬ 
 ducted by the angel Gabriel to a mountain 
 near Makkah, where he found and knew his 
 wife, the mountain being named ‘Arafah ; and 
 that afterwards he retired with her to Ceylon, 
 when they continued to propagate their 
 species. (D’Herbelot, Bibl. Orient., p. 55.) 
 
 CHASTITY. “ Neither their (the 
 
 Muslims’) tenets nor their practice will in 
 any respect bear to come into competition 
 with Christian, or even with Jewish morality. 
 
 . . . . For instance, we call the Muslims 
 chaste because they abstained from indis¬ 
 criminate profligacy, and kept carefully 
 within the bounds prescribed as licit by 
 their Prophet. But those bounds, besides the 
 utmost freedom of divorce and change of 
 wives, admitted an illimitable licence of co¬ 
 habitation with ‘ all that the right hand of 
 the believer might possess,’ or, in other 
 words, with any possible number of damsels 
 he might choose to purchase, or receive in 
 gift, or take captive in war.” (Muir's Life of 
 Mahomet, vol. i. 272. [concubinage, slaves, 
 
 MUT‘AH, DIVOECE, MAKEIAGE.] 
 
 CHARITY, as it implies tenderness 
 
 and affection, is expressed by hubb, or mahab- 
 bah ; as it denotes almsgiving, it is sadaqah. 
 He who is liberal and charitable to the poor 
 is called muhibbu 'l-fuqard'. 
 
 CHERUBIM. Arabic Karubt, pi. 
 
 Karubin ; Lit. “ Those who are near.” Heb, 
 The word karubin is used by the 
 
 commentator al-Baizawi, for the angels men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah xl. 70 : “ Those 
 around it (the throne of God) celebrate the 
 praise of their Lord, and believe in Him, and 
 ask pardon for those who believe.” Al-Baizawi 
 says the Karubin are the highest rank, and 
 the first created angels. Husain says there 
 are 70,000 ranks of them round the throne of 
 God. ( Tafsiru 'l-Baizawi, Tafsiru Husain, 
 in loco.) 
 
 CHESS. Arabic Shatranj. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Hidayah, “ It is an abomi¬ 
 nation to play at chess, dice, or any other 
 
 game, for if anything be staked it is 
 gambling ( maisir ), which is expressly for¬ 
 bidden in the Qur’an; or if, on the other 
 hand, nothing he hazarded, it is useless and 
 vain. Besides, the Prophet has declared all 
 the entertainments of a Muslim to be vain 
 except three: the breaking in of his horse, the 
 drawing of his bow, and playing and amusing 
 himself with his wives. Several of the 
 learned, however, deem the game at chess 
 lawful as having a tendency to quicken the 
 understanding. This is the opinion of ash- 
 Shdfi-i. If a man play at chess for a stake, it 
 destroys the integrity of his character, but if 
 he do not play for a stake, the integrity of his 
 character is not affected. (Hamilton’s Hidd- 
 yah, vol. iv. p. 122.) 
 
 CHILDREN. Arabic Aulad. 
 
 There are no special injunctions in the 
 Qur’an regarding the customs to be ob¬ 
 served at the birth of an infant (circumci¬ 
 sion not being even once mentioned in that 
 book), nor with reference to the train¬ 
 ing and instruction of the young; but the 
 subject is frequently referred to in the Tra¬ 
 ditions and in Muhammadan books on Ethics. 
 Muhammadans have so largely incorporated 
 the customs of the Hindus in India with their 
 own, especially those observed at the births of 
 children, that it is sometimes difficult to dis¬ 
 tinguish those which are special characteris¬ 
 tics of Islam ; many of the customs recorded 
 in Herlilot’s Musalmans, for example, being 
 merely those common to Hindus as well as 
 Muhammadans. We shall, however, endea¬ 
 vour to describe those which are generally 
 admitted to have some authority in the pre¬ 
 cepts of the Muslim religion. 
 
 (1.) At the birth of a child, after he has 
 been properly washed with water and bound 
 in swaddling clothes, he is carried by the mid¬ 
 wife to the assembly of male relatives and 
 friends, who have met on the occasion, when 
 the chief Maulawl, or some person present, 
 recites the Azan, or summons to prayer 
 [azan], in the infant’s right ear, and the 
 Iqdmah, which is the Azan with the addition 
 of the words, “ We are standing up for 
 prayers ” [iqamah], in the left ear ; a custom 
 which is founded on the example of the Pro¬ 
 phet, who is related to have done so at the 
 birth of his grandson Hasan ( Mishkat , book 
 xviii. c. iv. 2). The Maulawi then chews a 
 little date fruit and inserts it into the infant’s 
 mouth, a custom also founded upon the ex¬ 
 ample of Muhammad. ( Mishlcat , book xviii. 
 c. iv. 1.) This ceremony being over, alms are 
 distributed, and fatifiahs are recited for the 
 health and prosperity of the child. According 
 to the traditions, the amount of silver given 
 in alms should be of the same weight as 
 the hair on the infant’s head—the child’s 
 head being shaved for this purpose. ( Mish- 
 kat, ibid., part 2.) The friends and neigh¬ 
 bours then visit the home, and bring presents, 
 and pay congratulatory compliments on the 
 joyful occasion. 
 
 (2.) The naming of the child should, accord¬ 
 ing to the Traditions ( Mishkat , ibid.), be 
 
CHILDREN 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 51 
 
 given on the seventh day ; the child being 
 either named after some member of the 
 family, or after some saint venerated by the 
 family, or somo name suggested by tho au¬ 
 spicious horn - , the planet, or tho sign of the 
 zodiac, [exorcism.] 
 
 (3.) On this, the seventh day, is observed 
 also the ceremony of ‘Aqiqah, established by 
 Muhammad himself ( Babu 'l- 1 Aqiqah in 
 Arabic Ed. Sahih of Abu Daud, vol. ii. jj. 30) 
 It consists of a sacrifice to God, in the name 
 of the child, of two lie-goats for a boy, and 
 one he-goat for a girl. The goats must be 
 not above a year old, and without spot or 
 blemish. The animal is dressed and cooked, 
 and whilst the friends eat of it they offer the 
 following prayer:—“ 0 God 1 I offer to thee 
 instead of my own offspring, life for life, 
 blood for blood, head for head, bone for bone, 
 hair for hair, skin for skin. In the name of 
 the great God, I do sacrifice this goat! ” 
 
 (4.) The mother is purified on th & fortieth 
 day, when she is at liberty to go about as 
 usual, and it is on this day that the infant is 
 generally placed in the swinging cradle pecu¬ 
 liar to eastern households. It is a day of 
 some rejoicing amongst the members of the 
 Haram. 
 
 (5.) As soon as the child is able to talk, or 
 when he has attained the age of four years, 
 four months, and four days, he is taught the 
 Bismillah ; that is, to recite tho inscription 
 which occurs at the commencement of the 
 Qur’an: “ Bi-'smi ’llahi 'r-rah.nia.ni ’r-rafdm.” 
 In the name of God the Merciful, the Gra¬ 
 cious. After this ceremony, the child is sent 
 to school and taught the alphabet, and to 
 recite certain chapters of the Qur’an by rote. 
 
 (6.) According to the opinion of Sunni 
 doctors, the circumcision of the child should 
 take place in his seventh year ; the opera¬ 
 tion being generally performed by the barber. 
 [circumcision.] The child is not required to 
 observe all the customs of the Muslim law 
 until he has arrived at puberty [puberty] ; 
 but it is held incumbent on parents and 
 guardians to teach him the prayers as soon 
 as he has been circumcised. 
 
 (7.) The time when the child has finished 
 reciting the whole of the Qur’an, once through, 
 is also regarded as an important epoch in the 
 life of a child. On this occasion the scholar 
 makes his obeisance to his tutor and presents 
 him with trays of sweetmeats, a suit of 
 clothes, and money. 
 
 As we have already remarked, the instruc¬ 
 tion of youth is a frequent subject of 
 discussion in books of Muslim Ethics. 
 The following, which is taken from the 
 Akhldq-i-Jaldli, is an interesting specimen 
 of Muhammadan ideas on the subject:— 
 The first requisite is to employ a proper 
 nurse of a well-balanced temperament, for 
 the qualities, both temperamental and spiri¬ 
 tual, of the nurse are communicated to the 
 infant. Next, since we are recommended by 
 the Traditions to give the name on the seventh 
 day (after birth), the precept had better be 
 conformed to. In delaying it, however, there 
 is this advantage, that time is given for a 
 
 deliberate selection of an appropiiate name. 
 For, if we give the child an ill-assorted one. 
 his whole life is embittered in consequence 
 Hence caution in determining the name is one 
 of the parent’s obligations towards his off¬ 
 spring. 
 
 If we would prevent the child’s acquiring 
 culpable habits, we must apply ourselves to 
 educate him as soon as weaned. For though 
 men have a capacity for perfection, the ten¬ 
 dency to vice is naturally implanted in the soul. 
 The first requisite is to restrain him abso¬ 
 lutely from all acquaintance with those ex¬ 
 cesses which are characterised as vice. For 
 the mind of children is like a clear tablet, 
 equally open to any inscription. Next to that, 
 he should be taught the institutes of religion 
 and rules of propriety, and, according as his 
 power and capacity may admit, confined to 
 their practice, and reprehended and restrained 
 from their neglect. Thus, at the age of 
 seven, we are told by the Traditions to enjoin 
 him merely to say his prayers ; at the age of 
 ten, if he omits them, to admonish him by 
 blows. By praising the good and censuring 
 the bad, we should render him emulous of 
 right and apprehensive of wrong. We should 
 commend him when he performs a creditable 
 action, and intimidate him when he commits 
 a reprehensible one ; and yet we should avoid, 
 if possible, subjecting him to positive cen¬ 
 sure, imputing it rather to oversight, lest he 
 grow audacious. If he keep his fault a 
 secret, we are not to rend away the disguise ; 
 but if he do so repeatedly, we must rebuke 
 him severely in private, aggravating the 
 heinousness of such a practice, and intimidat¬ 
 ing him from its repetition. We must beware, 
 however, of too much frequency of detection 
 and reproof, for fear of his growing used to 
 censure, and contracting a habit of reckless¬ 
 ness ; and thus, according to the proverb, 
 “ Men grow eager for that which is withheld,” 
 feeling a tendency to repeat the offence. For 
 these reasons we should prefer to work by 
 enhancing the attraction of virtue. 
 
 On meat, drink, and fine clothing, he must 
 be taught to look with contempt, and deeply 
 impressed with the conviction that it is the 
 practice of women only to prize the colour¬ 
 ing and figuring of dress ; that men ought to 
 hold themselves above it. The proprieties of 
 meal-taking are those in which he should be 
 earliest instructed, as far as he can acquire 
 them. He should be made to understand that 
 the proper end of eating is health and not 
 gratification; that food and drink are a sort 
 of medicine for the cure of hunger and thirst; 
 and just as medicines are only to be taken in 
 the measure of need, according as sickness 
 may require their influence, food and drink 
 are onlyfto be used in quantity sufficient to 
 satisfy hunger and remove thirst. He should 
 be forbidden to vary his diet, and taught to 
 prefer limiting himself to a single dish. His 
 appetite should also be checked that he may 
 be satisfied with meals at the stated hours, 
 Let him not be a lover of delicacies. He 
 should now and then be kept on dry bread 
 only, in order that in time of need he may be 
 
52 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 CHILDREN 
 
 able to subsist on that. Habits like these are 
 better than riches. Let his principal meal be 
 made in the evening rather than the morning, 
 or he will be overpowered by drowsiness and 
 lassitude during the day. Flesh let him have 
 sparingly, or he will grow heavy and dull. 
 Sweetmeats and other such aperient food 
 should be forbidden him, as likewise- all 
 liquid at the time of meals. Incumbent as it 
 is on all men to eschew strong drinks, there 
 are obvious reasons why it is superlatively so 
 on boys, impairing them both in mind and 
 body, and leading to anger, rashness, auda¬ 
 city, and levity, qualities which such a prac¬ 
 tice is sure to confirm. Parties of this nature 
 he should not be allowed mmecessarily to 
 frequent, nor to listen to reiorehensible conver¬ 
 sation. His food should not be given to him 
 till he has despatched his tasks, unless suf¬ 
 fering from positive exhaustion. He must be 
 forbidden to conceal any of his actions, lest 
 he grow bold in impropriety ; for, manifestly, 
 the motive to concealment can be no other 
 than an idea that they are culpable. Sleep¬ 
 ing in the day and sleeping overmuch at night 
 should be prohibited. Soft clothing and all 
 the uses of luxury, such as cool retreats in 
 the hot season, and fires and fur in the cold, 
 he should be taught to abstain from; he 
 should be inured to exercise, foot-walking, 
 horse-riding, and all other appropriate accom¬ 
 plishments. 
 
 Next, let him learn the proprieties of con¬ 
 versation and behaviour. Let him not be 
 tricked out with trimmings of the hair and 
 womanly attention to dress, nor be presented 
 with rings till the proper time for wearing 
 them. Let him be forbidden to boast to his 
 companions of his ancestry or worldly advan¬ 
 tages. Let him be restrained from speaking 
 untruths or from swearing in any case, whether 
 true or false ; for an oath is wrongful in any¬ 
 one, and repugnant to the letter of the Tradi¬ 
 tions, saving when required by the interest 
 of the public. And even though oaths may 
 be requisite to men, to boys they never can 
 be so. Let him be trained to silence, to 
 speaking only when addressed, to listening in 
 the presence of his elders, and expressing 
 himself correctly. 
 
 For an instructor he should have a man of 
 principle and intelligence, well acquainted 
 with the discipline of morals, fond of cleanli¬ 
 ness, noted for stateliness, dignity, and huma¬ 
 nity, well acquainted with the dispositions of 
 kings, with the etiquette of dining in their 
 company, and with the terms of intercourse 
 with all classes of mankind. It is desir¬ 
 able that others of his kind, and especially 
 sons of noblemen, whose manners have 
 always a distinguished elegance, should be 
 at school with him, so that in their society 
 he may escape lassitude, learn demeanour, 
 and exert himself with emulation in his 
 studies. If the instructor correct him with 
 blows, he must be forbidden to cry, for that 
 is the practice of slaves and imbeciles. On 
 the other hand, the instructor must be care¬ 
 ful not to resort to blows, except he is wit¬ 
 ness of an offence openly committed. When 
 
 compelled to inflict them, it is desirable in 
 the outset to make them small in number and 
 great in pain ; otherwise the warning is not so 
 efficacious, and he may grow audacious 
 enough to repeat the offence. 
 
 Let him be encouraged to liberality, and 
 taught to look with contempt on the perish¬ 
 able things of this world; for more ill comes 
 from the love of money than from the simoom 
 of the desert or the serpent of the field. The 
 Imam al-Ghazzali, in commenting on the text, 
 “ Preserve me and them from idolatry,” says 
 that by idols is here meant gold and silver ; 
 and Abraham’s prayer is that he and his 
 descendants may be kept far removed from 
 the worship of gold and silver, and from 
 fixing their affections on them; because the 
 love of these was the root of all evil. In his 
 leisure hours he may be allowed to play, 
 provided it does not lead to excess of fatigue 
 or the commission of anything wrong. 
 
 When the discerning power begins to pre¬ 
 ponderate, it should be expilained to him that 
 the original object of worldly possessions is 
 the maintenance of health; so that the body 
 may be made to last the period requisite to 
 the spirit’s qualifying itself for the life 
 eternal. Then, if he is to belong to the 
 scientific classes, let him be instructed in the 
 sciences. Let him be employed (as soon as 
 disengaged from studying the essentials of the 
 religion) in acquiring the sciences. The best 
 course is to ascertain, by examination of the 
 youth’s character, for what science or art he 
 is best qualified, and to employ him accord¬ 
 ingly ; for, agreeably to the proverb, “ All 
 facilities are not created to the same person 
 everyone is not qualified for every profess- 
 sion, but each for a particular one. 
 
 This, indeed, is the expression of a prin¬ 
 ciple by which the fortunes of man and of the 
 world are regulated. With the old philoso¬ 
 phers it was a practice to inspect the horo¬ 
 scope of nativity, and to devote the child to 
 that profession which apjaeared from the 
 planetary positions to be suitable to his 
 nature. When a person is adapted to a pro¬ 
 fession, he can acquire it with little pains; 
 and when unadapted, the utmost he can do is 
 but to waste his time and defer his esta¬ 
 blishment in life. When a profession bears 
 an incongruity with his nature, and means 
 and appliances are unpropitious, we should 
 not urge him to pursue it, but exchange it for 
 some other, provided that there is no hope at 
 all of succeeding with the first; otherwise it 
 may lead to his perplexity. In the prosecu¬ 
 tion of every profession, let him adopt a 
 system which will call into play the ardour 
 of his nature, assist him in preserving health, 
 and prevent obtusity and lassitude. 
 
 As soon as he is perfect in a profession, 
 let him be required to gain his livelihood 
 thereby; in order that, from an experience 
 of its advantages, he may strive to master 
 it completely, and make full progress in 
 the minutiae of its principles. And for this 
 livelihood he must be trained to look to 
 that honourable emolument which charac¬ 
 terises the well-connected. He must not 
 
CHILD STEALING 
 
 depend on tho provision afforded by liis 
 father. For it generally happens, when the 
 sons of the wealthy, by the pride of their 
 parents’ opulence, are debarred from acquir¬ 
 ing a profession, that they sink by the vicis¬ 
 situdes of fortune into utter insignificance. 
 Therefore, when he has so far mastered his 
 profession as to earn a livelihood, it is expe¬ 
 dient to provide him with a consort, and let 
 him depend on his separate earning. The 
 Kings of Fars, forbearing to bring their sons 
 up surrounded by domestics and retinue, sent 
 them off to a distance, in order to habituate 
 them to a life of hardship. The Dilemite 
 chiefs had the same practice. A person bred 
 upon the opposite principle can hardly be 
 brought to good, especially if at all ad¬ 
 vanced in years ; like hard wood which is 
 with difficulty straightened. And this was 
 the answer Socrates gave, when asked why 
 his intimacies lay chiefly among the young. 
 
 In training daughters to that which befits 
 them, domestic ministration, rigid seclusion, 
 chastity, modesty, and the other qualities 
 already appropriated to women—no care can 
 be too great. They should be made emulous 
 of acquiring the virtues of their sex, but must 
 be altogether forbidden to read and write. 
 When they reach the marriageable age, no 
 time should be lost in marrying them to 
 proper mates. (See Akhlaq-i-Jalali , Thomp¬ 
 son’s ed.) 
 
 CHILD STEALING. The hand 
 
 of a thief is not to be cut off for stealing a 
 free-born child, although there be ornaments 
 upon it, because a free person is not. property, 
 and the ornaments are only appendages ; and 
 also because the thief may plead that he took 
 the child up when it was crying, with a view 
 to appease it, and to deliver it to the nurse. 
 But Abu Yusuf does notjagree with Hanifah; 
 for he says where the value of the ornaments 
 amounts to tendirms, amputation is incurred. 
 Amputation is also inflicted for stealing an 
 infant slave, because a slave is property, 
 although Abu Yusuf says it is not. ( Hidd- 
 yah, ii. 91.) 
 
 CHOSROES. Arabic Khusraw. 
 
 The King of Persia to whom Muhammad 
 sent a letter inviting him to Islam. He is 
 said to be Nausherwan. (See Gliiyagu 7- 
 Lughat, in loco; refer also to Muir’s Life of 
 Mahomet, vol. ii. 54 n.) 
 
 CHRIST, [jestts christ.] 
 
 CHRISTIANITY and CHRIS¬ 
 TIANS. Arabic, Nasraniyah, “ Christianity”; 
 the terms used for Christians being Nasran, 
 pi. Nasara, or ‘Isawi. 
 
 Christianity seems to have been widely dif¬ 
 fused in Arabia at the time of Muhammad. 
 According to Caussin de Perceval, who quotes 
 from Arabic writers, Christianity existed 
 amongst the Banu Taghlib of Mesopotamia, 
 the Banu ‘Abdu ’1-Qais, the Banu Haris of 
 Najran, the Banu Ghassan of Syria, and 
 other tribes between al-Madlnah and al- 
 Kufah. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 58 
 
 Tho historian Philostorges (Hint. Ecc.les. 
 lib. 1, c. 3) tells us that a monk named Theo- 
 philus, who was an Indian bishop, was sent 
 by the Emperor Constance, a.d 342, to the 
 Himyarite King of Yaman, and obtained per¬ 
 mission to build three Christian churches for 
 those who professed Christianity ; one at 
 Zafar, another at ‘Adan, and a third at Hur- 
 muz on the Persian Gulf. According to the 
 same author, the Christian religion was in¬ 
 troduced into Najran in the fifth century. A 
 bishop sent by the Patriarch of Alexandria 
 was established in tho city of Zafar, and we are 
 told by Muslim authors, quoted by Caussin de 
 Perceval, that a Christian church was built at 
 $an‘a’ which was the wonder of the age, the 
 Roman Emperor and the Viceroy of Abyssinia 
 furnishing the materials and workmen for tho 
 building. The Arabs of Taman were ordered by 
 the ruler of Abyssinia to perform a pilgrimage 
 to this new church instead of to the Ka‘bah; 
 an edict which is said to have been resisted 
 and to have given rise to the “War of the Ele¬ 
 phant,” when Abrahah, the Viceroy of Egypt, 
 took an oath that he would destroy the 
 Meccan temple, and marched at the head of 
 an army of Abyssinians, mounted on an 
 elephant. This “ War of the Elephant ” 
 marks the period of Muhammad’s birth. 
 
 [MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 The Christianity of this period is described 
 by Mosheim as “ expiring under a motley and 
 enormous heap of superstitious inventions, 
 with neither the courage nor the force to raise 
 her head or display her national charms to 
 a darkened and deluded world.” Doubtless 
 much of the success of Islam in its earlier 
 stage was due to the state of degradation into 
 which the Christian Church had fallen. The 
 bitter dissensions of the Greeks, Nestorians, 
 Eutychians, and Monophysites are matters of 
 history, and must have held up the religion of 
 Jesus to the ridicule of the heathen world. 
 The controversies regarding the nature and 
 person of our Divine Lord had begotten a 
 sect of Tritheists, led by a Syrian philoso¬ 
 pher named John Philoponus of Alexandria, 
 and are sufficient to account for Muhammad’s 
 conception of the Blessed Trinity. The wor¬ 
 ship of the Virgin Mary had also given rise to 
 a religious controversy between the Antiduo- 
 Marianites and the Collyridians ; the former 
 holding that the Virgin was not immaculate, 
 and the latter raising her to a position of a 
 goddess. Under the circumstances it is not 
 surprising to find that the mind of the Arabian 
 reformer turned away from Christianity and 
 endeavoured to construct a religion on the 
 lines of Judaism. [Judaism.] 
 
 Al-Baizawi and other Muslim commenta¬ 
 tors, admit that Muhammad received Chris¬ 
 tian instruction from learned Christians, 
 named Jubra and Yasara (al-Baizawi on 
 Surah xvi. 105), and that on this account the 
 Quraish said, “ It is only some mortal that 
 teaches him 1 ” For the Traditions relate 
 that Muhammad used to stop and listen to 
 these two Christians as they read aloud the 
 Books of Moses ( Taurdt ) and the New Testa¬ 
 ment ( Injil ). But it is remarkable that Mu- 
 
CHRISTIANITY 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 54 
 
 hammad should, after all, have obtained such 
 a cursory knowledge of Christianity. For 
 from the text of the Qur’an (extracts of 
 which are subjoined), it is evident that he was 
 under the impression that the Sacrament of 
 Baptism was Sibghah, or the dyeing of the 
 Christians’ clothes; and if the Chapter of the 
 Table refers to the Sacrament of the Lord’s 
 Supper (which is uncertain), it was “a table 
 sent out of heaven that it may be a recurring 
 festival.” The doctrine of the Trinity is sup¬ 
 posed to be a Tritheism of God, Jesus Christ, 
 and the Virgin Mary; and a proof against 
 the Divinity of Christ is urged from the fact 
 that He and His mother “ both ate food.” 
 The crucifixion is denied, and Mary the 
 mother of Jesus is confounded with Mary the 
 sister of Aaron. Such mistakes and omissions 
 could only arise from a most imperfect ac¬ 
 quaintance with the ordinary institutions and 
 beliefs of the Christian communities, with 
 whom Muhammad must have been brought 
 in contact. The gentler tone and spirit of 
 the Christians seems to have won the sym¬ 
 pathy of Muhammad, and his expressions 
 regarding them are less severe than with 
 reference to the Jews ; but the abstruse cha¬ 
 racter of their creed, as shown in their end¬ 
 less schisms regarding the nature of the 
 Trinity and the person of Christ, and the 
 idolatrous character of their worship, as still 
 seen in the ancient Syrian and Coptic 
 churches, led him to turn from Christianity 
 to Judaism as a model whereby to effect the 
 reformation of a degraded and idolatrous 
 people like the ancient Arabians. The 
 Jewish and Mosaic character of Muhammad’s 
 system will be treated of in another place. 
 
 [JUDAISM.] 
 
 The following selections from the Qur’an 
 will show the actual teaching of that book 
 regarding Christianity. In the whole of the 
 Qur’an there is not a single quotation from 
 the New Testament, and it is noticeable that 
 nearly all the allusions to Christianity are 
 contained in Meccan Surahs ; Surali ii. being 
 according to Jalalu ’d-din SuyutI, one of the 
 earliest chapters given at Makkah, and 
 Surah v. the last. 
 
 Surah v. 85 :— 
 
 “ Of all men thou wilt certainly find the 
 Jews, and those ■who join other gods with 
 God, to be the most intense in hatred of those 
 who believe; and thou shalt certainly find 
 those to be nearest in affection to them who 
 say, ‘ We are Christians.’ This, because 
 there are amongst them priests ( qissisun ) 
 and monks, and because they are not 
 proud.” 
 
 Surah ii. 59 :— 
 
 “ Verily, they who believe (Muslims), and 
 they who follow the Jewish religion, and the 
 Christians, and the Sabeites—whoever of 
 these believeth in God and the last day, and 
 doeth that which is right, shall have their 
 reward with their Lord: fear shall not 
 come upon them, neither shall they be 
 grieved.” 
 
 (The same verse occurs again in Surah v. 
 
 74.) 
 
 Surah ii. 105 :— 
 
 “ And they say, ‘ None but Jews or Chris¬ 
 tians shall enter Paradise: ’ This is their 
 wish. Say : Give your proofs if ye speak 
 the truth. But they who set their face 
 with resignation Godward, and do what is 
 right,—their reward is with their Lord ; no 
 fear shall come on them, neither shall they 
 be grieved. Moreover, the Jews say, ‘ The 
 Christians lean on naught: ’ ‘ On naught 
 lean the Jews,’ say the Christians. Yet 
 both are readers of the Book. So with like 
 words say they who have no knowledge. 
 But on the resurrection day, God shall 
 judge between them as to that in which 
 they differ. And who committeth a greater 
 wrong than he who hindereth God’s name 
 from being remembered in His temples, 
 and who hasteth to ruin them ? Such men 
 cannot enter them but with fear. Theirs 
 is shame in this world, and a severe tor¬ 
 ment in the next. The East and the West 
 is God’s: therefore, whichever way ye turn, 
 there is the face of God. Truly God is 
 immense and knoweth all. And they say, 
 1 God hath a son: ’ No ! Praise be to 
 Him ! But—His, whatever is in the Heavens 
 and the Earth! All obeyeth Him, sole 
 maker of the Heavens and of the Earth! 
 And when He decreeth a thing, He only 
 saith to it, ‘Be,’ and it is. And they who 
 have no knowledge say, ‘ Unless God speak 
 to us, or thou shew us a sign ....!’ So, 
 with like words, said those who were 
 before them: their hearts are alike. 
 Clear signs have we already shown for 
 those who have firm faith. Verily, with 
 the Truth have we sent thee, a bearer 
 of good tidings and a Warner: and of the 
 people of Hell thou shalt not be questioned. 
 But until thou follow their religion, neither 
 Jews nor Christians will be satisfied with 
 thee. Say : Verily, guidance of God,— 
 that is the guidance ! And if, after 
 ‘ the Knowledge,’ which hath reached 
 thee, thou follow their desires, thou shalt 
 find neither helper nor protector against 
 God.” 
 
 Surah iv. 156 :-— 
 
 “ Nay, but God hath sealed them up for 
 their unbelief, so that but few believe. 
 And for their unbelief,—and for their 
 having spoken against Mary a grievous 
 calumny,—and for their saying, 1 Verily we 
 have slain the Messiah (Masih), Jesus (‘Isa) 
 the son of Mary, an Apostle of God.’ Yet 
 they slew him not, and they crucified him not, 
 but they had only his likeness. And they who 
 differed about him were in doubt concerning 
 him. No sure knowledge had they about 
 him, but followed only an opinion, and 
 they did not really slay him, but God took 
 him up to Himself. And God is Mighty, 
 Wise! ” 
 
 Surah ii. 130 :— 
 
 “ They say, moreover, ‘ Become Jews or 
 Christians that ye may have the true 
 guidance.’ Say : Nay 1 the religion of 
 Abraham, the sound in faith, and not 
 one of those who join gods with God! 
 
CHRISTIANITY 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 55 
 
 Say ye: ‘ We believe in God, and that 
 which hath been sent down to us, and 
 that which hath been sent down to Abra¬ 
 ham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and 
 the tribes: and that which hath been 
 given to Moses and to Jesus, and that 
 which was given to the prophets from their 
 Lord. No difference do we make between 
 any of them: and to God are we resigned 
 (Muslims).’ If, therefore, they believe even 
 as ye believe, then have they true guid- 
 ance; but if they turn back, then do they 
 cut themselves off from you : and God will 
 suffice to protect thee against them, for He 
 is the Hearer, the Knower. The Baptism 
 of God, and who is better to baptize than 
 God? And Him do we serve.” 
 
 Surah v. 75 :— 
 
 “ They surely are Infidels who say, ‘ God 
 is the third of three : ’ for there is no God 
 but one God : and if they refrain not from 
 what they say, a gi’ievous chastisement 
 shall light on such of them as are Infidels. 
 Will they not, therefore, bo turned unto 
 God, and ask pardon of Him ? since God 
 is Forgiving, Merciful! The Messiah, Son 
 of Mary, is but an Apostle; other Apostles 
 have flourished befoi’e him; and his mother 
 was a just person: they both ate food. 
 Behold! how we make clear to them the 
 signs ! then behold how they turn aside! 
 Say : Will ye worship, beside God, that 
 which can neither hurt nor help ? But 
 God! He only Heai-eth, Knoweth. Say : 
 0 people of the Book ! outstep not bounds 
 of truth in your religion; neither follow 
 the desires of those who have already 
 gone astray, and who have caused many to 
 go astray, and have themselves gone astray 
 from the evenness of the way. Those 
 among the children of Israel who believed 
 not were cursed by the tongue of David, 
 and of Jesus, Son of Mary. This, because 
 they were rebellious, and became transgres¬ 
 sors : they forbade not one another the 
 iniquity which they wrought! detestable 
 are their actions I ” 
 
 Surah v. 18:— 
 
 “ And of those who say, ‘ We are Chris- 
 tians,’ have we accepted the covenant. But 
 they too have forgotten a part of what they 
 were taught; wherefore we have stirred up 
 enmity and hatred among them that shall 
 last till the day of the Resurrection ; and in 
 the end will God tell them of their doings. 
 0 people of the Scriptures! now is our 
 Apostle come to you to clear up to you 
 much that ye concealed of those Scriptures, 
 and to pass over many things. Now hath 
 a light and a clear Book come to you from 
 God, by which God will guide him who 
 shall follow after His good pleasure to 
 paths of peace, and will bring them out of 
 the darkness to the light, by His will: and 
 to the straight path will He guide them. 
 Infidels now are they who say, ‘ Vei'ily 
 God is al-MasIh Ibn Maryam (the Messiah, 
 son of Mary) ! Say : And who could aught 
 obtain from God, if He chose to destroy 
 al-Masfh Ibn Maryam, and his mother, and 
 
 all who are on the earth together ? For 
 with God is the sovereignty of the Hea¬ 
 vens and of the Earth, and of all that is 
 between them ! He createth what He will; 
 and over all things is God potent. Say 
 the Jews and Christians, ‘ Sons are we 
 of God and His beloved.’ Say : Why then 
 doth He chastise you for your sins ? Nay! 
 ye are but a part of the men whom He 
 hath created! ” 
 
 Surah v. 58:— 
 
 “ 0 Believers! take not the Jews or 
 Christians as fi'iends. They are but one 
 another’s friends. If any one of you taketh 
 them for his friends, he surely is one of 
 them! God will not guide the evil-doers. 
 So shalt thou see the diseased at heart 
 speed away to them, and say, ‘ We fear lest 
 a change of fortune befall us.’ But haply 
 God will of Himself bring about some vic¬ 
 tory or event of His own ordei'ing: then soon 
 will they repent them of their secret imagin¬ 
 ings.” 
 
 Surah xxii. 18 :— 
 
 “As to those who believe, and the Jews, 
 and the Sabeites, and the Christians, and the 
 Magians, and those who join other gods with 
 God, of a ti’uth, God shall decide between 
 them on the day of resurrection: for God is 
 witness of all things.” 
 
 Surah v. 112 :— 
 
 “ Remember when the Apostles said—‘ 0 
 Jesus, Son of Mary ! is Thy Lord able to send 
 down a furnished TABLE to us out of 
 Heaven ? ’ He said—‘ Fear God if ye be 
 believers.’ They said—‘We desire to eat 
 therefrom, and to have our hearts assured ; 
 and to know that thou hast indeed spoken 
 ti’uth to us, and to be witnesses thereof.’ 
 Jesus, Son of Mary, said—‘0 God, our 
 Lord! send down a table to us out of Hea¬ 
 ven, that it may become a recun’ing festival 
 to us, to the first of us and to the last of us, 
 and a sign from Thee ; and do Thou nourish 
 us, for Thou art the best of nourishers.’ 
 And God said—Yex'ily, I will cause it to 
 descend unto you ; but whoever among you 
 after that shall disbelieve, I will surely 
 chastise him with a chastisement wherewith 
 I will not chastise any other creature. 
 And when God shall say—‘ 0 Jesus, Son 
 of Mary, hast Thou said unto mankind— 
 “ Take me and my mother as two Gods, 
 beside God ? ” ’ He shall say—‘ Glox'y be unto 
 Thee I it is not for me to say that which I 
 know to be not the truth ; had I said that, 
 vei’ily Thou wouldest have known it: Thou 
 knowest what is in me, but I know not what 
 is in Thee ; for Thou well knowest things 
 unseen! ” 
 
 Surah xix. 35 :— 
 
 “ This is Jesus, the son of Mary; this is a 
 statement of the truth concerning which they 
 doubt. It beseemeth not God to beget a 
 son. Glory be to Him! when He decreeth 
 a thing, He only saith to it, Be, and it is. 
 And verily, God is my Lord and your 
 Lord; adore Him then. This is the right 
 way. But The Sects have fallen to variance 
 among themselves about Jesus : but woe, 
 
56 
 
 CHRISTIANITY 
 
 CHURCHES 
 
 because of the assembly of a great day, to 
 those ■who believe not! ” 
 
 The only New Testament saints mentioned 
 by name in the Qur’an, are John the Baptist, 
 Zacharias, and the Virgin Mary. 
 
 In the Mishlcatu ’l-Masalnh, there are re¬ 
 corded in the traditional sayings of Muham¬ 
 mad, about six apparent plagiarisms from the 
 New Testament; but-whether they are the 
 plagiarisms of Muhammad himself or of those 
 who profess to record his sayings, it is inrpos- 
 sible to tell:— 
 
 Abu Hurairah says the Projrhet said, “ Of 
 the seven persons whom God, in the last day, 
 will draw to Himself, will be a man who has 
 given alms and concealed it, so that his left 
 hand knoweth not w'hat the right hand 
 doeth.” (Book i. c. ; viii. pt. 1; comp. 
 Matt. vi. 3.) 
 
 Again: “ God accepts not the prayers of 
 those who pray in long robes.” (Book i. 
 c. ix. pt. 2 ; comp. Matt. xii. 38.) 
 
 Again: “ The doors of the celestial regions 
 shall not open to them (the wicked) until a 
 camel pass through the eye of a needle.” 
 (Book v. c. iii. pt. 3; comp. Mark x. 
 25.) 
 
 Abu Umamah relates that the Prophet 
 said, “ Blessed be Him who hath seen me. 
 And blessed be him who hath not seen me 
 and yet hath believed.” (Book xxiv. c. xxvi. 
 pt. 3 ; comp. John xx. 29.) 
 
 Mu‘az relates that the Prophet said, “ Do 
 unto all men as you would they should do 
 unto you, and reject for others what you 
 would reject for yourself.” (Book i. c. i. 
 pt. 3 ; Matt. vii. 12.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said, “ Verily God will say in the day of re¬ 
 surrection, O ye sons of men! I was sick and 
 ye did not visit me. And the sons of men 
 will say, 0 Thou defender, how could we 
 visit Thee, for Thou art the Lord of the 
 universe, and art free from sickness ? And 
 God will say, 0 ye sons of men, did you not 
 know that such a one of my servants was 
 sick and ye did not visit him,” &c. &c. 
 (Book v. c. i. pt. 1; comp. Matt. xxv. 
 21 .) 
 
 Although it would be difficult to prove it 
 from the text of the Qur’an, the general 
 belief of Muhammadans is that Christians 
 are not in a state of salvation, and Laza, or 
 the “blazing fire,” mentioned in Surah lxx. 
 15, is, according to the Imam al-Baghawi, 
 reserved for them. 
 
 The condition of a Christian in a Muslim 
 state is that of a Zimmi, or one who pays 
 tribute to a Muhammadan governor, for 
 which he enjoys protection. He is allowed 
 to repair any old church which may have 
 been in existence at the time the country was 
 subdued by Islam, but he is not allowed to 
 erect new ones; “ for,” says Abu Hanifah, 
 “ the construction of churches or synagogues 
 in Muslim territory is unlawful, being for¬ 
 bidden in the Traditions.” “ It also behoves 
 the Imam to make distinction between Mus¬ 
 lims and Zimmis (i.e. Christians. Jews, and 
 others paying tribute). It is therefore not 
 
 allowable for them to ride upon horses or 
 use armour, or to wear the same dresses 
 as Muslims.” The reason for this, says 
 Abu Hanifah, “ is that Muhammadans are 
 to be held in honour and Zimmis are 
 not.” 
 
 The wives also of Zimmis are to be kept 
 apart from those of Muslims on the public 
 roads and baths. And it is also ordered 
 that a mark should be placed on their 
 doors, in order that when Muslim beggars 
 come to them they should not pray for 
 them! 
 
 The learned have ruled that a Zimmi 
 should not be allowed to ride at all, except 
 in cases of necessity, and if he be thus of 
 necessity allowed to ride, he should dismount 
 when he meets a Muslim. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. 
 219.) 
 
 A judge when he administers an oath 
 to a Christian, must direct him to say: 
 “ I swear by God who sent the Gospel to 
 Jesus.” 
 
 It is a singular ruling of the Muhammadan 
 law that a claim of parentage made by a 
 Christian is preferable to a claim of bondage 
 advanced by a Muslim. Abu Hanifah says 
 if a boy be in the possession of two men, the 
 one a Muslim and the other a Christian, and 
 the Christian assert that the boy is his son, 
 and the Muslim assert that he is his slave, 
 he must be decreed to be the son of the 
 Christian and free, because although Islam is 
 the superior religion, there can be no balance 
 between the claim of offspring and the claim 
 of bondage. {Idem, vol. iv. 133.) 
 
 Sir William Muir, referring to Muhammad’s 
 reception of the Banu Hanifah and other 
 Christian tribes, a.h. 9, says, “ On the depar¬ 
 ture of the embassy the Prophet gave 
 them a vessel with some water in it running 
 over from his own ablutions, and said to 
 them, ‘ When ye reach your country break 
 down your church, sprinkle its site with this 
 water, and build a Masjidin its place.’ These 
 commands they carried into effect, and aban¬ 
 doned Christianity without compunction. 
 To another Christian tribe he prohibited the 
 practice of baptism; so that although the 
 adults continued to be nominally Christian, 
 their children grew up with no provision but 
 
 that of the Qur’an.It is no wonder 
 
 that Christianity, thus insulted and trampled 
 under foot, languished and soon disappeared 
 from the peninsula.” (Life of Mahomet, vol. 
 iv. 219.) 
 
 CHURCHES. Arabic Bia’h and 
 
 Kanisah, which terms include equally 
 churches and synagogues. The construction 
 of churches or synagogues in Muslim terri¬ 
 tory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the 
 Traditions; but as for places of worship which 
 belonged to the Jews or Christians before 
 the country was conquered by the Muham¬ 
 madan power, they are at liberty to repair 
 them, because the buildings cannot endure 
 for ever, and, as the Imam of the Muslim 
 army has left these people to the exercise of 
 their own religion, it is a necessary inference 
 
OlKCUMCISlON 
 
 that he has engaged not to prevent them 
 from building or repairing their churches or 
 synagogues. If, however, they attempt to 
 remove these, and to build them in a place 
 different from their former situation, the 
 Imiim must prevent them, since this is an 
 actual construction. Monasteries and her¬ 
 mitages are under the same law. Places of 
 prayer within their dwellings are allowed to 
 be constructed, because they are merely an 
 appurtenance to a private habitation. What 
 is here said is held to be the rule with 
 regard to cities, but not with respect to vil¬ 
 lages, because as the “ tokens of Islam ” (i.e. 
 prayer, festivals, &c.) appear in cities, zimmis 
 (i.e. those paying tax for protection) should 
 not be permitted to exhibit the tokens of 
 their infidelity in the face of Islam. But as 
 the tokens of Islam do not appear in vil¬ 
 lages, the erection of churches and syna¬ 
 gogues is not prohibited there. But the Imam 
 Abu Hanlfah held that this exemption merely 
 applied to the village of Kusa, where the 
 greater part of the inhabitants were zimmis. 
 He adds that in the country of Arabia, Jews 
 and Christians are prohibited from construct¬ 
 ing synagogues and churches, either in cities 
 or villages, according to the saying of the 
 Prophet, “ Two religions cannot exist in the 
 country of Arabia.” (Hidayah , book ix. c. viii.) 
 
 If a Jew or a Christian, being in sound 
 health, build a church or a synagogue and 
 then die, such building is an inheritance, and 
 descends to the heirs of the founder. Accord¬ 
 ing to Abu Hanlfah, it is a pious appropria¬ 
 tion ; but his two disciples hold such erections 
 to be sinful, and only to be considered as or¬ 
 dinary property. If a Jew or a Christian will 
 that his house after his death shall be con¬ 
 verted into either a S3 T nagogue or church, the 
 bequest is valid. ( Hidayah , book lii. c. vi.) 
 
 The following tradition related by Talaq 
 ibn ‘All ( Mishkat , iv. c. viii. 2) exhibits Mu¬ 
 hammad’s determination to destroy Christian 
 churches : “ We told the Prophet that there 
 was a church on our ground; and we re¬ 
 quested the favour of his giving us the water 
 which remained after he had performed ivazu. 
 And the Prophet called for water, performed 
 wazu and washed out his mouth ; after which 
 he poured the water for us into a vessel and 
 ordered us to return, saying, ‘ When you 
 arrive, destroy your church (Arabic bi'-ah), 
 and pour this water on the spot, and build a 
 mosque there.” 
 
 CIRCUMCISION. Arabic Khitdn, 
 
 fchitanah . or khatnah. Circumcision is not 
 once alluded to in the Qur’an. The omission 
 is remarkable, and Muslim writers do not 
 attempt any explanation of it. It is held to 
 be sunnah , or founded upon the customs of 
 the Prophet ( Fatawa ‘Alamgiri , vol. iv. 
 p. 237), and dating its institution from the 
 time of Abraham. There is no authentic 
 account of the circumcision of Muhammad, 
 but it is asserted by some writers that he was 
 born circumcised. This, however, is denied by 
 the most eminent scholars. ( Raddu ’ l-Mukhtar , 
 vol. v. p. 835.) 
 
 CLEAN ANIMALS 57 
 
 In the Sahihu V-Bukhari, p. 931, a short 
 chapter is devoted to the subject of khitdn, 
 or “ circumcision,” in which there are three 
 traditions:— 
 
 Abu Ilurairah relates that the Prophet said 
 one of the observances of Fitrah is circumci¬ 
 sion. 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said that Abraham was circumcised when he 
 was eighty years old. 
 
 Said ibn Jubair relates that it was asked 
 of Ibn ‘Abbas, “ How old were you when the 
 Prophet died ? ” He said, “ I was circumcised 
 in the days when it occurred.” And Jubair 
 says they did not circumcise in those days 
 until men were full grown. 
 
 It is recommended to be performed upon a 
 boy between the ages of seven and twelve, but 
 it is lawful to circumcise a child seven days 
 after his birth. In the case of a convert to 
 Islam from some other creed, to whom the 
 operation may be an occasion of great suffer¬ 
 ing, it can be dispensed with, although it is 
 considered expedient and proper for all new 
 converts to be circumcised. In all cases an 
 adult is expected to circumcise himself, as it 
 is a shame for an adult person to uncover 
 himself to another. 
 
 The circumcision of females is also allowed, 
 and is commonly practised in Arabia. ( Fa - 
 tdwa ‘Alamgirl, vol. iv. p. 237.) 
 
 The barber is generally the person em¬ 
 ployed for the circumcision of boys, and the 
 operation as practised by Muhammadans in 
 India is performed in the following manner. 
 A bit of stick is used as a probe, and carried 
 round and round between the glans and pre¬ 
 puce, to ascertain the exact extent of the 
 fraenum, and that no unnatural adhesions 
 exist. The foreskin is then drawn forwards 
 and a pair of forceps, consisting of a couple 
 of pieces of split bamboo, five or six inches 
 long and a quarter of an inch thick, tied 
 firmly together at one end with a string to 
 the extent of an inch, applied from above in 
 an oblique direction, so as to exclude about 
 an inch and a half of the prepuce above and 
 three-quarters of an inch below. The for¬ 
 ceps severely grasping it, causes a good deal 
 of pain, but this state of suffering does not 
 continue long, since the next thing to be done 
 is the removal, which is done by one stroke 
 of the razor drawn directly downwards. The 
 haemorrhage which follows is inconsiderable 
 and easily stopped by the application of 
 burnt rags and ashes. 
 
 According to several Muhammadan doctors, 
 there were seventeen of the prophets born in 
 a circumcised state, namely, ZakarIya,_Shis, 
 Idris, Yusuf, Hanzalah, ‘Isa, Musa, Adam, 
 Nuh, Shu‘aib, Sam, Lut, Salih, Sulaiman, 
 Yahya, Hud, and Muhammad. (Durru 7- 
 Mukhtar, p. 619.) 
 
 CLEAN AND UNCLEAN ANI¬ 
 MALS. All quadrupeds that seize their 
 prey with their teeth, and all birds which 
 seize it with their talons, are unlawful 
 (liardm), the Prophet having prohibited man¬ 
 kind from eating them. 
 
 8 
 
58 
 
 OLEKGY 
 
 COMMANDMENTS 
 
 Hyenas and foxes, being both included 
 under the class of animals of prey, are un¬ 
 lawful. (This is the doctrine of Abu Hanifah, 
 but ash-Shafi‘I holds that they are lawful.) 
 Elephants and weasels are also animals of 
 prey. Pelicans and kites are abominable 
 (makruh ), because they devour dead bodies. 
 
 Crows which feed on grain are mubah, or 
 indifferent, but carrion crows and ravens are 
 unlawful. Abu Hanifah says the magpie is 
 indifferent ( mubah ), but the Imam Yusuf says 
 it is abominable ( makruh). 
 
 Crocodiles and otters and wasps, and, in 
 general, all insects are makruh, or abomin¬ 
 able. The ass and the mule are both unlaw¬ 
 ful. According to Abu Hanifah and Malik, 
 horse-flesh is unlawful, but ash-Shafi ! I says 
 it is indifferent. The flesh of hares is also 
 indifferent. 
 
 No animal that lives in the water, except 
 fish, is lawful. But Malik allows them. 
 
 Fishes dying of themselves are unlawful, 
 and so are all animals who are not slain by 
 zabah, (Hiclayah , vol. iv. p. 74.) [zabah.] 
 
 It must be observed that in Muhammadan 
 law animals are either fialdl, “ lawful,” or 
 mubah , “ indifferent,” or makruh, “ abomin¬ 
 able ” (i.e. which is condemned but still is 
 lawful), or haram, “unlawful.” 
 
 CLERGY. The Christian clergy 
 
 are mentioned in the Qur’an with expressions 
 of comparative praise. Surah v. 85 : “ Thou 
 wilt surely find that the strongest in enmity 
 against those who believe are the Jews, and 
 the idolaters; and thou wilt find those to be 
 nearest in affection to them who say ‘ We 
 are Christians ’; that is because there ar.e 
 amongst them priests ( qissisin ) and monks, 
 and because they are not proud.” 
 
 The Muhammadans have no class of people 
 occupying the precise position of priests or 
 clergy, although the Imams, or leaders of 
 prayers in the public assembly, are persons of 
 learning appointed by the congregation. In 
 Central Asia, it is usual to set apart a learned 
 man (well skilled in theology) by binding the 
 turban round his head, the act being per¬ 
 formed by a leading maulawi or scholar. 
 
 In Turkey and the western portion of 
 Islam, those who are qualified to give an 
 opinion in religious matters, and to take the 
 lead in guiding the people in spiritual affairs, 
 are called ‘ulamdi (pi. of ‘alim ), a term which 
 has, in Hindustan and Central Asia, assumed 
 the form of maulawi, a word derived from 
 maula, “ lord.” 
 
 The recognised offices in Islam correspond¬ 
 ing to that of a priest or religious teacher, 
 are, Imam, Mufti, and Qazi. Imam (in addi¬ 
 tion to its being used for the Khalifah, or 
 Caliph, in the Traditions), is the person who 
 leads the public prayers, an office answering 
 to the Latin Antistes. This official is ap¬ 
 pointed either by the congregation, or by the 
 parish or section of the town or village, Who 
 frequent the mosque in which he leads the 
 prayers. Mufti is the legal adviser, who 
 decides difficult religious questions, and 
 assists the Qazi, or judge. Qazi is the judge 
 
 and the administrator of the law. The 
 appointments of Mufti and Qazi are in 
 the hands of the Muslim government of the 
 place. It is usual for the Qazi to take 
 the lead in prayers at funerals, whilst the 
 Imam of the parish generally performs the 
 nikah, or religious service at marriages. 
 [marriage.] 
 
 These offices are not necessarily hereditary, 
 but it is usual in Muhammadan countries 
 for them to pass from father to son. In 
 India at the present time there are families 
 who retain the titles of Mufti and Qazi, 
 although the duties connected with these 
 offices are no longer performed by them. 
 
 CAUTION (Arabic Hazar) is 
 
 enjoined by Muhammad, who is related to 
 have said, “ A Muslim is not bitten twice at 
 the same hole.” “ He is no perfect man who 
 has not fallen into trouble, for there is no skil¬ 
 ful physician but experience.” “ When a man 
 has spoken, and has then looked first to his 
 right and then to his left, what he has said 
 is sacred to those present, and they must 
 not disclose it to others.” ( Mishkat, xxii. 
 c. xviii.) 
 
 COINAGE, [money.] 
 COLLECTOR OE TAXES. Arabic 
 
 ‘Ashir, a collector of the tenths ; and ‘Amil 
 mutasaddiq, a collector of alms. 
 
 The Khalifah is to allow the officer em¬ 
 ployed in the collection of the zakat as much 
 out of it as is in proportion to his labour, and 
 will remunerate himself and his assistants. 
 
 (Hidayah, vol. i. p. 54.) 
 
 COMMANDMENTS, The Ten. 
 
 In the Qur’an it is stated that God gave 
 Moses certain monitions on tables (of stone), 
 and also that he gave him nine clear signs. 
 (See Surah vii. 142, and Surah xvii. 103.) 
 These two statements have perplexed the 
 commentators very much, and every effort is 
 made by them to reconcile the nine signs 
 with the Ten Commandments, although it is 
 evident from the Qur’an itself, that the nine 
 clear signs refer to the miracles of Moses. 
 [plagues OF EGYPT.] 
 
 According to the Traditions, the Prophet 
 himself was a little confused in the matter, 
 and may to some extent be responsible for the 
 mistakes of the commentators on his book, for 
 it is related ( Mishkat , book i. c. ii. pt. 2) that 
 a Jew came to the Prophet and asked him 
 about the nine (sic) wonders which appeared 
 by the hands of Moses. The Prophet said, 
 “ Do not associate anything with God, do not 
 steal, do not commit adultery, do not kill, do 
 not take an innocent before the king to 
 be killed, do not practise magic, do not take 
 interest, do not accuse an innocent woman of 
 adultery, do not run away in battle, and 
 especially for you, 0 Jews, not to work on 
 the Sabbath.” ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq remarks on 
 this tradition that the Jew asked about the 
 nine (sic) miracles (or plagues) of Egypt, and 
 the Prophet gave him the Ten Command¬ 
 ments. 
 
COMMANDER 
 
 CONCUBINE 
 
 59 
 
 A comparison of the Ten Commandments 
 given by the great Jewish law-giver with those 
 recorded in the above tradition and in the 
 vith Surah of the Qur’an, verse 152, will show 
 how imperfectly the Arabian Prophet was 
 acquainted with the Old Testament scrip¬ 
 tures. 
 
 The commentator Husain, who wrote four 
 hundred years ago, says the following verses 
 in the Suratu ’1-An‘am (vi.) are those Ten 
 Commandments which in every dispensation 
 are incumbent on mankind, and cannot be 
 abrogated (meaning undoubtedly the Ten 
 Commandments given to Moses). 
 
 “ Sat : Come, I will rehearse what your Lord 
 hath made binding on you—(1) that ye assign 
 not aught to Him as partner: (2) and that ye 
 be good to your parents: (3) and that ye slay 
 not your children, because of poverty; for 
 them and for you will we provide: (4) and 
 that ye come not near to pollutions, outward 
 or inward : (5) and that ye slay not anyone 
 whom God hath forbidden you. unless for 
 a just cause. This hath lie enjoined on 
 you, to the intent that ye may understand. 
 (6) And come not nigh to the substance of 
 the orphan, but to improve it, until he come 
 of age : (7) and use a full measure, and a 
 just balance : We will not task a soul beyond 
 its ability. (8) And when ye give judgment, 
 observe justice, even though it be the affair 
 of a kinsman, (9) and fulfil the covenant of 
 God. This hath God enjoined you for your 
 monition — And, ‘this is my right way.’ 
 Follow it then : (10) and follow not other paths 
 lest ye be scattered from His path. This 
 hath He enjoined you, that ye may fear Him.” 
 (Surah vi. 152.) 
 
 COMMANDER OF THE FAITH¬ 
 FUL. Arabic Amtru ’l-Mu’mimn 
 A title given by the 
 Muslims in the first instance to the first Kha- 
 lifah, Abu Bakr, and afterwards retained by 
 succeeding Khalifa-hs. It is assumed by 
 almost any Muhammadan ruler in the pre¬ 
 sent day. 
 
 COMMENTARIES, [qur’an.] 
 COMMERCE. Arabic Tijdrah 
 (iijbr). Commerce and merchandise 
 are said in the Qur’an to be of God.” Surah 
 xvii. 68: “ It is your Lord who drives the 
 ships for you in the sea that ye may seek 
 after plenty from Him ; verily He is ever mer¬ 
 ciful, to you. And when distress touches you 
 in the sea, those whom ye call upon, except 
 Him, stray away from you; but when He has 
 brought you safe to shore, ye also turn away 
 (from God) ; for man is ever ungrateful.” 
 
 Zalcat is due on merchandise of every 
 description, in proportion to 5 yer cent. 
 
 COMPANIONS, The. [ashab.] 
 
 COMPULSION. Arabic Ikruh 
 Muhammadan law makes 
 
 provision for persons acting under compul¬ 
 sion, when the person who compels has it in 
 his power to execute what he orders, be,he 
 
 a king or a thief. ( Hidayali , vol. iii. p. 452.) 
 E.g. a person forced into a contract may dis¬ 
 solve it. A Muslim may lawfully eat food 
 which is prohibited if he be compelled to do 
 so, being threatened with loss of life or limb. 
 Nor is a Muslim guilty of sin who declares 
 himself an unbeliever when the loss of a limb 
 or of life is threatened. According to the 
 Imam Abu Hanlfah, if a Muslim be compelled 
 to divorce his wife, the divorce is valid; but 
 with him the other three Imams are not 
 agreed in this ruling. 
 
 CONCUBINE. Arabic Surrlyah 
 pi- sardrl. The Muhammadan 
 religion appears to give almost unlimited 
 license to concubinage, provided the woman 
 be a slave, and not a free Muslim woman. 
 
 These female slaves must be either (1) 
 taken captive in war, (2) or purchased by 
 money, (3) or the descendants of slaves. 
 Even married women, if taken in war, are, 
 according to an injunction of the Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. 28, entirely at the disposal of the 
 Muslim conqueror. “ (Unlawful) to you are 
 married women, except such as your right 
 hand possess (i.e. taken in war, or purchased 
 slaves).” This institution of concubinage is 
 founded upon the example of Muhammad 
 himself, who took Rlhanah the Jewess as his 
 concubine after the battle with the Banff 
 Quraizah (a.h. 5), and also Maria the Copt, 
 who was sent him as a slave by the Governor 
 of Egypt. 
 
 Should a concubine bear her master a 
 child, the Muhammadan law rules that she 
 and her offspring are ipso facto free. For a 
 further treatment of this subject, see article 
 on SLAVES. 
 
 Amongst the Shiahs, the temporary mar¬ 
 riage called Mut'ah exhibits the worst form 
 of concubinage. [mut‘ah.] 
 
 It is interesting to compare the condition 
 of the concubine under Muslim law and under 
 the Mosaic. Under the law of Moses, a con¬ 
 cubine would generally be either a Hebrew 
 girl bought of her father, or a Gentile captive 
 taken in war. So that whilst the Muham¬ 
 madan law forbids concubinage with a free 
 woman, the Mosaic law permitted it and legis¬ 
 lated for it. See Exodus xxi.: “ If a man 
 sell his daughter to be a maid-servant, she 
 shall not go out as men-servants do. If she 
 please not her master who hath betrothed her 
 to himself, then shall he let her be redeemed ; 
 to sell her unto a strange nation he shall have 
 no power, seeing he hath dealt deceitfully with 
 her.” 
 
 With regard to female slaves taken in war, 
 the Mosaic law ruled. Deut. xxi. 10: “ When 
 thou goest to war against thine enemies, 
 and the Lord thy God hath delivered them 
 into thine hands, and thou hast taken them 
 captive, and seest a beautiful woman, and 
 hast a desire unto her, that thou wouldst 
 have her to thy wife; then thou shalt bring 
 her to thine home, &c. . . . And it shall be, 
 if thou have no delight in her, then thou shalt 
 let her go whither she will; but thou shalt 
 not sell her,” &c. 
 
60 
 
 CONGREGATION 
 
 CONVERSATION 
 
 CONGREGATION. The Assembly 
 
 of people in a mosque is called Jam'-ali 
 (&*=-), the term also being used in Afghan¬ 
 istan for the mosque itself. 
 
 There are special rewards for those Mu¬ 
 hammadans who assemble together for the 
 stated prayers ; for Muhammad has said, 
 “ The prayers which are said in a congrega¬ 
 tion increase the rewards of the worshipper 
 twenty-seven degrees.” “ Say your prayers 
 in a congregation, far a wolf does not eat the 
 sheep except one has strayed from the flock.” 
 (. Mishlcat , book iv. ch. xxiv.) 
 
 The Sunni style themselves Ahl.u Sunnah 
 wa Jam‘ah, i.e. “ the people of the traditions 
 and of the congregation,” in contradistinction 
 to the Shi'ahs, who do not worship in a con¬ 
 gregation unless the Imam, or leader, be a 
 man entirely free from sin. [imam.] 
 
 The word jam‘ah is also used for an 
 assembly of people collected to decide a ques¬ 
 tion of law or theology, the ijmd‘ being their 
 decision, more frequently called ijmd-u 7- 
 ummcih. 
 
 CONSCIENCE. There is no word 
 
 in the Qur’an which exactly expresses 
 the Christian conception of conscience. The 
 word nafs which, according to Arabic 
 
 lexicons, expresses very much the same idea 
 as the Hebrew nephesli, “ life, animal 
 
 spirit, breath" (Job xli. 21), seems to be used 
 in the Qur’an to convey the meaning of con¬ 
 science, although English translators render 
 it “ soul.” Muslim theologians say there are 
 four kinds of consciences spoken of in the 
 Qur’an: (1) Nafs lawwdmah, the “ self- 
 
 accusing soul or conscience ” (Surah Ixxv. 3). 
 (2) Nafs ammarah, the “ soul or conscience 
 prone to evil” (Surah xii. 53). (3) Nafs 
 
 mutma’innah, the “ peaceful soul or con¬ 
 science ” (Surah lxxxix. 12). (4) Nafs mul- 
 
 hammah, the “ soul or conscience in which 
 is breathed both bad and good ” (Surah 
 lxxxiv. 27.) 
 
 It occurs also in the sense of conscience in 
 the Traditions ( Mishlcat , book i. ch. i. pt. 3) : 
 “ When anything pricks your soul (nafs) for¬ 
 sake it.” Abdu ’1-Haqq, in his Persian com¬ 
 mentary on the Mishlcat, renders it by zat, 
 but the English word conscience would seem 
 to express the precise idea. In Persian Mu¬ 
 hammadan works, as well as in common con¬ 
 versation, the word nafs is now used in its 
 evil sense, of desire or passion, but it must 
 be evident that this is not its Q.ur’anic mean¬ 
 ing. The word <L® J zimmah, which in later 
 Arabic, together with zamir, is used 
 
 to express conscience, has in the only j>as- 
 sage where it occurs in the Qur’an a decidedly 
 different meaning, e.g. Surah ix. 8, 10, where 
 it means clientship. Sale and Rodwell both 
 translate it “ faith,” but Palmer more accu¬ 
 rately renders it “ ties of clientship.” 
 
 CONVERSATION. The follow¬ 
 ing instructions are given in the Qur’an re¬ 
 garding talking and conversation. Surah 
 
 xxxi. 17, “ Be moderate in thy walk, and 
 lower thy voice ; verily the most disagreeable 
 of voices is the voice of asses.” Surah ii. 
 77, “ Speak to men kindly.” In the Tradi¬ 
 tions, Ibn Mas‘ud relates that Muhammad 
 said, “ May those people go to the fire of hell 
 who speak much.” 
 
 On the subject of conversation, Faqlr Jani 
 Muhammad As‘ad, the author of the cele¬ 
 brated ethical work entitled the Akhlak-i- 
 Jalali, p. 288, says :— 
 
 “ He should not talk much, for it is a sign 
 of levity in feeling and weakness in judgment, 
 and tends to lower him in point of considera¬ 
 tion and position. We are told that the Pro¬ 
 phet used to observe the strictest medium in 
 his language; so much so, that, in the most 
 protracted interviews, you might have counted 
 the words he uttered. Buzurg Jamihr used 
 to say, ‘ When you see a person talking much 
 without occasion, be sure he is out of his 
 senses.’ Let him not give vent to expres¬ 
 sions till he has determined in his own mind 
 what he is going to say. When anyone is 
 relating a story, however well known to the 
 listener, the latter is not to intimate his ac¬ 
 quaintance with it till the narrative is con¬ 
 cluded. A question put to others he must 
 not himself reply to ; if put to a body of 
 which he is a member, let him not prevent 
 the others; and if another is engaged in 
 answering what himself could answer better, 
 let him keep silence till the other’s statement 
 is completed, and then give his own, but in 
 such sort as not to annoy the foi'mer speaker. 
 Let him not commence his reply till the 
 querist’s sentence is concluded. Conversa¬ 
 tions and discussions which do not concern 
 him, although held in his presence, he is not 
 to interfere in; and if people conceal what 
 they are saying, he must not attempt furtively 
 to overhear. To his elders he should speak 
 with judgment, pitching his voice at a medium 
 between high and low. Should any abstruse 
 topic present itself, he should give it per¬ 
 spicuity by comparison. Prolixity he should 
 never aim at. when not absolutely required ; 
 on the contrary, let it be his endeavour to 
 compress all he has to say. Neither should he 
 employ unusual terms or far-fetched figures. 
 He should beware of obscenity and bad lan¬ 
 guage ; or if he must needs refer to an inde¬ 
 cent subject, let him be content with allusion 
 by metaphor. Of all things, let him keep 
 clear of a taste for indelicacy, which tends to 
 lower his breeding, degrade his respectability, 
 and bring him into general disagreement and 
 dislike. Let his language upon every occa¬ 
 sion correspond with the exigency of his posi¬ 
 tion ; and if accompanied by gesticulation of 
 the hand or eye or eyebrow, let it be only of 
 that graceful sort which his situation calls 
 for. Let him never, for right or wrong, en¬ 
 gage in disputes with others of the company ; 
 least of all with the elders or the triflers of 
 it: and when embarked in such dispute, let 
 him be rigidly observant of the rules of 
 candour. 
 
 “ Let him not deal in profound observation 
 beyond the intellect of those he is addressing, 
 
CONVERTS 
 
 CORRUPTION 
 
 61 
 
 but adapt his discourse to the judgment of his 
 hearers. Thus even the Prophet has declared— 
 ‘ Wo of the prophetic order are enjoined to ad¬ 
 dress men in the measure of their understand¬ 
 ings ’: and Jesus (blessed be he) said, ‘ Use not 
 wisdom with the unwise to their annoyance ’ 
 (St. Matthew vii. 6 ?). In all his conversation 
 let him adhere to the ways of courtesy. 
 Never let him mimic anyone’s gestures, 
 actions, or words, nor give utterance to the 
 language of menace. 
 
 “ When addressing a great pei’son, let him 
 begin with something ominous of good, as the 
 permanence of his fortune, felicity, and so 
 forth. 
 
 “ From all back-biting, carping, slander, 
 and falsehood, whether heard or spoken, let 
 him hold it essential to keep clear; nay, even 
 from any partnership with those addicted to 
 such practices. Let him listen more than he 
 speaks. It was the answer of a wise man to 
 those who asked him why he did so, 
 ‘ Because,’ said he, ‘ God has given me two 
 ears and only one tongue ’; which was as 
 much as to say, ‘ Hear twice as much as you 
 speak.’ ” 
 
 CONVERTS TO THE MUHAM¬ 
 MADAN RELIGION. According to the author 
 of the Hidayah (vol. ii. 170), if a hostile in¬ 
 fidel embrace Islam in a hostile country, his 
 person is his own, and he is not made a slave, 
 nor can his children be enslaved. His pro¬ 
 perty is also his own. But it is not so in the 
 case of one who has been first conquered and 
 then embraces Islam, for his own person and 
 his children become slaves, and his wives are 
 at the mercy of the victorious Muslim, whilst 
 his lands also become the property of the 
 State. 
 
 COVENANT. The word in the 
 
 Qur’an and the Traditions for God’s Cove¬ 
 nant with His people is Misaq. Muham¬ 
 mad taught, both in the Qur’an and in the 
 Traditions, that in the beginning God called 
 all the souls of mankind together and took a 
 promise ( wa‘dah ) and a covenant (misaq) from 
 them. 
 
 The account of this transaction is given as 
 follows in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 171:— 
 
 “Thy Lord brought forth their descendants 
 from the reins of the sons of Adam and took 
 them to witness against themselves, ‘ Am I 
 not,’ said He, ‘ your Lord? ’ They said, ‘ Yes, 
 we witness it.’ This we did, lest ye should 
 say on the Day of Resurrection, ‘ Truly, of 
 this were we heedless, because uninformed.’ 
 
 “ Or lest ye should say, ‘ Our fathers, 
 indeed, aforetime joined other gods with our 
 God, and we are their seed after them : wilt 
 thou destroy us for the doings of vain 
 men ? ’ ” 
 
 But the story as told in the Traditions is 
 more graphic 
 
 “ Ubai ibn Ka‘b relates, in explanation of 
 the verse in the Suratu ’1-A‘raf (verse 171) : 
 When God created (the spirits of) the sons 
 of Adam, he collected them together and 
 made them of different tribes, and of different 
 
 appearances, and gave them powers of speech. 
 Then they began to speak, and God took 
 from them a pi’omise (wa‘dah), and a covenant 
 (misaq), and said, ‘ Am I not thy Lord ? ’ 
 They all answered and said, ‘ Thou art.’ 
 Then God said, ‘ Swear by the seven hea¬ 
 vens and the seven earths, and by Adam your 
 father, that you will not say in the resurrec¬ 
 tion, We did not understand this. Know yo 
 therefore that there is no Deity but Me, and 
 there is no God but Me. Do not associate 
 anything with Me. I will verily send to you 
 your own apostles who shall remind you of 
 this Promise and of this Covenant, and I will 
 send to you your own books.’ The sons of 
 Adam then replied, ‘ We are witnesses that 
 Thou art our Lord ( RcM ), and our God 
 (Allah). There is no Lord but Thee and no 
 God but Thee.’ Then they confessed this 
 and made it known to Adam. Then Adam 
 looked at them and beheld that there were 
 amongst them those that were rich and poor, 
 handsome and ugly, and he said, ‘ 0 Lord 
 why didst Thou not make them all alike ? ’ 
 And the Lord said, ‘ Truly I willed it thus in 
 order that some of my servants may be 
 thankful.’ Then Adam saw amongst his pos¬ 
 terity, prophets, like unto lamps, and upon 
 these lamps there were hghts, and they were 
 appointed by special covenants of prophecy 
 (nabuwah ) and of apostleship ( rasalah ). 
 And thus it is written in the Qur’an (Surah 
 xxxiii. 7), ‘ Remember we have entered into 
 covenant with the Prophets, with thee Mu¬ 
 hammad, and with Noah, and with Abraham, 
 and with Musa, and with Jesus the Son of 
 Mary, and we made with them a covenant.’ 
 And (continues Ubai) Jesus was amongst the 
 spirits.” (Mishkat, Arabic Ed. Babu ’1-Qadr.) 
 
 COVERING THE HEAD. There 
 
 is no injunction in either the Qur’an or Tra¬ 
 ditions as to a man covering his head during 
 prayers, although it is generally held to be 
 more modest and correct for him to do so. 
 
 With reference to women, the law is impe¬ 
 rative, for ‘Ayishah relates that Muhammad 
 said, “ God accepts not the prayer of an adult 
 woman unless she cover her head.” (Mishkat. 
 iv. c. ix.) 
 
 CORRUPTION OP THE SCRIP¬ 
 TURES. Muhammadans charge the Jews 
 and Christians with having altered their 
 sacred books. The word used by Muham¬ 
 madan writers for this supposed corruption of 
 the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians is Tahrif. 
 
 The Imam Fakhru ’d-dln RazI, in his com¬ 
 mentary, TafsIr-i-Kablr, explains Tahrif to 
 mean “ to change, alter, or turn aside any¬ 
 thing from the truth.” Muslim divines say 
 there are two kinds of tahrif, namely, tah¬ 
 rif-i-ma‘nawi, a corruption of the meaning ; 
 and tahrif-i-lafzi, a corruption of the words. 
 
 Muhammadan controversialists, when they 
 become acquainted with the nature of the 
 contents of the sacred books of the Jews and 
 Christians, and of the impossibility of recon¬ 
 ciling the contents of the Qur’an with those of 
 
62 
 
 CORRUPTION 
 
 CREATION 
 
 the sacred Scriptures, charge the Christians 
 with the tahrif-i-lafzi. They say the 
 Christians have expunged the word ahmad 
 from the prophecies, and have inserted the 
 expression “ Son of God,” and the story of 
 the crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our 
 blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the 
 one held by the most celebrated of the Mus¬ 
 lim commentators. 
 
 The Imam Muhammad Isma‘11 al-Bukhari 
 (p. 1127, line 7), records that Ibn ‘Abbas said 
 that “ the word Tahrif (corruption) signifies 
 to change a thing from its original nature; 
 and that there is no man who could corrupt 
 a single word of what proceeded from God, 
 so that the Jews and Christians could corrupt 
 only by misrepresenting the meaning of the 
 words of God.” 
 
 Ibn Mazar and Ibn Abi Hatim state, in the 
 commentary known as the Tufsir Durr-i- 
 Mansur, that they have it on the authority of 
 Ibn Muniyah, that the Taurat (i.e. the books 
 of Moses), and the Injil (i.e. the Gospels), are 
 in the same state of purity in which they were 
 sent down from heaven, and that no altera¬ 
 tions had been made in them, but that the 
 Jews were wont to deceive the people by un¬ 
 sound arguments, and by wresting the sense 
 of Scripture. 
 
 Shah Waliyu Tlah, in his commentary, the 
 Fauzu ’l-Kabir, and also Ibn ‘Abbas, support 
 the same view. 
 
 This appears to be the correct interpreta¬ 
 tion of the various verses of the Qur’an 
 charging the Jews with having corrupted the 
 meaning of the sacred Scriptures. 
 
 For example, Suratu Ali ‘Imran (iii.), 72 : 
 “ There are certainly some of them who read 
 the Scriptures perversely, that ye may think 
 what they read to be really in the Scriptures, 
 yet it is not in the Scriptures ; and they say 
 this is from God, but it is not from God ; and 
 they speak that which is false concerning God 
 against their own knowledge.” 
 
 The Imam Fakhru ’d-dln, in his commen¬ 
 tary on this verse, and many others of the 
 same character which occur in the Qur’an, 
 says it refers to a taJirif-i-rna‘nawi, and that 
 it does not mean that the Jews altered the 
 text, but merely that they made alterations 
 in the course of reading. 
 
 But whilst all the old commentators, who 
 most probably had never seen a copy of the 
 sacred books of the Jews and Christians, only 
 charge them with a tai.rif-i-ma‘nawi, ail 
 modern controversialists amongst the Mu¬ 
 hammadans contend for a talirif-i-lafzi, as 
 being the only solution of the difficulty. 
 
 In dealing with such opponents, the Chris¬ 
 tian divine will avail himself of the following 
 arguments :— 
 
 1. The Qur’an does not charge the Jews 
 and Christians with corrupting the text of 
 their sacred books ; and many learned Mus¬ 
 lim commentators admit that such is not the 
 case. 
 
 2. The Qur'an asserts that the Holy Scrip¬ 
 tures of the Jews and Christians existed in 
 the days of Muhammad, who invariably 
 speaks of them with reverence and respect, 
 
 3. There now exist manuscripts of the Old 
 and New Testaments of an earlier date than 
 that of Muhammad (a.d. 610-632.) 
 
 4. There are versions of the Old and New 
 Testament now extant, which existed before 
 Muhammad ; for example, the Septuagint, the 
 Latin Vulgate, the Syriac, the Coptic, and 
 the Armenian versions. 
 
 5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which 
 dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives 
 various versions of the Old Testament Scrip¬ 
 tures in parallel columns. 
 
 6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas, of 
 Malabar and Travancore, in the south of 
 India, who were separated from the western 
 world for centuries, possess the same Scrip¬ 
 tures. 
 
 7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who 
 lived from a.d. 103 to 167, there are nume¬ 
 rous quotations from our sacred books, which 
 prove that they were exactly the same as 
 those we have now. The same may be said 
 of other early Christian writers. 
 
 Muhammadan controversialists of the pre¬ 
 sent day urge that the numerous readings 
 which exist in the Christian books are a proof 
 that they have been corrupted. But these do 
 not affect, in the least, the main points at 
 issue between the Christian and the Muslim. 
 The Divine Sonship of Christ, the Father¬ 
 hood of God, the Crucifixion, Death, and Re¬ 
 surrection of Christ, and the Atonement, are 
 all clearly stated in almost every book of the 
 New Testament, whilst they are rejected by 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 The most plausible of modern objections 
 urged by Muslim divines is, that the Chris¬ 
 tians have lost the Injil which was sent down 
 from heaven to Jesus ; and that the New Tes¬ 
 tament contains merely the Hadis, or Sunnah 
 —the traditions handed down by Matthew, 
 Mark, Luke, John, Paul, and others. It is, 
 of course, a mere assertion, unsupported by 
 any proof; but it appears to be a line of 
 argument which commends itself to many 
 modern Muslims. 
 
 CREATION. Arabic Khalqah. The 
 
 following are the allusions to the Creation which 
 occur in the Qur’an, Surah 1. 37: “ Of old We 
 (God) created the heavens and the earth and all 
 that is between them in six days, and no wea¬ 
 riness touched Us.” Surah xli. 8; “ Do ye 
 indeed disbelieve in Him who in two days 
 created the earth ? Do ye assign Him equals ? 
 The Lord of the World is He. And He hath 
 placed on the earth the firm mountains which 
 tower above it, and He hath blessed it, and 
 distributed its nourishments throughout it 
 (for the cravings of all are alike), in four 
 days. Then He applied Himself to the 
 heaven, which was but smoke : and to it and 
 to the earth He said, “ Come ye, in obedience 
 or against your will ? ” and they both said, 
 “ We come obedient.” And He completed 
 them as seven heavens in two days, and in 
 each heaven made known its office; and We 
 furnished the lower heaven with lights and 
 guardian angels. This is the disposition of 
 the Almighty, the all-knowing one.” Surah 
 
CREED 
 
 xvi. 3: “ He created the heavens and the 
 earth to set forth his truth, high let Him be 
 exalted above the gods they join with Him ! 
 Man hath Pie created out of a moist germ ; yet 
 lo ! man is an open caviller. And the cattle ! 
 
 for you hath He created them, &c. 
 
 Shall He who hath created be as he who 
 hath not created ? Will ye not consider ? ” 
 Surah xiii. 2: “It is God who hath reared the 
 heavens without pillars, thou canst behold ; 
 then seated Himself upon His throne, and 
 imposed laws on the sun and moon; each 
 travellethto its appointeth goal. He ordereth 
 all things. He maketh His signs clear. 
 Haply ye will have firm faith in a meeting 
 with your Lord. And He it is who hath out¬ 
 stretched the earth, and placed on it the firm 
 mountains, and rivers; and of every fruit He 
 hath placed on it two kinds. He causeth the 
 night to enshroud the day.” Surah xxxv. 
 12 : “ God created you of dust—then of the 
 germs of life—then made you two sexes.” 
 
 According to the Traditions ( Mishkdt , xxiv. 
 c. i. pt. 3), God created the earth on Satur¬ 
 day, the hills on Sunday, the trees on Monday, 
 all unpleasant things on Tuesday, the light 
 on Wednesday, the beasts on Thursday, and 
 Adam, who was the last of Creation, was 
 created after the time of afternoon prayers on 
 Friday. 
 
 CREED. The Muhammadan Creed, 
 or Kalimatu ’sh-shahadah (shortly Kalimah ) is 
 the well-known formula 
 
 “ I testify that there is no deity but 
 God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of 
 God.” 
 
 It is the belief of Muhammadans that the 
 first part of this creed, which is called the 
 ncif'i wa isbat, namely, “ There is no deity but 
 God,” has been the expression of belief of 
 every prophet since the days of Adam, and 
 that the second portion has been changed 
 according to the dispensation ; for example, 
 that in the days of Moses it would be: 
 “ There is no deity but God, and Moses is 
 the Converser with God.” In the Christian 
 dispensation it was: “ There is no deity 
 but God, and Jesus is the Spirit of 
 God.” 
 
 Jabir relates that Muhammad said “ the 
 keys of Paradise are bearing witness that 
 there is no deity but God.” 
 
 The recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is 
 the first of five pillars of practical religion in 
 Islam; and when anyone is converted to 
 Islam he is required to repeat this formula, 
 and the following are the conditions required 
 of every Muslim with reference to it:— 
 
 1. That it shall be repeated aloud, at 
 least once in a life-time. 
 
 2. That the meaning of it shall be fully 
 understood. 
 
 3. That it shall be believed in “ by the 
 heart.” 
 
 4. That it shall be professed until death. 
 
 5. That it shall be recited correctly. 
 
 6. That it shall be always professed and 
 declared without hesitation. 
 
 (Sharhu 7- Wiqayah.) 
 
 CRUELTY 63 
 
 CREMATION. [burning the 
 
 DEAD.] 
 
 CRESCENT. The figure of the 
 
 crescent is the Turkish symbol, and hence it 
 has been regarded by Europeans as the spe¬ 
 cial emblem of the Muhammadan religion, 
 although it is unknown to the Muhammadans 
 of the East. This figure, however, did not 
 originate with the Turks, but it was the 
 symbol of sovereignty in the city of Byzan¬ 
 tium previous to the Muslim conquest, as 
 may be seen from the medals struck in 
 honour of Augustus Trajan and others. The 
 crescent has been the symbol of three dif¬ 
 ferent orders of knighthood; the first of 
 which was instituted by Charles I., King of 
 Naples, a.d. 1268; the second in 1448 by 
 Rene of Anjou ; the third by Sultan Selim 
 in 1801. It must have been adopted by Mu¬ 
 hammadans for the first time upon the over¬ 
 throw of the Byzantine Empire by Muhammad 
 II., and it is now generally used by the 
 Turks as the insignia of their creed. 
 
 CROCODILE. Arabic Timsah. 
 
 The flesh of a crocodile is unlawful for food 
 to a Muhammadan. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 iv. 74.1 
 
 CROSS, The. Arabic As-Salib. The 
 
 Qur’an denies the crucifixion of our blessed 
 Lord [crocieixion] , and it is related by al- 
 Waqidl that Muhammad had such a repug¬ 
 nance to the form of the cross that he broke 
 everything brought into his house with that 
 figure upon it. (Muir, iii. 61.) According to 
 Abu Hurairah, the Prophet said, “ I swear by 
 heaven, it is near, when Jesus the Son of Mary 
 will descend from heaven upon your people, a 
 just king, and He will break the cross, and kill 
 the swine. (Mishkat, xxiii. c. vi.) The Imam 
 Abu Yusuf says that if a cross or a crucifix is 
 stolen from a church, amputation (the punish¬ 
 ment for theft) is not incurred; but if it is 
 stolen from a private dwelling it is theft. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 90.) 
 
 CRUCIFIXION. The Crucifixion 
 
 of the Lord Jesus Christ is denied by the 
 teaching of the Qur’an, [jesus christ.] It is 
 a punishment sanctioned by the Muhamma¬ 
 dan religion for highway robbers. (Hamil¬ 
 ton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. 131.) 
 
 CRUELTY. A striking instance 
 
 of the cruelty of Muhammad’s character 
 occurs in a tradition given in the Sahuhu 7- 
 Bukhari (p. 1019). Anas relates, “ Some 
 of the people of the tribe of ‘Ukl came to the 
 Prophet and embraced Islam; but the air of 
 al-Madinah did not agree with them, and they 
 wanted to leave the place. And the Prophet 
 ordered them to go where the camels given in 
 alms were assembled, and to drink their milk, 
 which they did, and recovered from their 
 sickness. But after this they became apo¬ 
 states, and renounced Islam, and stole the 
 camels. Then the Prophet sent some people 
 after them, and they were seized and brought 
 
64 
 
 DABBATU L-ARZ 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 back to al-Madinali. Then the Prophet 
 ordered their hands and their feet to be cut 
 off as a punishment for theft, and their eyes 
 to be pulled out. But the Prophet did not 
 stop the bleeding, and they died.” And in 
 another it reads, “ The Prophet ordered hot 
 irons to be drawn across their eyes, and then 
 to be cast on the plain of al-Madinah ; and 
 when they asked for water it was not given 
 them, and they died.” 
 
 Sir William Muir (vol. iv. p. 307) says: 
 “Magnanimity or moderation are nowhere 
 discernible as features in the conduct of Mu¬ 
 hammad towards such of his enemies as 
 failed to tender a timely allegiance. Over 
 the bodies of the Quraish who fell at Badr he 
 exulted with savage satisfaction ; and several 
 
 prisoners, accused of no crime but of scepti¬ 
 cism and political opposition, were deliberately 
 executed at his command. The Prince of 
 Khaibar, after being subjected to inhuman 
 torture for the puiqiose of discovering the 
 treasures of his tribe, was, with his cousin, 
 put to death on the pretext of having trea¬ 
 cherously concealed them, and his wife was 
 led away captive to the tent of the con¬ 
 queror. Sentence of exile was enforced by 
 Muhammad with rigorous severity on two 
 whole Jewish tribes at al-Madinah; and of a 
 third, likewise his neighbours, the women and 
 children were sold into distant captivity, 
 while the men, amounting to several hundreds, 
 were butchered in cold blood before his 
 eyes.” 
 
 D. 
 
 DABBATU ’L-ARZ (J>^\ &U). 
 
 Lit. “ The Reptile of the Earth.” A monster 
 who shall arise in the last day, and shall cry 
 unto the people of the earth that mankind 
 have not believed in the revelations of God 
 (vide Qur’an, Surah xxvii. 84): “ And when 
 sentence falls upon them we will bring forth 
 a beast out of the earth, that shall speak to 
 them and say, ‘ Men of our signs would not 
 be sure.’ ” According to the Traditions he 
 will be the third sign of the coming resurrec¬ 
 tion, and will come forth from the mountain 
 of Sufah. (Mishkat, xxiii. c. iv.) Both Sale 
 and Rodwell have confounded the Dabbatu 
 ’1-Arz with Al-Jassasah, the spy, mentioned 
 in a tradition by Fatimah (Mishlcat, xxiii. 
 c. iv.), and which is held to be a demon now 
 in existence, [al-jassasah.] For a descrip¬ 
 tion of the Dabbah, see the article on the 
 RESURRECTION. 
 
 DABUR “ The West 
 
 wind.” A term used by the Sufis to ex¬ 
 press the lust of the flesh, and its overwhelm¬ 
 ing power in the heart of man. (Abdu ’r- 
 Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 DAHHA (Usa). Plural of the 
 Persian sa, ten. The ten days of the 
 Muharram, during which public mourning for 
 ‘All and his sons is observed by Shi‘ah 
 Muhammadans. (Wilson’s Glossary of Indian 
 Terms.) 
 
 ad-DAHR (ya>AH). “Along space 
 of time.” A title given to the Lxxvith 
 chapter of the Qur’an ; called also Suratu ’1- 
 Insan, “ The Chapter of Man.” The title is 
 taken from the first verse of the chapter: 
 “ Did not there pass over man a long space of 
 time ? ” 
 
 DAHRI (<_ 5 ybA). One who believes 
 
 in the eternity of matter, and asserts that 
 the duration of this world is from eternity, 
 and denies the Day of Resurrection and Judg¬ 
 
 ment ; an Atheist. (Ghiyasu ’ l-Lughat , in 
 loco.) 
 
 DAIN A debt contracted 
 
 with some definite term fixed for repayment, 
 as distinguished from qarz, which is used for 
 a loan given without any fixed term for re¬ 
 payment. [debt.] 
 
 DAJJAL ( JW-a). Lit. “ false, 
 
 lying.” The name given in the Hadis to 
 certain religious impostors who shall appear 
 in the world ; a term equivalent to our use 
 of the word Antichrist. Muhammad is related 
 to have said there would be about thirty. 
 
 The Masxhu 'd-Da,jjal, or “the lying 
 Christ,” it is said, will be the last of the 
 Dajjdls , for an account of whom refer to 
 article on masihu ’d-dajjal. 
 
 DALlL (J*5 a). “An argument; a 
 
 proof.” Dalil burhani , “ a convincing argu¬ 
 ment.” Dcdil qat‘i, “ a decisive proof.” 
 
 DAMASCUS. Arabic Dimashq 
 
 According to Jalalu ’d-dln Suyuti, Damas¬ 
 cus is the second sacred city in Syria, 
 Jerusalem being the first; and some have 
 thought it must be the “ Iram of the 
 columns ” mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah 
 Ixxxix. 6, although this is not the view of 
 most Muslim writers, [iram.] Damascus is 
 not mentioned in the Qur’an. With regard to 
 the date of the erection of the city, Muham¬ 
 madan historians differ. Some say it was 
 built by a slave named Dimashq, who be¬ 
 longed to Abraham, having been given to 
 the patriarch by Nimrod; others say Di¬ 
 mashq was a slave belonging to Alexander the 
 Great, and that the city was built in his 
 day. 
 
 Damascus was taken by Khalid in the 
 reign of the Khalifah ‘Umar, a.h. 13, and it 
 became the capital of the Umaiyade Kh alifahs 
 under Mu‘awiyah, a.h. 41, and remained the 
 chief city of Islam until the fall of that 
 
DAMASCUS 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 65 
 
 dynasty, a.h. 132, when the Abhassides moved 
 their capital first to al-Kufah and then to 
 Bagdad. 
 
 Tho great mosque at Damascus was erected 
 by ‘Abdu ’1-Malik ibn Marwiin, the fifth Kha- 
 lifah of the Umaiyades. It was commenced 
 a.h. 86, and finished in ten years, being 
 erected on the ruins of an ancient Greek 
 temple and of a Christian church. 
 
 The account, as given by Jalalu ’d-dln 
 SuyutI, in his History of the Temple of Jeru¬ 
 salem, is curious and interesting, showing that 
 for a time the Muslims and Christians wor¬ 
 shipped in the same building together. 
 
 “ Here (in Damascus) all the servants of 
 God joined, and built a church to worship 
 God in. Some say, however, that this church 
 was built by the Greeks : for ‘Abdu ’llah Ibn 
 1 Abbas, having marched against Damascus and 
 besieged it, demolished the walls, after he had 
 entered the city by storm. Then there fell 
 down a stone, having certain letters inscribed 
 thereon in the Greek language. They there¬ 
 fore sent to bring a certain monk who could 
 read Greek ; but he said, ‘ Bring me in pitch 
 the impression of the letters on the stone, 
 which he found to he as follows.: ‘ Woe unto 
 thee, mother of shame! Pious is he who 
 inflicts upon thee with usury the ill which 
 God designs for thee in retribution. Woe unto 
 thee from five eyes, who shall destroy thy wall 
 after four thousand years.’ Now, ‘Abdu ’llah’s 
 entire name was ‘Abdu ’llah Ibn ‘All Ibn ‘Abdi 
 ’llah Ibn ‘Abbas Ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Muqallib. 
 
 “ Again, the historian Ibn Isahir says: 
 When God had granted unto the Muslims 
 the possession, as conquerors of the whole of 
 Syria, He granted them among other cities 
 that of Damascus with its dependencies. Thus 
 God sent down His mercy upon them, and the 
 commander-in-chief of the army (besieging 
 Damascus), who was either Abu ‘Ubaidah or, 
 as some say, Khalid Ibn al-Walid, wrote a 
 treaty of capitulation and articles of sur¬ 
 render. By these he settled and appointed 
 fourteen churches to remain in the hands of 
 the Muslims. The church of which we have 
 spoken above was left open and free for 
 future consideration. This was on the jflea 
 that Khalid had entered the city at the 
 sword’s point by the eastern gate; but that 
 the Christians at the same time were allowed 
 to surrender by Abu ‘Ubaidah, who entered 
 at the western gate, opened under articles. 
 This caused dissension; but at length it was 
 agreed that half the place should be regarded 
 as having capitulated and half as stormed. 
 
 “ The Muslims therefore took this church, 
 and Abu ‘Ubaidah made it into a mosque. 
 He was afterwards appointed Emir of Syria, 
 and was the first who prayed here, all the 
 company of Companions praying after him 
 in the open area, now called the Companions’ 
 Tower; but the wall must then have been 
 cut through, hard by the leaning tower, if 
 the Companions really prayed in the ‘ blessed 
 precinct.’ At first the Christians and Mus¬ 
 lims entered by the same gate, which was 
 ‘ the gate of Adoration and Prayer,’ over 
 against the Qiblah, where the great tower now 
 
 stands. Afterwards the Christians changed 
 and went into their church by the gate facing 
 the west; the Muslims taking the right-hand 
 mosque. But the Christians were not suf- 
 ferred to chant aloud, or recite their books 
 or strike their bells (or clappers), in order 
 to honour the Companions with reverence and 
 fear. Also, Mu'awiyah built in his days a 
 house for the Amir, right opposite the 
 mosque. Here he built a green chapel. 
 This palace was noted for its perfection. 
 Here Mu‘awiyah dwelt forty years; nor did 
 this state of things change from a.h. 14 to 
 a.h. 86. But Al-Walid ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Malik 
 began to think of destroying the churches, 
 and of adding some to those already in tho 
 hands of the Muslims, so as to construct one 
 great mosque ; and this because some of the 
 Muslims were sore troubled by hearing the 
 recitations of the Christians from the Gospel, 
 and their uplifted voices in prayer. He de¬ 
 signed, therefore, to remove them from the 
 Muslims and to annex this spot to the other, 
 so as to make one great mosque. Therefore 
 he called for the Christians, and asked them 
 whether they would depart from those places 
 which were in their hands, receiving in ex¬ 
 change greater portions in lieu thereof; and 
 also retaining four churches not mentioned in 
 the treaty—the Church of Maria, the Church 
 of the Crucified, jus{ within the eastern gate, 
 the church Tallu ’1-Habn, and the Church of 
 the Glorious Mother, occupied previously by 
 the burnishers. This, however, they vehe¬ 
 mently refused to do. Thereupon the Khall- 
 fah said, ‘ Bring me then the treaty which 
 you possess since the time of the Com¬ 
 panions.’ They brought it, therefore, and it 
 was read in al-Walld’s presence; when, lo 1 
 the Church of Thomas, outside the gate of 
 Thomas, hard by the river, did not enter into 
 the treaty, and was one of those called ‘the 
 greater of churches left upon’ (for future 
 disposal). ‘ There,’ he said, ‘ this will I 
 destroy and convert it into a mosque.’ They 
 said, ‘ Nay, let it alone, 0 commander of the 
 Faithful, even although not mentioned among 
 the churches, for we are content that you take 
 the chapel of the church.’ To this agree¬ 
 ment, then, he held them, and received from 
 them the Qubbah (or chapel vault, dome) of 
 the church. Then he summoned workmen 
 able to pull down, and assembled all the 
 amirs, chiefs, and great men. But the Chris¬ 
 tian bishops and priests coming, said, ‘ 0 
 commander of the Faithful, we find in our 
 books that whosoever shall demolish this 
 church will go mad.’ Then said the Khali- 
 fah, ‘ And I am very willing to be mad with 
 God’s inspiration; therefore no one shall 
 demolish it before me.’ Then he ascended 
 the western tower, which had two spires, 
 and contained a monastic cell. Here he 
 found a monk, whom he ordered to descend) 
 The monk making difficulties, and finger¬ 
 ing, al-Walid took him by the back of his 
 neck, and ceased not pushing him until 
 he had thrown him down stairs. Then he 
 ascended to the most lofty spot in the church, 
 above the great altar, called ‘the Altar of 
 
 9 
 
66 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 the Martyrs.’ Here he seized the ends of 
 his sash, which was of a bright yellow colour, 
 and fixed them into his belt. Taking, then, 
 an axe into his hand, he struck against the 
 very topmost stone, and brought it down. 
 Then he called the amirs, and desired them 
 to pull down the building as quickly as pos¬ 
 sible. Hereupon all the Muslims shouted, 
 ‘ God is great! ’ three times ; also the Chris¬ 
 tians loudly cried out with their wailing and 
 woe upon the steps of Jairun, where they 
 had assembled. Al-Walid therefore desired 
 the commander of his guard to inflict blows 
 upon them until they should depart, which he 
 did. The Muslims then demolished all that 
 the Christians had built in the great square 
 here—altars and buildings and cloisters— 
 until the whole square was one flat surface. 
 He then resolved to build a splendid pile, un¬ 
 rivalled for beauty of architecture, which 
 none could hereafter surpass. Al-Walid 
 therefore commissioned the most eminent 
 architects and mathematicians to build the 
 mosque, according to the model they most 
 preferred. His brother chiefly moved and 
 stirred him up to this undertaking, and next 
 to him presided Sulaiman ‘Abdu ’1-Malik. It 
 is said that al-Walid sent to the king of 
 Greece to demand stone-masons and other 
 workmen, for the purpose of building this 
 mosque in the way he desired, sending word, 
 that if the king refused, he would overrun 
 his territory with his army, and redpce to 
 utter ruin every church in his dominions, even 
 the Church of the Holy City, and the Church 
 of Edessa, and utterly destroy every vestige 
 of the Greeks still remaining. The king of 
 Greece, sent, therefore, numerous workmen, 
 with a letter, expressing himself thus : ‘ If 
 thy father knoweth what thou doest, and per¬ 
 mits it, then truly I accuse him of disgraceful 
 conduct, and blame him more than thee. If 
 he understandeth it not, but thou only art 
 conscious, then I blame thee above him.’ 
 When the letter came to al-Walid, he wished 
 to reply unto it, and assembled several per¬ 
 sons for consultation. One of these was a 
 well-known poet, who said, ‘ I will answer 
 him, 0 Commander of the Faithful! out of 
 the Book of God.’ So said al-Walid, ‘ Where, 
 then, is that answer? ’ He replied this verse, 
 ‘ David and Solomon, lo! they assume a 
 right to the corn-field, a right to the place 
 where the people are shearing their sheep. 
 Also, we are witnesses of their decree; for Solo¬ 
 mon hath given us to understand it, and both 
 (David and Solomon) have come to us as judges 
 and learned men.’ Al-Walid, by this reply, 
 caused great surprise to the king of Greece. 
 Al-Firsuk alludes to this in these verses :— 
 
 “ I have made a separation between the 
 Christians and their churches, and between the 
 people who shine and those who are in dark¬ 
 ness.” 
 
 “ I neglected for a season thus to apportion 
 their happiness. I being a procrastinating vin¬ 
 dicator of their grievances.” 
 
 “ Thy Lord hath made thee to resolve 
 upon removing their churches from those 
 mosques wherein good words are recited.” 
 
 “ Whilst they were together in one place, 
 some were praying and prostrating themselves 
 on their faces, slightly separated from others 
 who, behold! were adoring God and idols.” 
 
 “ How shall the people of the Cross unite to 
 ring their bells, when the reading of the 
 Qur’an is perpetually intermingled ? ” 
 
 “ I resolved then to remove them, just as 
 did those wise men when they decreed them¬ 
 selves a right to the seed-field and the 
 flocks.” 
 
 “When al-Walid resolved to build the 
 chapel which is in the midst of the cloister, 
 called ‘ the Vulture’s Chapel’ (a name given 
 to it by the country-people, because the por¬ 
 ticos on each side look like two wings), he dug 
 deep at the four corners of the intended 
 chapel, until they came to sweet and limpid 
 water. Here they first placed the foundation 
 of the wall of the vineyard. Upon this they 
 built with stone, and when the four corners 
 were of sufficient height, they then built 
 thereon the chapel ; but fit fell down again. 
 Then said al-Walid to some one of the mathe¬ 
 maticians, who well knew the plan of the 
 Vulture’s Chapel, ‘ I wish you to build this 
 chapel; for the injunction of God hath been 
 given me, and I am confident that no one but 
 thyself may build it.’ He therefore built the 
 four corners, and covered them with wicker, 
 and disappeared for a whole year, al-Walid 
 not knowing where he was. After a year, 
 al-Walid dug down to the four corner foun¬ 
 dations. Then he (i.e. the architect) said, 
 
 ‘ Do not be in a hurry, 0 commander of the 
 Faithful! ’ Then he found the mathemati¬ 
 cian, who had a man’s head with him. He 
 came to the four corners, and uncovered the 
 wicker work, and lo 1 all that had been built 
 above the earth had fallen down, until they 
 were on a level with the earth. So he said, 
 ‘ From this (work have I come).’ Then he 
 proceeded to build, and firmly fixed and sup¬ 
 ported a beautiful fabric. 
 
 “ Some person also said al-Walid wished to 
 construct a brilliant chapel of pure gold, 
 whereby the rank of the mosque might be 
 magnified. Hereupon the superintendent said 
 unto him, ‘ You cannot effect this.’ Upon 
 which al-Walid struck him fifty blows with a 
 whip, saying, ‘ Am I then incapable of effect¬ 
 ing this ? ’ The man replied, ‘ Certainly.’ 
 Then he said, ‘ I will, then, find out a way to 
 know the truth. Bring forth all the gold 
 thou hast’; which he did: and al-Walid 
 melted it, and formed it into one large brick, 
 which contained one thousand pieces of gold. 
 But the man said, ‘ 0 Commander of the 
 Faithful! we shall require so many thousand 
 bricks of this sort, if thou dost possess them ; 
 nor will this suffice for our work. Al-Walid 
 seeing that he was true and just, presented 
 him with fifty dinars; and when al-Walid 
 roofed the great precinct, he adorned the 
 roof, as well as the whole extent of the pave¬ 
 ment, with a surface of gold. Some of al- 
 Walid’s family also said unto him, 1 They who 
 come after thee will emulate thee in rendering 
 the outer roof of this mosque more commodious 
 every year.’ Upon this al-Walid ordered all the 
 
DAMASCUS 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 67 
 
 load of the country to be collected together, in 
 order to construct therewith an exterior out¬ 
 ward covering, answering to the interior, 
 which should be light upon the roof, and on 
 the side-posts that supported the roof. So 
 they collected lead throughoirt all Syria and 
 many other countries; and whilst they were 
 returning, they met with a certain woman 
 who possessed a weight of lead—a weight of 
 many talents. They began to chaffer with 
 the woman for it; but she refused to sell it, 
 except for its weight in silver. So they 
 wrote to the Commander of the Faithful, in¬ 
 forming him of this, who replied, ‘ Buy it 
 from her, even for its weight in silver.’ When, 
 then, they offered this sum unto her, she 
 said, ‘ Now that you have agreed to my pro¬ 
 posal, and are satisfied to give the weight in 
 silver, I give the weight as an offering unto 
 God, to serve for the roof of the mosque.’ 
 Hereupon they marked one corner of tho 
 weight with the impression of a seal, ‘ This 
 is God’s.’ Some say the woman was an 
 Israelite; some say that they sought for 
 lead in open ditches or holes, and came to a 
 stone sepulchre, within which was a leaden 
 sepulchre, whence they brought forth a dead 
 body, and laid it on the ground. Whilst drag¬ 
 ging it out, tho head fell to the ground, and 
 the neck being broken, much blood flowed 
 forth from the mouth, which terrified them 
 so much, that they rapidly fled away. This 
 is said to have been the burial-place of King 
 Saul. Also, the guardian of the mosque came 
 unto al-Walid and said, ‘0 Commander of 
 the Faithful! men say that al-Walid hath ex¬ 
 pended the money of the treasury unjustly.’ 
 Hereupon al-Walid desired that all the 
 people should be summoned to prayer. When 
 all were assembled, al-Walid mounted the 
 pulpit, and said, ‘ Such and such reports have 
 reached me.’ Then he said, ‘ 0 ‘Umar Ibn 
 al-Muhajir ! stand up and produce the money 
 of the treasury.’ Now it was carried upon 
 mules. Therefore, pieces of hide being placed 
 in the midst, beneath the chapel, he poured 
 out all the gold and silver, to such a height, 
 that those who stood on either side could not 
 see one another. Scales being then brought 
 out, the whole was weighed, when it was 
 found that the amount would suffice for the 
 public use for three years to come, even if 
 nothing were added to the amount. Then all 
 the people rejoiced, praising and glorifying 
 God for this. Then said the Khalifah, ‘ 0 
 people of Damascus ! you boast among men 
 of four things ; of your air, of your water, of 
 your cheerfulness, and of your gracefulness. 
 Would that you would add to these a fifth, and 
 become of the number of those who praise 
 God, and are liberal in his service. Would 
 that, thus changing, you would become thank¬ 
 ful suppliants.’ 
 
 “ In the Qiblah of this mosque were 
 three golden scimitars, enamelled in lapis 
 lazuli. Upon each scimitar was engraved 
 the following sentence : ‘ In the name 
 
 of God, the Merciful and Compassionate! 
 There is no god but God. He is the ever- 
 living, the self-subsisting Being, who never 
 
 slumbers nor sleeps. There is no god but 
 God. He has no partner. We will never 
 adore any but our Lord, the one God. Our 
 faith is Islam, and our Prophet is Muhammad. 
 This mosque was built, and the churches 
 which stood on the site of the chapel were 
 demolished, by order of the servant of God, 
 the Commander of the Faithful, al-Walid Ibn 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Malik Ibn Marwan, in the month 
 Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, a.h. 86.’ Upon another tablet 
 was inscribed the whole of the first chapter 
 of the Qur’an. Here also were depicted the 
 stars, then the morning twilight, then the 
 spiral course of the sun, then the way 
 of living which obtained after the arrival 
 of the Faithful at Damascus. Also, it is said, 
 that all the floor of this mosque was divided 
 into small slabs, and that the stone (carving) 
 of the walls extended to the utmost pin¬ 
 nacle. Above was a great golden vine, and 
 above this were splendid enamelled knobs of 
 green, red, blue, and white, whereby were 
 figured and expressed all countries and 
 regions, especially the Ka‘bah, above the 
 tower; also all the countries to the right and 
 left (of Makkah), and all the most beautiful 
 shrubs and trees of every region, famous 
 either for their fruits or flowers. The roof 
 had cornices of gold. Here was suspended 
 a chain of gold and silver, which branched off 
 into seven separate lights. In the tower of 
 the Companions were two stones—beryls 
 (some say they were the jewels called pearls); 
 they were called ‘ The Little Ones.’ When 
 the candles were put out, they inflamed the 
 eyes by their brilliant light. In the time of 
 al-Amin Ibn ar-Rashid, Sulaimiin, captain of 
 the guard, was sent by that Kh alifah to Da¬ 
 mascus, to steal those stones and bring them 
 to him ; which he did. When al-Ma’mun dis¬ 
 covered this, he sent them to Damascus, as a 
 proof of his brother’s misconduct. They 
 afterwards again vanished, and in their place 
 is a glass vessel. In this mosque all the 
 gates, from the dome (gallery) unto the en¬ 
 trance, are open, and have no bars or locks. 
 Over each is a loose curtain. In like manner 
 there is a curtain upon all the walls as far as 
 the bases of the golden vine, above which are 
 the enamelled knobs. The capitals of the 
 pillars were thickly covered with dead gild¬ 
 ing. Here were also small galleries, to look 
 down from, enclosed on the four sidos of the 
 skirting wall. Al-Walid also built the 
 northern minaret, now called ‘the Bride¬ 
 groom’s Tower.’ As to the western gallery, 
 that existed many ages before, in each 
 corner of this was a cell, raised upon very 
 lofty walls, and used by the Greeks as an 
 observatory. The two northern of these fell, 
 and the two opposite remained. In the year 
 740, part of the eastern had been burnt. It 
 then fell down, but was built up anew out of 
 the Christians’ money, because they had me¬ 
 ditated the destruction (of it) by fire. It then 
 was restored after a most beautiful plan. 
 This is the tower (but God knows) upon 
 which Jesus son of Maria will alight, for Mu¬ 
 hammad is reported to have said, ‘ I saw 
 Jesus son of Maria come forth from near the 
 
68 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 DAMASCUS 
 
 white minaret, east of the mosque, placing 
 his hands upon the wings of two angels, 
 firmly bound to him. Upon him was the 
 Divine glory (the Shechinah). He was marked 
 by the red tinge of baptism. This is the 
 mark of original sin.’ Jesus (it is also said) 
 shall come forth from the White Tower by 
 the eastern gate, and shall enter the mosque. 
 Then shall the word come forth for Jesus to 1 
 fight with Antichrist at the corner of the 
 city, as long as it shall please God. Now, 
 when this mosque (the slaves’ mosque) was 
 completed, there was not to he found upon 
 the face of the earth a building more beau¬ 
 tiful, more splendid, more graceful, than this. 
 On whatever side, or area, or place, the spec¬ 
 tator looked, he still thought that side or spot 
 the most preferable for beauty. In this 
 mosque were certain talismans, placed therein 
 since the time of the Greeks ; so that no veno¬ 
 mous or stinging creature could by any means 
 obtain entrance into this enclosure, neither 
 serpent, scorpion, beetle, nor spider. They 
 say, also, that neither sparrows nor pigeons 
 built their nests there, nor was anything to be 
 found there which could annoy people. Most, 
 or all, of those talismans were burnt by the 
 fire that consumed the mosque, which fire 
 took place in the night of Sha‘ban, a.h. 461. 
 Al-Walid frequently prayed in the mosque. 
 One night (it is related) he said to his 
 people, ‘ I wish to pray to-night in the 
 mosque; let no one remain there whilst I 
 pray therein.’ So when he came unto the 
 gate of the Two Moments, he desired the 
 gate to be opened, and entering in, he saw a 
 man standing between the gate of the Two 
 Moments and the gate of St. George, praying. 
 He was rather nearer to the gate of St. 
 George than to the other. So the Kh alTfah 
 said unto his people, ‘ Did I not charge you 
 that no one should remain whilst I was pray¬ 
 ing in the mosque ? ’ Then one of them said, 
 ‘ 0 Commander of the Faithful! this is St 
 George, who prays every night in the mosque.’ 
 Again, one prayer in this mosque equals 
 thirty thousand prayers. 
 
 “ Again. A certain man, going out of the 
 gate of the mosque which is near the Jairun, 
 met Ka‘b the scribe, who said, ‘ Whither 
 bound ? ’ He replied, ‘ To the Baitu ’1-Mu- 
 qaddas, therein to pray.’ Then said Ka‘b, ‘I 
 will show you a spot wherein whosoever 
 prayeth shall receive the same blessings as if 
 he prayed in the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas.’ The 
 man, therefore, went with him. Then Ka-b 
 showed him the space between the little 
 gate from whence you go to Abyssinia, that 
 is, the space covered by the arch of the 
 gate, containing about one hundred yards, 
 to the west, and said, ‘ Whoso prayeth within 
 those two points shall be regarded as praying 
 within the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas.’ Now, this spot 
 is said to be a spot fit to be sought by pilgrims. 
 Here, it is asserted, is the head of John, son 
 of Zacharias (Peace be with him !). For al- 
 Walid Ibn Muslim being desired to show 
 where John’s head was to be found, pointed 
 with his hand to the plastered pillar—the 
 fourth from the east corner. Zaid Ibn Wakad 
 
 says, ‘ At the time it was proposed to build 
 the mosque of Damascus, I saw the head of 
 John, son of Zacharias, brought forth from 
 underneath one of the corners of the chapel. 
 The hair of the head was unchanged.’ He 
 says in another place, ‘ Being nominated by 
 al-Walid superintendent of the building, we 
 found a cave, of which discovery we informed 
 al-Walid. He came, therefore, unto us at 
 night, with a was taper in his hand. Upon 
 descending we found an elaborately carved 
 little shrine, three within three (i.e. within 
 the first a second, within the second a third). 
 Within this last was a sarcophagus, and 
 within this a casket; within which was the 
 head of John, son of Zacharias. Over the 
 casket was written, “ Here is the head of John, 
 son of Zacharias. Peace be with him 1 ” By 
 al-Walid’s command we restored the head to 
 the spot whence it had been taken. The 
 pillars which are above this spot are inclined 
 obliquely to the others to distinguish the 
 place. There is also over it a pillar with a 
 head in plaster.’ He asserts again, that 
 when the happy event occurred of the con¬ 
 quest of Damascus, a certain person went up 
 the stairs which led to the church, then 
 standing where the mosque now stands. 
 Here the blood of John, son of Zacharias was 
 seen to flow in torrents and to boil up, nor 
 did the blood sink down and become still 
 until that seventy thousand had been slain 
 over him. The spot where the head was 
 found is now called al-Sakasak (perhaps, the 
 Nail of the Narrow Cave). 
 
 “ In the days of ‘Umar, the Christians re¬ 
 quested that he would confirm their claim to 
 the right of meeting in those places which al- 
 Walid had taken from them and converted 
 into mosques. They, therefore, claimed the 
 whole inner area as their own from ‘Umar. 
 The latter thought it right to restore them 
 what al-Walid h^d taken from them, but 
 upon examination he found that the churches 
 without the suburbs were not comprehended 
 in the articles of surrender by the Compa¬ 
 nions, such, for example, as the great Church 
 of the Monastery of Observants or Carmelites, 
 the Church of the Convent behind the Church 
 of St. Thomas, and all the churches of the 
 neighbouring villages. ‘Umar therefore gave 
 them the choice, either to restore them the 
 churches they demanded, demolishing in that 
 case all the other churches, or to leave those 
 churches unmolested, and to receive from 
 them a full consent to the free use of the open 
 sjoace by the Muslims. To this latter pro¬ 
 posal they, after three days deliberation, 
 agreed; and proper writings were drawn 
 up on both sides. They gave the Muslims a 
 deed of grant, and ‘Umar gave them full 
 security and assurance of protection. Nothing 
 was to be compared to this mosque. It 
 is said to be one of the strongholds of 
 Paradise, and that no inhabitant of Damascus 
 would long for Paradise when he looks upon 
 his beautiful mosque. Al-Ma’mun came to 
 Damascus in company with his brother al- 
 Mu‘tasim, and the QazI Yahya Ibn Aksam. 
 Whilst viewing the mosque he said, ‘ What is 
 
DANCING 
 
 the most wondrous sight here ? ’ His brother 
 said, ‘ These offerings and pledges.’ The Qazi 
 said, ‘ The marble and the columns. ’ Then said 
 al-Ma’mun, ‘ The most wondrous thing to me 
 is, whether any other could be built at all like 
 this.’ ” ( Hist. Temple of Jerusalem, by Jalalu 
 ’d-din, translated by Reynolds, p. 407.) 
 
 DANCING. Arabic Bays. 
 
 Dancing is generally held to be unlawful, 
 although it does not appear to be forbidden 
 in either the Qur’an or the Traditions, but 
 according to al-Bukhari (Arabic ed., p. 135), 
 the Prophet expressly permitted it on the 
 day of the great festival. Those who hold it 
 to be unlawful quote the following verse from 
 the Qur’an, Surah xvii. 39, “ Walk not proudly 
 on the earth,” as a prohibition, although it 
 does not seem to refer to the subject. 
 
 The Sufis make dancing a religious 
 exercise, but the Sunni Muslims consider it 
 unlawful. (Hidayatu ’ s-Sa’il , p. 107.) 
 
 DANIEL. Arabic Daniydl. A 
 
 prophet celebrated amongst Muhammadans 
 as an interpreter of dreams. He is not men¬ 
 tioned in either the Qur’an or the Traditions, 
 but in the Qagasu ’l-Ambiya ', p. 231, it is 
 stated that in the reign of Bukhtu Nagsur 
 (Nebuchadnezzer) he was imprisoned; and 
 when he was in prison, the king had a dream 
 which he had forgotten, and hearing that 
 Daniel was an interpreter of dreams, he sent 
 for him. When Daniel was in the presence 
 of the King, he refused to prostrate, saying, 
 it was lawful to prostrate alone to the Lord 
 Almighty. For this he nearly lost his life, 
 but was spared to interpret the king’s dream, 
 which was as follows : “ He saw a great idol, 
 the head of which was of gold, above the 
 navel of silver, below the navel of copper, the 
 legs of iron, and the feet of clay. And sud¬ 
 denly a stone fell from heaven upon the idol, 
 and ground it to powder, and mixed all the 
 substances, so that the wind blew them in all 
 directions ; but the stone grew gradually, and 
 to such an extent that it covered the whole 
 earth.” The interpretation of it, as given by 
 Daniel is said to be this : The idol represented 
 different nations; the gold was the kingdom 
 of Nebuchadnezzar, the silver the kingdom 
 of his son, the copper the Romans, the iron 
 the Persians, and the clay the tribe Zauzan, 
 from which the kings of Persia and Rome 
 should be descended; the great stone being 
 a religion which should spread itself over the 
 whole earth in the last day. 
 
 DAE (;W). “A bouse, dwelling, 
 
 habitation, land, country.” A word which is 
 used in various combinations, e.g .:— 
 
 ad-Dar . . The abode—the city of 
 
 al-Madinah. 
 
 ad-Darain . The two abodes—this 
 world and the next. 
 
 Daru 'l-adab . A seat of learning; a 
 university. 
 
 Daru ’l-baqa’ . The abode which re- 
 maineth—heaven. 
 
 Da.ru 'l-fand . The abode which passeth 
 away—earth. 
 
 DARU ’l-harb 69 
 
 Daru ’ l-ghurur . 
 
 The abode of delusion— 
 the world. 
 
 Daru ’l-huzn 
 
 The vale of tears—the 
 earth. 
 
 Daru 'l-ibtild' . 
 
 The abode of temptation 
 —the world. 
 
 Daru 'l-khilafah 
 
 The seat of the Imam or 
 Khallfah—capital 
 
 Daru ’l-kutub . 
 
 A library. 
 
 Daru ’l-kkuld . 
 
 The home of eternity— 
 Paradise. 
 
 ad-Da.ru ’n-na‘im 
 
 The blessed abode—Pa¬ 
 radise. 
 
 Daru ’l-qaza' 
 
 The Qazi’s court. 
 
 Daru ’sh-shifa’ 
 
 A hospital. 
 
 Daru 's-surur 
 
 The abode of joy—Para¬ 
 dise. 
 
 Daru ’z-zarb 
 
 A mint. 
 
 Dam ’z-ziyafah 
 
 A banqueting-room. 
 
 [daru 'l-bawae, 
 
 DARU 'l-IIARB, DARU ’l- 
 
 ISLAM, DARU ’l-QARAR, DARU ’S-SALAM, DARU 
 ’S-SALTANAH, DARU ’s-SAWAB.] 
 
 DARGAH (lAS^a). A royal court 
 (Persian). In India it is a term used for a 
 Muhammadan shrine or tomb of some reputed 
 holy person, and which is the object of pil¬ 
 grimage and adoration. (Wilson’s Glossary of 
 Indian Terms.) 
 
 DARU ’L-BAWAR (j\^\ jU)- 
 
 Lit. “ The abode of perdition.” A term used 
 for hell in the Qur’an, Surah xiv. 33: “ And 
 have made their people to alight at the abode 
 of perdition." 
 
 DARU ’L-HARB j\S). 
 
 “The land of warfare.” According to the 
 Dictionary Ghiyagu ’ l-Lughat , Daru ’l-harb 
 is “ a country belonging to infidels which has 
 not been subdued by Islam.” According to 
 the Qamus, it is “ a country in which peace 
 has not been proclaimed between Muslims 
 and unbelievers.” 
 
 In the Fatdwa‘Alamgiri , vol. ii. p. 854, it is 
 written that a Daru ’l-harb becomes a Daru 
 'l-lslam on one condition, namely, the promul¬ 
 gation of the edicts of Islam. The Imam 
 Muhammad, in his book called the Ziyadah , 
 says a Daru ’l-Islam again becomes a Daru 7- 
 harb, according to Abu Hanlfah, on three 
 conditions, namely : (1) That the edicts of the 
 unbelievers be promulgated, and the edicts of 
 Islam be suppressed ; (2) That the country in 
 question be adjoining a Daru ’l-harb and no 
 other Muslim country lie between them 
 (that is, when the duty of Jihad or religious 
 war becomes incumbent on them, and they 
 have not the power to carry it on). (3) That no 
 protection (aman) remains for either a Muslim 
 or a zimnii ; viz. that amanu ’l-awwal , or that 
 first protection which was given them when the 
 country was first conquered by Islam. The 
 Imams Yusuf and Muhammad both say that 
 when the edicts of unbelievers are promul¬ 
 gated in a country, it is sufficient to consti¬ 
 tute it a Daru ’l-harb. 
 
 In the Raddu 'l-Mukhtar. vol. iii. p. 391, it 
 is stated, “ If the edicts of Islam remain in 
 force, together with the edicts of the unbe¬ 
 lievers, then the country cannot be said to be 
 
70 
 
 DAUGHTERS 
 
 DARU *L-ISLAM. 
 
 a Dam ’l-harb.” The important question as 
 to whether a country in the position of Hin¬ 
 dustan may be considered a Daru ’l-Islam or 
 a Dam ’l-harb has been fully discussed by 
 Dr. W. W. Hunter, of the Bengal Civil Ser¬ 
 vice, in his work entitled, Indian Musuimans, 
 which is the result of careful inquiry as to 
 the necessary conditions of a Jihad, or a 
 Crescentade, instituted at the time of the 
 excitement which existed in India in 
 1870-71, hi consequence of a Wahhabi con¬ 
 spiracy for the overthrow of Christian rule in 
 that country. The whole matter, according 
 to the Sunni Musuimans, hinges upon the 
 question whether India is Daru 'l-harb, “ a 
 land of warfare,” or Daru ’l-Islam , “ a land 
 of Islam.” 
 
 The Muftis belonging to the Hanlfi and 
 Shafi‘1 sects at Makkah decided that, “ as long 
 as even some of the peculiar observances of 
 Islam prevail in a country, it is Daru ’l-lslam.” 
 
 The decision of the Mufti of the Malik! sect 
 was very similar, being to the following effect: 
 “ A country does not become Daru ’l-harb 
 as soon as it passes into the hands of the 
 infidels, but when all or most of the injunc¬ 
 tions of Islam disappear therefrom.” 
 
 The law doctors of North India decided 
 that, “ the absence of protection and liberty 
 to Musuimans is essential in a Jihad, or reli¬ 
 gious war, and also that there should be a 
 probability of victory to the armies of Islam.” 
 
 The Shl‘ah decision on the subject was as 
 follows: “ A Jihad is lawful only when the 
 armies of Islam are led by the rightful Imam, 
 when arms and ammunitions of war and ex¬ 
 perienced warriors are ready, when it is 
 against the enemies of God, when he -who 
 makes war is in possession of his reason, and 
 when he has secured the permission of his 
 parents, and has sufficient money to meet the 
 expenses of his journey.” 
 
 The Sunnis and Shi‘ahs alike believe in 
 the eventual triumph of Islam, when the 
 whole world shall become followers of the 
 Prophet of Arabia; but whilst the Sunnis 
 are, of course, ready to undertake the 
 accomplishment of this great end, “ whenever 
 there is a probability of victory to the Mu¬ 
 suimans,” the Shx‘ahs, true to the one great 
 principle of their sect, must wait until the 
 appearance of a rightful Imam, [jihad.] 
 
 DARU ’L-ISLAM -.S\ ,U). 
 
 “ Land of Islam.” According to the Raddu 7- 
 Mukktar, vol. iii. p. 391, it is a country 
 in which the edicts of Islam are fully pro¬ 
 mulgated. 
 
 In a state brought under Muslims, all those 
 who do not embrace the faith are placed 
 under certain disabilities. They can worship 
 God according to their own customs, provided 
 they are not idolaters; but it must be done 
 without any ostentation, and, whilst churches 
 and synagogues may be repaired, no new place 
 of worship can be erected. “ The construction 
 of churches, or synagogues, in Muslim terri¬ 
 tory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the 
 Traditions ; but if places of worship belong¬ 
 ing to Jews, or Christians, be destroyed, or 
 
 fall into decay, they are at liberty to repair 
 them, because buildings cannot endure for 
 ever.” 
 
 Idol temples must be destroyed, and 
 idolatry suppressed by force in all countries 
 ruled according to strict Muslim law. ( Hi- 
 ddyah, vol. ii. p. 219.) 
 
 For further particulars, see article daeu 
 ’l-harb. 
 
 DARU ’L-QARAR ». 
 
 “ The abode that abideth.” An expression 
 which occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xl. 42: “ O 
 my people ! this present life is only a passing 
 joy, but the life to come is the mansion that 
 abideth.” 
 
 DARU ’S-3ALAM ( r l -5' ». 
 
 “ The abode of peace.” An expression which 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah vi. 127: “ For 
 them is a dwelling of peace with their Lord ! 
 and in recompense for their works, shall He 
 be their protector.” 
 
 DARU ’S-SALTANAH (Ld=LJ\ J \j). 
 
 “ The seat of government.” A term given to 
 the capital of a province, or a Muslim state. 
 
 DARU ’S-SAWAB ». 
 
 “ The house of recompense.” A name given 
 to the Jannatu ‘Adn, or Garden of Eden, by 
 the commentator al-BaizawI. 
 
 DARVESH, DARWISH (u^). 
 
 A Persian word for a religious mendicant. A 
 dervesh. It is derived from the word dar, 
 “a door”; lit. one who goes from door to 
 door. Amongst religious Muhammadans, the 
 darvesh is called a faqir, which is the word 
 generally used for religious mendicant orders 
 in Arabic books. The subject is, therefore, 
 considered in the article on faqir. 
 
 DAUGHTERS. Arabic Bint, 
 pi. Bandt; Heb. Bath In 
 
 the law of inheritance, the position of a 
 daughter is secured by a verse in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. 12: “ With regard to your children, 
 God has commanded you to give the sons the 
 portion of two daughters, and if there be 
 daughters, more than two, then they shall 
 have two-thirds of that which their father 
 hath left, but if she be an only daughter she 
 shall have the half.” 
 
 The Sirajiyah explains the above as 
 follows:— 
 
 “ Daughters begotten by the deceased take 
 in three cases : half goes to one only, and two- 
 thirds to two or more: and, if there be a 
 son, the male has the share of two females, 
 and he makes them residuaries. The son’s 
 daughters are like the daughters begotten 
 by the deceased; and they may be in six 
 cases: half goes to one only, and two-thirds 
 to two or more, on failure of daughters be¬ 
 gotten by the deceased ; with a single daugh¬ 
 ter of the deceased, they have a sixth, com¬ 
 pleting (with the daughter’s half) two-thirds ; 
 but, with two daughters of the deceased, they 
 have no share of the inheritance, unless there 
 be, in an equal degree with, or in a lower 
 
DAUGHTERS 
 
 DAVID 
 
 71 
 
 degree than, them, a boy, who makes them 
 residuaries. As to the remainder between 
 them, the male has the portion of two 
 females ; and all of the son’s daughters are 
 excluded by the son himself. 
 
 “ If a man leave three son’s daughters, 
 some of them in lower degrees than others, 
 and three daughters of the son of another 
 son, some of them in lower degree than others, 
 and three daughters of the son’s son of 
 another son, some of them in lower degrees 
 than others, as in the following table, this is 
 called the case of tashbih. 
 
 First set. Second set. Third set. 
 
 Son. Son. Son. 
 
 Son, daughter. Son. Son 
 
 Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son. 
 
 Son, daughter. Son, daughter. Son, daughter. 
 
 Son, daughter. Son, daughter. 
 
 Son, daughter. 
 
 “Here the eldest of the first line has none 
 equal in degree with her ; the middle one of 
 the first line is equalled in degree by the 
 eldest of the second, and the youngest of the 
 first line is equalled by the middle one of 
 the second, and by the eldest of the third line ; 
 the youngest of the second line is equalled 
 by the middle one of the third line, and the 
 youngest of the third set has no equal in 
 degree. When thou hast comprehended this, 
 then we say: the eldest of the first line has a 
 moiety; the middle one of the first line has 
 a sixth, together with her equal in degree, to 
 make ap two-thirds ; and those in lower 
 degrees never take anything, unless there be 
 a son with them, who makes them residua¬ 
 ries, both her who is equal to him in degree, 
 and her who is above him, but who is not 
 entitled to a share ; those below him are ex¬ 
 cluded.” (Ramsay's ed. As-Sirajiyah.) 
 
 The age of puberty, or majority, of a 
 daughter is established by the usual signs of 
 womanhood ; but in the absence of these signs, 
 according to Abu Hanifah, she is not of age 
 until she is eighteen. But the two Imams, 
 Muhammad and Yusuf, fix the age at fifteen, 
 and with this opinion the Imam ash-Shafi‘i 
 agrees. 
 
 With regard to a daughter’s freedom in a 
 marriage contract, Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, in 
 his commentary on the Traditions (vol. iii. 
 p. 105), says, “ All the learned doctors are 
 agreed that a virgin daughter, until she has 
 arrived at the age of puberty, is entirely at 
 the disposal of her father or lawful guardian, 
 but that in the event of a woman having been 
 left a widow after she has attained the age 
 of puberty, she is entirely at liberty to marry 
 whom she likes.” There is, however, he says, 
 some difference of opinion as to the free¬ 
 dom of a girl who has not been married and 
 has arrived at the age of puberty. Abu 
 Hanifah rules that she is entirely free from 
 the control of her guardian with regard to her 
 marriage, but ash-Shafi‘I rules otherwise. 
 Again, as regards a widow who is not of 
 age, Abu Hanifah says she cannot marry 
 without her guardian’s permission, but ash- 
 Shafi‘1 says she is free. 
 
 According to the teaching of the Prophet, 
 
 “ a virgin daughter gives her consent to mar¬ 
 riage by silence.” He also taught “ that a 
 woman ripe in years shall have her consent 
 asked, and if she remain silent her silence is 
 consent, but if she do not consent, she shall 
 not be forced.” But this tradition is also to 
 be compared with another, in which he said, 
 
 “ There is no marriage without the permission 
 of the guardians.” ( Mishkat , xiii. c. iv. pt. 2.) 
 Hence the difference between the learned 
 doctors on this subject. 
 
 The author of the Akhldg-i-Jaldii says it is 
 not advisable to teach girls to read and write, 
 and this is the general feeling amongst 
 Muhammadans in all parts of the world, 
 although it is considered right to enable 
 them to recite the Qur’an and the liturgical 
 prayers. 
 
 The father or guardian is to be blamed who 
 does not marry his daughter at an early age, 
 for Muhammad is related to have said, “ It 
 is written in the Book of Moses, that who¬ 
 soever does not many his daughter when she 
 hath reached the age of twelve years is re¬ 
 sponsible for any sin she may commit.” 
 
 The ancient Arabs used to call the angels 
 the “ daughters of God,” and objected strongly, 
 as the Badawls do in the present day, to 
 female offspring, and they used to bury their 
 infant daughters alive. These practices Mu¬ 
 hammad reprobates in the Qur’an, Surah xvi. 
 59: “ And they ascribe daughters unto God ! 
 Glory be to Him! But they desire them not 
 for themselves. For when the birth of a 
 daughter is announced to any one of them, 
 dark shadows settle on his face, and he is sad; 
 he hideth him from the people because of 
 the ill tidings. Shall he keep it with disgrace, 
 or bury it in the dust ? Are not their judg¬ 
 ments wrong ? ” 
 
 Mr. Rodwell remarks on this verse : “ Thus 
 Rabbinism teaches that to be a woman is a 
 great degradation. The modem Jew says in 
 his Daily Prayers, fob 5, 6, “ Blessed art thou, 
 0 Lord our God ! King of the Universe ! who 
 hath not made me a woman.” 
 
 DtTMAH A fortified town 
 
 held by the Christian chief Ukaidar, who was 
 defeated by the Muslim general Khalid, and 
 by him converted to Muhammadanism, a.h. 9. 
 But the mercenary character of Ukaidar’s 
 conversion led him to revolt after Muham¬ 
 mad’s death. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. 
 iv. p. 191.) 
 
 DAVID. Arabic Dawud, or 
 Daivud. A king of Israel and a Prophet, 
 to whom God revealed the Zabur, or Book 
 of Psalms. [zabuk.] He has no special 
 title or kalimah, as all Muslims are agreed 
 that he was not a law-giver or the founder 
 of a dispensation. The account of him in 
 the Qur’an is exceedingly meagre. It is 
 given as follows, with the commentator’s 
 remarks translated in italics by Mr. Lane :— 
 
 “ And God gave him (David) the kingship 
 over the children of Israel, and wisdom, after 
 j the death of Samuel and Saul, and they 
 
72 
 
 DAVID 
 
 DA‘WAH 
 
 [namely these two gifts] had not been given 
 together to any one before him ; and He taught 
 him what He pleased, as the art of making 
 coats of mail, and the language of birds. And 
 were it not for God’s repelling men, one by 
 another, surely the earth had become corrupt 
 by the predominance of the polytheists and the 
 slaughter of the Muslims and the ruin of ihe 
 places of worship : but God is beneficent to 
 the peoples, and hath repelled some by others." 
 (Surah ii. 227.) 
 
 “ Hath the story of the two opposing parties 
 come unto thee, when they ascended over the 
 walls of the oratory of David, having been pre¬ 
 vented going in unto him by the door, because of 
 his being engaged in devotion? When they 
 went in unto David, and he was frightened at 
 them,they said, Fear not: we are two oppos¬ 
 ing parties. It is said that they were two 
 parties of more than one each ; and it is said 
 that they were two individuals, angels, ivho 
 came as two litigants, to admonish David, who 
 had ninety-nine ivives, and had desired the wife 
 of a person who had none but her, and married 
 her and taken her as his wife. [One of them 
 said,] One of us hath wronged the other ; 
 therefore judge between us with truth, and 
 be not unjust, but direct us into the right 
 way. Verily this my brother in religion had 
 nine-and-ninety ewes, and I had one ewe; and 
 he said, Make me her keeper. And he over¬ 
 came me in the dispute.— And the other con¬ 
 fessed him to have spoken truth. —[David] 
 said, Verily he hath wronged thee in demand¬ 
 ing thy ewe to add her to his ewes ; and verily 
 many associates wrong one another, except 
 those who believe and do righteous deeds: 
 and few indeed are they.— And the two angels 
 said, ascending in their [proper or assumed] 
 forms to heaven, The man hath passed sentence 
 against himself. So David was admonished. 
 And David perceived that We had tried him 
 by his love of that woman; wherefore he asked 
 pardon of his Lord, and fell down bowing 
 himself (or prostrating himself'), and repented. 
 So We forgave him that; and verily for him 
 [was ordained] a high rank with Us (that is, 
 an increase of good fortune in this world), and 
 [there shall be for him] an excellent retreat 
 in the world to come." (Surah xxxviii. 20-24.) 
 
 “We compelled the mountains to glorify 
 Us, with David, and the birds also, on his com¬ 
 manding them to do so, when he experienced 
 languor; and We did this. And We taught 
 him the art of making coats of mail (for 
 before his time plates of metal were used) for 
 you among mankind in general, that they 
 might defend you from your suffering in 
 warring with your enemies. —Will ye then, 
 0 people of Mecca, be thankful for My 
 favours, believing the apostles ?” (Surah xxi. 
 79, 80.) 
 
 Sale observes that Yahyathe commentator, 
 most rationally understands hereby the divine 
 revelations which David received from God, 
 and not the art of making coats of mail.— 
 The cause of his applying himself to this art 
 is thus related in the Miratu ’z-Zaman :—He 
 used to go forth in disguise; and when he 
 found any people who knew him not, he ap¬ 
 
 proached them and asked them respecting 
 the conduct of David, and they praised him 
 and prayed for him; but one day, as he was 
 asking questions respecting himself as usual, 
 God sent to him an angel in the form of a 
 human being, who said, “ An excellent man 
 were David if he did not take from the public 
 treasury.” Whereupon the heart of David 
 was contracted, and he begged of God to 
 render him independent: so He made iron soft 
 to him, and it became in his hands as thread ; 
 and he used to sell a coat of mail for four 
 thousand [pieces of money—whether gold or 
 silver is not said], and with part of this he 
 obtained food for himself, and part he gave in 
 alms, and with part he fed his family. Hence 
 an excellent coat of mail is often called by 
 the Arabs “ Dawudf,” i.e. “ Davidean.” (See 
 Lane’s translation of The Thousand and One 
 Nights, chap. viii. note 5.) 
 
 David, it is said, divided his time regularly, 
 setting apart one day for the service of God, 
 another day for rendering justice to his 
 people, another day for preaching to them, 
 and another day for his own affairs. 
 
 DA‘WA (^yco). A claim in a law¬ 
 suit. A claim or demand. (See Hamilton’s 
 Hiddyah, vol. iii. p. 63.) 
 
 DA‘WAH Lit. “A call, in¬ 
 
 vocation (i.e. of God’s help).” A term used to 
 express a system of incantation which is held 
 to be lawful by orthodox Muhammadans ; 
 whilst sihr, “ magic,” and kahanah, “ fortune¬ 
 telling,” are said to be unlawful, the Pro¬ 
 phet having forbidden both. 
 
 From the Muslim books it appears that 
 Muhammad is believed to have sanctioned the 
 use of spells and incantations, so long as the 
 words used were only those of the names of 
 God, or of the good angels, and of the good 
 genii ; although the more strict amongst 
 them (the Wahhabis, for example,) would say 
 that only an invocation of God Himself was 
 lawful—teaching which appears to be more 
 in accordance with that of Muhammad, who 
 is related to have said, “ There is nothing 
 wrong in using spells so long as you do not 
 associate anything with God.” (Mishkat, xxi. 
 c. i.) It is therefore clearly lawful to use 
 charms and amulets on which the name of 
 God only is inscribed, and to invoke the help 
 of God by any ceremony, provided no one is 
 associated with Him. 
 
 The science of da^wah has, however, been 
 very much elaborated, and in many respects 
 its teachers seem to have departed from the 
 original teaching of their Prophet on the sub¬ 
 ject. 
 
 In India, the most popular work on da‘wah 
 is the Jawahiru 'l-Khamsah, by Shaikh Abu 
 ’1-Muwayyid of Gujerat, a.h. 956, in which he 
 says the science is used for the following 
 purposes. (1) To establish friendship or 
 enmity between two persons. (2) To cause 
 the cure, or the sickness and death, of a per¬ 
 son. (3) To secure the accomplishment of 
 one’s wishes, both temporal and spiritual. 
 (4) To obtain defeat or victory in battle. 
 
DA f WAH 
 
 da‘wah 73 
 
 This book is largely made up of Hindu 
 customs which, in India, have become part of 
 Muhammadanism; but we shall endeavour 
 to confine ourselves to a. consideration of 
 those sections which exhibit the so-called 
 science as it exists in its relation to Islam. 
 
 In order to explain this occult science, we 
 shall consider it under the following divisions : 
 
 1. The qualifications necessary for the 'anvil, 
 or the person who practices it. 
 
 2. The tables required by the teacher, and 
 their uses. 
 
 3. An explanation of the terms nisdb,zakat, 
 ‘ushr, qufl, daur, bazl, khatm, and sari'u ’l- 
 ijdbah , and their uses. 
 
 4. The methods employed for commanding 
 the presence of the genii. 
 
 I. When anyone enters upon the study of the 
 science, he must begin by paying the utmost 
 attention to cleanliness. No dog, or cat, or 
 any stranger, is allowed to enter his dwelling- 
 place, and he must purify his house by burn¬ 
 ing wood-aloes, pastiles, and other sweet- 
 scented perfumes. He must take the utmost 
 care that his body is in no way defiled, and he 
 must bathe and perform the legal ablutions 
 constantly. A most important preparation 
 for the exercise of the art is a forty-days’ fast 
 (chilld ), when he must sleep on a mat spread 
 on the ground, sleep as little as possible, and 
 not enter into general conversation. Exor¬ 
 cists not unfrequently repair to some cave or 
 retired spot in order to undergo complete 
 abstinence. 
 
 The diet of the exorcist must depend upon 
 
 the kind of astna, or names of God he intends 
 to recite. If they are the asma’u ’l-jalaliyah, 
 or “ terrible attributes ” of the Almighty, then 
 he must refrain from the use of meat, fish, 
 eggs, honey, and musk. If they are the 
 asma’u 'l-jamaliyah, or “ amiable attributes,” 
 ho must abstain from butter, curds, vinegar, 
 salt, and ambergrise. If he intends to recite 
 both attributes, he must then abstain from 
 such things as garlic, onions, and assafoetida. 
 
 It is also of the utmost importance that the 
 exorcist should eat things which are lawful, 
 always speak the truth, and not cherish a 
 proud or haughty spirit. He should be care¬ 
 ful not to make a display of his powers before 
 the world, but treasure up in his bosom the 
 knowledge of his acquirements. It is con¬ 
 sidered very dangerous to his own life for a 
 novice to practice the science of exorcism. 
 
 II. Previous to reciting any of the names 
 or attributes of God for the establishment of 
 friendship or enmity in behalf of any person, 
 it is necessary to ascertain the initials of his 
 or her name in the Arabic alphabet, which 
 letters are considered by exorcists to be con¬ 
 nected with the twelve signs of the zodiac, 
 the seven planets, and the four elements. 
 The following tables, which are taken from the 
 Jawahiru ’/-hjiamsah, occur, in a similar form, 
 in all books on exorcism, give the above com¬ 
 binations, together with the nature of the per¬ 
 fume to be burnt, and the names of the presid¬ 
 ing genius and guardian angel. These tables 
 may be considered the key to the whole 
 science of exorcism. 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 with their respective number. 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 3 5 
 
 4 j 
 
 5 8 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 Mil 
 
 Allah. 
 
 JP* 
 
 Baqi. 
 
 Jami‘. 
 
 Dayyan. 
 
 Hddi. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 GO 
 
 113 
 
 114 
 
 05 
 
 20 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 God, 
 
 Eternal. 
 
 Assembler 
 
 Reckoner. 
 
 Guide. 
 
 The Class of the Attribute. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Terrible & 
 Amiable 
 combined. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Enmity. 
 
 Enmity. 
 
 The Elements. ( Arba'ah 1 Anasir .) 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Earth.. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 Black Aloes 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Red Sandal. 
 
 White 
 
 Sandal. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 ( Buruj .) 
 
 Hamal. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Jauza’ 
 
 Twins. 
 
 Saratan. 
 
 Crab. 
 
 Saur. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Hamal. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 ( Kawakib .) 
 
 Zuhal. 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 Mushtari. 
 
 J upiter. 
 
 Mirrikh. 
 
 Mars. 
 
 Shams. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Zuhrah. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 The Genii. (Jinn.) 
 
 Qayupiish. 
 
 Danush. 
 
 Nulfish. 
 
 Twayush. 
 
 Hush. 
 
 The Guardian Angels. ( Muwakkil.) 
 
 Israfll. 
 
 Jibra’il. 
 
 Kalka’il. 
 
 Darda’U. 
 
 Durba’il. 
 
 10 
 
74 
 
 DA C WAH 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 ■with their respective number. 
 
 6 } 
 
 7 J 
 
 8 £ 
 
 9 l 
 
 10 3 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 Wall 
 
 Zaki. 
 
 <3^- 
 
 Haqq. 
 
 n 
 
 M-wO 
 
 Yasin. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 46 
 
 37 
 
 108 
 
 215 
 
 130 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 Friend. 
 
 Purifier. 
 
 Truth. 
 
 Holy. 
 
 Chief. 
 
 The Glass of the Attribute. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable, 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Hatred. 
 
 Desire. 
 
 Attraction. 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 (.Arbafdh '-Anasir.') • 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 Camphor. 
 
 Honey. 
 
 Saffron. 
 
 Musk. 
 
 Rose 
 
 Leaves. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 ( Buruj.) 
 
 JauzS. 
 
 Twins. 
 
 Sarafan. 
 
 Crab. 
 
 Jady. 
 
 Goat. 
 
 Hamal. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Mizan. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 (Kawalcib ) 
 
 ‘ Utarid. 
 Mercury. 
 
 Qamar. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Zuhal. 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 Mushtari. 
 
 Jupiter". 
 
 Mirnkh. 
 
 Mars. 
 
 The Genii. {Jinn.) 
 
 Puyush. 
 
 Kapush. 
 
 ‘Ayush. 
 
 Badyush. 
 
 Shahbush. 
 
 The Guardian Angel. 
 
 ( Muwakkil.) 
 
 Raftma’il. 
 
 Sharka’il. 
 
 Tankafil. 
 
 Ishma’il. 
 
 Sarakikail. 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 with their respective number. 
 
 20 3 
 
 30 J 
 
 40 r 
 
 50 a 
 
 60 y* 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 JAS 
 
 K5.fi. 
 
 Latif 
 
 Malik. 
 
 $wr. 
 
 Sami‘. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 Ill 
 
 129 
 
 90 
 
 256 
 
 180 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 Sufficient 
 
 Benignant. 
 
 King. 
 
 Light. 
 
 Hearer. 
 
 The Glass of the Attribute. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Separation. 
 
 Love. 
 
 Hatred. 
 
 Desire. 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 QArba’-ah ‘ Anasir.) 
 
 Water. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 White rose 
 leaves. 
 
 Apples. 
 
 Quince. 
 
 Hyacinth. 
 
 Different 
 kinds of 
 Scents. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 {Buruj.) 
 
 ‘ Aqrab. 
 Scorpion. 
 
 Saur. 
 
 Bull. 
 
 Asad. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Mizan. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 Qaus. 
 
 Archer. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 {Kawakib.) 
 
 Shams. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Zuhrah. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 ‘ Utarid. 
 Mercury. 
 
 Qamar. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Zuhal. 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 The Genii. {Jinn.) 
 
 Kadyush. 
 
 ‘Adyiish. 
 
 Majbush. 
 
 Damalyush 
 
 Fa‘yush. 
 
 The Guardian Angels. 
 
 {Muwakkil.) 
 
 Kharura’fl. 
 
 Tata’il. 
 
 Ruya’il. 
 
 Hula’ll. 
 
 Ham- 
 
 wakll. 
 
da‘wah 
 
 75 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 with their respective number. 
 
 70 t 
 
 80 u. 
 
 90 
 
 100 j 
 
 to 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 ‘All. 
 
 Fattdh. 
 
 Samcid. 
 
 Qfldir, 
 
 Rail,. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 110 
 
 489 
 
 134 
 
 305 
 
 202 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 Exalted. 
 
 Opener. 
 
 Esta¬ 
 
 blished. 
 
 Powerful. 
 
 Lord. 
 
 The Class of the Attribute. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Riches. 
 
 Enmity. 
 
 Intimacy. 
 
 Desire. 
 
 Friend¬ 
 
 ship. 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 ( Arba‘ah ‘Anasir.) 
 
 Earth. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 White 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Nutmeg. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Rosewater. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 {Buruj.) 
 
 Sumbulah. 
 
 Virgin. 
 
 Asad. 
 
 Lion. 
 
 Mizan. 
 
 Scales. 
 
 Hut. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Sumbulah. 
 
 Virgin. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 {Kawakib.) 
 
 Mushtari. 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 Mirrikh. 
 
 Mars. 
 
 Shams. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Zuhrah. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 1 Utarid. 
 Mercury. 
 
 The Genii. 
 
 {Jinn.) 
 
 Kashpush. 
 
 Latyush. 
 
 Kalapush. 
 
 Shamyush. 
 
 Rahush. 
 
 The Guardian Angels. 
 
 {Muwakkil.) 
 
 Luma’ll 
 
 Sarhma’il. 
 
 Ahjmall. 
 
 ‘Itra’il. 
 
 Amwakil. 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 with their respective number. 
 
 300 
 
 
 400 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 ShafV. 
 
 s->V 
 
 Tawwab. 
 
 Sabit. 
 
 Khaliq. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 460 
 
 409 
 
 903 
 
 731 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 Accepter. 
 
 Forgiver. 
 
 Stable. 
 
 Creator. 
 
 The Class of the Attribute. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Enmity. 
 
 Sleepless 
 
 ness. 
 
 Hatred. 
 
 Love. 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 ( Arb‘ah ‘Anasir.) 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Eaith 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 White Aloes. 
 
 Amber. 
 
 White Aloes. 
 
 Violet. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 (. Buruj.) 
 
 ‘ Aqrab. 
 Scorpion. 
 
 Dalw. 
 
 Watering Pot. 
 
 Jlut. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Jady. 
 
 Goat. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 ( Kawakib.) 
 
 Qamar. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Zuhal. 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Mushtari. 
 
 Jupiter. 
 
 Mirrikh. 
 
 Mars. 
 
 The Genii. ( Jinn.) 
 
 Tashyush. 
 
 Latyush. 
 
 Twahyush. 
 
 Dalayush. 
 
 The Guardian Angels. 
 
 ( Muwakkil .) 
 
 Amra’il. 
 
 Azra’il. 
 
 Mika’il. 
 
 Mahka’Il. 
 
76 
 
 DA'WAH 
 
 Letters of the Alphabet arranged 
 according to the Abjad [abjad], 
 with their respective number. 
 
 •o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 800 
 
 900 t 
 
 1000 £ 
 
 The Special Attributes or Names 
 of God. 
 
 Zakir. 
 
 /Carr. 
 
 * 
 
 Zahir. 
 
 (xhafur. 
 
 The Number of the Attribute. 
 
 921 
 
 1001 
 
 1106 
 
 1285 
 
 The Meaning of the Attribute. 
 
 Rememberer. 
 
 Punisher. 
 
 Evident. 
 
 Great 
 
 Forgiver. 
 
 The Class of the Attribute. 
 
 Combined. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Amiable. 
 
 The Quality, Vice, or Virtue of 
 the Letter. 
 
 Hatred. 
 
 Hatred. 
 
 Enmity. 
 
 Conva¬ 
 
 lescence. 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 ( Arba'ah ‘Andsir.) 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Air. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 The Perfume of the Letter. 
 
 Sweet 
 
 Basil. 
 
 Laburnam. 
 
 Jasmine. 
 
 Cloves. 
 
 The Signs of the Zodiac. 
 
 {Buruj.) 
 
 Qaus. 
 
 Archer. 
 
 Dalw. 
 
 Watering 
 
 Pot. 
 
 Hut. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Hat. 
 
 Fish. 
 
 The Planets. 
 
 (. Kawdkib.) 
 
 Shams. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Zuhrah. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 ‘ JJtarid. 
 Mercury. 
 
 Qamar. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 The Genii. 
 
 (Jinn.) 
 
 Twakapush. 
 
 Ghayush. 
 
 Ghafupush. 
 
 ‘Arkupush. 
 
 The Guardian Angel. 
 
 (. Muwakkil .) 
 
 Harta’fl. 
 
 ‘Ata’fl. 
 
 Nura’il. 
 
 Nukha’fl. 
 
 The sex of the signs of the Zodiac ( buruj ) has been determined as in the following table, 
 Between males and females exists friendship; between males and hermaphrodites sometimes 
 friendship sometimes enmity; between females and hermaphrodites the most inveterate 
 
 enmity:— 
 
 MALES. 
 
 FEMALES. 
 
 HERMAPHRODITES. 
 
 Ram 
 
 . Burj-i-Hamal. 
 
 Bull . . Burj-i-Saur. 
 
 Twins. 
 
 . Burj-i-JauzS. 
 
 Lion 
 
 . Burj-i-Asad. 
 
 Scales . . Burj-i-Mizan. 
 
 Virgin 
 
 . Burj-i-Sumbulah, 
 
 Scorpion 
 
 . Burj-i - 1 Aqrab. 
 
 Crab . . Burj-i-Saratan. 
 
 Goats . 
 
 . Burj-i-Jady. 
 
 Fish . 
 Archer 
 
 . Burj-i-Hut. 
 
 . Burj-i-Qaus. 
 
 Watering 
 Pot . 
 
 . Burj-i-Dalw. 
 
 Astrologists have determined the relative dispositions of the planets ( kaiualcib) to be as 
 follows:— 
 
 Venus 
 
 Venus 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Sun 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Sun 
 
 ) 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 ^ Friendship. 
 
 Saturn. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 Moon 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Mars 
 
 Venus 
 
 Mars 
 
 Sun 
 
 1 Mixed Friendship and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 > Enmity or Indiffer- 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Venus. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 ) ence. 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Mars 
 
 Mars 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 > 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 and 
 
 > Enmity. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Moon. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Sun. 
 
 Mars. 
 
 Saturn. 
 
77 
 
 da‘wah 
 
 The four elements ( arba'ah ‘ anasir ) stand in relation to each other as follows :— 
 
 Water and Water. Earth and Earth. 
 
 Fire and Fire. Air and Air. 
 
 j- Friendship. 
 
 Fire and Air. Air and Water. 
 
 ) Mixed Friendship and Enmity 
 ) or Indifference. 
 
 Fire and Water. Earth and Water. 
 
 Fire and Earth. 
 
 | Enmity. 
 
 As an illustration of the use of these tables, 
 two persons, Akram and Rahimah, contem¬ 
 plate a matrimonial alliance, and wish to 
 know if it will be a happy union or other¬ 
 wise. 
 
 The exorcist must first ascertain if the 
 elements ( arba‘ah ‘anasir'), the signs of the 
 zodiac (buruj ), and the planets (kawakib), are 
 amicably or inimicably disposed to each other 
 in the cases of these two individuals, and also 
 if there is a combination expressed in the ism 
 or name of God connected with their initial 
 letters. 
 
 In the present instance the initial letter of 
 Akram is alif, and that of Rahimah, ra, and 
 a reference to the foregoing tables will pro¬ 
 duce the following results :— 
 
 Akram. Rahimah. 
 
 ( r /V). (W-j). 
 
 Initial letter. 
 
 Alif V 
 
 Raj. 
 
 The quality of 
 the letter. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 The element. 
 
 Fire. 
 
 Earth. 
 
 The attribute. 
 
 Allah. 
 
 Rabb. 
 
 The quality of 
 the attribute. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 Terrible. 
 
 The planet. 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 The sign of the 
 zodiac. 
 
 The ram. 
 
 The virgin. 
 
 The perfume. 
 
 Black aloes. 
 
 Rose water. 
 
 The genius. 
 
 Qayupush. 
 
 Rahush. 
 
 The angel. 
 
 Israfll. 
 
 Amwakll. 
 
 In considering this case, the exorcist will 
 observe that there is a combination in the 
 attributes of God, both belonging to the asma’u 
 ’l-jalaliyah, or terrible attributes. There is also 
 a combination in the quality of the letters, 
 both implying friendship. Their respective 
 planets, Saturn and Mercury, show a combi¬ 
 nation of either mixed friendship and enmity, 
 or, perhaps, indifference. The sign of the 
 zodiac, the ram being a male, and that of the 
 virgin a hermaphrodite, show a possible alter¬ 
 nation of friendship and enmity between the 
 parties. The elements, fire and earth, being 
 opposed, imply enmity. It therefore appears 
 that there will be nothing against these two per¬ 
 sons, Akram and Rahimah forming a matrimo¬ 
 nial alliance, and that they may reasonably ex¬ 
 pect as much happiness from their union as 
 usually falls to the lot of the human race. 
 Should the good offices of the exorcist be re¬ 
 
 quested, he will, by incantation, according to 
 the table given, appeal to the Almighty as 
 Allah and Rabb, call in the aid of the genii 
 Qayupush and Rahush, and of the guardian 
 angels, Israfll and Amwakll. The perfumes he 
 will burn in his numerous recitals will be black 
 aloes and rose-water, and so bring about a 
 speedy increase in the happiness of the per¬ 
 sons of Akram and Rahimah 1 
 
 III. As we have already explained, the in¬ 
 cantations used by exorcists consist in the 
 recital of either the names or attributes of 
 God, or of certain formulae which are given in 
 books on the subject. In the Jawahiru 7- 
 Khamsah, there were many forms of incanta¬ 
 tion, but we select the following one to illus¬ 
 trate the subject:— 
 
 Suhhanaka! la ilaha ilia, anta! Rabba- 
 kulli-shai’in ! wa warisahu ! iva raziqahu ! wa 
 rahimahu ! 
 
 Glory be to Thee! There is no deity but 
 Thee ! The Lord of All 1 and the Inheritor 
 thereof ! and the Provider therefor! and the 
 Merciful thereon! 
 
 This incantation consists of forty-four 
 letters, exclusive of vowel points, as is shown 
 by the following table :— 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sin 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 
 Ba 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 Ha 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 Nun 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 
 Kaf 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 & 
 
 Ha 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 14 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 Nun 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 
 Ta 
 
 400 
 
78 
 
 da‘wah 
 
 
 19 
 
 J 
 
 Ra 
 
 200 
 
 20 
 
 
 Ba 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 
 Ba 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 o*) 
 
 Kaf 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 J 
 
 Lam 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 u* 
 
 Shin 
 
 300 
 
 26 
 
 
 Ya 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 B 
 
 Hamzali 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 ) 
 
 Wau 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 ) 
 
 Wau 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 ) 
 
 Ba 
 
 200 
 
 32 
 
 ui? 
 
 Sa 
 
 500 
 
 33 
 
 A* 
 
 Ha 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 •> 
 
 Wau 
 
 6 
 
 35 
 
 J 
 
 Ra 
 
 200 
 
 36 
 
 \ 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 Zii 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 
 ti 
 
 Qaf 
 
 100 
 
 39 
 
 
 Ha 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 j 
 
 Wau 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 j 
 
 Ra 
 
 200 
 
 42 
 
 1 
 
 Alif 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 £ 
 
 m 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 
 
 Mini 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 r*> 
 
 Ha 
 
 5 
 
 2613 
 
 In reciting such an invocation, units are 
 reckoned as hundreds, tens as thousands, hun¬ 
 dreds as tens of thousands, and thousands as 
 hundreds of thousands. 
 
 In the above formula— 
 
 Its nisab, or fixed estate, is the 
 number of letters (i.e. 45) put 
 into thousands = . . . 4,500 
 
 Its zakat, or alms, is the half of 
 the nisab added to itself, 
 
 4,500 and 2,250= . . . 6,750 
 
 Its ‘ushr, or tithes, is half of the 
 above half added to the sakat, 
 
 6,750 and 1,125= . . 7,875 
 
 Its qufl, or lock, is half of 1,125= 563 
 
 Its daur, or circle, is obtained by 
 adding to its qufl the sum of 
 the ‘ushr and then doubling 
 the total;— 
 
 563 
 
 7,875 
 
 - 8,438 
 
 8,438 
 
 - 16,876 
 
 Its bazl, or gift, is the fixed 
 
 number ..... 7,000 
 
 Its khatm . or seal, is the fixed 
 
 number ..... 1,200 
 
 Its sari‘u ’l-ijabah , or speedy 
 
 answer, is the fixed number . 12,000 
 
 Total . . . 56,764 
 
 DA e WAH 
 
 After the exorcist has recited the formula 
 the above number of times, he should, in 
 order to make a reply more certain, treble 
 the nisab, making it 135,000, and then add 
 2,613, the value of the combined number of 
 letters, making a total of 137,613 recitals. 
 The number of these recitals should be divided 
 as nearly as possible in equal parts for each 
 day’s reading, provided it be completed within 
 forty days. By a rehearsal of these, says our 
 author, the mind of the exorcist becomes com¬ 
 pletely transported, and, whether asleep or 
 awake, he finds himself accompanied by 
 spirits and genii .(jinn) to the highest heavens 
 and the lowest depths of earth. These spirits 
 then reveal to him hidden mysteries, and 
 render souls and spirits obedient to the will 
 of the exorcist. 
 
 IV. If the exorcist wish to command the 
 presence of genii in behalf of a certain person, 
 it is generally supposed to be effected in the 
 following manner. Tie must, first of all, shut 
 himself up in a room and fast for forty days. 
 He should besmear the chamber with red 
 ochre, and, having purified himself, should sit 
 on a small carpet, and proceed to call the 
 genius or demon. He must, however, first 
 find out what special genii are required to 
 effect his purpose. If, for example, he is 
 about to call in the aid of these spirits in be¬ 
 half of a person named Bahrain he will 
 
 find out, first, the special genii presiding over 
 the name, the letters of which are, omitting 
 the vowel points, B H E A M. Upon refer¬ 
 ence to the table it will be seen that they are 
 Danush, Hush, Rahusk, Qayupush, and Maj- 
 bush. He must then find out what are the 
 special names of God indicated by these 
 letters, which we find in the table are al-Baqi, 
 “ the Eternal,” al-Hadi, “ the Guide,” ar-Rabb, 
 “ the Lord,” Allah, “ God,” al-Malik, “ the 
 King.” He must then ascertain the power of 
 the letters, indicating the number of times for 
 the recital, which will be thus :— 
 
 B, 2 equal to 200 
 H, 5 „ 500 
 
 R, 200 „ 20,000 
 
 A. 1 „ 100 
 
 M, 40 „ 4,000 
 
 Total . 24,800 
 
 The exorcist should then, in order to call 
 in the help of the genii, recite the following 
 formula, not fewer than 24,800 times :— 
 
 Ya Danushu! for the sake of the Eternal 
 One! 
 
 Ya Hushu! for the sake of the Guide ! 
 
 Ya Rahushu! for the sake of the Lord i 
 
 Ya Qayupushu ! for the sake of Allah ! 
 
 Ya Majbushu! for the sake of the King 1 
 
 The exorcist will perform this recital with 
 his face turned towards the house of the 
 object he wishes to affect, and burn the per¬ 
 fumes indicated according to the table for the 
 letters of Bahrain’s name. 
 
 There are very many other methods of 
 performing this exorcism, but the foregoing 
 will suffice as a specimen of the kind of ser¬ 
 vice. [magic.] 
 
DAY 
 
 DEATH 
 
 DAT. The Muhammadan day 
 
 commences at sun-set; our Thursday even¬ 
 ing, for example, being the beginning of the 
 Muslim Friday. The Arabic Yauvi denotes 
 the day of twenty-four hours, and Naliar, the 
 day in contradistinction to the night (Jail). 
 The days of the week are as follows :— 
 
 Yaumu ’l-ahad, first-day, Sunday. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-isnain , second day, Monday. 
 
 Yaumu 's-salasa', third day, Tuesday. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-ai-ba’, fourth day, Wednesday. 
 
 Yaumu ’ l-khamis . Thursday. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-jum'ah , Day of Assembly, Friday. 
 
 Yaumu ’s-sabt, Sabbath-day, Saturday. 
 
 Of the days of the week, Monday, Wednes¬ 
 day, Thursday, and Friday, are esteemed 
 good and auspicious; the others evil. 
 ( Qanun-i-Islam , p. 403.) Friday is the spe¬ 
 cial day appointed by Muhammad for meet¬ 
 ing in the chief mosque for public worship. 
 
 [FRIDAY.] 
 
 DAY OF JUDGMENT, [resur¬ 
 
 rection.] 
 
 DEATH. Arabic Maut; Wafat. 
 
 It is distinctly taught in the Qur’an that 
 the hour of death is fixed for every living 
 creature. 
 
 Surah xvi. 63 : “ If God were to punish men 
 for their wrong-doing, He would not leave on 
 the earth a single living creature; but He 
 respites them until a stated time; and when 
 their time comes they cannot delay it an 
 hour, nor can they hasten it,” 
 
 Surah iii. 182: “Every soul must taste 
 death, and ye shall only be paid your hire on 
 the day of resurrection.” 
 
 Surah 1. 17 : “ The agony of death shall 
 come in truth, that is what thou didst shun.” 
 
 In the Traditions, Muhammad has taught 
 that it is sinful to wish for death : “ Wish not 
 for death, not even if thou art a doer of good 
 works, for peradventure thou mayest increase 
 them with an increase of life. Nor even if 
 thou art a sinner, for with increase of life 
 thou mayest obtain God’s pardon.” 
 
 One day the Prophet said: “ Whosoever 
 loves to meet God, God will love to meet him, 
 and whoever dislikes to meet God, God will 
 dislike to meet him.” Then ‘Ayishah said, 
 “ Truly we all dislike death and consider it a 
 great affliction.” The Prophet replied, “ Thou 
 dost not understand me. When death comes 
 near a believer, then God gives him a spirit of 
 resignation, and so it is that there is nothing 
 which a believer_likes so much as death.” 
 
 Al-Bara’ ibn ‘Azib, one of the Companions, 
 says 
 
 “ I came out with the Prophet at the 
 funeral of one of the assistants, and we arrived 
 just at the grave, before they had interred 
 the body, and the Prophet sat down, and we 
 sat around him with our heads down, and 
 were so silent, that you might say that birds 
 were sitting upon our heads. And there was 
 a stick in the Prophet’s hand with which he 
 kept striking the ground. Then he raised his 
 head and said twice or thrice to his compa¬ 
 nions, ‘ Seek the protection of God from the 
 
 79 
 
 punishments of the grave.’ After that he 
 said: ‘Verily, when a Muslim separateth 
 from the world and bringeth his soul to futu¬ 
 rity, angels descend to him from the celestial 
 regions, whose faces are white. You might 
 say their faces are the sun, and they have a 
 shroud of the shrouds of paradise, and per¬ 
 fumes therefrom. So they sit apart from the 
 deceased, as far as the eyes can see. After 
 which the Angel of Death (Malaku ’ l-Maut) 
 comes to the deceased and sits at his head, 
 and says, “ 0 pure soul, come forth to God’s 
 pardon and pleasure.” Then the soul comes 
 out, issuing like water from a bag, and the 
 Angel of Death takes it; and when he takes 
 it, the angels do not allow it to remain in his 
 hands for the twinkling of an eye. But when 
 the Angel of Death has taken the soul of a 
 servant of God, he resigns it to his assistants, 
 in whose hands is a shroud, and they put it 
 into the shroud and with the perfumes, when 
 a fragrance issues from the soul like the smell 
 of the best musk that is to be found on the 
 face of the earth. Then the angels carry it 
 upwards, and they do not pass by any con¬ 
 course of angels who do not say, “ What is 
 this pure soul, and who is owner of it ? ” And 
 they say, “ Such a one, the son of such a one,” 
 calling him by the best names by which he 
 was known in the world, till they reach the 
 lowest region of heaven with him. And the 
 angels ask the door to be opened for him, 
 which is done. Then angels follow it through 
 each heaven, the angel of one region to those 
 of the next, and so on till it reaches the 
 seventh heaven, when God says, “ Write the 
 name of My servant in ‘Illlyun, and return 
 him towards the earth, that is, to his body 
 which is buried in the earth, because I have 
 created man from earth and return him to it, 
 and will bring him out from it again as I 
 brought him out at first.” Then the souls are 
 returned into their bodies, when two angels 
 [sidnkar and nakir] come to the dead man 
 and cause him to sit up, and say to him, 
 “ Who is thy Lord ? ” He replies, “ My Lord 
 is God.” Then they say, “ What is thy reli¬ 
 gion?” He says, “Islam.” Then they say, 
 “ What is this man who is sent to you? ” (i.e. 
 the Prophet). He says, “ He is the Prophet 
 of God.” Then they say, “WTiat is your proof 
 of his mission ?” He says, “ I read the book 
 of God, and believed in it, and I proved it to 
 be true.” Then a voice calls out from the 
 celestial regions, “ My servant hath spoken 
 true, therefore throw for him a bed from 
 Paradise, and dress him in clothes from Para¬ 
 dise, and open a door for him towards Para¬ 
 dise.” Then peace and perfumes come for 
 him from Paradise, and his grave is enlarged 
 for him as far as the eye can see. Then a 
 man with a beautiful face comes to him, 
 elegantly dressed, and perfumed, and he says, 
 “ Be joyful in that which hath made thee so, 
 this is the day which was promised thee.” 
 Then the dead person says to him, “ Who art 
 thou, for thy face is perfectly beautiful ? ” And 
 the man replies, “I am thy good deeds.” 
 Then the dead person cries out, “ 0 Lord, 
 hasten the resurrection for my sake 1 ” ’ 
 
80 
 
 DEATH 
 
 DEATH 
 
 “ ‘ But,’ continued the Prophet, ‘ when an 
 infidel dies, and is about to pass from the 
 world and bring his soul to futurity, black¬ 
 faced angels come down to him and with 
 them sackcloths. Then they sit from the 
 dead as far as the eye can see, after which 
 the Angel of Death comes in order to sit at 
 his head, and says, “ 0 impure soul! come 
 forth to the wrath of God.” Then the soul is 
 disturbed in the infidel’s body. Then the 
 Angel of Death draws it out as a hot spit is 
 drawn out of wet wool. 
 
 “ ‘ Then the Angel of Death takes the soul 
 of the infidel, and having taken it, the angels 
 do not allow it to remain with him the twink¬ 
 ling of an eye, but they take it in the sack¬ 
 cloth, and a disagreeable smell issues from 
 the soul, like that of the most fetid carcass 
 that can be met with upon the face of the 
 earth. Then the angels carry it upwards and 
 do not pass by any assembly of angels who 
 do not ask whose filthy soul is this. They 
 answer such an one, the son of such an one, 
 and they mention him by the worst names 
 that he bore in the world, till they arrive 
 with it at the lowest heaven, and call the door 
 to be opened, but it cannot be done.’ Then 
 the Prophet repeated this verse: ‘ The doors of 
 the celestial regions shall not he opened for them, 
 nor shall they enter into paradise till a camel 
 passes through the eye of a needle.' Then God 
 says, ‘ Write his history in Sijjin,’ which is the 
 lowest earth; then his soul is thrown down 
 with violence. Afterwards the Prophet re¬ 
 peated this verse: 1 Unite no partner with 
 God, for whoever uniteth gods with God is like 
 that which falleth from high, and the birds 
 snatch it away, or the wind wafteth it to a dis¬ 
 tant place.’ Then his soul is replaced in his 
 body, and two angels [mttnkar and nakir] 
 come to him and set him up, and say, 1 Who 
 is thy Lord?’ He says, ‘Alas! alas! I do 
 not know.’ Then they say, ‘ What is thy 
 religion?’ He says, ‘Alas! alas! I do 
 not know.’ And they say to him, ‘ What is 
 the condition of the man who is sent down to 
 you ? ’ He says, ‘ Alas ! alas ! I do not know.’ 
 Then a voice comes from above, saying, ‘ He 
 lieth; therefore spread a bed of fire for him 
 and open a door for him towards hell.’ Then 
 the heat and hot winds of hell come to him, 
 and his grave is made tight upon him, so as to 
 squeeze his ribs. And a man with a hideous 
 countenance comes to him shockingly dressed, 
 of a vile smell, and he says, ‘Be joyful in 
 that which maketh thee miserable; this is 
 the day that was promised thee.’ Then the 
 dead man says, ‘Who art thou? Thy face 
 is hideous, and brings wickedness.’ He says, 
 
 ‘ I am thy impure actions.’ Then the dead 
 person says, ‘ 0 Lord, delay the resurrection 
 on my account! ’ ” 
 
 The ceremonies attending the death of a 
 Muslim are described as follows by Jafir 
 Sharif in Herklot’s Qdnun-i-Islam, as fol¬ 
 lows :— 
 
 Four or five days previous to a sick man’s 
 approaching his dissolution, he makes his will 
 in favour of his son or any other person, in the 
 presence of two or more witnesses, and either 
 
 delivers it to others or retains it by him. In 
 it he likewise appoints his executor. When 
 about to expire, any learned reader of the 
 Qur’an is sent for, and requested to repeat 
 with a loud voice the Surah Ya Sin (or chap, 
 xxxvi.), in order that the spirit of the man, 
 by the hearing of its sound, may experience 
 an easy concentration. It is said that when 
 the spirit was commanded to enter the body 
 of Adam, the soul having looked into it once, 
 observed that it was a bad and dark place, 
 and unworthy of its presence! Then the 
 Just and Most Holy God illuminated the body 
 of Adam with “ lamps of light,” and com¬ 
 manded the spirit to re-enter. It went in a 
 second time, beheld the light, and saw the 
 whole dwelling, and said, “ There is no jileas- 
 ing sound here for me to listen to.” It is 
 generally understood from the best works of 
 the mystics of the East, that it was owing to 
 this circumstance that the Almighty created 
 music. The holy spirit,, on hearing the sound 
 of this music became so delighted that it 
 entered Adam’s body. Commentators on the 
 Qur’an, expositors of the Traditions and 
 divines have written, that that sound re¬ 
 sembled that produced by the repeating of 
 the Suratu Ya Sin ; it is therefore advisable 
 to read at the hour of death this chapter 
 for tranquillising the soul. 
 
 The Kalimatu ’sh-shahadah [creed] is 
 also read with an audible voice by those 
 present. They do not require the patient 
 to read it himself, as at such a time he is 
 in a distressing situation, and not in a fit 
 state of mind to repeat the Kalimah. 
 
 Most people lie insensible, and cannot even 
 speak, but the pious retain their mental facul¬ 
 ties and converse till the very last. The fol¬ 
 lowing is a most serious religious rule amongst 
 us, viz. that if a person desire the patient to 
 repeat the Kalimah, and the sick man ex- 
 2 Jire without being able to do so, his faith is 
 considered dubious; whilst the man who 
 directed him so to do thereby incurs guilt. 
 It is therefore best that the sitters-by read 
 it, in anticipation of the hope that the sick 
 man, by hearing the sound of it, may bring 
 it to his recollection, and repeat it either aloud 
 or in his own mind. In general, when a per¬ 
 son is on the point of death, they pour shar- 
 hat, made of sugar and water, down his throat, 
 to facilitate the exit of the vital spark, and 
 some procure the holy water of the Zamzam 
 well at Makkah. The moment the spirit has 
 fled, the mouth is closed; because, if left 
 ojoen, it would present a disagreeable spec¬ 
 tacle. The two great toes are brought in 
 contact and fastened together with a thin slip 
 of cloth, to prevent the legs remaining apart. 
 They burn perfumes near the corpse. Should 
 the individual have died in the evening, the 
 shrouding and burial take place before mid¬ 
 night ; if he die at a later hour, or should 
 the articles required not be procurable at 
 that late hour, he is buried early on the fol¬ 
 lowing morning. The sooner the sepulchral 
 rites are performed the better, for it is not 
 proper to keep a corpse long in the house, 
 and for this reason the Prophet said that 
 
DEATH 
 
 DEBT 
 
 81 
 
 if he was a good man, the sooner he is buried 
 the more quickly he will reach heaven ; if a 
 bad man, he should be speedily buried, in 
 order that his unhappy lot may not fall upon 
 others in the house; as also that the relatives 
 of the deceased may not, by holding the 
 corpse, weep too much or go without food. 
 There are male and female washers, whose 
 province it is to wash and shroud the corpse 
 for payment. Sometimes, however, the rela¬ 
 tives do it themselves. In undertaking the 
 operation of washing, they dig a hole in the 
 earth to receive the water used in the pro¬ 
 cess, and prevent its spreading over a large 
 surface, as some men and women consider it 
 bad to tread on such water. Then they place 
 the corpse on a bed, country-cot, plank, or 
 straw. Some women, who are particular in 
 these matters, are afraid even to venture near 
 the place where the body has been washed. 
 Having stripped the corpse and laid it on its 
 back, with its head to the east and feet to the 
 west, they cover it with a cloth—reaching, if it 
 be a man, from the navel to the calves of the 
 legs, if a woman, extending from the chest to 
 the feet—and wash it with warm or with cold 
 water. They raise the body gently and rub 
 the abdomen four or five times, then pour 
 plenty of water, and wash off all the dirt and 
 filth with soap, &c., by means of flocks of 
 cotton or cloth; after which, laying the body 
 on the sides, they wash them; then the back, 
 and the rest of the body ; but gently, because, 
 life having but just departed, the body is 
 still warm and not insensible to pain. After 
 this they wash and clean it well, so that no 
 offensive smell may remain. They never 
 throw water into the nostrils or mouth, but 
 clean them with wicks of cloth or cotton. 
 After that they perform wuzu' for him, i.e. 
 they wash his mouth, the two upper extremi¬ 
 ties up to the elbows, make masah [masah] 
 on his head, and throw water on his feet; 
 these latter constituting the four parts of the 
 wuzu ceremony [ablutions]. They then put 
 some camphor with water into a new large 
 earthen pot, and with a new earthen pot 
 they take out water and pour it three times, 
 first from the head to the feet, then from the 
 right shoulder to the feet, lastly from the left 
 shoulder to the feet. Every time that a pot 
 of water is poured the Kalimatu 'sh-shahadah 
 is repeated, either by the person washing or 
 another. Having bathed the body and wiped 
 it dry with a new piece of cloth, they put on 
 the shroud. The shroud consists of three 
 pieces of cloth, if for a man, and five if for a 
 woman. 
 
 Those for men comprise, 1st, a lungl, or 
 izar, reaching from the navel down to the 
 knees or ankle-joints ; 2nd, a qamls, or 
 kurta, or alfa ; its length is from the neck to 
 the knees or ankles; 3rd, a lifajah, or sheet, 
 from above the head to below the feet. 
 Women have two additional pieces of cloth: 
 one a slnah-band, or breast-band, extending 
 from the arm-pits to above the ankle-joints; 
 the other a damni , which encircles the head 
 once, and has its two ends dangling on each 
 side, The manner of shrouding is as follows : 
 
 having placed the shrouds on a new mat and 
 fumigated them with the smoke of perfumes, 
 the lifafah is spread first on the mat, over it 
 the lungl or izar, and above that the qamls ; 
 and on the latter the slnah-band, if it be a 
 woman ; the damni is kept separate and tied 
 on afterwards. The corpse must be care¬ 
 fully brought by itself from the place where 
 it was bathed, and laid in the shrouds. Sur- 
 mah is to be applied to the eyes with a tent 
 made of paper rolled up, with a ring, or with 
 a pice, and camphor to seven places, viz. on 
 the forehead, including the nose, on the palms 
 of the hands, on the knees and great toes, 
 after which the different shrouds are to be 
 properly put on one after another as they lay. 
 The colour of the shroud is to be white ; no 
 other is admissible. It is of no consequence, 
 however, fif a coloured cloth is spread 
 over the bier; which, after the funeral, or 
 after the fortieth day, is given away to the 
 faqlr who resides in the burying-ground, or 
 to any other person, in charity. Previous to 
 shrouding the body, they tear shreds from 
 the cloths for the purpose of tying them on; 
 and after shrouding the body, they tie one 
 band above the head, a second below the feet, 
 and a third about the chest, leaving about six 
 or seven fingers’ breadth of cloth above the 
 head and below the feet, to admit of the ends 
 being fastened. Should the relict of the 
 deceased be present, they undo the cloth of 
 the head and show her his face, and get her, 
 in presence of two witnesses, to remit the 
 dowry which he had settled upon her ; but it 
 is preferable that she remit it while he is still 
 alive. Should the wife, owing to journeying, 
 be at a distance from him, she is to remit it 
 on receiving the intelligence of his demise. 
 
 Should his mother be present, she likewise 
 says, “ The milk with which I suckled thee I 
 freely bestow on thee ”; but this is merely a 
 custom in India; it is neither enjoined in 
 books of theology nor by the law of Islam. 
 Then they place on the corpse a flower-sheet 
 or merely wreaths of flowers. [gbave, 
 
 BUEIAL.] 
 
 DEATH, EVIDENCE OF. The 
 
 Muhammadan law admits of the evidence of 
 death given in a court of justice being merely 
 by report or hearsay. The reason of this is 
 that death is an event of such a nature as to 
 admit the privacy only of a few. But some 
 have advanced that, in cases of death, the 
 information of one man or woman is suf¬ 
 ficient, “ because death is not seen by many, 
 since, as it occasions horror, the sight of it is 
 avoided.” 
 
 If a person say he was present at the burial 
 of another, this amounts to the same as an 
 actual sight of his death. ( Hidayah, vol. iv. 
 p. 678.) 
 
 DEBT. In Muhammadan law 
 
 there are two words used for debt. Dain 
 or money borrowed with some fixed 
 term of payment, and qarz or money 
 
 lent without any definite understanding as to 
 
 11 
 
82 
 
 DECORUM 
 
 DELUGE 
 
 its repayment. Imprisonment for debt is 
 allowed. ( 'Hidayah , vol. ii. p. 624.) 
 
 Upon the decease of a debtor, the law 
 demands that after the payment of the 
 funeral expenses, his just debts must be paid 
 before payment of legacies. 
 
 To engage in a Jihad or religious war, is 
 said by Muhammad to remit every sin except 
 that of being in debt, [jihad, dain, qarz.] 
 
 DECORUM, or modesty of demea¬ 
 nour between the sexes, is strictly enjoined in 
 Muslim law, and a special chapter is devoted 
 to it in the Durru 'l-Mulchtar and other works 
 on Muhammadan law. 
 
 A man is not allowed to look at a woman 
 except at her hands and face, nor is he allowed 
 to touch her. But a physician is permitted to 
 exercise the duties of his profession without 
 restriction. 
 
 A judge in the exercise of his office may 
 look in the face of a woman, and witnesses 
 are under the same necessity. 
 
 DECREES OF COD, The Arabic 
 
 Qadar or Taqdir. [predestination.] 
 
 DEEDS. Written deeds are, ac¬ 
 cording to Muhammadan law, of three kinds : 
 I. Mustabin-i-marsum, or regular documents, 
 such as are executed on paper, and have a 
 regular title, superscription, &c., which are 
 equivalent to oral declaration, whether the 
 person be present or absent. II. Mustabin-i- 
 ghair-i-marsum, or irregular documents, 
 such as are not written on paper, but upon a 
 wall or the leaf of a tree, or upon paper with¬ 
 out any title or superscription or signature. 
 III. Ghair-i-mustabin, writings which are 
 not documents in any sense, such as are de¬ 
 lineated in the air or in the water by the 
 motions of a dumb person. 
 
 DEFENDANT. Arabic mudda‘a 
 ‘alaihi (a4 c ^cjw). Lit. “A claim 
 
 upon him.” 
 
 The author of the Hidayah (vol. iii. p. 63) 
 says a defendant is a person who, if he should 
 wish to avoid the litigation, is compellable to 
 sustain it. Some have defined a plaintiff, with 
 respect to any article of property, to be a 
 person who, from his being disseized of the 
 said article, has no right to it but by the 
 establishment of proof; and a defendant to 
 be a person who has a plea of right to that 
 article from his seizing or possession of it. 
 
 The Imam Muhammad has said that a 
 defendant is a person who denies. This is 
 correct ; but it requires a skill and knowledge 
 of jurisprudence to distinguish the denier in 
 a suit, as the reality and not the appearance 
 is efficient, and it frequently happens that a 
 person is in appearance the plaintiff, whilst in 
 reality he is the defendant. Thus a trustee, 
 when he says to the owner of the deposit, “ I 
 have restored to you your deposit,” appears 
 to be plaintiff, inasmuch as he pleads the re¬ 
 turn of the deposit; yet in reality he is the 
 defendant, since he denies the obligation of 
 responsibility, and hence his assertion, corro¬ 
 borated by an oath, must be credited. 
 
 DELIBERATION (Arabic 
 ta'anni 0 >G) is enjoined by Mu¬ 
 hammad in the Traditions. He is related to 
 have said, “ Deliberation in your under¬ 
 takings is pleasing to God, and hurry (‘amah) 
 is pleasing to the devil.” “ Deliberation is 
 best in everything except in the things con¬ 
 cerning eternity.” ( Hadis-i-Tirmizi .) 
 
 DELUGE, Tbe. Arabic Tufdn 
 (ylijL). Tbe story of tbe deluge is 
 given by Muhammad in his Qur’an, to the 
 Arabians as a “ secret history, revealed to 
 them (Surah xi. 51). The following are the 
 allusions to it in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah Ixix. 11:— 
 
 “ When the Flood rose high, we bare you in 
 the Ark, 
 
 “ That we might make that event a warn¬ 
 ing to you, and that the retaining ear might 
 retain it.” 
 
 Surah liv. 9 :— 
 
 “ Before them the people of Noah treated 
 the truth as a lie, Our servant did they charge 
 with falsehood, and said, ‘ Demoniac ! ’ and he 
 was rejected. 
 
 “ Then cried he to his Lord,‘ Verily, they 
 prevail against me ; come thou therefore to 
 my succour.’ 
 
 “ So we opened the gates of Heaven with 
 water which fell in torrents, 
 
 “ And we caused the earth to break forth 
 with springs, and their waters met by settled 
 decree. 
 
 “ And we bare him on a vessel made with 
 planks and nails. 
 
 “ Under our eyes it floated on : a recom¬ 
 pense to him who had been rejected with un¬ 
 belief. 
 
 “ And we left it a sign: but, is there any 
 one who receives the warning ? 
 
 “ And how great was my vengeance and my 
 menace ! ” 
 
 Surah xi. 38 :— 
 
 “ And it was revealed unto Noah : ‘Verily, 
 none of thy people shall believe, save they 
 who have believed already ; therefore be not 
 thou grieved at their doings. 
 
 “ But build the Ark under our eye and 
 after our revelation : and plead not with me 
 for the evil-doers, for they are to be 
 drowned.’ 
 
 “ So he built the Ark ; and whenever the 
 chiefs of his people passed by they laughed 
 him to scorn: said he, ‘ Though ye laugh at 
 us, we truly shall laugh at you, even as ye 
 laugh at us ; and in the end ye shall know 
 
 “ On whom a punishment shall come that 
 shall shame him; and on whom shall light a 
 lasting punishment.’ 
 
 “ Thus was it until our sentence came to 
 pass, and the earth’s surface boiled up. We 
 said, 1 Carry into it one pair of every kind, and 
 thy family, except him on whom sentence 
 hath before been passed, and those who have 
 believed.’ But there believed not with him 
 except a few. 
 
 “ And he said, ‘ Embark ye therein. In 
 the name of God be its course and its riding 
 
DEPOSIT 
 
 DEMONS 
 
 at anchor! Truly my Lord is right Gra¬ 
 cious, Merciful.’ 
 
 “ And the Ark moved on with them amid 
 waves like mountains : and Noah called to 
 his son—for he was apart—‘ Embark with 
 us, 0 my child 1 and be not with the un¬ 
 believers.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ I will betake mo to a mountain 
 that shall secure me from the water.’ He 
 said, ‘ None shall be secure this day from the 
 decree of God, save him on whom Ho shall 
 have mercy.’ And a wave passed between 
 them, and he was among the drowned. 
 
 “ And it was said, ‘ 0 Earth 1 swallow up 
 thy water’; and ‘cease, 0 Heaven 1 ’ And the 
 water abated, and the decree was fulfilled, 
 and the Ark rested upon al-Judi; and it was 
 said, ‘ Avaunt! ye tribe of the wicked 1 ’ 
 
 “ And Noah called on his Lord and said, 
 ‘ 0 Lord I verily my son is of my family : and 
 thy promise is true, and thou art the most 
 just of judges.’ 
 
 “ He said, 1 0 Noah! verily, he is not of thy 
 family: in this thou actest not aright. Ask 
 not of me that whereof thou knowest nought: 
 I warn thee that thou become not of the igno¬ 
 rant.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ To thee verily, 0 my Lord, do I 
 repair lest I ask that of thee wherein I have 
 no knowledge: unless thou forgive mo and 
 be merciful to me I shall be one of the 
 lost.’ 
 
 “ It was said to him, ‘ 0 Noah ! debark with 
 peace from Us, and with blessings on thee 
 and on peoples from those who are with thee; 
 but as for part, we will suffer them to enjoy 
 themselves, but afterwards they shall suffer 
 a grievous punishment from us to be inflicted.’ 
 
 “ This is a secret history which we reveal 
 to thee. Thou didst not know them, thou nor 
 thy people before this.” 
 
 DEMONS, [devils, genii.] 
 
 DEPORTMENT. Arabic ‘ilmu 
 '1-mu‘dsharah ^). Persian 
 
 nishast u barkhast. The Traditionists take 
 some pains to explain the precise manner in 
 which their Prophet walked, sat, slept, and 
 rose, but their accounts are not always uni¬ 
 form and consistent. For example, whilst 
 ‘Abbad relates that he saw the Prophet 
 sleeping on his back with one leg over the 
 other, Jabir says the Prophet distinctly for¬ 
 bade it. 
 
 Modesty of deportment is enjoined in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xvii. 39 : “ Walk not proudly 
 on the earth,” which the commentators say 
 means that the believer is not to toss his head 
 or his arms as he walks. Surah xxv. 64: 
 “ The servants of the Merciful One are those 
 who walk upon the earth lowly, and when 
 the ignorant address them say, ‘ Peace ! ” 
 
 Faqir Jani Muhammad As‘ad, the author 
 of the celebrated ethical work, the Akhlaq-i- 
 Jalali, gives the following advice as regards 
 general deportment:— 
 
 “He should not hurry as he walks, for 
 that is a sign of levity ; neither should he be 
 unreasonably tardy, for that is a token of dul- 
 
 83 
 
 ness. Let him neither stalk like the over¬ 
 bearing, nor agitate himself in the way of 
 women and eunuchs; but constantly observe 
 the middle course. Let him avoid going 
 often backwards and forwards, for that be¬ 
 tokens bewilderment; and holding his head 
 downwards, for that indicates a mind over¬ 
 come by sorrow and anxiety. In riding, no 
 less, the same medium is to be observed. 
 When ho sits, let him not extend his feet, nor 
 put one upon another. He must never kneel 
 except in deference to his king, his preceptor, 
 and his father, or other such person. Lot 
 him not rest his head on his knee or his hand, 
 for that is a mark of dejection and indolence. 
 Neither let him hold his neck awry, nor in¬ 
 dulge in foolish tricks, such as playing with 
 his fingers or other joints. Let him avoid 
 twisting round or stretching himself. In spit¬ 
 ting and blowing his nose, let him be careful 
 that no one sees or hears him; that ho blow 
 it not towards the Qiblah, nor upon his hand, 
 his skirt, or sleeve-lappet. 
 
 “ When he enters an assembly, let him sit 
 neither lower nor higher than his proper sta¬ 
 tion. If he be himself the head of the party, 
 he can sit as he likes, for his place must be 
 the highest wherever it may be. If he has 
 inadvertently taken a wrong place, let him 
 exchange it for his own as soon as he dis¬ 
 covers his mistake ; should his own be occu¬ 
 pied, he must return without disturbing others 
 or annoying himself. 
 
 “ In the presence of his male or female 
 domestics, let him never bare anything but 
 his hands and his face: the parts from his 
 knee to his navel let him never expose at all; 
 neither in public nor private, except on occa¬ 
 sions of necessity for [ablution and the like. 
 ([Vide Gen. ix. 20; Lev. xvii. 6, xx. 11; Deut. 
 xxii. 30.) 
 
 “ He must not sleep in the presence of other 
 persons, or lie on his back, particularly as 
 the habit of snoring is thereby encouraged. 
 
 “ Should sleep overpower him in the midst 
 of a party, let him get up, if possible, or else 
 dispel the drowsiness by relating some story, 
 entering on some debate, and the like. But 
 if he is with a set of persons who sleep them¬ 
 selves, let him either bear them company or 
 leave them. 
 
 “ The upshot of the whole is this : Let him 
 so behave as not to incommode or disgust 
 others ; and should any of these observances 
 appear troublesome, let him reflect, that to 
 be formed to their contraries would be still 
 more odious and still more unpleasant than 
 any pains which their acquirement may cost 
 him.” Akhldg-i-Jaldli , Thompson’s Transla¬ 
 tion, p. 292.) 
 
 DEPOSIT (Arabic wadl‘ah 
 pi. waddi‘), in the language of 
 
 the law, signifies a thing entrusted to the 
 care of another. The proprietor of the thing 
 is called mudi i , or depositor; the person en¬ 
 trusted with it is muda‘, or trustee, and the 
 property deposited is wadi‘ah , which lite¬ 
 rally means the leaving of a thing with 
 another. 
 
84 
 
 DEVIL 
 
 DINAR 
 
 According to the Iiidayah , the following 
 are the rules of Islam regarding deposits. 
 
 A trustee is not responsible for deposit 
 unless he transgress with respect to it. If 
 therefore it be lost whilst it is in his care, and 
 the loss has not been occasioned by any fault 
 of his, the trustee has not to make good the 
 loss, because the Prophet said, “ an honest 
 trustee is not responsible .” 
 
 A trustee may also keep the deposit him¬ 
 self or he may entrust it to another, provided 
 the person is a member of his own family, 
 but if he gives it to a stranger he renders 
 himself responsible. 
 
 If the deposit is demanded by the depo¬ 
 sitor, and the trustee neglects to give it up, 
 it is a transgression, and the trustee becomes 
 responsible. 
 
 If the trustee mix the deposit (as of grain, 
 oil, &c.) with his own property, in such a 
 manner that the property cannot be separated, 
 the depositor can claim to share equally in 
 the whole property. But if the mixture be 
 the result of accident, the proprietor becomes 
 a proportionate sharer in the whole. 
 
 If the trustee deny the deposit upon de¬ 
 mand, he is responsible in case of the loss of 
 it. But not if the denial be made to a 
 stranger, because (says Abu Yusuf) the denial 
 may be made for the sake of preserving it. 
 
 In the case of a deposit by two persons, 
 the trustee cannot deliver to either his share, 
 except it be in the presence of the other. And 
 when two persons receive a divisible article in 
 trust, each must keep one half, although these 
 restrictions are not regarded when they are 
 held to be inconvenient, or contrary to custom. 
 
 DEVIL, The. The devil is believed 
 
 to be descended from Jann, the progenitor of 
 the evil genii. He is said to have been named 
 ‘Azazil, and to have possessed authority over 
 the animal and spirit kingdom. But when God 
 created Adam, the devil refused to prostrate 
 before him, and he was therefore expelled 
 from Eden. The sentence of death was then 
 pronounced upon Satan; but upon seeking a 
 respite, he obtained it until the Day of 
 Judgment, when he will be destroyed. (FVde 
 Qur’an, Surah vii. 13.) According to the 
 Qu’ran, the devil was created of fire, whilst 
 Adam was created of clay. There are two 
 words used in the Qur’an to denote this great 
 spirit of evil: (1) Shaitan 
 
 an Arabic word derived from shatn, “ opposi¬ 
 tion,” i.e. “ one who opposes; (2) Iblls 
 
 Std^oAos); “devil,” from Safes, “a 
 wicked or profligate person,” i.e. “the wicked 
 one.” The former expression occurs in the 
 Qur’an fifty-two times, and the latter only 
 nine, whilst in some verses (e.g. Surah ii. 32- 
 34) the two words Shaitan and Ibtis occur 
 for the same personality. According to the 
 Majma‘u l’-Bihar, shaitan denotes one who is 
 far from the truth, and iblis one who is with¬ 
 out hope. 
 
 The following is the teaching of Muhammad 
 n the Traditions concerning the machinations 
 of the devil ( Mishkat , book i. e. iii.):— 
 
 “ ‘Verily, the devil enters into man as the 
 blood into his body. 
 
 “ ‘ There is not one amongst you but has an 
 angel and a devil appointed over him.’ The 
 Companions said, ‘ Do you include yourself in 
 this ? ’ He said, 1 Yes, for me also ; but God 
 has given me victory over the devil, and he 
 does not direct me except in what is good.’ 
 
 “ There is not one of the children of Adam, 
 except Mary and her son (Jesus), but is 
 touched by the devil at the time of its birth, 
 hence the child makes a loud noise from the 
 touch. 
 
 “ Devil rests his throne upon the waters, 
 and sends his armies to excite contention and 
 strife amongst mankind; and those in his 
 armies who are nearest to him in power and 
 rank, are those who do the most mischief. 
 One of them returns to the devil and says, 
 ‘ I have done so and so,’ and he says, 1 You 
 have done nothing ’; after that another comes, 
 and says. ‘ I did not quit him till I made a 
 division between him and his wife ’; then the 
 devil appoints him a place near himself, and 
 says, ‘ You are a good assistant.’ 
 
 “ The devil sticks close to the sons of 
 Adam, and an angel also; the business of the 
 devil is to do evil, and that of the angel to 
 teach him the truth; and he who meets with 
 truth and goodness in his mind, let him know 
 it proceeds from God, and let him praise God ; 
 and he who finds the other, let him seek for 
 an asylum from the devil in God. 
 
 “ Then the Prophet read this verse of the 
 Qur’an: ‘ The devil threatens you with 
 
 poverty if ye bestow in charity; and orders 
 you to pursue avarice ; but God promises you 
 grace and abundance from charity.’ 
 
 “‘Usman said, ‘ 0 Prophet of God! indeed 
 the devil intrudes himself between me and 
 my prayers, and my reading perplexes me.’ 
 Then the Prophet said, ‘ This is a demon 
 called Khanzab, who casts doubt into prayer : 
 when you are aware of it, take protection 
 with God, and spit over your left arm three 
 times.’ ‘Usman said, ‘Be it so’; and all 
 doubt and jierplexity was dispelled.” 
 
 DEVIL, The Machinations of the. 
 
 [WASWASAH.] 
 
 DIBAGHAH (LtLfS). “Tanning.” 
 
 According to the Traditions, the skins of 
 animals are unclean until they are tanned. 
 Muhammad said, “ Take nothing for any 
 animals that shall have died until you tan 
 their skins.” And again, “ Tanning purifies.’ 
 
 ( Mishkat , book iii. c. xi. 2.) 
 
 DIMASHQ [Damascus.] 
 
 DEN" The Arabic word for 
 
 “ religion." It is used especially for the reli¬ 
 gion of the Prophets and their inspired books, 
 but it is also used for idolatrous religion. 
 [religion.] 
 
 DINAR (jLii j). Greek Srjvapwv. 
 
 A gold coin of one misr/al weight, or ninety- 
 six barley grains, worth about ten shillings. 
 
DIRHAM 
 
 DITCH 
 
 According to Mr. Hussey ( Ancient Weights, 
 p. 142), the average weight of the Roman 
 denarii, at the end of the Commonwealth was 
 sixty grains, whilst the English shilling con¬ 
 tains eighty grains. Mr. Lane, in his Arabic 
 dictionary, says, “ its weight is seventy-one 
 barley-corns and a half, nearly, reckoning the 
 daniq as eight grains of wheat and two-fifths ; 
 
 85 
 
 but if it be said that the daniq is eight grains 
 of wheat, then the dinar is sixty-eight grains 
 of wheat and four-sevenths. It is the same 
 as the misqal." The dinar is only mentioned 
 once in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 66 : “ And some of 
 them if thou entrust them with a dinar, he 
 will not give it back.” It frequently occurs 
 in books of law. 
 
 A GOLD DINAR OF IIERACLIUS, A.D. 621. WEIGHT SIXTY GRAINS. ACTUAL SIZE. 
 
 A GOLD DINAR OF THE CITY OF GHAZNI, A.H. 616. ACTUAL SIZE 
 
 DIRHAM (^^0). Greek Spa-xnr/. 
 
 A silver coin, the shape of which resembled 
 that of a date stone. During the caliphate of 
 ‘Umar, it was changed into a circular form : 
 and in the time of Zubair, it was impressed 
 with the words Allah, “ God,” barakah “ bless¬ 
 ing.” Hajjaj stamped upon it the chapter of 
 the Qur’an called Ikhlas (cxii.), and others 
 say he imprinted it with his own name. 
 Various accounts are given of their weights ; 
 some saying that they were of ten, or nine, or 
 six, or five misqals ; whilst others give the 
 weights of twenty, twelve, and ten qirats, 
 asserting at the same time that ‘Umar had 
 taken a dirham of each kind, and formed a 
 coin of fourteen qirats, being the third part 
 of the aggregate sum. (Blochmann’s Ain-i- 
 Akbari, p. 36.) 
 
 The dirham, although it is frequently men¬ 
 tioned in books of law, only occurs once in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xii. 20, “ And they sold 
 
 him (Joseph) for a mean price, dirhams 
 counted out, and they parted with him 
 cheaply.” 
 
 DIRRAH (i)J). Yulg. durrah. 
 
 A scourge made either of a flat piece of 
 , leather or of twisted thongs, and used by the 
 public censor of morals and religion, called 
 j the muh.tasib. This scourge is inflicted either 
 for the omission of the daily prayer, or for 
 the committal of sins, which are punishable 
 by the law with the infliction of stripes, such 
 as fornication, scandal, and drunkenness. It is 
 related that the Kh alifah ‘Umar punished his 
 son with the dirrah for drunkenness, and that 
 he died from its effects. (Tarikh-i-Khamis, 
 
 vol. ii. p. 252.) 
 
 The word used in the Qur’an and Hadis for 
 this scourge is jaldah, and in theological 
 works, saut ; but dirrah is now the word 
 generally used amongst modern Muslims. 
 
 A DIRRAH USED BY A MUHTASIB IN THE PESHAWAR VALLEY. 
 
 DITCH, Battle of the. Arabic 
 Ghazwatu ’l-Khandaq %*)• 
 
 The defence of al-Madmah against the Banu 
 Quraizah, a.h. 5, when a trench was dug by 
 the advice of Salman, and the army of al- 
 
 Madmah was posted within it. After a 
 month’s siege, the enemy retired, and the 
 almost bloodless victory is ascribed by Mu¬ 
 hammad in the Qur’an to the interposition of 
 Providence. Surah xxxiii. 9: “Remember 
 God’s favours to you when hosts came to you 
 
86 
 
 DIVINATION 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 and we sent against them a wind and hosts (of 
 angels), that ye could not see, but God knew 
 what ye were doing.” (Muir’s Life of Maho¬ 
 met, yoI. iii. p. 258.) 
 
 DIVINATION. Kahdnah, or for- 
 
 telling future events, is unlawful in Islam. 
 
 Mu'awiyah ibn Hakim relates: • 1 1 said to 
 the Prophet, ‘ 0 Messenger of God, we. used 
 to do some things in the time of ignorance of 
 which we are not sure now. For example, 
 we used to consult diviners about future 
 events?’ The Prophet said, ‘ Now that you 
 have embraced Islam you must not consult 
 them.’ Then I said, ‘ And we used to take 
 bad omens ? ’ The Prophet said, ‘ If from a 
 bad omen you are thrown into perplexity, let 
 it not hinder you from doing the work you 
 had intended to do.’ Then I said, 1 And we 
 used to draw lines on the ground ? ’ And the 
 Prophet said, ‘ There was one of the Prophets 
 who used to draw lines on the ground, there¬ 
 fore if you can draw a line like him it is 
 good, otherwise it is vain.’” 
 
 ‘Ayishah says “ the people asked the Pro¬ 
 phet about diviners, whether they spoke true 
 or not. And he said, ‘You must not believe 
 anything they say.’ The people then said, 
 
 1 But, 0 Prophet! they sometimes tell what 
 is true ? ’ The Prophet replied, ‘ Because 
 one of the genii steals away the truth and 
 carries it into the diviner’s ear; and the 
 diviners mix a hundred lies to one truth.’ ” 
 [magic.] 
 
 DIVORCE. Arabic taldq (o^A). 
 
 In its primitive sense the word taldq means 
 dismission, but in law it signifies a release 
 from the marriage tie. 
 
 The Muhammadan law of divorce is 
 founded upon express injunctions contained 
 in the Qur’an, as well as in the Traditions, 
 and its rules occupy a very large section in 
 all Muhammadan works on jurisprudence. 
 
 I. The teaching of the Qur’an on the subject 
 is as follows :—- 
 
 Surah ii. 226 :— 
 
 “ They who intend to abstain from their 
 wives shall wait four months ; but if they go 
 back from their purpose, then verily God is 
 Gracious, Merciful: 
 
 “ And if they resolve on a divorce, then 
 verily God is He who Heareth, Knoweth. 
 
 “ The divorced shall wait the result, until 
 they have had their courses thrice, nor ought 
 they to conceal what God hath created in 
 their wombs, if they believe in God and the 
 last day; and it will be more just in their 
 husbands to bring them back when in this 
 state, if they desire what is right. And it is 
 for the women to act as they (the husbands) 
 act by them, in all fairness ; but the men are 
 a step above them. God is Mighty, Wise. 
 
 “ Ye may give sentence of divorce to your 
 wives twice: Keep them honourably, or put 
 them away with kindness. But it is not allowed 
 you to appropriate to yourselves aught of 
 what ye have given to them, unless both fear 
 that they cannot keep within the bounds set 
 up by God. And if ye fear that they can¬ 
 
 not observe the ordinances of God, no blame 
 shall attach to either of you for what the 
 wife shall herself give for her redemption. 
 These are the bounds of God: therefore over¬ 
 step them not; for whoever oversteppeth the 
 bounds of God, they are evil doers. 
 
 “ But if the husband give sentence of divorce 
 to her a third time, it is not lawful for him to 
 take her again, until she shall have married 
 another husband ; and if he also divorce her 
 then shall no blame attach to them if they 
 return to each other, thinking that they can 
 keep within the bounds fixed by God. And 
 these are the bounds of God; He maketh 
 them clear to those who have knowledge. 
 
 “ But when ye divorce women, and the time 
 for sending them away is come, either retain 
 them with generosity, or put them away with 
 generosity : but retain them not by constraint 
 so as to be unjust towards them. He who 
 doth so, doth in fact injure himself. And 
 make not the signs of God a jest; but remem¬ 
 ber God’s favour towards you, and the Book 
 and the Wisdom which He hath sent down 
 to you for your warning, and fear God, and 
 know that God’s knowledge embraceth every¬ 
 thing. 
 
 “ And when ye divorce your wives, and 
 they have waited the prescribed time, hinder 
 them, not from marrying the husbands when 
 they have agreed among themselves in an 
 honourable way. This warning is for him 
 among you who believeth in God and in the 
 last day. This is most pure for you, and most 
 decent. God knoweth, but ye know not. 
 
 “ Mothers, when divorced, shall give suck 
 to their children two full years, if the father 
 desire that the suckling be completed; and 
 such maintenance and clothing as is fair for 
 them, shall devolve on the father. No per¬ 
 son shall be charged beyond his means. A 
 mother shall not be pressed unfairly for her 
 child, nor a father for his child: And the 
 same with the father’s heir. But if they 
 choose to wean the child by consent and by 
 bargain, it shall be no fault in them. And if 
 ye choose to have a nurse for your children, 
 it shall be no fault in you, in case ye pay 
 what ye promised her according to that which 
 is fair. Fear God, and know that God seeth 
 what ye do. 
 
 # * * * * 
 
 “ It shall be no crime in you if ye divorce 
 your wives so long as ye have not consum¬ 
 mated the marriage, nor settled any dowry on 
 them. And provide what is needful for them 
 —he who is in ample circumstances accord¬ 
 ing to his means, and he who is straitened, 
 according to his means—with fairness : This 
 is binding on those who do what is right. 
 
 “ But if ye divorce them before consum¬ 
 mation, and have already settled a dowry on 
 them, ye shall give them half of what ye have 
 settled, unless they make a release, or he 
 make a release in whose hand is the marriage 
 tie. But if ye make a release, it will be 
 nearer to piety.” 
 
 Surah lxv. 1:— 
 
 “ 0 Prophet! when ye divorce women, 
 
DIYOECB 
 
 DIVOKCE 
 
 87 
 
 divorce them at their special times. And 
 reckon those times exactly, and fear God your 
 Lord. Put them not forth from their houses, 
 nor allow them to depart, unless they have 
 committed a proven adultery. This is the 
 precept of God; and whoso transgresseth 
 the precept of God, assuredly imperilleth his 
 own self. Thou knowest not whether, after 
 this, God may not cause something new to 
 occur which may bring you together again. 
 
 “ And when they have reached their set 
 time, then either keep them with kindness, or 
 in kindness part from them. And take up¬ 
 right witnesses from among you, and bear 
 witness as unto God. This is a caution for 
 him who believeth in God and in the latter 
 day. And whoso feareth God, to him will He 
 grant a prosperous issue, and will provide for 
 him whence he reckoned not upon it. 
 
 “ And for him who putteth his trust in 
 Him will God be all-sufficient. God truly will 
 attain his purpose. For everything hath God 
 assigned a period. 
 
 “ As to such of your wives as have no hope 
 of the recurrence of their times, if ye have 
 doubts in regard to them, then reckon three 
 months, and let the same be the term of 
 those who have not yet had them. And as 
 to those who are with child, their period shall 
 be until they are delivered of their burden. 
 God will make His command easy to Him who 
 feareth Him. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ Lodge the divorced wherever ye lodge, ac¬ 
 cording to your means; and distress them 
 not by putting them to straits. And if they 
 are pregnant, then be at charges for them till 
 they are delivered of their burden ; and if 
 they suckle your children, then pay them 
 their hire and consult among yourselves, and 
 act generously: And if herein ye meet with 
 obstacles, then let another female suckle for 
 him.” 
 
 II. The teaching of Muhammad on the 
 general subject of Divorce is expressed in the 
 Traditions as follows :— 
 
 “ The thing which is lawful but disliked by 
 God is divorce.” 
 
 “ The woman who asks her husband to 
 divorce her without a cause, the smell of 
 Paradise is forbidden her.” 
 
 “ There are three things which, whether 
 done in joke or in earnest, shall be consi¬ 
 dered serious and effectual, namely, marriage, 
 divorce, and taking a wife back.” 
 
 “Every divorce is lawful except a mad¬ 
 man’s.” 
 
 “ Cursed be the second husband who makes 
 the wife (divorced) lawful for her first hus¬ 
 band, and cursed be the first husband for 
 whom she is made lawful.”—( MishJcdt , xiii. 
 
 C. XV.) 
 
 III. Sunni Muhammadan Doctors are not 
 agreed as to the Moral Status of Divorce. 
 
 The Imam ash-Shafi‘i, referring to the 
 three kinds of divorce (which will be after¬ 
 wards explained), says : “ They are unexcep¬ 
 tionable and legal because divorce is in itself 
 a lawful act, whence it is that certain laws 
 
 have been instituted respecting it; and this 
 legality prevents any idea of danger being 
 annexed to it. But, on the other hand, the 
 Imam Abu Hanifah and his disciples say 
 that divorce is in itself a dangerous and dis¬ 
 approved procedure, as it dissolves marriage, 
 an institution which involves many circum¬ 
 stances both of a spiritual as well as of a 
 temporal nature. Nor is its propriety at all 
 admitted, but on the ground of urgency of 
 release from an unsuitable wife. And in reply 
 to ash-Shafi‘i, they say that the legality of 
 divorce does not prevent its being considered 
 dangerous, because it involves matters of both 
 a spiritual and temporal character. 
 
 The author of the Sharhu V- Wiqayah, p. 108, 
 says :—“ Divorce is an abominable transac¬ 
 tion in the sight of God, therefore such an 
 act should only take place from necessity, 
 and it is best to only make the one sentence 
 of divorce (i.e. talaqu ’ l-ahsan ). 
 
 IV. The Sunni Law of Divorce: —Divorce 
 may be given either in the present time or 
 may be referred to some future period. It 
 may be pronounced by the husband either 
 before or after the consummation of the mar¬ 
 riage. It may be either given in writing or 
 verbally. 
 
 The words by which divorce can be given 
 are of two kinds:— Sarih, or “ express,” as 
 when the husband says, “ Thou art divorced ”; 
 and kinayah, or “ metaphorical,” as when he 
 says, “ Thou art free ; thou art cut off; veil 
 yourself! Arise! seek for a mate,” &c. &c. 
 
 Divorce is divided into talaqu ’ s-sunnah , or 
 that which is according to the Qur’an and the 
 Traditions, and talaqu ’ l-badi ‘, or a novel or 
 heterodox divorce, which, although it is con¬ 
 sidered lawful, is not considered religious. 
 
 Talaqu ’ s-sunnah is either the ahsan, or “ the 
 most laudable,” or hasan, the “ laudable ” me¬ 
 thod. Talaqu ’ l-ahsan , or the “ most laudable ” 
 method of divorce, is when the husband once 
 expressly pronounces to his enjoyed but un¬ 
 pregnant wife the sentence, “ Thou art di¬ 
 vorced ! ” when she is in t.uhr or a state of 
 purity, during which he has had no carnal 
 connection with her, and then leaves her to 
 complete the prescribed Hddah, or “ period of 
 three months.” Until the expiration of the 
 Hddah, the divorce is revocable, but after the 
 period is complete, it is irreversible, and if 
 the husband wishes to take his wife back, 
 they must go through the ceremony of mar¬ 
 riage. But it must be observed that after 
 the talaqu 'l-ahsan, the woman is not, as in 
 the other kinds of divorce, compelled to marry 
 another man, and be divorced befoi-e she can 
 return to her former husband. All that is 
 required is a re-marriage. The author of the 
 Hiclayah says this mode of divorce is called 
 ahsan, or “ most laudable,” because it was 
 usually adopted by the Companions of the 
 Prophet, and also because it leaves it in the 
 power of the husband to take his wife back, 
 and she thus remains a lawful subject for re¬ 
 marriage to him. Some European writers on 
 Muhammadanism have overlooked this fact 
 in condemning the Muslim system of divorce. 
 
 The talaqu 'l-hasan, or “ laudable divorce,” 
 
88 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 is when the husband repudiates an enjoyed 
 wife by three sentences of divorce, either ex¬ 
 press or metaphorical, giving one sentence in 
 each tuhr, or “ period of purity.” Imam 
 Malik condemns this kind of divorce, and 
 says it is irregular. But Abu Hanlfah holds 
 it to be hasan, or “ good.” 
 
 The talaqu ’ l-badi‘ , or “ irregular form of 
 divorce,” is when the husband repudiates his 
 wife by three sentences, either express or 
 metaphorical, given them one at a time: 
 “ Thou art divorced ! Thou art divorced I 
 Thou art divorced ! ” Or, “ Thou art free ! 
 Thou art free ! Thou art free ! ” Even 
 holding up three fingers, or dropping three 
 stones, is held to be a sufficiently implied 
 divorce to take legal effect. The Muslim 
 who thus divorces his wife is held, in the 
 Hidayah, to be an offender against the law, 
 but the divorce, however irregular, takes 
 legal effect. 
 
 In both these kinds of divorce, badi‘ and 
 hasan, the divorce is revocable ( raji ‘) after the 
 first and second sentences, but it is irrevocable 
 (ba'in) after the third sentence. After both 
 hasan and badi 1 divorces, the divorced wife 
 cannot, under any circirmstances, return to 
 her husband until she has been married, and 
 enjoyed, and divorced by another husband. 
 Muhammadan doctors say the law has insti¬ 
 tuted this (somewhat disgraceful) arrange¬ 
 ment in order to prevent divorces other than 
 talaqu ’l-ahsan. 
 
 A husband may divorce his wife without 
 any misbehaviour on her part, or without 
 assigning any cause. The divorce of every 
 husband is effective if he be of a sound un¬ 
 derstanding and of mature age; but that of 
 a boy, or a lunatic, or one talking in his sleep, 
 is not effective. 
 
 If a man pronounce a divorce whilst in a 
 state of inebriety from drinking fermented 
 liquor, such as wine, the divorce takes place. 
 Repudiation by any husband who is sane and 
 adult, is effective, whether he be free or a 
 slave, willing, or acting under compulsion ; 
 and even though it were uttered in sport or 
 jest, or by a mere slip of the tongue, 
 instead of some other word. ( Fatawa-i- l Alam - 
 girl, vol. i. p. 497.) 
 
 A sick man may divorce his wife, even 
 though he be on his death-bed. 
 
 An agent or agents may be appointed by a 
 husband to divorce his wife. 
 
 In addition to the will and caprice of the 
 husband, there are also certain conditions 
 which require a divorce. 
 
 The following are causes for divorce, but 
 generally require to be ratified by a decree 
 from the Qazi or “ judge ”:— 
 
 (1.) Jubb. That is, when the husband has 
 been by any cause deprived of his organ of 
 generation. This condition is called nmjbub. 
 In this case the wife can obtain instant divorce 
 if the defect occurred before marriage. Cases 
 of evident madness and leprosy are treated in 
 the same way. Divorce can be obtained at 
 once. 
 
 (2.) l Unnah, or “impotence.” (This in¬ 
 cludes ratq, “ vulva impervia cceunti ”; and 
 
 gam, “ vulva anteriore parte enascens .”) In 
 cases of impotency in either husband or wife, 
 a year of probation can be granted by the 
 judge. 
 
 (3.) Inequality of race or tribe. A woman 
 cannot be compelled to marry a man who be¬ 
 longs to an inferior tribe, and, in case of such 
 a marriage, the elders of the superior tribe 
 can demand a divorce ; but if the divorce is 
 not demanded, the marriage contract remains. 
 
 (4.) Insufficient dower. If the stipulated 
 dowry is not given when demanded, divorce 
 takes place. 
 
 (5.) Refusal of Islam. If one of the par¬ 
 ties embrace Islam, the judge must offer it 
 to the other three distinct times, and if he or 
 she refuse to embrace the faith, divorce takes 
 place. 
 
 (6.) La‘n, or “ imprecation.” That is, 
 when a husband charges his wife with adul¬ 
 tery, the charge is investigated, but if there 
 is no proof, and the man swears his wife is 
 guilty, and the wife swears she is innocent, a 
 divorce must be decreed. 
 
 (7.) IIS', or “ vow.” When a husband 
 makes a vow not to have carnal intercourse 
 with his wife for no less than four months, 
 and keeps the vow inviolate, an irreversible 
 divorce takes place. 
 
 (8.) Reason of property. If a husband be¬ 
 come the proprietor of his wife (a slave), or 
 the wife the proprietor of her husband (a 
 slave), divorce takes place. 
 
 (9.) An invalid marriage of any kind, arising 
 from incomplete nikdh, or “ marriage cere¬ 
 mony,” or from affinity, or from consanguinity. 
 
 (10.) Difference of country For example, 
 if a husband flee from a daru ’l-harb, or “ land 
 of enmity,” i.e. “ a non-Muslim country,” to a 
 daru 'l-Islam, or “country of Islam,” and his 
 wife refuse to perform hijrah (flight) and to 
 accompany him, she is divorced. 
 
 (11.) Apostasy from Islam. The author of 
 the Raddu 'l-Mukhtar (vol. ii. p. C43) says : 
 “When a man or woman apostatises from 
 Islam, then an immediate dissolution ( faskK) 
 of the marriage takes place, whether the 
 apostasy be of the man or of the woman, 
 without a decree from the Qazi.” And again, 
 (p. 645), “ If both husband and wife aposta¬ 
 tise at the same time, their marriage bond 
 remains ; and if at any future time the parties 
 again return to Islam, no re-marriage is 
 necessaiy to constitute them man and wife; 
 but if one of the parties should apostatise 
 before the other, a dissolution of the marriage 
 takes place ipso facto." 
 
 Mr. J. B. S. Boyle, of Lahore, says : “ As 
 relevant to this subject, I give a quotation 
 from Mr. Currie’s excellent work on the 
 Indian Criminal Codes, p. 445. The question 
 is as to the effect of apostasy from Islam upon 
 the marriage relation, and whether sexual 
 intercourse with the apostate renders a per¬ 
 son liable to be convicted for adultery under 
 Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code. A. and 
 B., Mahommedans, married under the Ma- 
 hommedan law, are converted to Christianity. 
 The wife, B., is first converted, but continues 
 to live with her husband; subsequently the 
 
DIVORCE 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 89 
 
 husband, A., is converted. Subsequent to 
 the conversion of B., A. and B., stiil living to¬ 
 gether as husband and wife, both professing 
 Christianity, B. has sexual intercourse with 
 C. Will a conviction hold against C. under 
 Section 497 ? Both Macnaghten and Baillie 
 say the marriage becomes dissolved by apos¬ 
 tasy of either party, and Grady, in his version 
 of Hamilton’s Hiclayah, p. 6G, says: “ If 
 either husband or wife apostatize from the 
 faith, a separation takes place, without 
 divorce; according to Abu Haneefa and Abu 
 Yoosuf. Imam Mahommed alleges if the 
 apostasy is on the part of the husband. 
 
 “ Apostasy annuls marriage in Haneefa's 
 opinion, and in apostasy separation takes 
 place without any decree of the magistrate. 
 Cases which might decide this point have 
 been lately tried both at Lucknow and Allah¬ 
 abad : at the former place in re Afzul Hosein v. 
 Iladee Begum, and at the latter Zuburdust 
 Khan v. Wife. But from certain remarks to 
 be found in the judgment of the High Court, 
 N. W. P., the Courts of Oudh and N. W. P., 
 appear to differ on the most essential point. 
 The point before the Oudh Court was (Uadee 
 Begum’s plea) that her marriage contract was 
 dissolved by reason of her own apostasy, a 
 sufficient answer to a suit brought by her 
 Mahommedan husband for restitution of con¬ 
 jugal rights ; i.e. Does the apostasy of a Ma¬ 
 hommedan wife dissolve a marriage contract 
 against the express wish of a Mahommedan 
 husband in dar-ool-harb (land of war) ? for 
 India, it is contended, is not, under its present 
 administration, dar-ool-Islam (land of safety). 
 The Oudh Court held (admitting that apos¬ 
 tasy by the husband dissolved the marriage 
 and freed the wife) that apostasy by the wife 
 did not free her if her husband sued for resti¬ 
 tution of conjugal rights. They argued that 
 apostasy by the wife, without the wish of the 
 husband, could not be entertained; in fact, 
 that as regards her husband’s volition, the 
 apostasy could not exist, and would not be 
 recognised. That a suit for restitution of 
 conjugal rights before the competent court of 
 the time, seemed to them to be equivalent of 
 the suit before theCazee (Judge). The Oudh 
 judges, in the absence of distinct precedent, 
 say they fell back on the customs of the 
 people amongst whom they lived. The Oudh 
 Court evidently considered there was an 
 essential difference between apostasy of a 
 man and apostasy of a woman, of the hus¬ 
 band or the wife ; also between apostasy to a 
 faith in a book and apostasy to the idol wor¬ 
 ship Mahommed and his followers renounce. 
 Does such an essential difference exist ? The 
 point before the High Court N. W. P. was : 
 Can a Mahommedan professing Christianity 
 subsequent to his marriage with a Mussul- 
 mani, according to the Mahommedan law, 
 obtain a decree for dissolution of that mar¬ 
 riage under Act IV. of 1869, his wife having 
 subsequently to him professed Christianity, 
 and they under their new faith having lived 
 together as man and wife ? or whether the 
 wife’s contention is sound, that her marriage 
 ■was cancelled by her husband’s apostasy? 
 
 They held the apostasy of the husband dis¬ 
 solved the marriage tie. This the Oudh 
 Court admits, but the point before the 
 Oudh Court was not before the High 
 Court, N. W. P. ; nevertheless from comments 
 made by the High Court, N. W. P., on the 
 Oudh decision, they evidently did not agree 
 with the finding come to by the latter Court, 
 on the point before it. 
 
 “ Now, Mr. Currie asks in the above extract, 
 does such an essential difference exist be¬ 
 tween apostasy to a book—that is, to a kituber. 
 faith—and apostasy to idol worship ? Answer¬ 
 ing this question necessitates a few remarks 
 upon the judgments above mentioned. Ac¬ 
 cording to Mahommedan law, a man may 
 lawfully marry a kitabeeah, but marriage 
 with a Pagan or polytheist is unlawful. But 
 the principle in Mahommedan law is. that 
 ■when one of the parties turns to a state of 
 religion that would render the marriage con¬ 
 tract illegal if it were still to bo entered into, 
 what was legal before is made void. A Ma¬ 
 hommedan woman, becoming a kitabeeah, 
 does not render the marriage void, for there 
 is nothing to render the marriage contract 
 illegal if it were still to be entered into ; but 
 if the Mahommedan woman becomes an idol¬ 
 atress, the marriage is void, for the woman 
 has turned to a state of religion that would 
 render the marriage contract illegal if it were 
 still to be entered into; a Mahommedan woman, 
 becoming a Christian, consequently, would not 
 be separated from her husband, because she 
 belongs to the religion of the book, that is, 
 a kitabee faith. If a kitabeeah becomes an 
 idolatress, the marriage is dissolved, but if 
 she change from one religion to another, and 
 still remain a kitabeeah, the marriage is not 
 vitiated. So far the Oudh Court is correct in 
 its decision, that the Mahommedan wife’s con¬ 
 version to Christianity did not render the mar¬ 
 riage null and void, but that a suit for resti¬ 
 tution of conjugal rights would lie; and 
 taking the case of C. having sexual inter¬ 
 course with B. the wife of A. converted to 
 Christianity, a conviction under Section 497, 
 Indian Penal Code, would hold good. But 
 with all deference, I do not think that the 
 Oudh Court is correct when it states that 
 ‘ apostasy by the w T ife without the wish of the 
 husband could not be entertained ; in fact, 
 that as regards her husband’s volition, the 
 apostasy could not exist, and would not ba 
 recognised.’ 
 
 “ So far as regards a woman’s apostatising 
 to a kitabee faith, this holds good; but if a 
 woman turns to Paganism, ipso facto the mar¬ 
 riage is void, and does not depend upon the 
 volition of the husband (having regard to the 
 principle we have adverted to above), so that 
 the husband under such circumstances could 
 not maintain a suit for conjugal rights, nor 
 would a conviction hold good against C., 
 under Section 497, Indian Penal Code foi k 
 sexual intercourse with B.,the wife of A., who 
 has apostatised to Paganism. The decisions 
 of the two Courts, however, seem correct, on 
 the principles of Mahommedan law, as to the 
 effect of a husband apostatising from Islam. 
 
 12 
 
90 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 DIVORCE 
 
 By Mahommedan law, a marriage by a female 
 Moslem with a man not of the Mahommedan 
 faith is unlawful: applying the principle 
 quoted before, the man having turned to a 
 state of religion that would render the con¬ 
 tract illegal if it were still to be entered into, 
 the marriage is void. The apostasy of the 
 husband dissolves the marriage tie; conse¬ 
 quently there does exist an essential dif¬ 
 ference between apostasy of a man and of a 
 woman, of the apostasy of the husband or the 
 wife; also between apostasy to a faith in a 
 book, that is, a revealed religion having a 
 book of faith, and apostasy to the idol wor¬ 
 ship Mahommed and his followers renounce. 
 The law allows a person the right to cease to 
 be a Mahommedan in the fullest sense of the 
 word, and to become a Christian, and to 
 claim for himself and his descendants all the 
 rights and obligations of a British subject.” 
 {Hogg v. Greenway, &c., 2, Hyde's Reports, 
 3. Manual of Laws relating to Muhamma¬ 
 dans and their Relations of Life.) 
 
 V. In addition to the forms of divorce 
 already explained, there are three others of a 
 peculiar nature, called lfhula', nmhara'ah, and 
 zihar. 
 
 The form of divorce known as Jckula', is when, 
 a husband and wife disagreeing, or for any other 
 cause, the wife, on payment of a compensation 
 or ransom to her husband, is permitted by 
 the law to obtain from him a release from the 
 marriage tie. The Ichula' is generally effected 
 by the husband giving back the dower or part 
 thereof. When the aversion is on the part of 
 the husband, it is generally held that he 
 should grant his wife’s request without com¬ 
 pensation ; but this is purely a matter of con¬ 
 science, and not of law. 
 
 Mubdra'ah is a divorce which is effected by 
 a mutual release. 
 
 Zihar, from zahr, “ back,” is a kind of 
 divorce which is effected by a husband liken¬ 
 ing his wife to any part or member of the 
 body of any of his kinswomen within the pro¬ 
 hibited degi-ee. As for example, if he were 
 to say to his wife, “Thou art to me like the 
 back of my mother.” The motive of the 
 husband in saying so must be examined, and 
 if it appear that he meant divorce, his wife is 
 not lawful to him until he have made expia¬ 
 tion by freeing a slave, or by fasting two 
 months, or by feeding sixty poor men. (See 
 Qur'an, Surah lviii. 4.) 
 
 (For the Sunni Law of Divorce, see the 
 Hiddyah and its Commentary, the Kifayah ; 
 JDurru ’l-Mukhtar and its Commentary, the 
 Raddu V-Mulchtar ; the Fatdwd-i-‘ Alumgiri ; 
 Hamilton’s English Edition, Hiddyah ; Tagore 
 Law Lectures, 1873.) 
 
 VI. The iShi‘ah law of Divorce differs only 
 in a few particulars from that of the Sunnis. 
 According to Shkali law, a man must be an 
 adult of understanding, of free choice and 
 will, and of design and intention, when he 
 divorces his wife. A marked contrast to the 
 licence and liberty allowed by the Sunni 
 law. Nor can the Shiah divorce be effected 
 in any language of a metaphorical kind. It 
 must be express and be pronounced in Arabic 
 
 (if the husband understand that language), 
 and it must be spoken and not written. A 
 divorce amongst the Shrahs does not take 
 effect if given implicatively or ambiguously, 
 whether intended or not. It is also absolutely 
 necessary that the sentence should be pro¬ 
 nounced by the husband in the presence of 
 two just persons as witnesses, who shall hear 
 and testify to the wording of the divorce. 
 
 (For the Shi‘ali law of divorce, see Shir 1 atu 
 'l-Lsldm ; Tahriru 7 -Ahlcdm ; Mafdtxh ; Mr. 
 Neil Baillie's Digest of Muhammadan Law-, 
 Lmamiah Code ; Tagore Law Lectures, 1874-) 
 
 VII Compared with the Mosaic Law. 
 When compared with the Mosaic law, .it will 
 be seen that by the latter, divorce was only 
 sanctioned when there was “ some uncleanness ” 
 in the wife, and that whilst in Islam a husband 
 can take back his divorced wife, in the law of 
 God it was not permitted. See Deut. xxiv. 1-4. 
 
 “ When a man hath taken a wife, and mar¬ 
 ried her, and it come to pass that she find no 
 favour in his eyes, because he hath found 
 some uncleanness in her ; then let him write 
 her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her 
 hand, and send her out of his house. 
 
 “ And when she is departed out of his house, 
 she may go and be another man’s wife. 
 
 “ And if the latter husband hate her, and 
 write her a bill of divorcement, and giveth it 
 in her hand, and sendeth her out of his 
 house; or if the latter husband die, which 
 took her to he his wife; 
 
 “ Her former husband, which sent her 
 away, may not take her again to be his wife, 
 after that she is defiled ; for that is abomina¬ 
 tion before the Lord: and thou shaft not 
 cause the land to sin, which the Lord thy 
 God giveth thee. for an inheritance.” 
 
 The ground of divorce in the Mosaic law 
 was “ some uncleanness in her.” There were 
 two interpretations of this by the Jewish 
 doctors of the period of the New Testament. 
 The School of Sliammai seemed to limit it to 
 a moral delinquency in the woman, whilst 
 that of Hillel extended it to trifling causes. 
 Our Lord appears to have regarded all the 
 lesser causes than fornication as standing on 
 too weak a ground. 
 
 Matt. v. 32: “ But I say unto you, that 
 whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for 
 the cause of fornication, causeth her to com¬ 
 mit adultery : and 'whosoever shall marry her 
 that is divorced committeth adultery.” 
 
 It will be seen that Muhammad adopted 
 the teaching of the School of Hillel, omitting 
 the bill of divorcement, which was enjoined in 
 Deut. xxiv. 3, thereby placing the woman 
 entirely at the will and caprice of her husband. 
 
 Burkhardt tells us of an Arab, forty-five 
 years old, who had had fifty wives, so 
 that he must have divorced two wives and 
 married two fresh ones on the average every 
 year. We have cases of Muhammad’s own 
 “ Companions ” not much better. This is the 
 natural and legitimate effect of the law. 
 
 Sir William Muir ( Life of Mahomet, vol iii. 
 j). 305) says : “ The idea of conjugal unity is 
 utterly unknown to Mahometans, except¬ 
 ing when the Christian example is by chance 
 
DIVVAN 
 
 DOWER 
 
 91 
 
 followed ; and even there, the continuance of 
 the bond is purely dependent on the will of 
 the husband. ... I believe the morale of 
 Hindu society, where polygamy is less encou¬ 
 raged, to be sounder, in a very marked 
 degree, than that of Mahometan society.” 
 
 DlWAN (oV J )- (1) Muham¬ 
 madan law, the word signifies an account or 
 record book, and also the bags in which the 
 Qazi’s records are kept. (2) It is also a 
 court of justice, a royal court. (3) Also a 
 minister of state; the chief officer in a Mu¬ 
 hammadan state; a finance minister. (4) In 
 British courts a law-suit is called diwani, when 
 it refers to a civil suit, in contradistinction to 
 faujdari, or “ criminal suit.” (5) A collec¬ 
 tion of odes is called a diwan, e.g. Diwan-i- 
 ILafiz, “ the Poems of Hafiz.” 
 
 DIYAH (&>J). A pecuniary com¬ 
 pensation for any offence upon the person. 
 [fines.] 
 
 DOGS (Arabic kalb, pi. Jcildb ; Heb. 
 
 iSd ) are unclean animals ; for according to 
 
 a tradition by Abu Hurairah, Muhammad said 
 that when a dog drinks in a vessel, it must 
 be washed seven times, and that the first clean¬ 
 sing should be with earth. (Mishlcat, book 
 iii. c. ii. pt. 1.) 
 
 “ Most people believe that when a dog howls 
 near a house it forebodes death, for, it is 
 said, a dog can distinguish the awful form of 
 Azra‘11, the Angel of Death.” (Burton’s 
 Arabia, vol. i. p. 290.) 
 
 Ibn ‘Umr says that dogs used to come into 
 the Masjid at Makkah in the time of the 
 Prophet, but the Companions never purified 
 the mosque when the dog was dry. 
 
 The Imam Abu Yusuf holds that the sale 
 of a dog that bites is unlawful, whilst the Imam 
 ash-ShafiT has said that the sale of a dog 
 is absolutely illegal, because the Prophet said 
 the wages of whoredom and the price of a dog 
 are forbidden. Abu Hanifah holds that dogs 
 which are trained to hunt or watch may be 
 lawfullv sold. (Hamilton’s Ilidayah, vol. ii. 
 p. 543.) 
 
 It is lawful to hunt with a trained dog, 
 and the sign of a dog being trained is that he 
 catches game three times without killing it. 
 The dog must be let slip with the ejaculation : 
 Bismillahi ’ll alii ATcbar ! “ In the name of God, 
 the great God ! ” when all game seized by him 
 becomes lawful food. This custom is founded 
 upon a verse in the Qur’an, Surah v. 6: 
 “ Lawful for you are all good things and what 
 ye have taught beasts of prey to catch, train¬ 
 ing them like dogs ; ye teach them as God 
 taught you. And mention the name of God 
 over it.” 
 
 Rules for hunting with dogs will be found 
 in Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 170. 
 
 DOG STAR. Sirius, or the dog 
 
 star, was an object of worship amongst the 
 ancient Arabs, and is mentioned in the Qur'an, 
 under the name of ash-i}hi‘ra, Surah liii. 50 : 
 “ He (God) is the Lord of the Dog Star.” 
 
 DOWER. Arabic, mahr (;-e-^), 
 Heb. (“iHlb). Dower is considered by 
 
 some lawyers to be an effect of the marriage 
 contract, imposed on the husband by the law 
 as a mark of respect for the subject of the 
 contract—the wife; while others consider 
 that it is in exchange for the usufruct of the 
 wife, and its payment is necessary, as upon 
 the provision of a support to the wife depends 
 the permanency of the matrimonial connec¬ 
 tion. Thus, it is indispensable a fortiori, so 
 much so, that if it were not mentioned in the 
 marriage contract, it would be still incumbent 
 on the husband, as the law will presume it by 
 virtue of the contract itself, and award it 
 upon demand being made by the wife. In 
 such ease, the amount of dower will be to the 
 extent of the dowers of the women of her 
 rank and of the ladies of her father’s family. 
 Special beauty or accomplishments may, how¬ 
 ever, be pleaded for recovering a larger 
 award than the customary dower, where the 
 amount of dower is not mentioned in the con¬ 
 tract. There is no limit to the amount of 
 dower; it may be to a very large amount, 
 considering the position and circumstance of 
 the bridegroom, but its minimum is never less 
 than ten dirhams ; so where it is fixed at a 
 lesser amount, the law will augment it up to 
 ten dirhams. The dower need not invariably 
 be in currency, or even in metal; everything, 
 except carrion, blood, wine, and hog. Also 
 the bridegroom’s own labour, if he is a free 
 man, being held by the law to be a good dower. 
 
 Dower is generally divided into two parts, 
 termed mu‘ajjal, “ prompt,” and mu’ajjal, 
 “ deferred.” The muHijjal portion is exigible 
 on entering into the contract, while the mu’aj¬ 
 jal part of the dower is payable upon dissolu¬ 
 tion of the contract. Although the first part 
 is payable, and is sometimes paid, at the 
 time the contract is entered into, yet it has 
 been the general practice (at least in India) 
 to leave it unpaid, and so like an on-demand 
 obligation it remains due at all times—the 
 wife’s right to the same not being extinguished 
 by lapse of time. The wife’s (or her guar¬ 
 dian’s) object in leaving the exigible part of 
 the dower unrealised, seems to be that there 
 may always exist a valid guarantee for the 
 good treatment of her by her husband. The 
 women of the respectable classes reserve their 
 right and power to demand their exigible 
 dowers till such time as occasion should re¬ 
 quire the exercise thereof. The custom of 
 fixing heavy dowers, generally beyond the 
 husband’s means, especially in India, seems 
 to be based upon the intention of checking 
 the husband from ill-treating his wife, and, 
 above all, from his marrying another woman, 
 as also from wrongfully or causelessly di¬ 
 vorcing the former. For in the case of divorce 
 the woman can demand the full payment of 
 the dower. In the event of the death of the 
 husband, the payment of the dower has the 
 first claim on the estate after funeral ex¬ 
 penses ; the law regarding it as a just debt. 
 
 (Tagore Law Lectures, 1873, p. 341; Hidayah, 
 vol. i. p. 122.) 
 
92 
 
 DREAMS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 DREAMS. Aral )ic liulm (r*~L-“) 5 
 manam ; rilijcl’ (sA*^,). The term 
 
 used for a bad dream is hulm, and for an ordi¬ 
 nary dream Vietnam , ruyff being used to express 
 a heavenly vision, [kdya.] 
 
 According to the traditions, the Prophet is 
 related to have said, “ A good dream is of God’s 
 favour and a bad dream is of the devil; there¬ 
 fore, when any of you dreams a dream which 
 is such as he is pleased with, then he must not 
 tell it to any but a beloved friend ; and when 
 he dreams a bad dream, then let him seek 
 protection from God both from its evil and 
 from the wickedness of Satan; and let him 
 spit three times over his left shoulder, and 
 not mention the dream to anyone; then, 
 verily, no evil shall come nigh him.” “ The 
 truest dream is the one which you have about 
 day-break.” “ Good dreams are one of the 
 parts of prophecy.” ( Mishkat , xxi. c. iv.) 
 
 DRESS. Arabic libels 
 
 Decent apparel at the time of public worship 
 is enjoined in the Qur'an, Surah vii. 29 : “0 
 children of Adam ! wear your goodly apparel 
 when ye repair to any mosque.” Excess in 
 apparel and extravagance in dress are re¬ 
 proved, Surah vii. 25: “ We (God) have sent 
 down raiment to hide your nakedness, and 
 splendid garments ; but the raiment of piety, 
 this is the best.” 
 
 According to the Ilidayah (vol. iv. p. 92), a 
 dress of silk is not lawful for men, but 
 women are permitted to wear it. Men are 
 prohibited from wearing gold ornaments, and 
 also ornaments of silver, otherwise than a 
 silver signet ring. The custom of keeping 
 handkerchiefs in the hand, except for neces¬ 
 sary use. is also forbidden. 
 
 The following are some of the sayings of 
 the Prophet with regard to dress, as recorded 
 in the Traditions. Mishkat, xx. c. i. : “ God 
 will not look at him on the Day of Resurrec¬ 
 tion who shall wear long garments from 
 pride.” “ Whoever wears a silken garment 
 in this world shall not wear it in the next.” 
 “ God will not have compassion upon him 
 who wears long trousers (i.e. below the 
 ankle) from pride.” “ It is lawful for the 
 women of my people to wear silks and gold 
 ornaments, but it is unlawful for the men.” 
 “ Wear white clothes, because they are the 
 cleanest, and the most agreeable ; and bury 
 your dead in white clothes.” 
 
 According to the Traditions, the dress of 
 Muhammad was exceedingly simple. It is 
 said he used to wear only two garments, the 
 izdr, or “ under garment ” which hung down 
 three or four inches below his knees, and a 
 mantle thrown over his shoulders. These 
 two robes, with the turban, and white cotton 
 drawers, completed the Prophet’s wardrobe. 
 His dress was generally of white, but he also 
 wore green, red, and yellow, and sometimes a 
 black woollen dress. It is said by some tra- 
 ditionists that in the taking of Makkah he 
 wore a black turban. The end of his turban 
 used to hang between his shoulders. And he 
 used to wrap it many times round his head. 
 
 It is said, “ the edge of it appeared below 
 like the soiled clothes of an oil dealer.” 
 
 He was especially fond of white-striped 
 yamanl cloth. He once prayed in a silken 
 dress, but he cast it aside afterwards, saying. 
 “ it doth not become the faithful to wear 
 silk.” He once prayed in a spotted mantle, 
 but the spots diverted his attention, and the 
 garment was never again worn. 
 
 His sleeves, unlike those of the Eastern 
 c/ioga or khqftan, ended at the wrist, and he 
 never wore long robes reaching to his ankles. 
 
 At first, he wore a gold ring with the stone 
 inwards on his right hand, but it distracted 
 his attention when preaching, and he changed 
 it for a silvor one. His shoes, which were 
 often old and cobbled, were of the Hazramaut 
 pattern, with two thongs. And he was in the 
 habit of praying with his shoes on. [shoes.] 
 
 The example of Muhammad has doubtless 
 influened the customs of his followers in the 
 matter of dress, the fashion of which has re¬ 
 mained almost the same in eastern Muham¬ 
 madan countries centuries past; for although 
 there are varieties of dress in Eastern as well 
 as in European countries, still there are one 
 or two characteristics of dress which are 
 common to all oriental nations which have 
 embraced Islam, namely, the turban folded 
 round the head, the white cotton drawers, or 
 full trousers, tied round the waist by a run¬ 
 ning string ; the qamis, or “ shirt,” the lchaf- 
 tan, or “ coat,” and the lungi, or “ scarf.” The 
 qcimls is the same as the ketoneth of the He¬ 
 brews, and the ^iTcor of the Greeks, a kind of 
 long shirt with short sleeves, the ends of 
 which extend over the trousers or drawers, 
 reaching below the knees. The kliaftan 
 
 answers to the Hebrew b'yv meil (1 Sam. 
 xviii 4), a tunic worn as an outer garment. 
 The Jewish “JJQ leged, or simlah, 
 
 must have been similar, to the quadrangular 
 piece of cloth still worn as a scarf in Central 
 Asia, and called a lungi, and similar to the 
 ‘ala of the Egyptians. It is worn in various 
 ways, either wrapped round the body, or worn 
 over the shoulders, and sometimes folded as 
 a covering for the head. 
 
 The dress of Muhammadans in Egypt is 
 very minutely described by Mr. Lane in his 
 Modern Egyptians, vol. i. p. 36. 
 
 The dress of the men of the middle and 
 higher classes of Egypt consists of the fol¬ 
 lowing articles. First a pair of full drawers 
 of linen or cotton tied round the body by a 
 running string or band, the ends of which are 
 embroidered with coloured silks, though con¬ 
 cealed by the outer dress. The drawers 
 descend a little below the knees or to the 
 ankles ; but many of the Arabs will not wear 
 long drawers, because prohibited by the Pro¬ 
 phet. Next is worn a qamis or “ shirt,” with 
 very full sleeves, reaching to the wrist; it is 
 made of linen of a loose open texture, or of 
 cotton stuff, or of muslin, or silk, or of a 
 mixture of silk and cotton in strips, but 
 all white. Over this, in winter, or in cool 
 weather, most persons wear a sudegree, which 
 
DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 93 
 
 is a short vest of cloth, or of striped coloured 
 silk, or cotton, without sleeves. Over the 
 shirt and the sudeyree, or the former alone, is 
 worn a long vest of striped silk or cotton 
 (called kaftan ) descending to the ankles, with 
 long sleeves extending a few inches beyond 
 the fingers’ ends, but divided from a point a 
 little above the wrist, or about the middle of 
 the fore-arm, so that the hand is generally ex¬ 
 posed, though it may be concealed by the 
 sleeve when necessary, for it is customary to 
 cover the hands in the presence of a person of 
 high rank. Round this vest is wound the 
 girdle, which is a coloured shawl, or a long 
 piece of white-figured muslin. 
 
 The ordinary outer robe is a long cloth 
 coat, of any colour, called by the Turks 
 jttbbah, but by the Egyptians gibbeh, the 
 sleeves of which reach not quite to the wrist. 
 Some persons also wear a beneesh, which is a 
 robe of cloth with long sleeves, like those of 
 the kaftan, but more ample; it is properly a 
 robe of ceremony, and should be worn over 
 the other cloth coat, but many persons wear 
 it instead of the gibbeh. 
 
 Another robe, called farageeyeh, nearly re¬ 
 sembles the beneesh ; it has very long sleeves, 
 but these are not slit, and it is chiefly worn 
 by men of the learned professions. In cold or 
 cool weather, a kind of black woollen cloak, 
 called abayeli, is commonly worn. Sometimes 
 this is drawn over the head. 
 
 In winter, also, many persons wrap a muslin 
 or other shawl (such as they use for a tur¬ 
 ban) about the head and shoulders. The 
 head-dress consists, first, of a small close- 
 fitting cotton cap, which is often changed; 
 next a tarboosh , which is a red cloth cap, also 
 fitting close to the head with a tassel of dark- 
 blue silk at the crown; lastly, a long piece 
 of white muslin, generally figured, or a kash- 
 mere shawl, which is wound round the tar¬ 
 boosh. Thus is formed the turban. The 
 
 AN EGYPTIAN MAULAWI (LANE). 
 
 kaslimere shawl is seldom worn except in cool 
 weather. Some persons wear two or three 
 tarbooshes one over another. A shereef (or 
 descendant of the Prophet) wears a green 
 turban, or is privileged to do so, but no other 
 person; and it is not common far any but a 
 shereef to wear a bright green dress. Stock¬ 
 ings are not in use, but some fow persons in 
 
 cold weather wear woollen or cotton socks. 
 The shoes are of thick rod morocco, pointed, 
 and turning up at the toes. Some persons 
 also wear inner shoes of soft yellow morocco, 
 and with soles of the same ; the outer shoes 
 are taken off on stepping upon a carpet or 
 mat, but not the inner ; for this reason the 
 former are often worn turned down at tlio 
 heel. 
 
 The costume of the men of the lower 
 orders is very simple. These, if not of the 
 very poorest class, wear a pair of drawers, 
 and a long and full shirt or gown of blue 
 linen or cotton, or of brown woollen stuff, 
 open from the neck nearly to the waist, and 
 having wide sleeves. Over this some wear a 
 white or red woollen girdle; for which ser¬ 
 vants often substitute a broad red belt of 
 woollen stuff or of leather, generally contain¬ 
 ing a receptacle for money. Their turban is 
 generally composed of a white, red, or yellow 
 
 AN EGYPTIAN PEASANT (LANE). 
 
 woollen shawl, or of a piece of coarse cotton 
 or muslin wound round a tarboosh, under 
 which is a white or brown felt cap ; but many 
 are so poor, as to have no other cap than the 
 latter, no turban, nor even drawers, nor shoes, 
 but only the blue or brown shirt, or merely a 
 few rags, while many, on the other band, wear 
 a sudeyree under the blue shirt and some, par¬ 
 ticularly servants in the houses of great men, 
 wear a white shirt, a sudeyree, and a kaftan, 
 or gibbeh, or both, and the blue shirt over¬ 
 all. The full sleeves of this shirt are some¬ 
 times drawn up by means of a cord, which 
 
94 
 
 DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 passes round each shoulder and crosses be¬ 
 hind, where it is tied in a knot. This custom 
 is adopted by servants (particularly grooms), 
 who have cords of crimson or dark blue silk 
 for this purpose. 
 
 In cold weather, many persons of the lower 
 classes wear an abayeh, like that before de¬ 
 scribed, but coarser and sometimes (instead 
 of being black) having broad stripes, brown 
 and white, or blue and white, but the latter 
 rarely. Another kind of cloak, more full than 
 the abayeh, of black or deep blue woollen 
 stuff, is also very commonly worn, it is called 
 diffeeyeh. The shoes are of red or yellow 
 morocco, or of sheep-skin. Those of the 
 groom are of dark red morocco. Those of the 
 door-keeper and the water-carrier of a private 
 house, generally yellow. 
 
 The Muslims are distinguished by the 
 colours of their turbans from the Copts and 
 the Jews, who (as well as other subjects of 
 the Turkish Sultan who are not Muslims) 
 wear black, blue, gray, or light-brown tur¬ 
 bans, and generally dull-coloured dresses. 
 
 The distinction of sects, families, dynasties, 
 &c., among the Muslim Arabs by the colour 
 of the turban and other articles of dress, is of 
 very early origin. There are not many dif¬ 
 ferent forms of turbans now worn in Egypt; 
 that worn by most of the servants is pecu¬ 
 liarly formal, consisting of several spiral 
 twists one above another like the threads of 
 a screw. The kind common among the 
 middle and higher classes of the tradesmen 
 and other citizens of the metropolis and large 
 towns is also very formal, but less so than 
 that just before alluded to. 
 
 The Turkish turban worn in Egypt is of a 
 more elegant fashion. The Syrian is distin- 
 tinguished by its width. The Ulama and men 
 of religion and letters in general used to wear, 
 as some do still, one particularly wide and 
 formal called a mukleh. The turban is much 
 respected. In the houses of the more wealthy 
 classes, there is usually a chair on which it 
 is placed at night. This is often sent with 
 the furniture of a bride ; as it is common for 
 a lady to have one upon which to place her 
 head-dress. It is never used for any other 
 purpose. 
 
 The dress of the women of the middle and 
 higher orders is handsome and elegant. 
 Their shirt is very full, like that of the men, 
 but shorter, not reaching to the knees ; it is 
 also, generally, of the same kind of material 
 as the men’s shirt, or of coloured crape, 
 sometimes black. A pair of very wide trou¬ 
 sers (called shintiyan) of a coloured striped 
 stuff, of silk and cotton, or of printed or 
 plain white muslin, is tied round the hips 
 under the shirt, with a dikkeh ; its lower ex¬ 
 tremities are drawn up and tied just below 
 the knee with running strings, but it is suf¬ 
 ficiently long to hang down to the feet, or 
 almost to the ground, when attached in this 
 manner. Over the shirt and shintiyan is worn 
 a long vest (called yelek'), of the same mate¬ 
 rial as the latter; it nearly resembles the 
 kaftan of the men, but is more tight to the 
 body and amis ; the sleeves also are longer, 
 
 and It is made to button down' the front from 
 the bosom to a little below the girdle, instead 
 of lapping over; it is open, likewise on each 
 side, from the height of the hip downwards. 
 
 In general, the ,J yelek is cut in such a man¬ 
 ner as to leave half of the bosom uncovered, 
 except by the shirt, but many ladies have it 
 made more ample at that part, and according 
 to the most approved fashion it should be of 
 sufficient length to reach to the ground, or 
 should exceed that length by two or three 
 inches or more. A short vest (called anteree) 
 reaching only a little below the waist, and 
 exactly resembling a yelek of which the 
 lower part has been cut off, is sometimes 
 worn instead of the latter. A square shawl, 
 or an embroidered kerchief, doubled diago¬ 
 nally, is put loosely round the waist as a 
 girdle, the two corners that are folded to¬ 
 gether hanging down behind ; or sometimes 
 the lady's girdle is folded after - the ordinary 
 Turkish fashion, like that of the men, hut 
 more loosely. 
 
 Over the yelek is worn a gibbets of cloth or 
 velvet or silk, usually embroidered with gold 
 or with coloured silk ; it differs in form from 
 the gibbeh of the men, chiefly in being not so 
 wide, particularly in the fore part, and is of 
 the same length as the yelek. Instead of this, 
 a jacket (called scdtah), generally of cloth or 
 velvet, and embroidered in the same manner 
 as the gibbeh, is often worn. 
 
 The head-dress consists of a takeeyeh and 
 tarboosh, with a square kerchief (called 
 furoocleeyeh) of printed or painted muslin or 
 one of crape, wound tightly round, composing 
 what is called a rabtah. Two or more such 
 kerchiefs were commonly used a short time 
 since, and still are sometimes to form the ladies 7 
 
 turban, hut always wound in a high flat 
 shape, very different from that of the turban 
 of the men. A kind of crown, called lours, 
 and other ornaments, are attached to the ladies’ 
 head-dress. A long piece of white muslin, 
 embroidered at each end with coloured silks 
 
DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 .95 
 
 and gold, or of coloured crape ornamented 
 with gold thread, &c., and spangles, rests 
 upon the head, and hangs down behind, 
 nearly or quite to the ground; this is called 
 tarhah, it is the head-veil; the face-veil I 
 shall presently describe. The hair, except 
 over the forehead and temples, is divided into 
 numerous braids or plaits, generally from 
 eleven to twent 3 '-five in number, but always 
 of an uneven number; these hang down the 
 back. To each braid of hair are usually 
 added three black silk cords with little orna¬ 
 ments of gold, &c., attached to them. Over 
 the forehead the hair is cut rather short, but 
 two full locks hang down on each side of the 
 face ; these are often curled in ringlets and 
 sometimes plaited. 
 
 Few of the ladies of Egypt wear stockings 
 or socks, but many of them wear mezz (or 
 inner shoes) of yellow or red morocco, some¬ 
 times embroidered with gold. Over these, 
 whenever they step off the matted or carpeted 
 part of the floor, they put on baboog (or 
 slippers) of yellow morocco, with high-pointed 
 toes, or use high wooden clogs or pattens, 
 generally from four to nine inches in height, 
 and usually ornamented with mother-of-pearl 
 or silver, &c. 
 
 The riding or walking attire is called tez- 
 yeereh. Whenever a lady leaves the house, 
 she wears, in addition to what has been above 
 
 THE INDIAN BIJRKA. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 described, first, a large, loose gown (called 
 tob or sebleh), the sleeves of which are nearly 
 equal in width to the whole length of the 
 
 gown; it is of silk, generally of a pink or 
 rose or violet colour. Next is put on the 
 burka’ or face-veil, which is a long strip of 
 white muslin, concealing the whole of the face 
 except the eyes, and reaching nearly to the 
 feet. It is suspended at the top by a narrow 
 band, which passes up the forehead, and 
 which is sewed, as are also the two upper 
 corners of the veil, to a band that is tied round 
 the head. The lady then covers herself with 
 a habarah, which, for a married lady, is com¬ 
 posed of two breadths of glossy, black silk, 
 each ell-wide, and three yards long; these 
 are sewed together, at or near the selvages 
 (according to the height of the person) the 
 seam running horizontally, with respect to the 
 manner in which it is worn ; a piece of narrow 
 black ribbon is sewed inside the upper part, 
 about six inches from the edge, to tie round 
 
 THE EGYPTIAN HABARAH. 
 
 the head. But some of them imitate the 
 Turkish ladies of Egypt in holding the front 
 part so as to conceal all but that portion of 
 the veil that is above the hands. The un¬ 
 married ladies wear a habarah of white silk, 
 or a shawl. Some females of the middle 
 classes, who cannot afford to purchase a ha¬ 
 barah, wear instead of it an eezar (izar), 
 which is a piece of white calico, of the same 
 form and size as the former, and is worn in 
 the same manner. On the feet are worn short 
 boots or socks (called khuff), of yellow mo¬ 
 rocco, and over these the baboog. The dress 
 of a large proportion of those women of the 
 lower orders who are not of the poorest class, 
 consists of a pair of trousers or drawers 
 
96 
 
 DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 (similar in form to the shintiyan of the ladies, 
 hut generally of plain -white cotton or linen), 
 a blue linen or cotton shirt (not quite so full 
 as that of the men), reaching to the feet, a 
 burka’ of a kind of coarse black crape, and a 
 dark blue tarhah of muslin or linen. Some 
 wear, over the long shirt, or instead of the 
 latter, a linen fob, of the same form as that 
 of the ladies; and within the long shirt, some 
 wear a shox-t white shirt; and some, a sudey- 
 ree also, or an anteree. The sleeves of the 
 tob are often turned up over the head; either 
 to prevent their being incommodious, or to 
 supply the place of a tarhah. In addition to 
 these articles of dress, many women who are 
 not of the very poor classes wear, as a cover¬ 
 ing, a kind of plaid, similar in form to the 
 habarah, composed of tw r o pieces of cotton, 
 woven in small chequers of blue and white, 
 or cross stripes, with a mixture of red at each 
 end. It is called milayeh ; in general it is 
 
 AN INDIAN ZANANA LADY. (A. F. Hole.') 
 
 worn in the same manner as the habarah, but 
 sometimes like the tarhah. The upper part 
 of the black burka’ is often ornamented with 
 false pearls, small gold coins, and other little 
 flat ornaments of the same metal (called bark); 
 sometimes with a coral bead, and a gold coin 
 beneath; also with some coins of base silver 
 and more commonly with a pair of chain 
 tassels of brass or silver (called oyoon) 
 attached to the corners. A square black silk 
 kerchief (called asbeh), with a border of red 
 and yellow, is bound round the head, doubled 
 diagonally, and tied with a single knot behind ; 
 or, instead of this, the tarboosh and faroodee- 
 
 yeh are worn, though by very few women o 
 the lower classes. 
 
 The best kind of shoes worn by the 
 females of the lower orders are of red 
 morocco, turned up, but generally round, at 
 the toes. The burka’ and shoes are most 
 common in Cairo, and are also worn by many 
 of the women throughout lower Egypt; but 
 in Upper Egypt, the burka’ is very seldom 
 seen, and shoes are scarcely less uncommon. 
 To supply the place of the former, when neces¬ 
 sary, a portion of the tarhah is drawn before 
 the face, so as to conceal nearly all the coun¬ 
 tenance except one eye. 
 
 Many of the women of the lower orders, 
 even in the metrojiolis, never conceal their 
 faces. 
 
 Throughout the greater part of Egypt, the 
 most common dress of the women, merely con¬ 
 sists of the blue shirt or tob and tarhah. In 
 the southern parts of Upper Egypt chiefly 
 above Akhmeem, most of the women envelop 
 themselves in a large piece of dark-brown 
 woollen stuff (called a huldleeyeh), wrapping it 
 round the body and attaching the upper parts 
 together over each shoulder, and a piece of 
 the same they use as a tarhah. This dull 
 dress, though picturesque, is almost as dis¬ 
 guising as the blue tinge which women in 
 these parts of Egypt impart to their lips. 
 Most of the women of the lower orders wear 
 a variety of trumpery ornaments, such as 
 ear-rings, necklaces, bracelets. &c., and some¬ 
 times a nose-ring. 
 
 The women of Egypt deem it more incum¬ 
 bent upon them to cover the upper and back 
 part of the head than the face, and more 
 requisite to conceal the face than most other 
 parts of the person. I have often seen 
 women but half covered with miserable rags, 
 and several times females in the prime of 
 womanhood, and others in more advanced 
 age, with nothing on the body but a narrow 
 strip of rag bound round the hips. 
 
 Mr. Burckhardt, in his Notes on the Bedouins 
 and Wahabys (p. 47), thus describes the dress 
 of the Badawis of the desert: — 
 
 In summer the men wear a coarse cotton 
 shirt, over which the wealthy put a kombar, 
 or “ long gown,” as it is worn in Turkish 
 towns, of silk or cotton stuff. Most of them, 
 however, do not wear the kombar, but simply 
 wear over their shirt a woollen mantle. 
 There are different sorts of mantles, one very 
 thin, light, and white woollen, manufactured 
 at Baghdad, and called mesoumy. A coarser 
 and heavier kind, striped white and brown 
 (worn over the mesoumy), is called abba. 
 The Baghdad a£bas are most esteemed, those 
 made at Hamah, with short wide sleeves, are 
 called boush. (In the northern parts of 
 Syria, every kind of woollen mantle, whether 
 white, black, or striped white and brown, or 
 white and blue, are called meshlalch.) I have 
 not seen any black abbas among the Aenezes, 
 but frequently among the sheiks of Ahl el 
 Shemal, sometimes interwoven with gold, and 
 worth as much as ten pounds sterling. The 
 Aenezes do not wear drawers ; they walk and 
 ride usually barefooted, even the richest of 
 
DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 them, although they generally esteem yellow 
 boots and red shoes. All the Bedouins wear 
 on the head, instead of the red Turkish cap, 
 a turban or square kerchief, of cotton or 
 cotton and silk mixed; the turban is called 
 keffie ; this they fold about the head so that 
 one corner falls backward, and two other 
 corners hang over the fore part of the shoul¬ 
 ders ; with these two corners they cover their 
 faces to protect them from the sun’s rays, or 
 hot wind, or rain, or to conceal their features 
 if they wish to be unknown. The keffie is 
 yellow or yellow mixed with green. Over the 
 keffie the Aenezes tie, instead of a turban, a 
 cord round the head ; this cord is of camel’s 
 hair, and called akal. Some tie a handker¬ 
 chief about the head, and it is then called 
 s/iutfe. A few rich sheikhs wear shawls on 
 their heads of Damascus or Baghdad manu¬ 
 facture, striped red and white ; they some¬ 
 times also use red caps or tcikie (called in 
 Syria tarboush ), and under those they wear a 
 smaller cap of camel’s hair, called maaraka 
 (in Syria arkye, where it is generally made of 
 fine cotton stuff). 
 
 A BEDOUIN (BADAWl) OF THE DESERT. 
 
 The Aenezes are distinguished at first sight 
 from all the Syrian Bedouins by the long 
 tresses of their hair. They never shave 
 their black hair, but cherish it from infancy, 
 till they can twist it in tresses, that hang 
 over the cheeks down to the breast: these 
 
 97 
 
 tresses are called keroun. Some few Aenezes 
 wear girdles of leather, others tie a cord or 
 a piece of rag over the shirt Men and women 
 wear from infancy a leather girdle around the 
 naked waist, it consists of four or five thongs 
 twisted together into a cord as thick as one’s 
 finger. I heard that the women tie their 
 thongs separated from each other, round the 
 waist. Both men and women adorn the 
 girdles with pieces of ribands or amulets. The 
 Aenezes called it hha/cou ; the Ahl el Shemal 
 call it bereim. In summer the boys, until the 
 age of seven or eight years, go stark naked ; 
 but I never saw any young girl in that state, 
 although it was mentioned that in the interior 
 of the desert the girls, at that early age, were 
 not more encumbered by clothing than their 
 little brothers. In winter, the Bedouins wear 
 over the shirt a pelisse,made of several sheep¬ 
 skins stitched together; many wear these 
 skins even in summer, because experience has 
 taught them that the more warmly a person 
 is clothed, the less he suffers from the sun. 
 The Arabs endure the inclemency of the 
 rainy season in a wonderful manner. While 
 everything around them suffers from the 
 cold, they sleep barefooted in an open tent, 
 where the fire is not kept up beyond mid¬ 
 night. Yet in the middle of summer an Arab 
 sleeps wrapt in his mantle upon the burning 
 sand, and exposed to the rays of an intensely 
 hot sun. The ladies’ dress is a wide cotton 
 gown of a dark colour, blue, brown, or black ; 
 on their heads they wear a kerchief called 
 shauber or mekroune, the young females having 
 it of a red colour, the old of black. All the 
 Ranalla ladies wear black silk kerchiefs, two 
 yards square, called shale kas ; these are made 
 at Damascus. Silver rings are much worn 
 by the Aeneze ladies, both in the ears and 
 noses ; the ear-rings they call terkie (pi. te- 
 raky ), the small nose-rings shedre, the larger 
 (some of which are three inches and a half in 
 diameter), khezain. All the women puncture 
 their lips and dye them blue; this kind of 
 tattooing they call bertoum, and apply it like¬ 
 wise in spotting their temples and foreheads. 
 The Serhhan women puncture their cheeks, 
 breasts, and arms, and the Ammour women 
 their ankles. Several men also adorn their 
 arms in the same manner. The Bedouin 
 ladies half cover their faces with a dark- 
 coloured veil, called nekye, which is so tied 
 as to conceal the chin and mouth. The 
 Egyptian women’s veil ( berkoa ) is used by 
 the Kebly Arabs. Round their wrists the 
 Aeneze ladies wear glass bracelets of various 
 colours ; the rich also have silver bracelets 
 and some wear silver chains about the neck 
 Both in summer and winter the men and 
 women go barefooted. 
 
 Captain Burton, in his account of Zanzibar, 
 (vol. i. p. 382), says :— 
 
 The Arab’s head-dress is a kummeh or ko- 
 fiyyah (red fez), a Surat calotte (afiyyah), or 
 a white skull-cap, worn under a turban 
 (.kilemba ) of Oman silk and cotton religiously 
 mixed. Usually it is of fine blue and white 
 cotton check, embroidered and fringed with a 
 broad red border, with the ends hanging in 
 
 13 -*- 
 
98 
 
 DRESS 
 
 DRESS 
 
 unequal lengths over one shoulder. The 
 coiffure is highly picturesque. The ruling 
 family and grandees, however, have modified 
 its vulgar folds, wearing it peaked in front, 
 and somewhat'resembling a tiara. The essen¬ 
 tial body-clothing, and the succedaneum for 
 trousers is an izor (nguo yaku Chini), or loin¬ 
 cloth, tucked in at the waist, six to seven feet 
 long by two to three broad. The colours are 
 brickdust and white, or blue and white, with 
 a silk border striped red, black, and yellow. 
 The very poor wear a dirty bit of cotton 
 girdled by a hakdb or kunclavi, a rope of 
 plaited thongs ; the rich prefer a fine embroi¬ 
 dered stuff from Oman, supported at the waist 
 by a silver chain. None but the western 
 Arabs admit the innovation of drawers ( sum - 
 wall). The jama or upper garment is a collar¬ 
 less coat, of the best broad-cloth, leek-green 
 or some tender colour being preferred. It is 
 secured over the left breast by a silken loop, 
 and the straight wide sleeves are gaily lined. 
 The kizbao is a kind of waistcoat, covering 
 only the bust; some wear it with sleeves, 
 others without. The dishdashes (in Kisawa- 
 hili Khanzu), a narrow-sleeved shirt buttoned 
 at the throat, and extending to midshin, is 
 made of calico ( baftah ), American drill and 
 other stuffs called doriyah, tarabuzun, and 
 jamdani. Sailors are known by khuzerangi, 
 a coarse cotton, stained dingy red-yellow, 
 with henna or pomegranate rind, and rank 
 with wars (bastard saffron) and shark’s oil. 
 
 Respectable men guard the stomach with a 
 hizam, generally a Cashmere or Bombay 
 shawl; others wear sashes of the dust- 
 coloured raw silk, manufactured in Oman. 
 The outer garment for chilly weather is the 
 long tight-sleeved Persian jubbeh, jokhah, or 
 caftan, of European broad-cloth. Most men 
 shave their heads, and the Shafeis trim or 
 entirely remove the moustaches. 
 
 The palms are reddened with henna, which 
 is either brought from El Hejaz, or gathered 
 in the plantations. The only ring is a plain 
 cornelian seal and the sole other ornament is 
 a talisman ( hirz , in Kisawahili Hirizi). The 
 eyes are blackened with kohl, or antimony of 
 El Sham—here, not Syria, but the region 
 about Meccah—and the mouth crimsoned by 
 betel, looks as if a tooth had just been knocked 
 out. 
 
 Dr. Eugene Schuyler, in his work on Turk¬ 
 estan (vol. i. p. 122), says :— 
 
 The dress of the Central Asiatic is very 
 simple. He wears loose baggy trousers, 
 usually made of coarse white cotton stuff 
 fastened tightly round the waist, with a cord 
 and tassel; this is a necessary article of dress, 
 and is never or rarely taken off, at all events 
 not in the presence of another. Frequently, 
 when men are at work, this is the only gar¬ 
 ment. and in that case it is gradually turned 
 up under the cord, or rolled up on the legs, 
 so that the person is almost naked. Over 
 this is worn a long shirt, either white or of 
 some light-coloured print, reaching almost to 
 the feet, and with a very narrow aperture for 
 the neck, which renders it somewhat difficult 
 to put the head through. The sleeves are 
 
 long and loose. Beyond this there is nothing 
 more but what is called the chapan, varying 
 in number according to the weather, or the 
 whim of the person. The chapan is a loose 
 gown, cut very sloping in the neck, with 
 strings to tie it together in front; and inor¬ 
 dinately large sleeves, made with an immense 
 gore, and about twice as long as is necessary; 
 exceedingly inconvenient, but useful to con¬ 
 ceal the hands, as Asiatic politeness dictates. 
 In summer, these are usually made of Rus¬ 
 sian prints, or of the native alatcha, a sti’iped 
 cotton material, or of silk, either striped or 
 with most gorgeous eastern patterns, in bright 
 colours, especially red, yellow, and green. I 
 have sometimes seen men with as many as 
 four or five of these gowns, even in summer ; 
 they say that it keeps out the heat. In 
 winter, one gown will frequently be made of 
 cloth, and lined with fine lamb-skin or fur. 
 The usual girdle is a large handkerchief, or a 
 
 AN AFGHAN CHIEF. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 small shawl; at times, a long scarf wound 
 several times tightly round the waist. The 
 Jews in places under native rule are allowed 
 no girdle, but a bit of rope or cord, as a mark 
 of ignominy. From the girdle hang the acces¬ 
 sory knives and several small bags and 
 pouches, often prettily embroidered, for 
 combs, money, &c. On the head there is a 
 skull-cap ; these in Tashkent are always em¬ 
 broidered with silk; in Bukhara they are 
 usually worked with silk, or worsted in cross- 
 stitch in gay patterns. The turban, called 
 tchilpetch, or “ forty turns,” is very long; and 
 if the wearer has any pretence to elegance, it 
 should be of fine thin material, which is 
 chiefly imported from England. It requires 
 considerable experience to wind one properly 
 round the head, so that the folds will be well 
 made and the appearance fashionable. One 
 extremity is left to fall over the left shoulder, 
 but is usually, except at prayer time, tucked 
 in over the top. Should this end be on the 
 right shoulder, it is said to be in the Afghan 
 style. The majority of turbans are white 
 particularly so in Tashkent, though white is 
 
CRESS 
 
 DROWNING 
 
 99 
 
 especially the colour of the mullahs and reli¬ 
 gious people, -whose learning is judged by the 
 size of their turbans. In general, merchants 
 prefer blue, striped, or chequered material. 
 
 AN AFGHAN MULLAH. 
 
 At home the men usually go barefooted, 
 but on going out wear either a sort of slippers 
 with pointed toes and very small high heels, 
 or long soft boots, the sole and upper being 
 made of the same material. In the street, 
 one must in addition put on either a slipper or 
 golosh, or wear riding-boots made of bright 
 green horse hide, with turned-up pointed 
 toes and very small high heels. 
 
 The dress of the women, in shape and 
 fashion, differs but little from that of the 
 men, as they wear similar trousers and shirts, 
 though, in addition, they have long gowns, 
 usually of bright-coloured silk, which extend 
 from the neck to the ground. They wear 
 an innumerable quantity of necklaces, and 
 little amulets, pendents in their hair, and 
 ear-rings, and occasionally even a nose-ring. 
 This is by no means so ugly as is supposed : a 
 pretty girl with a torquoise ring in one nostril 
 is not at all unsightly. On the contrary, there 
 is something piquant in it. Usually, when 
 outside of the houses, all respectable women 
 wear a heavy black veil, reaching to their 
 waists, made of woven horse-hair, and over 
 that is thrown a dark blue, or green khalat, 
 the sleeves of which, tied together at the 
 ends, dangle behind. The theory of this dull 
 dress is, that the women desire to escape ob¬ 
 servation, and certainly for that purpose they 
 have devised the most ugly and unseemly 
 
 costume that could be imagined. They are, 
 however, very inquisitive, and occasionally in 
 bye-streets one is able to get a good glance 
 at them before they pull down their veils. 
 
 The dress of the citizens of Persia has been 
 often described, both by ancient and modem 
 travellers. That of the men has changed 
 very materially within the last century. The 
 turban, as a head-dress, is now worn by none 
 but the Arabian inhabitants of that country. 
 The Persians wear a long cap covered with 
 lamb’s wool, the appearance of which is 
 sometimes improved by being encircled with 
 a cashmere shawl. The inhabitants of the 
 principal towns are fond of dressing richly. 
 Their upper garments are either made of 
 chintz, silk, or cloth, and are often trimmed 
 with gold or silver lace ; they also wear bro¬ 
 cade ; and in winter their clothes are lined 
 with furs, of which they import a great 
 variety. It is not customary for any person, 
 except the king, to wear jewels ; but nothing 
 can exceed the profusion which he displays 
 of these oVnaments ; and his subjects seem 
 peculiarly proud of this part of royal magni¬ 
 ficence. They assert that when the monarch 
 is dressed in his most splendid robes, and is 
 seated in the sun, that the eye cannot gaze on 
 the dazzling brilliancy of his attire. 
 
 DRINKABLES. Arabic ashribah 
 There is a chapter in the 
 Traditions devoted to this subject, and en¬ 
 titled Babu 'l-Ashribah. The example of Mu¬ 
 hammad in his habit of drinking, having in¬ 
 fluenced the Eastern world in its habits, the 
 following traditions are noticeable. Anas 
 says “ the Prophet has forbidden drinking 
 water standing,” and that he used to take 
 breath three times in drinking; and would say 
 drinking in this way cools the stomach, 
 quenches the thirst, and gives health and 
 vigour to the body. 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says the Prophet forbade 
 drinking water from the mouth of a leather 
 bag. 
 
 Umm Salimah says “the Prophet said, 
 He who drinks out of a silver cup drinks of 
 hell fire.” (Mishlcat, book xix. c. iii.) 
 
 DRINKING VESSELS. There 
 
 are four drinking vessels which Muslims were 
 forbidden by their Prophet to drink out of 
 (Mishlcat, bk. i., c. i.) hantam, a “green vessel ” ; 
 dubba’, a large gourd hollowed out; naqir, a 
 cup made from the hollowed root of a tree; 
 muzaffat, a vessel covered with pitch, or with 
 a glutinous substance. These four kinds of 
 vessels seem to have been used for drinking 
 wine, hence the prohibition. 
 
 When a dog drinks from a vessel used by 
 man, it should be washed seven times. 
 ( Mishlcat , book iii. c. ix. pt. i.) 
 
 DROWNING. Arabic cqharaq 
 (o ; c). It is a strange anomaly in 
 Muhammadan law, according to the teaching 
 of Abu Hanlfah, that if a person cause the 
 death of another by immersing him under 
 water until he die, the offence does not 
 
100 
 
 DRUNKENNESS 
 
 DRUZES 
 
 amount to murder, and retaliation (qisas) is not 
 incurred. The arguments of the learned divine 
 are as follows : First, water is analogous to 
 a small stick or rod, as is seldom or ever 
 used in murder. Now, it is said in the Tradi¬ 
 tions that death produced by a rod is only 
 manslaughter, and as in that a fine is merely 
 incurred, so here likewise. Secondly, retalia¬ 
 tion requires the observance of a perfect 
 equality; but between drowning and wound¬ 
 ing there is no equality, the former being 
 short of the latter with regard to damaging 
 the body, [murder.] 
 
 DRUNKENNESS. Shurb (v>/>) 
 
 denotes the state of a person who has taken in¬ 
 toxicating liquor, whilst sickr (ySw) implies a 
 state of drunkenness. Wine of any kind being 
 strictly forbidden by the Muslim law, no dis¬ 
 tinction is made in the punishment of a wine- 
 drinker and a drunkard. If a Muslim drink 
 wine, and two witnesses testify to his having 
 done so, or if his breath smell of wine, or if 
 he shall himself confess to having taken wine, 
 or if he be found in a state of intoxication, he 
 shall be beaten with eighty stripes, or, in the 
 case of a slave, with forty stripes. ( Hidayah , 
 vol. ii. p. 57 ; Mishkat, bk. xv. c iv.) [khamr.] 
 
 DRUZES. A heretical mystic sect 
 
 of Muhammadans, which arose about the be¬ 
 ginning of the eleventh century in the moun¬ 
 tains of Syria. They are now chiefly found 
 in the districts of Lebanon, and in the neigh¬ 
 bourhood of Damascus. They were founded 
 by al-Hakim, the fanatical Khalifah of the 
 Fatimite race, who reigned at Cairo, assisted 
 by two Persians named Hamzah and al-DarazI, 
 from the latter of whom the sect derives its 
 name. 
 
 De Sacy, in his Expose cle la Religion cles 
 Druzes, gives the following summary of their 
 belief:— 
 
 “ To acknowledge only one God, without 
 seeking to penetrate the nature of His being 
 and of His attributes ; to confess that He can 
 neither be comprehended by the senses nor 
 defined by words ; to believe that the Divinity 
 has shown itself to men at different epochs, 
 under a human form, without participating in 
 any of the weaknesses and imperfections of 
 humanity; that it has shown itself at last, at 
 the commencement of the fifth age of the 
 Hejira, under the figure of Hakim Amr 
 Allah; that that was the last of His mani¬ 
 festations, after which there is none other to 
 be expected ; that Hakim disappeared in the 
 year 111 of the Hejira, to try the faith of His 
 servants, to give room for the apostasy of 
 hypocrites, and of those who had only em¬ 
 braced the true religion from the hope of 
 worldly rewards; that in a short time he 
 would appear again, full of glory and of 
 majesty, to triumph over all his enemies, to 
 extend His empire over all the earth, and to 
 make His faithful worshippers happy for 
 ever; to believe that Universal Intelligence is 
 the first of God’s creatures, the only direct 
 production of His omnipotence; that it has 
 appeared upon the earth at the epoch of each 
 
 of the manifestations of the Divinity, and has 
 finally appeared since the time of Hakim 
 under the figure of Hamza, son of Ahmad ; 
 that it is by His ministry that all the other 
 creatures have been produced; that Hamza 
 only possesses the knowledge of all truth, 
 that he is the prime minister of the true reli¬ 
 gion, and that he communicates, directly or 
 indirectly, with the other ministers and with 
 the faithful, but in different proportions, the 
 knowledge and the grace which he receives 
 directly from the Divinity, and of which he is 
 the sole channel; that he only has immediate 
 access to God, and acts as a mediator to the 
 other worshippers of the Supreme Being; 
 acknowledging that Hamza is he to whom 
 Hakim will confide his sword, to make his 
 religion triumph, to conquer all his rivals, 
 and to distribute rewards and punishments 
 according to the merits of each one; to know 
 the other ministers of religion, and the rank 
 which belongs to each of them ; to give to 
 each the obedience and submission which is 
 their due; to confess that every soul has 
 been created by the Universal Intelligence; 
 that the number of men is always the same ; 
 and that souls pass successively into different 
 bodies ; that they are raised by their attach¬ 
 ment to truth to a superior degree of excel- 
 ■ lence, or are degraded by neglecting or giving 
 up religious meditation; to practise the seven 
 commandments which the religion of Hamza 
 imposes upon its followers, and which prin¬ 
 cipally exacts from them the observance of 
 truth, charity towards their brethren, the 
 renunciation of their former religion, the most 
 entire resignation and submission to the will 
 of God; to confess that all preceding reli¬ 
 gions have only been types more or less per¬ 
 fect of true religion, that all their ceremonial 
 observances are only allegories, and that the 
 manifestation of true religion requires the 
 abrogation of every other creed. Such is 
 the abridgment of the religious system taught 
 in the books of the Druzes, of which Hamza 
 is the author, and whose followers are called 
 Unitarians.” 
 
 There is a very fnll and correct account of 
 the religious belief of the Druzes in the Re¬ 
 searches into the Religions of Syria, by the 
 Rev. J. Wortabet, M.D. In this work Dr. 
 Wortabet gives the following Catechism of 
 the Druzes, which expresses their belief with 
 regard to Christianity:— 
 
 “ Q. What do ye say concerning the gospel 
 which the Christians hold ? 
 
 “ A. That it is true; for it is the sayings 
 of the Lord Christ, who was Salman el Pha- 
 risy during the life of Mohammed, and who is 
 Hamzeh the son of Ali—not the false Christ 
 who was born of Mary, for he was the son of 
 Joseph. 
 
 “ Q. Where was the true Christ when the 
 false Christ was with the disciples ? 
 
 ‘•A. He was among the disciples. He uttered 
 the truths of the gospel and taught Christ, 
 the son of Joseph, the institutes of the Chris¬ 
 tian religion ; but when Jesus disobeyed the 
 true Christ, he put hatred into the hearts of 
 the Jews, so that they crucified him. 
 
DU f A 
 
 “ What became of him after the crucifixion ? 
 
 “ A. They put him into a grave, and the 
 true Christ came and stole him, and gave out 
 the report among men that Christ had risen 
 out of the dead. 
 
 “ Q. Why did he act in this manner ? 
 
 “ A. That he might establish the Christian 
 religion, and confirm its followers in what he 
 had taught them. 
 
 “ Q. Why did he act in such a manner as to 
 establish error ? 
 
 “ A. So that the Unitarians should be con¬ 
 cealed in the religion of Jesus and none of 
 them might be known. 
 
 “ Q. Who was it that came from the grave 
 and entered among the disciples when the 
 doors were shut ? 
 
 “ A. The living Christ, who is immortal, 
 even Hamzeh, the son and slave of our Lord. 
 
 “ Q. Who brought the gospel to light, and 
 preached it ? 
 
 “ A. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.” 
 
 “ Q. Why did not the Christians acknow¬ 
 ledge the unity of God ? 
 
 “ A. Because God had not so decreed. 
 
 “ Q. Why does God permit the introduction 
 of evil and infidelity ? 
 
 “ A. Because He chooses to mislead some 
 from, and to guide others, to the truth. 
 
 “ Q. If infidelity and error proceed from 
 Him, why does he punish those who follow 
 them ? 
 
 “ A. Because when He deceived them, they 
 did not obey Him. 
 
 “ Q. How can a deluded man obey, when 
 he is ignorant of the true state of the case ? 
 
 “ A. We are not bound to answer this 
 question, for God is not accountable to his 
 creatures for his dealings with them.” 
 
 DIP A’ (cUj). “Prayer.” The word 
 
 du‘a’ is generally used for supplication, as dis-_ 
 tinguished from salat, or the liturgical form 
 of prayer, e.g. Qur’an, Surah xiv. 42 : “0 my 
 Lord ! make me and my posterity to be con¬ 
 stant in prayer (salat'). 0 our Lord! and 
 accept my supplication (du‘a’). [prayers.] 
 
 DTPA’-I-MA’SUR »L-cj). 
 
 Lit. “Recorded prayer.” A term used for 
 prayers which were offered up by the Pro¬ 
 phet, and have been handed down in the 
 Traditions. 
 
 DTPA’U ’L-QUNUT 
 
 called also the Qunutit 7- Witr, “ The prayer 
 said standing.” A form of prayer recited after 
 the qara’ah in the night prayer. Recited by 
 some sects in the early morning. It is found 
 in the Traditions. It is as follows:— 
 
 “ 0 God, we seek help from Thee, and for¬ 
 giveness of sins. 
 
 “ We believe in Thee and trust in Thee. 
 
 “We praise Thee. We thank Thee. We 
 are not unthankful. 
 
 “ We expel, and we depart from him who 
 does not obey Thee. 
 
 “We serve Thee only, and to Thee do we 
 pray. 
 
 “We seek Thee, we prostrate ourselves and 
 we serve Thee. 
 
 DYER 101 
 
 “ We hope for Thy mercy. We fear Thy 
 punishments. 
 
 “ Surely Thy judgments are upon the 
 infidels.” 
 
 DUALISM. Professor Palmer, 
 
 following the remarks of al-Baizawi the 
 commentator, says there is a protest against 
 the dualistic doctrine that Light and Dark¬ 
 ness were two co-eternal principles, in the 
 Qur’an, Surah vi. 1: “ Praised be God who 
 created the heavens and the earth, and brought 
 into being the Darkness and the Light.” 
 (Palmer’s Qur’an, vol. i. p. 115 ; al-Baizawi in 
 loco.) 
 
 ad-DUKHAN ( 0 Ula_R). “The 
 
 Smoke.” The title of the XLlvth chapter of 
 the Qur’an, in which the words occur (9th 
 verse): “ Expect thou the day when the 
 heaven shall bring a palpable smoke.” 
 
 DULDUL (JaIj). The name of 
 
 the Prophet’s mule which he gave to ‘All. 
 
 DUMB, The. Arabic ab/cam 
 
 pi. bukm. 
 
 The intelligible signs of a dumb person 
 suffice to verify his bequests and render them 
 valid; he may also execute a marriage con¬ 
 tract, or give a divorce, or execute a sale or 
 purchase, or sue or incur punishment by signs, 
 but he cannot sue in a case of qisas, or reta¬ 
 liation for murder. This rule does not apply 
 to a person who has been deprived of speech, 
 but merely to one who has been born dumb. 
 (Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 5(18.) A dumb person can 
 also acknowledge and deny the faith by a sign. 
 
 ad-DURRATU ’L-BAIZA’ 
 
 Lit. “ The pearl of light.” A 
 term used by Sufi mystics to express the 
 l aqlu ’l-awwal, the first intelligence which 
 God is said to have created at the beginning 
 of the animate world. (‘Abdu Y-Razzuq’s 
 Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 DURUD ; a Persian word. 
 
 Arabic as-Salat A benedic¬ 
 
 tion ; imploring mercy. A part of the stated 
 prayer, recited immediately after the Tashah- 
 hud, whilst in the same posture. It is as fol¬ 
 lows : “ 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and 
 on his descendants, as Thou didst have mercy 
 on Abraham and on his descendants ! Thou 
 art to be praised, and Thou art great! 0 
 
 God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as 
 Thou didst bless Abraham and his descen¬ 
 dants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art 
 great.” The merits of this form of prayer 
 are said to be very great ; for, according to 
 Anas, the Prophet said, “ He who recites it 
 will have blessings on his head ten times, ten 
 sins will be forgiven, and he will be exalted 
 ten steps.” (Mishkat, book iv. c. xvii.) 
 [prayer.] 
 
 DUZAKH The Persian 
 
 word for hell, [hell.] 
 
 DYER. According to the Imam 
 Abu Hanifah, a dyer of cloth is at liberty to 
 
102 
 
 DYING 
 
 EARTH 
 
 detain it until lie receive his hire for dyeing it; 
 and if the cloth perish in his hands whilst it 
 is detained, he is not responsible. ( Hidayah , 
 vol. iii. 320.) 
 
 DYING-, The. Very special in¬ 
 structions are given in Muslim books as to 
 the treatment of the dying. In the Durru 7- 
 Mukhtar (p. 88), the friends of the dying are 
 recommended, if possible, to turn the head of 
 the dying person towards Makkah ; but if this 
 be not convenient, his feet should be placed 
 
 in that direction and his head slightly raised. 
 The Kalimatu ’sh-Shahadah should then be 
 recited, and the Surah Ya-Sin (xxxvi.) and 
 Suratu T-Ra‘d (xiii.) should be read from 
 the Qur’an. When the spirit has departed 
 from the body, the mouth should be tied up 
 and the eyes closed and the arms straight¬ 
 ened, and the body should be perfumed, and 
 no unclean person should be suffered to 
 approach the corpse. Immediate steps should 
 then be taken for the washing of the corpse. 
 [death.] 
 
 E. 
 
 EAR-RINGS; NOSE-RINGS. In 
 
 the East it is the universal custom of Mu- I 
 hammadan women to wear ear-rings, and they [ 
 are not unfrequentiy worn by young men and 
 children. Gold ear-rings are, however, for¬ 
 bidden in the Traditions ; for Abu Hurairah 
 relates that the Prophet said, “ Whoever 
 wishes to put into the ear or the nose of a 
 friend a ring of hell fire, let him put in the ear 
 or the nose of his friend a gold ring .... 
 let your ornament be of silver.” And Asma’ 
 bint Yazld relates the same tradition. ( Mish- 
 kdt, book xx. c. 11, part 2.) 
 
 EARTH, The. Arabic arz (^). 
 
 Muhammad taught his followers that just as 
 there are seven heavens [heaven] one above 
 another, so there are seven earths one beneath 
 another, the distance between each of these 
 regions being five hundred years’ journey. 
 ( Mishkat , book xxiv. c. i. part 3.) 
 
 In the Qur’an the earth is said to be stretched 
 out like a carpet or bed (Surah ii. 20 ; xiii. 3; 
 lxxviii. 6), which expression the ancient com¬ 
 mentators understood to imply that the earth 
 was a vast plane, but circular ; and (Surah 
 xxxix. 67) to be but a handful in the sight 
 of God, which in the last day shall be changed 
 into another earth (Surah xiv. 49). 
 
 The earth is believed by Muhammadan 
 
 writers to be surrounded by a great sea 
 called al-Bahru ’ l-Muhit , or the circumambient 
 ocean, which is bounded by the mountains of 
 Qaf. The extent of the earth is said to be 
 equal to a journey of five hundred years; 
 two hundred years’ journey being allotted to 
 the sea, two hundred to the uninhabited 
 desert, eighty to the country of Gog and 
 Magog ( Yajuj wa Majuj) and the rest to the 
 civilised world. Certain terras, incognitos in the 
 midst of the mountains of Qaf are said to be 
 inhabited by the jinn, or genii. According to 
 some, Makkah (or Jerusalem according to 
 others) is situated in the centre of the earth. 
 On the Muhit, is the ‘Arshu ’l-Iblis, or “ Throne 
 of Satan.” The western portion of the Muhit 
 is often called the Bahru 'z-Ztdmat, or “ Sea 
 of Darkness,” and in the south-west corner 
 of the earth is the Fountain of Life of which 
 al-Khizr drank, and in virtue of which he 
 still lives, and will live till the Day of Judg¬ 
 ment. The mountains of Qaf which bound 
 the great sea Muhit, form a circular barrier 
 round the whole earth, and are said to be of 
 green chrysolite, the colour of which the Pro¬ 
 phet said imparts a greenish tint to the sky. 
 The general opinion is that the mountains of 
 Qaf bound our earth, but some say there are 
 countries beyond, each country being a thou¬ 
 sand years’ journey. 
 
 The seven earths, which are five hundred 
 years’ journey from each other, are situated 
 one beneath the other, and each of these 
 seven regions has its special occupants. 
 The occupants of the Jirst are men, genii, 
 and animals; the second is occupied by the 
 suffocating^ wind which destroyed the infidel 
 tribe of ‘Ad (Surah lxix. 6) ; the third is 
 filled with the stones of hell, mentioned in the 
 Qur’an (Surah ii. 22; lxvi. 6) as “ the fuel of 
 which is men and stones ”; the fourth by the 
 sulphur of hell; the fifth by the serpents of 
 hell; the sixth by the scorpions of hell, which 
 are in size and colour like black mules, and 
 have tails like spears ; and the seventh by 
 the devil and his angels. Our earth is said 
 to be supported on the shoulders of an angel, 
 v 7 ho stands upon a reck of ruby, which rock 
 is supported on a huge bull with four thou- 
 
EARTHQUAKE 
 
 EATING 
 
 103 
 
 sand eyes, and the same number of ears, 
 noses, mouths, tongues, and feet; between 
 every one of each is a distance of five hun¬ 
 dred years’ journey. The name of this bull 
 is Kujuta, who is supported by an enormous 
 fish, the name of which is Bahamut. 
 
 The above is but a brief outline of the 
 Muhammadan belief as regards the earth’s 
 formation; but the statements of Muham¬ 
 madan commentators are so wild on the 
 subject, that it seems quite useless to quote 
 them as authorities, for they contradict each 
 other in endless variety. 
 
 EARTHQUAKE, The. Arabic 
 az-Zalzalah (ajyyi). The title of the 
 xcixth Surah of the Qur’an, in which it is 
 stated that an earthquake will take place at 
 the commencement of the signs of the last 
 day 
 
 “ When the Earth with her quaking shall 
 quake 
 
 “ And the Earth shall cast forth her bur¬ 
 dens, 
 
 “ And man shall say, What aileth her ? 
 
 “ On that day shall she tell out her 
 tidings, 
 
 “ Because thy Lord shall have inspired her. 
 
 “ On that day shall men come forward in 
 throngs to behold their works, 
 
 “ And whosoever shall have wrought an 
 atom’s weight of good shall behold it, 
 
 “ And whosoever shall have wrought an 
 atom’s weight of evil shall behold it.” 
 
 EATING. According to the Tra¬ 
 ditions, Muhammadans have been enjoined 
 by their Prophet to eat in God’s name, to 
 
 return thanks, to eat with their right hand, 
 and with their shoes off, and to lick the 
 plate when the meal is finished. The follow¬ 
 ing are some of Muhammad’s precepts on the 
 subject:— 
 
 “ The Devil has power over that food 
 which is eaten without remembering God.” 
 
 “ Repeat the name of God. Eat with the 
 right hand and eat from before you.” 
 
 “ When a man comes into a house at meal¬ 
 time, and remembers the name of God, the 
 devil says to his followers, ‘ There is no place 
 here for you and me to-night, nor is there any 
 supper for us.” 
 
 “ When anyone eats he must not wash his 
 fingers until he has first licked them.” 
 
 “ Whoever eats a dish and licks it after¬ 
 wards, the dish intercedes with God for 
 him.” 
 
 “ When victuals are placed before you, eat 
 them with your shoes off, because taking off 
 your shoes will ease your feet.” (‘Abdu ’1- 
 Haqq adds, “ and do it out of respect to the 
 food.”) 
 
 “ Whoever eats from a plate and licks it 
 afterwards, the dish says to him, ‘May God 
 free you from hell as you have freed me 
 from the devils licking me.’ ” 
 
 Qatadah says that Anas said : “ The 
 
 Prophet did not eat off a table, as is the 
 manner of proud men, who do it to avoid 
 bending their backs.” ( Mishkat , Arabic ed., 
 Babu , l-At i imah.') 
 
 The following directions are given for eat¬ 
 ing, by FaqTr Muhammad As‘ad, the author 
 of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali. (Thompson’s English 
 Translation, p. 294) :— 
 
 “ First of all, he should wash his hands, 
 
 DINING 
 
EATING 
 
 EATING WITH JEWS 
 
 104 
 
 mouth, and nose. Before beginning he should 
 say, ‘ In the name of God ’ ( Bismillah ) ; and. 
 after ending he must say, ‘ Glory to God ’ 
 (Al-hamdu litldh). He is not to be in a hurry 
 to begin, unless he is the master of the feast; 
 he must not dirty his hands, or clothes, or 
 the table-linen; he must not eat with more 
 than three fingers, nor open his mouth wide ; 
 not take large mouthfuls, nor swallow them 
 hastily, nor yet keep them too long un¬ 
 swallowed. He must not suck his fingers in 
 the course of eating; but after he has eaten, 
 he may, or rather ought, as there is scripture 
 warrant for it. 
 
 “ Let him not look from dish to dish, nor 
 smell the food, nor pick and choose it. If 
 there should be one dish better than the rest, 
 let him not be greedy on his own account, but 
 let him offer it to others. He must not spill 
 the grease upon his fingers, or so as to wet 
 his bread and salt. He must not eye his com¬ 
 rades in the midst of his mouthfuls. Let him 
 eat from what is next him, unless of fruit, 
 which it is allowable to eat from every quarter. 
 What he has once put into his mouth (such 
 as bones, &c.), he must not replace upon his 
 bread, nor upon the table-cloth; if a bone 
 has found its way there, let him remove it 
 unseen. Let him beware of revolting ges¬ 
 tures, and of letting anything drop from his 
 mouth into the cup. Let him so behave, 
 that, if anyone should wish to eat the relics of 
 his repast, there may be nothing to revolt him. 
 
 “ Where he is [a guest, he must stay his 
 hand sooner than the master of the feast; 
 and whenever the rest discontinue eating, he 
 must act in concert with them, except he be 
 in his own house, or some other where he 
 constitutes part of the family. Where he is 
 himself the host, he must not continue eat¬ 
 ing when the rest have stayed their hands, so 
 that something may be left for anyone who 
 chances to fancy it. 
 
 “ If he has occasion to drink in the course 
 of his meal, let him do it softly, that no noise 
 in his throat or mouth may be audible to 
 others. He must not pick his teeth in the 
 view of the company, nor swallow what his 
 tongue may extract from between them ; and 
 so of what may be extracted by the tooth¬ 
 pick, let him throw it aside so as to disgust 
 no one. 
 
 “ When the time comes for washing his 
 hands, let him be exceedingly careful in 
 cleansing his nails and fingers. Similar 
 must be his particularity in washing his 
 lips, mouth, and nostrils. He must not void 
 his rheum into the basin; even the water in 
 which his mouth has been rinsed, let him 
 cover with his hand as he throws it 
 away. 
 
 “ Neither must he take the turn from 
 others in washing his hands, saving when he 
 is master of the entertainment, and then he 
 should be the first to wash.” 
 
 WASHING THE HANDS. 
 
 EATING WITH JEWS OR 
 
 CHRISTIANS. In Muhammadan countries, 
 where the people have not been brought in 
 contact with Hindus, with caste prejudices, 
 Muslims never hesitate to eat with Jews and 
 Christians, provided the drink and victuals 
 are such as are lawful in Islam. Since the 
 British occupation of India, the question has 
 often been raised, and few Muhammadans will 
 eat with Englishmen, Syud Ahmad Khan, 
 
 C.S.I., has written a book, in which he proves 
 that it is lawful for Muhammadans to eat with 
 both Christians and Jews, and his arguments 
 would seem to be in accordance with the 
 teaching of the Qur’an. Sui-ah v. 7 : “ Law¬ 
 ful for you to-day are the good things, and 
 the food of the people of the Book (i.e. Jews 
 and Christians) is lawful for you, and your 
 food is lawful for them.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi, commenting on this verse, 
 
ECLIPSE 
 
 EDEN 
 
 105 
 
 says: “This verse includes all kinds of food, 
 that which is slain lawfully ( zabh ) or not, and 
 this verse is of common application to all 
 the people of the Book, whether Jews or 
 Christians. But on one occasion Khalifah 
 ‘Ali did not observe its injunctions with re¬ 
 gard to the Banu Taghlib, a Christian tribe, 
 because he said these people were not Chris¬ 
 tians, for they had not embraced anything of 
 Christianity except wine-drinking. And he 
 does not include amongst the people of the 
 book, the Majusis, although he included the 
 Majusis with the people of the Book when 
 he took the poll-tax from them, according to 
 a tradition which Muhammad gave regarding 
 the Majusis, viz. ‘ Treat the Majusis as you 
 would treat the people of the Book, but do 
 not marry with them, nor eat what they 
 slay.” (Tafslru ’l-Baizawi, p. 216.) 
 
 The commentators, al-Kamalan, say the 
 only question raised was that of animals 
 slain by Jews and Christians, and the learned 
 are all agreed that animals slain by them are 
 lawful. ( Tafslru ’l-Jalalain wa'l-Kamd/ain, 
 p. 93.) 
 
 The following Hadis is given in the Sahih 
 Muslim on the subject: Abu Sa'labah related, 
 “ I said, 0 Prophet of God 1 Verily we live in 
 a land belonging to the people of the Book 
 (i.e. Jews or Christians); is it lawful for us 
 to eat out of their dishes ? The Prophet 
 replied, The order for dishes is this: if you 
 can get other dishes, then eat of them ; but if 
 ye cannot, then wash those of the people of 
 the Book and eat from them.” 
 
 The Imam Nawawi, the commentator on 
 the Sahih Muslim, says Abu Da’ud has 
 given this Hadis in a somewhat different 
 form to that in the text. He says : “ Abu 
 Sa'labah relates, we were passing through 
 the country of the people of the Book (i.e. 
 Christians), and they were cooking pigs’ 
 flesh in their dishes, and drinking wine from 
 their vessels.” “ For ” (continues Nawawi), 
 “ the learned are all agreed that it is lawful 
 to eat with Jews and Christians unless their 
 vessels are polluted with wine or pork, in 
 which case they must be washed before they 
 are used.” (Sahih Muslim wa Sharhu Na- 
 ii/awi, p. 146.) 
 
 ECLIPSE. The Arabic khusuf 
 (t_j^~£.) is used to denote either an 
 eclipse of the sun or of the moon (vide Mish¬ 
 kat, book iv. c. li.) ; but it is more specially 
 applied to an eclipse of the moon; and kusiif 
 for an eclipse of the sun (vide 
 Richardson’s Dictionary). Special prayers, 
 consisting of two rak‘ahs, are enjoined in the 
 Traditions (Mishkat, book iv. c. li.) at the 
 time of an eclipse of either the sun or 
 moon. 
 
 ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Abbas says : “ There was 
 an eclipse of the sun in the time of the Pro¬ 
 phet, and he recited prayers, and the people 
 recited after him ; and he stood up for a long 
 time, as long as anyone would be repeating the 
 Chapter of the Cow (i.e. Surah ii.). Then he 
 performed a long ruku‘, after which he raised 
 
 up his head and stood a long time, which 
 was under the first standing ; after which he 
 did the second ruku‘, which was the same as 
 the first in point of time; then he raised his 
 head up from the second ruku‘ ; and per¬ 
 formed two prostrations, as is customary. 
 Then he stood up a long time, in the second 
 rak‘ah, and this was shorter than the first 
 standing, in the first rak‘ah; after which he 
 did a long ruku‘ in the second rak‘ah, and 
 this was under the first ruku‘, in the first 
 rak‘ah. After this, he raised up his head, 
 and stood a long time ; and this was shorter 
 than the first, in the second rak‘ah. 
 Then he did a long ruku‘ ; and this was 
 not so great as the first, in the second 
 rak‘ah. Then he rose up, and performed two 
 prostrations ; and after repeating the creed, 
 and giving the salam, he concluded his 
 prayers. And the sun was bright. And the 
 Prophet said, ‘ Verily, the sun and moon are 
 two signs, amongst those which prove the 
 existence of God, and are not eclipsed on 
 account of the life or death of any person; 
 and when ye see this, remember God.’ The 
 Companions said, ‘ 0 Prophet! We saw you 
 about to take something in the place where 
 you stood in prayer, after which we saw you 
 draw back a little.’ And the Prophet said, 
 “ I saw Paradise, and gathered a bunch of 
 grapes from it; and if I had taken it and 
 given it to you, verily you would have eaten 
 of it as long as the world lasts. I also saw 
 hell, and never saw such a horrid sight till this 
 day ; and I saw that they were mostly women 
 there.’ And the Companions said, ‘ 0 Pro¬ 
 phet, why are most of the people of hell 
 women ? ’ He said, ‘ On account of their 
 infidelity; not on account of their dis¬ 
 obedience to God, but, that they are ungrate¬ 
 ful to their husbands, and hide the good 
 things done them ; and if you do good to one 
 of them perpetually, after that, if they see 
 the least fault in you, they will say, I never 
 saw you perform a good work.’” (Mishkat, 
 book iv. c. ii.) 
 
 EDEN. Arabic ‘Adn (o^), which 
 
 al-Baizawi says means “ a fixed abode.” Tbe 
 Hebrew is generally understood by 
 
 Hebrew scholars to mean “ pleasure ” or 
 “ delight.” 
 
 The word ‘Adn is not used in the Qur’an 
 for the residence of our first parents,the term 
 used being al-jannah, “thegarden”; although 
 the Muslim Commentators are agreed in 
 calling it the Jannatu ‘Adn, or “Garden of 
 Eden.” The expressions, Jannatu ‘Adn, “ the 
 Garden of Eden,” and Jannatu ‘Adn, “ the 
 Gardens of Eden,” occur ten times in the 
 Qur’an, but in each case they are used for 
 the fourth heaven, or stage, of celestial bliss. 
 [paradise.] 
 
 According to the Qur’an, it seems clear 
 that Jannatu ‘Adn is considered to be a 
 place in heaven, and not a terrestrial para¬ 
 dise, and hence a difficulty arises as to the 
 locality of that Eden from which Adam fell. 
 Is it the same place as the fourth abode of 
 
 14 
 
106 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 celestial bliss ? or, was it a garden situated in 
 some part of earth? Al-Baizawi says that 
 some people have thought this Eden was 
 situated in the country of the Philistines, or 
 between Faris and Kirman. But, he adds, 
 the Garden of Eden is the Ddru ’s-Sawdb, or 
 “ the House of Recompense,” which is a 
 stage in the paradise of the heavens; and 
 that when Adam and Eve were cast out of 
 Paradise, Adam fell on the isle of Ceylon, or 
 Sarandib, and Eve near Jiddah in Arabia; 
 and after a separation of -200 years, Adam 
 was, on his repentance, conducted by the 
 Angel Gabriel to a mountain near Makkah, 
 where he knew his wife Eve, the mountain 
 being thence named ‘Ai’afah (i.e. “ the place 
 of recognition); and that he afterwards 
 retired with her to Ceylon, where they con¬ 
 tinued to propagate their species. 
 
 Muhammad Tahir ( Majma'u 'l-Bihar, p. 
 225), in remarking upon the fact that in the 
 Traditions the rivers Jaihun and Jaihan are 
 said to be rivers in “ the garden ” (al-Jan- 
 naK), says the terms are figurative, and mean 
 that the faith extended to those regions and 
 made them rivers of paradise. And in 
 another place {idem, p. 164) the same author 
 says the four rivers Saihan (Jaxartes), 
 Jaihan (Jihon), Furat (Euphrates), and Nil 
 (Nile), are the rivers of Paradise, and that 
 the rivers Saihan and Jaihan are not the 
 same as Jaihun and Jaihan, but that these 
 four rivers already mentioned originally came 
 from Paradise to this earth of ours. 
 
 EDUCATION. Education without 
 
 religion is to the Muhammadan mind an 
 anomaly. In all books of Traditions there 
 are sections specially devoted to the con¬ 
 sideration of knowledge, but only so far as 
 it relates to a knowledge of God, and of 
 “■'God's Book." (See Sahihu ’ l-Bukhari, Babu V- 
 The people who read the “ Book of 
 God ” are, according to the sayings of the 
 Prophet, described as “ assembling together 
 in mosques, with light and comfort descend¬ 
 ing upon them, the grace of God covering 
 them, and the angels of God encompassing 
 them round about.” The chief aim and 
 object of education in Islam is, therefore, to 
 obtain a knowledge of the religion of Mu¬ 
 hammad, and anything beyond this is con¬ 
 sidered superfluous, and even dangerous. 
 Amongst Muhammadan religious leaders 
 there have always been two classes—those 
 who affect the ascetic and strictly religious 
 life of mortification, such as the Sufi mystics 
 and the Faqirs [faqik] ; and those who, by a 
 careful study of the Qur’an, the Traditions, 
 and the numerous works on divinity, have 
 attained to a high reputation for scholarship, 
 and are known in Turkey as the ‘ UlamS, or 
 “ learned,” and in India, as Maulawis. 
 
 Amongst Muhammadans generally, a know¬ 
 ledge of science and various branches of 
 secular learning is considered dangerous to 
 the faith, and it is discouraged by the reli¬ 
 gious, although some assert that Muhammad 
 has encouraged learning of all kinds in the 
 Qur’an, by the following verse, Surah ii. 272:— 
 
 “ He giveth wisdom to whom He will, and 
 He to whom wisdom is given hath had much 
 good given him.” 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, says : 
 “ The parents seldom devote much of their 
 time or attention to the intellectual education 
 of their children; generally contenting them¬ 
 selves with instilling into their young minds a 
 few principles of religion, and then submitting 
 them, if they can afford to do so, to the in¬ 
 struction of a school. As early as possible, 
 the child is taught to say, ‘ I testify that 
 there is no deity but God, and I testify that 
 Muhammad is God’s Apostle.’ He receives 
 also lessons of religious pride, and learns to 
 hate the Christians, and all other sects but 
 his own, as thoroughly as does the Muslim in 
 advanced age.” 
 
 In connection with all mosques of impor¬ 
 tance, in all parts of Islam whether in Tur¬ 
 key, Egypt, Persia, or India, there are small 
 schools, either for the education of children, 
 or for the training of students of divinity. 
 The child who attends these seminaries is 
 first taught his alphabet, which he learns 
 from a small board, on which the letters are 
 written by the teacher. He then becomes 
 acquainted with the numerical value of each 
 letter. [abjad.] After this he learns to 
 write down the ninety-nine names of God, and 
 other simple words taken from the Qur’an. 
 [god.] When he has mastered the spelling 
 of words, he proceeds to learn the first 
 chapter of the Qur’an, then the last chapter, 
 and gradually reads through the whole 
 Qur’an in Arabic, which he usually does with¬ 
 out understanding a word of it. Having 
 finished the Qur’an, which is considered an 
 incumbent religious duty, the pupil is in¬ 
 structed in the elements of grammar, and 
 perhaps a few simple rules of arithmetic. 
 To this is added a knowledge of one Hindu¬ 
 stani, or Persian book. The ability to read 
 a single Persian book like the Gfulistan or 
 Boston, is considered in Central Asia to be 
 the sign of a liberal education. The ordi¬ 
 nary schoolmaster is generally a man of 
 little learning, the learned Maulawi usually 
 devoting himself to the study of divinity, 
 and not to the education of the young. 
 
 Amongst students of divinity, who are called 
 talabatu (sing, talib) ’l-'ilm, or “ seekers after 
 knowledge,” the usual course of study is ae 
 follows: as-sarf, grammatical inflection; an- 
 nahw, syntax; al-mantiq, logic; al-hisdb, arith¬ 
 metic ; al-jabr wa ’l-muqabalah , algebra; al- 
 ma‘na wa ’ l-bayan , rhetoric and versification ; 
 al-fiqh, jurisprudence; al-'aqa'id, scholastic 
 theology; at-tafsir, commentaries on the 
 Qur’an; ‘ilmu 'l-usul, treatises on exegesis, 
 and the principles and rules of interpretation 
 of the laws of Islam ; al-ahadis, the traditions 
 and commentaries thereon. These are usually 
 regarded as different branches of learning, 
 and it is not often that a Maulawi, or '■Alim, 
 attains to the knowledge of each section. For 
 example, a scholar will be celebrated as 
 being well educated in al-ahadis, but he may 
 be weak in al-fiqh. The teacher, when in¬ 
 structing his pupiis, seats himself on the 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 ground with his hearers all seated round him 
 in a ring. Instruction in mosques is usually- 
 given in the early morning, after the morning 
 prayer, and continues some three or four 
 hours. It is again renewed for a short time 
 after the mid-day prayer. 
 
 Students in mosques are generally sup¬ 
 ported by the people of the parish, (each 
 mosque having its section or parish), who 
 can be called upon for food for all the in¬ 
 mates of a mosque every morning and even¬ 
 ing. Not unfrequently mosques are endowed 
 with land, or rents of shops and houses, for 
 the payment of professors. Mr. Lane speaks 
 of a mosque in Cairo, which had an endow¬ 
 ment for the support of three hundred blind 
 students. The great mosque al-Azhar, in 
 Cairo, is the largest and most influential seat 
 of learning in Islam. In 1875, when the 
 
 107 
 
 present writer visited it, it had as many as 
 5,000 students gathered from all parts of 
 the Muhammadan world. 
 
 In India almost every mosque of impor¬ 
 tance has its class of students of divinity, but 
 they are not established for the purposes of 
 general education, but for the training of 
 students of divinity who will in time become 
 the Imams of mosques. Some of the Maula- 
 wis are men held in great reputation as 
 Arabic scholars, but they are, as a rule, very 
 deficient in general knowledge and informa¬ 
 tion. Whether we look to India, or Persia, or 
 Egypt, or Turkey, the attitude of Muham¬ 
 madanism is undoubtedly one in direct anta¬ 
 gonism to the spread of secular education. 
 
 Much has been made by some writers of 
 the liberal patronage extended to literature 
 and science by ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman and his suc- 
 
 A MUSLIM SCHOOL. 
 
 cessors as Khallfahs of Cardova in the Middle 
 Ages. But there was nothing original, or 
 Islamic, in the literature thus patronised, for, 
 as Professor Uerberweg remarks in his His¬ 
 tory of Philosophy, “ the whole philosophy of 
 the Arabians was a form of Aristotelianism, 
 tempered more or less with Neo-Platonic con¬ 
 ceptions.” The philosophical works of the 
 Greeks and their works of medical and phy¬ 
 sical science, were translated from Greek 
 into Arabic by Syrian Christians, and not by 
 Arabian Muslims. Muhammadans cannot be 
 altogether credited with these literary under¬ 
 takings. 
 
 Al-Maqqarl, in his History of the Dynasties 
 of Spain, has an interesting notice of educa¬ 
 tion in that country, in which he writes:— 
 
 “ Respecting the state of science among the 
 Andalusians (Spaniards), we must own in 
 justice that the people of that country were 
 the most ardent lovers of knowledge, as well 
 as those who best knew how to appreciate 
 and distinguish a learned man and an igno¬ 
 rant one; indeed, science was so much es¬ 
 teemed bji- them, that whoever had not been 
 endowed by God with the necessary qualifica¬ 
 tions to acquire it, did everything in his 
 power to distinguish himself, and conceal 
 from the people his want of instruction; for 
 an ignorant man was at all times looked 
 upon as an object of the greatest contempt, 
 while the learned man, on the contrary, was 
 not only respected by all, nobles and plebeians, 
 but was trusted and consulted on every occa- 
 
108 
 
 EGGS 
 
 ELOQUENCE 
 
 sion; his name was in every mouth, his 
 power and influence had no limits, and he was 
 preferred and distinguished in all the occa¬ 
 sions of life. 
 
 “ Owing to this, rich men in Cordova, how¬ 
 ever illiterate they might be, encouraged 
 letters, rewarded with the greatest munifi¬ 
 cence writers and poets, and spared neither 
 trouble nor expense in forming large collec¬ 
 tions of books ; so that, independently of the 
 famous library founded by the Khalifah al- 
 Hakim, and which is said by writers worthy 
 of credit to have contained no less than four 
 hundred thousand volumes, there were in 
 the capital many other libraries in the hands 
 of wealthy individuals, where the studious 
 could dive into the fathomless sea of know¬ 
 ledge, and bring up»its inestimable pearls. 
 Cordova was indeed, in the opinion of every 
 author, the city in Andalus where most 
 books were to be found, and its inhabitants 
 were renowned for their passion for forming 
 libraries. To such an extent did this rage 
 for collection increase, says Ibn Sa‘Id, that 
 any man in power, or holding a situation 
 under Government, considered himself obliged 
 to have a library of his own, and would spare 
 no trouble or expense in collecting books, 
 merely in order that people might say,—Such 
 a one has a very fine library, or, he possesses 
 a unique copy of such a book, or, he has a 
 copy of such a work in the hand-writing of 
 such a one.” 
 
 EGGS. According to tbe Imam 
 Abu Hanlfah, if a person purchase eggs and 
 after opening them discover them to be of 
 bad quality and unfit for use, he is entitled 
 to a complete restitut’on of the price from 
 the seller. ( Ilidayah , vol. ii. p. 415.) 
 
 EGYPT. Arabic Misr (,—). The 
 
 land of Egypt is mentioned several times in 
 the Qur’an in connection with the history of 
 Joseph and Moses. In the year a.h. 7 (a.d. 
 628), Muhammad sent an embassy to al-Mu- 
 qauqis, the Roman Governor of Egypt, who 
 received the embassy kindly and presented 
 the Prophet with two female Coptic slaves. 
 
 ELEMENTS. Arabic al-'Andsiru 
 ’1-arba‘ah ^oU*51). “ The four 
 
 elements ” of fire (nar), air ( hawa ), water (nid’), 
 and earth ( arz ), from which all creation 
 mineral, animal, and vegetable is produced. 
 
 The respective properties of these elements 
 are said to be as follows : Fire, hot and dry ; 
 air, hot and cold; water, cold and wet; 
 earth, cold and dry. A knowledge of the 
 properties of the four elements is required in 
 the so-called science of Da‘wah. [da‘wah.] 
 
 ELEPHANT, The year of. Arabic 
 '■Amu ’l-Fil (pic). The year in 
 which Muhammad was born. Being the 
 year in which Abrahatu ’1-Ashram, an Abys¬ 
 sinian Christian and Yiceroy of the King of 
 San‘5,’ in Yaman marched with a large army 
 and a number of elephants upon Makkah, 
 with the intention of destroying the Ka‘bah. 
 He was defeated and his army destroyed in 
 
 so sudden a manner, as to give rise to the 
 legend embodied in the cvth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, which is known as the Chapter of the 
 Elephant. 
 
 Professor Palmer says it is conjectured 
 that small-pox broke out amongst the army. 
 [ashabu ’l-fil.] 
 
 ELIJAH. Arabic Ilyas 
 Ilydsin ((j.*~UJ\); Heb. ; New 
 
 T • ** 
 
 Testament, ’HAias. A prophet men¬ 
 
 tioned in the following verses in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 123: “Verily Ilyas (Elias) 
 was of the Apostles ; and when he said to his 
 people, 1 Will ye not fear, Do ye call upon 
 Ba‘l and leave the best of Creators, God 
 your Lord, and the Lord of your fathers in the 
 old time ? But they called him a liar; 
 verily, they shall surely be arraigned, save 
 God’s sincere servants. And we left him 
 amongst posterity. Peace upon Ilyasin 
 (Elias) verily, thus do we reward those who 
 do well; verily he was of our servants who 
 believe.” 
 
 Surah vi. 85: “And Zachariah and John, 
 and Jesus, and Ilyas, all righteous ones.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says, “ It has been said that this 
 Ilyas, is the same as Idris, prefather of Noah, 
 whilst others say he was the son of Yasln 
 and descended from Aaron, the brother of 
 Moses.” [idkis.) 
 
 ELISHA. Arabic al-Yasa' 
 
 Heb. Elisha is mentioned 
 
 t • v; 
 
 twice in the Qur’an, under the name al- 
 Yasa‘. 
 
 Surah xxxviii. 48: “ And remember 
 
 Ishmael and Elisha, and Zu ’1-kifl, for each 
 was righteous.” 
 
 Surah vi. 85, 86: “ And Zachariah, and John, 
 and Jesus, and Elias, all righteousness ; and 
 Ishmael and Elisha and Jonah and Lot, each 
 have We preferred above the worlds.” 
 
 The Commentators give no account of him 
 except that he was the son of Vkhtub . 
 although the Bible says he was the son of 
 Shaphat. Husain says he was Ibnu ’ l-‘ajuz 
 (the son of the old woman). 
 
 ELOQUENCE. The Arabic word 
 al-Baydn QW!), which is defined in 
 the Ghiya.su 'l-Lughah as speaking fluently 
 and eloquently, occurs once in the Qur’an, 
 Surah lv. 3: “ He created man: he hath 
 taught him distinct speech .” The word also 
 occurs in the Traditions, and it is remarkable 
 that although the Qur’an is written in rhythm, 
 and in a grandiloquent style, that in the Tra¬ 
 ditions the Prophet seems to affect to despise 
 eloquence, as will be seen from the following 
 Ahadis :—Ibn ‘ CJmar says the Prophet said, 
 “ May they go to hell who amplify their words.” 
 Abu Umamah relates that the Prophet said, 
 “ Eloquence ( al-bayan ) is a kind of magic.” 
 Ibn Mas‘ud relates that the Prophet said, 
 “ Vain talking and embellishing (bayan) are 
 two branches of hypocrisy.” ‘Amr ibn al- 
 •Asi relates that the Prophet said, “ I have 
 
EMANCIPATION 
 
 ETERNITY 
 
 109 
 
 been ordered to speak little, and verily it 
 is best to speak little.” ( Mishkat , book 
 xxii. c. ix.) 
 
 EMANCIPATION OF SLAVES. 
 Arabic I‘taq The emancipa¬ 
 
 tion of slaves is recommended by the Pro¬ 
 phet, but the recommendation applies exclu- 
 sirely to slaves who are of the Muslim faith. 
 He is related to have said : “ Whoever frees 
 a Muslim slave God will redeem that person 
 from hell-fire member for member.” ( Mish- 
 Icat , book xiii. c. xix.) It is therefore laud¬ 
 able in a man to release his slave or for a 
 woman to free her bond-woman, in order that 
 they may secure freedom in the next world. 
 (Hidayah , vol. i. p. 420.) 
 
 ENFRANCHISEMENT. In an 
 
 orthodox Muhammadan state, only those 
 persons who have embraced the Muslim 
 faith are enfranchised ; all others are called 
 upon to pay a poll tax ( jizyah ), for which 
 they obtain security ( aman ). Those residents 
 in a Muslim country who are not Muham¬ 
 madans are expected to wear a distinctive 
 dress and to reside in a special part of the 
 village or town in which they live. Slaves 
 who may embrace the Muslim faith do not 
 become ipso facto enfranchised, unless their 
 master be an unbeliever, in which case their 
 becoming Muslims secures their emancipation. 
 Zimmis, or persons not Muslims in a Muslim 
 state, cannot give evidence against a Muslim. 
 (See Durru ’l-Mukhtar, in loco.) 
 
 ENOCH, [idris.] 
 
 ENTERING INTO HOUSES. To 
 
 enter suddenly or abruptly into any person’s 
 home or apartment, is reckoned a great inci¬ 
 vility in all eastern countries. With Muham¬ 
 madans it is a religious duty to give notice 
 before you enter a house. The custom is 
 founded upon an express injunction in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 57-61:— 
 
 “ 0 ye who believe 1 let your slaves and 
 those of you who have not come of age, ask 
 leave of you, three times a day, ere they come 
 into your presence;—before the morning 
 prayer, and when ye lay aside your garments 
 at mid-day, and after the evening prayer. 
 These are your three times of privacy. No 
 blame shall attach to you or to them, f/’after 
 these times, when ye go your rounds of at¬ 
 tendance on one another, they come in without 
 permission. Thus doth God make clear to 
 you His signs : and God is Knowing, Wise ! 
 
 “ And when your children come of age, let 
 them ask leave to come into your presence, 
 as they who were before them asked it. 
 Thus doth God make clear to you his signs : 
 and God is Knowing, Wise. 
 
 “ As to women who are past childbearing, 
 and have no hope of marriage, no blame shall 
 attach to them if they lay aside their outer 
 garments, but so as not to shew their orna¬ 
 ments. Yet if they abstain from this, it will 
 be better for them: and God Heareth, 
 Knoweth. 
 
 “ No crime shall it be in the blind, or in the 
 
 lame, or in the sick, to eat at your tables : or 
 in yourselves, if ye eat in your own houses, or 
 in the houses of your fathers, or of your 
 mothers, or of your brothers, or of your 
 sisters, or of your uncles on the father’s side, 
 or of your aunts on the father’s side, or of 
 your uncles on the mother’s side, or of your 
 aunts on the mother’s side, or in those of 
 which ye possess the keys, or in the house of 
 your friend. No blame shall attach to you 
 whether ye eat together or apart. 
 
 “ And when ye enter houses, salute one 
 another with a good and blessed greeting as 
 from God. Thus doth God make clear to you 
 His signs, that haply ye may comprehend 
 them.” 
 
 The following are the traditions given in 
 the Mishkat on the subject (book xxii. c. ii.) : 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ Do not 
 permit anyone to enter your home unless he 
 gives a salam first.” ‘Abdu ’llah ibn Mas‘ud 
 says the Prophet said, “ The signal for your 
 permission to enter is that you lift up the 
 curtain and enter until I prevent you.” ‘Abdu 
 ’llah ibn Busr says, “ Whenever the Prophet 
 came to the door of a house, he would not 
 stand in front of it, but on the side of the 
 door, and say, ‘ The peace of God be with 
 you.’” ‘Ata’ ibn Yasarsays the Prophet told 
 him to ask leave to enter even the room of his 
 mother. 
 
 ENVY. Arabic Hasad (-*—=-). 
 
 The word occurs twice in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 103 : “ Many of those who have 
 the Book would fain turn you again into un¬ 
 believers, even after ye have once believed, 
 and that through envy." 
 
 Surah cxiii.: “I seek refuge.from 
 
 the evil of the envious when he envies .” 
 
 EPHESUS, The Seven Sleepers of. 
 
 [asiiabc ’l-kahf.] 
 
 ESOP. The Luqman of the Qur’an 
 is generally supposed by European writers to 
 be Esop. Sale is of opinion that Maximus 
 Planudes borrow'ed the greater part of his life 
 of Esop from the traditions he met with in 
 the East concerning Luqman. [luqman.] 
 
 ETERNITY OF PUNISHMENT. 
 
 The Muhammadan religion teaches that all 
 Muslims (i.e. those who have embraced the 
 religion of their Prophet) will be ultimately 
 saved, although they will suffer for their 
 actual sins in a purgatorial hell. But those 
 who have not embraced Islam will suffer a 
 never-ending torment in “ the fire” ( an-nar ). 
 
 Surah ii. 37: “ Those who misbelieve and 
 call our signs lies, they are the fellows of 
 hell, they shall dwell therein for ever ” 
 (khalidun). 
 
 Surah xi. 108,109 : “ And as for those who 
 are wretched—why in the fire shall they groan 
 and sob ! to dwell therein for ever (khalidun) 
 as long as the heavens and the earth endure.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says the expression “ as long as 
 the heavens and the earth endure,” is an 
 Arabic idiom expressing that which is 
 eternal. 
 
110 
 
 EUCHARIST 
 
 EVIDENCE 
 
 Ibn ‘ArabI (died a.d. 638), in bis book 
 Fususu 'l-HiJcam, says the word khalid in the 
 verses quoted above does not imply eternal 
 duration, but a period, or age, of long dura¬ 
 tion. Al-Baizawi, the commentator, also 
 admits that the literal meaning of the word 
 only expresses a period of extended dura¬ 
 tion; but the Jalalan and Husain both , con¬ 
 tend that its meaning is that of abadi, or 
 “ never ending,” in which no being will be 
 annihilated, and which no one can ever 
 escape. 
 
 It is also to be observed that this word 
 khalid is that used for the eternity of bliss of 
 those in Paradise:— 
 
 Surah xi. 110: “As for those who are glad 
 -—why in Paradise I to dwell therein for ever ” 
 (khalidun). 
 
 EUCHARIST, or LORD’S 
 
 SUPPER. It is a singular omission in the 
 Qur’an, that there is no direct allusion to this 
 Christian institution. 
 
 Both Sale and Rodwell think that there is 
 a reference to it in the following passages in 
 the Qur’an, Surah v. 112-114:— 
 
 “ Remember when the Apostles said :—0 
 J esus, Son of Mary, is thy Lord able to send 
 down a table (ma’idah, ‘ a table,’ especially one 
 covered with victuals) to us out of heaven ? 
 He said, Fear God if ye be believers. They 
 said:—We desire to eat therefrom, and to 
 have our hearts assured ; and to know that 
 thou hast indeed spoken truth to us, and we 
 be witnesses thereof. Jesus, Son of Mary, 
 said :—‘ O God, our Lord! send down a table 
 to us out of heaven, that it may become a re¬ 
 curring festival to us, to the first of us, and 
 to the last of us, and a sign from Thee; and 
 do Thou nourish us, for Thou art the best of 
 nourishers.’ ” 
 
 Muslim commentators are not agreed as to 
 the meaning of these verses, but none of them 
 suggest the institution of the Lord’s Supper 
 as an explanation. The interpretations are 
 as confused as the revelation. 
 
 According to the Imam al-BaghawI, ‘Am¬ 
 man ibn Yasir said that the Prophet said it 
 was flesh and bread which was sent down 
 from heaven; but because the Christians to 
 whom it was sent were unfaithful, it was 
 taken away, and they became pigs and 
 monkeys 1 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says that after a thirty days’ 
 fast, a table was sent down with seven loaves 
 and seven fishes, and the whole company of 
 disciples ate and were filled (St. Matt. xv. 
 34). The commentators al-Jalalan also 
 give these two explanations, and the Sacra¬ 
 ment of the Lord’s Supper is never once sug¬ 
 gested by any Muslim doctor in explanation 
 of the above verses. 
 
 EIJNUCH. Arabic khasl ). 
 
 Although in all parts of the East it is usual 
 for wealthy Muhammadans to keep an esta¬ 
 blishment of eunuchs to guard the female 
 members of the household, it has been strictly 
 forbidden by Muhammad for any of his fol¬ 
 lowers to make themselves such, or to make 
 
 others. ‘Usman ibn Maz‘un came to him and 
 said, “ 0 Prophet! permit me to become a 
 eunuch.” But Muhammad said, “ He is not 
 of my people who makes another a eunuch or 
 becomes so himself. The manner in which 
 my people become eunuchs is to exercise 
 fasting.” (Mishlcat, book iv. c. viii.) 
 
 EVE. Arabic HawwcC 
 
 [ADAM.] 
 
 EVIDENCE. Arabic Shahadah 
 (5olg&). The law of evidence is very 
 clearly laid down in all Muhammadan books 
 of law, especially in the Hidayah, and the 
 Durru ’l-Mukhtar, and it is interesting to 
 observe the difference between the law of 
 evidence as provided for in the law of Moses, 
 and that laid down in Muhammadan books. 
 In the Pentateuch two witnesses at least 
 were required to establish any charge (Num. 
 xxxv. 30), and the witness who withheld the 
 truth was censured (Lev. v. 1), whilst slan¬ 
 derous reports and officious witnesses were 
 discouraged (Ex. xxiii. 1; Lev. xix. 16), and 
 false witnesses were punished with the punish¬ 
 ment due to the offence they sought to esta¬ 
 blish (Deut. xix. 16). According to Josephus, 
 women and slaves were not admitted to give 
 evidence. (Ant. iv. c. 8, s. 15.) 
 
 The Sunni law, as explained by the author 
 of the Hidayah (vol. iii. p. 664), is in many 
 respects the same as the Jewish and is as 
 follows:— 
 
 It is the duty of witnesses to bear testi¬ 
 mony, and it is not lawful for them to conceal 
 it, when the party concerned demands it from 
 them. Because it is written in the Qur’an, 
 Surah ii. 282, “ Let not witnesses withhold 
 their evidence when it is demanded of them.” 
 And again, “ Conceal not your testimony, 
 for whoever conceals his testimony is an 
 offender.” 
 
 The requisition of the party is a condition, 
 because the delivery of evidence is the right 
 of the party requiring it, and therefore rests 
 upon his requisition of it, as is the case with 
 respect to all other rights. 
 
 In cases inducing corporal punishment, 
 witnesses are at liberty either to give or 
 withhold their testimony as they please; 
 because in such case they are distracted be¬ 
 tween two laudable actions; namely, the 
 establishment of the punishment, and the 
 preservation of the criminal’s character. The 
 concealment of vice is, moreover, preferable; 
 because the prophet said to a person that had 
 borne testimony, “ Verily, it would have been 
 better for you, if you had concealed it ”; and 
 also because he elsewhere said, ‘ Whoever 
 conceals the vices of his brother Muslim, shall 
 have a veil drawn over his own crimes in both 
 worlds by God." Besides, it has been incul¬ 
 cated both by the Prophet and his Compa¬ 
 nions as commendable to assist in the pre¬ 
 vention of corporal punishment; and this is 
 an evident argument for the concealment of 
 such evidence as tends to establish it. It is 
 incumbent, however, in the case of theft, to 
 bear evidence to the property, by testifying 
 
EVIDENCE 
 
 EVIDENCE 
 
 111 
 
 that “ a certain person took such property,” 
 in order to preserve the right of the pro¬ 
 prietor; but the word taken must be used 
 instead of stolen, to the end that the crime 
 may be kept concealed; besides, if the word 
 stolen were used, the thief would be rendered 
 liable to amputation; and as, where amputa¬ 
 tion is incurred, there is no responsibility for 
 the property, the proprietor’s right would be 
 destroyed. 
 
 The evidence required in a case of whore¬ 
 dom is that of four men, as has been ruled in 
 the Qur’an (Surah sxiv. 3); and the testi¬ 
 mony of a woman in such a case is not ad¬ 
 mitted; because, az-Zuhrl says, “inthe time 
 of the Prophet and his two immediate suc¬ 
 cessors, it was an invariable rule to exclude 
 the evidence of women in all cases inducing 
 punishment or retaliation,” and also because 
 the testimony of women involves a degree of 
 doubt, as it is merely a substitute for evi¬ 
 dence, being accepted only where the testi¬ 
 mony of men cannot be had ; and therefore 
 it is riot admitted in any matter liable to 
 drop from the existence of a doubt. 
 
 The evidence required in other criminal 
 cases is that of two men, according to the 
 text of the Qur’an; and the testimony of 
 women is not admitted, on the strength of 
 the tradition of az-Zuhrl above quoted. In 
 all other cases the evidence required is that 
 of two men, or of one man and two women, 
 whether the case relate to property or to 
 other rights, such as marriage, divorce, 
 agency, executorship, or the like. Ash-Shafi‘i 
 has said that the evidence of one man and 
 two women cannot be admitted, excepting in 
 cases that relate to property, or its depen¬ 
 dencies, such as hire, bail, and so forth; 
 because the evidence of women is originally 
 inadmissible on account of their defect of 
 understanding, their want of memory and 
 incapacity of governing, whence it is that 
 their evidence is not admitted in criminal 
 cases. 
 
 The evidence of one woman is admitted in 
 cases of birth (as where one woman, for 
 instance, declares that a certain woman 
 brought forth a certain child). In the same 
 manner also, the evidence, of one woman is 
 sufficient with respect to virginity, or with 
 respect to the defects of that part of a 
 woman which is concealed from man. The 
 principle of the law in these cases is derived 
 from a traditional saying of the Prophet: 
 “ The evidence of women is valid with 
 respect to such things as it is not fitting for 
 man to behold.” Ash-Shafi‘i holds the evi¬ 
 dence of four women to be a necessary con¬ 
 dition in such cases. 
 
 The evidence of a woman with respect to 
 istihlal (the noise made by a child at its 
 birth), is not admissible, in the opinion of 
 Abu Hanifah, so far as relates to the esta¬ 
 blishment of the right of heritage in the 
 child ; because this noise is of a nature to be 
 known or discovered by men; but is admis¬ 
 sible so far as relates to the necessity of 
 reading funeral prayers over the child; 
 because these prayers are merely a matter of 
 
 religion: in consequence of her evidence, 
 therefore, the funeral prayers are to be 
 repeated over it. The two disciples, Mu¬ 
 hammad and Abu Yusuf, maintain that the 
 evidence of a woman is sufficient to establish 
 the right of heritage also ; because the noise 
 in question being made at the birth, none but 
 women can be supposed to be present when 
 it is made. The evidence of a woman, there¬ 
 fore, to this noise, is the same as her evidence 
 to a living birth; and as the evidence of 
 women in the one case is admissible, so also is 
 it in the other. 
 
 In all rights, whether of property or other¬ 
 wise, the probity of the witness, and the use 
 of the word ashhadu, “ I bear witness,” is 
 absolutely requisite, even in the case of the 
 evidence of women with respect to birth and 
 the like. If, therefore, a witness should say, 
 “ I know,” or “ I know with certainty,” with¬ 
 out making use of the word ashhadu, in that 
 case his evidence cannot be admitted. With 
 respect to the probity of the witness, it is in¬ 
 dispensable, because it is written in the 
 Qur’an, Surah Ixv. 2, “ Take the evidence of 
 two just men” ; and also because the probity 
 of the witnesses induces a probability of the 
 truth. 
 
 If the defendant throw a reproach on the 
 witnesses, it is in that case incumbent on the 
 Qazi to institute an enquiry into their cha¬ 
 racter ; because, in the same manner as it is 
 probable that a Muslim abstains from false¬ 
 hood as being a thing prohibited in the reli¬ 
 gion he professes, so also is it probable that 
 one Muslim will not unjustly reproach 
 another. 
 
 It is not lawful for a person to give evi¬ 
 dence to such things as he has not actually 
 seen, excepting in the cases of birth, death, 
 marriage, and cohabitation. 
 
 But if a person, in any of the above cases, 
 gives evidence from creditable hearsay, it is 
 requisite that he give it in an absolute 
 manner, by saying, for instance, “ I bear tes¬ 
 timony that A. is the son of B,” and not, “ I 
 bear testimony so and so, because I have 
 heard it," for in that case the Qazi cannot 
 accept it. 
 
 The testimony of any person who is pro¬ 
 perty —that is to say, a slave, male or female 
 —is not admissible; because testimony is of 
 an authoritative nature ; and as a slave has 
 no authority over his own person, it follows 
 that he can have no authority over others, a 
 fortiori. 
 
 The testimony of a person that has been 
 punished for slander is inadmissible, because 
 it is said in the Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 4, 
 “ But as to those who accuse married per¬ 
 sons of whoredom, and produce not four wit¬ 
 nesses of the fact, scourge them with four¬ 
 score stripes, and receive not their testimony 
 for ever; for such are infamous prevari¬ 
 cators,—excepting those who shall after¬ 
 wards repent.” 
 
 If an infidel who has suffered punishment 
 for slander should afterwards become a 
 Muslim, his evidence is then admissible; for 
 although, on account of the said punishment, 
 
112 
 
 EVIDENCE 
 
 EXECUTOR 
 
 he had lost the degree in which he was before 
 qualified to give evidence (that is, in all 
 matters that related to his own sect), yet by 
 his conversion to the Muslim faith he 
 acquires a new competency in regard to 
 evidence (namely, competency to give evi¬ 
 dence relative to Muslims), which he did not 
 possess before, and which is not affected by 
 any matter that happened prior to the cir¬ 
 cumstance which gave birth to it. 
 
 Testimony in favour of a son or grandson, 
 or in favour of a father or grandfather, is not 
 admissible, because the Prophet has so or¬ 
 dained. Besides, as there is a kind of com¬ 
 munion of benefits between these degrees of 
 kindred, it follows that their testimony in 
 matters relative to each other is in some 
 degree a testimony in favour of themselves, 
 and is therefore liable to suspicion. 
 
 So also the Prophet has said, “ We are 
 not to credit the evidence of a wife concern¬ 
 ing her husband, or of a husband concerning 
 his wife ; or of a slave concerning his master ; 
 or of a master concerning his slave; or, 
 lastly, of a hirer concerning his hireling.” 
 
 The testimony of one partner in favour of 
 another, in a matter relative to their joint 
 property, is not admissible; because it is in 
 some degree in favour of himself. The tes¬ 
 timony, however, of partners, in favour of 
 each other, in matters not relating to their 
 joint property, is admissible, because in it 
 there is no room for suspicion. The testi¬ 
 mony of a person who has committed a great 
 crime, such as induces punishment, is not 
 admissible, because in consequence of such 
 crime he is unjust. The testimony of a 
 person who goes naked into the public bath 
 is inadmissible, because of his committing a 
 prohibited action in the exposure of his 
 nakedness. 
 
 The testimony of a person who receives 
 usury is inadmissible; and so, also, of one 
 •who plays for a stake at dice or chess. The 
 evidence of a person guilty of base and low 
 actions, such as making water or eating his 
 victuals on the high road, is not admissible ; 
 because where a man is not refrained, by a 
 sense of shame, from such actions as these, 
 he exposes himself to a suspicion that he 
 will not refrain from falsehood. 
 
 The evidence of a person who openly 
 inveighs against the Companions of the Pro¬ 
 phet and their disciples is not admissible, 
 because of his apparent want of integrity. 
 It is otherwise, however, where a person 
 conceals his sentiments in regard to them, 
 because in such case the want of integrity is 
 not apparent. 
 
 The testimony of zimmis with respect to 
 each other is admissible, notwithstanding 
 they be of different religions. 
 
 The Imam Abu Hanifah is of opinion that 
 a false witness must be stigmatised, but not 
 chastised with blows. The two disciples are 
 of opinion that he must be scourged and con¬ 
 fined; and this also is the opinion of ash- 
 Shafi‘1. 
 
 The mode of stigmatising a false witness is 
 this:—If the witness be a sojourner in any 
 
 public street or market-place, let him be 
 sent to that street or market place ; or, if 
 otherwise, let him be sent to his own tribe or 
 kindred, after the evening prayers (as they 
 are generally assembled in greater numbers 
 at that time than any other) ; and let the 
 stigmatiser inform the people that the Qazi 
 salutes them, and informs them that he has 
 detected this person in giving false evidence ; 
 that they must, therefore, beware of him 
 themselves, and likewise desire others to be¬ 
 ware of him. 
 
 If witnesses retract their testimony prior 
 to the Qazi passing any decree, it becomes 
 void; if, on the contrary, the Qazi pass a 
 decree, and the witnesses afterwards retract 
 their testimony, the decree is not thereby 
 rendered void. 
 
 The retraction of evidence is not valid, 
 unless it be made in the presence of the 
 Qazi. 
 
 EVIL EYE. Isdbatu ’l-‘Ain (<LM 
 Muhammad was a believer in 
 the baneful influence of an evil eye. Asma’ 
 bint ‘Umais relates that she said, “ 0 Pro¬ 
 phet, the family of Ja‘far are affected by the 
 baneful influences of an evil eye; may I use 
 spells for them or not ? ” The Prophet said, 
 “ Yes, for if there were anything in the world 
 which would overcome fate, it would be 
 an evil eye.” ( Mishkat , book xxi. c. i. 
 
 part 2.) 
 
 EXECUTION. The Muhamma¬ 
 dan mode of execution is as follows :—The 
 executioner ( jalldd) seizes the condemned 
 culprit by the right hand, while with a sharp 
 swoi'd or axe he aims a blow at the back of 
 the neck, and the head is detached at the 
 first stroke. This mode of execution is still, 
 or was till lately, practised in Muhammadan 
 states in India. 
 
 If a Qazi say, I have sentenced such a 
 person to be stoned, or to have his hand cut 
 off, or to be killed, do you therefore do it; it 
 is lawful for that person to whom the Qazi 
 has given the order to carry it out. 
 
 And according to Abu Hanifah, if the Qazi 
 order the executioner to cut off the right 
 hand, and the executioner wilfully cut off the 
 left, he is not liable to punishment. But 
 other doctors do not agree with him. 
 
 EXECUTOR. Arabic Wasi (^j), 
 a term also used for the testator; 
 wahil ‘ald’l wasiyah JA^). 
 
 An executor having accepted his appointment 
 in the presence of the testator, is not after¬ 
 wards at liberty to withdraw, and any act 
 indicative of his having accepted the position 
 of executor binds him to fulfil his duties. 
 
 A Muslim may not appoint a slave, or a 
 reprobate ( fasiq ) or an infidel as his executor, 
 and in the event of his doing so, the Qazi 
 must nominate a proper substitute. But if 
 none of the testator’s heirs have attained 
 their majority, a slave may be appointed as 
 executor until they are of age. 
 
 If joint executors have been appointed and 
 
EXILES 
 
 EXTRAVAGANCE 
 
 113 
 
 one of them die, the Qazi must appoint a 
 substitute in office. 
 
 In the cases of infants or absent heirs, the 
 executor is entitled to possess himself pro 
 tem. of their property, but he cannot trade 
 ■with his ward’s portion. 
 
 If a person die without appointing an 
 executor, the next of kin administers the 
 estate, and it is an arrangement of Muslim 
 law that his father is his executor and not 
 his eldest son. (( Hidayah , vol. iv. p. 554.) 
 
 EXILES, The. [muhajirun.] 
 
 EXISTENCES. The Arabic word 
 wujud ( J ^), expresses a substance, 
 or essence, or existence. According to Mu¬ 
 hammadan writers (see Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah), 
 existences are of three kinds: Wajibu 7- 
 wujud, “ a necessary existence,” e.g. Almighty 
 God ; mumkinu 'l-wujud, “ a possible exist¬ 
 ence,” e.g. the human kind; mumtanvu 7- 
 wujud, “ an impossible existence,” e.g. a 
 partner with the Divine Being. 
 
 These terms are used by Muhammadan 
 scholars when discussing the doctrine of the 
 Eternal Ti’inity with Christian Evangelists. 
 
 EXORCISM. [da‘wah.] 
 EXPIATION. The doctrine of 
 
 expiation or atonement for neglected duties, 
 sins of omission and commission, is distin¬ 
 guished in the Muslim religion from the doc¬ 
 trine of sacrifice ; sacrifices being strictly 
 confined to the ‘Idu ’1-Azha’, or Feast of 
 Sacrifice in the month of pilgrimage. 
 
 There are two words employed in the 
 Qur’an to express the doctrine of expiation: 
 kaffarah (&jla£), from Iccijr, “ to hide ”; and 
 fidyah (djAi), from fida’, “ to exchange, or 
 ransom.” 
 
 (1) Kaffarah occurs in the following 
 verses:— 
 
 Surah v. 49:— 
 
 “ And therein (Ex. xxi. 23) have we enacted 
 for them, ‘Life for life, an eye for eye, and 
 nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for 
 tooth, and for wounds retaliation : ’—Whoso 
 shall compromise it as alms shall have there¬ 
 in the expiation of his sin ; and whoso will 
 not judge by what God hath sent down—such 
 are the transgressors.” 
 
 Surah v. 91:— 
 
 “ God will not punish you for a mistaken 
 word in your oaths : but he will punish you 
 in regard to an oath taken seriously. Its ex¬ 
 piation shall be to feed ten poor persons with 
 such middling food as ye feed your own 
 families with, or to clothe them; or to set 
 free a captive. But he who cannot find 
 means, shall fast three days. This is the 
 expiation of your oaths when ye shall have 
 sworn.” 
 
 Surah v. 96 :— 
 
 “ 0 believers! kill no game while ye are on 
 pilgrimage. Whosoever among you shall 
 purposely kill it, shall compensate for it in 
 domestic animals of equal value (according 
 to the judgment of two just persons among 
 
 you), to be brought as an offering to the 
 Ka‘bah ; or in expiation thereof shall feed the 
 poor; or as the equivalent of this shall fast, 
 that he may taste the ill consequence of his 
 deed. God forgiveth what is past; but who¬ 
 ever doeth it again, God will take vengeance 
 on him ; for God is mighty and vengeance is 
 His.” 
 
 (2) Fidyah occurs in the following verses :— 
 
 Surah ii. 180 
 
 “ But he amongst you who is ill, or on a 
 journey, then let him fast another number of 
 days; and those who are fit to fast and do not, 
 the expiation of this shall be the maintenance 
 of a poor man. And he who of his own 
 accord performeth a good work, shall derive 
 good from it: and good shall it be for you to 
 fast—if ye knew it.” 
 
 Surah ii. 192 :— 
 
 “ Accomplish the Pilgrimage and Visitation 
 of the holy places in honour of God : and if 
 ye be hemmed in by foes, send whatever offer¬ 
 ing shall be the easiest: and shave not your 
 heads until the offering reach the place of 
 sacrifice. But whoever among you is sick, or 
 hath an ailment of the head, must expiate 
 by fasting, or alms, or an offering.” 
 
 Surah lvii. 13 :— 
 
 “ On that day the hypocrites, both men and 
 women, shall say to those who believe, 
 ‘ Tarry for us, that we may kindle our light 
 at yours.’ It shall be said, ‘ Return ye back, 
 and seek light for yourselves.’ But between 
 them shall be set a wall with a gateway, within 
 which shall be the Mercy, and in front, with¬ 
 out it, the Torment. They shall cry to them, 
 ‘ Were we not with you ? ’ They shall say, 
 ‘ Yes ! but ye led yourselves into temptation, 
 and ye delayed, and ye doubted, and the 
 good things ye craved deceived you, till the 
 doom of God arrived:—and the deceiver de¬ 
 ceived you in regard to God.’ 
 
 “ On that day, therefore, no expiation shall 
 be taken from you or from those who be¬ 
 lieve not:—your abode the fire 1—This shall 
 be your master! and wretched the journey 
 thither! ” 
 
 (3) In theological hooks the term Icaffaratu 
 'z-zunub, “ the atonement for sins,” is used for 
 the duties of prayer, fasting, almsgiving, and 
 pilgrimage. There is also a popular saying that 
 ziyaratu ’l-qubur is kajfaratu ’ z-zunub , i.e. the 
 visiting of shrines of the saints is an atone¬ 
 ment for sins. 
 
 Theologians define the terms kaffarah and 
 fidyah as expressing that expiation which is 
 due to God, whilst diyah and qisas are that 
 which is due to man. [fines, sacrifices.] 
 
 For that expiation which is made by free¬ 
 ing a slave, the word, tahrir is used, a word 
 which implies setting a slave free for God’s 
 sake, although the word does not in any sense 
 mean a ransom or atonement for sin. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 94, “ Whoso¬ 
 ever kills a believer by mistake let him free 
 a believing neck ” (i.e. a Muslim slave). 
 
 EXTRAVAGANCE. Arabic Isrdf 
 An extravagant person or 
 
 15 
 
114 
 
 EYES 
 
 prodigal is musrif, or mubazzir, and is con¬ 
 demned in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xvii. 28, 29 : “ Waste not wastefully, 
 for the wasteful were ever the brothers of 
 the devil; and the devil is ever ungrateful to 
 his Lord.” 
 
 Surah vii. 29: “0 sons of men, take your 
 ornaments to every mosque; and eat and 
 drink, but be not extravagant, for He loves 
 not the extravagant.” 
 
 EYES. Arabic ‘Ayy, ; pi. 
 
 Uyun, A‘yun, A‘ydn. “ If a person strike 
 another in the eye, so as to force the member 
 with its vessels out of the socket, there is no 
 retaliation in this case, it being impossible to 
 preserve a perfect equality in extracting an 
 eye. But if the eye remain in its place, and 
 the sight be destroyed, retaliation is to be 
 inflicted, as in this case equality may be 
 effected by extinguishing the sight of the 
 offender’s corresponding eye with a hot iron.” 
 (Hidayah , iv. 294.) 
 
 There is a tradition by Malik that the diycih 
 or “ fine ” for blinding one eye is fifteen camels. 
 
 ( 'Mishkat, book xiv. 167.) [evil eye.] 
 
 EZEKIEL. Arabic Hizqil. Not 
 
 mentioned by name, but there is generally 
 supposed to be an allusion to Ezekiel’s vision 
 of the dry bones (Ezek. xxxvii. 1) in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 244 :— 
 
 “ Dost thou not look at those who left 
 their homes by thousands, for fear of death ; 
 and God said to them ‘ Die,’ and He then 
 quickened them again? ” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says that a number of Israelites 
 fled from their villages either to join in a 
 religious war, or for fear of the plague, and 
 were struck dead, but Ezekiel raised them 
 to life again. 
 
 The Kamalan say he is perhaps the same 
 as Zu T-Kifl. [zu ’l-kifl.] 
 
 EZRA. Arabic ‘ Uzair. The son 
 
 of Sharahya’, the scribe. Mentioned only 
 
 EA C L 
 
 once by name in the Qur’an, Surah ix. 
 30:— 
 
 “ The Jews say ‘Uzair (Ezra) is a son of 
 God.” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says that during the Babylonish 
 captivity the taurat (the law) was lost, and 
 that as there was no one who remembered 
 the law when the Jews returned from cap¬ 
 tivity, God raised up Ezra from the dead, 
 although he had been buried a hundred 
 years. And that when the Jews saw him thus 
 raised from the dead, they said he must be 
 the son of God. 
 
 This story is supposed to have been ren- 
 vealed in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 261:— 
 
 “ [Hast thou not considered] him who 
 passed by a city ( which was Jerusaleni), 
 riding upon an ass, and having with him a 
 basket of figs and a vessel of the juice of grapes 
 and he was ‘Uzair, and it was falling down 
 upon its roofs, Nebuchadnezzar having ruined 
 it ? He said, wondering at the power of God, 
 How will God quicken this after its death ? 
 —And God caused him to die for a hundred 
 years. Then He raised him to life: and He 
 said unto him, How long hast thou tarried 
 here ? —He answered I have tarried a day, or 
 part of a day.— For he slept in the first part of 
 the day, and was deprived of his life, and was 
 reanimated at sunset. He said Nay, thou 
 hast tarried a hundred years: but look at 
 thy food and thy drink: they have not be¬ 
 come changed by time: and look at thine 
 ass.— And he beheld it dead, and its bones white 
 and shining .— We have done this that thou 
 mayest know, and that We may make thee a 
 sign of the resurrection unto men. And look 
 at the bones of thine ass, how We will raise 
 them ; then We will clothe them with flesh. 
 So he looked at them, and they had become put 
 together, and were clothed with flesh, and life 
 was breathed into it, and it brayed. There¬ 
 fore when it had been made manifest to him 
 he said, I know ^that God is able to accom¬ 
 plish everything.” 
 
 F. 
 
 EAI’ (o*)- Booty obtained from 
 
 infidels. According to Muhammad ibn Tahir, 
 fai’ is booty taken from a country which sub¬ 
 mits to Islam without resistance, as distin¬ 
 guished from ghanimah, or plunder. The 
 Khalifah ‘Umar said it was the special pri¬ 
 vilege of the Prophet to take booty as well as 
 plunder, a privilege not permitted to any other 
 prophet. 
 
 ‘Auf ibn Malik says the Prophet used to 
 divide booty on the same day he took it, and 
 would give two shares to a man with a wife, 
 and only one share to a man without one. 
 (Mishkat, book xvii. c. xii.) 
 
 FAITH, [iman.] 
 
 FAIZ-I-AQDAS (y-jfl jttf, Per¬ 
 sian). Communications of divine 
 grace made to angels and prophets and other 
 superior intelligences, 
 
 al-FAJR (j«sAJ\), “ The Daybreak.” 
 The title of the Lxxxixth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, in the first verse of which the word 
 occurs. 
 
 FA’L (Jii). A good omen, as dis¬ 
 
 tinguished from tiyarah, “ a bad omen.” 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ Do 
 not put faith in a bad ornen, but rather take 
 a good one.” The people asked, “ What is a 
 good omen ? ” And he replied, “ Any good 
 word which any of you may hear.” 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says, “ The Prophet used to 
 take good omens by men’s names, but he 
 would not take bad omens.” 
 
 Qat‘an ibn Qabisah says, “ The Prophet 
 forbade taking omens from the running of 
 animals, the flight of birds, and from throw¬ 
 ing pebbles, which were done by the idolators 
 of Arabia.” ( Mishkat, book xxi. c. ii.) 
 
 It is, however, very commonly practised 
 
AL-FALAQ 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 115 
 
 amongst the Muhammadans of India. For 
 example, if a person start out on an impor¬ 
 tant journey, and he meet a woman first, he 
 will take it as a bad omen, and if he meet a 
 man he will regard it as a good one. 
 
 al-FALAQ (,j-LaJ\), “The Day¬ 
 break.” The title of the cxmth Surah of the 
 Qur’an. The word signifies cleaving, and de¬ 
 notes the breaking forth of the light from the 
 darkness. 
 
 FALL, The (of Adam). Is known 
 amongst Muslim writers as zallatu Adam, 
 “ the fall,” or slip of Adam. The term zallah, 
 “ a slip ” or “ error,” being applied to pro¬ 
 phets, but not zamb, “ a sin,” which they say 
 Prophets do not commit. 
 
 The following is the account of Adam’s 
 “ slip” as given in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 33 :— 
 
 “ And we said, ‘ 0 Adam ! dwell thou and 
 thy wife in the Garden, and eat ye plentifully 
 therefrom wherever ye list; but to this tree 
 come not nigh, lest ye become of the trans¬ 
 gressors.’ 
 
 “ But Satan made them slip (azallahuma) 
 from it, and caused their banishment from 
 the place in which they were. And we said, 
 ‘ Get ye down, the one of you an enemy to the 
 other: and there shall be for you in the 
 earth a dwelling-place, and a provision for a 
 time.’ ” 
 
 Surah vii. 18-24 :— 
 
 “ ‘ And, 0 Adam I dwell thou and thy wife 
 in Paradise, and eat ye whence ye will, but to 
 this tree approach not, lest ye become of the 
 unjust doers.’ 
 
 “ Then Satan whispered them to show 
 them their nakedness, which had been hidden 
 from them both. And he said, ‘ This tree 
 hath your Lord foi bidden you, only lest ye 
 should become angels, or lest ye should be¬ 
 come immortals.’ 
 
 “ And he sware to them both, ‘ Verily I 
 am unto you one who counselleth aright.’ 
 
 “ So he beguiled them by deceits: and 
 when they had tasted of the tree, their naked¬ 
 ness appeared to them, and they began to 
 sew together upon themselves the leaves of 
 the garden. And their Lord called to them, 
 ‘ Did I not forbid you this tree, and did I not 
 say to you, “ Verily, Satan is your declared 
 enemy ” ? ’ 
 
 “ They said, 1 0 our Lord! With ourselves 
 have we dealt unjustly: if thou forgive us 
 not and have pity on us, we shall surely be 
 of those who perish.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ Get ye down, the one of you an 
 enemy to the other; and on earth shall be 
 your dwelling, and your provision for a 
 season.’ 
 
 “ He said, 1 On it shall ye live, and on it 
 shall ye die, and from it shall ye be taken 
 forth.’” 
 
 Surah xx. 114-120.:— 
 
 “And of old We made a covenant with 
 Adam ; but he forgat it ; and we found no 
 firmness of purpose in him. 
 
 “ And when We said to the angels, ‘ Fall 
 down and worship Adam,’ they worshipped 
 all, save Eblis, who refused: and We said, 
 
 ‘ 0 Adam ! this truly is a foe to thee and to 
 thy wife. Let him not therefore drive you 
 out of the garden, and ye become wretched ; 
 
 “ ‘ For to thee is it granted that thou shalt 
 not hunger therein, neither shalt thou be 
 naked; 
 
 “ ‘ And that thou shalt not thirst therein, 
 neither shalt thou parch with heat ’; 
 
 “But Satan whispered him: said he, ‘0 
 Adam 1 shall I shew thee the tree of Eternity, 
 and the Kingdom that faileth not ? ’ 
 
 “ And they both ate thereof, and their 
 nakedness appeared to them, and they began 
 to sew of the leaves of the Garden to cover 
 them, and Adam disobeyed his Lord and 
 went astray. 
 
 “ Afterwards his Lord chose him for him¬ 
 self, and was turned towards him, and guided 
 him.” 
 
 The Muslim Commentators are much per¬ 
 plexed as to the scene of the fall of Adam. 
 From the text of the Qur’an it would appear 
 that the Paradise spoken of was in heaven 
 and not on earth; and the tradition, that when 
 Adam was cast forth he fell on the island of 
 Ceylon, would support this view. But al- 
 Baizawl says some say the Garden of Eden 
 w'as situated either in the country of the 
 Philistines or in Faris, and that Adam was 
 cast out of it and sent in the direction of 
 Hindustan. But this view he rejects, and 
 maintains that the Garden of Eden was in the 
 heavens, and that the fall occurred before 
 Adam and Eve inhabited this earth of ours. 
 [eden.] 
 
 The Muhammadan commentators are silent 
 as to the effects of Adam’s fall upon the 
 human race. 
 
 FALSE WITNESS. The Imam 
 
 Abu Hanifah is of opinion that a false wit¬ 
 ness must be publicly stigmatised, but not 
 chastised with blows; but the Imams ash- 
 Shafi-i, Yusuf, and Muhammad are of opinion 
 that he should be scourged and imprisoned. 
 
 In the Law of Moses, a false witness was 
 punished with the punishment of the offence 
 it sought to establish. Deut. xx. 19: “Thou 
 shalt do unto him as he had thought to do 
 unto his brother.” [evidence.] 
 
 FANA’ (=Li). Extinction. The 
 
 last stage in the Sufiistic journey, [su- 
 
 FIISM.] 
 
 FAQlH (A-si). A Muhammadan 
 
 lawyer or theologian. The term is still re¬ 
 tained in Spanish as alfaqui, [fiqh.] 
 
 FAQlK, (^oi). Persian darwesh. 
 The Arabic word faqir signifies “ poor ”; but 
 it is used in the sense of being in need of 
 mercy, and poor in the sight of God, rather 
 than in need of worldly assistance. Darwesh 
 is a Persian word, derived from dar, “ a 
 door,” i.e. those who beg from door to door. 
 The terms are generally used for those who 
 lead a religious life. Religious faqirs are 
 divided into two great classes, the ba shad 
 (with the law), or those who govern their 
 conduct according to the principles of Islam ; 
 
116 
 
 FAQJft 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 and the be shar‘ (without the law), or those 
 who do not rule their lives according to the 
 principles of any religious creed, although 
 they call themselves Musulmans. The for¬ 
 mer are called salilc, or travellers on the 
 pathway (; tariqah ) to heaven ; and the latter 
 are either azad (free), or majzub (abstracted). 
 The salik embrace the various religious 
 orders who perform the zilcrs, described in 
 the article ziicr. 
 
 The Majzub faqirs are totally absorbed in 
 religious reverie. The Azacl shave their 
 beards, whiskers.moustachios,eye-brows, and 
 eye-lashes, and lead lives of celibacy. 
 
 The Azad and Majzub faqirs can scarcely 
 be said to be Muhammadans, as they do not 
 say the regular prayers or observe the ordi¬ 
 nances of Islam, so that a description of their 
 various sects does not fall within the limits of 
 this work. The Salik faqirs are divided into 
 very numerous orders ; but their chief differ¬ 
 ence consists in their silsilah, or chain of 
 succession, from their great teachers, the 
 Kh allfahs Abu Bakr and ‘All, who are said 
 to have been the founders of the religious 
 order of faqirs. 
 
 It is impossible to become acquainted with 
 all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous 
 orders of faqirs; for, like those of the Free¬ 
 masons and other secret societies, they, are 
 not divulged to the uninitiated. 
 
 The doctrines of the darwesh orders are 
 those of the Sufi mystics, and their religious 
 ceremonies consist of exercises called zilcrs, or 
 “ recitals.” [zikr, sotiism.] 
 
 M. D’Ohsson, in his celebrated work on the 
 Ottoman Empire, traces the origin of the 
 order of faqirs to the time of Muhammad 
 himself:— 
 
 “ In the first year of the Hijrah, forty-five 
 citizens of Makkah joined themselves to as 
 many others of al-Madlnah. They took an 
 oath of fidelity to the doctrines of their Pro¬ 
 phet, and formed a sect or fraternity, the 
 object of which was to establish among 
 themselves a community of property, and to 
 perform every day certain religious practices 
 in a spirit of penitence and mortification. To 
 distinguish themselves from other Muham¬ 
 madans, they took the name of Sufis. 
 [sufiism.] This name, which later was at¬ 
 tributed to the most zealous partizans of 
 Islam, is the same still in use to indicate any 
 Musulman who retires from the world to 
 study, to lead a life of pious contemplation, 
 and to follow the most painful exercises of an 
 exaggerated devotion. To the name of Sufi 
 they added also that of faqlr, because their 
 maxim was to renounce the goods of the 
 earth, and to live in an entire abnegation of 
 all worldly enjoyments, following thereby the 
 words of the Prophet, al-faqru falchri, or 
 ‘ Poverty is my pride.’ Following their ex¬ 
 ample, Abu Bakr and ‘All established, even 
 during the life-time of the Prophet and under 
 his own eyes, religious orders, over which 
 each presided, with Zikrs or peculiar reli¬ 
 gious exercises, established by them sepa¬ 
 rately, and a vow taken by each of the volun¬ 
 tary disciples forming them. On his decease, 
 
 Abu Bakr made over his office of president to 
 one Salmanu T-FarisI, and ‘AH to al-Hasanu 
 ’1-BasrI, and each of these charges were con¬ 
 secrated under the title Khallfah, or suc¬ 
 cessor. The two first successors followed 
 the example of the Khallfahs of Islam, and 
 transmitted it to their successors, and these 
 in turn to others, the most aged and vener¬ 
 able of their fraternity. Some among them, 
 led by the delirium of the imagination, wan¬ 
 dered away from the primitive rules of their 
 society, and converted, from time to time, 
 these fraternities into a multitude of religious 
 orders. 
 
 “ They were doubtlessly emboldened in 
 this enterprise by that of a recluse who, in 
 the thirty-seventh year of the Hijrah (a.d. 
 657) formed the first order of anchorets of 
 the greatest austerity, named Uwais al-Karanl, 
 a. native of Karu, in Yaman, who one day 
 announced that the archangel Gabriel had 
 appeared to him in a dream, and in the 
 name of the Eternal God commanded him to 
 withdraw from the world, and to give himself 
 up to a life of contemplation and penitence. 
 This visionary pretended also to have received 
 from that heavenly visitor the plan of his 
 future conduct, and the rules of his institu¬ 
 tion. These consisted in a continual absti¬ 
 nence, in retirement from society, in an aban¬ 
 donment of the pleasures of innocent nature, 
 and in the recital of an infinity of prayers 
 day and night ( Zilcrs ). Uwais even added to 
 these practices. He went so far as to draw 
 out his teeth, in honour, it is said, of the 
 Prophet, who had lost two of his own in the 
 celebrated battle of IThud. He required his 
 disciples to make the same sacrifice. He 
 pretended that all those who would be espe¬ 
 cially favoured by heaven, and really called 
 to the exercises of his Order, should lose 
 their teeth in a supernatural manner ; that an 
 angel should draw out their teeth whilst in 
 the midst of a deep sleep ; and that on awaken¬ 
 ing they should find them by their bedside. 
 The experiences of such a vocation were 
 doubtless too severe to attract many prose¬ 
 lytes to the order ; it only enjoyed a certain 
 degree of attraction for fanatics and credu¬ 
 lously ignorant people during the first days 
 of Islam. Since then it has remained in 
 Yaman, where it originated, and where its 
 partisans were always but few in number.” 
 
 It was about a.h. 49 (a.d. 766), that the 
 Shaikh Alwan, a mystic renowned for his 
 religious fervour, founded the first regular 
 order of faqirs, now known as the Alwaniyah, 
 with its special rules and religious exercises, 
 although similar associations of men without 
 strict rules had existed from the days of Abu 
 Bakr, the first Khallfah. And although 
 there is the formal declaration of Muham¬ 
 mad, “ Let there be no monasticism in Islam,” 
 still the inclinations of Eastern races to a 
 solitary and a contemplative life, carried it 
 even against the positive opposition of ortho¬ 
 dox Islam, and now there is scarcely a 
 maulawl or learned man of reputation in 
 Islam who is not a member of some religious 
 order. 
 
FAQIR 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 Each century gave birth to new orders, 
 named after their respective founders, but in 
 the present day there is no means of ascer¬ 
 taining the actual number of these associa- 
 
 Three of these orders, the Bastamiyah, the 
 Naqshbandiyah, and the Bakhtashiyah, de- 
 
 A BASTAMI SHAIKH. ( Brown .)] 
 scend from the original order established by 
 the first Khalifah, Abu Bakr. The fourth 
 
 117 
 
 tions of mystic Muslims. M. D’Ohsson, in 
 the work already quoted, gives a list of 
 thirty-two orders, but it is by no means com¬ 
 prehensive. 
 
 Khalifah, ‘All, gave birth to all the others. 
 Each order has its sitsi/ah , or chain of suc¬ 
 cession, from one of these two great 
 founders. 
 
 The Naqshbandiyah, who are the followers 
 of Khwajah Pir Muhammad Naqshband, are 
 a very numerous order. They usually per¬ 
 form the Zikr-i-Khafi, or silent devotions, 
 described in the account of zikr. 
 
 The first duty of the members of this 
 Order is to recite, daily, particular prayers, 
 called the khatim khawiaaan ; once, at least, 
 the Istlghfar (Prayer for Forgiveness) ; seven 
 times the saldmat; seven times the Fatihcih 
 (first chapter of the Qur’an); nine times the 
 chapter of the Qur'an called Inshirah (Chapter 
 xciv.); lastly, the Ikhlas (Chapter cxii.). 
 To these are added the ceremonies called 
 Zikr. [zikr.] 
 
 For these recitals they meet together once 
 a week. Ordinarily, this is on Thursday, 
 and after the fifth prayer of the day, so 
 that it occurs after night-fall, In each city, 
 suburb, or quarter, the members of this 
 association, divided into different bodies, 
 assemble at the house of their respective pir 
 or shaikh, where, seated, they perform their 
 
 No. 
 
 Name of the 
 Order. 
 
 Founder. 
 
 Place of the 
 Founder’s Shrine. 
 
 Date. 
 
 A.H. 
 
 Date. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1 
 
 Alwaniyah . 
 
 Shaikh Alwan . 
 
 Jeddah . 
 
 149 
 
 766 
 
 2 
 
 Adhamiyah . 
 
 Ibrahim ibn Adham 
 
 Damascus 
 
 161 
 
 777 
 
 3 
 
 Bastamiyah . 
 
 Bayazid Bastami 
 
 Jabal Bastam 
 
 261 
 
 874 
 
 4 
 
 Saqatiyah 
 
 Sirri Saqati 
 
 Baghdad 
 
 295 
 
 907 
 
 5 
 
 Qadiriyah 
 
 Abdu ’1-Qadir Jilani 
 
 Baghdad 
 
 561 
 
 1165 
 
 6 
 
 Rufaiyah 
 
 Saiyid Ahmad Rufai 
 
 Baghdad 
 
 576 
 
 1182 
 
 7 
 
 Suhrwardiyah 
 
 Shihabu ’d-Din 
 
 Baghdad 
 
 602 
 
 1205 
 
 8 
 
 Kabrawiyah . 
 
 Najmu ’d-Din . 
 
 Khawazim 
 
 617 
 
 1220 
 
 9 
 
 Shaziliyah 
 
 Abu ’1-Hasan . 
 
 Makkah 
 
 656 
 
 1258 
 
 10 
 
 Maulawiyah . 
 
 Jalalu ’d-Din Rumi . 
 
 Conyah . 
 
 672 
 
 1273 
 
 11 
 
 Badawiyah . 
 
 Abu ’1-Fitan Ahmad 
 
 Tanta, Egypt 
 
 675 
 
 1276 
 
 12 
 
 Naqshbandiyah 
 
 Pir Muhammad 
 
 Qasri Arifan 
 
 719 
 
 1319 
 
 13 
 
 Sadiyah 
 
 Sadu ’d-Din 
 
 Damascus 
 
 736 
 
 1335 
 
 14 
 
 Bakhtashiyah 
 
 Haji Bakhtash. 
 
 Kir Sher 
 
 736 
 
 1357 
 
 15 
 
 Khalwatiyah 
 
 Umar Khalwati 
 
 Caesarea 
 
 800 
 
 1397 
 
 16 
 
 Zainiyah 
 
 Zainu ’d-Din 
 
 Kufah . 
 
 838 
 
 1438 
 
 17 
 
 Babaiyah 
 
 Abdu ’1-Ghani . 
 
 Adrianople . 
 
 870 
 
 1465 
 
 18 
 
 Bahramiyah . 
 
 Haji Bahrami . 
 
 Angora . 
 
 876 
 
 1471 
 
 19 
 
 Ashrafiyah . 
 
 Ashraf Rumi . 
 
 Chin Iznic 
 
 899 
 
 1493 
 
 20 
 
 Bakriyah 
 
 Abu Bakr Wafai 
 
 Aleppo . 
 
 902 
 
 1496 
 
 21 
 
 Sunbuliyah . 
 
 Sunbul Yusuf Bulawi 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 936 
 
 1529 
 
 22 
 
 Gulshaniyah . 
 
 Ibrahim Gulshani . 
 
 Cairo 
 
 940 
 
 1533 
 
 23 
 
 Ighit Bashiyah 
 
 Shamsu ’d-Din . 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 951 
 
 1544 
 
 24 
 
 Umm Sunaniyah . 
 
 Shaikh Umm Sunan 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 959 
 
 1552 
 
 25 
 
 Jalwatiyah . 
 
 Pir Uftadi 
 
 Broosa . 
 
 988 
 
 1580 
 
 26 
 
 Ashaqiyah 
 
 Hasanu ’d-Din . 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 1001 
 
 1592 
 
 27 
 
 Shamsiyah . 
 
 Shamsu ’d-Din . 
 
 Madlnah 
 
 1010 
 
 1601 
 
 28 
 
 Sunan Ummiyah . 
 
 Alim Sunan Ummi . 
 
 Alwali . 
 
 1079 
 
 1668 
 
 29 
 
 Niyaziyah 
 
 Muhammad Niyaz . 
 
 Lemnos 
 
 1100 
 
 1694 
 
 30 
 
 Muradiyah . 
 
 Murad Shami . 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 1132 
 
 1719 
 
 31 
 
 Nuruddiniyah 
 
 Nuru ’d-Din 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 1146 
 
 1733 
 
 32 
 
 Jamaliyah 
 
 Jamalu ’d-Din . 
 
 Constantinople 
 
 1164 
 
 1750 
 
118 
 
 FAQ1R 
 
 FAQ1R 
 
 pious exercises with the most perfect gra¬ 
 vity. The shaikh, or any other brother in 
 his stead, chants the prayers which constitute 
 the association, and the assembly respond in 
 chorus, “ Hu (He),” or “ Allah 1 ” In some 
 cities, the Naqshbandiyah have especial 
 halls, consecrated wholly to this purpose, 
 and then the shaikh only is distinguished 
 from the other brethren by a special turban. 
 
 The Bakhtashiyah was founded by a 
 native of Bukhara, and is celebrated as 
 being the order which eventually gave birth 
 to the fanatical order of Janissaries. The 
 symbol of their order is the mystic girdle, 
 which they put off and on seven times, 
 saying:— 
 
 1. “ I tie up greediness, and unbind gene¬ 
 rosity.” 
 
 2. “ I tie up anger, and unbind meekness.” 
 
 3. “ I tie up avarice, and unbind piety.” 
 
 4. “ I tie up ignorance, and unbind the fear 
 of God.” 
 
 5. “ I tie up passion, and unbind the love 
 of God.” 
 
 6. “ I tie up hunger, and unbind (spiritual) 
 contentment.” 
 
 7. “ I tie up Satanism and unbind Divine¬ 
 ness.” 
 
 The Maulawlyah are the most popular reli¬ 
 gious order of faqirs in the Turkish empire. 
 
 THE MAULAWI OR DANCING DARWESH. 
 
 They are called by Europeans, who witness 
 their zikrs and various religious perform¬ 
 ances at Constantinople and Cairo, the 
 “ dancing,” or “ whirling ” darweshes. They 
 were founded by the Maulawl Jalalu ’d-dln 
 ar-Rumi, the renowned author of the Masnawi, 
 a book much read in Persia, and, indeed, in 
 all parts of Islam. 
 
 They have service at their takyah, or “ con¬ 
 vent,” every Wednesday and Sunday at two 
 o?clock. There are about twenty performers, 
 
 with high round felt caps and brown mantles. 
 At a given signal they all fall flat on their 
 faces, and rise and walk slowly round and 
 round with their arms folded, bowing and 
 turning slowly several times. They then cast 
 
 THE MAULAWI OR DANCING DARWESH. 
 
 off their mantles and appear in long bell¬ 
 shaped petticoats and jackets, and then begin 
 to spin, revolving, dancing and turning with 
 extraordinary velocity, [zikr.] 
 
 THE MAULAWI OR DANCING DARWESH. 
 
 The Qadiriyah sprang from the celebrated 
 Saiyid ‘Abdu ’1-Qadir, surnamed Plr-i-Dasta- 
 glr, whose shrine is at Bagdad. They prac¬ 
 tise both the ZiTcr-i-Jall and the Zikr-i- 
 Khafi. Most of the Sunni Maulawis on the 
 north-west frontier of India are members of 
 this order. In Egypt it is most popular among 
 fishermen. 
 
 The Chishtiyah are followers of Mu‘inu’d- 
 din Banda Nawaz, surnamed the Gisu 
 daraz, or the “ long-ringletted.” His shrine 
 is at Calburgah. 
 
 The Shfiahs generally become faqirs of this 
 order. They are partial to vocal music, for 
 the founder of the order remarked that 
 
FAQ1R 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 119 
 
 singing was the food and support of the soul. 
 They perform the Zikr-i-JaU, described in 
 the article on zikr. 
 
 The Jalallyah were founded by Saiyid 
 Jalalu ’d-dln, of Bukhara. They are met 
 with in Central Asia. Religious mendicants 
 are often of this order. 
 
 The Suhrwardlyah are a popular order in 
 Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned 
 men. They are the followers of Shihabu’d- 
 din of Suhrward of al-‘Iraq. These are the 
 most noted orders of ba shar‘ faqirs. 
 
 The be shar‘ faqirs are very numerous. 
 
 The most popular order in India is that 
 of the Murdarlyah, founded by Zinda 
 Shah Murdar, of Syria, whose shrine is at 
 Makanpur, in Oudh. From these have sprung 
 the Malang faqirs, who crowd the bazaars of 
 India. They wear their hair matted and tied 
 in a knot. The RufaTyah order is also a nume¬ 
 rous one in some parts of India. They prac¬ 
 tise the most severe discipline, and mortify 
 themselves by beating their bodies. They are 
 known in Turkey and Egypt as the 11 Howl¬ 
 ing Darweshes.” 
 
 Another well-known order of darweshes is 
 the Qalandariyah, or“ Wandering Darweshes,” 
 founded by Qalandar Yusuf al-Andalusi, a 
 
 A QALANDAR. ( Brown .) 
 
 native of Spain. He was for a time a member 
 of the Bakhtashls ; but having been dismissed 
 from the order, he established one of his own, 
 with the obligation of perpetual travelling. 
 The Qalandar faqlr is a prominent character 
 in Eastern romance. 
 
 Each order is established on different prin¬ 
 ciples, and has its rules and statutes and 
 peculiar devotions. These characteristics ex¬ 
 tend even to the garments worn by their fol¬ 
 lowers. Each order has, in fact, a particular 
 
 dress, and amongst the greater part of them 
 this is chosen so as to mark a difference in 
 that of the shaikh from that of the ordinary 
 members. It is perceived principally in the tur¬ 
 bans, the shape of the coat, the colours, and the 
 nature of the stuff of which the dresses are 
 made. The shaikhs wear robes of green or 
 white cloth; and any of those who in winter 
 line them with fur, use that kind called petit 
 gris and zibaline martin. Few darweshes use 
 
 A rcfa‘i in ecsxatics. {Brown.) 
 
 cloth for their dress. Black or white felt dresses 
 called ‘aba’, such as are made in some of the 
 cities of Anatolia, are the most usual. Those 
 
 THE SHAIKH OF THE DANCING DARWESHES AT 
 Cairo. {From a Photograph .) 
 
 who wear black felt are the Jalwattis and 
 the Qadirls. The latter have adopted it for 
 their boots, and muslin for their turbans. 
 
120 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 Some, such as the Maulawis and the Bakrls, 
 wear tall caps called kulahs, made also of felt; 
 and others, such as the Rufa'Is, use short 
 caps called Taqlyah, to which is added a 
 coarse cloth. The head-dress of almost all 
 the darweshes is called taj, which signifies 
 a “ crown.” These turbans are of different 
 forms, either from the manner in which the 
 muslin is folded, or by the cut of the cloth 
 which covers the top of the head. The cloth 
 
 an Egyptian FAKIR. (From a Photograph.) 
 
 is in several gores. Some have four, as the 
 Adhamis; some six, as the Qadiris and 
 the Sa‘dls ; the Gulshanis have eight; the 
 Bakhtashis twelve ; and the Jalwatis eighteen. 
 
 an Egyptian faqir. (From a Photograph.) 
 
 The darweshes carry about with them one 
 or other of the| following articles : a small 
 
 crooked stick or iron, which the devotee 
 places under his arm-pit or forehead, to lean 
 upon when he meditates, or an iron or brass 
 bar on which there is a little artificial hand 
 wherewith to scratch his unwashed body, a 
 bag made of lamb-skin, a lcashlcul or beg¬ 
 gar’s wallet. 
 
 Generally, all the darweshes allow their 
 beards and mustachios to grow. Some of the 
 orders—the Qadiris, RufaTs, Khalwatls, Gul- 
 shanls, Jalwatis, and the Nuru ’d-dlnis—still 
 wear long hair, in memory of the usage of the 
 Prophet and several of his disciples. Some 
 allow their hair to fall over their shoulders ; 
 others tie it up and put it under their turban. 
 
 Whilst private Musulmans are in the habit 
 of holding rosaries of beads as a pastime, the 
 darweshes do the same, only in a spirit of 
 religion and piety. These rosaries have 
 thirty-three, sixty-six, or ninety-nine beads, 
 which is the number of the attributes of the 
 Divinity [god]. Some have them always in 
 their hands, others in their girdles ; and all 
 are required to recite, several times during 
 the day, the particular prayers of their order. 
 [tasisiii.] 
 
 The individual who desires to enter an 
 order is received in an assembly of the fra¬ 
 ternity, presided over by the shaikh, who 
 touches his hand and breathes in his ear 
 three times the words, “La ilaha illa'llah" 
 (“ There is no god but God ”), commanding 
 him to repeat them 101, 151, or 301 times 
 each day. This ceremony is called the 
 Talqin. The recipient, faithful to the orders 
 of his chief, obligates himself to spend his 
 time in perfect retirement, and to report to 
 the shaikh the visions or dreams which he 
 may have during the course of his novitiate. 
 These dreams, besides characterising the 
 sanctity of his vocation, and his spiritual 
 advancement in the order, serve likewise as 
 so many supernatural means to direct the 
 shaikh regarding the periods when he may 
 again breathe in the ear of the neophyte the 
 second words of the initiation, “ Yd A llah ! ” 
 (“ 0 God! ”), and successively all the others 
 to the last, “ Yd Qahhar ! ” (“ 0 avengeful 
 God ! ”). The full complement of this exer¬ 
 cise is called Chilleh , or “ forty days,” a 
 period sometimes even longer, according to 
 the dispositions, more or less favourable, of 
 the candidate. Arrived at the last grade of 
 his novitiate, he is then supposed to have 
 fully ended his career, called Tahnllu ’s- 
 Suluk, and acquired the degree of perfec¬ 
 tion for his solemn admission into the corps 
 to which he has devoted himself. During 
 all his novitiate, the recipient bears the name 
 of Murid, or “ Disciple,” and the shaikh who 
 directs him in this pretended celestial career 
 takes the title of Murshid, or “ Spiritual 
 Guide.” 
 
 The founder of the Alwanis laid out the 
 first rules of this novitiate; they were sub¬ 
 sequently perfected by the institution of the 
 Qadiris, and more so by the Kh alwatls. 
 The darweshes of these two last societies are 
 distinguished in some countries by the deco¬ 
 ration of their turban, on the top of which 
 
FAQIR 
 
 are embroidered the words “ La ilaha ilia, 
 ’llah ” (There is no god but God). 
 
 The tests of the novice among the Maula- 
 wis seem to be still more severe, and the 
 reception of these dervishes is attended with 
 ceremonies peculiar to their order. The 
 aspirant is required to labour in the convent 
 or takyah 1,001 successive days in the lowest 
 grade, on which account he is called the 
 Jcarra kolak (jackal). If he fails in this 
 service only one day, or is absent one 
 night, he is obliged to recommence his novi¬ 
 tiate. The chief of the kitchen, or ashji- 
 bashi, one of the most notable of the dar- 
 weshes, presents him to the shaikh, who, 
 seated in an angle of the sofa, receives him 
 amid a general assembly of all the darweshes 
 of the convent. The candidate kisses the 
 hand of the shaikh, and takes a seat before 
 him on a mat, which covers the floor of the 
 hall. The chief of the kitchen places his 
 right hand on the neck, and his left hand on 
 the forehead of the novice, whilst the shaikh 
 takes off his cap and holds it over his head, 
 reciting the following Persian distich, the com¬ 
 position of the founder of the order :— 
 
 “ It is true greatness and felicity to close 
 the heart to all human passions ; the aban¬ 
 donment of the vanities of this world is the 
 happy effect of the victorious strength given 
 by the grace of our Holy Prophet.” 
 
 These verses are followed by the exor¬ 
 dium of the Takbir, “ Allahu akbar —God is 
 great,” after which the shaikh covers the 
 head of the new darwesh, who now rises and 
 places himself with the AshjibashI in the 
 middle of the hall, where they assume the 
 most humble posture, their hands crossed 
 upon the breast, the left foot over the right 
 foot, and the head inclined towards the left 
 shoulder. The shaikh addresses these words 
 to the head of the kitchen:— 
 
 “ May the services of this darwesh, thy 
 brother, be agreeable to the throne of the 
 Eternal, and in the eyes of our PIr (the 
 founder of the order); may his satisfaction, 
 his felicity, and his glory grow in this nest 
 of the humble, in the cell of the poor; 
 let us exclaim ‘ Hu! ’ in honour of our 
 Maulawl.” 
 
 They answer “ Hu! ” and the accepted 
 novice, arising from his place, kisses the 
 hand of the shaikh, who at this moment 
 addresses to him some paternal exhortations 
 on the subject of the duties of his new condi¬ 
 tion, and closes by ordering all the darweshes 
 of the meeting to recognise and embrace their 
 new brother. 
 
 The following is said to be the usual 
 method of admitting a Muhammadan to the 
 order of a ba shar‘ faqir in India. Having 
 first performed the legal ablutions, the murid, 
 (disciple) seats himself before the murshid 
 (spiritual guide). The murshid then takes 
 the murid’s right hand, and requires of him 
 a confession of sin according to the following 
 form:— 
 
 “ I ask forgiveness of the great God than 
 Whom there is no other deity, the Eternal, 
 the Everlasting, the Living One: I turn to 
 
 FAQIR 121 
 
 ( Him for repentance, and beg His grace and 
 forgiveness.” 
 
 This, or a similar form of repentance, is 
 repeated several times. The murid then 
 repeats after the murshid :— 
 
 “ I beg for the favour of God and of the 
 Prophet, and I take for my guide to God 
 such a one (here naming the nmrshid) not to 
 change or to separate from him. God is our 
 witness. By the great God. There is no 
 deity but God. Amen.” 
 
 The murshid and the murid then recite 
 the first chapter of the Qur’an, and the murid 
 concludes the ceremony by kissing the 
 murshid’s hand. 
 
 After the initiatory rite, the murid under¬ 
 goes a series of instructions, including the 
 zikrs, which he is required to repeat daily. 
 The murid frequently visits his murshid, and 
 sometimes the murshids proceed on a circuit 
 of visitation to their disciples. The place 
 where these “ holy men ” sit down to instruct 
 the people is ever afterwards held sacred, a 
 small flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced 
 in. Such places are called “ takyah,” and are 
 protected and kept free from pollution by 
 some faqir engaged for the purpose. 
 
 Another account of the admission of a 
 murid, or “ disciple,” into the order of Qadi- 
 rlyah faqlrs, is given by Tawakkul Beg in the 
 Journal Asiatique :— 
 
 “ Having been introduced by Akhund 
 Mulla Muhammad to Shaikh Mulla Shah, my 
 heart, through frequent intercourse with 
 him, was filled with such a burning desire 
 to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical 
 science, that I found no sleep by night, nor 
 rest by day. When the initiation commenced, 
 I passed the whole night without sleep, and 
 repeated innumerable times the Suratu T- 
 Ikhlas :— 
 
 ‘ Say: He is God alone ; 
 
 God the eternal: 
 
 He begetteth not, and He is not be¬ 
 gotten : 
 
 And there is none like unto Him.’ 
 
 (Surah cxii.) 
 
 “ Whosoever repeats this Surah one hundred 
 times can accomplish all his vows. I desired 
 that the shaikh should bestow on me his 
 love. No sooner had I finished my task, 
 than the heart of the shaikh became full of 
 sympathy for me. On the following night I 
 was conducted to his presence. During the 
 whole of that night he concentrated his 
 thoughts on me, whilst I gave myself up to 
 inward meditation. Three nights passed in 
 this way. On the fourth night the shaikh 
 said:—‘ Let Mulla Sanghim and Salih Beg, 
 who are very susceptible to ecstatic emo¬ 
 tions, apply their spiritual energies to Ta¬ 
 wakkul Beg.’ 
 
 “ They did so, whilst I passed the whole 
 night in meditation, with my face turned to¬ 
 ward Makkah. As the morning drew near, 
 a little light came into my mind, but I could 
 not distinguish form or colour. After the 
 morning prayers, I was taken to the shaikh 
 who bade me inform him of my mental 
 state. I replied that I had seen a light with 
 
 16 
 
122 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 FAQIR 
 
 my inward eye. On hearing this, the shaikh 
 became animated and said: ‘ Thy heart is 
 dark, but the time is come when I will show 
 myself clearly to thee.’ He then ordered 
 me to sit down in front of him, and to im¬ 
 press his features on my mind. Then having 
 blindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate 
 all my thoughts upon him. I did so, and in 
 an instant, by the spiritual help of the shaikh, 
 my heart opened. He asked me what I saw. 
 I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and 
 another Mulla Shah. The bandage was then 
 removed, and I saw the shaikh in front of 
 me. Again they covered my face, and 
 again I saw him with my inward eye. 
 Astonished, I cried: ‘ 0 master! whether I 
 look with my bodily eye, or with my spiritual 
 sight, it is always you I see.’ I then saw a 
 dazzling figure approach me. The shaikh 
 told me to say to the apparition, ‘ What is 
 your name ? ’ In my spirit I put the ques¬ 
 tion, and the figure answered to my heart: 
 ‘ I am ‘Abdu ’1-Qadir al-Jilani, I have already 
 aided thee, thy heart is opened.’ Much 
 affected, I vowed that in honour of the saint, 
 I would repeat the whole Qur’an every Friday 
 night. 
 
 “ Mulla Shah then said: ‘ The spiritual 
 world has been shown to thee in all its 
 beauty.’ I then rendered perfect obedience 
 to the shaikh. The following day I saw the 
 Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of 
 saints and angels. After three months I en¬ 
 tered the cheerless region in which the 
 figures appeared no more. During the whole 
 of this time the shaikh continued to explain 
 to me the mystery of the doctrine of the 
 Unity and of the knowlege of God ; but as 
 yet he did not show me the absolute reality. 
 It was not until a year had passed that I 
 arrived at the true conception of unity. Then 
 in words such as these I told the shaikh of 
 my inspiration. 1 1 look upon the body as 
 only dust and water, I regard neither my 
 heart nor my soul, alas! that in separation 
 from Thee (God) so much of my life has 
 passed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.’ 
 The shaikh was delighted, and said that the 
 truth of the union with God was now clearly 
 revealed to me. Then addressing those who 
 were present, he said:— 
 
 “ ‘ Tawakkul Beg learnt from me the doc¬ 
 trine of the Unity, his inward eye has been 
 opened, the spheres of colours and of images 
 have been shown to him. At length, he 
 entered the colourless region. He has now 
 attained to the Unity ; doubt and scepticism 
 henceforth have no power over him. No one 
 sees the Unity with the outward eye, till the 
 inward eye gains strength and power.’ ” 
 
 Each institution imposes on its darweshes 
 the obligation to recite certain passages at 
 different times of the day in private, as well 
 as in common with others. Several have 
 also practices which are peculiar to them¬ 
 selves, and which consist in dances, or rather 
 religious circular movements. In each con¬ 
 vent there is a room consecrated to these 
 exercises. Nothing is simpler than its con¬ 
 struction; it contains no ornaments of any 
 
 nature; the middle of the room, turned to¬ 
 wards Makkah, contains a |niche or mihrab, in 
 front of which is a small carpet, mostly made 
 of the skin of a sheep, on which the shaikh of 
 the community reclines ; over the niche the 
 name of the founder of the order is written. 
 In some halls this inscription is surmounted 
 by two others—one containing the Confession 
 of Faith, and the other the words “ Bismil- 
 lah,” &c. (“ In the name of God, the most 
 Clement and Merciful.”) In others are seen 
 on the wall to the right and the left of the 
 niche tablets, on which are written in large 
 letters the name of God (Allah), that of Mu¬ 
 hammad, and those of the four first Khalifahs. 
 At others are seen the names of al-Hasan 
 and al-Husain, grandsons of the Prophet, 
 and some verses of the Qur’an, or others of a 
 moral character. 
 
 The exercises which are followed in these 
 halls are of various kinds, a description of 
 which is given in the account of zikk. 
 
 The more zealous faqirs devote themselves 
 to the most austere acts, and shut themselves 
 up in their cells, so as to give themselves up 
 for whole hours to prayer and meditation; 
 the others pass very often a whole night in 
 pronouncing the words Hu and Allah , or 
 rather the phrase, La ildha ilia, ’llah. So as 
 to drive away sleep from their eyes, some of 
 them stand for whole nights in very uncom¬ 
 fortable positions. They sit with their feet 
 on the ground, the two hands resting upon 
 their knees : they fasten themselves in this 
 attitude by a band of leather passed over 
 their neck and legs. Others tie their hair 
 with a cord to the ceiling, and call this usage 
 Chilleh. There are some, also, who devote 
 themselves to an absolute retirement from 
 the world, and to the most rigid abstinence, 
 living only on bread and water for twelve 
 days successively, in honour of the twelve 
 Imams of the race of ‘Ali. This retirement is 
 called Khalwah. They pretend that the 
 shaikh ‘Amr Khalwatl was the first to fol¬ 
 low it, and that he often practised it. They 
 add that one day, having left his retirement, 
 he heard a celestial voice saying, “ 0‘Amr 
 Khalwatl, why dost thou abandon us ? ” and 
 that, faithful to this oracle, he felt himself 
 obliged to consecrate the rest of his days to 
 works of penitence, and even to institute an 
 order under the name of Khalwatis, a name 
 signifying “ living in retirement.” For this 
 reason, darweshes of this order consider it 
 their duty, more than any others, to live in 
 solitrrde and abstinence. The more devoted 
 among them observe sometimes a painful 
 fast of forty days consecutively, called by 
 them al-arfraun (forty). Amongst them all 
 their object is the expiation of their sins, the 
 sanctification of their fives, and the glorifica¬ 
 tion of Islam ; the prosperity of the state, and 
 the general salvation of the Muhammadan 
 people. The most ancient and the greatest 
 of the orders, such as the Alwanis the Ad- 
 hamls, the. Qadins, the Rufaffs, the Naqsh- 
 bandis, the Khalwatis. &c., are considered as 
 the cardinal orders; for which reason they 
 call themselves the Usuis, or “ Originals,” 
 
FAQIR 
 
 FARAQLIT 
 
 128 
 
 They give to the others the names of the 
 Furu‘, or “ Branches,” signifying thereby 
 secondary ones, to designate their filiation 
 or emanation from the first. The order of 
 the Naqshbandis and Khalwatis hold, how¬ 
 ever, the first rank in the temporal line ; the 
 one on account of the conformity of its sta¬ 
 tutes to the ^principles of the ten first con¬ 
 fraternities, and to the lustre which causes 
 the grandees and principal citizens of the 
 empire to incorporate themselves in it ; and 
 the other, because of its being the source of 
 the mother society which gave birth to many 
 others. In the spiritual line, the order of 
 the Qadirls, Maulawis, Bakhtashis. Rufa‘is, 
 and the Sa'dis, are the most distinguished, 
 especially the three first, on account of the 
 eminent sanctity of their founders, of the mul¬ 
 titude of the miracles attributed to them, and 
 of the superabundance of the merit which is 
 deemed especially attached to them. 
 
 Although all of them are considered as 
 mendicant orders, no darwesh is allowed to 
 beg, especially in public. The only exception 
 is among the Bakhtashis. who deem it meri¬ 
 torious to live by alms; and many of these 
 visit not only private houses, but even the 
 streets, public squares, bureaux, and public 
 houses, for the purpose of recommending 
 themselves to the charity of their brethren. 
 
 They only express their requests by the 
 words “ Shayid Ullah,” a corruption from 
 “ Shayun li-llah" which means, “ Something 
 for the love of God.” Many of these make it 
 a rule to live only by the labour of their 
 hands, in imitation of Haji Bakhtash. their 
 founder; and, like him, they make spoons, 
 ladles, graters, and other utensils, of wood or 
 marble. It is these, also, who fashion the 
 pieces of marble, white or veined, which are 
 used as collars or buckles for the belts of 
 all the darweshes of their order, and the 
 kash/culs, or shell cups, in which they are 
 obliged to ask alms. 
 
 Although in no wise bound by any oaths, 
 all being free to change their community, and 
 even to return to the world, and there to 
 adopt any occupation which may please their 
 fancy, it is rarely that anyone makes use of 
 this liberty. Each one regards it as a sacred 
 duty to end his days in the dress of his order. 
 To this spirit of poverty and perseverance, in 
 which they are so exemplary, must be added 
 that of perfect submission to their superior. 
 This latter is elevated by the deep humility 
 which accompanies all their conduct, not 
 only in the interior of the cloisters, but even 
 in private life. One never meets them any¬ 
 where but with head bent and the most 
 respectful countenance. They never salute 
 anyone, particularly the Maulawis, and the 
 Bakhtashis. except by the exclamation, “ Yd 
 Hu ! ” The words Ai bi-llah, “ thanks to God,” 
 frequently are used in their conversation; and 
 the more devout or enthusiastic speak only 
 of dreams, visions, celestial spirits, super¬ 
 natural objects, &c. 
 
 They are seldom exposed to the trouble 
 and vexations of ambition, because the most 
 ancient darweshes are those who may aspire 
 
 to the grade of shaikh, or superior of the 
 convent. The shaikhs are named by their 
 respective generals, called the Raisu ’1- 
 Masha’ikh (chief of shaikhs). Those of the 
 Maulawis have the distinctive title of Che- 
 leby Efendi. All reside in the same cities 
 which contain the ashes of the founders of 
 their orders, called by the name of Astaneh 
 signifying “the court.” They are subordi¬ 
 nate to the Mufti of the capital, who exer¬ 
 cises absolute jurisdiction over them. In the 
 Turkish Empire the Shaikhu ’1-Islam has the 
 right of removing all the generals of the va¬ 
 rious orders, even those of the Qadirls, the 
 Maulawis, and of the Bakhtashis. although 
 the dignity be hereditary in their family, on 
 account of their all three being sprung from 
 the blood of the same founders of their 
 orders. The Mufti has likewise the right to 
 confirm the shaikhs who may be nominated 
 by any of the generals of the orders. 
 
 (See The Dervishes or Oriental Spiritualism, 
 by John P. Brown ; Malcolm’s Persia ; Lane’s 
 Modern Egyptians : D’Ohsson’s Ottoman Em¬ 
 pire ; Ubicini’s Letters on Turkey ; Herklott’s 
 Musalmans-, Tazkiratu 'l-Auliyd, by Shaikh 
 Farldu ’d-DIn al-‘Attar.) 
 
 FAQR (yji). The life of a Faqir 
 
 or an ascetic. 
 
 FARA‘ (£/). The first-born of 
 
 either camels, sheep, or goats, which the 
 Arab pagans used to offer to idols. This 
 was allowed by the Prophet at the com¬ 
 mencement of his mission, but afterwards 
 abolished. ( Mishkat , book iv. c. 50.) 
 
 FARA’IZ ((jcflji), pi. of Farizah. 
 
 “ Inheritances.” A term used for the law of 
 inheritance, or ‘Ilmu ’1-Fara'iz. Farizah means 
 literally an ordinance of God, and this branch 
 of Muslim law is so called because it is esta¬ 
 blished fully in the Qur’an, Surah iv. [inhe¬ 
 ritance.] 
 
 FARAQ (jy). Fit. “ Separation.” 
 
 Faraq-i-Awwal is a term used by Sufi 
 mystics to express that state of mind in which 
 the soul is drawn away from a contempla¬ 
 tion of God by a contemplation of his crea¬ 
 tion ; and faraq-i-sdni (the second separa¬ 
 tion) is when the soul is constantly contem¬ 
 plating the stability of the creation with the 
 eternity of the Creator. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Dictionary of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 FARAQLIT (W^). Tbe Arabic 
 
 rendering of the Greek TrapaKXrjTOS, “ Para¬ 
 clete.” Muhammadan writers assert that it 
 is the original of the word translated Ahmad 
 in the following verse in the Qur’an, Surah 
 lxi. v. 6- 
 
 “And call to mind when Jesus, son of 
 Mary, said:—‘0 children of Israel! Verily I 
 am an Apostle of God unto you, attesting the 
 Taurat revealed before me, and giving good 
 tidings of a Prophet that shall come after 
 whose name is Ahmad.'’ 
 
 Ahmad is another derivative of the root to 
 which Muhammad belongs, signifying, like it, 
 
124 
 
 FARSAKH 
 
 PASTING 
 
 “ the Praised.” It is not improbable that in 
 some imperfect copies of St. John xvi. 7, 
 TrapaKXyjTOs may have been rendered Trepi- 
 kAutos, which in some early Arabic transla¬ 
 tion of the Gospel may have been translated 
 Afimad. In the Majma‘u ’l-Bihar, a work 
 written three hundred years ago, the word 
 fdraqlit is said to mean a distinguisher be¬ 
 tween truth and error The word also occurs 
 several times in the well-known Shi‘ah work, 
 the lfayatu ’l-Qulub (vide Merrick’s transla¬ 
 tion, page 86). The author says, “It is well 
 known that his (the Prophet’s) name in the 
 Taurat is Muadmuad, in the gospels (Injil) 
 Tabtab, and in the Psalms ( Zabur ) Farak- 
 leet." And again (p. 308), “ God said to 
 Jesus, 0 Son of my handmaid . . . verily 
 I will send the chosen of prophets, Ahmad, 
 whom I have selected of all my creatures, 
 even h'arkaleet, my friend and servant.” 
 [JESUS.] 
 
 FARSAKH (£~>4). Persian Far- 
 
 sang. A land measure which occurs in Mu¬ 
 hammadan books of law. It is a league of 
 18,000 feet, or three and a half miles in 
 length. 
 
 FARWAH (S^i). An Arab of the 
 
 Banu Juzam and Governor of ‘Amman, who 
 is represented by tradition (upon imperfect 
 evidence) as one of the early martyrs of 
 Islam. Having been converted to Islam, the 
 Roman authorities crucified him. (Muir’s 
 Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 103.) 
 
 FARZ (u=f). That which is obli¬ 
 gatory. A term used for those rules and or¬ 
 dinances of religion which are said to have 
 been established and enjoined by God Him¬ 
 self, as distinguished from those which are 
 established upon the precept or practice of 
 the Pi'ophet, and which are called sunnah. 
 
 FARZ KIFA’I (JW A 
 
 command which is imperative (/arz) upon 
 all Muslims, but which if one person in eight 
 or ten performs it, it is sufficient ( kifa'i ), or 
 equivalent to all having performed it. 
 
 They are generally held to be five in num¬ 
 ber : (1) To return a salutation; (2) To visit 
 the sick and inquire after their welfare; (3) 
 To follow a bier on foot to the grave ; (4) To 
 accept an invitation to dinner; (5) Replying 
 to a sneeze, [sneezing.] 
 
 They are also said to be six or seven in 
 number, when there are added one or two 
 of the following: (1) To give advice when 
 asked for it; (2) To help a Muslim to 
 verify his oath; (3) To assist a person in 
 distress. ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says this last injunc¬ 
 tion applies to all cases, whether that of a 
 Muslim or an infidel. ( Mishkat , book v. c. i. 
 part 1.) 
 
 FARZTJ ’L-‘AIN \ An 
 
 injunction or ordinance the obligation of 
 which extends to every Muslim, as prayer, 
 fasting, &c. 
 
 FASID (JuAi). A seditious or re¬ 
 
 bellious person 
 
 FASIQ (<j~Ai). A term used in 
 
 Muhammadan law for a reprobate person 
 who neglects decorum in his dress and beha¬ 
 viour. The acceptance of such a person’s evi¬ 
 dence is not admissible. He is not regarded 
 as a Muslim citizen, although he may profess 
 Islam. 
 
 FASTING-. Arabic Saurn ; 
 Persian Rozah (2[y)- Fasting was 
 highly commended by Muhammad as an 
 atonement for sin. The following are the 
 fasts founded upon the example of the Pro¬ 
 phet and observed by devout Muslims :— 
 
 (1) The thirty-days of the month of Rama¬ 
 zan. This month’s fast is regarded as a 
 divine institution, being enjoined in the 
 Qur’an (Surah ii. 180) and is therefore com¬ 
 pulsory. [RAMAZAN.] 
 
 (2) The day ‘■Ashura’. The tenth day of 
 the month Muharram. This is a voluntary 
 fast, but it is pretty generally observed by all 
 Muslims, for Abu Qatadah relates that the 
 Prophet said he hoped that the fast of 
 ‘Ashura’ would cover the sins of the coming 
 year. ( Mishlcat , book vii. ch. vii. pt. 1.) 
 [‘ashura’.] 
 
 (3) The six days following the ‘Idu ’l-Fitr. 
 Abu Aiyub relates that the Prophet said, 
 “ The person who fasts the month of Rama¬ 
 zan, and follows it up with six days of the 
 month of Shawwal, will obtain the rewards of 
 a continued fast.” ( Mishkat, book vii. ch. vii. 
 pt. 1.) 
 
 (4) The Monday and Thursday of every 
 week are recommended as fast days, as dis¬ 
 tinguished from the Christian fast of Wed¬ 
 nesday. Abu Hurairah relates that the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ The actions of God’s servants 
 are represented at the throne of God on 
 Mondays and Thursdays.” (Mishkat, book 
 vii. ch. vii. pt. 2.) These days are only 
 observed by strictly religious Muslims. 
 
 (5) The month of Sha‘ban. ‘Ayishah re¬ 
 lates that “ the Prophet used sometimes to 
 fast part of this month and sometimes the 
 whole.” ( Mishkat , book vii. ch. vii. pt. 1.) 
 It is seldom observed in the present day. 
 
 (6) The 13th, 14th, and 15th of each 
 month. These days are termed al-ayyamu ’l- 
 biz. i.e. the bright days, and were observed by 
 Muhammad himself as fasts. ( Mishkat , book 
 vii. ch. vii. pt. 2) These are generally ob¬ 
 served by devout Muslims. 
 
 (7) Fasting alternate days* which Muham¬ 
 mad said was the fast observed by David, 
 King of Israel. ( Mishkat, book vii. ch. vii. 
 pt. 1.) 
 
 In the Traditions, fastiDg is commended by 
 Muhammad in the following words :— 
 
 “ Every good act that a man does shall 
 receive from ten to seven hundred rewards, 
 but the rewards of fasting are beyond bounds, 
 for fasting is for God alone, and He will give 
 its rewards.” 
 
 “ He who fasts abandons the cravings of 
 his appetites for God’s sake.” 
 
 “ There are two pleasures in fasting, one 
 when the person who fasts breaks it, and the 
 other in the next world when he meets his 
 
FATE 
 
 AL-FATIMIYAH 
 
 Lord. The very smell of the mouth of a 
 keeper of a fast is more agreeable to God 
 than the smell of musk.” 
 
 “ Fasting is a shield.” 
 
 “ When any of you fast utter no bad words, 
 nor raise your voice in strife. If anyone 
 abuse one who is fasting, let him refrain from 
 replying; let him say that he is keeping a 
 fast.” ( Mishkat , book vii. ch. i. pt. 1.) 
 
 FATE, [predestination.] 
 al-FATH (e^), “The victory.” 
 
 The title of the XLvmth Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the first verse of which the word occurs. 
 “ Verily We (God) have given thee an obvious 
 victory, that God may pardon thee thy for¬ 
 mer and later sin.” 
 
 Professor Palmer says “ Some of the com¬ 
 mentators take this to mean sins committed 
 by Muhammad before his call and after it. 
 Others refer the word to the liaison with the 
 Coptic handmaiden Mary, and to his mar¬ 
 riage with Zainab,the wife of his adopted son 
 Zaid.” None of the commentators we have 
 consulted, including al-Baizawi, al-Jalalan, 
 al-Kamalan, and Husain, give the last in¬ 
 terpretation. They all say it refers to his 
 sins before and after his call to the Apostle- 
 ship. 
 
 FATHER. In the Sunni law of 
 
 inheritance, a father is a sharer in the pro¬ 
 perty of his son or son’s son, taking one-sixth, 
 but if his son die unmarried and without 
 issue, the father is the residuary and takes 
 the whole. 
 
 According to the law of qisas or retalia¬ 
 tion, if a father take the life of his son, he is 
 not to be slain, for the Prophet has said, 
 “ Retaliation must not be executed upon the 
 parent for his offspring”; and Abu Hanifah 
 adds, “ because as the parent is the efficient 
 cause of his child’s existence, it is not proper 
 that the child should require or be the occasion 
 of his father’s death ”; whence it is that a son 
 is forbidden to shoot his father, when in the 
 army of the enemy, or to throw a stone at 
 him, if suffering lapidation for adultery. 
 
 In the law of evidence, the testimony of a 
 father for or against his child is not admitted 
 in a court of law. 
 
 al-FATIHAH (fcteN). Lit. “ The 
 
 opening one.” The first chapter of the 
 Qur’an, called also the Suratu ’l-Hamd, or 
 the “ Chapter of Praise.” It is held in great 
 veneration by Muhammadans, and is used by 
 them very much as the Paternoster is recited 
 by Roman Catholics. It is repeated over sick 
 persons as a means of healing and also 
 recited as an intercession for the souls of the 
 departed, and occurs in each rak‘ah of the 
 daily prayer. Muhammad is related to have 
 said it was the greatest Surah in the Qur’an, 
 and to have called it the Qur’anu ’ l-‘Azim , or 
 the “ exalted reading.” It is also entitled 
 the Sab‘u ’ l-Masa.nl , or the “ seven recitals,” 
 as it contains seven verses; also Ummu 7- 
 Qur’an, the “ Mother of the Qur’an.” Accord- 
 
 125 
 
 ing to a saying of the Prophet, the fatihah 
 was revealed twice; once at Makkah and 
 once at al-Madinah. The Amin is always said 
 at the conclusion of this prayer. 
 
 The following transliteration of the Arabic 
 of the Fatihah into English characters may 
 give some idea of the rhythm in which the 
 Qur’an is written :— 
 
 “ Al-hamdu li-llahi Rabbi 'l-‘alamin. 
 
 Ar-rah.ma.ni ’ r-rahim. 
 
 Malilci yaumi 'd-din. 
 
 lyalca na‘budu, wa-iyaka nasta‘in. 
 
 Ihdina. 's-sirata ’l-mustaqim. 
 
 Sirata ’l/azina an l amta ‘alaihim. 
 
 Ghairi ’ l-maghzubi ‘ alaihim , wala ’z- 
 zallin. 
 
 Which is translated by Rodwell in his English 
 Qur’an as follows :— 
 
 “ Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds 1 
 
 The Compassionate, the Merciful! 
 
 King on the Day of Judgment 1 
 
 Thee do we worship, and to Thee do we 
 cry for help 1 
 
 Guide Thou us on the right path! 
 
 The path of those to whom Thou art 
 gracious 1 
 
 Not of those with whom Thou art an¬ 
 gered, nor of those who go astray.” 
 
 FATIMAH (a*!=U). A daughter 
 
 of Muhammad, by his first wife Khadijah. 
 She married‘All the cousin of Muhammad, by 
 whom she had three sons, al-Hasan, al-Husain, 
 and al-Muhsin; the latter died in infancy. 
 From the two former are descended the pos¬ 
 terity of the Prophet, known as Saiyids. 
 Fatimah died six months after her father. 
 She is spoken of by the Prophet as one of the 
 four perfect women, and is called al-Batul, or 
 “the Virgin,” by which is meant one who had 
 renounced the World, also Fatimatu 'z- 
 zuhra', or “ the beautiful Fatimah.” 
 
 There are three women of the name of 
 Fatimah mentioned in the Traditions: (1) 
 Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad ; (2) 
 The mother of ‘All; (3) The daughter of 
 Harnzah, the uncle of Muhammad. 
 
 al-FATIMIYAH (<L*Ua^). “The 
 
 Fatimides.” A dynasty of Khalffahs who 
 reigned over Egypt and North Africa from 
 a.d. 908 to a.d. 1171. They obtained the 
 name from the pretensions of the founder of 
 their dynasty Abu Muhammad ‘Ubaidu 
 Tlah, who asserted that he was a Saiyid, 
 and descended from Fatimah, the daughter 
 of the Prophet and ‘All. His opponents de¬ 
 clared he was the grandson of a Jew of the 
 Magian religion. 
 
 There were in all fourteen Khallfahs of 
 this dynasty :— 
 
 1. ‘ Ubaidu’llah, the first Fatimide Khali- 
 fah, was born a.d. 882. Having incurred the 
 displeasure of al-Muktafi, the reigning Abas- 
 side Khalifah, he was obliged to wander 
 through various parts of Africa, till through 
 fortunate circumstances he was raised in 
 a.d. 910 from a dungeon in Segelmessa to 
 sovereign power. He assumed the title of 
 al-Mahdl, or “the Director of the Faithful.” 
 
126 
 
 AL-FATIMIYAH 
 
 AL-FATIMIYAH 
 
 [mahdi.] He subdued the Amirs in the 
 north of Africa, who had become independent 
 of the Abassides, and established his autho¬ 
 rity from the Atlantic to the borders of 
 Egypt. He founded Mahadi on the site of 
 the ancient Aphrodisium, a town on the coast 
 of Africa, about a hundred miles south of 
 Tunis, and made it his capital. He became 
 the author of a great schism among the Mu¬ 
 hammadans by disowning the authority of 
 the Abassides, and assuming the titles of 
 Kh alifah and Amiru ’1-Mu’minin, “ Prince of 
 the Faithful.” His fleets ravaged the coasts 
 of Italy and Sicily, and his armies frequently 
 invaded Egypt, but without any permanent 
 success. 
 
 (2) Al-Qa’im succeeded his father in a.d. 
 933. During his reign, an impostor, Abu 
 Yazid, originally an Ethiopian slave, advanced 
 certain peculiar doctrines in religion, which 
 he was enabled to propagate over the whole 
 of the north of Africa, and was so successful 
 in his military expeditions as to deprive al- 
 Qa’im of all his dominions, and confine him to 
 his capital, Mahadi, which he was besieging 
 when al-Qa’im died. 
 
 (3) Al-Mansur succeeded his father in 
 a.d. 946, when the kingdom was in a 
 state of the greatest confusion. By his valour 
 and prudence he regained the greater part of 
 the dominions of his grandfather ‘Ubaidu 
 ’llah, defeated the usurper Abu Yazid, and laid 
 the foundation of that power which enabled his 
 son al-Mu‘izz to conquer Egypt. 
 
 (4) Al-Mu l izz (a.d. 955) was the most 
 powerful of the Fatimide Khalifahs. He was 
 successful in a naval war with Spain, and 
 took the island of Sicily; but his most cele¬ 
 brated conquest was that of Egypt, which 
 was subdued in a.d. 972. Two years after¬ 
 wards he removed his court to Egypt, and 
 founded Cairo. The name of the Abasside 
 Khalifah was omitted in the Friday prayers, 
 and his own substituted in its place ; from 
 which time the great schism of the Fatimide 
 and Abasside Khallfahs is more frequently 
 dated than from the assumption of the title 
 by ‘Ubaidu ’llah. The armies of al-Mu‘izz 
 conquered the whole of Palestine and Syria as 
 far as Damascus. 
 
 (5) Al- l Aziz (a.d. 978). The dominions re¬ 
 cently acquired by al-Mu‘izz were secured to 
 the Fatimide Khallfahs by the wise govern¬ 
 ment of his son, al-‘Aziz, who took several 
 towns in Syria. He married a Christian 
 woman, whose brothers he made patriarchs 
 of Alexandria and Jerusalem. 
 
 (6) Al-Hdkim was only eleven years of age 
 when he succeeded his father in a.d. 996. 
 He is distinguished even among Oriental 
 despots by his cruelty and folly. His tyranny 
 caused frequent insurrections in Cairo. He 
 persecuted the Jews and Christians, and 
 burnt their places of worship. By his order 
 the Church of the Resurrection at Jerusalem 
 was destroyed (a.d. 1009). His persecutions 
 of the Christians induced them to appeal to 
 their brethren in the West, and was one of 
 the causes that led to the crusades. He 
 carried his folly so far as to seek to become 
 
 the founder of a new religion, and to assert 
 that he was the express image of God. He 
 was assassinated in a.d 1021, and was suc¬ 
 ceeded by his son. 
 
 (7) Az-Zahir (a.d. 1021) was not so cruel 
 as his father, but was addicted to pleasure, 
 and resigned all the cares of government to 
 his Vizirs. In his reign the power of the 
 Fatimide Khallfahs began to decline. They 
 possessed nothing but the external show of 
 royalty; secluded in the harem, they were 
 the slaves of their vizirs whom they could 
 not remove, and dared not disobey. In addi¬ 
 tion to the evils of misgovernment, Egypt 
 was afflicted in the reign of az-Zahir with 
 one of the most dreadful famines that ever 
 visited the country. 
 
 (8) Al-Mustansir (a.d. 1037) was only nine 
 years old when he succeeded his father. The 
 Turks invaded Syria and Palestine in his 
 reign, took Damascus and Jerusalem (1076), 
 where the princes of the house of Ortok, a 
 Turkish family, established an independent 
 kingdom. They advanced to the Nile with 
 the intention of conquering Egypt, but were 
 repulsed. 
 
 (9) A/-Musta‘li (a.d. 1094), the second son 
 of al-Mustansir, was seated on the throne by 
 the all-powerful Vizir Afzal, in whose hands 
 the entire power rested during the whole of 
 al-MustaTi’s reign. The invasion of Asia 
 Minor by the Crusaders in 1097 appeared to 
 Afzal a favourable opportunity for the reco¬ 
 very of Jerusalem. Refusing to assist the 
 Turks against the Crusaders, he marched 
 against Jerusalem, took it (1098), and de¬ 
 prived the Ortok princes of the sovereignty 
 which they had exercised for twenty years. 
 His possession of Jerusalem was, however, of 
 very short duration, for it was taken in the 
 following year (1099) by the Crusaders. 
 Anxious to recover his loss, he led an im¬ 
 mense army in the same year against Jeru¬ 
 salem, but was entirely defeated by the Cru¬ 
 saders near Ascalon. 
 
 (10) Al-Amir (a.d. 1101). 
 
 (11) Al-Hafiz (a.d. 1129). 
 
 (12) Az-Zafir (a.d. 1149). 
 
 (13) A l-Fffiz (a.d. 1154). 
 
 During these reigns the power of the Fati- 
 mides rapidly decayed. 
 
 (14) Al-'Azid (a.d. 1160) Was the last 
 Khalifah of the Fatimide dynasty At the 
 commencement of his reign Egypt Was 
 divided into two, factions, the respective 
 chiefs of which, Dargham and Shawir, dis¬ 
 puted for the dignity of Vizir. Shawir im¬ 
 plored the assistance of Nuru’d-din, who sent 
 an army into Egypt under the command of 
 Shirkuh, by means of which his rival was 
 crushed. But becoming jealous of Nuru’d- 
 dln’s power in Egypt, he solicited the aid of 
 Amauri, King of Jerusalem, who marched 
 into Egypt and expelled Shirkuh from the 
 country. Nuru ’d-dln soon sent another 
 army into Egypt under the same commander, 
 who was accompanied by his nephew, the 
 celebrated Salahu ’d-din (Saladin). Shirkuh 
 was again unsuccessful, and was obliged to 
 retreat. The ambition of Amauri afforded 
 
FATQ 
 
 shortly afterwards a more favourable oppor¬ 
 tunity for the reduction of Egypt. Amauri, 1 
 after driving Shirkuh out of the country, 
 meditated the design of reducing it to his own 
 authority. Shawir, alarmed at the success 
 of Amauri, entreated the assistance of Nuru 
 'd-din, who sent Shirkuh for the third time at 
 the head of a numerous army. He repulsed 
 the Christians, and afterwards put the trea¬ 
 cherous Vizir to death. Shirkuh succeeded 
 to his dignity, but dying shortly after, Sala- 
 din obtained the post of Vizir. As Nuru’d- 
 din was attached to the interests of the 
 Abassides, he gave orders for the proclama¬ 
 tion of al-Mustahdi, the Abasside Khalifah, 
 and for depriving the Fatimides of the Khali- 
 fate. ‘Azid, who was then on a sick-bed, 
 died a few days afterwards, [khalifah.] 
 
 FATQ Lit. “ Opening.” A 
 
 term used by Sufi mystics to explain the 
 eternity of matter, together with its develop¬ 
 ment in creation. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, 
 of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 FATEAH (sysi). Lit. “ Languor,” 
 
 or “ Intermission.'’ (1) The interval between 
 the supposed revelation of the xcvith Surah 
 of the Qur’an and the Lxxrvth and xemrd 
 Surahs. It is during this period that the 
 powers of inspiration of the Prophet are said 
 to have been suspended, and it was then that 
 he contemplated suicide by intending to cast 
 himself from Mount Hira’. The accounts of 
 this interval are confused and contradictory, 
 and various are the periods assigned to it, 
 viz. from seven months to seven years. 
 
 (2) The term is also used for the time 
 which elapses between the disappearance of 
 a prophet and the appearance of another. 
 {GJnyasu 'l-Lughah in loco.) 
 
 (3) A term used by Sufi mystics for a de¬ 
 clension in spiritual life. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 al-FATTAH ( c ^), “The Opener ” 
 
 of that which is difficult. 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes 
 of God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah 
 xxxiv., “ For He is the opener who knows.” 
 
 FATWA A religious or 
 
 judicial sentence pronounced by the Khalifah 
 or by a Mufti, or Qazi. It is generally 
 written. The following is a fatwa delivered 
 by the present Mufti of the Hanafi sect at 
 Makkah in reply to the question as to 
 whether India is a Daru ’ l-Islam. Fatwas are 
 generally written in a similar form to this, 
 but in Arabic :— 
 
 “ All praises are due to the Almighty, who 
 is Lord of all the creation! 
 
 0 Almighty, increase my knowledge ! 
 
 As long as even some of the peculiar 
 observances of Islam prevail in it, it 
 is the Daru ’1-Islam. 
 
 The Almighty is Omniscient, Pure and 
 High! 
 
 This is the Fatwa passed by one who 
 
 hopes for the secret favour of the Al- 
 
 FIDYAH 127 
 
 mighty, who praises God, and prays for 
 blessings and peace on his Prophet. 
 
 (Signed) Jamal ibn ‘Abdu ’l-lah 
 Shaikh ■Umaku ’l-Hanafi, the 
 present Mufti of Makkah (the 
 Honoured). 
 
 May God favour him and his father.” 
 
 FAITJDAE (jl-^-y). An officer of 
 
 the Moghul Government who was invested 
 with the charge of the police, and jurisdiction 
 in all criminal matters. A criminal judge. 
 Faujdari is a term now used in British courts 
 for a criminal suit as opposed to diwani, or 
 civil. 
 
 FATJTTJ ’L-HAJJ (gjt «>,*). The 
 
 end of the Pilgrimage, [pilgrimage.] 
 
 FAZL (J*=i). Lit. “That which 
 
 remains over and above; redundant.” A 
 word used in the Qur’an for God’s grace or 
 kindness. Surah ii. 244: “ God is Lord of 
 grace to men, hut most men give no thanks." 
 The Christian idea of divine grace, as in the 
 New Testament, seems to be better expressed 
 by fayz-i-aqdas. 
 
 FAZITLl Lit. “ That 
 
 which is in excess.” A term used in Muham¬ 
 madan law for anything unauthorised, e.g. 
 bai‘-i-fazuti, is an unauthorised sale. Nikah- 
 i-fazuh is an unauthorised marriage, when 
 the contracts are made by an unauthorised 
 agent. 
 
 FEAST DAYS. Arabic ‘id (a^); 
 
 dual Hdan ; plural a‘yad. The two great 
 festivals of the Muhammadans are, the l ldu 
 ’l-Fitr, and the Ldu 'l-Azha. The other fes¬ 
 tivals which are celebrated as days of re¬ 
 joicing are, the Shab-i-Barat, or the fifteenth 
 day of Sha‘ban ; the Nau-Roz, or New Year’s 
 day; the Akhir-i- Chahar Shamba, or the 
 last Wednesday of the month of Safar; the 
 Laylatu ’ r-Ragha'ib , or the first Friday in 
 the month of the month Rajab ; the Maulud, 
 or the birthday of Muhammad. 
 
 An account of these feasts is given under 
 their respective titles. 
 
 FEMALE INFANTICIDE, which 
 
 existed amongst the ancient Arabians, was 
 condemned by Muhammad. Vide Qur’an :— 
 Surah xvi. 60 : “ For when the birth of a 
 daughter is announced to any one of them, 
 dark shadows settle on his face, and he is 
 sad. He hideth himself from the people be¬ 
 cause of the had news : shall he keep it with 
 disgrace or bury it in the dust? Are not 
 their judgments wrong.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 33: “ Kill not your children for 
 fear of want: for them and for you will We 
 (God) provide.” 
 
 Surah lxxxi. 8: “ . . . And when the dam¬ 
 sel that had been bulled alive shall be asked 
 (at the Day of Judgment) for what crime she 
 was put to death.” 
 
 FID YAH (ijAi). A ransom. From 
 
 fida', “ to ransom,” “ to exchange.” An expia- 
 
128 
 
 PIG 
 
 FIRDAUS 
 
 tion for sin, or for duties unperformed. The 
 word occurs three times in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah ii. 180: “For those who are able to 
 keep it (the fast) and yet break it, there shall 
 be as an expiation the maintenance of a poor 
 man.” 
 
 Surah ii. 192: “Perform the pilgrimage 
 and the visitation of the holy places. . . . But 
 whoever among you is sick, or hath an ail¬ 
 ment of the head, must expiate by fasting, or 
 alms, or a sacrifice.” 
 
 Surah lvii. 14: “ On that day (the Day of 
 Judgment) no expiation shall be taken from 
 you (i.e. the hypocrites) or from those who 
 do not believe; your abode is the fire.” 
 
 The other word used in the Qur’an for the 
 same idea is kaffarah. [kaffarah, expia¬ 
 tion.] 
 
 PIG. Arabic at-Tin The 
 
 title of the xovth Surah of the Qur’an, so 
 called because Muhammad makes the Al¬ 
 mighty swear by that fruit in the first verse. 
 Al-Baizawi says God swears by figs because 
 of their great use. They are most excellent, 
 because they can be eaten at once, having no 
 stones, they are easy of digestion, and help 
 to carry off the phlegm, and gravel in the 
 kidneys or bladder, and remove obstructions 
 of the liver, and also cure piles and gout. 
 ( Tafsiru ’l-Baizawi, in loco). 
 
 FIJAR (jhs-i). Lit. “ That which 
 
 is unlawful.” A term given to a series of sacri¬ 
 legious wars carried on between the Quraish, 
 and the Banff Hawazin, when Muhammad 
 was a youth, about a.d. 580-590. (Muir, 
 vol. ii. 3.) 
 
 al-FIL The title of the 
 
 cvth Sffrah of the Qur’an, as it gives an 
 account of the Ashabu ’l-Fil, or “ People of 
 the Elephant.” [elephant.] 
 
 FINES. Arabic Diyah (&m). A 
 
 term which, in its strictest sense, means a 
 sum exacted for any offence upon the person, 
 in consideration for the claim of gisas, or 
 retaliation, not being insisted upon. (This 
 does not apply to wilful murder.) A full and 
 complete fine is that levied upon a person for 
 manslaughter, which consists of either one 
 hundred female camels or ten thousand dir¬ 
 hams (silver), or one thousand dinars (gold). 
 
 The fine for slaying a woman is half that 
 for slaying a man, “ because the rank of a 
 woman is lower than that of a man, so also 
 her faculties and uses ! ” The fine for slay¬ 
 ing a zimmi (be he a Jew, Christian, or ido¬ 
 later) is the same as for slaying a Muslim. 
 
 A complete fine is also levied for the 
 destruction of a nose, or a tongue, or a virile 
 member, and, also, if a person tear out the 
 beard, or the Hair of the scalp, or the whiskers, 
 or both eyebrows, so that they never grow 
 again, “ because the beauty of the countenance 
 is thereby effaced.” 
 
 A complete fine is due for any fellow parts, 
 as for two eyes, two lips, &c., and one half the 
 fine for one single member. 
 
 For each finger, a tenth of the complete 
 
 fine is due, and as every finger has three 
 joints, a third of the fine for the whole is due 
 for each joint. 
 
 The fine for a tooth is a twentieth of the 
 complete fine. 
 
 A half fine is due for merely destroying the 
 use of a limb, but if a person strike another in 
 any way so as to completely destroy the beauty 
 of his person, a complete fine must be paid. 
 Wounds on the face, viz. from the crown of 
 the head to the chin, are specially treated, 
 and are termed shijaj. Of shijaj, or “ face 
 wounds,” there are ten: (1) harifah, or such 
 as draw no blood—a mere scratch; (2) dami- 
 yah, a scratch which draws blood, without 
 causing it to flow; (3) damiyah, a scratch 
 which causes blood to flow ; (4) bazi‘ah, a cut 
 through the skin; (5) mutalahimah, a cut 
 to the flesh ; (6) simhaq, a wound reaching 
 into the pericranium; (7) muzihah, a wound 
 which lays bare the bone ; (8J hashimah, a 
 fracture of the skull; (9) mundkilah, a frac¬ 
 ture which causes the removal of part of 
 the skull; (10) ammah, a wound extending 
 to the brain. 
 
 For an ammah wound, a third of the com¬ 
 plete fine is due. Fifteen camels are due for 
 a mundkilah, ten for a hashimah. five for a 
 muzihah, and so on. 
 
 All other wounds on other parts of the 
 body may be adjusted for according to the 
 above scale, but are left to the decision of 
 the judge. 
 
 For further information on the subject see 
 “ Babu ’1-Diyah ” in the Durru ’ l-Mukhtar , or 
 the Hidayah, or the Fatdwa ‘Alamgiri , or the 
 Raddu ’ l-Muhtar. 
 
 FIQH (iai). The dogmatic theo¬ 
 logy of the Muslims. Works on Muhammadan 
 law, whether civil or religious. The books most 
 read by the Sunnis are the Hidayah, written 
 by a learned man named ‘All ibn Abi Bakr, 
 a.h. 593, part of which has been translated 
 by the late Colonel Charles Hamilton; the 
 Durru ’l-Mukhtar, by ‘Ala’u ’d-din, a.h. 1088 ; 
 the Sharhu l- Wiqdyah, by ‘Ubaidu ’llah ibn 
 Mas'ffd, a.h. 745; the Raddu ’l-Muhtar, by 
 Saiyid Muhammad Amin ibn ‘Abidi ’d-din, 
 and the Fatdwa ‘Alamgiri Amongst the 
 Imamiyah School, or Shi‘ahs, the principal 
 works are Kitabu ’sh-Sharai‘ , by Abff ’1- 
 Hasan ‘All (a.h. 326) ; the Muqni‘ fi ’l-Fiqh, 
 by Abff Ja‘far (a.h. 360); the Shara'i’u 7- 
 Islam, by Shaikh Najmu ’d-din (a.h. 679); 
 and the Jami‘u ’l-‘Abbdsi, by Baha’u ’d-din 
 (a.h. 1031). 
 
 FlRASAH (<Ldji), or farasah. A 
 
 Sufi term for the enlightenment of the heart. 
 A penetration into the secrets of the un¬ 
 known. ‘llrnu ’l-Jirasah, “ The science of 
 physiognomy.” 
 
 FIRASH (jty). Lit, “A couch.” 
 
 In Muhammadan law “ a wife.” 
 
 FIR'AUN [pharoah.] 
 
 FIRDAUS The highest 
 
 stage of celestial bliss, [paradise.] 
 
FIRE 
 
 FIVE SENSES 
 
 129 
 
 FIRE. Arabic ndr (ft). (1) The 
 
 term an-nar, “ the fire,” is generally used in 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions for “ hell.” 
 (2) In the Qur’an (Surah xxxvii. 29) the 
 power of God is declared as being able to 
 “ give fire out of a green tree.” On which 
 al-BaizawI says “ the usual way of getting 
 fire is by rubbing two pieces of wood toge¬ 
 ther, one of which is markh and the other 
 afar, and they produce fire, although both 
 the sticks are green. (3) The burning to 
 death of human beings is condemned by 
 Muhammad, who said “ Let no one punish 
 with the punishment of fire but God.” 
 
 FIRST-BORN. Although the 
 
 Arabian legislator followed the Mosaic law 
 in so many of his legal enactments, he 
 has carefully avoided any legislation as to 
 the rights of primogeniture, although it formed 
 such a marked feature in the Pentateuch, in 
 which the first-born of man and beast were 
 devoted to God, and were redeemed with a 
 price. In the Muslim law of inheritance, all 
 the sons share equally, whilst in the Mosaic 
 law the eldest son received a double portion 
 of the father’s inheritance. (Deut. xxi. 17.) 
 
 In cases of chiefship, or monarchy, the 
 eldest son usually inherits, but it rests en¬ 
 tirely upon his fitness for the position. Very 
 often the eldest son is passed by and a 
 younger brother selected as ruler. This was 
 also the case amongst the Jews when Solo¬ 
 mon succeeded his father in the kingdom. 
 (1 Kings i. 30 ; ii. 22.) 
 
 The curious fact that Muhammad made no 
 provision for these rights of primogeniture, 
 may have arisen from his having had no son 
 to survive him. 
 
 FISH. Arabic samah (ud+~,). (1) 
 
 Fish which, dying of themselves, float upon 
 the surface of the water, are abominated, 
 according to Abu Hanlfah. Ash-Shafi‘i, 
 and Malik say they are indifferent. Abu 
 Hanifah teaches that fish which are killed 
 by accident are lawful, but such as die 
 of themselves without any accident are un¬ 
 lawful. There are, however, different opinions 
 regarding those which die of extreme heat or 
 cold. 
 
 (2) In the law of sale, it is not lawful to 
 sell fish which is not yet caught, nor is it 
 lawful to sell fish which the vendor may 
 have caught and afterwards thrown into a 
 large tank. 
 
 (3) Whilst the destruction of all animals, 
 except noxious ones, is forbidden during the 
 pilgrimage, fishing in the sea is permitted by 
 the Qu’ran, Surah v. 97: “ Lawful for you is 
 the game of the sea.” 
 
 FITAN pi. of fitnah. Sedi¬ 
 
 tions ; strifes ; commotions. 
 
 A term specially used for those wars and 
 commotions which shall precede the Resur¬ 
 rection. A chapter is devoted to the subject 
 in all the books of traditions. (See Sahihu 7- 
 Bukhari. p. 1045 ; Sahihu Muslim, p. 388.) 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ There 
 
 will be Khalifahs after me that will not go 
 the straight road in which I have gone, nor 
 will follow my example, but in those times 
 there will be the hearts of devils in the bodies 
 of men.” Huzaifah then said to him, “ 0 
 Prophet, what shall I do if I live to see 
 those days ? ” And the Prophet said, “ Obey 
 him who has the rule over you, even though 
 he flog your back and take your money.” 
 
 Safiyah, in a tradition (recorded in at-Tir- 
 mizi and Abu Da’ud), said that Muhammad 
 said that the succession would last for thirty 
 years, and that the “ four rightly directed 
 Khalifahs ” reigned exactly that time: Abu 
 Bakr, two years; ‘Umar, ten; ‘Usman, 
 twelve; and ‘All, six. 
 
 A mover or leader of sedition is called a 
 haghi or rebel, [rebellion.] 
 
 FITRAH (Zfti). Lit. “Nature.” 
 
 Certain ancient practices of the prophets 
 before the time of Muhammad, which have 
 not been forbidden by him. 
 
 ‘Ayishah relates that the Prophet said: 
 “There are ten qualities of the prophets— 
 clipping the mustachios, so that they do not 
 enter the mouth, not cutting or shaving the 
 beard, cleansing the teeth (i.e. miswak'), 
 cleansing the nostrils with water at the 
 usual ablutions, cutting the nails, cleaning 
 the finger joints, pulling out the hairs under 
 the arm-pits, shaving the hair of the privates, 
 washing with water after passing urine, and 
 cleansing the mouth with water at the time 
 of ablution.” (See Sahihu Muslim.') 
 
 The nose is to be washed out with water 
 because it is supposed that the devil resides 
 in the nose during the night. (See Mishkat .) 
 
 There is a chapter in the Avesta of the 
 Parsees, containing injunctions as to the 
 paring of the nails of the hands and feet. 
 
 FIVE FOUNDATIONS OF 
 
 ISLAM. (1) Shahadah, or bearing witness 
 that there is no deity but God ; (2) Salat, or 
 the observance of the five stated periods of 
 prayer ; (3) Zakat, giving the legal alms once 
 a year ; (4) S aum , fasting during the whole of 
 the month of Ramazan; (5) Hajj, the pil¬ 
 grimage to Makkah once in a life-time. 
 They are also called the five foundations of 
 practice, as distinguished from the six foun¬ 
 dations of faith. [ISLAM, IM AN.] 
 
 FIVE KEYS OF SECRET 
 
 KNOWLEDGE, which are with God alone, are 
 said to be found in the last verse of the Surah 
 Luqman (xxxist, 34) of the Qur’an : “ God ! 
 with Him is (1) the Knowledge of the Hour; 
 (2) and He sendeth down rain; (3) and He 
 knoweth what is in the wombs ; (4) but no 
 soul knoweth wha.t shall be on the morrow ; 
 (5) neither knoweth any soul in what land he 
 shall die. Verily God is knowing and is in¬ 
 formed of all.” 
 
 FIVE SENSES, The. Arabic al- 
 
 hawassul ’l-khamsah 
 
 According to Muhammadan writers, there are 
 
 five external ( zahiri) senses, and five internal 
 
 17 
 
130 
 
 FOOD 
 
 FORNICATION 
 
 (batinT) senses. The former being those five 
 faculties known amongst European writers as 
 seeing ( basirah ), hearing ( sam.i‘cek ), smelling 
 ( shammali ), taste ( za'iqali ), touch ( lamisah ). 
 The latter: common sense ( hiss-i-mushtaralc ), 
 the imaginative faculty (c/uwat-i-khai/ul). the 
 thinking facuity (quwat-i-mutasarrifah), the in¬ 
 stinctive faculty ( quwat-i-wahimah ), the re¬ 
 tentive faculty (quwat-i-hafizali). 
 
 FOOD. Arabic ta‘dm (^Uk), pi. 
 
 at‘imah. The injunctions contained in the 
 Qur’an (Surah ii. 167) respecting food are as 
 follows : “ 0 ye who believe ! eat of the good 
 things with which we have supplied you, and 
 give God thanks if ye are His worshippers. 
 Only that which dieth of itself, and blood, and 
 swine’s flesh, and that over which any other 
 name than that of God hath been invoked, 
 hath God forbidden you. But he who shall 
 partake of them by constraint, without desire, 
 or of necessity, then no sin shall be upon him. 
 Verily God is forgiving and merciful.” 
 Surah v. 92.: “ 0 Believers 1 wine (Jchamr) and 
 games of chance, and statues, and divining- 
 arrows are only an abomination of Satan’s 
 work ! Avoid them that ye may prosper.” 
 
 The other injunctions concerning food are 
 found in the Traditions and sayings of Mu¬ 
 hammad. 
 
 No animal, except fish and locusts, is lawful 
 food unless it be slaughtered according to the 
 Muhammadan law, namely, by drawing the 
 knife across the throat and cutting the wind¬ 
 pipe, the carotid arteries, and the gullet, re¬ 
 peating at the same time the words “ Bi'smi 
 ’llalii, Allahu akbar ,” i.e. “ In the name of 
 God, God is great.” A clean animal, so slaugh¬ 
 tered, becomes lawful food for Muslims, 
 whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians, or 
 Muhammadans, but animals slaughtered by 
 either an idolater, or an apostate from Islam, 
 is not lawful. 
 
 Zabh, or the slaying of animals, is of 
 two kinds. Ikhtiyari , or of choice, and 
 Iztirari, or of necessity. The former being 
 the slaughtering of animals in the name 
 of God, the latter being the slaughter effected 
 by a wound, as in shooting birds or animals, 
 in which case the words Bi'smi ’llahi , Allahu 
 akbar must be said at the time of the dis¬ 
 charge of the arrow from the bow or the 
 shot from the gun. 
 
 According to the Hidayah, all quadrupeds 
 that seize their prey with their teeth, and all 
 birds which seize it with their talons are un¬ 
 lawful, because the Prophet has prohibited 
 mankind from eating them. Hyenas, foxes, 
 elephants, weasels, pelicans, kites, carrion 
 crows, ravens, crocodiles, otters, asses, 
 mules, wasps, and in general all insects, are 
 forbidden. But there is some doubt as to the 
 lawfulness of horses’ flesh. Fishes dying of 
 themselves are also forbidden. 
 
 The prohibition of wine in the Qur’an under 
 the word khamr is held to exclude all things 
 ■which have an intoxicating tendency, such as 
 opium, chars, bhang, and tobacco. 
 
 A Muslim can have no religious scruples 
 to eat with a Christian, as long as the food 
 
 eaten is of a lawful kind. Saiyid Ahmad 
 Khan Bahadur, C.S.I., has written a treatise 
 proving that Muhammadans can eat with the 
 Ahl-i-Kztab, namely, Jews or Christians. The 
 Muhammadans of India, whilst they will eat 
 food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, refuse to 
 touch that cooked either by Native or Euro¬ 
 pean Christians; and they often refuse to 
 allow Christians to draw water from the 
 public wells, although Hindus are permitted 
 to do so. Such objections arise solely’ from 
 jealousy of race, and an unfriendly feeling 
 towards the ruling power. In Afghanistan 
 and Persia, no such objections exist; and no 
 doubt much evil has been caused by Govern¬ 
 ment allowing Hindustani Muslims to create 
 a religious custom which has no foundation 
 whatever, except that of national hatred to 
 their English conquerors, [eating.] 
 
 FORBIDDEN FRUIT, The. Men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 33 : “ And we 
 (God) said, 1 0 Adam, dwell thou and thy’ wife 
 in Paradise and eat therefrom amply as you 
 wish ; but do not draw near this tree ’ (shaja- 
 rah)." 
 
 Concerning this tree, the Commentators 
 have various opinions. Husain says some 
 say it was a fig tree, or a vine, but most 
 people think it was a grain of wheat ( liintah ) 
 from a wheat stalk, [adam, fall.] 
 
 FORGIVENESS, [pardon, ‘afu.] 
 FORGIVENESS OF INJURIES. 
 
 Enjoined in the Qur’an in the following 
 words (Surah xlii. 38) : “ Let the recompense 
 of evil be only a like evil—but he who for- 
 giveth and maketh peace, shall find his 
 reward for it from God ; verily He loveth not 
 those who act unjustly. And there shall be 
 no way open (i.e. no blame) against those 
 who, after being wronged, avenge themselves. 
 .... Whoso beareth wrongs and forgiveth— 
 this is a bounden duty.” 
 
 FORNICATION. Arabic ]). 
 
 The word zina’ includes both fornication with 
 an unmarried person, and adultery with a 
 married person, [adulteky.] 
 
 The sin of fornication must be established, 
 as in the case of adultery, either by proofs or 
 by confession. 
 
 To establish it by proof, four witnesses are 
 required, and if any person bring an accusa¬ 
 tion against a woman of chaste reputation 
 and fail to establish it, he must be punished 
 with eighty stripes, [qazf.] 
 
 When a person for conscience sake con¬ 
 fesses the sin of fornication, the confession 
 must be repeated four times at four different 
 appearances before a qazi, and the person con¬ 
 fessing must be very exact and particular as 
 to the circumstances, so that there can be no 
 mistake. A self-accused person may also 
 retract the confession at any period before, or 
 during, the infliction of the punishment, and 
 the retractation must be accepted. 
 
 The punishment for fornication is one hun¬ 
 dred stripes (or fifty for a slave). The 
 
FORTUNE-TELLING 
 
 FRIDAY 
 
 131 
 
 scourging to be inflicted upon a man stand¬ 
 ing and upon a woman sitting; and the 
 woman is not to be stripped. It should be 
 done with moderation, with a strap or whip, 
 which has no knots upon it, and the stripes 
 should be given not all upon the same part 
 of the body, [dikrah.] 
 
 In some countries banishment is added to 
 the punishment of scourging for fornication, 
 especially if the sin is often repeated, so as to 
 constitute common prostitution. 
 
 The law is founded upon the following 
 verse in the Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 2-5:— 
 
 “ The whore and the whoremonger—scourge 
 each of them with an hundred stripes ; and 
 let not compassion keep you from carrying out 
 the sentence of God, if ye believe in God and 
 the last day: And let some of the faithful 
 witness their chastisement. 
 
 “ The whoremonger shall not marry other 
 than a whore or an idolatress ; and the whore 
 shall not marry other than a whoremonger 
 or an idolater. Such alliances are forbidden 
 to the faithful. 
 
 “ They who defame vil’tuous women, and 
 bring not four witnesses, scourge them with 
 fourscore stripes, and receive ye not their tes¬ 
 timony for ever, for these are perverse 
 persons— 
 
 “ Save those who afterwards repent and 
 live virtuously; for truly God is Lenient, 
 Merciful! ” 
 
 The Muhammadan law differs from Jewish 
 law with regard to fornication; see Exodus 
 xxii. 16, 17 :—“ If a man entice a maid that 
 is not betrothed, and lie with her, he shall 
 surely endow her to be his wife. If her father 
 utterly refuse to give her unto him, he shall 
 pay money according to the dowry of virgins.” 
 Deut. xxii. 25-29:—“ If a damsel that is a 
 virgin be betrothed unto a husband, and a man 
 find her in the city and lie with her, then ye 
 shall bring them out unto the gate of the city, 
 and ye shall stone them with stones that they 
 die: the damsel because she cried not, being 
 in the city, and the man because he hath 
 humbled his neighbour’s wife ; so shalt thou 
 put away evil from among you. But if a man 
 find a betrothed damsel in the field, and the 
 man force her and he with her, then the man 
 only that lay with her shall die. But unto 
 the damsel shalt thou do nothing: there is in 
 the damsel no sin worthy of death. ... If a 
 man find a damsel that is a virgin, which is 
 not betrothed, and lay hold on her, and lie 
 with her, and they be found, then the man 
 that lay with her shall give unto the dam¬ 
 sel’s father fifty shekels of silver, and she 
 shall be his wife ; because he hath humbled 
 her, he may not put her away all his 
 days.” 
 
 FORTUNE - TELLING-. Arabic 
 JcahcinaJi Mu‘awiyak ibn 
 
 Hakam relates that he asked the Prophet if 
 it were right to consult fortune-tellers about 
 future events, and he replied, “ Since you 
 have embraced Islam, you must not consult 
 them.” [magic.] 
 
 FOSTERAGE. Arabic raza‘ah, 
 rizd‘ah (a^Uj). According to Abu 
 Hanifah, the period of fosterage is thirty 
 months; but the two disciples, Yusuf and Mu¬ 
 hammad, hold it to he two years, whilst 
 Zufar maintains that it is three years. Fos¬ 
 terage with respect to the prohibitions 
 attached to it is of two kinds ; first, where 
 a woman takes a strange child to nurse, by 
 which all future matrimonial connection 
 between that child and the woman, or her 
 relations within the prohibited degrees, is 
 rendered illegal; secondly, where a woman 
 nurses two children, male and female, upon 
 the same milk, which prohibits any future 
 matrimonial connection between them. For 
 further particulars on this subject, see Ha¬ 
 milton’s Hidayah, vol. i. page 187. 
 
 FOUNDLING. Arabic laqlt (M). 
 
 Lit. “ That which is picked up.” The per¬ 
 son who finds the child is called the mul- 
 taqit. The taking up of a foundling is said 
 to be a laudable and generous act, and where 
 the finder sees that the child’s life is in peril, 
 it is an incumbent religious duty. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. ii. p. 252.) 
 
 The maintenance of a foundling is defrayed 
 from the public treasury, but the finder is 
 not to demand anything for his trouble and 
 expense, but after the finding of the child 
 has been reported to the magistrate, the child 
 is legally placed under the care of the mul- 
 taqit, and supported by the state. A found¬ 
 ling is declared to be free, ana not a slave, 
 and unless he be found on the land or pro¬ 
 perty of a Jew or Christian, he is declared 
 a Muslim. But if the child be found on the 
 property of a Jew or Christian, he will be de¬ 
 clared a Jew or Christian as the case may 
 be. The multaqit cannot contract the found¬ 
 ling in marriage without the sanction of the 
 magistrate, but he may send him to school 
 and in every respect see to his education and 
 training without consulting the magistrate. 
 
 FRIDAY. Arabic Jum‘ah 
 
 “ The Day of Assembly.” The Muhammadan 
 Sabbath, on which they assemble in the Jami‘ 
 ‘Masjid, or chief mosque, and recite two 
 rik‘ahs of prayers and listen to the oration, 
 or khutbah at the time of mid-day prayer. 
 Muhammad claims in the Traditions to have 
 established Friday as a day of worship by 
 divine command. He says, “Friday vas or¬ 
 dered as a divine day of worship both for the 
 Jew and Christian, but they have acted con¬ 
 trary to the command The Jew fixed 
 Saturday and the Christian fixed Sunday.” 
 
 According to the same traditions, Friday is 
 “ the best day on which the sun rises, 
 the day on which Adam was taken into 
 Paradise and turned out of it, the day on 
 which he repented and on which he died. It 
 will also be the Day of Resurrection.” 
 
 There is also a certain hour on Friday 
 (known only to God) on which a Muslim 
 obtains all the good he asks of the Almighty, 
 Muhammad prayed that God may put a seal 
 on the heart of every Muslim who through 
 
132 
 
 FRIENDSHIP 
 
 FUTURE LIFE 
 
 negligence omits prayer for three successive 
 Fridays. Muhammad said :— 
 
 “ Whoever bathes on Friday and comes to 
 prayers in the beginning and comes on foot 
 and sets near the Imam and listens to the 
 khutbah, and says nothing playful, but sits 
 silent, every step he took will get the rewards 
 of a whole year’s worshipping and rewards of 
 one year’s fast and one year’s prayings at 
 night.” 
 
 “ There are three descriptions of people 
 present on Friday, one of them who comes 
 to the masjid talking triflingly. and this is 
 what he gets instead of rewards ; and there is 
 a man who is present for making supplica¬ 
 tions, and he asks God, and if He wills He 
 gives him, if not, ref uses; the third a man 
 who attends to hear the khutbah and is 
 silent, and does not incommode anyone, and 
 this Friday covers his sins till the next, and 
 three days longer ; for God says, Whoever doth 
 one good act will receive ten in return.” 
 ( Misklcat , book iv. c. xliii.) [khutbah.] 
 
 FRIENDSHIP with Jews and 
 
 Christians is condemned in the Qur’an, Surah 
 v. 56 : “0 ye who believe 1 take not the Jews 
 and Christians for your friends (or patrons) ; 
 they are the friends of each other; but 
 whoso amongst you takes them for friends, 
 verily he is of them, and, verily, God guides 
 not an unjust people.” 
 
 FRUITS OF THE EARTH are 
 
 described in the Qur’an as evidences of God’s 
 love and care for his creatures. 
 
 Surah vi. 142 :— 
 
 “ He it is who produceth gardens of the 
 vine trellised and untrellised, and the palm 
 trees, and the corn of various food, and olives, 
 and pomegranates, like and unlike. Eat of 
 their fruit when they bear fruit, and pay the 
 due thereof on the day of its ingathering: 
 and be not prodigal, for God loveth not the 
 prodigal.” 
 
 Surah xiii. 3:— 
 
 “ And He it is who hath outstretched the 
 earth, and placed on it the firm mountains, 
 and rivers : and of every fruit He hath placed 
 on it two kinds: He causeth the night to 
 enshroud the day. Verily in this are signs 
 for those who reflect. 
 
 “ And on the earth hard by each other are 
 its various portions: gardens of grapes and 
 corn, and palm trees single or clustered. 
 Though watered by the same water, yet 
 some make we more excellent as food than 
 other: Verily in all this are signs for those 
 who understand.” 
 
 FUGITIVES. (1) A fugitive slave, 
 
 either male or female, is called abiq (oA)- 
 The capture of a fugitive slave is a laudable 
 
 act, and the captor is entitled to a reward of 
 forty dirhams. (2) A fugitive on account of 
 religion is called muhajir Special 
 
 blessings are promised to those who flee their 
 country on account of their being Muslims. 
 
 Surah iv. 101 : “ Whosoever flees in the 
 way of God shall find in the earth a spacious 
 refuge.” 
 
 Surah xxii. 57: “ Those who flee in God’s 
 way and then are slain or die, God will pro¬ 
 vide them with a godly provision.” [slaves, 
 MUHAJIR.] 
 
 FULS An idol (or an idol 
 
 temple), belonging to the Ban! Taiy, a tribe 
 divided between the profession of idolatry 
 and Christianity. Destroyed by ‘AH by oi'der 
 of Muhammad, a.h. 630. (Muir, vol. iv. p. 
 177.) 
 
 FUNERAL. Arabic jandzah (fSjW). 
 
 [burial.J 
 
 FURAT — i). The river 
 
 Euphrates, said to be one of the rivers of 
 Eden, [eden.] 
 
 al-FURQAN (1) The title 
 
 of the xxvth Surah of the Qur’an. (2) One 
 of the titles of the Qur’an (Surah ii. 181; 
 iii. 2; xxv. 1). (3) The title given to the 
 
 Taurat revealed to Moses (Surah ii. 50 ; xxi. 
 49). (4) The victory on the day of the battle 
 
 of Badr (Surah viii. 42). (5) A term used by 
 Sufi mystics for a distinguishing between 
 truth and error. 
 
 Muhammadan lexicographers are unani¬ 
 mous in interpretating the word furqan to 
 mean that which distinguishes between good 
 and evil, lawful and unlawful. The Jews use 
 the word perek, or pirka, from the same root, 
 to denote a section or portion of scripture. 
 
 FUSSILAT (o-L*»). Lit. “Were 
 
 made plain.” A title of the XList Surah of 
 the Qur’an, from the word occurring in the 
 second verse. The Surah is also known as 
 the Hamim as-Sajdah, to distingush it from the 
 Surah xxxnnd, which is also called as-Sajdah, 
 or “ Adoration.” 
 
 FUTURE LIFE. Tbe immortality 
 
 of the soul and the reality of a future life are 
 very distinctive doctrines of the religion of 
 Muhammad, and very numerous are the 
 references to it in the Qur’an. The whole 
 system of Islam is based upon the belief in 
 the future existence of the soul of man. A 
 description of the special character of this 
 future life will be found in the article on 
 
 PARADISE. 
 
 The terms generally used to express a 
 future life are Daru 'l-Akhirat. Da.ru 'l-Baqa' 
 Daru V- TJqba. 
 
GARB 
 
 GENII 
 
 133 
 
 G. 
 
 G-ABR ( ; *5). [majus.] 
 
 GABRIEL. Arabic J ibrch'il 
 (J-V’O- In the Qur’an Jibril ( 
 
 The angelic being who is supposed to have 
 been the medium of the revelation of the 
 Qur'an to Muhammad. He is mentioned 
 only twice in the Qur’an by name. Suratu ’1- 
 Baqarah ii. 91 : “ Whoso is the enemy of 
 Gabriel—for he hath by God’s leave caused 
 to descend on thy heart the confirmation of 
 previous revelations,” &c. And again in 
 Suratu ’t-Tahrlm, lxvi. 4: “ God is his Pro¬ 
 tector, and Gabriel.” He is, however, sup¬ 
 posed to be spoken of in Surahs ii. 81, 254; 
 v. 109; xvi. 104, as “ the Holy Spirit,” Ruhu 
 ’l-Qudus; in Surah xxvi. 193, as “the Faith¬ 
 ful Spirit,” ar-Ruhu 'l-Amin ; and in liii. 5, as 
 “ one terrible in power,” Shadidu ’f-Quwa. 
 
 The account of Gabriel’s first appearance 
 to Muhammad is related as follows by Abu 
 ’1-Fida’: “ Muhammad was wont to retire to 
 Mount Hira for a month every year. When 
 the year of his mission came, he went to 
 Mount Hira in the month of Ramazan for the 
 purpose of sojourning there, having his 
 family with him ; and there he abode until 
 the night arrived in which God was pleased 
 to bless him. Gabriel came to him, and said 
 to him, ‘Recite!’ And he replied, ‘What 
 shall I recite ? ’ And he said, ‘ Recite thou, 
 in the name of thy Lord who created. Created 
 man from clots of blood. Recite thou ! For 
 the Lord is most Beneficent. Who hath 
 taught the use of the pen. Hath taught 
 man that which he knoweth not.’ After 
 this the Prophet went to the middle of 
 the mountain, and heard a voice from heaven 
 which said, ‘ Thou art the Messenger of God 
 and I am Gabriel.’ He continued standing in 
 his place to contemplate Gabriel until he 
 withdrew.” [quran.] 
 
 Sir William Muir says : “It is clear that at 
 a later period at least, if not from the first, 
 Mahomet confounded Gabriel with the Holy 
 Ghost. The idea may have arisen from some 
 such misapprehension as the following. Mary 
 conceived Jesus by the power of the Holy 
 Ghost, which overshadowed her. But it was 
 Gabriel who visited Mary to announce the 
 conception of the Saviour. The Holy Ghost 
 was therefore another name for Gabriel. We 
 need hardly wonder at this ignorance when 
 Mahomet seems to have believed that 
 Christians held Mary to be the third person 
 in the Trinity! ” 
 
 With reference to the verse quoted above, 
 from the Suratu ’1-Baqarah, Sale says the 
 Commentators say that the Jews asked what 
 angel it was that brought the Qur’an to Mu¬ 
 hammad, and on being told that it was 
 Gabriel, they replied that he was their 
 enemy, and the messenger of wrath and judg¬ 
 ment ; but that if it had been Michael they 
 
 would have believed on him, because that 
 angel was their friend, and the messenger of 
 peace and plenty. 
 
 It is also important to observe that the 
 only distinct assertion of Gabriel being the 
 medium of divine revelation, occurs in a 
 Madaniyah Surah. 
 
 Gabriel is called in Muslim books ar-Ruhu 7- 
 A’zam, “ The Supreme Spirit”; ar-Ruhu 7 -Mu- 
 karram,“ The Honoured Spirit ”; Ruhu ’1-IlqS, 
 “ The Spirit of casting into ”; Ruhu ’l-Qudus, 
 “ The Holy Spirit ” ; and ar-Ruhu 'l-Anun, 
 “ The Faithful Spirit. 
 
 GAMBLING (Arabic maisir, 
 ; qimdr jUi) is forbidden in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 216: “They will ask thee con¬ 
 cerning wine, and games of chance. Say both 
 is a great sin, and advantage also, to men, 
 but their sin is greater than their advan¬ 
 tage.” 
 
 Surah v. 93: “ Only would Satan sow 
 hatred and strife among you, by wine and 
 games of chance, and turn you aside from 
 the remembrance of God, and from prayer: 
 will ye not, therefore, abstain from them ? ” 
 
 The evidence of a gambler is not admis¬ 
 sible in a Muhammadan court of law, because 
 gaming is a great crime. (Hiddyah ii. 
 
 p. 688.) 
 
 GARDEN. Arabic jannah {^-) ; 
 Heb. p, pi. In the Qur’an the 
 
 residence of our first parents is called 
 Al-jannah, “the garden,” and not Jannatu 
 l Adn, or the “Garden of Eden,” Jannatu 
 ‘ Adn being the fourth stage of celestial bliss. 
 Al-jannat, “ the gardens,” is a term frequently 
 used in the Qur’an for the state of heavenly 
 joy; and the stages of paradise, which are 
 eight, are known as—(1) The garden of 
 eternity, (2) The dwelling of peace, (3) The 
 dwelling which abideth, (4) The garden of 
 Eden, (5) The garden of refuge, (6) The 
 garden of delight, (7) The garden of ‘Illiyun, 
 (8) The garden of Paradise, [paradise.] 
 
 GENII. Arabic jinn (&-■-), and 
 jann (yW). Muhammad was a sincere 
 believer in the existence of good and evil 
 genii, and has left a record of his belief in the 
 Lxxnnd chapter of his Qur’an, entitled the 
 Suratu ’l-Jinn . It opens thus 
 
 “ Sat : It hath been revealed to me that a 
 company of JINN listened and said,—Verily, 
 we have heard a marvellous discourse 
 (Qur’an); 
 
 “ It guideth to the truth; wherefore we 
 believed in it, and we will not henceforth join 
 any being with our Lord; 
 
 “And He,—may the majesty of our Lord 
 be exalted !—hath taken no spouse neither 
 hath ho any offspring. 
 
134 
 
 GENII 
 
 GENII 
 
 “ But the foolish among us hath spoken of 
 God that which is unjust: 
 
 “ And we verily thought that no one 
 amongst men or jinn would have uttered a 
 lie against God. 
 
 “ There are indeed people among men, who 
 have sought for refuge unto people among 
 jinn : but they only increased their folly 
 
 “ And they thought as ye think, that God 
 would not raise any from the dead. 
 
 “ And the Heavens did we essay, but 
 found them filled with a mighty garrison, and 
 with flaming darts; 
 
 “ And we sat on some of the seats to listen, 
 but whoever listeneth findeth an ambush 
 ready for him of flaming darts.” 
 
 The following exhaustive account of the 
 Muhammadan belief on the subject is taken 
 from the writings of the late Mr. Lane (the 
 learned author of the Modern Egyptians and 
 of Notes on the Arabian Nights ), but slightly 
 altered to meet the requirements of the pre¬ 
 sent work. 
 
 According to a tradition from the Prophet, 
 this species consists of five orders, namely, 
 Jann (who are the least powerful of all), Jinn, 
 Shaitans (or devils), ‘Ifrlts, and Marlds. The 
 last, it is added, are the most powerful; and 
 the Jann are transformed Jinn, like as certain 
 apes and swine were transformed men. It 
 must, however, be remarked that the terms 
 Jinn and Jann are generally used indiscrimi¬ 
 nately as names of the whole species, whether 
 good or bad, and that the former term is the 
 more common. Also, that Shaitan is com¬ 
 monly used to signify any evil genius. An 
 •Ifrit is a powerful evil genius ; a Marid, an 
 evil genius of the most powerful class. The 
 Jinn (but, generally speaking, evil ones) are 
 called by the Persians Deves , the most 
 powerful evil Jinn. Narahs (which signifies 
 “ males,” though they are said to be males 
 and females); the good Jinn, Eiris, though 
 this term is commonly applied to females. 
 In a tradition from the Prophet, it is said, 
 “ The Jann were created of a smokeless fire.” 
 The word which signifies “ a smokeless fire ’ 
 has been misunderstood by some as meaning 
 “the flame of fire.” Al-Jauhari (in the Sihdli) 
 renders it rightly; and says that of this fire 
 was the Shaitan or Iblis created. Al-Jann 
 is sometimes used as a name for Iblis, as in 
 the following verse of the Qur’an (Surah xv. 
 27): “ And the Jann [the father of the Jinn, 
 i.e. Iblis] we had created before [i.e. before 
 the creation of Adam] of the fire of the 
 Samum [i.e. of the fire without smoke].” 
 Jann also signifies “ a serpent,” as in other 
 passages of the Qur’an, and is used in the 
 same book as synonymous with Jinn. In the 
 last sense it is generally believed to be used 
 in the tradition quoted in the commencement 
 of this paragranh. There are several appa¬ 
 rently contradictory traditions from the Pro¬ 
 phet, which are reconciled by what has been 
 above stated ; in one it is said that Iblis was 
 the father of all the Jann and Shaitan ; Jann 
 being here synonymous with Jinn; in another, 
 that Jann was the father of all the Jinn, here 
 Jann being used as a name for Iblis. 
 
 “ It is held,” says al-Qazwini, “ that the 
 Jinn are aerial animals, with transparent 
 bodies, which can assume various forms. 
 People differ in opinion respecting these 
 beings ; some consider the Jinn and Shaitans 
 as unruly men, but these persons are of the 
 Mu‘tazilahs [a sect of Mushm freethinkers], 
 and some hold that God, whose name be 
 exalted, created the angels of the light of 
 fire, and the Jmn of its flame [but this is at 
 variance with the general opinion], and the 
 Shaitans of its smoke [which is also at 
 variance with the common opinion] ; and that 
 [all] these kinds of beings are [usually] in¬ 
 visible to men, but that they assume what 
 forms they please, and when their form be¬ 
 comes condensed they are visible.” This last 
 remark illustrates several descriptions of 
 genii in the Arabian Nights, where the form 
 of the monster is at first undefined, or 
 like an enormous pillar, and then gradually 
 assumes a human shape and less gigantic 
 size. 
 
 It is said that God created the Jann [or 
 Jinn] two thousand years before Adam [or, 
 according to some writers, much earlier], and 
 that there are believers and infidels and every 
 sect among them, as among men. Some say 
 that a prophet named Yusuf was sent to the 
 Jinn; others, that they had only preachers or 
 admonishers; others, again, that seventy 
 apostles were sent, before Muhammad, to 
 Jinn and men conjointly. It is commonly 
 believed that the preadamite Jinn were go¬ 
 verned by forty (or, according to some, 
 seventy-two) kings, to each of whom the 
 Arab writers give the name of Sulaiman (or 
 Solomon); and that they derive their appel¬ 
 lation from the last of these, who was called 
 Jann ibn Jann, and who, some say, built the 
 Pyramids of Egypt. 
 
 The following account of the preadamite 
 Jinn is given by al-Qazwini:— 
 
 “It is related in histories that a race of 
 Jinn in ancient times, before the creation of 
 Adam, inhabited the earth, and covered it, 
 the land and the sea, and the plains and the 
 mountains ; and the favours of God were mul¬ 
 tiplied upon them, and they had government, 
 and prophecy, and religion and law; but they 
 transgressed and offended, and opposed their 
 prophets, and made wickedness to abound in 
 the earth i whereupon God, whose name be 
 exalted, sent against them an army of angels, 
 who took possession of the earth, and drove 
 away the Jinn to the regions of the islands, 
 and made many of them prisoners; and of 
 those who were made prisoners was ‘Azazil 
 (afterwards called Iblis, from his despair), 
 and a slaughter was made among them. At 
 that time, ‘Azazil was young; he grew up 
 among the angels [and probably for that 
 reason was called one of them], and became 
 learned in their knowledge, and. assumed the 
 government of them ; and his days were pro¬ 
 longed until he became their chief; and thus 
 it continued for a long time, until the affair 
 between him and Adam happened, as God, 
 whose name be exalted, hath said, ‘ When we 
 said unto the Angels, Worship ye Adam, and 
 
GENII 
 
 GENII 
 
 135 
 
 [all] worshipped except Iblis, [who] was 
 [one] of the Jinn.’ (Surah 1. 49).” 
 
 Iblis, we are told by another authority, 
 was sent as a governor upon the earth, and 
 judged among the Jinn a thousand years, 
 after which he ascended into heaven, and re¬ 
 mained employed in worship until the crea¬ 
 tion of Adam. The name of Iblis was origi¬ 
 nally, according to some, ‘Azazil (as before 
 mentioned), and according to others, al-Haris ; 
 his patronymic is Abu Munnah or Abu ’1- 
 Ghimr. It is disputed whether he was of 
 the angels or of the Jinn. There are three 
 opinions on this point: (1) That he was of the 
 angels, from a tradition from Ibn ‘Abbas ; 
 (2) That he was of the Shaitans (or evil 
 Jinn), as it is said in the Qur’an, “ Except 
 Iblis’ [who] was [one] of the Jinn ” ; this was 
 the opinion of al-Hasanu ’1-Basri, and is that 
 commonly held; (3) That he was neither of 
 the angels nor of the Jinn, but created alone 
 of fire. Ibn ‘Abbas founds his opinion on 
 the same text from which al-Hasanu ’1-Basri 
 derives his : “ When we said unto the angels, 
 worship ye Adam, and [all] worshipped ex¬ 
 cept Iblis, [who] was [one] of the Jinn ” 
 (before quoted) ; which he explains by say¬ 
 ing that the most noble and honourable 
 among the angels are called “ the Jinn,” be¬ 
 cause they are veiled from the eyes of the 
 other angels on account of their superiority; 
 and that Iblis was one of these Jinn. He 
 adds, that he had the government of the 
 lowest heaven and of the earth, and was 
 called the Ta’us (lit. “ Peacock ”) of the 
 angels ; and that there was not a spot in the 
 lowest heaven but he had prostrated himself 
 upon it ; but when the Jinn rebelled upon the 
 earth, God sent a troop of angels, who drove 
 them to the islands and mountains ; and Iblis 
 being elated with pride, and refusing to pro¬ 
 strate himself before Adam, God transformed 
 him into a Shaitan. But this reasoning is 
 opposed by other verses, in which Iblis is 
 represented as saying, “ Thou hast created 
 me of fire, and has created him [Adam] of 
 earth.” It is therefore argued, “ If he were 
 created originally of fire, how was he created 
 of light ? for the angels were [all] created of 
 light.” The former verse may be explained 
 by the tradition that Iblis. having been taken 
 captive, was exalted among the angels; or, 
 perhaps, there is an ellipsis after the word 
 “ Angels”; for it might be inferred that the 
 command given to the Angels was also (and 
 a fortiori) to be obeyed by the Jinn. 
 
 According to a tradition, Iblis and all the 
 Shaitans are distinguished from the other 
 Jinn by a longer existence. “ The Shaitans,” 
 it is added, “ are the children of Iblis, and 
 die not but with him; whereas the [other] 
 Jinn die before him, though they may live 
 many centuries. But this is not altogether 
 accordant with the popular belief: Iblis and 
 many other evil Jinn are to survive mankind, 
 but they are to die before the general resur¬ 
 rection, as also even the angels, the last of 
 whom will be the Angel of Death, ‘Izra’il. 
 Yet not all the evil Jinn are to live thus long. 
 Many of them are killed by shooting stars, 
 
 hurled at them from heaven ; wherefore, the 
 Arabs, when they see a shooting star (shihab), 
 often exclaim, ‘ May God transfix the enemy 
 of the faith ! ’ Many also are killed by other 
 Jinn, and some even by men. The fire of 
 which the Jinn is created circulates in his 
 veins, in place of blood ; therefore, when he 
 receives a mortal wound, this fire, issuing 
 from his veins, generally consumes him to 
 ashes. 
 
 The Jinn, it has been already shown, are 
 peaceable. They also eat and drink, and 
 propagate their species, sometimes in conjunc¬ 
 tion with human beings ; in which latter case, 
 the offspring partakes of the nature of both 
 parents. In all these respects they differ 
 from the angels. Among the evil Jinn are 
 distinguished the five sons of their chief, 
 Iblis ; namely, Tir, who brings about calami¬ 
 ties, losses, and injuries ; al-A‘war, who en¬ 
 courages debauchery; Sut, who suggests lies ; 
 Dasirn, who causes hatred between man and 
 wife ; and Zalambur, who presides over places 
 of traffic. 
 
 The most common forms and habitations 
 or places of resort of the Jinn must now be 
 described. The following traditions from the 
 Prophet are to the purpose:— 
 
 The Jinn are of various shapes, having the 
 forms of serpents, scorpions, lions, wolves, 
 jackals, &c. The Jinn are of three kinds— 
 one on the land, one on the sea, and one in 
 the air. The Jinn consist of forty troops, 
 each troop consisting of six hundred thou¬ 
 sand. The Jinn are of three kinds—one have 
 wings and fly; another are snakes and dogs ; 
 and the third move about from place to place 
 like men. Domestic snakes are asserted to 
 be Jinn on the same authority. 
 
 The Prophet ordered his followers to kill 
 serpents and scorpions if they intruded at 
 prayers; but on other occasions, he seems to 
 have required first to admonish them to 
 depart, and then, if they remained, to kill 
 them. The Doctors, however, differ in opinion 
 whether all kinds of snakes or serpents 
 should be admonished first; or whether any 
 should; for the Prophet, say they, took a 
 covenant of the Jinn [probably after the 
 above-mentioned command], that they should 
 not enter the houses of the faithful; there¬ 
 fore, it is argued, if they enter, they break 
 their covenant, and it becomes lawful to kill 
 them without previous admonishment. Yet 
 it is related that ‘Ayishah, one of the Pro¬ 
 phet’s wives, having killed a serpent in her 
 chamber, was alarmed by a dream, and fear¬ 
 ing that it might have been a Muslim Jinni, as 
 it did not enter her chamber, when she was 
 undressed, gave in alms, as an expiation, 
 twelve thousand dirhams (about £300), the 
 price of the blood of a Muslim. 
 
 The Jinn are said to appear to mankind 
 most commonly in the shapes of serpents, 
 dogs, cats, or human beings. In the last 
 case they are sometimes of the stature of 
 men, and sometimes of a size enormously 
 gigantic. If good, they are generally resplen¬ 
 dency handsome; if evil, horribly hideous. 
 They become invisible at pleasure (by a rapid 
 
136 
 
 GENII 
 
 GENII 
 
 extension or rarefaction of the particles 
 which compose them), or suddenly disappear 
 in the earth or air, or through a solid wall. 
 Many Muslims in the present day profess 
 to have seen and held intercourse with 
 them. 
 
 The Zauba‘ah, which is a whirlwind that 
 raises the sand or dust in the form of a 
 pillar of prodigious height, often seen sweep¬ 
 ing across the deserts and fields, is believed 
 to be caused by the Sight of an evil genii. 
 To defend themselves from a Jinn thus 
 “ riding in the whirlwind,” the Arabs often 
 exclaim, “Iron! Iron!” ( Hadid! Hadld /) 
 or, “Iron! thou unlucky!” {Hadld! yd 
 Mashum !), as the Jinn are supposed to have 
 a great dread of that metal; or they exclaim, 
 “God is most great!” ( Allahu alcbar!) A 
 similar superstition prevails with respect to 
 the waterspout at sea. 
 
 It is believed that the chief abode of the 
 Jinn is in the mountains of Qaf, which are 
 supposed to encompass the whole of our 
 earth. But they are also believed to pervade 
 the solid body of our earth, and the firma¬ 
 ment ; and to choose, as their principal places 
 of resort, or of occasional abode, baths, 
 wells, the latrina, ovens, ruined houses, 
 market-places, the junctures of roads, the sea, 
 and rivers. 
 
 The Arabs, therefore, when they pour 
 water, &c., on the ground, or enter a bath, or 
 let down a bucket into a well, or visit the 
 latrina, and on various other occasions, say, 
 “ Permission! ” or “Permission, ye blessed ! ” 
 {Izn ! or Izn yd Mubdrakun /). The evil 
 spirits (or evil genii'), it is said, had liberty to 
 enter any of the seven heavens till the birth 
 of Jesus, when they were excluded from three 
 of them. On the birth of Muhammad, they 
 were forbidden the other four. They con¬ 
 tinue, however, to ascend to the confines of 
 the lowest heaven, and there listening to the 
 conversation of the angels respecting things 
 decreed by God, obtain knowledge of futurity, 
 which they sometimes impart to men, who 
 by means of talismans or certain invocations 
 make them to serve the purposes of magical 
 performances. 
 
 What the Prophet said of Iblis in the fol¬ 
 lowing tradition, applies also to the evil Jinn 
 over whom he presides: His chief abode 
 [among men) is the bath ; his chief places of 
 resort are the markets and junctures of roads ; 
 his food is whatever is killed without the 
 name of God being pronounced over it; his 
 drink, whatever is intoxicating ; his Mu’azzin, 
 the mizmar (a musical pipe), i.e. any musical 
 instrument) ; his Qur’an, poetry ; his written 
 character, the marks made in geomancy; 
 his speech, falsehood; his snares are 
 women. 
 
 That particular genii presided over par¬ 
 ticular places, was the opinion of the early 
 Arabs. It is said in the Qur’an (Surah 
 lxxii. 6), “ And there were certain men who 
 sought refuge with certain of the Jinn.” In 
 the commentary of the Jalaliln, I find the 
 following remark on these words :—“ When 
 they halted, on their journey, in a place of 
 
 fear, each man said, ‘ I seek refuge with the 
 lord of this place, from the mischief of his 
 foolish ones ! ’” In illustration of this, I may 
 insert the following tradition, translated from 
 al-Qazwtni: —“It is related by a certain 
 narrator of traditions, that he descended into 
 a valley with his sheep, and a wolf carried 
 off a ewe from among them; and he arose, 
 and raised his voice, and cried, ‘ 0 inhabitant 
 of the valley! ’ whereupon he heard a voice 
 saying, ‘ 0 wolf, restore to him his sheep ! ’ 
 and the wolf came with the ewe, and left her, 
 and departed.” The same opinion is held by 
 the modern Arabs, though probably they do 
 not use such an invocation. 
 
 A similar superstition, a relic of ancient 
 Egyptian credulity, still prevails among the 
 people of Cairo. It is believed that each 
 quarter of this city has its peculiar guardian- 
 genius, or Agathodsemon, which has the form 
 of a serpent. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that some of 
 the Jinn are Muslims, and others infidels. The 
 good acquit themselves of the imperative 
 duties of religion, namely, prayers, alms¬ 
 giving, fasting during the month of Rama¬ 
 zan, and pilgrimage to Makkah and Mount 
 ‘Arafat, but in the performance of these 
 duties they are generally invisible to human 
 beings. 
 
 No man, it is said, ever obtained such ab¬ 
 solute power over the Jinn as Sulaiman ibn 
 Da’ud (Solomon, the son of David). This he 
 did by virtue of a most wonderful talisman, 
 which is said to have come down to him from 
 heaven. It was a sealing ring, upon which 
 was engraved “ the most great name ” of God 
 [al-ismu ’l-a‘zam], and was partly composed 
 of brass and partly of iron. With the brass he 
 stamped his written commands to the good 
 Jinn ; with the iron (for a reason before men¬ 
 tioned) those to the evil Jinn or devils. 
 Over both orders he had unlimited power, as 
 well as over the birds and the winds, and, as 
 is generally said, the wild beasts. His wazlr, 
 Asaf the son of Barkhiyah, is also said to 
 have been acquainted with “ the most great 
 name,” by uttering which the greatest mira¬ 
 cles may be performed, even that of raising 
 the dead. By virtue of this name, engraved 
 on his ring, Sulaiman compelled the Jinn to 
 assist in building the temple of Jerusalem, 
 and in various other works. Many of the 
 evil genii he converted to the true faith, and 
 many others of this class, who remained 
 obstinate in infidelity, he confined in prisons. 
 He is said to have been monarch of the 
 whole earth. Hence, perhaps, the name of 
 Sulaiman is given to the universal monarchs 
 of the preadamite Jinn; unless the story of 
 his own universal dominion originated from 
 confounding him with those kings of the 
 Jinn. 
 
 The injuries related to have been inflicted 
 upon human beings by evil genii are of various 
 kinds. Genii are said to have often carried 
 off beautiful women, whom they have forcibly 
 kept as their wives or concubines. Malicious or 
 disturbed genii are asserted often to station 
 themselves on the roofs, or at the windows, 
 
GENII 
 
 GENII 
 
 of houses, and to throw down bricks and 
 stones on persons passing by. When they 
 take possession of an uninhabited house, 
 they seldom fail to persecute terribly any 
 person who goes to reside in it. They are 
 also very apt to pilfer provisions, &c. Many 
 learned and devout persons, to secure their 
 property from such depredations, repeat the 
 words, “In the name of God, the Compas¬ 
 sionate, the Merciful! ” on locking the doors 
 of their houses, rooms, or closets, and on 
 covering the bread-basket, or anything con¬ 
 taining food. During the month of Ramazan, 
 the evil genii are believed to be confined in 
 prison; and, therefore, on the last night of 
 that month, with the same view, women 
 sometimes repeat the words above mentioned, 
 and sprinkle salt upon the floors of the apart¬ 
 ments of their houses. 
 
 To complete this sketch of Arabian myth¬ 
 ology, an account must be added of several 
 creatures generally believed to be of inferior 
 orders of the Jinn. One of these is the 
 Ghul. which is commonly regarded as a kind 
 of Shaitan, or evil genii, that eats men, and 
 is also described by some as a Jinn, or an 
 enchanter, who assumes various forms. The 
 Ghuls are said to appear in the forms of 
 various animals, and of human beings, and in 
 many monstrous shapes; to haunt burial- 
 grounds and other sequestered spots ; to feed 
 upon dead human bodies ; and to kill and 
 devour any human creature who has the 
 misfortune to fall in their way ; whence the 
 term “ Ghul ” is applied to any cannibal. 
 
 An opinion quoted by a celebrated author 
 respecting the Ghul is, that it is a demoniacal 
 animal, which passes a solitary existence in 
 the deserts, resembling both man and brute; 
 that it appears to a person travelling alone 
 in the night and in solitary places, and, being 
 supposed by him to be itself a traveller, 
 lures him out of his way. Another opinion 
 stated by him is this : that, when the Shai¬ 
 tans attempt to hear words by stealth [from 
 the confines of the lowest heaven], they are 
 struck by shooting stars, and some are burnt; 
 some falling into a sea, or rather a large 
 river (bahr), become converted into croco¬ 
 diles ; and some, falling upon the land, be¬ 
 come Ghfils. The same author adds the fol¬ 
 lowing tradition: “ The Ghul is any Jinn 
 that is opposed to travels, assuming various 
 forms and appearances; and affirms that 
 several of the Companions of the Prophet 
 saw GRuls in their travels ; and that ‘Umar 
 among them saw a Ghul while on a journey 
 to Syria, before Islam, and struck it with his 
 sword.” 
 
 It appears that “ Ghiil ” is, properly speak¬ 
 ing, a name only given to a female demon of 
 the kind above described; the male is called 
 ‘ Qutrub.” It is said that these beings, and 
 the Ghaddar, or Gkarrar, and other similar 
 creatures, which will presently be mentioned, 
 are the offspring of Iblis and of a wife whom 
 God created for him of the fire of the Samum 
 (which here signifies, as in an instance 
 before mentioned, “ a smokeless fire ”) ; and 
 that they sprang from an egg. The female 
 
 137 
 
 Ghul. it is added, appears to men in the 
 deserts, in various forms, converses with 
 them, and sometimes prostitutes herself to 
 them. 
 
 The Si‘lat, or Si'la’, is another demoniacal 
 creature, described by some [or rather, by 
 most authors] as of the Jinn. It is said that 
 it is mostly found in forests ; and that when 
 it captures a man, it makes him dance, and 
 plays with him as the cat plays with the 
 mouse. A man of Isfahan asserted that 
 many beings of this kind abounded in his 
 country; that sometime the wolf would 
 hunt one of them by night, and devour it, and 
 that, when it had seized it, the Si‘la’ would 
 cry out, “ Come to my help, for the wolf de- 
 voureth me 1 ” or it would cry, “ Who will 
 liberate me ? I have a hundred dinars, and 
 he shall receive them! ” But the people 
 knowing that it was the cry of the Si‘la’, no 
 one would liberate it; and so the wolf 
 would eat it. 
 
 An island in the sea of China (Sin) is called 
 “ the island of the Si‘la’,” by Arab geographers, 
 from its being said to be inhabited by the 
 demons so named; they are described as 
 creatures of hideous forms, supposed to be 
 Shaitans, the offspring of human beings and 
 Jinn, who eat men. 
 
 The Ghaddar is another creature of a simi¬ 
 lar nature, described as being found in the 
 borders of al-Yaman, and sometimes in Tiha- 
 mah, and in the upper parts of Egypt. It is 
 said that it entices a man to it, and either 
 tortures him in a manner not to be described, 
 or merely terrifies him, and leaves him. 
 
 The Dalhan is also a demoniacal being, in¬ 
 habiting the islands of the seas, having the 
 form of a man, and riding on an ostrich. It 
 eats the flesh of men whom the sea casts on 
 the shore from wrecks. Some say that a 
 Dalhan once attacked a ship on the sea, and 
 desired to take the crew ; but they contended 
 with it; whereupon it uttered a cry which 
 caused them to fall on their faces, and it 
 took them. 
 
 The Shiqq is another demoniacal creature, 
 having the form of half a human being (like 
 a man divided longitudinally); and it is be¬ 
 lieved that the Nasniis is the offspring of a 
 Shiqq and of a human being. The Shiqq 
 appears to travellers ; and it was a demon of 
 this kind who killed, and was killed by ‘Al- 
 qamah, the son of Safwan, the son of Umai- 
 yah, of whom it is well known that he was 
 killed by a Jinn. So says al-Qazwini. 
 
 The Nasniis (above mentioned) is described 
 as resembling half a human being; having 
 half a head, half a body, one arm, and one 
 leg, with which it hops with much agility; as 
 being found in the woods of al-Yaman. and 
 being endowed with speech ; “ but God,” it is 
 added, “is all knowing.” It is said that it is 
 found in Hazramaut as w r ell as al-Yaman; and 
 that one was brought alive to al-Mutawakkil. It 
 resembled a man in form, excepting that it had 
 but half a face, which was in its breast, and 
 a tail like that of a sheep. The people of 
 Hazramaut, it is added, eat it; and its flesh 
 is sweet. It is only generated in their country. 
 
 18 
 
GENTILES 
 
 138 
 
 A man who went there asserted that he saw 
 a captured Nasnas, which cried out for mercy, 
 conjuring him by God and by himself. 
 
 A race of people whose head is in the 
 breast, is described as inhabiting an island 
 called Jabah (supposed to be Java), in the 
 sea of Hind, or India. A kind of Nasnas is 
 also described as inhabiting the island of Raij, 
 in the sea of China, and having wings like 
 those of the bat. 
 
 The Hatif is a being that is heard, but not 
 seen; and is often mentioned by Arab writers. 
 It is generally the communicator of some 
 intelligence in the way of advice, or direction, 
 or warning. (See Lane’s Modern Egyptians ; 
 Lane’s Notes on the Arabian Nights .) 
 
 GENTILES. Arabic TJmmi (^A, 
 
 from umm, “ a mother ”); pi. ummiyun, lit. 
 
 “ Ignorant as new-born babes.” Hebrew 
 According to al-Baizawi, all the 
 
 people of the earth who do not possess a 
 divine Book. In the Qur’an, the term is spe¬ 
 cially applied to the idolaters of Arabia. 
 
 Surah lxii. 2: “ He (God) it is who sent 
 unto the Gentiles a Prophet, amongst them to 
 recite to them His signs and to purify them, 
 and to teach them the Book, the wisdom, 
 although they were before in obvious error.” 
 
 GEORGE, St. [jirjis, AL-KHIZR.] 
 
 al-GHABAH (<i_A-*-5\). “ The 
 
 desert.” A name given to the open plain 
 near al-Madinah. 
 
 GHABN (ek^)- Fraud or deceit 
 
 in sales. 
 
 GHADDAR (^ac). A species of 
 
 demon said to be found on the borders of 
 al-Yaman. [genii.] 
 
 GHADIR (y.Afc). A festival of 
 
 the SM‘ahs on the 18th of the month of Zu ’1- 
 Hijjah, when three images of dough filled 
 with honey are made to represent Abu Bakr, 
 ‘Umar, and ‘Usman, which are stuck with 
 knives, and the honey is sipped as typical of 
 the blood "of the usurping Khalifahs. The 
 festival is named from Ghadir. “ a pool,” and 
 the festival commemorates, it is said, Muham¬ 
 mad having declared ‘All his successor at 
 Ghadir Khum, a watering place midway 
 between Makkah and al-Madinah. 
 
 GHAIB (WO- Lit. “Secret.” 
 
 The terms Ghaibu ’l-Huwiyah, “ Secret es¬ 
 sence,” and al- Gliaibu ’l-Mutlaq, “ the absolute 
 unknowable,” are used by Sufi mystics to 
 express the nature of God. (‘Abdu ’r-Raz- 
 zaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 GHAIRAH (&;-*). “ Jealousy.” 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ There 
 is a kind of jealousy (ghairah ) which God 
 likes, and there is a kind of jealousy which 
 he abominates. The jealousy which God 
 likes is when a man has suspicion that his wife 
 or slave girl comes and sits by a stranger; 
 the jealousy which God abominates is when, 
 without cause, a man harbours in his heart a 
 
 GHASB 
 
 bad opinion of his wife.” (Mishlcat, book 
 xiii. c. xv. pt. 2.) 
 
 GHAIR-I-MAHDI Lit. 
 
 “ Without Mahdi.” A small sect who believe 
 that the Imam Mahdi will not reappear. They 
 say that one Saiyid Muhammad of Jeypore 
 was the real Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, and 
 that he has now gone never more to return. 
 They venerate him as highly as they do the 
 Prophet, and consider all other Muslims to 
 be unbelievers. On the night called Lailatu 
 ’1-Qadr, in the month of Ramazan, they meet 
 and repeat two rak‘ah prayers. After that act 
 of devotion is over, they say: “ God is Al¬ 
 mighty, Muhammad is our Prophet, the 
 Qur’an and Mahdi are just and true. Imam 
 Mahdi is come and gone. Whosoever disbe¬ 
 lieves this is an infidel.” They are a very 
 fanatical sect. (See Qanun-i-Isldm.) 
 
 GHAMARAT plural of 
 
 ghamrah, “ abyss.” A word used to express 
 the agonies of death. It occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah vi. 93: “ But couldst thou see when 
 the ungodly are in the floods of death ( gha - 
 maratu ’l-maut), and the angels reach forth 
 their hands, saying, ‘ Yield up your souls :—- 
 this day shall ye be recompensed with a hu¬ 
 miliating punishment.’ ” 
 
 al-GHANI “ The Inde¬ 
 
 pendent One.” One of the ninety-nine special 
 names or attributes of God, expressing the 
 superiority of the Almighty over the neces¬ 
 sities and requirements of mankind. The 
 word occurs in the Qur’an, Surah lx. 6, and 
 is translated by Palmer, “ He is rich.” 
 
 GHASB “ Using by force; 
 
 usurpation.” 
 
 Ghasb. in its literal sense, means the for¬ 
 cibly taking a thing from another. In the 
 language of the law it signifies the taking of 
 the property of another which is valuable 
 and sacred, without the consent of the pro¬ 
 prietor, in such a manner as to destroy the 
 proprietor's possession of it, whence it is 
 that usurpation is established by exacting 
 service from the slave of another, or by put¬ 
 ting a burden upon the quadruped of another, 
 but not by sitting upon the carpet of 
 another ; because by the use of the slave 
 of another, and by loading the quadruped of 
 another, the possession of the proprietor is 
 destroyed, whereas by sitting upon the car¬ 
 pet of another the possession of the pro¬ 
 prietor is not destroyed It is to be observed 
 that if any person knowingly and wilfully 
 usurp the property of another, he is held in 
 law to be an offender, and becomes respon¬ 
 sible for a compensation. If, on the con¬ 
 trary, he should not have made the usurpa¬ 
 tion knowingly and wilfully (as where a per¬ 
 son destroys property on the supposition of 
 its belonging to himself, and it afterwards 
 proves the right of another), he is in that 
 case also liable for a compensation, because 
 a compensation is the right of men ; but he is 
 not an offender, as his erroneous offence is 
 cancelled. ( Hidayah , vol. iii. p. 522.) 
 
AL-GHASHIYAH 
 
 GHUSL 
 
 al-GHASHITAH “ The 
 
 Covering, Overwhelming.” A name given to 
 the Lxxxvmth Surah of the Qur’an, the word 
 occurring in the first verse for the Day of 
 Judgment: “ Has there come to thee the 
 story of the overwhelming ? ” 
 
 GHASIL (J~A). .“A washer of 
 
 the dead.” An official is generally appointed 
 for this purpose by the Imam of the parish. 
 
 GHASSAN ( 0 L-&). a tribe of 
 
 Arabs inhabiting the western side of the 
 Syrian desert in the time of Muhammad. 
 (See Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. i. p. 
 clxxxiii.) 
 
 GHAT AF AN (yUhc). An Arabian 
 
 tribe descended from Qais. 
 
 GHAUS Lit. “ One to whom 
 
 we can cry for help.” A mediator. A title 
 given to a Muhammadan saint. Some hold 
 it to be the highest order of sanctity, whilst 
 others regard it as second in rank to that of 
 Qutb. According to the Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah 
 it is an inferior rank of sanctity to that 
 of Qutb. 
 
 GHAZAB (w_*=_c). “ Auger,” 
 
 “ wrath.” A word used frequently in the 
 Qur’an for the wrath of God, e.g. Surah iv. 
 95: “ God shall be angry with him.” 
 
 GHAZl One who fights in 
 
 the cause of Islam. A hero : a warrior. One 
 ■who slays an infidel. It is also a title of 
 distinction conferred by Mus lim rulers upon 
 generals and warriors of renown. In the 
 Turkish Empire the title of Ghazi implies 
 something similar to our “ Field Marshal.” 
 The Prophet is related to have said, “God is 
 sponsor for him who goes forth to fight in 
 the road of God, for His satisfaction and for 
 that of His Prophet. He shall, if he be 
 not killed, return to his home with plunder 
 and rewards. And if he die, his reward is 
 paradise.” ( Mishkat , book xvii. c. 1.) 
 
 GHAZWAH (ijj-fc). A military 
 
 force when it is lead by either an Apostle 
 (Rasul ) or an Imam. A small force com¬ 
 manded by one of the Imam’s lieutenants is a 
 sariyah, or brigade. (See Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah, 
 in loco.') 
 
 al-GHAZZALI Abu 
 
 Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn 
 A hm ad al- Ghazzali. is a well known Sunni 
 doctor surnamed Hujjatu ’ l-Islam (“ the proof 
 of Islam ”). He was a native of Tus, and for 
 sometime a professor in the college at Nai- 
 sapur. Bom a.h. 450 (a.d. 1058), died a.h. 
 505 (a.d. 1111), at Tus. His exposition 
 on the nature of God will be found in the 
 article god. His great theological work is 
 the Itiyd’u 1 Ulumi ’d-Din. 
 
 GHlBAH (A*-*—c). “Slander; 
 
 calumny.” Anything whispered of an absent 
 person to his detriment, although it be true. 
 ( Buhtan expressing a false accusation.) 
 Ghibah is condemned in the Qur’an (Surah 
 
 139 
 
 xlix. 12) : “ 0 believers, avoid frequent sus¬ 
 picions, for some suspicions are a crime ; 
 neither let one of you traduce ( ghibah ) another 
 in his absence.” A chapter is devoted to 
 the condemnation of backbiting and calumny 
 in the Traditions (vide Mishkat, book xxii. 
 ch. x.) 
 
 GHIFAR. (jIa_c). An Arabian 
 
 tribe in the time of Muhammad who inha¬ 
 bited a tract of country in the vicinity of al- 
 Madinah. They were descendants of Abu 
 Zarri ’1-Ghifari. 
 
 GHISHAWAH (s ; lit). Lit. “A 
 
 covering.” A dimness in the eye. A word 
 used in the Qur’an for spiritual blindness. 
 Surah ii. 6: “ Their hearts and their ears 
 hath God sealed up, and over their eyes is a 
 covering 
 
 GHISLlN (y~J—c). The water, 
 
 blood, and matter, supposed by Muhamma¬ 
 dans to run down the skin and flesh of the 
 damned in hell. See Qur’an, Surah lxix. 36: 
 “ No friend shall he have here that day, 
 nor food but ghislin.” 
 
 GHIJL (Jy 1 ). A man-devouring 
 
 demon of the woods. A species of Jinn 
 [gejoi.] 
 
 GHULAM (yAi), pi. ahilmah. A 
 boy under age. A term used in modem 
 Muslim for a slave, the legal word being 
 ‘abd. It occurs in the Quran for a son. 
 Surah iii. 42 : “ She (Mary) said, 1 How can 
 I have a son when a man has not touched 
 me? ” 
 
 GHTJLAT (*U). Lit. “The Zea¬ 
 lots.” A title given to a leading sect of the 
 Shrahs who, through their excessive zeal for 
 the Imams, have raised them above the 
 degree of human beings. 
 
 GHULUL (jy^). Defrauding or 
 
 purloining any part of the lawful plunder in 
 a jihad or religious war. Forbidden in the 
 Qur’an, Surah iii. 155: “ But he who shall 
 defraud, shall come forth with his defraud- 
 ings on the day of the resurrection: then shall 
 every soul be paid what it hath merited, and 
 they shall not be treated with injustice.” 
 
 GHTJRAB M/). Lit. “ A crow.” 
 
 Ghurabu ’1-Bain: “ The crow of separation.” 
 A term used by the Sufi mystics for a certain 
 state of separation from God. (‘Abdu ’r- 
 Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 GHURRAH (sy). A fine of five 
 
 hundred dirhams. A slave of that value. It 
 is the fine for a person striking a woman 
 so as to occasion a miscarriage. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. iv. p. 552.) 
 
 GHUSL as distinguished 
 
 from ghasl (washing) is the religious act of 
 bathing the whole body after a legal im¬ 
 purity. It is founded upon the express in¬ 
 junction of the Qur'an, Surah v. 9 : “ If ye are 
 polluted then purify yourselves.” And the 
 
GNOSTICS 
 
 140 GHUSL MASNUN 
 
 Traditions most minutely relate the occasions 
 on which the Prophet performed the cere¬ 
 mony of ghusl, or bathing. The Muslim 
 teachers of all sects are unanimous in pre¬ 
 scribing the washing of the whole body after 
 the following acts, which render the body 
 junub, or impure: (1) Hayz, menses; (2) 
 nifas, puerperium; (3) jima‘, coitus ; (4) 
 ihtilam, pollutio nocturna. It is absolutely 
 necessary that every part of the body should 
 be washed, for ‘All relates -that the Prophet 
 said, “ He who leaves but one hair unwashed 
 on his body, will be punished in hell accord¬ 
 ingly.” (Mishkat, book ii. c. viii.) 
 
 GHUSL MASNUN J-fc). 
 
 Lit. “ Washings which are Sunnah.” 
 
 Such washings are founded upon the Sun¬ 
 nah, or precept and practice of Muhammad, 
 although they are not supposed to be of 
 divine institution. They are four- in number: 
 (1) Upon the admission of a convert to 
 Islam; (2) Before the Friday prayers and on 
 the great festivals; (3) After washing the 
 dead ; (4) After blood-letting. (See Safiifiu 
 ’ l-Bukhari, p. 39, Bobu ’l- Ghusl. 1 Akrimah 
 relates that people came from al-‘Iraq and 
 asked Ibn ‘Abbas if he believed that bathing 
 on Fridays was a divine institution, and Ibn 
 ‘Abbas replied, “ No, but bathing is a great 
 purifier, and I will tell you how the custom 
 of bathing began. The people were engaged 
 in daily labour and wore blankets, and the 
 people sweated to such a degree as to cause 
 a bad smell, so the Prophet said, ‘ 0 men! 
 bathe ye on Fridays and put some scent on 
 your clothes.’ ” (Matthew’s Mishkat, vol i. 
 p. 120, from the Hadis of Abu Da’ud.) 
 
 GIANTS. There is but one allu¬ 
 sion to_giants in the Qur'an, namely, to the 
 tribe ‘Ad, who are spoken of as men “ with 
 lofty statures ” (Surah lxxxix. 6), and the 
 commentator, Shah ‘Abdu ’1-AzIz of Delhi, 
 says they were men of not less than twelve 
 yards in stature. According to a tradition in 
 the Kitabu ’ sli-Shafah by the Q,azl ‘Ayaz 
 (p. 65), Adam was sixty yards in height. 
 In the Ghiyasu ’l-Lughah, a giant named ‘Uj 
 is mentioned, who was born in the days of 
 Adam and lived until the time of Moses, a 
 period of 3,500 years, and that he was so 
 high, that the flood in the days of Noah only 
 reached to his waist. There are traditions 
 and stories of giants whose graves exist unto 
 the present day, throughout the whole of 
 Asia. Opposite the Church Mission House at 
 Peshawur is a grave nine yards long, which 
 is held in great reverence by both Muham¬ 
 madans and Hindus. De la Belle, in his 
 Travels in Persia, vol ii. p. 89, mentions 
 several which exist in Persia. Giant graves in 
 Hindustan are numerous. 
 
 GIDEON. In the Qur’an there is 
 
 evidently a confusion in one passage between 
 the story of Saul as told therein, and the 
 account of Gideon given in the Old Testament, 
 as the following extracts will show:— 
 
 “ And when. Saul marched forth with his 
 rees, he said, ‘ God will test you by a river: 
 
 He who drinketli of it shall not be of my 
 band ; but he who shall not taste it, drinking 
 a drink out of the hand excepted, shall be of 
 my band.’ And, except a few of them, they 
 drank of it. And when they had passed it, 
 he and those who believed with him, the 
 former said, ‘We have no strength this day 
 against Goliath (Jalut) and his forces: ’ But 
 they who held it as certain that they must 
 meet God, said, ‘ How oft, by God’s will, hath 
 a small host vanquished a numerous host! 
 and God is with the steadfastly enduring.’” 
 (Surah ii. 250.) 
 
 Which compare with Judges vii. 5:— 
 
 So they brought down the people unto 
 the water; and the Lord said unto Gideon, 
 Every one that lappeth of the water with his 
 tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt thou set 
 by himself; likewise every one that boweth 
 down upon his knees to drink. . . . The Lord 
 said, By the three hundred men that lapped will 
 I save you, and deliver the Midianites into thine 
 hand ” 
 
 GIFTS. Arabic hibah (<M>), pi. 
 
 Jiibat. A deed of gift. The term hibah in 
 the language of Muslim law means a transfer 
 of property made immediately and without 
 exchange. He who makes the gift is called 
 the ivahib, or donor; the thing given, mauhub ; 
 and the person to whom it is given is mauhub 
 lahu. 
 
 Muhammad sanctioned the retraction of a 
 gift when he said, “ A donor preserves his 
 right to his gift, so long as he does not obtain 
 a return for it.” Although there is another 
 tradition which says : “ Let not a donor re¬ 
 tract his gift; but let a father if he pleases 
 retract his gift to his son.” Ash-Shafi‘1 
 maintains that it is not lawful to retract a 
 gift, except it be from a father to a son. All 
 the doctors are agreed that to retract a gift 
 is an abomination, for Muhammad said : “ The 
 retraction of a gift is like eating one’s spittle.” 
 The general opinion is that a gift to a 
 stranger may be retracted, but not a gift to 
 a kinsman. A retracted gift, by the mutual 
 consent of the parties, should be effected by 
 a decree of the Qazi, or judge. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. iii. p. 290.) 
 
 GIRDLE. Arabic nitdq 
 
 Amongst the Bakhtashis and several other 
 orders of faqirs, investiture with a girdle is 
 the sign of incorporation into the order. The 
 Bakhtashis say that Adam was the first to 
 wear the girdle worn by them, and after him 
 fifteen other prophets wore it in succession, 
 viz. Seth, Noah, Shu‘aib, Job, Joseph, Abra¬ 
 ham, Husha‘, Tusha 1 , Jirjis, Jonas, Salih, 
 Zakariah, al-Kliizr. Ilyas, and Jesus. (Brown’s 
 Dervishes, p. 145.) 
 
 GNOSTICS. “ The singular cor* 
 
 respondence between the allusions to the cru* 
 cifixion in the Coran, and the wild specula¬ 
 tions of the early heretics, have led to the 
 conjecture that Mahomet acquired his notions 
 of Christianity from a Gnostic source. But 
 Gnosticism had disappeared from Egypt 
 
GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 141 
 
 before the sixth century, and there is no 
 reason for supposing that it had at any time 
 gained footing in Arabia. Besides, there is 
 no affinity between the supernaturalism of the 
 Gnostics and Docetse, and the rationalism of 
 the Coran. According to the former, the 
 Deity must be removed far from the gross 
 contact of evil matter; and the iEon Christ, 
 which alighted upon Jesus at His baptism, 
 must ascend to its native regions before the 
 crucifixion. With Mahomet, on the contrary, 
 Jesus Christ was a mere man—wonderfully 
 born, indeed—but still an ordinary man, a 
 servant of the Almighty, as others had been 
 before him. But although there is no ground 
 for believing that Gnostic doctrines were 
 taught to Mahomet, yet some of the strange 
 fancies of those heretics, preserved in Syrian 
 tradition, may have come to the ears of his 
 informants (the chief of whom, even on 
 Christian topics, seem to have been Jews, 
 unable probably to distinguish heretical fablo 
 from Christian doctrine), and have been by 
 them adopted as a likely and convenient 
 mode of explaining away that which formed 
 the great barrier between Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians.” (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new ed. 
 
 p. 161.) 
 
 GOD. The name of the Creator of 
 
 the Universe in the Qur’an is Allah, which is 
 the title given to the Supreme Being by Mu¬ 
 hammadans of every race and language. 
 
 Allah is supposed to be derived from ildh, 
 a deity or god, with the addition of the defi¬ 
 nite article al — Al-ildli l “ the God ”—or, ac¬ 
 cording to some authorities, it is from lah, i.e. 
 Al-ldh, “ the secret one.” But Abu Hanlfah 
 says that just as the essence of God is un¬ 
 changeable, so is His name, and that Allah 
 has ever been the name of the Eternal Being. 
 (See Ghiydsu ’l-Lughah .) 
 
 Allah may be an Arabic rendering of the 
 
 Hebrew el, and the unused root 
 
 iil, “ to be strong,” or from tlie sin - 
 
 gular form of 
 
 
 It is expressed in 
 
 Persian and Hindustani by the word Khuda, 
 derived from the Persian khud, self; the 
 self-existing one. 
 
 Another word very frequently used for the 
 Almighty in the Qur’an is „Rubb : , which is 
 generally translated in English versions of the 
 Qur’an, “^ord.” It seems to stand in the 
 relative position of the Jehovah of the Old 
 
 Testament and the Kupios of the New Testa¬ 
 ment. The word is understood by Muslims 
 to mean “ the sustainer,” but it is probably 
 
 derived from the Hebrew rai rabbah, “ a 
 
 stronghold,” or from its root rab, which, ac¬ 
 cording to Gesenius, means “ a multitude,” or 
 anything of size or importance. 
 
 The title Allah is called the Ismu ’z-Zat, 
 or, the essential name of God, all other titles, 
 including Rabb, being considered Asma’u’s- 
 Sifat, or “ attributes ” of the Divine Being. 
 These attributes are called al-Asrqd'u ’1-Jj.usnd, 
 
 or the “ excellent names.” The expression 
 occurs in the Qur’an (Surah vii. 179), “But 
 God’s are excellent names, call on Him 
 thereby.” This verse is commented upon in 
 the Traditions, and Abu Hurairah says that 
 Muhammad said, “"Verily, there are ninety- 
 nine names of God, and wiioever recites them 
 shall enter into Paradise.” 
 
 In the same tradition these names (or 
 attributes) are given as follows :— 
 
 1. A r-Rahman 
 
 2. Ar-Rahlm . 
 
 3. Al-Malik . 
 
 4. Al-Quddus. 
 
 5. As-Salam . 
 
 6. Al-Mu’min 
 
 7. Al-Muhaimin 
 
 8. AUAzlz . 
 
 9. Al-Jabbar . 
 
 10. Al-Mutakabbir . 
 
 11. Al-Khaliq 
 
 12. Al-Bdri 
 
 13. Al-Musawwir . 
 
 14. Al-Ghaffar 
 
 15. Al-Qfihhar 
 
 16. Al-Wahhdb 
 
 17. Ar-Razzdq 
 
 18. Al-Fattdh 
 
 19. Al-'Alim . 
 
 20. Al-Qflbiz . 
 
 21. Al-Basil . 
 
 22. Al-Khdjiz . 
 
 23. Ar-Rafi 1 . 
 
 24. Al-MuHzz . 
 
 25. Al-Muzil . 
 
 26. As-Sdmi‘ . 
 
 27. Al-Baslr . 
 
 28. Al-Hdkim . 
 
 29. Al-‘Adl . 
 
 30. Al-Latif . 
 
 31. Al-Khabir . 
 
 32. Al-Ifalim . 
 
 33. AKAzlm . 
 
 34. Al- Ghafur 
 
 35. Ash-Shakur 
 
 36. Al-‘All . 
 
 37. Al-Kabvr . 
 
 38. Al-Haflz . 
 
 39. Al-Muqit . 
 
 40. Al-Hasih . 
 
 41. Al-jalll 
 
 42. Al-Karim . 
 
 43. Ar-Raqib . 
 
 44. Al-Mujib . 
 
 45. Al- Wasi‘ . 
 
 46. Al-Haklm . 
 
 47. Al- Wadud 
 
 48. Al-Majid . 
 
 49. Al-Bais 
 
 50. Ash-Shahid 
 
 51. Al-Haqq . 
 
 52. Al- Wakll . 
 
 53. Al-Qawt . 
 
 54. Al-Matln . 
 
 55. Al- Wall . 
 
 56. Al-Hamid. 
 
 57. Al-Muhsi . 
 
 58. Al-Mubdl . 
 
 59. Al-Midid . 
 
 60. Al-Muhyi . 
 
 The Merciful. 
 
 The Compassionate. 
 The King. 
 
 The Holy. 
 
 The Peace. 
 
 The Faithful. 
 
 The Protector. 
 
 The Mighty. 
 
 The Repairer. 
 
 The Great. 
 
 The Creator. 
 
 The Maker. 
 
 The Fashioner. 
 
 The Forgiver. 
 
 The Dominant. 
 
 The Bestower. 
 
 The Provider. 
 
 The Opener. 
 
 The Knower. 
 
 The Restrainer. 
 
 The Spreader. 
 
 The Abaser. 
 
 The Exalter. 
 
 The Honourer. 
 
 The Destroyer. 
 
 The Hearer. 
 
 The Seer. 
 
 The Ruler. 
 
 The Just. 
 
 The Subtle. 
 
 The Aware. 
 
 The Clement. 
 
 The Grand. 
 
 The Forgiving. 
 
 The Grateful. 
 
 The Exalted. 
 
 The Great. 
 
 The Guardian. 
 
 The Strengthener. 
 The Reckoner. 
 
 The Majestic. 
 
 The Generous 
 The Watcher. 
 
 The Approver. 
 
 The Comprehensive. 
 The Wise. 
 
 The Loving. 
 
 The Glorious 
 The Raiser. 
 
 The Witness. 
 
 The Truth. 
 
 The Advocate. 
 
 The Strong. 
 
 The Firm. 
 
 The Patron. 
 
 The Laudable. 
 
 The Counter. 
 
 The Beginner. 
 
 The Restorei’. 
 
 The Quickener. 
 
142 
 
 GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 61. 
 
 Al-Mumit . 
 
 The Killer. 
 
 62. 
 
 Al-Haiy . 
 
 The Living. 
 
 63. 
 
 Al- Qaiyum 
 
 The Subsisting. 
 
 64. 
 
 Al- Wajid . 
 
 The Finder. 
 
 65. 
 
 A!-Majid . 
 
 The Glorious. 
 
 66. 
 
 Al- Wahid . 
 
 The One. 
 
 67. 
 
 Ab-Samad . 
 
 The Eternal. 
 
 68. 
 
 Al-Qadir . 
 
 The Powerful. 
 
 69. 
 
 Al-Muqtadir 
 
 The Prevailing. 
 
 70. 
 
 Al-Muqaddirn . 
 
 The Bringing for¬ 
 ward. 
 
 71. 
 
 Al-Mu akhkhir . 
 
 The Deferrer. 
 
 72. 
 
 Al-Awwal. 
 
 The First. 
 
 73. 
 
 Al-Akhir . 
 
 The Last. 
 
 74. 
 
 Az-Zahir . 
 
 The Evident. 
 
 75. 
 
 Al-Bdtin . 
 
 The Hidden. 
 
 76. 
 
 Al-Wali . 
 
 The Governor. 
 
 77. 
 
 Al-Muta‘ali 
 
 The Exalted. 
 
 78. 
 
 Al-Barr 
 
 The Righteous. 
 
 79. 
 
 At-Tauwab 
 
 The Accepter of 
 Repentance. 
 
 80. 
 
 Al-Muntaqim 
 
 The Avenger. 
 
 81. 
 
 Al-'Afuw . 
 
 The Pardoner. 
 
 82. 
 
 Ar-Ra’uf . 
 
 The Kind. 
 
 83. 
 
 Mdliku ’ l-Mulk . 
 
 The Ruler of the 
 Kingdom. 
 
 84. 
 
 Zu ’ l-Jalali iva 7- 
 Ilcram . 
 
 The Lord of Majesty 
 and Liberality. 
 
 85. 
 
 Al-Muqsit. 
 
 The Equitable. 
 
 86. 
 
 Al-Jdmi ‘ 
 
 The Collector. 
 
 87. 
 
 Al-Ghani . 
 
 The Independent. 
 
 88. 
 
 Al-Mughni 
 
 The Enricher. 
 
 89. 
 
 Al-Multi . 
 
 The Giver. 
 
 90. 
 
 Al-Mdni ‘ . 
 
 The Withholder. 
 
 91. 
 
 Az-Zarr 
 
 The Distresser. 
 
 92. 
 
 An-Ndfl . 
 
 The Profiter. 
 
 93. 
 
 An-Nur 
 
 The Light. 
 
 94. 
 
 Al-Hddi . 
 
 The Guide. 
 
 95. 
 
 Al-Badi‘ . 
 
 The Incomparable. 
 
 96. 
 
 Al-Baqi 
 
 The Enduring. 
 
 97. 
 
 Al- War is . 
 
 The Inheritor. 
 
 98. 
 
 Ar-Rashid. 
 
 The Director. 
 
 99. 
 
 As-Sabur . 
 
 The Patient. 
 
 The list either begins 
 
 or closes with Allah , 
 
 thus completing the number of one hundred 
 names, which are usually recited on a rosary 
 in the ceremony of Zikr [zikk], as well as at 
 all leisure moments, by devout Muslims. The 
 Wahhabis do not use a rosary, but count 
 the names on their fingers, which they say 
 was the custom of the Prophet, for from the 
 Traditions it appears that Muhammad did 
 not use a rosary. 
 
 According to the Traditions ( Mishkat , book 
 x. c. i.), the Almighty has an “ exalted 
 name ” known as the Isrnu 'l-A'zam, which 
 Muhammad is related to have said was 
 either in the Suratu ’l-Baqarah, the second 
 chapter of the Qur’an, 158th verse, or in the 
 Suratu Ali '•Imran, the third chapter, first 
 verse. The names of God which occur in 
 these two verses are ar-Rahman, “ the Mer¬ 
 ciful,” ar-Raliim, “ The Compassionate,” al- 
 Haiy, “the Living,” and al-Qaiyum, “the 
 Subsisting.” There is, however, another tra¬ 
 dition, from which it would appear that the 
 name may be either al-Afiad, “ the One,” or 
 as-Sainad, “ the Eternal.” 
 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, in his remarks on these 
 traditions, says that it is generally held, ac¬ 
 
 cording to a tradition by ‘Ayishah, that this 
 great name is known only to the prophets 
 and other saintly persons. The compiler of 
 the Kitabu ’ t-Ta'rrfdt says it is none other 
 than the name of Allah. 
 
 The Prophet having said that whoever 
 calls upon God by this name shall obtain all 
 his desires ( Mishkat , book x. c. i. jot. 2), the 
 various sects of faqirs and mystics spend 
 much time in endeavouring to ascertain what 
 the name really is [da‘wah], and the person 
 who is able to assert that he has obtained 
 this secret knowledge possesses great in¬ 
 fluence over the minds of the superstitious. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the discus¬ 
 sion regarding this exalted name has arisen 
 from the circumstance that Muhammad be¬ 
 came aware of the fact that the Jews never 
 recited the great name of Jehovah, and spoke 
 of it as “ the great and terrible name,” “ the 
 peculiar name ” of God. 
 
 The attributes of God as expressed in the 
 ninety-nine names, are divided into the asma'u 
 ’l-jalaliyah, or the glorious attributes, and 
 the asma'u ’ l-jamaliyah , or the terrible attri¬ 
 butes. Such names as ar-Rahxm, “ the Mer¬ 
 ciful,” al-Karim , “ the Kind,” and al ‘Afuw, 
 “ the Forgiver,” belonging to the former; and 
 al-Qawi, “the Strong,” al-Muntaqim, “ the 
 Avenger,” and al- Q,adir, “ the Powerful,” to 
 the latter. 
 
 In praying to God it is usual for the wor¬ 
 shipper to address the Almighty by that 
 name or attribute which he wishes to appeal 
 to. For example, if praying for pardon, he 
 will address God as either al-'Afuw, “the 
 Pardoner,” or at-Tauioab, “ the Receiver of 
 repentance.’ 
 
 A belief in the existence of God, His Unity, 
 His Absolute Power, and in the other essen¬ 
 tial attributes of an Eternal and Almighty 
 Being, is the most important part of the 
 Muslim religion, and is supposed to be ex¬ 
 pressed in the two clauses of the well-known 
 formula : — 
 
 earn m 
 
 La ilaha Il-la 'l-lahu. 
 
 There is no deity But Allah. 
 
 The first clause, “ There is no deity,” is 
 known as the Nafi, or that which is rejected, 
 and the second clause, “ But Allah,” as the 
 Isbat, or that which is established, the 
 term Nafi wa-Isbdt being applied to the first 
 two clauses of the Muslim’s Kalimah, or 
 creed. 
 
 The teaching of Muhammad in his Qur’an 
 as to the nature of God, forms such an im¬ 
 portant consideration in an exposition of 
 Islam, that no apology is needed for full and 
 lengthy quotations from that book on the 
 subject. 
 
 The following verses are arranged in 
 chronological order according to Jalalu ’d- 
 din as-Suyuti’s list:— 
 
 Suratu ’l-I/chlds. Chapter cxiii. 
 
 (One of the earliest chapters of the 
 Qur’an ) 
 
 “ Say, He is God, One [God] 
 
 “ God, the Eternal, 
 
GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 143 
 
 “ He begetteth not nor is begotten, 
 
 “ And there is none equal unto Him.” 
 
 Suratu 'l-A^rdf. Chapter vii. 52. 
 
 (Given at al-Madinah.) 
 
 “ Verily your Lord is God, who created the 
 heavens and the earth in six days: then He 
 as'cended the throne. He causeth the night 
 to cover the day; it followotli it swiftly: and 
 He created the sun and the moon and the 
 stars, made subject utterly to His command. 
 Do not the whole creation and command be¬ 
 long to Him ? Blessed be God, the Lord of 
 the Worlds.” 
 
 Suratu Maryam. Chapter xix. 91-96. 
 
 (Given at Makkah.) 
 
 “ They say, ‘ The Compassionate hath 
 gottqn offspring’: Ye have done an impious 
 thing. 
 
 “ It wanteth little but that the heavens be 
 rent thereat, and that the earth cleave 
 asunder, and that the mountains fall down in 
 pieces. 
 
 “ For that they have attributed offspring 
 to the Compassionate, when it beseemeth not 
 the Compassionate to get offspring. 
 
 “ There is none of all that are in the hea¬ 
 vens and the earth but he shall come unto 
 the Compassionate as a servant. He hath 
 known them and numbered them with an 
 exact numbering. 
 
 “ And each of them shall come unto Him 
 on the day of resurrection, alone. 
 
 “Verily those who have believed and have 
 done the things that are right, on them the 
 Compassionate will bestow [His] love.” 
 
 Suratu 'l-Hijr. Chapter xv. 16-25. 
 
 (Given at Makkah.) 
 
 “ We (God) have placed in heaven the twelve 
 signs of the Zodiac, and adorned them for the 
 beholders with the constellations ; 
 
 “ And We have guarded them (by means of 
 shooting stars') from every accursed devil. 
 
 “ Excepting him who listened by stealth, 
 whom a manifest shooting star pursueth. 
 
 “ We have also spread forth the earth, and 
 thrown thereon firm mountains, and We have 
 caused to spring forth in it every kind [of 
 green thing] weighed. 
 
 “ And We have provided for you therein 
 necessaries of life, and for him whom ye do 
 not sustain; 
 
 “ And there is not a thing but the store¬ 
 houses thereof are with Us, and We send it 
 not down save in determined quantities. 
 
 “ We also send the fertilizing winds, and 
 We send down water from heaven, and give 
 you to drink thereof; and ye are not the 
 storers of it. 
 
 “ And verily We give life and death, and 
 We are the heirs of all the creation. 
 
 “ We also know those who have gone 
 before you, and We know those who follow 
 after [you], 
 
 “ And verily thy Lord will assemble them 
 together: for He is Wise, Knorving ” 
 
 Suratu 'l-An'-am. Chapter vi. 59-64. 
 
 (Given at Makkah.) * 
 
 “ With Him are the keys of the hidden 
 things : none knoweth them but He : and He 
 knoweth whatsoever is on the land and in 
 
 the sea, and there falleth not a leaf but He 
 knoweth it, nor a grain in the dark parts of 
 the earth, nor a moist thing nor a dry thing, 
 but [it is noted] in a distinct writing. 
 
 “ And it is He who taketh your souls at 
 night, and knoweth what ye have gained in 
 the day; then He reviveth you therein, that 
 an appointed time may be fulfilled. Then 
 unto Him shall ye return: then will He 
 declare unto you what ye have done. 
 
 “ And He is the Supreme over His servants, 
 and He sendeth watchers over you, until 
 when death cometh unto any one of you, Our 
 messengers take his soul, and they fail 
 not. 
 
 “ Then are they returned unto God their 
 Lord, the True. Doth not judgment belong 
 to Him ? And He is the most quick of 
 reckoners. 
 
 “ Say, Who delivereth you from the dark¬ 
 nesses of the land and of the sea, when ye 
 supplicate Him humbly and in secret, saying, 
 ‘ If Thou deliver us from these dangers, we 
 will assuredly be of [the number of] the 
 thankful ’ ? 
 
 “ Say, God delivereth you from them and 
 from every affliction.” 
 
 Ib., 95-103:— 
 
 “ Verily God causeth the grain to come 
 forth, and the date-stone : He bringeth forth 
 the living from the dead, and He bringeth 
 forth the dead from the living : This is God ; 
 then wherefore are ye turned away ? 
 
 “ He causeth the dawn to appear, and hath 
 ordained the night for rest, and the sun and 
 the moon for reckoning time: this is the 
 appointment of the Mighty, the Wise. 
 
 “And it is He who hath ordained for you 
 the stars, that ye may be guided by them in 
 the darkness of the land and of the sea: We 
 have clearly shown the signs of Our power 
 unto the people who know. 
 
 “And it is He who hath produced you 
 from one soul, and there is a place of rest and 
 of storing : We have clearly shown the signs 
 to the people who understand. 
 
 “ And it is He who hath sent down water 
 from heaven, and We have produced thereby 
 the germs of everything, and We have caused 
 the green thing to come forth therefrom, from 
 which We draw forth grains massed; and 
 from the palm-tree, from its fruit-branch, 
 clusters of dates heaped together : and gar¬ 
 dens of grapes, and the olive and the pome¬ 
 granate, like one another and not like. Look 
 ye at their fruits when they bear - fruit, and 
 their ripening. Verily therein are signs unto 
 the people who believe. 
 
 “ Yet they have set up the Jinn as partners 
 of God, though He hath created them, and 
 without knowledge have they falsely attri¬ 
 buted to Him sons and daughters. Extolled 
 be His purity, and high be He exalted above 
 that which they attribute [to Him] ! 
 
 “ He is the Author of the heavens and the 
 earth. How then should He have offspring, 
 when He hath no consort, and hath created 
 everything and knoweth everything ? 
 
 “ This is God your Lord. There is no God 
 but He, the Creator of everything : therefore 
 
GOD 
 
 144 GOD 
 
 worship ye Him; and He is guardian over 
 everything. 
 
 “ The eyes see Him not. but He seeth the 
 eyes: and He is the Gracious, the Knowing.” 
 
 Suratu Bani Isra'iL Chapter lxvii. 1-4. 
 
 (Given at Makkah.) 
 
 “ Blessed be He in whose hand is the domi¬ 
 nion and who is all powerful; 
 
 “ Who hath created death and life, that 
 He may prove you, which of you [will be] 
 best in works: and He is the Mighty, the 
 Very-Forgiving: 
 
 “ Who hath created seven heavens, one 
 above another. Thou seest not any fault in 
 the creation of the Compassionate. But lift 
 up the eyes again to heaven. Dost thou see 
 any fissures ? 
 
 ‘■'Then lift up the eyes again twice: the 
 sight shall return unto thee dull and dim.” 
 
 Suratu '/-‘Ankabut. Chapter xxix. 40-43. 
 
 (Given at Makkah.) 
 
 “ The likeness of those who take to them¬ 
 selves Tutelars instead of God is as the like¬ 
 ness of the spider, which maketli for herself 
 a dwelling: and the frailest of dwellings 
 surely is the dwelling of the spider ! If they 
 knew-! 
 
 “Verily God knoweth whatever thing they 
 invoke in His stead ; and He is the Mighty, 
 the Wise. 
 
 “ And these parables we propound unto 
 men: but none understand them except the 
 wise. 
 
 “ God hath created the heavens and the 
 earth in truth: verily therein is a sign unto 
 the believers.” 
 
 Suratu ‘/-Baqarah. Chapter ii. 157-160. 
 
 (Given at al-Madlnah.) 
 
 “ And your God is One God: there is no 
 god but He, the Compassionate, the Merciful. 
 
 “ Verily in the creation of the heavens and 
 the earth, and the varying of night and day, 
 and the ships that course upon the sea laden 
 with what is profitable to mankind, and the 
 water that God hath sent down from heaven, 
 quickening the earth thereby after its death, 
 and scattering about it all kinds of beasts: 
 and in the changing of the winds, and the 
 clouds that are compelled to do service be¬ 
 tween heaven and earth, are signs unto a 
 people who understand. 
 
 “ Vet among men are those who take to 
 themselves, beside God, idols, which they 
 love as with the love of God: but those who 
 have believed are more loving towards God 
 than these towards their idols" 
 
 lb.. 256 :— 
 
 “ God! There is no God but He, the 
 Ever-Living, the Ever-Subsisting. Slumber 
 seizeth Him not, nor sleep. To Him be- 
 longeth whatsoever is in the Heavens and 
 whatsoever is in the Earth. Who is he that 
 shall intercede with Him, unless by His per¬ 
 mission? He knoweth what [hath been] 
 before them and what [shall be] after them, 
 and they shall not compass aught of His 
 knowledge save what He willeth. His Throne 
 eomprehendeth the Heavens and the Earth, 
 and the care of them burdeneth Him not. 
 And He is the High, the Great. 
 
 Suratu AH •Imran. Chapter iii. 25. 
 
 (Given at al-Madinah ) 
 
 “ Say, 0 God, to whom belongeth dominion, 
 Thou givest dominion to whom Thou wilt, 
 and from whom Thou wilt Thou takest it 
 away; Thou exaltest whom Thou wilt, and 
 whom Thou wilt Thou humblest. In Thy hand 
 is good. Verily Thou art all-powerful. 
 
 “ Thou causest the night to pass into the 
 day, and Thou causest the day to pass into 
 the night; and Thou bringest forth the living 
 from the dead, and Thou bringest forth the 
 dead from the living; and Thou givest sus¬ 
 tenance to whom Thou wilt without mea¬ 
 sure.” 
 
 Suratu ’r-Iia-d. Chapter xiii. 13. 
 
 (Given at al-Madinah.) 
 
 “It is He who maketli the lightning to 
 appear unto you, [causing] fear and hope of 
 rain, and formeth the pregnant clouds. 
 
 •• And the thunder proclaimeth His per¬ 
 fection with His praise; and [likewise] the 
 angels, in fear of Him. And He sendeth the 
 thunderbolts, and striketh with them whom 
 He pleaseth, whilst they dispute concerning 
 God; for He is mighty in power.” 
 
 Suratu ii-Nisd. Chapter iv. 51. 
 
 (Given at al-Madinah.) 
 
 “ Verily God will not forgive the associat¬ 
 ing with Him [any other being as a god], but 
 will forgive other sins unto whom He 
 pleaseth; and whoso associateth [another] 
 with God hath wrought a great wickedness.” 
 
 The following is an interpretation of the 
 Muslim belief in the existence and nature of 
 God, by the famous scholastic divine, the 
 Imam al-Ghazzali, in his b'ook entitled al- 
 2Iaqsadu ’/-asna, an extract from which 
 Ockley has translated from Pocock’s Specimen 
 Historice Arabum :— 
 
 “Praise be to God the Creator and Restorer 
 of all things; who does whatsoever He 
 pleases, who is master of the glorious throne 
 and mighty force, and directs His sincere ser¬ 
 vants into the right way and the straight 
 path; who favoureth them, who have once 
 borne testimony to the unity, by preserving 
 their confessions from the darkness of doubt 
 and hesitation ; who directs them to follow 
 His chosen apostle, upon whom be the bless¬ 
 ing and peace of God; and to go after His 
 most honourable companions, to whom he 
 hath vouchsafed His assistance and direction 
 which is revealed to them in His essence and 
 operations by the excellencies of His attri¬ 
 butes, to the knowledge whereof no man 
 attains but he that hath been taught by hear¬ 
 ing. To these, as touching His essence, He 
 maketh known that He is one, and hath no 
 partner; singular, without anything like 
 Him; uniform, having no contrary; separate, 
 having no equal. He is ancient, having no 
 first : eternal, having no beginning: remain¬ 
 ing for ever, having no end; continuing to 
 eternity, without any termination. He per¬ 
 sists, without ceasing to be; remains with¬ 
 out failing, and never did cease, nor ever shall 
 cease to be described by glorious attributes, 
 nor is subject to any decree so as to be de¬ 
 termined by any precise limits or set times, 
 
GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 145 
 
 but is the First and the Last, and is within 
 and without. 
 
 “ ( What God is not.) He, glorified he His 
 name, is not a body endued with form, nor a 
 substance circumscribed with limits or deter¬ 
 mined by measure ; neither does He resemble 
 bodies, as they are capable of being measured 
 or divided. Neither is He a substance, neither 
 do substances exist in Him; neither is He an 
 accident, nor do accidents exist in Him. 
 Neither is he like to anything that exists, 
 neither is anything like to Him; nor is he 
 determinate in quantity nor comprehended by 
 bounds, nor circumscribed by the differences 
 of situation, nor contained in the heavens. 
 He sits upon the throne, after that manner 
 which He Himself hath described, and in that 
 same sense which He Himself means, which 
 is a sitting far removed from any notion of 
 contact, or resting upon, or local situation ; 
 but both the throne itself, and whatsoever is 
 upon it, are sustained by the goodness of his 
 power, and are subject to the grasp of His 
 hand. But He is above the throne, and above 
 all things, even to the utmost ends of the 
 earth; but so above as at the same time not 
 to be a whit nearer the throne and the 
 heaven; since He is exalted by (infinite) 
 degrees above the throne no less than He is 
 exalted above the earth, and at the same 
 time is near to everything that hath a being ; 
 nay, ‘nearer to man than their jugular veins, 
 and is witness to everything ’: though His 
 nearness is not like the nearness of bodies, 
 as neither is His essence like the essence of 
 bodies. Neither doth He exist in anything, 
 neither doth anything exist in Him; but He 
 is too high to be contained in any place, and 
 too holy to be determined by time ; for He 
 was before time and place were created, and 
 is now after the same manner as He always 
 was. He is also distinct from the creatures 
 by His attributes, neither is there anything 
 besides Himself in His essence, nor is His 
 essence in any other besides Him. He is too 
 holy to be subject to change, or any local 
 motion; neither do any accidents dwell in 
 Him, nor any contingencies befall Him ; but 
 He abides through all generations with His 
 glorious attributes, free from all danger of 
 dissolution. As to the attribute of perfec¬ 
 tion, He wants no addition of His perfection. 
 As to being, He is known to exist by the 
 apprehension of the understanding; and He 
 is seen as He is by an ocular intuition, which 
 will be vouchsafed out of His mercy and 
 grace to the holy in the eternal mansion, com¬ 
 pleting their joy by the vision of His glorious 
 presence. 
 
 “ (His power.) He, praised be His name, 
 is living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not 
 liable to any defect or impotence; neither 
 slumbering nor sleeping, nor being obnoxious 
 to decay or death. To Him belongs the 
 kingdom, and the power, and the might. 
 His is the dominion, and the excellency, and 
 the creation, and the command thereof. The 
 heavens are folded up in His right hand, and 
 all creatures are couched within His grasp. 
 His excellency consists in His creating and 
 
 producing, and His unity in communicating 
 existence and a beginning of being. He 
 created men and their works, and measured 
 out their maintenance and their determined 
 times. Nothing that is possible can escape 
 His grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of things 
 elude his power. The effects of his might 
 are innumerable, and the objects of his know¬ 
 ledge infinite. 
 
 “ (Ilis knowledge.) He, praised be His 
 name, knows all things that can be under¬ 
 stood, and comprehends whatsoever comes to 
 pass, from the extremities of the earth to the 
 highest heavens. Even the weight of a pis¬ 
 mire could not escape Him either in earth or 
 heaven; but He would perceive the creeping 
 of the black pismire in the dark night upon 
 the hard stone, and discern the motion of an 
 atom in the open air. He knows what is 
 secret and conceals it, and views the concep¬ 
 tions of the minds, and the motions of 
 the thoughts, and the inmost recesses of 
 secrets, by a knowledge ancient and eternal, 
 that never ceased to be His attribute from 
 eternal eternity, and not by any new know¬ 
 ledge, superadded to His essence, either in¬ 
 hering or adventitious. 
 
 “ (His will.) He, praised be His name, 
 doth will those things to be that are, and dis¬ 
 poses of all accidents. Nothing passes in the 
 empire, nor the kingdom, neither little nor 
 much, nor small nor great, nor good nor evil, 
 nor profitable nor hurtful, nor faith nor in¬ 
 fidelity, nor knowledge nor ignorance, nor 
 prosperity nor adversity, nor increase nor de¬ 
 crease, nor obedience nor rebellion, but by 
 His determinate counsel and decree, and His 
 definite sentence and will. Nor doth the 
 wink of him that seeth, nor the subtlety of 
 him that thinketh, exceed the bounds of His 
 will; but it is He who gave all things their 
 beginning ; He is the creator and restorer, the 
 sole operator of what He pleases; there is no 
 reversing His decree nor delaying what He 
 hath determined, nor is there any refuge to 
 man from his rebellion against Him, but only 
 His help and mercy; nor hath any man any 
 power to perform any duty towards Him, but 
 through His love and will. Though men, 
 genii, angels and devils, should conspire to¬ 
 gether either to put one single atom in 
 motion, or cause it to cease its motion, with¬ 
 out His will and approbation, they would not 
 be able to do it. His will subsists in His 
 essence amongst the rest of His attributes, 
 and was from eternity one of His eternal 
 attributes, by which He willed from eternity 
 the existence of those things that He had 
 decreed, which were produced in their proper 
 seasons according to His eternal will, without 
 any before or after , and in agreement both 
 with His knowledge and will, and not by me¬ 
 thodising of thoughts, nor waiting for a 
 proper time, for which reason no one thing 
 is in Him a hindrance from another. 
 
 “ (His hearing and sight.) And He, praised 
 be His name, is hearing and seeing, and 
 heareth and seeth. No audible object, how 
 still soever, escapeth His hearing ; nor is any 
 thing visible so small as to escape his sight; 
 
 19 
 
146 
 
 GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 for distance is no hindrance to His hearing, 
 nor darkness to His sight. He sees without 
 pupil or eye-lid, and hears without any pas¬ 
 sage or ear, even as He knoweth without a 
 heart, and performs His actions without the 
 assistance of any corporeal limb, and creates 
 without any instrument, for His attributes 
 (or properties) are not like those of men, any 
 more than His essence is like theirs. 
 
 “ (His word.) Furthermore, He doth speak, 
 command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an 
 eternal, ancient word, subsisting in His 
 essence. Neither is it like to the word of the 
 creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice 
 arising from the commotion of the air and the 
 collision of bodies, nor letters which are sepa¬ 
 rated by the joining together of the lips or 
 the motion of the tongue. The Qur’an, the 
 Law, the Gospel, and the Psalter, are books 
 sent down by Him to His apostles, and the 
 Qur’an, indeed, is read with tongues, written 
 in books, and kept in hearts : yet as subsist¬ 
 ing in the essence of God, it doth not become 
 liable to separation and division whilst it is 
 transferred into the hearts and the papers. 
 Thus Moses also heard the Word of God 
 without voice or letter, even as the saints be¬ 
 hold the essence of God without substance 
 or accident. And since these are his attri¬ 
 butes, He liveth and knoweth, is powerful 
 and willeth and operateth, and seeth and 
 speaketh,by life and knowledge, and will and 
 hearing, and sight and word, not by His 
 simple essence. 
 
 “ (His works.) He, praised be His name, 
 exists after such a manner that nothing be¬ 
 sides Him hath any being but what is pro¬ 
 duced by His operation, and floweth from His 
 justice after the best, most excellent, most 
 perfect, and most just model. He is, more¬ 
 over, wise in His works, and just in His 
 decrees. But His justice is not to be com¬ 
 pared with the justice of men. For a man 
 may be supposed to act unjustly by invading 
 the possession of another; but no injustice 
 can be conceived by God, inasmuch as there 
 is nothing that belongs to any other besides 
 Himself, so that wrong is not imputable to 
 Him as meddling with things not appertaining 
 to Him. All things, Himself only excepted, 
 genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth, 
 animals, plants, substance, accident, intel¬ 
 ligible, sensible, were all created originally by 
 Him. He created them by His power out of 
 mere privation, and brought them into light, 
 when as yet they were nothing at all, but He 
 alone existing from eternity, neither was 
 there any other with Him. Now He created 
 all things in the beginning for the manifesta¬ 
 tion of His power, and His will, and the con¬ 
 firmation of His word, which was true from 
 all eternity. Not that He stood in need of 
 them, nor wanted them; but He manifestly 
 declared His glory in creating and producing, 
 and commanding, without being under any 
 obligation, nor out of necessity. Loving kind¬ 
 ness, the showing favour and grace, and 
 beneficence, belong to Him; whereas it is in 
 His power to pour forth upon men a variety 
 of torments, and afllict them with various 
 
 kinds of sorrows and diseases, which, if He 
 were to do, His justice could not be arraigned, 
 nor would he be chargeable with injustice. 
 Yet he rewards those that worship Him for 
 their obedience on account of his promise and 
 beneficence, not of their merit nor of necessity, 
 since there is nothing which He can be tied 
 to perform ; nor can any injustice be sup¬ 
 posed in Him, nor can tie be under any obli¬ 
 gation to any person whatsoever. That His 
 creatures, however, should be bound to serve 
 Him, ariseth from His having declared by the 
 tongues of the prophets that it was due to 
 Him from them. The worship of Him is not 
 simply the dictate of the understanding, but 
 He sent messengers to carry to men His com¬ 
 mands, and promises, and threats, whose 
 veracity He proved by manifest miracles, 
 whereby men are obliged to give credit to 
 them in those things that they relate.” 
 
 Included in the attributes of God as given 
 in His ninety-nine titles or names, there are 
 the Haft sifat, or Seven Attributes ; Muham¬ 
 mad al-BarqawI has expressed them as 
 follows :— 
 
 (1) Hayat, or Life. God Most High is 
 alone to be adored. He has neither associate 
 nor equal. He is free from the imperfections 
 of humanity. He is neither begotten nor 
 does He beget. He is invisible. He is with¬ 
 out figure, form, colour or parts. His exist¬ 
 ence has neither beginning nor end. He is 
 immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate 
 the world in a moment of time and, if it seem 
 good to Him, recreate it in an instant. 
 Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the 
 creation of a fly or that of the seven heavens. 
 He receives neither profit nor loss from what¬ 
 ever may happen. If all the Infidels became 
 believers and all the irreligious pious, He 
 would gain no advantage. On the other 
 hand, if all Believers became infidels, He 
 would suffer no loss. 
 
 (2) ‘Jim, or Knowledge. He has knowledge 
 of all things hidden or manifest, whether in 
 heaven or on earth. He knows the number 
 of the leaves of the trees, of the grains of 
 wheat and of sand. Events past and future 
 are known to Him. He knows what enters 
 into the heart of man and what He utters 
 with His mouth. He alone, except those to 
 whom He has revealed them, knows the in¬ 
 visible things. He is free from forgetfulness, 
 negligence and error. His knowledge is 
 eternal: it is not posterior to His essence. 
 
 (3) Qudrah, or Power. He is Almighty. 
 If He wills, He can raise the dead, make 
 stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens 
 and the earth, and recreate of gold or of 
 silver thousands similar to those destroyed. 
 He can transport a man in a moment of time 
 from the east to the west, or from the west to 
 the east, or to the seventh heaven. His 
 power is eternal a priori and a posteriori. It 
 is not posterior to His essence. 
 
 (4) Iradah, or Will. He can do what He 
 wills, and whatever He wills comes to pass. 
 He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or 
 evil, in this world exists by His will. He wills 
 the faith of the believer and the piety of the 
 
GOD 
 
 GOD 
 
 religious. If He were to change His will 
 there would be neither a true believer nor a 
 pious man. He willeth also the unbelief of 
 the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked 
 and, without that will, there would neither 
 be unbelief nor irreligion. All we do we do by 
 His will: what He willeth not does not come 
 to pass. If one should ask why God does 
 not will that all men should believe, we 
 answer: “ We have no right to enquire about 
 what God wills and does. He is perfectly 
 free to will and to do what He pleases.” In 
 creating unbelievers, in willing that they 
 should remain in that state ; in making ser¬ 
 pents, scorpions and pigs : in willing, in short, 
 all that is evil, God has wise ends in view 
 which it is not necessary that we should 
 know. We must acknowledge that the will 
 of God is eternal and that it is not posterior 
 to His essence. 
 
 (5) Sani‘, or Hearing. He hears all sounds 
 whether low or loud. He hears without an 
 ear, for His attributes are not like those of 
 men. 
 
 (6) Basar, or Seeing. He sees all things, 
 even the steps of a black ant on a black stone 
 in a'dark night; yet He has no eye as men 
 have. 
 
 (7) Kalam, or Speech. He speaks, but not 
 with a tongue as men do. He speaks to some 
 of His servants without the intervention of 
 another, even as He spoke to Moses, and 
 to Muhammad on the night of the ascension 
 to heaven. He speaks to others by the instru¬ 
 mentality of Gabriel, and this is the usual way 
 in which He communicates His will to the 
 prophets. It follows from this that the 
 Qur’an is the w^qrd of God, and is eternal and 
 
 \ uncreated. (Sale’s Faith of Islam.) 
 
 With regard to the Muhammadan belief in 
 the Supreme Being, Mr. Palgrave, the well- 
 known Oriental traveller, thus expresses 
 himself :— 
 
 “ ‘ There is no god but God,’ are words 
 simply tantamount in English to the nega¬ 
 tion of any deity save one alone; and thus 
 much they certainly mean in Arabic, but 
 the imply much more also. Their full sense 
 is, not only to deny absolutely and unre¬ 
 servedly all plurality, whether of nature or of 
 person, in the Supreme Being, not only to 
 establish the unity of the Unbegetting and Un¬ 
 begot, in all its simple and uncommunicable 
 Oneness ; but besides this, the words in Arabic 
 and among Arabs imply that this one Su¬ 
 preme Being is also the only Agent, the only 
 Force, the only act existing throughout the 
 universe, and leave to all beings else, matter 
 or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical or 
 moral, nothing but pure unconditional passive¬ 
 ness, alike in movement or in quiescence, in 
 action or in capacity. The sole power, the 
 sole motor, movement, energy, and deed, is 
 God ; the rest is downright inertia and mere 
 instrumentality, from the highest archangel 
 down to the simplest atom of creation. Hence, 
 in this one sentence, is summed up a system 
 which, for want of a better name, I may be 
 permitted to call the Pantheism of Force, or 
 of Act, thus exclusively assigned to God, Who 
 
 147 
 
 absorbs it all, exercises it all, and to Whom 
 alone it can be ascribed, whether for preser¬ 
 ving or for destroying, for relative evil or for 
 equally relative good. I say ‘ relative,’ be¬ 
 cause it is clear that in such a theology no 
 place is left for absolute good or evil, reason 
 or extravagance, all is abridged in the auto¬ 
 cratical will of the One great Agent: ‘ sic 
 volo, sic juheo, stet pro ratione voluntas ’; or, 
 more significantly still, in Arabic Kema 
 yeshao (Jca-ma yasha’u), 1 as He wills it,’ to 
 quote the constantly recurring expression of 
 the Coran. 
 
 “ Thus immeasureably and eternally exalted 
 above, and dissimilar from, all creatures, 
 which lie levelled before Him on one common 
 plane of instrumentality and inertness, God is 
 One in the totality of omnipotent and omni¬ 
 present action, which acknowledges no rule, 
 standard, or limit, save His own sole and 
 absolute will. He communicates nothing to 
 His creatures, for their seeming power and 
 act ever remain His alone, and in return He 
 receives nothing from them; for whatever 
 they may be, that they are in Him, by Him, 
 and from Him only. And, secondly, no supe¬ 
 riority, no distinction, no pre-eminence, can be 
 lawfully claimed by one creature over its 
 fellow, in the utter equalisation of their un¬ 
 exceptional servitude and abasement; all are 
 alike tools of the one solitary Force which 
 employs them to crush or to benefit, to truth 
 or to error, to honour or shame, to happiness 
 or misery, quite independently of their indi¬ 
 vidual fitness, deserts, or advantage, and 
 simply because ‘ He wills it,’ and ‘ as He 
 wills it.’ 
 
 “ One might at first sight think that this 
 tremendous Autocrat, this uncontrolled and 
 unsympathising Power, would be far above any¬ 
 thing like passions,desires, or inclinations. Yet 
 such is not the case, for He has with respect 
 to His creatures one main feeling and source 
 of action, namely, jealousy of them, lest they 
 should perchance attribute to themselves 
 something of what is His alone, and thus en¬ 
 croach on His all-engrossing kingdom. Hence 
 He is ever more prone to punish than to 
 reward, to inflict pain than to bestow plea¬ 
 sure, to ruin than to build. It is His sin¬ 
 gular satisfaction to let created beings conti¬ 
 nually feel that they are nothing else than 
 His slaves, His tools, and contemptible tools 
 also, that thus they may the better ac¬ 
 knowledge His superiority, and know His 
 power to be above their power, His cunning 
 above ,thcir cunning, His will above their 
 will, His pride above their pride ; or rather, 
 that there is no power, cunning, will, or pi-ide, 
 save His own. 
 
 “ But He Himself, sterile in His inacces¬ 
 sible height,neither loving nor enjoying aught 
 save His own and self-measured decree, with¬ 
 out son, companion, or counsellor, is no less 
 barren of Himself than for His creatures, and 
 His own barrenness and lone egoism in Him¬ 
 self is the cause and rule of His indifferent 
 and unregarding despotism around. The 
 first note is the key of the whole tune, and 
 the primal idea of God runs through and 
 
14S 
 
 GOD 
 
 GOG AND MAGOG 
 
 modifies the whole system and creed that 
 centres in Him. 
 
 “ That the notion here given of the Deity, 
 monstrous and blasphemous as it may appear, 
 is exactly and literally that which the Coran 
 conveys or intends to convey, I at present take 
 for granted. But that it indeed is so, no one 
 who has attentively perused and thought over 
 the Arabic text (for mere cursory reading, 
 especially in a translation, will not suffice), 
 can hesitate to allow. In fact, every phrase 
 of the preceding sentences, every touch in this 
 odious portrait, has been taken, to the best of 
 my ability, word for word, or at least mean¬ 
 ing for meaning, from the ‘Book,’ the truest 
 mirror of the mind and scope of its writer. 
 
 “ And that such was in reality Maho¬ 
 met’s mind and idea, is fully confirmed by 
 the witness-tongue of contemporary tradition. 
 Of this we have many authentic samples : the 
 Sahee/i (Sahlh ), the Commentary of Beydawi 
 (al-Baizawi ), the Mishlcat ul Masabih, and 
 fifty similar works, afford ample testimony on 
 this point. But for the benefit of my readers 
 in general, all of whom may not have drunk 
 equally deep at the fountain-heads of Islamic 
 dogma, I will subjoin a specimen, known 
 perhaps to many Orientalists, yet too charac¬ 
 teristic to be here omitted, a repetition of 
 which I have endured times out of number 
 from admiring and approving Wahhabis in 
 Nejed. 
 
 “ 1 Accordingly, when God ’—so runs the 
 tradition: I had better said, the blasphemy— 
 
 ‘ resolved to create the human race, He took 
 into His hands a mass of earth, the same 
 whence all mankind were to be formed, and 
 in which they after a manner pre-existed ; and 
 having then divided the clod into two equal 
 portions, He threw the one half into hell, 
 saying, “ These to eternal fire, and I care 
 not”; and projected the other half into hea¬ 
 ven, adding, “ and these to Paradise, I care 
 not.” ’ (See Mishkatu ’/-Masabih Babu ’/- 
 Qadr.) 
 
 “ Commentary would here be superfluous. 
 But in this we have before us the adequate 
 idea of predestination, or, to give it a truer 
 name, pre-damnation, held and taught in the 
 school of the Coran. Paradise and hell are 
 at once totally independent of love or hatred 
 on the part of the Deity, and of merits or de¬ 
 merits, of good or evil conduct, on the part 
 of the creature ; and, in the corresponding 
 theory, rightly so, since the very actions 
 which we call good or ill-deserving, right or 
 wrong, wicked or virtuous, are in their es¬ 
 sence all one and of one, and accordingly 
 merit neither praise nor blame, punishment 
 nor recompense, except and simply after the 
 arbitrary value which the all-regulating will 
 of the great despot may choose to assign or 
 impute to them. In a word, He burns one in¬ 
 dividual through all eternity amid red-hot 
 chains and seas of molten fire, and seats 
 another in the plenary enjoyment of an ever¬ 
 lasting brothel between forty celestial concu¬ 
 bines, just and equally for His own good 
 pleasure, and because He walls it. 
 
 “ Men are thus all on one common level, 
 
 here and hereafter, in their physical, social, 
 and moral light—the level of slaves to one 
 sole Master, of tools to one universal Agent. 
 But the equalising process does not stop 
 here: beasts, birds, fishes, insects, all parti¬ 
 cipate of the same honour or debasement; all 
 are, like man, the slaves of God, the tools 
 and automata of His will; and hence Ma¬ 
 homet is simply logical and self-consistent 
 when in the Coran he informs his followers, 
 that birds, beasts, and the rest are ‘ nations ’ 
 like themselves, nor does any intrinsic dis¬ 
 tinction exist between them and the human 
 species, except what accidental diversity the 
 ‘ King, the Proud One, the Mighty, the Giant,’ 
 &c., as he styles his God, may have been 
 pleased to make, just as He willed it, and so 
 long as He may will it. 
 
 “However, should any one think himself 
 aggrieved by such association, he may con¬ 
 sole himself by reflecting that, on the other 
 hand, angels, archangels, genii, devils, and 
 whatever other spiritual beings may exist, 
 are no less on his level also : and that if he 
 himself be no better than a camel, he is, how¬ 
 ever, no worse than Gabriel or any seraph. 
 And then, over all .and above all, ‘ There is 
 no god but God..’”—( Central and Eastern 
 Arabia, vol. i. p. 365.) 
 
 GOG AND MAGOG. Arabic 
 
 Yctjuj wa Majuj, also spelt Majuj 
 wa Yajuj (eyO'*? 5^0*). A barbarous 
 people of Central Asia, perhaps the Turko¬ 
 mans, who are in the Qur’an represented as 
 doing evil in the land in the days of Zu ’1- 
 Qarnain (or Alexander). See Surah xviii. 
 93-97 :— 
 
 “ They said, ‘ 0 Zu ’1-Qarnain! verily Gog 
 and Magog waste this land; shall we then pay 
 thee tribute, so thou build a rampart between 
 us and them ? ’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ Better than your tribute is the 
 might wherewith my Lord hath strengthened 
 me ; but help me strenuously, and I will set a 
 barrier between you and them. 
 
 “ ‘ Bring me blocks of iron,’—until when it 
 filled the space between the mountain sides— 
 '• Ply,’ said he, ‘ your bellows,’—until when he 
 had made it red with heat (fire), he said,— 
 ‘ Bring me molten brass that I may pour upon 
 it.’ 
 
 “ And Gog and Magog were not able to 
 scale it, neither were they able to dig 
 through it. 
 
 “ ‘ This,’ said he, ‘ is a mercy from my 
 Lord.’ ” 
 
 They are also spoken of in Surah xxi. 95, 
 96, as a people who shall appear in the last 
 days:— 
 
 “ There is a ban on every city which we 
 shall have destroyed, that they shall not 
 arise again, 
 
 “ Until a way is opened for Gog and Ma¬ 
 gog, and they shall hasten from every high 
 land.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says Yajuj and Majuj are two 
 tribes descended from Japheth the son of 
 Noah, and some say Yajuj belong to the 
 Turks and Majuj to the JIls. (Comp 
 
GOLD 
 
 Ezekiel xxxviii. 2 ; xxxix. 1 ; Rev. xvi. 14; 
 xx. 8.) 
 
 GOLD. Arabic zahab (s-*a) ; Heb. 
 
 nnt. The zakat imposed upon gold is upon 
 twenty misqals one-half misqal, and upon 
 every four misqals in excess, one qirat, because 
 the alms upon gold is one fortieth of the whole. 
 This is due upon all gold, whether it be in coin 
 or in ornaments. But ash-ShafiT says it is 
 not due upon the ornaments of women or the 
 rings of men. ( Hiddyah , vol. i. p. 27.) 
 
 The sale of gold is only lawful when it is 
 exactly equal in point of weight, for Muham¬ 
 mad said, “ Sell gold for gold, from hand to 
 hand, at an equal rate according to weight, 
 for any inequality in point of weight is usury.” 
 {Idem, vol. ii. 552.) 
 
 “ It is not lawful for a man or woman to eat 
 or drink out of gold or silver vessels.” {Idem, 
 vol. vi. 86.) 
 
 GOLIATH. Arabic Jalut (>yW). 
 
 The giant whom King David slew. Men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 251 : “ And 
 when they went forth to battle against Jalut 
 and his army, they said, 1 0 Lord, give us 
 patience, and strengthen our feet, and help us 
 against the infidels ! ’ Therefore they dis¬ 
 comfited them by the will of God, and David 
 slew Jalut.” 
 
 The commentators have not ventured to 
 give any account of Jalut. 
 
 GOMORRAH. Arabic Ghamurah 
 Not mentioned by name in 
 the Qur’an; but Sadum wa Ghamurah are un¬ 
 derstood to be the “ overturned cities ” re¬ 
 ferred to in Surahs ix. 71, lxix. 9. 
 
 GOOD WORKS. Arabic as-Sdli- 
 hcit According to the 
 
 teaching of the Qur’an, good works without 
 faith will not save from the torments of 
 hell. 
 
 Surah xviii. 103-5 : “ Shall we tell you who 
 are they that have lost their labour most; 
 whose efforts in the present life have been 
 mistaken, and who deemed that what they 
 did was right ? They are those who believed 
 not in the signs of the Lord, or that they 
 should ever meet Him. Vain, therefore, are 
 their works ; and no weight will we allow 
 them on the day of Resurrection.” 
 
 Faith in the above is belief in the mission 
 of Muhammad: all Muslims being considered 
 in a state of grace, no matter what their actions 
 may be. With reference to the good deeds of 
 Muslims, the following is the teaching of 
 Muhammad, as recorded in the Traditions 
 {MishJcat, book x. chap, iii.) :— 
 
 “ When a man is brought to Islam and he 
 performs it well, God covers all his former 
 sins, and he gets ten rewards for every good 
 act, up to seven hundred, and even more than 
 that, whereas the reward of misdeeds is as 
 one to one, unless God passes that over like¬ 
 wise.” 
 
 “ There are three persons whose actions 
 are not written ; one a person asleep until he 
 awakes; the second, a boy not arrived at 
 
 GRANDFATHER 149 
 
 puberty ; the third, a madman until he re¬ 
 covers his reason.” 
 
 “ Verily, God recordeth both the good deeds 
 and the evil deeds. He who has proposed to 
 do evil and did not do it, for him God re¬ 
 cordeth one perfectly good deed. And he who 
 intended to do good and put his intentions 
 into practice, for him God recordeth from ten 
 to seven hundred good deeds (according to 
 their merits). And he who intended to do 
 evil but did it not, God recordeth one good 
 act; but he who intendeth to do evil and doeth 
 it, for him God recordeth one evil deed.” 
 
 “Verily, the condition of that person who 
 does evil and after that good deeds, is like the 
 condition of a man with tight armour on, 
 which has troubled him. He does one good 
 deed and the rings of the armour become 
 open. He does another good deed, and the 
 armour falls from his body.” 
 
 “Verily there was a man amongst those 
 who were before you to whom the angel of 
 death came to take his soul, and he was 
 asked ‘ Have you done any good act ? ’ He 
 said in answer, ‘ I do not remember that I 
 have done any good.’ It was said to him, 
 
 ‘ Look well into yourself, and consider if you 
 have done any good work. He said, ‘ I do 
 not find any good in myself, except that I 
 used to buy and sell in the world and used to 
 claim my right from the rich, but allowed 
 them their leisure to pay me when they liked, 
 and I forgave the poor.’ Then God brought 
 that man into paradise.” 
 
 “ An adulteress was forgiven, who passed 
 by a dog at a well, and the dog was holding 
 out his tongue from thirst, which was near 
 killing him. The woman drew off her boot 
 and tied it to the end of her veil, and drew 
 water for the dog, and gave him to drink, and 
 she was forgiven on account of that act. It 
 was asked the Prophet, ‘ Verily, are there re¬ 
 wards for our doing good to quadrupeds, and 
 giving them water to drink ? ’ He said, ‘ There 
 are rewards for benefiting every animal 
 having a moist liver.’ ” » 
 
 “ Your smiling in your brother’s face is 
 alms; and your exhorting mankind to vir¬ 
 tuous deeds is alms ; and your prohibiting 
 the forbidden is alms; and your showing men 
 the road when they lose it is alms ; and your 
 assisting the blind is alms ; and your removing 
 stones, thorns, and bones, which are inconve¬ 
 nient to man is alms; and your pouring 
 water from your bucket into that of your 
 brother is alms for you.” 
 
 GOSHAH-NISHIN (<**&» 
 
 Lit. “ One who sits in a corner.” A Persian 
 term for a devout person who in retirement 
 engages in the contemplation of the Deity. 
 
 GOSPEL. Arabic Injll 
 
 A term applied to the whole of the New Tes¬ 
 tament scriptures, [new testament.] 
 
 GRAMMAR, [ilmu ’l-adab.] 
 GRANDFATHER. Arabic jadd 
 (a^-). If a father die without appoint- 
 ing an executor, the grandfather represents 
 
150 
 
 GRANDMOTHER 
 
 GREEKS 
 
 the father. And in making contracts of mar¬ 
 riage, the grandfather has precedence of an 
 executor, although the executor takes prece¬ 
 dence in managing the property. ( Hidayah , 
 vol. iv. p. 555.) In case of the father being 
 poor, it is the duty of the grandfather to act 
 for his grandchild in the distribution of alms, 
 &c. (Idem, yoI. ii. p. 244.) 
 
 GRANDMOTHER. Arabic jaddah 
 (sj^-). If the mother of an infant 
 die, the right hizanah, or guardianship, rests 
 with the maternal grandmother in preference 
 to the paternal; but if she be not living, the 
 paternal grandmother has the right prior to 
 any other relation. The paternal grandmother 
 is also entitled to a sixth of the effects of a 
 child of her son, if the child’s mother be dead, 
 as being the mother’s share. (Hidayah, vol. i. 
 
 р. 386.) 
 
 GRAVE. Arabic qabr ( ; G) ; Heb. 
 The graves of Muhammadans 
 
 are so dug as to allow the body to lie with its 
 face towards Makkah; consequently in India 
 they are dug from north to south. It is usual 
 to dig a grave the depth equal to the height of 
 the breast of a middle-sized man, and to make 
 a recess at the bottom, which is called lahd, in 
 which the body is placed. The body having 
 been placed in this recess, it is closed with 
 unburnt bricks, and the grave is filled with 
 earth and a mound raised over it. 
 
 The Traditions of Muhammad, as well as 
 the works of Muslim doctors, all teach that 
 a dead body is conscious of pain, and there¬ 
 fore great care is taken to prevent any pres¬ 
 sure upon the body. 
 
 ‘Amir relates that his father Sa‘d ibn Abl 
 Waqqas said on his death-bed, “ Make a 
 lahd for me towards Makkah, and put unburnt 
 bricks upon my grave, as was done in the 
 case of the Prophet (Sahiku Muslim, p. 211). 
 
 Sufyan at-Tammar relates that he “ saw the 
 Prophet’s grave, and the top of it was like a 
 camel’s back.” (Sahihu ’l-Bukhari.) 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says “ a red cloth was placed 
 upon the Prophet’s grave.” (Mislikat, book 
 v. c. vi.) 
 
 Jabir says “ the Prophet prohibited build¬ 
 ing with mortar on graves, and also placing 
 inscriptions upon them.” ( Mish/cdt , book v. 
 
 с. vi.) But notwithstanding this tradition 
 (which is acted upon by the Wahhabis), 
 masonry tombs are most common in all parts 
 of Islam, and form some of the most striking 
 specimens of Muhammadan architecture. 
 [tombs.] 
 
 GRAVE, The Punishments of the. 
 
 [‘AZABU ’L-QABR.] 
 
 GREEKS. Arabic ar-Bum (p^), 
 
 by which is meant the Byzantine or Eastern 
 Empire. In the xxxth chapter of the Qur’an, 
 entitled the Suratu ’r-Rum, or the “ Chapter 
 of the Greeks,” there is a reference to the 
 defeat of the Byzantine power by the Per¬ 
 sians with a supposed prophecy of future suc¬ 
 cesses. The chapter begins thus :— 
 
 “ Alif. Lam. Mlm. THE GREEKS have 
 been defeated 
 
 “ In a land hard by : But after their defeat 
 they shall defeat their foes, 
 
 “ In a few years. First and last is the 
 affair with God. And on that day shall the 
 faithful rejoice 
 
 “ In the aid of their God : He aideth whom 
 He will ; and He is the Mighty, the Merciful. 
 
 “ It is the promise of God : To his promise 
 God will not be untrue: but most men know 
 if not.” 
 
 Following al-Ba,izawI, the Jalalan, and 
 other commentators, Sale remarks that— 
 
 The accomplishment of the prophecy con¬ 
 tained in this passage, which is very famous 
 among the Muhammadans, being insisted on 
 by their doctors as a convincing proof that 
 the Qur’an really came down from heaven, it 
 may be excusable to be a little particular. 
 
 The passage is said to have been revealed 
 on occasion of a great victory obtained by the 
 Persians over the Greeks, the news whereof 
 coming to Makkah, the infidels became 
 strangely elated, and began to abuse Muham¬ 
 mad and his followers, imagining that this 
 success of the Persians, who, like themselves, 
 were idolators, and supposed to have no 
 scriptures, against the Christians, who pre¬ 
 tended as well as Muhammad to worship one 
 God, and to have divine scriptures, was an 
 earnest of their own future successes against 
 the Prophet, and those of his religion, to 
 check which vain hopes it was foretold in the 
 words of the text, that how improbable soever 
 it might seem, yet the scale should be turned 
 in a few years, and the vanquished Greeks 
 prevail as remarkably against the Persians. 
 That this prophecy was exactly fulfilled, the 
 commentators fail not to observe, though 
 they do not exactly agree in the accounts 
 they give of its accomplishment, the number 
 of years between the two actions being not 
 precisely determined. Some place the vic¬ 
 tory gained by the Persians in the fifth year 
 before the Hijrah, and their defeat by the 
 Greeks in the second year after it, when the 
 battle of Badr was fought; others place the 
 former in the third or fourth year before 
 the Hijrah, and the latter in the end of the 
 sixth or beginning of the seventh year after it, 
 ■when the expedition of al-Hudaibiyah was 
 undertaken. The date of the victory gained 
 by the Greeks in the first of these accounts, 
 interferes with a story which the commenta¬ 
 tors tell, of a wager laid by Abu Bakr with 
 Ubaiy ibn Kh alf, who turned this prophecy 
 into ridicule. Abu Bakr at first laid ten 
 young camels that the Persians should re¬ 
 ceive an overthrow within three years, but on 
 his acquainting Muhammad with what he had 
 done, that Prophet told him that the word 
 hvz, made use of in this passage, signified no 
 determinate number of years, but any number 
 from three to nine (though some suppose the 
 tenth year is included), and therefore advised 
 him to prolong the time and to raise the 
 wager, which he accordingly proposed to 
 Ubaiy, and they agreed that the time assigned 
 should be nine years and the wager a hun¬ 
 dred camels. Before the time was elapsed, 
 Ubaiy died of a wound received at Ulyud, in 
 
GEOYE 
 
 GUAKDIANSHIP 
 
 151 
 
 the third year of the Hijrah; but the event 
 afterwards showing that Abu Bakr had won, 
 he received the camels of Ubay’s heirs, and 
 brought them in triumph to Muhammad. 
 History informs us that the successes of 
 Kh osru Parviz, King of Persia, who carried 
 on a terrible war against the Greek empire, 
 to revenge the death of Maurice, his father- 
 in-law, slain by Phocas, were very great, and 
 continued in an uninterrupted course for two- 
 and-twenty years. Particularly in the year 
 of Christ 615, about the beginning of the 
 sixth year before the Hijrah, the Persians, 
 having the preceding year conquered Syria, 
 made themselves masters of Palestine and 
 took Jerusalem, which seems to be that signal 
 advantage gained over the Greeks mentioned 
 in this passage, as agreeing best with the 
 terms here used, and most likely to alarm the 
 Arabs by reason of their vicinity to the scene 
 of action; and there was so little probability 
 at that time of the Greeks being able to re¬ 
 trieve their losses, much less to distress the 
 Persians, that in the following years the 
 arms of the latter made still farther and 
 more considerable progresses, and at length 
 they laid siege to Constantinople itself. But 
 in the year 625, in which the fourth year of 
 the Hijrah began, abut ten years after the 
 taking of Jerusalem, the Greeks, when it was 
 least expected, gained a remarkable victory 
 over the Persians, and not only obliged them 
 to quit the territories of the empire, by car¬ 
 rying the war into their own country, but 
 drove them to the last extremity, and spoiled 
 the capital city al-Madayin; Heraclius en¬ 
 joying thenceforward a continued series of 
 good fortune, to the deposition and death of 
 Khosru. (Sale’s Koran, in loco.) 
 
 GROVE, The. Arabic Aikah 
 
 The Ashabu ’l-Aikah, or “ the people of the 
 Grove,” are mentioned four times in the 
 Qur’an, Surahs xv. 78, xxvi. 176, xxviii. 21, 
 1. 13, as being a tribe or class of people who 
 treated the prophets as liars. The following 
 particulars regarding them are given in Surah 
 xxvi. 170 :—- 
 
 “ The people of the grove of Madyan treated 
 the Apostles as liars. 
 
 When Shu‘aib their brother said to them, 
 ‘ Will ye not fear God ? 
 
 “ I truly am your trustworthy Apostle. 
 
 “ Fear God, then, and obey me : 
 
 “ No reward ask I of you for this : my re¬ 
 ward is of the Lord of the Worlds alone.” 
 
 GUARDIANSHIP. Guardianship 
 
 over a minor is of two kinds: wilayah 
 w , or guardianship of the property and 
 education and marriage of the ward, and 
 hizanah (4iboa.) ) 0 r guardianship over the 
 rearing and bringing up of the child. 
 
 Guardians are either so by natural right or 
 by testament, or by appointment by a judge. 
 
 The guardianship of a minor for the ma¬ 
 nagement and preservation of his property 
 devolves first on his or her father, then on 
 the father’s executor, next on the paternal 
 grandfather, then on his executor, then on 
 
 the executors of such executors, next on the 
 ruling power or his representative, the Qazi, 
 or judge. In default of a father, father’s 
 father, and their executors, as above, all of 
 whom are termed near guardians, it rests in 
 the Qazi to appoint a guardian of an infant’s 
 property. The other paternal kinsmen who 
 are termed remote kindred, and the mother 
 succeed, according to proximity, to the guar¬ 
 dianship of an infant for the purpose of edu¬ 
 cation and marriage; they have no right to 
 be guardians of his property, unless ap¬ 
 pointed to be so by the ruling authority, or in 
 the original proprietor’s will, proved by com¬ 
 petent witnesses. The mother’s right of 
 guardianship is, however, forfeited upon her 
 being remarried to a stranger, but regained 
 when she is divorced by him, and has again 
 become a widow. 
 
 In default of the mother as well as of the 
 paternal kindred of a minor, his maternal 
 relations are, according to proximity, entitled 
 to guardianship for the purposes of educa¬ 
 tion and marriage, and not for the manage¬ 
 ment of his property, unless so appointed in 
 the late owner’s will or by the Qazi. 
 
 The general rule is that a guardian, execu¬ 
 tor, or anyone who has the care of the person 
 and property of a minor, can enter into a 
 contract which is or likely to be advantageous 
 and not injurious to his ward. 
 
 A guardian may sell or purchase moveables 
 on account of his ward, either for an equiva¬ 
 lent or at such a rate as to occasion an incon¬ 
 siderable loss, but not at such a rate as to 
 make the loss great and apparent. ( Hidayah , 
 vol. iv. p. 553.) 
 
 A guardian is allowed to borrow money for 
 the support and education of his ward, even 
 by pawning the minor’s property; the debt so 
 contracted must be paid out of his (the 
 minor’s) estate, or by him when he comes of 
 age. 
 
 It is not lawful for a guardian to pledge 
 into his own hands goods belonging to his 
 ward on account of a debt due to him, or into 
 the hands of his child being an infant, or 
 into the hands of his slave being a merchant 
 and free from debt. (Hidanah, vol. iv. p. 
 214.) 
 
 A father can pawn the goods of his infant 
 child into his own hands for a debt due from 
 the child, or into the* hands of another of his 
 children being an infant. 
 
 A father may also pawn on account of his 
 own debt the goods belonging to his minor 
 son, who on coming of age will redeem the 
 goods discharging the debt, and have a claim 
 on the father for the sum. 
 
 The contract of pawn entered into by a 
 father with respect to his minor child’s goods 
 cannot be annulled by the minor, even if it 
 were not for his own debt or for his own 
 benefit. 
 
 The mother is, of all the persons, the best 
 entitled to the custody (hizanah) of her infant 
 child during marriage and after separation 
 from her husband, unless she be an apostate, 
 or wicked, or unworthy to be trusted. 
 (Fatawa-i-‘Alamgiri, vol. i. p. 728.) 
 
152 
 
 GUARDIANSHIP 
 
 HABIB AN-NAJJAR. 
 
 Next the mother’s mother how high soever 
 is entitled to the custody (hizanah) of a 
 child; failing her by death, or marriage 
 to a stranger, the full sister is entitled ; 
 failing her by death or marriage to a 
 stranger, the half-sister by the mother. On 
 failure of her in the same way the daughter 
 of the full sister, then the daughter of the 
 half-sister by the mother. Next the maternal 
 aunt in the same way, and then the paternal 
 aunts also in like manner. (Fatawa-i-‘Alarn- 
 giri, vol. i. p. 728.) 
 
 An umm-i-walad (or a female slave who has 
 borne a child to her master), when emanci¬ 
 pated, obtains ; the right of taking her child. 
 (Hidayah, vol. i. p. 389.) 
 
 When it is necessary to remove a hoy from 
 the custody of women, or there is no woman 
 of his own people to take charge of him, he 
 is to be given up to his agnate male rela¬ 
 tives Qasabah). Of these the father is the 
 first, then the paternal grandfather, how 
 high soever, then the full brother, then the 
 half-brother by the father, then the son of the 
 full brother, then the son of the half-brother 
 by the father, then the full paternal uncle, 
 then the half paternal uncle by the father, 
 then the sons of paternal uncles in the same 
 order. But though a boy may be given up to 
 the son of his paternal uncle, a girl should 
 not be entrusted to him 
 
 No male has any right to the custody of a 
 female child, but one who is within the pro¬ 
 hibited degrees of relationship to her; and an 
 ‘asabah who is profligate has no right to her 
 custody. (Fatawa-i-‘Alamgiri, vol. i. p. 729.) 
 
 A female’s custody of a boy terminates 
 when he is seven years old, and of a girl at 
 her puberty. 
 
 Male custody of a boy continues till pu¬ 
 berty, of a female not only till puberty, but till 
 she can be safely left to herself and trusted 
 to take care of herself. 
 
 When a female has neither father nor 
 grandfather nor any of her ‘■asabah to take 
 charge of her, or the ‘asabah is profligate, it 
 is the duty of the judge to take cognizance of 
 her condition; and if she can be trusted to 
 take care of herself, he should allow her to 
 live alone, whether she he a virgin or a saiyi- 
 dah, and if not, he should place her with some 
 female amln, or trustee, in whom he has con¬ 
 fidence ; for he is the superintendent of all 
 Muslims. (Fatawa-i- 1 Alamgiri, vol. i. p. 730.) 
 
 When a mother refuses to take charge of a 
 child without hire, it may be committed to 
 another. 
 
 A boy or girl having passed the period of 
 hizanah, has no option to be with one parent 
 in preference to the other, but must neces¬ 
 sarily thenceforth remain in charge of the 
 father. ( Hidayah , vol. i. p. 389.) 
 
 Before the completion of ‘iddah , or disso¬ 
 lution of marriage, the proper place of hiza¬ 
 nah is that where the husband and wife live, 
 and the former cannot take away the child 
 out of the custody of the latter. After com¬ 
 pletion of her ‘iddah, and separation from her 
 husband, a woman can take her child to the 
 place of her nativity, provided the marriage 
 had been contracted there, or it is so near 
 from the place of separation or husband’s 
 residence, that if the husband should leave 
 the latter in the morning to visit the child, 
 he can return to his residence before night. 
 There is also no objection to her removing 
 with the child from a village to the city or 
 chief town of the district, the same being ad¬ 
 vantageous to the child, and in no respect 
 injurious to the father. If the child’s mother 
 be dead, and its hizanah or custody has 
 passed to the maternal grandfather, she can¬ 
 not remove the child to her own city, though 
 the marriage had taken place there. Other 
 women than the grandmother are like her in 
 respect to the place of hizanah. 
 
 When an umm-i-walad has been emancipated, 
 she has no right to take her child from the 
 city in which the father is residing. 
 
 (Hidayah, vol. i.; Fatawa-i- 1 Alamgiri, vol. i.; 
 Durru ’ l-Mukhtar , p. 846; Jami‘u ’ r-Rumuz ; 
 Tagore Lectures, 1879 ; Bailie’s Digest, p. 
 430.) 
 
 GUEST. Arabic zaif (c_q_*_a). 
 
 [hospitality.] 
 
 GURZ 0 r f). (1) The Persian 
 
 word for the mitraqah, or iron mace, where¬ 
 with the infidel dead are smitten in their 
 graves by the angels Munkar and Nakfr. 
 [‘azabu ’l-qabr.] 
 
 (2) An iron mace pointed at one end and 
 having a knob at the other covered with 
 spikes, and used by the Gurz Mar, or Rufa ! i 
 faqfrs, for striking against their breasts in 
 their devotional exercises. (Qdnun-i-Jslam, 
 p. 291.) 
 
 H. 
 
 HABA’ (oGfc). “Dust,” especially 
 the finer particles which fly about and are 
 only conspicuous in the sun’s rays. 
 
 A term used by the Sufi mystics for those 
 portions of matter ( hayula ) which God has 
 distributed in creation. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 HABIB an-RAJJAR 
 
 “ Habib the Carpenter,” whose story is told 
 in the Qur’an (Surah xxxvi. 12), as follows :— 
 “ Set forth to them the instance of the 
 people of the city (i.e. of Antioch) when the 
 Sent Ones came to it. 
 
 “ When we sent two (i.e. John and Jude) 
 
HABIB AN-NAJJAR 
 
 HADIS QUDS1 
 
 153 
 
 unto them and they charged them both with 
 imposture—therefore with a third (i.e. Simon 
 Peter) we strengthened them : and they said, 
 ‘ Verily we are the Sent unto you of God.' 
 
 “ They said, 1 Ye are only men like us : 
 Nought hath the God of Mercy sent down. 
 Ye do nothing but lie.’ 
 
 “ They said, ‘ Our Lord knoweth that we 
 are surely sent unto you; 
 
 “ ‘ To proclaim a clear message is our only 
 duty.’ 
 
 “ They said, ‘ Of a truth we augur ill from 
 you: if ye desist not we will surely stone you, 
 and a grievous punishment will surely befall 
 you from us.’ 
 
 “They said, ‘Your augury of ill is with 
 yourselves. Will ye be warned? Nay, ye 
 are an erring people.’ 
 
 “ Then from the end of the city a man (i.e. 
 Habib, the carpenter) came running: He 
 said, 1 0 my people ! follow the Sent Ones ; 
 
 “ ‘ Follow those who ask not of you a re- 
 compence, and who are rightly guided. 
 
 “‘ And why should I not worship Him who 
 made me, and to whom ye shall be brought 
 back ? 
 
 “ ‘ Shall I take gods beside Him ? If the 
 God of mercy be pleased to afflict me, their 
 intercession will not avert from me aught, 
 nor will they deliver: 
 
 “ ‘ Truly then should I be in a manifest error. 
 
 “ ‘ Verily, in your Lord have I believed; 
 therefore hear me.’ 
 
 “—It was said to him,‘Enter thou into 
 Paradise ’ (i.e. after they had stoned him to 
 death). And he said, ‘ Oh that my people 
 knew 
 
 “ ‘ How gracious God hath been to me, and 
 that He hath made me one of His honoured 
 ones.’ 
 
 “ But no army sent we down out of heaven 
 after his death, nor were we then sending down 
 our angels — 
 
 “There was but one shout from Gabriel, 
 and lo ! they were extinct. 
 
 “ Oh I the misery that rests upon my ser¬ 
 vants ! No apostle cometh to them but they 
 laugh him to scorn.” 
 
 Al-Baizawf, the commentator, says the 
 people of the City of Antioch were idolaters, 
 and that Jesus senttwoofhis disciples, Yahya 
 and Yunas (John and Jude) to preach to them. 
 And when they arrived, they met Habib, the 
 carpenter, to whom they made known their 
 mission. Habib said, “ What signs can ye 
 show that ye are sent of God ? ” And the dis¬ 
 ciples replied, “We can heal the sick and 
 give sight to those who are born blind, and 
 cure the leprosy.” Then Habib brought his 
 sick son to them, and they laid their hands 
 upon him and he was healed. And Habib 
 believed on Jesus, and he made known the 
 gospel to the people of the city. Many of the 
 people then came to the disciples and were 
 also healed. The news then reached the ear 
 of the governor of the city, and he sent for 
 the two disciples and they preached to him. 
 He replied, “ Is your God different from our 
 God?” They said, “Yes. He it is who 
 made thee and thy gods.” The governor then 
 
 sent them away and put them in prison 
 When they were in prison, Jesus sent Sham‘un 
 (Simon Peter), and he came secretly and made 
 friends with the servants of the governor, and 
 in time gained access to the governor’s pre¬ 
 sence, and performed a miracle in the pre¬ 
 sence of the governor by raising a child who 
 had been dead seven days. The child when 
 raised from the dead, said he had seen Jesus 
 Christ in heaven, and that he had interceded 
 for the three disciples in prison. The 
 governor believed and many others with 
 him. Those who did not believe raised a dis¬ 
 turbance in the city, and Habib the carpenter 
 exhorted them to believe. For this lie was 
 stoned, and, having died, entered into Paradise. 
 
 Habib’s tomb is still seen at Antioch, and is 
 visited by Muhammadans as a shrine. 
 
 HABlL [abel.] 
 
 IIABWA.H (s^.a-). The posture of 
 
 sitting with the legs and thighs contracted 
 towards the belly, the back bent forwards, 
 and supported in that position by the arms 
 crossed over the knees. Muslims are for¬ 
 bidden to sit in this posture during the re¬ 
 cital of the Khutbah on Fridays (Mishkat, 
 book iv. p. 45, pt. 2) as it inclines to drowsiness. 
 
 HADAS jS tate of an un¬ 
 clean person, of one who has not performed 
 the usual ablutions before prayer. 
 
 IIADD (a^.), pi. hudud. In its pri¬ 
 mitive sense hadd signifies “ obstruction,” 
 whence a porter or gate-keeper is called 
 haddad, or “ obstructer,” from his office of 
 prohibiting people from entering. In law it 
 expresses the punishments, the limits of which 
 have been defined by Muhammad either in the 
 Qur’an or in the Hadis. These punishments 
 are (1) For adultery, stoning; (2) T? or fornica¬ 
 tion, a hundred stripes; (3) For the false 
 accusation of a married person with adultery 
 (or Qazf ), eighty stripes; (4) For apostasy, 
 death ; (5) For drinking wine, eighty stripes ; 
 
 (6) For theft, the cutting off of the right hand ; 
 
 (7) For highway robbery : for simple robbery on 
 the highway, the loss of hands and feet; for 
 robbery with murder, death, either by the 
 sword or by crucifixion. (Hidayah, vol. ii. 
 p. 1. [punishment.] 
 
 al-HADID (AjAasJ\). “ Iron.” The 
 
 title of the Lvnth Surah of the Qur’an, in 
 which the word occurs (verse 25) : “ We sent 
 down iron in which are both keen violence and 
 advantages to men.” 
 
 HADIS What happens 
 
 for the first time; new, fresh. That which 
 is born in time as opposed to qadim, or that 
 which is without a beginning, as God. 
 
 HADlS (cs-jaA), pi. ahadls. [tra¬ 
 dition.] 
 
 HADIS QBDSI (^aS ei^). A 
 
 divine saying. A term used for a hadis which 
 relates a revelation from God in the language 
 of the Prophet. An example is found in the 
 Mishkat (book i. c. i. pt. l): “ Abu Hurairah 
 said, ‘ The Prophet of God related these words 
 
 20 
 
154 
 
 HADIYAH 
 
 of God, “ The sons of Adam vex me, and 
 abuse the age, whereas I am The AGE 
 itself: In my hands are all events : I have 
 made the day and night.” ’ ” 
 
 II AD IT AH (&A£>). A present or 
 
 offering made to persons of consequence, 
 kings or rulers. 
 
 HADY Cattle sacrificed at 
 
 Makkah during the Pilgrimage, as distin¬ 
 guished from animals sacrificed on the Great 
 Festival, which are called uzfiiyah. These 
 animals are branded and sent off with strings 
 round their necks, as offerings to the sacred 
 temple. They may be bullocks, or camels, or 
 sheep, or goats. ( MishJcat , book xi. c. viii.) 
 
 HAFIZ (hiW). Lit. “A guardian ” 
 
 or protector. (1) One of the names of God, 
 al-Hafiz. (2) A governor, e.g. Hafizu' f-Ba.it; 
 the guardian of the Makkan temple. (3) One 
 who has committed the whole of the Qur’an 
 to memory. 
 
 ‘Usman relates that the Prophet said: 
 “ The best person amongst you is he who has 
 learnt the Qur’an and teaches it. ( Mishkat , 
 book vii. c. i.) In the east it is usual for 
 blind men to commit the Qur’an to memory, 
 and to thus obtain the honourable distinction 
 of Hafiz. 
 
 HAFSAH (&aa=>). One of Muham¬ 
 mad’s wives. She was the daughter of ‘Umar, 
 and the widow of Khunais, an early convert 
 to Islam. She married Muhammad about six 
 months after her former husband’s death. 
 During the lifetime of the Prophet she was a 
 person of considerable influence in his coun¬ 
 sels, being the daughter of ‘Umar. She sur¬ 
 vived Muhammad some years, and has re¬ 
 corded several traditions of his sayings. 
 
 HAGAR. Arabic Hajar 
 
 The slave wife of Abraham and the mother 
 of Ishmael. Al-Baizawi says that Hajar was 
 the slave girl of Sarah, the wife of Abraham, 
 and she admitted her to Abraham, jand from 
 her was born Ishmael. Sarah became jealous 
 of Hajar (because she had a son), and she 
 demanded of Abraham that he should put 
 both the mother and child away, and he sent 
 them away in the direction of Makkah, and 
 at Makkah God produced for them the spring 
 Zamzam [zamzam]. When the tribe of Jur- 
 hum saw that there was water in that place, 
 they said to Hajar, “ If you will share with 
 us the water of this spring, we will share with 
 you the milk of our herds,” and from that 
 time Makkah became a place of importance. 
 
 (Tafsiru ’ l-Baizawi , p. 424.) 
 
 HAIR. Arabic shcfr, sha‘ar (;**•). 
 Heb. 
 
 The sale of human hair is unlawful in the 
 same manner as the use of it for any purpose 
 is unlawful. Being a part of the human 
 body, it is necessary to preserve it from dis¬ 
 grace, to which an exposure of it to sale 
 necessarily subjects it. It is related in the 
 traditions that God has cursed women who use 
 false hair. ( Hiddyah , vol, ii. p. 439.) [head.] 
 
 AL-HAJARU ’b-ASWAD 
 
 HATTlYAH (iA!U). A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Ahmad ibn Ha’it, who 
 said there [were two Gods, one whose exis¬ 
 tence is from eternity ( qadlm ), i.e. Allah, 
 and the other who is created in time ( piuhad - 
 das), i.e. al-Masih (Christ), and that it is he 
 who will judge the world in the last day. 
 And he maintained that this is the meaning 
 of the words which occur in the traditions: 
 “ God created man in his own image.” ( Kitabu 
 ’1-Ta‘rifat, in loco.) 
 
 HAIWAN The animal 
 
 creation: which is divided into haiwan natiq, 
 or rational beings; and haiwan sakit, or 
 irrational beings, [animals, beings.] 
 
 al-HAIY (^J\) ; Heb. *>n. “ The 
 
 Living One.” One of the ninety-nine attributes 
 of God. The term frequently occurs in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 HA’IZAH A menstruous 
 
 woman, [menstruation.] 
 
 HAJAR (/A*), [hagak.] 
 al-HAJARU ’L - A S W A D 
 (o^\ ? , a A). Lit. “ The Black Stone.” 
 
 The famous black stone which forms part of 
 the sharp angle of the Ka‘bah in the temple 
 at Makkah. Mr. Burkhardt says, “ It is an 
 irregular oval, about seven inches in dia¬ 
 meter, with an undulating surface, composed 
 of about a dozen smaller stones of different 
 sizes and shapes, well joined together with a 
 small quantity of cement, and perfectly well 
 smoothed; it looks as if the whole had been 
 broken into as many pieces by a violent blow, 
 and then united agarn. It is very difficult to 
 determine accurately the quality of this 
 stone, which has been worn to its present 
 surface by the millions of touches and kisses 
 it has received. It appeared to me like a 
 lava, containing several small extraneous par¬ 
 ticles of a whitish and of a yellow substance. 
 Its colour is now a deep reddish brown ap¬ 
 proaching to black. It is surrounded on all 
 sides by a border composed of a substance 
 which I took to be a close cement of pitch 
 and gravel of a similar, but not quite the 
 same, brownish colour. This border serves 
 to support its detached pieces ; it is two or 
 three inches in breadth, and rises a little 
 above the surface of the stone. Both the 
 border and the stone itself are encircled by a 
 silver band, broader below than above, and on 
 the two sides, with a considerable swelling 
 below, as if a part of the stone were hidden 
 under it. The lower part of the border is 
 studded with silver nails.” 
 
 Captain Burton remarks, “ The colour ap¬ 
 peared to me black and metallic, and the 
 centre of the stone was sunk about two inches 
 below the metallic circle. Round the sides 
 was a reddish brown cement, almost level 
 with the metal, and sloping down to the 
 middle of the stone. The band is now a 
 massive arch of gold or silver gilt. I found 
 the aperture in which the stone is, one span 
 and three fingers broad.” 
 
 According to Ibn ‘Abbas, Muhammad said 
 
HAJB 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 155 
 
 the black stono came down from Paradise, 
 and at the time of its descent it was whiter 
 than milk, but that the sins of the children of 
 Adam have caused it to be black, by their 
 touching it. That on the Day of Resurrec¬ 
 tion, when it will have two eyes, by which it 
 will see and know all those who touched it 
 and kissed it, and when it will have a tongue 
 to speak, it will give evidence in favour of 
 those who touched and kissed it. 
 
 Maximus Tyrius, who wrote in the second 
 century, says “ The Arabians pay homage to I 
 know not what god, which they represent by 
 a quadrangular stone,” alluding to the Ka‘bah 
 or temple which contains the black stone. 
 The Guebars or Ancient Persians, assert 
 that the Black Stone was amongst the 
 images and relics left by Mahabad and his 
 successors in the Ka‘bah, and that it was an 
 emblem of Saturn. It is probably an aero¬ 
 lite, and owes its reputation, like many others, 
 to its fall from the sky. Its existence as an 
 object of adoration in an iconoclastic religious 
 system, can only be accounted for by Muham¬ 
 mad’s attempt to conciliate the idolaters of 
 Arabia. 
 
 A complete list of the falls of aerolites and 
 meteoric stones through the atmosphere, is 
 published in the Edinburgh Philosophical 
 Journal, from a work by Chladni in German, 
 in which the subject is ably and fully treated. 
 
 the hajaku ’l-aswad. ( Burton.) 
 HAJB A legal term in 
 
 the Muhammadan law of inheritance, signify¬ 
 ing the cutting off of an heir from his portion. 
 
 HAJl (^W), also hajj. A person 
 who has performed the hajj, or pilgrimage to 
 Makkah. It is retained as a title of honour - by 
 those who have performed the pilgrimage, e.g. 
 Haji Qasim, i.e. “ Qasim the Pilgrim.” [hajj.] 
 HAJJ (g^). Lit. “ setting out,” 
 
 “ tending towards.” The pilgrimage to Mak¬ 
 kah performed in the month of Zu ’1-Hijjah, 
 or the twelfth month of the Muhammadan 
 year. It is the fifth pillar of Muhammadan 
 practical religion, and an incumbent religious 
 duty, founded upon express injunctions in 
 the Qur’an. According to Muhammad it is a 
 divine institution, and has the following autho¬ 
 rity in the Qur’an for its due observance :— 
 & is noticeable that all the verses in the 
 Qur’an with regard to the pilgrimage are in the 
 later Surahs, when they are arranged in their 
 chronological order.) 
 
 Surah xxii. 28 :— 
 
 “ And proclaim to the peoples a PILGRIM¬ 
 AGE (hajj). Let them come to thee on foot 
 and on every fleet camel, arriving by every 
 deep defile: 
 
 “ That they may bear witness of its bene¬ 
 fits to them, and may make mention of God’s 
 name on the appointed days (i.e. the ten first 
 days of Zu ’1-Hijjah), over the brute beasts 
 with which He hath supplied them for sus¬ 
 tenance : Therefore eat thereof yourselves, 
 and feed the needy, the poor: 
 
 “ Then let them bring the neglect of their 
 persons to a close, and let them pay their 
 vows, and circuit the ancient House. 
 
 “ This do. And he that respecteth the 
 sacred ordinances of God, this will be best 
 for him with his Lord.” 
 
 Surah ii. 153:— 
 
 “ Verily, as-Safa and al-Marwah are among 
 the signs of God : whoever then maketh a pil¬ 
 grimage (hajj) to the temple, or visiteth it, 
 shall not be to blame if he go round about 
 them both. And as for him who of his own 
 accord doeth what is good—God is Grateful, 
 Knowing.” 
 
 Idem, 192:— 
 
 “ Accomplish the pilgrimage (hajj), and 
 the visitation Qurnrah) for God : and if ye be 
 hemmed in by foes, send whatever sacrifice 
 shall be the easiest, and shave not your heads 
 until the offering reach the place of sacrifice. 
 But whoever among you is sick or has an 
 ailment of the head, must expiate by fasting, 
 alms, or an offering. 
 
 “ And when ye are safe from foes, he who 
 contents himself with the visitation Qumrah) 
 until the pilgrimage (hajj), shall bring what¬ 
 ever offering shall be the easiest. But he 
 who findeth nothing to offer, shall fast three 
 days in the pilgrimage itself, and seven days 
 when ye return: they shall be ten days in 
 all. This is binding on him whose family 
 shall not be present at the sacred Mosque (al- 
 Masjidu ’l-hardm). And fear God, and know 
 that God is terrible in punishing. 
 
 “ Let the pilgrimage be made in the months 
 already known (i.e. Shawwal, Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, 
 and Zu ’1-Hijjah) : whoever therefore under- 
 taketh the pilgrimage therein, let him not 
 know a woman, nor transgress, nor wrangle 
 in the pilgrimage. The good which ye do, 
 God knoweth it. And provide for your 
 journey; but the best provision is the fear of 
 God : fear me, then, 0 men of understanding ! 
 
 “ It shall be no crime in you if ye seek an 
 increase from your Lord (i.e. to trade); and 
 when ye pass swiftly on from ‘Arafat, then 
 remember God near the holy temple (al-Mas- 
 jidu ’l-hardm) ; and remember Him, because 
 He hath guided you who before this were of 
 those who went astray : 
 
 “ Then pass on quickly where the people 
 quickly pass (i.e. from ‘Arafat), and ask par¬ 
 don of God, for God is Forgiving, Merciful. 
 
 “ And when ye have finished your holy 
 rites, remember God as ye remember your 
 own fathers, or with a yet more intense re¬ 
 membrance 1 Some men there are who say, 
 ‘ 0 our Lord 1 give us our portion in this 
 
156 HAJ.J 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 ■world : ’ but such shall have no portion in the 
 nest life: 
 
 “ And some say, ‘ 0 our Lord! give us 
 good in this world and good in the nest, and 
 keep us from the torment of the fire.’ 
 
 “ They shall have the lot which they have 
 merited: and God is swift to reckon. 
 
 “ Bear God in mind during the stated days : 
 but if any haste away in two days (i.e. after 
 the hajj), it shall be no fault in him ; And if 
 any tarry longer, it shall be no fault in him, 
 if he fear God. Fear God, then, and know 
 that to Him shall ye be gathered.” 
 
 Surah iii. 90:— 
 
 “ The first temple that was founded for 
 mankind, was that in Bakkah (i.e. Makkah)— 
 Blessed, and a guidance to human beings. 
 
 “ In it are evident signs, even the standing- 
 place of Abraham (Maqdmu Ibrahim): and he 
 who entereth it is safe. And the pilgrimage 
 to the temple, is a service due to God from 
 those who are able to journey thither.” 
 
 Surah v. 2:— 
 
 “ 0 Believers ! violate neither the rites of 
 God, nor the sacred month, nor the offering, 
 nor its ornaments, (i.e. on the necks of ani¬ 
 mals), nor those who press on to the sacred 
 house (al-Baitu H-Harani), seeking favour 
 from their Lord and his good pleasure in them.” 
 
 The performance of the pilgrimage is in¬ 
 cumbent upon every Muslim, once in his life¬ 
 time, if he be an adult, free, sane, well in 
 health, and has sufficient money for the ex¬ 
 penses of the journey and for the support of 
 his family during his absence. 
 
 If a woman perform the pilgrimage she 
 must do it in company with her husband, or 
 a near relative ( mahram ). If she can obtain 
 the protection of a near relative and has the 
 necessary expenses for the journey, it is not 
 lawful for her husband to prevent her perform¬ 
 ing the pilgrimage. This mahram is a near re¬ 
 lative whom it is not lawful for her to marry. 
 
 The Imam ash-Shafiff denies the necessity 
 of such attendance, stating that the Qur’an 
 makes no such restriction. His objection is, 
 however, met by a Tradition. “ A certain 
 man came to the Prophet and said : ‘ My wife 
 is about to make the hajj, but I am called to 
 go on a warlike expedition.’ The Prophet 
 said: ‘ Turn away from the war and accom¬ 
 pany thy wife in the hajj.’ ” 
 
 For a lawful hajj there are three actions 
 which ar e far z. and five which are wdjib : all 
 the rest are sunnah or mustahabb. The farz 
 are: to wear no other garment except the 
 ih.ra.rn. ■ to stand in ‘Arafat ; to make the 
 tavjdf. or circuit round the Ka‘bah. 
 
 The wdjib duties are : to stay in al-Muzdali- 
 fah ; to run between Mount as-Safa and Mount 
 al-Marwah; to perform the Ramyu ’r-Rijam, 
 or the casting of the pebbles ; if the pilg rims 
 are non-Meccans, to make an extra toa/; to 
 shave the head after the pilgrimage is over. 
 
 The hajj must be made at the appointed 
 season Surah ii. 193 : “ Let the pilgrimage 
 be made r in the months already known” 
 These months are Shawwal, Zu 1-Qa‘dah, and 
 the first ten days of Zu I-Hijjah. The actual 
 hajj must be in the month Zu ’l-Hijjah, but 
 
 the preparations for, and the niyah, or in¬ 
 tention of the hajj can be made in the two 
 preceding months. The ‘ umrah, or ordinary 
 visitation [‘umbah], can be done at any 
 time of the year except on the ninth and 
 four succeeding days of Zu ’l-Hijjah. On 
 each of the various roads leading to Mak¬ 
 kah, there are at a distance of about five 
 or six miles from the city stages called 
 MIqat. The following are the names. On 
 the Madlnah road, the stage is called Zu ’1- 
 Hallfah; on the ‘Iraq road, Zatu ‘Arq; on the 
 Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, 
 Qam ; on the Taman road, Tala ml am. 
 
 THE PILGRIM. 
 
 The following is the orthodox way of per¬ 
 forming the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex¬ 
 ample of the Prophet himself. (See Sahihu 'l- 
 Bukhdm, Kitalu ’ l-Manasik, p. 205.) 
 
 Upon the pilgrim’s arrival at the last 
 stage near Makkah, he bathes himself, and 
 performs two rak‘ah prayers, and then divest¬ 
 ing himself of his clothes, he assumes the 
 pilgrim’s sacred robe, which is called ilyrdm. 
 This garment consists of two seamless wrap¬ 
 pers, one being wrapped round the waist, and 
 the other thrown loosely over the shoulder, 
 the head being left uncovered. Sandals may 
 also be worn, but not shoes or boots. After 
 he has assumed the pilgrim’s garb, he must 
 not anoint his head, shave any part of his 
 body, pare his nails, nor wear any other gar¬ 
 ment than the ihrdrn. The pilgrim having now 
 entered upon the hajj, faces Makkah, and 
 makes the niyah (intention), and says: “ 0 
 God, I purpose to make the hajj; make this 
 service easy to me and accept it from me.” 
 He then proceeds on his journey to the sacred 
 city and on his way, as well as at different 
 periods in the pilgrimage, he recites, or sings 
 with a loud voice, the pilgrim’s song, called 
 the Talbiyah (a word signifying waiting or 
 
HAJJ 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 standing for orders). In Arabic it runs thus 
 (as given in the Sahihu ’/-Bukhari, p. 210) :— 
 “ Labbaika! Allahumma! Labbailca! 
 
 Labbai/ca ! La Sharika laka ! Labbaika ! 
 
 Inna ’l-hamda wa ’n-ni'mata laka, wa 7- 
 mul/cu laka ! 
 
 Ld sharika laka ! ” 
 
 Which, following the Persian commentator, 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, may be translated as follows :— 
 “ I stand up for Thy service, 0 God ! I 
 stand up! 
 
 I stand up ! There is no partner with 
 Thee ! I stand up ! 
 
 Verily Thine is the Praise, the Blessing 
 and the Kingdom ! 
 
 There is no partner with Thee ! ” 
 Immediately on his arrival at Makkah ho 
 performs legal ablutions in the Masjidu ’1- 
 haram, and then kisses the black stone (al- 
 Hajaru ’1-aswad). He then encompasses the 
 Ka‘bah seven times; three times at a quick 
 step or run, and four times at a slow pace. 
 These acts are called the tavaaf and are per¬ 
 formed by commencing on the right and 
 leaving the Ka‘bah on the left. Each timo 
 as the pilgrim passes round the Ka'bah, he 
 touches the Ruknu ’1-Yamani, or the YamanI 
 corner, and kisses the sacred black stone. He 
 then proceeds to the Maqamu Ibrahim (the 
 place of Abraham), where he recites the 119th 
 verse of the und Surah of the Qur’an, “ Take 
 ye the station of Abraham for a place of 
 prayer,” and performs two rak'ah prayers, 
 after which he returns to the black stone and 
 kisses it. He then goes to the gate of the 
 temple leading to Mount as-Safa, and from it 
 ascends the hill, reciting the 153rd verse of 
 the imd Surah of the Qur’an, “Verily as-Safa 
 and al-Marwah are the signs of God.” Having 
 arrived at the summit of the mount, turning 
 towards the Ka‘bah, he recites the following:— 
 “ There is no deity but only God ! God is 
 great 1 There is no deity but God alone! 
 He hath performed His promise, and hath 
 aided His servant and hath put to flight the 
 hosts of infidels by Himself alone I ” 
 
 These words are recited thrice. He then 
 runs from the top of Mount as-Safa to the sum¬ 
 mit of Mount al-Marwah seven times, repeating 
 the aforesaid prayers on the top of each hill. 
 This is the sixth day, the evening of which 
 is spent at Makkah, where he again encom¬ 
 passes the Ka‘bah. 
 
 Upon the seventh day he listens to the 
 khutbah. or oration, in the great mosque, in 
 which are set forth the excellences of the 
 pilgrimage and the necessary duties required 
 of all true Muslims on the following days. 
 
 On the eighth day, which is called Tarwi- 
 yah, he proceeds with his fellow pilgrims to 
 Mina, where he stays and performs the usual 
 services of the Muslim ritual, and remains 
 the night. 
 
 The next day (the ninth), after morning 
 prayer, he proceeds to Mount ‘Arafat, where 
 he recites the usual prayers and listens to 
 another khutbah. He then leaves for al-Muz- 
 dalifah, a place midway between Mina and 
 ‘Arafat, where he should arrive for the sun¬ 
 set prayer. 
 
 157 
 
 Tho next day, the tenth, is the Yaumu ’n- 
 Nahr, or the “ Day of Sacrifice,” known all 
 through the Muslim world and celebrated as 
 the ‘Idu 'l-Azha. Early in the morning, the 
 pilgrims having said their prayers at Muzda- 
 lifah, then proceed in a body to three pillars 
 in Mina, tho first of which is called the 
 Shaitanu ’l-Kablr, or “ Great Devil.” The 
 pilgrim casts seven stones at each of 
 these pillars, the ceremony being called the 
 Ramyu 'r-Rijam , or casting of stones. Hold¬ 
 ing the rajm, or pebble between the thumb 
 and fore-finger of the right hand, the pilgrim 
 throws it at a distance of not loss than fifteen 
 feet, and says—“ In the name of God, the 
 Almighty, I do this, and in hatred of the 
 devil and his shame.” The remaining six 
 stones are thrown in the same way. It is 
 said that this ceremony has been performed 
 ever since the days of Abraham. The pil¬ 
 grim then returns to Mina and performs the 
 sacrifice of the ‘ Idu 'l-Azha. The victim may 
 be a sheep, or a goat, or a cow, or a camel, 
 according to the means of the pilgrim. 
 
 Placing its head towards the Ka‘bah, its 
 fore-legs being bandaged together, the pil¬ 
 grim stands on the right side of his victim 
 and plunges the knife into its throat with 
 great force, and cries with a loud voice, 
 “ Allahu Akbar!” “God is great! 0 God, 
 
 accept this sacrifice from me ! ” 
 
 This ceremony concludes the pilgrimage, 
 and the haji or pilgrim then gets himself 
 shaved and his nails pared, and the iftram 
 or pilgrim garment is removed. Although 
 the pilgrimage is over, he should still rest at 
 Makkah the three following days, which are 
 known as the Ayyamu ’t-Tashriq, or the days 
 of drying up of the blood of the sacrifice. 
 Three well-earned days of rest after the 
 peripatetic performance of the last four days. 
 
 Before he leaves Makkah he should once 
 more perform the circuits round the Ka‘bah 
 and throw stones at the Satanic pillars at 
 Mina, seven times. He should also drink of 
 the water of the zainzam well. 
 
 Most Muslims then go to al-Madlnah, and 
 make their salutations at the shrine of Mu¬ 
 hammad. This is regarded as an incumbent 
 duty by all except the Wahhabis, who hold 
 that to make the visitation of the Prophet’s 
 tomb a religious ceremony is shirk, or asso¬ 
 ciating the creature with God. 
 
 From the time the pilgrim has assumed 
 the ihram until he takes it off, he must abstain 
 from worldly affairs and devote himself entirely 
 to the duties of the hajj. He is not allowed 
 to hunt, though he may catch fish if he can. 
 
 “ 0 Believers, kill no game while ye are on 
 pilgrimage.” (Surah v. 96.) The Prophet 
 also said : “ He who shows the place where 
 game is to be found is equally as bad as the 
 man who kills it.” The haji must not scratch 
 himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair be 
 uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he 
 must rub himself with the open palm of his 
 hand. The face and head must be left un¬ 
 covered, the hair on the head and beard un¬ 
 washed and uncut. “ Shave not your heads 
 until the offering reach the place of sacrifice.” 
 
158 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 (Surah ii. 192.) On arriving at an elevated 
 place, on descending a valley, on meeting any 
 one, on entering the city of Makkah or the 
 sacred temple, the haji should continually 
 repeat the word “ Labbaika, Labbaika ”; and 
 whenever he sees the Ka‘bah he should recite 
 the Takbir, “ God is great 1 ” and the TaJlih 
 “ There is no deity but God 1 ” 
 
 The pilgrimage known as the hajj, as has 
 been already stated, can only be made on the 
 appointed days of the month of Zu ’1-Hijjah. 
 A visit at any other time is called the ‘Umrah. 
 [‘umrah.] If the pilgrim arrives as late as 
 the ninth day, and is in time to spend that 
 day, he can still perform the pilgrimage legally. 
 
 The pilgrimage cannot be performed by 
 prosy by Sunni Muslims, but is allowed by 
 the ShTahs, and it is by both considered a 
 meritorious act to pay the expenses of one 
 who cannot afford to perform it. But if a 
 Muhammadan on his death-bed bequeath a 
 sum of money to be paid to a certain person 
 to perform the pilgrimage, it is considered to 
 satisfy the claims of the Muslim law. If a 
 Muslim have the means of performing the 
 pilgrimage, and omit to do so, its omission is 
 equal to a kabirah, or mortal sin. 
 
 According to the saying of the Prophet 
 (Mishkat , book si. ch. 1), the merits of a pil¬ 
 grimage to Makkah are very great:— 
 
 “ He who makes a pilgrimage for God’s 
 sake, and does not talk loosely, nor act 
 wickedly, shall return as pure from sin as the 
 day on which he was born.” “Verily, they 
 (the hajj and the ‘umrah) put away poverty 
 and sin like the fires of a forge removes 
 dross. The reward of a pilgrimage is para¬ 
 dise.” “ When you see a pilgrim, salute and 
 embrace him, and request him to ask pardon 
 of God for you, for his own sins have been 
 forgiven and his supplications will be 
 accepted.” 
 
 For a philological and technical explana¬ 
 tion of the following terms which occur- in 
 this account of the hajj, refer to the words 
 as they occur in this dictionary : ‘arafah, 
 ayyamu ’t-tashriq, hajaru T-aswad, haji, 
 ihram, marwah, masjidu ’l-haram, maqamu 
 
 IBRAHIM, MAHRAM, MIQAT, MUZDALIFAH, TA- 
 WAT, ‘UMRAH, RAMVU ’L-JIMAR, ZAMZAM, TAL- 
 BIYAH, RUK’NU ’L-YAMANI, TARWIAH, KHUT- 
 BAH, ‘IDU T.-AZHA, SAFA. 
 
 The Muslim who has performed the pil¬ 
 grimage is called a haji, which title he retains, 
 e.g. Hcji Qdsim, the Pilgrim Qasim. 
 
 Only five Englishmen are known to have 
 visited Makkah, and to have witnessed the 
 ceremonies of the pilgrimage :—Joseph Pitts, 
 of Exeter, a.d. 1678; John Lewis Burck- 
 hardt, a.d. 1814 ; Lieutenant Richard Burton, 
 of the Bombay Army, a.d. 1853; Mr. H. 
 Bicknell, a.d. 1862; Mr. T. F. Keane, 1880. 
 The narratives of each of these “ pilgrims ” 
 have been published. The first account in 
 English of the visit of a European to Makkah, 
 is that of Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of 
 Rome, who visited Makkah in 1503. His 
 narrative was published in Willes and Eden’s 
 Decades, a.d. 1555. 
 
 Professor Palmer (“ Introduction ” to the 
 
 Qur’an, p. liii.) says:—“ The ceremonies of the 
 pilgrimage could not be entirely done away 
 with. The universal reverence of the Arab 
 for the Kaabah was too favourable and 
 obvious a means for uniting all the tribes 
 into one confederation with one common pur¬ 
 pose in view. The traditions of Abraham the 
 father of their race, and the founder of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s own religion, as he always declared 
 it to be, no doubt gave the ancient temple a 
 peculiar sanctity in the Prophet’s eyes, and 
 although he first settled upon Jerusalem as 
 his qiblah, he afterwards reverted to the 
 Kaabah itself. Here, then, Muhammad found 
 a shrine, to which, as well as at which, devo¬ 
 tion had been paid from time immemorial; 
 it was one thing which the scattered Arabian 
 nation had in common—the one thing which 
 gave them even the shadow of a national 
 feeling; and to have dreamed of abolishing 
 it, or even of diminishing the honours paid to 
 it, would have been madness and ruin to his 
 enterprise. He therefore did the next best 
 thing, he cleared it of idols and dedicated it 
 to the service of God.” 
 
 Mr. Stanley Lane Poole (Introduction to 
 Lane’s Selections, p. lxxxiv.) remarks :— 
 
 “ This same pilgrimage is often urged as 
 a sign of Mohammad’s tendency to supersti¬ 
 tion and even idolatry. It is asked how the 
 destroyer of idols could have reconciled his 
 conscience to the circuits of the Ka‘bah and 
 the veneration of the black stone covered 
 with adoring kisses. The rites of the pil¬ 
 grimage cannot certainly be defended against 
 the charge of superstition: but it is easy to 
 see why Mohammad enjoined them. They 
 were hallowed to him by the memories of 
 his ancestors, who had been the guardians of 
 the sacred temple, and by the traditional re¬ 
 verence of all his people; and besides this tie 
 of association, which in itself was enough to 
 make it impossible for him to do away with 
 the rites, Mohammad perceived that the wor¬ 
 ship in the Ka‘bah would prove of real 
 value to his religion. He swept away the 
 more idolatrous and immoral part of the 
 ceremonies, but he retained the pilgrimage 
 to Mekka and the old veneration of the 
 temple for reasons of which it is impossible 
 to dispute the wisdom He well knew the 
 consolidating effect of forming a centre to 
 which his followers should gather; and hence 
 he reasserted the sanctity of the black stone 
 that ‘ came down from heaven ’; he ordained 
 that everywhere throughout the world the 
 Muslim should pray looking towards the Ka- 
 ‘bah, and he enjoined him to make the pil¬ 
 grimage thither. Mekka is to the Muslim 
 what Jerusalem is to the Jew. It bears with 
 it all the influence of centuries of associations. 
 It carries the Muslim back to the cradle of 
 his faith, the childhood of his prophet; it re¬ 
 minds him of the struggle between the old 
 faith and the new, of the overthrow of the 
 idols, and the establishment of the worship of 
 the One God. And, most of all, it bids him 
 remember that all his brother Muslims are 
 worshipping towards the same sacred spot; 
 that he is one of a great company of be- 
 
HAJJ 
 
 HAJJ 
 
 159 
 
 lievers, united by one faith, filled with the 
 same hopes, reverencing the samo thing, wor- 
 shipping the same God. Mohammad showed 
 his knowledge of the religious emotions in 
 man when he preserved the sanctity of the 
 temple of Islam.” 
 
 The Makkan pilgrimage admits of no other 
 explanation than this, that the Prophet of 
 Arabia found it expedient to compromise with 
 Arabian idolatry. And hence we find the 
 superstition and silly customs of the Hajj 
 grafted on to a religion which professes to be 
 both monotheistic in its principle, and icono¬ 
 clastic in its practices. 
 
 A careful and critical study of Islam will, 
 we think, convince any candid mind that at first 
 Muhammad intended to construct his religion 
 on the lines of the Old Testament. Abraham, 
 the true Muslim, was his prototype, Moses 
 his law-giver, and Jerusalem his Qiblah. But 
 circumstances were ever wont to change not 
 only the Prophet’s revelations, but also his 
 moral standards. Makkah became the Qib¬ 
 lah ; and the spectacle of the Muslim world 
 bowing in the direction of a black stone, 
 whilst they worship the one God, marks 
 Islam, with its Makkan pilgrimage, as a reli¬ 
 gion of compromise. 
 
 Apologists of Islam have endeavoured to 
 
 shield Muhammad from the solemn charge of 
 having “ forged the name of God,” but we 
 know of nothing which can justify the act of 
 giving the stupid and unmeaning ceremonies 
 of the pilgrimage all the force and solemnity 
 of a divine enactment. 
 
 The Wahhabis, the Puritans of Islam, re¬ 
 gard the circumambulation of the Prophet’s 
 tomb as superstitious (as shirk, or associating 
 something with God, in fact), but how can 
 they justify the foolish ceremonies of the 
 hajj ? If reverence for the Prophet’s tomb is 
 shirk, what are the runnings at as-Safa and 
 al-Marwah, the stonings of the pillars, and the 
 kissings of the black stone ? No Muslim 
 has ever yet attempted to give a spiritual 
 explanation of the ceremonies of the Makkan 
 pilgrimage, for in attempting to do so he 
 would be charged with the heresy of shirk ! 
 
 Mr. W. S. Blunt in his Future oj Islam, 
 has given some interesting statistics regard¬ 
 ing the pilgrimage to Makkah in the year 
 1880, which he obtained during a residence at 
 Cairo, Damascus, and Jiddah. The figures, 
 he says, are taken principally from an official 
 record kept for some years past at Jiddah, and 
 checked as far as European subjects are 
 concerned, by reference to the consular 
 agents residing there. 
 
 Table of the Mecca Pilgrimage of 1880. 
 
 Nationality of Pilgrims. 
 
 Arriving by 
 Sea. 
 
 Arriving by 
 Land. 
 
 Total of Mussul¬ 
 man population 
 represented. 
 
 Ottoman subjects including pilgrims from 
 
 
 
 
 Syria and Irak, but not from Egypt or 
 
 
 
 
 Arabia proper ...... 
 
 8,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 Egyptians. 
 
 5,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Mogrebbins (“ people of the West ”), that 
 
 
 
 
 is to say, Arabic-speaking Mussalmans 
 
 
 
 
 from the Barbary States, Tripoli, Tunis, 
 
 
 
 
 Algiers, and Morocco. These are always 
 
 
 
 
 classed together and are not easily distin- 
 
 
 
 
 guishable from each other. 
 
 6,000 
 
 — 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 Arabs from Yemen ..... 
 
 3,000 
 
 — 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 ,, „ Oman and Hadramaut 
 
 3,000 
 
 — 
 
 3,000.000 
 
 „ „ Nejd, Assir, and Hasa, most of 
 
 
 
 
 them Wahhabites . 
 
 — 
 
 5,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 „ „ Hejaz, of these perhaps 10.000 
 
 
 
 
 Meccans .... 
 
 — 
 
 22,000 
 
 2,000.000 
 
 Negroes from Soudan . ... 
 
 2,000 
 
 — 
 
 10,000,000 (?) 
 
 „ ,, Zanzibar ..... 
 
 1,000 
 
 — 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Malabari from the Cape of Good Hope . 
 
 150 
 
 — 
 
 
 Persians ....... 
 
 6,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 8,000.000 
 
 Indians (British subjects) .... 
 
 15,000 
 
 — 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 Malays, chiefly from Java and Dutch subjects 
 
 12,000 
 
 — 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 Mongols from the Khanates, included in the 
 
 
 
 
 Ottoman Haj. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Lazis, Circassians, Tartars, &c. (Russian 
 
 
 
 
 subjects), included in the Ottoman Haj 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Independent Afghans and Beluchis, included 
 
 
 
 
 in the Indian and Persian Hajs . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Total of pilgrims present at Arafat 
 
 93^250. 
 
 
 
 Total Census of Islam 
 
 175,000,000 
 
160 HAJJATU ’l-WADA‘ 
 
 AL-HAMD 
 
 HAJJATU ’L-WADA‘ i**). 
 
 The last or farewell pilgrimage performed by 
 Muhammad, and which is taken as the model 
 of an orthodox hajj. It is called the Hajju 
 'l-Alcbar, or Greater Pilgrimage, in the Qur’an, 
 Surah ix. 3. (See Mishkat, book xi. ch. iii., 
 and Muir’s Life of Mahomet.') It is supposed 
 to have commenced February 23, a.d.632. 
 
 HAJJ MABRUR ^). An 
 
 approved or accepted pilgrimage {Mishkat, 
 book xi. ch. i. pt. 2). A pilgrimmage to 
 Makkah performed according to the condi¬ 
 tions of Muslim law. 
 
 HAKAM An arbitrator 
 
 appointed by a qazi to settle disputes. It is 
 not lawful to appoint either a slave or an 
 unbeliever, or a slanderer, or an infant, as an 
 arbitrator. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. p. 638.) 
 
 According to the Qur’an, Surah iv. 39, 
 domestic quarrels should be settled by an 
 arbitrator :—“ If ye fear a breach between the 
 two (i.e. husband and wife) then appoint an 
 arbitrator from his people, and an arbitrator 
 from her people.” 
 
 Al-Hakam, the Abitrator, is one of the 
 ninety-nine attributes of God, although it is 
 not so employed in the Qur’an. 
 
 HAKIM (^U). “A just ruler.” 
 
 The term Ahkamu 'l-Halcimin, “ the Most Just 
 of Rulers, is used for God, Qur’an, Surah 
 xcv. 8 ; also, Khairu ’l-Hakimin, i.e. “ Best of 
 Rulers,” Surah vii. 85. 
 
 HAKIM pi. hukama ’; Heb. 
 
 Q^n. Lit. “ A wise person.” (1) A 
 
 philosopher. (2) A doctor of medicine. (3) 
 Al-Hakim, “ The Wise One.” One of the 
 ninety-nine attributes of God It frequently 
 occurs in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 123: “ Thou 
 art the Mighty and the Wise! ” 
 
 HAL (JW). A state, or condition. 
 A term used by the Sufi mystics for those 
 thoughts and conditions which come upon the 
 heart of man without his intention or desire, 
 such as sorrow, or fear, or pleasure, or desire, 
 or lust. If these conditions are stable and in¬ 
 transient, they are called malkdh or maqam ; 
 but if they are transient and fleeting, they 
 are called hal. (Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary 
 of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 A state of ecstasy induced by continued 
 contemplation of God. It is considered a 
 divine gift and a sure prognostication of 
 speedily arriving at “ The Truth.” 
 
 Professor Palmer says ( Oriental Mysti¬ 
 cism, p. 66), “ This assiduous contemplation 
 of startling metaphysical theories is exceed¬ 
 ingly attractive to an Oriental mind, and not 
 unfrequently produces a state of mental 
 excitement akin to the phenomena observed 
 during the recent religious revivals. Such 
 ecstatic state is considered a sure prognosti¬ 
 cation of direct illumination of the heart by 
 God, and constitutes the fifth stage (in the 
 mystic journey) called hal or ecstasy.” 
 
 HALAL (J^). Lit. “ That which 
 
 is untied or loosed.” That which is lawful, 
 
 as distinguished from liaram, or that which is 
 unlawful. 
 
 al-HALFM “ The Clement.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 225 : “ God 
 is forgiving and clement." 
 
 HAMA’IL (JSW). Lit. “ Things 
 
 suspended.” An amulet or charm, [amtjlbt.] 
 
 HAMALAH Compensa¬ 
 
 tion for manslaughter or murder, called also 
 diyah. [diyah.J 
 
 HAMALATU ’L-‘ARSH (SJU-*. 
 Lit. “ Those who bear the 
 throne.” Certain angels mentioned in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xl. 7: “ Those who bear the 
 throne (i.e. the Hamalatu ’l-‘Arsh) and those 
 around it (i.e. the Karubln) celebrate the 
 praise of their Lord, and believe in Him, and 
 ask pardon for those who believe.” 
 
 Al-Baghawi, the commentator, says they 
 are eight angels of the highest rank. They 
 are so tall that their feet stand on the lowest 
 strata of the earth and their heads reach 
 the highest heavens, the universe does not 
 reach up to their navels, and it is a journey 
 of seven hundred years from their ears to 
 their shoulders ! (Al - Baghawi, Bombay 
 edition, vol. ii. p. 23.) 
 
 HAMAN The prime 
 
 minister of Pharaoh. Mentioned in the 
 Qur’an in three different chapters. 
 
 Surah xxviii. 7: “ For sinners were Pha¬ 
 raoh and Haman.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 38 : “ Korah (Qarun) and Pha¬ 
 raoh and Haman ! with proofs of his mission 
 did Moses come to them and they behaved 
 proudly on the earth.” 
 
 Surah xl. 38 :— 
 
 “ And Pharaoh said, ‘ 0 Haman, build fra¬ 
 me a tower that I may reach the avenues, 
 
 “ ‘ The avenues of the heavens, and may 
 mount to the God of Moses, for I verily deem 
 him a liar.’ ” 
 
 Some European critics think that Muham¬ 
 mad has here made Haman the favourite of 
 Ahasuerus and the enemy of the Jews, the 
 vizier of Pharaoh. The Rabbins make this 
 vizier to have been Korah, Jethro, or Balaam. 
 (Midr. Jalkut on Ex. ch. 1, Sect. 162-168.) 
 
 In the Mishkat (book iv. ch. i. pt. 3), there 
 is a tradition that Muhammad said he who 
 neglects prayers will be in hell with Korah, 
 Pharaoh, Haman, and Ubaiy ibn Khalf (an in¬ 
 fidel whom Muhammad slew with his own 
 hand at the battle of Uhud.) 
 
 al-HAMD (A*.&n), the “ Praise.” 
 
 A title of the first chapter of the Qur’an. 
 According to Kitabu ’1-Ta‘rifat, “praise” 
 (hamd) of God is of three kinds :— 
 
 (1) Al-hamdu ’ l-Qauli, the praise of God 
 with the tongue, with those attributes with 
 which He has made known Himself. (2) Al- 
 hamdu ’1-Fi‘li, the praise of God with the body 
 according to the will of God. (3) Al-hamdu 
 'l-Hali, the praise of God with the heart and 
 spirit. 
 
AL-HAMID 
 
 HANIF 
 
 161 
 
 al-HAMID (a***))). “ The Laud¬ 
 
 able.” The One worthy of praise. One of 
 the ninety-nine attributes of God. It fre¬ 
 quently occurs in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah xi. 
 76, “ Verily He is to he praised." 
 
 HA MlM W). Seven Surahs 
 
 of the Qur’an begin with the letters £ h, j* m, 
 and are called al-Hawamim. They are the 
 xl, xli, xlii, xliu, xnv, xlv, and xlvi. 
 Various opinions are held by Muhammadan 
 commentators as to the meaning of these 
 mysterious letters. Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuti 
 in his Itqdn, says these letters are simply 
 initial letters, the meaning of which is known 
 only to God, but Ibn ‘Abbas says the 
 letters g. h, and ^ m, stand for ar- 
 
 Hafiman, “ the Merciful,” one of the attributes 
 of God. 
 
 Mr. Rodwell, in his Introduction to the 
 Koran, says, “ Possibly the letters Ha, Mim, 
 which are prefixed to numerous successive 
 Suras were private marks, or initial letters, 
 attached by their proprietor to the copies 
 furnished to Said when effecting his recension 
 of the text under Othman. In the same way, 
 the letters prefixed to other Suras may be 
 monograms, or abbreviations, or initial letters 
 of the names of the persons to whom the 
 copies of the respective Suras belonged.” 
 
 HAMRAU ’L-ASAD (oUSt V~). 
 
 A village or small town, the scene of one of 
 Muhammad’s expeditions against the Quraish. 
 Having reached this spot he kindled five 
 hundred fires to make the Quraish believe 
 that the pursuing force was very large, and, 
 contenting himself with this demonstration, 
 he returned to al-Madinah, from which it was 
 about 60 miles. According to Burton, it is 
 the modern Wasitah. 
 
 “ At Hamra al Asad, Mahomet made pri¬ 
 soner one of the enemy, the poet Abu Ozza, 
 who had loitered behind the rest. He had 
 been taken prisoner at Bedr, and, having five 
 daughters dependent on him, had been freely 
 released, on the promise that he would not 
 again bear aims in the war against the 
 Prophet. He now sought for mercy: ‘ 0 
 Mahomet! ’ he prayed, ‘ forgive me of thy 
 grace.’ ‘ Nay, verily,’ said the Prophet, ‘ a 
 believer may not be twice bitten from the 
 same hole. Thou shalt never return to 
 Mecca, stroke thy beard and say, I have 
 again deceived Mahomet. Lead him forth to 
 execution 1 ’ So saying, he motioned to a 
 bystander, who with his sword struck off the 
 captive’s head.” (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, 
 new ed. p. 276.) 
 
 HAMZAH Muhammad’s 
 
 uncle, who embraced Islam and became one 
 of its bravest champions. He was at the 
 battle of Uhud and slew ‘Usman, one of the 
 leaders of the Quraish, but was soon after¬ 
 wards himself killed by a wild negro named 
 Wahshi, and his dead body shamefully muti¬ 
 lated. At his death Muhammad is recorded 
 to have said that Hamzah was “ the lion of 
 God and of His Apostle.” The warlike deeds 
 
 of Hamzah are recorded in Persian poetry, in 
 which he is celebrated as Amir Hamzah. 
 
 HAMZIYAH A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Hamzah ibn Adrak, who 
 say that the children (infants) of infidels will 
 be consigned to the Fire of Hell, the general 
 belief of Muhammadans being that they will 
 have a special place in al-A‘raf. ( Kitabu ’<- 
 Ta‘rifat, in loco.) 
 
 HANAFl (J**), HANlFl (J^). 
 
 A member of the sect of Sunnis founded by 
 the Imam Abu Hanifah. [abu hanifah.] 
 
 HANBAL. [ibn hanbal.] 
 
 HANBAL! A member of 
 
 the Hanbal! sect of Sunni Muslims, [ibn 
 
 HANBAL.] 
 
 HAND. Arabic yad (*»->), pi. 
 ayddi. Heb. T- 
 
 (1) It is a rule with Muslims to honour the 
 right hand above the left; to use the right 
 hand for all honourable purposes, and the 
 left for actions which, though necessary, are 
 unclean. The hands must be washed before 
 prayers [ablutions] and before meals. 
 
 (2) The expression yadu ’llah, the “ hand of 
 God,” occurs in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah v. 69 : “ The Jews say, ‘ God’s hand 
 is fettered ’; their hands are fettered, for they 
 are cursed.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 10: “ God’s hand is above 
 their hands.” 
 
 There is a controversy between the ortho¬ 
 dox Sunnis and the Wahhabis regarding the 
 expression, “ God’s hand.” The former main¬ 
 taining that it is a figurative expression for 
 the power of God, the latter holding that it is 
 literal ; but that it is impossible to say in what 
 sense or manner God has a hand ; for as 
 the essence of God is not known, how can the 
 rhanner of His existence be understood ? 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS. The custom 
 
 of keeping a handkerchief in the hand, as is 
 frequently practised, is said to be abominable 
 (makruh ). Many, however, hold that it is al¬ 
 lowable, if done from motives of necessity. 
 This, says Abu Hanifah, is approved ; for the 
 practice is abominable only when it is done 
 ostentatiously. ( 'Hidayah , vol. iv. p. 95.) 
 
 HANlF (<-«**=-), pi. Hunafci ’. Lit. 
 
 “ One who is inclined.” (1) Anyone sincere 
 in his inclination to Islam. (2) One orthodox 
 in the faith. (3) One who is of the religion 
 of Abraham. (See Majma‘u ’ l-Bihar, in loco.) 
 
 The word occurs ten times in the Qur’an. 
 
 I.—Six times for the religion of Abra¬ 
 ham :— 
 
 Surah ii. 129: “ They say, ‘ Be ye Jews or 
 Christians so shall ye be guided 1 Say : ‘ Not 
 so! ’ but the faith of Abraham, the Hanif, 
 he was not of the idolaters.” 
 
 Surah iii. 60: “ Abraham was not a Jew 
 nor yet a Christian, but he was a Hanif re¬ 
 signed, and not of the idolaters.” 
 
 Idem, 89: “ Follow the faith of Abraham, 
 a Hanif, who was not of the idolaters.” 
 
 21 
 
162 
 
 HAQIQAH 
 
 Surah vi. 162: “ The faith of Abraham, 
 the Hanlf he was not of the idolaters.” 
 
 Surah xvi. 121 : “Verily Abraham was an 
 Imam, a Hanlf, and was not of the idolaters.” 
 
 Surah vi. 79: (Abraham said) “I have 
 turned my face to Him who originated the 
 heaven and the earth as a Hanif, and I am 
 not of the idolaters.” 
 
 II. — Four times for one sound in the 
 faith:— 
 
 Surah x. 105 : “ Make steadfast thy face to 
 the religion as a Hanlf, and be not an 
 idolater.” 
 
 Surah xxii. 32: “ Avoid speaking falsely 
 being Hanlfs to God, not associating aught 
 with Him.” 
 
 Surah xcviii. 4: “ Being sincere in religion 
 unto Him, as Hanlfs, and to be steadfast in 
 prayer.” 
 
 Surah xxx. 29: “ Set thy face steadfast 
 towards the religion as a Hanlf." 
 
 III. —The term was also applied in the 
 early stages of Islam, and before Muhammad 
 claimed the position of an inspired prophet, to 
 those who had endeavoured to search for the 
 truth among the mass of conflicting dogmas 
 and superstitions of the religions that existed 
 in Arabia. Amongst these Hanifs were Va- 
 raqah, the Prophet’s cousin, and Zaid ibn 
 ‘Amr, surname! the Enquirer. They were 
 known as Hanifs, a word which originally 
 meant “ inclining one’s steps toward any¬ 
 thing,” and therefore signified either a con¬ 
 vert or a pervert. Muhammad appears from 
 the above verses (when chronologically 
 arranged), to have first used it for the reli¬ 
 gion of Abraham, but afterwards for any 
 sincere professor of Islam. 
 
 HAQIQAH (&L&-). “ Truth ; sin¬ 
 
 cerity.” 
 
 (1) The essence of a thing as meaning that 
 by being which a thing is what it is. As 
 when we say that a rational animal is the 
 haqlqah of a human being. (See Kitabu ’t - 
 Ta‘rifat.) 
 
 (2) A word or phrase used in its proper 
 or original sense, as opposed to that which is 
 figurative. A speech without trope or 
 figure. 
 
 (3) The sixth stage in the mystic journey 
 of the Sufi, when he is supposed to receive 
 a revelation of the true nature of the God¬ 
 head, and to have arrived at “the Truth.” 
 
 al - HAQIQATU ’L - MTJHAM- 
 MADlYAH ^s®J\). The 
 
 original essence of Muhammad, the Nur-i- 
 Muhammadlyah, or the Light of Muhammad, 
 which is believed to have been created before 
 all things. ( Kitabu 't-Ta'-rifat, in loco.) 
 
 The Wahhabis do not believe in the pre¬ 
 existence o* their Prophet, and the doctrine 
 is most probably an invention of the Sufi 
 mystics in the early stages of Islam. 
 
 According to the Imam QastalanI ( Mu- 
 wahib-i-laduniya, vol. i. p. 12), it is related by 
 Jabir ibn ‘Abdi ’llah al-Ansar! that the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ The first thing created was the 
 light of your Prophet, which was created 
 
 HAQQU ’L-‘ABD 
 
 from the light of God. This light of mine 
 roamed about wherever God willed, and when 
 the Almighty resolved to make the world, he 
 divided this light of Muhammad into four 
 portions; from the first he created the Pen 
 ( qalam ) ; from the second, the Tablet (lauh) ; 
 from the third, the highest heaven and the 
 throne of God (‘arsh) ; the fourth portion was 
 divided into four sections : from the first were 
 created the Hamalatu 'l-‘Arsh, or the eight 
 angels who support the throne of God ; from 
 the second, the Icursl, or lower throne of God ; 
 from the third, the angels; and the fourth, 
 being divided into four subdivisions, from it 
 were created (1) the firmaments or seven hea¬ 
 vens, (2) the earth, (3) the seven paradises 
 and seven hells, (4) and again from a fourth 
 section were created (1) the light of the 
 eyes, (2) the light of the mind, (3) the light 
 of the love of the Unity of God, (4) the re¬ 
 maining portion of creation.” 
 
 The author of the Hayatu ’l- Qulub, a Shi‘ah 
 book of traditions (See Merrick’s translation, 
 p. 4), says the traditions respecting the crea¬ 
 tions from this Light of Muhammad are nume¬ 
 rous and discordant, but that the discrepan¬ 
 cies may possibly be reconciled by referring 
 the diverse dates to different eras in the pro¬ 
 cess of creation. “ The holy light of Mu¬ 
 hammad,” he says, “ dwelt under the empy¬ 
 rean seventy-three thousand years, and then 
 resided seventy thousand years in Para¬ 
 dise. Afterwards it rested another period of 
 seventy thousand years under the celestial 
 tree called Sidratu 'l-Muntaha, and, emi¬ 
 grating from heaven to heaven, arrived at 
 length in the lowest of these celestial man¬ 
 sions, where it remained until the Most High 
 willed the creation of Adam.” 
 
 (A very curious account of the absurd be¬ 
 lief of the Shl'ahs on this subject will be 
 found in Mr. Merrick’s edition of the Hiyatu 
 ’l-Qulub-, Boston, 1850.) 
 
 HAQlQI “ Literal,” as 
 
 opposed to that which is majazi, or figura¬ 
 tive. 
 
 HAQQ (cK). “ Truth, justice.” 
 
 A term used in theology for that which is 
 true, e g. The word of God; religion. In law 
 it implies that which is due. A thing decreed ; 
 a claim. By the Sufi mystics it is always 1 
 used for the Divine Essence; God. 
 
 Al-Haqq, “ The Truth.” One of the ninety- 
 nine attributes of God. 
 
 al-HAQQAH (&VJ\). Lit. “ The 
 
 surely impending.” The title of the Lxixth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in which the word 
 occurs in the opening verse: “ The inevit¬ 
 able ! (al-Hdqqatu!). What is the inevit¬ 
 able ? ” The word is understood by all com¬ 
 mentators to mean the Day of Resurrection 
 and Judgment. It does not occur in any 
 other portion of the Qur’an. 
 
 HAQQU ’L-‘ABD(a^o-). “The 
 
 right of the slave (of God).” In law the right 
 of an injured individual to demand redress 
 and justice. 
 
HAEIM 
 
 163 
 
 HAQQU ’LLAH 
 
 HAQQU’LLAH (HJ\ eKb “The 
 
 right of God.” In law, the retributive chas¬ 
 tisement which it is the duty of a magistrate 
 to inflict for crime and offences against mora¬ 
 lity and religion. In theology it means 
 prayer, alms, fasting, pilgrimage, and other 
 religious duties. 
 
 HAQQU ’L-YAQlN 
 
 “ A conviction of the truth.” A term used 
 by the Sufi mystics for a state in which the 
 seeker after truth has in thought and reflec¬ 
 tion a positive evidence of his extinction and 
 of his being incorporated in the Essence of 
 God. [yaqin.] 
 
 HAQQU ’N-NAS <>U\ . “ The 
 
 right of men.” A term in law implying the 
 same as Haqqu ’l-‘Abd. 
 
 HARAM ((•;=-), pi. Huram. “ That 
 
 which is sacred. (1) Al-Haram, the sacred 
 precincts of Makkah or al-Madlnah. (2) 
 Haram, the apartments of women in a Mu¬ 
 hammadan household, [uarim.] (3) Huram, 
 wives. 
 
 HARAM ((•VO- -htf. “prohibited.” 
 
 That which is unlawful. The word is used 
 in both a good and a bad sense, e.g. Baitu 'l- 
 haram, the sacred house ; and Malu 'l-haram, 
 unlawful possessions. Ibnu 'l-haram, an ille¬ 
 gitimate son; Shahru 'l-haram, a sacred 
 month. 
 
 A thing is said to be haram when it is for¬ 
 bidden, as opposed to that which is haldl, or 
 lawful. A pilgrim is said to be haram as soon 
 as he has put on the pilgrim’s garb. 
 
 Haramu 'llah la afa‘lu is a form of oath 
 that a man will not do a thing. 
 
 HARAMU ’L - MAD IN AH ( r ,^ 
 (LuaAV). The sacred boundary of al- 
 Madinah within which certain acts are un¬ 
 lawful which are lawful elsewhere. The 
 Imam Abu Hanifah says that although it is 
 respectful to the position of the sacred city, as 
 the birth-place of the Prophet, not to bear 
 arms, or kill, or cut grass, &c., still it is not, 
 as in the case of Makkah, an incumbent reli¬ 
 gious duty. According to a tradition by ‘All 
 ibn Abi Talib ( Mishkat, book xi. ch. xvi.), 
 the Hududu 'l-Haram, or sacred limits of al- 
 Madinah are from Jabal ‘Air to Saur. Ac¬ 
 cording to Burton, the diameter of the Haram 
 is from ten to.; twelve miles. ( El Medinah 
 and Meccah, vol. i. p. 302.) 
 
 HARAMU MAKKAH (**- rfr ). 
 
 The sacred boundary of Makkah within which 
 certain acts are unlawful which are lawful 
 elsewhere. It is not lawful to carry arms, or 
 to fight within its limits. Its thorns must 
 not be broken, nor its game molested, nor 
 must anything be taken up which has fallen 
 on the ground, unless it is done to restore it 
 to its owner. Its fresh grass or even its 
 dry grass must not be cut; except the hog 
 rush (izlchir ). because it is used for black¬ 
 smith’s fires and for thatching houses. (A 
 tradition by Ibn ‘Abbas, Mishkat, book xi. [ 
 
 ch. xv. pt. 1). ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says that when 
 Abraham, “ the friend of God,” placed the 
 black stone at the time of the building of the 
 Ka'bah, its east, west, north, and south 
 quarters became bright with light, and that 
 wherever the brightness extended itself be¬ 
 came the Hududu 'l-Haram, or the limits of 
 the sacred city. These limits are marked by 
 manors or pillars on all sides, except on the 
 Jiddah and Jairanah roads, regarding which 
 there is some dispute as to the exact dis¬ 
 tance. 
 
 HAREEM. [harim.] 
 
 HARES. Arabic amah , pi. aranib. 
 Heb. rQ2"lN. The flesh of the hare 
 is lawful, for the Prophet ate it, and com¬ 
 manded his companions to do so ( Hiddyah, 
 vol. iv. p. 75). A difference of opinion has in 
 all ages existed as to the value of the hare 
 as an article of food. The Greeks and 
 Romans ate it in spite of an opinion that pre¬ 
 vailed that it was not wholesome. In the 
 law of Moses, it is specified amongst the un¬ 
 clean animals (Lev. xi. 6 ; Deut xiv. 7). The 
 Parsees do not eat hare’s flesh, nor do the 
 Armenians. 
 
 HARF (1) An extremity, 
 
 verge, or border. (2) A letter of the alpha¬ 
 bet. (3) A particle in grammar. (4) A 
 dialect of Arabia, or a mode of expression 
 peculiar to certain Arabs. The Qur’an is 
 said to have been revealed in seven dialects 
 (sab 1 at ahruf). [qitk’an.] (5) A term used by 
 the Sufi mystics for the particle of any true 
 essence. 
 
 HARlM, or HAREEM A 
 
 word used especially in Turkey, Egypt, and 
 Syria, for the female apartments of a Mu¬ 
 hammadan household. In Persia, Afghan¬ 
 istan, and India, the terms haramgah, mahall- 
 sardi and zandnah are used for the same place. 
 
 The seclusion of women being enjoined in 
 the Qur’an (Surah xxxiii. 55), in all Muham¬ 
 madan countries it is the rule for respectable 
 women to remain secluded at home, and not 
 to travel abroad unveiled, nor to associate 
 with men other than their husbands or such 
 male relatives as are forbidden in marriage 
 by reason of consanguinity. In consequence 
 of these injunctions, which have all the force 
 of a divine enactment, the female portion of 
 a Muhammadan family always resides in 
 apartments which are in an inclosed court¬ 
 yard and excluded from public view. This 
 inclosure is called the harim, and sometimes 
 haram, or in Persian zandnah, from zan, a 
 “ woman ”). Mr. Lane in his Modern Egyp¬ 
 tians, has given a full account of the Egyptian 
 harim. We are indebted to Mrs. Meer Ali 
 for the following very graphic and interesting 
 description of a Muhammadan zananah or 
 harim in Lucknow. 
 
 Mrs. Meer Ali was an English lady who 
 married a Muhammadan gentleman, and re- 
 ided amongst the people of Lucknow for 
 twelve years. Upon the death of her hus¬ 
 band, she returned to England, and published 
 
164 
 
 HARIM 
 
 HARIM 
 
 her Observations on the Mnsalmans of India, 
 which was dedicated, with permission, to 
 Queen Adelaide. 
 
 “ The habitable buildings of a native Mu¬ 
 hammadan home are raised a few steps from 
 the court; a line of pillars forms the front of 
 the building, which has no upper rooms ; the 
 roof is flat, and the sides and back without 
 windows, or any aperture through which air 
 can be received. The sides and back are 
 merely high walls, forming an enclosure, and 
 the only air is admitted from the fronts of 
 the dwelling-place facing the court-ydrd. The 
 apartments are divided into long halls, the 
 extreme corners having small rooms or dark 
 closets purposely built for the repository of 
 valuables or stores; doors are fixed to these 
 closets, which are the only places I have seen 
 with them in a zananah or mahall (house or 
 palace occupied by females) ; the floor is either 
 of beaten earth, bricks, or stones; boarded 
 floors are not yet introduced. As they have 
 neither doors nor windows to the halls, warmth 
 or privacy is secured by means of thick wadded 
 curtains, made to fit each opening between the 
 pillars. Some zananahs have two rows of 
 piliars in the halls with wadded curtains to 
 each, thus forming two distinct halls, as 
 occasion may serve, or greater warmth be 
 required ; this is a convenient arrangement 
 where the establishment of servants, slaves, 
 &c. is extensive. 
 
 The wadded curtains are called pardahs ; 
 these are sometimes made of woollen cloth, 
 but more generally of coarse calico, of two 
 colours, in patchwork style, striped, van- 
 dyked, or in some other ingeniously contrived 
 and ornamented way, according to their indi¬ 
 vidual taste. 
 
 “ Besides the pardahs, the openings between 
 the pillars have blinds neatly made of fine 
 bamboo strips, woven together with coloured 
 cords ; these are called chicks. Many of them 
 are painted green, others are more gaudy, 
 both in colour and variety of patterns. These 
 blinds constitute a real comfort to everyone 
 in India, as they admit ah’ when let down, 
 and at the same time shut out flies and other 
 annoying insects; besides which, the extreme 
 glare is shaded by them—a desirable object 
 to foreigners in particular. 
 
 “ The floors of the halls are first matted 
 with the coarse date-leaf matting of the 
 country, over which are spread shatranjis 
 (thick cotton carpets, peculiarly the manu¬ 
 facture of the Upper Provinces of India, woven 
 in stripes of blue and white, or shades of 
 blue) ; a white calico carpet covers the shat- 
 ranji on which the females take their seat. 
 
 “ The bedsteads of the family are placed, 
 during the day, in lines at the back of the 
 halls, to be moved at pleasure to any chosen 
 spot for the night’s repose; often into the 
 open court-yard, for the benefit of the pure 
 air. They are all formed on one principle, 
 differing only in size and quality ; they stand 
 about half a yard from the floor, the legs 
 round and broad at bottom, narrowing as 
 they rise towards the frame, -which is laced 
 over with a thick cotton tape, made for the 
 
 purpose, and plaited in checquers, and thus 
 rendered soft, or rather elastic, and very 
 pleasant to recline upon. The legs of these 
 bedsteads are in some instances gold and 
 silver gilt, or pure silver ; others have enamel 
 paintings on fine wood; the inferior grades 
 have them merely of wood painted plain and 
 varnished. The servants’ bedsteads are of the 
 common mango-wood without ornament, the 
 lacing of these for the sacking being of elastic 
 string manufactured from the fibre of the 
 cocoa-nut. 
 
 “ Such are the bedsteads of every class of 
 people. They seldom have mattresses: a 
 white quilt is spread on the lacing, over 
 which a calico sheet, tied at each corner of 
 the bedstead with cords and tassels; several 
 thin flat pillows of beaten cotton for the 
 head; a muslin sheet for warm weather, and 
 a well wadded razai (coverlid) for winter is' 
 all these children of Nature deem essential to 
 their comfort in the way of sleeping. They 
 have no idea of night-dresses; the same suit 
 that adorns a lady, is retained both night and 
 day, until a change be needed. The single 
 article exchanged at night is the dupatta (a 
 small shawl for the head), and that only 
 when it happens to be of silver tissue or em¬ 
 broidery, for which a muslin or calico sheet 
 is substituted. » 
 
 “ The very highest circles have the same 
 habits in common with the meanest, but 
 those who can afford shawls of Cashmere, 
 prefer them for sleeping in, when the cold 
 weather renders them bearable. Blankets 
 are never used except by the poorest pea¬ 
 santry, who wear them in lieu of better gar¬ 
 ments night and day in the winter season; 
 they are always black, the natural colour of 
 the wool. The quilts of the higher orders 
 are generally made of silk of the brightest 
 hues, well wadded, and lined with dyed mus-: 
 lin of assimilating colour; they are usually 
 bound with broad silver ribands, and some¬ 
 times bordered with gold brocaded trim¬ 
 mings. The middling classes have fine 
 chintz quilts, and the servants and slaves 
 coarse ones of the same material; but all are 
 on the same plan, whether for a queen or the 
 meanest of her slaves, differing only in the 
 quality of the material. The mistress of the 
 house is easily distinguished by her seat of 
 honour in the hall of a zananah, a masnad not 
 being allowed to any other person but the 
 lady of the mansion. The masnad carpet is 
 spread on the floor, if possible near to a 
 pillar about the centre of the hall, and is 
 made of many varieties of fabric—gold cloth, 
 quilted silk, brocaded silk, velvet, fine chintz, 
 or whatever may suit the lady’s taste, cir¬ 
 cumstances, or convenience. It is about two 
 yards square, and generally bordered or 
 fringed, on which is placed the all-important 
 masnad. This article may be understood by 
 those who have seen a lace-maker’s pillow in 
 England, excepting only that the masnad is 
 about twenty times the size of that useful 
 little article in the hands of our industrious 
 villagers. The masnad is covered with gold 
 cloth, silk, velvet, or calico, with square pil- 
 
HAEIM 
 
 HAEIM 
 
 165 
 
 lows to correspond, for the elbows, the 
 knees, &c. This is the seat of honour, to be 
 invited to share which, with the lady-owner, 
 is a mark of favour to an equal or inferior : 
 when a superior pays a visit of honour, the 
 prided seat is usually surrendered to her, and 
 the lady of the house takes her place most 
 humbly on the very edge of her own carpet. 
 Looking-glasses or ornamental furniture are 
 very rarely to be seen in the zananah, even of 
 the very richest females. Chairs and sofas 
 are produced when English visitors are ex¬ 
 pected ; but the ladies of Hindustan prefer 
 the usual mode of sitting and lounging on the 
 carpet; and as for tables, I suppose not one 
 gentlewoman of the whole country has ever 
 been seated at one; and very few, perhaps, 
 have any idea of their useful purposes, all 
 their meals being served on the floor, where 
 dastar/chwans (table-cloths we should call 
 them) are spread, but neither knives, forks, 
 spoons, glasses, nor napkins, so essential to 
 the comfortable enjoyment of a meal amongst 
 Europeans. But those who never knew such 
 comforts have no desire for the indulgence, 
 nor taste to appreciate them. 
 
 “ On the several occasions, amongst native 
 society, of assembling in large parties, as at 
 births and marriages, the halls, although ex¬ 
 tensive, would be inadequate to accommodate 
 the whole party. They then have awnings of 
 white calico, neatly flounced with muslin, 
 supported on poles fixed in the court-yard, 
 and connecting the open space with the great 
 hall, by wooden platforms which are brought 
 to a line with the building, and covered with 
 shatranji, and white carpets to correspond 
 with the floor-furniture of the hall; and here 
 the ladies sit by day and sleep by night very 
 comfortably, without feeling any great incon¬ 
 venience from the absence of their bedsteads, 
 which could never be arranged for the accom¬ 
 modation of so large an assemblage—nor is it 
 ever expected. 
 
 “ The usually barren look of these almost 
 unfurnished halls, is on such occasions quite 
 changed, when the ladies are assembled in 
 their various dresses ; the brilliant display 
 of jewels, the glittering drapery of their 
 dress, the various expressions of countenance, 
 and different figures, the multitude of female 
 attendants and slaves, the children of all 
 ages and sizes in their variously ornamental 
 dresses, are subjects to attract both the eye 
 and the mind of an observing visitor ; and the 
 hall, which when empty appeared desolate 
 and comfortless, thus filled, leaves nothing 
 wanting to render the scene attractive. 
 
 “ The buzz of human voices, the happy 
 playfulness of the children, the chaste sing¬ 
 ing of the domnis fill up the animated pic¬ 
 ture. I have sometimes passed an hour or 
 two in witnessing their innocent amusements, 
 without any feeling of regret for the brief 
 sacrifice of time I had made. I am free to 
 confess, however, that I have returned to my 
 tranquil home with increased delight after 
 having witnessed the bustle of a zananah 
 assembly. At first I pitied the apparent 
 monotony of their lives ; but this feeling has 
 
 worn away by intimacy with the people, who 
 are thus precluded from mixing generally 
 with the world. They are happy in their 
 confinement; and never having felt the 
 sweets of liberty, would not know how to 
 use the boon if it were to be granted them. 
 As the bird from the nest immured in a cage 
 is both cheerful and contented, so are these 
 females. They have not, it is true, many 
 intellectual resources, but they have natu¬ 
 rally good understandings, and having learned 
 their duty they strive to fulfil it. So far 
 as I have had any opportunity of making 
 personal observations on their general cha¬ 
 racter, they appear to me obedient wives, 
 dutiful daughters, affectionate mothers, kind 
 mistresses, sincere friends, and liberal bene¬ 
 factresses to the distressed poor. These are 
 their moral qualifications, and in their reli¬ 
 gious duties, they are zealous in performing 
 the several ordinances which they have been 
 instructed by their parents or husbands to 
 observe. If there be any merit in obeying the 
 injunctions of their law-giver, those whom I 
 have known most intimately, deserve praise 
 since ‘ they are faithful in that they profess.’ 
 
 “ To ladies accustomed from infancy to con¬ 
 finement, this kind of life is by no means irk¬ 
 some ; they have their employments and their 
 amusements, and though these are not exactly 
 to our taste, nor suited to our mode of educa¬ 
 tion, they are not the less relished by those 
 for whom they were invented. They perhaps 
 wonder equally at some of our modes of dis¬ 
 sipating time, and fancy we might spend it 
 more profitably. Be that as it may, the 
 Muslim ladies, with whom I have been long 
 intimate, appear to. me always happy, con¬ 
 tented, and satisfied with the seclusion to 
 which they were born; they desire no other, 
 and I have ceased to regret they cannot be 
 made partakers of that freedom of inter¬ 
 course with the world] we deem so essential 
 to our happiness, since their health suffers 
 nothing from that confinement, by which they 
 are preserved from a variety of snares and 
 temptations ; besides which, they would deem 
 it disgraceful in the highest degree to mix 
 indiscriminately with men who are not rela¬ 
 tions. They are educated from infancy for 
 retirement, and they can have no wish that 
 the custom should be changed, which keeps 
 them apart from the society of men who are 
 not very nearly related to them. Female 
 society is unlimited, and that they enjoy 
 without restraint. 
 
 “ Those females who rank above peasants 
 or inferior servants, are disposed from prin¬ 
 ciple to keep themselves strictly from obser¬ 
 vation; all who have any regard for the 
 character or the honour of their house, se¬ 
 clude themselves from the eye of strangers, 
 carefully instructing their young daughters 
 to a rigid observance of their own prudent 
 example. Little girls, when four years old, 
 are kept strictly behind the pardah (lit. 
 “curtain”), and when they move abroad it 
 is always in covered conveyances, and under 
 the guardianship of a faithful female domestic, 
 who is equally tenacious as the mother to 
 
166 
 
 HARIM 
 
 HARIM 
 
 preserve the young lady’s reputation unble¬ 
 mished by concealing her from the gaze of 
 men. 
 
 “The ladies of zananah life are not re¬ 
 stricted from the society of their own sex; 
 they are, as I have before remarked, extra¬ 
 vagantly fond of company, and equally as 
 hospitable when entertained. To be alone is 
 a trial to which they are seldom exposed, 
 every lady having companions amongst her 
 dependants; and according to her means the 
 number in her establishment is regulated. 
 Some ladies of rank have from two to ten 
 companions, independent of slaves and domes¬ 
 tics ; and there are some of the royal family 
 at Lucknow who entertain in their service 
 two or three hundred female dependants, of 
 all classes. A well-filled zananah is a mark 
 of gentility ; and even the poorest lady in the 
 country will retain a number of slaves and 
 domestics, if she cannot afford companions ; 
 besides which they are miserable without 
 society, the habit of associating with numbers 
 having grown up with infancy to maturity: 
 
 . 1 to be alone,’ is considered, with women thus 
 situated, a real calamity. 
 
 “ On occasions of assembling in large par- 
 ties, each lady takes with her a companion 
 besides two or three slaves to attend upon 
 her, no one expecting to be served by the 
 servants of the bouse at which they are 
 visiting. This swells the numbers to be pro¬ 
 vided for; and as the visit is always for three 
 days and three nights (except on ‘Ids, when 
 the visit is confined to one day), some fore¬ 
 thought must be exercised by the lady of the 
 house, that all may be accommodated in 
 such a manner as may secure to her the re¬ 
 putation of hospitality. 
 
 “ The kitchen and offices to the zananah, 
 
 I have remarked, occupy one side of the quad¬ 
 rangle ; they face the great or centre hall 
 appropriated to the assembly. These kit¬ 
 chens, however, are sufficiently distant to 
 prevent any great annoyance from the smoke 
 ■—I say smoke, because chimneys have not 
 yet been introduced into the kitchens of the 
 natives. 
 
 “ The fire-places are all on the ground, 
 something resembling stoves, each admitting 
 one saucepan, the Asiatic style of cooking 
 requiring no other contrivance. Roast or 
 boiled joints are never seen at the dinner of a 
 native; a leg of mutton or sirloin of beef 
 would place the hostess under all sorts of 
 difficulties, where knives and forks are not 
 understood to be amongst the useful appen¬ 
 dages of a meal. The varieties of their dishes 
 are countless, but stews and curries are the 
 chief; all the others are mere varieties. The 
 only thing in the shape of roast meats are 
 small lean cutlets bruised, seasoned and ce¬ 
 mented with pounded poppy seed. Several 
 being fastened together on skewers, they 
 are grilled or roasted over a charcoal fire 
 spread on the ground, and then called kabab, 
 which word implies roast meat. 
 
 “ The kitchen of a zananah would be in¬ 
 adequate to the business of cooking for a 
 large assembly; the most choice dishes only 
 
 (for the highly-favoured guests), are cooked 
 by the servants of the establishment. The 
 needed abundance required in entertaining a 
 large party is provided by a regular bazar 
 cook, several of whom establish themselves 
 in native cities, or wherever there is a Mus¬ 
 lim population. Orders being previously 
 given, the morning and evening dinners are 
 punctually forwarded at the appointed hours 
 in covered trays, each tray having portions of 
 the several good things ordered, so that there 
 is no confusion in serving out the feast on its 
 arrival at the mansion. The food thus pre¬ 
 pared by the bazar cook (nanbai, he is 
 called),j is plain boiled rice, sweet rice, khir 
 (rice-milk), mutanjan (rice sweetened with 
 the addition of preserved fruits, raisins, &c., 
 coloured with saffron), salans (curries) of 
 many varieties, some cooked with vege¬ 
 tables, others with unripe fruits with or 
 without meat; putaos of many sorts, Icababs,. 
 preserves, pickles, chatnis, and many other 
 things too tedious to admit of detail. 
 
 “ The bread in general use amongst natives 
 is chiefly unleavened : nothing in the likeness 
 of English bread is to be seen at their meals; 
 and many object to its being fermented with 
 the intoxicating toddy (extracted from a tree). 
 Most of the native bread is baked on iron 
 plates over a charcoal fire. They have many 
 varieties, both plain and rich, and some of 
 the latter resembles our pastry, both in 
 quality and flavour. 
 
 “ The dinners, I have said, are brought into 
 the zananah, ready dished in the native 
 earthenware, on trays ; and as they neither 
 use spoons nor forks, there is no great delay 
 in setting out the meal where nothing is re¬ 
 quired for display or effect, beyond the ex¬ 
 cellent quality of the food and its being well 
 cooked. In a large assembly all cannot dine 
 at the dastarkhwdn of the lady hostess, even 
 if privileged by their rank; they are, there¬ 
 fore, accommodated in groups of ten, fifteen, 
 or more, as may be convenient; each lady 
 having her companion at the meal, and her 
 slaves to brush off the intruding flies with 
 a chaurf, to hand water, or to fetch or carry 
 any article of delicacy from or to a neighbour¬ 
 ing group. The slaves and servants dine in 
 parties after their ladies have finished, in 
 any retired corner of the court-yard—always 
 avoiding as much as possible the presence of 
 their superiors. 
 
 “ Befoz'e anyone touches the meal, water is 
 carried round for each lady to wash the hand 
 and rinse the mouth. It is deemed unclean 
 to eat without this form of ablution, and the 
 person neglecting it would be held unholy. 
 This done, the lady turns to her meal, saying, 
 
 “ Bismillah ! ” (In the name or to the praise 
 of God!), and with the right hand conveys 
 the food to her mouth (the left hand is never 
 used at meals); and although they partake 
 of every variety of food placed before them 
 with no other aid than their fingers, yet the 
 mechanical habit is so perfect, that they 
 neither drop a grain of rice, soil the dress, nor 
 retain any of the food on their fingers. The 
 custom must always be offensive to a foreign 
 
HARIM 
 
 eye, and the habit none would wish to copy; 
 yet everyone who witnesses must admire 
 the neat way in which eating is accomplished 
 by these really 1 Children of Nature.’ 
 
 “ The repast concluded, the lota (vessel 
 with water), and the laggan (to receive the 
 water in after rinsing the hands and mouth), 
 are passed round. To every person who, 
 having announced by the ‘ Ash-Shukru li'llah ! ’ 
 (All thanks to God 1) that she has finished, 
 the attendants present first the powdered 
 peas, called besan, —which answers the pur¬ 
 pose of soap in removing grease, &c. from the 
 fingers—and then the water in due course. 
 Soap has not even yet been brought into 
 fashion by the natives, except by the washer¬ 
 men; I have often been surprised that they 
 have not found the use of soap a necessary 
 article in the nursery, where the only sub¬ 
 stitute I have seen is the powdered pea. 
 
 “ Lotas and laggans are articles in use 
 with all classes of people; they must be poor 
 indeed who do not boast of one, at least, in 
 their family. They are always of metal, 
 either brass, or copper lacquered over, or 
 zinc; in some cases, as with the nobility, 
 silver and even gold are converted into these 
 useful articles of native comfort. 
 
 “ China or glass is comparatively but little 
 used ; water is their only beverage, and this 
 is preferred, in the absence of metal basins, 
 out of the common red earthen katora (cup 
 shaped like a vase). 
 
 “ China dishes, bowls, and basins, are used 
 for serving many of the savoury articles of 
 food in ; but it is as common in the privacy 
 of the palace, as well as in the huts of the 
 peasantry, to see many choice things intro¬ 
 duced at meals served up in the rude red 
 earthen platter; many of the delicacies of 
 Asiatic cookery being esteemed more palat¬ 
 able from the earthen flavour of the new 
 vessel in which it is served. 
 
 “ China tea-sets are very rarely found in 
 the zananah, tea being used by the natives 
 more as a medicine than a refreshment, ex¬ 
 cept by such gentlemen as have frequent 
 intercourse with the “Sahib Log” (English 
 gentry), among whom they acquire a taste 
 for this delightful beverage. The ladies, 
 however, must have a severe cold to induce 
 them to partake of the beverage even as a 
 remedy, but by no means as a luxury. I 
 imagined that the inhabitants of a zananah 
 were sadly deficient in actual comforts, when 
 I found, upon my first arrival in India, that 
 there were no preparations for breakfast 
 going forward; everyone seemed engaged in 
 pan-eating, and smoking the huqqah, but no 
 breakfast after the morning namaz. I was, 
 however, soon satisfied that they felt no sort 
 of privation, as the early meal so common in 
 Europe has never been introduced in Eastern 
 circles. Their first meal is a good substantial 
 dinner, at ten, eleven, or twelve o’clock, after 
 which follows pan and the huqqah ; to this 
 succeeds a sleep of two or three hours, pro¬ 
 viding it does not impede the duty of prayer 
 —the pious, I ought to remark, would give up 
 every indulgence which would prevent the 
 
 HARUT WA MARUT 167 
 
 discharge of this duty. The second meal 
 follows in twelve hours from the first, and 
 consists of the same substantial fare; after 
 which they usually sleep again until the 
 dawn of day is near at hand. 
 
 “ The huqqah (pipe) is almost in general use 
 with females. It is a common practice with 
 the lady of the house to present the huqqah 
 she is smoking to her favoured guest. This 
 mark of attention is always to be duly ap¬ 
 preciated ; but such is the deference paid to 
 parents, that a son can rarely be persuaded 
 by an indulgent father or mother to smoke a 
 huqqah in their revered presence; this praise¬ 
 worthy feeling originates not in fear, but real 
 genuine respect. The parents entertain for 
 their son the most tender regard; and the 
 father makes him both his companion and 
 his friend ; yet the most familiar endearments 
 do not lessen the feeling of reverence a good 
 son entertains for his father. This is one 
 among the many samples of patriarchal life, 
 and which I can never witness in real life, 
 without feeling respect for the persons who 
 follow up the patterns I have been taught 
 to venerate in our Holy Scripture. 
 
 “ The huqqah (pipe) as an indulgence or a 
 privilege, is a great definer of etiquette. In the 
 presence of the king or reigning nawab, no 
 subject, however high he may rank in blood 
 or royal favour, can presume to smoke. In 
 native courts, on state occasions, huqqahs are 
 presented only to the Governor-General, the 
 Commander-in-Chief, or the Resident at his 
 court, who are considered equal in rank, and 
 therefore entitled to the privilege of smoking 
 with him ; and they cannot consistently resist 
 the intended honour. Should they dislike 
 smoking, a hint is readily understood by the 
 huqqah bardar to bring the huqqah, charged 
 with the materials, without the addition of 
 fire. Applications of the munhnal (mouth¬ 
 piece) to the mouth, indicates a sense of the 
 honour conferred.” ( Observations on the Mu- 
 salmans of India, vol. i. p. 304.) 
 
 HARIS (ojW). A surname which 
 
 frequently occurs amongst “ the Companions.” 
 In the Taqribu ’t-Tahzlb, there are not fewer 
 that sixty-five persons of this name, of whom 
 short biographical notes are given. 
 
 Haris ibn Naufal ibn al-Haris ibn ‘Abdi ’1- 
 Muttalib, was a Companion of some conse¬ 
 quence ; he lived close to the house of the 
 Prophet, and had frequently to make room 
 as the Prophet’s Harim extended itself. 
 [houses.] 
 
 Haris ibn Hisham ibn al-Mughirah, is 
 another Companion, who lived at Makkah. 
 
 Haris son of Suwaid ibn Samit, the poet, 
 was executed at Uhud. 
 
 HARISlYAH A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Abu ’1-Haris, who in 
 opposition to the sect Abazlyah, said it was 
 not correct to say the acts of men were not 
 the acts of God. ( Kitdbu ’t-Ta‘rifdt, in loco.) 
 
 HARUN (c^*). [aaron.] 
 HARUT WA MARUT 
 
 Two angels mentioned in 
 
168 
 
 HASAD 
 
 HAUZU ’L-KAUSAR 
 
 the Qur’an. They are said to be two angels 
 who, in consequence of then' compassion for 
 the frailties of mankind, were sent down to 
 earth to be tempted. They both sinned, and 
 being permitted to choose whether they would 
 be punished now or hereafter, chose the 
 former, and are still suspended by the feet 
 at Babel in a rocky pit, where they are great 
 teachers of magic. 
 
 The account of these two angels in the 
 Qur’an, is given in Surah ii, 96 :— 
 
 “ They (the Jews) followed what the devils 
 taught in the reign of Solomon: not that Solo¬ 
 mon was unbelieving, but the devils were un¬ 
 believing. Sorcery did they teach to men, 
 and what had been revealed to the two 
 angels, Harut and Marut, at Babel. Yet no 
 man did these two teach until they had said, 
 4 We are only a temptation. Be not then an 
 unbeliever.’ From these two did men learn 
 how to cause division between man and wife: 
 but unless by leave of God, no man did they 
 harm thereby. They learned, indeed, what 
 would harm and not profit them ; and yet 
 they knew that he who bought that art should 
 have no part in the life to come 1 And vile 
 the price for which they have sold themselves, 
 —if they had but known it 1 ” 
 
 HASAD “Envy, malevo¬ 
 
 lence, malice.” It occurs twice in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 103 : 44 Many of the people of the 
 Book (z'.e. Jews and Christians) desire to 
 bring you back to unbelief after ye have be¬ 
 lieved, out of selfish envy, even after the truth 
 hath been clearly shewn them.” 
 
 Surah cxiii. 5 : 44 1 seek refuge .... from 
 the envy of the envious when he envies.” 
 
 al-HASAN - & 31). The fifth 
 
 Khalifah. The eldest son of Fatimah, the 
 daughter of Muhammad, by her husband the 
 Khalifah ‘All. Born a.h. 3. Died a.h. 49. 
 He succeeded his father ‘All as Kh alifah 
 a.h. 41, and reigned about six months. He 
 resigned the Caliphate in favour of Mu‘a~ 
 wiyah, and was eventually poisoned by his 
 wife Ja‘dah, who was suborned to commit 
 the deed by Yazid, the son of Mufawiyali, by 
 a promise of marrying her, which promise he 
 did not keep. Al-Hasan had twenty children, 
 fifteen sons and five daughters, from whom 
 are descended one section of the great family 
 of Saiyids, or Lords, the descendants of the 
 Prophet. The history of al-Hasan, together with 
 the tragical death of his brother al-Husain, 
 form the plot of the miracle play of the Mu- 
 harram. [husain, muharram, saiyid.] 
 
 HASHIM The great 
 
 grandfather of Muhammad. Born, according 
 to M. 0. de Perceval, a.d. 464. Sprenger 
 places his birth in a.d. 442. He married Sal- 
 mah, by whom he had a son, ‘Abdu ’1-Mutta- 
 lib. the father of ‘Abdu ’llah, who was the 
 father of Muhammad. The author of the 
 Qamus says Hashim’s original name was 
 4 Amr, but he was surnamed Hashim on 
 account of his hospitality in distributing 
 bread (hashm, to break bread) to the pilgrims 
 at Makkah. 
 
 IIASHR (/*»=-). Lit. “ Going forth 
 
 from one place, and assembling in another.” 
 Hence the word is used in the Qur’an in two 
 senses, viz. an emigration and an assembly, 
 e.g. Surah lix. 2: “It was He who drove forth 
 from their homes those people of the book 
 (i.e. Jews) who misbelieved, at the first emi¬ 
 gration." (Hence al-Hashr is the title of the 
 Lixth Surah of the Qur’an) Surah xxvii. 
 17 : “ And his hosts of the jinn and men and 
 birds were assembled for Solomon.” 
 
 The term Yaumu ’ l-Ha.shr is therefore 
 used for the Day of Resurrection, or the day 
 when the dead shall migrate from their 
 graves and assemble for judgment. It occurs 
 in this sense in the Qur’an, Surah 1. 42 :— 
 
 “ Verily we cause to live, and we cause to 
 die. To us shall all return. 
 
 “ On the day when the earth shall swiftly 
 cleave asunder over the dead , will this gather¬ 
 ing be easy to Us. 
 
 al-HASIB (v- -&-H). “ The 
 
 Reckoner,” in the Day of Judgment. One of 
 the ninety-nine attributes of God. The title 
 occurs in the Qur’an three times. 
 
 Surah iv. 7: “ God sufficeth for taking 
 account.” 
 
 Idem, 88: “ God of all things takes an 
 account.” 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 39 : “ God is good enough at 
 reckoning up.” 
 
 HASSAN ^). The son of 
 
 Sabit. A celebrated poet in the time of Mu¬ 
 hammad, who embraced Islam. He is said 
 to have lived 120 years, 60 of which were 
 passed in idolatry and 60 in Islam. 
 
 It is related in the Traditions that the Pro¬ 
 phet on the day of battle with the Banii 
 Quraizah, cried out, “ O Hassan ibn Sabit, 
 abuse the infidels in your verse, for verily 
 Gabriel helps you! ” (Mishkat, book xxii. 
 ch. ix. pt. 1.) [poetry.] 
 
 HATIB IBN ‘AMR eP 
 
 An early convert to Islam, and one of the 
 most trusted of Muhammad’s followers. He 
 distinguished himself at the taking of Makkah. 
 
 IIAITLANU ’L-HAUL a J^). 
 
 “ A complete year.” A term used in Muham¬ 
 madan law for the period property must be in 
 possession before zakat is required of it. 
 (tliddyah, vol. i. p. 2.) 
 
 HABZU ’L-KATJSAR (y^\ ^). 
 
 A pond or river in Paradise. According to 
 Muhammad’s sayings in the Traditions 
 (Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.), it is more than 
 a month’s journey in circumference, its waters 
 are whiter than snow and sweeter than honey 
 mixed with milk, and those who drink of it 
 shall never thirst. The word kausar occurs 
 once in the Qur’an, namely in Surah cviii., 
 which derives therefrom its title, and where 
 its translation and meaning is doubtful. 
 “ Verily, we have given thee al-Kaugar.” Al- 
 Baizawl, the commentator, says it either 
 means that which is good or abundant; or 
 the pond al-Kau.$ar which is mentioned in the 
 Traditions. 
 
HAWA 
 
 AL-HAZARATU ’L-KHAMS 169 
 
 HAWA (V*)- “Desire, love; 
 
 hankering after.” A term used by the Sufi 
 mystics for lust, or unholy desire. Hawa-i- 
 Nafsani, “ the lust of the flesh ”; Ahl-i-Hawa, 
 “ a sceptic, an unbeliever.” 
 
 HAWAJIM (^yy. Lit. 
 
 “ Assaults, shocks.” A term used by the 
 Sufi mystics for those thoughts of the heart 
 which enter it without desire or intention. 
 (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms .) 
 
 HAWAJIS ((^yo. “Thoughts.” 
 
 A term used by the Sufi mystics for the 
 worldly thoughts of the heart. (‘Abdu ’r- 
 Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 HAWALAH (&y). A legal term 
 
 signifying the removal or transfer of a debt 
 by way of security or corroboration from that 
 of the original debtor to that person to whom 
 it is transferred. fH.ida.yah, vol. ii. p. 606.) 
 
 HAWAMlM A title given 
 
 to the seven chapters of the Qur’an which 
 begin with the letters g Ha ^ Mim, namely, 
 xl, Suratu ’1-Mu’min ; xli, Suratu Fussilat; 
 xlii, Suratu ’sh-Shura ; xun, Suratu ’1-Zukh- 
 ruf; xliv, Suratu ’d-Dukhan ; xlv, Suratu 
 ’1-Jiisiyah ; xlvi, Suratu ’1-Ahqaf. 
 
 For an explanation of the letters H M at 
 the commencement of these Surahs, see 
 
 HA MIM. 
 
 It is related in the Traditions that a man 
 said to the Prophet, “ I am old, and my 
 memory is imperfect, and my tongue is stiff 
 and the Prophet replied, “ Then repeat three 
 of the Surahs beginning with Hit Mim.” 
 {Mishkat, book viii. ch. i. pt. 3.) 
 
 HAWARl (yy). The word used 
 in the Qur’an (Surahs iii. 45 ; lxi. 14) 
 for the Apostles of Jesus. Al-Baizawi, the 
 Muhammadan commentator, says it is derived 
 from hawar, “ to be white,” and was given to 
 the disciples of Jesus, either on account of 
 their purity of life and sincerity ; or because 
 they were respectable men and wore white 
 garments. In the Traditions ( Mishkat , book i. 
 ch. vi. pt. 1) it is used for the followers of 
 all the Prophets. The word may be derived 
 from the iEthiopic haivryra, “ to go, to be 
 sent.” 
 
 al-HAWASSU ’L - KHAMSAH 
 
 )Ja J\). [five senses.] 
 
 HAWAZIN (<yjy). A great and 
 warlike tribe of Arabia in the days of Mu¬ 
 hammad, who dwelt between Makkah and 
 at-Ta’if. Muhammad defeated them at the 
 battle of Hunain, a.h. 8, a victory which in 
 the Qur’an, Surah ix. t 26, is ascribed to an¬ 
 gelic aid. (See Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new 
 ed. p. 432.) 
 
 HAWIYAH yW). A division of 
 
 hell. The bottomless pit for the hypocrites. 
 Qur’an, Surah ci. 6, “ But as for him whose 
 balance is light, his dwelling shall be 
 Hawiyah .” 
 
 HAWK, The. Arabic ba’z (jV>), saqr 
 (f*>). It is lawful to hunt with 
 
 hawks provided they are trained. A hawk is 
 held to be trained when she obeys the voice 
 of her master, [hunting.] 
 
 HAYA’ (Ay. “ Shame, pudency, 
 
 modesty.” The word does not occur in the 
 Qur’an, but in the Traditions it is said, “ Alla.hu 
 liayiyun," i.e. “ God acts with modesty.” By 
 which is understood that God hates that which 
 is immodest or shameless. Muhammad is re¬ 
 lated to have said, “ Modesty ( haya ’) brings 
 nothing but good.” ( Mishkat, book xxii. 
 ch. xix.) 
 
 IIAYAT (yy. “Life.” The 
 
 word frequently occurs in the Qur’an, e.g. 
 Surah xviii. 44, “ Wealth and children are an 
 adornment of the life of this world.” Surah 
 ii. 25, “ For you in retaliation is there life, 0 
 ye possessors of mind! ” 
 
 Al-Hayatu 'd-dunya, “ the worldly life,” is a 
 term used in the Qur’an for those things in 
 this world which prevent from attaining to 
 the eternal life of the next world. 
 
 Surah ii. 80: “ Those who have bought 
 this worldly life with the future, the torment 
 shall not be lightened from them nor shall 
 they be helped.” 
 
 HAYULA (oV*-*). “Matter.” 
 
 The first principle of everything material. 
 It does not occur in either the Qur’an or the 
 Hadis. 
 
 IIAYZ ((_/i_£_y. Menses, [men¬ 
 
 struation.] 
 
 HAZAR (yy. According to 
 
 Arabic lexicons, the word means vigilance or 
 a cautious fear, but it only occurs twice in 
 the Qur'an, and in both instances it implies 
 terror. 
 
 Surah ii. 18: “ They put their fingers in 
 their ears at the thunder-clap for fear of 
 death.” ( Hazara 'l-Maut.) Idem, 244: 
 “ Dost thou not look at those who left their 
 homes by thousands for fear of death.” 
 
 al-HAZARATU ’L-KHAMS 
 vsyoa-y. According to the 
 
 Kituhu ’t-Ta‘rifat, al-hazaratu 'l-Khamsu ’/- 
 Ilahiyah, or “ the five divine existences,” is a 
 term used by the Sufi mystics for the follow¬ 
 ing:— 
 
 1. Hazratu 'l-ghaihi ’l-mutlaq. That ex¬ 
 istence which is absolutely unknown, i.e. 
 God. 
 
 2. Hazratu'sh-shahadati ’ l.-mutlaqah, Those 
 celestial ( ajram ) and terrestrial ( ajsam ) ex¬ 
 istences which are evident to the senses. 
 
 3. Hazratu ‘ alami 'l-arwah, That existence 
 which consists of the spiritual world of angels 
 and spirits. 
 
 4. Hazratu ‘ alami 'l-misal, That existence, 
 which is the unseen world, where there is the 
 true likeness of everything which exists on 
 the earth. 
 
 5. Hazratu 'l-jami 1 ah. The collective exis¬ 
 tence of the four already mentioned. 
 
 22 
 
170 
 
 HAZIR ZAMINI 
 
 HELL 
 
 HAZIR ZAMINI ^W). 
 
 Bail for the person, which, according to the 
 Imam Abu Hanifah, is lawful. Bail for pro¬ 
 perty is called mat zaminl. 
 
 HAZRAH Lit. “ Presence.” 
 
 This title of respect has no equivalent in 
 English, as it is employed in a variety of ac¬ 
 ceptations. Applied to an officer of rank, it 
 would mean “your honour ”; to a clergyman, 
 “ your reverence” ; to a king, “ your majesty .” 
 When applied to the names of prophets, 
 apostles, or saints,it expresses the sacredness 
 of his office and character, i.e. our Saviour is 
 called Hazratu ‘Isa, and the Virgin Mary, 
 Hazratu Maryam. The word is much used 
 in' Persian theological works. It .is seldom 
 used in this sense in Arabic books. Hazratu 
 'l.lah. “ the presence of God,” is an Arabic 
 term in prayer. 
 
 HEAD. Arabic ra’s,rds Heb. 
 
 tL^"b The author of the Baddu ’l- 
 Muhtar, vol. i. p. 670, says : “ It is abominable 
 (makruh ) to say the prayers with the head 
 uncovered, if it be done from laziness, but it 
 is of no consequence if a Muslim say his 
 prayers with his head uncovered frcm a sense 
 of humility and unworthiness. But still it is 
 better not to uncover the head, for humility 
 is a matter connected with the heart.” 
 
 Amongst Muhammadans it is considered a 
 sign of disrespect to receive a visitor with 
 the head uncovered; consequently on the 
 approach of a visitor the turban or cap is 
 immediately placed on the head. 
 
 There is no general custom as to shaving 
 the head or otherwise. In Afghanistan, Mu¬ 
 hammadans generally shave the head, but the 
 Baluchis and many other Muslim tribes wear 
 long hair. 
 
 The Egyptians shave all the rest of the 
 hair, or leave only a small tuft (called 
 shushah) upon the crown of the head. Mr. 
 Lane says : This last custom (which is almost 
 universal among them) is said to have ori¬ 
 ginated in the fear that if the Muslim should 
 fall into the hands of an infidel, and be slain, 
 the latter might cut off the head of his 
 victim, and finding no hair by which to hold 
 it, put his impure hand into the mouth, in 
 order to carry it, for the beard might not be 
 sufficiently long ; but was probably adopted 
 from the Turks, for it is generally neglected 
 by the Badawis, and the custom of shaving 
 the head is of late origin among the Arabs in 
 general, and practised for the sake of cleanli¬ 
 ness. 
 
 HEAVEN. Arabic Sama ’ (=U~.) ; 
 Persian Asmdn (<jU~A) ; Heb. 
 
 * — T 
 
 which expresses the firmament as distin¬ 
 guished from Firdaus, or Paradise, the abodes 
 of bliss, [paradise.] In the Qur’an it is 
 stated that there are seven paths, or stages, 
 in heaven. Surah xxiii. 17 : “ And we have 
 created above you seven paths, nor are we 
 heedless of the creation.” By which the com¬ 
 mentators understand that they are paths of 
 the angels and of the celestial bodies. The 
 
 creation of the heaven is declared to be for 
 God’s glory and not for His pastime. Surah 
 xxi. 16 : “ We created not the heaven and the 
 earth, and that which is between them, by 
 way of sport.” 
 
 It is the general belief that at the last day 
 the heavens will fall, but that they are now 
 upheld by God’s power. Surah xxii. 64 : “ He 
 holds up the heaven from falling on the earth 
 save at His bidding.” 
 
 According to the traditions ( Mishkat , book 
 xxiv. ch. vii.), Muhammad during the mi‘raj, 
 or night journey, passed through these seven 
 heavens, and they are stated to be as fol¬ 
 lows : (1) That which is of pure virgin silver 
 and which is Adam’s residence; (2) of pure 
 gold, which is John the Baptist’s and Jesus’; 
 (3) of pearls, which is Joseph’s; (4) of 
 
 white gold, which is Enoch’s ; (5) of silver 
 which is Aaron’s; (6) of ruby and garnet, 
 which is Moses’; (7) which is Abraham’s. 
 These accounts are, however, most confused ; 
 for in some books and according to popular 
 tradition, the fourth and not the second 
 heaven is assigned to Jesus. 
 
 This view is in harmony with the seven 
 spheres of Ptolemy, the first of which is that 
 of the moon, the second Mercury, the third 
 Venus, the fourth the Sun, the fifth Mars, the 
 sixth Jupiter, the seventh Saturn ; each of 
 which orbs was supposed by the ancients to 
 revolve round the earth in its proper sphere. 
 Muhammad said the distance between each 
 heavenly region is five hundred years’ journey. 
 (Mishkat , book xxiv. ch. i. pt. 3). 
 
 The Rabbis spoke of two heavens (cf. 
 Deut. x. 14), “ The heaven and the heaven of 
 heavens,” or seven (e7TTa oupavous ons rives 
 apiQpovcri KaT eiravafiacnv, Clem. Alex. 
 Strom., iv. 7, 636). “Resch Lakisch dixit 
 septem esse cobIos, quorum nomina sunt, 
 1. velum ; 2. expansum ; 3. nubes ; 4. habita- 
 culum ; 5. habitatio ; 6. sedes fixa ; 7. Araboth. 
 (, See Wetstein, ad. 2 Cor. xii. 2). St. Paul’s 
 expression, “ ecus Tpirou ovpavov,” 2 Cor. 
 xii. 2, has led to some discussion, for Grotius 
 says the Jews divided the heaven into three 
 parts, (1) Nubiferum, the atmosphere; (2) 
 Astriferum, the firmament; and (3) Empy- 
 reum, the abode of God. But the statement, 
 however, does not seem to be supported by 
 any known Rabbinic authority. 
 
 HEBER. [hud]. 
 
 HEGIRA, [hijrah.] 
 
 HEIRS. Arabic waris pi. 
 
 warasdh. [inheritance.] 
 
 HELL. The place of torment is 
 most frequently spoken of in the Qur’an and 
 Traditions as an-Nar, “ the fire,” but the 
 word Jahannam occurs about thirty times. It 
 is said to have seven portals or divisions. 
 Surah xv. 44: “ Verily, hell ( [jahannam ) is 
 promised to all together (who follow Satan). 
 It has seven portals, and at every door there is 
 a separate party of them.” 
 
 The Persian word used for hell in books of 
 theology is dozalch. 
 
HELL 
 
 HELL 
 
 171 
 
 The seven divisions of hell are given by 
 Muslim commentators as follows:— 
 
 1. Jahannam yeevva, the purga¬ 
 
 torial hell for all Muhammadans. For accord¬ 
 ing to the Qur’an, all Muslims will pass 
 through the regions of hell. Surah xix. 72: 
 “ There is not one of you who will not go 
 down to it (hell), that is settled and decided 
 by thy Lord.” 
 
 3. Laza (<_s^)- Surah xcvii. o : “ For Laza, 
 dragging by the scalp, shall claim him who 
 turned his back and went away, and amassed 
 and hoarded.” 
 
 3. Al-Hutamah Surah civ. 4:— 
 
 “ Nay! for verily he shall be flung into 
 
 al-Hutamah ; 
 
 “ And who shall teach thee what al-Huta¬ 
 mah is ? 
 
 “ It is God’s kindled fire, 
 
 “ Which shall mount above the hearts of 
 the damned; 
 
 “ It shall verily rise over them like a 
 vault, 
 
 “ On outstretched columns.” 
 
 4. Sa‘ lr Surah iv. 11: “ Those who 
 
 devour the property of orphans unjustly, only 
 devour into their bellies fire, and they broil in 
 sa'ir." 
 
 (The word occurs in fourteen other places.) 
 
 5. Saqar Surah liv. 47: “The 
 
 sinners are in error and excitement. On the 
 day when they shall be dragged into the fire 
 on their faces! Taste ye the touch of saqar ! ” 
 
 Surah Ixxiv. 44: “ What drove you into 
 saqar ? ” 
 
 6. Al-Jahim (^***-*3^). Surah ii. 113: 
 “ Thou shalt not bo questioned as to the fel¬ 
 lows of al-Jahim ” (Ashdbu ’l-Jahim ). 
 
 (The word occurs in twenty other places). 
 
 7. Hdwiyah Surah ci. 8 : “As 
 
 for him whose balance is light, his dwelling 
 shall be Hdwiyah .” 
 
 The Muhammadan commentators, with that 
 utter recklessness which so characterizes 
 their writings, distribute these seven stations 
 as follows (see al-Baghjawi, al-Baizawi, and 
 others) : (1) Jahannam, the purgatorial hell 
 for Muslims. (2) Laza, a blazing fire for 
 Christians. (3) Al-Hutamah, an intense fire 
 for the Jews. (4) Sa‘ir, a flaming fire for the 
 Sabians. (5) Saqar, a scorching fire for the 
 Magi. (6) Al-Jahim, a huge hot fire for ido¬ 
 laters. (7) Hdwiyah, bottomless pit for the 
 hypocrites. A reference to the Qur’an will 
 prove that there is not the least reason for 
 assigning these regions to their respective 
 tenants beyond the sentence already quoted : 
 
 “ At each portal a separate party.” 
 
 The teaching of the Qitr'an (which is chiefly 
 confined to those Surahs which, chronologi¬ 
 cally arranged, are the earliest), is as fol¬ 
 lows :— 
 
 Surah Ixxiv. 26-34 (generally held to be the 
 second Surah composed by Muhammad, and 
 relating to al-Walid ibn al-Mughlrah, a person 
 of note amongst the unbelieving Makkans) :— 
 
 “ We will surely cast him into Saqar. 
 
 “ And who shall teach thee what Saqar is ? 
 
 “ It leaveth nought, it spareth nought, 
 
 “ Blackening the skin. 
 
 “ Over it are nineteen angels. 
 
 “ None but angels have we made guardians 
 of the fire (ashabu ’ n-ndr ): nor have we made 
 this to be their number but to perplex the 
 unbelievers, and that they who possess the 
 Scriptures may be certain of the Truth, and 
 that they who believe may increase their 
 faith; 
 
 “ And that they to whom the Scriptures 
 have been given, and the believers, may not 
 doubt; 
 
 “ And that the infirm of heart and the 
 unbelievers may say, What meaneth God by 
 this parable ? 
 
 “ Thus God misleadeth whom He will, and 
 whom He will He doth guide aright: and none 
 knoweth the armies of thy Lord but Himself: 
 and this is no other than a warning to man¬ 
 kind.” 
 
 Surah lxxxviii. 1-7:— 
 
 “ Hath the tidings of the day that shall 
 overshadow reached thee ? 
 
 “ Downcast on that day shall be the coun¬ 
 tenances of some, 
 
 “ Travailing and worn, 
 
 “ Burnt at the scorching fire, 
 
 “ Made to drink from a fountain fiercely 
 boiling. 
 
 “No food shall they have but the fruit of 
 zari‘ (a bitter thorn), 
 
 “ Which shall not fatten nor appease their 
 hunger.” 
 
 Surah lxxviii. 21-30 :— 
 
 “ Hell ( Jahannam ) truly shall be a place 
 of snares, 
 
 “ The home of transgressors, 
 
 “ To abide therein ages ; 
 
 “No coolness shall they taste therein nor 
 any drink, 
 
 “ Save boiling water and running sores ; 
 
 “ Meet recompence 1 
 
 “For they looked not forward to their 
 account; 
 
 “ And they gave the lie to our signs, 
 charging them with falsehood; 
 
 “ But we noted and wrote down all: 
 
 “‘ Taste this then: and we will give you 
 increase of nought but torment.’” 
 
 The above are all Madinah Surahs com¬ 
 posed in the earlier stage of Muhammad’s 
 mission. The allusions to hell in the Mak- 
 kan Surahs are brief and are in every case 
 directed against unbelievers in the Prophet's 
 mission, and not against sin ; e.g. Surah ix. 
 69, “ God hath promised to the hypocrites 
 (i.e. dissemblers as far as Islam was concerned), 
 men and women, and unto the unbelievers, 
 hell-fire to dwell therein for ever.” 
 
 The teaching of Muhammad in the Tradi¬ 
 tions is much more specific, but it is impos¬ 
 sible to assign a date for these traditions, 
 even assuming them to be authentic. They 
 are given on the authority of al-Bukhari and 
 
 Muslim ( Mishkat, book xxiii, ch. xv.):_ 
 
 “ ‘ The fire of the world i3 one part of 
 seventy parts of hell fire.’ It was said, ‘ O 
 Prophet of God 1 verily the fire of the world 
 would be sufficient for punishing.’ The Pro- 
 
172 
 
 HELL 
 
 HELL 
 
 phet replied, ‘ Hell-fire lias been made more 
 than the fire of the world by sixty-nine parts, 
 every part of which is like the fire of the 
 world.’” 
 
 “ Verily, the easiest of the internals in 
 punishment, is he who shall have both his 
 shoes and thongs of them of fire, by which 
 the brains of his head boil, like the boiling 
 of a copper furnace ; and he will not suppose 
 that anyone is more severely punished than 
 himself; whilst verily, he is the least so.” 
 
 “ On the Day of Resurrection, the most 
 luxurious of the world will be brought, and 
 dipped once into the fire; after that it 
 will be said, ‘ O child of Adam, did you 
 ever see any good, or did comfort ever pass 
 by you in the world ? ’ He will say, ‘ I swear 
 by God I never saw any good, nor did com¬ 
 fort ever come near me.’ And a man of the 
 severest distresses and troubles in the world 
 will be brought into paradise ; and it will be 
 said to him, ‘ 0 son of Adam, did you ever 
 see any trouble, and did distress ever come to 
 you in the world ? ’ And he will say, ‘ I swear 
 by God, 0 my Lord, I never suffered troubles 
 in the world, nor did I ever see hardship.’ ” 
 
 “ There are some of the internals that will 
 be taken by the fire up to their ankles, and 
 some up to their knees, and some up to their 
 waist, and some up to their necks.” 
 
 “ Hell-fire burnt a thousand years so that 
 it became red, and burnt another thousand 
 years till it became white ; after that it burnt 
 a thousand years till it became black ; then 
 hell fire is black and dark, and never has any 
 light.” 
 
 “Verily, hot water will be poured upon 
 the heads of the internals, and will pene¬ 
 trate into their bellies, and will cut to pieces 
 everything within them; so that they will 
 come out at their feet; and this is the mean¬ 
 ing of the word of God, ‘ Boiling water shall 
 be poured on their heads, and everything in 
 their bellies shall be dissolved thereby,’ after 
 that, they will be made as they were.” 
 
 “ The internals shall be drenched with 
 yellow water, draught after draught, and it 
 will be brought to their mouths and they will 
 be disgusted at it; and when very near, it 
 will scorch their faces, and when they drink 
 it it will tear their entrails to pieces. God 
 says, ‘ They who must dwell for ever in hell- 
 fire, will have the boiling water given them 
 to drink which shall burst their bowels ’; and 
 God will say, ‘ If the infidels complain of 
 thirst, they shall be assisted with water like 
 molten copper, which will fry their faces ; it 
 will be a shocking beverage.’ ” 
 
 For most of these circumstances relating to 
 hell and the state of the damned, Muhammad 
 was in all probability indebted to the Jews and, 
 in part, to the Magians, both of whom agree 
 in making seven distinct apartments in hell. 
 {Nishmat hayim, f. 32 ; Gemar. Arubin, 
 f. 19; Zohar. ad. Exod. xxvi. 2, &c. and 
 Hyde de Mel. Vet. Pers., p. 245), though they 
 vary in other particulars. 
 
 The former place an angel as a guard 
 over each of these infernal apartments, and 
 suppose he will intercede for the miserable 
 
 wretches there imprisoned, who will openly 
 acknowledge the justice of God in their con¬ 
 demnation. ( Midrash , Yalkut Shemuni , pt. 11, 
 f. 116.) They also teach that the wicked 
 will suffer a diversity of punishments, and 
 that by intolerable cold {Zohar. ad. Exod. 
 xix.') as well as heat, and that their faces 
 shall become black ( Yalkut Shemuni, ubi 
 sup. f. 86); and believe those of their own 
 religion shall also be punished in hell here¬ 
 after according to their crimes (for they hold 
 that few or none will be found exactly righ¬ 
 teous as to deserve no punishment at all,) 
 but will soon be delivered thence, when they 
 shall be sufficiently purged from their sins 
 by their father Abraham, or at the interces¬ 
 sion of him or some other of the prophets. 
 ( Nishmat hayim, f. 82 ; Gemar. Arubin, f. 19.) 
 
 The Magians allow but one angel to pre¬ 
 side over all the seven hells, who is named 
 by them Vanand Yezad, and, as they teach, 
 assigns punishments proportionate to each 
 person’s crimes, restraining also the tyranny 
 and excessive cruelty of the devil, who would, 
 if left to himself, torment the damned be¬ 
 yond their sentence. {Hyde, de Rel. Vet. 
 Pers. p. 182.) Those of this religion do also 
 mention and describe various kinds of tor¬ 
 ments wherewith the wicked will be punished 
 in the next life ; among which, though they 
 reckon extreme cold to be one, yet they do 
 not admit fire, out of respect, as it seems, to 
 that element, which they take to be the re¬ 
 presentation of the divine nature, and there¬ 
 fore they rather choose to describe the 
 damned souls as suffering by other kinds of 
 punishment, such as an intolerable stink, the 
 stinging and biting of serpents and wild 
 beasts, the cutting and tearing of the flesh 
 by the devils, excessive hunger and thirst, 
 and the like. (See Eundem, ibid., p. 399 ; 
 Sale’s Pre. Disi) 
 
 The author of the Sharhu 'l-Muwaqif, 
 p. 586, also says : “ It is agreed amongst all 
 orthodox Muslims that all unbelievers, with¬ 
 out exception, will be consigned to the fire for 
 ever, and that they will never be free from 
 torment.” “ But,” he adds, “ there are cer¬ 
 tain heretics, who call themselves Muslims, 
 who deny the eternity of the torments of the 
 fire. For, they say, it is an essential property 
 of all things fleshly that they come to an end. 
 And, moreover, it is not possible for a thing 
 to exist which goes on burning for ever. But 
 to this we reply that God is all powerful 
 and can do as He likes.” 
 
 The sect called as-Samamiyah, founded by 
 Samamah ibn Ashras an-Numairi, say : “ The 
 Jews, and Christians, and MajusI, and Zana- 
 diqah, will, after the Day of Judgment, 
 return to dust, just as the animals and the 
 little children of unbelievers do.” {Sharhu ’/- 
 Muwaqif, p. 633.) 
 
 The same writer says (p. 687) : “ Besides 
 those who are unbelievers, all those (Muslims) 
 who are sinners and have committed great 
 sins {kaba’ir), will go to hell; but they will 
 not remain there always, for it has been said 
 in the Qur’an (Surah xeix. 7), “ He who does 
 an atom of good shall see its reward.” 
 
HELPERS 
 
 With reference to the verse in the Qur’an, 
 ■which distinctly states that all Muslims 
 shall enter hell (Surah xix. 73, “ There is 
 not one of you that shall not go down to it ”), 
 al-Kamalan, the commentators, say, that ac¬ 
 cording to extant traditions, all Muslims will 
 enter hell, but it will be cool and pleasant to 
 those who have not committed great sins ; 
 or, according to some writers, they will 
 simply pass along the bridge Strut, which is 
 over the infernal regions. 
 
 HELPERS, The. [ansae.] 
 
 HERACLIUS. Arabic Hiraql 
 (Jiys>). The Roman Emperor to whom 
 Muhammad sent an embassy with a letter in¬ 
 viting him to Islam, a.h. 7, a.d. 628. 
 
 “In the autumn of this year (a.d. 628), He- 
 raclius fulfilled his vow of thanksgiving for the 
 wonderful success which had crowned his arms 
 (in Persia) ; he performed on foot the pilgri¬ 
 mage from Edessa to Jerusalem, where the 
 ‘truecross,’ recovered from the Persians, was 
 with solemnity and pomp restored to the 
 Holy Sepulchre. While preparing for this 
 journey, or during the journey itself, an un¬ 
 couth despatch in the Arabic character was 
 laid before Heraclius. It was forwarded by 
 the Governor of Bostra, into whose hands it 
 had been delivered by an Arab chief. The 
 epistle was addressed to the Emperor him¬ 
 self, from ‘ Mahomet the Apostle of God,’ the 
 rude impression of whose seal could be de¬ 
 ciphered at the foot. In strange and simple 
 accents like those of the Prophets of old, it 
 summoned Heraclius to acknowledge the mis¬ 
 sion of Mahomet, to cast aside the idolatrous 
 worship of Jesus and his Mother, and to re¬ 
 turn to the Catholic faith of the one only 
 God. The letter was probably cast aside, or 
 preserved, it may be, as a strange curiosity, 
 the effusion of some harmless fanatic.” 
 (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 383.) 
 
 Tradition, of course, has another story. 
 “ Now the Emperor was at this time at 
 Hims, performing a pedestrian journey, in 
 fulfilment of the vow which he had made, 
 that, if the Romans overcame the Persians, he 
 would travel on foot from Constantinople to 
 Aelia (Jerusalem). So having read the 
 letter, he commanded his chief men to meet 
 him in the royal camp at Hims. And thus 
 he addressed them:—‘Ye chiefs of Rome! 
 Do you desire safety and guidance, so that 
 your kingdom shall be firmly established, 
 and that ye may follow the commands of 
 Jesus, Son of Mary ? ’ ‘ And what, 0 King ! 
 shall secure us this ? ’ ‘ Even that ye follow 
 the Arabian Prophet,’ said Heraclius. Where¬ 
 upon they all started aside like wild asses of 
 the desert, each raising his cross and waving 
 it aloft in the air. Whereupon Heraclius, 
 despairing of their conversion, and unwilling 
 to lose his kingdom, desisted, saying that he 
 had only wished to test their constancy and 
 faith, and that he was now satisfied by this 
 display of firmness and devotion. The cour¬ 
 tiers bowed their heads, and so the Prophet’s 
 despatch was rejected.” ( Kdtibu 7- Wdqidi. 
 
 HIBAH 173 
 
 p. 50, quoted by Muir, in a note to the above 
 passage.) 
 
 The letter written by Muhammad to Hera¬ 
 clius is, according to a tradition by Ibn 
 ‘Abbas, as follows :— 
 
 “ In the name of God the Merciful, the 
 Compassionate. This letter is from Muham¬ 
 mad the Messenger of God, to Hiraql. chief of 
 ar-Rum. Peace be upon whosoever has gone 
 on the straight road! After this, I say, 
 verily I call thee to Islam. Embrace Islam 
 that ye may obtain peace. Embrace Islam 
 and God will give thee a double reward If 
 ye reject Islam, then on thee shall rest the 
 sins of thy subjects and followers. 0 ye 
 people of the Book (i.e. Christians) come 
 to a creed which is laid down plainly between 
 us and you, that we will not serve other 
 than God, nor associate aught with Him, nor 
 take each other for lords rather than God. 
 But if they turn back, then say, ‘Bear wit¬ 
 ness that we are Muslims.’” ( Qur’an , iii. 57.) 
 (See Sahlhu Muslim, p. 98.) 
 
 The Shrah traditions give the above letter 
 almost verbatim. (See Merrick’s Hayatu 7- 
 Qulub, p. 89.) 
 
 “ Not long after, another despatch, bearing 
 the same seal, and couched in similar terms, 
 reached the court of Heraclius. It was ad¬ 
 dressed to Harith VII., Prince of the Bani 
 Ghassan, who forwarded it to the Emperor, 
 with an address from himself, soliciting per¬ 
 mission to chastise the audacious impostor. 
 But Heraclius regarding the ominous voice 
 from Arabia beneath his notice, forbade the 
 expedition, and desired that Harith should 
 be in attendance at Jerusalem, to swell the 
 imperial train at the approaching visitation 
 of the temple. Little did the Emperor 
 imagine that the kingdom which, unperceived 
 by the world, this obscure Pretender was 
 founding in Arabia, would in a few short 
 years wrest from his grasp that Holy City 
 and the fair provinces which, with so much 
 toil and so much glory, he had just recovered 
 from the Persians ! ” (Muir’s Life of Maho¬ 
 met, p. 384.) 
 
 (For the Shrah account of the embassy to 
 Heraclius, see Merrick’s Hayatu ’/-Qidub, 
 
 p. 88.) 
 
 HERMAPHRODITE (Arabic 
 
 Kkunsa) is a person who is possessed of 
 the organs of generation of both man and 
 woman, and for whose spiritual existence the 
 Muhammadan law legislates ( vide Hiddyah, 
 vol. iv. p. 569). For example, it is a rule, 
 with respect to equivocal hermaphrodites, 
 that they are required to observe all the 
 more comprehensive points of the spiritual 
 law, but not those concerning the propriety 
 of which, in regard to them, any doubt exists 
 In public prayer they must take their station 
 between the men and the women, but in other 
 respects observe the customs of women. 
 (.Idem, p. 561.) 
 
 HIBAH (f ~&). A legal term in 
 
 Muhammadan law, which signifies a deed of 
 gift, a transfer of property, made immediately 
 and without any exchange, [gifts.] 
 
HIDAD 
 
 HIJRAH 
 
 174 
 
 HIDAD (jU—^). “ Mourning.” 
 
 The state of a widow who abstains from 
 scents, ornaments, &c., on account of the 
 death of her husband. Hidad must be ob¬ 
 served for a period of four months and ten 
 days. ( Hidayah , vol. i. p. 370.) 
 
 HID AYAH (&W). Lit. “Guid¬ 
 ance.” The title of a well known book on 
 Sunni law, and frequently quoted in the pre¬ 
 sent work. There are many Muhammadan 
 works entitled al-Hidayah , but this is called 
 Hidayah fl'l-furu‘, or “ a guidance in parti¬ 
 cular points.” It was composed by the 
 Shaikh Burhanu ’d-din ‘All, who was born at 
 Marghinan in Transoxania about a.h. 530 
 (a.d. 1135), and died a.h. 593. 
 
 There is an English translation of the 
 Hidayah (omitting the chapters on Prayer 
 and Purification), by Charles Hamilton, four 
 vols., London, a.d. 1791. 
 
 HIFZU ’L-‘AHD (j**N U^). Lit. 
 
 “ The guarding of the covenant.” A term 
 used by the Sufi mystics for remaining firm 
 in that state in which God has brought them. 
 (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 HIGHWAY ROBBERY. Arabic 
 qat l u ’t-tariq (tj^' )*■'**) ■ Persian 
 rahzani. Highway robbery is a very heinous 
 offence according to Muhammadan law, the 
 punishment of which has been fixed by the 
 Qur’an (Surah v. 37): “ The recompense of 
 those who war against God and His apostle, 
 and go about to enact violence on the earth, 
 is that they be slain or crucified, or have 
 their alternate hands and feet cut off, or be 
 banished the land.” According to the Ilida- 
 yah, highway robbers are of four kinds, viz. 
 (!) Those who are seized before they have 
 robbed or murdered any person, or put any 
 person in fear. These are to be imprisoned 
 by the magistrate until their repentance is 
 evident. (2) Those who have robbed but have 
 not murdered. These are to have their right 
 hand and left foot struck off. (3) Those who 
 have committed murder but have not robbed. 
 These are punished with death. (4) Those 
 who have committed both robbery and mur¬ 
 der. These are punished according to the 
 option of the magistrate. If he please, he 
 can first cut off a hand and foot, and then 
 put them to death by the sword, or by cruci¬ 
 fixion ; or he may kill them at once without 
 inflicting amputation. If any one among a 
 band of robbers be guilty of murder, the 
 punishment of death must be inflicted upon 
 the whole band. 
 
 HIJAB A partition or 
 
 curtain. Veiling or concealing. 
 
 (1) A term used for the .seclusion of women 
 
 enjoined in the Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 53 : 
 “ And when ye ask them (the Prophet’s 
 wives) for an article, ask them from behind 
 a curtain; that is purer for yoirr hearts and 
 for theirs.” , 
 
 (2) A term used by the Sufi mystics for 
 that which obscures the light of God in the 
 soul of man. (‘Abdu T-Razzaq’s Diet, of 
 Sufi Terms.) 
 
 HIJAZ (jW^). Lit. “A barrier or 
 
 anything similar by which two things are sepa¬ 
 rated.” The name al-Hijazis given to that tract 
 of country ■which separates Najd from Talia- 
 mah, and is an irregular parallelogram about 
 250 miles long and 150 miles wide. It may be 
 considered the holy land of the Muhamma¬ 
 dans, for within its limits are the sacred cities 
 of al-Madlnah and Makkah, and most of its 
 places are someway connected with the his¬ 
 tory of Muhammad. It is a barren district 
 consisting of sandy plains towards the shore 
 and rocky hills in the interior; and so desti¬ 
 tute of provisions as to depend, even for the 
 necessaries of life, on the supplies of other 
 countries. Among its fertile spots is Wadi 
 Fatimah, which is well watered, and produces 
 grain and vegetables. Sajrah abounds in date 
 trees. At-Ta’if, seventy-two miles from Mak¬ 
 kah, is celebrated for its gardens, and the 
 neighbourhood of al-Madinah has cultivated 
 fields. The towns on the coast are Jiddah 
 and Yambu*, the former being considered the 
 port of Makkah, from which it is distant 
 about fifty-five miles, and the latter that of 
 al-Madinah. Al-Hijaz is bounded eastward by 
 a lofty range of mountains, which, near at-Ta’if, 
 take the name of Jabalu ’1-Qura. The scenery 
 there is occasionally beautiful and pictu¬ 
 resque ; the small rivulets that descend from 
 the rocks afford nourishment to the plains 
 below, which are clothed with verdure and 
 shady trees. The vicinity of Makkah is bleak 
 and bare; for several miles it is surrounded 
 with thousands of hills all nearly of one 
 height; their dark and naked peaks rise one 
 behind another, appearing at a distance like 
 cocks of hay. The most celebrated of these 
 are as-Safa, ‘Arafah and al-Marwah, which 
 have always been connected with the religious 
 rites of the Muhammadan pilgrimage. 
 
 HI JR (. In its primitive sense 
 
 means interdiction or prevention. 
 
 (1) In the language of the law it signifies 
 an interdiction of action with respect to a 
 particular person, who is either an infant, an 
 idiot, or a slave. ( Hidayah , vol. iii. p. 468.) 
 
 (2) Al-Hijr is a territory in the province of 
 al-Hijaz between al-Madinah and Syria, where 
 the tribe of Samud dwelt. It is the title of 
 the xvth Surah of the Qur’an, in the 80th 
 verse of which the word occurs : “ The inha¬ 
 bitants of al-Hijr likewise accused the mes¬ 
 senger of God of imposture.” 
 
 HIJRAH {ijs~Jt). Lit. “ migration.” 
 (1) The departure of Muhammad from Mak¬ 
 kah. (2) The Muslim era. (3) The act of 
 a Muslim leaving a country under infidel 
 rule. (4) Fleeing from sin. 
 
 The date of Mrrhammad’s flight from Mak¬ 
 kah was the fourth day of the first month of 
 Rabi 1 , which by the calculation of M. Caus- 
 sin de Perceval was June 20th, a.d. 622. 
 The Hijrah, or the era of the “ Hegira,” was 
 instituted seventeen years later by the Kh alifah 
 ‘Umar, which dates from the first day of the 
 first lunar month of the year, viz. Muharram, 
 which day in the year when the era was esta¬ 
 blished fell on Thursday the 15th of July 
 
HIKMAH 
 
 HIRE 
 
 a.d. 622. But although ‘Umar instituted the 
 official era, according to at-Tabarl, the cus¬ 
 tom of referring to events as happening 
 before or after the Hijrah originated with 
 Muhammad himself. 
 
 Professor H. H. Wilson in his Glossary of 
 Terms gives the following method of ascer¬ 
 taining the Muhammadan and Christian 
 years :— 
 
 Multiply the Hijrah year by 2,977, the diffe¬ 
 rence between 100 solar and as many lunar 
 Muhammadan years; divide the product by 
 100, and deduct the quotient from the Hijrah 
 year; add to the result 621,569 (the decimal 
 being the equivalent of the 15th July, plus 
 12 days for the change of the Kalendar); and 
 the quotient will be the Christian year from 
 the date at which the Muhammadan year 
 begins; thus,Hij. 1269x2-977 = 3777-8,which 
 divided by 100 = 37-778 and 1269-37-778 = 
 1231-222; this + 621-569 = 1852-791, the 
 decimals corresponding to 9 months and 
 15 days, i.e. the 15th of October, which 
 is the commencement of the Hij. year 1269. 
 The reverse formula for finding the corre¬ 
 sponding Hijrah year to a given Christian 
 year, is thus laid down: Subtract 622 from 
 the current year; multiply the result by 
 1-0307; cut off two decimals and add -46; 
 the sum will be the year, which, when it has 
 a surplus decimal, requires the addition of 
 1: thus, 1852—622 = 1230; 1230x1-0307 = 
 1267-701; 1267-76 + -46 = 1268-22; add there¬ 
 fore 1, and we have the equivalent Hijrah year 
 1269. 
 
 The Persian era of Yezdegird commenced 
 on June 16th, a.d. 632, or ten years later 
 than the Hijrah. 
 
 HIKMAH (a_ 4 —£-=»). Al-hikmah, 
 
 “ the wisdom,” is a term used by the Sufi 
 mystics to express a knowledge of the 
 essence, attributes, specialities, and results 
 of things as they exist and are seen, with the 
 study of their cause, effects, and uses. This 
 is said to be the wisdom mentioned in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 272: “He (God) bringeth 
 the wisdom ( al-hikmah ) unto whom He wil- 
 leth.” 
 
 The Sufis say there are four kinds of 
 wisdom expressed in the term al-hikmah :— 
 
 (1) Al-hikmatu 'l-Mantuqah, “ spoken wis¬ 
 dom,” which is made known in the Qur’an, 
 or in the Tarlqah, “ the Path ” (l.e. the Sufi 
 path). 
 
 (2) Al-hikmatu ’l-maskutah, “ unspoken 
 wisdom.” Such as understood only by Sufi 
 mystics, and not by the natural man. 
 
 (3) Al-hikmatu ’ l-majhulah , “ unknown wis¬ 
 dom,” or those acts of the Creator the wisdom 
 of which is unknown to the creature, such as 
 the infliction of pain upon the creatures of 
 God, the death of infants, or the eternal fire 
 of hell. Things which we believe, but which 
 we do not understand. 
 
 (4) Al-hikmatu ’1-jami‘ah, “ collective wis¬ 
 dom,” or the knowledge of the truth ( haqq ), 
 and acting upon it, and the perception of 
 error (batil) and the rejection of it. (‘Abdu 
 r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) J 
 
 175 
 
 HILAL (JSa). The new moon. 
 
 A term used for the first three days of the 
 month. 
 
 HILF (i-ik). An oath ; a vow. 
 An affidavit. Hilf ndmah, a written solemn 
 declaration. Halif, one who takes an oath. 
 
 IIILFU ’L-FUZUL ^-). 
 
 A confederacy formed by the descendants of 
 Hashim, Zuhrah, and Taim, in the house of 
 ‘Abdu ’llah ibn Jud‘an at Makkah, for the 
 suppression of violence and injustice at the 
 restoration of peace after the Sacrilegious 
 war. Muhammad was then a youth, and Sir 
 William Muir says this confederacy “ aroused 
 an enthusiasm in the mind of Mahomet, 
 which the exploits of the sacrilegious war 
 failed to kindle.” 
 
 HELM Being mild, gentle, 
 
 clement. Restraining oneself at a time when 
 the spirit is roused to anger. Delaying in 
 punishing a tyrant. ( Kita.hu ’t-Ta‘rifat.) 
 Hence al-Halxrn, the Clement, is one of the 
 attributes of God. 
 
 HIMA Lit. “guarded, for¬ 
 
 bidden.” A portion of land reserved by the 
 ruler of a country as a grazing ground. (See 
 Mishkat, book xii. ch. i. pt. i.) “ Know ye 
 
 that every prince has a grazing ground which 
 is forbidden to the people, and know ye the 
 grazing place ( hima ) is the thing forbidden 
 by Him to men.” 
 
 HIMMAH (4*£>). “ Resolution, 
 
 strength, ability.” A term used by the Sufi 
 mystics for a determination of the heart to 
 incline itself entirely to God. (‘Abdu ’r- 
 Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 HINNA’ (bL=*). The Lawsonia 
 
 inermis, or Eastern privet, used for dyeing 
 the hands and feet on festive occasions. 
 [marriage.] Muhammad enjoined the use 
 of hinnil’, and approved of women staining 
 their hands and feet with it. He also dyed 
 his own beard with it, and recommended its 
 use for this purpose (Mishkat, book xx. c. 4.) 
 It has therefore become a religious custom, 
 and is sunnah. 
 
 IIIQQAH (isA). A female camel 
 
 turned three years. The proger age for a 
 camel to be given in zakdt, or legal alms, for 
 camels from forty-six to sixty in number. 
 
 HIRA’ (=\^-). The name of a 
 
 mountain near Makkah, said to have been 
 the scene of the first revelation given to 
 Muhammad, [muhammad.] 
 
 HIRAQL Heraclius the 
 
 Roman Emperor, to whom Muhammad sent 
 an embassy, a.h. 7, a.d. 628. [heraclius.] 
 
 ( 
 
 HIRE. The Arabic term ijarali 
 which means the use and en¬ 
 joyment of property for a time, includes hire, 
 
176 
 
 HIRE 
 
 HIZANAH 
 
 rental, and lease. The hirer is termed ajir, 
 or mu'jir. The person who receives the rent 
 is the mustajir. 
 
 The following are some of the chief points 
 in the Sunni law with regard to ijdrah, and 
 for further particulars the reader must refer 
 in English to Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. iii. 
 p 312, or in Arabic to such works as the 
 Durru ’l-Mukhtar. Fatdwd-i-‘A lanairi , and the 
 Raddu ’l-Muhtar, in which works it is treated 
 in the Bahu ’l-Ijarah. 
 
 A contract of hire, or rental, or lease, is 
 not valid unless both the usufruct and the 
 hire be particularly known and specified, 
 because there is a traditional saying of the 
 Prophet, “ If a person hire another let him 
 first inform him of the wages he is to 
 receive.” 
 
 A workman is not entitled to anything 
 until his work is finished, but the article 
 wrought upon may be detained until the 
 workman be paid his full wages, and the 
 workman is not responsible for any loss or 
 damage in the article during such detention. 
 If a person hire another to carry a letter to 
 al-Basrah and bring back an answer, and he 
 accordingly go to al-Basrah and there find 
 the person dead to whom the letter was ad¬ 
 dressed, and come back, and return the 
 letter, he is not entitled to any wages what¬ 
 ever 1 This strange ruling is according to 
 Abu Hanlfah and two of his disciples, but 
 the Imam Muhammad says the messenger 
 ought to be paid. 
 
 It is lawful to hire a house or shop for the 
 purpose of residence, although no mention be 
 made of the business to be followed in it, and 
 the lessee is at liberty to carry on any busi¬ 
 ness he pleases, unless it be injurious to the 
 building. For example, a blacksmith or a 
 fuller must not reside in the house, unless it 
 is previously so agreed, since the exercise of 
 those trades would shake the building. 
 
 It is lawful to hire or lease land for the 
 purposes of cultivation, and in this case the 
 hirer is entitled to the use of the road lead¬ 
 ing to the land, and likewise the water (i.e. 
 his turn of water) although no mention of 
 these be made in the contract. 
 
 A lease of land is not valid unless mention 
 is made of the article to be raised on it, not 
 only with a view to cultivation, but also for 
 other purposes, such as building, and so 
 forth. Or the lessor of the land may make 
 declaration to the effect :—“ I let the land on 
 this occasion, that the lessee shall raise on 
 it whatever he pleases.” 
 
 If a person hire unoccupied land for the 
 purposes of building or planting, it is lawful, 
 but on the term of the lease expiring it is 
 incumbent on the lessee to remove his build¬ 
 ings and trees, and to restore the land to the 
 lessor in such a state as may leave him no 
 claim upon it, because houses or trees have 
 no specific limit of existence, and if they were 
 left on the land it might be injru'ious to the 
 proprietor. But it is otherwise when the 
 land is hired or leased for the purpose of 
 tillage, and the term of the lease expires at 
 a time when the grain is yet unripe. In this 
 
 case, the grain must be suffered to remain 
 upon the ground at a proportionate rent, 
 until it is fit for reaping. 
 
 The hire of an animal is lawful, either for 
 carriage, or for riding, or for any use to 
 which animals are applied. And if a person 
 hire an animal to carry a burden, and the 
 person who lets it to hire specify the nature 
 and quantity of the article with which the 
 hirer is to load the animal, the hirer is at 
 liberty to load the animal with an equal 
 quantity of any article not more troublesome 
 or prejudicial in the carriage than wheat, 
 such as barley, &c. The hirer is not at 
 liberty to load the animal with a more pre¬ 
 judicial article than ■wheat (unless stipulated 
 beforehand), such as salt or iron. For a 
 hired animal perishing from ill-usage, the 
 hirer is responsible. 
 
 (For the sayings of Muhammad on the sub¬ 
 ject of hire and leases, refer to the Mishkdt, 
 Bdbu ’ L-Ijarah.') 
 
 HIRS “Avarice, greed, 
 
 eagerness.” Derivatives of the word occur 
 three times in the Qur’an. Surah ii. 90: 
 “ Thou wilt find them (the Jews) the greediest 
 of men for life.” Surah iv. 128 : “ And ye may 
 not have it at all in your power to treat your 
 wives with equal justice, even though you be 
 anxious to do so.” Surah xii. 104 : “ And yet 
 most men, though thou ardently desire it, will 
 not believe.” 
 
 HISS ((_’**=*)• “ Understanding, 
 
 sense.” Hiss batin, internal sense; hiss zdhir, 
 external sense; hiss mushtarilc, common sense. 
 
 HIZANAH Al-hizanah is 
 
 the right of a mother to the custody of her 
 children. “ The mother is of all persons the 
 best entitled to the custody of her infant 
 children during the connubial relationship as 
 well as after its dissolution.” (Fatdwa-i- 1 Alam- 
 giri, vol. i. p. 728.) 
 
 When the children are no longer dependent 
 on the mother’s care, the father has a right 
 to educate and take charge of them, and is 
 entitled to the guardianship of their person in 
 preference to the mother. Among the Ha- 
 nafis, the mother is entitled to the custody of 
 her daughter until she arrives at puberty; 
 but according to the other three Sunni sects, 
 the custody continues until she is married. 
 
 There is difference of opinion as to the 
 extent of the period of the mother’s custody 
 over her male children. The Hanafis limit it 
 to the child’s seventh year, but the Shafkis 
 and Malakls allow the boy the option of re¬ 
 maining under his mother’s guardianship 
 until he has arrived at puberty. Among the 
 Shfiahs, the mother is entitled to the custody 
 of her children until they are weaned, a 
 period limited to two years. After the child 
 is weaned, its custody, if a male, devolves on 
 the father, if a female, on the mother. The 
 mother’s custody of the girl continues to the 
 seventh year. 
 
 The right of hisdnah is lost by the mother 
 if she is married to a stranger, or if she mis- 
 
HOLY SPIRIT 
 
 HOURS OP PRAYER 177 
 
 conducts herself, or if she changes her domi¬ 
 cile so as to prevent the father or tutor from 
 exercising the necessary supervision over the 
 child. 
 
 Apostasy is also a bar to the exercise of 
 the right of hizdnah. A woman, consequently, 
 who apostatizes from Islam, whether before 
 or after the right vests in her, is disentitled 
 from exercising or claiming the right of 
 hizdnah in respect to a Muslim child. 
 
 The custody of illegitimate children ap¬ 
 pertains exclusively to the mother and her 
 relations. ( Personal Law of Muhammadans, 
 by Syud Amir Ali, p. 214.) [guardian¬ 
 ship.] 
 
 HOLY SPIRIT. Arabic Buhu 7- 
 Quds (y-ASli The Holy Spirit is 
 
 mentioned three times in the Qur’an. In the 
 Suratu ’n-Nahl (xvith, 104), as the inspiring 
 agent of the Qur’an: “ Say, The Holy Spirit 
 brought it down from thy Lord in truth.” 
 And twice in the Suratu ’1-Baqarah (und, 
 81 and 254), as the divine power which aided 
 the Lord Jesus : “ and We strengthened him by 
 the Holy Spirit ” (in both verses). 
 
 The Jalalan, al-Baizawi, and the Muslim 
 commentators in general, say this Holy Spirit 
 was the angel Gabriel who sanctified J esus, and 
 constantly aided Him, and who also brought 
 the Qur’an down from heaven and revealed 
 it to Muhammad. 
 
 For a further consideration of the subject, 
 see spirit. 
 
 HOMICIDE, [murder.] 
 
 HONEY. Arabic ‘asal (J-— E ). In 
 
 the Qur’an it is specially mentioned as the 
 gift of God. Surah xvi. 70: “ Thy Lord in¬ 
 spired the bee. ‘ Take to houses in the moun¬ 
 tains, and in the trees, and in the hives they 
 build. Then eat from every fruit and walk 
 in the beaten paths of thy Lord.’ There 
 cometh forth from her body a draught 
 varying in hue, in which is a cure for 
 man.” 
 
 HORSES. Arabic faras 
 khail (J**-), pi. khwml. Muhammad’s 
 
 affection for horses was very great, as was 
 natural to an Arabian. Anas says there was 
 nothing the Prophet was so fond of as women 
 and horses. Abu Qatadah relates that Mu¬ 
 hammad said: “ The best horses are black 
 with white foreheads and having a white 
 upper lip.” But Abu Wahhab says the Pro¬ 
 phet considered a bay horse with white fore¬ 
 head, white fore and hind legs the best. An 
 instance of the way in which the traditionists 
 sometimes contradict each other ! ( Mishlcdt , 
 
 book xvii. c. ii.) 
 
 In the Hiddyah (Arabic edition, vol. c ii. 
 p. 432) it is said that horses are of four 
 kinds : (1) Birzaun, Burzun, a heavy draught 
 horse brought from foreign countries. (2) 
 ‘Atiq, a first blood horse of Arabia. (3) 
 Hajtn, a half-bred horse whose mother is an 
 Arab and father a foreigner. (4) A half-bred 
 
 horse whose father is an Arab and whose 
 mother is a foreigner. 
 
 In taking a share of plunder, a horseman 
 is entitled to a double share, but he is not 
 entitled to any more if he keep more horses 
 than one. 
 
 HOSPITALITY. Arabic ziyafah 
 (diLi). It is related that Muhammad 
 said 
 
 “ Whoever believes in God and in the Day 
 of Resurrection must respect his guest.” 
 
 “ If a Muslim be the guest of a people and 
 he spends the whole night without being en¬ 
 tertained, it shall be lawful for every Muslim 
 present to take money and grain necessary 
 for the entertainment of the man.” 
 
 “ It is according to my practice that the 
 host shall come out with his guest to the 
 door of his house.” ( Mishlcdt , book xix. 
 ch. ii.) 
 
 Hospitality is enjoined in the Qur’an. 
 Surah iv. 40 : “ Show kindness to your 
 
 parents, and to your kindred, and to orphans, 
 and to the poor, and to your neighbour who 
 is akin and to your neighbour who is a 
 stranger, and the companion who is strange, 
 and to the son of the road 
 
 HOUR, The. Arabic as-Safah 
 (&cLJ\). A term frequently used in 
 the Qur’an for the Day of Judgment. 
 
 Surah vi. 31: “ When the hour comes sud¬ 
 denly upon them.” 
 
 Surah vii. 186 : “ They will ask you about 
 the hour for what time it is fixed.” 
 
 Surah xv. 85 : “ Verily the hour is surely 
 coming.” 
 
 Surah xvi. 79: “Nor is the matter of the 
 hour aught but as the twinkling of an eye, or 
 nigher still.” 
 
 Surah xxii. 1: “Verily the earthquake of 
 the hour is a mighty thing.” 
 
 Surah liv. 46 : “Nay the hour is their pro¬ 
 mised time ! and the hour is most severe and 
 bitter.” 
 
 HOURS OP PRAYER. The 
 
 terms “ Hours of Prayer ” and “ Canonical 
 Hours,” being used in the Christian Church 
 (see Johnson’s Engl. Canons and Canons of 
 Cuthhert, ch. 15), we shall consider under 
 this title the stated periods of Muhammadan 
 prayer, [prayer.] They are five : (1) Fajr 
 G 4 ^*) , daybreak ; (2) Zuhr when the 
 
 sun begins to decline at midday; (3) ‘Asr 
 (^ac), midway between zuhr and maghrih ; 
 (4) Maghrih (w/A), evening; (5) ‘Ishd 
 
 (shAe), when the night has closed in. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Traditions ( Mishlcdt , book 
 xxiv. ch. vii. pt. 1), Muhammad professed to 
 have received his instructions to say prayer 
 five times a day during the Mi‘raj, or the 
 celebrated night journey to heaven. He said, 
 God first ordered him to pray fifty times a 
 day, but that-Moses advised him to get the 
 Almighty to reduce the number of canonical 
 hours to five, he himself having tried fifty 
 
 23 
 
178 
 
 HOUSES 
 
 HOUSES 
 
 times for his own people with very ill 
 success! 
 
 It is remarkable that there is but one 
 passage in the Qur’an, in which the stated 
 hours of prayer are enjoined, and that it 
 mentions only four and not five periods. 
 Suratu ’r-Rum , xxx. 16,17 : “ Glorify God when 
 it is evening (masa’), and at morning (subh), - 
 and to Him be praise in the heavens and in 
 the earth,—and at afternoon (‘ashi), and at 
 noon-tide ( zuhr ).” But al-Jalalan, the com¬ 
 mentators. say all are agreed that the term, 
 “ when it is masa’ ” (evening or night), in¬ 
 cludes both sunset and after sunset, and 
 therefore both the magkrib and 1 isha’ prayers 
 are included. 
 
 Three hours of prayer were observed by 
 the Jews. David says, “ Evening, morning, 
 and at noon will I pray.” (Ps. lv. 17.) 
 Daniel “ kneeled upon his knees three 
 times a day.” These three hours of the 
 Jews seem to have been continued by the 
 Apostles (see Acts iii. 1), and were transmitted 
 to the early church in succeeding ages, for 
 Tertullian speaks of “ those common hours 
 which mark the divisions of the day, the 
 third, sixth, and ninth, which we observe 
 
 in scripture to be more solemn than the 
 rest.” (De Orat., c. 25.) And Clement of 
 Alexandria says, “ If some fix stated hours 
 of prayer, as the third, sixth, and ninth, the 
 man of knowledge prays to God throughout 
 his whole life.” ( Stom. 1. vii. c. 7, sect. 40.) 
 Jerome says, “ There are three times in which 
 the knees are bent to God. Tradition assigns 
 the third, the sixth, and the ninth hour.” 
 (Coni, in Dan., e. vi. 10.) 
 
 In the third century there seems to have 
 been five stated jteriods of prayer, for Basil 
 of Cappadocia speaks of five hours as suit¬ 
 able for monks, namely, the morning, the 
 third hour, the sixth, the ninth, and the 
 evening. ( Reguke fusius Tract. Resp. ad Qu., 
 37, sections 3-5.) 
 
 It is therefore probable that Muhammad 
 obtained his idea of five stated periods of 
 prayer during his two journeys to Syria. 
 But he changed the time, as will be seen 
 from the table annexed, which was drawn up 
 by Mr. Lane at Cairo, and shows the times of 
 Muhammadan prayer with the apparent 
 European time of simset, in or near the lati¬ 
 tude of Cairo at the. commencement of each 
 zodiacal month:— 
 
 
 Maghrib 
 
 or 
 
 Sunset. 
 
 ■Is/id 
 
 or 
 
 Night. 
 
 Fajr 
 
 or 
 
 Daybreak. 
 
 Zuhr 
 
 or 
 
 Noon. 
 
 ‘A sr 
 or 
 
 Afternoon. 
 
 Muslim 
 
 Time. 
 
 European 
 
 Time. 
 
 Muslim 
 
 Time. 
 
 Muslim 
 
 Time. 
 
 Muslim 
 
 Time. 
 
 Muslim 
 
 Time. 
 
 June 21 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 P.M. 
 
 1 34 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 56 
 
 8 13 
 
 July 22 
 
 May 21 
 
 § a 
 
 6 
 
 53 „ 
 
 1 30 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 8 43 
 
 Aug. 23 
 
 Apl. 20 
 
 -gjS H 
 
 6 
 
 31 ,. 
 
 1 22 
 
 t) 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 9 4 
 
 Sept. 23 
 
 Mar. 20 
 
 M O 
 
 C! 3 
 
 6 
 
 4 .. 
 
 1 18 
 
 10 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 9 24 
 
 Oct. 23 
 
 Feb. 18 
 
 
 5 
 
 37 „ 
 
 1 18 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 9 35 
 
 Nov. 22 
 
 Jan. 20 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 ., 
 
 1 22 
 
 11 
 
 59 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 9 41 
 
 Dec. 21 
 
 
 o 
 
 4 „ 
 
 1 24 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 56 
 
 9 43 
 
 N.B.—The time of noon, according to Muhammadan reckoning, on any particular day, sub¬ 
 tracted from twelve, gives the apparent time of sunset on that day according to European 
 reckoning. 
 
 HOUSES. Arabic bait (ci~o), pi. 
 buyut ; ddr pi. diydr, dur ; Heb. 
 
 run. In the time of Muhammad 
 the houses of the Arabs were made of 
 a framework of jarid, or palm-sticks, co¬ 
 vered over with a cloth of camel’s hair, or 
 a curtain of a similar stuff, forming the door. 
 Those of the better class were made of walls 
 of unbaked bricks, and date-leaf roofs plas¬ 
 tered over with mud and clay. Of this de¬ 
 scription were the abodes of Muhammad’s 
 family. (Burton, vol. i. p. 433.) 
 
 Sir William Muir, translating from the 
 account given by the secretary of al-Waqidi 
 (Life of Mahomet, new ed., p. 546), says:— 
 
 “ Abdallah ibn Yazid relates, that he saw 
 the house in which the wives of the Prophet 
 dwelt at the time when Omar ibn (‘Abd) al- 
 Azfz, then governor of Medina (about a.H. 
 
 100) demolished them. They were built of 
 unburnt bricks, and had separate apartments 
 made of palm branches, daubed (or built up) 
 with mud; he counted nine houses, each 
 having separate apartments in the space from 
 the house of Ayesha,and the gate of Mahomet 
 to the house of Asma, daughter of Hosein. 
 Observing the dwelling-place of Omm Salma, 
 he questioned her grandson concerning it; 
 and he told him that when the Prophet was 
 absent on the expedition to Duma, Omm 
 Salma built up an addition to her house with 
 a wall of unburnt bricks. When Mahomet 
 returned, he went in to her, and asked what 
 new r building this was. She replied, ‘ I pur¬ 
 posed, O Prophet, to shut out the glances of 
 men thereby ! ’ Mahomet answered, ‘ O Omm 
 Salma ! verily the most unprofitable thing 
 that eateth up the wealth of a believer is 
 building,’ A citizen of Medina present at 
 
HOUSES 
 
 HOUSES 
 
 the time, confirmed this account, and added 
 that the curtains (Anglo-Indice, purdas ) of 
 the doors were of black hair-cloth. He was 
 present, he said, when the despatch of the 
 Caliph Abd al Malik (a.h. 86-88) was read 
 aloud, commanding that these houses should 
 be brought within the area of the Mosque, 
 and he never witnessed sorer weeping than 
 there was amongst the people that day. One 
 exclaimed, ‘ I wish, by the Lord ! that they 
 would leave these houses alone thus as they 
 are; then would those that spring up here¬ 
 after in Medina, and strangers from the ends 
 of the earth, come and see what kind of 
 building sufficed for the Prophet’s own abode, 
 and the sight thereof would deter men from 
 extravagance and pride. 
 
 “ There were four houses of unburnt bricks, 
 the apartments being of palm-branches ; and 
 
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 CD 
 
 
 
 
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 COUR T 
 
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 STORE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 STORE 
 
 ROOM 
 
 ROOM 
 
 
 
 ROOM 
 
 
 
 
 
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 HAR/M 
 
 
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 $ 
 
 
 
 
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 STORE 
 
 
 
 
 STORE 
 
 ROOM 
 
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 THE USUAL PLAN OF AN ORDINARY HOUSE IN 
 CENTRAL ASIA. 
 
 five houses made of palm-branches built up 
 with mud and without any separate apart¬ 
 ments. Each was three Arabian yards in 
 length. Some say that they had leather cur¬ 
 tains for the doors. One could reach the roof 
 with the hand. The house of Haritha was 
 next to that of Mahomet. Now, whenever 
 Mahomet took to himself a new wife, he 
 added another house to the row, and Haritha 
 was obliged successively to remove his house 
 and build on the space beyond. At last this 
 was repeated so often, that the Prophet said 
 to those about him, ‘ Verily, it shameth me 
 to turn Haritha over and over again out of 
 his house.’ ” 
 
 179 
 
 The houses of the rural poor in all parts of 
 Islam, in Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Arabia. 
 Persia, Afghanistan, and India, are usually 
 bulit either of mud or of unburnt bricks. In 
 mountainous parts of Aghanistan they are 
 built of stones (collected from the beds of 
 rivers) and mud. They are generally one 
 storey high, and of one apartment in which 
 the cattle are also housed. The roofs 
 are flat and are formed of mud and straw 
 laid upon branches of trees and rafters. The 
 windows are small apertures, high up in the 
 walls, and sometimes grated with wood. 
 
 A MUHAMMADAN HOUSE IN PESHAWUK. 
 
 There are no chimneys, but in the centre of 
 the roof there is an opening to emit the smoke, 
 the fire being lighted on the ground in the 
 centre of the room. In front of the house 
 there is an inclosure, either of thorns or a 
 mud wall, which secures privacy to the 
 dwelling. A separate building, called in Asia 
 a fiujrah, or guest chamber, is provided for 
 male visitors or guests; this chamber being 
 common property of the section of the vil¬ 
 lage, except in the case of chiefs or wealthy 
 land-owners, who keep nujrahs of their own. 
 In towns the houses of the inferior kind do 
 not differ much from those in the villages, 
 except that there is sometimes an upper 
 storey. In some parts of Afghanistan and 
 Persia, it becomes necessary for each house¬ 
 holder to protect his dwelling, in which case 
 a watch tower, of mud. is erected close to the 
 house. 
 
HOUSES 
 
 HOUSES 
 
 180 
 
 The injunctions of Muhammad regarding 
 the seclusion of women have very greatly in¬ 
 fluenced the plan and arrangement of Muham¬ 
 madan dwelling-houses of the better class 
 throughout the world, all respectable houses 
 being so constructed as to seclude the female 
 apartments from public view. In cities such 
 as Cairo, Damascus, Delhi, Peshawur, and 
 Cabul, the prevailing plan of dwelling-houses 
 is an entrance through a blank wall, whose 
 mean appearance is usually relieved by a 
 handsome door-way and a few latticed win¬ 
 dows. A respectable house usually consists 
 
 A MUHAMMADAN HOUSE IN CAIRO. 
 
 (Lane.) 
 
 of two courts, the first being that used by the 
 male visitors and guests, and the inner court 
 is the harini or zananah reserved for the 
 female members of the family. Facing the 
 outer court will be an upper chamber, or 
 hala khanah as it is called in Persian, the 
 VTrepwovi or upper room of the New Testa¬ 
 ment, in which there will be a dlwan, or 
 raised seat or sofa, upon which the inmates 
 can sit, eat, or sleep. This is the usual re¬ 
 ception room. In Asia, this bala khanah 
 seems to take the place of the more elabo¬ 
 
 rate qd-ah described by Mr. Lane in his 
 Modern Egyptians, vol. i. jr. 39, which is either 
 on the ground or upper floor. Within the 
 first enclosure will be the stables for horses 
 and cattle, and in its centre a raised dais 
 as seats for servants and attendants. It 
 should be noticed that there are no special 
 bed-rooms in Eastern houses. Male visitors 
 and friends will sleep in the verandahs of the 
 outer court, or on the diwan in the upper 
 court. 
 
 The harim or women’s apartments in the 
 inner court is entered by a small door. It is 
 
 INTERIOR OP A MUHAMMADAN HOUSE IN 
 
 Cairo. (Lane.) 
 
 a quadrangle with verandahs on each of the 
 four sides, formed by a row of pillars, the 
 apertures of which are usually closed by 
 sliding shutters. The back of the rooms 
 being without windows, the only air being 
 admitted from the front of the dwelling- 
 place. The apartments are divided into long 
 rooms, usually four, the extreme corners 
 having small closets purposely built as store¬ 
 rooms. On festive occasions these verandah 
 rooms will be spread with handsome carpets, 
 carpets and pillows being almost the only fur- 
 
HOUSES 
 
 HUD 
 
 niture of an Eastern dwelling, chairs being 
 a modern invention. The roofs of these rooms 
 are flat, and as the top is fenced in with a 
 barrier some four feet high, the female mem¬ 
 bers of the household sleep on the top of the 
 house in the hot weather, [hakim.] 
 
 In no point do Oriental habits differ more 
 from European than in the use of the roof. 
 Its flat surface, in fine weather the usual 
 place of resort, is made useful for various 
 household purposes, as drying corn, hanging 
 up linen, and drying fruit. 
 
 In the centre of the inner court or harim, 
 there is usually a well, so that the female do¬ 
 mestics are not obliged to leave the seclusion of 
 the harim for water-carrying. In a largo court, 
 of a wealthy person, there is usually a raised 
 dais of either stone or wood, on which car¬ 
 pets are spread, and on which the ladies sit 
 or recline. In the better class of dwellings, 
 there are numerous courtyards, and special 
 ones are devoted to winter and summer uses. 
 In Peshawur, most respectable houses have 
 an underground room, called a tab khanuh , 
 where the inmates in the hot weather sleep at 
 mid-day. These rooms are exceedingly cool 
 and pleasant on hot sultry days. 
 
 Over the entrance door of a Muhammadan 
 dwelling it is usual to put an inscription, 
 either of the Kalimah, or Creed, or of some 
 verse of the Qur’an. 
 
 We have only attempted to describe, 
 briefly, the ordinary dwelling-houses of Mu¬ 
 hammadans, which are common to all parts 
 of the Eastern world ; but in large wealthy 
 cities, such as Damascus, Cairo, Delhi, and 
 Lucknow, there are very handsome houses, 
 which would require a longer description 
 than our space admits of. For Mrs. Meer 
 Ali’s account of a Muhammadan harim or 
 zananah, see hakim 
 
 HOUSES, Permission to enter. 
 Arabic isti’zdn (^UsxA). To enter 
 
 suddenly or abruptly into any person’s 
 house or apartments, is reckoned a great 
 incivility in the East, and the law on this sub¬ 
 ject is very distinctly laid down in both the 
 Qur’an and the Traditions. 
 
 Surah xxiv. 27-29 :— 
 
 “ 0 ye who believe! enter not into other 
 houses than your own, until ye have asked 
 leave, and have saluted its inmates. This 
 will be best for you: haply ye will bear this 
 in mind. 
 
 “ And if ye find no one therein, then enter 
 it not till leave be given you; and if it be 
 said to you, ‘ Go ye back,’ then go ye back. 
 This will be more blameless in you, and God 
 knoweth what ye do. 
 
 “ There shall be no harm in your entering 
 houses in which no one dwelleth, for the 
 supply of your needs: and God knoweth 
 what ye do openly and what ye hide.” 
 
 The traditionists record numerous injunc¬ 
 tions of Muhammad on the subject. A man 
 asked the Prophet, “ Must I ask leave to 
 go in to see my mother?” He said, “ Yes.” 
 Then the man said, “ But I stay in the same 
 
 181 
 
 house with her ! ” The Prophet said : “ But 
 you must ask permission even if you stay in 
 the same house.” Then the man said, “ But 
 I wait ujion her! ” The Prophet said : “ What! 
 would you like to see her naked ? You must 
 ask permission.” 
 
 The Khallfah ‘Umar said it was according 
 to the teaching of the Prophet that if you 
 salam three times and get no reply, you must 
 then go away from the house. 
 
 Abu Hurairah says that the Prophet said : 
 “ When anyone sends to call you then you 
 can return with the messenger and enter the 
 house without permission.” ( Mishkdt , book 
 xxii. ch. ii. pt. 2.) 
 
 HU, HUWA (y&). The personal 
 
 pronoun of the third person, singular, mas¬ 
 culine, HE, i.e. God, or He is. It occurs in 
 the Qur’an in this sense, e.g. Surah iii. 1, 
 yfc S\ ei\ 3 Alla.hu Id ilalia ilia Huwa , “ God, 
 there is no god- but HE,” which sentence is 
 called the nafy wa igbat (or that which is re¬ 
 jected, “ there is no god,” and that which is 
 affirmed, “ but He.” The word is often used 
 by Sufi mystics in this form : b ys> L \j 
 
 S yd hu, yd hu, yd man Id 
 yaflamu md hu ilia hu, “ 0 He (who is), 0 He 
 (who is), 0 He whom no one knows what He 
 Himself is but Himself.” Some commentators 
 have supposed the word Hu to stand for the 
 exalted name of God, the Ismu '1-a‘zam, which 
 Muslim doctors say is only known to God. 
 
 [JEHOVAH, ISMU ’l-A‘ZAM.] 
 
 HUBAL or HOBAL The 
 
 great- image which stood over the well or 
 hollow within the Ka‘bah. In the cavity be¬ 
 neath were preserved the offerings and other 
 treasures of the temple. ( At-Tabari , p. 6, 
 quoted by Muir.) The idol was destroyed by 
 Muhammad at his final conquest of Makkah, 
 a.h. 8, a.d. 630. “ Mounted on (his camel) A1 
 Oaswa, he proceeded to the Kaabah, reve¬ 
 rently saluted with his staff the sacred stone 
 and made the seven circuits of the temple. 
 Then pointing with the staff one by one to the 
 numerous idols placed around, he commanded 
 that they should be hewn down. The great 
 image of Hobal, reared as the tutelary deity 
 of Mecca, in front of the Kaabah, shared the 
 common fate. ‘ Truth hath come,’ exclaimed 
 Mahomet, in words of the Coran, as it fell 
 with a crash to the ground, ‘ and falsehood 
 hath vanished ; for falsehood is evanescent.’ ” 
 (Surah xvii. 83). See Muir, Life of Mahomet , 
 new ed. p. 422. It is remarkable that there 
 is no distinct allusion to the idol in the whole 
 of the Qur’an 
 
 HUBS Any bequest for 
 
 pious purposes. A term used in Shi‘ah law 
 for waqf Anything devoted to the service 
 of God. (See Baillie’s Imameea Code, 
 p. 227.) 
 
 HUD (d}&). A prophet said to 
 
 have been sent to the tribe of ‘Ad. Al- 
 
182 HUD 
 
 Baizawi says he was, according to some, the 
 son of ‘Abdu ’llah, the son of Rabah, the son 
 of Khaliid, the son of ‘Ad, the son of ‘Aus 
 the son of Irani, the son of Sam, son of Noah, 
 or, according to others, Hud was the son of 
 Shalah, son of Arfakhshad, son of Sam, son 
 of Noah. D’Herbelot thinks he must be the 
 Heber of the Bible (Judges iv. I.) 
 
 The following are, the accounts given of 
 him in the Qur’an, Surah vii 63-70:— 
 
 “ And to ‘Ad we sent their brother Hud. 
 “ O my people, said he, worship God : ye have 
 no other God than Him: will ye not then 
 fear Him ? ’ Said the unbelieving chiefs among 
 his people, ‘We certainly perceive that thou 
 art unsound of mind, and verily we deem 
 thee an impostor.’ He replied, ‘ 0 my people ! 
 there is no unsoundness of mind in me, hut I 
 am an apostle from the Lord of the worlds. 
 The messages of my Lord do I announce to 
 you, and I am your faithful counsellor. Mar¬ 
 vel ye that a warning hath come to you from 
 your Lord through one of yourselves that 
 He may warn you ? But remember when He 
 made you the successors of the people of 
 Noah, and increased you in tallness of stature. 
 Remember then the favours of God ; happily 
 it shall be well with you.’ They said, ‘ Art 
 thou come to us in order that we may wor¬ 
 ship one God only, and desert what our 
 fathers worshipped ? Then bring that upon 
 us with which thou threatenest us, if thou be 
 a man of truth.’ He replied, ‘Vengeance 
 and wrath shall suddenly light on you from 
 your Lord. I)o ye dispute with me about 
 names that you and your fathers have given 
 those idols, and for which God hath sent you 
 down no warranty ? Wait ye then, and I too 
 will wait with you.’ And We delivered 
 him and those who were on his side by our 
 mercy, and we cut off to the last man those 
 who had treated our signs as lies and who 
 were not believers.” 
 
 Surah xi. 52-63:— 
 
 “ And unto ‘Ad We sent their brother Hud. 
 He said, ‘ O my people, worship God. Ye 
 have no God beside Him. Lo, ye are only 
 devisers of a lie, 0 my people! I ask of 
 you no recompense for this ; verily my recom¬ 
 pense is with Him only who hath made me. 
 Will ye not then understand? And 0 my 
 people! ask pardon of your Lord; then 
 turn unto Him with penitence 1 He will send 
 down the heavens upon you with copious 
 rains. And with strength in addition to your 
 strength will He increase you; but turn not 
 back with deeds of evil.’ They replied, ‘ 0 
 Hud, thou hast not brought us proofs of thy 
 mission, and we are not the persons to aban¬ 
 don our gods at thy word, and we believe 
 thee not. We can only say that some of our 
 gods have smitten thee with evil.’ He said, 
 1 Now take I God to witness, and do ye also 
 witness, that I am innocent of that which ye 
 associate (in worship with God) beside him¬ 
 self. Conspire then against me altogether 
 and delay me not; Lo, I trust in God, my 
 Lord and yours No moving creature is there 
 which He holdeth not by its forelock. Right, 
 
 HUJJAH 
 
 truly, is the way in which my Lord goeth. So 
 if ye turn back, then I have already declared 
 to you that wherewith I was sent to you, and 
 my Lord will put another people in your 
 place, nor shall ye at all injure Him ; verily, 
 my Lord keepeth watch over all things.’ 
 And when our doom came to be inflicted, We 
 rescued Hud and those who had like faith 
 with him, by our special mercy; and We 
 rescued them from the rigorous chastise¬ 
 ment. And these men of ‘Ad gainsaid the 
 signs of their Lord, and rebelled against His 
 messengers and followed the bidding of every 
 proud contumacious person; followed there¬ 
 fore were they in this world by a curse ; and 
 in the day of the Resurrection it shall be said 
 to them, ‘ Did not, verily, the people of ‘Ad 
 disbelieve their Lord?’ Was it not said, 
 ‘ Away with ‘Ad, the people of Hud ? ’ ” 
 
 Surah xxvi. 123-139 : 
 
 “ The people of ‘Ad treated the Sent Ones 
 as liars. When their brother Hud said to 
 them, ‘ Will ye not fear God ? I truly am 
 your apostle, worthy of all credit; fear God 
 then and obey me. I ask of you no reward 
 for this, for my reward is of the Lord of the 
 worlds alone. Build ye a landmark on every 
 height, in pastime ? And raise ye structures 
 to be your lasting abodes ? And when ye put 
 forth your power, do ye put it forth with 
 harshness ? Fear ye God, then, and obey me ; 
 and fear ye Him who hath plenteously be¬ 
 stowed on you, ye well know what ? Plen¬ 
 teously bestowed on you flocks and children, 
 and gardens and fountains. Indeed, I fear 
 for you the punishment of a great day.’ They 
 said, ‘ It is the same to us whether thou warn 
 or warn us not; verily this is but a creation 
 [tale] of the ancients, and we are not they 
 who shall be punished.’ So they charged 
 him with imposture and We destroyed them. 
 Verily in this was a sign : yet most of them 
 believed not.” 
 
 al-HUDAIBIYAH (4*.^). Al- 
 
 Hudaibiyah, a well on an open space on the 
 verge of the Haram or sacred territory, which 
 encircles Makkah. Celebrated as the scene of 
 a truce between Muhammad and the Quraish 
 known as the truce of al-Hudaibiyah, when the 
 Prophet agreed not to enter Makkah that 
 year, but to defer his visit until the next, 
 when they should not enter it with any wea¬ 
 pons save those of the traveller, namely, to 
 each a sheathed sword. (Muir, from Katibu 
 7- IF aqidi .) 
 
 The treaty is referred to in the Qur’an as 
 “ a victory,” in the XLVinth Surah, 1st verse : 
 “ We have given thee an obvious victory.” A 
 chapter which is said to have been revealed 
 on this occasion and to have foretold the 
 final taking of Makkah, which happened two 
 years afterwards. (See al - Baizawi, in 
 loco.') 
 
 HUJJAH “ An argument; 
 
 a proof.” The word occurs in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 145 : “ Turn your faces towards it 
 (the Ka‘bah) that men may have no argument 
 
HITKM 
 
 183 
 
 HUJJATU ’L-HAQQI 
 
 against you, save only those of them who are 
 unjust.” 
 
 Surah vi. 84: “ These are our arguments 
 which we gave to Abraham against his 
 people.” 
 
 Surah vi. 150: “ God’s is the perfect argu¬ 
 ment (hujjatu ’l-baligjiah). 
 
 HUJJATU ’L-HAQQI ‘ALA ’L- 
 KHALQ (vjlafelX J * ^). Lit. 
 
 “ The demonstration of truth upon the crea¬ 
 ture.” A term used by the Sufi mystics for 
 the Insanu 'l-ka.mil, or the “ perfect man,” 
 as Adam was when he proceeded from the hand 
 of his Maker, and when he became a demon¬ 
 stration of God’s wisdom and power before 
 the angels of heaven. As is stated in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 29: “ Thy Lord said I am 
 about to place a vicegerent ( khalifah ) in the 
 earth. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi 
 Terms.) 
 
 HUJRAH (2^-). The “chamber” 
 
 in which Muhammad died and was buried, 
 which was originally the apartment allotted 
 to ‘Ayishah, the Prophet’s favourite wife. It 
 is situated behind the Masjidu ’n-Nabi, or 
 Prophet’s mosque, at al-Madlnah, and is an 
 irregular square of fifty-five feet, separated 
 from the mosque by a passage of about 
 26 feet. Inside the Hujrah are supposed to 
 be the three tombs of Muhammad, Abu Bakr, 
 and ‘Umar, facing the south, surrounded by 
 stone walls, without any aperture, or, as 
 others say, by strong planking. Whatever 
 this material may be, it is hung outside with 
 a curtain, somewhat like a four-post bed. 
 The outer railing is separated by a darker 
 passage from the inner, and is of iron filagree, 
 painted green and gold. This fence, which 
 connects the columns, forbids passage to all 
 men. It has four gates, the Babu ’1-Muwa- 
 jihah (the Front Gate), the Babu Fatimah 
 (the Gate of Fatimah), the Babu ’sh-Sham 
 (the Syrian Gate), and the Babu ’t-Taubah 
 (the Gate of Repentance). The Syrian Gate 
 is the only one which is not kept closed, and 
 is the passage which admits the officers in 
 charge of the place. On the southern side of 
 the fence there are three small windows 
 about a foot square, which are said to be 
 about three cubits from the head of the Pro¬ 
 phet’s tomb. Above the Hujrah is the green 
 dome, surmounted by a large gilt crescent, 
 springing from a series of globes. Within 
 the building are the tombs of Muhammad, 
 Abu Bakr, and ‘Umar, with a space reserved 
 for the grave of our Lord Jesus Christ, whom 
 Muslims say will again visit the earth, and 
 die and be buried at al-Madmah. The grave 
 of Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter, is sup¬ 
 posed to be in a separate part of the build¬ 
 ing, although some say she was buried in 
 Baqi‘. The Prophet’s body is said to be 
 stretched full length on the right side, with 
 the right palm supporting the right cheek, 
 the face fronting Makkah. Close behind him 
 is placed Abu Bakr, whose face fronts Mu¬ 
 hammad’s shoulder, and then ‘Umar, who 
 
 occupies the same position with respect to 
 his predecessor. Amongst Christian his¬ 
 torians there was a popular story to the 
 effect that Muhammadans believed the coffin 
 of their Prophet to be suspended in the air, 
 which has no foundation whatever in Muslim 
 literature, and Niebuhr thinks the story must 
 have arisen from the rude pictures sold to 
 strangers. Captain Burton gives the an¬ 
 nexed plan of the building. 
 
 1. Muhammad. 
 
 2. Abu Bakr. 
 
 3. ‘Umar. 
 
 4. The space for the tomb of Jesus 
 
 5. Fatimah. 
 
 It is related that Muhammad prayed that 
 God would not allow his followers to make 
 his tomb an object of idolatrous adoration, 
 and consequently the adoration paid to the 
 tomb at al-Madmah has been condemned by 
 the Wahhabis and other Muslim reformers. 
 
 In a.d. 1804, when al-Madlnah was taken 
 by the Wahhabis, their chief, Sa‘itd. stripped 
 i the tomb of all its valuables, and proclaimed 
 that all prayers and exclamations addressed 
 to it were idolatrous. (See Burton’s Pilgri¬ 
 mage. vol. ii.; Burckhardt’s Arabia and 
 Wahhabis.) 
 
 The garden annexed to the tomb is called 
 ar-Rauzah, which is a title also given by 
 some writers to the tomb itself. 
 
 Abu Da’ud relates that al-Qasim the grand¬ 
 son of Abu Bakr came to ‘Ayishah and said, 
 “ 0 Mother, lift up the curtain of the Pro¬ 
 phet’s tomb and of his two friends, Abu Bakr 
 and ‘Umar, and she uncovered the graves, 
 which were neither high nor low, but about 
 one span in height, and were covered with 
 red gravel. ( Mishkat , book v. ch. vi. pt. 2.) 
 
 al-HUJURAT 
 
 “ Chambers.” The title of the XLixth Surah 
 of the Qur'an, in which the word occurs. 
 
 HUKM (,*£=-), pi. ahkdm. “ Order; 
 
 command; rule; sentence ; judgment, of 
 God, or of the prophets, or of a ruler or 
 judge.” It occurs in different senses in the 
 Qur'an, e.g. :— 
 
 Surah iii. 73: “ It beseemeth not a man, 
 that God should give him the Scriptures and 
 the Judgment and the Prophecy, and that 
 
184 
 
 HULUL 
 
 HUR 
 
 then he should say to his followers, ‘ Be ye 
 worshippers of mo, as well as of God ’; but 
 rather, ‘ Be ye perfect in things pertaining to 
 God, since ye know the Scriptures and have 
 studied deep.’ ” 
 
 (Both Sale and Rodwell translate the word 
 nl-hulcm, “ the wisdom,” but Palmer renders 
 it more correctly, “ the judgment.”) 
 
 Surah xii. 40 : “ Judgment is God’s alone : 
 He bids you worship only Him.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 79: “ To each (David and Solo¬ 
 mon) we gave judgment and knowledge.” 
 
 Al-hukmu ’sh-Shar l i, “ the injunction of the 
 law,” is a term used for a command of God, 
 which relates to the life and conduct of an 
 adult Muslim. (Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rifat, in loco.) 
 
 HULUL (J4^). Lit. “ descend¬ 
 ing ; alighting ; transmigration.” A Sufi 
 term for the indwelling light in the soul of 
 man. 
 
 HUMAN SACRIFICES. There 
 
 is no trace in the Qur’an or Traditions of the 
 immolation of human beings to the Deity as a 
 religious rite. But M. C. de Percival (vol. ii. 
 p. 101) mentions a Ghassanideprince who was 
 sacrificed to Venus by Munzir, King of Hira’. 
 Infanticide was common in ancient Arabia, 
 but it seems to have been done either, as 
 amongst the Rajputs of India, from a feeling 
 of disappointment at the birth of female 
 children, or to avoid the expense and 
 trouble of rearing them. The latter seems 
 to have been the ordinary reason; for we 
 read in the Qur’an, Surah xvii. 33 : “ Kill 
 not your children for fear of poverty.” 
 [infanticide.] 
 
 al-HUMAZAH (Sy*eN). “The 
 
 slanderer.” The title of the civth Surah of 
 the Qur’an, so called because it commences 
 with the words : “ Woe unto every slanderer .” 
 The passage is said to have been revealed 
 against al-Akhnas ibn Sharlq, who had been 
 guilty of slandering the Prophet. 
 
 HUN AIN (o^). The name of a 
 
 valley about three miles to the north-east of 
 Makkah, where in the eighth year of the 
 Ilijrah a battle took place between Muham¬ 
 mad and the Banu Hawazin, when the latter 
 were defeated. In the Qur’an, the victory of 
 Hunain is ascribed to angelic assistance. 
 
 Surah ix. 25: “Verily God hath assisted 
 you in many battle-fields and on the day of 
 Hunain.” 
 
 HUNTING. Arabic said (4->); 
 Heb. T>!£. There are special rules 
 
 laid down n Muslim law with regard to hunt¬ 
 ing. (See Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 170.) 
 
 It isdawfu! to hunt with a trained dog, or a 
 panther (Arabic fahd, Persian yuz, which is 
 an animal of the lynx species, hooded and 
 trained like a hawk), or a hawk, or a 
 falcon. 
 
 The sign of a dog being trained is his 
 catching game three times without eating it. 
 
 A hawk is trained when she attends to the 
 call of her master. If the dog or panther 
 eat any pai't of the game it is unlawful, hut 
 if a hawk eat of it, it is lawful ; but 
 if the dog merely eat the blood and not the 
 flesh, it is lawful. If a hunter take game 
 alive which his dog has wounded, he must 
 slay it according to the law of Zabh, namely, 
 by cutting its throat, with the head turned 
 Makkah-wards, and reciting, “ In the name of 
 the Great God ! ” The law is the same with 
 respect to game shot by an arrow. 
 
 If a sportsman let fly an arrow (or fire a 
 gun) at game, he must repeat the invocation, 
 “ In the name of the Great God ! ” 
 
 And then the flesh becomes lawful if the 
 game is killed by the shot. But if only 
 wounded, the animal must be slain with the 
 invocation. Game hit.by an arrow which has 
 not a sharp point is unlawful, and so is that 
 killed by throwing pebbles. 
 
 Game killed by a Magian, or an apostate, 
 or a -worshipper of images is not lawful, 
 because they are not allowed to perform 
 zabh. But that slain by a Christian or a Jew 
 is lawful. 
 
 Hunting is not allowed on the pilgrimage 
 nor within the limits of the sacred cities of 
 Makkah and al-Madlnah. 
 
 ‘Adi ibn Hatim ( Mishkat , book xviii. ch. i.) 
 gives the following tradition on the subject of 
 hunting:— 
 
 “ The Prophet said to me, ‘ When you send 
 your dog in pursuit of game, repeat the name 
 of God, as at slaying an animal; then if your 
 dog holds the game for you, and you find it 
 alive, then slay it; but if you find your 
 dog has killed it, and not eaten of it, then eat 
 it; but if the dog has eaten any of it, do not 
 you eat it, for then the dog has kept it for 
 himself. Then if you find another dog along 
 with yours, and the game is killed, do not 
 eat of it; for verily you cannot know which 
 of the dogs killed it; and if the other dog 
 killed it, it might so be that when he was let 
 loose after the game, the name of God might 
 not have been repeated. And when you 
 shoot an arrow at game, repeat the name of 
 God, the same as in slaying an animal; then 
 if you lose sight of the game, and on finding 
 it perceive nothing but the impression of 
 your own arrow, then eat it if you wish ; but 
 if you find the game drowned, do not eat of 
 it, although the mark of your arrow should 
 be in it.’ ” 
 
 HUR the plural of haura. 
 
 The women of Paradise described in the 
 Qur’an, e.g. Surah lv. 56-78:— 
 
 “ Therein shall be the damsels with retiring 
 glances, whom nor man nor djinn hath 
 touched before them : 
 
 “ Which then of the bounties of your Lord 
 will ye twain deny ? 
 
 “ Like jacynths and pearls : 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ Shall the reward of good be aught but 
 good ? 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
AL-HUSAIN 
 
 AL-HUSAIN 
 
 “ And beside these shall be two other 
 gardens: 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ Of a dark green : 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ With gushing fountains in each : 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ In each fruits and the palm and the 
 pomegranate : 
 
 “ Which, <fec. 
 
 “ In each, the fair, the beauteous ones: 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ With large dark eyeballs, kept close in 
 their pavilions : 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ Whom man hath never touched, nor any 
 djinn: 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ Their spouses on soft green cushions and 
 on beautiful carpets shall recline: 
 
 “ Which, &c. 
 
 “ Blessed be the name of thy Lord, full of 
 majesty and glory.” 
 
 al-HUSAIN The second 
 
 son of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, 
 by her husband ‘All, the fourth Khalifah. 
 
 A brother to al-Hasan, the fifth Khalifah. 
 According to the Slh'ahs, he was the third 
 Khalifah. He was born a.h. 4, and died at 
 Karbala a.h. 61, being cruelly slain in his 
 conflict with Yazid, the seventh Khalifah, 
 according to the Sunnis. 
 
 The martyrdom of al-Husain is celebrated 
 by the Shi‘ahs every year during the first ten 
 days of the Muharram [muharram] ; an 
 account of his tragic death is therefore 
 necessary for understanding the intensity of 
 feeling with which the scenes and incidents 
 of the last days of the “ Imam Husain ” are 
 enacted in the “ Miracle Play,” a translation 
 of which has been given in English by Sir 
 Lewis Pelly. The following account is 
 taken from the Preface to this work, p. si. 
 seqq .:— 
 
 “ Shortly after the accession of Yezid 
 (Yazid), Husain received at Mecca secret 
 messages from the people of Oufa (al-Kufah), 
 entreating him to place himself at the head 
 of the army of the faithful in Babylonia. 
 Yezid, however, had full intimation of the 
 intended revolt, and long before Husain could 
 reach Oufa, the too easy governor of that 
 city had been replaced by Obaidallah (‘Ubai- 
 du ’llah ibn Ziyad), the resolute ruler of Bus- 
 sorah (al-Basrah), who by his rapid measures 
 disconcerted the plans of the conspirators, and 
 drove them to a premature outbreak, and the 
 surrender of their leader Muslim. The latter 
 foresaw the ruin which he had brought on 
 Husain, and shed bitter tears on that account 
 when captured. His head was struck off and 
 sent to Yezid. On Husain arriving at the 
 confines of Babylonia, he was met by Harro 
 (al-Hurr), who had been sent out by Obaidal¬ 
 lah with a body of horsemen to intercept 
 his approach. Husain, addressing them, as¬ 
 serted his title to the Oalifate, and invited 
 them to submit to him. Harro replied, ‘ We 
 are commanded as soon as we meet you to | 
 
 185 
 
 bring you directly to Oufa into the presence 
 of Obaidallah, the son of Ziyad.’ Husain 
 answered, ‘ I would sooner die than submit 
 to that,’ and gave the word to his men to 
 ride on ; but Harro wheeled about and inter¬ 
 cepted them. At the same time, Harro said, 
 ‘ I have no commission to fight with you, but 
 I am commanded not to part with you until 
 I have conducted you into Cufa’; but he 
 bade Husain to choose any road into that 
 city ‘ that did not go directly back to Mecca,’ 
 and ‘do you,’ said he, ‘write to Yezid or 
 Obaidallah, and I will write to Obaidallah, 
 and perhaps it may please God I may meet 
 with something that may bring me off with¬ 
 out my being forced to an extremity on your 
 account.’ Then he retreated his force a little 
 to allow Husain to lead the way towards 
 Cufa, and Husain took the road that leads by 
 Adib and Cadisia. This was on Thursday 
 the 1st of Mohurrum (Muharram), a.h. 61 
 (a.d. 680). When night came on, he still con¬ 
 tinued his march all through the night. As 
 he rode on he nodded a little, and waking 
 again, said, ‘ Men travel by night, and the 
 destinies travel toward them ; this I know 
 to be a message of death.’ 
 
 “ In the morning, after prayers were over, 
 he mended his pace, and as he rode on there 
 came up a horseman, who took no notice of 
 him, but saluted Harro, and delivered to 
 him a letter, giving orders from Obaidal¬ 
 lah to lead Husain and his men into a place 
 where was neither town nor fortifications, 
 and there leave them till the Syrian forces 
 should surround them. 
 
 “ This was on Friday the 2nd of Mohurrum. 
 The day after, Amer (‘Umar ibn Sa‘id) came 
 upon them with four thousand men, who 
 were on their march to Dailam. They had 
 been encamped without the walls of Cufa, 
 and when Obaidallah heard of Husain’s 
 coming, he commanded Amer to defer his 
 march to Dailam and go against Husain. 
 But one and all dissuaded him. ‘ Beware 
 that you go not against Husain, and rebel 
 against your Lord, and cut off mercy from 
 you, for you had better be deprived of the 
 dominion of the whole world than meet your 
 Lord with the blood of Husain upon you.’ 
 Amer was fain to acquiesce, but upon Obai¬ 
 dallah renewing his command with threats, 
 he marched against Husain, and came up 
 with him, as aforesaid, on Saturday the 3rd 
 of Mohurrum. 
 
 “ On Amer sending to inquire of Husain 
 what brought him thither, the latter replied, 
 ‘ The Cufans wrote to me ; but since they 
 reject me, I am willing to return to Mecca.’ 
 Amer was glad when he heard it, and said, ‘ I 
 hope to God I may be excused from fighting 
 against him.’ Then he wrote to this purpose 
 to Obaidallah; but Obaidallah sternly re¬ 
 plied, ‘ Get between him and the river,’ and 
 Amer did so; and the name of the place 
 where he cut Husrin off from the Euphrates 
 was called Kerbela (Karbala): ‘ Kerb (an¬ 
 guish) and held, (vexation), Trouble and 
 affliction,’ said Husain when he heard it. 
 
 “ Then Husain sought a conference with 
 
 24 
 
AL-HUSAIN 
 
 AL-HUSAIN 
 
 186 
 
 Amer, in which he proposed either to go to 
 Yezid, to return to Mecca, or, as some add, 
 but others deny, to fight against the Turks. 
 Obaidallah was at first inclined to accede 
 to these conditions, until Shamer stood up 
 and swore that no terms should be made with 
 Husain, adding significantly that he had been 
 informed of a long conference between Husain 
 and Amer. 
 
 “ Then Obaidallah sent Shamer with orders 
 to Amer, that if Husain would surrender un¬ 
 conditionally, he would be received ; if not, 
 Amer was to fall upon him and his men, and 
 trample them under his feet. Should he 
 refuse to do so, Shamer was to strike off 
 Amer’s head, and himself command the 
 attack against Husain. 
 
 “ Thus passed Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, 
 Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday, the 4th, 
 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th of Mohurrum. 
 On the evening of the 9th, Amer drew up his 
 forces close to Husain’s camp, and himself 
 rode up to Husain as he was sitting in the 
 door of his tent just after the evening prayer, 
 and told him of the conditions offered by 
 Obaidallah. Husain desired Amer to give 
 him time until the next morning, when he 
 would make his answer. 
 
 “ In the night his sister came weeping to 
 his bedside, and, awaking him, exclaimed, 
 « Alas for the desolation of my family 1 my 
 mother Fatima is dead and my father Ali, 
 and my brother Hasan. Alas for the destruc¬ 
 tion that is past! and alas for the destruction 
 that is to come 1 ’ ‘ Sister,’ Husain replied, 
 ‘ put your trust in God, and know that man 
 is born to die, and that the heavens shall not 
 remain; everything shall pass away but the 
 presence of God, who created all things by 
 His power, and shall make them by His 
 power to pass away, and they shall return to 
 Him alone. My father was better than me, 
 and my mother was better than me; and my 
 brother was better than me ; and they and 
 we and all Muslims have an example in the 
 Apostle of God.’ Then he told his men 
 that Obaidallah wanted nobody but him, and 
 that they should go away to their homes. 
 But they said, ‘ God forbid that we should 
 ever see the day wherein we survive you! ’ 
 Then he commanded them to cord their tents 
 close together, and make a line of them, so 
 as to keep out the enemy’s horse. And he 
 digged a trench behind his camp, which he 
 filled with wood to be set on fire, so that 
 he could only be attacked in front. The rest 
 of the night he spent in prayer and supplica¬ 
 tion, while the enemy’s guard patrolled all 
 night long round and round his camp. 
 
 “ The next morning both sides prepared for 
 the slaughter. Husain first washed and 
 anointed himself with musk, and several of 
 his chief men did the like; and one asking 
 them what it meant, Husain replied plea¬ 
 santly, ‘ Alas! there is nothing between us 
 and the black-eyed girls of Paradise but that 
 these troopers come down upon us and slay 
 us 1 ’ Then he mounted his horse, and set 
 the Coran before him, crying, ‘0 God, Thou 
 art my confidence in every trouble and my 
 
 hope in every adversity ! ’ and submitted him¬ 
 self to the judgment of his companions before 
 the opened pages of the sacred volume. At 
 this his sisters and daughters began to weep, 
 when he cried out in bitter anguish self- 
 reproachfully, • God reward the son of 
 Abbas,’ in allusion to advice which his 
 cousin, Abdullah ibn Abbas, had given him, 
 to leave the women behind in Mecca. At 
 this moment a party of the enemy’s horse 
 wheeled about and came up to Husain, who 
 expected to be attacked by them. But it was 
 Harro, who had quitted the ranks of the 
 Syrian army, and had now come to die with 
 Husain, and testify his repentance before 
 men and God. As Harro rode into the 
 doomed camp, he shouted back to Amer, 
 1 Alas for you! ’ Whereupon Amer com¬ 
 manded his men to ‘ bring up the colours.’ 
 As soon as they were set in front of the 
 troops, Shamer shot an arrow into the camp, 
 saying, 1 Bear witness that I shot the first 
 arrow,’ and so the fight began on both sides. 
 It raged, chiefly in a series of single combats, 
 until noon-day, when both sides retired to 
 prayer, Husain adding to the usual office the 
 ‘ Prayer of Fear,’ never used but in cases 
 of extremity. When shortly afterwards the 
 fight was renewed, Husain was struck on the 
 head by a sword. Faint with the loss of 
 blood, he sat down by his tent and took upon 
 his lap his little son Abdullah, who was at 
 once killed by a flying arrow. He placed the 
 little corpse upon the ground, crying out, 
 ‘ We come from God and we return to Him. 
 0 God, give me strength to bear these mis¬ 
 fortunes.’ Growing thirsty, he ran toward 
 the Euphrates, where, as he stooped to drink, 
 an arrow struck him in the mouth. Raising 
 his hands, all besmeared and dripping with 
 blood, to heaven, he stood for awhile and 
 prayed earnestly. His little nephew, a beau¬ 
 tiful child, who went up to kiss him, had his 
 hand cut off with a sword, on which Husain 
 again wept, saying, ‘ Thy reward, dear child, 
 is with thy forefathers in the realms of bliss.’ 
 Hounded on by Shamer, the Syrian troops 
 now surrounded him; but Husain, nothing 
 daunted, charged them right and left. In the 
 midst of the fighting, his sister came between 
 him and his slayers, crying out to Amer, 
 how he could stand by and see Husain slain. 
 Whereupon, with tears trickling down his 
 beard, Amer turned his face away ; but 
 Shamer, with threats and curses, set on his 
 soldiers again, and at last one wounded 
 Husain upon the hand, and a second gashed 
 him on the neck, and a third thrust him 
 through the body with a spear. No sooner 
 had he fallen to the ground than Shamer rode 
 a troop of horsemen over his corpse, back¬ 
 wards and forwards, over and over again, 
 until it was trampled into the very ground, 
 a scarcely recognisable mass of mangled flesh 
 and mud. 
 
 “ Thus, twelve years after the death of his 
 brother Hasan, Husain, the second son of 
 Ali, met his own death on the bloody plain 
 of Kerbela on Saturday the 10th day of 
 Mohurrum, a.h, 61 (a.d. 680).” 
 
HUSBAND 
 
 HYPOCRITES 
 
 From al-Husain and his brother al-Hasan 
 are derived the descendants of the Prophet 
 known throughout Islam as Saiyids. [sai- 
 
 YID, HASAN, MUHARRAM.] 
 
 HUSBAND. Arabic muj (s;j). 
 
 A husband is not guardian over his wife any 
 further than respects the rights of marriage, 
 nor does the provision for her rest upon him 
 any further than with respect to food, cloth¬ 
 ing, and lodging ( Hidayah , vol. i. 63), but he 
 may be imprisoned for the maintenance of his 
 wife ( Ibidem , vol. ii. p. 628). The evidence of 
 a husband concerning his wife is not accepted 
 by the Sunnis, but it is allowed in Shi‘ah law 
 (lb., vol. ii. p. 685). The Muhammadan 
 law demands that a Muslim husband shall 
 reside ecaally with each of his wives, unless 
 one wife bestow her right upon another wife. 
 (lb., vol. i. p. 184.) 
 
 HUSNU ’L-KHULQ <*—*). 
 
 “ A good disposition.” Abu Hurairah re¬ 
 lates that one of the Companions once asked 
 Muhammad, “ What is the best thing that 
 has been given to man ? ” and Muhammad 
 replied, “ A good disposition.” Muhammad is 
 also related to have said that the “ heaviest 
 thing which will be put in the scales of a 
 Muslim in the Day of Judgment is a good 
 disposition.” (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. xix, 
 pt. 2.) 
 
 al-HUTAMAH (tAJty. A divi¬ 
 sion of Hell, mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah 
 civ. :— 
 
 “ Woe to every backbiter, 
 
 “ Who amasseth wealth and storeth it 
 against the future 1 
 
 “ He thinketh surely that his wealth shall 
 be with him for ever. 
 
 “ Nay! for verily he shall be flung into al- 
 biutamah, 
 
 “ And who shall teach thee what al-huta- 
 mah is ? 
 
 “ It is God’s kindled fire, 
 
 “ Which shall mount above the hearts of 
 the damned; 
 
 “ It shall verily rise over them like a 
 vault, 
 
 “ On outstretched columns.” 
 
 The Imam al-Baghawi says it is the divi¬ 
 sion of Hell specially reserved for the Jews. 
 
 HUWAIRIS (ci^). One of the 
 
 citizens of Makkah, who was excluded from 
 the general amnesty on the taking of Makkah, 
 in consequence of his having pursued Zainab, 
 Muhammad’s daughter, while endeavouring to 
 effect her escape from Makkah. He was 
 afterwards seized and slain by ‘AH. 
 
 187 
 
 HUZAIFAH (&>^). The son of 
 
 al-Yaman. He was a “sworn companion” 
 of the Prophet, one of the most eminent of 
 the Ashab, and it is recorded by Muslim the 
 Traditionist, that he was specially instructed 
 by the Prophet. His father, al-Yaman, also 
 called Hisl or Husail, was likewise a com¬ 
 panion, who fell at Uhud. Huzaifah died 
 in the time of ‘All’s Khalifate. a.h. 36. (See 
 Taqribu ’t-Tahzib, p. 51.) Sir William Muir 
 says he was the Companion who first sug¬ 
 gested to ‘Usman the necessity of the recen¬ 
 sion of the Qur’an, a.h. 33. (Life of Mahomet, 
 new ed. p. 556.) 
 
 “ Hodzeifa, who had warred both in 
 Armenia and Adzerbaijan, and had observed 
 the different readings of the Syrians, and of 
 the men of Irac, was alarmed at the number 
 and extent of the variations, and warned 
 Othman to interpose and ‘ stop the people 
 before they should differ regarding their 
 scriptures, as did the Jews and Christians.’” 
 
 HUZAIL (JjAfc). The ancestor of 
 
 the Banu Huzail, a tribe distinguished in the 
 annals of war and poetry, and, as we learn 
 from Burckhardt, still occupying under the 
 same name the environs of Makkah. (Travels 
 in Arabia, vol. i. pp. 63, 66.) 
 
 HYPOCRISY. Arabic riycb (^), 
 niftiq (o^), malcr ( *£*), mudahanat 
 When there is an allusion 
 to hypocrisy in the Qur’an, it refers to that 
 class of people known as al-Munafiqun, or 
 the hypocrites of al-Madinah, who in the 
 days of the Prophet professed to follow him, 
 whilst secretly they opposed him [muna- 
 fiqun], vide Surahs ii. 7; xxxiii. 47; lvii. 13. 
 But in the Traditions we have the following 
 with reference to this sin, Mishkat, book i. 
 ch. iii. pt. 3):— 
 
 “ The signs of hypocrisy are three : speak¬ 
 ing falsely, promising and not performing, and 
 being perfidious when trusted.” 
 
 “ There are four qualities, which being 
 possessed by anyone, constitute a complete 
 hypocrite; and whoever has one of the four 
 has one hypocritical quality till he discards 
 it: perfidy when trusted, the breaking of 
 agreements, speaking falsely, and prosecuting 
 hostility by treachery.” 
 
 HYPOCRITES. Arabic mund- 
 fiqdn A term applied by 
 
 Muhammad to those residents of al-Ma¬ 
 dinah who during his first stay in that city 
 ostensibly joined Islam, but in secret were 
 disaffected. 
 
188 
 
 IBAHIYAH 
 
 IBN MAJAH 
 
 I. 
 
 IBAHIYAH (4-,L}t). A sect of 
 
 libertines who consider all things lawful. 
 
 IBAQ The absconding of 
 
 slaves. The fugitive slave being termed abiq, 
 or, if he be an infant, sail, or the strayed 
 one. The restorer of a fugitive slave is en¬ 
 titled to a reward of forty dirhams, but no 
 reward is given for the restoration of a 
 strayed infant slave, [slaveky.] 
 
 IBAZlYAH (1~W\ ). A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by ‘Abdu’llah ibn Ibaz, who 
 said that if a man commit a Icabirah or great 
 sin, he is an infidel, and not a believer. 
 {Kitdbu 't-Ta>rifat,in loco.') 
 
 IBLlS [devil.] 
 
 IBN ‘ABBAS (u-Wc ‘Abdu 
 
 ’llah, the eldest son of ‘Abbas, and a cousin of 
 Muhammad. One of the most celebrated of 
 the Companions, and the relator of numerous 
 traditions. It is said that the angel Gabriel 
 appeared to him, when he was only ten years 
 old, and revealed to him the meaning of the 
 Qur’an, which accounted for his intimate 
 acquaintance with the letter and meaning of 
 the book. He was called Tarjumanu ’I- Qur'an, 
 or “ the interpreter of the Qur’an.” He was 
 appointed Governor of al-Basrah by the 
 Khalifah ‘All, which office he held for some 
 time. He returned to the Hijaz and died at 
 at-Taif a.h. 68 (a.d. 687), aged 72 years. 
 
 IBN HANBAL (J^ ^t). The 
 
 Imam Abu ‘Abdi ’llah Ahmad ibn Hanbal, 
 the founder of the fourth orthodox sect of the 
 Sunnis, was born at Baghdad a.h. 164, a.d. 780, 
 where he received his education under Yazid 
 ibn Harun and Yahya ibn Sa‘id. On ash- 
 Shafi‘i coming to Baghdad (a.h. 195), Ibn 
 Hanbal attended the lectures delivered there 
 by that doctor, and was instructed by him in 
 the traditions. In process of time be acquired 
 a high reputation from his profound know¬ 
 ledge of both the civil and spiritual law, and 
 particularly for the extent of his erudition 
 with respect to the precepts of the Prophet, 
 of which it is said that he could repeat above 
 a million. His fame began to spread just at 
 the time when the disputes ran highest con¬ 
 cerning the nature'of the Qur’an, which some 
 held to have existed from eternity, whilst 
 others maintained it to be created. Unfortu¬ 
 nately for Ibn Hanbal,the Khalifah al-Mu‘tasim 
 was of the latter opinion, to which this doctor 
 refusing to subscribe, he was imprisoned and 
 severely scourged by the Khalifah’s order. 
 
 For this hard usage, indeed, he afterwards 
 received some satisfaction from al-Muta- 
 wakkil, the son of al-Mu‘tasim, who, upon 
 succeeding to the throne, issued a decree of 
 general toleration, leaving every person at 
 liberty to judge for himself upon this point. 
 This tolerant Khalifah set the persecuted 
 
 doctor at liberty, receiving him at his Court 
 with the most honourable marks of distinction, 
 and offering him a compensatory present of 
 1,000 pieces of gold, which, however, he 
 refused to accept. After having attained the 
 rank of Imam, he retired from the world, 
 and led a recluse life for several years. He 
 died a.h 241 (a.d. 855), aged 75. He ob¬ 
 tained so high a reputation for sanctity, that 
 his funeral was attended by a train of 800,000 
 men and 60,000 women; and it is asserted as 
 a kind of miracle, that on the day of his 
 decease no fewer than 20,000 Jews and 
 Christians embraced the faith. For about a 
 century after his death, the sect of Ibn 
 Hanbal were numerous and even powerful; and 
 uniting to their zeal a large proportion of 
 fanaticism, became at length so turbulent and 
 troublesome as to require the strong arm of 
 Government to keep them in order. Like 
 most other fanatical sects, they dwindled 
 away in process of time, and are now to be 
 met with only in a few parts of Arabia. 
 Although orthodox in their other tenets, there 
 was one point on which they differed from 
 the rest of the Muslims ; for they asserted 
 that God had actually set Muhammad upon 
 his throne, and constituted him his substitute 
 in the government of the universe; an asser¬ 
 tion which was regarded with horror, as an 
 impious blasphemy, and which brought them 
 into great disrepute. This, however, did not 
 happen until many years after Ibn Hanbal’s 
 decease, and is in no degree attributed to him. 
 He published only two works of note: one 
 entitled the Musncid, which is said to contain 
 above 30,000 traditions selected from 750,000; 
 and another, a collection of apothegms, or 
 proverbs, containing many admirable precepts 
 upon the government of the passions. He 
 had several eminent pupils, particularly 
 Isma‘il al-Bukhari and Muslim Ibn Da’ud. 
 His authority is but seldom quoted by any of 
 the modern commentators on jurisprudence. 
 
 The modern Wahhabis are supposed to 
 follow (to some extent) the teachings of 
 Ahmad ibn Hanbal. 
 
 IBN KHALLIKAN (oVflk 
 
 The well-known Muhammadan biographer. 
 He drew his descent from a family of Balkh. 
 He was born at Arbelah, but resided at 
 Damascus, where he filled the office of chief 
 Qa.zi, and died a.h. 681 (a.d. 1282). His 
 biographical dictionary has been translated 
 into English by Baron de Slane. (Paris 1843.) 
 The biographical notes in the present work 
 are chiefly from Ibn Khallikan’s work. 
 
 IBN MAJAH (&s-U &\). Abu 
 
 ‘Abdi ’llah Muhammad Ibn Yazid Ibn Majah 
 al-Qazwini was maulawl of the tribe of 
 Rabl‘ah, and a celebrated Hafiz of the Qur’an, 
 and is known as the compiler of the Kitdbu ’s- 
 Sunan, or “ Book of Traditions.” This tvork 
 
IBRAHIM 
 
 189 
 
 IBN MAS‘UD 
 
 is counted one of the six Sahlhs, or authentic 
 collections of Hadis. Born a.h. 209 (a.d. 824). 
 Died a.h. 273 (a.d. 886). 
 
 IBN MAS'tTD &\). ‘Abdu 
 
 ’llah ibn Mas‘ud, “a companion” of consider¬ 
 able note. One of the illustrious “ ten ” 
 QAsharah Mubashsharcih ) to whom Muham¬ 
 mad gave an assurance of Paradise. He was 
 present at the battle of Badr and subsequent 
 engagements. Died at al-Madmah a.h. 32, 
 aged 60. 
 
 IBN MULJAM &\). The 
 
 Muslim who slew the Khalifah ‘All. The 
 author of the Hayatu 'l-Qulub ( Merrick's 
 Translation, p. 204) says when ‘All was 
 martyred by Ibn Muljam his celestial likeness 
 (i.e. in the ‘Alamu '1-MisaV) appeared wounded 
 also; wherefore angols visit the similitude 
 morning and evening and curse the name of 
 Ibn Muljam.® 
 
 IBN SAIYAD (A~o cjA)- A mys¬ 
 terious personage who lived in the time of 
 Muhammad, and who was mistaken by some 
 people for ad-Dajjalu '1-Masih, or the Anti¬ 
 christ. ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says some say he was 
 a Jew of al-Madfnah named ‘Abdu ’llah. 
 
 Ibn ‘Umar relates that the Prophet went 
 to Ibn Saiyad, accompanied by a party of 
 his companions, and found him playing with 
 boys; and at this time he had nearly reached 
 puberty; and Ibn Saiyiid had no intimation 
 of the coming of the Prophet and the com¬ 
 panions, till the Prophet struck him upon the 
 back, and said, “ Do you bear witness that I 
 am the Prophet of God?” Then Ibn Saiyiid 
 looked at the Prophet and said, “ I bear 
 witness that you are the Prophet of the 
 illiterate.” After that he said to the Prophet, 
 “ Do you bear witness that I am the Prophet 
 of God ? ” Then the Prophet pressed him 
 with both his hands and said, “ I believe in 
 God and His Prophets ”; and then said to 
 Ibn Saiyad, “ What do you look at ? ” Ho 
 said, “ Sometimes a person comes to me 
 telling the truth ; and sometimes another 
 person telling lies ; like as magicians, to 
 whom devils bring truth and falsehood.” The 
 Prophet said, “ The Devil comes to you, and 
 bring® you news, false and true.” After that, 
 the Prophet said, ‘ Yerily, I have concealed a 
 revelation from you ” (which was the one in 
 which there is mention of the smoke) ; and 
 Ibn Saiyad said, “Is it the one with the 
 smoke ? ” Then the Prophet said, “ Begone 1 
 you cannot surpass your ow T n degree ! ” Ibn 
 ‘Umar said, “ 0 Prophet of God! do you 
 permit me to strike off Ibn Saiyad’s head ? ” 
 He said, “ If Ibn Saiyad be Dajjal, you will 
 not be able to kill him, because Jesus will be 
 his slayer; and if he is not Dajjal there can 
 be no good in your killing him.” After this 
 the Prophet and Ubaiy ibn Ka‘b al-Ansar! 
 went towards some date trees belonging to 
 Ibn Saiyad, and the Prophet hid himself 
 behind the branches, to listen to what he 
 would say, before Ibn Saiyad discovered him. 
 And at this time Ibn Saiyad was lying upon 
 
 his bed, with a sheet over his face, talking to 
 himself; and his mother saw the Prophet 
 standing behind the branches of the trees, 
 and said to her son, “ Muhammad is standing.” 
 At this he became silent; and the Prophet 
 said, “ Had not his mother informed him he 
 would have said something to have discovered 
 what he is.” Then the Prophet repeated, 
 “ Praised be God, by that which is worthy of 
 him”; and then mentioned Dajjal and said, 
 “ Verily, I fear for you from Dajjal; there is 
 no Prophet but he alarmed his people about 
 him. Verily, Noah frightened his people 
 about Dajjal; but I will tell you a thing in 
 the matter of Dajjal, which no one Prophet 
 ever told his people : know that he is blind, 
 and that verily God is not blind.” 
 
 Abu Sa‘Id al-Khudri says: “ Ibn Saiyad 
 asked the Prophet about the earth of Paradise ; 
 and ho said, ‘ The earth of Paradise is in 
 whiteness like flour twice sifted; and in smell 
 like pure musk.’ And I accompanied Ibn 
 Saiyad from al-Madmah to Makkah; and he 
 said to me, ‘What trouble I have experienced 
 from people’s supposing me Dajjal! Have 
 you not heard, 0 Ibn Saiyad, the Prophet 
 of God say, “ Verily, Dajjal will have no 
 children” ? and I have; and verily, the Prophet 
 has said, “ Dajjal is an infidel,” and I am a 
 Muslim ’; and the Prophet said, “ Dajjal will 
 neither enter al-Madinah nor Makkah ”; and 
 verily, I am going from al-Madmah and intend 
 going to Makkah.’ After that, Ibn Saiyad 
 said, in the latter part of his speech, ‘ Beware; 
 I swear by God, I know the place of Dajjal’s 
 birth, and where he stays; and I know his 
 father and mother.’ Then this made me 
 doubtful; and I said, ‘ May the remainder of 
 your days be lost to you.’ A person present 
 said to Ibn Saiyad, ‘Would you like to be 
 Dajjal ? ’ He said, ‘ If I possessed what 
 Dajjal is described to have, such as the power 
 of leading astray, I should not dislike it.’ ” 
 
 Ibn ‘Umar says : “ I met Ibn Saiyad when 
 he had swollen eyes, and I said, ‘ How long 
 has this been ? ’ He said, ‘ I do not know.’ 
 I said, ‘ Do not know, now that your eyes are 
 in your head? ’ He said, ‘ If God pleased He 
 could create eyes in your limbs, and they 
 would not know anything about it; in this 
 manner also, man is so employed as to be 
 insensible to pains.’ Then Ibn Saiyad made 
 a noise from his nose, louder than the braying 
 of an ass.” ( Mishkat , book xxiii. ch. v.) 
 
 IBN ‘UMAE (y+z ^A). Abu 
 
 ‘Abdi ’r-Rahman ‘Abdu ’llah, son of ‘Umar 
 the celebrated Khalifah. was one of the most 
 eminent of the “ companions ” of Muham¬ 
 mad. He embraced Islam with his father 
 when he was only eight years old. For a 
 period of sixty years he occupied the leading 
 position as a traditionist, and al-Bukhari. the 
 collector of traditions, says the most authentic 
 are those given on the authority of Ibn ‘Umar. 
 He died at Makkah a.h. 73 (a.d. 692), aged 
 84 years. 
 
 IBRAHIM The patriarch 
 
 Abraham, [abraham.] 
 
IBRAHIM 
 
 IDOLATRY 
 
 190 
 
 IBRAHIM The infant 
 
 son of Muhammad by his slave girl, Mary 
 the Copt. Born A.n. 8, died a.h. 10 (a.d. 
 631). 
 
 ‘ID (aa). [festival.] 
 
 ‘IDAN (<^aa). The Dual of ‘Id, 
 
 a festival. The two festivals, the Hdu ’1- 
 Fitr, and the ‘Idu T-Azha. 
 
 ‘IDDAH (Sac). Lit. “Number.” 
 
 The term of probation incumbent upon a 
 woman in consequence of a dissolution of 
 marriage, either by divorce or the death of 
 her husband. After a divorce the period is 
 three months, and after the death of her 
 husband, four months and ten days, both 
 periods being enjoined by the Qur’an (Surah 
 lxv. 4 ; ii. 234.) 
 
 ‘IDGAH (sVS'ajs). Lit. “ A place of 
 
 festival.” A Persian term for the musalla, or 
 praying-place, set apart for the public prayers 
 said on the two chief festivals, viz. ‘Idu ’1- 
 Fitr, and ‘Idu ’1-Azha. [‘idan.] 
 
 IDIOTS. Arabic majnun , pi. 
 
 majanin. Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, 
 vol. i. p. 288, says:— 
 
 “ An idiot or a fool is vulgarly regarded by 
 them as a being whose mind is in heaven, 
 while his grosser part mingles among ordi¬ 
 nary mortals , consequently he is considered 
 an especial favourite of heaven. Whatever 
 enormities a reputed saint may commit (and 
 there are many who are constantly infringing 
 precepts of their religion), such acts do not 
 affect his fame for sanctity; for they are 
 considered as the results of the abstraction 
 of his mind from worldly things ; his soul, or 
 reasoning faculties, being wholly absorbed in 
 devotion, so that his passions are left without 
 control. Lunatics who are dangerous to 
 society are kept in confinement; but those 
 who are harmless are generally regarded as 
 saints. Most of the reputed saints of Egypt 
 are either lunatics, or idiots, or impostors.” 
 
 IDOLATRY. The word used in 
 
 the Qur’an for idolatry is shirk (o£)jA>),and 
 for an idolater, mushrik (^f***), pi. mushri- 
 kun. In theological works the word wasani 
 * s usecl for an ^ olater ( wa 8 an > an 
 idol), and Hbddatu ’l-ausan 
 
 for idolatry. 
 
 In one of the earliest Surahs of the Qur’an 
 (when chronologically arranged), lii. 35-43, 
 idolatry is condemned in the following lan¬ 
 
 guage :— 
 
 “ Were they created by nothing? or were 
 they the creators of themselves? 
 
 “Created they the Heavens and Earth? 
 Nay, rather, they have no faith. 
 
 “Hold they thy Lord’s treasures? Bear 
 they the rule supreme ? 
 
 “Have they a ladder for hearing the 
 angels ? Let anyone who hath heard them 
 bring a clear proof of it. 
 
 “ Hath God daughters and ye sons ? 
 
 “ Askest thou pay of them ? They are 
 themselves weighed down with debts. 
 
 “ Have they such a knowledge of the secret 
 things that they can write them down? 
 
 “ Desire they to lay snares for thee ? But 
 the snared ones shall be they who do not 
 believe. 
 
 “ Have they any God beside God ? Glory 
 be to God above what they join with Him.” 
 
 But they are. in a later Surah (nearly the 
 last), ix. 28, declared unclean, and forbidden 
 to enter the sacred temple at Makkah. That 
 was after Muhammad had destroyed the 
 idols in his last pilgrimage to the Sacred 
 House. 
 
 “ 0 Believers! only they who join gods 
 with God are unclean! Let them not, there¬ 
 fore, after this their year, come near the 
 sacred temple. And if ye fear want, God, if 
 He please, will enrich you of His abundance: 
 for God is Knowing, Wise.” 
 
 In a Siirah given about the same time 
 (iv. 51, 116), idolatry is declared to be the un¬ 
 pardonable sin:— 
 
 “Verily, God will not forgive the union of 
 other gods with Himself! But other than 
 this will He forgive to whom He pleaseth. 
 And he who uniteh gods with God hath de¬ 
 vised a great wickedness.” 
 
 “ God truly will not forgive the joining 
 other gods with Himself. Other sins He will 
 forgive to whom He will: but he who joineth 
 gods with God, hath erred with far-gone 
 error.” 
 
 Nor is it lawful for Muslims to pray for the 
 souls of idolaters, as is evident from Surah 
 ix. 114:— 
 
 “ It is not for the prophet or the faithful 
 to pray for the forgiveness of those, even 
 though they be of kin, who associate other 
 beings with God, after it hath been made 
 clear to them that they are to be the inmates 
 of Hell. 
 
 “ For neither did Abraham ask forgiveness 
 for his father, but in pursuance of a promise 
 which he had promised to him: but when it 
 was shewn him that he was an enemy to God, 
 he declared himself clear of him. Yet 
 Abraham was pitiful, kind.” 
 
 Sir William Muir says (Int. p. ccxii.) that 
 “ Mahomet is related to have said that Amr 
 son of Lohai (the first Khozaite king, a.d. 
 200) was the earliest who dared to change 
 the ‘ pure religion of Ishmael,’ and set up 
 idols brought from Syria. This, however, is 
 a mere Muslim conceit. The practice of 
 idolatry thickly overspread the whole penin¬ 
 sula from a much more remote period.” 
 
 From the chapters from the Qur’an, already 
 quoted, it will be seen that from the very 
 first Muhammad denounced idolatry. But the 
 weakness of his position compelled him to 
 move cautiously. The expressions contained 
 in the al-Madinah Surahs, given when Mu¬ 
 hammad could not enter Makkah, are much 
 more restrained than those in the Surahs 
 given after the capture of Makkah and the 
 destruction of the idols of the Ka‘bah. 
 
 At an early period (about the fifth year) 
 of his mission, Muhammad seems to have 
 contemplated a compromise and reconciliation 
 with Makkan idolatry. Sir William Muir 
 
IDOLATKY 
 
 IDOLS 
 
 191 
 
 (quoting from at-Tabari, pp. 140-142, and 
 Katibu 7- Waqidi, p. 40), says :— 
 
 “ On a certain day, the chief men of 
 Mecca, assembled in a group beside the Kaaba, 
 discussed, as was their wont, the affairs of 
 the city. Mahomet appeared, and, seating 
 himself by them in a friendly manner, began 
 to recite in their hearing Sura liii. The 
 chapter opens with a description of the first 
 visit of Gabriel to Mahomet, and then un¬ 
 folds a second vision of that angel, in which 
 certain heavenly mysteries were revealed. 
 It then proceeds :— 
 
 And see ye not Lat and Ozza, 
 
 And Manat the third besides ? 
 
 “ When he had reached this verse, the 
 devil suggested to Mahomet an expression of 
 thoughts which had long possessed his soul, 
 and put into his mouth words of reconcilia¬ 
 tion and compromise, the revelation of such 
 as he had been yearning that God might send 
 unto his people, namely:— 
 
 These are the exalted females, 
 
 And verily their intercession is to be hoped 
 for. 
 
 SbThe Coreish were astonished and delighted 
 wrea this acknowledgment of their deities ; 
 and as Mahomet wound up the Sura with the 
 closing words,— 
 
 Wherefore bow down before God, and 
 serve Him, 
 
 the whole assembly prostrated themselves 
 with one accord on the ground and wor¬ 
 shipped. Walid alone, unable from the in¬ 
 firmities of age to bow down, took a handful 
 of earth and worshipped, pressing it to his 
 forehead. 
 
 “ And all the people were pleased at that 
 which Mahomet had spoken, and they began 
 to say, ‘Now we know that it is the Lord 
 alone that giveth life and taketh it away, 
 that createth and supporteth. And as for 
 these our goddesses, make intercession with 
 Him for us ; wherefore, as thou hast con¬ 
 ceded unto them a portion, we are content to 
 follow thee.’ 
 
 “ But their words disquieted Mahomet, and 
 he retired to his house. In the evening 
 Gabriel visited him, and the Prophet (as was 
 his wont) recited the Sura unto him. And 
 Gabriel said, ‘ What is this that thou hast 
 done? thou hast repeated before the people 
 words that I never gave unto thee.’ So Ma¬ 
 homet grieved sore, and feared the Lord 
 greatly; and he said, ‘ I have spoken of God 
 that which he hath not said.’ But the Lord 
 comforted His Prophet, and restored his con¬ 
 fidence, and cancelled the verse, and revealed 
 the true reading thereof (as it now stands), 
 namely:— 
 
 And.see ye not Lat and Ozza, 
 
 And Mankt the third besides ? 
 
 What 1 shall there be male progeny unto 
 you, and female unto him ? 
 
 That were indeed an unjust partition! 
 
 They are naught but names, which ye and 
 your fathers have invented, &c. 
 
 “ Now, when the Coreish heard this, they 
 spoke among themselves, saying, ‘ Mahomet 
 hath repented his favourable mention of the 
 
 rank of our goddesses with the Lord. He 
 hath changed the same, and brought other 
 words instead.’ So the two Satanic verses 
 were in the mouth of every one of the unbe¬ 
 lievers, and they increased their malice, and 
 stirred them up to persecute the faithful with 
 still greater severity.” (Sir W. Muir’s Life 
 of Mahomet, new ed. p. 86, seqq.) 
 
 The Commentators do not refer to this cir¬ 
 cumstance, and pious Muhammadans would 
 reject the whole story, but, as Sir W. Muir 
 says, “ the authorities are too strong to be 
 impugned.” 
 
 These narratives of at-Tabari and the 
 secretary of al-Waqidi are fully borne out in 
 the facts of Muhammad’s subsequent com¬ 
 promise with the idolatrous feelings of the 
 people ; for whilst he removed the images 
 from the Ka‘bah, he at the same time x'etained 
 the black stone as an object of superstitious 
 reverenco, and although he destroyed Isaf and 
 Na'ilah, the deities of as-Safa and al-Marwah, 
 he still retained the “runnings to and fro,” 
 and the “ stonings of the pillars,” as part of 
 the sacred rites of what was intended to be a 
 purely theistic and iconoclastic system. The 
 most singular feature in the fetichism of 
 Arabia was the adoration paid to unshapen 
 stones, and Muhammad found it impossible 
 to construct his religion without some com¬ 
 promise with the popular form of idolatry. 
 It is a curious circumstance that so much of 
 the zeal and bigotry of the Wahhabi puri¬ 
 tans is directed against the shirk, or idolatry, 
 of the popular veneration for tombs and other 
 objects of adoration, and yet they see no ob¬ 
 jection to the adoration of the black stone, 
 and those other strange and peculiar customs 
 which form part of the rites of the Makkan 
 pilgrimage. 
 
 IDOLS. Arabic ivasan (y^), pi. 
 ausdn, also sanam pi. asnam, 
 
 both words being used in the Qur’an. Ten of 
 the idols of ancient Arabia are mentioned by 
 name in the Qur’an, viz.:— 
 
 Surah iv. 52: “ Hast thou not observed 
 those to whom a part of the Scriptures hath 
 been given? They believe in al-Jibt and 
 at-Taghut, and say of the infidels, ‘ These are 
 guided in a better path than those who hold 
 the faith.’ ” 
 
 Surah liii. 19: “ Have ye considered al-Lat, 
 al-‘ Uzza, and Manat the third ? ” 
 
 Surah lxxi. 21: “ They have plotted a great 
 plot and said, “ Ye shall surely not leave your 
 gods : ye shall surely neither leave Wadd, nor 
 Suwa‘, nor Yaqhus, nor Ya l uq, nor Nasr, and 
 they led astray many.” 
 
 Al-Jibt and at-Taghut (the latter also men¬ 
 tioned in Surah ii. 257, 259) were, according to 
 Jalalu ’d-dln, two idols of the Quraish whom 
 certain renegade Jews honoured in order to 
 please the Quraish. 
 
 Al-Lat was the chief idol of the Banu 
 Saqlf at at-Ta’if. The name appears to be 
 the feminine of Allah, God. 
 
 Al- TJzza has been identified with Venus, but 
 it was worshipped under the form of an acacia 
 tree, and was the deity of the Banu Ghatafan. 
 
IDRIS 
 
 C IDTJ ’L-AZHA 
 
 192 
 
 Manat, was a large sacrificial stone wor¬ 
 shipped by the Banu Khuza‘ah and Banu 
 Huzail. 
 
 The five idols, Wadd, Suwa‘, Yaghus, 
 Ydt-uq, and Nasr, the commentators say, 
 were originally five persons of eminence in 
 the time of Adam, who after their deaths 
 were worshipped in the form of idols. 
 
 Wadd was worshipped by the Banu Kalb 
 in the form of a man, and is said to have re¬ 
 presented heaven. 
 
 Suwa i was a female deity of the Banu 
 Hamdan. 
 
 Yaghus was a deity of the Banu Mazhij 
 and in the form of a lion. 
 
 Ya i uq was an idol of the Banu Murad in 
 the shape of a horse. 
 
 Nasr was, as its name implies, an image 
 of an eagle, and worshipped by Himyar. 
 
 It is said (according to Burkhardt, p. 1G4-) 
 that at the time of Muhammad’s suppression 
 of idol worship in the Makkan temple, there 
 were not fewer than 360 idols in existence. 
 
 The chief of the minor deities was Hubal, 
 an image of a man, and said to have been 
 originally brought from Syria. Other well- 
 known idols were Isaf, an idol on Mount 
 as-Safa, and Na’ilah, an image on Mount al- 
 Marwah, as part of the rites of the pilgrimage, 
 the Prophet not being able to divert entirely 
 the regard of the people for them. 
 
 Habhah was a large sacred stone on which 
 camels were sacrificed, and the Hagaru 7- 
 Aswad, or Black Stone, was an object, as it 
 still is, of idolatrous worship. In the Ka‘bah 
 there were also images representing Abraham 
 and Ishmael, each with divining arrows in his 
 hand. 
 
 The statement, made by some writers, that 
 the image or picture of Jesus and Mary had 
 a place in the Ka‘bah, seems to be without 
 any authority. 
 
 Although Herodotus does not refer to the 
 Ka‘bah, yet he mentions as one of the chief 
 divinities of Arabia Alilat, which is strong 
 evidence of the existence of an idol called 
 al-Lat at that time as an object of worship. 
 (Herod, iii. 8.) [idolatry.] 
 
 IDRIS A prophet men¬ 
 
 tioned twice in the Qur’an, about whose 
 identity there is some discussion. 
 
 Surah xix. 57: “ Commemorate Idris in 
 the Book ; verily he was a man of truth and 
 a Prophet, and we raised him to a lofty 
 place.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 85 ; “ And Ishmael, and Idris, 
 and Zu ’1-kifl—all steadfast in patience.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says Idris was of the posterity 
 of Shis (Seth), and a forefather of Noah, and 
 his name was Uhnukh (Enoch, Heb. Tpan. 
 
 Consecrated). He was called Idris from dars, 
 “ to instruct,” from his knowledge of divine 
 mysteries, and thirty portions of Gods sacred 
 scriptures were revealed to him. He was 
 the first person who learned to write, and 
 he was the inventor of the science of astro¬ 
 nomy and arithmetic. 
 
 Husain says, “In the Jdmi‘u ’l-Usul, it is 
 
 written that Idris was born one hundred 
 years after the death of Adam.” 
 
 The Jalalan say the meaning of the words 
 in the Qur’an, “ we raised him to a lofty place” 
 is that he liveth either in the fourth heaven, 
 or in the sixth or seventh heaven, or that he 
 was raised up from the dead and taken to 
 Paradise. 
 
 The Kamalan say, “ In the book called the 
 Rauzatu ’l-Ahbab, Ibn Jarir relates that Idris 
 was the special friend of one of the angels 
 of heaven, and that this angel took him up 
 into the heavens, and when they arrived in 
 the fourth heaven they met the Angel of 
 Death. The angel asked the Angel of Death 
 how many years there were remaining of the 
 life of Idris ; and the Angel of Death said, 
 ‘ Where is Idris, for I have received orders 
 to bring death to him ? ’ Idris then remained 
 in the fourth heaven, and he died in the wings 
 of his angel friend who had taken him from 
 earth.” 
 
 Some of the Commentators think Idris and 
 Elijah (Ilyas) are the same persons. But the 
 accounts given seem to identify him with 
 Enoch. 
 
 ‘IDU ’L-AZHA ( 0 ^juc). Vulg. 
 
 ‘Id-i-Zu/ia, “ The feast of sacrifice.” Called 
 also Yaumu 'n-Na.hr ; Qurban-‘Id ; Baqarah-‘Id 
 (i.e. the cow festival); and in Turkey and 
 Egypt ‘■Idu Bairarn. It is also called the ‘Idu 
 ’l-kabir , the great festival, as distinguished 
 from the ‘Idu ’l-Fitr, which is called the minor 
 festival, or al-'-Idu 's-saghir. 
 
 It is celebrated on the tenth day of Zu 
 T-Hijjah, and is part of the rites of the 
 Makkan pilgrimage, although it is observed as 
 well in all parts of Islam both as a day of 
 sacrifice and as a great festival. It is founded 
 on an injunction in the Qur’an, Surah xxii. 
 33-38. 
 
 “ This do. And they who respect the sym¬ 
 bols of God, perform an action which pro- 
 ceedeth from piety of heart. 
 
 “ Ye may obtain advantages from the cattle 
 up to the set time for slaying them ; then, the 
 place for sacrificing them is at the ancient 
 House. 
 
 “ And to every people have we appointed 
 symbols, that they may commemorate the 
 name of God over the brute beasts which He 
 hath provided for them. And your God is 
 the one God. To Him, therefore, surrender 
 yourselves : and bear thou good tidings to 
 those who humble themselves,— 
 
 “ Whose hearts, when mention is made of 
 God, thrill with awe; and to those who remain 
 steadfast under all that befalleth them, and 
 observe prayer, and give alms of that with 
 which we have supplied them. 
 
 “ And the camels have we appointed you 
 for the sacrifice to God: much good have ye 
 in them. Make mention, therefore, of the 
 name of God over them when ye slay them, as 
 they stand in a row ; and when they are fallen 
 over on their sides, eat of them, and feed him 
 who is content and asketh not, and him who 
 asketh. Thus have We subjected them to 
 you, to the intent ye should be thankful. 
 
193 
 
 C IDU ’L-AZHA 
 
 “ By no means can their flesh reach unto 
 God, neither their blood ; but piety on your 
 part reachoth Him. Thus hath He subjected 
 them to you, that ye might magnify God for His 
 guidance : moreover, announce glad tidings to 
 those who do good deeds.” 
 
 The institution of the sacrifice was as 
 follows :—A few months after the Hijrah, or 
 flight from Makkah, Muhammad, dwelling in 
 al-Madlnah, observed that the Jews kept, on 
 the tenth day of the seventh month, tho great 
 fast of the Atonement. A tradition records 
 that the Prophet asked them why they kept 
 this fast. Ho was informed that it was a 
 memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the 
 children of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. 
 “ We have a greater right in Moses than 
 they,” said Muhammad, so he fasted with the 
 Jews and commanded his followers to fast 
 also. This was at the period of his mission 
 when Muhammad was friendly with the Jews 
 of al-Madlnah, who occasionally came to hear 
 him preach. The Prophet also occasionally 
 attended the synagogue. Then came the 
 change of tho Qiblah from Jerusalem to 
 Makkah, for the Jews were not so ready to 
 change their creed as Muhammad had at 
 rirst hoped. In the second year of the Hijrah, 
 Muhammad and his followers did not partici¬ 
 pate in the Jewish fast, for the Prophet now 
 instituted the ‘ldu’l-Azha. The idolatrous 
 Arabs had been in the habit of making an 
 annual pilgrimage to Makkah at this season 
 of the year. The offering of animals in 
 sacrifice formed a part of the concluding 
 ceremony of that pilgrimage. That portion 
 — the sacrifice of animals —• Muhammad 
 adopted in the feast which now, at al- 
 Madlnah, he substituted for the Jewish fast. 
 This was well calculated to attract the atten¬ 
 tion of the Makkans and to gain the goodwill 
 of the Arabs. Muhammad could not then 
 make the pilgrimage to Makkah, for as yet 1 
 there was a hostile feeling between the in¬ 
 habitants of the two cities; but on the tenth 
 day of the month Zu ’1-Hijjah, at the very 
 time when the Arabs at Makkah were engaged 
 in sacrificing*.victims, Muhammad went forth 
 from his house at al-Madlnah, and assembling 
 his followers instituted the ‘Idu ’1-Azha. Two 
 young kids were brought before him. One 
 he sacrificed and said : “ 0 Lord ! I sacrifice 
 this for my whole people, all those who bear 
 witness to Thy unity and to my mission. 
 0 Lord ! this is for Muhammad and for the 
 family of Muhammad.” 
 
 Thei-e is nothing in the Qur’an to connect 
 this sacrifice with the history of Ishmael, but 
 it is generally held by Muhammadans to have 
 been instituted in commemoration of Abra¬ 
 ham’s willingness to offer up his son as a 
 sacrifice. And Muhammadan writers gener¬ 
 ally maintain that the son was Ishmael and 
 not Isaac, and that the scene took place on 
 Mount Mina near Makkah, and not in the 
 land of Moriah, as is stated in Genesis. 
 
 The following is the account given by Mu¬ 
 hammadan writers :—“ When Ibrahim (the 
 peace of God be upon him) founded Makkah, 
 the Lord desired him to prepare- a feast for 
 
 ‘IDU ’L-AZHA 
 
 Him. Upon Ibrahim’s (the friend of God) 
 requesting to know what He would have on 
 the occasion, the Lord repljed, ‘ Offer up thy 
 son Isma‘11.’ Agreeably to God’s command 
 he took Isma‘11 to the Ka‘bah to sacrifice 
 him, and having laid him down, he made 
 several ineffectual strokes on his throat with 
 a knife, on which Isma‘11 observed, ‘Your 
 eyes being uncovered, it is through pity and 
 compassion for me you allow the knife to 
 miss: it would be better if you blindfolded 
 yourself with the end of your turban and 
 then sacrificed me.’ Ibrahim acted upon his 
 son's suggestion and having repeated the 
 words ‘ Bi-smi ’llahi, alla.hu akbar ’ (i.e. ‘ In the 
 name of God! God is great! ’), he drew 
 the knife across his son’s neck. In the mean¬ 
 while, however, Gabriel had substituted a 
 broad-tailed sheep for the youth Isma‘11, and 
 Ibrahim unfolding his eyes observed, to his 
 surprise, the sheep slain, and his son standing 
 behind him.” (See Qisasu ’l-Ambiya ’.) 
 
 It is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad 
 professed to abrogate the Jewish ritual, and 
 also ignored entirely the doctrine of the 
 Atonement as taught in the New Testament, 
 denying even the very fact of our Saviour’s 
 crucifixion, he made the “ day of sacrifice ” 
 the great central festival of his religion. 
 
 There is a very remarkable Hadis, related 
 by •Ayishah, who states that Muhammad 
 said, “ Man hath not done anything on the 
 ‘ldu’l-Azha more pleasing to God than spill¬ 
 ing blood; for verily the animal sacrificed 
 will come, on the day of resurrection, with 
 its horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will 
 make the scale of his (good) actions heavy. 
 Verily its blood reacheth the acceptance of 
 God, before it falleth upon the ground, there¬ 
 fore be joyful in it.” ( Mishkat , book iv. 
 ch. xlii. sec. 2.) 
 
 Muhammad has thus become a witness to 
 the doctrine of the Christian faith that “ with¬ 
 out shedding of blood, there is no remission.” 
 The animal sacrificed must be without blemish, 
 and of full age; but it may be either a goat, 
 a sheep, a cow, or a camel. 
 
 The religious part of the festival is observed 
 as follows :—The people assemble in the morn¬ 
 ing for prayer, in the ‘Idgah, or place erected 
 outside the city for these special festival 
 prayers. The whole congregation then stand¬ 
 ing in the usual order, the Imam takes his 
 place in front of them and leads them in two 
 rak‘ahs of prayer. After prayers the Imam 
 ascends the mimbar or pulpit and delivers a 
 Khutbah. or oration, on the subject of the 
 festival. 
 
 We are indebted to Mr. Sell for the fol¬ 
 lowing specimen of the Khutbah:— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful. 
 
 “ God is Great. There is no God but God. 
 God is Great! God is Great and worthy of 
 all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we 
 should praise Him. He is without partner, 
 without equal. All praise be to Him. Holy 
 is He, Who makes the rich generous; Who 
 provides the sacrifice for the wise.- -He is 
 Great, without an equal. All praise be to 
 
 25 
 
194 
 
 IDTT ’L-AZHA 
 
 ‘iDU ’L-FITR 
 
 Him. Listen! I testify that there is no God 
 but God. He is alone, without partner. This 
 testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as 
 brilliant as the glorious feast day. Muham¬ 
 mad is His servant who delivered His message. 
 On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his 
 Companions may the peace of God rest. On 
 you who are present, 0 congregation of 
 Muslimln, may the mercy of God for ever 
 rest. O servants of God! our first duty is to 
 fear God and to be kind. God has said, ‘ I will 
 be with those who fear Me and are kind.’ 
 
 ‘■Know, O servants of God! that to rejoice 
 on the feast day is the sign and mark of the 
 pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of 
 such in Paradise, especially on the day of 
 resurrection will they obtain dignity and 
 honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It 
 is no time for amusements and negligence. 
 This is the day on which to utter the praises 
 of God. Read the Kalimah, the Takblr and 
 the Tamhid. This is a high festival season 
 and the feast of sacrifice. Read now the 
 Takbiru ’t-Tashriq. God is great! God is 
 great! There is no God but God ! God is 
 great! God is great! All praise be to Him ! 
 From the morning of the ‘Arafah, after every 
 farz rak‘ah, it is good for a person to repeat 
 the Takbiru’t-Tashriq. The woman before 
 whom is a man as Imam, and the traveller 
 whose Imam is a permanent resident, should 
 also repeat this Takblr. It should be said at 
 each Namaz until the Salatu’l-‘Asr of the 
 Feast day (10th). Some, however, say that 
 it should be recited every day till the after¬ 
 noon of the thirteenth day, as these are the 
 days of the Tashrlq. If the Imam forgets 
 to recite, let not the worshipper forget. 
 Know, 0 believers, that every free man who 
 is a Sahib-i-Nisab should offer sacrifice on 
 this day, provided that this sum is exclusive 
 of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his 
 household goods and slaves. It is wajib for 
 everyone to offer sacrifice for himself, but it 
 is not a wajib order that he should do it for 
 his children. A goat, a ram, or a cow. should 
 be offered in sacrifice for every seven persons. 
 The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame, 
 or very thin. 
 
 “ If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve 
 you well, and carry you across the Sirat. 
 O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom 
 be the mercy and peace of God, 1 Sacrifice 
 the victim with your own hands, this was the 
 Sunnah of Ibrahim, on whom be peace.’ 
 
 “ In the Kitabu Zadi 't-Taqwa it is said 
 that, on the Tdu’l-Fitr and the ‘ldu ’1-Azha, 
 four nafl rak‘ahs should be said after the farz 
 Namaz of the ‘Id. In the first rak‘ah after 
 the Suratu ’1-Fatihah recite the Siiratu ’1-A‘la 
 (Surah Ixxvii) ; in the second, the Suratu ’sh- 
 Shams (Surah xci.); in the third, the Suratu 
 ’z-Zuha (Surah xciii.) ; in the fourth, the 
 Suratu ’1-Ikhlas (cxii.). 
 
 “ O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon 
 the sins of fifty years which are past and of 
 fifty years to come. The reading of these 
 Surahs is equal, as an act of merit, to the 
 reading of all the books God has sent by His 
 prophets. 
 
 “ May God include us amongst those who 
 are accepted by Him, who act according to 
 the Law, whose desire will be granted at the 
 Last Day. To all such there will be no fear 
 in the Day of Resurrection: no sorrow in the 
 examination at the Day of Judgment. The 
 best of all books is the Qur’an. 0 believers ! 
 May God give to us and to you a blessing for 
 ever, by the grace of the Noble Qur’an. May 
 its verses be our guide, and may its wise 
 mention of God direct us aright. I desire 
 that God may pardon all believers, male and 
 female, the Muslimln and the Muslimat. 
 0 believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God 
 is the Forgiver, the Merciful, the Eternal 
 King, the Compassionate, the Clement. 0 be¬ 
 lievers, the Khutbah is over. Let all desire 
 that on Muhammad Mustafa the mercy and 
 peace of God may rest.” 
 
 The Khutbah being ended, the people all 
 return to their homes. The head of the 
 family then takes a sheep, or a cow, or a 
 goat, or camel, and turning its head towards 
 Makkah says : 
 
 “ In the name of the great God. 
 
 “ Verily, my prayers, my sacrifice, my life, 
 my death, belong to God, the Lord of the 
 worlds. He has no partner: that is what I 
 am bidden: for I am first of those who are 
 Muslim (i.e. resigned).” 
 
 And then he slays the animal. The flesh of 
 the animal is then divided into three portions, 
 one third being given to relations, one third 
 to the poor, and the remaining third reserved 
 for the family. Quite apart from its religious 
 ceremonies, the festival is observed as a great 
 time of rejoicing, and the holiday is kept for 
 two or three days in a similar way to that of 
 the minor festival or the “ldu ’l-Fitr. [hajj, 
 
 ISHMAEL, SACRIFICE.] 
 
 ‘IDU ’L-FITR (,k_a_n Lit. 
 
 “ The Festival of the Breaking of the Fast.” 
 It is called also Tdu Ramazan, the Tdu 
 's-Sadaqah (Feast of Alms), and the‘/c?w’.s- 
 saghir (Minor Festival). It commences as 
 soon as the month’s fast in Ramazan is 
 over, and consequently on the first day of the 
 month of Shawwal. It is specially a feast of 
 alms-giving. “Bring out your alms,” said 
 Ibn ‘Abbas, “ for the Prophet has ordained 
 this as a divine institution, one Sa‘ of barley 
 or dates, or a half Sa‘ of wheat: this is for 
 every person, free or bond, man or woman, 
 old or young, to purify thy fast (i.e. the 
 month’s fast just concluded) of any obscene 
 language, and to give victuals to the poor.” 
 (Mishkdt, book vi. ch. iii.) 
 
 On this festival the people, having pre¬ 
 viously distributed the alms which are called 
 the Sadaqatu 'l-Fitr, assemble in the vast 
 assembly outside the city in the ldgah, and, 
 being led by the Imam, recite two rak‘ahs 
 of prayer. After prayers the Imam ascends 
 the mimbar, or pulpit, and delivers the khut- 
 bah, or oration. We are indebted to Mr. Sell 
 for the following specimen of one of these 
 sermons:— 
 
 “ In the name of God. the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful. 
 
C IDU ’L-FITR 
 
 195 
 
 “ Holy is God who has opened the door of 
 mercy for those who fast, and in mercy and 
 kindness has granted them the right of en¬ 
 trance into heaven. God is greater than all. 
 There is no God save Him. God is great! 
 God is great! and worthy of praise. It is of 
 His grace and favour that He rewards those 
 who keep the fast. He has said: 1 1 will 
 give in the future world houses and palaces, 
 and many excellent blessings to those who 
 fast. God is great 1 God is great! Holy is 
 He who certainly sent the Qur’an to our Pro¬ 
 phet in the month of Ramazan, and who sends 
 angels to grant peace to all true believers. 
 God is great ! and worthy of all praise. We : 
 praise and thank Him for the ‘Idu '1-Fitr, ■ 
 that great blessing ; and we testify that lie- 
 side Him there is no God. He is alone. He I 
 has no partner. This witness which we give 
 to His Unity will be a cause of our safety i 
 here, and finally gain us an entrance to Para¬ 
 dise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy 
 and peace of God) and all famous prophets 
 are His slaves. Ho is the Lord of genii and 
 of men. From Him comes mercy and peace 
 upon Muhammad and his family, so long as 
 the world shall last. God is greater than all. 
 There is none beside Him. God is great! 
 God is great ! and worthy of all praise. O 
 company of Believers, O congregation of 
 Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on 
 you. He says that this Feast day is a bless¬ 
 ing to you, and a curse to the unbelievers. 
 Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your 
 prayers will be stayed in their flight to hea¬ 
 ven until you have given the sadaqah. 0 con¬ 
 gregation of Believers, to give alms is to you 
 a wajib duty. Give to the poor some mea¬ 
 sures of grain or its money equivalent. Your 
 duty in Ramazan was to say the Tarawih 
 prayers, to make supplication to God, to sit 
 and meditate (i i tikaf') and to read the Qur’an. 
 The religious duties of the first ten days of 
 Ramazan gain the mercy of God, those of the 
 second ten merit His pardon: whilst those of 
 the last ten save those who do them from 
 the punishment of hell. God has declared 
 that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one 
 of its nights, the Lailatu ’1-Qadr, better than a 
 thousand months ? On that night Gabriel 
 and the angels descended from heaven : till 
 the morning breaks it is full of blessing. Its 
 eloquent interpreter, and its clearest proof is 
 the Qur’an, the Word of God, most Gracious. 
 Holy is God who says in the Qur’an : ‘ This 
 is a guide for men, a distinguisher between 
 right and wrong.’ 0 Believers, in such a 
 month be present, obey the order of your 
 God, and fast; but let the sick and the tra¬ 
 vellers substitute some other days on which 
 to fast, so that no days be lost, and say: ‘ God 
 is great! ’ and praise Him. God has made 
 the fast easy for you. 0 Believers, God will 
 bless you and us by the grace of the Holy 
 Qur’an. Every verse of it is a benefit to us 
 and fills us with wisdom. God is the Be- 
 stower, the Holy King, the Munificent, the 
 Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful, the Cle¬ 
 ment.” 
 
 The Khutbah being ended, the whole con- 
 
 IDTJ L-FITR 
 
 grogation raise their hands and offer a mund- 
 jat for the remission of sins, the recovery of 
 the sick, increase of rain, abundance of corn, 
 preservation from misfortune, and freedom 
 from debt. The Imam then descends to the 
 ground, and makes further supplication for 
 the people, the congregation saying “ Amin ” 
 at the end of each supplication. At the close 
 of the service the members of the congrega¬ 
 tion salute and embrace each other, and offer 
 mutual congratulations, and then return to 
 their homes, and spend the rest of the day in 
 feasting and merriment. 
 
 Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali, in her Observations 
 on the Musalmans of India, says :— 
 
 “ The assemblies of the ladies on this fes¬ 
 tival are marked by all the amusements and 
 indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy 
 in their secluded state. Some receiving, 
 others paying visits in covered conveyances ; 
 all doing honour to the day by wearing their 
 best jewellery and most splendid dress. The 
 Zananah rings with festive songs and loud 
 music, the cheerful meeting of friends, the 
 distribution of presents to dependants, and re¬ 
 membrances to the poor; all is life and joy, 
 cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy 
 day of festival, when the good lady of the 
 mansion sits in state to receive presents from 
 inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to 
 others.” 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. 
 p. 238, thus describes the ‘Idu ’1-Fitr, as 
 kept in Egypt:— 
 
 “ Soon after sunrise on the first day, the 
 people having all dressed in new, or in their 
 best clothes, the men assemble in the 
 mosques, and perform the prayers of two 
 rek’ahs, a Soonneh ordinance of the 'eed ; 
 after which, the Khateeb delivers an exhorta¬ 
 tion. Friends, meeting in the mosque, or in 
 the street, or in each other’s houses, congra¬ 
 tulate and embrace and kiss each other. They 
 generally visit each other for this purpose. 
 Some, even of the lower classes, dress them¬ 
 selves entirely in a new suit of clothes, and 
 almost everyone wears something new, if it be 
 only a pair of shoes. The servant is presented 
 with at least one new article of clothing by 
 the master, and receives a few piasters from 
 each of his master’s friends, if they visit the 
 house; or even goes to those friends to con¬ 
 gratulate them, and receives his present; if 
 he have served a former master, he also visits 
 him, and is in like manner rewarded for his 
 trouble; and sometimes he brings a present 
 of a dish of sweet cakes, and obtains, in re¬ 
 turn, money of twice the value, or more. On 
 the days of this ’eed, most of the people of 
 Cairo eat salted fish, and thin, folded pan¬ 
 cakes, and a kind of bun. Some families also 
 prepare a dish consisting of stewed meat, 
 with onions, and a quantity of treacle, vine¬ 
 gar, and coarse flour; and the master usually 
 procures dried fruits, such as nuts, raisins, 
 &c., for his family. Most of the shops in the 
 metropolis are closed, except those at which 
 eatables and sherbet are sold; but the streets 
 present a gay appearance, from the crowds 
 of passengers in their holiday clothes 
 
196 ‘TPTJ ’l-fite 
 
 “ On one or more days of this festival, some 
 or all of the members of most families, but 
 chiefly the women, visit the tombs of their 
 relatives. This they also do on the occasion 
 of the other grand festival. [‘ldu ’l- azha.] 
 The visitors, or their servants, carry palm 
 branches, and sometimes sweet basil, to lay 
 upon the tomb which they go to visit. The 
 palm-branch is broken into several pieces, 
 and these, or the leaves only, are placed on 
 the tomb. 
 
 “Numerous groups of women are seen on 
 these occasions, hearing palm-branches, on 
 their way to the cemeteries in the neighbour¬ 
 hood of the metropolis. They are also pro¬ 
 vided, according to their circumstances, with 
 cakes, bread, dates, or some other kind of 
 food, to distribute to the poor who resort to 
 the burial-ground on these days. Sometimes 
 tents are pitched for them; the tents sur¬ 
 round the tomb which is the object of the 
 visit. The visitors recite the Fat’hhah, or, 
 if they can afford it, employ a person to recite 
 first the Soorat Ya’-Seen, or a larger portion 
 of the Kuran. Often a khutmeh (or recital of 
 the whole of the Quran) is performed at the 
 tomb, or in tbe house, by several fickees. 
 Then men generally return immediately after 
 these rites have been performed, and the frag¬ 
 ments or leaves of the palm-branch laid on 
 the tomb : the women usually go to the tomb 
 early in the morning, and do not return until 
 the afternoon; some of them (hut these are 
 not generally esteemed women of correct 
 conduct), if they have a tent, pass the night 
 in it, and remain until the end of the festi¬ 
 val, or until the afternoon of the following 
 Friday; so, too, do the women of a family 
 possessed of a private, enclosed burial- 
 ground, with a house within it, for there are 
 many such enclosures, and not a few with 
 houses for the accommodation of the females 
 in the midst of the public cemeteries of 
 Cairo. Intrigues are said to be not uncom¬ 
 mon with the females who spend the night in 
 tents among the tombs. The great cemetery 
 of Bab en-Nusr, in the desert tract imme¬ 
 diately on the north of the metropolis, pre¬ 
 sents a remarkable scene on the two ’eeds. 
 In a part nest the city-gate from which the 
 burial-ground takes its name, many swings 
 and whirligigs are erected, and several large 
 tents, in some of which dancers, reciters of 
 Aboo-Zeyd, and other performers, amuse a 
 dense crowd of spectators; and throughout 
 the burial-ground are seen numerous tents 
 for the reception of the visitors of the tombs. 
 About two or three days after the ’eed above 
 described, the ‘ Kisweh,’ or covering of the 
 Kaabeh, which is sent annually with the 
 great caravan of pilgrims, is conveyed in pro¬ 
 cession from the citadel of the metropolis, 
 where it is manufactured at the Sooltan’s 
 expense, to the mosque of the Hhasaneyn, 
 to be sewed together and lined, preparatively 
 to the approaching pilgrimage.” [kiswah.] 
 The visiting of tombs on the occasion of 
 the two festivals is not a custom in India. 
 It is generally done in the Muharram, both 
 by the Sunnis and the Shbahs 
 
 IHSAN 
 
 ‘IFFAH (&nc). “ Chastity, conti¬ 
 
 nence, purity.” Ahlu ‘iffah , “those who are 
 chaste.” 
 
 ‘IFRlT A demon, or class 
 
 of demons, mentioned in the Qur’an (Surah 
 xxvii. 39). They are said to be giants, and 
 very malicious. The ghosts of the wicked 
 dead are sometimes called by this name. 
 [genii.] 
 
 IFTAR Lit. “ Breaking.” 
 
 Breaking the month’s fast on the evening of 
 the ‘ldu ’1-Fitr, that is, at the first sight of 
 the new moon, after sunset. It is also used 
 for breaking the fast every evening after sun¬ 
 set during tbe month of Ramazan. It is, ac¬ 
 cording to tbe example of tbe Propbet, to 
 break the fast by eating either dates or salt. 
 
 IHDAl) (jUI), The period of 
 
 mourning observed by a widow for her hus¬ 
 band, namely, four months and ten days. 
 [mourning.] 
 
 IHLAL Lit. “ Raising the 
 
 voice.” A term used for the Talbiyah. 
 [talbiyah.] 
 
 IHRAM (fVd)- Lit. “Prohibit¬ 
 ing.” The pilgrim’s dress, and also the state 
 in which the pilgrim is held to be from the 
 time he assumes this distinctive garb until 
 he lays it aside. It consists of two new 
 white cotton cloths, each six feet long by 
 three and a half broad. One of these sheets, 
 termed ridd ’ is thrown over the back, and, 
 exposing the arm and shoulder, is knotted at 
 the right side in the style called wishah. 
 The other, called izar, is wrapped round the 
 loins from the waist to the knee, and knotted 
 or tucked in at the middle. 
 
 In the state of ihram, the pilgrim is for¬ 
 bidden the following actions : connection with 
 or kissing women, covering the face, per¬ 
 fumes, hunting or slaying animals, anoint¬ 
 ing the head with oil, cutting the beard or 
 shaving the head, colouring the clothes, wash¬ 
 ing the head or beard with marsh mallows, 
 cutting the nails, plucking a blade of grass, 
 cutting a green tree. But although the pil¬ 
 grim is not allowed to hunt or slay animals, 
 he may kill jthe following noxious creatures : 
 a lion, a biting dog, a snake or scorpion, a 
 crow, a kite, and a rat. For each offence 
 against the rules of ihram, special sacrifices 
 are ordained, according to the offence. 
 [hajj.] 
 
 IHSAN ( 0 V—). Lit. “ To confer 
 
 favours, or to perform an action in a perfect 
 manner.” A term used in the Traditions for 
 the sincere worship of God. Muhammad 
 said Ihsan was “ both to worship God as if 
 thou sawest Him, and to remember that God 
 seest thee.” ( Mishlcat , book i. ch. i. pt. 1.) 
 The word is used in this sense by the Sufi 
 mystics. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq's Diet, of $ufi 
 Terms.) 
 
 IHSAN ( a W). Lit. “ Keeping a 
 
 wife secluded.” A legal term for a married 
 man. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. p. 49.) 
 
IJTIHAD 
 
 IHSAEU ’L-HA.JJ 
 
 IHSARU ’L-HAJJ (gjt ;^\). Tlae 
 
 hindering of the Pilgrimage. For example : 
 If a pilgrim he stopped on his way by any 
 unforeseen circumstance, such as sickness or 
 accident, he is required to send an animal to 
 be sacrificed at the Sacred City. (Hidayah , 
 Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 184.) This injunction is 
 founded upon the teaching of the Qur’an, 
 Surah ii. 192. “And if he be prevented, then 
 send whatever offering shall he easiest: and 
 shave not your heads until the offering reach 
 the place of sacrifice. But whoever among 
 you is sick, or hath an ailment of the head, 
 must expiate by fasting, or alms, or a victim 
 for sacrifice. And when ye are secure (from 
 hindrances) then he who delights in the visi¬ 
 tation (‘ Uinrah') of the holy place until the 
 Pilgrimage, shall bring whatever offering shall 
 be the easiest. But he who hath nothing to 
 offer shall fast three days in the Pilgrimage 
 and seven days -when ye return : they shall 
 be ten days in all.” 
 
 IHTIKAR (Hoarding up 
 
 grain with the object of raising the price. 
 Used for monopoly of all kinds. Abu Hani- 
 fah restricts its use to a monopoly of the 
 necessaries of life. It is strictly forbidden 
 by Muhammad, who is related to have said: 
 “ Whoever monopoliseth is a sinner ”; “ Those 
 who bring grain to a city to sell at a cheap 
 rate are blessed, and they who keep it back 
 in order to sell at a high rate are cursed.” 
 ( Mishkaf , book xii. ch. viii.) 
 
 IHTILAM (j*!k;*A). Pollutio hoc- 
 
 turnu ; after which yhusl, or legal bathing, is 
 absolutely necessary. [purification.] 
 
 IHTIMAM (pU-yfc\). “ Superin¬ 
 tendence ; care.” The trust or jurisdiction of 
 a landowner over certain portions of land. 
 
 ihyAu ’l-mawAt 
 
 Lit. “ The revival of dead lands.” A legal 
 term for the cultivation of wastes. 
 
 IHZAR (jUed). A summons citing 
 
 to appear before a Qazi or Judge. 
 
 IJAB The first proposal 
 
 made by one of the parties in negociating or 
 concluding a bargain, [marriage.] 
 
 IJARAH (ijWl). Price, hire, wages, 
 
 rent, profit, emolument, according to the sub¬ 
 ject to which it applies, [hire.] 
 
 IJMA‘ (gWl). The third founda¬ 
 tion of Islam. It literally means “ collecting,” 
 or “ assembling,” and in Muslim divinity it 
 expresses the unanimous consent of the Muj¬ 
 tahidun (learned doctors); or, as we should 
 call it, “ the unanimous consent of the 
 Fathers.” A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of 
 the highest degree of learning, a title usually 
 conferred by Muslim rulers, [mujtahid.] 
 There are three foundations of Ijmd -: (1) 
 Ittifaq-i-Qauli, unanimous consent expressed 
 in declaration of opinion ; (2) Ittifaq-i-FiHl 
 expressed in unanimity of practice ; (3) Ittifaq- 
 
 197 
 
 i-tSakuti , when the majority of the Mujtahidun 
 signified their tacit assent to the opinions of 
 the minority by “ silence ” or non-interference. 
 
 The Mujtahidun capable of making Ijmd- 
 must be “ men of learning and piety, not 
 heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment.” 
 
 There is great diversity of opinion as to up 
 to what period in the history of Islam Ijmd- 
 can be accepted. Some doctors assert that 
 only the Ijmd 1 of the Mujtahidun who were 
 Ashdb (companions) ; others, that of those 
 who were not only “ companions ” but •• de¬ 
 scendants” of the “Prophet,” can be ac¬ 
 cepted ; whilst others accept the Ijmd ‘ of the 
 rinsd/'s (helpers), and of the Muliajirun (fugi¬ 
 tives), who were dwellers in al-Madlnah with 
 Muhammad. The majority of learned Muslim 
 divines, however, appear to think that Ijmd 1 
 may be collected in every age, although they 
 admit that, owing to the numerous divisions 
 which have arisen amongst Muhammadans, 
 it has not been possible since the days of the 
 Taba‘it ’t-Tdbvin (i.e. the followers of the 
 followers of the Companions). 
 
 The following is considered to be the rela¬ 
 tive value of Ijmd- :— 
 
 That of the Ashdb (companions) is equal 
 to Hadis Mutawatir. That which was de¬ 
 cided afterwards, but in accordance with the 
 unanimous opinion of the Ashab, is equal to 
 Hadis-i - Khabar - i - Mashhur, and that upon 
 which there was diversity of opinion amongst 
 the Ashab, but has since been decided by the 
 later Mujtahidun is equal to Hadis-i-Khabar-i - 
 Wahid. (See Syud Ahmad Khan’s Essay.) 
 
 Some European writers confuse the term 
 lima 1 with Ijtihdd. But Ijtihad is the de¬ 
 duction made by a single Mujtahid, whilst 
 Ijmd* is the collective opinion of a council of 
 Mujtahidun, or enlightened doctors. 
 
 Amongst the Shhahs there are still Muj¬ 
 tahidun whose Ijmd • is accepted, but the 
 Sunnis have four orthodox schools of in¬ 
 terpretation, named after their respective 
 founders—Hanafi, Shafau, MalakI, and Ham- 
 bali. The Wahhabis for the most part reject 
 Ijmd- collected after the death of “ the 
 Companions.” 
 
 It will be easily understood what a fruitful 
 source of religious dissension and sectarian 
 strife this third foundation of the rule of 
 faith is. Divided as the Christian Church is 
 by its numerous sects, it will compare fa¬ 
 vourably with Muhammadanism even in this 
 respect. Muhammad, it is related, prophesied 
 that, as the Jewish Church had been divided 
 into seventy-one sects! and the Christians 
 into seventy-two ! so his followers would be 
 divided into seventy-three sects ! But every 
 Muslim historian is obliged to admit that 
 they have far exceeded the limits of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s prophecy; for, according to 1 Abdu 
 '1-Qadir al-Jilam, there are at least 150. 
 
 IJTIHAD Lit. “Exer¬ 
 
 tion.” The logical deduction on a legal or 
 theological question by a Mujtahid or learned 
 and enlightened doctor, as distinguished from 
 Ijmd‘, which is the collective opinion of a 
 council of divines. 
 
198 I.TTIHAD 
 
 This method of attaining to a certain degree 
 of authority in searching into the principles 
 of jurisprudence is sanctioned by the Tra¬ 
 ditions :— 
 
 “ The Prophet wished to send a man named 
 Mu‘az to al-Yaman to receive some money col¬ 
 lected for alms, which he was then to distri¬ 
 bute to the poor. On appointing him he said : 
 ‘ 0 Mu'az, by what rule will you act ? ’ He 
 replied, ‘ By the Law of the Qur’an.’ 4 But 
 if you find no direction therein ? ’ 4 Then I 
 
 will act according to the Sunnah of the 
 Prophet.’ 4 But what if that fails ? ’ 4 Then 
 
 I will make an Ijtihad, and act on that.’ The 
 Prophet raised his hands and said, 4 Praise 
 be to God who guides the messenger of His 
 Prophet in what He pleases.’ ” 
 
 The growth of this system of divinity is 
 traced by a Sunni writer. Mirza Qasim Beg, 
 Professor in the University of St. Petersburg 
 (extracts from which are given in Sell’s Faith 
 of Islam), as follows :— 
 
 1. God, the only legislator, has shown the 
 way of felicity to the people whom He has 
 chosen, and in order to enable them to walk 
 in that way He has shown to them the pre¬ 
 cepts which are found partly in the eternal 
 Qur’an, and partly in the sayings of the 
 Prophet transmitted to posterity by the Com¬ 
 panions and preserved in the Sunnah. That 
 way is called the SharPah (law). The rules 
 thereof are called Ahkam'(commandments). 
 
 2. The Qur’an and the Sunnah, which since 
 their manifestation are the primitive sources 
 of the orders of the Law, form two branches 
 of study, viz. 4 Ilm-i-Tafsir, or the interpreta¬ 
 tion of the Qur’an, and ‘Ihn-i-Hadis, or the 
 study of Tradition. 
 
 3. All the orders of the Law have regard 
 either to the actions (Din), or to the belief 
 ( Iman ) of the faithful (Mukallif). 
 
 4. As the Qur’an and the Sunnah are the 
 principal sources from whence the precepts 
 of the Shari'ah have been drawn, so the rules 
 recognised as the principal elements of actual 
 jurisprudence are the subject of •Ilm-i-Fiqh, 
 or the science of Law. 
 
 Fiqh in its root signifies 44 conception, com¬ 
 prehension.” Thus Muhammad prayed for 
 Ibn Mas 4 ud : 44 May God make him compre¬ 
 hend ( Faqqaha-hu ), and make him know the 
 interpretation of the Qur’an.” Muhammad in 
 his quality of Judge and chief of the Believers 
 decided, without appeal or contradiction, all 
 the affairs of the people. His sayings served 
 as a guide to the Companions. After the 
 death of the Prophet the first Khalifahs acted 
 on the authority of the Traditions. Mean¬ 
 while the Qur’an and the Sunnah, the principal 
 elements of religion and legislation, became 
 little by little the subject of controversy. 
 It was then that men applied themselves 
 vigorously to the task of learning by heart 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions, and then that 
 jurisprudence became a separate science. No 
 science had as yet been systematically taught, 
 and the early Musalmans did not possess 
 books which would serve for such teaching. 
 A change soon, however, took place. In the 
 year in which the great jurisconsult of Syria 
 
 IJTIHAD 
 
 | died (a.h. 80), Nu‘man ibn Sabit, surnamed 
 Abu Hanlfah, was born. He is the most 
 celebrated of the founders of the schools of 
 jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in 
 all Muslim seats of learning. Until that time 
 and for thirty years later the learned doctors 
 had all their knowledge by heart, and those 
 who possessed good memories were highly 
 esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the 
 whole Qur’an with the comments made on it 
 by the Prophet and by the Companions ; they 
 also knew the Traditions and their explana¬ 
 tions, and all the commands which proceed 
 from the Qur’an and the Sunnah. Such men 
 enjoyed the right of Mujtahidun. They 
 transmitted their knowledge to their scholars 
 orally. It was not till towards the middle of 
 the second century of the Hijrah that treatises 
 on the different branches of the Law were 
 written, after which six schools ( Mazhahs ) of 
 jurisprudence were formed. The founders (all 
 Imams of the first class) were Abu Hanlfah, 
 the Imamu ’1-A‘zam or greatest Imam (a.h. 
 150), Sufyan as-Saurl (a.h. 161), Malik (a.h. 
 179), ash-Shafi 4 I (a.h. 204), Ibn Hanbal (a.h. 
 241), and the Imam Dawud az-Zahirl (a.h. 
 270). The two sects founded by as-Saurl and 
 az-Zahirl became extinct in the eighth cen¬ 
 tury of the Hijrah. The other four still remain. 
 These men venerated one another. The 
 younger ones speak with great respect of the 
 elder. Thus ash-Shafbi says: “No one in 
 the world was so well versed in jurisprudence 
 as Abu Hanifah was, and ho who has read 
 neither his works nor those of his disciples 
 knows nothing of jurisprudence.” Ibn Hanbal, 
 when sick, wore a shirt which had belonged to 
 ash-Shafi 4 I, in order that he might be cured 
 of his malady; but all this did not prevent 
 them starting schools of their own, for the 
 right of Ijtihad is granted to those -who are 
 real Mujtahidun. 
 
 There are three degrees of Ijtihad : 
 
 1. IjtihddfVsh-Sharj absolute independence 
 in legislation. 
 
 2. Ijtihad fi ’ l-Mazhab , authority in the ju¬ 
 dicial systems founded by the Mujtahidun of 
 the first class. 
 
 3. Ijtihad fi'l-Masd’il, authority in cases 
 which have not been decided by the authors 
 of the four systems of jurisprudence. 
 
 The first is called a complete and absolute 
 authority, the second relative, the third 
 special. 
 
 (1) Ijtihad fi 'sh-Shar‘. 
 
 Absolute independence in legislation is the 
 gift of God. He to whom it is given when 
 seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine 
 Law is not bound to follow any other teacher. 
 He can use his own judgment. This gift was 
 bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and 
 to some of the second and third centuries. 
 The Companions, however, who were closely 
 connected with the Prophet, having trans¬ 
 mitted immediately to their posterity the 
 treasures of legislation, are looked upon as 
 Mujtahidun of much higher authority than 
 those of the second and third centuries. Thus 
 Abu Hanlfah says : 44 That which comes to us 
 
UTIHAD 
 
 IKHLAS 
 
 199 
 
 from the Companions is on our head and eyes 
 (i.e. to be received with respect): as to that 
 which comes from the Tabi'un, they are men 
 and we are men.” 
 
 Since the time of the Tabi‘un this degree 
 of Mujtahid has only been conferred on the 
 six great Imams before mentioned. Theoreti¬ 
 cally any Muslim can attain to this degree, but 
 it is one of the principles of jurisprudence 
 that the confirmation of this rank is depen¬ 
 dent on many conditions, and so no one now 
 gains the honour. These conditions are :— 
 
 1. The knowledge of the Qur'an and all 
 that is related to it; that is to say, a com¬ 
 plete knowledge of Arabic literature, a pro¬ 
 found acquaintance with the orders of the 
 Qur'an and all their sub-divisions, their 
 relationship to each other and their connec¬ 
 tion with the orders of the Sunnah. The 
 candidate should know when and why each 
 verse of the Qur’an was written, he should 
 have a perfect acquaintance with the literal 
 meaning of the words, the speciality or gene¬ 
 rality of each clause, the abrogating and 
 abrogated sentences. He should be able to 
 make clear the meaning of the “ obscure ” 
 passages ( Mutashabih ), to discriminate be¬ 
 tween the literal and the allegorical, the 
 universal and the particular. 
 
 2. He must know the Qur'an by heart with 
 all the Traditions and explanations. 
 
 3. He must have a perfect knowledge of 
 the Traditions, or at least of three thousand 
 of them. 
 
 He must know their source, history, ob¬ 
 ject, and their connection with the laws of the 
 Qur’an. He should know by heart the most 
 important Traditions. 
 
 4. A pious and austere life. 
 
 5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences 
 of the Law. 
 
 Should anyone now aspire to such a 
 degree another condition would be added, 
 viz. :— 
 
 6. A complete knowledge of the four schools 
 of jurisprudence. 
 
 The obstacles, then, are almost insurmount¬ 
 able. On the one hand, there is the severity 
 of the ‘Ulama’, which requires from the can¬ 
 didate things almost impossible ; on the other, 
 there is the attachment of the ‘Ulama’ to their 
 own Imams, for should such a man arise no 
 one is bound now to listen to him. The Imam 
 Ibn Hanbal said: “ Draw your knowledge 
 from whence the Imams drew theirs, and do 
 not content yourself with following others, for 
 that is certainly blindness of sight.” Thus 
 the schools of the four Imams remain intact 
 after a thousand years have passed, and so 
 the ‘Ulama’ recognise since the time of these 
 Imams no Mujtahid of the first degree. Ibn 
 Hanbal was the last. 
 
 The rights of the man who attained to this 
 degree were very important. He was not 
 bound to be a disciple of another, he was a 
 mediator between the Law and his followers, 
 for whom he established a system of legisla¬ 
 tion, without anyone having the right to 
 make any objection. He had the right to 
 explain the Qur’an, the Sunnah, and the 
 
 Ijmii 1 , according as he understood them. He 
 used the Prophet’s words, whilst his disciples 
 only used his. Should a disciple find some 
 discrepancy between a decision of his own 
 Imam and the Qur’an or Traditions, he must 
 abide by the decision of the Imam. The Law 
 does not permit him to interpret after his own 
 fashion. When once the disciple has entered 
 the sect of one Imam he cannot leave it and 
 join another. He loses the right of private 
 judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first 
 class can dispute the decision of one of the 
 Imams. Theoretically, such Mujtahidun may 
 still arise; but, as we have already shown, 
 practically they do not. 
 
 (2.) Ijtihadfl ’l-Mazhab. 
 
 This degree has been granted to the imme¬ 
 diate disciples of the great Imams who have 
 elaborated the systems of their masters. I’hey 
 enjoyed the special consideration of the con¬ 
 temporary ‘Ulama’, and of their respective 
 Imams who in some cases have allowed them 
 to retain their own opinion. The most famous 
 of these men are the two disciples of Abu 
 Hanifah, Abu Yusuf, and Muhammad ibn 
 al-Hasan. In a secondary matter their opinion 
 carries great weight. It is laid down as a 
 rule that a Mufti may follow the unanimous 
 opinion of these two even when it goes against 
 that of Abu Hanifah. 
 
 (3.) Ijtihadfl ’l-Masa’il. 
 
 This is the degree of special independence. 
 The candidates for it should have a perfect 
 knowledge of all the branches of jurispru¬ 
 dence according to the four schools of the 
 Arabic language and literature. They can 
 solve cases which come before them, giving 
 reasons for their judgment, or decide on cases 
 which have not been settled by previous Muj¬ 
 tahidun ; but in either case their decisions 
 must always be in absolute accordance with 
 the opinions of the Mujtahidun of the first and 
 second classes, and with the principles which 
 guided them. Many of these men attained great 
 celebrity during their lifetime, but to most 
 of them this rank is not accorded till after 
 their death. Since their Imam Qazi Khan died 
 (a.h. 592), no one has been recognised by the 
 Sunnis as a Mujtahid even of the third class. 
 
 There are three other inferior classes of 
 jurists, called Muqallidun, or followers of the 
 Mujtahidun; but all that the highest in rank 
 amongst them can do is to explain obscure 
 passages in the writings of the older juriscon¬ 
 sults. By some of the ‘Ulama’ they are con¬ 
 sidered to be equal to the Mujtahidun of the 
 third class. If there are several conflicting 
 legal opinions on any point, they can select 
 one opinion on which to base their decision. 
 This a mere Qazi cannot do. In such a case 
 he would have to refer to these men or to 
 their writings for guidance. They seem to 
 have written commentaries on the legal sys¬ 
 tems without originating anything new. The 
 author of the Hidayah, who lived at the end 
 of the sixth century, was a Muqallid. 
 
 IKHLAS Lit. “Sincerity.” 
 
 (1) A theological term, implying that a Mus- 
 
200 
 
 IKBAH 
 
 lira performs his religious acts in the sight of 
 God alone, and not to be seen of men. (2) 
 Al-Ikhlas. the title of the cxnth Surah of the 
 Qur'an. A chapter which occurs in the daily- 
 prayer, and reads thus :— 
 
 “ Say, ‘ He is God alone ! 
 
 God the Eternal! 
 
 He begets not, and is not begotten! 
 
 Nor is there anyone like unto him ! ’ ” 
 
 Professor Palmer says this chapter is 
 generally known as al-Ikhlas. “ clearing one¬ 
 self,” i.e. of belief in any but one God. 
 
 IKRAH (t\^A). [compulsion.] 
 ‘IKRIMAH Lit. “ A hen 
 
 pigeon.” The son of Abu Jahl ibn Hisham. 
 A “ companion ” of the Prophet. He em¬ 
 braced Islam after the final taking of Mak- 
 kah. For some years he and his father, 
 Abu Jahl, were determined opponents of 
 Islam. He was one of the heroes of the 
 Quraish at the battle of Badr, and com¬ 
 manded the left wing of the Qm’aish army 
 at Uhud. He opposed the Prophet’s advance 
 on Makkah, and on defeat fled to Jiddah, 
 intending to escape to Africa, but he was 
 brought back by his wife to Makkah, and 
 received pardon from Muhammad, and em¬ 
 braced Islam. He became one of Abu Bakr’s 
 generals, and died in his reign. 
 
 ‘IKRIMAH (*-/e) Abu ‘Abdi 
 
 'llah ‘Ikrimah ibn ‘Abdi 'llah, was a slave 
 belonging to Ibn ‘Abbas. His master took 
 great pains to teach him the Qur’an and the 
 Traditions, and consequently he is known as 
 a traditionist of some note. His master, Ibn 
 ‘Abbas, died without giving him his liberty, 
 and ‘AH the son of Ibn ‘Abbas sold him to 
 Khalid ibn Yazid for four thousand dinars. 
 But ‘Ikrimah went to ‘All and said, “ You 
 have sold your father’s learning for four thou¬ 
 sand dinars ! ” Upon this, ‘Ali, being ashamed, 
 obtained Kh alid’s consent to annul the bargain, 
 and he granted ‘Ikrimah his liberty. He died 
 a.h. 107 (a.d. 725), aged 84. 
 
 ILA’ A form of divorce in 
 
 which a man makes a vow that he will not 
 have connection with his wife for not less 
 than four months and observes it invio¬ 
 late. The divorce is thereby effected ipso 
 facto, without a decree of separation from the 
 judge. See Qur’an, Suratu ’1-Baqarah, ii. 226: 
 “ Those who swear off from their women, 
 they must wait four months : but if they 
 break their vow, God is forgiving and merci¬ 
 ful.” 
 
 Sulaiman ibn Yasarsays: “I was in com¬ 
 pany with about ten of the Prophet’s Com¬ 
 panions, and every one said, ‘ A man who 
 swears that he will not go near his wife for 
 four months shall be imprisoned until he 
 return to her, or he shall divorce her.’ ” 
 (Mishkat, book xiii. ch. xiii.) 
 
 ILAH (*d\). An object of worship 
 or adoration ; i.e. a god, or deity. The term 
 Allah, “ God,” being llah with the definite 
 article J\ al, i e. al-ildh, “ the God,” 
 
 C ILM 
 
 ILAHl (^D- From llah, “ God.” 
 
 (1) That which is divine, e.g. ad-dinu ’ l-Ilahi, 
 the divine religion. (2) Ildilii is also used for 
 the era instituted by the Emperor Akbar, 
 commencing with the first year of his reign, 
 a.h. 963, a.d. 1556. Although found on the 
 coins of Akbar and his immediate suc¬ 
 cessors, it never obtained currency, and is 
 now obsolete. 
 
 PLAN (glM). Publishing the 
 
 notice of marriage by sending messengers to 
 the houses of friends. A custom which is 
 founded upon the express injunction of the 
 Prophet, as reported by ‘Ayishah: “Give 
 notice of marriages, perform them in mosques, 
 and beat drums for them.” ( Mishkat ,. book 
 xiii. ch. iv. pt. 2.) 
 
 ILHAM (foielVb [inspiration.] 
 
 al-ILHAMU ’R-RABBAN! 
 
 [inspiration.] 
 
 ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN. 
 
 An illegitimate child, Arabic waladu 'z-zind' 
 aas legally no father, and a pu¬ 
 tative father is, therefore, excluded from the 
 custody of such a child. The child only in¬ 
 herits from its mother and the mother’s 
 i relations, who in return inherit from him. 
 
 I (Tagore Law Lectures, 1S73, pp. 123, 488.) 
 
 ‘ILLIYUN The seventh 
 
 stage of celestial bliss. Also the register in 
 which the good deeds of Muslims are said to 
 be written. See Suratu ’t-Tatfif, lxxxiii. 18 : 
 “ The register of the righteous is in ‘Illiyun.” 
 See also Mishkat, book v. ch. iii. pt. 3: “ The 
 angels follow it (the soul) through each 
 heaven, and the angels of one region pass it 
 on to the next until it reaches the seventh 
 heaven, when God says, ‘ Write the name of 
 my servant in ‘ Illiyun, and return him to the 
 earth, that is, to his body which is buried in 
 the earth.” 
 
 ‘ILM (fA c )- Lit. “To know; 
 
 i knowledge.” In Muslim theology, the word 
 l Ihn is always used for religious knowledge. 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says it is the knowledge of re¬ 
 ligion a s expressed in “ the Book ” (Qur’an) and 
 the “ Sunnali ” (Traditions), and is of two 
 kinds, ‘1/jjiu l-Mabddl, elementary knowledge, 
 or that relating to the words and sentences 
 of the Qur’an and Hadis ; and l Ihnu 'l-Ma- 
 qdsld, perfected knowledge, or that relating 
 to faith and works, as taught in the Qur’an 
 and Hadis. There is also l Ilmu ’l-Muku- 
 shafah, revealed knowledge, or that secret 
 knowledge, or light, which shines into the 
 heart of the pious Muslim, whereby he be¬ 
 comes enlightened as to the truths of religion. 
 This spiritual knowledge is also called ‘■Ilnw 
 ’l-Haqiqah, or the knowledge of the truth. It 
 is related ( Mishkat , book ii. ch. i. Arabic ed.) 
 that the Prophet said Tim is of three kinds, 
 viz. Aydtu ’l-Mulikam, Sunnatu ’l-Qa’ivi, and 
 Farizatu 'l--Adil, and that whatever is be¬ 
 yond these three is not necessary. The 
 learned doctors explain these terms as _fol_- 
 
ILMU L-HADIS 
 
 201 
 
 ILMU ’L-ADAB 
 
 lows: Aydtu 'l-Muhkam, the established text 
 or verses of the Qur’an; Sunnatu , l-Qa'im, 
 the correct Ahadis or Traditions ; and Fari- 
 %atu the lawful interpretation of the 
 
 Qur’an and the Traditions. 
 
 The acquisition and the imparting of reli¬ 
 gious knowledge is very highly commended 
 by Muhammad (see Mishleatu ’ l-Masabih, in 
 loco ):— 
 
 “ The desire of knowledge is a divine com¬ 
 mandment for every Muslim, and to instruct 
 in knowledge those who are unworthy of it, 
 is like putting pearls, jewels, and gold on the 
 necks of swine.” 
 
 “ Whoever is asked about the knowledge 
 which he hath, and concealeth it, will be 
 reined with a bridle of fire on the Day of 
 Resurrection.” 
 
 “ There are twm avaricious persons that are 
 never satisfied: one of them in knowledge, the 
 more he attains the more he desires; the 
 other of the world, with the things of which 
 he is never satisfied.” 
 
 “ That person who will pursue the road of 
 knowledge, God will direct him to the roafl of 
 Paradise ; and verily the angels spread their 
 arms to receive him that seeketh after know¬ 
 ledge ; and everything in heaven and earth 
 will ask grace for him. Verily the supe¬ 
 riority of a learned man over a worshipper 
 is like that of the full moon over all the stars.” 
 
 ‘ILMU’L-ADAB The 
 
 science of Philology. In Hajji Khalfah. 
 Lexicon, vol. i. p. 215, quoted by Lane, it is 
 “ the science by which one guards against 
 error in the language of the Arabs, with 
 respect to words and with respect to writing.” 
 
 The science of polite writing is classed 
 under twelve heads : 1, luyhah, lexicology ; 2, 
 sarf, accidence ; 3, ishtiqdq, derivation ; 4, 
 nafiw , syntax ; 5, ma'am, sense or meaning ; 6, 
 baydn, eloquence; 7, ‘aruz, prosody, 8, qdfiyah, 
 rhyme; 9, rasmu ’l-khatt, caligraphy; 10, qarz- 
 ush-shi‘r, versification; 11, inshdhi ’n-nasr, 
 prose composition : 12, mufiazarah, dictation. 
 These sections are regarded as distinct sciences. 
 
 ‘.ILMU ’L~ AKHLAQ (j&sJN ^). 
 
 Ethics; morals. The best-known works on 
 the subject are the Persian works — the 
 Akhlaq -i- Jaldli, by Faqir Jan! Muham¬ 
 mad, a.h. 908, which has been translated 
 into English, with references and notes, by 
 W. F. Thompson, Esq. (London, 1839) ; the 
 Akhldq-i-Nasiri, by Nasfru ’d-dln at-Tusi, 
 a.h. 672 ; and the Akhlaq-i-Muhsini by the 
 Maulawl Husain al-Kaskifi (Husain the com¬ 
 mentator), a.h. 910. 
 
 TLMXJ ’L-AKTAF ^). 
 
 The science of divining by the shoulder- 
 blades of sheep. It was the custom of the 
 ancient Arabs to place the shoulder-bone of 
 a sheep in the sun, and to examine it, and 
 so divine by its marks future events, in the 
 same way as by the science of palmistry. 
 (Kashfu ’z-Zunun, in loco.) 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-‘AQA’ID OAs*5\ 
 
 [‘ILMIJ ’l-kalam.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-ASMA’ ^). The 
 
 knowledge of the names, titles, or attributes 
 of God. [god, zikr, sufiism.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-BATIN (^L5\ ^ln). The 
 
 mystic science ; the same as Tasawwuf. 
 
 [ SUFIISM.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-FALAK (<^Ua5\ ,*!*). The 
 
 science of Astronomy. According to the Mu¬ 
 hammadans the earth is the centre of the 
 astronomical system. The seven planets, 
 which are called the nujumu ’s-saiyarat or 
 wandering stars, as distinguished from fixed 
 stars, are 1, Qamar, Moon; 2, ‘Utdrid, Mer¬ 
 cury ; 3, Zuhrah, Venus ; 4, Shams, Sun ; 5, 
 Mirrikh . Mars ; 6, Mushtari, Jupiter; 7, Zuhal, 
 Saturn. 
 
 The Arabian arrangement of the planets is 
 that of Ptolemy, who placed the earth in the 
 centre of the universe, and nearest to it the 
 moon, whose synodic revolution is the shortest 
 of all, being performed in 29J days. Next to 
 the moon he placed Mercury, who returns to 
 his conjunctions in 116 days. After Mercury 
 followed Venus, whose periodic time is 584 
 days. Beyond Venus he placed the sun, then 
 Mars, next Jupiter, and lastly Saturn, beyond 
 which are the fixed stars. 
 
 The signs of the zodiac ( mintaqatu ’l-buruj) 
 are called : 1, Hamal, Ram ; 2, Saur, Bull; 
 3. Jauzd’, Twins ; 4, Saratan, Crab ; 5, Asad, 
 Lion ; 6, Sunbalah (lit. an ear of corn), Virgin ; 
 7, Mizan, Scales ; 8, ‘Aqrab, Scorpion ; 9, Qaus 
 (bow), Archer ; 10, Jady (he-goal), Capricorn ; 
 11, Dalw (watering-pot), Aquarius ; 12, Hut, 
 Pish. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-FARA’IZ ^*Ic), 
 
 The law of inheritance, ['nheritance.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-FIQH (aan ^). Juris¬ 
 prudence ; and the knowledge of all subjects 
 connected with practical religion. In the first 
 place, Fiqh deals with the five pillars of 
 practical religion : 1, the recital of the creed ; 
 2, prayer; 3, fasting; 4, zakat or almsgiving; 
 5, hajj or pilgrimage : and in the second place 
 with all questions of jurisprudence such as 
 marriage, divorce, inheritance, sale, evidence, 
 slavery, partnership, warfare, &c. &c. 
 
 The chief Sunni works on the subject are : 
 Of the Hanaff sect, the Hidayah, the Fatdwd- 
 i-'Alamgiri, the Durru '/-Mukhhtar, and Raddu 
 ’ l-Muhtar ; of the Shafi‘1 and Malaki sects, 
 the Kitabu'l-Anwar, the Muharrar, and the 
 Ikhtila fu ’l-A’immah. The best-known Shhah 
 works on jurisprudence are the Shard’i'u 7- 
 Islam, the Mafdtih, and the Jdmi'u ’sh- 
 Shatdt. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-HADlS 
 
 The science of the Traditions ; i.e. the various 
 canons which have been established for ascer¬ 
 taining the authenticity and genuineness of 
 the Hadis or Traditions. The Nukhbatu 
 ’l-Fikar, with its commentary the Nuzhatu 
 ’n-Nazar by Shahabu ’d-din Ahmad al- 
 ‘Asqalani (Lee’s ed. Calcutta, 1862), is a well- 
 known work on the subject. 
 
 26 
 
202 ‘lLMU ’l-handasah 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-HANDASAH ( A b 
 bjugll). The science of Geometry. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-HIKMAH ,*b). 
 
 Also ‘Ilmu ’l-Falsafah 
 
 [philosophy.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-HISAB ( V WI 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 ‘ILMU’L-ILAHlYAT(^WN ,*b). 
 
 A knowledge of divinity, [theology.] 
 
 ‘ILMU’L-INSHA’ (oUiSl ,*b). The 
 
 art of literary composition, [insha’.] 
 
 ‘ILMU’L-JABR (j-^\ ,*JLc). 
 
 Algebra. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-KAFF («JU3\ ^b). The 
 
 science of palmistry said to have been 
 practised by Daniel. 
 
 ‘ILMU’L-KALAM ( r l&\ ^-Lr). 
 
 Scholastic theology. It is also known as 
 ‘Ilmu ’l-‘Aqa’id, the science of the articles of 
 belief. The author of the Kashfu ’z-Zunun 
 defines it as “ the science whereby we are 
 able to bring forward proofs of our religious 
 belief,” and it includes the discussion of the 
 nature of the existence and the attributes of 
 God. 
 
 ‘ Ilmu 'l-Kalam is the discussion of all sub¬ 
 jects connected with the six articles of the 
 Muslim Greed: 1, the Unity of God; 2, the 
 Angels ; 3, the Books ; 4, the Prophets ; 
 5, the Day of Judgment; 6, the Decrees of 
 God, as distinguished from al-Fiqh, which is 
 an exposition of the five foundations of 
 practical religion—1, recital of the Creed ; 
 2, prayer ; 3, fasting ; 4, zakat; 5, hajj. 
 
 The most celebrated works on the subject 
 of ‘Aqa’id or ‘Ilmu ’l-Kalam are: Sharhu 
 ’ l-‘Aqd'id , by the Maulawi Mas‘ud Sa‘du 
 ’d-dln at-Taftazanl, a.h. 792 ; the Sharhu 
 'l-Muwaqif, by Saiyid Sharif Jurjani. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-LUGHAH (bill r _L_ c ). 
 
 Lexicography, [Arabic lexicons.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-MANTIQ 
 
 Logical science, [logic.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-MASAHAH (bl—H ,Jc). 
 
 Mensuration. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-MILAHAH (,*_ 
 
 <b_—•—S\). The nautical art. The 
 
 science of making and navigating ships. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-MUSIQA ^). 
 
 The science of Music, [music.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’L-USUL (J r S\ r b). The 
 
 science of the “ roots,” or fundamentals of the 
 religion of Muhammad, namely, of the 
 Qur’an, Ahadls, Ijma‘, and Qiyas. The 
 science of exegesis, or the rules of interpre¬ 
 tation of these four roots of Islam. An ex¬ 
 planation of the methods of thi3 science will 
 be found in the article on qur’an, Sect, viii., 
 the same principles applying to the other 
 three fundamentals. 
 
 The best known works on the ‘Ilmu T- 
 Usu are the Mariar, by ‘Abdu ’llah ibn 
 
 ilqa’ 
 
 Ahmad an-Nasafi, a.h. 710, and its com- 
 mentary, the Nuru 'l-Anwar-, also at-Tanqih, 
 by ‘Ubaidu ’llah ibn Mas‘ud, a.h. 747, with 
 its commentary, at-Tauzih, by the same 
 author, and a super-commentary, the Tal- 
 wihu ’t-Tauzih, by Sa‘du ’d-din Mas‘ud ibn 
 ‘Umar at-Taftazani, a.h. 792. 
 
 al-‘ILMU ’L-YAQlN \ ,JW\) 
 
 Certain knowledge ; demonstration; a reli¬ 
 gious life ; a knowledge of the truth. 
 
 ‘ILMU’N-NABATAT ^b). 
 
 Botany. The knowledge of the use of herbs. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’N-NUJUM r -l.g). 
 
 Astrology. “ The science by which are dis¬ 
 covered the events both of the present and of 
 the future by means of the position of the 
 stars.” ( Kashfu 'z-Zunun, in loco.) [astro¬ 
 logy.] 
 
 ‘ILMU’R-RAML (J-^l 
 
 Geomancy. A pretended divination by means 
 of lines on the sand (rami). It is said to have 
 been practised as a miracle by six prophets, 
 viz, Adam, Idris, Luqman, Armiya (Jere¬ 
 miah), Sha‘ya’ (Isaiah), Daniel. (See Kashfu 
 ’z-Zunun , in loco.) 
 
 ‘ILMU ’R-RIYAZAH (bbyj ^b). 
 
 Mathematics. The author of the Kashfu 
 ’z-Zunun says the science of Riyazah is 
 divided into four sections : 1, handasah, 
 
 geometry ; 2, hi’ah, astronomy; 3, Insult, 
 arithmetic; 4, musiqa, music. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’SH-SHI‘R f*b). 
 
 [poetry.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’S-SIHR ,*b). The 
 
 science of magic, [magic.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’S-SlMIYA’ GWM ,*b). 
 
 Natural magic, chiromancy, palmistry. 
 
 al-‘ILMU’T-TAB lT ^)- 
 
 Natural philosophy. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’T-TAJWlD (* } ^\ ^), 
 
 called also ‘Ilmu 'l-Qird’ah. The science of 
 reading the Qur’an correctly. The most popu¬ 
 lar work on the subject is al-Muqaddamatu 
 ’l-Jazariyah, by the Shaikh Muhammad ibn 
 Muhammad al-Jazari (a.h. 833). 
 
 ‘ILMU ’T-TASAWWUF 
 tJyaAj). The mystic or contemplative 
 science, [sufhsm.] 
 
 ‘ILMU ’T-TASHRlH ,*b). 
 
 The science of anatomy. 
 
 ‘ILMU ’T-TAWARlKH (^-L-c 
 or ‘ Ilmu ’t-Ta’rikh. Chrono¬ 
 logy, history. For a complete list of Muham¬ 
 madan histories of an early date, see Kashfu 
 ’ z-Zunun in loco. 
 
 ‘ILMU T-TIBB ,*b). The 
 
 science of Medicine. For a list of medical 
 books of an early date, see Kashfu ’z-Zunun, 
 in loco. 
 
 ILQA’ (oUS\). Lit. “ Injecting; 
 
 infusing.” A theological term used for the 
 
IMAGES 
 
 IMAM 
 
 203 
 
 teaching of the heart by the power of God. 
 Inspiration of soul in that which is good. 
 
 IMAGES. It is unlawful for a 
 
 Muhammadan to have an image of any kind 
 in his house. ( Mishkat , book xx. ch. v.) 
 [pictures, idols.] 
 
 IMAM ((A*!). One whose leader¬ 
 ship or example is to bo followed. A pat¬ 
 tern ; a model ; an example of evil. The 
 term is used in the Qur’an in these senses. 
 
 Surah ii. 118: “Verily I have set thee 
 (Abraham) as an Imam (or a leader) for 
 mankind.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 73: “ The day when we will 
 call all men by their Imam (or leader).” 
 
 Surah xxxvi. 11: “ Everything wo have 
 set down in a clear model." 
 
 Surah xv. 79: “They (Sodom and Midian) 
 are an obvious example." 
 
 Surah xxv 74: “ Make us a model to the 
 pious ” 
 
 Muhammadans use the term in the follow¬ 
 ing senses:— 
 
 (1) The Imam, or Khalifah, of the Muslim 
 people. The author of the Hidayah says, by 
 the rightful Imam is understood a person in 
 whom all the qualities essential to magis¬ 
 tracy are united, such as Islamism, freedom, 
 sanity of intellect, and maturity of age, and 
 who has been elected into his office by any 
 tribe of Muslims, with their general consent; 
 whose view and intention is the advance¬ 
 ment of the true religion, and the strengthen¬ 
 ing of the Muslims, and under whom the 
 Muslims enjoy security in person and pro¬ 
 perty; one who levies title and tribute ac¬ 
 cording to law ; who, out of the public trea¬ 
 sury, pays what is due to learned men 
 preachers, qazls, muftis, philosophers, public 
 teachers, and so forth; and who is just in 
 all his dealings with Muslims ; for whoever 
 does not answer this description is not the 
 right Imam, whence it is not incumbent to 
 support such a one, but rather it is incum- 
 
 THE IMAM LEADING PRAYERS AND RECITING THE FATIHAH OR FIRST SURAH OF THE QUR’AN. 
 
 (E. Campbell.') 
 
 bent to oppose him, and make war upon 
 him until such time as he either adopt a 
 proper mode of conduct, or be slain; as is 
 written in the Ma‘dinu ’ l-Haqd'iq , copied from 
 the Fawa'id. (Hidayah , vol. ii. p. 248.) 
 
 Fora discussion of this meaning of the title, 
 refer to the article on khalifah, which is the 
 term used for the Imam of the Sunni Muslims. 
 
 (2) The Shhahs apply the term Imam to 
 the twelve leaders of their sect whom they 
 call the true Imams [shi‘ah], and not using 
 the term Khalifah for this office as the Sunnis 
 do. The Shl‘ah traditions are very wild on 
 the subject of the Imiimate, and contrast un¬ 
 favourably with those of the Sunnis. 
 
 In the Xlaijatu ’l-Qulub (Merrick's edition, 
 p. 203), Muhammad is said to have related : 
 “ On the night of the ascension, the Most 
 High commanded me to inquire of the past 
 prophets for what reason they were exalted 
 
 to that rank, and they all testified, We were 
 raised up on account of your prophetical 
 office, and the Imamate of ‘All ibn Abl Talib, 
 and of the Imams of your posterity. A divine 
 voice then commanded, ‘ Look on the right 
 side of the empyrean.’ I looked and saw the 
 similitude of ‘All and al-Hasan, and al- 
 Husain, and ‘All ibn al-Husain ( alias Zainu T 
 ‘ Abidin), and Muljammad al-Baqir, and Ja‘far 
 as-Sadiq, and- Musa al-Kazim, and ‘AH ibn 
 Musa ar-Riza, and Muhammad at-Jaqi, and 
 ‘AH an-Naql, and al-Hasan al-‘AskarI, and al- 
 Mahdl, all performing prayers in a sea of 
 light. These, said the Most High, are my 
 proofs, vicegerents, and friends, and the last 
 of them will take vengeance on my enemies.” 
 
 (3) The Imam, or leader, of any system of 
 theology or law. Abu Hanlfah and the other 
 three doctors of the Sunnis are called Imams. 
 and so are other leading doctors of divinity. 
 
204 
 
 IMAM-BARAH 
 
 IMAN 
 
 The term is still used for a religious leader. 
 For example, the head of the Wahhabis on 
 the North-West frontier of India is called 
 the Imam, and so is the chief of Najd. 
 
 (4) The Imam or leader of prayers in any 
 Masjid. Mr. Sale says it answers to the 
 Latin Antistes. Each mosque, however 
 small, has its Imam, or priest, who is sup¬ 
 ported by endowments. The office is not in 
 any sense a sacerdotal one, the Imam not 
 being set apart with any ceremony, as in the 
 case of a Christian presbyter, nor the office 
 being hereditary, as in the case of the Hindu 
 Brahmins. The position of Imam in this 
 sense is not unlike the sheliack, or legatus , of 
 the Jewish synagogue, who acted as the dele¬ 
 gate of the congregation, and was the chief 
 reader of prayers in their name. But quite 
 independent of the duly appointed minister 
 of a mosque, wffio is responsible for its ser¬ 
 vices, and receives its revenues, no congre¬ 
 gation of Muslim worshippers can assemble 
 without one of the party taking the lead in 
 the prayers by standing in front, and who is 
 said “ to act as Imam ” for the assembly. 
 
 The rules laid down on this subject, as 
 given in the Traditions, are as follows ( Mish- 
 kdt, book iv. ch. xxvii., xxviii.) :— 
 
 Abu Sa‘id al-Khndrl says the Prophet 
 said : “ When there are three persons, one of 
 them must act as Imam and the other two 
 follow him, and the most worthy of them to 
 act as such is he who repeats the Qur'an 
 best.” 
 
 Abu Ma‘sud al-Ansari says the Prophet 
 said: “ Let him act as Imam to a congrega¬ 
 tion who knows the Qur’an thoroughly ; and 
 if all present should be equal in that respect, 
 then let him perform who is best informed in 
 the rules of prayer ; and if they are equal in 
 this respect also, let him act as Imam who 
 has fled for the sake of Islam ; and if equal in 
 this likewise, let that person act who is 
 oldest; but the governed must not act as 
 Imam to the governor.” 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said : “ When any of you acts as Imam to 
 others, he must be concise in his prayers, be¬ 
 cause there are decrepit, aged, and sick per¬ 
 sons amongst them, and when any one of you 
 says his prayers alone, he^may be as prolix 
 as he pleases, [masjtd.] 
 
 IMAM-BARAH (s> r M). A build¬ 
 ing in which the festival of the Muharram 
 is celebrated, and service held in commemo¬ 
 ration of the deaths of ‘All and his sons, al- 
 Hasan and al-Husain. At other times, the 
 tazias, or shrines, are preserved in it; some¬ 
 times it is used as the mausoleum of the 
 founder of the family, [muhaeeam.] 
 
 IMAM I YAH Lit. “ The 
 
 followers of the Imam.” The chief sect of the 
 Shras, namely, those who acknowledge the 
 twelve Imams, [shtah.] 
 
 IMAM MUBIN r U). “The 
 
 clear prototype or model.” The expression 
 occurs twice in the Qur’an, Surah xxxvi. 11, 
 “ Everything we do set down in a clear proto¬ 
 
 type ” (fl Imamin Mubimii). Here it appears 
 to be used for the Qur’an as an inspired 
 record. Surah xv. 79, “ Verily they became 
 both, Sodom and Midian, a clear example ” 
 (lain - Imamin J lubinin). Muhammadan 
 teachers use the word for the Lahivu 7- 
 Mahfuz, or the Tablet of Decrees. 
 
 al-IMAMU ’L-MAHDl OL-^\ 
 ♦,.11). Lit. “The well-guided 
 
 Leader.” Umm Salmah relates that the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ Strife and disputations will be 
 created among men when a Khalifah shall die : 
 and this shall be in the last days. And a man 
 of the people of al-Madinah will come forth 
 and will flee from al-Madinah to Makkah, and 
 the men of Makkah will come and try to 
 make him Imam by flattery, but he will not 
 be pleased. Then men shall acknowledge 
 him as Imam. Then an army from Syria 
 shall advance against him, and this army 
 shall be engulphed in an earthquake at 
 Bada'ah, between Makkah and al-Madinah. 
 Then when the people shall see this the Abdal, 
 i.e. the Substitutes or good people [abdal], 
 will come from Syria, and a multitude from 
 al-‘Iraq. And after that a man shall be born 
 of the Quraish, of the tribe of Kalb, who will 
 also send an army against him i.e. al-Mahdl; 
 but he shall be victorious. Then he will rule 
 people according to the laws of Muhammad, 
 and will give strength to Islam upon the earth, 
 and he will remain on the 'earth seven years. 
 Then will he die, and Muslims will say prayers 
 in his behalf.” 
 
 The Shrahs believe that al-Mahdi has 
 already come and is still concealed in some 
 part of the earth. For they suppose him 
 to be the last of the twelve Imams, named 
 Muhammad ‘Abdu T-Qasim [shtahs], who 
 will again appear in the last days. The 
 Shrahs say that Muhammad said, “ O ye 
 people, I am the Prophet and ‘All is my hem, 
 and from us will descend al-Mahdi, the seal 
 of the Imams, w T ho will conquer all religions 
 and will take vengeance on the wicked.” 
 ( Harjdtu'l-Qulub , p. 342.) 
 
 I’ MAN, IMAN ( 0 M). “Faith,” 
 
 which, according to the Muha mm adan doctors, 
 is the belief of the heart and the confession of 
 the lips to the truth of the Muslim religion. 
 Faith is of two kinds: I'man Mujmal, or the 
 simple expression of faith in the teaching of 
 the Qur’an and the Ahadi$, or Traditions; 
 and 1’man Mufas?al, or a formal declaration 
 of belief in the six articles of the Muslim 
 Creed: 1, in God; 2, the Angels of God; 
 3, the Books of God; 4, the Prophets of 
 God ; o, the Day of Judgment; 6. Predestina¬ 
 tion to good and evil. In the Traditions, 
 Praam includes practice QAmal), and all that 
 belongs to the religious life of the Muslim. 
 It is related ( Mishkat , book i. ch. i.) that 
 Muhammad said, “ That person has tasted 
 the sweets of faith who is pleased with God 
 as his Lord, with Islam as his religion, 
 and with Muhammad as the Prophet of God." 
 And again ( [ib .), “ The most excellent faith 
 is to love him who loves God, and to hate 
 
IMLIQ 
 
 him who hates God, to keep the tongue 
 employed in repeating the name of God [zikr], 
 and to do unto men as you would wish them 
 to do unto you, and to reject for others what 
 you would reject for yourself.” 
 
 Salvation by faith without works is clearly 
 taught ( Mishkat , book i. eh. i.) by Muhammad, 
 e.g. “ When anyone of you shall have believed 
 truly and sincerely, then whatever good action 
 that person may do will be rewarded from 
 ten to seven hundred fold, and every sin he 
 may commit will be expiated one by one 
 before he dies.” Good works, however, are 
 the test of faith. A man asked the Prophet 
 what was the sign whereby he might know 
 the reality of his faith. He said, “ If thou 
 dost derive pleasure from the good that thou 
 hast done, and art grieved for the evil which 
 thou hast committed, then thou art a true 
 believer” ( Mishkat , book i. eh. i.). Some of 
 the Prophet’s friends came to him and said, 
 “ Verily, w r e find in our minds such wicked 
 propensities, that we think it even a sin to 
 speak of them.” The Prophet said, “ Do 
 you find them really bad ? ” They said, 
 “ Yes.” He said, “ This is an evidence of 
 faith.” By which he meant, if the man had 
 not faith he would not have felt the wicked¬ 
 ness of his heart. 
 
 ‘IMLlQ ((j-jLm). The grandson of 
 Shem, the son of Noah. The progenitor of 
 the ‘Amaliqah, the Amalekites of Scripture. 
 They are said to be some of the earliest 
 inhabitants of Makkah and al-Madlnah. 
 
 IMMACULATE CONCEPTION 
 
 of the Virgin Mary. This doctrine was asserted 
 by Muhammad ( Mishkat , book i. ch. iii. pt. 1). 
 The Prophet said, “ There is not of the sons 
 of Adam, except Mary and her Son, one born 
 but is touched by the Devil at the time of his 
 birth, and the child makes a loud noise from 
 the touch.” 
 
 When or where the doctrine of the Im¬ 
 maculate Conception was first taught is quite 
 unknown. Perrone says that some writers 
 have ascribed its origin to France, and he 
 himself is of opinion that it came from the 
 East, and was recognized in Naples in the 
 ninth century. (Blunt’s Dictionary of Doc¬ 
 trinal and Historical Theology, in loco.) 
 
 The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception 
 was finally imposed as an Article of Faith in 
 the Romish Church, by Pius IX., Dec. 8th, 
 1854. 
 
 IMMODESTY, [modesty.] 
 IMPOSTURE. The Quraish 
 
 charged Muhammad, at the early period of 
 his preaching, with imposture. The follow¬ 
 ing Surahs were given in answer to these 
 charges ;— 
 
 Surahxxv. 5-7 Those who misbelieve say, 
 1 This is nothing but a lie which he has forged, 
 and another people hath helped him at it ’; 
 but they have wrought an injustice and a 
 falsehood. And they say, ‘ They are old folk’s 
 tales which he has got written down while 
 they are dictated to him morning and evening. 
 
 IMPRISONMENT 205 
 
 Say He sent it down who knows the secrets 
 of heaven and earth.” 
 
 Surah lxix. 40-43 : “ Verily it is the speech 
 of a noble Apostle, and it is not the speech of 
 a poet:—little is it ye believe ! 
 
 “And it is not the speech of a soothsayer, 
 —little is it that ye mind ! It is a revelation 
 from the Lord, the Lord of all the worlds.” 
 
 IMPOTENCY. Arabic ‘Antinali, 
 (4-iL_c) ; ‘Inninah (L-_uc). Both ac¬ 
 cording to Sunni and Shrah law it cancels 
 the marriage contract, but the decree of the 
 Qazi is necessary before it can take effect. 
 [divorce.] 
 
 IMPRISONMENT. Arabic Sijn 
 Habs ((_r—According 
 to the Hanifi school of jurisprudence, the 
 person upon whom punishment or retaliation 
 is claimed, must not be imprisoned until 
 evidence be given, either by two people of 
 unknown character (that is, of whom it is 
 not known whether they be just or unjust), 
 or by one just man who is known to the 
 Qazi; because the imprisonment, in this 
 case, is founded on suspicion, and suspicion 
 cannot be confirmed but by the evidence of 
 two men of unknown character, or of one 
 just man. It is otherwise in imprisonment 
 on account of property ; because the de¬ 
 fendant, in that instance, cannot be imprisoned 
 but upon the evidence of two just men; for 
 imprisonment on such an account is a grievous 
 oppression, and, therefore, requires to be 
 grounded on complete proof. In the Mabsut, 
 under the head of duties of the Qazi, it is 
 mentioned that, according to the two disciples, 
 the defendant, in a case of punishment for 
 slander or of retaliation, is not to be im¬ 
 prisoned on the evidence of one just man, 
 because, as the exaction of bail is in such 
 case (in then- opinion) lawful, bail is, there¬ 
 fore to be taken from him. When a claimant 
 establishes his right before the Qazi, and 
 demands of him the imprisonment of his 
 debtor, the Qazi must not precipitately com¬ 
 ply, but must first order the debtor to render 
 the right; after which, if he should attempt 
 to delay, the Qazi may imprison him. If a 
 defendant, after the decree of the Qazi against 
 him, delay the payment in a case where the 
 debt due was contracted for some equivalent 
 (as in the case of goods purchased for a 
 price, or of money, or of goods borrowed on 
 promise of a return), the Qazi must immedi¬ 
 ately imprison him, because the property he 
 received is a proof of his being possessed of 
 wealth. In the same manner, the Qazi must 
 imprison a refractory defendant who has 
 undertaken an obligation in virtue of some 
 contract, such as marriage or bail, because 
 his voluntary engagement in an obligation is 
 an argument of his possession of wealth, 
 since no one is supposed to undertake what 
 he is not competent to fulfil. 
 
 A husband may be imprisoned for the 
 maintenance of his wife, because in with¬ 
 holding it he is guilty of oppression; but a 
 father cannot be imprisoned for a debt due to 
 
206 
 
 ‘IMRAN 
 
 INFANT SALVATION 
 
 his son, because imprisonment is a species of 
 severity which a son has no right to be the 
 cause of inflicting on his father; in the same 
 manner as in cases of retaliation or punish¬ 
 ment. If, however, a father withhold main¬ 
 tenance from an infant son, who has no 
 property of his own, he must be imprisoned ; 
 because this tends to preserve the life of the 
 child. ( Hidayah , vol. ii.) 
 
 ‘IMRAN (oV^). According to 
 
 Muhammadan writers the name of two diffe¬ 
 rent persons. The one the father of Moses and 
 Aaron, and the other the father of the Virgin 
 Mary. Christian writers imagine that the 
 Qur'an confounds Mary, the mother of Jesus, 
 with 'Mary or Maryam, the sister of Moses 
 and Aaron. The verses are as follows:— 
 
 Surah iii. 30: “ Verily, above all human 
 beings did God choose Adam and Noah, and the 
 family of ‘Imran, the one the posterity of the 
 other; and God lieareth and knoweth. Re¬ 
 member when the wife of ‘Imran said, ‘ 0 my 
 Lord, I vow to Thee what is in my womb, for 
 Thy special service. . . . And I have named 
 her Mary, and I commend her and her off¬ 
 spring to Thy special protection.’ ” 
 
 Surah lxvi. 12: “And Mary the daughter 
 of ‘Imran, ever virgin, and into whose womb 
 We breathed Our spirit.” 
 
 Surah six. 29: “‘0 sister of Aaron 1 thy 
 father was not a wicked man, nor unchaste 
 thy mother.’ And she made a sign unto them 
 pointing towards the babe.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi the commentator, says the 
 ‘Imran first mentioned in Surali iii. is the 
 father of Moses, and the second the father of 
 Mary the Virgin. He attempts to explain 
 the anachronism in Surah xix. by stating 
 that (1) Mary is called the sister of Aaron by 
 way of comparison; (2) or because she was 
 of the Levitical race; (3) or, as some have 
 said, there was a man of the name of Aaron, 
 renowned either for piety or wickedness, who 
 lived at the time, and she is said, by way 
 of derision, to be like him ! 
 
 IMSAK Lit. “Keeping 
 
 back.” The word occurs only once in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 228: “ Divorce (may happen) 
 twice; then, keep them in reason or let them go 
 in kindness.” 
 
 The word is used in theological works for 
 being miserly in charity, and in giving in 
 God’s service, in opposition to Infaq. 
 
 IN‘AM A gift; a bene¬ 
 
 faction in general. A gift by a superior to 
 an inferior. In Lidia, the term is especially 
 applied to grants of land held rent-free, and 
 in hereditary and perpetual occupation; the 
 tenure came in time to be qualified by the 
 reservation of a portion of the assessaole 
 revenue, or by the exaction of all proceeds 
 exceeding the intended value of the original 
 assignment; the term is also vaguely applied 
 to grants of rent-free land without reference 
 to perpetuity or any specified conditions. The 
 grants are also distinguishable by their origin 
 from the ruling authorities, or from the village 
 communities, and are again distinguishable 
 
 by peculiar reservations, or by their being 
 applicable to different objects. 
 
 Sanad-i-In‘am is a grant emanating from 
 the ruling power of the time of the grant, 
 free from all Government exactions, in per¬ 
 petuity, and validified by a Sanad, or official 
 deed of grant ; it usually comprises land 
 included in the village area, but which is 
 uncultivated, or has been abandoned; and 
 it is subject to the village functionaries. 
 
 Nisbat-i-In‘am (from nisbah, “ a portion ”), 
 are lands granted rent-free by the village out 
 of its own lands ; the loss or deduction thence 
 accruing to the Government, assessment being 
 made good by the village community. (Wil¬ 
 son’s Glossary of Indian Terms.) 
 
 INCANTATION. [da‘wah, magic.] 
 INCENSE. Arabic Bakhur (jyA), 
 Luban (yhJ). Heb. ™ Isaiah 
 
 x : 
 
 xliii. 23, &c. The use of incense forms no 
 part of the religious customs of the Muslim, 
 although its use as a perfume for a corpse 
 is permitted by the Traditions. It is, how¬ 
 ever, much used as an offering at the shrines 
 of the Muhammadan saints, and forms an 
 important item in the so-called science of 
 Da‘wah. [ua'ivah.] 
 
 INFANTS, The Religion of. The 
 
 general rule is that the religion of an infant 
 is the same as that of its parents. But 
 where one of the parents is a Muhammadan, 
 and the other of a different persuasion (as a 
 Jew or a Christian), the infant must be 
 accounted a Muhammadan, on the principle 
 that where the reasons are equally balanced, 
 the preference is to be given to that religion. 
 {Hidayah, vol. i. p. 177. Sharif iyah, Ap¬ 
 pendix No 71. Baillie’s Inheritance, p. 28.) 
 
 INFANT SALVATION. The 
 
 author of Durru ''l-Mukhtar , vol. i. p. 891, 
 says : Abu Hanifah gave no answer to the 
 question whether the infants of mushrikun 
 (those who associate another with God) will 
 have to answer for themselves in the Day of 
 Judgment or not; or whether they will in¬ 
 herit the Fire {i.e. Hell), or go to Paradise 
 {Jannah) or not. But Ibn al-Humam has 
 said, the learned are not agreed upon these 
 questions, and it is evident that Abu Hani¬ 
 fah and others are at a loss to answer 
 them ; and, moreover, there are contradictory 
 traditions recorded regarding them. So it 
 is evident that in the matter of salvation, 
 they (the infants) will be committed to God, 
 and we are not able to say anything regard¬ 
 ing this matter. Muhammad ibn al-Hasan 
 (the disciple of Abu Hanifah), has said, 
 “ I am certain God will not commit anyone 
 to the punishment (of hell) until he has com¬ 
 mitted sin.” And Ibn Abl Sharif (a disciple 
 of Ibn al-Hasan, says the Companions were 
 silent regarding the question of the future 
 of infants; but it is related by the Imam 
 NaAvawi (commentator on the Sahih Muslim) 
 that there are three views regarding the sal¬ 
 vation of infants. Some say they will go to 
 hell, some do not venture an opinion on the 
 
IN FAQ 
 
 INHERITANCE 
 
 207 
 
 subject, and some say they will enter Para¬ 
 dise ; and the last view he considers the cor¬ 
 rect one, in accordance with the tradition 
 which says, “ Every child is born according 
 to the law of God.” 
 
 INFAQ Lit. “Giving 
 
 forth; expending.” The word occurs once 
 in the Qur'an, Surah xvii. 102: “ Did ye con¬ 
 trol the treasuries of the mercy of my Lord, 
 then ye would hold them through fear of 
 expending ( infaq ), for man is ever niggardly.” 
 
 The word is used for giving in charity and 
 in God’s service, in opposition to imsak. 
 
 INFIDEL. There are several 
 
 words used for those in a state of infidelity : 
 1, kafir (W, one who hides or denies the 
 truth; 2, mushrik (us5y~'*), one who gives 
 companions to God; 3, mulhid one 
 
 who has deviated from the truth; 4, zandiq 
 an infidel or a zend-worshipper; 
 5, munafiq one who secretly dis¬ 
 
 believes in the mission of Muhammad; C, 
 murtadd (-^V*). an apostate from Islam ; 7, 
 dahri an atheist; 8, wasaniy 
 
 a pagan or idolater. 
 
 al-INFITAR (jV-Ljl- iSt). “ The 
 
 cleaving asunder.” The title of the Lxxxnnd 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in which the word 
 occurs. Zamakhshari, according to Savary, 
 says that “ the Muslims who shall recite this 
 chapter shall receive a divine favour for every 
 drop of water that drops from the clouds, 
 and another for each grave on the face of the 
 earth.” 
 
 INHERITANCE. Arabic Farediz 
 Miras The law of 
 
 inheritance is called ‘ ilmu ’l-fara'iz , or •ilm-i- 
 miras. The verses in the Qur’an upon 
 which the law of inheritance is founded are 
 called Aydtu 'l-Mawdris, the Verses of Inhe¬ 
 ritance ; they begin at the 12th verse of Suratu 
 ’n-Nisa’, or the lvth chapter of the Qur’an, 
 and are as follows ;— 
 
 “ With regard to your children, God com- 
 mandeth you to give the male the portion of 
 two females ; and if they be females more 
 than two, then they shall have two-thirds of 
 that which their father hath left: but if she 
 be an only daughter, she shall have the half; 
 and the father and mother of the deceased 
 shall each of them have a sixth part of what 
 he hath left, if he have a child; but if he 
 have no child, and his parents be his heirs, 
 then his mother shall have the third; and if 
 he have brethren, his mother shall have the 
 sixth, after paying the bequests he shall have 
 bequeathed, and his debts. As to your 
 fathers, or your children, ye know not which 
 of them is the most advantageous to you. 
 This is the law of God. Verily, God is 
 Knowing, Wise ! 
 
 “Half of what your wives leave shall be 
 yours, if they have no issue; but if they 
 have issue, then a fourth of what they leave 
 shall be yours, after paying the bequests 
 they shall bequeath, and debts, 
 
 “ And your wives shall have a fourth part 
 of what ye leave, if ye have no issue ; but if 
 ye have issue, then they shall have an eighth 
 part of what ye leave, after paying the be¬ 
 quests ye shall bequeath, and debts. 
 
 “ If a man or woman make a distant rela¬ 
 tion their heir, and he or she have a brother 
 or a sister, each of these two shall have a 
 sixth ; but if there are more than this, then 
 shall they be sharers in a third, after pay¬ 
 ment of the bequests he shall have bequeathed, 
 and debts, 
 
 “ Without loss to any one. This is the ordi¬ 
 nance of God, and God is Knowing, Gracious! ” 
 
 The earliest authority in the Traditions on 
 the subject of inheritance is Zaid ibn Sabit, 
 and the present law is chiefly collected from 
 his sayings, as recorded in the Hadis. There 
 are no very important differences between 
 the Sunni and Shla‘h law with reference to 
 this question. The highest authority amongst 
 the former is the book as-Sirajiyah, by Siraju 
 ’d-dln Muhammad, a.h. GOO, which has been 
 published with a commentary entitled Mam- 
 zuj, by Sir W. Jones, Calcutta, 1792. 
 
 The Shl‘ah law of inheritance will be found 
 in the Mafatih and the Jumi‘u ’sh-Shatdl. 
 
 The property of a deceased Muslim is ap¬ 
 plicable, in the first place, to the payment of 
 his funeral expenses ; secondly, to the dis¬ 
 charge of his debts ; and, thirdly, to the pay¬ 
 ment of legacies as far as one-third of the 
 residue. The remaining two-thirds, with so 
 much of the third as is not absorbed by 
 legacies are the patrimony of the heirs. A 
 Muhammadan is therefore disabled from dis¬ 
 posing of more than a third of his property 
 by will. (See As-Sirajiyah.') 
 
 The clear residue of the estate after the 
 payment of funeral expenses, debts, and lega¬ 
 cies, descends to the heirs ; and among these 
 the first are persons for whom the law has pro¬ 
 vided certain specific shares or portions, and 
 who are thence denominated Sharers, or zawu 
 'l-furuz. 
 
 In most cases there must be a residue after 
 the shares have been satisfied; and this 
 passes to another class of persons who from 
 that circumstance may be termed Residuaries, 
 or ‘ asabah. 
 
 It can seldom happen that the deceased 
 should have no individual connected with him 
 who would fall under these two classes ; but to 
 guard against this possible contingency, the 
 law has provided another class of persons, 
 who, though many of them may be nearly re¬ 
 lated to the deceased, by reason of their re¬ 
 mote position wdth respect to the inheritance, 
 have been denominated Distant kindred, or 
 zawu ’L-arhdm. 
 
 “As a general rule,” says Mr. Ameer Ali, 
 “ the law of succession, both among the Shiahs 
 (Shbahs) and the Sunnis, proceeds on the as¬ 
 sumption of intestacy. During his lifetime a 
 Mussulman has absolute power over his pro¬ 
 perty, whether it is ancestral or self-acquired, 
 or whether it is real or personal. He may 
 dispose of it in whatever way he likes. But 
 such dispositions in order to be valid and 
 effective, are required to have operation given 
 
208 
 
 INHERITANCE 
 
 INHERITANCE 
 
 to them during the lifetime of the owner. If 
 a gift be made, the subject matter of the 
 gift must he made over to the donee during 
 the lifetime of the donor; he must, in fact, 
 divest himself of all proprietary rights in it, 
 and place the donee in possession. To make 
 the operation of the gift dependent upon the 
 donor’s death, would invalidate the donation. 
 So also in the case of endowments for chari¬ 
 table or religious purposes. A disposition in 
 favour of a charity, in order to be valid, 
 should he accompanied by the complete 
 divestment of all proprietary rights. As re¬ 
 gards testamentary dispositions, the power is 
 limited to one-third of the property, provided 
 it is not in favour of one who is entitled to 
 share in the inheritance. For example, the 
 proprietor may devise by will one-third of his 
 property to a stranger; should the devise, 
 however, relate to more than one-third, or 
 should it be in favour of an heir, it would he 
 invalid. 
 
 “ This restriction on the testamentary 
 powers of a Mussulman, which is not without 
 analogy in some of the Western systems, leads 
 to the consequence that, as far as the major 
 portion of the estate and effects of a deceased 
 propositus is concerned, the distribution takes 
 place as if he had died intestate. 
 
 “ Intestacy is accordingly the general rule 
 among the Mussulmans; and as almost in 
 every case there are more heirs than one 
 entitled to share in the inheritance of the de¬ 
 ceased, it is important to bear in mind the 
 points of contact as well as of divergence be¬ 
 tween the Shiah and the Sunni schools. 
 
 “ As regards the points of contact, it may 
 he stated generally that both the Sunnis and 
 the Shiahs are agreed on the principle by 
 which the individuals who are entitled to an 
 inheritance in the estate of the deceased can 
 be distinguished from those who have no 
 right. For example, a Mussulman upon his 
 death, may leave behind him a numerous 
 body of relations. In the absence of certain 
 determinate rules, it would he extremely dif¬ 
 ficult to distinguish between the inheriting 
 and the non-inheriting relations. In order to 
 obviate this difficulty and to render it easy 
 to distinguish between the two classes of 
 heirs, it is recognized by both the schools as 
 a general rule, and one capable of universal 
 application, that when a deceased Mussulman 
 leaves behind him two relations, one of whom 
 is connected with him through the other, 
 the former shall not succeed whilst the in¬ 
 termediate person is alive. For example, if 
 a person on his death leave behind him a 
 son and that son’s son, this latter will not 
 succeed to his grandfather’s estate while his 
 father is alive. The other rule, which is also 
 framed with the object of discovering the 
 heirs of a deceased individual, is adojsted 
 with some modification by the two schools. 
 For example, on the succession of male 
 agnates, the Sunnis prefer the nearer in 
 degree to the more remote, whilst the 
 Shiahs apply the rule of nearness or propin¬ 
 quity to all cases, without distinction of class 
 0 r sex. If a person die leaving behind him 
 
 a brother’s son, and a brother’s grandson, and 
 I his own daughter’s son, among the Sunnis, the 
 brother’s son being a male agnate and nearer 
 to the deceased than the brother’s grandson, 
 takes the inheritance in preference to the 
 others ; whilst among the Shiahs, the daugh¬ 
 ter s son, being nearer in blood, would exclude 
 the others.” (Personal Law, by Ameer Ali, 
 p. 41.) 
 
 The law of inheritance, even according to 
 Muslim doctors of law, is acknowledged to be 
 an exceedingly difficult object of study ; it will, 
 therefore, he impossible to follow it out in all 
 its intricacies, but we give a carefully-drawn 
 table by Mr. A. Ramsey, on the Sunni law, 
 and a more simple one on Shi‘ah inheritance 
 by Mr. Ameer Ali. 
 
 I.—SHARERS. 
 
 * Are always entitled to some shares, 
 t Are liable to exclusion by others who are nearer. 
 R Denotes those who benefit by the return. 
 
 * 1° Father, (a).—As mere sharer , when 
 a son or a son’s son, how low soever, he takes 
 b (P)' —A® mere residuary, when no suc¬ 
 cessor but himself, he takes the whole: or 
 with a sharer, not a child or son’s child, how 
 low soever, he takes what is left by such 
 sharer, (y). —As sharer and residuary, as 
 when there are daughters and son’s daughter, 
 but no son or son’s son, he, as sharer, takes 
 i; daughter takes or two or more daugh¬ 
 ters, |, son’s daughter jt; and father the re¬ 
 mainder as residuary. 
 
 t 2° True Grandfather, i.e. father’s 
 father, his father and so forth, into whose 
 line of relationship to deceased no mother 
 enters, is excluded by father, and excludes 
 brothers and sisters; comes into father’s 
 place when no father, but does not, like father, 
 reduce mother’s share to J of residue, nor en¬ 
 tirely exclude paternal grandmother. 
 
 f 3° Half Brothers by same Mother. 
 take, in the absence of children, or son’s de¬ 
 scendants, and father and true grandfather, 
 one jt, two or more between them J. R 
 
 * 4° Daughters ; when no sons, take, one 
 £ ; two or more, §- between them : with sons 
 become residuaries and take each half a son’s 
 share. R 
 
 f 5° Son’s Daughters ; take as daughters, 
 when there is no child ; take nothing when 
 there is a son or more daughters than one ; 
 take i when only one daughter; are made 
 residuaries by brother or male cousin how low 
 soever. R 
 
 * (1° Mother : takes J, when there is a 
 child or son’s child, how low soever, or two 
 or more brothers or sisters of whole or half 
 blood; takes J, when none of these : when 
 husband or wife and both parents, takes J of 
 remainder after deducting their shares, the 
 residue going to father: if no father, but 
 grandfather, takes J of the whole. R 
 
 t 7° True Grandmother, i.e. father’s or 
 mother’s mother, how high soever ; when no 
 mother, takes jt : if more than one, J between 
 them. Paternal grandmother is excluded by 
 both father and mother; maternal grand¬ 
 mother by mother only. R 
 
INHERITANCE 
 
 t 8° Full Sisters, take as daughters 
 when no children, son’s children, how low 
 soever, father, true grandfather or full bro¬ 
 ther : with full brother, take half share of 
 male : when daughters or son’s daughters, how 
 low soever, but neither sons, nor sons’ sons, 
 nor father, nor true grandfather, nor brothers, 
 the full sisters take as residuaries what re¬ 
 mains after daughter or son’s daughter have 
 had their share. R 
 
 t 9° Half Sisters by same Father: as 
 full sisters, when there are none: with one 
 full sister, take J ; when two full sisters, take 
 nothing, unless they have a brother who 
 makes them residuaries, and then they take 
 half a male’s share. R 
 
 t 10° Half Sisters by Mother only : 
 when no children or son’s children how low 
 soever, or father or true grandfather, take, 
 one J ; two or more J between them. R 
 
 # 11° Hdsband : if no child or son's child, 
 how low soever, takes £; otherwise J. 
 
 * 12° Wife : if no child or son’s child, how 
 low soever, takes if otherwise, J. Several 
 widows share equally. 
 
 Corollary.— All brothers and sisters are 
 excluded by son, son’s son, how low soever, 
 father or true grandfather. Half brothers 
 and sisters, on father’s side, are excluded by 
 these and also by full brother. Half brothers 
 and sisters on mother's side are excluded by 
 any child or son’s child, by father and true 
 grandfather. 
 
 II.—RESIDUARIES. 
 
 A.— Residuaries in their own right, being 
 males into whose line of relationship to 
 the deceased no female enters. 
 
 (a.) Descendants. 
 
 1. Son. 
 
 2. Son’s son. 
 
 3. Son’s son’s son. 
 
 4. Son of No. 3. 
 
 4A. Son of No. 4. 
 
 4B. And so on, how low soever. 
 
 (b) Ascendants. 
 
 5. Father. 
 
 6. Father’s father. 
 
 7. Father of No. 6. 
 
 8. Father of No. 7. 
 
 8A. Father of No. 8. 
 
 8B. And so on, how high soever. 
 
 (c.) Collaterals. 
 
 9. Full brother. 
 
 10. Half brother by father. 
 
 11. Son of No. 9. 
 
 12. Son of No. 10. 
 
 IIA. Son of No. 11. 
 
 12A. Son of No. 12. 
 
 IIB. Son of No. 11A. 
 
 12B. Son of No. 12A. 
 
 And so on, how low soever. 
 
 13. Full paternal uncle by father. 
 
 14. Half paternal uncle by father. 
 
 15. Son of No. 13. 
 
 16. Son of No. 14. 
 loA. Bon of No. 15. 
 
 16A. Son of No. 16. 
 
 And so on, how low soever. 
 
 INHERITANCE 209 
 
 17. Father's full paternal uncle by father’s 
 
 side. 
 
 18. Father’s half paternal uncle by father's 
 
 side. 
 
 19. Son of No. 17. 
 
 20. Son of No. 18. 
 
 19A. Son of No. 19. 
 
 20A. Son of No. 20. 
 
 And so on, how low soever. 
 
 21. Grandfather’s full paternal uncle by 
 
 father’s side. 
 
 22. Grandfather’s half paternal uncle by- 
 
 father’s side. 
 
 23. Son of No. 21. 
 
 24. Son of No. 22. 
 
 23A. Son of No. 23. 
 
 24A. Son of No. 24. 
 
 And so on, how low soever. 
 
 N.B. — a. A nearer Residuary in the above 
 Table is preferred to and excludes a more 
 remote. 
 
 (i. Where several Residuaries are in the 
 same degree, they take per capita, not per 
 stirpes, i.e. they share equally. 
 
 y. The vhole blood is preferred to and ex¬ 
 cludes the half blood at each stage. 
 
 B. —Residuaries in another’s right, 
 being certain females, who are made residua¬ 
 ries by males parallel to them ; but who, in 
 the absence of such males, are only entitled 
 to legal shares. These female Residuaries 
 take each half as much as the parallel male 
 who makes them Residuaries. 
 
 1. Daughter made Residuary by son. 
 
 2. Son’s daughter made Residuary by son’s 
 son. 
 
 3. Full sister made Residuary by full 
 brother. 
 
 4. Half sister by father made Residuary by 
 her brother. 
 
 C. Residuaries with another, being cer¬ 
 tain females who become residuaries with 
 other females. , 
 
 1. Full sisters -with daughters or daughters’ 
 sons. 
 
 2. Half sisters by father. 
 
 N.B. —When there are several Residuaries 
 of different kinds or classes, e.g. residuaries 
 in their own right and residuaries with 
 another, propinquity to deceased gives a pre¬ 
 ference : so that the residuary with another, 
 when nearer to the deceased than the resi¬ 
 duary in himself, is the first. 
 
 If there be Residuaries and no Sharers, the 
 Residuaries take all the property. 
 
 It there be Sharers, and no Residuaries, the 
 Sharers take all the property by the doctrine 
 of the “ Return.” Seven persons are entitled 
 to the Return. 1st, mother; 2nd, grand¬ 
 mother; 3rd, daughter; 4 th, son’s daughter; 
 5th, full sister; 5th, half sister by father; 
 
 7 th, half brother or sister by mother. 
 
 A posthumous child inherits. There is no 
 presumption as to commorients, who are sup¬ 
 posed to die at the same time unless there 
 be proof otherwise. 
 
 If there be neither Sharers nor Residuaries, 
 the property will go to the following class 
 (Distant Kindred). 
 
 27 
 
210 
 
 INHERITANCE 
 
 INHERITANCE 
 
 III—DISTANT KINDRED. 
 
 Comprising all relatives, who are neither 
 Shares nor Residuaries. 
 
 Class 1. 
 
 Descendants: Children of daughters and 
 son's daughters. 
 
 1. Daughter’s son. 
 
 2. Daughter’s daughter. 
 
 3. Son of No. 1. 
 
 4. Daughter of No. 1. 
 
 5. Son of No. 2. 
 
 6. Daughter of No. 2, and so on, how low 
 soever, and whether male or female. 
 
 7. Son’s daughter’s son. 
 
 8. Son’s daughter’s daughter. 
 
 9. Son of No. 7. 
 
 10. Daughter of No. 7. 
 
 11. Son of No. 8. 
 
 12. Daughter of No. 8, and so on, how low 
 soever, and whether male or female. 
 
 N.B. — (a) —Distant kindred of the first 
 class take according to proximity of degree ; 
 but, when equal in this respect, those ’who 
 claim through an heir, i.e. sharer or residuary, 
 have a preference over those who claim 
 through one not an heir. 
 
 (/ 3 )—When the sexes of their ancestors 
 differ, distribution is made having regard to 
 such difference of sex, e.p. daughter of daugh¬ 
 ter’s son gets a portion double that of son 
 of daughter’s daughter, and when the claim¬ 
 ants are equal in degree, but different in sex. 
 males take twice as much as females. 
 
 Class 2. 
 
 Ascendants : False grandfathers and false 
 grandmothers. 
 
 13. Maternal grandfather. 
 
 14. Father of No. 13, father of No. 14, and 
 so on, how high soever (i.e. all false grand¬ 
 fathers). 
 
 15. Maternal grandfather’s mother. 
 
 16. Mother of No. 15, and so on, how high 
 soever (i.e. all false grandmothers). 
 
 N.B. —Rules (a) and (/3), applicable to 
 class 1, apply also to class 2. Further (y) 
 when the sides of relation differ, the claimant 
 by the paternal side gets twice as much as the 
 claimant by the maternal side. 
 
 Class 3. 
 
 Parents’ Descendants. 
 
 17. Full brother’s daughter and her de¬ 
 scendants. 
 
 18. Full sister’s son. 
 
 19. Full sister’s daughters and their de¬ 
 scendants, how low soever. 
 
 20. Daughter of half brother by father, and 
 her descendants. 
 
 21. Son of half sister by father. 
 
 22. Daughter of half sister by father, and 
 their descendants, how low soever. 
 
 23. Son of half brother by mother. 
 
 24. Daughter of half brother by mother 
 and their descendants, how low soever. 
 
 25. Son of half sister by mother. 
 
 26. Daughter of half sister by mother, and 
 | their descendants, how low soever. 
 
 N.B. —Rules (a) and ((3) applicable to 
 class 1, apply also to class 3. Further (§) 
 
 | when two claimants are equal in respect of 
 proximity, one who claims through a resi¬ 
 duary is preferred to one who cannot so 
 claim. 
 
 Class 4. 
 
 Descendants of the two grandfathers and the 
 two grandmothers. 
 
 27. Full paternal aunt and her descen¬ 
 dants.* 
 
 28. Half paternal aunt and her descen- 
 dants.* 
 
 29. Father’s half brother by mother and 
 his descendants.* 
 
 30. Father’s half sister by mother and her 
 descendants.* 
 
 31. Maternal uncle and his descendants.* 
 
 32. Maternal aunt and her descendants.* 
 
 * Male or Female, and how low soever. 
 
 N.B. (e )—The sides of relation being equal, 
 j uncles and aunts of the whole blood are pre¬ 
 ferred to those of the half, and those con- 
 j nected by same father only, whether males or 
 I females, are preferred to those connected by 
 j the same mother only, (yj) Where sides of 
 I relation differ, the claimant by paternal rela¬ 
 tion gets twice as much as the claimant by 
 maternal relation. (6) Where sides and 
 strength of relation are equal, the male gets 
 ; twice as much as the female. 
 
 General Role.— Each of these classes ex¬ 
 cludes the next following class. 
 
 IV. —Successor by Contract or Mutual 
 Friendship. 
 
 V. —Successor of acknowledged Kin¬ 
 dred. 
 
 VI. —Universal Legatee. 
 
 VII. —Public Treasury. 
 
 A Synoptical Table of Shi‘ah Inheritance. 
 I.—Consanguinity, or Nasab 
 
 First Class. 
 
 1 
 
 Second Class. 
 
 Third Class 
 
 (1) Immediate 
 ascendants, viz. 
 father and mother. 
 
 (2) Lineal descendants, 
 sons and daughters 
 and grandchildren. 
 
 (1) Paternal uncles 
 and aunts and 
 their children. 
 
 (2) Maternal uncles 
 and aunts and 
 their children. 
 
 (1) Ascendants of second and third degrees 
 yiz. grand-parents and their parents, 
 
 (2) Brothers and sisters and their 
 children. 
 
INHIBITION 
 
 IN.TIL 
 
 211 
 
 II.—Special Cause, or Sabah. 
 
 I 
 
 Matrimony. 
 Husband or Wife. 
 
 (1) Emancipation. 
 
 [For the Muhammadan law of inheritance 
 in English, refer to Sir William Jones’trans¬ 
 lation of the Sirajiyak (Calcutta, a.d. 1.792), 
 reprinted by Mr. Almaric Ramsey, a.d. 18G9. 
 The Muhammadan Lam of Inheritance , by 
 Mr. N. B. E. Baillie, a.d. 1832 ; by Mr. S. 0. 
 Grady, a.d. 1869; also Personal Law of the 
 Muhammadans, by Mr. Ameer Ali, 1880. The 
 Arabic works on the subject are.: For Sunni 
 law, as-Sirajiyah, ash-Sharifiyah, Hidayah, 
 Durru '/-Mukhtar ; for Shi‘ah law, Jdmfu 'sh- 
 Shatdt , Mafatih, Shara’ihx ’ l-Isldm, Irsliad-i- 
 Allamali .] 
 
 INHIBITION. Arabic hijr (,*=-), 
 
 which, in its primitive sense, means “ interdic¬ 
 tion or prevention.” In the language of the 
 law it signifies an interdiction of action with 
 respect to a particular person ; the causes of 
 inhibition being three : infancy, insanity, and 
 servitude. 
 
 The acts of an infant, i.e. one under puberty, 
 are unlawful, unless sanctioned by his guar¬ 
 dian. The acts of a lunatic who has no lucid 
 intervals are not at all lawful; and so are 
 those of a male or female slave. ( Hidayah , 
 iii. p. 168.) 
 
 INITIAL LETTERS of the Qur’an. 
 
 [qur’an.] 
 
 INJlL (J-*—‘>1). Gl'. Eua.yyeA.ior. 
 Evangel. Inji! is used in the Qur'an, and in 
 the Traditions, and in all Muhammadan 
 theological works of an early date, for the 
 revelations made by God to Jesus. But in 
 recent works it is applied by Muhammadans 
 to the New Testament. The word occurs 
 twelve times in the Qur’an, as in the following 
 Surahs, which we have arranged chronologi¬ 
 cally, and not as they occur in the Qur'an. 
 (It will be seen that the expression Injil is 
 not mentioned in the earlier Surahs. See 
 chronological table of Surahs in article 
 qur’an.) 
 
 Surah vii. 156 : “ Who follow the Apostle 
 —the illiterate Prophet, whom they find 
 written down with them in the Law ( Taurat ) 
 and the Gospel (Inji/).” 
 
 Surah iii. 2: “He has sent thee a book 
 (i.e. the Qur’an) confirming what was before 
 it, and has revealed the Law, and the Gospel 
 before, for the guidance of men.” 
 
 Surah iii. 13: “He will teach him the Book 
 and Wisdom, and the Law and the Gospel." 
 
 Surah iii. 58 : “ Why do ye dispute about 
 Abraham, when the Law and the Gospel were 
 not revealed until after him.” 
 
 Surah Ivii. 27 : “ We gave him (Jesus) the 
 Gospel, and we placed in the hearts of those 
 who followed him kindness and compassion.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 29 : “ Their marks are in 
 their faces from the effects of adoration: 
 
 Wala’. 
 
 (2) Suretyship. (3) Spiritual Headship. 
 
 that is their similitude in the Law, and their 
 similitude in the Gospel." 
 
 Surah ix. 112: “Promised in truth in the 
 Law, in the Gospel, and in the Qur’an.” 
 
 Surah v. 50 : “ We brought him (Jesus) the 
 Gospel." 
 
 Surah v. 51: “Then let the people of the 
 Gospel judge by what is revealed therein.” 
 
 Surah v. 70 : “ And were they steadfast in 
 the Law and in the Gospel ? ” 
 
 Surah v. 72: “ Ye rest on nought until ye 
 stand fast by the Law and the Gospel and 
 what is revealed to you from your Lord.” 
 
 Surah v. 110: “When I taught thee the 
 Book, and Wisdom, and the Law, and the 
 Gospel.” 
 
 There are also allusions to the Christian 
 Scriptures in the following verses :— 
 
 Surah xix. 31. (The infant Jesus said,) 
 “Verily, I am the servant of God: He hath 
 given me the book, and He hath made me a 
 prophet.” 
 
 Muhammad was much more indebted to 
 Judaism than Christianity for the teaching he 
 received, which enabled him to overthrow 
 Arabian idolatry and to establish the worship 
 of the One True God [Christianity, Judaism], 
 and consequently we find more frequent allu¬ 
 sions to the Law of Moses than to the Gospel 
 of Christ; and, as it has been already stated, 
 the references to the Gospel as a revelation 
 are in the later Surahs. But in all references 
 to the Injil as an inspired record, there is not 
 one single statement to the effect that the 
 Christians of Muhammad’s day did not 
 possess the genuine Scriptures. In Surah iv. 
 169, (which is an al-Madlnah Surah), the 
 Christians are charged with extravagance, or 
 error in doctrine, but not with not possessing 
 the true Gospels :— 
 
 “ Ye people of the Book ! commit not 
 extravagance in your religion ; and say not of 
 God other than the truth. For verily the 
 Messiah, Jesus, the son of Mary, is an apostle 
 of God, and His word which He placed in 
 Mary, and a spirit from Him. Wherefore, 
 believe in God, and in His apostle ; and say 
 not,— ‘the Trinity’;—refrain; it will be 
 better for you. For verily God is one God ; 
 far exalted is He above the possibility that 
 there should be unto Him progeny ! to Him 
 belongeth whatever is in the heavens and in 
 the earth, and He sufliceth as a guardian.” 
 
 In Surah lxi. 6, there is an appeal to the 
 Gospel in support of Muhammad’s mission, 
 and the appeal is made without any doubt 
 that he was referring to a genuine saying of 
 Christ, well known to the Christians of that 
 day. The verse is as follows :— 
 
 “ When Jesus, the son of Mary, said : 
 ■ 0 children of Israel! verily, I am the apostle 
 1 of God to you, verifying the law that was 
 
212 
 
 INJIL 
 
 INJIL 
 
 before me, and giving you glad tidings of an 
 apostle who shall come after me, whose name 
 shall be Ahmad 1 ’ But when he did come to 
 them with manifest signs, they said, ‘ This is 
 manifest sorcery ! ’ ” 
 
 The allusion is to the promise of the Para¬ 
 clete in John xvi. 7, the Muslims declaring 
 that the word 7rapai<\T]T0 s has been substi¬ 
 tuted for the Greek TrepiK/Vuros, the word 
 Ahmad, which is equivalent to Muhammad, 
 meaning “ Praised.” The charge which 
 modern Muslims bring against the Christians 
 of having either lost, or changed the original 
 Scriptures, is treated of under the head of 
 CORRUPTION OP THE SCRIPTURES ; but some 
 curious statements on the subject will be 
 found in an article in the Kashfu ’z-Zunun. It 
 is a Bibliographical Dictionary, compiled by 
 Hajji Khalifah about 200 years ago. The 
 statements in its article on injil are such a 
 strange mixture of fact and fiction that we 
 translate the article from the Arabic in ex- 
 tenso :—- 
 
 _ “ The Injil is a book which God revealed to 
 ‘Isa ibn Maryam. In the work entitled al- 
 Muwahib (by Shihabu ’d-DIn Ahmad al- 
 Qastalani, died a.h. 923), it is recorded that 
 the Injil was first revealed in the Syriac 
 tongue, and has since been translated into 
 seventeen languages. But in the Salnliu 
 'l-Bukhari (a.h. 256), in the story of Waraqah 
 ibn Naufal, it is related that the Injil was 
 revealed in Hebrew. According to Wahb ibn 
 Munabbih, as quoted by Zamakhshari (a.h. 
 538) in the Kashshaf, the Injil was revealed 
 to Jesus on the 13th day of the month Rama¬ 
 zan, although some say it was on the 18th 
 day of that month, 1200 years after the reve¬ 
 lation of the Zabur (Psalms) to Moses. 
 
 “ It is a disputed question whether or not 
 the Injil abrogates the Law of Moses ( Taurat ). 
 Some say that Jesus was not a Sahibu ’sh- 
 Shai'i‘ah (a law-giver) ; for it is said in the 
 Injil :— 
 
 ‘ I am not come to abrogate (tabdiT) the Law 
 of Moses, but to fulfil it ( ta/cmil).’ 
 
 “ But al-BaizawI (a.h. 685), in his com¬ 
 mentary the Anwa.ru ’ t-Tamil , seems to prove 
 that the Law of Jesus does abrogate the 
 Law of Moses (SharHi Musa), for there are 
 certain things revealed to Jesus which were 
 not revealed to Moses. 
 
 “ At the commencement of the Injil is 
 inscribed ^ ' In the 
 
 name of the Father and of the Son,’ &c. 
 And the Injil, which is now in the hands of 
 the Christians, is merely a history of the 
 Christ (Siratu ’l-Masih), collected by his 
 four companions Matta, Luqa, Marqus and 
 Yuhanna. 
 
 “ In the book entitled the TuTjfatu ’l-Adib 
 fi Rciddi ‘ala Ahli ’s-Salib, or ‘ A refutation 
 of the servants of the Cross’ (written by 
 ‘Abdu ’llah, a pervert from Christianity to 
 Islam, a.h. 823), it is said that these four 
 Companions are they who corrupted the 
 
 religion of Jesus, and have added to it. And 
 that they were not of the Hawariyun, or 
 Apostles, mentioned in the Qur’an. Matta did 
 not see Jesus until the year he was taken up 
 to heaven; and after the Ascension of Jesus 
 he wrote in the city of Alexandria, with his 
 own hand, his Injil, in which he gives an 
 account of the birth and life of Jesus, men¬ 
 tioning several circumstances which are not 
 mentioned by others. Luqa also did not 
 see Jesus, but he was converted to Chris¬ 
 tianity by one Bulls (Paul), who was an 
 Israelite, who himself had not seen Jesus, 
 but was converted by Ananiyd (Ananias). 
 Marqus also did not see Jesus at all, but was 
 converted to Christianity, after the Ascension 
 of Jesus, by the Apostle Bitru, and received 
 the Injil (Gospel) from that Apostle in the 
 city of Rome. And his Gospel in many 
 respects contradicts the statements of the 
 other three. Yuhanna was the son of the 
 sister of Maryam, the mother of Jesus, and 
 the Christians assert that Jesus was present 
 at the marriage of Yuhanna, when Jesus 
 changed the water into wine. It was the first 
 miracle performed by Jesus. 
 
 “When Yuhanna saw the miracle, he was 
 converted to Christianity, and left his wife 
 and followed Jesus. He was the writer of 
 the fourth Injil (Gospel). It was written in 
 Greek, in the city of Hphesus. These are 
 the four persons who altered and changed the 
 true Injil, for there was only one Injil revealed 
 to Jesus, in which there was no contradiction 
 or discrepancy. These people have invented 
 lies concerning God and His Prophet Jesus, 
 upon whom be peace, as it is a well known 
 fact, although the Christians (Nas dr a) deny 
 it. For example, Marqus has written in 
 the first chapter of his Gospel that in the 
 book of the Prophet Isaiah it is said by God, 
 ‘ I have sent an angel before thy face, namely, 
 before the face of Jesus,’ whereas the words 
 are not in the book of Isaiah but in that of 
 Malachi. [See Mark i. 2. In the Received 
 Version the words are “in the Prophets”; 
 but in the Revised Version we have “in 
 Isaiah the prophet.”] 
 
 “ Again, it is related by Matta, in the first 
 or rather thirteenth chapter of his Gospel 
 [sic ; see, however, Matt. xii. 40], that Jesus 
 said, ‘ My body will remain in the belly of 
 the earth three days and three nights after 
 my death, just as Jonas was in the whale’s 
 belly ; ’ and it is evident it was not true, for 
 Matta agrees with the three other writers of 
 the Gospels that Jesus died in the sixth hour 
 on Friday, and was buried in the first hour 
 of the night on Saturday, and rose from the 
 dead early on Sunday morning, so that he 
 remained in the belly of the earth one day 
 and two nights. So there remains no doubt 
 that the writers of the Gospels told the un¬ 
 truth. For neither Jesus said of himself, nor 
 did God in his Injil say of him, that Jesus 
 will be killed or buried in the earth, for God 
 has said (i.e. in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 156), 
 
 ‘ They slew him not, for certain! Nay, God 
 raised him up unto Himself.’ For this cause 
 there were various divisions amongst the 
 
AL-INSAN 
 
 INSPIRATION 
 
 213 
 
 Christians. Other circumstances similar to 
 these are mentioned in the Tuhfcitu ’l-Adib. 
 Then there are the fundamental rules and 
 doctrines (al- Qaw a'id), upon which the Chris¬ 
 tians are, with wry few exceptions, universally 
 agreed, namely: (1) At-Tayhtls (Baptism); 
 (2) Faith in the Taslis, or Trinity; (3) the 
 Incarnation of the Uqnu.ni (i.e. the essence) of 
 the Son in the womb of Mary ; (4) a belief 
 in the Fitrah (i.e. the Holy Communion); 
 (5) the Confession of all sins to the Priest 
 (Llis'is). These five foundations also are full 
 of falsehood, corruption, and ignorance.” 
 
 “ In the work entitled ul-Jnsdnu 'l-Kamil 
 (written by the Shaikh ‘Abdu’l-Karim ibn 
 Ibrahim al-Jili, lived a.h. 767-811) it is said 
 that when the Christians found that there 
 was at the commencement of the Injil the 
 superscription ^ ^~Ai, i.e. ‘ in the 
 
 name of the Father and Son,’ they took the 
 words in their natural meaning, and [think¬ 
 ing it ought to be Ab, father, Umm, mother, 
 and Ibn, son] understood by Ab, the Spirit, 
 by Umm, Mary, and by Ibn, Jesus ; and on this 
 account they said, Salisu Sa/nsatin, i.e. ‘ (God 
 is) the third of three.’ (Surah v. 77.) But 
 they did not understand that by Ab is meant 
 God Most High, by Umm, the Mahlyatu 7- 
 Haqd'iq, or ‘Essence of Truth” (Quidditas 
 veritatuni), and by Ibn, the Book of God, 
 which is called the Wujudu ’l-Mutlaq, or 
 ‘ Absolute Existence,’ being an emanation of 
 the Essence of Truth, as it is implied in the 
 words of the Qur’an, Surah xiii. 9• And with 
 him is the Ummu 'l-Kitab, or the Mother of 
 the Book.’ ” 
 
 al-INSAN (oUN). “ Man.” The 
 
 title of the Lxxvith Surah of the Qur’an, called 
 also Suratu ’d-Dahr, both words occurring in 
 the first verse: “ Did there not pass over 
 man ( insdn ) a long space of time ( dahr ), 
 dur ing which he was a thing not worthy of 
 remembrance.” 
 
 Some take these words to be spoken of 
 Adam, whose body, according to tradition, 
 was first a figure of clay, and was left for 
 forty years to dry, before God breathed into 
 it; but others understand them of man in 
 general and of the time he lies in the womb. 
 (See al-Baizdwi, in loco.') 
 
 al-INSANU ’L-KAMIL 
 
 “ The perfect man.” A 
 term used by the Sufi mystics for one in 
 whom are combined all the attributes of 
 divinity and of humanity. (Kitabu ’ t-Ta‘rifdt, 
 in loco). Also title of a mystic work by 
 ‘Abdu T-Karim ibn Ibrahim al-Jili (lived 
 a.h. 767-811). 
 
 INSHA (»lfcrt). Lit. “Construc¬ 
 ting ; raising-up.” The term is particularly 
 applied to literary compositions and forms of 
 letter-writing. 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, vol. i. 
 p. 272, mentions the Shaikh of the great 
 Mosque, the Azhar, as the author of a col¬ 
 lection of Arabic letters on various subjects, 
 which are intended as models of epistolary 
 style, such a collection being called an Insha’. 
 
 INSHA’A ’LLAHU TA'ALA (.U 0 \ 
 <i!M). “ If it should please God 
 
 Almighty.” A very frequent ejaculation 
 amongst Muslims, [istisna’.] 
 
 AL-INSHIRAH (cV^). “Ex¬ 
 panding.” The title of the xcivth Surah of 
 the Qur’an, which opens with the words 
 “ Have we not expanded thy breast.” It is 
 supposed to allude to the opening of Muham¬ 
 mad’s heart in his infancy, when it is said to 
 have been taken out and cleansed of original 
 sin. (See al-Baizdwi, in loco.) 
 
 INSOLVENCY of a debtor is esta¬ 
 blished by a judicial decree; and after such 
 a declaration a bequest by such a person is 
 void. If, however, the creditors relinquish 
 their claim, the bequest is then valid. (Hi- 
 ddyah, iv. p. 475.) 
 
 INSPIRATION. Arabic wahy 
 (,_s^). According to the Nuru ’ l- 
 Anwar, by Shaikh Jiwan Ahmad (a.h. 1130), 
 inspiration is of two kinds. Wahy zahir, 
 external inspiration, or Waliy bdtin, internal 
 inspiration. 
 
 I. —External Inspiration is of threo kinds :— 
 
 (1) Wahyu Qur’an, or that which was re¬ 
 ceived from the mouth of the angel Gabriel, 
 and reached the ear of the Prophet, after he 
 knew beyond doubt that it was the angel 
 who spoke to him. This is the only kind of 
 inspiration admitted to be in the Qur’an. It 
 is sometimes called the Wahy inatlu. 
 
 (2) Isharatu ’l-Malak, or that which was 
 received from the angel but not by word of 
 mouth, as when the Prophet said, “ the Holy 
 Ghost has breathed into my heart.” 
 
 (3) Ilham or Wahyu qalb, or that which 
 was made known to the Prophet by the 
 “ light of prophecy.” This kind of inspira¬ 
 tion is said to be possessed by Walls or 
 saints, in which case it may be either true or 
 false. 
 
 II. — Internal Inspiration is that which the 
 Prophet obtained by thought and analogical 
 reasoning, just as the Mujtahidun, or en¬ 
 lightened doctors of the law obtain it. It is 
 the belief of all orthodox Muslims that their 
 Prophet always spoke on matters of religion 
 by the lower forms of inspiration (i.e. Isharatu 
 'l-Malak, Ilham, or Wahyu qalb) ; and, con¬ 
 sequently a Hadis is held to be inspired in as 
 great a degree, although not in the same 
 maimer as the Qur'an itself. The inspiration 
 of the Hadis is called the Wahy yhair 
 matlii. (See Nuru 'l-Anwar, p. 181; Mish- 
 kat, book i. ch. vi. pt. 2.) 
 
 Suratu ’n-Najm, liii. 2 : “ Your lord (sahib) 
 erreth not, nor is he led astray, neither 
 speaketh he from impulse.” 
 
 According to the strict Muhammadan doc¬ 
 trine, every syllable of the Qur’an is of a 
 directly divine origin, although wild rhapso¬ 
 dical Surahs first composed by Muhammad 
 (as xci., c., cii., ciii). do not at all bear marks 
 of such an assumption, and were not pro¬ 
 bably intended to be clothed in the dress of 
 a message from the Most High, which cha= 
 
214 
 
 INTELLECT 
 
 INTERCESSION 
 
 racterizes the rest of the Qur’an. But when 
 Muhammad’s die was cast (the turning point 
 in his career) of assuming that Great Name 
 as the speaker of His revelations, then these 
 earlier Surahs also came to be regarded as 
 emanating directly from the Deity. Hence it 
 arises that Muhammadans rigidly include 
 every word of the Qur’an, at whatever stage 
 delivered, in the category of Qala ’ Ua.hu , or 
 “ Thus saith the Lord,” and it is one of their 
 arguments against our Christian scriptures 
 that they are not entirely cast in the same 
 mould—not exclusively oracles from the 
 mouth, and spoken in the person of God. 
 (Muir’s Life of Mahomet.) 
 
 The following is a description of inspiration 
 as given by Ibn Kh aldun, “ The sign that a 
 man is inspired,” he says, “ is, that he is at 
 times completely absent, though in the society 
 of others. His respiration is stentorious and 
 he seems to be in a cataleptic fit, or in a 
 swoon. This, however, is merely apparent; 
 for in reality such an ecstasis is an absorp- 
 tion into the invisible world; and he has 
 within his grasp what he alone is able to con¬ 
 ceive, which is above the conception of 
 others. Subsequently these spiritual visions 
 descend and become perceptible to the facul¬ 
 ties of man. They are either withered to 
 him in a low tone, or an angel appears to him 
 in human shape and tells him what he brings 
 from God. Then the ecstasis ceases, and the 
 prophet remembers what he has heard.” 
 
 INTELLECT. Arabic ‘aql (Jac), 
 fahm (/»&), idrctJe (cs3^j1). 
 
 The Faqlr Jani Muliammad ibn As'ad, in 
 his work the Akhlaq-i-Jalo.li. says : “ The rea¬ 
 sonable mind has two powers, (1) the power of 
 perceiving , and (2) the power of impelling ; and 
 each of these powers has two divisions : in the 
 percipient power, 1st, an observative intellect, 
 which is the source of impression from the 
 celestial sources, by the reception of those 
 ideas which are the materials of knowledge ; 
 2nd, an active intellect, which, through 
 thought and reflection, is the remote source 
 of motion to the body in its separate actions. 
 Combined with the appetent and vindictive 
 powers, this division originates the occur¬ 
 rence of many states productive of action or 
 impact, as shame, laughing, crying; in its 
 operation on imgination and supposition, it 
 leads to the accession of ideas and arts in the 
 partial state ; and in its relation with the ob¬ 
 servative sense and the connection maintained 
 between them, it is the means of originating 
 general ideas relating to actions, as the 
 beauty of truth, the odiousness of falsehood, 
 and the like. The impelling power has like¬ 
 wise two divisions : 1st, the vindictive power, 
 which is the source of forcibly repelling 
 what is disagreeable; 2nd, the appetent power, 
 which is the source of acquiring what is agree¬ 
 able.” (Thompson’s ed. p. 52.) 
 
 INTERCALATION of the Year. 
 
 Arabic nasi ’. The privilege of commuting 
 the last of the three continuous sacred months 
 for the one succeeding it, the month Safar, 
 
 in which case Muharram became secular, and 
 Safar sacred. M. Caussin de Perceval supposes 
 that this innovation was introduced by Qusaiy, 
 an ancestor sixth in ascent from Muham¬ 
 mad, who lived in the middle of the fifth cen¬ 
 tury. Dr. Sprenger thinks that intercalation 
 in the ordinary sense of the word was not 
 practised at Makkah, and that the Arab year 
 was a purely lunar one, performing its cycle 
 regularly, and losmg one year in every thirty- 
 three. 
 
 The custom of nasi’ was abolished by 
 Muhammad, at the farewell pilgrimage, 
 a.h. 10, as is stated in the Qur’an, Surah ix. 
 36, 37:— 
 
 “ Twelve months is the number of months 
 with God, according to God’s book, since the 
 day when He created the heavens and the 
 earth: of these four are sacred; this is the 
 right usage. But wrong not yourselves 
 therein; attack those who join gods with 
 God in all, as they attack you in all: and 
 know that God is with those who fear Him. 
 
 “To carry over a sacred month to another, 
 is only a growth of infidelity. The Infidels 
 are led into error by it. They allow it one 
 year, and forbid it another, that they may 
 make good the number of months which God 
 hath hallowed, and they allow that which 
 God hath prohibited.” 
 
 INTERCESSION. Arabic Sha - 
 fed ah (&A&a»). There is a general 
 belief amongst Muhammadans that their 
 Prophet is a living intercessor for them at 
 the throne of God ; but the Wahhabis state 
 that the intercession of their Prophet will only 
 be by the permission (Izri) of God at the last 
 day, and that there is no intercession for sins 
 until the Day of Judgment. The teaching of 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions seems to be in 
 favour of this view. 
 
 Surah ii. 256 : “ Who is he that can inter¬ 
 cede with Him but by His own permission ? ” 
 
 Surah xix. 90: “None shall meet (in the 
 Day of Judgment) with intercession save he 
 who hath entered into covenant with the God 
 of mercy.” 
 
 Surah xx. 108: “No intercession shall 
 avail on that day, save his whom the Mer¬ 
 ciful shall allow, and whose words He shall 
 approve.” 
 
 Surah xxxiv. 22: “No intercession shall 
 avail with him but that which He Himself 
 alloweth.” 
 
 Surah xxxix, 45: “Intercession is wholly 
 with God.” 
 
 Surah lxxviii. 38: “On the day whereon 
 the spirit (Ru/i) and the angels shall stand 
 ranged in order they shall not utter a word, 
 save he ■whom the God of mercy permits, and 
 wh» shall say what is right.” 
 
 The statements of Muhammad, as contained 
 in the Traditions, are as follows:— 
 
 “ He is most fortunate in my intercession 
 in the Day of Judgment, who shall have said 
 from his heart, without any mixture of hypo¬ 
 crisy, ‘ There is no deity but God,’ ” 
 
 “ I will intercede for those who shall have 
 committed great sins.” 
 
INTERMEDIATE STATE 
 
 “ Three classes will intercede on the Day 
 of Judgment, the Prophets, the Learned, the 
 Martyrs.” (Mishkat, book xxxiii. ch. xii.) 
 
 The author of the Sharh-i-Muioaqif says 
 (p. 588) : According to the Sunnis, the inter¬ 
 cession of Muhammad is specially for those 
 who have committed great sins ( ahlu 7- 
 kaba'ir), for the purpose of removing punish¬ 
 ment ; for Muhammad has said, “ My inter¬ 
 cession is for those who have committed 
 great sins.” But the Mu‘tazilahs say the 
 intercession of Muhammad is for the increase 
 of merit, and not for the prevention of 
 punishment ; for it is said in the Qur'an, 
 Surah ii. 45 : “ Fear the day wherein no soul 
 shall pay recompense for another soul. Nor 
 shall intercession be accepted for it, nor shall 
 compensation be taken from it, nor shall they 
 be helped.” 
 
 INTERMEDIATE STATE. The 
 
 state of the soul between the time of death 
 and the resurrection is generally expressed 
 by the term ‘Atam-i-Barzakh, for an explana¬ 
 tion of which refer to the article isarzakh 
 Sufi writers use the term ‘Alam-i-Arwdh, 
 
 “ The world of spirits.” 
 
 From the Traditions it would appear that 
 Muhammad taught that the intermediate 
 state is not one of unconsciousness. To the 
 wicked it is certainly not; but inasmuch as 
 the Muslim is encouraged to “ sleep like the 
 bridegroom ,” it may be inferred that the in¬ 
 termediate state of the Muslim is held to be 
 one of absolute repose.” [punishments of 
 
 THE GRAVE.] 
 
 INZAR Listening or lend¬ 
 
 ing an ear to the bankrupt’s statement or 
 petition. 
 
 INZPAJ (gVc^). Lit. “ Being dis¬ 
 turbed and moved from its place.” A term 
 used by the Sufi mystics for the movement 
 and excitement of the heart in the direction 
 of God, through the effect either of a sermon,- 
 or of music and singing. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 IQALAH (4lA). “Cancelling.” Iu 
 law, the cancelling or dissolution of sale, or 
 any other contract. 
 
 IQAMAH Lit. “ Causing 
 
 to stand.” A recitation at the commence¬ 
 ment of the stated prayers when said in a 
 congregation, after the worshippers have 
 taken up their position. It is the same as 
 the I’zan, with the addition of the sentence, 
 “ Verily prayers are now ready ” ( Qad qdmati 
 ’s-salat). The sentences are, however, recited 
 singly by all the sects except the Hanafis who 
 give it exactly as the I’zan. It is not recited 
 by the Imam, but by the person who stands 
 behind him, who is called the Mugtadi, or 
 “ follower.” In large mosques it is usual for 
 the Mu’azzin, or caller to prayer, to take 
 this office. But in his absence the person 
 who happens to be behind the Imam recites 
 the Iqamah. [imam.] 
 
 IRON 215 
 
 IQRAR (jlyrt). Acknowledgment ; 
 
 confession. 
 
 (1) A legal term used for the avowal of the 
 right of another upon one’s self in sales, con¬ 
 tracts, and divorce. (2) A theological term 
 used for a confession of the Muslim faith, or 
 a confession of sin. (3) Iqrdr-namah, a legal 
 deed of acknowledgment. (4) Iqrdr-namah 
 saldsi, a deed of arbitration by a third party. 
 (5) Iqraru 'l-as dm, a confession of guilt by a 
 prisoner. (6) Iqrdr ‘dinm , a public acknow¬ 
 ledgment. 
 
 IQTIZA(olaiil). Lit. “Demanding.” 
 
 A term used in the exegesis of the Qur'an for 
 sentences which demand certain conditions, 
 e.g. Surah iv. 94: “Whoso killeth a Mu’min 
 (a believer) by mischance shall be bound to 
 free a slave.” Here the condition demanded 
 is that the slave shall be the property of the 
 person who frees him, and if he have not a 
 slave to free, then some other expiation is 
 required. 
 
 IRADAH Purpose, will, 
 
 intention. (1) A word used for the intention, 
 or will of man. (2) Iradatu '//ah, the will of 
 God. (3) According to the Sufi mystics, it 
 is “ a flame of love in the heart which desires 
 God and longs to be united with Him. pAbdu 
 ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 IRAM ((•;!). A place mentioned 
 in the Qur’an, Surah lxxxix. 6 : “ Irani of the 
 columns, the like of which has not been 
 created in these lands.” 
 
 _ It is related that ash-Shaddad, the son of 
 ‘Ad, ordered the construction of a terrestial 
 paradise in the desert of ‘Adan, ostensibly 
 to rival the celestial one, and to be called 
 Iram after his great grandfather. On going 
 to take possession of it, he and all his 
 people were struck dead by a noise from 
 heaven, and the paradise disappeared. 
 
 al-TRAQ Lit. “A side, 
 
 or shore.” A country frequently mentioned 
 in the Traditions, which extends from ‘Ab- 
 badan to al-Mausil in length, and from al- 
 Qadislyah to Halwiin in breadth. Said to be 
 so named because it was on the “ shore ” of 
 the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Its prin¬ 
 cipal cities were al-Basrah and al-Kufah, and 
 were called al-‘lrdqdn, or the Two ‘Iraqs. 
 
 TRBAN (<^?; c ). Earnest-money 
 
 paid in any legal transaction. 
 
 IRHAS Lit. “ Laying the 
 
 Foundation.” A term used for any wonder 
 wrought in behalf of a Prophet before he 
 assumes the prophetic office; for example, the 
 existence of a light on the forehead of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s ancestors is an Irhas. ( Kitabu 7- 
 Ta-rifat.) 
 
 IRON. Arabic al-Hadid (jq-LaM). 
 
 The title of Surah lvii. in the Qur’an, in the 
 25th verso of which it is said : “ We (God) sent 
 down iron, in which are both keen violence and 
 advantages to men.” Zamakhsharl says that 
 Adam brought down with him from Paradise 
 
IRTIDAD 
 
 216 
 
 five things made of iron, viz. an anvil, a pair 
 of tongs, two hammers, a greater and lesser, 
 and a needle. 
 
 IRTIDAD [apostasy.] 
 
 ‘ISA (^--c). The name given to 
 
 Jesus in the Qur’an and all Muhammadan 
 writings, [jesus Christ.] 
 
 ISAAC. Arabic Ishaq (jW-B). 
 
 The son of Abraham. He is mentioned in 
 the Qur’an as specially the child of promise, 
 and a gift from God to Abraham; and also 
 as an inspired prophet. 
 
 Surah xxi. 72: “And We (God) gave him 
 (Abraham) Isaac and Jacob as a farther gift; 
 and we made them all righteous.” 
 
 Surah six. 50: 
 
 “ And when he had separated himself from 
 them and that which they worshipped beside 
 God, we bestowed on him Isaac and Jacob; 
 and each of them we made a prophet. 
 
 “ And we bestowed gifts on them in our 
 mercy, and gave them the lofty tongue of 
 truth.” 
 
 The birth of Isaac as a child of promise to 
 Abraham is related in Surah xi. 72-77:— 
 
 “And our messengers came formerly to 
 Abraham with glad tidings. ‘ Peace,’ said 
 they. He said, ‘ Peace,’ and he tarried not, 
 but brought a roasted calf. 
 
 “ And when he saw that their hands 
 touched it not, he misliked them, and grew 
 fearful of them. They said, 1 Pear not, for 
 we are sent to the people of Lot.’ 
 
 “ His wife was standing by and laughed ; 
 and we announced Isaac to her; and after 
 Isaac, Jacob. 
 
 “ She said, ‘ Ah, woe is me! shall I bear a 
 son when I am old, and when this my husband 
 is an old man ? This truly wmuld be a mar¬ 
 vellous thing.’ 
 
 “ They said, ‘ Marvellest thou at the com¬ 
 mand of God ? God’s mercy and blessing be 
 upon you, 0 people of this house; praise and 
 glory are His due ? ’ 
 
 “ And when Abraham’s fear had passed 
 away, and these glad tidings had reached him, 
 he pleaded with us for the people of Lot. 
 Verily, Abraham was right kind, pitiful, 
 relenting.” 
 
 Abraham’s willingness to offer up his son 
 is told in the Qur’an, and from the text 
 there would seem little doubt but Isaac w T as 
 intended, although al-Baizawi and many com¬ 
 mentators declare it was Ishmael. The ac¬ 
 count runs thus (Surah xxxvii. 97-113) :— 
 
 “ And he said, 1 Verily, I repair to my Lord 
 who will guide me. 
 
 “ ‘ O Lord give me a son, of the righteous.’ 
 
 “We announced to him a youth of meek¬ 
 ness. 
 
 “ And when he became a full-grown youth, 
 
 “ His father said to him, ‘ My son, I have 
 seen in a dream that I should sacrifice thee; 
 therefore, consider what thou seest right.' 
 
 “ He said, ‘ My father, do what thou art 
 bidden; of the patient, if God please, shalt 
 thou find me.’ 
 
 “ And when they had surrendered them to 
 
 ISHMAEL 
 
 | the will of God, he laid him down upon his 
 I forehead. 
 
 “ We cried unto him, ‘ O Abraham ! 
 
 “ 1 Now hast thou satisfied the vision. 
 
 J See how we recompense the righteous. 
 
 “ This was indeed a decisive test. 
 
 “ And we ransomed his son with a costly 
 victim, 
 
 “And we left this for him among posterity, 
 
 “ ‘ Peace be on Abraham ! ’ 
 
 “ Thus do we reward the well-doers, 
 
 “ For he was of our believing servants. 
 
 “ And we announced Isaac to him—a 
 righteous prophet— 
 
 “ And on him and on Isaac we bestowed 
 our blessing. And among their offspring 
 were well-doers, and others, to their own 
 hurt undoubted sinners.” 
 
 The feast of sacrifice, the Tdu ’1-Azha, is 
 said to have been instituted in commemora¬ 
 tion of this event, [‘idu ’l-azha.] 
 
 Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, in his Essays 
 on Arabia, .remarks that learned Muham¬ 
 madan theologians distinctly say it was Isaac 
 and not Ishmael who was to have been 
 offered up; but our researches scarcely con¬ 
 firm the learned Syud’s statement. Isma‘11 
 al-Bukhari, no mean authority, says it was 
 Ishmael, and so does al-Baizawi. 
 
 The weight of traditional authority seems 
 to be in favour of Isaac, and so does the text 
 of the Qur’an, which we have explained in the 
 account of Ishmael; and yet amongst both the 
 Sunnis and the Shkahs the opinion is now 
 almost universal that it was Ishmael. 
 [ishmael.] 
 
 ISAIAH. Arabic Sha ( yd' (bL*a). 
 
 The name is not mentioned in the Qur’an, but 
 al-Baizawi, the commentator, in remarking on 
 Suratu ’1-Mi‘raj, xvii. 4 “ We decreed to 
 
 the children of Isra’il in the Book, ‘ Ye shall 
 verily do evil in the earth twice,”’—says the 
 two sins committed by the Israelites were 
 first the murder of Sha‘ya ibn Amsiya (i.e, 
 Isaiah, son of Amoz) or Armiya (i.e. Jere¬ 
 miah) ; and the second, the murder of Zakarla 
 and John the Baptist, and the intention of 
 killing Jesus. 
 
 I’SAR (_>^). Honouring another 
 above oneself. Thinking, of another’s gain 
 rather than one’s own. The highest form of 
 human friendship. 
 
 ‘IS HA’ (sA-ic). The Night Prayer. 
 The liturgical prayer recited after the night 
 has w r ell set in. [prayer.] 
 
 ISHAQ (jW-\). [ISAAC.] 
 ISHAQlYAH (<UW-Q. A ShTah 
 
 sect founded by a person named Ishaq, who 
 held that the Spirit of God existed in the 
 Khalifah ‘AH. 
 
 ISHARATU ’L-MALAK (S>\ 
 
 ^UB). [inspiration.] 
 
 ISHMAEL. Arabic Ismd l il 
 (J*eU~B). The eldest son of Abra- 
 
 ham, by his “ wife ” Hagar. [hajar]. 
 
ISHMAEL 
 
 ISHMAEL 
 
 (1) The progenitor of the Arabian race, 
 and, according to the Qur’an, an inspired 
 prophet. Surah xix. 55:— 
 
 “ And commemorate Ishmael in 4 the Book; ’ 
 for ho was true to his promise, and was an 
 Apostle, a prophet; 
 
 “And he enjoined prayer and almsgiving 
 on his people, and was well-pleasing to his 
 Lord.” 
 
 (2) Said to have assisted his father in 
 the construction of the Ka‘bah. Surah ii. 
 119, 121:— 
 
 “ And remember when we appointed the 
 Holy House as man’s resort and safe retreat, 
 and said, 4 Take ye the station of Abraham 
 for a place of prayer.’ And we commanded 
 Abraham and Ishmael, 1 Purify my house for 
 those who shall go in procession round it, and 
 those who shall abide there for devotion, and 
 those who shall bow down and prostrate 
 themselves.’ 
 
 # * # * # 
 
 “ And when Abraham, with Ishmael, raised 
 the foundations of the House, they said, 
 1 0 our Lord! accept it from us; for Thou 
 art the Hearer, the Knower.’” 
 
 (3) Also mentioned in six other places. 
 
 Surah ii. 134 : 44 Do ye say that Abraham 
 
 and Ishmael, and Isaac and Jacob, and the 
 Tribes were Jews, or Christians? ” 
 
 Surah iii. 78 : “And what was revealed to 
 Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob 
 and the Tribes.” 
 
 Surah iv. 1G1: 44 And we inspired Abraham 
 and Ishmael, and Jacob and the Tribes.” 
 
 Surah vi, 86 : 44 And Ishmael and Elisha, 
 and Jonah, and Lot.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 85 : “ And Ishmael, and Idris, 
 and Zu ’1-Kifl, all these were of the patient.” 
 
 Surah xxxviii. 48 : “ And remember Ishmael, 
 and Elisha, and Zu ’1-Kifl, for each was 
 righteous.” 
 
 (4) According to the Old Testament, Ishmael 
 had twelve sons, and Muhammadan tradition 
 also agrees with this :— 
 
 Genesis xxv. 12: 44 Now these are the 
 generations of Ishmael, Abraham’s son, whom 
 Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah’s handmaid, bare 
 unto Abraham. And these are the names 
 of the sons of Ishmael, according to their 
 generations: the first-born of Ishmael, Ne- 
 bajoth ; and Kedar, and Adbeel, and Mibsam, 
 and Mishma, and Dumah, and Massa, and 
 Hadar, and Tema, and Jetur, and Naphish, 
 and Kedemah. These are the sons of Ishmael, 
 and these are their names by their castles, 
 twelve princes according to their nations.” 
 
 The names of these sons of Ishmael can 
 still be distinguished amongst the tribes, the 
 names of which occur in Muhammadan 
 history: Nebajoth (Nabayug), the founder of 
 the Nabathean nation, who succeeded the 
 Idumeans in Arabia, and were an important 
 people in Northern Arabia. Kedar ( Qaidar ) 
 was also a famous tribe, so famous that the 
 Badawls of the desert applied the name to 
 all Jews. Dumah is still preserved in the 
 name Dumatu ’1-Jandal. Tema corresponds 
 with Taimah, and Jetur with the Jadur of 
 modern Arabia. Muhammad is said to have 
 
 217 
 
 been descended from Ishmael’s second son 
 Kedar (Qaidar), through one named ‘Adnan. 
 The period between ‘Adnan and Ishmael is 
 doubtful. Some reckon forty generations, 
 others only four. Umm Salmah, one of the 
 Prophet’s wives, said ‘Adnan was the son of 
 ‘Adad, the son of Humaisa, son of Nabat, son 
 of Ishmael. (See Abu ’l-Fida’, p. 62.) Muslim 
 historians, however, admit that the pedigree 
 of Muhammad beyond ‘Adnan is uncertain; 
 but they are unanimous in tracing his descent 
 to ‘Adnan in the following line : (1) Muham¬ 
 mad, (2) ‘Abdu ’llah, (3) Abu Muttalib, (4) 
 Hashim, (5) ‘Abdu Manaf, (6) Qusaiy, (7) 
 Kilab, (8) Murrah, (9) Ka‘b, (10) Luwaiy, 
 (11) Ghalib, (12) Fihr, (13) Malik, (14) An- 
 Nazr, (15) Kinanah, (16) Khuzaimah, (17) 
 Mudrikah, (18) Al-Ya’s, (19) Muzar, (20) 
 Nizar, (21) Ma'add, (22) ‘Adnan. 
 
 Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, traces the 
 descent of Muhammad to Kedar, the son 
 of Ishmael, and the view is one in accordance 
 with that of most Muslim writers. In the 
 time of Isaiah the two chief Arabian tribes 
 seem to have been the descendants of Nebajoth 
 and Kedar. (See Isaiah lx. 7.) “ All the flocks 
 of Kedar shall be gathered unto thee, the 
 rams of Nebajoth shall minister unto thee.” 
 
 (5) The account of Hagar leaving Abra¬ 
 ham’s home is given in numerous traditions. 
 But there are two traditions given by Ibn 
 ‘Abbas, and recorded in the Sahih of al- 
 Bukhari, which are the foundation of Muham¬ 
 madan history on the subject. We give them 
 as they have been translated by Syud Ahmad 
 Khan, and afterwards append the Scripture 
 narrative, ■which can be compared with the 
 traditions of Islam :— 
 
 Tradition I. 
 
 For reasons known only to Abraham and 
 his wife, Sarah, the former took Ishmael, his 
 son, and the boy’s mother (Hagar), and left 
 his country. 
 
 And they had with them a skin full of 
 water. 
 
 Ishmael’s mother drank from out the skin, 
 suckling her child. 
 
 Upon her arriving at the place where Mecca 
 now stands, she placed the child under a 
 bush. 
 
 Then Abraham returned to come back to 
 his wife, and the mother of Ishmael followed 
 him, 
 
 Until she reached Keda. 
 
 And she called out, “ 0 Abraham, with 
 whom leavest thou me ? ” 
 
 He answered, “ With God.” 
 
 She replied, “ I am satisfied with my God.” 
 
 Then she returned, and commenced drink¬ 
 ing out of the skin, and suckled her infant 
 until the water was consumed. 
 
 And she thought that if she went and 
 looked around, she might, perhaps, see somt- 
 one ; and she went. 
 
 She ascended Mount Safa, and looked 
 around to see whether or not there was 
 anyone in sight ; then hastily returning 
 through the wilderness, she ascended the 
 mountain of Marva. 
 
218 
 
 ISHMAEL 
 
 TSHMAEL 
 
 Then she said, “ I must now go and see 
 how my child is.” And she went, and saw 
 that he was at the point of death ; but not 
 being able to compose her mind, she said, 
 “ If I go and look around, peradventure I 
 may see someone.” And accordingly she 
 ascended the mountain of Safa, but could 
 descry no one. 
 
 And this she repeated seven times. 
 
 She then said, “It will be better for me 
 to go and see my child.” But she suddenly 
 heard a voice. 
 
 And she replied, “ Kindly assist me, if you 
 have any compassion ” 
 
 The angel was Gabriel. 
 
 The narrator of the tradition, stamping the 
 earth with his foot, said, this was exactly 
 what the angel did, and that water issued 
 from the spot; and she began to widen the 
 hole. 
 
 It is related by Ibn ‘Abbas, that the Prophet 
 said that had she (Hagar) allowed the water 
 to remain in its former state, the water would 
 then have continued issuing forth for ever. 
 
 She used to drink that water and suckle 
 her child. 
 
 Tradition II. 
 
 Abraham brought with him his wife (Hagar) 
 and his son (Ishmael), 
 
 Whom she (Hagar) suckled. 
 
 And they both placed the child close by the 
 spot where the Kaaba now stands under a 
 bush. 
 
 Near the well of Zamzem, near the lofty 
 side of the temple—and in those days Mecca 
 was uninhabited and without water—and they 
 deposited the child in the above place. 
 
 And Abraham placed beside them a bag 
 full of dates, 
 
 And a skin full of water. 
 
 Then returned Abraham, and Ishmael’s 
 mother ran after him, 
 
 And said, “ Abraham, whither goest thou, 
 and wherefore leavest thou me here ? 
 
 “ In this wilderness, where there is no one 
 to pity me, neither is there anything to eat ? ” 
 This she repeated several times, but Abraham 
 hearkened not unto her. Then she asked 
 him, “ Has God commanded thee to do this ? ” 
 
 He answered, “ Yes.” 
 
 “ Then,” said she, “ God will cause no harm 
 to come unto me.” 
 
 Thereupon she returned back. 
 
 And Abraham went away, and when he 
 reached Saneoa, he could not see those he 
 had left behind him. 
 
 Then he turned towards Mecca, and prayed 
 thus: “OLord, I have caused some of my 
 offspring to settle in an unfruitful valley, 
 near thy holy house, 0 Lord, that they may 
 be constant in prayer. Grant, therefore, that 
 the hearts of some men may be affected 
 with kindness towards them ; and do thou 
 bestow on them all sorts of fruits, that they 
 may give thanks.” 
 
 And the mother of Ishmael began to suckle 
 her child, and to drink water out of the skin 
 until it was emptied, 
 
 And she and her son felt thirsty. And when 
 she saw that her child was suffering from 
 thirst, she could not bear to see it in such a 
 plight, and retired, and reached the mountain 
 of Safa, that was near, and ascending it, 
 looked at the plain, in the hope of seeing 
 someone ; but, not perceiving anyone, she 
 came down from the mountain. 
 
 When she reached the desert, she girded 
 up her loins and ran as one mad, until she 
 crossed the desert, and ascended Mount 
 Marva; but she could not see anyone. 
 
 She repeated the same seven times. 
 
 It is related by Ibn ‘Abbas, that the Prophet 
 said that this was the origin of the custom of 
 true believers running between these moun¬ 
 tains during the Haj. 
 
 And when she ascended the Marva mountain, 
 she heard a voice. 
 
 She was startled thereat; and upon hearing 
 it again, she said, “ Wherefore callest thou on 
 me ? Assist me if thou canst.” 
 
 She then saw an angel near the Zamzem. 
 
 He (the angel) made a hollow place, either 
 by his foot or with his wing, and. the water 
 issued forth; and the mother of Ishmael com¬ 
 menced widening it. 
 
 She filled the skin with water, which came 
 out of it as from a fountain. 
 
 It is related by Ibn ‘Abbas that the Prophet 
 said, “ May God bless the mother of Ishmael. 
 Had she left the Zamzem as it was, or had 
 she not filled her skin with water, then the 
 Zamzenl would always have remained an 
 overflowing fountain.” 
 
 Then she drank the water, and suckled 
 her child. 
 
 The account as given in the Bible, Genesis 
 xxii. 9, is as follows:— 
 
 “ And Sarah saw the son of Hagar the 
 Egyptian, which she had borne unto Abraham, 
 mocking. Wherefore she said unto Abraham, 
 Oast out this bondwoman and her son; for 
 the son of this bondwoman shall not he heir 
 with my son, even with Isaac. And this 
 thing was very grievous in Abraham’s sight, 
 because of his son. And God said unto 
 Abraham, Let it not be grievous in thy sight 
 because of the lad, and because of thy bond- 
 woman ; in all that Sarah hath said unto thee, 
 hearken unto her voice; for in Isaac shall 
 thy seed be called. And also of the son of 
 the bondwoman will I make a nation, because 
 he is thy seed. And Abraham rose up early 
 in the morning, and took bread, and a bottle 
 of water, and gave it unto Hagar, putting it 
 on her shoulder, and the child, and sent her 
 away; and she departed, and wandered in 
 the wilderness of Beersheba. And the water 
 was spent in the bottle, and she cast the 
 child under one of the shrubs. And she 
 went, and set her down over against him a 
 good way off, as it were a bow shot; for she 
 said, Let me not see the death of the child. 
 And she sat over against him, and lifted up 
 her voice, and wept. And God heard the voice 
 of the lad, and the angel of God called to 
 Hagar out of heaven, and said unto her, 
 
ISHMAEL 
 
 ISHMAEL 
 
 What aileth thee, Hagar ? Fear not; for God 
 hath heard the voice of the lad whero he is. 
 Arise, lift up the lad, and hold him in thine 
 hand, for I will make him a great nation. 
 And God opened her eyes, and she saw a well 
 of water; and she went, and filled the bottle 
 with water, and gave the lad drink. And 
 God was with the lad; and he grew, and 
 dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer. 
 And ho dwelt in the wilderness of Paran ; and 
 his mother took him a wife out of the land of 
 Egypt.” 
 
 With reference to the above account, as 
 given in Holy Scripture, Syud Ahmad Khan 
 remarks:— 
 
 “Notwithstanding the perfect coincidence 
 of the facts taken from the Scriptures with 
 those from the Koran, as above shown, thore 
 are, nevertheless, three very important ques¬ 
 tions which suggest themselves respecting 
 Ishmael’s settlement. 
 
 “ First. Whore did Abraham leave Ishmael 
 and his mother after expelling thorn from his 
 home ? 
 
 “ Secondly. Whero did Ishmael and Hagar 
 sottle after their wanderings in the desert ? 
 
 “ Thirdly. Was it in the very spot where 
 they had rested for the first time, or in some 
 other placo ? 
 
 “ The Koran mentions nothing on the sub¬ 
 ject ; but there are some local traditions, and 
 also a few Hadeeses, which treat of it, the 
 latter, however, by reason of their not pos¬ 
 sessing sufficient authority, and from their 
 not being traced up to the Prophet, are as 
 little to be relied on as the former. The local 
 traditions being deemed unworthy of credit, 
 from their mixing up together occurrences 
 that had happened on various and different 
 occasions, we do not think it necessary to dwell 
 on the first question more than has been 
 done by the Scriptures themselves, which say 
 that ‘ He (Abraham) sent her (Hagar) away; 
 and she departed, and wandered in the wilder¬ 
 ness of Beersheba.’ 
 
 “As for the two remaining questions, al¬ 
 though the language of Scripture is not very 
 clear—since, in one place it says, 1 And he 
 (Ishmael) grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, 
 and became an archer ’ (Gen. xxi. 20), and 
 in another, ‘ He (Ishmael) dwelt in the wil¬ 
 derness of Paran ’ (Gen. xxi. 21), passages 
 which would certainly lead us to infer that 
 Ishmael had changed the place of his abode ; 
 yet, as no Christian commentator represents 
 him as having removed from one place to 
 another, and as, moreover, neither the reli¬ 
 gious nor the local traditions of the Moham¬ 
 medans in any way confirm the above, it may 
 be safely asserted that Ishmael and his mother 
 did not change the place where they dwelt, 
 and that by the word ‘ wilderness ’ alone the 
 sacred writer meant the wilderness of Paran. 
 The solving of the whole question depends, 
 therefore, upon ascertaining and fixing the 
 position of the said wilderness of Paran, 
 where Ishmael is said to have settled. 
 
 “ Oriental geographers mention three places 
 as known by the appellation of Paran. First, 
 that wilderness wherein the city of Mecca 
 
 219 
 
 now stands, and the mountains in its vicinity ; 
 secondly, those mountains and a village which 
 are situated in Eastern Egypt, or Arabia 
 Petraoa; and thirdly, a district in tho pro¬ 
 vince of Samarcand.” 
 
 (6) Al-Baizawi says it was Ishmael, and not 
 Isaac, whom Abraham was willing to offer up 
 as a sacrifice; but this view is neither sup¬ 
 ported by the text of the Qur’an nor by the 
 preponderance of traditional testimony. If 
 we compare Surah xi. 74: “ And We announced 
 Isaac (as the child of promise) to her,” with 
 Surah xxxvii. 99: “ We announced (as a 
 child of promise) to him a youth of meekness ; 
 and when he became a full-grown youth, his 
 father said to him, ‘ My son, I have seen in a 
 dream that I should sacrifice thee ’ ”—there 
 can be no doubt in any candid mind that, as 
 far as the Quran is concerned, Isaac and 
 not Ishmael is intended, [isaac.] 
 
 The two commentatoi’s al-Kamalan quote 
 a number of traditions on the subject. They 
 say Ibn ‘Umar, Ibn‘Abbas, Hasan, and ‘Abdu 
 ’lliih ibn Ahmad, relate that it was Isaac ; 
 whilst Ibn Mas‘ud, Mujahid, ‘Ikrimah, Qata- 
 dah, and Ibn Ishaq say it was Ishmael. But 
 whatever may be the real facts of the case, it 
 is certain that popular tradition amongst both 
 Sunnis and Shl‘ahs assigns the honour to 
 Ishmael, and believe the great Festival of 
 Sacrifice, the ‘Idu ’1-Azha, to have been estab- 
 blished to commemorate the event, [‘idu ’l- 
 aziia.] 
 
 The author of the Shi‘ah work, the Hayatu 
 ’ l-Qnlub (Merrick’s ed. p. 28) says: “On a 
 certain occasion when this illustrious father 
 (Abraham) was performing the rites of tho 
 pilgrimage at Mecca, Abraham said to his 
 beloved child, ‘ I dreamed that I must sacrifice 
 you ; now consider what is to be done with 
 reference to such an admonition.' Ishmael 
 replied, ‘ Do as you shall be commanded of 
 God. Verify your dream. You will find me 
 endure patiently.’ But when Abraham was 
 about to sacrifice Ishmael, the Most High 
 God made a black and white sheep his sub¬ 
 stitute, a sheep which had been pasturing 
 forty years in Paradise, and was created by 
 the direct power of God for this event. Now 
 every sheep offered on Mount Mina, until the 
 Day of Judgment is a substitute, or a com¬ 
 memoration of the substitute for Ishmael.” 
 
 The idea is universal amongst Muhamma¬ 
 dans that the incident took place on Mount 
 Mina near Makkah, and not in the “ land of 
 Moriah,” as stated in Genesis xxii. 3 (For a 
 discussion on the site of Mount Moriah, see 
 Mr. Geerge Grove’s article in Smith’s Diet, of 
 the Bible.) 
 
 Sir William Muir says ( Life of Mahomet, 
 new ed. p. xvii.): “ By a summary adjust¬ 
 ment, the story of Palestine became the story 
 of the Hejaz. The precincts of the Kaaba 
 were hallowed as the scene of Hagar’s distress 
 and the sacred well Zamzem as the source 
 of her relief. The pilgrims hasted to and 
 fro between Safa and Marwa in memory of 
 her hurried steps in search of water. It was 
 Abraham and Ishmael who built the (Meccan) 
 temple, placed in it the black stone, and 
 
220 e ISHQ 
 
 established for all mankind the pilgrimage to 
 Arafat. In imitation of him it was that 
 stones were flung by pilgrims at Satan; and 
 sacrifices were offered at Mina in remembrance 
 of the vicarious sacrifice by Abraham instead 
 of his son. And thus, although the indige¬ 
 nous rites may have been little if at all 
 altered, by the adoption of the Abrahamic 
 legends, they came to be viewed in a totally 
 different light, and to be connected in the 
 Arab imagination with something of the 
 sanctity of Abraham, the Friend of God. 
 The gulf between the gross idolatry of 
 Arabia and the pure theism of the Jews was 
 bridged over. Upon this common ground 
 Mahomet took his stand, and proclaimed to 
 his people a new and a spiritual system, in 
 accents to which all Arabia could respond. 
 The rites of the Kaaba were retained, but 
 stripped by him of every idolatrous tendency; 
 and they still hang, a strange unmeaning 
 shroud, around the living theism of Islam.” 
 
 ‘ISHQ ((j-ic). “ Love.” A word 
 
 used by mystic writers to express a divine 
 love. The word, however, preferred by or¬ 
 thodox Muslim writers for the love of 
 God, or love to God, is liubb 
 
 ISLAM (flLd). Resignation to 
 
 the will of God. The word generally used by 
 Muhammadans themselves for their religion. 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says it implies submission to 
 the divine will ; and Muhammad explained it 
 to mean the observance of the five duties: 
 (1) Bearing witness that there is but one 
 God; (2) Reciting the daily prayers; (3) 
 Giving the legal alms ; (4) Observing the 
 Ramazan or month’s fast; (5) Making the 
 pilgrimage to Makkah once in a lifetime. 
 
 In the Qur’an the word is used for doing 
 homage to God. Islam is said to be the reli¬ 
 gion of all the prophets from the time of 
 Abraham, as will appear from the following 
 verses (Surah iii. 78, 79) :—“ Sat : We believe 
 in God and in what hath been sent down to 
 Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, 
 and the Tribes, and in what was given to 
 Moses, and Jesus and the Prophets from their 
 Lord. We make no difference between them, 
 and to Him are we resigned {i.e. Muslims). 
 Whoso desireth any other religion than Islam, 
 that religion shall never be accepted of Him, 
 and in the next world he shall be lost.” 
 
 There are three words used by Muham¬ 
 madan writers for religion, namely Din, 
 Millah, and Mazhab ; and in the Ritabu 't- 
 Ta‘rlfdt, the difference implied in these words 
 is said to be as follows:— Din , as it stands in 
 its relation to God, e.g. Dlnu ’llah, the religion 
 of God ; Millah, as it stands in relation to, a 
 prophet or lawgiver, e.g. Millatu Ibrahim, 
 the religion of Abraham ; and Mazhab, as it 
 stands in relation to the divines of Islam, e.g. 
 Mazhab Hanaji, the religion or religious 
 teaching of AbuHanifah. The expression _Z)m, 
 however, is of general application, [religion.] 
 Those who profess the religion of Islam are 
 called Musalmans, Muslims, or Mu'mjns. 
 
 Ahlu ’l-Kitab, “ the people of the Book,” is 
 
 ISNA- { ISHARIYAH 
 
 used for Muhammadans, Jews, and Chris¬ 
 tians. 
 
 ISM (^). A sin ; anything for¬ 
 bidden by the law. 
 
 ‘ISMAH (<u-ac). Lit. “Keeping 
 
 back from sin.” The continence and freedom 
 from sin which Muhammadans say was the 
 state of each Prophet, and which is that of 
 nfant children. 
 
 ISMA'lL (J-cW~»\). [ishmael.] 
 ISMA’lL The name of 
 
 the angel who is said to have accompanied 
 the angel Gabriel in his last visit to the 
 Prophet on his death-bed. He is said to 
 command one hundred thousand angels. 
 {Mishlcat, book xxiv. ch. x. pt. 3.) 
 
 ISMATLIYAH (44*WA). A 
 
 Skl‘ah sect who said that Isma‘il ibn Ja‘far 
 as-Sadiq was the true Imam and not Musa 
 al-Kazim, and who held that God was neither 
 existent |nor non-existent, nor intelligent nor 
 unintelligent, nor powerful nor helpless, &c.; 
 for, they said, it is not possible for any thing 
 or attribute to be associated with God, for 
 He is the maker of all things, even of names 
 and attributes. {Ritabu ’t-Ta‘ri/dt, in loco.) 
 
 ISM-I-JALALl (JU r >\). Any 
 
 of the attributes of God which express His 
 power and greatness, e.g. al-Halcim, the 
 Judge; al-Adil, the Just; al-Rabir, the 
 Great, [god.] 
 
 ISM-I-JAMALI (JW r-\). Any 
 
 of the attributes of God which express His 
 mercy or condescension, e.g. ar-Rahim, the 
 Compassionate; as-SamV, the Hearer; al- 
 Hafiz, the Guardian. 
 
 ISM-I-SIFAH f^\). Name of 
 
 a divine attribute. 
 
 al-ISMU ’L-A‘ZAM (^\ pJiX). 
 
 The exalted name of God, which is generally 
 believed to be known only to the Prophets. 
 Muhammad is related to have said that it 
 occurs in either the Suratu ’1-Baqarah,ii. 256: 
 “ God (Allah) there is no God but He {Hu), 
 the Living {al-Haiy), the Self-subsistent 
 {al- Qaiyum) ”; or in the Suratu‘Ali ‘Imran, 
 iii. I, 1 which contains the same words ; or in 
 the Suratu Ta Ha, xx. 110: “ Faces shall be 
 humbled before the Living {al-Haiy) and the 
 Self-subsistent {al- Qaiyum).” 
 
 It is therefore generally held to be either 
 Allah, or Hu, or al-Haiy, or al-Qaiyum 
 It is very probable that the mysterious 
 title of the Divine Being refers to the great 
 name of Jehovah, the superstitious reverence 
 for which on the part of the Jews must have 
 been well known to Muhammad. 
 
 ISMU ’Z-ZAT Name 
 
 of the Divine Essence; the essential name of 
 God, i.e. Allah, or Hu, as distinguished from 
 His attributes, [allah.] 
 
 ISNA-TSHAKIYAH 
 
 Lit. “ The twelve eans.” Those Shhahs who 
 acknowledge the twelve Imams. [shi‘ah.] 
 
ISTIKHARAH 
 
 . ISQAT 
 
 ISQAT (LlaA). [abortion.] 
 
 ISRA ('^ 5 ^). [mi‘raj.] 
 
 ISRAEL. Arabic Isrd’il 
 
 The surname of Ya'qub (Jacob). Al-Baizawi 
 says the meaning of Isra’ll in Hebrew is 
 Sufwatu ’ Uah, i.e. “ the sincere friend of 
 God ”; or, as some say, ‘Abdu 'llah, “ the ser¬ 
 vant of God. Banu Isra'll, “ the children of 
 Israel,” is a term that frequently occurs in 
 the Qur’an. The xviith chapter of the Qur'an, 
 known as the Suratu ’ 1-Mi‘raj , is also called 
 the Suratu Banl Isra'll. 
 
 ISRAF Lit. “Wasting.” 
 
 Extravagance in religious duties, i.e. doing 
 more than is required by the law. 
 
 ISRAFlL (J*iU\). The Arch¬ 
 angel who will sound the trumpet at the Day 
 of Resurrection. His name, however, does 
 not occur in either the Qur’an, or the Tradi¬ 
 tions. 
 
 ISRAR (jLA). A word used by 
 
 the Arabs for a horse pricking up his ears, 
 and not obeying the rein. A term in Muham¬ 
 madan theology for persisting in any sin, 
 and being determined to commit the sin in 
 future. 
 
 ISSUE OF BLOOD. Arabic Isti- 
 hdzah (Ac,!*,.xA). [mustahazah.] 
 
 ISTTANAH (&UxA). Lit. “ Seek¬ 
 ing aid.” Imploring help from God. The 
 word occurs in the Suratu ’1-Fatihah, or the 
 first chapter of the Qur’an, which is part of 
 the liturgical prayer: wa- 
 
 lyaka nasta‘ln, “ Of Thee only do we seek 
 help.” 
 
 ISTIBRA’ The purifica¬ 
 
 tion of the womb. The period of probation, 
 of one menses, to be observed after the pur¬ 
 chase of a female slave (or in the case of a 
 virgin under age), the period of one month 
 before she is taken to her master’s bed. 
 
 ISTIBSAR QWtA). A Book of 
 
 Muhammadan traditions, received by the 
 Shi'ahs, compiled by Shaikh Nasiru ’d-Dln 
 Abu Ja'far Muhammad at-Tusi, a.h. 672. 
 
 ISTIDLAL (JSaxA). A term used 
 
 in the science of exegesis for those sentences 
 which require certain proofs, [qur’an.] 
 
 ISTIDRAJ (g\jAx-d). Lit. “Pro¬ 
 moting by degrees, step by step.” The word 
 occurs in the Qur’an for an unbeliever being 
 brought by degrees to hell and destruction. 
 
 Surah vii, 181: “ They who say our signs 
 are lies, We (God) will bring them down step 
 by step from whence they know not.” 
 
 Surah Ixviii. 44: “ We (God) will surely 
 bring them down step by step from whence they 
 do not know, and I (God) will let them have 
 their way; for My device is sure.” 
 
 (In this verse the sudden transition from the 
 first person plural to the first person singular, 
 for the Almighty, is peculiar ; it is, however, of 
 frequent occurrence in the Qur’an.) 
 
 221 
 
 ISTIGrHFAR 0 Seeking 
 
 forgiveness of God. It is related of Muham¬ 
 mad that he said :— 
 
 “ I swear by God that I ask pardon of God, 
 and repent before Him more than seventy 
 times daily. 
 
 “ 0 men, repent and turn to God, for verily 
 I repent before Him one hundred times a 
 day.” ( Mishkat , book x. ch. iii.) 
 
 ISTIHAZAH (<LeWxA). The issue 
 
 of blood of women ; during which time they 
 are ceremonially unclean. ( Vide Mishkat, 
 book iii. ch. xvi.) 
 
 ISTIHSAN ( 0 L^U). Lit. “Ap¬ 
 proving.” A term used in the exegesis of the 
 Qur’an and of the Hadis. It implies the 
 rejection of Qiyas [qiyas], and the admission 
 of the law of expediency. 
 
 For example, it is a law of Islam that 
 everything that is washed must be squeezed 
 like a cloth ; but, as it is impossible to squeeze 
 a vessel, it is evident that it must be cleansed 
 without squeezing. ( Nuru ’l-Anwar, p. 208.) 
 
 ISTIKHARAH Lit. 
 
 “ Asking favours.” A prayer for special 
 favours and blessings, consisting of the recital 
 of two rak l ah prayers. ( Mishkat, book iv. 
 ch. xl.) 
 
 Jabir says : “ The Prophet taught theZsri'- 
 kharah, as he also did a chapter of the 
 Qur’an; and he said, ‘ When anyone of you 
 intends doing a thing, he must perform two 
 rak‘ah prayers expressly for Istikharah, and 
 afterwards recite the following supplication : 
 0 God, I supplicate Thy help, in Thy great 
 wisdom; and I pray for ability through Thy 
 power. I ask a thing of Thy bounty. Thou 
 knowest all, but I do not. Thou art powerful, 
 and I am not. Thou knowest the secrets of 
 men. 0 God 1 if the matter I am about to 
 undertake is good for my faith, my life, and 
 my futurity, then make it easy for me, and 
 give me success in it. But if it is bad for my 
 faith, my life, and my futurity, then put it 
 away from me, and show me what is good, and 
 satisfy me. And the person praying shall 
 mention in his prayer the business which he 
 has in hand.’” 
 
 This very simple and commendable injunc¬ 
 tion has, however, been perverted to super¬ 
 stitious uses. 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, says :— 
 
 “ Some persons have recourse to the Qur’an 
 for an answer to their doubts. This they call 
 making an “ istikharah,” or application for 
 the favour of Heaven, or for direction in the 
 right course. Repeating three times the open¬ 
 ing chapter, the 112th chapter, and the fifty- 
 eighth verse of the sixth chapter, they let 
 the book fall open, or open it at random, and, 
 from the seventh line of the rignt-hand page, 
 draw their answer. 
 
 “ The words often will not convey a 
 direct answer, but are taken as affirmative or 
 negative according as their general tenour is 
 good or bad, promising a blessing, or de¬ 
 nouncing a threat, &e. Instead of reading 
 
222 
 
 ISTILAD 
 
 the seventh line of this page, some count the 
 number of letters kha and sheen which occur 
 in the whole page; and if the Icha’s predomi¬ 
 nate, the inference is favourable. Kha repre¬ 
 sents Jcheyr, or good ; sheen, shur,‘ or evil. 
 There is another mode of istikhdrah ; which 
 is, to take hold of any two points of a sebhhah 
 (or rosary), after reciting the Fat’hhah three 
 times, and then to count the beads between 
 these two points, saying, in passing the first 
 bead through the fingers, ‘ [I assert] the 
 absolute glory of God ; ’ in passing the second, 
 ‘Praise be to God;’ in passing the third, 
 ‘ There is no deity but God; ’ and repeating 
 these expressions in the same order, to the 
 last bead. If the first expression fall to the 
 last bead, the answer is affirmative and fa¬ 
 vourable ; if the second, indifferent; if the 
 last, negative. This is practised by many 
 persons. 
 
 “ Some, again, in similar cases, on lying 
 down to sleep at night, beg of God to direct 
 them by a dream; by causing them to see 
 something white or green, or water, if the 
 action which they contemplate be approved, 
 or if they are to expect approaching good 
 fortune; and if not, by causing them to see 
 something black or red, or fire; they then 
 recite the Fat’hhah ten times, and continue 
 to repeat these words : ‘ 0 God, favour 
 our lord Mohammad!’ — until they fall 
 asleep.” ( Modern Egyptians, vol. i. 338.) 
 
 Amongst pious Muslims in Asia it is usual 
 to recite the two rah ah prayers before retiring 
 to rest, in the hope that God will reveal His 
 will in a dream during the night. 
 
 ISTlLAD Claim of off¬ 
 
 spring. A legal term signifying the act of a 
 Muslim, having a child born to him of a female 
 slave, which he acknowledges as his own, 
 whereby the slave becomes free. (Hiddyah, 
 vol. i. p. 478.) 
 
 ISTILAH (e$M), pi. Istilahat. A 
 
 phrase ; a term; idiom. A theological term. 
 
 The author of the Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rifat says 
 it is the agreement of a tribe, or sect, or 
 party, to give a special meaning to a word, 
 over and above that which it has in its literal 
 sense, but which is in accordance with it. 
 
 ISTINJA’ OW^A). Abstersion; 
 
 concerning which there are most minute in¬ 
 structions in the Traditions and in other 
 books of Muslim divinity. Such acts of 
 cleansing must be performed with the left 
 hand, with not less than three handfuls of 
 water, or with three of dry earth. ( Mish- 
 kat, book ii. 1.) 
 
 ISTINSHAQ (jUjuJ \). The act 
 
 of throwing water up into the nostrils, which 
 is part of the religious ablution or wazu. 
 [ablution.] 
 
 ISTIQAMAH (£_^JbU). Lit. 
 
 “Standing erect.” A term (1) used by the 
 Sufi mystics for rectitude of fife, purity of 
 life; (2) being constant in religion according 
 to the rules of the Qur’an. 
 
 ‘izra’il 
 
 ISTIQBAL Lit. “ Going 
 
 forth to meet.” (1) A custom amongst Ori¬ 
 entals of going out to meet a friend or guest 
 on his arrival; (2) turning the face towards 
 Makkah for prayer; (3) a coming era or 
 period; the future. 
 
 ISTIRJA 1 (gL-yU). Lit. “ Re¬ 
 
 turning.” A term used for the act of appeal¬ 
 ing to God for help in the time of affliction by 
 repeating the following ejaculation from the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 150: Inna li’llahi wa inna 
 ilaihi raji‘iin, “ Verily, we belong to God, 
 and verily we shall return to God.” This 
 formula is used by Muhammadans in any 
 danger or sudden calamity, especially in the 
 presence of death. 
 
 ISTISHAB A law or 
 
 injunction contained in a previous revelation 
 (e.g. the Law of Moses) and not abrogated by 
 the succeeding law-giver. 
 
 ISTISNA’ Lit. “Ex¬ 
 cepting or excluding.” A term used for the 
 
 custom of exclaiming, “ If God will.” It is 
 in accordance with the injunctions of the 
 Qur’an, Surah xviii. 23: “ And never say of 
 anything,‘Verily, I am going to do that to¬ 
 morrow,’ without, ‘ If God will.’ ” (Compare 
 James iv. 15: “For ye ought to say, If 
 the Lord will.”) 
 
 ISTISQA’ (cUl-jlA). Prayers for 
 
 rain, consisting of two rah ah prayers. ( Mish - 
 kat, book iv. ch. liii.) 
 
 1‘TAQ Lit. “ Setting free.” 
 
 The manumission of slaves, [slavery.] 
 
 ITFlR [POTIPHAR.] 
 
 PTIKAF (i_A£xcl). Seeking retire¬ 
 ment in a mosque during the last ten days of 
 the Fast of Ramazan ; during which time the 
 worshipper does not leave the place, except fox- 
 necessary purposes. The time is spent in 
 reciting the Qur’an and in performing the 
 ceremony of Zikr, or the recital of the names 
 and praises of the Deity. 
 
 ‘ITQ (i3^). “Being free.” In the 
 
 language of the law it signifies the power 
 given to a person by the extinction of bondage. 
 Hence the emancipation of slaves. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. i. p. 413.) 
 
 ITTIHAD (aWV). Union; con¬ 
 cord ; intimate friendship. A term used by 
 the Sufi mystics for “ seeing the existence of 
 all things visible as only existing in God.” 
 (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 IZN (cjA). Permission, [inter¬ 
 
 cession.] 
 
 ‘IZRA’lL OV)- The An £ el of 
 
 Death, or the Malaku 'l-Maut, who comes to 
 a man at the hour of death to cax-ry his soul 
 away from the body. See Qur’an, Surah 
 xxxii. 11: “ The Angelof Death shall take you 
 away, he who is given charge of you. Then 
 unto your Lord shail ye return.” 
 
JABALU MUSA 
 
 JADD 
 
 223 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said that 
 when the Angel of Death approaches a believer 
 he sits at his head and says, “ 0 pure soul, 
 come forth to God’s pardon and pleasure! ” 
 And then the soul comes out as gently as 
 water from a bag. But, in the case of an 
 
 JABALU MUSA The 
 
 Mount of Moses; Mount Sinai. It is called 
 in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 60, at-Tur, “ The 
 Mountain.” 
 
 al-JABARIYAH (4^). Lit. 
 
 “ The Necessitarians.” A sect of Muhamma¬ 
 dans who deny free agency in man. 
 
 They take their denomination from Jabr, 
 which signifies “ necessity or compulsion ; ” 
 because they hold man to be necessarily and 
 inevitably constrained to act as he does by 
 force of God’s eternal and immutable decree. 
 This sect is distinguished into two species, 
 some being more rigid and extreme in their 
 opinion, who are thence called pure Jabarl- 
 yahs ; and others, more moderate, who are 
 therefore called middle Jabariyahs. The 
 former will not allow men to be said either to 
 act, or to have any power at all, either opera¬ 
 tive or acquiring, asserting that man can do 
 nothing, but produces all his actions by 
 necessity, having neither power, nor will, nor 
 choice, any more than an inanimate agent. 
 They also declare that rewarding and punish¬ 
 ing are also the effects of necessity ; and the 
 same they say of the imposing of commands. 
 This was the doctrine of the Jahmiyahs, the 
 followers of Jahm ibn Sufwan, who likewise 
 held that Paradise and Hell will vanish, or be 
 annihilated, after those who are destined 
 thereto respectively shall have entered them, 
 so that at last there will remain no existing 
 being besides God, supposing those words of 
 the Qur’an which declare that the inhabitants 
 of Paradise and of Hell shall remain therein 
 for ever, to be hyperbolical only, and intended 
 for corroboration, and not to denote an eternal 
 duration in reality. The moderate Jabariyahs 
 are they who ascribe some power to man, but 
 such a power as hath no influence on the 
 action; for as to those who grant the power 
 of man to have a certain influence on the 
 action, which influence is called Acquisition, 
 some will not admit them to be called Ja¬ 
 bariyahs, though others reckon those also to 
 be called middle Jabariyahs, and to contend 
 for the middle opinion between absolute 
 necessity and absolute liberty, who attribute 
 to man acquisition, or concurrence, in pro¬ 
 ducing the action, whereby he gaineth com¬ 
 mendation or blame (yet without admitting it 
 to have any influence on the action), and, 
 therefore, make the Asharians a branch of 
 this sect. (Sale’s Koran, Introd.) 
 
 JABARUT The posses¬ 
 
 sion of power, of omnipotence. One of the 
 mystic stages of the Sufi, [sufiism.] 
 
 infidel, the Angel of Death sits at his head and 
 says, “O impure soul, come forth to the 
 wrath of God ! ” And then the Angel of Death 
 draws it out as a hot spit is drawn out of wet 
 wool. ( Mishkdt , book v. ch. iii.) 
 
 J. 
 
 JABBAR (jW). Omnipotent; an 
 
 absolute sovereign. Al-Jabbar, “ The Ab¬ 
 solute.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. 
 
 Surah lix. 23: “ The King, the Holy, the 
 Peaceful, the Faithful, the Protector, the 
 Mighty, the Absolute, the Great. 
 
 JABlL The Angel of the 
 
 Mountains; mentioned in the Shi‘ah work, 
 Hayatu’l-Qulub. (Merrick’s ed. p. 128.) 
 
 JABIR (yiW). The son of a poor 
 citizen of al-Madlnah, slain at Uhud. He 
 embraced Islam and accompanied Muham¬ 
 mad in numerous battles. He lived to a 
 great age, for he died at al-Medlnah a.h. 78, 
 aged 94 years. 
 
 JABR (^-). A Christian servant 
 
 of a family from Hazramaut—a convert to 
 Islam—accused by the Quraish with having 
 instructed the Prophet. 
 
 Surah xvi. 105 : “ We knew that they said, 
 
 ‘ It is only some mortal that teaches him.’ 
 The tongue of him they incline towards is 
 barbarous, this is plain Arabic.” 
 
 Husain says Jabr was one of the Ahlu 
 'l-Kitab, and was well read in the Taurat and 
 Tnjll, and Muhammad used to hear him read 
 these books as he passed by his house. 
 
 JACOB. Arabic Ya‘qub 
 
 The son of Isaac ; an inspired prophet. There 
 are frequent but brief allusions to the Patriarch 
 Jacob in the Qur’an in connection with Abra¬ 
 ham and Isaac. The story of his journey 
 to Egypt will be found in the account of 
 Joseph as given in the xiith Surah of the 
 Qur’an. [Joseph.] 
 
 A brief reference to his death is made in 
 Surah ii. ch. 127 :— 
 
 “ Were ye present when Jacob was at the 
 point of death? when he said to his sons, 
 
 ‘ Whom will ye worship when I am gone ? ’ 
 They said, ‘ We will worship thy God and the 
 God of thy fathers Abraham and Ismael and 
 Isaac, one God, and to Him are we surrendered 
 (Muslims).’ That people have now passed 
 away ; they have the reward of their deeds 
 and ye shall have the meed of yours: but of 
 their doings ye shall not be questioned. They 
 say, moreover, ‘ Become Jews or Christians 
 that ye may have the true guidance.’ Say : 
 Nay! the religion of Abraham, the sound in 
 faith, and not one of those who join gods with 
 God 1 ” 
 
 JADD (4-). A term used in Mu¬ 
 
 hammadan law for either a paternal or 
 
224 
 
 JA f FA.B, 
 
 JA-I-NAMAZ 
 
 a maternal grandfather. The word has also 
 the meaning greatness, majesty, as in Surah 
 lxxii. 3: “May the Majesty of our Lord he 
 exalted.” [grandfather.] 
 
 JA‘FAR A son of Abu 
 
 Talib and a cousin to Muhammad. He was a 
 great friend to the poor, and was called by 
 Muhammad Abu ’l-Masa/cin, “ the father of 
 the poor.” He fell bravely at the battle of 
 Mu’tah, a.h. 8. 
 
 JA‘FARU ’S-SADIQ (jjIcM y^). 
 
 Abu ‘Ahdi’llah Ja‘far ibn Muhammad ibn 
 ‘Ali ibn al-Husain ibn ‘Ali ibn AM Talib, 
 was one of the twelve persons who, according 
 to the Shhahs, are considered the rightful 
 Imams [shi‘ah]. He was surnamed as-Sadiq, 
 “ The Veracious,” on account of his upright¬ 
 ness of character. He was a learned man, and 
 his pupil, Abu Musa, is said to have composed 
 a work of two thousand pages containing the 
 problems of his master Ja'faru ’s-Sadiq. 
 Ja‘far was born a.h 80, and died a.h. 148, 
 and was buried in the cemetery al-BakI‘ at 
 al-Madinah. 
 
 JAGrlR Persian Jd, “A 
 
 place; ” Gir, “ Occupying.” A tenure common 
 under the Muhammadan Government, in which 
 the public revenues of a given tract of land 
 were made over to a servant of the State, 
 together with the powers requisite to enable 
 him to collect and appropriate such revenue, 
 and administer the general government of the 
 district. The assignment was either condi¬ 
 tional or unconditional; in the former case, 
 some public service, as the levy and main¬ 
 tenance of troops, or other specified duty, was 
 engaged for; the latter was left to the entire 
 disposal of the grantee. The assignment was 
 either for a stated term, or, more usually, for 
 the lifetime of the holder, lapsing, on his 
 death, to the State, although not unusually 
 renewed to his heir, on payment of a nazarana 
 or fine, and sometimes specified to be a here¬ 
 ditary assignment, without which specification 
 it was held to be a life-tenure only. (Ben. 
 Beg. xxxvii. 1723, cl. 15.) A Jaglr was also 
 liable to forfeiture on failure of performance 
 of the conditions on which it was granted, or 
 on the holder’s incurring the displeasure of 
 the Emperor. On the other hand, in the 
 inability of the State to vindicate its rights, 
 a Jaglr was sometimes converted into a per¬ 
 petual and transferable estate ; and the same 
 consequence has resulted from the recognition 
 of sundry Jaglr as hereditary by the British 
 Government after the extinction of the Native 
 Governments by which they were originally 
 granted; so that they have now come to be 
 considered as family properties, of which the 
 holders coukl not be rightfully dispossessed, 
 and to which their legal heirs succeed, as a 
 matter of course, without fine or nazarana, 
 such having been silently dispensed with. 
 (Wilson's Glossary oj Indian Terms.) 
 
 JAHANNAM (^). [hell.] 
 
 JAHL (Js=e). “Ignorance.” A term 
 
 used by theologians for an ignorance of reli¬ 
 gious truths, which they say is of two kinds : 
 Jahl-i-Baslt, simple ignorance; and Jahl-i- 
 Muralckab, or complicated ignorance, or con¬ 
 firmed error. 
 
 JAIFAR (y*?-). A king of ‘TTman 
 
 to whom Muhammad sent a despatch inviting 
 him to Islam, which event led eventually to 
 the conversion of that province. 
 
 “ On his return from the siege of Tayif, 
 towards the close of the eighth year of the 
 Hegira, Mahomet sent Amru with a despatch 
 to Jeyfar, King of Oman, summoning him and 
 his brother to make profession of the true 
 faith. At first they gave answer ‘ that they 
 would be the weakest among the Arabs, if 
 they made another man possessor of their 
 property.’ But as Amru was about to depart, 
 they repented, and, calling him back, embraced 
 Islam. The people followed their example, 
 and without demur paid their tithes to Amru, 
 who continued till the Prophet’s death to be 
 his representative in Oman.” (Muir’s Life of 
 Mahomet, new ed. p. 471.) 
 
 JAIHUN The river 
 
 Jihon, or Bactrus, said to be one of the rivers 
 of Eden, [eden.] 
 
 JA’-I-NAMAZ (j^> <^W). Persian. 
 
 “ The place of prayer.” A term used in Asia 
 for the small mat or carpet on which a Muslim 
 prays. It is called in Arabic Sujjadah and 
 Musalla. 
 
 The carpet is about five feet in length, and 
 has a point or Qiblah worked in the pattern 
 to mark the place for prostration. 
 
 A JA-I-NAMAZ, OR PRAYER CARPET, AS USED 
 IN PESHAWAR. 
 
JAIYID 
 
 JANNAH 
 
 225 
 
 JAIYID ( ^-). Pure money ; cur¬ 
 rent coin. A term used in Muslim Law. 
 (Hiddyah, vol. iii. p. 152.) 
 
 JALAL (J^). Being glorious or 
 
 mighty. Zu 'l-Jala], “ The Glorious One,” is 
 an attribute of God. See Qur’an, Surah lv. 
 78: “Blessed be the name of thy Lord who 
 is possessed of glory and honour.” 
 
 Al-Jalal is a term used by Sufi mystics to 
 express that state of the Almighty which 
 places Him beyond the understanding of His 
 creatures. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of 
 Sufi Termsi) 
 
 al-JALALAN (o»M). “ The 
 
 two Jalals.” A term given to two commen¬ 
 tators of the name of Jalalu ’d-din, whose 
 joint work is called the Tafsiru ’ l-Jaldlain ; 
 the first half of which was compiled by the 
 Shaikh Jalalu’d-din al-Mahalli, died a.h. 864, 
 and the rest by Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuti, died 
 a.h. 911. 
 
 Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuti was a prolific author. 
 Grammar, rhetoric, dogmatical and practical 
 theology, history, criticism, medicine, and 
 anatomy, comprise some of the subjects on 
 which he wrote. His Itqan, which is an ex¬ 
 planatory work on the Qur’an, has been pub¬ 
 lished by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and 
 edited by Dr. Sprenger (a.d. 1857), and his 
 History of the Temple of Jerusalem has been 
 translated by the Rev. James Reynolds for 
 the Oriental Translation Society (a.d. 1836). 
 
 [JERUSALEM.] 
 
 JA'LU ’L-JAUF J**). An¬ 
 
 other name for Dumatu ’1-Jandal, a place 
 near Tabuk. [dumah.] 
 
 JALUT (d>yW). [goliath.] 
 JAMRAH (y-). Lit. “Gravel, 
 
 or small pebbles.” (1) The three pillars at 
 Mina, at which the Makkan pilgrims throw 
 seven pebbles. They are known as al-Ula, the 
 first; al-Wusta, the middle ; and al-‘Aqibah, 
 the last. According to Muslim writers these 
 pillars mark the successive spots where the 
 Devil, in the shape of an old Shaikh, appeared 
 to Adam, Abraham, and Ishmael, and was 
 driven away by the simple process which 
 Gabriel taught them of throwing seven small 
 pebbles. The Jamratu ’l-‘Aqibah, is known as 
 the Shaitanu ’l-Kabir, or the “ Great Devil.” 
 
 Captain Burton, in his El Medinah and 
 Mecca, vol. ii. 227, says :— 
 
 “ The ‘ Shaitanu 'l-Kabir ’ is a dwarf but¬ 
 tress of rude masonry, about eight feet high 
 by two and a half broad, placed against a 
 rough wall of stones, at the Meccan entrance 
 to Muna. As the ceremony of ‘ Ramy,’ or 
 Lapidation, must be performed on the first 
 day by all pilgrims between sunrise and sun¬ 
 set, and as the fiend was malicious enough to 
 appear in a rugged pass, the crowd makes the 
 place dangerous. On one side of the road, 
 which is not forty feet broad, stood a row of 
 shops, belonging principally to barbers. On 
 the other side is the rugged wall of the pillar, 
 with a chevaux de frise of Bedouins and naked 
 
 boys. The narrow space was crowded with 
 pilgrims, all struggling like drowning men to 
 approach as near as possible to the Devil.” 
 
 THE SHAITANU ’L-KABIR. ( Burton.) 
 
 (2) Jamrah also means a “ live coal,” and is 
 an astronomical or meteorological term used 
 to signify the infusion of vital heat into the 
 elements in spring, or rather, at the end of 
 winter. According to this theory there are 
 three Jamarat: one, the infusion of heat into 
 the air, occurs thirty days before the vernal 
 equinox ; the second, affecting the waters, 
 seven days later ; and the third, vivifying the 
 earth, sixteen days before the equinox. 
 (Catafago’s Dictionary, in loco.) 
 
 JAM‘U ’L-JAM‘ £**). Lit. 
 
 “ The plural of a plural.” A term used by 
 the Sufi mystics for the high position of the 
 Perfect Man or al-Insanu 'l-Kamil. 
 
 JANAB “Majesty.” Aterm 
 
 of respect used in India in addressing a person 
 of rank or office, whether Native or European. 
 Janab-i-‘ali, “Your high eminence.” 
 
 JANABAH (&U=-). A state of 
 
 uncleanness. The Niddoh, or separation, of 
 Leviticus xii. 5. The menses, coitus, child¬ 
 birth, pollutio nocturna, contact with the 
 dead, or having performed the offices of 
 nature, place the person in a state of Janabah 
 or separation, [purification.] 
 
 JANAZAH, JINAZAH (SjU*). A 
 
 term used both for the bier, and for the funeral 
 service of a Muslim, also for the corpse itself, 
 [burial.] 
 
 JANN (cjW). The father of the 
 
 Jinn, [jinn.] 
 
 JANNAH pi. Jannat. Lit. 
 
 “ A garden.” (1) A term used for the regions 
 of celestial bliss, [paradise.] (2) A term 
 used by Sufi mystics to express different 
 stages of the spiritual life: Jannatu'l-Afal, 
 the paradise of works, or that enjoyment 
 which is derived from sensual pleasures, such 
 as eating, drinking, &c.; Jannatu 7- Wirasah, 
 the paradise of inheritance, which is a dispo¬ 
 sition like that of the saints and prophets ; 
 Jannatu 's-Sifat, the paradise of attributes, 
 becoming like God ; Jannatu 'z-Zat, the para¬ 
 dise of essence, being united with God (i.e. 
 absorption into the divine essence). (‘Abdu 
 ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 29 
 
226 
 
 JANNATU ‘ADN 
 
 JEHOVAH 
 
 JANNATU ‘ADN ( 0 ac oU). I 
 
 The Gardens of Eden. (Surah ix. 73, et alias.) \ 
 [paradise.] 
 
 JANNATU ’L-FIRDAUS 
 
 The Gardens of Paradise. 
 
 (Surah xviii. 107.) [paradise.] 
 
 JANNATU’ L-KHULD (jl*n Sj+). 
 
 The Garden of Eternity. (Surah xxv. 16.) 
 [paradise.] 
 
 JANNATU ’L-MA’WA 
 
 The Gardens of Refuge. 
 
 (Surah xxxii. 19.) [paradise.] 
 
 JANNATU ’N-NA‘lM (~«!\ 
 
 The Gardens of DeKght. (Surah v. 70.) 
 [paradise.] 
 
 JAR MULASIQ (&%• ; W). “ A 
 
 next-door neighbour.” A term used in Mu¬ 
 hammadan law for a joint proprietor in a 
 house, or room or wall of the house. (Hi- 
 dayah, vol. iii. p. 565.) 
 
 JARR “Dragging.” Adegree 
 
 of chastisement practised according to Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, namely, by dragging the 
 offender to the door and exposing him to 
 scorn. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 76.) 
 
 al-JASIYAH Lit. “ The 
 
 Kneeling.” A title given to the XLVth Surah 
 of the Qur’an, in which the expression occurs 
 (verse 26):— 
 
 “ And God’s is the kingdom of the Heavens 
 and of the Earth; and on the day when the 
 Hour shall arrive, on that day shall the de- 
 spisers perish. And thou shalt see every 
 nation kneeling ; to its own book shall every 
 nation be summoned :—‘ This day shall ye be 
 repaid as ye have wrought.’ ” 
 
 JASULlQ (i3*ii'W). An Arabicized 
 
 word from the Greek Kol^oAikos. The Ca- 
 tholicos, or Primate of the Christians. In the 
 Ghiy3.su 'l-Lughah he is said to be the chief of 
 the Christians, and under him is the Mitran 
 (Metropolitan), and then the Usquf (Bishop), 
 and then Qasis (Presbyter), and then Shammas 
 (Deacon).” 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Dictionary, gives the Order 
 of Bitraq (Patriarch) as under the Jasuliq, 
 which term we understand to mean, in Mu¬ 
 hammadan works, none other than the 
 Patriarch, e.g. of Jerusalem, or Antioch, &c. 
 
 JAWAMPU ’L-KALIM (g-y 
 Lit. “ Comprehending many 
 significations.” A title given to the Qur’an 
 and to certain traditions, because it is related 
 that the Prophet said that has been revealed 
 to me which comprehends many significations. 
 
 ( Kashfud-Istilahat, in loco.) 
 
 JAZ‘AH (te**). A female camel 
 
 in her fifth year. The proper age for a camel 
 given in zakat or legal alms for camels from 
 sixty-one to seventy-five in number, [zakat.] 
 
 JAZBAH “ Attraction.” A 
 
 term used by the Sufi mystics to express a 
 yearning after the Divine Being. The nearer 
 approach of man to his Maker through God’s 
 grace. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi 
 Terms.) 
 
 JEDDAH. Arabic Jiddah (Sa?-). 
 
 The principal seaport of Arabia, and one of the 
 Miqat or stages where the Makkan pilgrims 
 jiut on the Ifiram or pilgrim’s robe. It is 
 also celebrated as the place of Eve’s sepulchre. 
 She is said to measure 120 paces from head 
 to waist, and 80 paces from waist to heel. 
 {Burton.) 
 
 JEHOYAH. Heb. [fllT- In the 
 
 t : 
 
 Old Testament it is usually with the vowel 
 points of ; but when the two occur 
 
 X “I 
 
 together, the former is pointed that 
 
 is, with the vowels of as in Obad. 
 
 i. 1; Heb. iii. 19. The LXX. generally render 
 it by Kupios, the vulgate by Dominus ; and in 
 this respect they have been followed by the 
 A.V. where it is translated “ The Lord.” 
 The true pronunciation of this name, by which 
 God was known to the Hebrews, has been 
 entirely lost, the Jews themselves scrupu¬ 
 lously avoiding every mention of it, and 
 substituting in its stead one or other of the 
 words with whose proper vowel-points it may 
 happen to be written. This custom, which 
 had its origin in reverence, and has almost 
 degenerated into a superstition, was founded 
 upon an erroneous rendering of Lev. xxiv. 16, 
 “ He that blasphemeth the name of God shall 
 surely be put to death ”; from which it was 
 inferred that the mere utterance of the name 
 constituted a capital offence. In the Rab¬ 
 binical writings it is distinguished by various 
 euphemistic expressions ; as simply “ the 
 name,” or “ the name of four letters ” (the 
 Greek tetragrammaton) ; “the great and 
 terrible name ” ; “ the peculiar name,” i.e. 
 appropriated to God alone ; “ the separate 
 name,” i.e. either the name which is separated 
 or removed from human knowledge, or, as 
 some render, “ the name which has been 
 interpreted or revealed.” (Professor W. A, 
 Wright, M.A., Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, 
 in loco.) 
 
 This superstitious reverence for the word 
 Jehovah must have been the origin of the 
 Ismu ’ 1-A‘zam , or “ exalted name,” which 
 Muhammad is related to have said was 
 known only to God and His prophets; but 
 which, he said, occurs in one of three verses 
 in the Qur’an, namely : Suratu ’1-Baqarah ii. 
 256: “ God! {Allah) there is no God but He 
 {Hu) the Living One ( al-Haiy ), the Self- 
 Subsisting One {al-Qaiyum) ,, ; or, in the 
 Suratu Ali ‘Imran iii. 1, which contains the 
 same words ; or, in the Suratu Ta Ha xx. 110: 
 “ Faces shall be humbled before the Living 
 One {al-Haiy), the Self-Subsistent One {al- 
 Qaiyuni ).” 
 
JEREMIAH 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 227 
 
 Some European scholars (see Catafago’s 
 Arabic Dictionary') have fancied the Yahuh 
 
 mm. or Yahovah of tho Hebrews, is iden¬ 
 tical with the ejaculation of the Muslim 
 devotee, Yd Hu, “0 He! ” (i.e. God). Al- 
 Baizawi says the word Hu (better Huwa), i.e. 
 HE (God), may be the Ismu ’ 1-A‘zam , or Ex¬ 
 alted Name of the Almighty, especially as it 
 occurs in two of the verses of the Qur’an in¬ 
 dicated by Muhammad, namely, Surahs ii. 256, 
 iii. 1. [huwa, god.] 
 
 JEREMIAH. Arabic Armiycb 
 
 The prophet is not mentioned in the Qur’an, 
 but Muslim historians say he was contem¬ 
 porary with Ma'add, the son of ‘Adnan, the 
 renowned ancestor of Muhammad. The Kd- 
 tibu 7- Waqidi says: “ God watched over 
 ‘Adnan’s son Ma‘add, who was by the command 
 of the Lord taken by Armiya and Abrakha 
 (Jeremiah and Baruch) into the land of Har- 
 ram and nurtured safely.” According to the 
 Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah, he is the same as al- 
 Khizr. [al-khizr.] 
 
 JERUSALEM. Arabic al-Baitu 
 
 ' l-Muqaddas (^AoaM “the Holy 
 
 House,” or Baitu ’ l-Maqdis ( ij *±slA\ e^q), 
 “ the House of the Sanctuary ” ; Aurashalim 
 () ; Iliya' i.e. Aelia Capito¬ 
 
 lina. 
 
 In the Qur’an Jerusalem is never men¬ 
 tioned by name, and in the Traditions and 
 other Muslim works, it is always called al- 
 Baitu ’l-Muqaddas, “ the Holy House,” as 
 referring to the Temple of Jerusalem, or 
 Iliya'. The allusions to it in the Qur’an, are 
 as follows:— 
 
 Surah ii. 55 (where God, after giving the 
 manna and quails, is represented as say¬ 
 ing to the children of Israel): “ Enter the 
 city and eat therefrom as plentifully as ye 
 wish.” Al-Baizawl the commentator says this 
 city was the the Baitu 'l-Maqdis (Jerusalem), 
 or Arifia (Jericho). 
 
 Surah ii. 261: “Like him who passed by a 
 city when it was desolate, and as he walked 
 over its roofs said, ‘ How will God revive this 
 after its destruction ? ” Commentators say 
 Elias or al-Khizr visited the city of Jeru¬ 
 salem after its destruction by Nebuchad¬ 
 nezzar. 
 
 Surah xxx. opens with a reference to the 
 Persians conquering Syria and taking Jeru¬ 
 salem. 
 
 In Surah xvii. 1, Muhammad is represented 
 as having taken his flight from Makkah to 
 Jerusalem. “ Celebrated be the praises of 
 Him who by night took his servant from the 
 Masjidu 'l-IJaram (the Sacred Mosque) to 
 the Masjidu 'l-Aqsa (the Remote Mosque), 
 the precinct of which we have blessed.” 
 
 And in Surah 1. 40, one of the signs of the 
 approach of the last day will be : “ The crier 
 (to prayer) shall cry from a near place ” (i.e. 
 a place from which all men shall hear). 
 Husain says this “ near place ” is the Temple 
 at Jerusalemi 
 
 A curious account of Jerusalem and its 
 
 temple, the Masjidu 'l-Aqsa, or Distant 
 Mosque (so called because it is a distant 
 object of pilgrimage), has been written by 
 Jalalu ’d-dm as-Suyutf, one of the commen¬ 
 tators on the Qur’an, known as the Jalalan. 
 It was written in the year a.h. 848, a.d. 1444, 
 and the special object of the book appears to 
 be to exalt the merits of Jerusalem as a place 
 of prayer and pilgrimage. [For an account 
 of the Temple, see masjidu ’l-aqsa.] He says 
 Jerusalem is specially honoured as being the 
 scene of the repentance of David and Solo¬ 
 mon. The place where God sent His angel to 
 Solomon, announced glad tidings to Zacharias 
 and John, showed David a plan of the Temple, 
 and put all the beasts of the earth and fowls 
 of the airjin subjection to him. It was at Jeru¬ 
 salem that the prophets sacrificed; that Jesus 
 was born and spoke in his cradle; and it 
 was at Jerusalem that Jesus ascended to 
 hea ven ; and it will be there that He will again 
 descend. Gog and Magog shall subdue every 
 place on the earth but Jerusalem, and it will 
 be there that God Almighty will destroy 
 them. It is in the holy land of Jerusalem 
 that Adam and Abraham, and Isaac and 
 Mary, are buried. And in the last days 
 there will be a general flight to Jerusalem, 
 and the Ark and the Shechinah will be again 
 restored to the Temple. There will all man¬ 
 kind be gathered at the Resurrection for 
 judgment, and God will enter, surrounded by 
 His angels, into the Holy Temple, when He 
 comes to judge the earth. (See Reynolds’ 
 Translation, p. 16.) 
 
 The peculiar reference paid to the Sacred 
 Rock (as-Sa/ckra/i) seems to be one of the 
 many instances of afterthought and addition 
 to Islam since the time of Muhammad. 
 Mrvawiyah seems to have encouraged it in 
 order to direct the affections and fanaticism 
 of his subjects into a new channel, and to 
 withdraw their exclusive attention from Mak¬ 
 kah and al-Madlnah, where the rival family 
 of ‘All resided. 
 
 In the same book there is a desultory 
 account of the taking of Jerusalem by the 
 Khalifah ‘Umar. 
 
 After the conclusion of the battle of Yar- 
 muk (Hieromax), the whole army of the 
 Muslims marched into the territory of Pales¬ 
 tine and Jordan. Then they closely besieged 
 the city. The conquest was attended with 
 difficulty until the arrival of the Khalifah 
 ‘Umar with four thousand horse. He came 
 upon the holy place on the eastern side, and 
 then encircled the city. They fought for a 
 long time, until at last the inhabitants sent a 
 party to the walls with a flag of truce, asking 
 for a parley. The Patriarch (Sophronius j 
 then demanded the safe conduct of a mes¬ 
 senger to ‘Umar. The envoy came without 
 hindrance and requested ‘Umar to make 
 peace and to accept tribute. 
 
 Jalalu ’d-din gives a copy of the treaty 
 which the Muslims compelled the people of 
 Jerusalem to sign. It reads as follows:— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Merciful and 
 Compassionate 1 This is the writing from the 
 Christians of the Holy City to ‘Umar ibn al- 
 
228 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 JERUSALEM 
 
 Khattab, the Commander of the Faithful. 
 When you came down upon us, we asked of 
 you a capitulation for ourselves and our pos¬ 
 sessions, and our children, and the people of 
 our religion; and we have stipulated with 
 you, that we shall not be polluted by inter¬ 
 ruption in our places of worship, or whatever 
 chapels, or churches, or cells, or monasteries 
 of monks, may be therein ; and that no one 
 shall live therein who may have the impress 
 of Muslims (by long residence), and that we 
 will not prohibit the Muslims from entering 
 them, by night or by day: and that we will 
 open the gates wide to passengers and to tra¬ 
 vellers ; and if any Muslim passing by shall 
 take up his lodging with us three nights, we 
 shall give him food, and not entertain in our 
 churches a spy, nor conceal him unknown to 
 the Muslims ; and not teach our children the 
 Qur’an; and not publicly exhibit the Asso¬ 
 ciating or Christian religion, and not beg any 
 one to embrace it; and not hinder anyone of 
 our relations from entering the Muslim reli¬ 
 gion, if he will, and that we should honour 
 the Muslims and make much of them, and 
 place them in our assemblies, if anyone of 
 them will, and give them the chief seats, and 
 not imitate them in our dress, neither in 
 girdles, nor in the turban, nor the slipper, nor 
 the parting of the hair, and never write in 
 their language, nor call ourselves by their sur¬ 
 names ; and that we should never ride upon 
 great saddles, nor suspend our swords by 
 belts, and never accept amis (the bow r , 
 sword, and club), nor carry them with us; 
 and that we should never engrave upon our 
 signet-rings in the Arabic language ; and that 
 we should not sell wine, and that w r e should 
 shave the front of our heads, and tie up our 
 dress, wherever we may be, and not wear 
 wide girdles at our waist; and that we should 
 never publicly exhibit the cross upon our 
 churches, nor expose our crosses, nor ever 
 inscribe them in the path of the Muslims, 
 nor in their market places, and never strike 
 our bells the (quick) stroke, nor raise our 
 voices over the dead, nor publicly expose the 
 lights, or anything else, in the roads and 
 markets of the Muslims, and never come near 
 them with our dead, and never receive any 
 slave who has drawn upon himself familiarity 
 with Muslims, and never look upon them in 
 their houses.” 
 
 We learn moreover, from the same autho¬ 
 rity, as follows:— 
 
 “ When ‘Umar ratified the treaty, he added 
 thereto,—‘ And that we will not strike any¬ 
 one of the Muslims. We stipulate this with 
 you for ourselves and the people of our reli¬ 
 gion ; and we accept these terms of capitula¬ 
 tion : and if we subsequently violate a point 
 of that which we have stipulated, upon our 
 lives be it, and let there be no faith with us 
 and may it be allowed you to do to us what¬ 
 ever is lawful against rebellious and revolt¬ 
 ing subjects.’” {Hist, of Jerusalem, by Jalalu 
 'd-dln, Reynolds’ Translation.) 
 
 There were within the city 12,000 Greeks 
 and 50,000 natives, and the Khalifah ‘Umar 
 insisted that all the Greeks depart within 
 
 three days, and that the natives should pay 
 tribute. Five dinars were imposed upon the 
 rich, four upon the middle classes, and three 
 upon the lower classes ; very old and very 
 young persons paid nothing. 
 
 When ‘Umar entered the Holy City, his 
 first object was to find the Sacred Rock {a.y 
 Sakhrah), the site of the Masjidu ’1-Aqsa, to 
 which Muhammad said he was carried on 
 Buraq on the night of the Mi‘raj [miraj], and 
 he therefore requested the Patriarch to direct 
 him to the spot. They first went to the 
 Church of the Resurrection, and the Patriarch 
 said, “ This is the Mosque of David.” But 
 ‘Umar said, “ Thou hast spoken falsely, for 
 the Apostle of God (Muhammad) described 
 the place to me, and it was not like this.” 
 They then went to the church on Zion, and 
 the Patriarch said, “ This is the Mosque of 
 David.” But ‘Umar said, “ Thou hast spoken 
 falsely.” And in this manner the Patriarch 
 took ‘Umar to every church in the city. At 
 last they came to a gate, w r hich is now called 
 Baku 'l-Muhammad, or the Gate of Muham¬ 
 mad, and clearing away the filth on the steps, 
 they came to a narrow passage, and the Kha¬ 
 lifah, creeping on his knees, came to the 
 central sewer. Here, standing up, ‘Umar 
 looked at the rock (as-Sakhrah), and then 
 exclaimed, “ By Him in whose hand is my 
 life, this is the place -which the Apostle of 
 God (upon whom be peace and blessing) de¬ 
 scribed to us.” ‘Umar then ordered a mosque 
 to be built thereon. And ‘Abdu ’1-Malik ibn 
 Marwan built the mosque of the Baitu ’1- 
 Muquddas (now known as the Mosque of 
 ‘Umar). He spent upon it the produce of 
 seven years’ tax upon Egypt. He began it 
 in a.h. 69 and finished it in a.h. 72. 
 
 Some authority quoted by Jalalu ’d-din 
 says the Holy City did not cease to be in the 
 hands of the Muslims from its surrender to 
 ‘Umar until the year a.h. 491, when it was 
 taken by the Franks, who killed therein a 
 vast number of Muslims in the space of seven 
 days. In the Masjidu ’1-Aqsa alone, they 
 killed 70,000, and they took from as-Sakhrah 
 the vessels of gold and silver and the wealth 
 which was preserved in strong boxes. “ But,” 
 he adds, “ Salahu ’d-din (Saladin) was raised 
 up for the complete deliverance of the Holy 
 City; for he was the most renowned of Lions, 
 and the very brightness of Fire.” 
 
 (For a further account of the taking of the 
 city by Saladin, see Reynolds’ translation of 
 Jalalu ’d-dln’s History of the Temple of Jeru¬ 
 salem, p. 199.) 
 
 A brief outline of the History of Jerusalem 
 from the Time of Christ. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 33. The crucifixion, death resurrection, 
 and ascension of Jesus Christ at 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 43. St. Paul’s first visit to Jerusalem after 
 his conversion to Christianity. 
 
 69. Takon by Titus. 
 
 136. The Emperor Hadrian bestows on the 
 city the name of Aelia Capitolina. 
 
Jerusalem 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 229 
 
 A.D. (This name is used by Jalalu ’d-dm 
 in his book, a.d. 1444.) 
 
 336. Jerusalem under Christian rule, the 
 Martyrion and the Church of the 
 Resurrection built. 
 
 614. The city invested and taken by the 
 Persians under Chosroes II. (See 
 Qur’an, Surah xxx.) 
 
 621. The era of the flight of Muham¬ 
 mad. 
 
 628. The Emperor Heraclius enters Jeru¬ 
 salem in triumph. 
 
 637. The patriarch Sophronius surrenders 
 the Holy City to the Khalifah ‘Umar. 
 Liberty of worship secured to the 
 Christians in churches which already 
 existed, but they are prohibited 
 the erection of new churches. A 
 mosque built on the reputed site of 
 Jacob’s vision, now known as tbe 
 mosque of ‘Umar. Said to be on the 
 site of the temple called by Muslims 
 Masjidu ’1-Aqsa, the Remote Mosque, 
 or as-Sakhrah. the Rock. 
 
 800. Ambassadors sent by the Emperor 
 Charlemagne to distribute alms in 
 the Holy City. The Khalifah Harun 
 ar-Rashid sends back as a present 
 to the Emperor the keys of Calvary 
 and the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 820. Held for a time by the rebel chief 
 Tamum Abii Harab. 
 
 969. Falls into the hands of the Fatimate 
 Khalifah Mu‘izz. The Church of 
 the Holy Sepulchre burnt. 
 
 1035. The pilgrimage of Robert of Nor¬ 
 mandy. 
 
 1054. The pilgrimage of Lietbert of Cam- 
 bray. 
 
 1065. The pilgrimage of the German 
 bishops. 
 
 1077. Jerusalem pillaged by the army of 
 Malik Shah. 
 
 1084. The Turkoman chief Urtok becomes 
 ruler of the Holy City. The Chris¬ 
 tians suffer. 
 
 1098. The city retaken by the Fatimate 
 
 Khalifah. 
 
 1099. 40,000 Crusaders appear before its 
 
 walls. The city taken by the Cru¬ 
 saders. 10,000 Muslims slain. God¬ 
 frey of Bouillon made King. (For 
 eighty years the city remained in 
 the hands of the Christians.) 
 
 1187. Retaken by Saladin (Salahu ’d-din), 
 the Muslim general. 
 
 1219. Ceded to the Christians by virtue of a 
 treaty with the Emperor Frederick 
 
 II. 
 
 1239. Taken by the Muslims. 
 
 1243. Again ceded to the Christians. 
 
 1244. The Christians defeated at Gaza, 
 
 and Jerusalem occupied by the 
 Muslims. 
 
 1277. Nominally annexed to the kingdom of 
 Sicily. 
 
 1517. Becomes part of the Empire of the 
 Ottoman Sultan Selim I. 
 
 1542. Sultan Sulaiman I. builds the present 
 walls. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1832. Muhammad ‘All Pasha of Egypt takes 
 the city. 
 
 1840. Restored to the Sultan of Turkey. 
 
 [AS-SAKHRAH, MASJIDU ’l-AQSA.] 
 
 JESUS CHRIST. Arabic ‘Isa ’ l - 
 
 Maslh ({y .—Ml —**). In the Qur’an, the 
 Lord Jesus Christ is spoken of under the fol¬ 
 lowing names and titles :— 
 
 (1) ‘ Isa ‘‘Jesus.” Al-Baizawi 
 
 says it is the same as the Hebrew Ishu', 
 
 a nd derived from al-‘ayas, “white 
 mingled with red,” without, however, explain¬ 
 ing this derivation. 
 
 (2) ‘Isa ibn Maryam (/+?./• <f> 
 
 “ Jesus the son of Mary,” from whom He was 
 born by the power of God. 
 
 (3) Al-Maslfi “the Messiah." 
 
 Surah iii. 40 : “ His name shall be Messiah 
 Jesus.” Al-Kamalan, the commentators, say 
 he is called al-Masih either because he was 
 both blessed and anointed by the angel 
 Gabriel, or because whomsoever Jesus touched 
 was healed. 
 
 (4) Kalimatu 'llah (MB <3UK), “ the Word of 
 God.” Surah iv. 169 : “ His word.” Husain 
 says by this expression is meant he who was 
 born at the express fiat of God. (Surah xix. 
 36 : “ He says only to it BE and it is.”) 
 
 (5) Qaulu 'l-Haqq ((J®=B JyS). «The 
 Word of Truth.” Surah xix. 35. Some 
 commentators take the expression qaulu 'l- 
 haqq as referring to the statement made being 
 “ the word of truth,” whilst others take it as 
 referring to Christ Himself, “ The Word of 
 Truth.” 
 
 (6) Ruhun min Allah (MB “ A Spirit 
 
 from God.” Surah iv. 169: “A Spirit from 
 Him.” Al-Baizawi says it is a spirit which 
 proceedeth from God. The title Ruhu ’ llah is 
 the special Kalimah for Jesus Christ, [pro¬ 
 phets.] 
 
 (7) Rasu/u ’llah (MB Jy—j), “ The Mes¬ 
 senger of God.” Surah iv. 169. It is the 
 same title as Muhammad assumed for him¬ 
 self, i.e. the Prophet, or Apostle, or Mes¬ 
 senger of God. 
 
 (8) ‘Abdu ’llah (MB M-^), “ The Servant of 
 God.” Surah xix. 31: “ Verily, lam the ser¬ 
 vant of God.” 
 
 (9) Nablyu ’ llah (MB “ The Prophet 
 
 of God. ’ Surah xix, 31: “ He hath made 
 me a Prophet.” 
 
 (10) Wajihun ft 'd-dunya iva 'l-akhirah 
 
 (4j£-S(j M^y), “Illustrious in this 
 
 world and in the next,” namely, as al-BaizaWi 
 explains it, “ in this world as a Prophet, in 
 the next as an Intercessor.” Surah iii. 40. 
 
 In order to present the somewhat incoherent 
 narrative of the Qur’an in a systematic form, 
 we shall arrange its history of the Loid 
 Jesus into (1) The Annunciation of the Virgin, 
 (2) The Birth of Jesus, (3) His Miracles, (4) His 
 Mission, (5) His Crucifixion, (6) His Divinity 
 and Sinlessness, (7) The Trinity, (8) His Second 
 Oommg (as taught in the Traditions), (9) His 
 Exaltation in Heaven. From a perusal of 
 
230 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 these selections it will be seen that Muhammad 
 taught that Jesus was miraculously born of 
 the Virgin Mary, who was sister of Aaron 
 and the daughter of ‘Imran, near the trunk 
 of a palm tree. That the Jews charged the 
 Virgin with being unchaste; but the babe, 
 speaking in his cradle, vindicated his mother’s 
 honour. That Jesus performed miracles, 
 giving life to a clay figure of a bird, healing 
 the blind, curing the leper, quickening 
 the dead, and bringing down a table from 
 heaven “ as a festival and a sign.” That he 
 (Jesus) was specially commissioned as the 
 Apostle or Prophet of God to confirm the 
 Law and to reveal the Gospel. That he pro¬ 
 claimed his mission with many manifest 
 signs, being strengthened by the Holy Spirit. 
 That he foretold the advent of another 
 Prophet, whose name should be Ahmad. 
 That the Jews intended to crucify him, but 
 God deceived them, for they did not crucify 
 Jesus, but only his likeness. That he is 
 now in one of the stages of celestial bliss. 
 That after he left this earth his disciples 
 disputed amongst themselves, some calling 
 him a God, and making him one of a Trinity 
 of the “ Father, the Mother, and the Son.” 
 That he will come again at the last day, and 
 will slay Antichrist, kill all the swine, break 
 the Cross, remove the poll-tax from the 
 infidels. That he will reign as a just king 
 for forty-five years, marry, and have children, 
 and die and be buried near Muhammad at al- 
 Madinah, between the graves of Abu Bakr 
 and ‘Umar. 
 
 /,—The Annunciation of the Virgin. 
 
 Surah iii. 37-43 : “ And remember when 
 the angels said, ‘ 0 Mary! verily hath God 
 chosen thee, and purified thee, and chosen 
 thee above the women of the worlds ! 0 Mary ! 
 be devout towards thy Lord, and prostrate 
 thyself, and bow down with those who bow.’ 
 This is one of the announcements of things 
 Unseen by thee : To thee, 0 Muhammad! do 
 We reveal it; for thorr wast not with them 
 when they cast lots with reeds which of 
 them should rear Mary; nor wast thou with 
 them when they disputed about it. Remember 
 when the angel said, ‘OMaryl Verily God 
 announceth to thee the Word from Him : His 
 name shall be, Messiah Jesus the son of Mary, 
 illustrious in this world, and in the next, and 
 one of those who have near access to God; 
 and he shall speak to men alike when in the 
 cradle and when grown up ; and he shall be 
 one of the just.’ She said, ' How, 0 my 
 Lord! shall I have a son, when man hath not 
 touched me?’ He said, ‘Thus: God will 
 create what He will; when He decreeth a 
 thing, He only saith, “ Be,” and it is.’ And 
 He will teach him the Book, and the Wisdom, 
 and the Law, and the Evangel; and he shall 
 be an apostle to the chilren of Israel.” 
 
 Surah xix. 16-21; “ And make mention in 
 the Book, of Mary, when she went apart from 
 her family, eastward, and took a veil to shroud 
 herself from them : and We sent Our spirit to 
 her, and he took before her the form of a 
 perfect man. She said : ‘ I fly for refuge 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 from thee to the God of Mercy 1 If thou 
 fearest Him, begone from me.' He said : ‘ I 
 am only a messenger of thy Lord, that I may 
 bestow on thee a holy son.’ She said: ‘How 
 shall I have a son, when man hath never 
 touched me ? and I am not unchaste.’ He 
 said : ‘ So shall it be. Thy Lord hath said : 
 “ Easy is this with me; and we will make 
 him a sign to mankind, and a mercy from us. 
 For it is a thing decreed.” ’ ” 
 
 [In the earlier part of Surah iii. the Virgin 
 Mary is spoken of as the daughter of ‘Imran. 
 Commentators say that ‘Imran died before 
 Mary was born. In the traditions it is stated 
 “ that the only two persons born into the 
 world who have not been touched' of the Devil 
 are Mary and her son Jesus.” Thus teaching 
 not only the Immaculate Conception of Mary, 
 but also of her mother. “ When she went 
 eastward" ; Husain says, she went out of her 
 house in an eastward direction, in order to 
 perform her ablutions, when Gabriel appeared 
 to her.] 
 
 II.—The Birth of Jesus. 
 
 Surah xix. 22-34 : “ And she conceived him, 
 and retired with him to a far-off place. And 
 the throes came upon her by the trunk of a 
 palm. She said : - Oh, would that I had died 
 ere this, and been a thing forgotten, forgotten 
 quite!’ And one cried to her from below 
 her: ‘ Grieve not thou, thy Lord hath pro¬ 
 vided a streamlet at thy feet:—And shake 
 the trunk of the palm-tree toward thee: it 
 will drop fresh ripe dates upon thee. Eat 
 then and drink, and be of cheerful eye : and 
 shouldst thou see a.man, say,—Verily, I have 
 vowed abstinence to the God of mercy.—To 
 no one will I speak this day.’ Then came she 
 with the babe to her people, bearing him. 
 They said, ‘ 0 Mary! now hast thou done a 
 strange thing! O sister of Aaron! Thy 
 father was not a man of wickedness, nor un¬ 
 chaste thy mother.’ And she made a sign to 
 them , pointing towards the babe. They said, 
 ‘ How shall we speak with him who is in the 
 cradle, an infant ? ’ It said, ‘ Verily, I am 
 the servant of God ; He hath given me the 
 Book, and He hath made me a prophet; and He 
 hath made me blessed wherever I may be, 
 and hath enjoined me prayer and almsgiving 
 so long as I shall live; and to be dutiful to 
 her that bare me : and he hath not made me 
 proud, depraved. And the peace of God was 
 on me the day I was born, and will be the 
 day I shall die, and the day I shall be raised 
 to life.” 
 
 Surah xxiii. 52: “And we appointed the 
 Son and his Mother for a sign; and we pre¬ 
 pared an abode in a lofty spot, quiet and 
 watered with springs.” 
 
 [Professor Wahl Understands this last verse 
 to refer to Paradise, but the Muslim commen¬ 
 tators all refer it to the place of abode; and 
 al-BaizawI and Husain say it w r as either in 
 Jerusalem, or Damascus, or Ramleh ! Husain 
 says Jesus was born in Bethlehem. The ex¬ 
 pression, “ 0 sister of Aaron,'* as applied to 
 the Virgin Mary, suggests an anachronism 
 
JESUS CHRIST 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 231 
 
 of some consequence, but the commentators ; 
 get over the difficulty. The Kamalan say it 
 is a figurative expression implying that she 
 was pure and righteous like a sister of Aaron. 
 But al-Baizawi says it means that she was of 
 the tribe of Aaron. European authors suggest 
 that there was a confusion between Miriam 
 the Virgin and Miriam the sister of Moses. 
 Al-Baizawi says : “ The palm to which she 
 fled, that she might lean on it in her travail, 
 was a withered trunk, without any head or 
 verdure; and this happened in the winter 
 season, notwithstanding which, it miraculously 
 supplied her with fruits for her refreshment, 
 as is mentioned immediately.” Mr. Sale 
 says : “ It has been observed, that the Mo¬ 
 hammedan account of the delivery of the 
 Virgin Mary very much resembles that of 
 Latona, as described by the poets, not only 
 in this circumstance of their laying hold on a 
 palm-tree (though some say Latona embraced 
 an olive-tree, or an olive and a palm, or else 
 two laurels), but also in that of their infants 
 speaking; which Apollo is fabled to have 
 done in the womb.” (See Homer, Hymn, in 
 Apoll. ; Callimach, Hymn, in Delum.) 
 
 III.—The Miracles of Jesus. 
 
 Surah iii. 43-46 : “ And He will teach him 
 the Book, and the Wisdom, and the Law, and 
 the Evangel ; and he shall be an apostle to 
 the children of Israel. ‘Now have I come,’ 
 he will say, ‘ to you with a sign from your 
 Lord : Out of clay will I make for you, as it 
 were, the figure of a bird : and I will breathe 
 into it, and it shall become, by God’s leave, 
 a bird. And I will heal the blind, and the 
 leper ; and by God’s leave will I quicken the 
 dead; and I will tell you what ye eat, and 
 what ye store up in your houses ! Truly in 
 this will be a sign for you, if ye are believers.’ 
 And when Jesus perceived unbelief on their 
 part, He said, ‘ Who my helpers with God ? ’ 
 The apostles said, 1 We will be God’s helpers ! 
 We believe in God, and bear thou witness that 
 we are Muslims. 0 our Lord ! we believe in 
 what thou hast sent down, and we follow the 
 apostle; write us up, then, with those who 
 bear witness to him.' ” 
 
 [The commentators al-Jalalan say Jesus 
 made for his disciples a bat, for it is the most 
 perfect of birds in make, and it flew while they 
 looked at it; but when it had gone out of 
 their sight, it fell down dead. That he cured 
 in one day fifty thousand persons, and that he 
 raised Lazarus (‘Azar) from the dead; also 
 Shem, the son of Noah, who had been dead 
 4,000 years, but he died immediately ; also 
 the son of an old woman, and the daughter of 
 a tax-collector.] 
 
 Surah v. 112-115 : “ Remember when the 
 Apostles said: ‘0 Jesus, Son of Mary! is 
 thy Lord able to send down a furnished 
 table to us out of Heaven ? ’ He said: 
 
 1 Fear God if ye be believers.’ They said: 
 ‘We desire to eat therefrom, and to have our 
 hearts assured ; and to know that thou hast 
 indeed spoken truth to us, and to be witnesses 
 thereof,’ Jesus, Son of Mary, said : ‘ 0 God, 
 
 our Lord ! send down a table to us out of 
 Heaven, that it may become a recurring fes¬ 
 tival to us, to the first of us and to the last 
 of us, and a sign from thee ; and do thou 
 nourish us, for thou art the best of nourishers.’ 
 And God said: ‘Verily, I will cause it to 
 descend unto you; but whoever among you 
 after that shall disbelieve, I will surely chastise 
 him with a chastisement wherewith I will 
 not chastise any other creature.’ ” 
 
 [Mr. Sale, in his commentary on this 
 miracle, says (quoting from al-Baizawi) :— 
 “ This miracle is thus related by the com¬ 
 mentators. Jesus having, at the request of 
 his followers, asked it of God, a red table 
 immediately descended in their sight, between 
 two clouds, and was set before them. Where¬ 
 upon he rose up, and having made the ablu¬ 
 tion, prayed, and then took off the cloth 
 which covered the table, saying, ‘ In the name 
 of God, the best provider of food! ’ What 
 the provisions were, with which this table 
 was furnished, is a matter wherein the ex¬ 
 positors are not agreed. One will have them 
 to be nine cakes of bread and nine fishes ; 
 another, bread and flesh; another, all sorts of 
 food, except flesh ; another, all sorts of food, 
 except bread and flesh ; another, all except 
 bread and fish; another, one fish, which had 
 the taste of all manner of food ; and another, 
 fruits of paradise ; but the most received 
 tradition is, that when the table was uncovered, 
 there appeared a fish ready dressed, without 
 scales or prickly fins, dropping with fat, 
 having salt placed at its head, and vinegar at 
 its tail, and round it all sorts of herbs, except 
 leeks, and five loaves of bread, on one of 
 which there were olives; on the second,honey; 
 on the third, butter; on the fourth, cheese ; 
 and on the fifth, dried flesh. They add, that 
 Jesus, at the request of the apostles, showed 
 them another miracle, by restoring the fish 
 to life, and causing its scales and fins to return 
 to it ; at which the standers - by, being 
 affrighted, he caused it to become as it was 
 before : that one thousand three hundred men 
 and women, all afflicted with bodily infirmities 
 or poverty, ate of these provisions, and were 
 satisfied, the fish remaining whole as it was 
 at first; that then the table flew up to heaven 
 in the sight of all; and everyone who had 
 partaken of this food were delivered from 
 their infirmities and misfortunes ; and that it 
 continued to descend for forty days together, 
 at dinner-time, and stood on the ground till 
 the sun declined, and was then taken up into 
 the clouds. Some of the Mohammedan 
 writers are of opinion that this table did not 
 really descend, but that it was only a parable; 
 but most think the words of the Koran are 
 plain to the contrary. A further tradition is, 
 that several men were changed into swine for 
 disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it to 
 magic art; or, as others pretend, for stealing 
 some of the victuals from off it.”] 
 
 IV. — The Mission of Jesus. 
 
 Surah lvii. 26,27: “ And of old sent we Noah 
 and Abraham, and on their seed conferred the 
 
232 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 gift of prophecy, and the Book ; and some of 
 them we guided aright; but many were evil 
 doers. Then we caused our apostles to follow 
 in their footsteps; and we caused Jesus the 
 son of Mary to follow them; and we gave 
 him the Evangel and we put into the hearts 
 of those who followed him kindness and 
 compassion : hut as to the monastic life, they 
 invented it themselves. The desire only of 
 pleasing God did we prescribe to them, and 
 this they observed not as it ought to have 
 been observed: but to such of them as be¬ 
 lieved gave we their reward, though many of 
 them were perverse.” 
 
 Surah v. 50, 51: “And in the footsteps of 
 the prophets caused we Jesus, the son of Mary, 
 to follow, confirming the law which was before 
 him: and we gave him the Evangel with its 
 guidance and light, confirmatory of the pre¬ 
 ceding Law; a guidance and warning to those 
 who fear God;—And that the people of the 
 Evangel may judge according to what God 
 hath sent down therein. And whoso will not 
 judge by what God hath sent down—such are 
 the perverse.” 
 
 Surah ii. 81 : “ Moreover, to Moses gave 
 we ‘ the Book,’ and we raised up apostles 
 after him ; and to Jesus, son of Mary, gave 
 we clear proofs of his mission, and strengthened 
 him by the Holy Spirit. So oft then as an 
 apostle cometh to you with that which your 
 souls desire not, swell ye with pride, and 
 treat some as impostors, and slay others ? ” 
 
 Surah ii. 254: “ Some of the apostles we 
 have endowed more highly than others : Those 
 to whom God hath spoken, He hath raised to 
 the loftiest grade, and to Jesus the Son of 
 Mary we gave manifest signs, and we strength¬ 
 ened him with the Holy Spirit. And if God 
 had pleased, they who came after them would 
 not have wrangled, after the clear signs had 
 reached them. But into disputes they fell: 
 some of them believed, and some were infidels ; 
 yet if God had pleased, they would not have 
 thus wrangled: but God doth what he 
 will.” 
 
 Surah lxi. 6: “ And remember when Jesus 
 the son of Mary said, ‘ 0 children of Israel! 
 of a truth I am God’s apostle to you to con¬ 
 firm the law which was given before me, and 
 to announce an apostle that shall come after 
 me whose name shall be Ahmad ! ’ But when 
 he (Ahmad) presented himself with clear 
 proofs of his mission, they said, ‘ This is 
 manifest sorcery 1 ’ ” 
 
 Surah vi. 85 : “And Zaehariah, John, Jesus, 
 and Elias: all were just persons.” 
 
 Surah iv. 157 : “ And there shall not be 
 one of the people of the Book but shall 
 believe in him (Jesus) before his death, and 
 in the day of judgment he shall be a witness 
 against them.” 
 
 Surah iii. 44 : “ And I have come to attest 
 the law which was before me; and to allow 
 you part of that which had been forbidden 
 you; and I come to you with a sign from 
 your Lord : Fear God, then, and obey me ; of 
 a truth God is my Lord, and your Lord : 
 Therefore worship Him. This is a right 
 way.” 
 
 V.—The Crucifixion of Jesus. 
 
 Surah iii. 47-50 : “ And the Jews plotted, 
 and God plotted : But of those who plot is God 
 the best. Remember when God said, ‘ 0 
 Jesus 1 verily I will cause thee to die, and 
 will take thee up to myself and deliver thee 
 from those who believe not; and I will place 
 those who follow thee above those who 
 believe not, until the Day of Resurrection. 
 Then, to me is your return, and wherein 
 ye differ will I decide between you. And as to 
 those who believe not, I will chastise them 
 with a terrible chastisement in this world and 
 in the next; and none shall they have to help 
 them.’ But as to those who believe, and do 
 the things that are right, He will pay them 
 their recompense. God loveth not the doers 
 of evil.” 
 
 Surah iv. 155,156 : “ And for their unbelief 
 [are the Jews cursed]—and for their having 
 spoken against Mary a grievous calumny,— 
 And for their saying, ‘ Verily we have slain 
 the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, an 
 Apostle of God.’ Yet they slew him not, and 
 they crucified him not, but they had only his 
 likeness. And they who differed about him 
 were in doubt concerning him : No sure know¬ 
 ledge had they about him, but followed only 
 an opinion, and they really did not slay him, 
 but God took him up to Himself. And God 
 is Mighty, Wise! ” 
 
 [Sale, in his notes on the Qur’an, says : 
 “ The person crucified some will have to be a 
 spy that was sent to entrap him; others that 
 it was one Titian, who by the direction of 
 Judas entered in at a window of the house 
 where Jesus was, to kill him; and others 
 that it was Judas himself, who agreed with 
 the rulers of the Jews to betray him for 
 thirty pieces of silver, and led those who 
 were sent to take him. They add, that Jesus, 
 after his crucifixion in effiqy, was sent down 
 again to the earth to comfort his mother and 
 disciples and acquaint them how the Jews 
 were deceived, and was then taken up a 
 second time into heaven. It is supposed by 
 several that this story was an original in¬ 
 vention of Mohammad’s ; but they are cer¬ 
 tainly mistaken: for several sectaries held 
 the same opinion long before his time. The 
 Basilidians, in the very beginning of Chris¬ 
 tianity, denied that Christ himself suffered, but 
 [asserted] that Simon the Cirenean was cruci¬ 
 fied in his place. The Corinthians before 
 them, and the Carpocratians next (to name 
 no more of those who affirmed Jesus to have 
 been a mere man), did believe the same thing, 
 that it was not himself, but one of his followers, 
 very like him, that was crucified. Photius 
 tells us that he read a book entitled The 
 Journeys of the Apostles , relating the acts of 
 Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas, and Paul; and 
 among other things contained therein this 
 was one, that Christ was not crucified, but 
 another in his stead, and that therefore he 
 laughed at his crucifiers, or those who thought 
 they had crucified him.” The “ Cross of 
 Christ ” is the missing link in the Muslim’s 
 creed ; for we have in Islam the great 
 
JESUS CHRIST 
 
 anomaly of a religion which rejects the 
 doctrine of a sacrifice for sin, whilst its great 
 central feast is a Feast of Sacrifice. It is 
 related by the Muslim historian al-Wiiqidl, 
 that Muhammad had such repugnance to the 
 sign of the cross that he destroyed every¬ 
 thing brought to his house with that figure 
 upon it.] 
 
 VI.—Divinity and Sonship of Christ, and His 
 Sinlessness. 
 
 Surah xix. 35, 3G: “ That is Jesus the son 
 of Mary, the word of truth (Qaida ’l-Haqq ), 
 whereon ye do dispute ! God could not take 
 to Himself a son ! Celebrated be His praise ! 
 When He decrees a matter He only says to it, 
 ‘ BE,’ and it is ; and verily God is my Lord 
 and your Lord, so worship Him : this is the 
 right way. But the sects have differed 
 among themselves.” 
 
 Surah iii. 51, 52 : “ These signs, and this 
 wise warning do we rehearse to thee. Verily, 
 Jesus is as Adam in the sight of God. He 
 created Him of dust: He then said to him, 
 ‘ Be ’—and he was.” 
 
 Surah xliii. 57-05: “And when the Son of 
 Mary was set forth as an instance of divine 
 power, lo ! thy people cried out for joy 
 thereat : And they said, ‘ Are our gods or is 
 he the better? ’ They put this forth to thee 
 only in the spirit of dispute. Yea, they are 
 a contentious people. Jesus is no more than 
 a servant whom we favoured, and proposed 
 as an instance of divine power to the children 
 of Israel; and if we pleased, we could from 
 yourselves bring forth Angels to succeed you 
 on earth : and he shall be a sign of the last 
 hour; doubt not then of it. and follow ye me : 
 this is the right way ; and let not Satan turn 
 you aside from it, for he is your manifest foe. 
 And when Jesus came with manifest proofs, 
 he said, ‘ Now am I come to you with wisdom ; 
 and a part of those things about which ye 
 are at variance I will clear up to you; fear 
 ye God, therefore, and obey me. Verily, God 
 is my Lord and your Lord ; wherefore, wor¬ 
 ship ye him : this is a right way.’ But the 
 different parties fell into disputes among 
 themselves ; but woe to those who thus trans¬ 
 gressed, because of the punishment of an 
 afflictive day! ” 
 
 Surah ix. 30 : “ The Jews say Ezra is the 
 Son of God ; and the Christian's say that the 
 Messiah is the Son of God; that is what 
 they say with their mouths imitating the 
 sayings of those who misbelieved before— 
 God fight them !—How they lie ! ” 
 
 Surah iii. 72,73: “ And some truly are there 
 among them who torture the Scriptures with 
 their tongues, in order that ye may suppose 
 it to be from the Scripture, yet it is not from 
 the Scripture. And they say, ‘ This is from 
 God '; yet it is not from God : and they utter a 
 lie against God, and they know they do so. 
 It beseemeth not a man, that God should give 
 him the Scriptures and the Wisdom, and the 
 gift of prophecy, and that then he should say 
 to his followers, ‘ Be ye worshippers of me, 
 as well as of God ’; but rather, ‘ Be ye 
 perfect in things pertaining to God, since ye 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 233 
 
 know the Scriptures, and have studied 
 deep.’ ” 
 
 Surah v. 19 : “ Infidels now are they who 
 say, ‘ Verily God is the Messiah Ibn Maryam 
 (son of Mary)! Say : And who could aught 
 obtain from God, if he chose to destroy the 
 Messiah Ibn Maryam, and his mother, and all 
 who are on the earth together ? ' ” 
 
 There is a remarkable Hadis related by 
 Anas, which inadvertently proves that, whilst 
 Muhammad admitted his own sinfulness, as 
 well as that of other prophets, he could not 
 charge our Lord with sin. It is as follows : 
 “ The Prophet of God said, ‘ In the Day of 
 Resurrection Muslims will not be able to 
 move, and they will be greatly distressed, 
 and will say, “ Would to God that we had 
 asked Him to create some one to intercede for 
 us, that wo might be taken from this place, 
 and be delivered from tribulation and sorrow? ” 
 Then these men will go to Adam, and will 
 say, “ Thou art the father of all men, God 
 created thee with His hand, and made thee a 
 dweller in Paradise, and ordered His angels 
 to prostrate themselves before thee, and 
 taught thee the names of all things. Ask 
 grace for us we pray thee! ” And Adam will 
 say, “ I am not of that degree of eminence 
 you suppose, for I committed a sin in eating 
 of the grain which was forbidden. Go to 
 Noah, the Prophet, he was the first who was 
 sent by God to the unbelievers on the face of 
 the earth.” Then they will go to Noah and 
 ask for intercession, and he will say, “ I am 
 not of that degree which ye suppose.” And 
 he will remember the sin which he committed 
 in asking the Lord for the deliverance of his 
 son (Hud), not knowing whether it was a 
 right request or not: and he will say, •• Go 
 to Abraham, who is the Friend of God.” 
 Then they will go to Abraham, and he will 
 say, “ I am not of that degree which ye sup¬ 
 pose.” And he will remember the three 
 occasions upon which he told lies in the 
 world; and he will say, “ Go to Moses, who 
 is the servant to whom God gave His law, 
 and whom He allowed to converse with Him." 
 And they will go to Moses, and Moses will 
 say, “ I am not of that degree which ye 
 suppose.” And he will remember the sin 
 which he committed in slaying a man, and he 
 will say, “Go to Jesus, He is the servant of 
 God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God, 
 and the Word of God.” Then they will go to 
 Jesus, and He will say, “Go to Muhammad 
 who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven 
 both first and last.” Then the Muslims will 
 come to me, and I will ask permission to go 
 into God’s presence and intercede for them.’” 
 (Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.) 
 
 [In dealing with Muhammadans the Chris¬ 
 tian missionary must not treat their system 
 as though the teachings of Islam were pre¬ 
 cisely those of the modern Socinians (we 
 speak of the modern Socinians, for both the 
 Socini, uncle and nephew, admitted the mi¬ 
 raculous conception of Christ, and said he 
 ought to be worshipped.) Islam admits of 
 the miraculous conception of Christ, and that 
 He is the “ Word'" which God “conveyed 
 
 30 
 
2M- 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 JESUS CHRIST 
 
 into Mary”; and whilst the other five 
 great prophets are but “ the chosen,” “ the 
 preacher,” “ the friend,” “ the converser 
 with,” and “the messenger of” God, Jesus 
 is admitted to bo the “ Spirit of God." He 
 is the greatest miracle worker of all the 
 prophets ; and whilst Muhammad is dead and 
 buried, and saw corruption, all Muslim divines 
 admit that Jesus “saw no corruption,” and 
 still lives with a human body in Paradise. 
 
 Moreover, it is said in the Hadis that the 
 Haqiqatu'l-Muhammadiyah or the Nur-i-Mu¬ 
 hammad, “ the essence, or light of Muhammad,” 
 was created before all things which were 
 made by God. The pre-existence of the 
 divine “ Word which was made flesh and 
 dwelt amongst us ” is not, therefore, an idea 
 foreign to the Muslim mind.] 
 
 VII .— The Trinity. 
 
 Surah v. 76-79 : “ They misbelieve who say, 
 
 ‘ Verily, God is the Messiah, the son of Mary ’ ; 
 but the Messiah said, ‘ 0 children of Israel 1 
 worship God, my Lord and your Lord ; verily, 
 he who associates aught with God, God hath 
 forbidden him Paradise, and his resort is the 
 Fire, and the unjust shall have none to help 
 them. They misbelieve who say. ‘ Verily, 
 God is the third of three, for there is no God 
 but one; and if they do not desist from what 
 they say, there shall touch those who mis¬ 
 believe amongst them grievous woe. Will 
 they not turn again towards God and ask 
 pardon of Him? for God is forgiving and 
 merciful.’ The Messiah, the son of Mary, is 
 only a prophet! Prophets before him have 
 passed away ; and his mother was a confessor ; 
 they used both to eat food. See how we 
 explain to them the signs, yet see how they 
 turn aside! ” 
 
 Surah iv. 169: “ 0 ye people of the Book 1 
 overstep not bounds in your religion ; and of 
 God, speak only truth. The Messiah, Jesus, 
 son of Mary, is only an apostle of God, and 
 His Word which he conveyed into Mary, and 
 a Spirit from Him. Believe, therefore, in God 
 and His apostles, and say not, ‘ Three ’: 
 (i.e. there is a Tiinity) —Forbear—it will be 
 better for you. God is only one God ! Far 
 be it from His glory that He should have a 
 son ! His, whatever is in the Heavens, and 
 whatever is in the Earth 1 And God is a 
 sufficient Guardian.” 
 
 Surah v. 116, 117: “ And when God shall say 
 —‘ 0 Jesus, Son of Mary : hast thou said unto 
 mankind—“ Take me and my mother as two 
 Gods, beside God ? ” ’ He shall say—‘ Glory 
 be unto Thee! it is not for me to say that 
 which I know to be not the truth ; had I said 
 that, verily thou wouldest have known it: 
 Thou knowest what is in me, but I know not 
 what is in Thee ; for Thou well knowest 
 things unseen 1 I spake not to them aught 
 but that which thou didst bid me—“Worship 
 God, my Lord and your Lord ” ; and I was 
 a witness against them so long as I was 
 amongst them : but when Thou didst take me 
 away to Thyself Thou wert the watcher over i 
 them, for Thou art witness over all.’ ” 
 
 [From the text of the Qur’an it appears 
 
 that Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of 
 the Christians consisted of the Father, the 
 Son, and the Virgin ; and historians tell us 
 that there existed in Arabia a sect called 
 Collyridians, who considered the Virgin Mary 
 a divine person, and offered in worship to her 
 a cake called Collyris; it is, therefore, not 
 improbable that Muhammad obtained his 
 perverted notion of the Holy Trinity from 
 the existence of this sect. From the ex¬ 
 pression “ they both ate food,” we must 
 conclude that Muhammad had but a sensuous 
 idea of the Trinity in Unity, and had never 
 been instructed in the orthodox faith with 
 reference to this dogma. 
 
 Al-Baizawi (a.h. 685), in his commentary 
 on Surah iv. 169, says : “ Say not there are 
 Three,” that is, “ Do not say there are three 
 Gods,” namely, Allah and al-Maslh and Maryam ; 
 or “Do not say God is Three,” meaning that 
 there are Three Aqanim or Essences 
 
 •—Ah (Father), Ibn (Son), and Ruhu'l-Quds 
 (Holy Spirit), and interpreting it thus : Ah, 
 the Zat. or Essence; Ibn, the ‘Ilm or Know¬ 
 ledge ; and Ruhu '/-Qnd, the Hayat or Life of 
 God. 
 
 Husain (a.h. 900) quotes al-Baizawi, and 
 offers no opinion of his own. 
 
 The Jalalan (a.h. 911) say “ Three” means 
 Allah and ‘Isa and his Mother. 
 
 The word generally used by Muhammadan 
 writers for the Trinity is at-Taslis (vi-ALM). 
 [trinity.] 
 
 VIII.—The Second Coming of Jesus. 
 
 The Qur’an has no definite teaching on the 
 subject, but the Traditions have. See Mish- 
 katu ’ l-Masdbih, book xxiii. ch. vi.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said, “ I swear by God, it is near, when Jesus, 
 son of Mary, will descend from the heavens 
 upon your people, a just king, and he will 
 break the cross,and will kill the swine, and will 
 remove the poll-tax from the unenfranchised : 
 and there will be great wealth in his time, so 
 much that nobody will accept of it; and in 
 that time, one prostration in prayer will be 
 better than the world and everything in it.” 
 
 And Abu Hurairah said, “ If ye doubt 
 about this coming to pass, then read this 
 verse (Surah iv. 157), and there shall not be 
 one of those who have received the Scrip¬ 
 tures who shall not believe in Him (Jesus) 
 before His death.” 
 
 Abu Hurairah again relates that the Prophet 
 said, “I swear by God, Jesus son of Mary 
 will come down, a just king ; he will kill the 
 swine, and break the cross, and remove the 
 poll-tax from the unenfranchised ; and camels 
 will not be rode in his time on account of the 
 immensity of wealth, and man’s being in want 
 of nothing; and verily enmity, hatred and 
 malice will go from man; and verily, Jesus 
 will call people to wealth, and nobody will 
 take it ” 
 
 Jabir relates that the Prophet said : “ A sec¬ 
 tion of my people will always fight for the 
 true religion, and will be victorious, unto the 
 resurrection. Then Jesus son of Mary will 
 
JETHRO 
 
 JEWS 
 
 235 
 
 come down; and the prince of my people will 
 say to him, ‘ Come in front, and say prayers 
 for us.’ And he will say to him, ‘ I shall not 
 act as Imam, because some of you are princes 
 over others.’ And Jesus will say this from 
 respect to my people.” 
 
 ‘Abdu’llah ibn ‘ Amr relates that the Prophet 
 said: “Jesus will come down to the earth, 
 and will marry and have children, and will 
 stay on the earth forty-five years, and then 
 die, and be buried in my place of burial; and 
 I and Jesus shall rise up from one place, 
 between Abu-Bakr and ‘Umar.” [hujrah.] 
 
 IX.—His Exaltation in Heaven. 
 
 There is some difference of opinion as to 
 where Jesus Christ now is. All Muslim 
 divines agree that “ he saw no corruption,” 
 but they differ as to the exact stage of 
 celestial bliss in which he resides in the body. 
 According to a tradition by Qatadah (Mis/i- 
 kat, book xxiv. ch. vii.), Muhammad said, on 
 the night of the MPraj or celestial journey, 
 he saw John and Jesus in the second heaven. 
 The Jalaliin agree with this tradition. But 
 in the commentary known as the Jamlu 7- 
 Baydn (vol. i. 656) it is said he is in the third 
 region of bliss; whilst some say he is in the 
 fourth. 
 
 X.—The Disciples o f Jesus. 
 
 The disciples of Jesus are called in the 
 Qur’an al-Hawariyiin, a word which seems to 
 be derived from an Ethiopic root, signifying 
 “ to send,” but which al-Baizawi says means 
 “ white ones,” and that it was given to the 
 disciples of Jesus either because they were 
 holy and sincere men or because they wore 
 white clothes. It is noticeable that not one 
 of the twelve apostles is mentioned by name 
 in the Qur’an. In the story told of disciples 
 visiting the city (of Antioch), three disciples 
 are mentioned, and commentators say they 
 were John, Jude and Simon. [See Surah 
 xxxvi. 13, lH— HABIB THE CARPENTER.] John 
 the Baptist and his father Zacharias are 
 mentioned. (Surahs xix. 7, xxi. 90.) 
 
 JETHRO, [shxj'aib.] 
 
 JEWELS. Arabic Jauhar (yfc^),pl. 
 Jawdhir. According to the Hiddyah 
 a thief is liable to suffer amputation of the 
 hand for stealing jewels, such as a ring set 
 with emerald, ruby, or chrysolite, as such are 
 rare articles, and are not held to be of an 
 indifferent nature, neither are they undesirable. 
 (Vol. ii. p. 93.) 
 
 A sillim sale [sillim], or a sale in trust, of 
 jewels and marine shells, is not lawful, because 
 the unities of these vary in their value. 
 (Vol. ii p. 539.) In the partition of property, 
 jewels must not be divided by the QazI, but 
 by mutual arrangement in the family, because 
 of the great difference in the actual value of 
 jewels. (Vol. iv. 13.) 
 
 JEWS, JUDAISM. The Jews 
 
 are mentioned in the Qur’an and Traditions 
 under the names of Yahudi (^Oygj), pi. Yahud, 
 and Banu Isra’il (“ Children of j 
 
 Israel.” No distinction is made between Jews 
 and Israelites. They are acknowledged to bo 
 a people in possession of a divine book, and are 
 called Ahlu 'l-Kitab, or “ people of the book.” 
 Moses is their special law-giver (Abraham 
 not having been a Jew, but a “ HanifMuslim") ; 
 they are a people highly-favoured of God, 
 but are said to have perverted the meaning of 
 Scripture, and to have called Ezra “ the Son 
 of God.” They have an intense hatred of all 
 true Muslims ; and, as a punishment for their 
 sins, some of them in times past had been 
 changed into apes and swine, and others 
 will have their hands tied to their necks 
 and be cast into the Fire at the Day of 
 Judgment. 
 
 The following are the selections from the 
 Qur’an relating to the Jews :— 
 
 Surah ii. 116: “0 children of Israel! 
 remember my favour wherewith I have 
 favoured you, and that high above all man¬ 
 kind have I raised you.” 
 
 Surah v. 48, 49 : “ Verily, we have sent down 
 the law ( Taurat ) wherein are guidance and 
 light. By it did the prophets who professed 
 Islam judge the Jews ; and the doctors and 
 the teachers judged by that portion of the 
 Book of God, of which they were the keepers 
 and the witnesses. Therefore, 0 Jews ! fear 
 not men but fear Me ; and barter not away 
 my signs for a mean price! And whoso will 
 not judge by what God hath sent down—such 
 are the Infidels. And therein have we enacted 
 for them, • Life for life, an eye for eye, and 
 nose for nose, and ear for ear, and tooth for 
 tooth, and for wounds retaliation’:—Whoso 
 shall compromise it as alms shall have therein 
 the expiation of his sin ; and whoso will not 
 judge by what God hath sent down—such are 
 the transgressors.” 
 
 Surah iii. 60 : “ Abraham was not a Jew, 
 nor yet a Chiistian. He was a Hanif Muslim, 
 and not an idolater.” 
 
 Surah ix. 30 : “ The Jews say, ‘ Ezra 
 (•Uzair) is a son of God’; and the Christians 
 say, ‘ The Messiah is a son of God.’ Such 
 the saying in their mouths! They resemble 
 the saying of the Infidels of old ! God do 
 battle with them ! How are they misguided! ” 
 
 Surah vi. 147 : “ To the Jews did we forbid 
 every beast having an entire hoof, and of both 
 bullocks and sheep we forbade them the fat, 
 save what might be on their backs, or their 
 entrails, and the fat attached to the bone. 
 With this have we recompensed them, because 
 of their transgression: and verily, we are 
 indeed equitable.” 
 
 Surah iv. 48,49 : “ Among the Jews are those 
 who displace the words of their Scriptures, 
 and say, ‘ We have heard, and we have not 
 obeyed. Hear thou, but as one that heareth 
 not ; and look at ds '; perplexing with their 
 tongues, and wounding the Faith by their 
 revilings. But if they would say, 1 We have 
 heard, and we obey ; hear thou, and regard 
 us ’; it were better for them, and more right. 
 But God hath cursed them for their unbelief. 
 Few only of them are believers ! ” 
 
 Surah ii. 70-73 : “ Desire ye then that for 
 your sakes the Jews should believe ? Yet a 
 
JEWS 
 
 236 
 
 part of them heard the word of God, and then, 
 after they had understood it, perverted it, 
 and knew that they did so. And when they 
 fall in with the faithful, they say, ‘ We 
 believe’; but when they are apart one with 
 another, they say, ‘ Will ye acquaint them 
 with what God hath revealed to you, that 
 they may dispute with you about it in the 
 presence of your Lord?’ Understand ye 
 their aim ? Know they not that God knoweth 
 what they hide, as well as what they bring to 
 light? But there are illiterates among them 
 who are not acquainted with the Book, but 
 with lies only, and have but vague fancies. 
 Woe to those who with their own hands tran¬ 
 scribe the Book corruptly, and then say, 
 ■ This is from God,' that they may sell it for 
 some mean price ! Woe then to them for that 
 which their hands have written! and. Woe to 
 them for the gains which they have made ! ” 
 
 Surah v. 64-69 : “ Say : 0 people of the 
 Book! do ye not disavow 7 us only because we 
 believe in God, and in what He hath sent down 
 to us, and in what He hath sent down afore¬ 
 time, and because most of you are doers of ill ? 
 Say : Can I announce to you any retribution 
 worse than that which awaiteth them with 
 God ? They whom God hath cursed and with 
 whom He hath been angry—some of them 
 hath He changed into apes and swine; and 
 they who worship Tagut are in evil plight, 
 and have gone far astray from the right path ! 
 When they presented themselves to you they 
 said, ‘ We believe’; but Infidels they came in 
 unto you, and Infidels they went forth ! God 
 well knew what they concealed. Many of 
 them shalt thou see hastening together to 
 wickedness and malice, and to eat unlawful 
 things. Shame on them for what they have 
 done 1 Had not their doctors and teachers 
 forbidden their uttering wickedness, and their 
 eating unlawful food, bad indeed would have 
 been their doings ! ‘ The hand of God,’ say 
 
 the Jews, ‘is chained up.’ Their own hands 
 shall be chained up—and for that which they 
 have said shall they be cursed. Nay! out¬ 
 stretched are both His hands ! At His own 
 pleasure does He bestow gifts. That which 
 hath been sent down to thee from thy Lord 
 will surely increase the rebellion and unbelief 
 of many of them ; and we have put enmity 
 and hatred between them that shall last till 
 the day of the Resurrection. Oft as they 
 kindle a beacon fire for war shall God quench 
 it! and their aim will be to abet disorder on 
 the earth: but God loveth not the abettors of 
 disorder.” 
 
 Nearly all the leading scripture characters 
 connected with Old Testament history are 
 either mentioned by name in the Qur’an Gl¬ 
 are referred to in the Traditions and com¬ 
 mentaries 
 
 (a) In the Qur’an we have Adam ( Adam), 
 Abel (Habib), Cain (Qabif), Enoch (Idris), 
 Noah (Nuh), Abraham (Ibrahim), Lot (Lilt), 
 Isaac (Ishaq), Ishmael (Ismrcil), Jacob 
 (Ya'qub), Joseph (Yusuf), Job (Aiyiib), 
 Moses (Musa), Aaron (Harun), Korah ( Qarun), 
 Pharaoh (Fir'aun), Haman (Hainan), David 
 (Dd'iid), Goliath (Jalut), Solomon (Sulaiman), 
 
 JEWS 
 
 Saul (Talut), Jonah (Yunus), Elisha (Al- 
 yasa‘). 
 
 (b) In the Traditions and in the earliest 
 commentaries on the Qur’an, are mentioned : 
 Eve (HawwiT), Hagar (Hajur), Nebuchad¬ 
 nezzar (Bulchtnassar), Joshua ( Yiisha ‘), Jere¬ 
 miah (Armiya), Isaiah (Sha'ya,’), Benjamin 
 ( Binyamin), Ezekiel (Hizqil), Baalam (Bal'am), 
 Daniel (Daniydl), Sarah (Sarah), and many 
 others. But it is remarkable that after Solo¬ 
 mon, there is no mention of the Kings of 
 Israel and Judah. 
 
 (c) The chief incidents of Jewish history- 
 are recorded in the Qur’an with a strange and 
 curious admixture of Rabbinical fable. The 
 creation of the world, the formation of Adam 
 and Eve, the fall, the expulsion from Eden, 
 Cain’s and Abel’s sacrifices,the death of Abel; 
 Noah’s preaching, the Ark built, the deluge, 
 the tower of Babel; Abraham, the friend of 
 God, his call from idolatry, Isaac the son of 
 promise, Sarah’s incredulity, Hagar and 
 Ishmael, the willingness of Abraham to sacri¬ 
 fice his son, Lot and the cities of the plain; 
 Jacob and the tribes, Joseph sold into Egypt, 
 Potiphar’s wife, Joseph tempted, the dreams 
 of the baker and butler, and of the king; 
 Moses, his preservation in infancy, kills an 
 Egyptian, Hies to Midian, works miracles in 
 the presence of Pharaoh, manna from heaven, 
 the giving of the law, Aaron’s rod, the golden 
 calf, the passage of the Red Sea ; Job’s 
 patience; Balaam cursing the Israelites; 
 David’s psalms, his sin and repentance; 
 Solomon’s wisdom, the Queen of Sheba, the 
 building of the temple; Jonah’s preaching, 
 his escape from the fish: these and many 
 other incidents, evidently taken from the Old 
 Testament, and worked up into a narrative 
 with the assistance of Talmudic interpreta¬ 
 tions, form the chief historical portion of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 (d) Many of the doctrines and social pre¬ 
 cepts of the Qur’an are also from Judaism. 
 The Unity of God, the ministry of angels, 
 the inspired law, the law of marriage and 
 divorce, domestic slavery, the day of Sacri¬ 
 fice, prayer and ablution, the lex talionis, the 
 degrees of affinity, the stoning of the adul¬ 
 terer, and many other injunctions, are pre¬ 
 cisely those of the Mosaic code, with some 
 modifications to meet the requirements of 
 Arabian social life. 
 
 Whilst, therefore, Muhammad took little of 
 his religious system from Christianity, he was 
 vastly indebted to Judaism both for his his¬ 
 torical narratives and his doctrines and pre¬ 
 cepts. Islam is nothing more nor less than 
 Judaism plus the Apostleship of Muhammad. 
 The teachings of Jesus form no part of his 
 religious system. [Christianity.] 
 
 (e) The Quraish charged Muhammad with 
 
 want of originality in his revelations. For 
 even at the end of his career, and when he 
 was uttering his latest Surahs, “ they said, 
 as our verses were rehearsed to them— 
 ‘ This is nothing but tales of yore.’” (Surah 
 viii. 31.) “ And when it was said to them, 
 
 What is it your Lord sent down ? They said, 
 'Old folk's tales.’’’ (Surah xvi. 25.) The 
 
JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 237 
 
 Quraish even charged him with having ob¬ 
 tained assistance, “ They said it is only some 
 mortal who teaches him. - ’ And Muhammad 
 admits there was someone who might be sus¬ 
 pected of helping him, for he replies, “ The 
 tongue of him whom they lean towards is 
 barbarous and this (Qur’an) is plain Arabic.” 
 (Surah xvi. 105.) Husain, the commentator, 
 in remarking upon this verse, says, “ It is 
 related that there was a slave belonging to 
 ‘Amr ibn ‘Abdi 'llah al-Hazrami, named Jabr 
 (and according to some a second slave named 
 Yasar), who used to read the Law and the 
 Gospel, and Muhammad used, when he 
 passed, to stand and listen.” 
 
 And the whole construction of the Qur’an 
 bears out the supposition that its subject 
 matter was received orally and worked into 
 poetical Arabic by a man of genius. What¬ 
 ever he may have heard from the readings of 
 Jabr and Yasar of the text of the Old and 
 New Testament scriptures, it is very evident 
 that he obtained his explanations from one 
 well versed in Talmudic lore. A Jewish 
 Rabbi, Abraham Geiger, in a.d. 1833, wrote 
 a prize essay in answer to the question put by 
 the university : “ Inquiratur in fontes Alco- 
 rani seu legis Muhammedicse eos, qui ex 
 Judasismo derivandi sunt.” His essay in reply 
 is entitled, “ Was hat Mohammed aus dem 
 Judenthume aufgenommen ? ” In this trea¬ 
 tise it is clearly demonstrated how much the 
 whole system of Islam is indebted to Tal¬ 
 mudic Judaism for its teachings. Its nar¬ 
 ratives, its doctrines, and its theological 
 terms, are chiefly derived from those of the 
 Talmud. 
 
 The works of Geiger, J. M. Arnold, Her- 
 shom, McCaul, Bishop Barclay, Deutsch, 
 Lightfoot, Schottgen, Ugolini, Meuschen 
 (which pending a complete translation of 
 the Talmud, can be consulted), will, upon 
 comparison with the teachings of the Qur’an, 
 reveal how entirely Muhammad constructed 
 his religious system on the lines of Talmudic 
 Judaism. We are indebted to the late Dr. 
 J. M. Arnold’s Islam and Christianity , for the 
 following review of the subject, he having 
 largely availed himself of the facts given in 
 Geiger’s celebrated essay, already referred 
 to. 
 
 The seven heavens and the seven earths 
 which are held in the Talmud, have found 
 their way into the Qur’an. 1 During the 
 creation, God’s glorious throne was placed in 
 the air upon the water. 2 According to the 
 Talmud, “ the world is the sixtieth part of 
 the garden, the garden is the sixtieth part of 
 Eden”; and Muhammad states that the 
 breadth of the garden is that of heaven and 
 earth. 3 Both in the Qur’an and Talmud we 
 find seven hells as the appointed abode for 
 the damned, and each hell has seven gates in 
 both documents. 4 The entrance of Jahan- 
 
 1 Chagiga, ix. 2. 
 
 2 Rashi on Gen. i. 2; and Surahs xi. 9; xxvii. 26; 
 xxiii. 117 lxxxv. 15. 
 
 3 Thaanith, x.; Pesashim, xciv.; and Surah iii. 
 127. 
 
 4 Talmud Enrbin, xix. 1; Midrash on Pa. xi.; and 
 Surah xv. 44. 
 
 nam is marked, according to the Sukkah, by 
 two date-trees, between which smoke issues ; 
 and the Qur’an speaks of a tree in hell 
 [zaqqum] of which the damned are to eat, 
 and of which many terrible things are related. 1 
 In the Talmud the prince of hell demands 
 supply for his domain, and a similar request 
 is made in the Qur’an. 2 Between the seven 
 heavens and the seven hells is an intermediate 
 place [a‘raf], for those who are too good to 
 be cast into hell and too imperfect to be 
 admitted into heaven. 3 This intermediate 
 abode is, however, so narrow, that the con¬ 
 versations of the blessed and the damned on 
 either side may be overheard. Again, the 
 happiness of Paradise [paradise] is similarly 
 described in both Talmud and Qur’an ; 4 also 
 the difficulty of attaining it. The Talmud 
 declares that it is as easy for an elephant to 
 enter through the eye of a needle; the 
 Qur’an substituting a camel for an elephant.'’ 
 That the dead live in the sight of God is 
 stated in both documents in the same terms, 
 and that there is no admission to the actual 
 presence of the Almighty before the Day of 
 Judgment and the resurrection of the dead. 6 
 The signs of the last day as given in the 
 Qur’an are borrowed equally from the Scrip¬ 
 tures and the Talmud. 7 [resurrection.] 
 
 The lengthened descriptions in the Qur’an 
 of the future resurrection and judgment are 
 also tinged with a Talmudical colouring. 
 That the several members of the human body 
 shall bear witness against the damned, and 
 that idols shall share in the punishment of then- 
 worshippers, is stated in both the Talmud 
 and Qur’an. 8 The time of the last judgment 
 Muhammad declined to fix, resting upon the 
 Jewish or Scriptural sentence, that “ one day 
 with God is like a thousand.” 9 The Jews, in 
 speaking of the resurrection of the dead, 
 allude to the sending down of rain; the 
 Qur’an also affirms that this means of 
 quickening the dead will be employed. 10 
 Further still, the Talmudical idea that the 
 dead will rise in the garments in which they 
 were buried, likewise has been adopted by 
 Islam. 11 The Jewish opinion was that “all 
 the prophets saw in a dark, but Moses in a 
 clear mirror.” 12 In the Qur’an, God sends 
 down His angelic messenger, Gabriel, as “ the 
 Holy Ghost,” with revelations ; and this very 
 
 1 Sukkah xxxvii.; and Surahs xxxvii. 60 ; xliv. 
 43. 
 
 2 Othioth by Eabbi Akiba, viii. 1; and Surah 1. 
 29. 
 
 3 Midrash on Eccles. vii. 14; and Surah vii. 44- 
 47. 
 
 4 Mishnah Aboth, iv. 17; and Surahs ix. 38; 
 xiii. 26. 
 
 5 Surah vii. 38. 
 
 6 Surahs lxxv. 23 ; Ixxxix. 27. 
 
 7 Surahs xxi. 104; xxxix. 67; xliv. 9; xvii. 60; 
 xxi. 98; xxii. 2; xxvii. 89. Compared with Isa, 
 xxxiv. 4 ; Ezek. xxxviii., xxxix. 
 
 8 Chagiga, xxvi.; Thaanith xi.; and Surahs xxiv. 
 24; xxxvi. 65; xli. 19; Sukkah, xxix.; and Suiah 
 xxi. 98. 
 
 9 Ps. xe. 4; Sanhedrin, xcv. 2; and Surah xxii. 
 46; xxxii. 4 ; Ezek. xxxvii. 13; and Surah c. 9. 
 
 10 Thaanith, at the beginning; and Surahs vi. 95; 
 xxx. 49 ; xxxvi. 33; xli. 39 ; xliii. 10. 
 
 11 Sanhedrin, xc. 2 ; Khethubhoth, cxi. 2. 
 
 12 Jebhamoth, xlix.; and Surah xliii. 50. 
 
238 
 
 JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 notion of Gabriel being considered the Spirit 
 of God seems to be borrowed from the Jews. 1 
 
 Again, the demonology of the Qur’an is 
 chiefly taken from the Talmud. Three pro¬ 
 perties the demons have in common with 
 angels, and three with men—they have wings 
 like angels, they can fly from one end of the 
 world to the other, and know things to come. 
 But do they know future events? No, but 
 they listen behind the veil. The three 
 properties in common with men are : they eat 
 and drink, indulge in physical love, and die. 2 
 This Jewish idea was adopted in the Qur’an, 
 and spun out ad libitum ; for instance, whilst 
 listening once to the angelic conversations, 
 they were hunted away with stones. Their 
 presence in places of worship is admitted both 
 in the Talmud and the Qur’an; thus it 
 happened that “ when the servant of God 
 stood up to invoke Him, the Jinns all but 
 pressed on him in the crowd.’’ 3 [genii.] 
 
 Amongst the moral precepts which are 
 borrowed from the Talmud, we may mention 
 that children are not to obey their parents 
 when the latter demand that which is evil. 1 
 Prayer may be performed standing, walking, 
 or even riding f devotions may be shortened 
 in urgent cases, without committing sin; r> 
 drunken persons are not to engage in acts of 
 worship; 7 ablutions before prayer are in 
 special cases enforced, but generally required 
 both in the Talmud and the Qur’an : 8 each per¬ 
 mit the use of sand instead of water [tayam- 
 jidm], when the latter is not to be procured. 9 
 The Talmud prohibits loud and noisy prayers, 
 and Muhammad gives this short injunction:— 
 “ Cry not in your prayers ” ; 10 in addition to 
 this secret prayer, public worship is equally 
 commended. The Shema prayer of the Jews 
 is to be performed “ when one is able to dis¬ 
 tinguish a blue from a white thread,” and 
 this is precisely the criterion of the com¬ 
 mencement of the fast in the Qur an. 11 
 
 [RAMAZAN.] 
 
 The following social precepts are likewise 
 copied from Judaism : a divorced woman 
 must wait three months before marrying 
 again 12 [divorce] ; mothers are to nurse their 
 children two full years ; and the degrees of 
 affinity within which marriages are lawful. 13 
 [marriage.] The historical incidents which 
 Muhammad borrowed from Judaism are 
 embodied, regardless of the sources from 
 which he gleaned them, and indifferent to all 
 order or system. Ignorant of Jewish history, 
 Muhammad appropriates none of the historical 
 
 1 1 Kings xxii. 21 
 Chagiga xvi. 1 
 
 ; and Surahs xv. 17, 34; xxxvii. 
 
 Jebhamoth, v 
 Berachoth, x 
 
 78; lxxx°i. 24;; lxvii. 5; xxxvii. 7 ; lxxii. 
 3 Surah lxxii. 19 
 
 ; and Surah xxix. 7. 
 
 and Surahs ii. 230; iii. 188; 
 
 13. 
 
 ' s Mishnah Berachoth, iv. 4 ^ and Surah iv. 102. 
 
 7 Berachoth, xxxi. 2; and Surah iv. 46. 
 
 8 Mishnah Berachoth, iii. 4; and Surahs iv. 46 ; 
 
 9 Berachoth, xlvi.; and Surah v. 8. 
 
 10 Berachoth xxxi. 2 ; and Surah xvii. 110. 
 
 11 Mishnah Berachoth, i. 2 ; and Surah ii. 183. 
 
 17 Mishnah Jebhamoth, iv. 10; and Surah ii. 228. 
 
 Talmud Ketkubotk, lx. 1; and Surahs n. 233 ; 
 xxxi. 13 ; xxiv. 31; Joseph., Antiq. ii. 9. 
 
 way-marks which determine the great epochs 
 recorded in the Old Testament, but confines 
 himself to certain occurrences in the lives of 
 single individuals. At the head of the ante¬ 
 diluvian patriarchs stands the primogenitor 
 of the human race. In Surah, ii. 28-33 we read, 
 “ When thy Lord said to the angels, Verily I am 
 going to place a substitute on earth, they said. 
 Wilt thou place there one who will do evil 
 therein and shed hlood ? but we celebrate Thy 
 praise and sanctify Thee. God answered, 
 Verily I know that which ye know not; and 
 He taught Adam the names of all things, and 
 then proposed them to the angels, and said, 
 Declare unto me the names of these things 
 if ye say truth. They answered, Praise be 
 unto Thee, we have no knowledge but what 
 Thou teachest us, for Thou art knowing and 
 wise. God said, 0, Adam, tell them their 
 names. And when he had told them their 
 names, God said, Did I not tell you that I 
 know the secrets of heaven and earth, and 
 know that which ye discover, and that which 
 ye conceal?” Let us examine whence the 
 Qur’an obtained this information. “ When 
 God intended to create man, He advised with 
 the angels and said unto them, We will make 
 man in our own image (Gen. i. 26). Then 
 said they, What is man, that Thou reinem- 
 berest him (Psalm viii. 5), what shall 
 be his peculiarity ? He answered, His wis¬ 
 dom is superior to yours. Then brought He 
 before them cattle, animals, and birds, and 
 asked for their names, but they knew it not. 
 After man was created. He caused them to 
 pass before Him, and asked for their names 
 and he answered, This is an ox, that an 
 ass, this a horse, and that a camel. 
 But what is thy name? To me it becomes 
 to be called ‘ earthly,’ for from ‘ earth ’ I 
 am created.” 1 To this may be added the 
 fable that God commanded the angels to wor¬ 
 ship Adam, 2 which is likewise appropriated 
 from Talmudic writings. Some Jewish fables 
 record that the angels contemplated wor¬ 
 shipping man, but were prevented by God ; 
 others precisely agree with the Qur’an, 3 that 
 God commanded the angels to worship man, 
 and that they obeyed with the exception of 
 Satan. 
 
 The Sunnah informs us that Adam was 
 sixty yards high, and Rabinnical fables make 
 him extend from one end of the world to the 
 other ; but upon the angels esteeming him a 
 second deity, God put His hand upon him and 
 reduced him to a thousand yards 1 4 [adam.] 
 
 The account given in the Qur’an of Cain’s 
 murder is borrowed from the Bible, and his 
 conversation with Abel, before he slew him, 5 
 is the same as that in the Targum of 
 Jerusalem, generally called pseudo-Jonathan. 
 After the murder, Cain sees a raven burying 
 
 1 Midrash Rabbali on Leviticus, Parasliah xix.; 
 and Genesis, Paraskak viii.; and Sanhedrin, 
 xxxviii. 
 
 2 Surahs vii. 10-26; xv. 28-44; xvi. 63-69; xviii. 
 48; xx. 115; xxxvii. 71-86. 
 
 3 Midrash of Rabbi Moses, examined by Zuuz, 
 p. 296. 
 
 1 Eiseumenger, Ju&cnihivm, vol. i. p. 365. 
 
 5 Surah v. 30. 
 
JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 239 
 
 another, and from this sight gains the idea of 
 interring Abel. The Jewish fable differs 
 only in ascribing the interment to the parents: 
 “ Adam and his wife sat weeping and lament¬ 
 ing him, not knowing what to do with the 
 body, as they were unacquainted with burying. 
 Then came a raven, whose fellow was dead : 
 he took and buried it in the earth, hiding it 
 before their eyes. Then said Adam, I shall 
 do like this raven, and, taking Abel’s corpse, 
 he dug in the earth and hid it.” 1 The sen¬ 
 tence following in the Qur’an—“ Wherefore 
 we commanded the children of Israel, that he 
 who slayeth a soul, not by way of retaliation, 
 or because he doeth corruptly in the earth, 
 shall be as if he had slain all mankind; but 
 he who saveth a soul alive shall be as if he 
 saved all souls alive,” would have no connec¬ 
 tion with what precedes or follows, were it 
 not for the Targum of Onkelos, in the para¬ 
 phrase of Gen. iv. 10, where it is said that 
 the blood of Cain’s brother cried to God from 
 the earth, thus implying that Abel's posterity 
 were also cut off. And in the Mishnah San¬ 
 hedrin, we find the very words which the 
 Qur’an attaches to the murder, apparently 
 with sense or connection. 2 [abel, cain.] 
 
 Noah stands forth as the preacher of righ¬ 
 teousness, builds the ark, and is saved, with 
 his family; 3 his character is, however, drawn 
 more from Rabbinical than Biblical sources. 
 The conversations of Noah with the people, 
 and the words with which they mocked him 
 whilst building the ark, 4 are the same in Tal- 
 mudical writings as in the Qur'an ; and both 
 declare that the generation of the flood was 
 punished with boiling water. 5 6 7 [noah.] 
 
 The next patriarch after the flood is Hud, 
 who is none other than Eber; another sample 
 of the ignorance of Muhammad. In the days 
 of Hud the tower is constructed ; the “ ob¬ 
 stinate hero,” probably Nimrod, takes the 
 lead ; the sin of idolatry is abounding; an 
 idol is contemplated as the crowning of the 
 tower; but the building is overthrown, the 
 tribes are dispersed, and punished in this 
 world and in the world to come. 0 These par¬ 
 ticulars are evidently borrowed from scrip¬ 
 ture and Rabbinical writings. In the Qur'an, 
 however, the dispersion is caused by a poi¬ 
 sonous wind, and not by the confusion of 
 tongues. The significance which the Qur’an 
 gives to Hud is again in perfect accordance 
 with Rabbinical Jrrdaism : “ Eber was a great 
 prophet, for he prophetically called his son 
 Peleg (dispersion), by the help of the Holy 
 Ghost, because the earth was to be dispersed.”' 
 Among all the patriarchs, Abraham was most 
 esteemed by Muhammad, as being neither 
 Jew nor Christian, but a Muslim. That he 
 wrote books is also the belief of the Jewish 
 
 1 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xxi.; and Surah v. 34. 
 
 2 Mishnah Sanhedrin, iv. 5. 
 
 3 Geiger’s Essay, p. 109; and Surahs vii. 57; x. 
 72 ; xxii. 43 ; xxiii. 23; xxv. 39 ; xxvi. 105 ; xxix. 
 13; xxxvii. 73 ; liv. 9; lxxi. 1. 
 
 4 Sanhedrin, eviii. 
 
 5 Rosh Hashanah, xvi. 2; Sanhedrin, eviii.; and 
 Surahs xi. 42 ; xxiii. 27. 
 
 6 Mishnah Sanhedrin, x. 3; and Surah xi. 63. 
 
 7 Seder Olam, quoted Midrash Jalkut, lxii. 
 
 doctors. 1 His attaining the knowledge of the 
 true faith, his zeal to convert his generation ; 
 his destruction of the idols; the fury of the 
 people ; their insisting on his being burned, 
 and his marvellous deliverance: all these 
 particulars in the life of Abraham, as given 
 by the Qur’an, are minutely copied from 
 Jewish fictions. 2 [hud, abraham.] 
 
 The Qur’an states that the angels whom 
 Abraham received appeared as ordinary 
 Arabs, and he was astonished when they de¬ 
 clined to eat. According to the Talmud, they 
 also “ appeared to him no more than Arabs ; ” 3 
 but another passage adds ; “ The angels de¬ 
 scended and did eat. Are they, then, said to 
 have really eaten? No! but they appeared 
 as if they did eat and drink.” As a proof of 
 Muhammad’s uncertainty respecting the his¬ 
 tory of Abraham, we add. that the doubt re¬ 
 garding their having a son in their old age is 
 expressed in the Qur’an by Abraham instead 
 of Sarah, and she is made to laugh at the 
 promise of a son, before it was given. Again, 
 the command to offer his son is given to 
 Abraham before Isaac is born or promised, 
 so that the son who was to be offered up 
 could he none other than Ishmael, who was 
 spoken of immediately before as the “ meek 
 youth ! ” Muhammadan divines are, however, 
 not agreed whether Ishmael was to be offered 
 up, although it is reported hy some that the 
 horns of the ram, which was sacrificed in 
 his stead, were preserved at Makkah, his 
 dwelling-place ! [ishmael.] We may ac¬ 
 count for Muhammad’s reckoning Ishmael 
 among the prophets and patriarchs, from his 
 being considered the patriarch of the Arabs 
 and the founder of the Ka‘bak. 
 
 Among the sons of Jacob, Joseph occupies 
 the pre-eminence. His history is mainly the 
 same as in the Bible, embellished with the 
 fabulous tradition of the Jews. Among these 
 is the assumption that Joseph “ would have 
 sinned had he not seen the evident demon¬ 
 stration of his Lord.” That this is borrowed 
 is clear from the following fable: Rabbi 
 Jochanan saith, “ Both intended to commit 
 sin : seizing him by the garment, she said. Lie 
 with me. . . . Then appeared to him the form 
 of his father at the window, who called to 
 him, Joseph! Joseph! the names of thy 
 brothers shall be engraven upon the stones of 
 the Ephod, also thine own : wilt thou that it 
 shall be erased ?” 4 This is almost literally 
 repeated by a Muslim commentary to the 
 Surah xii. 24. The fable of Potiphar’s wife 
 inviting the Egyptian ladies to a feast, to see 
 Joseph, because they had laughed at her, and 
 of their being so overcome with admiration 
 of Joseph, 5 that they accidentally cut their 
 hands in eating fruit, is exactly so related in 
 a very ancient Hebrew book, from which Mu¬ 
 hammad doubtless derived it. The story 
 about the garment being rent, and the setting 
 
 1 The Jews ascribe to him the Seplier Jezirah. 
 
 - Midrash Rabbah on Genesis, Parash. xvii. 
 
 3 Kiddushin, lii. 
 
 4 Sotah, xxxvi. 2. 
 
 5 Surah xii. 26; and the Commentary of al-Farrar. 
 
240 
 
 JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 up of an evidence of guilt or innocence re¬ 
 specting it, is also borrowed, to the very letter 
 from the same source. 1 In this Surah it is 
 also stated, that “ the devil made him 
 (Joseph) forget the remembrance of his 
 Lord,” in perfect harmony with the Jewish 
 tradition, “ Vain speech tendeth to destruc¬ 
 tion; though Joseph twice urged the chief 
 butler to remember him, yet he had to re¬ 
 main two years longer in prison.” 2 The 
 seeking protection from man is here repre¬ 
 sented as the instigation of Satan. 
 
 [JOSEPH.] 
 
 The Qur’an causes Jacob to tell his sons 
 to enter at different gates, and the same in¬ 
 junction is given by the Patriarch in the 
 Jewish writings: “ Jacob said to them, Enter 
 not through one and the same gate.” 3 The 
 exclamation of the sons of Israel, when they 
 found the cup in Benjamin’s sack—“Has he 
 stolen ? so has his brother also ”—are clearly 
 a perversion of the words which the Jewish 
 traditions put into their mouths: “ Behold a 
 thief, son of a female thief 1 ” referring to 
 the stealing of the Seraphim by Rachel. 4 
 Muhammad, again, acquaints us that Jacob 
 knew by divine revelation that his son Joseph 
 was still alive, and Jewish tradition enables 
 ns to point out whence he obtained the infor¬ 
 mation. We read in the Midrash Jalkut, 
 “ An unbeliever asked our master, Do the 
 dead continue to live ? your parents do not 
 believe it, and will ye receive it ? Of Jacob, 
 it is said, he refused to be comforted; had he 
 believed that the dead still lived, would he 
 not have been comforted ? But he answered, 
 Fool, he knew by the Holy Ghost that he 
 still really lived, and about a living person 
 people need no comfort.” 5 
 
 Muhammad made but scanty allusions to 
 the early patriarchs, Joseph only excepted; 
 but concerning Moses, it was his interest to 
 be more profuse in his communications, pos¬ 
 sibly from the desire to be considered like 
 him, as he is generally thought to have taken 
 that prophet as his model. Among the op¬ 
 pressions which Pharaoh exercised towards 
 the Jews, are named his ordering their chil¬ 
 dren to be cast into the water. Moses, the 
 son of ‘Imran was put into an ark by his 
 mother ; Pharaoh’s wife, observing the child, 
 rescues him from death, and gives him back 
 to his mother to nurse. When Moses was 
 grown up, he sought to assist his oppressed 
 brethren, and kills an Egyptian ; being the 
 next day reminded of this deed by an Hebrew, 
 he tiees' to Midian, and marries the daughter 
 of an inhabitant of that country. 6 When 
 about to leave Midian, he sees a burning 
 bush, and, approaching it, receives a call to 
 go to Egypt to exhort Pharaoh, and perform 
 miracles; he accepts the mission, but re- 
 
 1 Midrash Jalkut. cxlvi. 
 
 2 Midrash Rabbah on Gen. xl. It; Geiger, p. 146; 
 and Surah xii. 42. 
 
 3 Midrash Rabbah on Genesis, Parash. xci.; and 
 Surah xii. 67. 
 
 4 Midrash Rabbah, xcii.; Gen. xxxi. 19; and 
 Surah xii. 77. 
 
 5 Midrasli Jalkut, cxliii. ; and Surah xii. 86. 
 
 6 Surahs xx. 37 ; xxviii. 2. 
 
 quests the aid of his brother Aaron. 1 Pha¬ 
 raoh, however remains an infidel, and gathers 
 his sorcerers together, who perform only in¬ 
 ferior miracles; and, in spite of Pharaoh’s 
 threats, they become believers. 3 Judgment 
 falls upon the Egyptians ; they are drowned, 
 whilst the Israelites are saved. 3 A rock 
 yields water. Moses receives the law, 4 and 
 desires to see the glory of God. 5 During 
 Moses’ absence, the Israelites make a golden 
 calf, which he destroys, and reducing it to 
 powder, makes them drink it. 6 After this, 
 Moses chooses seventy men as assistants.' 
 The spies sent to Canaan are all wicked with 
 the exception of two: the people being de¬ 
 ceived by them, must wander forty years in 
 the desert. 8 Korah, on quarrelling with 
 Moses, is swallowed up by the earth. 9 
 [kokah.] The marvellous journey of Moses 
 with his servant is not to be omitted in this 
 summary of events. 10 Among the details de¬ 
 serve to be mentioned, that Haman and 
 Korah were counsellors of Pharaoh. 11 It is 
 not surprising that Muhammad should asso¬ 
 ciate Haman with Pharaoh as an enemy of 
 the Jews, since he cared little when indivi¬ 
 duals lived, provided they could be introduced 
 with advantage. Korah, according to Jewish 
 tradition, was chief agent or treasurer to 
 Pharaoh. 12 The ante-exodus persecution of 
 the Jews is ascribed to a dream of Pharaoh. 13 
 This is in exact accordance with Jewish tra¬ 
 dition, which, as Canon Churton remarks, has 
 in part the sanction of Acts vii. and Hebrews 
 xi., though not found in Exodus : “ The sor¬ 
 cerers said to Pharaoh, A boy shall be born 
 who will lead the Israelites out of Egypt. 
 Then thought he, Cast all male children into 
 the river, and he will be cast in among them.” 14 
 The words (Exod. xi. 7), “ I will call one of 
 the Hebrew women,” produced the Rabbinical 
 fiction, “Why just a Hebrew woman? This 
 shows that he was handed to all the Egyptian 
 women; but he would not drink, for God 
 | said, The mouth which shall once speak with 
 me, should it drink what is unclean ? ” 15 This 
 was too valuable for Muhammad to omit from 
 the Qur’an. 16 Although it is nowhere said in 
 the Bible that the sign of the leprous hand 
 was wrought in the presence of Pharaoh, yet 
 the Qur’an relates it as having there taken 
 place. 17 And in this also it was preceded by 
 Jewish tradition—“ He put his hand into 
 his bosom, and withdrew it leprous, white 
 as snow ; they also put their hands into their 
 
 1 Surahs xx. 8; xxvi. 9; xxxviii. 29 ; lxxix. 15. 
 
 2 Surahs vii. 101; x. 76 ; xi. 99; xx. 50. 
 
 3 Surahs ii. 46 ; vii. 127 ; x. 90; xx. 79; xxvi. 52 
 xxviii. 40; xliii. 55. 
 
 4 Surah vii. 143. 
 
 5 Surahs vii. 135; ii. 52; ix. 152. 
 
 G Surahs ii. 48; vii. 147 ; xx. 82. 
 
 7 Surah vii. 155. 
 
 8 Surah v. 23. 
 
 8 Surah xxviii. 16. 
 
 10 Surah xviii. 59. 
 
 11 Surah xxviii. 38; xxix. 38; xl. 25. 
 
 Midrash on Numbers, Parash. xiv. 
 
 13 Surah xxviii. 5. 
 
 14 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlviii. 
 
 15 Sotnh xii. 2. 
 
 16 Shrah xxiii. 11. 
 
 17 Surahs vii. 105 ; xxv. 32. 
 
JEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 241 
 
 bosoms and withdrew them leprous, white as 
 snow.” 1 Again, among Moses’ own people, 
 none but his own tribe believed him. 2 This 
 Muhammad doubtless inferred from the state¬ 
 ment of the Rabbis: “ The tribe of Levi was 
 exempted from hard labour.” 3 Among the 
 sorcerers of Egypt, who first asked for then- 
 wages, and then became believers, when their 
 serpents were swallowed by that of Moses, 4 
 Pharaoh himself was chief. 6 Here, again, 
 Muhammad is indebted to Judaism: “Pha¬ 
 raoh, who lived in the days of Moses, was a 
 great sorcerer.” 0 In other places of the 
 Qur’an, Pharaoh claims divinity, 7 and Jewish 
 tradition makes him declare, “ Already from 
 the beginning ye speak falsehood, for I am 
 Lord of the world, I have made myself as 
 well as the Nile ” ; as it is said of him (Ezek. 
 xxix. 3), “ Mine is the river, and I have made 
 it.” 8 The Arab prophet was much confused 
 with regard to the plagues ; in some places he 
 enumerates nine, 11 in others only live, the first 
 of which is said to be the Flood ! 10 As the 
 drowning in the Red Sea happened after the 
 plagues, he can only allude to the Deluge. 
 
 The following somewhat dark and uncer¬ 
 tain passage 11 concerning Pharaoh has caused 
 commentators great perplexity. It is stated 
 that Pharaoh pursued the Israelites until 
 actually drowning, when, confessing himself a 
 Muslim, he was saved alive from the bottom 
 of the sea, to be a “ witness for ages to 
 come.” 12 But we find that it is merely a ver¬ 
 sion of a Jewish fable: “ Perceive the great 
 power of repentance! Pharaoh, King of 
 Egypt, uttered very wicked words—Who is 
 the God whose voice I shall obey? (Exod. 
 v. 2.) Yet as he repented, saying, ‘ Who is 
 like unto thee among the gods ? ’ (xv. 2) God 
 saved him from death ; for it saith, Almost 
 had I stretched out my hands and destroyed ; 
 but God let him live, that he might declare 
 his power and strength.” 13 
 
 As Jewish commentators add to Exod. 
 xv. 27, where we read of twelve fountains 
 being found near Elim, that each of the 
 tribes had a well, 14 so Muhammad transposes 
 the statement, and declares that twelve foun¬ 
 tains sprang from the rock which had been 
 smitten by Moses at Rephidim. 15 The Rabbi¬ 
 nical fable, that God covered the Israelites 
 with Mount Sinai, on the occasion of the law- 
 giving, 16 is thus amplified in the Qur’an : “We 
 shook the mountain over them, as though it 
 
 1 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlviii. 
 
 " Surah x. 23. 
 
 3 Midrash Rabbah, Parash. v. 
 
 4 Surahs vii. 11; xxvi. 40. 
 
 5 Surahs xx. 47 ; xxvi. 48. 
 
 B Midrash Jalkut, clxxxii. 
 
 7 Surahs xxviii. 38; xliii. 50. 
 
 8 Rab. Exodus, Parash. v. 
 
 9 Surahs xvii. 103; xxvii. 112. 
 
 10 Surah vii. 130. 
 
 11 Surah x. 90. 
 
 12 See al-BaizawI, Husain, al-Jalalan, and others. 
 
 13 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xliii.; Midrash Jalkut, 
 cexxxviii. 
 
 14 Rashion Exodus, xv. 27. 
 
 15 Canon Churton pointed out to Dr. J. M. Arnold 
 that the statement of twelve streams flowing from 
 the rock occurs in the Liturgy of St. Thomas 
 (vide Howard’s Christ, of St. Thomas, p. 224). 
 
 16 Aboda Sarah, ii. 2. 
 
 had been a covering, and they imagined 
 that it was falling upon them ; and we said, 
 “ Receive the law which we have brought 
 unto you with reverence.” 1 The Qur'an 
 adds that the Israelites, now demanding to 
 see God, die, and are raised again. 2 It will 
 not be difficult to trace the origin of this fig¬ 
 ment. When the Israelites demanded two 
 things from God—that they might see his 
 glory and hear his voice—both were granted 
 to them. Then it is added, “ These things, 
 however, they had no power to resist; as 
 they came to Mount Sinai, and He appeared 
 unto them, their souls escaped by His speak¬ 
 ing, as it is said, ‘ My soul escaped as He 
 spake.’ The Torah, however, interceded for 
 them, saying, ‘ Does a king give his daughter 
 to marriage and kill his household ? The 
 whole world rejoices (at my appearance), and 
 thy children (the Israelites) shall they die ? ’ 
 At once their souls returned ; therefore it is 
 said, The doctrine of God is perfect, and 
 brings back the soul.” 3 In the matter of the 
 golden calf, the Qur’an follows as usual the 
 fabulous account of the Rabbinical traditions. 
 Both represent Aaron as having been nearly 
 killed when at first resisting the entreaty of 
 the people. The Sanhedrin relates : “ Aaron 
 saw Chur slaughtered before his eyes (who 
 opposed them), and he thought, If I do not 
 yield to them they will deal with me as they 
 dealt with Chur.” 4 According to another 
 passage in the Qur’an, an Israelite named as- 
 Samiri enticed them, and made the calf. 5 
 Like the wandering Jew in Christian fable, 
 as-Samiri is punished by Moses with endless 
 wandering, and he is compelled to repeat the 
 words, “ Touch me not.” 6 Jewish traditions 
 make Mikah assist in manufacturing the idol 
 calf ; 7 but Muhammad either derived as-Samiri 
 from Samael, or, as the Samaritans are stated 
 by the Arab writers to have said, “ Touch 
 me not,” he may have considered as-Samiri 
 as the author of the sect of the Samaritans. 
 That the calf thus produced by as-Samiri 
 from the ornaments of the people, lowed on 
 being finished, 8 is evidently a repetition of the 
 following Jewish tradition : “ The calf came 
 forth (Exod. xxii. 24) roaring, and the Is¬ 
 raelites saw it. Rabbi Jehuda says, Samael 
 entered the calf and roared to deceive the 
 Israelites.” The addition, that the tribe of 
 Levi remained faithful to God, is both Scrip¬ 
 tural and Rabbinical. 9 The matter of Korah 
 is honoured with singular embellishments; for 
 instance, Korah had such riches, that from 
 ten to forty strong men were required to 
 carry the keys of his treasures. 10 Abu ’1-Fida, 
 says forty mules were required to convey the 
 keys. Jewish tradition is still more extra- 
 
 1 Surah vii. 170. 
 
 2 Surahs ii. 52; iv. 152. 
 
 3 Aboda Sarah, ii. 2. 
 
 4 Sanhedrin, v. ; and Surah vii. 150. 
 
 5 Surah xx. 87, 90, 96. 
 
 6 Surah xx. 97. 
 
 7 Rashi to Sanhedrin, ci. 2. 
 
 8 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, clix.; and Surah vii. 147; 
 xx. 90. 
 
 9 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlv.; and Surah vii. 159; 
 see Exodus xxxii. 26. 
 
 10 Surah xxviii. 76. 
 
 31 
 
242 
 
 .TEWS 
 
 JEWS 
 
 vagant: “ Joseph buried three treasures in 
 Egypt, one of -which became known to Korah. 
 Riches are turned to destruction to him that 
 possesses them (Eccles. v. 12), and this may 
 well be applied to Korah. The keys to the 
 treasures of Korah made a burden for 300 
 white mules.” 1 
 
 The accusation from which God cleared 
 his servant Moses, of which the Qur’an makes 
 mention, was occasioned by Korah. “ Abu 
 Aliah says it refers to Korah hiring a harlot 
 to reproach Moses before all the people, upon 
 which God struck her dumb, and destroyed 
 Korah, which cleared Moses from the 
 charge.” 3 This is unquestionably an ampli¬ 
 fication of the following passage: “ Moses 
 heard, and fell on his face. What was it he 
 heard ? That they accused him of having 
 to do with another man’s wife.” 3 Others 
 conceive the unjust charge from which Moses 
 was cleared, to have been that of murdering 
 Aaron on Mount Hor, because he and Eleazar 
 only were present when Aaron died 1 That 
 they had recourse to Jewish tradition, will 
 appear from the subjoined extract: “The 
 whole congregation saw that Aaron was 
 dead; and when Moses and Eleazar came 
 down from the mountain, the whole congrega¬ 
 tion gathered together, asking, Where is 
 Aaron ? But they said, He is dead. How 
 can the Angel of Death touch a man, by 
 whom he was resisted and restrained, as it is 
 said, He stood between the dead and the living, 
 and the plague was stayed ? If ye bring him, 
 it is well; if not, we will stone you. Moses 
 prayed, Lord of the World, remove from me 
 this suspicion! Then God opened and showed 
 them Aaron’s body.” And to this the pas¬ 
 sage applies : “ The whole congregation saw,” 
 &c. (Numb. xx. 29, 75.) [moses.] 
 
 The time of the Judges is passed over un¬ 
 noticed, and from the maimer in which the 
 election of a king is introduced, 4 it would ap¬ 
 pear that Muhammad was ignorant of the long 
 interval between Moses and Saul. 5 [saul.] 
 Of David’s history, only his victory over 
 Goliath and his fall through Bathsheba are 
 recorded. [david.J The Traditions make 
 mention of the brevity of his slumbers, and 
 commentators of the Qur’an affirm the same : 
 “ The Apostle of God said David slept half the 
 night ; he then rose for a third part, and 
 slept again a sixth part.” This is derived 
 from the Rabbis, who assert that the king 
 slept only for the term of “ sixty breathings.” 6 
 Of the wisdom of Solomon, the Qur’an makes 
 particular mention ; and to support the state¬ 
 ment, adds, that he understood the language 
 of birds; this was also the opinion of the 
 Jewish doctors. The winds, or, more pro¬ 
 bable, spirits, obeyed him; and demons, 
 birds, and beasts, formed part of his standing 
 
 1 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlv. 
 
 ~ Al-Farrar on Surah xxxiii. 69. 
 
 3 Pirke Rabbi Elieser, xlv. 
 
 * Surah ii. 247: “ Dost thou uot look at a crowd 
 of the children of Israel after Moses’ time, when 
 they said to a prophet of theirs. Raise up for us a 
 king, and we will fight in God's way.’’ 
 
 5 Muhammad ascribes to Saul what the Scrip¬ 
 tures relate of Gideon. Judges vii. 5. 
 
 6 gee Berachoth. 
 
 army. 1 Jewish commentators record that 
 “ demons of various kinds, and evil spirits 
 were subject to him.” 2 The story of the 
 Queen of Sheba, and the adventures of the 
 lapwing, 3 are only abridgments from Jewish 
 traditions. With regard to the fable, that 
 demons assisted Solomon in the building of 
 the Temple, and, being deceived, continued it 
 after his death, we may here add that Mu¬ 
 hammad borrowed it directly from the Jews. 4 
 When Solomon became haughty, one of his 
 many demons ruled in his stead, till he re¬ 
 pented. The Sanhedrin also refers to this de¬ 
 gradation ; “ In the beginning Solomon reigned 
 also over the upper worlds ” ; as it is said, 
 “ Solomon sat on the throne of God after that 
 only over his staff, as it is said, “ What pro¬ 
 fit hath a man of all his labour ? ” and still 
 later, “ This is my portion of all my labour.” 5 
 On repenting, he maimed his horses, consider¬ 
 ing them a useless luxury. In the Talmud 
 and the Scriptures, we find allusion to his 
 obtaining them as well as to their being pro¬ 
 hibited. 6 [SOLOMON.] 
 
 Elijah is among the few characters which 
 Muhammad notices after Solomon ; nothing, 
 indeed, is mentioned of his rapture to heaven, 
 yet he is considered a great prophet. 7 Among 
 the Jews, Elijah appears in human form to 
 the pious on earth, he visits them in their 
 places of worship, and communicates revela¬ 
 tions from God to eminent Rabbis. In this 
 charater Elijah also appears in Muslim divi¬ 
 nity. [Elijah.] Jonah is the “ man of the 
 fish”; 8 Muhammad relates his history in his 
 usual style, not omitting his journey to Ni¬ 
 neveh, or the gourd which afforded him 
 shade, [jonah.] Job, too, with his suffer¬ 
 ing and cure is noticed 9 [job] ; also the three 
 men who were cast into a burning fiery fur¬ 
 nace 10 (Dan. iii. 8) ; the turning back of the 
 shadow of degrees on the occasion of Heze- 
 kiah’s recovery. 11 
 
 (See Arnold’s Islam and Christianity, Long¬ 
 mans, London, 1874; p. 116, seqq. Dr. J. M. 
 Arnold gives in many instances the original 
 Hebrew of his quotations from the Talmud.) 
 
 In the Qur’an there are several Hebrew 
 and Talmudic terms which seem to indicate 
 that its author had become familiar with 
 Talmudic teaching. The following are the 
 most noticeable:— 
 
 (1) The Qur'an, from qara', “ to read,” 
 Heb. and equivalent to “read- 
 
 T X T' ; 
 
 ing.” See Neh. viii. 8: “ And caused them 
 to understand the reading .” 
 
 1 Surahs xxi. 81; xxvii. 15; xxxiv. 11; xxxviii. 
 35. 
 
 2 The second Targum on Esther i. 2. 
 
 3 Dr. J. M. Arnold gives a translation of the 
 story from the Targum. (See Islam and Chris¬ 
 tianity, p. 146.) 
 
 * Gittin, lxviii. ; and Surah xxxiv. 
 
 5 Sanhedrin, xx.; also Mid. Rab. on Numbers, 
 Parash. xi. 
 
 0 Sanhedrin, xxi.; and Surah xxxviii. 29. 
 
 7 Surah vi. 85 ; xxxvii. 123, 130. 
 
 8 Surah vi. 85 ; x. 98; xxi. 87 ; lxviii. 48. 
 
 9 Surah xxi. 83 ; xxxviii. 40. 
 
 10 Surah lxxxv. 4. 
 
 11 Surah xxv. 47; and 2 Kings xx. 9. 
 
JIHAD 
 
 243 
 
 jibra’il 
 
 (2) The Masani, “ repetitions,” 
 
 Surah xv. 86, which is the Talmudic 
 
 (3) The Taurat, used for the Books 
 
 of Moses, the Heb. of the Old Tes- 
 
 T 
 
 tament. 
 
 (4) The Shechinah, or Saklnah, &•**£*«, 
 Surah ii. 249: “ The sign of his kingdom is 
 that there shall come to you the ARK 
 (Tabut ), and SHECHINA ( Saklnah ) in it 
 
 from the Lord.” Heb. na'Otf. A term not 
 
 T * I 
 
 used in the Bible, but used by the Rabbinical 
 writers to express the visible presence of 
 God between the Cherubim on the Mercy 
 seat of the Tabernacle. 
 
 (5) The Ark, Tabut, In Surah ii. 
 
 249, for the Ark of the Covenant, and in 
 Surah xx. 39, for Noah’s Ark. The Heb. 
 
 (which is used in the Bible for Noah’s 
 
 T •• 
 
 Ark and the ark of bulrushes), and not the 
 Heb. j the former being Rabbinical. 
 
 (6) Angel, Malak, cAL., Heb. , an 
 
 angel or messenger of God. 
 
 (7) Spirit, Ru/i, Cy, Heb. A term 
 
 used both for the angel Gabriel and for Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 (8) The Sabbath, Sabt, Surah vii. 
 
 164 ; ii. 62. Heb. 
 
 T ” 
 
 (9) Jahannam, yeevva, hell, The 
 
 Rabbinical DSira. and not the of 
 
 the Old Testament. The final letter (* proves 
 that it was adopted from the Talmudic 
 Hebrew and not from the Greek. 
 
 JIBEA’lL (J*VO- The angel 
 
 Gabriel, [gabriel.] 
 
 JIBT An idol of the 
 
 Quraish mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 
 54 : “ They (certain renegade Jews) believe 
 in Jibt and Taghut, and say of the infidels, 
 These are guided in a better path than those 
 who hold the faith.” The Jalalan say cer¬ 
 tain Jews used to do homage to these idols 
 in order to please the Quraish. 
 
 JIHAD (j^). Lit. “An effort, 
 
 or a striving.” A religious war with those 
 who are unbelievers in the mission of Mu¬ 
 hammad. It is an incumbent religious duty, 
 established in the Qur’an and in the Tradi¬ 
 tions as a divine institution, and enjoined 
 specially for the purpose of advancing Islam 
 and of repelling evil from Muslims. 
 
 When an infidel’s country is conquered by 
 a Muslim ruler, its inhabitants are offered 
 three alternatives:— 
 
 (1) The reception of Islam, in which case the 
 conquered become enfranchised citizens of the 
 Muslim state. 
 
 (2) The payment of a poll-tax (.Tizyah), by 
 
 which unbelievers in Islam obtain protection, 
 and become Zimmls, provided they are not 
 the idolaters of Arabia. 
 
 (3) Death by the sword , to those who will 
 not pay the poll tax. 
 
 Sufi writers say that there are two Jihads : 
 al-JHiddu 'l-Akbar, or “the greater warfare,” 
 which is against one’s own lusts; and al- 
 Jihddu 'l-Asghar, or “ the lesser warfare,” 
 against infidels. 
 
 The duty of religious war (which all com¬ 
 mentators agree is a duty extending to all 
 time) is laid down in the Qur’an in the fol¬ 
 lowing verses, and it is remarkable that all 
 the verses occur in the al-Madinah Surahs, 
 being those given after Muhammad had esta¬ 
 blished himself as a paramount ruler, and 
 was in a position to dictate terms to his 
 enemies. 
 
 Surah ix. 5, 6: “ And when the sacred months 
 are passed, kill those who join other gods 
 with God wherever ye shall find them ; and 
 seize them, besiege them, and lay wait for 
 them with every kind of ambush: but if they 
 shall convert, and observe prayer, and pay 
 the obligatory alms, then let them go their 
 way, for God is Gracious, Merciful. If any 
 one of those who join gods with God ask an 
 asylum of thee, grant him an asylum, that he 
 may hear the Word of God, and then let him 
 reach his place of safety. This,for that they 
 are people devoid of knowledge.” 
 
 Surah ix. 29: “ Make war upon such of 
 those to whom the Scriptures have been given 
 as believe not in God, or in the last day, and 
 who forbid not that which God and His 
 Apostle have forbidden, and who profess not 
 the profession of the truth, until they pay 
 tribute ( jizyah ) out of hand, and they be 
 humbled.” 
 
 Surah iv. 76-79 : “ Let those then fight On 
 the path of God, who exchange this present 
 life for that which is to come : for whoever 
 fighteth on God’s path, whether he be slain 
 or conquer, we will in the end give him a 
 great reward. But what hath come to you 
 that ye tight not on the path of God, and for 
 the weak among men, women, and children, 
 who say, ‘ O our Lord! bring us forth from 
 this city whose inhabitants are oppressors; 
 give us a champion from Thy presence ; and 
 give us from thy presence a defender.’ They 
 who believe, fight on the path of God; and 
 they who believe not, fight on the path of 
 Tagut: Fight therefore against the friends of 
 Satan. Verily the craft of Satan shall be 
 powerless 1 Hast thou not marked those to 
 whom it was said, ‘ Withhold your hands 
 awhile from war ; and observe prayer, and 
 pay the stated alms.’ But when war is com¬ 
 manded them, lo ! a portion of them fear men 
 as with the fear of God, or with a yet greater 
 fear, and say: ‘ 0 our Lord ! why hast Thou 
 commanded us war ? Couldst thou not have 
 given us respite till our not distant end ? ’ 
 Say: Small the fruition of rhis world; but 
 the next life is the true good for him who 
 feareth God 1 and ye shall not be wronged so 
 much as the skin of a date-stone.” 
 
 Surah ii. 214, 215 : “ They will ask thee con- 
 
244 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 cerning war in the Sacred Month. Say : To 
 war therein is bad, but to turn aside from the 
 cause of God, and to have no faith in Him, 
 and in the Sacred Temple, and to drive out 
 its people, is worse in the sight of God ; and 
 civil strife is worse than bloodshed. They 
 will not cease to war against you until they 
 turn you from your religion, if they be able : 
 but whoever of you shall turn from his reli¬ 
 gion and die an iniidel, their works shall be 
 fruitless in this world, and in the next: they 
 shall be consigned to the fire; therein to 
 abide for aye. But they who believe, and 
 who fly their country, and fight in the cause 
 of God may hope for God’s mercy : and God 
 is Gracious, Merciful. 
 
 Surah viii. 39-42 : “ Say to the infidels : If 
 they desist from their unbelief what is now 
 past shall be forgiven them ; but if they return 
 to it, they have already before them the 
 doom of the ancients 1 Fight then against 
 them till strife be at an end, and the religion 
 be all of it God’s. If they desist, verily 
 God beholdeth what they do : but if they turn 
 their back, know ye that God is your pro¬ 
 tector : Excellent protector! excellent helper ! 
 And know ye, that when ye have taken any 
 booty, a fifth part belongeth to God and to 
 the Apostle, and to the near of kin, and to 
 orphans, and to the poor, and to the wayfarer. 
 
 Long chapters in the Traditions are de¬ 
 voted to the subject of Jihad (see Safiihu 7- 
 Bukhari and Sahihu Muslim, Arabic editions, 
 Babu ’1-Jihad), from which the following are 
 quotations of the sayings of the Prophet:— 
 
 “ God is sponsor for him who goeth forth 
 to fight on the road of God ( Sabilu '/lah). If 
 he be not killed, he shall return to his house 
 with rewards and booty, but if he be slain, he 
 shall be taken to Paradise.” 
 
 “ I swear by God I should like to be killed 
 on the road of God, then be killed and brought 
 to life again, then killed again and then 
 brought to life again, so that I may obtain 
 new rewards every time.” 
 
 “ Guarding the frontiers of Islam for even 
 one day is worth more than the whole world 
 and all that is in it.” 
 
 “ The fire of hell shall not touch the legs 
 of him who shall be covered with the dust of 
 battle in the road of God.” 
 
 “ He who assists another with arms to 
 fight in the way of God, is as the champion, 
 and is a sharer of the rewards. And he who 
 stayeth behind to take charge of the family 
 of a warrior is even as a champion in war.” 
 
 11 This religion will ever be established, 
 even to the Day of Resurrection, as long as 
 Muslims fight for it.” 
 
 “ In the last day the wounds of those who 
 have been wounded in the way of God will 
 be evident, and will drop with blood, but 
 their smell will be as the perfume of musk.” 
 
 “ Being killed in the road of God covers all 
 sins, but the sin of debt.” 
 
 “He who dies and has not fought for the 
 religion of Islam, nor has even said in his 
 heart, ‘ Would to God I were a champion that 
 could die in the road of God,’ is even as a 
 hypocrite.” 
 
 “ Fighting in the road of God, or resolving 
 to do so, is a divine duty. When your Imam 
 orders you to go forth to fight, then obey 
 him.” 
 
 The following is the teaching of the Hanafl 
 school of Sunnis on the subject of Jihad, as 
 given in the Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 140 :— 
 
 “ The sacred injunction concerning war is 
 sufficiently observed when it is carried on by 
 any one party or tribe of Muslims, and it is 
 then no longer of any force with respect to the 
 rest. It is established as a divine ordinance, 
 by the word of God, who said in the Qur’an, 
 ‘Slay the infidels,’ and also by a saying of 
 the Prophet, ‘Waris permanently established 
 until the Day of Judgment ’ (meaning the or¬ 
 dinance respecting war). The observance, 
 however, in the degree above mentioned, suf¬ 
 fices, because war is not a positive injunction, 
 as it is in its nature murderous and destruc¬ 
 tive, and is enjoined only for the purpose of 
 advancing the true faith or repelling evil from 
 the servants of God; and when this end is 
 answered by any single tribe or party of 
 Muslims making war, the obligation is no 
 longer binding upon the rest, in the same 
 maimer as in the prayers for the dead—(if, 
 however, no one Muslim were to make war, 
 the whole of the Muslim, would incur the 
 criminality of neglecting it)—and also because 
 if the injunction were positive, the whole of 
 the Muslims must consequently engage in war, 
 in which case the materials for war (such as 
 horses, armour, and so forth) could not be 
 procured. Thus it appears that the obser¬ 
 vance of war as aforesaid suffices, except 
 where there is a general summons (that is, 
 where the infidels invade a Muslim territory, 
 and the Imam for the time being issues a 
 general proclamation requiring all persons to 
 go forth to fight), for in this case war becomes 
 a positive injunction with respect to the whole 
 of the inhabitants, whether men or women, 
 and whether the Imam be a just or an un¬ 
 just person; and if the people of that terri¬ 
 tory be unable to repulse the infidels, then 
 war becomes a positive injmiction with respect 
 to all in that neighbourhood; and if these 
 also do not suffice it, then comes a positive 
 injunction with respect to the next neighbours; 
 and in same manner with respect to all the 
 Muslims from east to west. 
 
 “ The destruction of the sword is incurred 
 by infidels, although they be not the first 
 aggressors, as appears frhm various passages 
 in the traditions which are generally received 
 to this efi'ect. 
 
 “ It is not incumbent upon infants to make 
 war, as they are objects of compassion ; 
 neither is it incumbent upon slaves or women, 
 as the rights of the master, or of the husband, 
 have precedence ; nor is it so upon the blind, 
 the maimed, or the decrepid, as such are in¬ 
 capable. If, however, the infidels make an 
 attack upon a city or territory, in this case 
 the repulsion of them is incumbent upon all 
 Muslims, insomuch that a wife may go forth 
 without the consent of her husband, and a 
 slave without the leave of his master, because 
 war then becomes a positive injunction; and 
 
JIHAD 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 245 
 
 possession, either by bondage or by marriage, 
 cannot come in competition with a positive 
 injunction, as in prayer (for instance) or fast¬ 
 ing. This is supposing a general summons ; 
 for without that it is not lawful for a woman 
 or slave to go forth to make war without the 
 consent of the husband or master, as there is 
 in this case no necessity for their assistance, 
 since others suffice, and hence no reason 
 exists for destroying the right of the husband 
 or master on that account. If there be any 
 fund in the public treasury, so long as the 
 fund lasts any extraordinary exaction for 
 the support of the warriors is abominable, 
 because such exaction resembles a hire for 
 that which is a service of God as much as 
 prayer or fasting, and, hix-e being forbidden in 
 these instances, so is it in that which re¬ 
 sembles them. In this case, moreover, there 
 is no occasion for any extraoi’dinary exac¬ 
 tions, since the funds of the public treasury 
 are prepared to answer all emei’geneies of the 
 Muslims, such as war, and so foi’th. If, how¬ 
 ever, there be no funds in the public treasury, 
 in this case the Imam n,eed not hesitate to 
 levy contributions for the better support of 
 the warriors, because in levying a contribution 
 the greater evil (namely, the destruction of 
 the pei'son) is repelled, and the conti’ibution 
 is the smaller evil, and the imposition of a 
 smaller evil to remedy a greater is of no con¬ 
 sequence. A continuation of this is found in 
 what is l’elated of the Prophet, that he took 
 various ai’ticles of armour, and so forth, from 
 Safwan and ‘Umar; in the same manner also 
 he took property from married men, and be¬ 
 stowed it upon the unmanned, in order to en- 
 coux-age them and enable them to go foi’th to 
 fight with cheerfulness ; and he also used to 
 take the horses from those who x-emained at 
 home, and bestowed them upon those who 
 went forth to fight on foot. When the Mus¬ 
 lims enter the enemy’s country and besiege 
 the cities or strongholds of the infidels, it is 
 necessary to invite them to embrace the 
 faith, because Ibn ‘Abbas relates of the Pro¬ 
 phet that he never destroyed any without 
 previously inviting them to embrace the faith. 
 If, therefore, they embi’ace the faith, it is 
 unnecessai’y to war with them, because that 
 which was the design of the war is then ob¬ 
 tained without war. The Projxhet, moreover, 
 has said we are dii’ected to make war upon 
 men only until such time as they shall con¬ 
 fess, ‘ Thei’e is no God but one God.’ But 
 when they x’epeat this creed, their persons 
 and properties are in protection ( avian ). If 
 they do not accept the call to the faith, they 
 must then be called upon to pay jizyah, 
 or capitation tax, because the Prophet 
 directed the commanders of his annies so to 
 do, and also because by submitting to this tax 
 war is forbidden and terminated upon the 
 authority of the Qur’an. (This call to pay 
 capitation tax, however, respects only those 
 from whom the capitation tax is acceptable, 
 for, as to apostates and the idolaters of Ai’abia, 
 to call upon them to pay the tax is useless, 
 since nothing is accepted from them but em¬ 
 bracing the faith, as it is thus commanded in 
 
 the Qur’an). If those who are called upon to 
 pay capitation tax consent to do so, they 
 then become entitled to the same pi’otection 
 and subject to the same rules as Muslims, be¬ 
 cause ‘Alx has declared infidels agree to a 
 capitation tax only in order to render their 
 blood the same as Muslims’ blood, and their 
 propei’ty the same as Muslims’ property. 
 
 “ It is not lawful to make war upon any 
 people who have never before been called to 
 the faith, without pi’eviously requiring them 
 to embi’ace it, because the Projxhet so in- 
 structed his commandei's, directing them to 
 call the infidels to the faith, and also because 
 the people will hence perceive that they ax’e 
 attacked for the sake of religion, and not for 
 the sake of taking their property, or making 
 slaves of their childi-en, and on this considera¬ 
 tion it is possible that they may be induced to 
 agree to the call, in order to save themselves 
 from the troubles of wai\ 
 
 “ If a Muslim attack infidels without pre¬ 
 viously calling them to the faith, he is an 
 offender, because this is foi’bidden; but yet if 
 he do attack them before thus inviting them 
 and slay them, and take their property, 
 neither fine, expiation, nor atonement are due, 
 because that which protects (namely, Islam) 
 does not exist in them, nor are they under 
 protection by place (namely, the Daru 7- 
 Isldm, or Muslim tei’rxtory), and the mei’e 
 prohibition of the act is not sufficient to sanc¬ 
 tion the exaction either of fine or of atone¬ 
 ment for propeidy; in the same manner as the 
 slaying of the women or infant children of 
 infidels is foi’bidden, but if, notwithstanding, 
 a person were to slay such, he is not liable to 
 a fine. It is laudable to call to the faith a 
 people to whom a call has already come, in 
 order that they may have the more full and 
 ample warning ; but yet this is not incum¬ 
 bent, as it appears in the Traditions that the 
 Prophet plundered and despoiled the ti’ibe of 
 al-Mustaliq by surprise, and he also agreed 
 with Asamali to make a pi’edatory attack 
 upon Qubnii at an early hour, and to set 
 It on fire, and such attacks ai-e not preceded 
 by & call. (Qubna is a place in Syria : some 
 assei’t it is the name of a tribe). 
 
 “ If the infidels, upon receiving the call, 
 neither consent to it nor agree to pay capita¬ 
 tion tax, it is then incumbent on the Muslims 
 to call upon God for assistance, and to make 
 war upon them, because God is the assistant 
 of those who serve Him, and the destroyer of 
 His enemies, the infidels, and it is necessary 
 to imploi’e His aid upon evei’y occasion ; the 
 Prophet, moreover, commands us so to do. 
 And having so done, the Muslims must then 
 with God’s assistance attack the infidels with 
 all manner of warlike engines (as the Pro¬ 
 phet did by the people of Ta’if), and must 
 also set fii’e to their habitations (in the same 
 manner as the Prophet fii’ed Baweei’a), and 
 must inundate them with water and tear up 
 their plantations and tread down their grain 
 because by these means they will become 
 weakened, and their resolution will fail and 
 their force be broken ; these means are, there- 
 foi’e, all sanctified by the law. 
 
246 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 “ It is no objection to shooting arrows ox- 
 other missiles against the infidels that there 
 may chance to be among them a Muslim in 
 the way either of bondage or of traffic, be¬ 
 cause the shooting of ai-rows and so foi'th 
 among the infidels remedies a genei-al evil in 
 the x-epulsion thereof from the whole body of 
 Muslims, whereas the slaying of a Muslim 
 slave or trader is only a particular evil, and 
 to repel a genei-al evil a particular evil must 
 be adopted, and also because it seldom hap¬ 
 pens that the strongholds of the infidels are 
 destitute of Muslims, since it is most probable 
 that there are Muslims residing in them, 
 either in the way of bondage or of traffic, and 
 hence, if the use of missile weapons wei-e pro¬ 
 hibited on account of these Muslims, war 
 would be obstracted. If the infidels in time 
 of battle should make shields of Muslim chil¬ 
 dren, or of Muslims, who are prisoners in 
 their hands, yet there is no need on that 
 account to refrain from the use of missile 
 weapons, for the reason already mentioned. 
 It is requisite, however, that the Muslims in 
 using such weapons aim at the infidels, and 
 not at the children or the Muslim captives, 
 because, as it is impossible in shooting to dis¬ 
 tinguish precisely between them and the in¬ 
 fidels, the person who discharges the weapon 
 must make this distinction in his intention 
 and design by aiming at the infidels, and not 
 at the others, since thus much is practicable, 
 and the distinction must be made as far as 
 is practicable. 
 
 “ There is also neither fine nor expiation 
 upon the warriors on account of such of their 
 ai-rows or other missiles as happen to hit the 
 children or the Muslims, because the war is 
 in obsex-vance of a divine ordinance, and 
 atonement is not due for anything which may 
 happen in the fulfilment of a divine ordinance, 
 for otherwise men would neglect the fulfil¬ 
 ment of the ordinance from an apprehension 
 of becoming liable to atonement. It is other¬ 
 wise in the case of a person eating the bread 
 of another when perishing for hunger, as in 
 that instance atonement is due; although eat¬ 
 ing the bread of other people, in such a 
 situation, be a divine ordinance, because a 
 person perishing for hunger will not refrain 
 from eating the provision of another, from 
 the apprehension of atonement, since his life 
 depends upon it; whereas war is attended with 
 trouble and dangerous to life, whence men 
 would be deterred, by apprehension of atone¬ 
 ment, from engaging in it. There is no objection 
 to the wan-iors carrying their Qur’ans and their 
 women along with them, where the Muslim force 
 is considerable, to such a degree as to afford a 
 protection from the enemy, and not to admit 
 of any apprehension from them, because in 
 that case safety is most probable, and a thing 
 which is most pi-obable stands and is ac¬ 
 counted as a thing certain. If the force of 
 the warriors be small (such as is termed 
 a Samyah), so as not to afford security from 
 the enemy, in this case their carrying their 
 women ox* Qur’ans along with them is repi’O- 
 bated, because in such a situation taking 
 those with them is exposing them to dis¬ 
 
 honour ; and taking the Qur’an with them, in 
 particular, is exposing it to contempt, since 
 infidels scoff at the Qur’an, with a view of in¬ 
 sulting the Muslims; and this is the time 
 meaning of the saying of the Prophet, 
 ‘ Carry not the Qur’an along with you into 
 the territory of the enemy’ (that is, of the in¬ 
 fidels). If a Muslim go into an infidel camp 
 mider a protection, there is no objection to 
 his taking his Qur’an along with him, pro¬ 
 vided these infidels be such as observe their 
 engagements, because from these no violence 
 is to be apprehended. 
 
 “ It is lawful for aged women to accompany 
 an ai’my, for the pei-foi-mance of such busi¬ 
 ness as suits them, such as dx-essing victuals, 
 administering water, and preparing medicines 
 for the sick and wounded ; but with x-espect 
 to young women, it is better that they stay 
 at home, as this may prevent perplexity or 
 disturbance. The women, however, must not 
 engage in fight, as this ai-gues weakness in 
 the Muslims. Women, therefore, must not 
 take any personal concern in battle unless in 
 a case of absolute necessity; and it is not 
 laudable to carry young women along with 
 the ai-my, either for the purpose of cai-nal 
 gi-atification, or for service ; if, however, the 
 necessity be vei-y ui-gent, female slaves may 
 be taken, but not wives. A wife must not 
 engage in a fight but with the consent of her 
 husband, nor a slave but with the consent 
 of his owner (according to what was already 
 stated, that the right of the husband and the 
 master has precedence), unless from neces¬ 
 sity where an attack is made by the enemy. 
 
 “ It does not become Muslims to break 
 treaties or to act unfairly with respect to 
 plunder or to disfigure people (by cutting off 
 their ears and noses, and so forth) ; for as to 
 what is related of the Prophet, that he dis¬ 
 figured the Ooi-neans, it is abrogated by sub¬ 
 sequent prohibitions. In the same manner it 
 does not become Muslims to slay women or 
 childi-en, or men aged, bedi'idden, or blind, 
 because opposition and fighting are the only 
 occasions which make slaughter allowable 
 (accoi-ding to our doctoi-s), and such pei-sons 
 are incapable of these. For the same reason 
 also the paralytic are not to be slain, nor 
 those who are dismembered of the right 
 hand, or of the right hand and left foot. Ash- 
 SliafiT maintains that aged men, or pei-sons 
 bedridden or blind, may be slain, because 
 (according to him) infidelity is an occasion of 
 slaughter being allowable, and this appears 
 in these persons. What was befoi-e observed, 
 however, that the pai-alytic or dismembei-ed 
 are not to be slain, is in proof against him, as 
 infidelity appears in these also, yet still they 
 are not slain, whence it is evident that mere 
 infidelity is not a justifiable occasion of 
 slaughter. The Prophet, moreover, forbade 
 the slaying of infants or single persons, and 
 once, when the Prophet saw a woman who 
 was slain, he said, ‘ Alas ! this woman did not 
 fight, why, therefore, was she slain? ’ But yet, 
 if any of these persons be killed in war, or if 
 a woman be a queen or chief, in this case it 
 is allowable to slay them, they being qualified 
 
JIHAD 
 
 JIHAD 
 
 247 
 
 to molest the servants of God. So, also, if 
 such persons as the above should attempt to 
 fight, they may be slain, for the purpose of 
 removing evil, and because fighting renders 
 slaying allowable. 
 
 “ A lunatic must not be slain unless he 
 fight, as such a person is not responsible for 
 his faith, but yet where he is found fighting 
 it is necessary to slay him, for the removal 
 of evil. It is also to be observed that infants 
 or lunatics may be slain so long as they are 
 actually engaged in fight, but it is not allowed 
 to kill them after they are taken prisoners, 
 contrary to the case of others, who may be 
 slain even after they are taken, as they are 
 liable to punishment because they are re¬ 
 sponsible for their faith. 
 
 “ A person who is insane occasionally 
 stands, during his lucid intervals, in the same 
 predicament as a sane person. 
 
 “ It is abominable in a Muslim to begin 
 fighting with his father, who happens to be 
 among the infidels, nor must he slay him, be¬ 
 cause God has said in the Qur’an, ‘ Honour 
 thy father and thy mother,’ and also because 
 the preservation of the father’s life is incum¬ 
 bent upon the son, according to all the 
 doctors, and the permission to fight with him 
 would be repugnant to that sentiment. If, also, 
 the son should find the father, ho must not 
 slay him himself, but must hold him in view 
 until some other come and slay him : for thus 
 the end is answered without the son slaying 
 his father, which is an offence. 
 
 “ If, however, the father attempt to slay 
 the son, insomuch that the son is unable to 
 repel him but by killing him. in this case the 
 son need not hesitate to slay him, because 
 the design of the son is merely to repel him, 
 which is lawful; for if a Muslim were to draw 
 his sword with a design of killing his son, in 
 such a way that the son is unable to repel 
 him but by killing him, it is then lawful for 
 the son to slay his father, because his design 
 is merely repulsion. In a case, therefore, 
 where the father is an infidel, and attempts 
 to slay his son, it is lawful for the son to 
 slay the father in self-defence a fortiori. 
 
 “ If the Imam make peace with aliens, or 
 with any particular tribe or body of them, 
 and perceive it to be eligible for the Muslims, 
 there need be no hesitation, because it is said 
 in the Qur’an: ‘ If the infidels be inclined to 
 peace do ye likewise consent thereto,’ and 
 also because the Prophet in the year of the 
 punishment of Eubea, made a peace between 
 the Muslims and the people of Mecca for 
 the space of ten years ; peace, moreover is 
 war in effect where the interest of the Mus¬ 
 lims requires it, since the design of war is 
 the removal of evil, and this is obtained by 
 means of peace : contrary to where peace is 
 not to the interest of the Muslims, for it is 
 not in that case lawful, as this would be 
 abandoning war both apparently and in effect. 
 It is here, however, proper to observe that it 
 is not absolutely necessary to restrict a peace 
 to the term above recorded (namely, ten 
 years), because the end for which peace is 
 jnade may be sometimes more effectually 
 
 obtained by extending it to a longer term. If 
 the Imam make peace with the aliens for a 
 single term (namely, ten years), and after¬ 
 wards perceive that it is most advantageous 
 for the Muslim’s interest to break it, he may 
 in that ease lawfully renew the war after 
 giving them due notice, because, upon a 
 change of the circumstances which rendered 
 peace advisable, the breach of peace is war, 
 and the observance of it a desertion of war, 
 both in appearance and also in effect, and 
 war is an ordinance of God, and the forsaking 
 of it is not becoming (to Muslims). It is to 
 be observed that giving due notice to the 
 enemy is in this case, 4 indispensably requisite 
 in such a manner that treachery may not be 
 induced, since this is forbidden. It is also 
 requisite that such a delay be made in renew¬ 
 ing the war with them, as may allow intelli¬ 
 gence of the peace being broken off to be 
 universally received among them, and for 
 this such a time suffices as may admit of the 
 king or chief of the enemy communicating 
 the same to the different parts of their 
 dominion, since by such a delay the charge of 
 treachery is avoided. 
 
 “ If the infidels act with perfidy in a 
 peace, it is in such case lawful for the Imam 
 to attack them without any previous notice, 
 since the breach of treaty in this instance 
 originates with them, whence there is no 
 occasion to commence the war on the part of 
 the Muslims by giving them notice. It would 
 be otherwise, however, if only a small party 
 of them were to violate the treaty by entering 
 the Muslim territory and there committing 
 robberies upon the Muslims, since this does 
 not amount to a breach of treaty. If, more¬ 
 over, this party be in force so as to be capable 
 of opposition, and openly fight with the Mus¬ 
 lims, this is a breach of treaty with respect 
 to that party only, but not with respect to 
 the rest of their nation or tribe, because, as 
 this party have violated the treaty without 
 any permission from their prince, the rest are 
 not answerable for their act; whereas if they 
 made their attack by permission of their 
 prince, the breach of treaty would be re¬ 
 garded as by the whole, all being virtually 
 implicated in it. 
 
 “ If the Imam make peace with the aliens in 
 return for property, there is no scruple; 
 because since peace may be lawfully made 
 without any such gratification, it is also law¬ 
 ful in return for a gratification. This, how¬ 
 ever, is only where the Muslims stand in 
 need of the pi'operty thus to be acquired; for 
 if they be not in necessity, making peace for 
 property is not lawful, since peace is a deser¬ 
 tion of war both in appearance and in effect. 
 It is to be observed that if the Imam receive 
 this property by sending a messenger and 
 making peace without the Muslim troops 
 entering the enemy’s territory, the object of 
 disbursement of it is the same as that of 
 jizjah or capitation-tax ; that is, it is to be 
 expended upon the warriors and not upon the 
 poor. If, however, the property be taken 
 after the Muslims have invaded the enemy, 
 in this case it is as plunder, one-fifth going to 
 
248 
 
 JIHA7, 
 
 JOB 
 
 the Imam and the remainder to be divided 
 among the troops, as the property has in fact 
 been taken by force in this instance. It is 
 incumbent on the Imam to keep peace with 
 apostates, and not to make war upon them, in 
 order that they may have time to consider 
 their situation, since it is to be hoped that 
 they may again return to the faith. It is, 
 therefore, lawful to delay fighting with them 
 in a hope that they may again embrace 
 Islam ; but it is not lawful to take property 
 from them. If, however, the Imam should 
 take property from them, it is not incumbent 
 upon him to return it, as such property is not 
 in protection. If infidels harass the Muslims, 
 and offer them peace in return for property, 
 the Imam must not accede thereto, as this 
 would be a degradation of the Muslim honour, 
 and disgrace would be attached to all the 
 parties concerned in it; this, therefore, is not 
 lawful except where destruction is to be ap¬ 
 prehended, in which case the jrarchasing a 
 peace with property is lawful, because it is a 
 duty to repel destruction in every possible 
 mode.” 
 
 [For Kh alifah ‘Umar’s treatment of the 
 garrison of Jerusalem when captured, see the 
 treaty given in the article Jerusalem.] 
 
 JIHAZ (jW). (1) The wedding 
 
 trousseau of a Muhammadan wife. Those 
 vestments and furniture which a bride brings 
 to her husband’s house, and which ever re¬ 
 main the property of the wife. ( Hi day ah, 
 vol. iii. p. 100.) (2) The word is also used 
 for the shroud of a dead Muslim. 
 
 JIN A YAH (*iW), pi. Jindydt. The 
 
 legal term for all offences committed against 
 the person, such as murder, wounding, drown¬ 
 ing, &c. 
 
 JINN [genii. j 
 
 JlRAN (oV^)- “Neighbours.” 
 
 “ If a person make a bequest to his neigh¬ 
 bours ( jlran ) it includes, according to some 
 doctors, all those houses which are within 
 forty cubits of his house in every direction. 
 Some say it is forty houses on either side of 
 his.” (See Baillie’s Digest of Imamlyah Law, 
 pp. 216, 246.) [neighbours.] 
 
 JIRJIS George. St. 
 
 George of England. The author of the 
 Ghiyasu ’l-Lugkah says that, “ Jirgls Baqiya is 
 the name of a prophet who was on several 
 occasions killed by his people, and was again 
 raised to life by God, and over and over again 
 instructed and preached the way of God. He 
 is called Baqiya on account of his being raised 
 up from the dead.” This seems to be a wild 
 and exaggerated account of the story of 
 George of Cappadocia, who suffered death in 
 the first year of the reign of Julian. It is a 
 mystery how this George ever was admitted 
 into the Christian Calendar at all, and still 
 more marvellous how he became a Muham¬ 
 madan prophet as well as the patron saint 
 of England. Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuti, in his 
 History of the Temple of Jerusalem, says 
 
 Jirjis was at Damascus in the time of 
 Mu'awiyah the Khalifah. [ al-khizr.] 
 
 J1ZYAH The capitation 
 
 tax, which is levied by Muhammadan rulers 
 upon subjects who are of a different faith, 
 but claim protection ( aman ). It is founded 
 upon a direct injunction of the Qur’an: 
 j “Make war upon such of those, to whom the 
 { Scriptures have been given, as believe not in 
 God or in the last day, and forbid not that 
 which God and his Apostles have forbidden, 
 and who profess not the profession of truth, 
 until they pay tribute (jizyah) out of their 
 hand, and they be humbled.” 
 
 According to the Hidayah (vol. ii. p. 211), 
 jizyah is of two kinds : that which is esta¬ 
 blished voluntarily, and that which is en¬ 
 forced. The usual rate is one dinar for 
 every male person, females and children 
 being exempt according to Abu Hani- 
 fah, but included by Ash-Shafi‘1. It 
 should be imposed upon Jews, and Chris¬ 
 tians, and Magians, but it should not be 
 accepted from the Arabian idolators, 
 or from apostates, who should be killed. 
 But from idolators of other countries than 
 Arabia it may be accepted. It should not be 
 levied upon monks, or hermits, or paupers, 
 or slaves. He who pays the capitation tax 
 and obtains protection from the Muhamma¬ 
 dan state is called a zimmi. 
 
 JOB. Arabic Aiyub (s_>^J). Men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an as a prophet and an 
 example of patience. 
 
 Surah xxi. 83,84: “And remember Job : when 
 he cried to his Lord, 1 Truly evil hath touched 
 me : but Thou art the most merciful of those 
 who show mercy.’ So we heard him, and 
 lightened the burden of his woe ; and we gave 
 him back his family, and as many more with 
 them,—a mercy from us, and a memorial for 
 those who serve us.” 
 
 Surah xxxviii. 40-44 : “ And remember our 
 servant Job when he cried to his Lord, 
 ‘ Verily, Satan hath laid on me disease and 
 pain.’ ‘ Stamp,’ said we, ‘ with thy foot. 
 This is to wash with; cool, and to drink.’ And 
 we gave him back his family, and as many 
 more with them in our mercy; and for a 
 monition to men of judgment. And we said, 
 ‘ Take in thine hand a rod, and strike with it, 
 nor break thine oath.’ Verily, we found him 
 patient! How excellent a servant, one who 
 turned to us, was he! ” 
 
 Surah iv. 161: “And we have inspired 
 thee as we inspired .... Jesus and Job 
 and Jonah, and Aaron, and Solomon.” 
 
 Surah vi. 84: “ And we have-guided .... 
 David and Solomon, and Job, and Joseph.” 
 
 Mr. Sale, following the commentators 
 al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi, says : “ The Mu¬ 
 hammadan writers tell us that Job was of 
 the race of Esau, and was blessed with a 
 numerous family and abundant riches; but 
 that God proved him by taking away all that 
 he had, even his children, who were killed by 
 the fall of a house : notwithstanding ■which, 
 he continued to serve God and to return Him 
 
JOHN BAPTIST 
 
 JONAH 
 
 249 
 
 thanks as usual; that he was then struck 
 with a filthy disease, his body being full of 
 worms and so offensive that as he lay on the 
 dunghill none could bear to come near him: 
 that his wife, however (whom some call 
 Rahmeh the daughter of Ephraim the son of 
 Joseph, and others Makhir the daughter of 
 Manasses), attended him with great patience, 
 supporting him with what she earned by her 
 labour ; but that the devil appearing to her 
 one day, after having reminded her of her 
 past prosperity, promised her that if she 
 would worship him he would restore all 
 they had lost: whereupon she asked her 
 husband’s consent, who was so angry at the 
 proposal, that he swore, if he recovered, to 
 give his wife a hundred stripes ; and that 
 after his affliction his wealth increased, his 
 wife also becoming young and handsome 
 again, and bearing him twenty-six sons. 
 Some, to express the great riches which were 
 bestowed on Job after his sufferings, say he 
 had two threshing-floors, one for wheat and 
 the other for barley, and that God sent two 
 clouds, which rained gold on the one and 
 silver on the other till they ran over. The 
 traditions differ as to the continuance of Job’s 
 calamities: one will have it to be eighteen 
 years: another, thirteen; another, three; 
 and another, exactly seven years seven 
 months and seven hours. 
 
 JOHN BAPTIST. Arabic Yahya 
 
 Mentioned three times in the Qur’an. 
 
 The xixth Surah opens with an account of 
 the Birth of John the Baptist:— 
 
 “ A recital of thy Lord’s mercy to his 
 servant Zacharias ; when he called upon his 
 Lord with secret calling, and said : ‘ 0 Lord, 
 verily my bones are weakened, and the hoar 
 hairs glisten on my head, and never, Lord, 
 have I prayed to Thee with ill success. But 
 now I have fears for my kindred after me ; 
 and my wife is barren : give me, then, a suc¬ 
 cessor as Thy special gift, who shall be my 
 heir and an heir of the family of Jacob : and 
 make him, Lord, well pleasing to Thee. ‘ 0 
 Zacharias ! verily we announce to thee a 
 son,—his name John: that name We have 
 given to none before him.’ He said : ‘ 0 my 
 Lord! how when my wife is barren shall I 
 have a son, and when I have now reached old 
 age, failing in my powers ? ’ He said: ‘ So 
 shall it be. Thy Lord hath said, Easy is this 
 to me, for I created thee aforetime when thou 
 wast nothing.’ He said: ‘Vouchsafe me, 0 
 my Lord I a sign.’ He said : ‘ Thy sign shall 
 be that for three nights, though sound in 
 health, thou speakest not to man.’ And he 
 came forth from the sanctuary to his people, 
 and made signs to them to sing praises morn 
 and even. We said: ‘0 John! receive the 
 Book with purpose of heart’:—and We be¬ 
 stowed on him wisdom while yet a child ; and 
 mercifulness from Ourself, and purity; and 
 pious was he, and duteous to his parents; 
 and not proud, rebellious. And peace was on 
 him on the day he was born, and the day of 
 his death, and shall be on the day when ho 
 shall be raised to life! ” 
 
 Surah xxi. 89: “ And Zacharias; when he 
 called upon his Lord saying, ‘ O my Lord, 
 leave me not childless : but there is no better 
 heir than Thyself.’ So we heard him, and 
 gave him John, and we made his wife fit for 
 child-bearing. Verily, these vied in good¬ 
 ness, and called upon us with love and fear, 
 and humbled themselves before us.’’ 
 
 Surah vi. 85: “ And we guided .... 
 Zachai’ias, and John, and Jesus, and Elias, 
 all righteous ones.” 
 
 JOKING-. Arabic Miztih (ety*)- It 
 
 is said Muhammad was fond of jesting, but Ibn 
 ‘Abbas relates that the Prophet said, “ Do 
 not joke with your brother Muslim to hurt 
 him.” 
 
 Anas relates that the Prophet said to an old 
 woman, “ No old woman will enter Paradise.” 
 The old woman said “ Why ? ’’ And the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ Because it is written in the 
 Qur'an (Surah lvi. 35) ‘ We have made them 
 virgins.’ There will be no old women in 
 heaven.” (Mish/cat, book xxii. ch. xii.) 
 
 JONAH. Arabic Yunus (^y.). 
 
 Mentioned in the Qur’an as a prophet, and as 
 Sahibu 'l-Hut and Zu 'n-Nun, “ He of the 
 Fish.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 139-148: “ Jonas,too, was one 
 of the Apostles ( mursalin ), when he fled unto 
 the laden ship, and lots were cast, and he was 
 doomed, and the fish swallowed him, for he 
 was blameworthy. But had he not been of 
 those who praise Us, in its belly had he 
 surely remained, till the day of resurrection. 
 And we cast him on the bare shore —and he 
 was sick;—and we caused a gourd-plant to 
 grow up over him, and we sent him to a 
 hundred thousand persons, or even more, and 
 because they believed, we continued their 
 enjoyments for a season.” 
 
 Surah lxviii. 48-50: “ Patiently then await 
 the judgment of thy Lord, and be not like 
 him who was in the fish ( Sahibu 'l-Hiit), 
 when in deep distress he cried to God. Had 
 not favour from his Lord reached him, cast 
 forth would he have been on the naked shore, 
 overwhelmed with shame : but his Lord chose 
 him and made him of the just.” 
 
 Surah x. 98 (called the Suratu Yunus) : 
 “ Verily they against whom the decree of thy 
 Lord is pronounced, shall not believe, even 
 though every kind of sign come unto them, 
 till they behold the dolorous torment! Were 
 it otherwise, any city, had it believed, might 
 have found its safety in its faith. But it was 
 so, only with the people of Jonas. When 
 they believed, we delivered them from the 
 penalty of shame in this world, and provided 
 for them for a time. But if thy Lord had 
 pleased, verily all who are in the earth would 
 have believed together. What! wilt thou 
 compel men to become believers? ” 
 
 Surah vi. 86 : “ We guided .... Ishm.iel 
 and Elisha, and Jonah, and Lot.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 87 : “ And Zu ’ n-Nun (he of 
 the fish), when he went on his way in anger, 
 and thought that we had no power over him. 
 But in the darkness he cried, ‘ There is no 
 
 32 
 
250 
 
 JORDAN 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 God but Thou : Glory be unto Thee! Verily, 
 
 I have been one of the evil doers ’: so we 
 heard him and rescued him from misery: for 
 thus rescue we the faithful.” 
 
 [Sale, in his Notes on the Qur’an, quoting 
 from al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi, says : “ When 
 Jonah first began to exhort the people to re¬ 
 pentance, instead of hearkening to him, they 
 used him very ill, so that he was obliged to 
 leave the city, threatening them at his de¬ 
 parture that they should be destroyed within 
 three days, or, as others-say, within forty. 
 But when the time drew near, and they saw 
 the heavens overcast with a black cloud 
 which shot forth fire and filled the air with 
 smoke and hung directly over the city, they 
 were in a terrible consternation, and getting 
 into the fields, with their families and cattle, 
 they put on sackcloth and humbled them¬ 
 selves before God, calling aloud for pardon 
 and sincerely repenting of their past wicked¬ 
 ness. Whereupon God was pleased to forgive 
 them, and the storm blew over. It is said 
 that the fish, after it had swallowed Jonah, 
 swam after the ship with its head above water, 
 that the prophet might breathe; who con¬ 
 tinued to praise God till the fish came to land 
 and vomited him out. Some imagine Jonah’s 
 plant to have been a fig; and others,the moz 
 (or banana), which bears very large leaves 
 and excellent fruit, and that this plant 
 withered the next morning, and that Jonah 
 being much concerned at it God made a re¬ 
 monstrance to him in behalf of the Ninevites, 
 agreeably to what is recorded in Scripture.”] 
 
 JORDAN. Arabic Ardan, Urdunn 
 ( 0 ^). Referring to Surah iii. 39, the 
 
 legend is that the priests threw lots, by 
 easting arrows into the river Jordan, as to 
 which should take charge of the Virgin Mary 
 after the Annunciation. “ Thou wert not by 
 them when they threw their lots which of 
 them should take care of Mary, nor wert 
 thou by them when they did dispute.” 
 
 JOSEPH. Arabic Yusuf 
 
 The son of Jacob, and, according to the Qur’an, 
 an inspired prophet. (Surahs vi. 84; xl. 
 36.) 
 
 The account of Joseph occupies a whole 
 chapter in the Qur’an, entitled the Chapter of 
 Yusuf (Surah xii.). Al-Baizawi says that 
 certain Jews instigated the Quraish to inquire 
 of Muhammad the story of Joseph and his 
 family going into Egypt, and that in order to 
 prove the truth of his mission, God sent Mu¬ 
 hammad this chapter, the Suratu Yusuf, from 
 heaven. The same writer says it is a most 
 meritorious chapter, for whosoever shall read 
 it and teach it to others shall have an easy 
 death. (See al-Baizawi in loco.) 
 
 The story of Yusuf wa Zutaikhah is one of 
 the most popular love songs in the East. It 
 was produced in Persian verse by Nuru’d- 
 din ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman ibn Ahmad Jami, a.h. 
 898. And the Shaikh Hamdu ’llah ibn Shamsi 
 ’d-dln Muhammad (a.h. 909), rendered it into 
 Turk! verse. 
 
 The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali says : 
 
 “ We have it amongst the sayings of Muham¬ 
 mad that women should be forbidden to read 
 or listen to the history of Joseph (as told in 
 the Qur’an), lest it lead to their swerving 
 from the rule of chastity.” (Thompson’s 
 edition.) 
 
 We give the account as told in the Qur’an, 
 with the commentators’ remarks in italics, as 
 rendered by Mr. Lane in his Selections from 
 the Kuran (new ed. by Mr. S. Lane Poole), the 
 account of Joseph’s temptation, which Mr. 
 Lane omits, being added from Rodwell’s 
 translation of the Qur’an :— 
 
 “ Remember, when Joseph said unto his 
 father, O my father, verily I saw in sleep eleven 
 stars and the sun and the moon : I saw them 
 making obeisance unto me. He replied, 0 my 
 child, relate not thy vision to thy brethren, 
 lest they contrive a plot against thee, know¬ 
 ing its interpretation to be that they are the 
 stars and that the sun is thy mother and the 
 moon thy father ; for the devil is unto man a 
 manifest enemy. And thus, as thou sawest, 
 thy Lord will choose thee, and teach thee the 
 interpretation of events, or dreams, and will 
 accomplish his favour upon thee by the gift of 
 prophecy, and upon the family of Jacob, as He 
 accomplished it upon thy fathers before, 
 Abraham and Isaac; for thy Lord is knowing 
 and wise.—Verily in the history of Joseph and 
 his brethren are signs to the inquirers.— 
 When they (the brethren of Joseph) said, one 
 to another, Verily Joseph and his brother Ben¬ 
 jamin are dearer unto our father than we, and 
 we are a number of men; verily our father is 
 in a manifest error; slay ye Joseph, or drive 
 him away into a distant land; so the face of 
 your father shall be directed alone unto you, 
 regarding no other, and ye shall be after it a 
 just peoplea speaker among them, namely, 
 Judah, said, Slay not Joseph, but throw him 
 to the bottom of the well; then some of the 
 travellers may light upon him, if ye do this. 
 And they were satisfied therewith. They said, 
 0 our father, wherefore dost thou not intrust 
 us with Joseph, when verily we are faithful 
 unto him? Send him with us to-morrow 
 into the plain, that he may divert himself and 
 sport; and we will surely take care of him. 
 —He replied, Verily your- taking him away 
 will grieve me, and I fear lest the wolf de¬ 
 vour him while ye are heedless of him. They 
 said, Surely if the wolf devour him, when we 
 are a number of men, we shall in that case be 
 indeed weak. So he sent him with them. And 
 when they went away with him, and agreed 
 to put him at the bottom of the well, they did 
 so, They pulled off his shirt, after they had 
 beaten him, and had treated him with contempt 
 and had desired to slay him; and they let him 
 down ; and when he had arrived half-way down 
 the well they let him fall, that he might die ; 
 and he fell into the water. He then betook 
 himself to a mass of rock; and they called to 
 him; so he answered them, imagining that they 
 would have mercy upon him. They however de¬ 
 sired to crush him with a piece of rock; but 
 Judah prevented them. And We said unto him 
 by revelation, while he was in the well (and he 
 was seventeen years of age, or less), to quiet 
 
JOSEPH 
 
 his heart, Thou shalt assuredly declare unto 
 them this their action, and they shall not know 
 thee at the time. And they came to their 
 father at nightfall weeping. They said, 0 
 our father, we went to run races, and left 
 Joseph with our clothes, and the wolf de¬ 
 voured him; and thou wilt not believe 
 us, though we speak truth. And they 
 brought false blood upon his shirt. Jacob 
 said unto them. Nay, your minds have made a 
 thing seem pleasant unto you, and ye have 
 done it; but patience is seemly, and God’s 
 assistance is implored with respect to that 
 which ye relate. 
 
 “ And travellers came on their way from 
 Midian to Egypt, and alighted near the well; 
 and they sent their drawer of water, and he 
 let down his bucket into the well: so Joseph 
 caught hold upon it, and the man drew him 
 forth ; and when he saw him, he said, O good 
 news! This is a young man!— And his 
 brethren thereupon knew his case: wherefore 
 they came unto him, and they concealed his 
 case, making him as a piece of merchandise ; 
 for they said, He is our slave who hath 
 absconded. And Joseph was silent, fearing lest 
 they should slay him. And God knew that 
 which they did. And they sold him for a 
 mean price, [for] some dirhems counted 
 down, twenty, or two-and-twenty; and they 
 woro indifferent to him. The travellers then 
 brought him to Egypt, and he who had bought 
 him sold him for twenty deenars and a pair of 
 shoes and two garments. And the Egyptian 
 who bought him, namely, Kitfeer ( Qitfir or 
 Itfir ), said unto his wife Zeleekha (Zdlikha), 
 Treat him hospitably; peradventure he may 
 be advantageous to us or we may adopt 
 him as a son. For he was childless. And 
 thus We prepared an establishment for 
 Joseph in the land of Egypt, to teach him 
 the interpretation of events, or dreams; 
 for God is well able to effect His purpose ; 
 but the greater number of men, namely, 
 the unbelievers, know not this. And when he 
 had attained his age of strength (thirty yea s, 
 or three-and-thirty), We bestowed on him 
 wisdom and knowledge in matters of religion, 
 before he was sent as a prophet; for thus do 
 We recompense the well-doers.” (Surah xii. 
 4-22.) 
 
 “ And she in whose house he was, conceived 
 a passion for him, and she shut the doors and 
 said, ‘ Come hither.’ He said, ‘ God keep me ! 
 Verily, my lord hath given me a good home : 
 and the injurious shall not prosper.’ 
 
 “ But she longed for him; and he had 
 longed for her had he not seen a token from 
 his Lord. Thus we averted evil and defile¬ 
 ment from him, for he was one of our sincere 
 servants. 
 
 “ And they both made for the door, and she 
 rent his shirt behind ; and at the door they 
 met her lord. ‘ What,’ said she, ‘ shall be the 
 recompense of him who would do evil to thy 
 family, but a prison or a sore punishment ? ’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ She solicited me to evil.’ And 
 a witness out of her own family witnessed: 
 
 ■ If his shirt be rent in front she speaketh 
 truth, and he is a liar: 
 
 JOSEPH 251 
 
 “ ‘ But if his shirt be rent bohind, she lieth 
 and he is true.’ 
 
 “ And when his lord saw his shirt torn be¬ 
 hind, he said, ‘ This is one of your devices ! 
 verily your devices are great! 
 
 ‘“Joseph! leave this affair. And thou, 0 
 wife, ask pardon for thy crime, for thou hast 
 sinned.’ 
 
 “ And in the city, the women said, ‘ The 
 wife of the Prince hath solicited her servant: 
 he hath fired her with his love: but we 
 clearly see her manifest error.’ 
 
 “ And when she heard of their cabal, she 
 sent to them and got ready a banquet for 
 them, and gave each one of them a knife, and 
 said, ‘ Joseph shew thyself to them.’ And 
 when they saw him they were amazed at him, 
 and cut their hands, and said, 1 God keep us ! 
 This is no man! This is no other than a 
 noble angel! ’ 
 
 “She said, ‘This is he about whom ye 
 blamed me. I wished him to yield to my de¬ 
 sires, but he stood firm. But if he obey not 
 my command, he shall surely be cast into 
 prison, and become one of the despised.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ 0 my Lord! I prefer the prison 
 to compliance with their bidding: but unless 
 thou turn away their snares from me, I shall 
 play the youth with them, and become one of 
 the unwise.’ 
 
 “ And his Lord heard him and turned aside 
 their snares from him : for He is the Hearer, 
 the Knower.” (Rodwell, Surah xii. 23-34.) 
 
 “ Then it seemed good unto them, after 
 they had seen the signs of his innocence, to 
 imprison him. They will assuredly imprison him 
 for a time, until the talk of the people respect¬ 
 ing him cease. So they imprisoned him. And 
 there entered with him into the prison two 
 young men, servants of the king, one of whom 
 was his cup-bearer and the other was his vic¬ 
 tualler. And they found that he interpreted 
 dreams; wherefore one of them, namely, the 
 cup-bearer, said, I dreamed that I was press¬ 
 ing grapes : and the other said, I dreamed 
 that I was carrying upon my head some 
 bread, whereof the birds did eat: acquaint us 
 with the interpretation thereof ; for we see 
 thee to be one of the beneficent.—He replied, 
 There shall not come unto you any food 
 wherewith ye shall be fed in a dream, but I 
 will acquaint you with the interpretation 
 thereof when ye are awake, before the inter¬ 
 pretation of it come unto you. This is a part 
 of that which my Lord hath taught me. 
 Verily I have abandoned the religion of a 
 people who believe not in God and who dis¬ 
 believe in the world to come; and I follow 
 the religion of my fathers, Abraham and 
 Isaac and Jacob. It is not fit for us to asso¬ 
 ciate anything with God. This knowledge of 
 the unity hath been given us of the bounty of 
 God towards us and towards mankind; but 
 the greater number of men are not thankful. 
 0 ye two companions (or inmates) of the pri¬ 
 son, are sundry lords better, or is God, the 
 One, the Almighty ? Ye worship not, beside 
 Him, aught save names which ye and your 
 fathers have given to idols, concerning which 
 God hath not sent down any convincing 
 
252 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 proof. Judgment belongeth not [unto any] 
 save unto God alone. He hath commanded 
 that ye worship not any but Him. This is 
 the right religion ; but the greater number of 
 men know not. 0 ye two companions of the 
 prison, as to one of you, namely, the cup¬ 
 bearer, he will serve wine unto his lord as 
 formerly; and as to the other, he will be cru¬ 
 cified, and the birds will eat from off his 
 head.—- Upon this they said, We dreamed not 
 aught. He replied, The thing is decreed con¬ 
 cerning which ye [did] ask a determination, 
 whether ye have spoken truth or have lied. 
 And he said unto him whom he judged to be 
 the person who should escape of them two, 
 namely the cup-bearer. Mention me unto thy 
 lord, and say unto him, In the prison is a young 
 man imprisoned unjustly.—And he went forth. 
 But the devil caused him to forget to men¬ 
 tion Joseph unto his lord : so he remained in 
 the prison some years : it is said, seven ; and 
 it is said, twelve. 
 
 “ And the king of Egypt, Er Reiyan 
 the son of El- Weleed (Raiyan ibn al- Walid 
 al-‘Imliqi) said, Verily I saw in a dream 
 seven fat kine which seven lean kine devoured, 
 and seven green ears of corn and seven other 
 ears dried up. 0 ye nobles, explain unto me 
 my dream, if ye interpret a dream.—They re¬ 
 plied, These are confused dreams, and we 
 know not the interpretation of dreams. And 
 he who had escaped, of the two young men, 
 namely the cup-bearer, said (for he remembered 
 after a time the condition of Joseph ), I will 
 acquaint you with the interpretation thereof ; 
 wherefore send me. So they sent him; and he 
 came unto Joseph, and said, 0 Joseph, 0 thou 
 of great veracity, give us an explanation 
 respecting seven fat kine which seven lean 
 kine devoured, and seven green ears of corn 
 and other seven dried up, that I may return 
 unto the men (the king and his companions), 
 that they may know the interpretation thereof. 
 He replied, Ye shall sow seven years as 
 usual: (this is the interpretation of the seven 
 fat kine:) and what ye reap do ye leave in 
 its ear, lest it spoil; except a little, whereof 
 ye shall eat. Then there shall come, after 
 that, seven grievous [years]: (this is the in- 
 interpretation of the seven lean kine:) they 
 shall consume what ye shall have provided 
 for them, of the grain sown in the seven years 
 of plenty, except a little which ye shall have 
 kept. Then there shall come, after that, a 
 year wherein men shall be aided with rain, 
 and wherein they shall press grapes and other 
 fruits. —And the king said, when the mes¬ 
 senger came unto him and acquainted him with 
 the interpretation of the dream, Bring unto me 
 him who hath interpreted it." (Surah xii. 
 35-50.) 
 
 “And when the messenger came to Joseph, 
 he said, ‘ Go back to thy lord, and ask him 
 what meant the women who cut their hands, 
 verily my lord knoweth the snare they laid.’ 
 Then, said the Prince to the women, -'What 
 was your purpose when ye solicited Joseph ? ’ 
 They said, 1 God keep us! we know not 
 any ill of him.’ The wife of the Prince said, 
 ‘Now doth the truth appear. It was I who 
 
 would have led him into unlawful love, and 
 he is assuredly one of the truthful.’ ‘ This,’ 
 said Joseph, ‘that my lord may learn that I 
 did not in his absence play him false, and 
 that God guideth not the machinations of 
 deceivers. Yet do I not absolve myself: 
 verily the heart is prone to evil, save those 
 on which my Lord has mercy. Lo! my 
 Lord is Gracious, Forgiving, Merciful.’ And 
 the King said, ‘ Bring him to me : I will take 
 him for my special service.’” (Rodwell, 
 Surah xii. 50-54.) 
 
 “ And when he had spoken unto him, he 
 said unto him, Thou art this day firmly esta¬ 
 blished with us, and intrusted with our 
 affairs. What then seest thou fit for us to do? 
 —He answered, Collect provision, and sow 
 abundant seed in these plentiful years, and 
 s tore up the grain in its ear : then the people will 
 come unto thee that they may obtain provision from 
 thee. The king said, And who will act for me 
 in this affair ? Joseph said, Set me over the 
 granaries of the land; for I am careful and 
 knowing.—Thus did We prepare an establish¬ 
 ment for Joseph in the land, that he might 
 take for himself a dwelling therein wherever 
 he pleased.— And it is related that the king 
 crowned him, and put a ring on his finger, and 
 instated him in the place of Kitfeer, whom he 
 dismissed from his office; after which, Kitfeer 
 died, and thereupon the king married him to 
 his wife Zeleekha, and she bore him two sons. 
 We bestow Our mercy on whom We please, 
 and We cause not the reward of the well¬ 
 doers to perish: and certainly the reward of 
 the world to come is better for those who 
 have believed and have feared. 
 
 “ And the years of scarcity began, and 
 afflicted the land of Canaan o.nd Syria, and the 
 brethren of Joseph came, except Benjamin, to 
 procure provision, having heard that the governor 
 of Egypt gave food for its price. And they 
 went in unto him, and he knew them; but 
 they knew him not; and they spake unto him 
 in the Hebrew language; whereupon he said, as 
 one who distrusted them, Who.t hath brought 
 you to my country ? So they answered, For 
 corn. But he said, Perhaps ye are spies. 
 They replied, God preserve us from being spies ! 
 He said, Then whence are ye ? They answered, 
 From the land of Canaan, and our father is 
 Jacob the prophet of God. He said, And hath 
 he sons beside you ? They answered, Yea: we 
 were twelve; but the youngest of us went away , 
 o.nd perished in the desert, and he was the 
 dearest of us unto him; and his uterine brother 
 remained, and he retained him that he might 
 console himself thereby for the loss of the other. 
 And Joseph gave orders to lodge them, and to 
 treat them generously. And when he had fur¬ 
 nished them with their provision, and given 
 them their full measure, he said, Bring me your 
 brother from your father, namely, Benjamin, 
 that I may know your veracity in that ye have 
 said. Do ye not see that I give full measure, 
 and that I am the most hospitable of the re¬ 
 ceivers of guests ? But if ye bring him not, 
 there shall be no measuring of corn for you 
 from me, nor shall ye approach me.—They 
 replied, We will solicit his father for him, and 
 
JOSEPH 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 253 
 
 we will surely perform that. And he said 
 unto his young men, Put their money, which 
 they brought as the price of the corn, in their 
 sacks, that they may know it when they have 
 returned to their family: peradventure they 
 will return to us; for they wilt not deem it 
 lawful to keep it. —And when they returned to 
 their father, they said, 0 our father, the mea¬ 
 suring of corn is denied us if thou send not our 
 brother unto him; therefore send with us our 
 brother, that we may obtain measure ; and we 
 will surely take care of him. He said, Shall 
 I intrust you with him otherwise than as I in¬ 
 trusted you with his brother Joseph before ? But 
 God is the best guardian, and He is the most 
 merciful of those who show mercy.—And 
 when they opened their goods, they found their 
 money had been returned unto them. They 
 said, 0 our father, what desire we of the gene¬ 
 rosity of the king greater than this ? This our 
 money hath been returned unto us; and we 
 will provide corn for our family, and will take 
 care of our brother, and shall receive a camel¬ 
 load more,_/br our brother. This is a quantity 
 easy unto the king, by reason of his munificence. 
 —He said, I will by no means send him with 
 you until ye give me a solemn promise by 
 God that ye will assuredly bring him back 
 unto me unless an inevitable and insuperable 
 impediment encompass you. And they complied 
 with this his desire. And when they had 
 given him their solemn promise, he said, God 
 is witness of what we say. And he sent him 
 with them; and he said, 0 my sons, enter not 
 the city of Misr by one gate ; but enter by 
 different gates; lest the evil eye fall upon 
 you. But I shall not avert from you, by my 
 saying this, anything decreed to befall you from 
 God: 1 only say this from a feeling of com¬ 
 passion. Judgment belongeth not unto any 
 save unto God alone. On Him do I rely, and 
 on Him let those rely who rely. 
 
 “ And when they entered as their father 
 had commanded them, separately, it did not 
 avert from them anything decreed to befall 
 them from God, but only satisfied a desire in 
 the soul of Jacob, which he accomplished; 
 that is, the desire of averting the evil eye, 
 arising from a feeling of compassion : and he 
 was endowed with knowledge, because We 
 had taught him : but the greater number of 
 men, namely the unbelievers, know not God’s 
 inspiration of his saints. And when they went 
 in unto Joseph, he received unto him (or 
 pressed unto him ) his brother. He said, 
 Verily, I am thy brother: therefore be not 
 sorrowful for that which they did from envy 
 to us. And he commanded him that he should 
 not inform them, and agree with him that he 
 should employ a stratagem to retain him with 
 him. And when he had furnished them with 
 their provision, he put the cup, which was a 
 measure made of gold set with jewels, in the 
 sack of his brother Benjamin. Then a crier 
 cried, after they had gone forth from the 
 chamber of Joseph, 0 company of travellers, 
 ye are surely thieves. They said (and turned 
 unto them), What is it that ye miss ? They 
 answered, We miss the king’s measure ; and 
 to him who shall bring it shall be given a 
 
 camel-load of com, and I am surety for it, 
 namely the load. They replied, By God! ye 
 well know that we have not come to act cor¬ 
 ruptly in the land, and we have not been 
 thieves. The crier and his companions said, 
 Then what shall be the recompense of him 
 ivho hath stolen it, if ye be liars in your saying, 
 We have not been thieves,—and it be found 
 among you ? They answered, His recompense 
 shall be that he in whose sack it shall be 
 found shall be made a slave; he, the thief, 
 shall be compensation for it; namely, for 
 the thing stolen. Such was the usage of the 
 family of Jacob. Thus do We recompense the 
 offenders who are guilty of theft.—So they 
 turned towards Joseph, that he might search 
 their sacks. And he began with their sacks, 
 and searched them before the sack of his 
 brother Benjamin, lest he should be suspected. 
 Then he took it forth (namely the measure) 
 from the sack of his brother. Thus, saith 
 God, did We contrive a stratagem for Joseph. 
 It was not lawful for him to take his bro¬ 
 ther as a slave for theft by the law of the 
 king oj Egypt (for his recompense by his law 
 was beating, and a fine of twice the value of 
 the thing stolen; not the being made a slave'), 
 unless God had pleased, by inspiring him to 
 inquire of his brethren and inspiring them to 
 reply according to their usage. We exalt unto 
 degrees of knowledge and honour whom We 
 please, as Joseph; and there is who is know¬ 
 ing about everyone else endowed with know¬ 
 ledge.—They said, If he steal, a brother of 
 his hath stolen before; namely, Joseph; for 
 he stole an idol of gold belonging to the father 
 of his mother, and broke it, that he might not 
 worship it. And Joseph concealed it in his 
 mind, and did not discover it to them. He 
 said within himself, Ye are in a worse condi - 
 i tion than Joseph and his brother, by reason of 
 your having stolen your brother from your father 
 and your having treated him unjustly; and God 
 well knoweth what ye state concerning him .— 
 They said, 0 prince, verily he hath a father, 
 a very old man, who loveth him more than us, 
 and consoleth himself by him for the loss of his 
 son who hath perished, and the separation of 
 him grieveth him; therefore take one of us 
 as a slave in his stead; for we see thee [to be 
 one] of the beneficent. He replied, God pre¬ 
 serve us from taking [any] save him in 
 whose possession we found our property ; for 
 ! then (if we took another), we [should be] un¬ 
 just. 
 
 And when they despaired of obtaining him, 
 they retired to confer privately together. The 
 chief of them in age (namely, Reuben, or in 
 judgment, namely, Judah), said, Do ye not know 
 that your father hath obtained of you a 
 solemn promise in the name of God, with 
 respect of your brother, and how ye formerly 
 failed of your duty with respect to Joseph ? 
 Therefore I will by no means depart from the 
 land of Egypt until my father give me per¬ 
 mission to return to him, or God decide for me 
 by the delivery of my brother; and He is the 
 best, the most just, of those who decide. Re¬ 
 turn ye to your father, and say, O our father 
 verily thy son hath committed theft, and we 
 
JOSEPH 
 
 JOSEPH 
 
 254 
 
 bore not testimony against him save according 
 to that which we knew of a certainty, by our 
 seeing the cup in his sack; and we were not 
 acquainted with what was unseen by us when 
 we gave the solemn promise: had we known that 
 he would commit theft, we had not taken him. 
 And send thou, and ask the people of the city 
 in which w r e have been ( namely, Misr ) and the 
 company of travellers with whom we have 
 arrived (who were a people of Canaan) : and 
 we are surely speakers of truth.— &o they re¬ 
 turned to him, and said unto him those words. 
 He replied, Nay, your minds have made a 
 thing seem pleasant unto you, and ye have 
 done it (he suspected them, on account of their 
 former conduct in the case of Joseph) ; but pa¬ 
 tience is seemly : peradventure God will bring 
 them back (namely, Joseph and his brother) 
 unto me, together; for He is the Knowing 
 with respect to my case, the Wise in His acts. 
 And he turned from them, and said, 0 ! my 
 sorrow for Joseph! And his eyes became 
 white in consequence of mourning, and he 
 was oppressed with silent grief. They said, By 
 God, thou wilt not cease to think upon Joseph 
 until thou be at the point of death, or be of the 
 number of the dead. He replied, 1 only com¬ 
 plain of my great and unconcealable grief and 
 my sorrow unto God; not unto any beside Him; 
 for He it is unto whom complaint is made with 
 advantage; and I know by revelation from 
 God what ye know not; namely, that the dream 
 of Joseph was true, and that he is living. Then 
 he said , 0 my sons, go and seek news of 
 J oseph and his brother; and despair not of 
 the mercy of God ; for none despaireth of the 
 mercy of God except the unbelieving people. 
 
 “ So they departed towards Egypt, unto 
 Joseph; and when they went in unto him, 
 they said, 0 Prince, distress (that is, hunger') 
 hath affected us and our family, and we have 
 come with paltry money (it was base money, 
 or some other sort): yet give us full measure, 
 and be charitable to us, by excusing the bad¬ 
 ness of our money; for God recompenseth 
 those who act charitably. And he had pity 
 upon them, and compassion affected him, and he 
 lifted up the curtain that was between him and 
 them: then he said unto them in reproach, Do ye 
 know what ye did unto J oseph, in beating and 
 selling and other actions, and his brother, by 
 your injurious conduct to him after the separa¬ 
 tion of his brother, when ye were ignorant of 
 what would be the result of the case oj J oseph ? 
 They replied, after they had recognised him 
 (desiring confirmation), Art thou indeed 
 Joseph? He answered, I am Joseph, and 
 this is my brother. God hath been gracious 
 unto us, by bringing us together; for whoso¬ 
 ever feareth God and is patient [will be re¬ 
 warded] : God will not suffer the reward of 
 the well-doers to perish. They replied, By 
 God, verily God hath preferred thee above 
 us, and we have been indeed sinners. He 
 said, There shall be no reproach cast on you 
 this day: God forgive you; for He is the 
 most merciful of those that show mercy. 
 And he asked them respecting his father: so 
 they answered, His eyes are gone. And he said, 
 Go ye with this my shirt (it ivas the shirt of 
 
 I Abraham, which he wore when he was cast into 
 the fire: it was on his, that is, Joseph’s neck, 
 appended as an amulet, in the well; and it was 
 from paradise : Gabriel commanded him to send 
 it, and said, In it is its odour, that is, the 
 odour of paradise, and it shall not be cast upon 
 any one afflicted with a disease but he shall be 
 restored to health), and cast it, said Joseph, 
 upon the face of my father : he shall recover 
 his sight; and bring unto me all your family. 
 —And when the company of travellers had 
 gone forth from El-’Areesh of Egypt, their 
 father said, unto those who were present of his 
 offspring, Verily I perceive the smell of Joseph 
 ( for the zephyr had conveyed it to him, by per¬ 
 mission of Him whose name be exalted, from 
 the distance of three days’ 1 journey, or eight, or 
 more): were it not that ye think I dote, ye 
 would believe me. They replied, By God, thou 
 art surely in thine old error. And when the 
 messenger of good tidings (namely, Judah) 
 came with the shirt (and he had borne the 
 bloody shirt; wherefore he desired to rejoice 
 him, as he had grieved him), he cast it 
 upon his face, and he recovered his sight 
 Thereupon Jacob said, Did I not say unto 
 you, I know, from God, what ye know not ? 
 They said, 0 our father, ask pardon of our 
 crimes for us ; for we have been sinners. He 
 replied, I will ask pardon for you of my 
 Lord ; for He is the Very forgiving, the Mer¬ 
 ciful.— He delayed doing so until the first ap¬ 
 pearance of the dawn, that the prayer might be 
 more likely to be answered; or, as some say, 
 until the night of [that is, preceding] Friday. 
 
 “ They then repaired to Egypt, and Joseph and 
 the great men came forth to meet them; and when 
 they went in unto Joseph, in his pavilion or tent, 
 he received unto him (or pressed unto him) his 
 parents (his father and his mother and his 
 maternal aunt), and said unto them, Enter ye 
 Misr, if God please, in safety. So they en¬ 
 tered ; and Joseph seated himself upon his 
 couch , and he caused his parents to ascend 
 upon the seat of state, and they (that is, his 
 parents and his brethren) fell down, bowing 
 themselves unto him (bending, but not putting 
 the forehead) upon the ground: such being 
 their mode of obeisance in that time. And he 
 said, 0 my father, this is the interpretation 
 of my dream of former times : my Lord hath 
 made it true; and He hath shown favour 
 unto me, since He took me forth from the 
 prison (he said not, from the well,—from a 
 motive of generosity, that his brethren might not 
 be abashed), and hath brought you from the 
 desert, after that the devil had excited dis¬ 
 cord between me and my brethren; for my 
 Lord is gracious unto 'whom He pleaseth; for 
 He is the Knowing, the Wise.— And his father 
 resided with him four and twenty years, or 
 seventeen; and the period of his separation was 
 eighteen, or forty, or eighty years .* And death 
 came unto him; and thereupon he charged 
 Joseph that he should carry him and bury him 
 by his fathers. So he went himself and buried 
 him. Then he returned to Egypt and remainea 
 after him three and twenty years ; and when his 
 case was ended, and he knew that he should not 
 last, upon earth, and his soul desired the lasting 
 
JOSHUA 
 
 JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE 255 
 
 possession, he said, 0 my Lord, Thou hast 
 given me dominion, and taught me the inter¬ 
 pretation of events (or dreams ): Creator of 
 the heavens and the earth, Thou art my 
 guardian in this world and in the world to 
 come. Make me to die a Muslim, and join 
 me with the righteous among my forefathers. 
 And he lived after that a week, or more, and 
 died a hundred and twenty years old. And the 
 Egyptians disputed concerning his burial: so 
 they put him in a chest of marble, and buried 
 him in the upper part of the Nile, that the 
 blessing resulting from him might be general to 
 the tracts on each side of it. Extolled be the 
 perfection of Him to whose dominion there is no 
 end! (Surah xii. 54 to the end.) 
 
 For the Talmudic origin of this account, 
 see Judaism. 
 
 JOSHUA. Arabic Yiisha 1 (£Ajj). Son 
 
 of Nun. Not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, 
 but is most probably “the servant” men¬ 
 tioned in Surah xviii. 59 : “ When Moses said 
 to his servant, ‘ I will not stop until I reach 
 the confluence of the two seas, or for years I 
 will journey on.’” (Vide al-Baizawi in loco.) 
 Some say he is the Zu ’1-Kid of Surah xxi. 
 85. [zu ’l-kifl.] 
 
 JUBAIR (fs**-). Jubair ibn Mu- 
 
 t‘im an-Naufall. One of the Companions, 
 and acknowledged as a traditionist by al- 
 Bukharl and Muslim. He was one of the 
 most learned of the Quraish chiefs. Died at 
 Makkah a.h. 54. Ibn Jubair, his son, was an 
 Imam of great renown, he died a.h. 99. 
 
 JUBBU ’L-HUZN ( 0 >^ s-*). 
 
 “ The pit of sorrow,” which Muhammad said 
 was a desert in hell, from which hell itself 
 calls for protection, and which is reserved 
 for readers of the Qur’an who are haughty in 
 their behaviour. (Mishkat, book ii. eh. iii.) 
 
 JUDGE. Arabic Qazi (^fEi). A 
 
 magistrate or judge appointed by the ruler of 
 a Muhammadan country. He should be an 
 adult, a free man, a Muslim, sane, and un¬ 
 convicted of slander (qazf). It becomes a 
 Muslim not to covet the appointment of Qazi, 
 for the Prophet has said : “ Whoever seeks 
 the appointment of Qazi shall be left alone, 
 but to him who accepts the office on compul¬ 
 sion, an angel shall descend and guide him.” 
 (Mishkat, book xvi. ch. iii.) 
 
 The Qazi must exercise his office in some 
 public place, the chief mosque being recom¬ 
 mended, or, if in his own house, he should 
 see that the public have free access. He must 
 not accept any presents except from relatives 
 and old friends, nor should he attend feasts 
 and entertainments given by others than his 
 relatives and friends. In addition to his 
 duties as magistrate, it is his duty to attend 
 funerals and weddings, and when present it is 
 his right and office to perform the ceremonies. 
 A woman may exercise the office of a Qazi, 
 except in the administration of punishment 
 (hadd) or retaliation (qisas), (Hidayah, vol. 
 ii. p. 613.) 
 
 JUDGMENT-DAY. Arabic Qiyd - 
 
 mah (A-Ui). [resurrection.] 
 
 al-JUDI Mount Ararat, 
 
 upon which the ark of Noah rested. Men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah xi. 46 : “ And it 
 (the ark) settled on al-Judi." 
 
 Judi is a corruption apparently for Mount 
 Giordi, the Gordycei of the Greeks, situated 
 between Armenia and Mesopotamia. 
 
 Ainsworth, in his Travels in the Track of 
 the Ten Thousand, says tradition still points 
 to Jabal Judi as the scene of the event, and 
 maintains the belief that fragments of the ark 
 exist on its summit. 
 
 Whiston, in his History of Armenia, p. 361, 
 says Araratia is the name of a province and 
 not of a mountain in Armenia. 
 
 JU‘L (J*=0- The hire or reward 
 of labour. An extraordinary pay or dona¬ 
 tion. In the language of the law, a reward 
 for bringing back a fugitive slave. 
 
 JUMADA ’L-UKHRA (^oW* 
 The sixth month of the 
 Muhammadan year, [months.] 
 
 JUMADA ’L-ULA (J,3\ ^oW). 
 
 The fifth month of the Muhammadan year. 
 [months.] 
 
 JUM‘AH (&*♦=*). [FRIDAY.] 
 JUNUB (s-*A=-). Lit. “ One who is 
 
 separated.” The unclean. A person who is 
 in a state of uncleanness [janabah] whereby 
 he or she cannot perform any religious act 
 or join in religious assemblies, [purifica¬ 
 tion.] 
 
 JURF ('-*/?-). Lit. “ A wasted 
 
 river-bank.” A place three miles from al- 
 Madinah, celebrated in Muhammadan history. 
 
 JUSTIFIABLE HOMICIDE. The 
 
 Muhammadan law on the subject is as fol¬ 
 lows :— 
 
 “ If any person draw a sword upon a Mus¬ 
 lim he (the Muslim) is at liberty to kill him 
 in self-defence, because the Prophet has 
 said, ‘ He who draws a sword upon a Muslim 
 renders his blood liable to be shed with im¬ 
 punity ’; and also, because a person who thus 
 draws a sword is a rebel, and guilty of sedi¬ 
 tion ; and it is lawful to slay such, God having 
 said, in the Qur’an, ‘ Slay those who are 
 guilty of sedition, to the end that it may 
 be prevented.’ Besides, it is indispensably 
 requisite that a man repel murder from 
 himself and as, in the present instance, 
 there is no method of effecting this but 
 by slaying the person, it is consequently 
 lawful so to do. If however, it be possible 
 to effect the self-defence without slaying 
 the person, it is not lawful to slay him. It 
 is written in the Jama Sagheer (a/-Jumi‘u 
 ’s-Saghir), that if a person strike at another 
 with a sword, during either night or day, or 
 lift a club against another in the night in a 
 city, or in the day-time in the highway out of 
 the city; and the person so threatened kill 
 
256 
 
 JUWAIRIYAH 
 
 KA‘BAH 
 
 him who thus strikes with the sword, or lifts 
 the club, nothing is incurred; because, as 
 striking with a sword affords no room for 
 delay or deliberation, it is in this case neces¬ 
 sary to kill the person in order to repel him ; 
 and although, in the case of a club, there be 
 more room for deliberation, yet in the night¬ 
 time assistance cannot be obtained, and hence 
 the person threatened is in a manner forced, in 
 repelling the other’s attack, to kill him. (And 
 so likewise where the attack is made during 
 the day-time in the highway, as there assist¬ 
 ance cannot readily be obtained). Where, 
 therefore, a person thus slays another, the 
 blood of the slain is of no account. If a 
 lunatic draw a sword upon a person, and the 
 person slay him, the fine of blood is due from 
 his property, and does not fall upon his Akilas 
 ( Aqilah ). As-Shafi‘i maintains that nothing 
 whatever is incurred in this instance. In 
 the same manner, also, if an infant draw a 
 sword and make an attack upon a person, 
 or if an animal attack anyone, and the per¬ 
 son so attacked slay the infant, or the animal, 
 a fine is due on account of the infant, or the 
 value on account of the animal, according to 
 Abu Hanifah, but not according to ash-Shafi‘i. 
 
 “If a person draw a sword upon another, 
 and strike him, and then go away, and the 
 person struck, or any other, afterwards kill 
 this person, he is liable to retaliation. This 
 is where the striker retires in such a way as 
 indicates that he will not strike again, for as, 
 upon his so retiring, he no longer continues 
 an assailant, and the protection of his blood 
 (which had been forfeited by the assault) 
 reverts, retaliation is consequently incurred 
 by killing him. 
 
 “ If a person come in the night to a stranger, 
 and carry off his goods by theft, and the owner 
 of the goods follow and slay him, nothing 
 whatever is incurred, the Prophet having 
 said, ‘Ye may kill in preservation of your 
 property.’ It is to be observed, however, that 
 this is only where the owner cannot recover 
 his property but by killing the thief; for if 
 he know that upon his calling out the thief 
 would relinquish the goods, and he notwith¬ 
 standing neglect calling out, and slay him, re¬ 
 
 KA‘BAH Lit. “A cube.” 
 
 The cube-like building in the centre of the 
 mosque at Makkah, which contains the Ha- 
 jaru ’1-Aswad, or black stone. 
 
 I. A Description of the Ka'hah .—It is, ac¬ 
 cording to Burckhardt and Burton, an oblong 
 massive structure, 18 paces in length, 14 in 
 breadth, and about 35 feet in height. It is 
 constructed of grey Makkan stone, in large 
 blocks of different sizes, joined together in a 
 very rough manner, with cement. (Burton 
 says it is excellent mortar, like Roman 
 cement.) The Ka‘bah stands upon a base 
 two feet in height, which presents a sharp 
 
 taliation is incurred upon him, since he in this 
 case slays the person unrighteously.” ( Hicla- 
 yah, vol. iv. p. 291.) 
 
 JUWAIRIYAH One of 
 
 Muhammad’s wives. She was the daughter 
 of the chief of the BanI ’1-Mustaliq. She 
 survived the Prophet some years. 
 
 Sir William Muir writes (Life of Mahomet, 
 new ed. p. 309) : “ The captives of the Bani 
 Mustalick having been carried to Medina with 
 the rest of the booty, men from their tribe 
 soon arrived to make terms for their release. 
 One of them was Juweiria, a damsel about 
 twenty years of age, full of grace and beauty, 
 the daughter of a chief, and married to one 
 of her own tribe. She fell to the lot of a 
 citizen, who, taking advantage of her rank 
 and comeliness, fixed her ransom at nine 
 ounces of gold. Despairing to raise so large 
 a sum, she ventured into the presence of 
 the Prophet, while seated in the apartment 
 of Ayesha, and pleaded for some remission of 
 the heavy price demanded for her freedom. 
 Ayesha no sooner saw that she was fair to 
 look upon, and of a sprightly winning carriage, 
 than her jealousy prognosticated what was 
 about to come to pass. Mahomet listened to 
 her supplications. ‘Wilt thou hearken,’ he 
 said, ‘ to something better than that thou 
 askest of me ? ’ Surprised by his gentle 
 accents, she inquired what that might be: 
 1 Even that I should pay thy ransom, and 
 marry thee myself I ’ The damsel forth¬ 
 with expressed her consent, the ransom 
 was paid, and Mahomet, taking her at once 
 to wife, built a seventh house for her recep¬ 
 tion. As soon as the marriage was noised 
 abroad, the people said that the Bani Musta¬ 
 lick having now become their relatives, they 
 would let the rest of the prisoners go free as 
 Juweiria’s dower; ‘ and thus no woman,’ said 
 Ayesha, telling the story in after days, ‘ was 
 ever a greater blessing to her people than this 
 Juweiria.’” 
 
 JTJZ’ (»ys-). O ne of the thirty por¬ 
 tions into which the Qur’an is divided. 
 [sip AKA.] 
 
 inclined plane; its roof being flat, it has, at 
 a distance, the appearance of a perfect cube. 
 The only door which affords entrance, and 
 which is opened but two or three times in the 
 year (Burton says it can be entered by pil¬ 
 grims, by paying the guardian a liberal fee), 
 is on the east side, and about seven feet above 
 the ground. At the south-east corner of the 
 Ka'bah, near the door, is the famous black 
 stone [hajaku 'l-as wad], which forms a 
 part of the sharp angle of the building, at 
 four or five feet above the ground The black 
 stone is an irregular oval, about seven inches 
 in diameter, with an undulating surface, 
 
KA‘BAH 
 
 KA BAH 
 
 257 
 
 composed of about a dozen smaller stones of 
 different shapes and sizes. It is surrounded 
 on all sides by a border of reddish brown 
 cement, both the stone and the border being 
 encircled by a band of a massive arch of gold 
 or silver gilt, the aperture of the stone 
 being one span and three fingers broad. In 
 the corner facing the south, there is another 
 stone about five feet from the ground. It is 
 one foot and a half in length, and two inches 
 in breadth, placed upright, and of common 
 Makkan stone. According to the rites of the 
 pilgrimage, this stone, which is called ar- 
 Ruknu ’1-Yamam, or Yaman pillar, should 
 only be touched with the right hand as the 
 pilgrim passes it, but Captain Burton says he 
 frequently saw it kissed by the pilgrims. 
 Just by the door of the Ka‘bah, and close to 
 the wall, is a slight hollow in the ground, 
 lined with marble and sufficiently large to 
 admit of three persons sitting, which is called 
 al-Mi‘jan, and supposed to be the place where 
 Abraham and his son Ishmael kneaded the 
 
 the ka'bah. (From a Photograph.') 
 
 chalk and mud which they used to build the 
 Ka‘bah. Here it is thought meritorious to 
 pray. On the basis of the Ka‘bah, just above 
 the Mi'jan, is an ancient Kufic inscription, 
 which neither Burckhardt nor Burton were 
 able to decipher or to copy. On the north¬ 
 west side of the Ka‘bah, about tvro feet below 
 its summit, is the water-spout, which is called 
 the Mi’zabu’ r-Rahmah, or the water-spout of 
 mercy. This spout is of gold, and was sent 
 hither from Constantinople in a.h. 981. It 
 carries rain from the roof, and dischai’ges it 
 upon Ishmael’s grave. There are two large 
 green marble slabs, which are said to have 
 been presents from Cairo, a.h. 241, which are 
 supposed to mark the graves of Hagar and 
 Ishmael. The pavement round the Ka‘bah 
 consists of a very handsome mosaic of 
 various coloured stones, and is said to have 
 been laid down a.h. 826. On one side of the 
 Ka‘bah is a semicircular wall, the extremities 
 of which are in a lino with the sides of the 
 Ka'bah, and distant about six feet, leaving an 
 opening which leads to the grave of Ishmael. 
 The wall is called al-Hatim, “the broken,” 
 
 and the enclosed area al-Hijr, “ the enclo¬ 
 sure.” The Ka‘bah is covered with a coarse 
 tissue of mixed silk and cotton, being of a 
 brilliant black colour, and with a gold band 
 round it, upon which is inscribed the ninetieth 
 verse of the third chapter of the Qu’ran: 
 “Verily the first home founded for mankind 
 was surely that at Bakkah, for a blessing 
 and a guidance to mankind.” The inscription 
 being in large Kufic characters. For a fur¬ 
 ther account of this cover, see kiswah. 
 
 the ka‘bah. {Burton.) 
 
 II. The History of the Ka‘bah, is embraced 
 in the history of the Baitu ’llah or masjidu 
 ’l-iiaram. 
 
 According to the Traditions and the inven¬ 
 tive genius of Muslim writers, the Ka‘bah was 
 first constructed in heaven (where a model 
 of it still remains, called the Baitu'l-Ma‘mur) 
 two thousand years before the creation of the 
 world. Adam erected the Ka‘bah on earth 
 exactly below the spot its perfect model 
 occupies in heaven, and selected the stones 
 from the five sacred mountains, Sinai, al-Judl, 
 Hira’, Olivet, and Lebanon. Ten thousand 
 angels were appointed to guard the structure, 
 but, as Burckhardt remarks, they appear to 
 have been often most remiss in their duty ! 
 At the Deluge the Sacred House was destroyed. 
 But the Almighty is said to have instructed 
 Abraham to rebuild it. In its reconstruction 
 Abraham was assisted by his son Ishmael, 
 who with his mother Hagar were at the time 
 residents of Makkah, Abraham having jour¬ 
 neyed from Syria in order to obey the com¬ 
 mands of God. 
 
 Upon digging they found the original foun¬ 
 dations of the building. But wanting a stone 
 to mark the corner of the building, Ishmael 
 started in search of one, and as he was going 
 in the direction of Jabal Qubais, the angel 
 Gabriel met him, and gave him the famous 
 black stone. Ibn ‘Abbas relates that the 
 Prophet said, the black stone when it came 
 down from Paradise was whiter than milk, 
 but that it has become black from the sins of 
 those who have touched it. {Mishkat, book 
 xi. ch. iv. pt. 2.) 
 
 Upon the death of Ishmael, the Ka‘bah 
 fell into the possession of the Banu Jurhum, 
 
 33 
 
258 
 
 KA C BAH 
 
 KA'BAH 
 
 and remained in their hands for a thousand 
 years. It then became the property of the 
 Banu Kh uza‘ah. who held it for three hun¬ 
 dred years. But being constantly exposed to 
 torrents, it was destroyed, and was rebuilt by 
 Qusaiy ibn Kilab, who put a top to it. Up 
 to this time it is said to have been open at 
 the roof. 
 
 It is said, by Muhammadan historians, that 
 ‘Ami ibn Luhaiy was the first who introduced 
 idolatry into Arabia, and that he brought the 
 great idol Hubal from Hait in Mesopotamia 
 and placed it in the sacr.ed house. It then 
 became a Pantheon common to all the tribes. 
 [idols.] The tribe of Qusaiy were the first 
 who built dwelling-houses round the Ka'bah. 
 The successors of the Band Qusaiy were the 
 Quraish. Soon after they came into posses¬ 
 sion, the Ka‘bah was destroyed by fire, and 
 they rebuilt it of wood and of a smaller size, 
 than it had been in the time of the Band 
 Qusaiy. The roof was supported within by 
 six pillars, and the statue of Hubal was placed 
 over a wall then existing within the Ka‘bah. 
 This took place during the youth of Muham¬ 
 mad. Al-Azraql, quoted by Burckhardt, says 
 that the figure of the Virgin Mary and the 
 infant Jesus was sculptured as a deity upon 
 one of the six pillars nearest the gate. 
 
 The grandfather of Muhammad, ‘Abdu T- 
 Muttalib, the son of Hashim, became the cus¬ 
 todian of the Sacred House ; and during his 
 time, the Ka‘bah being considered too low in 
 its structure, the Quraish wished to raise it; so 
 they demolished it and then they rebuilt till 
 the work reached the place of the black 
 stone. Each tribe wishing to have the honour 
 of raising the black stone into its place, they 
 quarrelled amongst themselves. But they 
 at last agreed that the first man who should 
 enter the gate of the enclosure should be um¬ 
 pire. Muhammad was the first to enter, and 
 he was appointed umpire. He thereupon or¬ 
 dered them to place the stone upon a cloth 
 and each tribe by its representative to take 
 hold of the cloth and lift it into its place. 
 The dispute was thus ended, and when the 
 stone had reached its proper place, Muham¬ 
 mad fixed it in its situation with his own 
 hand. 
 
 At the commencement of Muhammad’s 
 mission, it is remarkable that there is scarcely 
 an allusion to the Ka‘bah, and this fact, taken 
 with the circumstance that the earliest Qib- 
 lah or direction for prayer, was Jerusalem, 
 and not the Ka‘bah, seems to imply that Mu¬ 
 hammad’s strong iconoclastic tendencies did 
 not incline his sympathies to this ancient idol 
 temple with its superstitious ceremonies. 
 Had the Jews favourably received the new 
 prophet as one who taught the religion of 
 Abraham, to the abrogation of that of Moses 
 and Jesus, Jerusalem and not Makkah would 
 have been the sacred city, and the ancient 
 Bock [sakhkahJ and not the Ka‘bah would 
 have been the object of superstitious reve¬ 
 rence. 
 
 Taking the Surahs chronologically, the 
 earliest reference in the Qur’an to the Ka‘bah 
 occurs in Surah lii. 4, where the Prophet 
 
 swears by the frequented house (al-Baitu 7- 
 Mafmur), but commentators are not agreed 
 whether it refers to the Ka‘bah in Makkah, 
 or its heavenly model above, which is said to 
 be frequented by the angels. We then come to 
 Surah xvii. 1, where Muhammad refers to his 
 celebrated night dream of his journey from 
 the Sacred Mosque (al-Masjidu ’l-Haram ) at 
 Makkah to the Remote Mosque (al-Masjidu 7- 
 Aqsa) at Jerusalem. And in this verse we 
 find the Rock at Jerusalem spoken of as “ the 
 precinct of which We (God) have blessed, to 
 show him (Muhammad) of our signs,” prov¬ 
 ing that even then the Prophet of Arabia had 
 his heart fixed on Mount Zion, and not on the 
 Ka‘bah. 
 
 When Muhammad found himself established 
 in al-Madinah, with a very good prospect of 
 his obtaining possession of Makkah, and its 
 historic associations, he seems to have with¬ 
 drawn his thoughts from Jerusalem, and its 
 Sacred Rock and to fix them on the house at 
 Bakkah as the home founded for mankind,— 
 Blessed, and a guidance to all creatures. 
 (Surah iii. 90). The Jews proving obdurate, 
 and there being little chance of his succeed¬ 
 ing in establishing his claim as their prophet 
 spoken of by Moses, he changes the Qiblah, 
 or direction for prayer, from Jerusalem to 
 Makkah. The house at Makkah is made “ a 
 place of resort unto men and a sanctuary ” 
 (Surah ii. 119). 
 
 The Qiblah is changed by an express com¬ 
 mand of the Almighty, and the whole passage 
 is remarkable as exhibiting a decided conces¬ 
 sion on the part of Muhammad to the claims 
 of the Ka‘bah as a central object of adoration. 
 (Surah iii. 138-145.) 
 
 “We appointed the Qiblah which thou for¬ 
 merly hadst, only that we might know him 
 who followeth the apostle, from him who 
 turneth on his heels: The change is a dif¬ 
 ficulty, but not to those whom God hath 
 guided. But God will not let your faith be 
 fruitless ; for unto man is God Merciful, Gra¬ 
 cious. We have seen thee turning thy face 
 towards every part of Heaven; but we will 
 have thee turn to a Qiblah which shall please 
 thee. Turn then thy face towards the sacred 
 Mosque, and wherever ye be, turn your faces 
 towards that part. They, verily, to whom 
 ‘ the Book ’ hath been given, know this to be 
 the truth from their Lord: and God is not 
 regardless of what ye do. Even though thou 
 shouldest bring every kind of sign to those 
 who have received the Scriptures, yet thy 
 Qiblah they will not adopt; nor shalt thou 
 adopt then- Qiblah; nor will one part of them 
 adopt the Qiblah of the other. And if, after 
 the knowledge which hath come to thee, thou 
 follow their wishes, verily then wilt thou be¬ 
 come of the unrighteous. They to whom we 
 have given the Scriptures know him —the 
 apostle —even as they know then- own chil¬ 
 dren : but truly a part of them do conceal 
 the truth, though acquainted with it. The 
 truth is from thy Lord. Be not then of those 
 who doubt. All have a quarter of the Hea¬ 
 vens to which they turn them ; but wherever 
 ye be, hasten emulously aftef good: God will 
 
KAFIR 
 
 259 
 
 KA { B IBN MALIK 
 
 one day bring you all together; verily, God 
 is all-powerful. And from whatever place 
 thou comest forth, turn thy face toward the 
 sacred Mosque; for this is the truth from 
 thy Lord: and God is not inattentive to your 
 doings. And from whatever place thou 
 comest forth, turn thy face toward the 
 sacred Mosque; and wherever ye be, to that 
 part turn your faces, lest men have cause of 
 dispute against you: but as for the impious 
 among them, fear them not; but fear me, that 
 I may perfect my favours on you, and that 
 ye may be guided aright.” 
 
 The verses of the second Surah of the 
 Qur’an are, according to Jaliilu ’d-din and 
 other commentators, not in their chronological 
 order. It is therefore difficult to fix the pre¬ 
 cise date of the following verse :— 
 
 Surah ii. 108: “Who is more unjust than 
 he who prohibits God’s mosques, that His 
 name should not be worshipped there, and 
 who strives to ruin them.” 
 
 According to al-BaizawI, the verse either 
 refers to the sacking of Jerusalem by Titus, 
 or to the Quraish who, at al-Hudaibiyah, had 
 prevented the Prophet from entering Makkah 
 until the following year. 
 
 In the seventh year of the Ilijrah, Muham¬ 
 mad was, according to the treaty with the 
 Quraish at al-Hudaibiyah in the previous 
 year, allowed to enter Makkah, and perform 
 the circuit of the Ka‘bah. Hubal and the 
 other idols of the Arabian pantheon were 
 still within the sacred building, but, as Mu¬ 
 hammad’s visit was limited to three days, 
 he confined himself to the ordinary rites of 
 the ‘ Umrah , or visitation, without interfering 
 with the idolatrous arrangement of the Ka‘bah 
 itself. Before he left, at the hour of midday 
 prayer, Bilal ascended the holy house, and 
 from its summit gave the first call to Mus¬ 
 lim prayers, which were afterwards led by the 
 Prophet in the usual form. 
 
 The following year Muhammad occupied 
 Makkah by force of arms. The idols in the 
 Ka‘bah were destroyed, and the rites of the 
 pilgrimage were established as by divine 
 enactment. From this time the history of 
 the Ka‘bah becomes part of the history of 
 Islam. 
 
 The Khalifah ‘Umar first built a mosque 
 round the Ka‘bah, a.h. 17. 
 
 For a history of the sacred mosque at 
 Makkah, see masjidu ’l-haram. 
 
 KA‘B IBN MALIK (<* 
 
 ‘A1U). A companion of the Prophet 
 and one of the Ansars of the tribe of Khazrai. 
 He was celebrated as a poet, and embraced 
 Islam after the second pledge of ‘Akabah. 
 He was one of the three companions who re¬ 
 fused to accompany Muhammad on the expe¬ 
 dition to Tabuk (Hilal and Mararah being 
 the other two), and who are referred to in 
 the Qur’an, Surah ix. 118, 119 : “ Verily He 
 is kind to them, unto the three who were 
 left behind.” For a time Muhammad was 
 displeased with them, but he afterwards be¬ 
 came reconciled. Ka‘b became a companion 
 of some note, and died during the reign of ‘All. 
 
 al-KABIR (j«53t). “The Great 
 
 One.” One of the ninety-nine attributes of 
 God, Surah xxxiv. 22: “ He is the High 
 (al-‘A/T) and the Great (al-Kabir).” 
 
 KABlRAH (fy-A). The fem. of 
 
 kabir, “ great.” A term used in theological 
 books for Gunah-i-Kabirah, “a great sin”; 
 namely, that sin which is clearly forbidden in 
 the law, and for which punishment has been 
 ordained of God. [sin.] 
 
 KA‘BlYAH (4***). A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Abu Qasim Muhammad 
 ibn al-Ka‘bi, who was a Mu‘tazili of Bagdad, 
 who said the acts of God were without pur¬ 
 pose, will, or desire. 
 
 KACHKUL (J^y). Persian 
 
 (vulg. kachkol). The begging bowl of a reli¬ 
 gious mendicant, [faqir.] 
 
 KAFALAH (BUtf). [bail.] 
 KAFAN The shroud for 
 
 the dead. It usually consists of three pieces 
 of cloth for a man and five for a woman. 
 Those for a man : 1, An izar, or piece of 
 cloth, reaching from the navel to the knees 
 or ankle joints ; 2, A qamis , or shirt, from the 
 neck to the knees ; 3, A sheet to cover the 
 whole corpse. For a woman there are 
 also a breast band and head band. The 
 whole being of white, [burial.] 
 
 KAFFARAH from kafir, 
 
 ‘‘to hide.” Heb. Q'HpS- Lit. “Co¬ 
 
 verings ; atonements ; expiation.” 
 
 The word occurs four times in the 
 Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah v. 49: “ Whoso remitteth it as alms 
 shall have expiation for his sins.” 
 
 Surah v. 91: “ Its expiation shall be to 
 feed ten persons.” “This is the expiation for 
 your oaths.” 
 
 Surah v. 96: “ In expiation thereof shall ye 
 feed the poor.” 
 
 The other word used is fidyah [fidyah]. 
 The expression kaffaratu ’ z-zunub , “ atone¬ 
 ment for sins,” is used for expiation by 
 prayer, alms, fasting, and pilgrimage, [ex¬ 
 piation,] 
 
 al-KAFI “The Suf¬ 
 
 ficient One.” An attribute of God mentioned 
 in the Qur’an, Surah xxxix. 37 : “ Is not God 
 sufficient for His servant.” 
 
 al-KAFI The title of a 
 
 collection of traditions by Abu Ja‘far Muham¬ 
 mad ibn Ya‘qub al-KulInl (a.h. 328) received 
 by the Shhahs. 
 
 KAFIR (/'A), pl- kafir tin. Lit. 
 
 “ The coverer.” One who hides or covers up 
 the truth. 
 
 The word is generally used by Muham¬ 
 madans to define one who is an unbeliever 
 in the ministry of Muhammad and his Qur’an, 
 and in this sense it seems to have been used 
 by Muljammad himself. Surah ii. 37 : 
 “ Those who misbelieve ( wa’llazlna kafaru), 
 
260 kafue 
 
 and call our signs lies, they are follows of the 
 Fire, they shall dwell within for ever.” 
 
 It is also used for those who believe in the 
 Divinity of the Lord Jesus, and the Holy 
 Trinity. Surah v. 76: “They indeed are in¬ 
 fidels ( la-gad Icafara ’llazlna), who say God 
 is al-Masihu ibn Maryam. . . . Verily him 
 who associates anything with God, hath God 
 forbidden Paradise, and his resort is the Fire.” 
 
 Surah v. 77: “ They are infidels who say 
 Verily God is the third of three.” 
 
 [On this passage the Kamalan say it re¬ 
 fers to the Nestorians and to the Malaka’iyah, 
 who believe that God is one of three, the 
 other two being the mother and son.] 
 
 According to the Raddu ’l-Mull tar (vol. 
 iii. p. 442), there are five classes of kafirs or 
 infidels : (1) Those who do not believe in the 
 Great First Cause; (2) Those who do not 
 believe in the Unity of God, as the Sanawi- 
 yah who believe in the two eternal principles 
 of light and darkness ; (3) Those who be¬ 
 lieve in the Unity of God, but do not believe 
 in a revelation ; (4) Those who are idolaters ; 
 (5) Those who believe in God and in a i-eve- 
 lation, but do not believe in the general mis¬ 
 sion of Muhammad to the whole of mankind, 
 as the Christians, a sect of the Jews (sic). 
 
 Saiyid Sharif Jurjani says: “ Mankind 
 are divided into two parties, namely, those 
 who acknowledge the mission of Muhammad, 
 or those who do not believe in it. Those 
 who do not believe in his mission are either 
 those who reject it and yet believe in the in¬ 
 spiration and divine mission of other pro¬ 
 phets, as the Jews or Christians, and also 
 the Majusi (Fire Worshippers) ; or those who 
 do not believe in any revelation of God’s 
 will. Those who do not believe in any reve¬ 
 lation from God, are either those who ac¬ 
 knowledge the existence of God, as the 
 Brahma (Buddhists ?), or those who deny the 
 existence of a Supreme Ruler, as the Dcihri, 
 or Atheists.” 
 
 “ Those who do not acknowledge Muham¬ 
 mad as an inspired prophet are either those 
 who do it wilfully and from mere enmity, or 
 those who do not acknowledge it from reflec¬ 
 tion and due study of the subject. For the 
 former is eternal punishment, and for the 
 latter that punishment which is not eternal. 
 There are also those who, whilst they are 
 Muslims, are not orthodox in their belief; 
 these are heretics, but they are not kafirs. 
 Those who are orthodox are an-Naji or the 
 Salvationists.” (Sharhu ’l-Muwaqif, p. 597.) 
 
 KAFUR The unthankful, 
 
 or ungrateful. Condemned in the Qur’an, 
 Surah xxii. 39 : “ God loveth not the false, 
 the unthankful.” 
 
 KAFUR Lit. “ Camphor.” 
 
 A fountain in Paradise mentioned in the 
 Qur’an (Surah lxxvi. 5) as the fountain where¬ 
 of the servants of the Lord shall drink. But 
 al-Baizawi, the commentator, takes it for an 
 appellative, and believes that the wine of Para¬ 
 dise will be mixed with camphor because of 
 its agreeable coolness and smell. 
 
 KALAMU ? LLAH 
 
 al-KAHF (cjh£H). “The Cave.” 
 
 The title of the xvmth chapter of the Qur’an, 
 in which is related the story of the Seven 
 Sleepers of Ephesus, known as the Asliabu 
 ’ l-Kahf ,: 
 
 KAHIN (y-iAS), pi. Tcahanah and 
 
 kuhhan. A soothsayer, or augur. The word 
 occurs only twice in the Qur’an; and in both 
 instances it is used for “ a soothsayer.” 
 
 Surah lii. 29: “For thou (Muhammad), by 
 the favour of thy Lord, art neither a sooth¬ 
 sayer (kdhin), nor one possessed (: majnun ).” 
 
 Surah lxix. 42: “ Neither is it (the Qur’an) 
 the word of a soothsayer ( Icahin ).” 
 
 The word is used in the Traditions in the 
 same sense only:— 
 
 Mishlcat., book iv. chap. i.: “ The Prophet 
 said, believe in Islam, and put not your trust 
 in soothsayers (kahanah).” 
 
 Mishlcat, book xxi. ch. ii.: “ ‘Ayishah re¬ 
 lates that the Prophet was asked about 
 kahanah, fortune-tellers, and he said, ‘ You 
 must not believe anything they say.’ It was 
 then said, ‘ 0 Prophet, why do they then 
 sometimes tell lies ? ’ And the Prophet said: 
 ‘ Because one of the jinn steals away the 
 truth and carries it to the magician’s ear, and 
 the magicians (kuhhan') mix a hundred lies 
 with it.’ ” 
 
 The Hebrew 'jni Kohain, leptvs, is 
 
 applied in the Old Testament not only to the 
 Jewish priests, but also to Melchizedek 
 (Gen. xiv. 18), Potipher (Gen. xli. 45; see 
 marginal reading in our English version), and 
 to Jethro (Ex. ii. 16). 
 
 KAHRUBA ). Lit. “ Attract¬ 
 ing Straws.” Electricity, or the power of 
 attraction. A Sufi term. 
 
 EAIFlYAH “ Retailed 
 
 circumstances.” A term used in Muhammadan 
 books for a statement or account of any¬ 
 thing, e.g. Jcaifiyat-i-taskhir, “ the manner of 
 attack”; kaifiyat-i-rdsikhah , “a fixed or 
 permanent quality ” ; kaifiyat-i-'drizah, “ a 
 moveable or accidental quality.” 
 
 KA’LAH A kind of sale 
 
 which is prohibited. Mishlcat, book xii. ch. 
 v. pt. 2: “ The Prophet has forbidden selling 
 on credit for credit.” 
 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq explains it thus : “ If ‘Amr 
 owe Zaid a piece of cloth, and Bakr ten dir¬ 
 hams, and Zaid say to Bakr, I have sold you 
 the piece of cloth, which is with ‘Amr for ten 
 dirhams ”—this sale is forbidden. 
 
 KALAM (f^). “ A word; speech.” 
 
 ‘Ilmu H-lcalam, “ scholastic theology ” ; fastiu 
 ’l-lcalam , “ eloquent ” ; muhassalu ’l-kalam, 
 “ the substance of a discourse.” 
 
 KALAMU ’BLAH (t&l\ r K). “The 
 
 Word of God.” A title given to the Qur’an. 
 Surah ii. 70: “Already a sect of them have 
 heard the Word of God." 
 
KALIMAH 
 
 KALIMAH Lit. “The 
 
 Word.” Tlio Creed of the Muslim. 
 
 dl\ m Ml 3 
 
 Za 7/aAa ilia ’lla.hu: Muhammadan Rasulu 
 ’//ah. 
 
 “There is no deity but God: Muhammad is 
 the Apostle of God.” 
 
 The whole sentence as it stands does not 
 occur in the Qur’an; but the first part of the 
 creed, “ There is no deity but God,” is in 
 tho Suratu Muhammad, or XLViith chapter of 
 the Qur’an, verse 21 ; and the second part, 
 “Muhammad is the Apostle of God,” is in the 
 Suratu ’1-Fath, or XLVinth chapter, verse 29. 
 The first sentence is known as tho Nafy and 
 the Isbat, or the rejection (there is no deity) 
 and the affirmation (but God), and is recited 
 often as a religious office by the Sufi 
 faqlrs. 
 
 The whole creed frequently occurs in tho 
 Traditions, and is an oft-recurring clauso in 
 the daily prayer. 
 
 This Kalimah occupies a similar place in 
 the Muslim religion to the “ Shema‘ Israil ” of 
 the Hebrew Bible in the Jews’ religion. The 
 Shema ‘ (“ Hear ”) is the fourth verse of Deut. 
 vi. : “ Hear, 0 Israil, Jehovah our Elohini is 
 one Jehovah”-, which is frequently used in 
 daily morning and evening service of the 
 Jews. From the Traditions (Mishkat, book 
 
 xi. ch. 2, pt. 1) it appears that a something 
 similar to this well known symbol of tho 
 Muslim creed, was in use amongst the ancient 
 Arabians, and is still recited by Muslims, 
 amongst whom it is known as the Talbiyah: 
 “ I stand up for Thy service, O God ! There 
 is no partner with Thee.” [talbiyah.] 
 
 The recital of the kalimah is tho first of 
 the five foundations or pillars of practice, 
 and, according to the Fawa’idu 'sh-Shari‘ah, 
 every Muslim should recite it aloud at least 
 once in his lifetime, and he should understand 
 its meaning, [recital of the creed.] 
 
 KALIMATU ’L-HAZRAH (LX 
 iy=aM). The fiat of God when He 
 
 said “ Be,’’ and it was created. The word 
 kun, is therefore called the Kalimatu ’l- 
 Hazrah. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah 
 xxxvi. 82: “ His bidding is only when Ho 
 desires anything to say to it ‘ BE,’ and it is.” 
 And in about eleven other places. 
 
 KALIMATU ’SH - SHAHADAT 
 (solgAl\ <*LK). “The word of testi¬ 
 mony.” The following expression of belief ; 
 “ I bear witness that there is no deity but 
 God, and that Muhammad is His Apostle.” 
 [prayer.] 
 
 KALlMU ’LL AH (MM “ The 
 
 Converser with God.” A title given to the 
 Prophet Moses ( vide Mishkat, book xx.ii. ch. 
 
 xii. ). It is also referred to in the Qur’an, Surah 
 iv. 162: “ Moses did God speak to^con- 
 versing.” 
 
 KALISAH, KILISAH A 
 
 Christian Church. ’E/ocA/ia-ia. The word is 
 used in books of Muhammadan law for both 
 
 KATIB1T ’L-WAQIDI 261 
 
 Christian and Jewish places of worship. Tho 
 word kanisah is also used, [icanisah.] 
 
 KAMIL (J-tf). “Perfect; com¬ 
 plete.” Al-Insanu ’l-Kamil, “ the perfect man.” 
 A mystic term, [insand ’l-kamil.] 
 
 KAMILlYAH A sect of 
 
 Shi‘ah Muslims founded by Abu ’1-Kamil, who 
 said the Asahlb, or Companions of the Pro¬ 
 phot, were infidels, because they rejected tho 
 house of ‘All in forming tho Kh alifate, and 
 ho even called the Khallfah ‘All an infidel 
 because he did not claim his rights when Mu¬ 
 hammad died. (Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rlfat, in loco.) 
 
 KAN* AN (gW*). “ Canaan.” 
 
 Not mentioned by name in the Qur’an. The 
 Commentators al-Baizawi and Jalalu ’d-din, 
 say he was the son of Noah; but the author of 
 the Qfimus dictionary says he was the son of 
 Shem. (According to the Old Testament, he 
 was the son of Ham, Gen. x. 6; 1 Chron. 
 i.8.) 
 
 Ho is said to be that son of Noah who was 
 drowned, through unbelief, in the deluge. See 
 Qur’an, Surah xi. 44. [noah.] 
 
 KANlSAH A Christian 
 
 church, a Jewish synagogue, or a pagan 
 temple. It is used in the Hidayah (vol. ii 
 p. 219) for a synagogue, [churches.] 
 
 al-KANZU ’L - MAKHFl (yS3\ 
 Lit. “ The Secret Treasure.” 
 A term used by the Sufis for the essence and 
 personality of God. 
 
 KARA WAN ( 0 y*). Persian. “A 
 
 caravan.” The Arabic term is Qajilah. A 
 party of merchants proceeding on a journey 
 under the direction of a leader who is called 
 a Qajilah Bashi. 
 
 KARBALA’ (»Su/), or MASH- 
 
 HADU ’L-1IUSAIN. A city in al-Traq, cele¬ 
 brated as the scene of the martyrdom of nl- 
 Husain [al-husain] and the place of his sepul¬ 
 chre. It is fifty miles south-west of Baghdad, 
 and about six miles west of the Euphrates. 
 
 al-KARIM “The Gene¬ 
 
 rous One.” One of the ninety-nine attributes 
 of God. 
 
 KARUBIN (cjrrfj/). [cherubim.] 
 KASHF (<—AiK). The uncovering 
 
 of anything covered; manifestation. A 
 mystic term used for a revelation of any 
 secret truth to the mind of man, by the grace 
 and power of God. 
 
 KATIB An Amanuensis; 
 
 a clerk ; a secretary. In the latter sense it 
 is used for Muhammad ibn Sa‘d ibn Manl‘ 
 az-Zuhrl, the secretary to al-Waqidi. [ka- 
 tibu ’l-waqidi.] 
 
 KATIBU ’L - WAQIDI (s-rt* 
 The secretary of al-Waqidi. 
 A. Muslim historian, largely quoted by Sir 
 William Muir in his Life of Mahomet, and 
 
262 AL-KAUSAIt 
 
 also by Sprenger, and often given as an autho¬ 
 rity in the present work. 
 
 Mr. Ameer Ali in his Life of Muhammad 
 (London, 1873), couples the name of Katibu 
 l- Wdqidi with that of al- Waqidi himself, as 
 regarded by “ the Muhammadan as the least 
 trustworthy and most careless biographers of 
 Muhammad,” and quotes Ibn Khallikan in 
 support of his opinion. It is quite true that 
 Ibn Kh allikan does speak of the traditions 
 received by al-Waqidl as “ of feeble autho¬ 
 rity,” but he bears testimony to the trust¬ 
 worthiness of al- Wdqidi S' secretary in the 
 strongest terms, as will be seen in the fol¬ 
 lowing quotation, and it is manifestly unfair 
 of Mr. Ameer Ali to couple the two names 
 together in his preface :— 
 
 “ Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Saad 
 Ibn Mani az-Zuhri, was a man of the highest 
 talents, merit, and eminence. He lived for 
 some time with al-Wakidi [waqidi] in the 
 character of a secretary, and for this reason 
 he became known by the appellation of Kati- 
 bu-l-Wakidi. Amongst the masters under 
 whom he studied was Sofy&n Ibn Oyaina. 
 Traditional information was delivered on his 
 own authority by Abu Bakr Ibn Abid- 
 Dunya and Abu Muhammad al-Harith Ibn 
 Abi Osama at-Tamimi. He composed an ex¬ 
 cellent work, in fifteen volumes, on the dif¬ 
 ferent classes ( tabakdt ) of Muhammad’s com¬ 
 panions and of the Tabis. It contains also a 
 history of the khalifs brought down to his 
 own time. He left also a smaller Tabakdt. 
 His character as a veracious and trustworthy 
 historian is universally admitted. It is said 
 that the complete collection of al-Wakidi’s 
 works remained in the possession of four 
 persons, the first of whom was his secretary, 
 Muhammad ibn Saad. This distinguished 
 writer displayed great acquirements in the 
 sciences, the traditions, and traditional lite¬ 
 rature ; most of his books treat of the tradi¬ 
 tions and law. The Kliatib Abu Bakr, author 
 of the history of Baghdad, speaks of him in 
 these terms: ‘We consider Muhammad ibn 
 Saad as a man oj unimpeached integrity, and 
 the Traditions which he delivered are a proof 
 of his veracity, for in the greater part of the 
 information handed down by him, we find 
 him discussing it, passage by passage.’ He 
 was a mawla (slave) to al-Husain Ibn Abd 
 Allah Ibn Obaid Allah Ibn al-Abbas Ibn Abd 
 al-Muttalib. He died at Baghdad on Sunday 
 the 4th of the latter Jumada, a.h. 203 (De¬ 
 cember, a.d. 818), at the age of sixty-two 
 years, and was interred in the cemetery out¬ 
 side the Damascus gate (Bab as-Sham.)”— 
 (Ibn Khallikan, Biog. Diet., in loco.) 
 
 AL-KAUSAR Lit. “ Abun¬ 
 
 dance.” A pond in Muhammad’s paradise 
 known as the Hauzu ’l-Kaugar, or “ The 
 Pond of Abundance.” 
 
 The word occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah 
 cviii. 1-3:— 
 
 “ Truly we have given thee an abun¬ 
 dance (i.e. al-Kausar ); 
 
 “ Pray therefore to the Lord, and slay the 
 victims, 
 
 KHADIJAH 
 
 “ Verily whoso hateth thee shall be child¬ 
 less.” 
 
 But it is not clear whether the jiond is in¬ 
 tended in this verse. Al-Baizawi thinks it 
 refers to abundance of blessings and not to 
 the pond. 
 
 Anas relates that the Projihet said the pro¬ 
 phet saw the pond al-Kausar in the night of 
 his Mi‘raj or heavenly journey [mi‘raj] and 
 that it “ was a river of water on each side of 
 which there were domes, each formed of a 
 hollow pearl.” 
 
 ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Amr relates that the Pro¬ 
 phet said “ the circumference of al-Kausar 
 is a month’s journey, and it is a square, its 
 water whiter than milk, its smell sweeter 
 than musk, and its cups for drinking sparkle 
 like the stars of heaven. He who drinks of 
 its waters shall never thirst.” {Mislikdt, 
 book xxiii. ch. xii.) 
 
 KHABAE-I-WAHID ^). 
 
 A term used in the Traditions for a tradition 
 related by one person and handed down by 
 one chain of narrators, [tradition.] 
 
 KHABAR MUTAWATIE 
 y\yo»). A term used for a tra¬ 
 dition which is handed down by very many 
 distinct chains of narrators, and which has 
 been always accepted as authentic and ge¬ 
 nuine, no doubt ever having been raised 
 against it. 
 
 Syud Ahmad Khan says all learned Mus¬ 
 lims of every period have declared the Qur’an 
 is the only Hadis Mutawatir, but some have 
 declared certain Ahadis also to be Muta¬ 
 watir, the number of such not exceeding five. 
 {Essay on the Traditions, p. 15.) [tradi¬ 
 tions.] 
 
 KHABIS “ Impure; 
 
 base; wicked.” 
 
 Qur’an viii. 38: “ That God may distin¬ 
 guish the vile from the good, and may put 
 the vile one on the top of the other, and 
 heap all up together, and put them into hell.” 
 
 KHADl.JAII (a&>aa). Known as 
 
 Khadiiatu ’l-Kubra, “Khadijah the Great.” 
 The first wife of Muhammad, and the first 
 convert to a belief in his mission. 
 
 She was a Quraish lady of good fortune, 
 the daughter of Khuwailid, who was the 
 great grandson of Qusaiy. Before she mar¬ 
 ried Muhammad, she was a widow who had 
 been twice married, and had borne two sons 
 and a daughter. Upon her marriage with 
 Muhammad, she had attained her fortieth 
 year, whilst he was only twenty-five years of 
 age. She continued to be his only wife until 
 the day of her death. She died December, 
 a.d. 619, aged 65; having been his coun¬ 
 sellor and support for five-and-twenty years. 
 She had borne Muhammad two sons and four 
 daughters: al-Qasim, and ‘Abdu ’llah, also 
 called at-Taiyib and at-Tahir, Zainab, Ru- 
 qaiyah, Fatimah, and Umm Kulsum. Of 
 those, only Fatimah survived the Prophet, 
 and from her and her husband ‘All are de¬ 
 scended that posterity of Saiyids who are 
 
KHAFI 
 
 KHALIFAH 
 
 268 
 
 the subjects of such frequent petitions in the 
 khutbahs and the liturgical prayers in all 
 parts of the Muhammadan world. 
 
 Muhammad ever retained his affection for 
 Khadljah. ‘Ayishah said : “ I was never so 
 jealous of any one of tho Prophet’s wives as 
 I was of Khadljah, although I never saw her. 
 The Prophet was always talking of her, and he 
 would very often slay goats and cut them up, 
 and send pieces of them as presents to Kha- 
 dijah’s female friends. I often said to him, 
 ‘ Ono might suppose there had not been such 
 another woman as Khadljah in tho world ! ’ 
 And tho Prophet would then praise her and 
 say she was so and so, and I had children by 
 her.” ( Mishkat , book xxix. ch. xxii.) 
 
 According to a traditional saying of Mu¬ 
 hammad, Khadijah, Fatimah, the Virgin 
 Mary, and Asiyah tho wife of Pharaoh, wore 
 the four perfect women. ( Mishkat , book 
 xxiv. ch. xxix. pt. 2.) [mdhammad.] 
 
 KHAFI “Hidden.” A 
 
 term used in works on exegesis for that 
 which is hidden in its meaning, as compared 
 with that which is obvious, [quean.] 
 
 KHAIBAR A rich and 
 
 populous valley, eight stages from al- 
 Madinah, inhabited by Jews. It is cele¬ 
 brated in the history of Islam as tho scene 
 of one of Muhammad’s expeditions, a.h. 7, 
 when the chief Kinanah was slain and the 
 whole valley conquered. (See Muir’s Life of 
 Mahomet, new ed., p. 388, seqq.) 
 
 Hero the Prophet instituted mut‘ah, or 
 temporary marriage, [mut‘ah.] Here were 
 the special orders regarding clean and unclean 
 animals promulgated. Here Muhammad 
 married Safiyah, the widow of the chief of 
 Khaibar. Here Zainab, the sister of the 
 warrior Marhab, who had lost her husband, 
 her father, and her brother in battle, tried 
 to poison the Prophet with a poisoned kid. 
 The campaign of Khaibar, therefore, marks 
 an epoch in the Prophet’s history, [mcham- 
 mad.] 
 
 KHAIRAT The plural 
 
 of Khair. “Charity; good deeds.” The 
 word occurs in the Qur'an in its singular 
 form (Ichair). but in modern theological works 
 it is more frequently used in its plural 
 form. 
 
 KHAIRU ’L-QURtJN ^). 
 
 The best generations. A term used for the 
 first three generations of Muslims from the 
 time of the Prophet. Muhammad is related 
 to have said there would be three virtuous 
 generations, the one in which he lived and 
 the two following it. 
 
 KHALFIYAH (<*Uk-). A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Khalfu ’1-Khariji, who 
 maintained, contrary to the general belief, 
 that the children of idolaters will be eter¬ 
 nally damned. 
 
 KHALID (MU.). Son of al-Walld. 
 
 The famous Muhammadan general. He 
 fought against Muhammad at Uhud and de¬ 
 
 feated the Muslim army. Tho Prophet mar¬ 
 ried Maimunah, who was an aunt to Kh iilid, 
 a lady fifty-one years of age, and soon after¬ 
 wards Kh alid himsolf embraced Islam and 
 became one of its most powerful champions. 
 He led the Bedouin converts in the advance 
 on Makkah, and was present as one of the 
 chief leaders of tho Muslim army at the 
 battle of Hunain, and subsequent expeditions. 
 In the reign of Abu Bakr, he murdered 
 Malik Ibn Nuwairah, an eminent Arab chief, 
 and married his widow. The murder greatly 
 displeased the Khalifah Abu Bakr, and ho 
 would have ordered Khalid to be put to 
 death, but ‘Umar interceded for him. He 
 afterwards took tho lead in various expedi¬ 
 tions. He invaded al-‘Iriiq and Syria, took 
 Bustrah, defeated the Christians at Ajnadin, 
 commanded the Muslim army at Yarmuk, and 
 subdued the country as far as the Euphrates. 
 After the taking of Damascus, he was recalled 
 by ‘Umar, and sent to Hims and Ba‘labakk. 
 He died at Hims a.h. 18, a.d. 639. 
 
 KHALI PUN (^MU.), pi. of khalid. 
 
 “Everlasting.” A term used to express the 
 everlasting character of the joys of hoaven 
 and the torments of hell. It is used fifty 
 times in the Qur’an in this sense, [eternal 
 
 PUNISHMENT.] 
 
 KHALIFAH (AaJU), pi. KhulafcV, 
 
 from khalf. “ to leave behind.” Ancjiice, 
 “ Caliph.” A successor; a lieutenant; a 
 vicegerent, or deputy. The word is used in 
 the Qur’an for Adam, as the vicegerent of the 
 Almighty on earth. 
 
 Surah ii. 28 : “ And when thy Lord said 
 to the angels, ‘ I am about to place a vice¬ 
 gerent ( khalifah ) on the earth,’ they said, 
 ‘ Wilt Thou place therein one who will do 
 evil therein and shed blood ? ’ ” 
 
 And also for David :— 
 
 Surah xxxviii. 25 : “ O David ! verily We 
 have made thee a vicegerent ( khalifah ); 
 judge then between men with truth.” 
 
 In Muhammadanism it is the title given 
 to the successor of Muhammad, who is vested 
 with absolute authority in all matters of 
 state, both civil and religious, as long as he 
 rules in conformity with the law of the Qur’an 
 and Hadis. The word more frequently used 
 for the office in Muhammadan works of ju¬ 
 risprudence, is Imam (leader), or al-Imamu 
 ’l-A‘zarn (the great leader). It is held to be 
 an essential principle in the establishment of 
 the office, that there shall be only one Khalifah 
 at the same time; for the Prophet said: 
 “ When two Khalifahs have been set up, put 
 the last to death and preserve the other, for 
 the last is a rebel.” (Mishkat, book xvi. 
 ch. i.) 
 
 According to all Sunni Muhammadan 
 books, it is absolutely necessary that the 
 Khalifah be “ a man, an adult, a sane person, 
 a free man, a learned divine, a powerful ruler, 
 a just person, and one of the Quraish (i.e. of 
 the tribe to which the Prophet himself be¬ 
 longed). 
 
 The Shi‘ahs hold that he should be one of 
 the descendants of the Prophet’s own family; 
 
KHALIFAH 
 
 264 KHALIFAH 
 
 but this is rejected by the Sunnis and Wah¬ 
 habis. 
 
 The condition that the Khalifah should be 
 of the Quraish is very important, for thereby 
 the present Ottoman Sultans fail to establish 
 their claims to the Kh alifate (Arabic Khilafah). 
 The four immediate successors of Muhammad 
 are entitled the Khulafa'u 'r-Rashidun, or “ the 
 well-directed Kh alifahs.” According to the 
 Baghyatu 'r-Raid, only the first five Khali - 
 fahs, Abu Bakr, ‘IJmar, ‘Usman, ‘Ali, and al- 
 Hasan, are entitled to the distinction of Kha¬ 
 lifah, the others being merely Amirs, or 
 Governors. After the deaths of the first five 
 Kh alifahs. the Kh alifate, which is allowed by 
 all parties to be elective and not hereditary, 
 passed successively to the Umayades ( Bcinu 
 Umayali). The first Kh alifah of this dynasty 
 was Mu'awiyah, the grandson of Umaiyah of 
 the Quraish tribe, who received the Khalifate 
 from al-Hasan. Of the Umayades, there 
 were fourteen Kh alifahs who reigned at 
 Damascus, extending over a period from a.h. 
 41 to a.h. 132 (a.d. 661 to a.d. 750). The 
 title then passed to Abu ’l-‘Abbas, the fourth 
 in descent from al-‘Abbas, the uncle of Mu¬ 
 hammad, and the Abbaside Khalifahs, thirty- 
 seven in number, who reigned at Baghdad 
 from a.h. 132 to a.h. 656 (a.d. 750 to a.d. 
 
 1258) . 
 
 The temporal power of the Abbaside Kha¬ 
 lifahs was overthrown by Halak Khan, grand¬ 
 son of the celebrated Chenjiz Kkan, a.d. 
 1258; but for three centuries, certain de¬ 
 scendants of the Abbaside, or Baghdad 
 Khalifahs, resided in Egypt, and asserted their 
 claim to the spiritual power. The founder 
 of the present dynasty of Turkish Sultans 
 was ‘Usman (Othman), a chieftain descended 
 from the Orghuz Turks (born at Sakut, a.d. 
 
 1259) , who was at first the ruler of a small ter¬ 
 ritory in Bithynia, but who in 1299 invaded the 
 whole country of Makkah, and subsequently 
 extended his conquests to the Black Sea, 
 and whose successor, Salim (ninth in descent), 
 obtained the title of Kh alifah from one of 
 the Abbaside Khalifahs in Egypt. About 
 the year a.d. 1515 (a.h. 921), Salim I., ruler 
 of the Ottoman Turks and Emperor of Con¬ 
 stantinople, finding himself the most powerful 
 prince of his day in Islam, and wishing still 
 further to consolidate his rule, conceived the 
 idea of reviving in his own person the ex¬ 
 tinct glories of the Khalifate. He had more 
 than one claim to be considered their cham¬ 
 pion by orthodox Muhammadans, for he was 
 the grandson of that Muhammad II. who had 
 finally extinguished the Roman Empire of 
 the East; and he had himself just ended a 
 successful campaign against the heretical 
 Shah of Persia. His only rivals among Sunni 
 princes were the Muslim Emperors in India, 
 the Emperor of Morocco, and the Mameluke 
 ruler of Egypt, then known to the world as 
 par excellence, “ the Sultan.” With the two 
 former, as rulers of what were remote lands 
 of Islam, Salim seems to have troubled him¬ 
 self little, but he made war on Egypt. In 
 a.d. 1516 he invaded Syria, its outlying pro¬ 
 vince, and in A.D. 1517 he entered Cairo. 
 
 There he made prisoner the reigning Mame¬ 
 luke, Qansau ’1-Ghauri, and had him publicly 
 beheaded. 
 
 He then, in virtue of a very doubtful ces¬ 
 sion made to him of his rights by one Mu- 
 tawakkil Ibn ‘Amri ’1-Hakim, a descendant 
 of the house of al-‘Abbas, whom he found 
 living as titular Khalifah in Cairo, took to 
 himself the following style and title : Sultanu 
 ’s-Salatin wa Halcimu ’l-Hakimln, Malilcu ’l- 
 Bahrain wa Hamlyu ’l-Barrain, Khalifatu 
 ’r-Rasuli 'llah, Arniru ’l-Mu’minln, wa Sultan, 
 wa Khan ; that is: “ King of kings and Ruler 
 of rulers, Monarch of the two seas (the Me¬ 
 diterranean and the Red Sea) and Protector 
 of the two lands (al-Hijaz and Syria, the 
 holy lands of Islam), Successor (Khalifah') of 
 the Apostle of God, Ruler of the Faithful, 
 King and Chief.” It is said that he first had 
 the satisfaction of hearing his name men¬ 
 tioned in the public prayers as Khalifah 
 when he visited the Great Mosque of Zacha- 
 rias at Aleppo, on his return northwards in 
 1519. 
 
 Such are the titles still claimed by the 
 Ottoman Sultans, who arrogate to themselves 
 the position of Khalifahs and Successors to 
 the Prophet. It is, however, a mere asser¬ 
 tion ; for the title and office being elective 
 and not hereditary, it was not in the power 
 of any Khalifah to transfer it to another. 
 Force of circumstances alone has compelled 
 the ruler of the Ottoman Empire to assume 
 the position, and has induced his subjects to 
 acquiesce in the usurpation. We have not 
 seen a single work of authority, nor met 
 with a single man of learning, attempting to 
 prove that the Sultans of Turkey are rightful 
 Kh alifahs ; for the assumption of the title by 
 anyone who is not of the Quraish tribe is 
 undoubtedly illegal and heretical, as will be 
 seen from the following authorities :— 
 
 Mishkatu ’l-Masabih, book xxiv. ch. xii. : 
 “ Ibn ‘Amr relates that the Prophet of God 
 said: ‘ The Kh alifah shall be in the Quraish 
 tribe as long as there are two persons in it, 
 one to rule and another to serve.’ ” 
 
 Sharhu ’1-MuwaqiJ\ p. 606, Arabic edition, 
 Egypt: “ It is a condition that the Khalifah 
 (Imam) be of the Quraish tribe. All admit 
 this except the Kh awarij and certain Mu‘ta- 
 zilahs. We all say with the Prophet: ‘ Let the 
 Kh alifah be of the Quraish ’; and it is cer¬ 
 tain that the Companions acted upon this in¬ 
 junction, for Abu Bakr urged it as an autho¬ 
 rity upon the Ansars, on the day^of Sakhifah, 
 when the Companions were present and 
 agreed. It is, therefore, for a certainty 
 established that the Khalifah must be of the 
 Quraish.” 
 
 The Hujjatu ’llahi ’l-Balaghah, p. 335, 
 Arabic edition, Delhi: “ It is a necessary 
 condition that the Khalifah (Imam) be of 
 the Quraish tribe.” 
 
 The Kash'hafu ’l-Istilahat; A Dictionary 
 of Technical Terms. Edited by Colonel N. 
 Lees, in loco: “ The Khalifah (Imam) must 
 be a Quraish.” 
 
 It is a matter of history that the Wahhabis 
 regarded the Turkish Sultan as a usurper, 
 
KHALIFAH 
 
 KHALIFAH 
 
 when Sa‘ud took Makkah and al-Madinah in 
 1804; and to the present day, in countries 
 not under Turkish rule, the khutbah is re¬ 
 cited in behalf of the Amir, or ruler of the 
 Muslim state, iustead of the Ottoman Sultan, 
 which would not be the case if he were ac¬ 
 knowledged as a lawful Khalifah. In a col¬ 
 lection of khutbahs. entitled the Majma‘u 
 Khutab. the name of the Sultan of Turkey 
 does not once occur, although this collection 
 is much used in Muhammadan states. We 
 have seen it stated that the Sultan is prayed 
 for in Hyderabad and Bengal; but we be¬ 
 lieve it will be found, upon careful inquiry, 
 that he was not mentioned by name, until 
 very recently, in any of the mosques of India, 
 khutbahs. in which there are prayers for the 
 Ottoman Sultan by name, have been im¬ 
 ported from Constantinople. 
 
 According to Mr. W. S. Blunt, the chief 
 arguments of the Hanifite ‘Ulama’ in sup¬ 
 port of the claims of the present Ottoman 
 dynasty are:— 
 
 (1) The right of the Sword. —The Khalifate 
 being a necessity (and this all Muslims 
 admit), it was also a necessity that the de 
 facto holder of the title should be recognised 
 until a claimant with a better title should 
 appear. Now, the first qualification of a 
 claimant was, that he should make the claim, 
 and the second, that he should be supported 
 by a party ; and Salim had both claimed the 
 Khalifate and supported his pretensions at 
 the head of an army. He challenged the 
 world to produce a rival, and no rival had 
 been found. 
 
 (2) Election, that is, the sanction of a legal 
 body of elders. It was argued that, as the 
 ahlu ‘aqd (or council), had been removed 
 from al-Madinah to Damascus, and from 
 Damascus to Baghdad, and from Baghdad 
 to Cairo, so it had been once more legally 
 removed from Cairo to Constantinople. 
 Salim had brought with him to St. Sophia’s 
 some of the ‘Ulama’ (learned men) of the 
 Azhar mosque in Cairo, and these in conjunc¬ 
 tion with the Turkish ‘Ulama had elected 
 him or ratified his election. A form of elec¬ 
 tion is to the present day observed at Con¬ 
 stantinople in token of this right, and each 
 new Sultan of the house of ‘Usman, as he 
 succeeds to the temporal sovereignty of 
 Turkey, must wait before being recognised 
 as Kh alifah till he has received the sword of 
 office at the hands of the ‘Ulama’. This cere¬ 
 mony it is customary to perform in the 
 mosque of Aiyixb. 
 
 (3) Nomination. —Sultan Salim, as has been 
 already said, obtained from Mutawakkil, a 
 descendant of the Abbasides, and himself 
 titularly Khalifah. a full cession of all the 
 Khalifah rights of that family. The fact, as 
 far as it goes, is historical, and the only flaw 
 in the argument would seem to be that Mu¬ 
 tawakkil had no right thus to dispose of a 
 title to an alien, which was his own only in 
 virtue of his birth. As a precedent for nomi¬ 
 nation, they cite the act of Abu Bakr, who 
 on his death-bed recommended ‘Umar as his 
 successor in the Khalifate. 
 
 265 
 
 (4) The Guardianship of the Two Shrines 
 (Haramari), that is to say, of Makkah and 
 Jerusalem, but especially of Makkah. It has 
 been asserted by some of the ‘Ulama’, and it 
 is certainly a common opinion at the present 
 day, that the sovereignty of al-Hijaz is in 
 itself sufficient title to the Kh alifate. It 
 seems certainly to have been so considered 
 in the first age of Islam, and many a bloody 
 war was then fought for the right of protect¬ 
 ing the Baitu 'llah, but the connection of al- 
 Hijaz with the empire of the Khalifahs has 
 been too often broken to make this a very 
 tenable argument. In the tenth century, 
 Makkah was held by the Karmathian here¬ 
 tics, in the thirteenth by the Imams of San‘a’, 
 and for seven years in the present century by 
 the Wahhabis. Still the de facto sovereignty 
 of the Haramain, or two shrines, was one of 
 Salim’s pleas ; and it is one which has reap¬ 
 peared in modern arguments respecting the 
 Khalifal rights of his descendants. 
 
 (5) Possession of the Amanat , or sacred 
 relics. This last is a plea addressed to the 
 vulgar rather than to the learned ; but it is 
 one which cannot be passed by unnoticed 
 here, for it exercises a powerful influence at 
 the present day over the ignorant mass of 
 Muslims. It was asserted, and is still a pious 
 belief, that from the sack of Baghdad in 
 a.d. 1258, certain relicts of the Prophet and 
 his Companions were saved and brought to 
 Cairo, and thence transferred by Salim to 
 Constantinople. These were represented as 
 constituting the imperial insignia of office, and 
 their possession as giving a title to the suc¬ 
 cession. They consisted of the cloak of the 
 Prophet, borne by his soldiers as a standard, 
 of some hairs of the Prophet’s beard, and of 
 the sword of ‘Umar. The vulgar still believe 
 them to be preserved in the mosque of Aiyub 
 at Constantinople. (See The Future of Islam, 
 by Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, London, 1882, 
 
 p. 66.) 
 
 On the general question as to whether or 
 not an Imam, or Kh alifah. is necessary for 
 Islam, the author of the Sharhu ’l-Muwaqif 
 says, “ The appointment of an Imam (i.e. 
 Khalifah) is incumbent upon the united body 
 of Muslims, according to the orthodox law of 
 the Sunnis, although the Mu'tazilahs and 
 Zaidiyahs say it is merely expedient, but not 
 ordered by the law, whilst the Ishmailiyahs 
 and the Imamiyahs say God will Himself ap¬ 
 point an Imam for the establishment of sound 
 doctrine. Some say the appointment of an 
 Imam is only necessary when Muslims are 
 at peace amongst themselves and united, and 
 not when they are in a state of rebellion. 
 
 The arguments in favour of the absolute 
 necessity of an Imam, or Khalifah. being 
 appointed, are that in the time of Abu Bakr, 
 the first Khalifah. it was established by 
 general consent; and Abu Bakr, in his first 
 khutbah after the death of Muhammad, said : 
 
 “ Beware ! Muhammad is certainly dead, and 
 it is necessary for this religion that some 
 one should be appointed for its protection.” 
 And all the Muslims at that time consented 
 to this saying of Abu Bakr, and consequently 
 
 34 
 
266 
 
 KHALIL*'AH 
 
 KHALIFAH 
 
 in all ages Muslims have had an Imam. And 
 it is well known that without such an officer 
 Islam cannot be protected from evil, for 
 without him it is impossible to maintain the 
 orders of the Muslim law, such as marriage, 
 Jihad, punishment, and the various ordinances 
 of Islam. (Sharhu ’l-Muwaqif , p. (103.) 
 
 The following are some of the injunctions 
 of Muhammad regarding the Imam or Kh a- 
 lifah:— 
 
 “ When two Kh alifahs have been set up, 
 put the last of them to death and pi'eserve 
 the other, for the second is a rebel.” 
 
 “ He who acknowledges an Imam must 
 obey him as far as he can, and if a pretender 
 comes, kill him.” 
 
 “ Whomever God appoints as Imam, and he 
 does not protect his people, shall never smell 
 the smells of paradise.” 
 
 “ It is indispensable for every Muslim to 
 listen to, and approve the orders of the Imam, 
 whether he likes or dislikes, so long as he is 
 not ordered to sin and act contrary to law ; 
 then when he is ordered to sin, he must 
 neither attend to it nor obey it.” 
 
 “ Whoever quits obedience to the Imam 
 and divides a body of Muslims, dies like the 
 people in ignorance: and whoever takes a part 
 in an affray, without knowing the true from 
 the false, does not fight to show his religion, 
 but to aid oppression ; and if he is slain, then 
 he dies as the people of ignorance; and that 
 person who shall draw his sword u]jon my 
 people, and kill the virtuous and the vicious, 
 and not fear the killing of Muslims or those 
 protected by them, is not of me nor am I of 
 him.” 
 
 “ The Companions said, ‘ 0 Prophet 1 when 
 they are our enemies and we theirs, may 
 we not fight with them?’ He said, ‘No, 
 so long as they keep on foot the prayers 
 amongst you ’; this he repeated, ‘ Beware ! 
 he who shall be constituted your prince, see 
 if he does anything in disobedience to God; 
 and if he does, hold it in displeasure, but do 
 not withdraw yourselves from his obedience.” 
 
 “ He who forsakes obedience to the Imam, 
 will come before God on the Day of Resurrec¬ 
 tion without a proof of his faith; and he 
 who dies without having professed to the 
 Imam, dies as the people of ignorance.” 
 
 “ Prophets were the governors of the chil¬ 
 dren of Israel; when one died, another supplied 
 his place; and verily there is no prophet 
 after me, and the time is near when there 
 will be after me a great many Kh alifahs. 
 The Companions said, 1 Then what do you 
 order us ? ’ The Prophet said, ‘ Obey the 
 Khalifah, and give him his due; for verily 
 God will ask about the duty of the subject.’” 
 
 “ Beware ! you are all guardians, and you 
 will all be asked about your subjects ; then 
 the Imam is the guardian of the subject, and 
 he will be asked respecting the sxxbject; and 
 a man is as a shepherd to his own family, 
 and will be asked how they behaved, and his i 
 conduct to them; and a wife is a guardian 
 to her husband’s house and children, and 
 will be interrogated about them ; and a slave 
 is a shepherd to his master’s property, and 
 
 will be asked about it whether he took good 
 care of it or not.” 
 
 “ God never sent any prophet, nor ever 
 made any Khalifah, but had two counsellors 
 with him; one of them directing lawful 
 deeds, and that is an angel, and the other, 
 in sin, and that is the devil; and he is guarded 
 from sin whom God has guarded.” ( Mishkdt , 
 book xvi. ch. i.) 
 
 I.— The Khalifahs of the Sunnis, from the 
 death of Muhammad to the present time. 
 
 (1) The four rightly directed Khalifahs, 
 and al-Hasan (at Makkah) :— 
 
 1. Abu Bakr, a.h. 11 (a.d. 632). 
 
 (Collected the Qur’an into one volume.) 
 
 2. ‘Umar, a.h. 13 (a.d. 634). 
 
 (Conquered Egypt, Syria, and Persia.) 
 
 3. ‘Usman, a.h. 23 (a.d. 643). 
 
 (Invades Cyprus ; revolt at al-Kufah.) 
 
 4. ‘Ali, a.h. 35 (a.d. 655). 
 
 (Revolt of Mu‘awiyah; ‘All assas¬ 
 sinated.) 
 
 5. Al-Hasan, a.h. 40 (a.d. 660). 
 
 (Resigns; poisoned.) 
 
 (2) Umaiyade dynasty. The Banff Umai- 
 yah (at Damascus) :— 
 
 1. Mu'awiyah I., a.h. 41 (a.d. 661). 
 
 (Siege of Constantinople; makes Da¬ 
 mascus the capital.) 
 
 2. Yazid I., a.h. 60 (a.d. 679). 
 
 (Destruction of al-Husain’s party and 
 his death.) 
 
 3. Mu‘awiyah II., a.h. 64. (a.d. 683). 
 
 (Deposed.) 
 
 4. Marwan I., a.h. 64 (a.d. 683). 
 
 (Poisoned.) 
 
 5. ‘Abdu ’1-Malik, a.h. 65 (a.d. 684). 
 
 (Arabian money first coined.) 
 
 6. Al-Walid I., a.h. 86 (a.d. 705). 
 
 (Conquest of Africa, Spain, Bukharah.) 
 
 7. Sulaiman, a.h. 96 (a.d. 715). 
 
 (Defeated before Constantinople; dies 
 of grief.) 
 
 8. ‘Umar (Omer), a.h. 99 (a.d. 717), 
 
 (Poisoned.) 
 
 9. Yazid II., a.h. 101 (a.d. 720). 
 
 (His generals successful in war.) 
 
 10. Hisham, a.h. 105 (a.d. 724). 
 
 (Charles Martel checks the conquest of 
 the Arabs in the West; rise of the 
 Abbasides.) 
 
 11. Al-Walid II., a.h. 125 (a.d. 743). 
 
 (Slain by conspirators.) 
 
 12. Yazid III., a.h. 126 (a.d. 744). 
 
 (Died of the plague.) 
 
 13. Ibrahim, a.h. 126 (a.d. 744). 
 
 (Deposed.) 
 
 14. Marwan, a.h. 127 (a.d. 744). 
 
 (Defeated by the Abbasides, pursued 
 to Egypt, and slain on the banks of the 
 Nile.) 
 
 The end of the Umayah dynasty, a.h. 132 
 (a.d. 749). 
 
 (3) The Abbaside dynasty. Ad-Daulatu ’1- 
 ‘Abbaslyah (at Baghdad and Saumara). 
 
 1. Abff ’l-‘Abbas as-Saffah, a.h. 132 (a.d. 750). 
 
 (Resides at al-Kufah.) 
 
 2. Al-Mansffr, a.h. 136 (a.d. 754). 
 
 (Abdu ’r-Rahman, the Umaiyah Kha¬ 
 lifah seizes Spain: Baghdad founded). 
 
KHALIFAH 
 
 KHALLFAH 
 
 267 
 
 3. Al-Mahdl, a.h. 158 (a.d. 775). 
 
 (Conquers Nicomedia on Sea of Mar¬ 
 mora, making the Empress Irene pay- 
 tribute.) 
 
 4. Al-Hadi, a.h. 1G9 (a.d. 785). 
 
 5. Harunu ’r-Rashid, a.h. 170 (a.h. 786). 
 
 (The hero of Arabian Nights; a flou¬ 
 rishing period of Arabian literature.) 
 
 6. Al-Amin, a.h. 193 (a.d. 809). 
 
 7. Al-Ma’mun, a.h. 198 (a.d. 813). 
 
 (The Augustan period of Arabian 
 letters.) 
 
 8. Al-Mu‘tasim, a.h. 218 (a.d. 833). 
 
 (Makes the city of Saumara his 
 capital; decline of the Khalifate.) 
 
 9. Al-Wasiq, a.h. 227 (a.d. 841). 
 
 10. Al-Mutawakkil, a.h. 232 (a.d. 847). 
 
 (A persecutor of the Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians ; murdered.) 
 
 11. Al-Muntasir, ah. 247 (a.d. 861). 
 
 12. Al-Musta‘In, a.h. 248 (a.d. 862). 
 
 13. Al-Mu‘tazz, a.h. 252 (a.d. 866). 
 
 14. Al-MuhtadI, a#= 255 (a.d. 869). 
 
 15. Al-Mu‘tamid, a.h. 256 (a.d. 870). 
 
 (Re-establishes the capital at Baghdad.) 
 
 16. Mu‘tazid, a.h. 279 (a.d. 892). 
 
 (Conquers Persia; Ismail Samain 
 seizes Turkistan from the Khallfah.) 
 
 17. Al-Muktafi I., a.h. 289 (a.d. 902). 
 
 (Ismail Samain seizes Persia from the 
 Kh allfah.) 
 
 18. Al-Muqtadir, a.h. 295 (a.d. 908). 
 
 (The Fatimites in Egypt.) 
 
 19. Al-Qahir, a.h. 320 (a.d. 932). 
 
 (Blinded and deposed.) 
 
 20. Ar-Razi, a.h. 322 (a.d. 934). 
 
 (The last of the Kh alifahs who ever 
 recited the khutbah.) 
 
 21. Al-Muttaqi, a.h. 329 (a.d. 940). 
 
 (Decline of the Abbasides.) 
 
 22. Al-Mustakfl, a.h. 333 (a.d. 944). 
 
 23. Al-Muti‘, a.h. 334 (a d. 945). 
 
 (The Fatimate Khalifahs seize all 
 North Africa and Egypt.) 
 
 24. At-Tai‘, a.h. 363 (a.d. 974). 
 
 (Deposed.) 
 
 25. Al-Qadir, a.h. 381 (a.d. 991). 
 
 (Mahmud of Ghazni conquers India.) 
 
 26. Al-Qii’im, a.h. 422 (a.d. 1031). 
 
 (Rise of the Seljukian Turks.) 
 
 27. Al-Muqtadi, a.h. 467 (a.d. 1075). 
 
 (The first crusade; rise of Hasan 
 Jubah, and his followers the Assassins.) 
 
 28. Al-Musta‘zir, a.h. 487 (a.d. 1094). 
 
 (Jerusalem taken by the Fatimites.) 
 
 29. Al-Mustarshid, a.h. 512 (a.d. 1118). 
 
 (Murdered by the Assassins.) 
 
 30. Ar-Rashid, a.h. 529 (a.d, 1135). 
 
 (Murdered by the Assassins.) 
 
 31. Al-Muktafi II., a.h. 530 (a.d. 1136). 
 
 (Defeated by the Turks; second 
 crusade, a.d. 1146.) 
 
 32. Al-Mustanjid, a.h. 555 (a.d. 1160). 
 
 (Disorders in Persia.) 
 
 33. Al-Mustahdi, a.h. 566 (a.d. 1170). 
 
 (Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt, con¬ 
 quers Syria.) 
 
 34. An-Nasir, a.h. 575 (a.d. 1180). 
 
 (Conquests of Jengiz Khan; third 
 crusade, a.d. 1189.) 
 
 35. Az-Zahir, a.h. 622 (a.d. 1225). 
 
 36. Ai-Mustansir, a.h. 623 (a.d. 1226). 
 
 (Persia subject to the Moghuls.) 
 
 37. Al-Musta‘sim, a.h. 640 (a.d. 1240). 
 
 (Halaku, the Turk, a grandson of 
 Jengiz Khan, takes Baghdad and puts 
 the Khallfah to death, a.h. 656 (a.d. 1258). 
 The uncle of the last Khallfah goes to 
 Egypt, while the Kh alifate continues 
 only as a spiritual power. 
 
 (4) The ‘Usman, or Turk Dynasty (at 
 Constantinople). 
 
 1. ‘Usman I. (Otliman), a.d. 1299. 
 
 2. Urkhan. a.d. 1326. 
 
 3. Murad (Amurath), a.d. 1360. 
 
 4. Bayazid I., a.d. 1389. 
 
 5. Suiaiman I., a.d. 1402. 
 
 6. Musa, a.d. 1410. 
 
 7. Muhammad I., a.d. 1413. 
 
 8. Murad II., a.d. 1421. 
 
 9. Muhammad II., a.d. 1451. 
 
 10. Bayazid II., a.d. 1481. 
 
 11. Salim I. (Selim), a.d. 1512. 
 
 (Assumes the title of Khallfah.) 
 
 12. Suiaiman II., a.d. 1520. 
 
 13. Salim II., a.d. 1566. 
 
 14. Murad III., a.d. 1574. 
 
 15. Muhammad III., a.d. 1595. 
 
 16. Ahmad I., a.d. 1603. 
 
 17. Mustafa I., a.d. 1617. 
 
 (Deposed in favour of his nephew.) 
 
 18. ‘Usman II., a.d. 1618. 
 
 19. Mustafa I., a.d. 1622. 
 
 (Restored and again deposed.) 
 
 20. Murad IV., a.d. 1623. 
 
 21. Ibrahim, a.d. 1640. 
 
 22. Muhammad IV., a.d. 1649. 
 
 23. Suiaiman III., a.d. 1687. 
 
 24. Ahmad II., a.d. 1691. 
 
 25. Mustafa II.. a.d. 1695. 
 
 26. Ahmad III., a.d. 1703. 
 
 27. Mahmud I., a.d. 1730. 
 
 28. ‘Usman III., a d. 1754. 
 
 29. Mustafa III., a.d. 1757. 
 
 30. ‘Abdu ’1-Hamid I., 1774. 
 
 31. Salim III., a.d 1788. 
 
 32. Mustafa IV., a.d. 1807. 
 
 33. Mahmud II., 1808. 
 
 34. ‘Abdu ’1-Majid, a.d. 1839. 
 
 35. ‘Abdu ’l-‘Aziz, a.d. 1861. 
 
 36. Murad V., a.d. 1876. 
 
 37. ‘Abdu ’1-Hamid, a.d. 1876. 
 
 II.— The Shl‘ahs only regard those as 
 rightful Imams (they do not use the word 
 Khallfah) who are descended from ‘All (the 
 son-in-law of the Prophet) and his wife Fa- 
 timah, the Prophet’s daughter. According 
 to their traditions, Muhammad distinctly 
 nominated ‘All as his successor when he was 
 returning from his farewell pilgrimage. They 
 say, that on his way to al-Madinah, the Pro¬ 
 phet, with ‘All and certain other of the Com¬ 
 panions stayed at a place called Ghadiri-i- 
 Khum. And that ir was here revealed by 
 Gabriel that he should nominate ‘All as his 
 successor. He is related to have said, “ O 
 ye people, I am your Prophet and ‘All is my 
 successor. From us (i.e. ‘All and my 
 daughter) shall descend al-Mahdi, the seal 
 
268 
 
 KHALTFAH 
 
 KHALIFAH 
 
 of the Imams.” (See Hayatu ’l-Qulub, p. 
 334.) 
 
 According to the Shi‘ahs, there have only 
 been twelve lawful Imams :— 
 
 1. ‘All, son-in-law of Muhammad. 
 
 2. Al-Hasan, eldest son of ‘All and Fatimah. 
 
 3. Al-Husain, the second son of ‘All and 
 Fatimah. 
 
 4. Zainu ’l-‘Abidin, son of al-Husain. 
 
 _5. Muhammad al-Baqir, son of Zainu ’1- 
 ‘Abidln. 
 
 6. Ja‘faru ’s-Sadiq, son of Muhammad al- 
 Baqir. 
 
 7. Musa ’1-Kazim, son of Ja‘far. 
 
 8. ‘All ar-Raza, son of Musa. 
 
 9. Muhammad at-Taql, son of ‘All ar-Raza. 
 
 10. ‘All an-Naqi, son of at-Taql. 
 
 11. Al-Hasan al-‘AskarI, son of ‘All. 
 
 12. Muhammad, son of al- Askari, or the 
 Imam Mahdi, who is supposed to be still 
 alive, although he has withdrawn himself 
 from the world, and that he will appear 
 again as al-Mahdi, the Director, in the last 
 days, [al-mahdi.] 
 
 The Kings of Persia have never claimed to be 
 in any sense the successors of the Prophet. 
 
 Sultan Mahmud ‘Abdu ’llah (a.ii. 706, a.d. 
 1306), was the first monarch of Persia who 
 proclaimed himself a Shi‘ah. 
 
 III.— The b'atimide Khalifahs were a dy¬ 
 nasty who claimed the Khalifate in the reign 
 of the Abbaside Kh alifah Muqtadir, their 
 founder, ‘Ubaidu ’llah, pretending to be al- 
 Mahdi, “ The Director,” and a descendant of 
 Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet. They 
 reigned over Egypt and North Africa from 
 a.d. 910 to a.d. 1171, and were in all fourteen 
 Kh alifahs. 
 
 1. ‘Ubaidu ’llah, a.d. 910. 
 
 (Ravaged the coasts of Italy and 
 invaded Egypt several times.) 
 
 2. Al-Qa’im, a.d. 933. 
 
 3. Al-Mansur, a.d. 946. 
 
 4. Al-Mu‘izz, a.d. 955. 
 
 (Established the Khalifate of the Fa- 
 timides in Egypt; defeated in Spain; 
 took Sicily; founded Cairo ; conquered 
 Syria and Palestine.) 
 
 5. Al-‘Aziz, a.d. 978. 
 
 (Married a Christian woman, whose 
 brothers he made Patriarchs of Alexan¬ 
 dria and Jerusalem.) 
 
 6. Al-Hakim, a.d. 996. 
 
 (Persecuted Jews and Christians.) 
 
 7. Az-Zahir, a.d. 1021. 
 
 (The power of the Fatimides declines.) 
 
 8. Al-Mustansir, a.d. 1037. 
 
 (The rise of the Turks.) 
 
 9. Al-Musta‘li, a.d. 1094. 
 
 (Defeated by the Crusaders.) 
 
 10. Al-Amlr, a.d. 1101. 
 
 11. Al-Haflz, a.d. 1129. 
 
 12. Az-Zafir, a.d. 1149. 
 
 13. Al-Fa'iz, a.d. 1154. 
 
 14. Al-Azid, a.d. 1160. 
 
 (The last of the Fatimide Khalifahs. 
 His Wazir, Nuru ’d-din, on the death of 
 his master, submits to the Abbaside 
 Khalifah Mustahdi, a.d. 1171.) 
 [fatimiyah.] 
 
 IV.— The Khalifate of Cordova in Spain 
 was founded by a descendant of the deposed 
 Umaiyah dynasty, ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman ibn 
 Mu‘awiyah. Muslim Amirs had ruled at 
 Cordova from a.d. 711, when Tarik and Musa 
 came over from Africa and invaded Spain. 
 But ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman was the first to assume 
 the title of Khalifah. 
 
 The following is a list of the Kh alifahs of 
 Cordova and Granada from a.d. 755 to the 
 fall of Granada, a.d. 1492 :— 
 
 1. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman I., a.d. 755. 
 
 (Cordova embellished and the Mazquita 
 erected.) 
 
 2. Hisham I., a.d. 786. 
 
 3. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman II., a.d. 786. 
 
 4. Al-Hakam I., a.d. 796. 
 
 (Surnamed “ The Cruel.”) 
 
 5. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman III., a.d. 821. 
 
 (Christians persecuted.) 
 
 6. Muhammad I., a.d. 852. 
 
 (Alfonso the Great obtains victories.) 
 
 7. Al-Munayyir, a.d. 886. 
 
 8. ‘Abdu ’115h, a.d. 888. 
 
 (Flourishing period of literature and 
 science at Cordova.) 
 
 9. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman IV., a.d. 912. 
 
 (The heroic age of Spain.) 
 
 10. Al-Hakam II., a.d. 961. 
 
 11. Hisham II., a.d. 976. 
 
 12. Sulaiman, a.d. 1012. 
 
 (Defeated and executed by ‘All.) 
 
 13. ‘All, a.d. 1015. 
 
 14. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman V., a.d. 1017. 
 
 15. Al-Qasim, a.d. 1018. 
 
 16. ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman VI., a.d. 1023. 
 
 17. Muhammad IL, a.d. 1023. 
 
 18. Hisham III., a.d. 1026. 
 
 (Esteemed for his equitable and hu¬ 
 mane government.) 
 
 19. Jawahir, a.d. 1031. 
 
 20. Muhammad III., a.d. 1044. 
 
 21. Muhammad IV., a.d. 1060. 
 
 22. Muhammad V., a.d. 1069. 
 
 (Siege of Toledo, a.d. 1082.) 
 
 23. Yusuf I., a.d. 1094. 
 
 24. ‘Ali, a.d. 1107. 
 
 25. Tashifln, a.d. 1144. 
 
 26. ‘Abdu ’1-Mun‘im, a.d. 1147. 
 
 27. Yusuf II., a.d. 1163. 
 
 28. Ya‘qub I., a.d. 1178. 
 
 29. Muhammad VI., a.d. 1199. 
 
 30. Ya‘qub II., a.d. 1213. 
 
 31. Abu Ya‘qub, a.d. 1213. 
 
 32. Abu Malik, a.d. 1223. 
 
 33. Al-Ma’nun, a.d. 1225. 
 
 (Died in Morocco.) 
 
 34. Abu ‘Ali, a.d. 1225. 
 
 (Cordova surprised by Ferdinand of 
 Leon and Castile, and taken. The fall 
 of the Kh alifate of Cordova, a.d. 1236. 
 A Khalifate established by the Moors at 
 Granada.) 
 
 The Khalifahs or Sultans of Granada. 
 
 35. Muhammad I., a.d. 1238. 
 
 (Encourages literature.) 
 
 36. Muhammad II., a.d. 1273. 
 
 37. Muhammad III., a.d. 1302. 
 
KHALILU ’LLAH 
 
 KHASHYAH 
 
 269 
 
 38. An-Nasir, a.d. 1309. 
 
 39. Isma‘Il L, a.d. 1313. 
 
 40. Muhammad. IV., a.d. 1325. 
 
 41. Yusuf I., a.d. 1333. 
 
 42. Muhammad V., a.d. 1354. 
 
 43. Isma‘11 II., a.d. 1359. 
 
 44. Abu Sa‘Id, a.d. 1300. 
 
 45. Yusuf II., a.d. 1391. 
 
 40. Muhammad VI., a.d. 1396. 
 
 47. Yusuf III., a.d. 1408. 
 
 48. Muhammad VII., a.d. 1423. 
 
 49. Muhammad VIII., a.d. 1427. 
 
 50. Muhammad VII. (restored), a.d. 1429. 
 
 51. Yusuf IV., a.d. 1432. 
 
 52. Muhammad VII. (again restored), a.d. 
 
 1432. 
 
 53. Muhammad IX., a.d. 1445. 
 
 54. Muhammad X., a.d. 1454. 
 
 55. ‘All, a.d. 1463. 
 
 56. Abu ‘Abdi ’Hah, a.d. 1483. 
 
 57. ‘Abdu ’llah az-Zaggal, a.d. 1484. 
 
 (The fall of Granada, and the conso¬ 
 lidation of the Spanish Monarchy, a.d. 
 1492.) 
 
 Thus, amidst the acclammations of Chris¬ 
 tendom, Ferdinand and Isabella planted the 
 symbol of Christian faith on the walls of 
 Granada, and proclaimed the destruction of 
 Muhammadan rule in Spain. 
 
 KHALILU ’LLAH (alK JAA). 
 
 “ The friend of God.” A title given to 
 Abraham in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 124: “ For 
 God took Abraham as his friend.” 
 
 With regard to this verse, al-Baizawi 
 says : “ Abraham in a time of dearth sent to 
 a friend of his in Egypt for a supply of corn: 
 but the friend denied him, saying, in his ex¬ 
 cuse, that though there was a famine in their 
 country also, yet, had it been for Abraham’s 
 own family, he would have sent what he de¬ 
 sired, but he knew he wanted it only to 
 entertain his guests, and give away' to the 
 poor, according to his usual hospitality. The 
 servants whom Abraham had sent on this 
 message, being ashamed to return empty, to 
 conceal the matter from their neighbours, 
 filled their sacks with fine white sand, which 
 in the East pretty much resembles meal. 
 Abraham being informed by his servants on 
 their return of their ill success, the concern 
 he was under threw him into a sleep , and in 
 the meantime Sarah, knowing nothing of 
 what had happened, opening one of the 
 sacks, found good flour in it, and immediately 
 set to making bread. Abraham awaking, and 
 smelling the new bread, asked her whence 
 she had the flour. ‘ Why,’ says she, 1 from 
 your friend in Egypt.’ ‘ Nay,’ replied the 
 patriarch, ‘ it must have come from no other 
 than my friend, God Almighty.’ ” [abraham.] 
 
 KHAMR The word used 
 
 in the Qur’an for wine or anything that in¬ 
 toxicates. 
 
 Surah ii. 216: “ They will ask thee about 
 wine (khamr ). and games of chance: say in 
 both is sin and profit to men, but the sin of 
 both is greater than the profit of the same.” 
 By the orthodox, the term khamr is gene¬ 
 
 rally held to include not only alcoholic drinks, 
 but opium and other narcotics. Some under¬ 
 stand it to include tobacco; hence the de¬ 
 struction of tobacco pipes in the streets of 
 Maklcah by the Wahhabis, [wahhabi.] 
 
 KHAN (mU»). Persian. “A ruler; 
 a chief.” A term used for the supreme ruler 
 of small countries or provinces. The Khan 
 of the Tartars. It is also one of the titles 
 of the Sultan of Turkey. It is also used for 
 a caravansary or inn, being a corruption of 
 the Persian khanah . “ a home.” 
 
 al-KHANNAS (u-L*;!!). A demon 
 
 mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah cxiv. (the 
 last chapter):— 
 
 “ Say : I betake me for refuge to the Lord 
 of men, 
 
 “ The King of men, 
 
 “ The God of men, 
 
 “ Against the mischief of the stealthily 
 withdrawing whisperer (al-khannas ). 
 
 “ Who whispereth in man’s breast— 
 
 “ Against genii and men.” 
 
 KHANZAB (s-*)A=»). A demon who 
 
 I casts doubt at the time of prayer. ‘Usman 
 i ibn Abi T-‘AsI relates that he came to the 
 Prophet and complained that he was dis¬ 
 turbed by the devil during prayers. The 
 Prophet said, “ This is a demon called Khan- 
 zab who disturbs prayer. When you are 
 aware of any such disturbance, seek pro¬ 
 tection of God and spit over your left shoulder 
 three times.” ‘Usman did so, and all doubt 
 I and perplexity was dispelled. 
 
 KH.ARABAT (u^y.). “ A wine¬ 
 shop or tavern.” A mystic term for the 
 society of the Murshid, or inspired teacher. 
 See Dman-i-Hafiz (Bicknell’s edition, p. 
 212 ):— 
 
 “ Within the Magian’s house of wine our 
 Maker’s light I see.” 
 
 “ Behold this marvel, what a light and 
 where that sight I see.” 
 
 KHARAJ (s\y=*). A tax, or tribute 
 
 on land. This was originally applied to a 
 land tribute from non-Muslim tribes ( Hidayah, 
 vol. ii. p. 204), but it is now used for a tax, 
 or land-rent due to the State. Ld-khardj is 
 a term used for lands exempt from any such 
 payment. 
 
 IfflARQU ’L-‘ADAH (SoUn 
 
 Lit. “ The splitting of Nature.” That which 
 is contrary to the usual course of nature. A 
 term use for miracles. Either (1) Mujizah, 
 miracles worked by Prophets ; or (2) Kara- 
 mah, wonders performed by walls or saints ; 
 or (3) Istidraj, wonders worked by the power 
 of Satan, [miracles.] 
 
 KHASHYAH (a_*_4u_£,). «p ea r.” 
 
 Khashyatu 'llah, “ The fear of God,” is an 
 expression which occurs in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 69: “ There arc- some that fall 
 down for fear of God.” 
 
 Surah iv. 79: “A portion of them fear 
 men as with the fear of God, or with a yet 
 greater fear,” 
 
270 
 
 KHASR 
 
 KHIL‘AH 
 
 KHASR (f*). Lit. “ The middle 
 
 or waist.’’ An act forbidden in prayer, as 
 related by Abu Hurairah, who said: “ The 
 Prophet forbade Khasr in prayer.” ( MishJcat , 
 book iv. ch. xx.) It is generally held to be 
 the act of holding the waist with the hands 
 to relieve the sensation of fatigue experienced 
 in the position of standing. Some divines 
 believe it to be a prohibition to lean on a 
 mikhsarah, or staff, in prayer, whilst others 
 give to it the sense of cutting short the 
 verbal forms of prayer, or remaining too short 
 a time in the prescribed attitude. (Shaikh 
 ‘Abdu ’l-Haqq.) 
 
 KHASS(mpW-). “Special” asdistin- 
 guished from ‘Amm, “ general.” A term fre¬ 
 quently used by Muhammadan writers and in 
 treatises on exegesis. 
 
 KHATIMU ’N-NABlYlN 
 
 “The seal of the Prophets.” 
 
 A title assumed by Muhammad in the Qur’an. 
 Surah xxxiii. 40: “ He is the Apostle of God 
 and the seal of the Prophets .” By which is 
 meant, that he is the last of the Prophets. 
 
 KHATIMU ’N-NABUWAH 
 
 “ The seal of prophecy.” A 
 
 term used for the large mole or fleshy pro¬ 
 tuberance on Muhammad’s back, which is 
 said to have been a divine sign of his pro¬ 
 phetic office. 
 
 ‘Abdu ’Hah ibn Sarjis describes it as being 
 as large as his closed fist, with moles round 
 about it. Abu Rarnsah wanted to remove 
 it, but Muhammad refused saying, “ The 
 Physician thereof is He who placed it there.” 
 
 KHATIR (r-h^). “Mind; con¬ 
 science.” A term used by mystic teachers. 
 Khatir is said to be of four kinds : Al-Khatiru 
 ’ r-Rabbani , “ conscience inspired of God ”; 
 al-Khatiru ’ l-Malaki , “ conscience inspired by 
 angels ” ; al-Khatiru ’n-Nafsanif a conscience 
 inspired by the flesh ”; al-Khatiru ’ sh-Shai- 
 tani, “ a conscience inspired by the devil.” 
 
 (Kitabu H-Ta‘rifdt, in loco.) 
 
 KHATMAH An epilogue, 
 
 but more generally a recitation of the whole 
 of the Qur’an. (Kha tnu “ concluding.”) 
 
 Mr. Lane in his Arabian Nights (vol. i. 
 p. 382), says the most approved and common 
 mode of entertaining guests at modern pri¬ 
 vate festivities, is by a khatmah , which is the 
 recitation of the whole of the Qur’an. Their 
 mode of recitation is a peculiar chanting. 
 
 KHATN A legal term for 
 
 the husbands of female relations within the 
 prohibited degrees. It likewise includes all 
 the relations of these husbands. ( Hidayah , 
 vol. iv. p. 518.) 
 
 KHATNAH (k*.). [circumci¬ 
 sion.] 
 
 KHATT (M. A line ; a letter of 
 
 the alphabet; an epistle. (1) A figure drawn t 
 by exorcists making an incantation. (2) 
 Khatt-i-Sharif, “royal letters; a diploma.” I 
 
 (3) ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Abbas says a khatt, or 
 “ letter,” is the language of the hand, and its 
 divine origin is stated in the Qur’an, Surah 
 xcvi. 4: “ Who hath taught us the use of the 
 pen.” It is said Adam first wrote with his 
 linger in the dust, but others say it was 
 Idris. The same traditionist says the first 
 who invented the Arabic character, were 
 three persons of the tribe of Bulan of the 
 race of Banff Taiy. 
 
 Ibn Ishaq says there are four classes of 
 Arabic writing : the Makki, the Madani, the 
 BasrI, and the Kufl; and the first who wrote 
 the Qur’an in a clear and elegant writing, 
 was Khalid ibn Abi ’1-Haiyaj, and that he 
 was set to the work by Sa‘d, who employed 
 him as a caligraphist for the Khalifah Walid 
 ibn ‘Abdi ’1-Malik, a.h. 86, and that Khalid 
 wrote it in what is now called the Kufic cha¬ 
 racter. (Khashfu ’ z-Zunun , Fliigel’s ed., vol. 
 iii. p. 149.) 
 
 KHAUF (.Jji). “Fear.” Gene¬ 
 rally used for the fear of God. ‘Abdu ’llah 
 ibn Mas‘ud relates that Muhammad said: 
 “There is no Muslim whose eyes shed tears, 
 although they be as small as the head of a 
 fly, from fear of God, but shall escape hell 
 fire.” ( Mishkdt , book xxii. ch. xxix. pt. 3.) 
 
 KHAWARIJ (bjVO- Lit “The 
 
 Revolters.” A sect of Muslims who affirm 
 that any man may be promoted to the dignity 
 of Khalifah, even though he be not of the 
 Quraisli tribe, provided he be elected by the 
 Muhammadan nation. The first who were 
 so-called were the 12,000 men who revolted 
 from ‘Ali after they had fought under him at 
 the battle of Siffin, and took offence at his 
 submitting the decision of his right to the 
 Kh alifate to the arbitration of men when, 
 in their opinion, it ought to have been sub¬ 
 mitted to the judgment of God They affirmed 
 that a man might be appointed Khalifah, no 
 matter of what tribe or nation, provided he 
 were a just and pious person, and that if the 
 Khalifah tinned away from the truth, he 
 might be put to death or deposed. They 
 also held that there was no absolute necessity 
 for a Kh alifah at all. In a.h. 38, large num¬ 
 bers of this sect were killed, but a few 
 escaped, and propagated their schism in dif¬ 
 ferent parts of the world, [khalifah.] 
 
 KHAZRAJ An Arabic 
 
 tribe who, at an early period of Muhammad’s 
 mission, submitted to his authority. They 
 are supposed to have settled in al-Madlnah 
 early in the fourth century. 
 
 KHIBRAH A proof; an 
 
 experiment. Practical knowledge. Ahlu 7- 
 Khibrah, persons practically acquainted with 
 any subject. 
 
 KHILAFAH The office 
 
 of Khalifah. [khalifah.] 
 
 KHIL'AH or KHIL‘AT (L^A-6.). 
 
 A dress of honour presented by a ruler to 
 an inferior, as a mark of distinction. A com¬ 
 plete khikah may include arms, or a horse, or 
 an elephant, 
 
KHILWAH 
 
 KHITBAH 
 
 KHILWAH (iiyL.). “ Privacy ; re¬ 
 tirement.” A term used by the Sufis for re¬ 
 tirement from the world for the purposes of 
 worship and meditation. 
 
 KHIKQAH (&>/-). The robe of 
 
 the faqir or ascetic. A religious habit made 
 of shreds and patches, worn by darveshes. 
 
 ( KHITBAH “ Betrothal.” 
 
 Called in Hindustani manynl. No religious 
 ceremony is enjoined by Muhammadan law, 
 but it is usual for the Maulawi or Qtizi to be 
 invited to be present to offer up a prayer for 
 a blessing on the proceeding. 
 
 The ceremony is usually accompanied with 
 great rejoicings. The following is Mrs. Meer 
 Hassan Ali’s account of a betrothal in the 
 neighbourhood of Lucknow :— 
 
 “ A very intimate friend of mine was seek¬ 
 ing for a suitable match for her son, and, 
 being much in her confidence, I was initiated 
 in all the mysteries and arrangements (accord¬ 
 ing to Musalman rule) of the affair, pending 
 the marriage of her son. 
 
 “ The young lady to be sought (wooed we 
 have it), had been described as amiable and 
 pretty—advantages as much esteemed as her 
 rank ; fortune she had none worth mention¬ 
 ing, but it was what is termed in Indian 
 society a good and equal match. The over¬ 
 ture was, therefore, to be made from the 
 youth’s family in the following manner:— 
 
 “ On a silver tray covered with gold bro¬ 
 cade, and fringed with silver, was laid the 
 youth’s pedigree, traced by a neat writer in 
 the Persian character, on richly embossed 
 paper, ornamented and emblazoned with gold 
 figures. The youth being a Saiyid, his pedi¬ 
 gree was traced up to Muhammad, in both 
 paternal and maternal lines, and many a hero 
 and begum of their noble blood filled up the 
 space from the Prophet down to the youthful 
 Mir Muhammad, my friend’s son. 
 
 “ On the tray, with the pedigree, was laid 
 a nazr, or offering of five gold mohurs, and 
 twenty-one (the lucky number) rupees; a 
 brocaded cover, fringed with silver, was 
 spread over the whole, and this was conveyed 
 by the male agent to the young begum’s 
 father. The tray and its contents are re¬ 
 tained for ever, if the proposal is accepted ; 
 if rejected, the parties return the whole with¬ 
 out delay, which is received as a tacit proof 
 that the suitor is rejected : no further expla¬ 
 nation is ever given or required. 
 
 “ In the present instance the tray was de¬ 
 tained, and in a few days after a female from 
 their family was sent to my friend’s house, 
 to make a general scrutiny of the zananah 
 and its inmates. This female was pressed to 
 stay a day or two, and in that time many im¬ 
 portant subjects underwent discussion. The 
 youth was introduced, and, everything accord¬ 
 ing with the views entertained by both par¬ 
 ties, the fathers met, and the marriage, it was 
 decided, should take place within a twelve- 
 month, when the young lady would have ac¬ 
 complished her thirteenth year. 
 
 “ ‘ Do you decide on having mangni per- 
 
 271 
 
 formed ? ’ is the question proposed by the 
 father of the youth to the father of the young 
 maiden. In the present case it was chosen, 
 and great were the preparations of my friend 
 to do all possible honour to the future bride 
 of her son. 
 
 “ Mangni is the first contract, by which 
 the parties are bound to fulfil their engage¬ 
 ment at an appointed time. 
 
 “ The dress for a bride differs in one mate¬ 
 rial point from the general style of Hindu¬ 
 stani costume: a sort of gown is worn, made 
 of silver tissue, or some equally expensive 
 article, about the walking length of an English 
 dress ; the skirt is open in front, and contains 
 about twenty breadths of the material, a 
 tight body, and long sleeves. The whole 
 dress is trimmed very richly with embroi¬ 
 dered trimming and silver riband; the deput- 
 tah (drapery) is made to correspond. This 
 style of dress is the original Hindoo fashion, 
 and was worn at the Court of Delhi for many 
 centuries ; but of late years it has been used 
 only on marriage festivals amongst the better 
 sort of people in Hindustan, except kings or 
 nawabs sending khillauts to females, when 
 this dress, called a jhammah, is invariably 
 one of the articles. 
 
 “ The costly dresses for the present mangni 
 my friend prepared at great expense, and 
 with much good taste ; to which were added 
 a ruby ring of great value, large gold ear¬ 
 rings, offerings of money, the flower-garlands 
 for the head, neck, wrists, and ancles, formed 
 of the sweet-scented jessamine ; choice con¬ 
 fectionery set out in trays with the pawns and 
 fruits ; the whole conveyed under an escort of 
 soldiers and servants, with a band of music, 
 from the residence of Mir Muhammad to that 
 of his bride elect, accompanied by many friends 
 of the family. These offerings from the 
 youth bind the contract with the young lady, 
 who wears his ring from that day to the end 
 of her life. 
 
 “ The poorer sort of people perform mangni 
 by the youth simply sending a rupee in a silk 
 band, to be tied on the girl’s arm. 
 
 “ Being curious to know' the whole business 
 of a wedding ceremony amongst the Musal¬ 
 man people, I was allowed to perform the 
 part of 4 officiating friend ’ on this occasion of 
 celebrating the mangni. The parents of the 
 young lady having been consulted, my visit 
 was a source of solicitude to the whole 
 family, who made every possible preparation 
 to receive me with becoming respect. I went 
 just in time to reach the gate at the moment 
 the parade arrived. I was handed to the 
 door of the zananah by the girl’s father, and 
 was soon surrounded by the young members 
 of the family, together with many lady- 
 visitors, slaves, and women-servants of the 
 establishment. They had never before seen 
 an English woman, and the novelty, I fancy, 
 surprised the whole group; they examined 
 my dress, my complexion, hair, hands, &c., 
 and looked the wonder they could not express 
 in words. The young begum was not amongst 
 the gazing throng ; some preliminary customs 
 detained her behind the purdah, where it 
 
KHITBAH 
 
 AL-KH1ZR 
 
 272 
 
 may be supposed she endured all the agony 
 of suspense and curiosity by her compliance 
 with the prescribed forms. 
 
 “ The lady of the mansion waited my ap¬ 
 proach to the great hall, with all due eti¬ 
 quette, standing to receive and embrace me 
 on my advancing towards her. This cere¬ 
 mony performed, I was invited to take a seat 
 on the carpet with her on the ground; a 
 chair had been provided for me, but I chose 
 to respect the lady’s preference, and the seat 
 on the floor suited me for the time without 
 much inconvenience. 
 
 “ After some time had been passed in con¬ 
 versation on such subjects as suited the 
 tastes of the lady of the house, I was sur¬ 
 prised at the servants entering with trays, 
 which they placed immediately before me, 
 containing a full-dress suit in the costume of 
 Hindustan. The hostess told me she had 
 prepared this dress for me, and I must con¬ 
 descend to wear it. I would have declined 
 the gaudy array, but one of her friends whis¬ 
 pered me, ‘ The custom is of long standing ; 
 when the face of a stranger is first seen, a 
 dress is always presented ; I should displease 
 Sumdun Begum by my refusal; besides, it 
 would be deemed an ill omen at the mangni 
 of the young Bohur Begum if I did not put 
 on the native dress before I saw the face of 
 the bride elect.’ These I found to be weighty 
 arguments, and felt constrained to quiet their 
 apprehensions of ill-luck by compliance; I 
 therefore forced the gold dress and the glit¬ 
 tering drapery over my other clothes, at the 
 expense of some suffering from the heat, for it 
 was at the very hottest season of the year, 
 and the hall was crowded with visitors. 
 
 “ This important point conceded to them, I 
 was led to a side hall, where the little girl 
 was seated on her carpet of rich embroidery, 
 her face resting on her knees in apparent 
 bashfulness. I could not directly ascertain 
 whether she was plain, or pretty, as the 
 female agent had represented. I was allowed 
 the privilege of decorating the young lady 
 With the sweet jessamineguinahs, and placing 
 the ring on the fore-finger of the right hand; 
 after which, the ear-rings, the gold-tissue 
 dress, the deputtah, were all in their turn put 
 on, the offering of money presented, and then 
 I had the first embrace before her mother. 
 She looked very pretty, just turned twelve. 
 If I could have prevailed on her to be cheer¬ 
 ful, I should have been much gratified to 
 have extended my visit in her apartment, but 
 the poor child , seemed ready to sink with 
 timidity; and out of compassion to the dear 
 girl, I hurried away from the hall, to relieve 
 her from the burden my presence seemed to 
 inflict, the moment I had accomplished my 
 last duty, which was to feed her with my 
 own hands, giving her seven pieces of sugar- 
 candy ; seven, on this occasion, is the lucky 
 number, I presume, as I was particularly cau¬ 
 tioned to feed her with exactly that number 
 of pieces. 
 
 “ Returning to the assembly in the dal- 
 hana; I would have gladly taken leave, but 
 there was yet one other custom to be ob¬ 
 
 served to secure a happy omen to the young 
 people’s union. Once again seated on the 
 musnud with Sumdun Begum, the female 
 slaves entered with sherbert in silver basins. 
 Each person taking sherbert is expected to 
 deposit gold or silver coins in the tray ; the 
 sherbert-money at this house is collected for 
 the bride ; and when, during the three days’ 
 performance of the marriage ceremony at the 
 bridegroom’s house, sherbert is presented to 
 the guests, the money collected there is re¬ 
 served for him. The produce of the two 
 houses is afterwards compared, and conclu¬ 
 sions drawn as to the greatest portion of 
 respect paid by the friends on either side. 
 The poor people find the sherbert-money a 
 useful fund to help them to keep house; but 
 with the rich it is a mere matter to boast of, 
 that so much money was collected in con¬ 
 sequence of the number of visitors who 
 attended the nuptials.” (Mrs. Meer Hasan 
 Ali’s Indian Musalmdns, vol. i. p. 362.) 
 
 KHIYANAH (&W-). Breach of 
 
 trust. Amputation is not incurred by a 
 breach of trust, as in the case of ordinary 
 theft, according to a saying of the Prophet 
 recorded in the Hidayah (vol. ii. p. 93). 
 
 KHIYAR (jWA). “Option.” A 
 
 term used to express a certain period after 
 the conclusion of a bargain, during which either 
 of the parties may cancel it. According to 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, it is of five kinds : (1) Khi- 
 yd.ru ’sh-Shart, optional condition ; where one 
 of the parties stipulates for a period of three 
 days or less. (2) KM.ya.ru ’l-‘Aib, ojDtion 
 from defect; the option of dissolving the 
 contract on discovery of defect. (3) Khiyd.ru 
 ’ r-Ru'yah , option of inspection; the option of 
 rejecting the thing purchased after sight. 
 (4) Khiyaru ’ uTa‘yin , option of determination ; 
 where a person, having purchased two or 
 three things of the same kind, stipulates a 
 period to make his selection. (5) Khiyaru 
 ’l-Majlis, the option of withdrawing from the 
 contract as long as the meeting of the par¬ 
 ties continues. The Hanafiyah doctors do not 
 accept the last, but it is allowed by the other 
 sects. 
 
 KHIZLAN ((flSAi). “Abandon¬ 
 ment.” The abandonment of a Muslim by 
 God. The word occurs once in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iii. 154 : “ If then God help you, none 
 shall overcome you, but if He abandon you, 
 who is he that shall help you.” 
 
 Used by a Christian, it would imply the 
 state of a person fallen from grace. 
 
 al-KHIZR (;^\). Lit. “The 
 
 green one.” The Maulawi Muhammad Tahir 
 says the learned are not agreed as to whether 
 he is a prophet or not. His real name is, accord¬ 
 ing to al-Baizawi, Balya ibn Malkan. Some say 
 he lived in the time of Abraham, and that he is 
 still alive in the flesh, and most of the reli¬ 
 gious and Sufi mystics are agreed upon this 
 point, and some have declared that they 
 have seen him; and they say he is still 
 to be seen in sacred places, such as Makkah 
 
AL-KHIZR 
 
 KHUDA1 
 
 273 
 
 or Jerusalem. Some few traditionists deny 
 his existence. Others say he is of the family 
 of Noah, and the son of a king. (Majma'u ’!- 
 Bihar , p. 250.) 
 
 His name does not occur in the Qur’an, but 
 Husain, Jalalu ’d-din, al-Baizawi, and nearly 
 all the commentators, believe that al-Khizr 
 is the mysterious individual referred to in the 
 following narrative in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xviii. 59-81: “ Remember when 
 
 Moses said to his servant, ‘ I will not stop 
 till I reach the confluence of the two seas 
 (i.e. the sea of Greece and the sea of Persia), 
 or for years will I journey on.’ But when 
 they reached their confluence, they forgot 
 their fish, and it took its way in the sea at 
 will. And when they had passed on, said 
 Moses to his servant, ‘ Bring us our morning 
 meal; for now have we incurred weariness 
 from this journey.’ He said, 1 What thinkest 
 thou ? When we repaired to the rock for 
 rest I forgot the fish; and none but Satan 
 made me forget it, so as not to mention it; 
 and it hath taken its way in the sea in a won¬ 
 drous sort.’ He said, ‘ It is this we were in 
 quest of.’ And they both went back re¬ 
 tracing their footsteps. Then found they one 
 of our servants to whom we had vouchsafed 
 our mercy, and whom we had instructed with 
 our knowledge. And Moses said to him. 
 ‘ Shall I follow thee that thou teach me, for 
 guidance, of that which thou too hast been 
 taught?’ He said, ‘Verily, thou canst not 
 have patience with me; how canst thou be 
 patient in matters whose meaning thou com- 
 prehendest not ? ’ He said, ‘ Thou shalt find 
 me patient if God please, nor will I disobey 
 thy bidding." He said, 1 Then, if thou follow 
 me, ask me not of aught until I have given 
 thee an account thereof.’ So they both went 
 on till they embarked in a ship, and he (the 
 unknown) staved it in. • What! ’ said Moses, 
 
 ‘ hast thou staved it in that thou mayest 
 drown its crew ? a strange thing now hast 
 thou done ! ’ He said, 1 Did I not tell thee 
 that thou couldst not have patience with me ? ’ 
 He said, 1 Chide me not that I forgat, nor lay 
 on me a hard command.’ Then went they on 
 till they met a youth, and he slew him. Said 
 Moses, ‘ Hast thou slain him who is free from 
 guilt of blood ? Now hast thou wrought a 
 grievous thing! ’ He said, 1 Did I not tell 
 thee that thou couldst not have patience with 
 me ? ’ Moses said. ‘ If after this I ask thee 
 aught, then let me be thy comrade no longer ; 
 but now hast thou my excuse.’ They went 
 on till they came to the people of a city. Of 
 this people they asked food, but they refused 
 them for guests. And they found in it a wall 
 that was about to fall, and he set it upright. 
 Said Moses, ‘ If thou hadst wished, for this 
 thou mightest have obtained pay.’ He said, 
 
 ‘ This is the parting point between me and 
 thee. But I will first tell thee the meaning 
 of that which thou couldst not await with 
 patience. As to the vessel, it belonged to 
 poor men who toiled upon the sea, and I was 
 minded to damage it, for in their rear was a 
 king who seized every ship by force. As to 
 the youth, his parents were believers, and we 
 
 feared lest he should trouble them by error 
 and infidelity. And we desired that their 
 Lord might give them in his place a child, 
 better than he in virtue, and nearer to filial 
 piety. And as to the wall, it belonged to two 
 orphan youths in the city, and beneath it was 
 their treasure : and their father was a right¬ 
 eous man : and thy Lord desired that they 
 should reach the age of strength, and take 
 forth their treasure through the mercy of thy 
 Lord. And not of mine own will have I 
 done this. This is the interpretation of that 
 which thou couldst not bear with patience.” 
 
 In some Muslim books he seems to be con¬ 
 founded with Elias, and in others with St. 
 George, the patron saint of England. In the 
 above quotation he is represented as the 
 companion of Moses, and the commentator 
 Husain says he was a general in the army of 
 Zu ’1-Qarnain (Alexander the Great). But as 
 al-Khizr is supposed to have discovered and 
 drunk of the fountain of life, he may be con¬ 
 temporary with any age! 
 
 KHUBAB or KHABBAB ( V U). 
 
 The son of al-Arass, the blacksmith. A 
 slave converted in the early history of Islam, 
 and one who suffered much persecution from 
 the Quraish on account of his religious 
 opinions. 
 
 When ‘Umar was Khallfah, Khubiib ibn al- 
 Arass showed him the scars of the stripes he 
 had received from the unbelieving Makkans 
 twenty or thirty years before, ‘Umar seated 
 him upon his masnad, saying that there was 
 but one man who was more worthy of this 
 favour than Khubiib. namely, Bilal, who had 
 also been sorely persecuted by the unbe¬ 
 lievers. But Khubiib replied : “ Why is he 
 more worthy than I am ? He had his friends 
 among the idolators, whom the Lord raised 
 up to help him. But I had none to help me. 
 And I well remember one day they took me 
 and kindled a fire for me, and threw me 
 therein upon my back, and a man stamped 
 with his foot upon my chest, mj' back being 
 towards the ground. And when they uncovered 
 my back, lo! it was blistered and white.” 
 (Katibu ’/- Waqidi, quoted by Sir W. Muir.) 
 
 KHUBAIB Son of ‘Ada. 
 
 One of the early martyrs of Islam. Being 
 perfidiously sold to the Quraish, he was by 
 them put to death in a most cruel manner, 
 being mutilated and impaled. When at the 
 stake and in the midst of his tortures, he was 
 asked whether he did not wish Muhammad 
 was in his place, and he answered, “ I would 
 not wish to be with my family, my substance, 
 and my children, on condition that Muham¬ 
 mad was only pricked with a thorn.” When 
 bound to the stake, his enemies said, “ Now 
 abjure Islam, and we will let you go.” He 
 replied, “Not for the whole world.” 
 
 Sir William Muir says : “ I see no reason 
 to doubt the main facts of the story.” (Lift 
 of Mahomet, new ed. p. 286.) 
 
 KHUDAI (o^), also KHUI)A 
 From the Persian M ad, 
 
 35 
 
274 
 
 IvHUDAWAND 
 
 KHUTBAH 
 
 “ self,” and di, “ coming.” The 
 Supreme Being; the Self-Existing God. 
 [god.] Khuda-parast . “ a God worshipper ” ; 
 Khuda-tars, “ a God fearer ” ; Khuda-shinas. 
 “a God knower”; Khuda-faroshan, “God 
 sellers,” i.e. hypocrites. 
 
 IvHUDAWAND A Per¬ 
 
 sian word, signifying, “lord,” “prince,” 
 “ master.” A possessor : a man of authority. 
 It is used as a title of the Deity, and by 
 Christian missionaries in India it is gene¬ 
 rally employed as a translation of the Greek 
 Kupios, “ Lord.” In the Ghiya.su ’l-Lughah, 
 it is derived from Kkuda, “ God ”; and wand, 
 “ like ” ; i.e. one like unto God. 
 
 KHUL‘ (e-Li.). An agreement 
 
 entered into for the purpose of dissolving 
 marriage. The release from the marriage 
 tie obtained by a wife upon payment of a 
 compensation or consideration. In the Hida- 
 yah it is said: “ Whenever enmity takes 
 place between husband and wife, and they 
 both see reason to apprehend the ends of 
 marriage are not likely to be answered by a 
 continuance of their union, the woman need 
 not scruple to release herself from the power 
 of her husband, by offering such a compen¬ 
 sation as may induce him to liberate her.” 
 In the event of a woman desiring this form 
 of divorce, she is not entitled to the repay¬ 
 ment of her dower. This law is laid down 
 in the Qur’an: “ If ye fear that they cannot 
 observe the ordinances of God, then no blame 
 shall attach to either of you for what the 
 wife shall herself give for her redemption.” 
 (Surah ii. 229.) 
 
 al-KHULAFA’U ’R-RASHIDUN 
 sAala&5\). “ The well-directed 
 
 Khalifahs.” A title given to the first four 
 successors of Muhammad—Abu Bakr, ‘Umar 
 (Omar), ‘Usman, and ‘All. It is generally held 
 by the Sunnis that after these four reigns, 
 Islam became corrupted, and the succession in 
 Die office of Khalifah uncertain, [khalifah.] 
 
 KHULQ (o^-). “Disposition; 
 
 temper; nature.” Qur’an, Surah Ixviii. 4: 
 “ Verily thou art of a noble nature." 
 
 KHULTlN An infusion 
 
 of dates and raisins, boiled together until 
 they ferment and become spirituous, but of 
 which a Muslim can drink without impro¬ 
 priety or sin. This is grounded on a circum¬ 
 stance relative to Ibn Ziyad, which is thus 
 related by himself : “ ‘Abdu ’llah, the son of 
 ‘Umar, having given me some sherbet to 
 drink, I became intoxicated to such a degree 
 that I knew not my own house. I went to 
 him next morning, and, having informed him of 
 the circumstance, he acquainted me that he 
 had given me nothing but a drink composed 
 of dates and raisins. Now this was certainly 
 khultin . which had undergone the operation of 
 boiling; because it is elsewhere related by 
 ‘Umar that it is unlawful in its crude state.” 
 (Hidayah , vol. iv. p. 161.) 
 
 KHULUD (jjH). “ Eternity.” 
 [eternal punishment.] 
 
 IvHUMS (u-W). “ A fifth.” The 
 
 fifth of property which is given to the Baitu 
 ’1-Mal, or public treasury. 
 
 KHUNSA [hermaphro¬ 
 
 dite.] 
 
 KHUSUF (>-). [eclipse of 
 
 the moon.] 
 
 KHUTBAH (<L.y>). The sermon 
 
 or oration delivered on Fridays at the time of 
 zuhr, or meridian prayer. It is also recited 
 on the two great festivals in the morning 
 after sunrise, [‘idu ’l-fitr, ‘idu ’l-azha.] 
 The Friday prayer and sermon are estab¬ 
 lished by an injunction in the Qur’an, Surah 
 lxii. 9 : “ 0 ye who believe ! when the call to 
 prayer is made upon the congregation day 
 ( yaumu H-juntah), then hasten to the remem¬ 
 brance of God, and leave off traffic.” By the 
 words “ remembrance of God,” most com¬ 
 mentators understand the khutbah or ser¬ 
 mon. 
 
 From the Traditions, it appears that Mu¬ 
 hammad used frequently to deliver a khut¬ 
 bah, and that it was not the studied and 
 formal oration which it has become in more 
 recent times. 
 
 Jabir says : “ When the Prophet delivered 
 the khutbah. his eyes used to be red, and his 
 voice high, and his anger raged so that you 
 would say he was warning a tribe of the ap¬ 
 proach of a hostile army, and frightening them 
 with apprehensions of its arrival thus : It is at 
 hand 1 In the evening or morning it will 
 come down upon you and plunder you! And 
 the Prophet would say, I have been sent, and 
 the Resurrection is like these two fingers, 
 and he used to join his fore-finger with the 
 next to it, as an explanation of the semblance 
 that the Resurrection was not farther off 
 than the difference of length in the two fin¬ 
 gers.” ( Mishkdt, book iv. ch. xlvi.) 
 
 On Fridays, after the usual ablutions, the 
 four Sunnah prayers are recited, and the 
 preacher, or khatib, then seats himself on the 
 pulpit, or mimbar, whilst the Mu’azzin pro¬ 
 claims azan; after which he stands up on the 
 second step and delivers the khutbah. It 
 must be in Arabic, and must include prayers 
 for Muhammad, the Companions, and the 
 king, but its composition and general struc¬ 
 ture is left to the discretion of the preacher. 
 In some countries, Egypt for example 
 (Lane’s Egyptians, vol. i. p. 107), the khatib 
 holds a wooden sword in his hand, whilst he 
 delivers the exhortation. The khutbah is 
 divided into two sections, the khutbatu ’l-wa‘z, 
 and the khutbatu 'n-na‘t, supplications being 
 made between the two sections. The fol¬ 
 lowing is a translation of a khutbah. as deli¬ 
 vered in India in the present day, from which 
 the name and titles of the reigning monarch 
 are omitted. It is the third of a series of 
 sermons published at Lucknow in a volume 
 entitled Majmcru Khutab :— 
 
KHUTBAH 
 
 KHUTBAH 
 
 •‘In the name of God, the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful. 
 
 “ Praised be God. Praised be that God 
 who hath shown ns the way in this religion. 
 If He had not guided us into the path we 
 should not have found it. 
 
 “ I bear witness that there is no deity but 
 God. He is one. He has no associate. I 
 bear witness that Muhammad is, of a truth, 
 His servant and His Apostle. May God have 
 mercy upon him, and upon his descendants, 
 and upon his companions, and give them 
 peace. 
 
 “ Pear God, 0 ye people, and fear that 
 day, the Day of Judgment, when a father will 
 not be able to answer for his son, nor the son 
 for the father. Of a truth God’s promises are 
 true. Let not this present life make you 
 proud. Let not the deceiver (Satan) lead you 
 astray. 
 
 “ 0 ye people who have believed, turn ye 
 to God, as Nasuh* did turn to God. Verily 
 God doth forgive all sin, verily He is the 
 merciful, the forgiver of sins. Verily He is 
 the most munificent, and bountiful, the King, 
 the Holy One, the Clement, the Most Mer¬ 
 ciful.” 
 
 (The preacher then descends from the pulpit, 
 and sitting on the floor o f the mosque, offers up 
 a silent prayer. He then again ascends the 
 mimhar, as before, and proceeds.') 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful. 
 
 “ Praised be God. We praise Him. We 
 seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of 
 sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in 
 Him from evil desires and from former sin¬ 
 ful actions. He who has God for His guide 
 is never lost; and whomsoever He leadeth 
 aside none can guide into the right path. 
 
 “ We bear witness that there is no deity 
 but God. He is one. He hath no partner. 
 
 “ Verily we bear witness that Muhammad 
 is the servant and apostle of God, and may 
 God have mercy upon him, who is more ex¬ 
 alted than any being. May God have mercy 
 upon his descendants, and upon his com¬ 
 panions 1 May God give them peace! 
 Especially upon Amlru ’1-Mu’minm Abu 
 Bakr as-Siddiq (may God be pleased with 
 him). And upon him who was the most 
 temperate of the ‘friends,’Amlru ’1-Mu’minin 
 ‘Umar Ibn al- Kh attab (may God be pleased 
 with him). And upon him whose modesty 
 and faith were perfect, Amlru ’1-Mu’minin 
 ‘Usman (may God be pleased with him). And 
 upon the Lion of the powerful God, Amlru ’1- 
 Mu’minin ‘AH ibn Abl-Talib (may God be 
 pleased with him). And upon the two Imams, 
 the holy ones, the two martyrs, Amiru ’1- 
 Mu’minln Abu Muhammad al-Hasan and Abu 
 ‘Abdi ’llah al-Husain (may God be pleased 
 with both of them). And upon the mother of 
 these two persons, the chief of women, Fati- 
 matu ’z-Zuhra’ (may God be pleased with 
 
 * Nasuh, is a word which occurs in the eighth, 
 verse of the Suratu 't-Tahrim (Ixvi.) in the Qur'an; 
 it is translated “ true repentance ” by Sale and 
 Rodwell, but it is supposed to be a person’s name 
 by several commentators. 
 
 275 
 
 her). And upon his (Muhammad's) two 
 uncles, Hamzah and al-‘Abbas (may God be 
 pleased with them). And upon the rest of 
 the ‘ companions,’ and upon the ‘ followers ’ 
 (may God be pleased with all of them). Of 
 Thy mercy, 0 most merciful of all merciful 
 ones, O God, forgive all Muslim men and 
 Muslim women, all male believers and all 
 female believers. Of a truth Thou art He 
 who wilt receive our prayers. 
 
 “ 0 God, help those who help the religion 
 of Muhammad. May we also exert ourselves 
 to help those who help Islam. Make those 
 weak, who weaken the religion of Muham¬ 
 mad. 
 
 “ O God, bless the ruler of the age, and 
 make him kind and favourable to the people. 
 
 “ 0 servants of God, may God have mercy 
 upon you. Verily, God enjoineth justice and 
 the doing of good, and gifts to kindred; and 
 He forbiddeth wickedness, and wrong, and 
 oppression. He warneth you that haply ye 
 may be mindful. (Surah cxvi. 92.) 
 
 “ 0 ye people, remember the great and 
 exalted God. He will also remember you. 
 He will answer your prayers. The remem¬ 
 brance of God is great, and good, and honour¬ 
 able, and noble, and meritorious, and worthy, 
 and sublime.” 
 
 A more eloquent and strikingly charac¬ 
 teristic khutbah has been translated by Mr. 
 Lane in his Modern Egyptians (vol. i. p. 107). 
 It is a New Year’s Day sermon, delivered in 
 the great mosque at Cairo, on the first 
 Friday in the year, on the occasion of Mr. 
 Lane’s first visit, and is as follows:— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful. 
 
 ‘•Praise be to God, the Renewer of Years, 
 and the Multiplier of favours, and the Creator 
 of months and days, according to the most 
 perfect wisdom and most admirable regula¬ 
 tion ; who hath dignified the months of the 
 Arabs above all other months, and hath pro¬ 
 nounced that among the more excellent of 
 them is al-Muharram the Sacred, and hath 
 commenced with it the year, as He hath 
 closed it with Zu ’1-Hijjah. How propitious 
 is the beginning, and how good is the end! 
 
 I extol His perfection, exempting Him from 
 the association of any other deity with Him 
 He hath well considered what He hath 
 formed and established what He hath 
 contrived, and He alone hath the power to 
 create and to annihilate. I praise Him, ex¬ 
 tolling His perfection, and exalting His name, 
 for the knowledge and inspiration which He 
 hath graciously vouchsafed; and I testify 
 that there is no deity but God alone ; He hath 
 no companion; He is the Most Holy King ; 
 the God of Peace; and I testify that our lord 
 and our Prophet and our friend Muhammad 
 is His servant and His Apostle, and His 
 elect, and His friend, the Guide of the Way, 
 and the lamp of the dark. 0 God, bless and 
 save and beautify this noble Prophet, and 
 chief and excellent apostle, the merciful- 
 hearted, our Lord Muhammad, and his family 
 and his companions, and his wives, and his 
 posterity, and the people of his house, the 
 
276 
 
 KHUTBAH 
 
 KHUTBAH 
 
 noble persons, and grant them ample salva¬ 
 tion. 
 
 “ 0 servants of God, your lives have been 
 gradually curtailed, and year after year hath 
 passed away, and ye are sleeping on the bed 
 of indolence, and on the pillow of iniquity. 
 Ye pass by the tombs of your predecessors, 
 and fear not the assault of destiny and de¬ 
 struction, as if others departed from the 
 world and ye must of necessity remain in it. 
 Ye rejoice at the arrival of new years, as if 
 they brought an increase to the term of life, 
 and swim in the seas of' desires, and enlarge 
 your hopes, and in every way exceed other 
 people in presumption; and ye are sluggish 
 in doing good. 0 how great a calamity is 
 this! God teacheth by an allegory. Know 
 ye not that in the curtailment of time by in¬ 
 dolence and sleep there is very great trouble ? 
 Know ye not that in the cutting short of 
 lives by the termination of years is a very 
 great warning? Know ye not that the night 
 and day divide the lives of numerous souls ? 
 Know ye not that health and capacity are 
 two blessings coveted by many men? But 
 the truth hath become manifest to him who 
 hath eyes. Ye are now between two years : 
 one year hath passed away, and come to an 
 end, with its evils; • and ye have entered 
 upon another year, in which, if it please 
 God, mankind shall be relieved. Is any of 
 you determining upon diligence in doing good 
 in the year to come ? or repenting of his 
 failings in the times that are passed? The 
 happy one is he who maketh amends for the 
 time past in the time to come; and the 
 miserable one is he whose days pass away 
 and he is careless of his time. This new year 
 hath arrived, and the sacred month of God 
 hath come with blessings to you, the first 
 of the months of the year, and of the four 
 sacred months, as hath been said, and the 
 most worthy of preference and honour and 
 reverence. Its fast is the most excellent of 
 fasts after that which is obligatory, and the 
 doing of good in it is among the most excel¬ 
 lent of the objects of desire. Whosoever de- 
 sireth to reap advantage from it, let him fast 
 the ninth and tenth days, looking for aid. 
 Abstain not from the fast through indolence, 
 and esteeming it a hardship; but comply 
 with it, in the best manner, and honour it with 
 the best of honours, and improve your time 
 by the worship of God morning and evening. 
 Turn unto God with repentance, before the 
 assault of death: He is the God who ac- 
 eepteth repentance of His servants, and par- 
 doneth sins. The Apostle of God (God bless 
 and save him) hath said, ‘ The most excel¬ 
 lent prayer, after the prescribed, is the prayer 
 tha t is said in the last third of the night; 
 and the most excellent fast, after Ramazan, is 
 that of the month of God, al-Muharram.' 
 
 (The khatib, having concluded his exhorta¬ 
 tion, says to the congregation, “ Supplicate 
 God." He then sits down and prays privately; 
 and each member of the congregation at the 
 same time offers up some private petition, as 
 after the ordinary prayers, holding his hands 
 bejore him (looking at the palms), and then 
 
 drawing them down his face. The khatib then 
 rises again, and recites the following) 
 
 “Praise be to God, abundant praise, as He 
 hath commanded. I testify that there is no 
 deity but God alone : He hath no companion: 
 affirming His supremacy, and condemning 
 him who denieth and disbelieveth : and I tes¬ 
 tify that our Lord and our Prophet Muham¬ 
 mad is His servant and His apostle, the 
 lord of mankind, the intercessor, the accepted 
 intercessor, on the Day of Assembling: God 
 bless him and his family as long as the eye 
 seeth and the ear heareth. 0 people, reve¬ 
 rence God by doing what He hath com¬ 
 manded, and abstain from that which He 
 hath forbidden and prohibited. The happy 
 one is he who obeyeth, and the miserable 
 one is he who opposeth and sinneth. Know 
 that the present world is a transitory abode, 
 and that the world to come is a lasting 
 abode. Make provision, therefore, in your 
 transitory state for your lasting state, and 
 prepare for your reckoning and standing 
 before your Lord : for know that ye shall to¬ 
 morrow be placed before God, and reckoned 
 with according to your deeds ; and before the 
 Lord of Might ye shall be present, ‘ and those 
 who acted unjustly shall know with what an 
 overthrowal they shall be overthrown.’ Know 
 that God, whose perfection I extol, and whose 
 name be exalted, hath said and ceaseth not 
 to say wisely, and to command judiciously, 
 warning you, and teaching, and honouring the 
 dignity of your Prophet, extolling and mag¬ 
 nifying him. Verily, God and His angels 
 bless the Prophet: ‘0 ye who believe, bless 
 him, and greet him with a salutation.’ 0 
 God bless Muhammad and the family of 
 Muhammad, as Thou blessedst Ibrahim 
 and the family of Ibrahim among all crea¬ 
 tures, for Thou art praiseworthy and 
 glorious. 0 God, do Thou also be well 
 pleased with the four Khallfahs, the ortho¬ 
 dox lords, of high dignity and illustrious 
 honour, Abu Bakr, as-Siddiq, and ‘Umar, 
 and ‘Usman, and ‘All; and be Thou well 
 pleased, 0 God, with the six who remained 
 of the ten noble and just persons who swore 
 allegiance to Thy Prophet Muhammad (God 
 bless him and save him) under the tree (for 
 Thou art the Lord of piety and the Lord of 
 pardon); those persons of excellence and 
 clemency, and rectitude and prosperity, Tal- 
 hah, and Zubair, and Sa‘d, and SaTd, and 
 ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman ibn ‘Auf, and Abu ‘Ubaidah 
 Amir ibn al-Jarrah: and with all the Com¬ 
 panions of the Apostle of God (God bless and 
 save him); and be Thou well pleased, 0 
 God, with the two martyred descendants, the 
 two bright moons, the ‘ two lords of the 
 youths of the people of Paradise in Paradise,’ 
 the two sweet-smelling flowers of the Pro¬ 
 phet of this nation, Abu Muhammad al- 
 Hasan and Abu ‘Abdi ’llah al-Husain; and 
 be Thou well pleased, 0 God, with their 
 mother, the daughter of the Apostle of God 
 (God bless and save him), Fatimatu ’z-Zahra’, 
 and with their grandmother Khadljah al- 
 Kubra, and with ‘Ayishah, the mother of the 
 faithful, and with the rest of the pure wives, 
 
KHUTBAH 
 
 AL-KIMIYA* 
 
 277 
 
 and with the generation which succeeded 
 the Companions, and with the generation 
 which succeeded that, with beneficence to 
 the Day of Judgment. 0 God, pardon the 
 believing men and the believing women, 
 and the Muslim men and the Muslim 
 women, those who are living, and the dead; 
 for Thou art a hearer near, an answerer of 
 prayers, 0 Lord, of the beings of the whole 
 world. 0 God, aid Islam, and strengthen its 
 pillars, and make infidelity to tremble, and 
 destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy 
 servant, and the son of Thy servant, the 
 submissive to the Might of Thy Majesty 
 and Glory, whom God hath aided, by the 
 care of the Adored King, our master the 
 Sultan, son of the Sultan, the Sultan Mah¬ 
 mud Khan ; may God assist him, and prolong 
 [his reign], O God, assist him, and assist 
 his armies, 0 Thou Lord of the religion, and 
 the world present, and the world to come, 0 
 Lord of the beings of the whole world. 
 
 “ 0 God, assist the forces of the Muslims, 
 and the armies of the Unitarians. 0 God, 
 frustrate the infidels and polytheists, thine 
 enemies, the enemies of the religion. 0 God, 
 invert their banners, and ruin their habitations, 
 and give them and their wealth as booty to 
 the Muslims. 0 God, unloose the captivity 
 of the captives, and annul the debts of the 
 debtors ; and make this town to be safe and 
 secure, and blessed with wealth and plenty, 
 and all the towns of the Muslims, 0 Lord 
 of the beings of the whole world. And 
 decree safety and health to us and to all 
 travellers, and pilgrims, and warriors, and 
 wanderers, upon Thy earth, and upon Thy 
 sea, such as are Muslims, 0 Lord of the 
 beings of the whole world. 
 
 “ 1 0 Lord, we have acted unjustly towards 
 our own souls, and if Thou do not forgive 
 us and be merciful unto us, we shall surely 
 be of those who perish.’ I beg of God, the 
 Great, that He may forgive me and you, and 
 all the people of Muhammad, the servants of 
 God. ‘ Verily God commandeth justice, and 
 the doing of good, and giving what is due to 
 kindred; and forbiddeth wickedness, and 
 iniquity, and oppression: He admonisheth 
 you that ye may reflect. Remember God; 
 He will remember you : and thank Him ; He 
 will increase to you your blessings. Praise 
 be to God, the Lord of the beings of the whole 
 world 1 ” 
 
 The khutbaii being ended, the khatib then 
 descends from the pulpit, and, if he officiate 
 as Imam, takes his position and leads the 
 people in a two-rak‘ah prayer. The khatib, 
 however, does not always officiate as Imam. 
 The Prophet is related to have said that the 
 length of a man’s prayers and the shortness 
 of his sermon, are signs of a man’s common 
 sense. 
 
 According to the best authorities, the name 
 of the reigning Khalifah ought to be recited 
 in the khutbah. and the fact that it is not so 
 recited in independent Muhammadan king¬ 
 doms, but the name of the Sultan or Amir 
 is substituted for the Khalifah, has its sig¬ 
 nificance, for it is a question whether the 
 
 Sultan of Turkey, has any real claim to the 
 spiritual headship of Islam. [khalifah.] 
 In India the name of the king is omitted 
 and the expression “ Ruler of the Age ” is 
 used. 
 
 In India, the recital of the khutbah serves 
 to remind every Muhammadan priest, at 
 least once a week, that he is in a Daru 7- 
 llarb, “ a land of enmity.” Still the fact 
 that he can recite his khutbah at all in a 
 country not under Muslim rule, must also 
 assure him that he is in a Daru 'l-Aman, or 
 “ land of protection.” 
 
 KHUTBATU ’L-WAQFAH (&M 
 The “ sermon of standing.” 
 The sermon or oration recited on Mount 
 ‘Arafat at the mid-day prayer on the ninth 
 day of the qulgrimage. (Burton's Pilgrimage, 
 val. ii. p. 219.) [khutbah.] 
 
 KHUZA‘AH Lit. “ A rem¬ 
 
 nant.” A part of the Banu ’1-Azd who were 
 left behind when the tribe migrated, and who 
 settled down permanently near Makkah. 
 They were from the first friendly to Muham¬ 
 mad, and made a treaty with him soon after 
 that of al-Hudaibiyah. They were an im¬ 
 portant portion of the army which marched 
 to Makkah with the Prophet. 
 
 KHUZAIMAH (<iU>y=.). An Arabian 
 
 tribe were expelled by the Yaman tribes and 
 afterwards settled in the Hijaz, where they 
 bore a prominent part in opposing the army 
 of Muhammad. 
 
 XHUZAIMAH IBN SABIT 
 
 t>?)- A Companion of some 
 renown. He was present at the battle of 
 Baclr. He was killed at the same time as 
 the Khalifah ‘All, a.h. 37. 
 
 KHWAJAH Persian. A 
 
 rich or respectable man; a gentleman. An 
 opulent merchant. 
 
 KIBR “Pride; haughti¬ 
 
 ness.” With regard to mortal man, it is con¬ 
 sidered a vice, but with regard to the In¬ 
 finite God, it is held to be one of His attri¬ 
 butes. Al-Kabir, “ the Great One.” 
 
 al-KIMIYA’ “Alchemy.” 
 
 The word is supposed to be derived from the 
 Greek ^v/ros, which signifies “ juice,” and to 
 be properly confined to the study of extracts 
 and essences of plants. It is now, however, 
 applied more especially to a pretended 
 science, which had for its object the trans¬ 
 mutation of the baser materials into gold or 
 silver, or the discovery of a panacea or 
 universal remedy for diseases. Although 
 this so-called science has now fallen into de¬ 
 served contempt, it was held in high repute, 
 and much cultivated from the 13th to the 
 17th century, especially amongst the Sara¬ 
 cens. The first Muslim of reputation who 
 is said to have given his attention to the sub¬ 
 ject, was Khalid, a son of the Khalifah 
 Yazid (a.d. 683), and the first who wrote on 
 the subject was Jabir ibn Abban as-Sufi, who 
 was a disciple of Kh alid. 
 
278 KIN AN AH 
 
 HajI Khalfah, the celebrated author of 
 the Kaslifu 'z-Zunun, says “ the word 
 Kimiycih comes from the Hebrew, lean 
 and yah and means ‘ from God.’ There is 
 some discussion regarding this science. Many 
 people do not believe in its existence, amongst 
 others the celebrated philosopher Shaikh 
 ‘All ibn Sina’, who wrote against it in his 
 book, the Kita.hu 'sh-Shafa' : also Ya‘qub al- 
 Kindl, and many others. But, on the other 
 hand, many learned men have believed in its 
 existence; for example, Imam Fakhru ’d-din 
 ar-Razi, and Shaikh Najmu ’d-din al-Bagh- 
 dadl.” ( Kashfu ’ z-Zunun , in loco.) 
 
 Ahlu Kimiyd', is a term used not only for 
 an alchymist, but for a deceiver, and also a 
 lover. 
 
 Al-Kimiyd'u 'l-Akbar, the philosopher’s 
 stone, or some celebrated tincture. 
 
 Kimiyau ’l-Ma'ani, the chemistry of mean¬ 
 ings, that is, the study of truth. 
 
 II.—Amongst the Sufi mystics, the term 
 al-Kimiya ’ is used for being satisfied with the 
 things in possession, and not yearning after 
 things which we do not possess. Kimiyd'u 7- 
 1 Aw dm , the alchymistry of the ordinary 
 people, is the exchange of spiritual things for 
 the things which perish. Kimiyd'u 'l-f\Jiawass, 
 the alchymistry of special people, is the 
 emptying of the heart of everything except 
 God. Kimiyd'u ’ s-Sa‘adah , the alchymistry of 
 felicity, is the purification of one’s heart 
 from all things that are evil by the attain¬ 
 ment of special graces. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 KINANAH (1) The name 
 
 of the ancestor and founder of the Arabian 
 tribe, the Banu Kinanah, the father of an- 
 Nazr, the grandfather of Fihr, who was sur- 
 named Quraish. [quraish.] 
 
 (2) The name of the Jewish chief of Khai- 
 bar who defended the fortress of Qamus 
 against Muhammad. He was slain by order 
 of the Prophet, who afterwards took Kina- 
 nah’s bride, Safiyah, to his home and married 
 her. [safiyah.] 
 
 KINAYAH (k\^)- “ A metaphor.” 
 
 A word used in the science of exegesis, e.g. 
 “ Thou art separated,” by which may be meant, 
 “ Thou art divorced,” which is called Taldqu 
 'l-Kindyah, or a divorce in metaphor. 
 
 KINDAH (6aK). A tribe of al-Ya- 
 
 man, and the descendants of Himyar. They 
 are admitted to be one of the noblest of the 
 Arab tribes. One of the remarkable descen¬ 
 dants of this tribe was al-Kindi the philoso¬ 
 pher. [KINDI.] 
 
 al-KIND! the philoso¬ 
 
 pher. Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ishaq ibn as- 
 §abbah al-Kindi, who flourished at the court 
 of the Khalifah Ma’mum, a.d. 833, and who 
 translated numerous classical and philoso¬ 
 phical works for the Abbaside Government. 
 De Slane says his father Ishaq was Amir of 
 al-Kiifah, and his great grandfather was one 
 of the Prophet’s Companions. It was at one 
 
 KIRAMAH 
 
 time supposed he was a Jew or a convert to 
 the Jewish religion, while others tried to iden¬ 
 tify him with the author of an Apology for 
 Christianity, entitled Risalatu i Ahdi 7- 
 Masili ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, in which the 
 writer explains to a Muslim friend his reasons 
 for holding the Christian faith, in preference 
 to Islam, whose acceptance the latter had 
 pressed upon him. But it has been proved 
 that al-Kindi, the philosopher, and al-Kindi, 
 the author of the said treatise, are two dis¬ 
 tinct persons, although both living at the court 
 of al-Ma’mun and belonging to the same tribe. 
 
 Dr. J. M. Arnold, in his Islam and Chris¬ 
 tianity, p. 372, says the Risa/ah, or treatise 
 of al-Kindi, is quoted as a genuine produc¬ 
 tion by the celebrated historian, Muhammad 
 ibn Ahmad al-BIruni (died a.h. 430), in one 
 of his works in confirmation of his statement 
 that there were human sacrifices offered up 
 in Arabia prior to the time of Muhammad. 
 
 The Apology of al-Kindi has been rendered 
 into English by Sir William Muir, from an 
 edition in Arabic published by the Turkish 
 Missions Aid Society. 
 
 KINDRED, [inheritance, mar¬ 
 riage.] 
 
 KING. The term used in the 
 
 Qur’an for a king is generally malik (m\L»), 
 Heb. e.g. when the Israelites “said to a 
 
 prophet of theirs, ‘ Raise up for us a king.’ ” 
 (Surah ii. 246.) 
 
 (1) The word malik is now merely used in 
 Arabia and in Central Asia for a petty chief. 
 
 (2) Sultan occurs in the Qur’an for “autho¬ 
 rity,” or “ power,” and not for a king. Surah 
 Ixix. 29, “ My authority has perished from 
 me.” But it is now the title assumed by the 
 Emperor of Turkey. 
 
 (3) Padshah and Shah are Persian words, 
 the ruler of Persia having assumed the title 
 of Shah or King. The word Padshah is de¬ 
 rived from pad, “ a throne,” and shah, “ a lord 
 or possessor,” i.e. “the lord of the throne.” 
 In Hindustani it is Badshah. 
 
 (4) Wall, is a title assumed by Muham¬ 
 madan rulers, the title being held by the 
 Barakzai rulers of Afghanistan in all legal 
 documents. The word simply means a pos¬ 
 sessor, or one in authority. 
 
 (5) Amir has a similar meaning to Wall, 
 and is a title which is assumed by Muslim 
 rulers, as the Amirs of Bukharah and of 
 Kabul. It is derived from ‘amr, “ to rule.” 
 
 (6) Saiyid, “ a lord,” is a title given to the 
 descendants of Muhammad, and is a regal 
 title assumed by the ruler of Zanzibar. 
 
 (7) Imam,“ a leader,” is the legal title of the 
 head of the Muslims, and it is that given to 
 the successors of Muhammad, who are so 
 called in the Traditions and in Muhammadan 
 works of law. [imam.] 
 
 (8) Khalifah. “ a vicegerent.” Khalifah. 
 or Caliph, is used for the same regal perso¬ 
 nage as Imam, [khalifah, rulers.] 
 
 KIRAMAH (<L»[jS). The miracles 
 
 of any saint other than a Prophet, as dis- 
 
KIRAMIYAH 
 
 KISWAH 
 
 279 
 
 tinguished from rnujizah, which is always 
 used for the miracles of an apostle or prophet. 
 [miracles.] 
 
 KIEAMlYAH (4^/). A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by Muhammad ibn Karim, 
 and called also the Mujasslyah, or Corpo- 
 realists, because they admitted not only a 
 resemblance between God and created beings, 
 but declared him to be corporeal in substance. 
 
 “ The more sober among them, indeed, 
 when they applied the word body to God, 
 would be understood to mean that Ho is a 
 self-subsisting being, which with them is the 
 definition of body; but yet some of them 
 affirmed him to be finite, and circumscribed 
 either on all sides, or on some only (as be¬ 
 neath, for example), according to different 
 opinions ; and others allowed that He might 
 be felt by the hand, and seen by the eye. 
 Nay, one David al-.Tawari went so far as to 
 say that His deity was a body composed of 
 flesh and blood, and that He had members, 
 as hands, feet, a head, a tongue, eyes, and 
 ears; but that he was a body, however, not 
 like other bodies, neither was he like to any 
 created being. He is also said, further, to have 
 affirmed that from the crown of the head to 
 the breast he was hollow, and from the breast 
 downward solid, and that He had black 
 curled hair. These most blasphemous and 
 monstrous notions were the consequence of 
 the literal acceptation of those passages in 
 the Koran (Surahs xl. 10; xx. 4 ; ii. 109), 
 which figuratively attribute corporeal actions 
 to God, and of the words of Muhammad, 
 when he said that God created man in His 
 own image, and that he himself had felt the 
 fingers of God, which He laid on his back, to 
 be cold ; besides which, this sect are charged 
 with fathering on their Prophet a great 
 number of spurious and forged traditions to 
 support their opinion, the greater part whereof 
 they borrowed from the Jews, who are ac¬ 
 cused as naturally prone to assimilate God to 
 men, so that they describe Him as weeping for 
 Noah’s flood till His eyes were sore.” (Sale.) 
 
 KIEAMUN KATIBUN 
 
 Lit. “ Illustrious writers.” 
 The two i-ecording angels who are said to be 
 with every man, one on the right hand to 
 record his good deeds, and one on his left to 
 record the evil deeds. They are mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, Suratu ’1-Infitar (Ixxxii.): “ Yet 
 truly there are guardians over you, illustrious 
 recorders (Jciraman katibin) cognizant of your 
 actions.” 
 
 It is related that the Prophet enjoined his 
 people not to spit in front, or on the right, 
 but on the left, as on that side stands the 
 recording angel of evil. ( Mishkat , book iv. 
 ch. viii. pt. 1.) 
 
 As these angels are supposed to be changed 
 every day, they are called the mu'aqqibat, or 
 those who succeed each other. 
 
 KISEA pi. Akdsirah. The 
 
 Ghosroes, or Cyrus, a name given to almost 
 every king of Persia of the Sassanian dynasty 
 (like Caesar among the Romans and Pharaoh 
 
 among the Egyptians). The kings of Persia, 
 prior to Islam, according to Arab historians, 
 composed four dynasties, namely, the Pesh- 
 dadians, the chronology of which is unknown; 
 the Kayanians, which ended b.c. 331, when 
 Persia was conquered by Alexander the 
 Great; the Ashkanians, which terminated 
 a.d. 202; and the Sassanians, the last of 
 whom was overcome by the Arabs, a.d. 63G. 
 
 From the Qur’an, Surah xxx. 1, it appears 
 that after the taking of Jerusalem by Chos- 
 roes, the sympathies of Muhammad were all 
 enlisted on the side of the Caesar, and he fore¬ 
 tells his ultimate victory over the king of 
 Persia:— 
 
 “The Greeks have been conquered in the 
 neighbouring coast, but in a few years after 
 their defeat they shall again be victorious.” 
 
 In the sixth year of the Hijrah, Muham¬ 
 mad sent a despatch to Chosroes, inviting 
 him to Islam. Sir William Muir says ( Life 
 of Mahomet, new ed. p. 384) :— 
 
 “ The despatch for the King of Persia 
 reached the Court probably some months 
 after the accession of Siroes. It was deli¬ 
 vered to the Monarch, who, on hearing the 
 contents, tore it in pieces. When this was 
 reported to Mahomet, he prayed and said : 
 
 ‘ Even thus, 0 Lord! rend Thou his king¬ 
 dom from him.’ Connected with the court of 
 Persia, but of date somewhat earlier than the 
 despatch sent to it, is a remarkable incident, 
 which was followed by results of considerable 
 importance. 
 
 “ A few months before his overthrow, the 
 Chosroes, receiving strange reports of the pro¬ 
 phetical claims of Mahomet, and of the de¬ 
 predations committed on the Syrian border by 
 his marauding bands, sent order to Badzan, 
 the Persian Governor of Yemen, to despatch 
 two trusty men to Medina, and procure for 
 him certain information regarding the Pre¬ 
 tender. Badzan obeyed, and with the mes¬ 
 sengers sent a courteous despatch to Maho¬ 
 met. By the time they arrived at Medina, 
 tidings had reached the Prophet of the depo¬ 
 sition and death of Chosroes. When the 
 despatch, therefore, was read before him, he 
 smiled at its contents, and summoned the am¬ 
 bassadors to embrace Islam. He then ap¬ 
 prised them of the murder of the Chosroes 
 and the accession of his son. ‘Go,’ said he. 
 ‘ inform your master of this, and require him 
 to tender his submission to the Prophet of 
 the Lord.’ The glory of Persia had now de¬ 
 parted. She had long ago relaxed her grasp 
 upon Arabia ; and the Governor of Yemen was 
 free to choose a protectorate more congenial 
 to his people. Badzan, therefore, gladly re¬ 
 cognised the rising fortunes of Islam, and sig¬ 
 nified his adhesion to the Prophet. From the 
 distance of this province, its allegiance vtas 
 at the first little more than nominal; but 
 the accession served as a point for further 
 action, and meanwhile added new prestige to 
 the Prophet’s name.” 
 
 KISWAH (Sj— .X). Lit. “ A robe.” 
 
 The covering of the Ka‘abah, or cube-like 
 building, at Makkah. [ka‘bah.1 
 
280 
 
 KISWAH 
 
 K1TMAN 
 
 When Captain Burton visited Makkali in 
 1853, he found it to he a coarse tissue of 
 mixed silk and cotton, and of eight pieces, 
 two for each face of the building, the seams 
 being concealed by the broad gilt band called 
 the hizdm. It is lined with white calico, and 
 has cotton ropes to secure the covering to 
 metal rings at the basement. But on the 
 occasion of Captain Burton’s visit, the kis- 
 wah was tucked up by ropes from the roof. 
 The whole is of a brilliant black, with the gold 
 band running round it. 
 
 The burger, or veil, is a curtain hung before 
 the door of the Ka‘bah, also of black bro¬ 
 cade, embroidered with inscriptions, in letters 
 of gold, of verses from the Qur’an, and lined 
 with green silk. 
 
 According to Burton, the inscription on the 
 gold band of the kiswah is the ninetieth verse 
 of the third Surah of the Qur’an: “Verily, 
 the first House founded for mankind was 
 surely that at Bakkah, for a blessing and 
 a guidance to the worlds.” The whole of the 
 kiswah is covered with seven Surahs of the 
 Qur’an, namely, xvmtk, xixth, mrd, ixth, 
 xxt.h, xxxixtk, and Lxvnth (i.e. al-Kahf, 
 Maryam, Alu ‘Imran, at-Taubah, Ta Ha, Ya 
 Sin," and al-Mulk). The character is the 
 ancient Kufic, and legible from a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 Mr. Lane says that the kiswah is made of 
 a mixture of silk and cotton, because the 
 Prophet expressly forbade silk as an article 
 of dress. 
 
 The kiswah and burqa 1 are now manu¬ 
 factured at Cairo, at a manufactory called 
 the Khurunflsh, and is made by a family 
 who possess the hereditary right, and who 
 are called the Baitu ’s-Sa'-d. When they are 
 completed, they are taken to the mosque 
 known as the Sultan Hasan, and there kept 
 until they are sent off with a caravan of pil¬ 
 grims to Makkah. This usually takes place 
 a few days after the ‘Idu ’1-Fitr, generally 
 about the" 6th day of the month of Shawwal, 
 and two or three weeks before the departure 
 of the regal canopy or Mahmal. [mahmal.] 
 The procession of" the kiswah is similar to 
 that of the Mahmal, and therefore requires 
 no separate description. 
 
 According to Muslim historians, the Ka‘bah 
 was first dressed with a kiswah or robe by a 
 Himyarite chief, named Tubba‘u 1-Arqan. 
 From the time of Qusaiy it was veiled by 
 subscriptions collected from Pagan Arabs, 
 until Abu Babivah ibn al-Mughirah ibn 
 ‘Abdi ’llah provided the covering, whereby 
 he obtained the title of a. I-'Adi. “the Just. 
 When Muhammad obtained possession, he 
 ordered it to be covered with fine YamanI 
 cloth, and ordered the expense to be defrayed 
 from the public treasury. The Khallfah 
 ‘Umar chose Egyptian linen, and ordered the 
 robe to be renewed every year. Khallfah 
 ‘Usman, being a man of eminent piety ordered 
 it to be clothed twice a year. For the winter 
 it had a robe of brocade silk, and in the 
 summer a suit of fine linen. Mu‘awiyah, the 
 Umaiyah Kh allfah, was the first to establish 
 the present kiswah of silk and linen tissue, 
 
 but being reminded of the Prophet’s well- 
 known dislike to silken robes he changed it 
 again to the more orthodox covering of Ya¬ 
 manI cloth. The Khallfah Ma’mun (a.d. 813) 
 ordered the dress to be changed three times 
 a year, the fine YamanI cloth on the 1st of 
 Rajab, white brocade on the 1st of Slruwwal, 
 for the pilgrimage two months later, and 
 rich red brocade on the 10th of Muharram. 
 The Khallfah al-Mutawakkil (a.d. 847) sent 
 a new robe every two months. During the 
 Abbaside dynasty, the investing of the Ka‘- 
 bah with the kiswah was regarded as a sign 
 of sovereignty over the holy places. The 
 later Khalifahs of Baghdad are said to have 
 sent a kiswah of green and gold. The Fati- 
 mide Kh alifahs made the kiswah at Cairo of 
 black brocade of mixed silk and cotton ; and 
 when Sultan Salim assumed the power of the 
 Khallfate (a.d. 1512), the kiswah still con¬ 
 tinued to be supplied from Cairo, as is now 
 the case under the Ottoman rule. 
 
 (Burckliardt’s Arabia, Lane’s Egyptians, 
 Ali Bey’s Pilgrimage, Burton’s Mecca and 
 Medina.) [ka-bah, masjidu ’l-iiaram.] 
 
 al-KITAB “ The Booh.” 
 
 A term used for the Qur’an, and extended to 
 all inspired books of the Jews and Christians, 
 who are called Ahlu 'l-Kitab, or believers in 
 the book. 
 
 KXTABt (^VA). A term used for 
 
 one of the Ahlu 'l-Kitab, “ the people of the 
 Book,” or those in possession of the inspired 
 word of God, as Jews or Christians. 
 
 KITABTYAH (lAA). Fem. of 
 
 Kitabi. A female of the Ahlu 'l-Kitdb, or 
 those who possess an inspired book, Jews 
 or Christians. 
 
 KITABTT ’L-A‘MAL (JWeSl sAA). 
 
 [SAHIFATU ’L-A‘MAL.) 
 
 al-KITABU ’L-HUKMl 
 
 A letter transmissible from 
 one Qazi to another when the defendant in a 
 suit resides at a distance. Such letter must 
 be a transcript of real evidence. 
 
 al-KITABU ’L-MUBlN (hMsS31 
 Lit. “The Manifest or clear 
 book.” The term is used in the Qur’an 
 both for the Tablet of Decrees (Lauhu ’/- 
 Mahfuz, and for the Qur’an itself. 
 
 Surah vi. 59: “No leaf falleth but He 
 lcnoweth it; neither is there a grain in the 
 darkness of the earth, nor a green thing or 
 sere, but it is noted in the clear booh." 
 
 Surah iv. 18 : “ Now hath a light and a 
 clear book come to yott front God.” 
 
 KITMAN (yUA). “Concealing; 
 
 keeping secret.” The injunction of the 
 Qur’an is : “ Hide not the truth while ye 
 know it ”; and yet the art of concealing 
 profane religious beliefs has been a special 
 characteristic of the Eastern mystics. 
 
KNEELING 
 
 KUFR 
 
 281 
 
 KNEELING. The attitude of 
 
 kneeling amongst Muhammadans consists of 
 placing the two knees on the ground and sitting 
 on the feet behind. Kneeling as practised by 
 Christians in the present day, does not exist 
 amongst Muslims as an attidude of worship. 
 
 The word jasl, which occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah xlv. 27: “ And thou shalt see each 
 nation kneeling ( jagiyatan ), each nation sum¬ 
 moned to the book,” expresses an attitude of 
 fear and not of worship. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE, [‘ilm.] 
 
 KORAH. Arabic Qdrun (cyj^D- 
 Heb. mp. The sou of Yashar 
 
 (Izhar), son of Qahis (Kohath), son of Law! 
 (Levi). The leader of the rebellion against 
 Moses. Num. xvi. 1; Jude 11 (where he is 
 coupled with Cain and Balaam). He is men¬ 
 tioned three times in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah xl. 24, 25 : “ Moreover we had sent 
 Moses of old, with our signs and with clear 
 authority, to Pharaoh, and Haman, and 
 Korah; and they said, ‘ Sorcerer, impostor.’ ” 
 
 Surah xxix. 38: “ And Korah and Pharaoh 
 and Haman. With proofs of his mission did 
 Moses come to them, and they behaved 
 proudly on the earth; but us they could not 
 outstrip ; for every one of them did we seize 
 in his sin. Against some of them did we send 
 a stone-charged wind ; some of them did the 
 terrible cry of Gabriel surprise; for some of 
 them we cleaved the earth; and some of 
 them we drowned.” 
 
 Surah xxviii. 7G-82: “Now Korah was of 
 the people of Moses: but he behaved 
 haughtily toward them; for we had given 
 him such treasure that its keys would have 
 burdened a company of men of strength. 
 When his people said to him, ‘ Exult not, for 
 God loveth not those who exult; but seek by 
 means of what God hath given thee, to attain 
 the future Mansion; and neglect not thy part 
 in this world, but be bounteous to others as 
 God hath been bounteous to thee, and seek 
 not to commit excesses on the earth ; for God 
 loveth not those who commit excesses : ’ he 
 said, ‘ It hath been given me only on account 
 of the knowledge that is in me.’ Did he not 
 know that God had destroyed before him 
 generations that were mightier than he in 
 strength and had amassed more abundant 
 wealth ? But the wicked shall not be asked 
 of their crimes. And Korah went forth to 
 his people in his pomp. Those who were 
 greedy for this present life said , 1 Oh that we 
 had the like of that which hath been be¬ 
 stowed on Korah ! Truly he is possessed of 
 great good fortune.’ But they to whom 
 knowledge had been given said, ‘Woe to 
 you! the reward of God is better for him 
 who believeth and worketh righteousness, 
 and none shall win it but those who have 
 patiently endured.’ And we clave the earth for 
 him and for his palace, and he had no forces, 
 in the place of God, to help him, nor was he 
 among those who are succoured. And in the 
 morning those who the day before had coveted 
 
 his lot said, ‘Aha! God enlargeth supplies 
 to whom He pleasetli of His servants, or is 
 sparing. Had not God/ been gracious to us, 
 He had caused it to cleave for us. Aha ! the 
 ungrateful can never prosper.” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says Korah brought a false 
 accusation of immorality against Moses, and 
 Moses complained to God, and God directed 
 him to command the earth what he pleased, 
 and it should obey him; whereupon he said, 
 “ 0 earth, swallow them up ” ; and imme¬ 
 diately the earth opened under Korah and his 
 confederates, and swallowed them up, with 
 his palace and all his riches.—There is a tra¬ 
 dition that as Korah sank gradually into the 
 ground, first to his knees, then to his waist, 
 then to his neck, he cried out four several 
 times, “0 Moses, have mercy on me!” but 
 that Moses continued to say, “ 0 earth, 
 swallow them up ! ” till at last he wholly dis¬ 
 appeared : upon which God said to Moses, 
 “ Thou hadst no mercy on Korah, though he 
 asked pardon of thee four times ; but I would 
 have had compassion on him if he had asked 
 pardon of Me but once.” 
 
 He is represented by Jalalu ’d-dln as the 
 most beautiful of the Israelites of his time. 
 His opulence and avarice have become a 
 proverb for those who amass wealth without 
 giving away in alms and charity. 
 
 In the Talmud it is said that “ Joseph con¬ 
 cealed three treasures in Egypt, one of which 
 became known to Korah .... the keys of 
 Korah’s treasure chambers were a burden 
 for 300 white mules.” Midr. Jalkut on Ecci. 
 v. 12 : “ Riches kept for the owners thereof 
 to their hurt,”—which may have furnished 
 Muhammad with the nucleus of this story. 
 Compare also Tract. Psachim, fol. 119a. 
 
 al-KUFAH A city on 
 
 th$ west bank of the river Euphrates, about 
 four days march from Baghdad, but which 
 has now entirely disappeared. 
 
 The city of al-Kufah was founded soon 
 after the Arabs conquered Persia, a.d. G36, 
 and in the reign of the Khalifah ‘Umar. It 
 was built opposite the ancient town of Ma¬ 
 dam, on the other side of the river. The 
 first Abbaside Khalifah, Abu ’l- 1 Abbas, a.d. 
 750, made it his capital, and it was then a 
 flourishing city, but when the Khalifah al- 
 Mansiir built Baghdad, al-Kufah decreased 
 in importance, and gradually fell into decay. 
 It was much famed for its learned men, and 
 especially for its grammarians. Two sects 
 of rival grammarians were named respectively 
 from al-Basrah and al-Kufah, and the more 
 ancient characters of Arabic writing are 
 called Kufi or Kufic, after this seat of learn¬ 
 ing. The Kufic-Arabic letters resemble the 
 Syriac, being square and heavy. The 
 ancient copies of the Qur’an are written in 
 Kufic. 
 
 KUFR ). Lit. “ That which 
 
 covers the truth.” Infidelity; blasphemy. 
 Disbelieving in the Qur’an or in any of the 
 tenets of the Muslim religion, [kafir.] 
 
 36 
 
KULAH 
 
 LAILATU L-QADR 
 
 282 
 
 KULAH (»S£). The Persian for a j call it their taj or crown, and it is one 
 cap, or cowl, especially worn by Muhammadan j °f hh e distinguishing marks of their 
 faqlrs or darweshes. The faqirs generally | order. 
 
 kulahs. (E. Campbell.) 
 
 KULSUM (rr L< )- Kulsum ibn 
 
 Hadam, the name of a hospitable but blind 
 chief, with whom Muhammad stayed at Quba’ 
 upon his arrival in that place after his flight 
 from Makkah. It was “whilst he was staying 
 with Kulsum that Muhammad built his first 
 mosque at Quba’. Kulsum died soon after¬ 
 wards. 
 
 KURZ IBN JABIR ( ; >W <*» j/). A 
 
 Quraish chieftain who committed a raid near 
 al-Madlnah, and carried off some of the flocks 
 and herds of the Muslims. He was afterwards 
 converted to Islam, and fell under Kh alid at 
 the taking of Makkah. 
 
 KUSUF [eclipse of the 
 
 SUN.] 
 
 L. 
 
 LAADRlYAH (a^AS). A sect of 
 
 heretics who say it is impossible for mortal 
 man to be certain of any fact, even of man’s 
 own identity. 
 
 LABBAIKA (uAA). [talbiyah.] 
 LABlD (a-A). The son of Rabi'ah 
 
 ibn Ja‘far al-‘AmirI, a celebrated poet in the 
 time of Muhammad who embraced Islam, and 
 who is said to have died at al-Kufah at the 
 advanced age of 157 years. The Prophet is 
 related to have said, “ The truest words ever 
 uttered by a poet are those of Labid,— 
 ‘ Know that everything is vanity but God.’ ” 
 ( MishJcat , book xxxii. ch. x. pt. 1.) 
 [poetry.] 
 
 LAHD (a-J). The hollow made 
 
 in a grave on the Qiblah side, in which the 
 corpse is placed. It is made the same length 
 as the grave, and is as high as would allow 
 a person to sit up in it. 
 
 LAHUT Lit. “Extinc¬ 
 
 tion” or “ absorption.” (1) The last stage of 
 the mystic journey. (2) Divinity. (3) Life 
 penetrating all things, [suttism.] 
 
 LAHYAN (yWal). A branch of 
 
 the Huzail tribe, which inhabited, in the days 
 of Muhammad, as they still do, the vicinity 
 of Makkah. Muhammad formed an expedi¬ 
 tion against them, a.h. 6 , on account of their 
 treacherous attack on a small party of Mus¬ 
 lims at Raji, 
 
 LAILATU ’L - BARA’AH (&A 
 
 [shab-i-bara’ah.] 
 
 al-LAILATU ’L-MUBARAKAH 
 (a^LAI aLIR). Lit. “The Blessed 
 Night.” [lailatu ’l-qadr.] 
 
 LAILATU ’L-QADR aU). 
 
 “ The night of power.” A mysterious night, 
 in the month of Ramazan, the precise date of 
 which is said to have been known only to the 
 Prophet and a few of the Companions. The 
 following is the allusion to it in the Qur’an. 
 Suratu ’1-Qadr (xcvii.) :— 
 
 “ Verily we have caused it (the Qur’an) to 
 descend on the Lailatu V- Qadr. 
 
 “ Who shall teach thee what the Lailatu ’1- 
 Qadr is ? 
 
 “ The Lailatu ’1-Qadr excelleth a thousand 
 months : 
 
 “ Therein descend the angels, and the 
 spirit by permission 
 
 “ Of their Lord in every matter; 
 
 “ And all is peace until the breaking of the 
 dawn.” 
 
 ' This night must not be confounded, as it 
 often is, with the Shab-i-Bara’ali, “which is 
 generally called Shab-i-Qadr, or the night of 
 power, but which occurs on the 15th of 
 Sha‘ban. [shab-i-bara’ah.] 
 
 The excellences of the Lailatu ’1-Qadr are 
 said to be innumerable, and it is believed that 
 during its solemn hours the whole animal 
 
LAILATO ’r-RAGHA’iB 
 
 LAPWING 
 
 283 
 
 and vegetable creation bow down in humble 
 adoration to the Almighty. 
 
 LAILATU ’R-EAGHA’IB (&*! 
 The “ night, of supereroga¬ 
 tory devotions.” A festival observed on the 
 first Friday in the month Rajab, by cer- | 
 tain mystic leaders who affirm that it was i 
 established by the Prophet; but it is gene- j 
 rally rejected by orthodox Sunnis. (See 
 Raddu ’l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 717.) 
 
 LAIS (vA-A). An Arabic tribe de¬ 
 scended from Kinanah. Al-Baizawi says 
 thoy thought it unlawful for a man to eat 
 alone, and were the cause of the verse in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 60: “ There is no 
 crime in you, whether ye eat together or 
 separately.” 
 
 LAMENTATION, [buka’.] 
 LA‘NAH (<k*5). “Imprecation; 
 
 curse; anathema.” A word used thirteen 
 times in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 83: “ The 
 curse of God is on the infidels.” 
 
 LAND. Arabic arz (u^), balad 
 (a1>), mullc (<a\U). 
 
 The following are some of the principal 
 rules of Muslim law relating to land:— 
 
 (1) Tithes or Zakat on lands. —Upon every 
 thing produced from the ground there is due 
 a tenth, or ‘ashir, ‘ushr (Heb. 
 
 whether the soil be watered by the annual 
 overflow of great rivers, or by periodical 
 rains ; excepting upon articles of wood, bam¬ 
 boos, and grass, which are not subject to 
 tithe. Land watered by means of buckets or 
 machinery, such as Persian wheels, or by 
 watering camels, are subject to only half 
 tithes. ( Hidayah , vol. i. p. 44.) 
 
 (2) Conquered lands become the property of 
 the state. Those of idolaters remain so. 
 Those belonging to Jews, Christians, or Fire 
 worshippers, are secured to the owners on 
 payment of tribute. Those who afterwards 
 embrace Islam recover their property, ac¬ 
 cording to ash-Shafi‘i, but not according to 
 the Hanifah school. Upon the Muslim army 
 evacuating an ‘enemy’s country, it becomes 
 unlawful for the troops to feed their cattle 
 on the land without due payment. (Hidauah, 
 vol. ii. p. 170.) 
 
 (3) Appropriation for religious uses.- —Land 
 may be so appropriated; but if a person 
 appropriate land for such a purpose and it 
 should after-wards be discovered that an in¬ 
 definite portion of it was the property of 
 another person, the appropriation is void with 
 respect to the remainder also. The appro¬ 
 priation must also be of a perpetual and not 
 of a temporary nature. ( Hidayah, vol. ii. 
 p. 340.) 
 
 (4) The sale of land is lawful. In such 
 sales the trees upon the land are included in 
 the sale, whether specified or not; but neither 
 the grain growing on the ground, nor the 
 fruit growing on the trees, are included, 
 unless specified. But in the case of the fruit 
 
 or corn being purchased with the land, it 
 must be gathered or cleared away at once. 
 In the sale of ground, the seed sown in the 
 ground is not included. Land may be resold 
 previous to seizinl or possession, by the first 
 purchaser, according to Abu Hanifah, but 
 the Imam Muhammad says it is unlawful. 
 Wells and watercourses are not included in 
 the sale of lands irnless specified. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. ii. pp. 372, 481, 503.) 
 
 (5) Claims against land must be made by 
 the plaintiff, defining the four- boundaries and 
 specifying the names of each possessor, and 
 the demand for the land must be made in ex¬ 
 plicit terms. And if the land has been resold, 
 a decree must be given either for or against 
 the last possessor, according to some doctors. 
 (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 65.) 
 
 (6) Land can be lent, and the borrower can 
 build upon it, but when the lender receives 
 back his land, he can compel the borrower to 
 remove his houses and trees. Land lent for 
 tillage cannot be resumed by the lender until 
 the crops sown have been reaped. 1 Abu 
 Hanifah maintains that when land is lent to 
 another, the contract should be in these words, 
 “ You have given me to eat of this land.” 
 (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 284, 288.) 
 
 (7) A gift of land which is uncultivated 
 cannot be retracted after houses have been 
 built on it or trees planted. If the donee 
 sell half of the granted land, the donor in 
 that case may. if he wishes, resume the other 
 half. If a person make a gift of land to his 
 relative within the prohibited degrees it is not 
 lawful for him to resume it. ( Hidayah, vol. 
 iii. p. 302.) 
 
 (8) The Ijarah, or rental of land, is lawful, 
 but the period must be specified, otherwise 
 the rent may be demanded from day to day. 
 But a lease of land is not lawful unless men¬ 
 tion is made of the article to be raised upon 
 it, and at the expiration of the lease the land 
 must be restored in its original state. A 
 hirer of land is not responsible for accidents ; 
 for example, if in burning off the stubble he 
 happen to burn other property, he is not 
 responsible for loss incurred. ( Hidayah, vol. 
 
 iii. p. 314, &c.) 
 
 (9) The cultivation of waste and unclaimed 
 lands is lawful, when it is done with the 
 permission of the ruler of the country, and 
 the act of cultivation invests the cultivator 
 with a right of property in them. But if the 
 land be not cultivated for three years after it 
 has been allotted, it may again be claimed by 
 the state. ( Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 128.) 
 
 (10) If a person be slain on lands belonging 
 to anyone, and situated near a village, and 
 the proprietor of the land be not an inhabi¬ 
 tant of the village, he is responsible for the 
 murder, as the regulation and protection of 
 those lands rest upon him. ( Hidayah, vol. 
 
 iv. p. 447.) 
 
 LAPIDATION. [stoning.] 
 LAPWING. Arabic hudhud 
 
 The name in the Qur’an, Surah xxvii. 20, for 
 the bird which carried the letter from King 
 
284 
 
 LAQAB 
 
 LARCENY 
 
 Solomon to the Queen of Sheba, [solomon.] 
 It is the ns’O'n of the Old Testament, 
 
 Lev. xi. 19, Deut. xiv. 18. Greek eVoi//-. 
 The modern Hoopoe. 
 
 The commentators al-Jalalan and al- 
 Baizawl say that Solomon, having finished 
 the temple of Jerusalem, went in pilgrimage 
 to Makkali, whence, having stayed as long 
 as he pleased, he proceeded towards al- 
 Yaman; leaving Makkali in the morning, he 
 arrived by noon at San‘a’, and being ex¬ 
 tremely delighted with the country, rested 
 there. But wanting water to make the ablu¬ 
 tion, "he looked among the birds for the lap¬ 
 wing, whose business it was to find it; for it 
 is pretended she was sagacious or sharp- 
 sighted to discover water underground, which 
 the devils used to draw, after she had marked 
 the place by digging with her bill. They add 
 that this bird was then taking a tour in the 
 air, whence, seeing one of her companions 
 alighting, she descended also, and having 
 had a description given her by the other of 
 the city of Saba’, whence she was just ar¬ 
 rived, they both went together to take a view 
 of the place, and returned soon after Solomon 
 had made the inquiry given in the Qur’an: 
 “ He reviewed the birds and said, ‘ How is it 
 I do not see al-Hudhud ? Is he, then, amongst 
 the absent 'i ’ ” 
 
 LAQAB ('r-ai). A surname. Either 
 
 a title of honour or a nickname; e.y. Al- 
 Husain ibn Mas‘ud al-Farra, “ the tanner ” ; 
 Abu Sa-id Taju 'l-Muluk, “the crown of 
 kings ” ; Ibn Muhammad at- Tayldabl, “ of the 
 tribe of Taghlab.” [names.] 
 
 LAQlT (L-a5), in its primitive 
 
 sense, signifies anything lifted from the ground, 
 but in the language of the law it signifies a 
 child abandoned by those to whom it pro¬ 
 perly belongs. The person who finds the 
 child is termed the multaqit, or the taker up. 
 [foundling.] 
 
 LARCENY. Arabic sariqah 
 
 In the language of the law, sariqah signifies 
 the taking away the property of another in a 
 secret manner, at a time when such pro¬ 
 
 perty is in custody. Custody is of two kinds : 
 1st, by place, for example, a house or a shop ; 
 and, 2nd, by personal guard, which is by 
 means of a personal watch over the property. 
 
 If an adult of sound understanding steal out 
 of midoubted custody ten dirhams, or property 
 to the value of ten dirhams, the Muhammadan 
 law awards the amputation of a hand, for it 
 is said in the Qur’an, Surah v. 42 : “ If a man 
 oi' woman steal, cut off their hands.” 
 
 With regard to the amount of the value 
 which constitutes a theft, there is some diL 
 ference of opinion. According to Abu Hanl- 
 fah, it is ten dirhams ; according to ash-Shafi‘I, 
 it is the fourth of a dinar, or twelve dirhams ; 
 whilst Malik holds that the sum is three 
 dirhams. 
 
 The freeman and the slave are on equal 
 footing with respect to punishment for theft, 
 and the hand of the slave is to be struck off 
 in the same manner as the hand of a free 
 Muslim. 
 
 The theft must be established upon the testi¬ 
 mony of two witnesses, but the magistrate 
 must examine the witnesses as to the manner, 
 time, and place of the theft. The thief must 
 also be held in confinement, or suspicion, until 
 the witnesses be fully examined. 
 
 If a party commit a theft, and each of the 
 party receive ten dirhams, the hand of each is 
 to be cut off; but if they receive less than 
 ten dirhams each, they are not liable to ampu¬ 
 tation. 
 
 Amputation is not incurred by the theft of 
 anything of a trifling nature, such as wood, 
 bamboos, grass, fish, fowls, and garden stuff. 
 
 Amputation is not incurred by the theft of 
 such things as quickly decay and spoil, such 
 as milk or fruit, nor for stealing fruit whilst 
 upon the tree, or grain which has not been 
 reaped, these not being considered as in cus¬ 
 tody. 
 
 The hand of a thief is not struck off for 
 stealing any fermented liquor, because he 
 may explain his intention in taking it, by 
 saying, “ I took it with a view to spill it ”; 
 and also because some fermented liquors are 
 not lawful property. 
 
 The hand is not to be cut off for stealing a 
 guitar or tabor, these being of use merely as 
 idle amusements. 
 
 Amputation is not incurred by stealing a 
 Qur’an, although ash-Shafi‘1 maintains that 
 it is. 
 
 There is no amputation for stealing the 
 door of a mosque. Nor is the hand struck off 
 for stealing a crucifix or a chess board, as it 
 is in the thief’s power to excuse himself by 
 saying, “ I took them with a view to break 
 and destroy them, as things prohibited.” It 
 is otherwise with a coin bearing the impres¬ 
 sion of an idol, by the theft of which amputa¬ 
 tion is incurred ; because the money is not an 
 object of worship. 
 
 The hand is not to be struck off for stealing a 
 free-born infant, although there be ornaments 
 upon it, because a free person is not property ; 
 but amputation is incurred by stealing an 
 infant slave, although the stealing of an adult 
 slave does not incur amputation, as such an 
 
AL-LAT 
 
 LAW 
 
 act does not come under the description of 
 theft, being an usurpation or a fraud. 
 
 Amputation is not incurred for stealing a 
 book, because the object of the thief can only 
 be its contents and not the property. 
 
 The hand is not cut off for stealing a cur- 
 dog, because such an animal is common pro¬ 
 perty ; nor for stealing utensils made of wood. 
 
 There is no amputation for stealing from 
 the public treasury, because everything there 
 is the common property of all Muslims, and 
 in which the thief, as a member of the com¬ 
 munity has a share. And if a person steal 
 from property of which ho is in part owner, 
 amputation is not inflicted. Nor if a creditor 
 steal from his debt is the hand cut off. 
 
 The right hand of the thief is to be cut off 
 at the joint of the wrist and the stump after¬ 
 wards cauterised, and for the second theft 
 the left foot, and for any theft beyond that ho 
 must suffer imprisonment. 
 
 al-LAT The name of an 
 
 idol worshipped by the ancient Arabians, 
 probably the Alilat of Herodotus. The idol 
 Lat is mentioned in the Qur’an in conjunction 
 withlthetwo other idols, a/-‘Uzza and Manat. 
 See Surah liii. 19 : “ What think ye, then, of 
 al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, and Manat, the third 
 idol besides ? ” 
 
 In connection with this verse there is an 
 interesting discussion. (See Muir, new ed. 
 p. 86.) Al-WaqidI and at-Tabari both re¬ 
 late that, on a certain day, the chief men of 
 Makkah assembled in a group beside the 
 Ka‘bah, discussed, as was their wont, the 
 affairs of the city, when the Prophet ap¬ 
 peared, and seating himself by them in a 
 friendly manner, began to recite the 53rd 
 chapter of the Qur’an; and when he had 
 reached the verse “ What think ye then of 
 al-Lat, and al-‘Uzza, and Manat, the third 
 idol besides ? ” the Devil suggested words of 
 reconciliation and compromise with idolatry, 
 namely, “ These are exalted females, and 
 verily their intercession is to be hoped for.” 
 These words, however, which were received 
 by the idolaters with great delight, were 
 afterwards disavowed by the Prophet, for 
 Gabriel revealed to him the true reading, 
 namely, “ What think ye then of al-Lat, and 
 al-‘Uzza, and Manat, the third idol besides ? 
 Shall ye have male progeny and God female ? 
 This, then, were an unjust partition! Verily, 
 these are mere names which ye and your 
 fathers have given them.” 
 
 The narrative thus related by al-Waqidi 
 and at-Tabari is given as an explanation of 
 Surah xxii. 51: “Nor have we sent any 
 apostle or prophet before thee into whose 
 readings Satan hath not injected some wrong 
 desire.” 
 
 AL-LATIF “The Mys¬ 
 
 terious or the Subtle One.” One of the ninety- 
 nine attributes of God. Surah vi. 103 : “ For 
 He is the Subtle ( al-Latif ), the All-informed 
 (al-Khabir). 
 
 LATlFAH A term used 
 
 by Sufi mystics for any sign or influence in 
 
 285 
 
 the soul, derived from God, which has such 
 a mysterious effect on the heart that mortal 
 man cannot express it in language, just as a 
 delicious taste in the mouth cannot be exactly 
 expressed by the tongue. (Kitdbu ’t-Ta‘rif'dt, 
 in loco.) 
 
 LAUGHING. Arabic zahlc, zihk 
 (cdasA). Heb. prre. (Gen. xviii. 13.) 
 
 Immoderate laughing is generally condemned 
 by Muhammadan teachers, for ‘Ayishah re¬ 
 lates that Muhammad “ never laughed a full 
 laugh so that the inside of his mouth could 
 be seen; he only smiled.” ( Mish/cat , book 
 xxii. ch. vii.) 
 
 al-LAUHU ’L - MAHFU£ ( c yA 
 “ The preserved tablet.” 
 
 Li the Hadis and in theological works it 
 is used to denote the tablet on which the 
 decrees of God were recorded with reference 
 to mankind. In the Qur’an it only occurs 
 once, when it refers to the Qur’an itself. 
 Surah Ixxxv. 21, 22: “ It is a glorious Qur’an 
 written on the preserved table.” The plural 
 alwah occurs in Surah vii. 142, for the tables 
 of the law given to Moses. 
 
 LAW, The. The words used by 
 
 Muslims to express “ the law,” are ash-SharVah 
 an d ash-Shar‘ the meaning 
 
 of which is “ the way.” The compiler of the 
 Ghijjdsu 7- Lug hah defines it as “the way or road 
 in the religion of Muhammad, which God has 
 established for the guidance of His people, both 
 for the worship of God and for the duties of 
 life.” The term ash-Sharvah occurs once in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xlv. 17: “We (God) put 
 thee (Muhammad) in the right way concern¬ 
 ing the affair.” The term ash-Shir‘ah is 
 almost obsolete in books on Muslim theology, 
 but it occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah v. 
 52: “To every one have we given a right 
 way.” 
 
 In the Traditions and theological works, 
 the word ash-Shar‘ is generally used to ex¬ 
 press the law of Muhammad. The Hebrew 
 
 min occurs in the Qur’an as Taurdt, and 
 
 T 
 
 is always used for the law of Moses. 
 [taurat.] 
 
 According to Muslim doctors, ash-Shar, or 
 “ the Law, ’ may be divided into five sections : 
 /■ i'iqdddt, “ belief ”; Adab, “ moralities ” ; 
 ‘Iliadat, “devotions”; Mu‘dmaldt, “transac¬ 
 tions ”; and ‘ Uqiibdt, “ punishments.” 
 
 (1) 1‘tiqdddt, embraces all that is contained 
 in the six articles of the Muslim faith, namely, 
 Belief in (a) God ; ( b ) His angels; (c) His 
 Books ; (rf) His Prophets ; ( e ) The Day of 
 Judgment; (/) The Decrees of God. This 
 section of Muslim law is termed ‘Ilmu 7- 
 ‘Aqa’id, or, “ The Science of the Articles of 
 Belief, and includes all branches of scho¬ 
 lastic theology. The books chiefly consulted 
 on this subject in the present work are the 
 Sharhu ’ l-Muwdqif , by Saiyid Sharif-al-Jur- 
 jam, and the Sharhu ’ UAqa'id , by Mas‘ud 
 Sa‘du ’d-dm at-Taftazani. 
 
 (2) A dab embraces the consideration of all 
 
286 
 
 LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 those moral excellences -which are enjoined 
 in the Qur’an and Traditions, as Ilchlas, “ sin¬ 
 cerity ”; Tawwakkul, “ confidence in God ” ; 
 Taivdzu-, “humility”; Tafwlz, “resigna¬ 
 tion ”; Qasru ’l-‘Amal, “ keeping down one’s 
 expectation”; Zuhdfi ’ d-dunya, “renunciation 
 of the world ” ; Nasihah, “ giving good counsel 
 and advice ” ; Qana‘afi, “ contentment; ” 
 Sakhdwah , “ liberality ; ” Hubb, “ love to God 
 and man ” ; Sab?', “ patience ” ; &c. (See 
 Majma‘u 'l-Bihdr, vol. ii. p. 422.) 
 
 (3) ‘Ibadat, includes all acts of devotion to 
 God, such as are included-in the five pillars 
 of practice: («) Recital of the Creed; (6) 
 Prayer; (c) Zalcat, or “ legal alms ”; (d) 
 Sautn, or “ fasting ”; (e) The pilgrimage to 
 Makkah. It will also embrace such reli¬ 
 gious acts as Jihad , or warfare for the propa¬ 
 gation of the religion of Islam. 
 
 (4) Mddmaldt , includes such duties as are 
 required between man and man, and is 
 divided into Mukhasamat , “ altercations ”; 
 Mundkahat, “ nuptials ” ; Animat , “ securi¬ 
 ties.” Under these three heads are embraced 
 all the various sections of civil jurispru¬ 
 dence such as barter, sale, agency, larceny, 
 marriage, divorce, dower, partnership, claims, 
 &c. 
 
 (5) ‘ Uqubdt , denotes the punishments 
 instituted in the Qur’an and Traditions, 
 namely, (a) Qisds, “ retaliation ” ; (b) Haddu 
 ’ s-sariqah , punishment for theft by the loss 
 of a hand ; (c) Iladdu ’ z-zina', punishment 
 for fornication and adultery, stoning for 
 a married person and one hundred lashes for 
 an unmarried person ; (e) Haddu ’l-qazf, or 
 punishment of eighty lashes for slander; 
 Haddu ’r-riddah , or punishment by death 
 for apostasy; Haddu ’sh-shurb, or punish¬ 
 ment with eighty lashes for wine-drinking. 
 
 The two common divisions of Muhammadan 
 law are ‘Ilmu ’l-Kaldm, or ‘Aqaid, embracing 
 all matters of faith ; and ‘Ilmu ’l-Fiqh, which 
 includes all matters of practice as distin¬ 
 guished from articles of faith. 
 
 Muslim law is also divided into two great 
 distinctions of Mo.shrd, “ lawful,” and Ghairu 
 H-mashru ‘, imlawful,” or, as it is expressed in 
 Persian, Raiva and Narawa. 
 
 That which is lawful. is graded into five 
 classes. (1) Farz, that which is proved be¬ 
 yond all doubt to have been enjoined either in 
 the Qur’an or in a tradition of undoubted 
 authority, and the denial or disobedience of 
 which is positive infidelity. (2) Wajib, 
 that which is obligatory, but of which 
 there is some doubt whether or not it 
 was enjoined in the Qur’an or in a tradition 
 of undoubted authority. (3) Sunnah, that 
 which was practised by Muhammad; (4) 
 Mustahabb, that which Muhammad and his 
 Companions sometimes did and sometimes 
 omitted; (5) Mubah, that which is desirable, 
 but which may be omitted without fear of sin. 
 
 Things which are unlawful are graded 
 into three classes : (1) Mufsid, that which is 
 most vicious and corrupting, a mortal sin; 
 
 (2) Hardin, that which is distinctly forbidden ; 
 
 (3) Malcruh, that -which is generally held to 
 be unclean. 
 
 These distinctions of lawful and unlawful, 
 with their various subdivisions, apply to all 
 branches of Muslim law, whether it relate to 
 ordinary duties of life, or of devotion to God. 
 
 It will be seen how important a place the 
 example, practices, and sayings of Muham¬ 
 mad occupy in the moral law of Islam. 
 This branch of Muslim law is called as- 
 Sunnah, or the custom of Muhammad, and 
 is distinguished as^— 
 
 (1) Sunnatu 'l-'/Jui, that which Muham¬ 
 mad himself did. 
 
 (2) Sunnatu ’l-gauli, that which Muham¬ 
 mad said should be practised. 
 
 (3) Sunnatu ’t-taqriri, that which was done 
 in the presence of Muhammad, and which he 
 appears to have sanctioned. 
 
 It is therefore a serious mistake to sup¬ 
 pose that the Qur’an contains all that is 
 esteemed necessary for faith and practice in 
 Islam ; the example of Muhammad is as bind¬ 
 ing upon the Muslim as any injunction con¬ 
 tained in the Qur’an itself, for neither that 
 which is Farz nor that -which is Sunnah can 
 be omitted without sin. 
 
 The true origin and fountain of all law is 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions, and no Muslim 
 school of theology has ever rejected the Tra¬ 
 ditions. They are binding upon Sunni, and 
 Shi‘ah, and Wahhabi ; the only difference 
 between the Sunni and Shi‘ah being that 
 they receive different collections of Traditions. 
 The Wahhabis receive those of the Sunnis, 
 and call themselves Muhaddisin, or tradi- 
 tionists. 
 
 In addition to the Qur’an and Hadis (or 
 Traditions), both Sunni and Shi'ah Muslims 
 acknowledge the concurrence of the learned, 
 called Ijmd\ the Shi‘ahs believing that they 
 still possess Mujtahids capable of giving an 
 infallible interpretation of the law ; the 
 Sunnis, on the other hand, confessing that, 
 since the days of the four great doctors (Abu 
 Hanifah, Malik, ask-Shafi‘i, and Ibn Hanbal), 
 ljma‘ has not been possible ; whilst the Wah¬ 
 habis accept only the Ijmd ‘ of those who con¬ 
 versed with the Prophet himself. The fourth 
 foundation of orthodoxy in both Sunni and 
 Shi‘ah schools is the system of interpretation 
 called Qiyas , or ratiocination. 
 
 I. The Sunnis all receive the same collec¬ 
 tions of traditions, especially those which are 
 known as the “ six correct books,” the 
 Sahihu ’l-Bukhdri, the Sahifiu Muslim, the 
 Sunanu ’ t-Tinnizi, Sunanu Abi Da’ud, Sunanu 
 an-Nasaj^, and Sunanu Ibn Mdjah. The 
 compilation by the Imam Malik, which is 
 first in order of date, is also a collection of 
 traditions of very great authority, [tradi¬ 
 tions.] 
 
 These different sects of Sunnis do not 
 differ in usul, or fundamentals of religious 
 belief, but in minor rules of practice, and in 
 certain legal interpretations ; but being of dif¬ 
 ferent opinions and broaching in some re¬ 
 spects separate doctrines, four schools of 
 jurisprudence have been established, known 
 as Hanafi, Shdji‘i, Hanbali, and Maliki. 
 
 The differences amongst these four Sunni 
 schools are based either upon different tradi- 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 287 
 
 tlons or upon different interpretations of the 
 same traditions, also upon the various ways 
 in which the liberty of qiyas, or ratiocination, 
 has been exercised. Consequently the number 
 of works which have appeared on the sub¬ 
 jects of scholastic science and jurisprudence, 
 has been very great indeed. 
 
 We are indebted to Mr. Shama Churun 
 Sircar, the learned and able Tagore Professor 
 of Law in Calcutta, for the following resumei 
 of the principal Sunni writings on ash-Shar‘. 
 
 “ The chief works that treat generally of 
 the doctrines of the four principal sects of 
 the Sunnis, are mentioned by Haji Khalffah 
 to be the Jami-ul-Mazahib (Jami l u ’l-Maza- 
 hib), the Mqjmgg-ul-Khildfiyat, the Yandbiya- 
 ul-Ahhdm ( Yanabi'u ’l-Ahkam), the Vyum, and 
 the Zubdat-ul-Ahlcdm. The Kanz-ud-JJakd'ik 
 (Kansu ’ d-Daqa’iq ), by An-Nasaff, is a book 
 of great reputation, principally derived from 
 the Wd.fi\ and containing questions and de¬ 
 cisions according to the doctrines of Abti- 
 Hanifah, Abu-Yusuf, Imam Muhammad, 
 Zufar, Shafii', Malik, and others. Many com¬ 
 mentaries have been written on the last men¬ 
 tioned work ; the most famous of them is the 
 Bahr-ur-Rd'ik (al-Bahru ’ r-RSiq ), which may, 
 indeed, almost be said to have superseded its 
 original, at least in India. The Bahr-ur-Rd'ik 
 is by Zainu-ul-Aabidfn Bin Nujaim-ul Misrf 
 (Ibn Najlm), a.h. 970. The Mu/taka-al- 
 Abhdr (Multaqa 'l-Abhdr),by Shaikh Ibrahim 
 Bin Muhammad al-Halabf, who died a.h. 956, 
 is a universal code of Muhammadan law. It 
 gives the different opinions or doctrines of 
 Abu Ham'fah, Malik, Shafii, and Hanbal, the 
 chief Mujtahid Imams and the founders of 
 the four great sects of Sunni's, and illustrates 
 them by those of the principal jurisconsults 
 of the school of Abu Ham'fah. It is more 
 frequently referred to as an authority through¬ 
 out Turkey, than any other treatise on juris¬ 
 prudence. 
 
 “ The digests inculcating exclusively the 
 doctrines of each of the said four great sects 
 are, indeed, numerous, though a very few of 
 them which maintain the doctrines of the 
 Malilu, or Shafii', or Hanbalf sects are used 
 in India. Digests written by Malik or any 
 of his followers are scarcely found in India. 
 
 “ Of the digests maintaining the Maliki 
 doctrines, two have lately appeared in France 
 (by M. Yincent, 1842; M. Perron, 1843). 
 The first work of Shafii, entitled the Usui 
 (Usui), or fundamentals, which contains the 
 principles of the Muhammadan civil and canon 
 law, may be classed as a digest. The Mukh- 
 tasar, the Mansur, the Rasail-ul-Muatabirah 
 ( dr-Rasd'ilu ’l-MuHabarafi), and the Kitab- 
 ul- Wasa'ik, are amongst the other works 
 written by Abu Ibrahim Bin Yahiya-al- 
 Muzani, a distinguished disciple of Shafii, 
 and a native of Egypt (a.h. 264), and are 
 according to the doctrines of Shafii. The 
 works by Ibnu Hambal and his followers are 
 few in number, and rare. 
 
 “ The followers of the Hanifi sect, which 
 obtains most commonly amongst the Muham¬ 
 madans of India, have, like others, divided 
 their law into two general branches or parts, 
 
 respectively called the Fikah (law, religious 
 and secular), and Fara’iz (the succession to, 
 and division of, inheritance). 
 
 “ The works which are on Fikah ( Fiqh ), and 
 which are considered as the chief authorities 
 of the Hanifi' sect, are the following :—Abu 
 Ham'fah’s own digest of law, entitled the 
 Fikah-id-Akbar ( al-Fiqhu ’ l-Alcbar ). This is the 
 first in rank, and has been commented upon 
 by various writers, many of whom are men¬ 
 tioned by Haji Khalffah. The doctrines of 
 that great lawyer, however, are sometimes 
 qualified or dissented from by his two 
 famous pupils, Abu Yusuf and Imam Muham¬ 
 mad. The work entitled Adab-ul-Kdzi, which 
 treats of the duties of a magistrate, is known 
 to have been written by Abu Yusuf. Save 
 and except this, no other work appears to 
 have been composed by him. He, however, 
 is said to have supplied his notes to his pupil 
 Imam Muhammad, who made use of them in 
 the composition of his own works. The 
 works of Imam Muhammad are six in num¬ 
 ber, five of which are, in common, entitled 
 the Zdhir-ur-Rawdydt (Zahiru ’ r-Rawdydt , 
 conspicuous traditions or reports). They 
 are: 1. The Jami-ul-Kabir (al-Jamihc 7- 
 Kabir ); 2. Jami-us-Saghir (al-Jdmi‘u ’s- 
 
 Saghir) ; 3. Mabsut fi Faru-ul-Hanfiyat; 4. 
 Ziydddt fi Faru-ul-Hanifiyat; and 5. Siyar 
 al-Kabir wa Saghir. The Nawddir, the sixth 
 and last of the known compositions of Imam 
 Muhammad, though not so highly esteemed 
 as the others, is still greatly respected as an 
 authority. 
 
 “ The next authorities among the Hanafi's, 
 after the founder of their sect and his two 
 disciples, are the Imam Zufar Bin al-Hazfl 
 who was chief judge at Basrah, where he 
 died (a.h. 158), and Hasan Bin Ziyad. These 
 lawyers are said to have been contemporaries, 
 friends, and scholars of Abii-Ham'fah, and 
 their works are quoted here as authorities for 
 Abu Ham'fah’s doctrines, more especially 
 when the two disciples are silent. The most 
 celebrated of the several treatises known by 
 the name of Addb-ul Kdzi was written by Abu 
 Bakr Ahmad Bin ‘Umar ul-Khassaf (a.h. 
 261). An abridgement of the Hanafi doc¬ 
 trines, called the Mulchtasar ut-Tahavi, was 
 written by Abu Jaafar Ahmad Bin Muham¬ 
 mad at-Tahavi (a.h. 331), who wrote also a 
 commentary on the Jami us-Saghir of Imam 
 Muhammad. 
 
 “ The Mulchtasar lil-Kuduri, by Abii ul- 
 Husain Ahmad Bin Muhammad al-Kudun 
 (a.h. 228) is among the most esteemed of 
 the works which follow the doctrines of Abii 
 Hanffah. There is a well-known commen¬ 
 tary on the Mukhtasar lil-Kuduri, entitled 
 Al-Jauharat un-Nayyirah, which is some¬ 
 times called Al-Jauharat ul-Munirah. The 
 digest, entitled the Mabsut ( al-Mabsut ), was 
 composed by Shams-ul-A'immah Abii Bakr 
 Muhammad as-Sarakhsi whilst in prison 
 at U'zjand. This is a work of great extent 
 and authority. He was also the author 
 of the most celebrated work entitled Al- 
 Muhit ( al-Muh.it ), which is derived in a great 
 measure from the Mabsut, the Ziydddt, and 
 
288 
 
 LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 the Nawadir of Imam Muhammad. The 
 work entitled the Muhit, by Burhan-ud-din 
 Mahmud Bin Ahmad, already spoken of, is 
 not so greatly esteemed as the Muhit as- 
 Sarakhsi (Muhitu ’s-SaralchsT). A compen¬ 
 dium of Al-Kudiiri’s Mulchtasar, which he 
 entitled the Tuhfat-ul-Fulcahd (Tuhfntu 
 Fuqahd’), was composed by Shaikh Ala-ud-din 
 Muhammad as-Samarkandi. The work of Ala- 
 ud-din was commented upon by his pupil Abu 
 Bakr Bin Masuud. 
 
 “ There are several Arabic works on phi¬ 
 losophical and theological subjects which 
 bear the name of Al-IIidayah (the guide). 
 The work entitled Al-Hidayah fi-al-Faru, or 
 the guide in particular points, is a digest of 
 law according to the doctrines of Abii Hanifah 
 and his disciples Abu Yusuf and Imam Mu¬ 
 hammad. The author of this work is Shaikh 
 Burhan-ud-din All (a.h. 593), whose reputa¬ 
 tion as a lawyer was beyond that of all his 
 contemporaries. This Hiddyali is a commen¬ 
 tary on the Baddya-vl-Mubtadd, an introduc¬ 
 tion to the study of law, written by the same 
 author in a style exceedingly concise and 
 close. In praise of the Hiddyah, HajI Kliali- 
 fah says, ‘ It has been declared, like the 
 Kurdn, to have superseded all previous books 
 on the law; that all persons should remember 
 the rules prescribed in it, and that it should 
 be followed as a guide through life.’ The 
 Hiddyah has, besides the Kifdyah, many 
 other ^commentaries, as a work of so great 
 celebrity and authority is expected to have. 
 The principal ones are the Indyah Q Indyah), 
 the Nihdyah, and the Fath-ul-Kabir. 
 
 “ The name Indyah, however, is given to 
 two commentaries on the Hiddyah. Of these, 
 the one composed by Shaikh Kamal-ud-din 
 Muhammad Bin Mahmud, who died a.h. 786, 
 is highly esteemed and useful. Supplying by 
 way of innuendoes what was omitted or left 
 to implication, also expressing what was un¬ 
 derstood in the Hiddyah, and explaining the 
 words and expounding the passages of the 
 original by the insertion of explanatory 
 phrases, the author of the Indyah has rendered 
 the work such as to be considered of itself one 
 of his own principal works, with citations of 
 passages from the Hiddyah. 
 
 “ The Nilidyah is composed by Husam-ud- 
 din Husain Bin Ah', who is said to have been 
 a pupil of Burhan-ud-din All. This is said to 
 be the first commentary composed on the 
 Hiddyah ; and it is important for having added 
 the law of inheritance to the Hiddyah, which 
 treats only of the Fikah. The commentary, 
 entitled the Kifdyah, is by Imam-ud-dfn Amir 
 Katib Bin Amir Umar, who had previously 
 written another explanatory gloss of the same 
 work, and entitled it the Ghdyat-ul-Bayan 
 The Kifdyah was finished a.h. 747, and, 
 besides the author’s own observations, it gives 
 concisely the substance of other commenta¬ 
 ries. 
 
 “ The Fath-ul-Kabir lil-Adjiz ul--Fakir, by 
 Kamal-ud-din Muhammad as-Siwasf, com¬ 
 monly called Ibnu Hammam, who died a.h. 
 861, is the most comprehensive of all the 
 comments on the Hiddyah, and includes a col¬ 
 
 lection of decisions which render it extremely 
 useful. The short commentary entitled the 
 Fawdid, written by Hamfd-ud-dfn All, Al- 
 Bukharf. who died a.h. 667, is said to be the 
 first of all the commentaries on the Hiddyah. 
 The Wdfi, by Abii-ul-Barakat Abd ullah Bin 
 Ahmad, commonly called Hafiz-ud-din an- 
 Nasaff, and its commentary the Kdfi, by the 
 same author, are works of authority. An- 
 Nasaff died a.h. 710. 
 
 “ The Vikayah (al- Wiqayah), which was 
 written in the seventh century of the Hijrah 
 by Burhan ash-Shariyat Mahmud, is an 
 elementary work to enable the student to 
 study and understand the Hiddyah. The 
 Vikayah is printed, and invariably studied, 
 with its celebrated commentary, the Shark ul- 
 Vikdyah, written by Ubaidullah Bin Masuud, 
 who died a.ii. 745. The Sliarli-ul- Vikayah 
 contains the text of the Vikayah, with a gloss 
 most perspicuously explanatory and illustra¬ 
 tive ; so much so, that those chapters of it 
 which treat of marriage, dower, and divorce, 
 are studied in the Madrassahs of India in 
 preference to the Hiddyah itself. There are 
 also other commentaries on the Vikayah, but 
 not so useful as the above. On the Sharh-ul- 
 Vilcdyah, again, there is an excellent com¬ 
 mentary, entitled the Chalpi, written by Akin 
 Yusuf Bin Junfd, who was one of the then 
 eight professors at Constantinople. This work 
 was commenced to be written about a.h. 
 891, and completed a.h. 901; and the whole of 
 it was published in Calcutta a.h. 1245, and 
 extracts therefrom have been printed. 
 
 “ The Nikayah ( [an-Niqdyah ), another ele¬ 
 mentary law book, is the work of the 
 author of the Sharh-ul- Vikayah. It is some¬ 
 times called the Mulchtasar ul- Vilcayali, being, 
 in fact, an abridgment of that work. Three 
 comments on the Nikayah are much esteemed ; 
 they were written respectively by Abu ul- 
 Makarim Bin Abd-ullah (a.h. 907), Abii Ah' 
 Bin Muhammad al-Birjindi (a.h. 935), and 
 Shams ud-di'n Muhammad al-Khurasani Al- 
 Kohistanf (a.h. 941). The last commentary 
 is entitled the Jdmi-ur-Rumuz ( Jami‘u Y- 
 Rumuz), which is the fullest and the clearest 
 of the lot, as well as one of the most useful 
 law books. 
 
 “ The Ashbah wa an-Nazdir ( al-Ashhdh wa 
 'n-Naza’ir) is also an elementary work of 
 great reputation. It was composed by Zain- 
 al-Aabidin, the author of the Bahr-ur-Rdik 
 already mentioned. Hajf Khalffah speaks of 
 this work in high terms, and enumerates 
 several appendices to it that have been com¬ 
 posed at different times. The treatise on 
 exegesis entitled the Nur-ul-Anwar fi Sharali 
 ul-Mandr (Niiru ' l-Anwar fi Sharhi ’l-Manar), 
 by Shaikh .Tim Bin Abu Sayyid Al-Makki 
 (Shaikh Jlwan ibn Abu SaTd), was printed in 
 Calcutta (a.d. 1819), and is frequently re¬ 
 ferred to as a book of authority. A small 
 tract on the sources of the Sharaa, entitled 
 the Usitl-ush-Shashi, together with an expla¬ 
 natory commentary, was printed in litho¬ 
 graphy, at Delhi, in the year a.d. 1847. 
 
 “ The Tanvir-ul-Absar (Tanwiru ’l-Absar), 
 composed by Shaikh Sliams-ud-di'n Muham- 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 mad Bin Abd-ullah-al-Grhazzf (a.h. 995), is 
 one of the most celebrated and useful books 
 according to the Haniff doctrines. This work 
 has many commentaries. One of them, en¬ 
 titled the Manh-ul- Ghaffar (Manhu 'l-Ghaf- 
 far), which is written by the author himself, 
 is a work of considerable extent. 
 
 “ The Durr-ul-Mukhtar, which is another 
 commentary on the Tanvir-ul-Absdr, is a work 
 of great celebrity. This work was written 
 (a.ii. 1071) by Muhammad Ala-ud-Dfn Bin 
 Shaikh All al-Hiskaff, Though a commen¬ 
 tary, it is virtually a digest, which of itself 
 has several commentaries, the most cele¬ 
 brated of them is the Tahtdvi, a work used 
 in India. Another commentary on the Durr- 
 ul-Mukhtar is the Radd-ul-Muhtar. This is 
 a very copious work, comprising an immense 
 number of cases and decisions illustrative of 
 the principles contained in the principal work. 
 The Durr-ul-Mukhtar treats not only of the 
 Fikah but also of the Faraiz. It is used by 
 the followers of the Haniff doctrines where- 
 ever they are, but it is most highly esteemed 
 in Arabia, where it is studied and referred to 
 in preference to other books of law. 
 
 “ Many works have been written according 
 to the doctrines of Abu Hanffah in the 
 Turkish Empire, and are received there as 
 authorities. The most celebrated of those 
 is the Multaka-ul-Abhar, by Shaikh Ibrahim 
 Bin Muhammad al-Halabf, the Durr-ul-Hulc- 
 kdm, by Mullah Khusru, Kdnun-ndmai-Jazd, 
 a tract on penal laws, &c. 
 
 “ The treatises on the laws of inheritance, 
 according to the doctrines of Shafil', are 
 the Fardiz-ul-Mutawalli, by Abu Sayi'd 
 Abd-ur-Raliman Bin Mamun-ul-Mutawalli 
 (who died a.h. 478), the Fardiz-ul-Mukud- 
 dasi, by Abu-ul-Fazl Abd-ul-Malik Bin 
 Ibrahim al-Hamadanf Al-Mukuddasf, and 
 Abu Munsur Abd-ul-Kahfr Al-Baghdadi (who 
 died respectively a.h. 489 and 429); Al- 
 Fardiz-ul-Fazdri, by Burhan-ud-dfn Abu Ishaq 
 Al-Fazarf, commonly called Ibnu Firkah (who 
 died in a.h. 729), and A l- Faraiz ul-Farikiyah, 
 by Shams-ud-di'n Muhammad Bin Killayf 
 (who died a.h. 777). 
 
 “ Of the books on the law of inheritance 
 according to the Haniff doctrines, the most 
 celebrated, and the one invariably consulted 
 in India, is the Sirdjiyyah ( as-Sirajiyah ), which 
 is also called the Faraiz-us-Sajawandi, being, 
 as it is, composed by Siraj-ud-Dfn Muham¬ 
 mad bin Abd-ur-Rashl'd as-Sajawandf. This 
 work has been commented upon by a vast 
 number of writers, upwards of forty being 
 enumerated in the Kashf-uz-Zunun by Hajf 
 Khalffah. The most celebrated of these com¬ 
 mentaries, and the most generally used to ex¬ 
 plain the text of the Sirajiyyah, is the Shari- 
 fiyyah (ash-Sharifiyah'), by Sayyid Sharif Ali 
 Bin Muhammad Al-Jurjanf (who died a.h. 814). 
 
 l; There is another kind of digest which 
 treats of the Ilm-id-Fatdwd (the science of 
 decisions). The works of this nature are also 
 very numerous, and are, for the most part, 
 called Fatawd (decisions), with the names of 
 their authors ; and, though called Fatawd, 
 most of them contain also the rules of law 
 
 289 
 
 as well as legal decisions. Of those again, 
 some treat of the Fikah alone, others of the 
 Faraiz (inheritance) also; some of them, 
 moreover, treat of the decisions of particular 
 lawyers, or those found in particular books ; 
 others treat of those which tend to illustrate 
 the doctrines of the several sects ; whilst the 
 rest of them are devoted to recording the 
 opinions of learned jurists. 
 
 “ There are several collections of decisions, 
 according to the doctrines of Shafil. The 
 one most esteemed seems to be the Fatawd lbn 
 us-Saldh, by Abu Amru-Usman Bin Abd-ur 
 Rahman ash-Shahraziirf, commonly called 
 lbn us-Salah, who died in a.h. 642. Ibnu 
 Firkah, the author of the Fardiz-ul-Fazdri 
 (a treatise on inheritance), also made a col¬ 
 lection of decisions according to the same 
 doctrines, which is called, after his name, the 
 Fatdwu-i-Ibnu Firkah. 
 
 “ Of the Fatawas of the Haniff doctrines 
 the following are generally known in India. 
 The Khuldsat ul-Fatdwd (Khulasatu 7- 
 Fatawa ), by Imam Iftikhar-ud-Dfn Tahir Bin 
 Ahmad Al-Bukhiirf, who died a.h 542, is a 
 select collection of decisions of great autho¬ 
 rity. The Zakhirat-ul-Fatawd {Zakhiratu 7- 
 Fatawa ), sometimes called the Zalchirat-ul- 
 Burhdniyali, by Burhan-ud-Dfn Bin Mazah al- 
 Bukharf, the author of the Muhit-ul-Burhdni, 
 is also a celebrated, though not a large, col¬ 
 lection of decisions, principally taken from 
 the Muhit. The Fatdwd-i-Kdzi Khan, by 
 Imam Fakhr-ud-Dfn Hasan Bin Mansur al- 
 U'zjandf al-Fargham, commonly called Kazf 
 Khan, who died a.h. 592, is a work held in 
 very high authority. It is replete with cases 
 of common occurence, and is, therefore, of 
 great practical utility, more especially as 
 many of the decisions are illustrated by 
 proofs and reasoning on which they are 
 founded. The two works entitled the Fusul- 
 ul-Isturushi and Fusul-ul-Imddiah, were incor¬ 
 porated in a collection entitled the Jdmi-ul- 
 Fusulain, which is a work of some celebrity. 
 It was compiled by Badr-ud-Dfn Muhammad, 
 known by the name of Ibn-ul-Kazf Simawa- 
 nah (a.ii. 823). The Fatawd az-Zahvriyah, 
 which contains decisions collected partly 
 from the Khizdnat-ul- Wdikiyat, was written by 
 Jahfr-ud-Dfn Abu Bakr i Muhammad Bin 
 Ahmad al-Bukharf (a.h. 619). The Kuniyat- 
 ul-Muniyat is a collection of decisions of con¬ 
 siderable authority by Mukhtar Bin Malimiid 
 Bin Muhammad as-Zahidf Abu-ur-Rija al- 
 Grhazmmf, surnamed Najm-ud-Dfn, who died 
 a.h. 658. An-Navavf, the author of the bio¬ 
 graphical dictionary entitled the Tahzib-ul- 
 Asmd (Tahzibu ’l-Asma ’), who died a.h. 677, 
 made a collection of decisions of some note, 
 which is called the Fatawd an-Navavi. He 
 also composed a smaller work of the same 
 nature, entitled al - Masdil - ul - Muhimmat 
 QUyun al-MasSili ’l-Muhimmah.'), arranged in 
 the manner of question and answer. The 
 Klnzdnat-ul-Muftiyin, by Imam Husain Bin 
 Muhammad as-Samaanf, who completed his 
 work in a.h. 740, contains a large collection 
 of decisions, and is a book of some authority 
 in India. The Khizdnat-ul-F'atdwd, by Ahmad 
 
 37 
 
290 
 
 LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 Bin Muhammad Abti Bakr al-Hanafi, is a col¬ 
 lection of decisions made towards the end of 
 the eighth century of the Hijrah, and com¬ 
 prises questions of rare occurrence. The 
 Fatawa Tatar-Khaniyah was originally a 
 large collection of Fatawas,in several volumes, 
 by Imam Aalim Bin Ala al-Hanafi, taken from 
 the MuMt-ul-Burhdni, the Zakhirat, the 
 Khaniyah, and the Zahiriydh. Afterwards, 
 however, a selection was made from these 
 decisions by Imam Ibrahim Bin Muhammad 
 al-Halabf, who died a.h 956, and an epitome 
 was thus formed, which is in one volume, and 
 still retains the title of Tatar-Khaniyali. The 
 Fatdivd-i-Ahl-us-Samarlcand , is a collection of 
 the decisions of those learned men of the city 
 of Samarkand who are omitted, or lightly 
 passed over, in the Fatdwd-Tdt.dr Khaniyah 
 and the Jami-id- Fusulain, to both of which 
 works it may be considered a supplement. 
 The Fatawa az-Zainiyah contains decisions 
 by Zain ul-Aabidfn Ibrahim Bin Nujaim al- 
 Misrf, the author of the Bahr-ur-Railc and 
 the Ashbah wa-an-Nazair. They were col¬ 
 lected by his son Ahmad (about a.h. 970). 
 The Fatawa al-Ankiravi, a collection of deci¬ 
 sions of al-Ankiravf by Shaikh-ul-Islam Mu¬ 
 hammad Bin al-Husain, who died a.h. 1098, 
 is a work of authority. The Fatawa Ham- 
 mddiyah, though it seems to be a modern 
 compilation, is a work of considerable autho¬ 
 rity. 
 
 “ Tipu Sultan ordered a collection of Fata- 
 was to be made in Persian by a society of 
 the learned of Mysore. It comprises three 
 hundred and thirteen chapters, and is entitled 
 the Fatuwd-i-Muhammadi. 
 
 “Mr. Harrington, in his analysis (vol. i. 2nd 
 ed.), mentions a few other books of Fatawa, 
 viz. the Fatawa Bazaziali, the Fatawa 
 Nakshbandiyah, the Mukhtar-ul-Fatawa, and 
 the Fatawa Karakhani. The last of these he 
 describes to be a Persian compilation, the cases 
 included in which were collected by Mullah 
 Sadar-ud-Dm Bin Yakub, and arranged some 
 years after his death by Kara Khan, in the 
 reign of Sultan Ala-ud-Di'n. 
 
 “ The following works of the present class, 
 published at Constantinople, and containing 
 decisions according to the doctrines of Abu 
 Ham'fah, may be noticed. A collection of 
 Fatwas in the Turkish and Arabic languages, 
 entitled the Kitab fi al-Fikah al-Kadusi, com¬ 
 posed by Hafiz Muhammad Bin Ahmad al- 
 Kadusf a.h. 1226. The Fatdwa-i-Abd-ur- 
 Rahim Effendi, is a collection of judgments 
 pronounced at various times in Turkey, and 
 collected by the Mufti Abd-ur-Rahi'm. It 
 was printed in the year 1827. Dabagzadeh 
 Nuaman Effendf is the author of a collection 
 of six hundred and seventy decisions, which 
 is entitled the Tuhfat us-Sukuk, and was 
 published in the year 1832. 
 
 “ The Jami-ul-Ijaratin (Jami‘u ’ l-ljdrdt ) is a 
 collection of decisions relating to the law of 
 farming and the tenure of land, by Muhammad 
 Aarif. It was printed in the year 1836. 
 
 “ A collection of Fatwas relating to leases 
 was published at Constantinople by M. 
 P’Adelbourg, in the year 1838. Prefixed to 
 
 this collection are the principles of the law of 
 lease, according to the Multaka ; and it is fol¬ 
 lowed by an analytical table, facilitating re¬ 
 ference to the various decisions. 
 
 “Of the Fatwas which treat both of the 
 Fikah and Faraiz, two are most generally 
 used in India. These are the Fatawa Sira- 
 jiyyah and Fatawa Alamgiri. The Fatawa 
 Sirajiyyah, with some principles, contains a 
 collection of decisions on cases which do not 
 generally occur in other books. The Fatawa 
 Alamgiri, with opinions and precepts of law, 
 contains an immense number of law cases. 
 This work, from its comprehensive nature, is 
 applicable to almost every case that arises 
 involving points of the Hamfi doctrines. 
 Although opinions of modern compilers are 
 not esteemed as of equal authority with those 
 of the older writers on jurisprudence, yet 
 being composed by a great number of the 
 most learned lawyers of the age, and by 
 order of the then greatest person of the 
 realm, the Emperor Aurungzeb Alamgir (by 
 whose name the book is designated), the 
 Fatawa Alamgrn is esteemed as a very high 
 authority in India; and containing, as it does, 
 decisions on cases of any shape based upon 
 unquestionable authorities, this book is here 
 referred to more frequently than any other 
 work of a similar nature, and has not up to 
 this day been surpassed by any work, except 
 perhaps, by the Radd-id-Muhtar, already 
 spoken of. During the long rule of the Mu¬ 
 hammadans in India, the Fatawa Alamgiri 
 alone appears to have been translated into 
 Persian, by order of Zeb-un-nisa, daughter of 
 the Emperor Arungzeb Alamgir. Since the 
 establishment of the British Government in 
 India, the books of Jinayah and Hudrid from 
 the Fatawa Alamgiri were translated into 
 Persian, under the direction of the Council of 
 the College of Fort William in Calcutta, by 
 the then Kazf-ul-Kuzzat, Muhammad Najm 
 ud-Di'n Khan, and were published in the year 
 1813, together with a Persian treatise on 
 Tazirat, by the same author. 
 
 “ In the same year the book on Tazirat 
 from the Durr-ul-Mukhtar was translated, 
 printed, and published, by Moulavi Muham¬ 
 mad Khalil-ud-Dfn, under the orders of Mr. 
 Harrington, the then Chief Judge of the late 
 Sudder Dewany Adawlut. 
 
 “The Hidayah was translated into Persian by 
 four of the most learned Moulavis of that time 
 and of this country (India). Unfortunately, 
 however, the learned translators have, in the 
 body of the book, inserted many things by way 
 of explanatory remarks and illustrative expo¬ 
 sitions, instead of subjoining them in the form 
 of notes. Furthermore, they have, in a con¬ 
 siderable degree, deviated from the original. 
 For all these reasons, we are warranted to 
 say, that the Persian version of the Hidayah 
 does not represent a true picture of the 
 original. 
 
 “ Macnaghten’s Principles of Muhammadan 
 Law were translated into Urdu and litho¬ 
 graphed, many years ago, in Dehli. Another 
 translation of the same work was made and 
 published in Calcutta a few years ago. 
 
LAW 
 
 LAW 
 
 291 
 
 “ The work entitled the Bighyat-i-Bahis, 
 by Al-Mutakannah, which is a tract treating 
 of Zaid’s system of Faraiz, was translated 
 into English by Sir William Jones. A trans¬ 
 lation of the Sirajiyyah also was made by 
 Sir William Jones, who at the same time made 
 an abstract translation of its celebrated com¬ 
 mentary (the Sharifiyyah ), with the addition of 
 illustrations and exemplifications from his own 
 brain and pen. A translation of the selected 
 portions from the two books of the Fatawa-i- 
 Alamgiri, which comprise the subject of sale, 
 was published by Mr. Neil Baillie. 
 
 “The Persian version of the Hidayah, 
 already noticed, was, by order of Warren 
 Hastings, commenced to be translated into 
 English by Mr. James Anderson, but shortly 
 after, he being engaged in an important 
 foreign employment, the translation was 
 finished, and revised by his colleague, Mr. 
 Charles Hamilton. It is a matter of regret 
 that the translation in question was not 
 executed from the original Hidayah itself, 
 instead of from its Persian translation, which 
 contains frequent explanatory remarks and 
 illustrative expositions interpolated in the 
 book itself, instead of being subjoined by way 
 of notes. Added to this, the Persian trans¬ 
 lators have, in a considerable degree, deviated 
 from the original. 
 
 “ Of the digests of Muhammadan law in 
 English, the first appears to be the chapter 
 on criminal law of the Muhammadans as 
 modified by regulations. This is incorporated 
 in Harrington’s Analysis of Bengal Regula¬ 
 tions. An abstract of Muhammadan law, 
 which is from the pen of Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Vans Kennedy, will be found in the Journal of 
 the Royal Asiatic Society. ' This work,’ says 
 Mr. Morley, ‘ is well worthy the attention of 
 the student.’ The work entitled the Principles 
 and Precedents of Mudammadan Law, written 
 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) William Hay Mac- 
 naghten, is the clearest or easiest, if not the 
 amplest or sufficient, work on that law 
 hitherto written in English. Mr. Neil Baillie’s 
 Muhammadan Law of Inheritance, according 
 to Abu Hanifah and his followers, with ap¬ 
 pendix containing authorities from the original 
 Arabic, is an excellent work of the kind. 
 The treatise on inheritance, gift, will, sale, and 
 mortgage, compiled by Mr. F. E. Elberling, a 
 Danish judge at Serampore, in the year 1844, 
 contains principles of Muhammadan law, with 
 those of the other laws, as used in India. 
 
 “In the year 1865, Mr. Neil Baillie, the 
 author of the work already mentioned, 
 completed and published a digest of Muham¬ 
 madan law on all the subjects to which the 
 Muhammadan law is usually applied by the 
 British Courts of Justice in India. It gives 
 translations of almost all the principles and 
 some of the cases contained in the iatawa 
 Alamgiri, the great digest of Muhammadan 
 law in India, and quotes occasionally other 
 available authorities. Being generally close 
 to the original, and fully dealing with the 
 subjects it treats of, this work must be said 
 to be authentic, as well as the amplest of the 
 digests of Muhammadan law hitherto written 
 
 in English according to the doctrines of the 
 Hanifi sect.” (See the Tagore Law Lectures, 
 1813, by Shama Churan Sircar; Thacker, 
 Spink & Co., Calcutta.) 
 
 II. — The Shi‘ahs, although they are divided 
 amongst themselves into numerous sects 
 which differ from each other in various points 
 of religious belief, are unanimous in rejecting 
 the collections of Traditions of the Sunnis. The 
 Sunnis arrogate to themselves the title of Tra- 
 ditionists, but this does not imply that the 
 Shi-ahs do not receive the Hadis, but merely 
 that they reject the “ six correct books ” of 
 their opponents. 
 
 The works on Hadis compiled by the 
 Shfiahs are very numerous, and they main¬ 
 tain that they have earlier and more authentic 
 collections than those of the Sunnis. They 
 say that in the time of al-Hasan and al- 
 Husain, a certain person who was grandfather 
 to ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘All ibn Abi Shu‘bah al- 
 Halabi, collected traditions and gave them to 
 his grandson for careful record. This record 
 was verified and corrected by Imam Ja‘far 
 as-Sadiq. The Sunni doctor, Abu Hanifah, 
 was a pupil of this distinguished personage 
 in his earlier days, but afterwards separated 
 from him and established a school of his own. 
 
 There are four books of traditions, known as 
 the Kutub-i-Arba-ah, which seem to be held in 
 the same estimation by the Shi'ahs, as the 
 six Sahihs of the Sunnis. They are entitled 
 the Tahzib, the Istibsar, the Kdfi, and Man 
 la Yastahfirah al-Faqih. [traditions. 1 
 
 Mr. Shama - Churun Sircar, Tagore Pro¬ 
 fessor of Law, has also reviewed the Shl‘ah, 
 or Imamlyah, law books, and we are indebted 
 to him for the following re'sumd :— 
 
 “ One of the earliest works on civil and 
 criminal laws was written by Abdullah Bin 
 All al Halabi. But it does not appear that 
 any of his legal compositions are extant. 
 
 “ A number of law-treatises of the present 
 class was composed by Yunas Bin Abd ur- 
 Rahman (already spoken of as a writer on 
 traditions). The most famous of these trea¬ 
 tises is entitled the Jdmi-ul-Kabir. 
 
 “ Several works on law were written by 
 Abu al-Hasan Ah' Bin al-Hasan al-Kumi, 
 commonly called Ibnu Babavaih, one of which 
 works is entitled the Kitdbu ash-Sharayah. 
 The Maknaa fi al-Fikah ( Maqna‘ fi ’ l-Fiqh ) 
 is the best known of the law books of the 
 present class composed by Abu Jaafar. 
 
 “ Abu Abdullah Muhammad an-Nuamani, 
 surnamed the Shaikh Mufi'd, and Ibnu Mual- 
 lim, a renowned Shiah lawyer, is stated to 
 have written two hundred works, amongst 
 which one called the Irshdd is well known. 
 When Shaikh Mufi'd is quoted in conjunction 
 with Abii Jaafar at-Tusi, they also are spoken 
 of as ‘ the two Shaikhs ’ (Shaikhain). 
 
 “ The chief works on law, written by Abu 
 Jaafar Muhammad at-Tusf (Abu Ja‘far Mu¬ 
 hammad at-Tusi), are the Mabsut, the Khildf, 
 the Nihayah, and the Muhit. These works are 
 held in great estimation, and he is considered 
 one of the highest authorities in law. The 
 Risalat-i-Jaafariyah is likewise a legal trea¬ 
 tise by at-Tusi, which is frequently quoted. 
 
292 
 
 LAW 
 
 LEGACY 
 
 “ The Shartiya ul-lsldm, written by Shaikh 
 Najm ud-di'n Abu ul-Kasim Jaafar Bin Mu- 
 ayyid al-Hillf, commonly called Shaikh Muay- 
 yid, is a work of the highest authority, at 
 least in India, and is more universally referred 
 to than any other Shiah law book, and is the 
 chief authority for the law of the Shiahs in 
 India. A copious and valuable commentary 
 upon the Shartiya ul-lsldm, entitled the Ma- 
 salilc ul-Afhdm , was written by Zayin-ud-dfn 
 All as-Saili, commonly called the ‘ Shahid-i- 
 Sanf, (second martyr). There are two other 
 commentaries on the Shardya ul-lsldm, re¬ 
 spectively entitled the Maddr ul-Ahkam and 
 Jawdhir ul-Kaldm, the latter of which was 
 written by Shaikh Muhammad Hasan an- 
 Najafi. 
 
 “ Of the works on jurisprudence written by 
 Yahiyah Bin Ahmad al-Hilli, who was cele¬ 
 brated for his knowledge of traditions, and is 
 well known amongst the Imamiyah sects for 
 his works, the Jdmi as/i-Shardyu and the 
 Mud/chal dar Usul-i-Fikah are held in the 
 greatest repute. 
 
 “ Of the numerous law books written by 
 Shaikh Allamah Jamal-ud-din Hasan Bin 
 Yusuf Bin al-Mutahhir al-Hillf, who is called 
 the chief of the lawyers of Hilliah, and whose 
 works are frequently referred to as authori¬ 
 ties of undisputed merit, the most famous are 
 the TallcMs ul-Maram, the Ghayit ul-Ahkam, 
 and the Tahrir ul-Ahkam, which last is a 
 justly celebrated work. The Mukhtalaf-ush- 
 Shiah is also a well-known composition of this 
 great lawyer, and his Irshdd ul-Azhdn is con¬ 
 stantly quoted as an authority under the name 
 of the Irshdd-i-Alldmdh. 
 
 “ The .1dmi-ul-Ahbasi is a concise and com¬ 
 prehensive treatise on Shiah law, in twenty 
 books or chapters. It is generally considered 
 as the work of Baha-ud-dfn Muhammad 
 Aamili, who died a.h. 1031. 
 
 “ The Mafatih, by Muhammad Bin Mur- 
 taza, surnamed Muhsan, and the commentary 
 on the book by his nephew, who was of the 
 same name, but surnamed Hadi, are modern 
 works deserving of notice. 
 
 “ The Rouzai ul-Ahkam, written in Persian 
 by the third Mujtahid of Oudh, consists of 
 four chapters. The first of these is on Inhe¬ 
 ritance, which is treated of therein most fully 
 and perspicuously. This work was litho¬ 
 graphed at Lucknow, first in a.h. 1257, and 
 again in a.h. 1264. 
 
 “ A general digest of the Imamiyah law in 
 temporal matters was compiled under the 
 superintendence of Sir William Jones. This 
 book is composed of extracts from the work 
 called the Kafi, which is a commentary on the 
 Majatih, as well as from the Shardya ul- 
 lsldm. The manuscript of this digest still 
 remains in the possession of the High Court 
 of Judicature at Calcutta. 
 
 “ The earliest treatises on the Farai’z, or 
 Inheritance, of the Shiahs appear to have 
 been written by Abdul Aziz Bin Ahmad al- 
 Azadi, and Abu Muhammad al-Kindi, the 
 latter of whom is said to have lived in the 
 reign of Hanin ur-Rashid. 
 
 “ A work on the law of inheritance, entitled 
 
 the al-Ijaz fi al-Faraiz has been left by Abu 
 Jaafar Muhammad at-Tusf in addition to his 
 general works on the Kuran, the Hadfs and 
 jurisprudence. 
 
 “ The best known and most esteemed works 
 on the law of inheritance are the Ihtijaj ush- 
 Shiah, by Saad Bin Abd-ullah al-Asharf, the 
 Kit ah ul-Maiodris, by Abii al-Hasan All 
 Babavaili; the Hamal uf-Fardiz and the 
 Fard'iz ush-Shariyah, by Shaikh Muffd. The 
 Shardya ul-lsldm . which, as already stated, is 
 one of the highest authorities on the Shiah 
 law, contains also a chapter on Inheritance. 
 
 Of all the above-mentioned books on civil 
 and criminal laws, those that are commonly 
 referred to in India ate the following: The 
 Shardya ul-lsldm, Rouzat-ul-Ahkam, Sharah-i- 
 Lurnd, Mafatih, Tahrir, and Irshdd ul- 
 Azhdn. 
 
 “ Of the books on this branch of Muham¬ 
 madan law, only that part of the Sharayah ul- 
 lsldm which treats of the forensic law has 
 been translated, though not fully, by Mr. 
 Neil Baillie. A considerable part of the 
 digest compiled under the superintendence of 
 Sir William Jones (as already noticed) was 
 translated by Colonel Baillie, out of which 
 the chapter on Inheritance has been printed 
 by Mr. Neil Baillie at the end of the second 
 part of his digest of Muhammadan law. Al¬ 
 though the chapter above alluded to is 
 copious, yet it must be remarked that it is 
 not so clear and useful as the Sharaya-ul- 
 Isldm and Rouzat ul-Ahkdm." (See Tagore 
 Law Lectures, 1874, the Imamiyah Code, by 
 Shama Churun Sircar; Thaeker, Spink and 
 Co., Calcutta.) 
 
 LAZA “Fire, flame.” A 
 
 division, or stage in hell, mentioned in the 
 Qur’an, Surah lxx. 15. Al-Baghawi, the 
 commentator, says it is that portion of hell 
 which is reserved for the Christians who have 
 not believed in Muhammad, [hell.] 
 
 LAZARUS. Arabic al-‘Azar (jj 
 
 Not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, but 
 Jalalu ’d-din, in remarking on Surah iii. 43: 
 “ I will bring the dead to life by God’s per¬ 
 mission,” says, amongst those_ whom Jesus 
 raised from the dead was al-‘Azar, who was 
 his special friend and companion. The 
 account given by the commentators al-Ka- 
 malan of the raising of Lazarus, is very 
 similar to that given in the New Testament. 
 
 LEASE. Arabic ijarah (*)W^). 
 
 [hire.] 
 
 LEBANON. Arabic Lithium (oW5). 
 
 Not mentioned in the Qur’an, but tradition 
 has it that Ishmael collected the stones for 
 the Ka‘bah from five sacred mountains, one 
 of which was Mount Libanus. The followers 
 of Isma‘ilu ’d-DarazI, known as the Druses, 
 a fanatical sect of Muslims, reside on the 
 southern range of the Lebanon chain. 
 [druses.] 
 
 LEGACY, [wills.] 
 
LEGITIMACY 
 
 LEGITIMACY. Waladu ’l-haldl 
 (JlaJl ^), “ a legitimate child ” ; 
 
 waladu ’z-zind’ aJj), “ an illegiti¬ 
 
 mate child.” 
 
 The Muhammadan law, unlike the law of 
 England, makes legitimacy depend, not 
 merely upon the fact of the child being bom 
 in “ lawful wedlock,” but also conceived after 
 lawful marriage. 
 
 According to the Sunnis and SbTalis, and 
 according to the teaching of the Qur’an itself, 
 the shortest period of gestation recognised by 
 law is six months, and consequently a child 
 born any time after six months from the 
 date of marriage has a claim to legitimacy. 
 Amongst the Sunnis, a simple denial of the 
 paternity of the child so born would not take 
 away its status of legitimacy. But the 
 Shi‘ahs hold that if a man get a woman with 
 child and then marry her, and she give birth 
 to the child within six months after marriage, 
 legitimacy is not established. 
 
 As to the longest period of pregnancy, there 
 are some strange rulings in Muslim law. 
 The Shfa‘hs, upon the basis of a decision 
 pronounced by ‘AH, recognise ten lunar 
 months as the longest period of gestation, 
 and this is now regarded as the longest legal 
 period by both Shbahs and Sunnis. But Abu 
 Hanifah and his two disciples, upon the 
 authority of a tradition reported by -Ayi- 
 sliah, regard two years as the longest period 
 of gestation, and the Imam ash-Shafl‘I ex¬ 
 tended it to four, and the Imam Malik to 
 five and even seven years ! It is said these 
 Sunni doctors based their opinions on the 
 legendary birth of Zuhak Tazi and others, 
 who were born, so it is related, in the fourth 
 year of conception I But Muslim divines 
 say that the old jurisconsults of the Sunni 
 school were actuated by a sentiment of hu¬ 
 manity, and not by any indifference as to the 
 laws of nature, their chief desire being to 
 prevent an abuse of the provisions of the 
 law regarding divorce and the disavowal of 
 children. The general concensus of Muslim 
 doctors points to ten months as the longest 
 period of pregnancy which can be recognised 
 by any court of justice. 
 
 [Under the old Roman law, it was ten 
 months. In the Code Napoleon, article 312, 
 it is three hundred days. Under the Jewish 
 law, the husband had the absolute right of 
 disavowal. See Cede Rabbinique, vol. ii. 
 p. 63.] 
 
 The Muhammadan law, like the English 
 law, does not recognise the legitimation of 
 antenuptial children. Whereas, according to 
 French and Scotch law, such children are 
 legitimated by the subsequent marriage of 
 the parents. 
 
 In Sunni law, an invalid marriage does not 
 affect the legitimacy of children born from it, 
 Nor does it in Sr.rah law ; but the Shhah law 
 demands proof that such a marriage was a 
 bona fide one, whilst the Hanafl code is not 
 strict on this point. 
 
 In the case of a divorce by ii‘dn [li‘a?<], 
 the waladu ’l-muld‘anak, or “ child of imp re- 
 
 li‘an 293 
 
 cation,” is cut off from his right of inheritance 
 from his father. 
 
 (See Syud Ameer Ali’s Personal Law of 
 Muhammadans, p. 160 ; Fatawd-i-‘Alamfiiiri, 
 p. 210 ; Shardi'u ’l-Islam, p. 301.) [paren¬ 
 tage.] 
 
 LETTERS. The letters of Mus¬ 
 lims are distinguished by several peculiari¬ 
 ties, dictated by the rule of politeness. “ The 
 paper is thick, white, and highly polished; 
 sometimes it is ornamented with flowers of 
 gold; and the edges are always cut straight 
 with scissors. The upper half is generally 
 left blank ; and the writing never occupies 
 any portion of the second side. The name of 
 the person to whom the letter is addressed, 
 when the writer is an inferior or an equal, 
 and even in some other cases, commonly 
 occurs in the first sentence, preceded by 
 several titles of honour; and is often written 
 a little above the line to which it appertains, 
 the space beneath it in that line being left 
 blank; sometimes it is written in letters of 
 gold, or red ink. A king, writing to a subject, 
 or a great man to a dependant, usually places 
 his name and seal at the head of his letter. 
 The seal is the impression of a signet (gene¬ 
 rally a ring, worn on the little finger of the 
 right hand), upon which is engraved the name 
 of the person, commonly accompanied by the 
 word ‘ His (i.e. God’s) servant,’ or some other 
 words expressive of trust in God, &c. Its 
 impression is considered more valid than the 
 sign-manual, and is indispensable to give 
 authority to the letter. It is made by dab¬ 
 bing some ink on the surface of the signet, 
 and pressing this upon the paper: the place 
 which is to be stamped being first moistened, 
 by touching the tongue with a finger of the 
 right hand, and then gently rubbing the part 
 with that fing'er. A person writing to a 
 superior, or to an equal, or even an inferior 
 to whom he wishes to show respect, signs his 
 name at the bottom of his letter, next the 
 left side or corner, and places the seal imme¬ 
 diately to the right of this; but if he parti¬ 
 cularly desire to testify his humility, he 
 places it beneath his name, or even partly 
 over the lower edge of the paper, which con¬ 
 sequently does not receive the whole of the 
 impression.” (Lane’s Arabian Niqhts, vol. i, 
 p. 23.) 
 
 LEAN (yLaJ), Lit. “ Mutual 
 
 cursing.” A form of divorce which takes 
 place under the following circumstances. 
 
 “ If a man accuses his wife of adultery, and 
 does not prove it by four witnesses, he must 
 swear before God that he is the teller of 
 truth four times, and then add: 1 If I am a 
 liar, may God curse me.’ The wife then says 
 four times, ‘ I swear before God that my hus¬ 
 band lies ’; and then adds; ‘ May God’s 
 
 anger be upon me if this man be a teller of 
 truth.’ After this a divorce takes place ipso 
 facto." (See Suratu ’n-Nur, xxiv. 6; Mishkdt, 
 book xiii. ch. xv.). 
 
 In the case of Li‘an, as in the other forms 
 of divorce, the woman can claim her dovrer. 
 
LTBAS 
 
 294 
 
 Li‘an is not allowed in four cases, viz. a 
 Christian woman married to a Muslim, a 
 Jewess married to a Muslim, a free woman 
 married to a slave, and a slave girl married 
 to a free man. 
 
 The children of a woman divorced by Li‘an 
 are illegitimate. 
 
 LIBAS [apparel.] 
 
 LIBERALITY. Arabic sakhdwah 
 “ hospitality ” ; infac[ (jU^), 
 “ general liberality in everything.” 
 
 Liberality is specially commended by Mu¬ 
 hammad in the Traditions :— 
 
 “ The liberal man is near to God, near to 
 Paradise, near to men, and distant from hell. 
 The miser is far from God, far from Para¬ 
 dise, far from man, and near the fire. Truly 
 an ignorant but liberal man is more beloved 
 by God, than a miser who is a worshipper of 
 God.” 
 
 “ Three people will not enter Paradise : a 
 deceiver, a miser, and one who reproaches 
 others with obligation after giving.” 
 
 “Every morning God sends two angels, and 
 one of them says, ‘ 0 God, give to the liberal 
 man something in lieu of that which he has 
 given away! ’ and the other says, ‘ O God, 
 ruin the property of the miser! ’ ” 
 
 “ The miser and the liberal man are like 
 two men dressed in coats of mail, their arms 
 glued to their breasts and collar bones, on 
 account of the tightness of the coats of mail. 
 The liberal man stands up when giving alms, 
 and the coat of mail expands for him. The 
 miser stands up when intending alms ; the coat 
 of mail becomes tight, and every ring of it 
 sticks fast to its place.” 
 
 LIHYAH [beard.] 
 
 LISANU ’L-HAQQ o 3 - 3 )- 
 
 Lit. “ The language of truth.” The Insdnu 
 ’l-Kamil, or “ perfect man,” in which the 
 secret influences of al-Mutakallim, “ the 
 Speaker” (i.e. God), are evident. 
 
 LITERATURE, MUSLIM. 
 Arabic ‘llrnu ’l-Adab The 
 
 oldest specimens of Arabic literature now 
 extant were composed in the century which 
 preceded the birth of Muhammad. They 
 consist of short extemporaneous elegies, after¬ 
 wards committed to writing, or narratives of 
 combats of hostile tribes written in rhyth¬ 
 mical prose, similar to that -Which we find 
 in the Qur’an. 
 
 Baron De Slane says the Hamasah , the 
 Kitabu 'l-Aghani, and the Amall of Abu‘Aliyu 
 ’1-Kali, furnish a copious supply of examples, 
 Which prove that the art of composing in 
 rhythmical prose not only existed before 
 Muhammad’s time, but was even then gene¬ 
 rally practised, and had been brought to a 
 high degree of perfection; The variety of its 
 inflections, the regularity of its syntax, and 
 the harmony of its prosody, furnish in them¬ 
 selves a proof of the high degree of culture 
 which the language of the pre-Islamic Ara¬ 
 bians had attained. The annual meetings of 
 the poets at the fair of ‘Ukaz encouraged 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 literature, and tended to give regularity of 
 formation and elegance of style to these early 
 poetic effusions. 
 
 The appearance of the Qur’an brought 
 about a gradual, but remarkable change in 
 tone and spirit of Arabic literature. An ex¬ 
 traordinary admixture of falsehood and truth, 
 it was given to the world by its author as the 
 uncreated and Eternal Word, and as a standing 
 miracle not only of sound doctrine, but of lite¬ 
 rary style and language. This strange asser¬ 
 tion, of course, deterred nearly every attempt 
 at imitation, although it is related that Ibn al- 
 Muqaffa 1 , al-Mutanabbi, and a few others, of 
 a sceptical turn of mind, essayed in some of 
 their writings to surpass the style of the 
 Qur’an. But as the Muslims in all ages 
 have drawn their principles of grammar and 
 rhetoric from the Qur’an itself, w r e need not 
 be surprised that these and every other 
 attempt to surpass its excellences have been 
 considered failures. 
 
 One circumstance in the earliest history of 
 Islam was of itself instrumental in giving 
 rise to a most extensive literature of a special 
 class. The Qur’an (unlike the Pentateuch 
 and New 7 Testament) was not a narrative of 
 the life of its author. And yet, at the same 
 time, Muhammad had left very special injunc¬ 
 tions as to the transmission of his precepts 
 and actions. [tradition.] The study of 
 these traditional sayings, together with that 
 of the Qur’an, gave rise to all the branches of 
 Arabic learning. 
 
 The Ahadis, or “ the sayings of Muham¬ 
 mad,” were considered by his followers as 
 the result of divine inspiration, and they were 
 therefore treasured up in the memories of 
 his followers with the same care which 
 they had taken in learning by heart the 
 chapters of the Qur’an. They recorded not 
 only what the Prophet said and did, but also 
 what he refrained from saying and doing, his 
 very silence (sunnatu ’ s-sukut) on questions of 
 doctrine or rule of life being also regarded 
 as the result of divine guidance. It therefore 
 became of paramount importance, to those 
 who were sincere followers of Muhammad, 
 that they should be in possession of his pre¬ 
 cepts and practices, and even of the most 
 trifling circumstances of his daily life. The 
 mass of traditions increased rapidly, and be¬ 
 came so great that it was quite impossible 
 for any one single person to recollect them. 
 
 According to Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuti, the 
 first who wrote down the traditional sayings 
 of the Prophet was Ibn Shihab az-Zuhri, 
 during the reign of the Khalifah ‘Umar II. 
 ibn ‘ Abdi ’b‘Aziz (a.h. 99-101) ; but the Imam 
 Malik (a.h. 95--179), the compiler of the 
 book known as al-Muwatta is generally held 
 to be the author of the earliest collection of 
 Traditions. (See Kashfu ’z-Zunun, in loco.) 
 
 So rapidly did this branch of Muslim 
 learning increase, that when al-Bukhari (a.h. 
 194-256) determined to make a careful colla¬ 
 tion of trustworthy traditions, he found not 
 fewer than 300,000 extant, from which he 
 selected 7,275. 
 
 The necessity of distinguishing the genuine 
 
LITERATURE 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 295 
 
 traditions from the false gave rise to new 
 branches of literature. A just appreciation 
 of the credit to which each traditionist was 
 entitled, could only be formed from a know¬ 
 ledge of the details of his history, and of the 
 moral character of his life. Hence numerous 
 biographical works, arranged in chronological 
 order, containing short accounts of the prin¬ 
 cipal persons connected with the early history 
 of Islam, were compiled. The necessity for 
 tracing the places of their birth and the race 
 from which they sprang, led Muslim critics 
 to the study of genealogy and geography 
 
 The sense of the Qur’an, with its casual 
 references to contemporaneous as well as 
 to past history, was felt to be difficult and 
 obscure, in many places; and this led the 
 learned Muslims to study not only the tradi¬ 
 tional sayings of Muhammad already alluded 
 to, but any historical or geographical works 
 which would help them in understanding the 
 text of “ tho Book.” 
 
 In the early days of Islam, general history 
 was regarded with little favour as a subject 
 for study, and many orthodox doctors of 
 Muslim law were led by religious scruples to 
 condemn the study of secular history; and 
 the works of Grecian and Latin poets, philo¬ 
 logists, grammarians, and historians, only re¬ 
 ceived their approval in so far as they served 
 to explain the text of the Qur’an and the tra¬ 
 ditional records of Muhammad’s followers. 
 
 The real attitude of the leaders of Islam 
 was decidedly hostile towards all literature 
 which was not in strict harmony with the 
 teachings of their religion. If in succeeding 
 ages the Saracens became, as they undoubtedly 
 did, the liberal patrons of literature and 
 science, there cannot be a doubt that in the 
 earliest ages of Islam, in the days of the four 
 “ well-directed ” Khalifahs, not merely the 
 greatest indifference, but the most bigoted 
 opposition was shown to all literary effort 
 which had not emanated from the fountain 
 of Islam itself. And consequently the wild 
 uncivilized conquerors of Jerusalem, Caesarea, 
 Damascus, and Alexandria, viewed the de¬ 
 struction of the literary lore of ages which 
 was stored up in those ancient cities with in¬ 
 difference, if not with unmitigated satisfac¬ 
 tion. Everything, science, history, and reli¬ 
 gion, must be brought down to the level and 
 standard of the teaching of the Qur’an and 
 the life of the Prophet of Arabia, and what¬ 
 ever differed therefrom was from the Devil 
 himself, and deserved the pious condemnation 
 of every true child of the faith. 
 
 But the possession of power and riches 
 gave rise to new feelings, and the pious aver¬ 
 sion to intellectual pursuits gradually relaxed 
 in proportion as their empire extended itself. 
 The possession of those countries, which had 
 for so long been the seats of ancient literature 
 and art, naturally introduced among the Mus¬ 
 lims a spirit of refinement, and the love of 
 learning. But it was not the outcome of 
 their religious belief, it was the result of the 
 peculiar circumstances which surrounded 
 their unparalleled conquest of a civilized 
 world. Their stern fanaticism yielded to the 
 
 mild influence of letters, and, “ by a singular 
 anomaly,” says Andrew Crichton, “in the 
 history of nations, Europe became indebted 
 to the implacable enemies of her religion and 
 her liberties for her most valuable lessons in 
 science and arts.” In this they present a 
 marked contrast to the Goths and Huns ; and 
 what is most remarkable is, not that suc- 
 cesful conquerors should encourage literature, 
 but that, within a single century, a race of 
 religionists should pass from a period of the 
 deepest barbarism to that of the universal 
 diffusion of science. In a.d. 641, the Kha- 
 llfah ‘Umar is said to have destroyed the 
 Alexandrian library. In a.d. 750, the Khali¬ 
 fahs of Baghdad, the munificent patrons of 
 literature, mounted the throne. Eight centu¬ 
 ries elapsed from the foundation of Rome to 
 the age of Augustus, whilst one century 
 alone marks the transition from the wild 
 barbarism of the Khalifahs of Makkah to 
 the intellectual refinement of the Khalifahs 
 of al-Kufah and Baghdad. The Saracens, 
 when they conquered the cities of the West, 
 came into possession of the richest legacies 
 of intellectual wealth, and they used these 
 legacies in such a manner as to earn for 
 themselves the most prominent place in the 
 page of history as patrons of learning. But 
 the truth is, the literature of the great By¬ 
 zantine empire exercised a kind of patronage 
 over Saracenic kings. If the Saracens pro¬ 
 duced not many original works on science, 
 philosophy, or art, they had the energy and 
 good sense to translate those of Greece and 
 Rome. (See the list of Arabic works in tho 
 Kashfu ‘ z-Zuniin .) 
 
 Under the Umaiyah Khalifahs, the genius 
 of Greece began to obtain an influence over 
 the minds of the Muslims. 
 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Malik, the fifth Khallfah of the 
 Umaiyah dynasty (a.ii. 65), was himself a 
 poet, and assembled around him at his court 
 the most distinguished poets of his time. 
 Even the Christian poet, al-Akhtal took his 
 place in the front rank of the literary favo¬ 
 rites of the Court. 
 
 But it was especially under al-Mansur, the 
 Abbasside Khallfah (a.h. 136), that the 
 golden age of Arabian literature in the East 
 commenced. Accident brought him acquainted 
 with a Greek physician named George, who 
 was invited to court, and to whom the Sara¬ 
 cens are indebted for the study of medicine. 
 
 The celebrated Harunu T-Rashld, the hero 
 of the Arabian Nights, was specially the 
 patron of learning. He was always surrounded 
 by learned men, and whenever he erected a 
 mosque he always established and endowed a 
 school of learning in connection with it. It 
 is related that amongst the presents he sent 
 to the Emperor Charlemagne was an hy¬ 
 draulic clock. The head of his schools and 
 the chief director of the education of his 
 empire, was John ibn Massua, a Nestorian 
 Christian of Damascus. 
 
 The reign of Ma’mun (a.h. 198) has been 
 called the Augustan period of Arabian lite¬ 
 rature. The Khallfah Ma’mun himself was 
 a scholar, and he selected for his companions 
 
296 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 the most eminent scholars from the East and 
 West. Baghdad became the resort of poets, 
 philosophers, historians, and mathematicians 
 from every country and every creed. Amongst 
 the scholars of his court was al-Kindl, the 
 Christian author of a remarkable treatise in 
 defence of Christianity against Islam, side 
 by side with al-Kindl, the philosopher, who 
 translated numerous classical and philo¬ 
 sophical works for his munificent and gene¬ 
 rous patron, and wrote a letter to refute the 
 doctrine of the Trinity, [icindi.] It is said 
 that in the time of Ma’mim, “ literary relics 
 of conquered provinces, which his generals 
 amassed with infinite care, were brought to 
 the foot of the throne as the most precious 
 tribute he could demand. Hundreds of camels 
 might be seen entering the gates of Baghdad, 
 laden with no other freight than volumes of 
 Greek, Hebrew, and Persian literature.” 
 Masters, instructors, translators, and com¬ 
 mentators, formed the court of Baghdad, 
 which appeared rather to be a learned aca¬ 
 demy than the capital of a great nation of 
 conquerors. When a treaty of peace was 
 concluded with the Grecian Emperor Michael 
 III., it was stipulated that a large and valu¬ 
 able collection of books should be sent to 
 Baghdad from the libraries of Constanti¬ 
 nople, which were translated by the savans 
 of his court into the Arabic tongue; and it is 
 stated that the original manuscripts were 
 destroyed, in order that the learning of the 
 world might be retained in the “ divine 
 language of the Prophet I ” 
 
 The Khalifah al-Wasiq (a.h. 227), whose 
 residence had been removed by Ms prede¬ 
 cessor, al-Mu‘tasim, from Baghdad to Sau- 
 mara, was also a patron of letters. He 
 especially patronised poetry and music. 
 
 Under al-Mu‘tamid (a.h. 256), Baghdad 
 again became the seat of learning. 
 
 Al-Mustansir (a.h. 623), the last but one 
 of the Abbaside Khalifahs, adorned Baghdad 
 by erecting a mosque and college, which bore 
 his name, and which historians tell us had 
 no equal in the Muslim world. Whilst the 
 city of Baghdad, in the time of the Abbaside 
 dynasty, was the great centre of learning, al- 
 Basrah and al-Kufah almost equalled the 
 capital itself in reputation, and in the number 
 of celebrated authors and treatises which 
 they produced. Damascus, Aleppo, Balkh. 
 Ispahan, and Samarcand, also became re¬ 
 nowned as seats of learning. It is said that 
 a certain doctor of science was once obliged 
 to decline an invitation to settle in the 
 city of Samarcand, because the transport 
 of' his books would have required 400 
 camels ! 
 
 Under the Fatimide Khalifahs (a.d. 910 
 to 1160), Egypt became for the second time 
 the asylum of literature. Alexandria had 
 more than twenty schools of learning, and 
 Cairo, which was founded by al-Mu‘izz (a.d. 
 955), soon possessed a royal library of 
 100,000 manuscripts. A Daru ’L-Hikmak, or 
 school of science, was founded by the Khali¬ 
 fah al-Hakim (a.d. 996), in the city of Cairo, 
 with an annual revenue of 2,570 dinars. The 
 
 institution combined all the advantages of a 
 free school and a free library. 
 
 But it was in Spain (Arabic Andalus ) that 
 Arabian literature continued to flourish to a 
 later period than in the schools of Cairo and 
 Baghdad. The cities of Cordova, Seville, 
 and Granada, which were under Muslim 
 rule for several centuries (Cordova, from 
 a.d. 755 to 1236; Granada, to a.d. 1484), 
 rivalled each other in the magnificence of 
 their academies, colleges, and libraries. 
 Muslim historians say that Cordova alone 
 has produced not fewer than 170 eminent 
 men, and its library, founded by al-Hakam II. 
 (a.d. 961), contained 400,000 volumes : and 
 the Khalifah himself w"as so eminent a 
 scholar, that he had carefully examined each 
 of these books himself, and with his own 
 hand had written in each book the genealo¬ 
 gies, births and deaths of their respective 
 authors. 
 
 Muhammad, the first Khalifah of Granada, 
 was a patron of literature, and the cele¬ 
 brated academy of that city was long under 
 the direction of Shamsu ’d-din of Murcia, so 
 famous among the Arabs for his skill in 
 polite literature. Kasiri has recorded the 
 names of 120 authors whose talents conferred 
 dignity and fame on the Muslim University of 
 Granada. 
 
 So universal was the patronage of litera¬ 
 ture in Spain, that in the cities of the An¬ 
 dalusian kingdom, there were as many as 
 seventy free libraries open to the public, as 
 well as seventeen distinguished colleges of 
 learning. 
 
 (For an interesting account of the state of 
 literature in Spain under the Moors, the 
 English reader can refer to Pascual de 
 Gayango’s translation of al-Makkari’s History 
 of the Muhammadan Dynasties in Spain, 
 London, 1840.) 
 
 History, which was so neglected amongst 
 the ancient Arabs, was cultivated with assi¬ 
 duity by the Muslim. There is extant an 
 immense number of works in this department 
 of literature. The compiler of the Biblio¬ 
 graphical Dictionary, the Kashfu ’z-Zunun, 
 gives a list of the names and titles of 1,300 
 works of history, comprising annals, chro¬ 
 nicles, and memoirs. As might be expected, 
 the earliest Muslim histories were compiled 
 with the special object of giving to the world 
 the history of the Prophet of Arabia and his 
 immediate successors. The earliest historian 
 of whom we have any extensive remains is 
 Ibn Ishaq, who died a.h. 151, or fifteen 
 years after the overthrow of the Umaiyah 
 dynasty. He was succeeded by Ibn Hisham, 
 who died a.h. 213, and who made the labours 
 of Ibn Ishaq the basis of his history. Another 
 celebrated Muslim histoz’ian is Ibn Sa‘d, who 
 is generally known as Katibu ’1-WaqidI, or 
 al-Waqidi’s secretary, and is supposed to 
 have even surpassed Ms master in historical 
 accuracy. 
 
 AbuJa'faribn Jarir at-Tabari flourished 
 in the latter part of the third century of the 
 Muslim era, and has been styled by Gibbon, 
 “ the Livy of the Arabians.” He flourished 
 
LITERATURE 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 297 
 
 in the city of Baghdad, where he died a.h. 
 310. At-Tabari compiled not only annals of 
 Muhammad’s life, but he wrote a history of 
 the progress of Islam under the earlier Kha- 
 llfahs. Abu ’1-Faraj, a Christian physician 
 of Malatia in Armenia, Abu ’1-fida, Prince of 
 Hamah, and Ibn Katib of Granada, are 
 amongst the celebrated historians of later 
 times. The writings of Ibn Husain of Cor¬ 
 dova are said to contain 100,000 pages! 
 
 Biographical works, and memoirs of men 
 specially distinguished for their achievements, 
 were innumerable. The most notable work of 
 the kind is Ibn Khallikan’s Bibliographical Dic¬ 
 tionary, which has been translated into English 
 by De Slane (Paris, 1843). The Dictionary of 
 the Sciences by Muhammad Abu ‘Abdi ’llah 
 of Granada is an elaborate work. The 
 Bibliographical Dictionary, entitled the Kashfu 
 'z-Zunun (often quoted in the present work), 
 is a laborious compilation, giving the names 
 of several thousands of well-known books 
 and authors in every department of literature. 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Munzar of Valencia wrote a genea¬ 
 logical history of celebrated horses, and 
 another celebrity wrote one of camels. The 
 encyclopasdians, gazetteers, and other similar 
 compilations, are very numerous. 
 
 Arabic lexicons have been compiled in 
 regular succession from the first appearance 
 of the work supposed to have been compiled 
 by Khalil ibn Ahmad, entitled Kitabu ’ l-‘Ayn , 
 which must have been written about a.h. 170, 
 to the most recent publications which have 
 issued from the presses of Lucknow, Bom¬ 
 bay, and Cairo, [akabic lexicons.] 
 
 Poetry was, of old, a favourite occupation of 
 the Arab people, and was, after the introduc¬ 
 tion of learning by the Khallfahs of Baghdad, 
 cultivated with enthusiasm. Al-Mutanabbi 
 of al-Kufah, Khalil ibn Ahmad, and others, 
 are poets of note in the time of the Abbasside 
 Khallfahs. So great was the number of 
 Arabic poets, that an abridgement, or dic¬ 
 tionary, of the lives of the most celebrated of 
 them, compiled by Abu ’l-‘Abbas, son of the 
 Khalifah al-Mu‘tasim, contains notices of 130. 
 [poetry.] 
 
 With Numismatics the Saracens of Spain 
 were well acquainted, and Maqrlzl and Namarl 
 wrote histories of Arabian money. The 
 study of geography was not neglected. The 
 library of Cairo had two massive globes, and 
 the Sharif IdrlsI of Cordova made a silver 
 globe for Roger II., King of Sicily. Ibn 
 Rashid, a distinguished geographer, journeyed 
 through Africa, Egypt, and Syria, in the inte¬ 
 rests of geographical science. But to recon¬ 
 cile some of the statements of Muhammadan 
 tradition with geographical discoveries must 
 have required a strong effort of the imagina¬ 
 tion. [QAF.] 
 
 To the study of medicine the Arabs paid 
 particular attention. Many of our modern 
 pharmaceutical terms, such as camphor, jalap, 
 and syrup, are of Arabian origin. The Chris¬ 
 tian physician, George, introduced the study 
 of medicine at the court of Khalifah al- 
 Mansur. [medicine.] 
 
 The superstitious feeling of the Muslim as 
 
 to the polluted touch of the dead, debarred 
 the orthodox from attempting the study of 
 anatomy. The doctrine that even at death 
 the soul does not depart from the body, and 
 the popular belief that both soul and body 
 must appear entire to undergo the examina¬ 
 tion by Munkar and Nakir in the grave, were 
 sufficient reasons why the dissection of the 
 dead body should not be attempted. 
 
 Operation for cataract in the eye was an 
 Arabian practice, and the celebrated philo¬ 
 sopher, Avicenna (Abu ‘All ibn Slna’) wrote in 
 defence of depression instead of extraction, 
 which he considered a dangerous experiment. 
 
 Botany, as subsidiary to medicine, was 
 studied by the Saracens; and it is said the 
 Arabian botanists discovered several herbal 
 remedies, which were not known to the 
 Greeks. Ibn al-Baitar, a native of Malaga, 
 who died at Damascus a.d. 1248, was the 
 most distinguished Arabian botanist. Al- 
 Biruni, who died a.d. 941, resided in India 
 for nearly forty years in order to study 
 botany and chemistry. 
 
 The first great Arabic chemist was Jabir, a 
 native of Harran in Mesopotamia. He lived 
 in the eighth century, and only some 150 
 years after the flight of Muhammad. He is 
 credited with the discovery of sulphuric acid, 
 nitric acid, and aqua regia. D‘Herbelot states 
 that he wrote 500 works on chemistry. The 
 nomenclature of science demonstrates how 
 much it owes to the Arabs—alcohol, alembic, 
 alkali, and other similar terms, being derived 
 from the Saracens. 
 
 The science of astronomy, insomuch as it 
 was necessary for the study of the occult 
 science of astrology, was cultivated with great 
 zeal. The Khalifah Ma’mun was himself 
 devoted to this study Under his patronage, 
 the astronomers of Baghdad and al-Kufah 
 accurately measured a degree of the great 
 circle of the earth, and determined at 24,000 
 miles the entire circumference of the globe. 
 (See Abu ’l-Flda’ and Ibn Khallikdn .) The 
 obliquity of the ecliptic was calculated at 
 about twenty-three degrees and a half, “ but,” 
 as Andrew Crichton remarks, “ not a single 
 step was made towards the discovery of the 
 solar system beyond the hypothesis of Pto¬ 
 lemy.” Modern astronomy is indebted to the 
 Saracens for the introduction of observatories. 
 The celebrated astronomer and mathemati¬ 
 cian Jabir (a.d. 1196), erected one at Seville, 
 which may still be seen. Bailly, in his Hist, 
 de PAstronomie, affirms that Kepler drew the 
 ideas that led to his discovery of the ellip¬ 
 tical orbits of planets from the Saracen, Nuru 
 'd-din, whose treatise on the sphere is pre¬ 
 served in the Escurial library. 
 
 Algebra, though not the invention of the 
 Arabs, received valuable accessions from 
 their talents, and Ibn Musa and Jabir com¬ 
 posed original works on spherical trigono¬ 
 metry. Al-Kindi translated Autolycus’ De 
 Sphcera Mota, and wrote a treatise of his own 
 De Sex Quantitcitibus. 
 
 Architecture was an art in which the 
 Saracens excelled, but their buildings were 
 erected on the wrecks of cities, castles, and 
 
 38 
 
298 
 
 LITERATURE 
 
 LOGIC 
 
 fortresses, -which they had destroyed, and the 
 Saracenic style is merely a copy of the Byzan¬ 
 tine. [architecture.] 
 
 To the early Muslims, pictures and sculp¬ 
 ture were considered impious and contrary to 
 divine law, and it is to these strong religious 
 feelings that we owe the introduction of that 
 peculiar style of embellishment which is called 
 the Arabesque , which rejects all representa¬ 
 tions of human and animal figures. 
 
 In caligraphy or ornamental writing, the 
 Muslims excel even to the present day, 
 although it is to the Chinese that they are 
 indebted for the purity and elegance of their 
 paper. 
 
 Music is generally understood to have been 
 forbidden in the Muhammadan religion, but 
 both at Baghdad and Cordova were esta¬ 
 blished schools for the cultivation of this art. 
 [music.] 
 
 Much more might be written on the sub¬ 
 ject of Muslim or Saracenic literature, but it 
 would exceed the limits of our present work. 
 Enough has been said to show that, notwith¬ 
 standing their barbarous origin, they in due 
 time became the patrons of literature and 
 science. They cannot, however, claim a high 
 rank as inventors and discoverers, for many 
 of their best and most useful works were but 
 translations from the Greek. Too much has 
 been made of the debt which the Western 
 world owes, or is supposed to owe, to its 
 Saracen conquerors for their patronage of 
 literature. It would have been strange if a 
 race of conquerors, who came suddenly and 
 rapidly into possession of some of the most 
 cultivated and refined regions of the earth, 
 had not kindled new lights at those ancient 
 beacons of literature and science which 
 smouldered beneath their feet. 
 
 In the Kashfu ’z-Zunun, it is related that 
 when Sa’d ibn Abu Waqqas conquered Per¬ 
 sia, he wrote to the Khalifah ‘Umar and 
 asked him what he should do with the phi¬ 
 losophical works which they had found in 
 the libraries of the cities of Persia, whether 
 he should keep them or send them to Mak- 
 kah; then ‘Umar replied, “ Oast them into 
 the rivers, for if in these books there is a 
 guidance (of life), then we have a still better 
 guidance in the book of God (the Qur’an), 
 and if, on the contrary, there is in them that 
 which will lead us astray, then God protect 
 us from them” ; so, according to these instruc¬ 
 tions, Sa‘d cast some into the rivers and some 
 into the fire. So was lost to us the Philo¬ 
 sophy of Persia ! (Kashfu ’z-Zunun, p. 341.) 
 
 Such was the spirit in which the early 
 Muslims regarded the literature of the coun¬ 
 tries they conquered, and which gave rise 
 to the frequently repeated story that ‘Umar 
 ordered the destruction of the libraries of 
 Alexandria, Caesarea, and Ispahan, while even 
 the enlightened Ma’mun is said to have com¬ 
 mitted to the flames the Greek and Latin 
 originals of the books he caused to be trans¬ 
 lated. It therefore seems probable that the 
 world of literature lost quite as much as it 
 gained by the Saracen conquest of the West. 
 What the attitude of the Muslim world npw 
 
 is towards science and literature, the condi¬ 
 tion of the Muslim in North Africa, in Tur¬ 
 key, in Afghanistan, and in India, will de¬ 
 clare. A condition of things arising from 
 peculiarities of religious belief. If we study 
 carefully the peculiar structure of Islam as a 
 religious system, and become acquainted with 
 the actual state of things amongst Muham¬ 
 madan nations now existing, we shall feel 
 compelled to admit that the patronage of 
 literature by the Muslim Khalifahs of Cor¬ 
 dova, Cairo, and Baghdad, must have been 
 the outcome of impulses derived from other 
 sources than the example and precept of the 
 Arabian legislator or the teachings of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 (See Ibn Khallikan’s Biographical Diet. ; 
 Crichton’s Arabia ; D’Herbelot’s Bibl. Orient.-, 
 Al-Makkari’s Muhammadan Dynasties in 
 Spain ; Pocock; Muir’s Mahomet ; Abu ’1- 
 Fida’; Toderini’s Lit. des Turcs ; Kashfu ’z- 
 Zunun; Sir William Jones’s Asiatic Res .; 
 Schnurrer’s Bibl. Arab. ; Ibn al-Jazwi’s 
 Talqih ; M. de Sacey; Tabaqatu ’sh-Sha- 
 fihyin.) 
 
 LITURGY, [prayer.] 
 
 LIWA’ (»\^). A banner; a stan¬ 
 
 dard. [standards.] 
 
 LOCUSTS (Arabic jarad, A^=-) are 
 
 lawful food for Muslims without being killed 
 by zabh. [food.] 
 
 LOGIC. Arabic ‘Ilmu ’l-mantiq 
 ,«l£), “ the science of rational 
 
 speech,” from nataq, “to speak”; ‘Ilmu 
 ’l-mizan ^c), “ the science of weigh¬ 
 
 ing” (evidence), from mizan, “ scales.” 
 
 The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali says 
 “ the ancient sages, whose wisdom had bor¬ 
 rowed its lustre from the loop-hole of pro¬ 
 phecy, always directed the seeker after ex¬ 
 cellence to cultivate first '■Ilmu ’l-aJchlaq, ‘ the 
 science of moral culture,’ then ‘Ilmu ’l-mantiq, 
 ‘the science of logic,’ then ‘Ilmu ’l-riyaziyat, 
 
 ‘ mathematics,’ then ‘ Ilmu ’l-hihnali, ‘ phy¬ 
 sics,’ and, lastly, ‘ Ilmu ’l-lldhi , ‘ theology.’ 
 But Hakim Abu ‘All al-Masqawi (a.d. 10), 
 would place mathematics before logic, which 
 seems the preferable course. This will ex¬ 
 plain the inscription placed by Plato over the 
 door of his house, ‘ He who knows not geo¬ 
 metry, let him not enter here.’ ” (See Thomp¬ 
 son’s ed. p. 31.) 
 
 The Arabs, being suddenly called from the 
 desert of Arabia to all the duties and dig¬ 
 nities of civilized life, were at first much 
 pressed to reconcile the simplicity of the 
 precepts of their Prophet with the surround¬ 
 ings of their new state of existence ; and con¬ 
 sequently the multitude of distinctions, both 
 in morals and jurisprudence, they were 
 obliged to adopt, gave the study of dialectics 
 an importance in the religion of Islam which 
 it never lost. The Imam Malik said of the 
 great teacher Abu Hanlfah, that he was such 
 a master of logic, that if he were to assert 
 that a pillar of wood was made of gold, he 
 would prove it to you by the rules of logic. 
 
LOTS 
 
 lord’s SUPPER 
 
 The first Muslim of note who gave his at¬ 
 tention to the study of logic was Khalid ibn 
 Yazid (a.h. 60), who is reported to have been 
 a man of great learning, and who ordered 
 certain Greek works on logic to be trans¬ 
 lated into Arabic. The Khalifah Ma’mun 
 (a.h. 198) gave great attention to this and to 
 every other branch of learning, and ordered 
 the translation of several Greek books of 
 logic, brought from the library of Constan¬ 
 tinople, into the Arabic tongue. Mulla Katib 
 Chalpi gives a long list of those who have 
 translated works on logic. Stephen, named 
 Istifanu T-Qadim, translated a book for 
 Khalid ibn Yazid. Batriq did one for tbe Kha¬ 
 lifah al-Mansur. Ibn Yahya rendered a Per¬ 
 sian book on logic into Arabic for the Kh alifah 
 al-Ma’mun, also Ibn Na'imah ‘ Abdu ’1-MasIh (a 
 Christian), Husain bin Bahrlq, Hik'd ibn Abi 
 Hilal of Hims, and many others translated 
 books on logic from the Persian. Musa and 
 Yusuf, two sons of Khalid, and Hasan ibn 
 Sahl are mentioned as having translated from 
 the language of Hind (India) into Arabic. 
 Amongst the philosophers who rendered 
 Greek books on logic into Arabic are men¬ 
 tioned Hunain, Abu T-Faraj, Abu T-Sulaiman 
 as-Sanjari, Yahya an-NahwI, Ya‘qub ibn 
 Ishaq al-Kindi, Abu Zaid Ahmad ibn Sahl 
 al-Balkhi. Ibn Sina’ (Avicenna), and very 
 many others. 
 
 An Arabic treatise of logic has been trans¬ 
 lated into English by the Bengal Asiatic Society. 
 
 LORD’S SUPPER, [eucharist.] 
 LOT. Arabic Lilt (hy). Heb. 
 
 Held by Muhammadans as “ a righteous 
 man,” specially sent as a prophet to the city 
 of Sodom. 
 
 The commentator, al-Baizawi, says _that 
 Lot was the son of Haran, the son of Azar, 
 or Tarah, and consequently Abraham’s nephew, 
 who brought him with him from Chaldea into 
 Palestine, where, they say, he was sent by 
 God, to reclaim the inhabitants of Sodom and 
 the other neighbouring cities, which were 
 overthrown with it, from the unnatural vice 
 to which they were addicted. And this Mu¬ 
 hammadan tradition seems to be countenanced 
 by the words of the apostle, that this righteous 
 man dwelling among them, in seeing and hear¬ 
 ing, “ vexed his righteous soul from day to 
 da 3 >- with their unlawful deeds,” whence it is 
 probable that he omitted no opportunity of 
 endeavouring their reformation. His name 
 frequently occurs in the Qur’an, as will be seen 
 from the following selections :— 
 
 Surah vii. 72-82 : “We also sent Lot, when 
 he said to his people, Commit ye this filthy 
 deed in which no creature hath gone before 
 you? Come ye to men, instead of women, 
 lustfully? Ye are indeed a people given up 
 to excess. But the only answer of his people 
 was to say, ‘ Turn them out of your city, for 
 they are men who vaunt them pure.’ And we 
 delivered him and his family, except his wife ; 
 she was of those who lingered : and we rained 
 a rain upon them: and see what was the end 
 of the wicked ! ” 
 
 Surah xxi. 74, 75: “ And unto Lot we gave 
 
 299 
 
 wisdom and knowledge ; and we rescued him 
 from the city which wrought filthiness ; for 
 they were a people, evil, perverse: and we 
 caused him to enter into our mercy, for ho 
 was of the righteous.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 27-34: “ We sent also Lot: 
 when he said to his people, ‘ Proceed ye to a 
 filthiness in which no people in the world 
 hath ever gone before you? Proceed ye even 
 to men? attack ye them on the highway? 
 and proceed ye to the crime in your assem¬ 
 blies ? ’ But the only answer of his people 
 was to say, ‘ Bring God’s chastisement upon 
 us, if thou art a man of truth.’ He cried: 
 My Lord! help me against this polluted 
 people. And when our messengers came to 
 Abraham with the tidings of a son, they said, 
 
 ‘ Of a truth we will destroy the in-dwellers in 
 this city, for its in-dwellers are evil doers.’ 
 He said, ‘ Lot is therein.’ They said, 1 We 
 know full well who therein is. Him and his 
 family will we save, except his wife; she will 
 be of those who linger.’ And when our mes¬ 
 sengers came to Lot, he was troubled for 
 them, and his aim was too weak to protect 
 them ; and they said, ‘ Fear not, and distress 
 not thyself, for thee and thy family will we 
 save, except thy wife ; she will be of those 
 who linger. We will surely bring down upon 
 the dwellers in this city vengeance from hea¬ 
 ven for the excesses they have committed.’ 
 And in what we have left of it is a clear sign 
 to men of understanding.” 
 
 Surah xxvi. 160-175: “ The people of Lot 
 treated their apostles as liars, when their 
 brother Lot said to them, ‘ Will ye not fear 
 God ? I am your - Apostle worthy of all 
 credit: fear God, then, and obey me. For 
 this I ask you no reward : my reward is of 
 the Lord of the worlds alone. What 1 with 
 men, of all creatures, will ye have commerce ? 
 And leave ye your wives whom your Lord 
 hath created for you ? Ah 1 ye are an erring 
 people ! ’ They said, ‘ 0 Lot, if thou desist 
 not, one of the banished shalt thou surely be.’ 
 He said, ‘ I utterly abhor your doings : My 
 Lord ! deliver me and my family from what 
 they do.’ So we delivered him and his whole 
 family—save an aged one among those who 
 tarried—then we destroyed the rest—and we 
 rained a rain upon them, and fatal was the rain 
 to those whom we had warned. In this truly 
 was a sign ; but most of them did not believe. 
 But thy Lord! He is the Powerful, the 
 Merciful! ” 
 
 Surah xxvii. 55-59: “ And Lot, when ha 
 said to his people, ‘ What 1 proceed ye to such 
 filthiness with your eyes open ? What 1 come 
 ye with lust unto men rather than to women ? 
 Surely ye are an ignorant people.’ And the 
 answer of his people was but to say, ‘ Cast' 
 out the family of Lot from your city : they, 
 forsooth, are men of purity! ’ So we rescued 
 him and his family: but as for his wife, we 
 decreed her to be of them that lingered : and 
 we rained a rain upon them, and fatal was 
 the rain to those who had had their warning.” 
 
 LOTS, Drawing of. There are two 
 
 words used to express drawing of lots—- 
 
LOVE 
 
 300 
 
 maisir ( and qur‘ah. The former 
 
 is used for games of chance, which are con¬ 
 demned in the Qur’an (Surahs ii. 216 ; v. 92); 
 the latter the casting of lots in the division of 
 land or property. ( Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 17.) 
 
 LOYE. Tlie words used in the 
 Qur’an for love and its synonyms are wudd 
 iff), hubb mababbah and 
 
 mawaddah (&Oy»). 
 
 (1) Wudd. Surah xix. 96: “ Verily those 
 who believe and act aright, to them the Mer¬ 
 ciful One will give love.” 
 
 (2) Hubb. Surah v. 59 : “ God will bring a 
 people whom He will love, and who will love 
 him.” 
 
 Surah ii. 160 : “ They love them (idols) as 
 they should love God, whilst those who believe 
 love God more.” 
 
 Surah lxxxix. 21: “Ye love wealth with 
 a complete love.” 
 
 Surah xii. 30: “He (Joseph) has infatuated 
 her (Zulaikhah) with love.” 
 
 (3) Mababbah. Surah xx. 39: “ For on 
 thee (Moses) have I (God) cast my love.” 
 
 (4) Mawaddah. Surah iv. 75 : “As though 
 there were no friendship between you and 
 him.” 
 
 Surah v. 85 : “ Thou will find the nearest in 
 friendship to those who believe to be those 
 who say We are Christians.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 24. “ Verily, ye take idols be¬ 
 side God through mutual friendship in the 
 affairs of this world.” 
 
 Surah xxx. 20: “ He has caused between 
 you affection and pity.” 
 
 Surah xli. 22: “Say! I do not ask for it 
 hire, only the affection of my kinsfolk.” 
 
 Surah lx. 1: “ O ye who believe! take not 
 my enemy and your enemy for patrons en¬ 
 countering them with affection .” 
 
 Surah lx. 7: “ Mayhap God will place 
 affection between you.” 
 
 From the above quotations, it will be seen 
 that in the Qur’an, the word mawaddah is used 
 for friendship and affection only, but that the 
 other terms are synonymous, and are used 
 for both divine and human love. 
 
 In the traditions, hubb is also used for both 
 kinds of love (see Mishkat, book xxii. ch. 
 xvi.), and a section of the Hadis is devoted to 
 the consideration of “ Brotherly love for God’s 
 pleasure.” 
 
 ‘Ayishah relates that the Prophet said, 
 “ Souls were at the first collected together (in 
 the spirit-world) like assembled armies, and 
 then they were dispersed and sent into bodies ; 
 and that consequently those who had been 
 acquainted with each other in the spirit 
 world, became so in this, and those who had 
 been strangers there would be strangers 
 here.” 
 
 The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali distin¬ 
 guishes between animal love and spiritual 
 love. Animal love, he says, takes its rise 
 from excess of appetite. But spiritual love, 
 which arises from harmony of souls, is not to 
 be reckoned a vice, but, on the contrary, a 
 species of virtue :— 
 
 LOVE 
 
 “ Let love be thy master, all masters 
 above, 
 
 For the good and the great are all 
 prentice to love.” 
 
 The cause of love, he says, is excessive 
 eagerness either for pleasure or for good ; the 
 first is animal love, and is culpable; the 
 second is spiritual love, and is a praiseworthy 
 virtue. (See Thompson’s ed., pp. 227-234.) 
 
 The term more generally used in Oriental 
 writings for the passion of love is ‘Ishq (i> 
 a word which az-Zamakhshari, in his work the 
 Asas (quoted by Lane), says is derived from 
 the word al-ashaqa.h, a species of ivy which 
 twines upon trees and cleaves to them. But 
 it seems not improbable that it is connected 
 
 with the Hebrew “ a woman,” or is 
 
 T * 
 
 derived from pttfn “ to desire.” (See Deut. 
 
 vii. 7: “ The Lord hath set his love upon 
 thee”; and Ps. xci. 14: “ Because he hath set 
 his love upon me.”) The philosopher Ibn Sina’ 
 (Avicenna), in a treatise on al-‘Ishq (regarding 
 it as the passion of the natural propensities), 
 says it is a passion not merely peculiar to the 
 human species, but that it pervades all exist¬ 
 ing things, both in heaven and earth, in the 
 animal, the vegetable, and even in the mineral 
 kingdom; and that its meaning is not perceived 
 or known, and is rendered all the more obscure 
 by the explanation thereof. (See Tdju 7 -‘Artis, 
 by Saiyid Murtada.) 
 
 Mir Abu ’1-Baqa, in his work entitled the 
 Kulliyat, thus defines the various degrees of 
 love, which are supposed to represent not 
 only intensity of natural love between man 
 and woman, but also the Sufiistic or divine 
 love, which is the subject of so many mystic 
 works :—First, hawa, the inclining of the soul 
 or mind to the object of love ; then, 'Ildqah, 
 love cleaving to the heart; then, kalaf 
 violent and intense love, accompanied by 
 perplexity; then '■ishq, amorous desire, ac¬ 
 companied by melancholy; then, shaghaf, 
 ardour of love, accompanied by pleasure; 
 then, jawa, inward love, accompanied by 
 amorous desire, or grief and sorrow ; then, 
 tatayum, a state of enslavement; then, tab/., 
 love sickness ; then, walah, distraction, accom¬ 
 panied with loss of reason; and, lastly, 
 huyam, overpowering love, with a wandering 
 about at random. 
 
 In Professor Palmer’s little work on 
 Oriental mysticism, founded on a Persian 
 MS. by ‘Aziz ibn Muhammad an-Nafsani, and 
 entitled the Maksad i Aksa (fMaqsad-i-Aqsa), 
 or the “ Remotest Aim,” we read, “ Man sets 
 his face towards this world, and is entangled 
 in the love of wealth and dignity, until the 
 grace of God steps in and turns his heart 
 towards God. The tendency which proceeds 
 from God is called Attraction; that which 
 proceeds from man is called Inclination, 
 Desire, and Love. As the inclination in¬ 
 creases its name changes, and it causes the 
 Traveller to renounce everything else but 
 God (who becomes his Qibld), and thus set¬ 
 ting his face God-wards, and forgetting every¬ 
 thing but God, it is developed into Love,” 
 
LOVE 
 
 LUQMAN 
 
 301 
 
 This is by no means the last and ultimate 
 stage of the journey, but most men are said 
 to be content to pass their lives therein and 
 to leave the world without making any fur¬ 
 ther progress therein [sdfiism]. Such a 
 person the Sufis call Majzub, or, Attracted. 
 And it is in this state that ‘Ishq, or spiritual 
 love, becomes the subject of religious con¬ 
 templation just as it is in the Song of Solo¬ 
 mon. “ Let him kiss me with the kisses of 
 his mouth, for thy love is better than wine.” 
 But whilst the lover in the Song of Solomon 
 is supposed to represent the Almighty God, 
 and the loved one the Church, in Eastern 
 Sufi poetry the ‘dshiq, or lover, is man, and 
 the mash‘uq, or the Beloved One, is God. 
 
 The Sufi poet Jami, in his Salaman and 
 Absal, thus writes of the joy of Divine love ; 
 and his prologue to the Deity, as rendered 
 into English, will illustrate the mystic concep¬ 
 tion of love. 
 
 “ Time it is 
 
 To unfold Thy perfect beauty. I would 
 be 
 
 Thy lover, and Thine only—I, mine eyes 
 Sealed in the light of Thee, to all but 
 Thee, 
 
 Yea, in the revelation of Thyself 
 Self-lost, and conscience-quit of good and 
 evil, 
 
 Thou movest under all the forms of truth, 
 Under the forms of all created things ; 
 Look whence I will, still nothing I discern 
 But Thee in all the universe, in which 
 Thyself Thou dost invest, and through the 
 eyes 
 
 Of man, the subtle censor scrutinize. 
 
 To thy Harim Dividuality, 
 
 No entrance finds—no word of this and 
 that ; 
 
 Do Thou my separate and derived self 
 Make one with Thy essential 1 Leave me 
 room 
 
 On that divan (sofa) which leaves no room 
 for two: 
 
 Lest, like the simple Kurd of whom they 
 tell, 
 
 I grow perplext, 0 God, ’twixt ‘ I ’ and 
 ‘ Thou.’ 
 
 If ‘ I ’—this dignity and wisdom whence? 
 
 If ‘Thou’—-then what is this abject im¬ 
 potence ? ” 
 
 [The fable of the Kurd, which is also told 
 in verse, is this. A Kurd left the solitude of 
 the desert for the bustle of a busy city. 
 Being tired of the commotion around him, he 
 lay down to sleep. But fearing he might 
 not know himself when he arose, in the midst 
 of so much commotion, he tied a pumpkin 
 round his foot. A knave, who heard him 
 deliberating about the difficulty of knowing 
 himself again, took the pumpkin off the 
 Kurd’s foot, and tied it round Ms own. When 
 the Kurd awoke, he was bewildered, and ex¬ 
 claimed— 
 
 “ Whether I be I or no, 
 
 If I—the pumpkin why on you ? 
 
 If you-—then where am I, and who ? ”] 
 For further information on the subject of 
 mystic love, see sufiism. 
 
 LUBB (s-J). The heart or soul of 
 
 man. That faculty of the mind which is en¬ 
 lightened and purified by the Holy Light, 
 i.e. Nuru 7- Quds (the Light of God). (Kitabu 
 ’t-Ta‘rifdt, in loco.) 
 
 LUDD (^5). A small town in 
 
 Palestine, where it is said Jesus will find ad- 
 Dajjalu ’1-Masih, and will kill him. ( Mishkat , 
 book xxiii. ch. iv.) The ancient Lydda, nine 
 miles from Joppa. (See Acts ix. 32, 38.) It 
 is the modern Diospolis, which in Jerome’s 
 time was an episcopal see. The remains of 
 the ancient church are still seen. It is said 
 to be the native town of St. George. 
 
 LUNATIC. The Arabic majnun 
 includes all mad persons, 
 whether born idiots, or persons who have 
 become insane. According to Muhammadan 
 law, a lunatic is not liable to punishment for 
 robbery, or to retaliation for murder. Zakat 
 (legal alms) is not to be taken from him, nor 
 is he to be slain in war. The apostasy of a 
 lunatic does not amount to a change of 
 faith, as in all matters, both civil and reli¬ 
 gious, he is not to be held responsible to 
 either God or man. An idiot or fool is gene¬ 
 rally regarded in the East by the common 
 people, as an inspired being. Mr. Lane, in his 
 Modern Egyptians, says, “ Most of the reputed 
 saints of Egypt are either lunatics, or idiots, 
 or impostors.” A remark which will equally 
 apply to India and Central Asia. 
 
 LUQMAN (yUiil). A person of 
 
 eminence, known as Luqmanu ’ l-Hakim, or 
 Luqman the Philosopher, mentioned in the 
 Qur’an as one upon whom God had bestowed 
 wisdom. 
 
 Surah xxxi. 11-19: “Of old we bestowed 
 wisdom upon Luqman, and taught him thus — 
 ‘ Be thankful to God: for whoever is thankful, 
 is thankful to his own behoof ; and if any shall 
 be thankless. . . . God truly is self-sufficient, 
 worthy of all praise ! ’ And bear in mind 
 when Luqman said to his son by way of 
 warning, ‘ 0 my son! join not other gods 
 with God, for the joining gods with God 
 is the great impiety. 0 my son! observe 
 prayer, and enjoin the right and forbid 
 the wrong, and be patient under whatever 
 shall betide thee : for this is a bounden duty, 
 And distort not thy face at men; nor walk 
 thou loftily on the earth ; for God loveth no 
 arrogant vain-glorious one. But let thy pace 
 be middling ; and lower thy voice: for the 
 least pleasing of voices is surely the voice of 
 asses.’ See ye not how that God hath put 
 under you all that is in the heavens and all 
 that is on the earth, and hath been bounteous 
 to you of his favours, both for soul and body. 
 But some are there who dispute of God with¬ 
 out knowledge, and have no guidance and no 
 illuminating Book.” 
 
 Commentators are not agreed as to whether 
 Luqman is an inspired prophet or not. 
 Husain says most of the learned think he was 
 a philosopher, and not a prophet. Some say 
 he was the son of Ba ! ur, and a nephew of 
 
302 
 
 LUQTAH 
 
 MABNA 5 T-TASAWWAF 
 
 Job, being his sister’s son ; others that he was 
 a nephew of Abraham; others that he was 
 born in the time of King David, and lived 
 until the time of Jonah, being one thousand 
 years of age. Others, that he was an African 
 slave and a shepherd amongst the Israelites. 
 Some say he was a tailor, others a carpenter. 
 He is admitted by all Arabian historians to 
 have been a fabulist and a writer of proverbs, 
 and consequently European authors have con¬ 
 cluded that he must be the same person whom 
 the Greeks, not knowing his real name, have 
 called iEsop, i.e. JEthiops. 
 
 Mr. Sale says: “ The commentators men¬ 
 tion several quick repartees of Luqman, which 
 (together with the circumstances above men¬ 
 tioned) agrees so well with what Maximus 
 Planudes has written of iEsop, that from 
 thence, and from the fables attributed to Luq¬ 
 man by the Orientals, the latter has been 
 generally thought to be no other than the 
 iEsop of the Greeks. However that be (for 
 I think the matter will bear a dispute), I am 
 of opinion that Planudes borrowed a great j 
 part of his life of iEsop from the traditions J 
 he met with in the East concerning Luqman, I 
 concluding them to have been the same per¬ 
 son, because they were both slaves, and sup¬ 
 posed to be the writers of those fables which 
 go under their respective names, and bear a 
 great resemblance to one another ; for it has 
 long since been observed by learned men, 
 that the greater part of that monk’s perform¬ 
 ance is an absurd romance, and suported by 
 no evidence of the ancient writers.” 
 
 Dr. Spenger thinks Luqman is identical 
 with the Elxai of the Ebionites (Das Leben 
 und die Lehre des Mohammad, vol. i. p. 34). 
 
 Luqman is the title of the xxist Surah of 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 LUQTAH (M). “ Troves.” Pro¬ 
 perty which a person finds and takes away 
 to preserve it in trust. In English law, trover 
 (from the French trouver ) is an action which 
 a man has against another who has found or 
 obtained possession of his goods, and refuses 
 to deliver them on demand. (Se Blackstone.') 
 According to Muhammadan law, the finder of 
 lost property is obliged to advertise it for the 
 space of a year before he can claim it as his 
 own. If the finder be a wealthy person, he 
 should give it to the poor. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. 
 p. 277.) [tkoves.] 
 
 LUT (Lj]'). [lot.] 
 
 LUXURY. Arabic tana“um (f***9- 
 
 In the training of children, the author of the 
 Akhlaq-i-Jalali condemns luxury. He says, 
 “ Sleeping in the day and sleeping overmuch 
 at night should be prohibited. Soft clothing 
 and all uses of luxury, such as cool retreats 
 in the hot weather, and fires and furs in the 
 cold, they should be taught to abstain from. 
 They should be inured to exercise, foot-walk¬ 
 ing, horse-riding, and all other appropriate 
 accomplishments.”. ( Akhlaq-i-Jalall , p. 280.) 
 
 LYING-. Arabic Jcizzab A 
 
 pretty general infirmity of nature in the East, 
 which still remains uncorrected by the modern 
 influences of Islam. But Muhammad is re¬ 
 lated to have said : “ When a servant of God 
 tells a lie, his guardian angels move away from 
 him to the distance of a mile, because of the bad¬ 
 ness of its smell.” (Mishkat , book xxii. ch. ii.) 
 
 M. 
 
 MA'AQIL (JA*'*). The lines for 
 
 tnurder, manslaughter, &c. ( Hidayah , vol. iv. 
 
 p. 448.) [diyah.] 
 
 al-MA’ARIJ Lit. “ The 
 
 Ascents.” The title of the Lxxth chapter of 
 the Qur’an, in the second verse of which 
 occurs the sentence, “ God, the possessor of 
 the Ascents (or Steps) by which the angels 
 ascend unto Him, and the Spirit (i.e. Gabriel ), 
 in a day whose space is fifty thousand 
 years.” 
 
 Sale, translating from al-Baizawi and Za- 
 makhshari, says : “ This is supposed to be 
 the space which would be required for their 
 ascent from the lowest part of the creation 
 to the throne of God, if it were to be mea¬ 
 sured, or the time which it would take a man 
 to perform a journey; and this is not contra¬ 
 dictory to what is said elsewhere (if it be to 
 be interpreted of the ascent of the angels), 
 that the length of the day whereon they 
 ascend is 1,000 years, because that is meant 
 only of their ascent from earth to the lower 
 
 heaven, including also the time of their 
 descent. 
 
 “ But the commentators, generally taking 
 the day spoken of in both these passages to 
 be the Day of Judgment, have recourse to 
 several expedients to reconcile them, and as 
 both passages seem to contradict what Mu- 
 hamman doctors teach, that God will judge 
 all creatures in the space of half-a-day, they 
 suppose those large numbers of years are 
 designed to express the time of the previous 
 attendance of those who are to be judged, or 
 else to the space wherein God will judge the 
 unbelieving nations, of which, they say, there 
 will be fifty, the trial of each nation taking 
 up 1,000 years, though that of the true be¬ 
 lievers will be over in the short space above 
 mentioned.” 
 
 MABNA ’T-TASAWWUF (^. 
 Lit. “The Foundation of 
 Sufiism.” A term used by the Sufis to em¬ 
 brace the three principles of their system. 
 (1) The choice of the ascetic life; (2) The 
 
AL-MADINAH 
 
 MAGIC 
 
 303 
 
 intention to bestow freely upon others; (3) 
 The giving up of one’s own will and desires, 
 and desiring only the will of God. (See 
 ‘Abdu ’r-Razztiq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.') 
 
 al-MADINAH Lit. “ The 
 
 city.” The city celebrated as the burial 
 place of Muhammad. It was called Yasrib 
 (see Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 13), but was dis¬ 
 tinguished as al-Madinah, “ the city,” and 
 Madinatu ’n-Nubi, “ the city of the Prophet.” 
 after it had become famous by giving shelter 
 to Muhammad. It is esteemed only second 
 to Makkah in point of sanctity. Muhammad is 
 related to have said, “ There are angels guard¬ 
 ing the roads to al-Madinah, on account of 
 which neither plague, or the Dajjal (Anti¬ 
 christ) can enter it.” “I was ordered,” he 
 said, “ to flee to a city which shall eat up 
 (conquer) all other cities, and its name is now 
 al-Madinah (the city); verily she puts away 
 evil from man, like as the forge purifies 
 iron.” “ God has made the name of al- 
 Madinah both tdhah and taiyibah,” i.e. both 
 good and odoriferous. 
 
 Al-Madinah is built on the elevated plain 
 of Arabia, not far from the eastern base of 
 the ridge of mountains which divide the 
 table-land from the lower country between 
 it and the Red Sea. The town stands on the 
 lowest part, on the plain where the water¬ 
 courses unite, which produce in the rainy 
 season numerous pools of stagnant water, 
 and render the climate unhealthy. Gardens 
 and date-plantations, interspersed with fields, 
 inclose the town on three sides; on the side 
 towards Makkah the rocky nature of the soil 
 renders cultivation impossible. The city 
 forms an oval about 2,800 paces in circuit, 
 ending in a point. The castle is built at the 
 point on a small rocky elevation. The whole 
 is inclosed by a thick wall of stone, between 
 35 and 40 feet high, flanked by about 30 
 towers and surrounded by a ditch. Three 
 well-built gates lead into the town. The 
 houses ai'e well built of stone, and generally 
 two stories high. As this stone is of a dark 
 colour, the streets have a gloomy aspect, and 
 are for the most part very narrow, often only 
 two or three paces across; a few of the 
 principal streets are paved with stone. 
 There are only two large streets which contain 
 shops. The principal buildings within the city 
 are the great mosque containing the tomb of 
 Muhammad, two fine colleges, and the castle, 
 standing at the western extremity of the 
 city, which is surrounded by strong walls 
 and several high and solid towers, and con¬ 
 tains a deep well of good water. 
 
 The town is well supplied with sweet water 
 by a subterraneous canal which runs from 
 the village of Quba’, about three-quarters of 
 a mile distant in a southern direction. In 
 several parts of the town steps are made 
 down to the canal, where the inhabitants 
 supply themselves with water which, how¬ 
 ever, contains nitre, and produces indigestion 
 in persons not accustomed to it. There are 
 also many wells scattered over the town; 
 every garden has one by which it is irri¬ 
 
 gated ; and when the ground is bored to the 
 depth of twenty-five or thirty feet, water is 
 found in plenty. During the rainy season, 
 many torrents descend from the higher 
 grounds to the lower depression in which al- 
 Madinah is built, and part of the city is 
 inundated. This plentiful supply of water 
 made this site a considerable settlement of 
 Arabs long before it became sacred among 
 the Muhammadans, by the flight, residence, 
 and death of the Prophet, to which it owes 
 its name of Madinatu ’n-Nabi, or the City of 
 the Prophet. (See Burckhardt’s Travels in 
 Arabia.) 
 
 An account of the Prophet’s mosque is 
 given under masjidu ’n-nabi, and of the 
 burial chamber of Muhammad under hdjkah. 
 
 MADRASAH A school. 
 
 [education.] 
 
 MADYAN Midian. The 
 
 descendants of Midian, the son of Abraham 
 and Keturah, and a city and district bearing 
 his name, situated on the Red Sea, south¬ 
 east of Mount Sinai. 
 
 Mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah vii. 83 : 
 “ We sent to Madyan their brother Shu‘aib.” 
 [shuaib.] 
 
 MAFQUD (oyia/»). A legal term 
 
 for a person who is lost, and of whom no in¬ 
 formation can be obtained. He is not con¬ 
 sidered legally dead until the period expires 
 when he would be ninety years old. 
 
 MAGIANS. [majus.] 
 
 MAGIC. Arabic sihr (;^~). A 
 
 belief in the magical art is entertained by 
 almost all Muhammadans, and there is a large 
 number of persons who study it. 
 
 Although magic ( as-sihr ) is condemned in 
 the Qur'an (Surah ii. 9G) and in the Tradi¬ 
 tions (Mishkdt, book xxi. ch. iii. pt. 1), there 
 are still many superstitious practices resem¬ 
 bling this occult science, which are clearly 
 permitted according to the sayings of Mu¬ 
 hammad. 
 
 Anas says, “ The Prophet permitted a spell 
 (ruqyah ) being used to counteract the ill 
 effects of the evil eye ; and on those bitten 
 by snakes or scorpions.” ( Sahihu Muslim, 
 p. 233.) 
 
 Umm Salmah relates “ that the Prophet 
 allowed a spell to be used for the removal 
 of yellowness in the eye, which, he said, pro¬ 
 ceeded from the malignant eye.” ( Sahihu 
 ’l-Bukhari, p. 854.) 
 
 ‘Auf ibn Malik says “ the Prophet said 
 there is nothing wrong in using spells, pro¬ 
 vided the use of them does not associate any¬ 
 thing with God.” ( Mishkdt , book xxi. ch. i.) 
 
 The terms used to express the magical 
 arts are, da‘wah, lit. “ an invitation of the 
 spirits,” exorcism; ‘azimah, an incantation; 
 kihdnah, divination, or fortune-telling; 
 ruqyah, a spell; and sihr, magic. 
 
 The term da l wah is held to imply a lawful 
 incantation, in which only the assistance of 
 God is invited by the use of either the lsmu 
 'l-A'zam, or great and unknown name of God, 
 
304 
 
 MAGIC 
 
 MAGIC 
 
 or the recital of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of the Almighty. As-Sihr, or the 
 magical use of evil spirits : and lcihdnah, for- 
 tune-telling, are held to be strictly unlawful. 
 
 Incantation and exorcism as practised by 
 Muhammadans is treated of in the article on 
 
 DA'WAH. 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his annotated edition of the 
 Arabian Nights, says :— 
 
 There are two descriptions of magic* one is 
 spiritual, regarded by all but freethinkers as 
 true ; the other, natural, and denounced by the 
 more religious and enlightened as deceptive. 
 
 I. Spiritual magic, which is termed “ er 
 Roohanee ” ( ar-ruhani ), chiefly depends upon 
 the virtues of certain names of God, and pas¬ 
 sages from the Kuran, and the agency of 
 angels, and jinn, or genii. It is of two 
 kinds, Divine and Satanic (“ Rahmanee,” i.e. 
 relating to “ the Compassionate ” [who is 
 God], and “ Sheytanee,” relating to the 
 Devil.) 
 
 1. Divine magic is regarded as a sublime 
 science, and is studied only by good men, and 
 practised only for good purposes. Perfection 
 in this branch of magic consists in the know¬ 
 ledge of the most great name of God [ismu ’l- 
 azam] ; but this knowledge is imparted to 
 none but the peculiar favourites of heaven. 
 By virtue of this name, which was engraved on 
 his seal ring, Solomon subjected to his domi¬ 
 nion the jinn and the birds and the winds. By 
 pronouncing it, his minister Asaf ( Asaf ), also, 
 transported in an instant, to the presence of 
 his sovereign, in Jerusalem, the throne of the 
 Queen of Sheba. But this was a small rjgi- 
 racle to effect by such means, for, by uttering 
 this name, a man may even raise the dead. 
 Other names of the Deity, commonly known, 
 are believed to have particular efficacies when 
 uttered or written; as also are the names of 
 the Prophet, and angels and good jinn are 
 said to be rendered subservient to the pur¬ 
 poses of divine magic by means of certain in¬ 
 vocations. Of such names and invocations, 
 together with words unintelligible to the un¬ 
 initiated in this science, passages from the 
 Kuran, mysterious combinations of numbers, 
 and peculiar diagrams and figures, are chiefly 
 composed written charms employed for good 
 purposes. Enchantment, when used for bene¬ 
 volent purposes, is regarded by the vulgar as 
 a branch of lawful or divine magic ; but not 
 so by the learned, and the same remark 
 applies to the science of divination. 
 
 2. Satanic magic, as its name implies, is a 
 science depending on the agency of the Devil 
 and the inferior evil jinn, whose services are 
 obtained by means similar to those which 
 propitiate, or render subservient, the good 
 jinn. It is condemned by the Prophet and 
 all good Muslims, and only practised for bad 
 purposes. Es sehr ( as-Sihr ), or enchantment, 
 is almost universally acknowledged to be a 
 branch of Satanic magic, but some few per¬ 
 sons assert (agreeably with several tales in 
 the Arabian Nights), that it may be, and by 
 some has been, studied with good intentions, 
 and practised by the aid of good jinn; con¬ 
 sequently, that there is such a science as 
 
 good enchantment, which is to be regarded 
 as a branch of divine or lawful magic. The 
 metamorphoses are said to be generally 
 effected by means of spells, or invocations to 
 jinn, accompanied by the sprinkling of water 
 or dust, &c., on the object to be transformed. 
 Persons are said to be enchanted in various 
 ways; some paralyzed, or even deprived of 
 life, others, affected witb irresistible passion 
 for certain objects, others, again, rendered 
 demoniacs, and some, transformed into brutes, 
 birds, &c. The evil eye is believed to en¬ 
 chant in a very powerful and distressing 
 manner. This was acknowledged even by the 
 Prophet. Diseases and death are often at¬ 
 tributed to its influence. Amulets are worn 
 by many Muslims with the view of counter¬ 
 acting or preserving from enchantment; and 
 for the same purpose many ridiculous cere¬ 
 monies are practised. Divination, which is 
 termed El-Kihaneh ( al-Kihanah ), is pro¬ 
 nounced on the highest authority to be a 
 branch of Satanic magic; though not be¬ 
 lieved to be so by all Muslims. According to 
 an assertion of the Prophet, what a fortune¬ 
 teller says may sometimes be true; be¬ 
 cause one of the jinn steals away the truth, 
 and carries it to the magician’s ear ; for the 
 angels come down to the region next the 
 earth (the lowest heaven), and mention the 
 works that have been pre-ordained in hea¬ 
 ven ; and the devils (or evil jinn) listen to 
 what the angels say, and hear the orders pre¬ 
 destined in heaven, and carry them to the 
 fortune-tellers. It is on such occasions that 
 shooting stars are hurled at the devils. It is 
 said that, “the diviner obtains the services of 
 the Sheytan ( Shaitan ) by magic arts, and by 
 names invoked, and by the burning of perfumes, 
 and he informs him of secret things ; for the 
 devils, before the mission of the Apostle of 
 God, it is added, used to ascend to heaven, 
 and hear words by stealth. That the evil 
 jinn are believed still to ascend sufficiently 
 near to the lowest heaven to hear the con¬ 
 versation of the angels, and so to assist ma¬ 
 gicians, appears from the former quotation, 
 and is asserted by all Muslims. The disco¬ 
 very of hidden treasures is one of the objects 
 for which divination is most studied. The 
 mode of divination called “ Darb-el-Mendel ” 
 (Zarbu 'l-Mandal ), is by some supposed to 
 be effected by the aid of evil jinn; but 
 the more enlightened of the Muslims regard it 
 as a branch of natural magic. Some curious 
 performances of this kind, by means of a 
 fluid mirror of ink, have been described in 
 the Account of the Manners and Customs of 
 the Modern Egyptians, and in No. 117 of the 
 Quarterly Review. 
 
 There are certain modes of divination which 
 cannot properly be classed under the head of 
 spiritual magic, but require a place between 
 the account of this science and that of natural 
 magic. The most important of these branches 
 of Kihaneh is Astrology, which is called llm en 
 Nujoom Qllmu 'n-Nujum). This is studied by 
 many Muslims in the present day, and its pro¬ 
 fessors are often employed by the Arabs to 
 determine a fortunate period for laying the 
 
magistrates 
 
 foundation of a building, commencing a jour¬ 
 ney, &c.; but more frequently by the Per¬ 
 sians and Turks. The Prophet pronounced 
 Astrology to be a branch of magic. Another 
 branch of Kikaneh is Geomancy, called 
 “ Darb erRamal” (Zarbu Rami ); a mode of 
 divination from certain marks made on sand 
 (whence its appellation), or on paper; and 
 said to be chiefly founded on astrology. The 
 science called “ ez Zijr,” or “ el Eyafeh” (al- 
 ‘Iyafcth), is a third branch of Kihaneh, being 
 divination or auguration, chiefly from the 
 motions and positions, or postures, of birds, or 
 of gazelles and other beasts of the chase. 
 Thus what was termed a “ Saneh ” (Smith), 
 that is, such an animal standing or passing 
 with its right side towards the spectator, was 
 esteemed among the Arabs as of good omen ; 
 and a •• Bareli ” ( Barih ), or an animal of this 
 kind, with its left side towards the spectator, 
 was held as inauspicious. “ El Kiyafeh ” (al- 
 Qiyafah), under which term are included 
 Chiromancy and its kindred sciences, is a 
 fourth branch of Kihaneh, “ El Tefaul ” (at- 
 Tafawwul), or the taking an omen, particu¬ 
 larly a good one, from a name or words acci¬ 
 dentally heard or seen, or chosen from a book 
 belonging to the same science. The taking a 
 “ fal,” or omen, from the Kuran, is generally 
 held to be lawful. Various trifling events are 
 considered as ominous. For instance, a Sul¬ 
 tan quitting his palace with his troops, a 
 standard happened to strike a “ thureiya ” 
 (surayyd, a cluster of lamps so called from 
 resembling the Pleiades), and broke them: 
 he drew from this an evil omen, and would 
 have relinquished the expedition; but one of 
 his chief officers said to him, “ 0 our Lord, 
 thy standard has reached the Pleiades,” and 
 being relieved by this remark, he proceeded, 
 and returned victorious. 
 
 (See The Thousand and One Nights, a new 
 translation, with copious notes, by Edward 
 W. Lane; new ed. by E. S. Poole, vol. i. p. 60.) 
 
 MAGISTRATES, [qazi.] 
 MAGPIE. Arabic ‘aq‘aq (<3*2e). 
 
 According to Abu Hanifah, the flesh of the 
 magpie is muba/i, or indifferent; but the 
 Imam Yusuf held it to be maJcruh, or repro¬ 
 bated, because it frequently feeds on dead 
 bodies. ( Hiddyak, vol. iv. p. 74.) 
 
 al-MAHDI Lit. “The 
 
 Directed One,” hence, “ who is fit to direct 
 others, Guide, Leader.” A ruler who shall 
 in the last days appear upon the earth. 
 According to the ShPahs, he has already ap¬ 
 peared in the person of Muhammad Abu ’1- 
 Qasim, the twelfth Imam, who is believed to 
 be concealed in some secret place until the 
 day of his manifestation before the end of the 
 world. But the Sunnis say he has not yet 
 appeared. In the history of Muhammadan¬ 
 ism, there are numerous instances of impostors 
 having assumed the character of this myste¬ 
 rious personage, amongst others, Saiyid 
 Ahmad, who fought against the Sikhs on the 
 North-West frontier of the Panjab, a.d. 1826, 
 and still more recently, the Muhammadan 
 
 * 
 
 MAHJUR 305 
 
 who has claimed to be al-Mahdi in the Sudan 
 in Egypt. 
 
 The sayings of the Prophet on the subject, 
 according to al-Bukhari and other tradi- 
 tionists, are as follows :— 
 
 “ The world will not come to an end until 
 a man of my tribe and of my name shall be 
 master of Arabia.” 
 
 “ When you see black ensigns coming 
 from the direction of Kh orosan, then join 
 them, for the Imam of God will be with the 
 standards, whose name is al-Mahdi." 
 
 “ The Malidi will be descended from me, he 
 will be a man with an open countenance and 
 with a high nose. He will fill the earth with 
 equity and justice, even as it has been filled 
 with tyranny and oppression, and he will 
 reign over the earth seven years.” 
 
 “ Quarrelling and disputation shall exist 
 amongst men, and then shall a man of the 
 people of al-Madinah come forth, and shall 
 go from al-Madinah to Makkah, and the 
 people of Makkah shall make him Imam. 
 Then shall the ruler of Syria send an army 
 against the Mahdl, but the Syrian army shall 
 perish by an earthquake near Bada’, between 
 al-Madinah and Makkah. And when the 
 people shall see this, the Abdal [abdalJ will 
 come from Syria, and also a multitude from 
 al-Traq. After this an enemy to the Mahdi 
 shall arise from the Quraish tribe, whose 
 uncles shall be of the tribe of Kalb, and this 
 man shall send an army against the Mahdi. 
 The Mahdi shall rule according to the example 
 of your Prophet, and shall give strength and 
 stability to Islam. He shall reign for seven 
 years, and then die.” 
 
 “ There shall be much rain in the days of 
 the Mahdi and the inhabitants both of hea¬ 
 ven and earth shall be pleased with him. 
 Men’s lives shall pass so pleasantly, that they 
 will wish even the dead were alive again.” 
 (Mishkatu ’l-Ma?dbih, book xxiii. ch. 3.) 
 
 According to Shi‘ah traditions, Muhammad 
 is related to have said : “ 0 ye people I I am 
 the Prophet and ‘All is my heir, and from us 
 will descend al-Mahdi, the seal (i.e. the last) 
 of the Imams, who will conquer all religions 
 and take vengeance on the wicked. He will 
 take fortresses and will destroy them, and 
 slay every tribe of idolaters, and he will 
 avenge the deaths of the martyrs of God. 
 He will be the champion of the Faith, and a 
 drawer of water at the fountain of divine 
 knowledge. He will reward merit and re¬ 
 quite every fool according to his folly. He 
 will be the approved and chosen of God, and 
 the heir of all knowledge. He will be the 
 valiant in doing right, and one to whom the 
 Most High has entrusted Islam. ... 0 ye 
 people, I have explained to you, and ‘AH also 
 will make you understand it.” (Hiydtu 7- 
 Qulub, Merrick’s ed., p. 342.) 
 
 It is probable that it is from these tradi¬ 
 tions that the opinion became current amongst 
 the Christians that the Muhammadans ex¬ 
 pected their Prophet would rise again. 
 
 MAHJUR &»). A slave in¬ 
 hibited by the ruler from exercising any 
 office or agency. ( Hiddyah , vol. iii. 6.) 
 
 39 
 
306 
 
 MAHMAL 
 
 MAHMAL 
 
 MAHMAL, MAHMIL 
 
 A covered litter borne on a camel, both from 
 Cairo and from Damascus, to Makkah, as an 
 emblem of royalty at the time of the pilgri¬ 
 mage. 
 
 It is said that Sultan Az-Zahir Beybars, 
 
 King of Egypt, was the first who sent a mah- 
 mal with the caravan of pilgrims to Makkah 
 in a.d. 1272, but that it had its origin a few 
 years before his accession to the throne, 
 under the following circumstances :— 
 
 Shaghru ’d-Durr, a beautiful Turkish 
 
 
 The MAHMAL. (From an Original Picture .) 
 
 female slave, who became the favourite wife 
 of Sultan as-Salih Najmu ’d-dln, and who on 
 the death of his son (with whom terminated 
 the dynasty of Aiyub) caused herself to be 
 acknowledged Queen of Egypt, performed the 
 
 hajj in a magnificent fitter borne by a camel. 
 And for successive years her empty fitter was 
 sent yearly to Makkah, as an emblem of 
 state. After her death, a similar fitter was 
 sent each year with the caravan of pilgrims 
 
MAHMAL 
 
 al-ma’idah 
 
 307 
 
 from Cairo and Damascus, and is called mah¬ 
 mal or mah.mil, a word signifying that by 
 which anything is supported. 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modem Egyptians, vol. ii. 
 p. 162, thus describes the mahmal:— 
 
 “ It is a square skeleton frame of wood with 
 a pyramidal top, and has a covering of black 
 brocade richly worked with inscriptions and 
 ornamental embroidery in gold, in some parts 
 upon a ground of green or red silk, and bor¬ 
 dered with a fringe of silk, with tassels, sur¬ 
 mounted by silver balls. Its covering is not 
 always made after the same pattern with re¬ 
 gard to the decorations ; but in every cover 
 that I have seen, I have remarked on the 
 upper part of the front a view of the Temple 
 of Makkah, worked in gold, and over it the 
 Sultan’s cipher. It contains nothing ; but has 
 two copies of the Kuran, one on a small 
 scroll, and the other in the usual form of a 
 book, also small, each inclosed in a case of 
 
 the mahmal. (Lane.) 
 
 gilt silver, attached externally at the top. 
 The five balls with crescents, which orna¬ 
 ment the mahmal, are of gilt silver. The 
 mahmal is borne by a fine tall camel, which 
 is generally indulged with exemption from 
 every kind of labour during the remainder of 
 its life.” 
 
 Eastern travellers often confuse the mah¬ 
 mal with the kiswah, or covering for the 
 Ka'bah, which is a totally distinct thing, 
 although it is made in Cairo and sent at the 
 same time as the mahmal. [kiswah.] 
 
 The Wahhabis prohibited the mahmal as 
 an object of vain pomp, and on one occasion 
 intercepted the caravan which escorted it. 
 
 Captain Burton saw both the Egyptian and 
 the Damascus mahmals on the plain below 
 ‘Arafah at the time of the pilgrimage. 
 
 MAHMUDlYAH A 
 
 Shhah sect founded by Mir Sharif, who in 
 the reign of Akbar held a military appoint¬ 
 ment in Bengal. He was a disciple of Mah¬ 
 mud of Busakjrwan, the founder of the Nuq- 
 tawlyah sect. Mahmud lived in the reign of 
 Timur, and professed to be al-Mahdl. He 
 also called himself the Shakks-i-Wahld—the 
 Individual one. He used to quote the verse, 
 “ It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up 
 to a glorious ( mahmud) station ” (Surah 
 xvii. 81). From this he argued that the 
 body of man had been advancing in purity 
 since the creation, and that on its reaching to 
 a certain degree, one Mahmud (glorious) 
 would arise, and that then the dispensation 
 of Muhammad would come to an end. He 
 claimed to be the Mahmud. He also taught 
 the doctrine of transmigration, and that the 
 beginning of everything was the earth atom 
 ( nuqtah ). It is on this account that they are 
 called in Persian the Nuqtawlyah sect. They 
 are also known by the names Mahmudlyah 
 and Wahidlyah. Shah ‘Abbas, King of Per¬ 
 sia, expelled them from his dominions, but 
 Akbar received the fugitives kindly, and pro¬ 
 moted some amongst them to high offices of 
 State. 
 
 MAHR (^). Heb. "inb. The 
 
 dower or settlement of money or property on 
 the wife, without which a marriage is not 
 legal, for an explanation of which see the 
 article on dower. 
 
 The Hebrew word occurs three times in 
 the old Testament, viz. Gen. xxxiv. 12; Ex. 
 xxii. 17; 1 Sam. xviii. 25. [dower and 
 
 MARRIAGE.] 
 
 MAHRAM OSS'*). Lit. “ Unlaw¬ 
 ful.” A near relative with whom it is un¬ 
 lawful to marry. Muhammad enjoined that 
 every woman performing pilgrimage should 
 have a mahram with her night and day, to 
 prevent scandal. ( Mishkat, book xi. ch. i.) 
 
 al-MA’IDAH (4aJU5\). Lit. “ The 
 
 table.” The title of the vth Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the 111th verse of which the word occurs: “0 
 Jesus, son of Mary 1 is thy Lord able to send 
 down to us a table ? ” 
 
 “ This miracle is thus related by the com¬ 
 mentators. Jesus having at the request of 
 his followers asked it of God, a red table 
 immediately descended, in their sight, between 
 two clouds, and was set before them ; where¬ 
 upon he rose up, and, having made the ablu¬ 
 tion, prayed, and then took off the cloth which 
 covered the table, saying, ‘ In the name of 
 God, the best provider of food ! ’ What the 
 provisions were with which this table was 
 furnished, is a matter wherein the expositors 
 are not agreed. One will have them to be 
 nine cakes of bread and nine fishes ; another, 
 bread and flesh ; another, all sorts of food ex¬ 
 cept flesh ; another, all sorts of food except 
 
MAIMUNAH 
 
 MAINTENANCE 
 
 308 
 
 bread and flesh; another, all except bread and 
 fish; another, one fish which had the taste of 
 all manner of food; and another, fruits of 
 paradise ; but the most received tradition is 
 that when the table was uncovered, there ap¬ 
 peared a fish ready dressed, without scales or 
 prickly fins, dropping with fat, having salt 
 placed at its head and vinegar at its tail, and 
 round it all sorts of herbs except leeks, and 
 fine loaves of bread, on one of which there 
 were olives, on the second honey, on the third 
 butter, on the fourth cheese, and on the fifth 
 dried flesh. They add that Jesus, at the re¬ 
 quest of the Apostles, showed them another 
 miracle, by restoring the fish to life, and 
 causing its scales and fins to return to it, at 
 which the standers-by being affrighted, he 
 caused it to become as it was before; that 
 one thousand three hundred men and women, 
 all afflicted with bodily infirmities or poverty, 
 ate of these provisions, and were satisfied, 
 the fish remaining whole as it was at first; 
 that then the table flew up to heaven in the 
 sight of all; and every one who had partaken 
 of this food were delivered from their infir¬ 
 mities and misfortunes ; and that it continued 
 to descend for forty days together, at dinner¬ 
 time, and stood on the ground till the sun 
 declined, and was then taken up into the 
 clouds. Some of the Muhammadan writers 
 are of opinion that this table did not really 
 descend, but that it was only a parable; but 
 most think the words of the Qur’an are 
 plain to the contrary. A further tradition is 
 that several men were changed into swine for 
 disbelieving this miracle, and attributing it 
 to magic art; or, as others pretend, for steal¬ 
 ing some of the victuals from off it. Several 
 other fabulous circumstances are also told, 
 which are scarce worth transcribing. Some 
 say the table descended on a Sunday, which 
 was the reason of the Christians observing 
 that day as sacred. Others pretend that this 
 day is still kept among them as a very great 
 festival, and it seems as if the story had its 
 rise from an imperfect notion of Christ’s last 
 supper and the institution of the Eucharist.” 
 (Sale’s Qur’an.) 
 
 MAIMUNAH (is,*#•). The last 
 
 of Muhammad’s wives. A sister to Ummu 
 ’1-Fazl, the wife of al-‘Abbas, and conse¬ 
 quently related to the Prophet. She was a 
 widow, 51 years of age, when Muhammad 
 married her. She survived him, and died at 
 the age of 81, being buried on the very spot 
 on which she had celebrated her marriage. 
 (Muir’s Li/e of Mahomet, new ed. p. 403.) 
 
 MAINTENANCE. Arabic nafaqah 
 (Aiicj), which, in the language of the 
 law, signifies all those things which are neces¬ 
 sary to the support of life, such as food, 
 clothes, and lodging, although many confine 
 it solely to food. ( [Durru, ’l-Mukhtar. p. 283.) 
 
 There are three causes of maintenance 
 established by law. (1) Marriage ; (2) Rela- 
 ionship; (3) Property (i.e. in case of a 
 lave) 
 
 A husband is bound to give proper main¬ 
 tenance to his wife or wives, provided she or 
 they have not become refractory or rebel¬ 
 lious, but have surrendered herself or them¬ 
 selves to the custody of their husband. 
 
 Maintenance may he decreed out of the 
 property of an absent husband, whether it be 
 held in trust, or deposit, or muzarahah for 
 him. 
 
 If the husband become poor to such a de¬ 
 gree as to be unable to provide his wife her 
 maintenance, still they are not to be sepa¬ 
 rated on this account, but the QazI shall 
 direct the woman to procure necessaries for 
 herself upon her husband’s credit, the amount 
 remaining a debt upon him. 
 
 A divorced wife is entitled to food, cloth¬ 
 ing, and lodging during the period of her 
 ‘iddah, and until her delivex’y, if she be preg¬ 
 nant. No maintenance is, however, due to a 
 woman, whether pregnant or not, for the 
 ‘iddah observed upon the death of her hus¬ 
 band. No maintenance is due to a woman 
 upon separation caused by her own fault. 
 
 A father is bound to support his infant 
 children; and no one shares the obligation 
 with him. 
 
 A mother, who is a married wife, cannot be 
 compelled to suckle her infant, except where 
 a nurse cannot be procured, or the child re¬ 
 fuses to take the milk of any other than of 
 the mother, who in that case is bound to 
 suckle it, unless incapacitated for want of 
 health, or other sufficient cause. 
 
 If neither the father nor the child has any 
 property, the mother may be compelled to 
 suckle it. 
 
 The maintenance of an infant child is in¬ 
 cumbent upon the father, although he be of 
 a different religion; and, in the same manner, 
 the maintenance of a wife is incumbent upon 
 her husband, notwithstanding this circum¬ 
 stance. 
 
 Maintenance of children becomes, however, 
 incumbent upon the father only where they 
 possess no independent property. 
 
 When the father is poor and the child’s 
 paternal grandfather is rich, and the child’s 
 own property is unavailable, the grandfather 
 may be directed to maintain him, and the 
 amount will be a debt due to him from the 
 father, for which the grandfather may have 
 recourse against him ; after which the father 
 may reimburse himself by having recourse 
 against the child’s property, if there is 
 any. 
 
 When the father is infirm and the child has 
 no property of his own, the paternal grand¬ 
 father may be ordered to maintain him, with¬ 
 out right of recourse against anyone; and, in 
 like manner, if the child’s mother be rich, or 
 the grandmother rich, while its father is poor, 
 she may be ordered to maintain the child, 
 and the maintenance will be a debt against 
 the child if he be not infirm, but if he be so, 
 he is not liable. 
 
 If the father is poor and the mother is 
 rich, and the young child has also a rich 
 grandfather, the mother should be ordered to 
 maintain the child out of her own property, 
 
MAINTENANCE 
 
 AL-MAISIR 
 
 309 
 
 with a right of recourse against the father and 
 the grandfather is not to be called upon to do 
 so. When the father is poor, and has a rich 
 brother, he may be ordered to maintain the 
 child, with right of recourse against the 
 father. 
 
 When male children have strength enough 
 to work for their livelihood, though not 
 actually adult, the father may set them to 
 work for their own maintenance, or hire them 
 out, and maintain them out of their wages ; 
 but he has no power to hire females out for 
 work or service. 
 
 A father must maintain his female children 
 absolutely until they are married, when they 
 have no property of their own. But he is not 
 obliged to maintain his adult male children 
 unless they are disabled by infirmity or 
 disease. 
 
 It is also incumbent on a father to maintain 
 his son’s wife, when the son is young, poor, 
 or infirm. 
 
 The maintenance to an adult daughter, or 
 to an adult son who is disabled, rests upon 
 the parents in three equal parts, two-thirds 
 being furnished by the father, and one-tliird 
 by the mother. 
 
 A child in easjr circumstances may be com¬ 
 pelled to maintain his poor parents, whether 
 they be Muslim or not, or whether by their 
 own industry they be able to earn anything 
 for subsistence or not. 
 
 Where there are male and female children, 
 or children only of the male sex, or only of 
 the female sex, the maintenance of both 
 parents is alike incumbent upon them. 
 
 Where there is a mixture of male and 
 female children, the maintenance of both 
 parents is incumbent on them alike. 
 
 When a mother is poor, her son is bound 
 to maintain her, though he be in straitened 
 circumstances himself, and she not infirm. 
 When a son is able to maintain only one of 
 his parents, the mother has the better right ; 
 and if he have both parents and a minor son, 
 and is able to maintain only one of them, the 
 son has the preferable right. When he has 
 both parents, and cannot afford maintenance to 
 either of them, he should take them to live 
 with him, that they may participate in what 
 food he has for himself. When the son, 
 though poor, is earning something, and his 
 father is infirm, the son should allow the 
 father to share his food with him. 
 
 As of a father and mother, so the mainte¬ 
 nance of grandfathers and grandmothers, if 
 they be indigent, is incumbent upon their 
 grandchildren, though the former be of 
 different religion. 
 
 It is a man's duty to provide maintenance 
 for all his infant male relations within pro¬ 
 hibited degrees who are in poverty; and 
 also to all female relations within the same 
 degrees, whether infants or adults, where 
 they are in necessity; and also to all adult 
 male relations within the same degrees who 
 are poor, disabled, or blind ; but the obliga¬ 
 tion does not . extend beyond those rela¬ 
 tions. 
 
 No adult male, if in health, is entitled to 
 
 maintenance, though he is poor; but a person 
 is obliged to maintain his adult female rela¬ 
 tives, though in health of body, if they re¬ 
 quire it. The maintenance of a mere relative 
 is not incumbent on any poor person; con¬ 
 trary to the maintenance of a wife and child, 
 for whom poor and rich are equally liable. 
 
 When a poor person has a father and a 
 son’s son, both in easy circumstances, the 
 father is liable for his maintenance; and 
 when there is a daughter and a son’s son, 
 the daughter only is liable, though they both 
 divide the inheritance between them. So 
 also, when there is a daughter’s daughter, or 
 daughter’s son, and a full brother, the child 
 of the daughter, whether male or female, is 
 liable, though the brother is entitled to the 
 inheritance. When a person has a parent 
 and a child, both in easy circumstances, the 
 latter is liable, though both are equally near 
 to him. But if he have a grandfather and a 
 son’s son, they are liable for his maintenance 
 in proportion to their shares in the inherit¬ 
 ance, that is, the grandfather for a sixth, and 
 the son’s son for the remainder. If a poor 
 person has a Christian son and a Muslim 
 brother, both in easy circumstances, the son 
 is liable for the maintenance, though the 
 brother would take the inheritance. If he 
 has a mother and grandfather, they are both 
 liable in proportion to their shares as heirs, 
 that is, the mother in one-third, and the 
 grandfather in two-thirds. So, also, when 
 with the mother there is a full brother, or the 
 son of a full brother, or a full paternal uncle, 
 or any other of the ‘asabah or residuaries 
 the maintenance is on them, by thirds accord¬ 
 ing to the rules of inheritance. When there 
 is a maternal uncle, and the son of a full 
 paternal uncle, the liability for maintenance 
 is on the former, though the latter would 
 have the inheritance; because the condition 
 of liability is wanting on the latter, who is not 
 within the forbidden degrees. 
 
 If a man have a paternal uncle and aunt, 
 and a maternal aunt, his maintenance is on 
 the uncle; and if the uncle be in straitened 
 circumstances, it is on both the others. The 
 principle in this case is, that when a person 
 who takes the whole of the inheritance is in 
 straitened circumstances, his inability is the 
 same as death, and being as it were dead, the 
 maintenance is cast on the remaining relatives 
 in the same proportions as they would be en¬ 
 titled to in the inheritance of the person to 
 be maintained, if the other were not in 
 existence; and that when one who takes only 
 a part of the inheritance is in straitened cir¬ 
 cumstances, he is to be treated as if he were 
 dead, and the maintenance is cast on the 
 others, according to the shares of the inhe¬ 
 ritance to which they would be entitled if 
 they should succeed together with him. (See 
 Durru 'l-Mukhtar, Bdbu ’n-Nafaqah.') 
 
 al-MAISIR A game of 
 
 chance forbidden in the Qur’an. Surahs ii. 
 2IG ; v. 92, 93. It signifies a game per¬ 
 formed with arrows, and much in use with 
 pagan Arabs. But the term al-maisar is 
 
310 
 
 MAJBUB 
 
 MAKKAH 
 
 now understood to include all games of chance 
 or hazard. 
 
 MAJBUB A complete 
 
 eunuch, as distinguished from Ichasi. or one 
 who is simply castrated. ( Hidayah , vol. i. 
 p. 356.) 
 
 AL-MAJID “The Glo¬ 
 
 rious One.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur’an. 
 Surah xi. 76: “Verily He is to be praised 
 and glorified .” 
 
 MAJORITY, [puberty.] 
 
 MAJUJ (syA*). [yajuj.] 
 al-MAJUS ((j-jas*!!), pi. of Majusi. 
 
 The Magians. Mentioned in the Qur’an only 
 once, Surah xxii. 17 : “ As to those who be¬ 
 lieve, and the Jews, and the Sabeites, and 
 the Christians, and the Magians, and those 
 who join other gods with God, of a truth, 
 God shall decide between them on the Day of 
 Resurrection: for God is witness of all 
 things.” 
 
 Most Muhammadan writers (especially 
 amongst the Shbahs) believe them to have 
 formerly possessed a revelation from God 
 which they have since lost. 
 
 The Magians were a sect of ancient philo¬ 
 sophers which arose in the East at a very 
 early period, devoting much of their time to 
 the study of the heavenly bodies. They 
 were the learned men of their time, and we 
 find Daniel the Prophet [promoted to the 
 head of this sect in Chaldea. (Dan v. 11.) 
 They are supposed to have worshipped the 
 Deity under the emblem of fire ; whilst the 
 Sabians, to whom they were opposed, wor¬ 
 shipped the heavenly bodies. They held in 
 the greatest abhorrence the 'worship of images, 
 and considered fire the purest symbol of the 
 Divine Being. This religious sect was re¬ 
 formed by Zoroaster in the sixth century 
 before Christ, and it was the national religion 
 of Persia until it was supplanted by Muham¬ 
 madanism. The Magians are now known in 
 Persia as Gabrs, and in India as Parsis. Their 
 sacred book is the Zend Avesta, an English 
 translation of which has been published by 
 Mr. A. H. Bleeck (Hertford, 1864), from Pro¬ 
 fessor Spiegel's German translation. There 
 is an able refutation of the Pars! religion by 
 the late Rev. John Wilson, D.D. (Bombay, 
 1843). 
 
 MAJZUB Lit. “At¬ 
 
 tracted.” A term used by the Sufis for a per¬ 
 son whom God has chosen for Himself, for a 
 manifestation of His love, and who is thus 
 enabled to attain to all the stages of Sufiism 
 without any effort or trouble. (See (‘Abdu 
 ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 MAKKAH (**-). The capital of 
 
 Arabia, and the most sacred city of the Mus¬ 
 lims. It is celebrated as the birth-place of 
 Muhammad, and as the site of the Ka‘bah, 
 
 or Sacred Cube, building. Muhammad is re¬ 
 lated to have said of Makkah, “ What a 
 splendid city thou art I If I had not been 
 driven out of thee by my tribe, I would dwell 
 in no other place but in thee.” “It is not 
 man but God who has made Makkah sacred.” 
 “ My people will be always safe in this world 
 and the next as long as they respect Makkah.” 
 ( Mishkat , book xl. ch. xv.) 
 
 Makkah (the ancient name of which was 
 Bakkah) is situated in about 21° 30' N. lat., 
 40° 20' E. long., and 70 miles from the Red 
 Sea, in a sandy valley running north and 
 south, and from 100 to 70 paces broad. The 
 chief part of the city is placed where the 
 valley is widest. In the narrower part there 
 are single rows of houses only, or detached 
 shops. The town itself covers a space of 
 about 1,500 paces in length, but the whole 
 extent of ground comprehended under the de¬ 
 nomination of Makkah, amounts to 3,500 
 paces in length. The surrounding rocky 
 hills are from 200 to 500 feet in height, 
 barren, and destitute of trees. Most of the 
 town is situated in the valley itself, but there 
 are some parts built on the sides of the hills. 
 The streets are in general broader than those 
 of Eastern cities, for the purpose of accommo¬ 
 dating the vast number of pilgrims who re¬ 
 sort to it. The houses are lofty and of stone, 
 and the numerous windows that face the 
 streets give to these quite a European aspect. 
 Many of the houses are three stories high. 
 
 The only public place in the body of the 
 town is the large square of the great mosque, 
 which is enlivened during the Hajj (Pilgri¬ 
 mage) by a great number of well-stored shops. 
 The streets are all unpaved, and in summer 
 the sand and dust are as great a nuisance as 
 the mud is in the rainy season, during which 
 they are scarcely passable after a storm. 
 
 Makkah is badly provided with water. There 
 are a few cisterns for receiving rain, and the 
 well-water is brackish. The famous well of 
 Zamzarn, in the great mosque,is indeed copious 
 enough to supply the whole town, but the water 
 is not well tasted. The best water is brought 
 by an aqueduct from the vicinity of ‘Arafah, six 
 or seven miles distant. There are two places 
 in the interior of the city, where the aque¬ 
 duct runs above ground, and in these parts 
 it is let off into small channels or fountains, 
 at which some slaves of the Sharif (the ruler 
 of the city) are stationed to exact a toll from 
 persons who fill their water-skins. 
 
 All the houses in Makkah except those of 
 the principal and richest inhabitants, are con¬ 
 structed for the accommodation of lodgers, 
 and divided into numerous separate apart¬ 
 ments, each consisting of a sitting-room and 
 a small kitchen. Except four or five houses 
 belonging to the Sharif, two colleges, and the 
 sacred mosque, Makkah has no jsublic edi¬ 
 fices of any importance. 
 
 The inhabitants of Makkah, with few 7 ex¬ 
 ceptions, are Arabians. They have two 
 kinds of employment, trade and the service 
 of the temple. During the Hajj, Makkah be¬ 
 comes one of the largest fairs in the East, 
 and certainly the most interesting, from the 
 
MAKRUH 
 
 variety of nations which frequent it. The 
 merchants of the place make large profits 
 during this time by their merchandise. They 
 have also a considerable trado ■with the Bo- 
 duins and with other parts of Arabia. The 
 greatest profit, however, is derived from 
 supplying food for 60,000 pilgrims and 20,000 
 camels. The only articles of manufacture 
 are some pottery and beads; there are a few 
 dyeing-houses in the city. 
 
 Makkah is governed by a Sharif, who is 
 
 MALAKTJ *L-MAUT 311 
 
 chosen from the Saiyids (or descendants of 
 the Prophet) settled in the Hijaz, who were 
 once numerous, but are now reduced to a few 
 families in Makkah. Although he obtains his 
 office by the choice of his people, or by force, 
 he holds his authority from the Turkish 
 Sultan. 
 
 Makkah was the seat of government 
 during the reigns of the first five Khalifahs. 
 
 (For an account of the sacred temple, see 
 the article on masjidu ’l-haram.) 
 
 makkah. (From Stanley Lane-Poote’s edition of Lane’s “ Selections .”) 
 
 MAKRUH (iy£*). Lit. “ That 
 
 which is hateful and unbecoming.” A term 
 used in the religious, civil, and ceremonial 
 law of Islam, for an act the unlawfulness of 
 which is not absolutely certain, but which is 
 considered improper and unbecoming. 
 
 The author of the Hidayah remarks that 
 the doctors of the Hanafi sect have disagreed 
 as to the extent to which the term can be 
 received. 
 
 The Imam Muhammad is of opinion that 
 makruh is unlawful, but as he could not draw 
 any convincing argument in favour of his 
 opinion from either the Qur’an or Traditions, 
 he renounced the general application of “ un¬ 
 lawfulness ” with respect to such things or 
 acts, and classed them under those which are 
 merely improper. 
 
 The Imams Abu Hanifah and Abu Yusuf 
 hold that the term applies to that which in 
 its qualities nearly approaches to unlawful, 
 
 without it being actually so. ( Hidayah , vol. 
 iv. p. 86.) 
 
 In the Kitdbu ’t-Ta^'ifat, that which is 
 makruh is divided into makruh tahrbni, “ that 
 which is nearly unlawful ”; and makruh tan- 
 zihi, “ that which approaches the lawful.” 
 
 In all works on Muhammadan law, a sec¬ 
 tion is devoted to the consideration of things 
 which are held to be makruh. 
 
 al-MALA’IKAH (&s3Wtt). Lit. 
 
 “ The Angels.” The title of the xxxvth 
 Chapter of the Qur’an in the first verse of 
 which the word occurs :—“ Who employeth 
 the angels as envoys.” It is also called Suratu 
 ’l-Fatir. the “ Chapter of the Originator.” 
 
 MALAK (udk»). [angel.] 
 MALAKU ’L-MAUT (^\ edU). 
 
 “ The Angel of Death.” See Qur'an. Surah 
 xxxii. 11: “ The angel of death who is charged 
 
312 
 
 MALANG 
 
 MA'MUDIYAH 
 
 with you shall cause you to die: then ye 
 shall be returned to your Lord.” He is also 
 called •Izra'll. 
 
 MALANG («s*-aJL-). An order 
 
 of Muhammadan faqirs or darveshes, who 
 are the descendants and followers of Jaman 
 Juti, a follower of Zindu Shah Madar. They 
 usually wear the hair of the head very full 
 and matted and formed into a knot behind. 
 The order is a very common one in India. 
 (Herklot’s Musalmans, p. 290.) 
 
 AL-MALIK (ceUUH). “The Pos¬ 
 sessor, lord, ruler.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It frequently 
 occurs in the Qur’an, e.g. in the first Surah, 
 “ Ruler of the Day of Judgment.” 
 
 MALIK (cd!U). Lit. “ One in au¬ 
 thority, a possessor.” The angel who is said 
 to preside over hell, and superintend the 
 torments of the damned. He is mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xliii 77 : “ And they shall 
 cry out, O Malik ! let thy Lord make an end 
 of us ; he shall say, Verily, tarry here.” Per¬ 
 haps the same as Molech, the fire-god 
 
 and tutelary deity of the children of Ammon. 
 
 MALIK (cd3U). The founder of a 
 
 sect of Sunni Muslims. 
 
 The Imam Abu ‘Abdi ’llah Malik ibn Anas, 
 the founder of one of the four orthodox sects 
 of Sunnis, was born at al-Madinah, a.h. 94 
 (a.d. 716). He lived in the same place and 
 received his earliest impressions of Islam 
 from Sahl ibn Sa‘d, the almost sole survivor 
 of the Companions of the Prophet. He was 
 considered to be the most learned man of his 
 time, and his self-denial and abstinence were 
 such that he usually fasted four days in the 
 week. He enjoyed the advantages of a per¬ 
 sonal acquaintance and familiar intercourse 
 with the Imam Abu Hanlfah, although dif¬ 
 fering from him on many important questions 
 regarding the authority of the Traditions. 
 His pride, however, was at least equal to his 
 literary endowments. In proof of this, it is 
 related of him that when the great Khalifah 
 Harunu ’r-Rashid came to al-Madinah to visit 
 the tomb of the Prophet, Malik having gone 
 forth to meet him, the Khalifah addressed 
 him, “ 0 Malik ! I entreat as a favour that 
 you will come every day to me and my two 
 sons, Amin and Ma’mun, and instruct us in 
 traditional knowledge.” To which the sage 
 haughtily replied, “ 0 Khalifah, science is of 
 a dignified nature, and instead of going to 
 any person, requires that all should come to 
 it.” The story further says that the sovereign, 
 with much humility, asked his pardon, ac¬ 
 knowledged the truth of his remark, and sent 
 both his sons to Malik, who seated them 
 among his other scholars without any distinc¬ 
 tion. 
 
 With regard to the Traditions, his autho¬ 
 rity is generally quoted as decisive; in 
 fact, he considered them as altogether super¬ 
 seding the judgment of a man, and on his 
 death-bed severely condemned himself for the 
 
 many decisions he had presumed to give on 
 the mere suggestion of his own reason. The 
 Qur’an and the Sunnah excepted, the only 
 study to which he applied himself in his 
 latter days, was the contemplation of the 
 Deity ; and his mind was at length so much 
 absorbed in the immensity of the Divine at¬ 
 tributes and perfections, as to lose sight of 
 all more insignificant objects ! Hence he 
 gradually withdrew himself from the world, 
 became indifferent to its concerns, and after 
 some years of complete retirement, died at al- 
 Madinah, a.h. 179 (a.d. 795). His authority 
 is at present chiefly received in Barbary and 
 the other northern states of Africa. Of his 
 works, the only one upon record is one of 
 tradition, known as the Muwatta’. His prin¬ 
 cipal pupil was ash-Shafi‘i, who afterwards 
 himself gave the name to a sect. 
 
 MALIKU ’L-MULK («s\UN 
 
 “ The Lord of the Kingdom.” One of the 
 ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It 
 occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah iii. 25 : “ Say, 
 O God, Lord of the Kingdom, Thou givest the 
 kingdom to whomsoever Thou pleasest, and 
 strippest the kingdom from whomsoever 
 Thou pleasest.” 
 
 MAL Z AMIN I JG). Bail 
 
 for property. A legal term. ( Hidayah , vol. 
 ii. p. 568). Bail for the person is hazir 
 zamini. 
 
 MAMAT “Death”; e.g. 
 
 Surah vi. 163: “ My prayers, my sacrifice, 
 my life, and my death, belong to God.” 
 [madt.] 
 
 MAMLUK (csiy.^»), pi. mamalik. 
 
 “ A slave.” A term used in Muslim law for a 
 bond-slave, the word ‘abd signifying both “ a 
 slave ” and “ a servant of God.” It occurs only 
 once in the Qur’an, Surah xvi. 77 : “ God pro¬ 
 pounds a comparison between a slave Qnam- 
 luk ) and the property of his master.” 
 
 This word has become historic in the 
 Mamlukes, or that military body of slaves who 
 for a long time ruled Egypt. These military 
 slaves were first organized by Malik as-Salih, 
 who purchased many thousands of slaves in 
 the markets of Asia, and brought them to 
 Egypt in the 13th century. They were by 
 him embodied into a corps of 12,000 men, 
 but in a.d. 1254, they revolted, and killed 
 Turan Shah, the last prince of the Aiyub 
 dynasty. They then raised to the throne of 
 Egypt al-Mu'izz, who was himself a Turko¬ 
 man slave. The Mamlukes continued the 
 ruling power in Egypt till a.d. 1517, when 
 Salim I. defeated them and put to death 
 Tumaun Bey, the last of the Mamluke 
 dynasty. They were, however, maintained 
 in Egypt as a military aristocracy, and were 
 a powerful body at the time of the French 
 invasion. Muhammad ‘All Pasha of Egypt 
 destroyed their power and influence by mur¬ 
 dering many of them in a.d. 1811. 
 
 MA‘MUDiYAH A word 
 
 used by the commentator al-Baizawi for 
 Christian Baptism In remarking on Surah 
 
MANARAH 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 313 
 
 ii. 132, “ tlie baptism of God ” (Sibghatu 
 ’llah ), he says, “ The Nazarenes used to dip 
 their children in yellow water, and they 
 called it Mafmudiyah ; and they said, whoever 
 was dipped in Ma‘mudiyah was purified, and 
 that it was a sign of his becoming a Naza- 
 rene.” (See Tafsvru ’l-Baizawi , in loco.) 
 
 MANARAH (SjL*). Anglice mi¬ 
 naret. From manar, “ a place wore a fire is 
 lit, lighthouse, pillar.” The lofty turret of a 
 mosque, from which the Mu’azzin, or “ caller 
 to prayer,” invites the people to prayer. In 
 the early days of Islam there were no mina¬ 
 rets to the mosques, those at Quba’ and al- 
 Madinah being erected by ‘Umar ibn ‘Abdi ’I- 
 ‘AzTz, a.h. 86. [mosque.] 
 
 MANASIK (cA~.A»). From man- 
 
 sik, “ a place of sacrifice.” The sacred rites 
 and ceremonies attending the pilgrimage. 
 [hajj.] 
 
 MANAT (vjuU*). An idol men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an,Surahliii. 19, 20: “ What 
 think ye, then, of al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, and 
 Manat, the third idol besides.” 
 
 According to Husain, it was an idol of the 
 tribes of Huzail and Kh aza‘ah. For a dis¬ 
 cussion of the subject, see the article on 
 
 EAT. 
 
 al-MANI‘ “The With- 
 
 holder.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It does not occur in the 
 Qur’an, but is given in the Hadis. 
 
 MANlHAH (W-). A legal 
 
 term for a camel lent, with permission to use 
 its milk, its hair, and its young, but on condi¬ 
 tion of returning the camel itself. Such an 
 animal cannot be sacrificed. ( Mishkat , book 
 iv. ch. 50.) 
 
 MANLA (A^). A learned man. 
 
 A Muhammadan priest. The Egyptian form 
 of Maulavl or Mulla. 
 
 MAN - LA - YASTAHZIRAHU ’L- 
 FAQIH 3 A book 
 
 of Shbah traditions compiled by Saiyid RazT, 
 a.h. 406. 
 
 MANNA. Arabic mart?;- ; Heb. 
 man; Greek /rdwa. The giving of 
 
 manna to the children of Israel is mentioned 
 three times in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 54 : “ And we overshadowed them 
 with the cloud, and sent down manna and the 
 quails.” 
 
 Surah sx. 82 : “ We caused the manna and 
 the quails to descend upon you.” 
 
 Surah vii. 160: “We caused clouds to 
 overshadow them, and sent down upon them 
 the manna and the quails.” 
 
 ‘Abdu ’l-‘AzIz, in his commentary, says it 
 was like white sugar. 
 
 MANSLAUGHTER, [murder.] 
 MANUMISSION. Arabic ‘Itq 
 (<3^). [slavery.] 
 
 MAQAM MAHMUD ( r UL— 
 “ A glorious station,” or 
 place in heaven, said to be reserved for Mu¬ 
 hammad. It is mentioned in the xvnth 
 chapter of the Qur’an, verse 81; “ It may be 
 that thy Lord will raise thee to a glorious 
 station." 
 
 Religious Muslims always pray that God 
 will grant the Maqdm Mahmud to their 
 Prophet, when they hear the Azan recited. 
 [azan.] 
 
 MAQAMU IBRAHIM (^\ r Uu). 
 
 “ The place or station of Abraham.” Men¬ 
 tioned twice in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah iii. 91: “ In it (Makkah) are evident 
 signs, even the place of Abraham." 
 
 Surah ii. 119: “Take ye the station of 
 Abraham for a place of prayer.” 
 
 It is a place at Makkah within the Masjid 
 boundary, supposed to have the impression 
 of the foot-marks of Abraham. Burckhardt 
 says this is a small building, supported by 
 six pillars about eight feet high, four of which 
 are surrounded from the top to bottom by a 
 fine iron railing, while they leave the space 
 behind the two hind pillars open. Within the 
 railing is a frame about five feet square, ter¬ 
 minating in a pyramidal top, and said to con¬ 
 tain the sacred stone upon which Abraham 
 stood when he built the Ka‘bah. 
 
 MAQSURAH A closet or 
 
 place of retirement. A place set apart in 
 mosques, enclosed with curtains, where de¬ 
 vout men recite their supererogatory prayers, 
 and perform zilcr. [zikk.] 
 
 MARIYATU ’L-QIBTlYAH (fyU 
 
 [MARY THE COPT.] 
 
 MARRIAGE. The celebration of 
 
 the marriage contract is called nikah (^VSfj), 
 The festive rejoicings ‘urs ; Persian 
 
 shadi). Marriage is enjoined upon every 
 Muslim, and celibacy is frequently condemned 
 by Muhammad. It is related in the Traditions 
 that Muhammad said : “ When the servant of 
 God marries, he perfects half of his religion;” 
 and that “ on one occasion Muhammad 
 asked a man if he was married, and being 
 answered in the negative, he said, ‘ Art thou 
 sound and healthy ? ’ Upon the man reply¬ 
 ing that he was, Muhammad said, 1 Then thou 
 art one of the brothers of the devil.’” ( Mishkat , 
 book xiii. ch. i.) Consequently in Islam, 
 even the ascetic orders are rather married 
 than single. 
 
 It is related that one of the Companions, 
 named ‘Usman ibn Maz‘un, wished to lead a 
 life of celibacy, but Muhammad forbade 
 him. 
 
 The following are some of the sayings of 
 Muhammad on the subject of marriage (see 
 Mishkatu ’/-Masabih, book xiii.):— 
 
 “ The best wedding is that upon which the 
 least trouble and expense is bestowed.” 
 
 “ The worst of feasts are marriage feasts, 
 to which the rich are invited and the poor 
 left out, and he who abandons the aceepta- 
 
 40 
 
814 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 tion of an invitation, then verily disobeys God 
 and His Prophet.” 
 
 “ Matrimonial alliances (between two fami¬ 
 lies or tribes) increase friendship more than 
 anything else.” 
 
 “ Marry women who will love their hus¬ 
 bands and be very prolific, for I wish you to 
 be more numerous than any other people.” 
 
 “ When anyone demands your daughter in 
 marriage, and you are pleased with his dis¬ 
 position and his faith, then give her to him ; 
 for if you do not so, then there will be strife 
 and contention in the world.” 
 
 “ A woman may be married either for her 
 money, her reputation, her beauty, or her 
 religion ; then look out for a religious woman, 
 for if you do marry other than a religious 
 woman, may your hands be rubbed with 
 dirt.” 
 
 “ All young men who have arrived at the 
 age of puberty should marry, for marriage 
 prevents sins. He who cannot marry should 
 fast.” 
 
 “ When a Muslim marries he perfects half 
 his religion, and he should practise absti¬ 
 nence for the remaining half.” 
 
 “ Beware! make not large settlements 
 upon women; because, if great settlements 
 were a cause of greatness in the world and 
 of righteousness before God, surely it would 
 be most proper for the Prophet of God to 
 make them.” 
 
 “ When any of you wishes to demand a 
 woman in marriage, if he can arrange it, let 
 him see her first.” 
 
 “ A woman ripe in years shall have her 
 consent asked in marriage, and if she remain 
 silent her silence is her consent, and if she 
 refuse she shall not be married by force.” 
 
 “ A widow shall not be married until she 
 be consulted, nor shall a virgin be married 
 until her consent be asked.” The Compa¬ 
 nions said, “ In what manner is the permission 
 of a virgin? ” He replied, “ Her consent is by 
 her silence.” 
 
 “ If a woman marries without the consent 
 of her guardian, her marriage is null and 
 void, is null and void, is null and void; then, 
 if her marriage hath been consummated, the 
 woman shall take her dower; if her guar¬ 
 dians dispute about her marriage, then the 
 king is her guardian.” 
 
 The subject of Muslim marriages will now 
 be treated in the present article imder the 
 headings—I. The Validity of Marriage; II. 
 The Legal Disablities to Marriage ; 111. The 
 Religious Ceremony ; IV. The Marriage Fes¬ 
 tivities. 
 
 7.— The Validity of Marriage. 
 
 Muslims are permitted to marry four free 
 women, and to have as many slaves for con¬ 
 cubines as they may have acquired. See 
 Qur’an, Surah iv. 3: “Of women who seem 
 good in your eyes, marry two, or three, or 
 four; and if ye still fear that ye shall not 
 act equitably, then one only; or the slaves 
 whom ye have acquired.” [wives.] 
 
 Usufructory or temporary marriages were 
 sanctioned by the Prophet, but this law is 
 
 said by the Sunnis to have been abrogated, 
 although it is allowed by the Shfiahs, and is 
 practised in Persia in the present day. 
 [mut'ah.] These temporary marriages are 
 undoubtedly the greatest blot in Muhammad’s 
 moral legislation, and admit of no satisfac¬ 
 tory apology. 
 
 Marriage, according to Muhammadan law, 
 is simply a civil contract, and its validity 
 does not depend upon any religious ceremony. 
 Though the civil contract is not positively 
 prescribed to be reduced to writing, its vali¬ 
 dity depends upon the consent of the parties, 
 which is called ijdb and qabul, “ declaration ” 
 and “ acceptance ”; the presence of two male 
 witnesses (or one male and two female wit¬ 
 nesses) ; and a dower of not less than ten 
 dirhams, to be settled upon the woman. The 
 omission of the settlement does not, however, 
 invalidate the contract, for under any cir¬ 
 cumstances, the woman becomes entitled to 
 her dower of ten dirhams or more. (A dower 
 suitable to the position of the woman is 
 called Mah.ru ’ l-misl .) 
 
 Liberty is allowed a woman who has 
 reached the age of puberty, to marry or re¬ 
 fuse to marry a particular man, independent 
 of her guardian, who has no power to dispose 
 of her in marriage without her consent or 
 against her will; while the objection is re¬ 
 served for the girl, married by her guardian 
 during her infancy, to ratify or dissolve the 
 contract immediately on reaching her majo¬ 
 rity. When a woman, adult and sane, elects 
 to be married through an agent ( wakil ), she 
 empowers him, in the presence of competent 
 witnesses, to convey her consent to the bride¬ 
 groom. The agent, if a stranger, need not 
 see her, and it is sufficient that the wit¬ 
 nesses, who see her, satisfy him that she, 
 expressly or impliedly, consents to the propo¬ 
 sition of which he is the bearer. The law 
 respects the modesty of the sex, and allows 
 the expression of consent on the part of the 
 lady by indirect ways, even without words. 
 With a virgin, silence is taken as consent, 
 and so is a smile or laugh. 
 
 Mr. Syed Ameer Ali says :— 
 
 “ The validity of a marriage under the Mu¬ 
 hammadan law depends on two conditions : 
 first, on the capacity of the parties to marry 
 each other; secondly, on the celebration of 
 the marriage according to the forms pre¬ 
 scribed in the place where the marriage is 
 celebrated, or which are recognised as legal 
 by the customary law of the Mussalmans. 
 It is a recognised principle that the capacity 
 of each of the parties to a marriage is to be 
 judged of by their respective lex domicilii 
 ‘ If they are each, whether belonging to the 
 same country or to different countries, ca¬ 
 pable according to their lex domicilii of mar¬ 
 riage with the other, they have the capacity 
 required by the rule under consideration. In 
 short, as in other contracts, so in that of 
 marriage, personal capacity must depend on 
 the law of domicil.’ 
 
 “ The capacity of a Mussalman domiciled in 
 England will be regulated by the English law, 
 but the capacity of one who is domiciled in the 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 315 
 
 Belad-uI-Islam (i.e. a Muhammadan country), 
 by the provisions of the Mussalman law. It 
 is, therefore, important to consider what the 
 requisite conditions are to vest in an indi¬ 
 vidual the capacity to enter into a valid con¬ 
 tract of marriage. As a general rule, it may 
 be remarked, that under the Islamic law, the 
 capacity to contract a valid marriage rests 
 on the same basis as the capacity to enter 
 into any other contract. ‘ Among the condi¬ 
 tions which are requisite for the validity of 
 a contract of marriage (says the Fatdwa-i- 
 Alamgiri, p. 377), are understanding, puberty, 
 and freedom, in the contracting parties, with 
 this difference, that whilst the first requisite 
 is essentially necessary for the validity of the 
 marriage, as a marriage cannot be contracted 
 by a mcijnun (non compos mentis ), or a boy 
 without understanding, the other two condi¬ 
 tions are required only to give operation to 
 the contract, as the marriage contracted by a 
 (minor) boy (possessed) of understanding is 
 dependent for its operation on the consent of 
 his guardian.’ Puberty and discretion con¬ 
 stitute, accordingly, the essential conditions 
 of the capacity to enter into a valid contract 
 of marriage. A person who is an infant in 
 the eye of the law is disqualified from enter¬ 
 ing into any legal transactions (tassarufal-i- 
 shariyeh—tasarrufdt-i-shar‘iah'), and is conse¬ 
 quently incompetent to contract a marriage. 
 Like the English common law, however, the 
 Muhammadan law makes a distinction be¬ 
 tween a contract made by a minor possessed 
 of discretion or understanding and one made 
 by a child who does not possess understand¬ 
 ing. A marriage contracted by a minor who 
 has not arrived at the age of discretion, or 
 who does not possess understanding, or who 
 cannot comprehend the consequences of the 
 act, is a mere nullity. 
 
 “ The Mohammadan law fixes no particular 
 age when discretion should be presumed. 
 Under the English law, however, the age of 
 seven marks the difference between want of 
 understanding in children and capacity to 
 comprehend the legal effects of particular 
 acts. The Indian Penal Code also has fixed 
 the age of seven as the period when the 
 liability for offences should commence. It 
 may be assumed, perhaps not without some 
 reason, that the same principle ought to 
 govern cases under the Muhammadan law, 
 that is, when a contract of marriage is entered 
 into by a child under the age of seven, it 
 will be regarded as a nullity. It is otherwise, 
 however, in the case of a marriage con¬ 
 tracted by a person of understanding. ‘ It 
 is valid,’ says the Fatawa, ‘ though depen¬ 
 dent for its operation on the consent of the 
 guardian.’ 
 
 “ A contract entered into by a person who is 
 insane is null and void, unless it is made 
 during a lucid interval. A slave cannot enter 
 into a contract of marriage without the con¬ 
 sent of his master. The Mussalman lawyers, 
 therefore, add freedom (hurriyet') as one of 
 the conditions to the capacity for marriage. 
 
 “ Majority is presumed, among the Hanafis 
 and the Shiahs, on the completion of the fif¬ 
 
 teenth year, in the case of both males and 
 females, unless there is any evidence to show 
 that puberty was attained earlier. 
 
 “ Besides puberty and discretion, the capa¬ 
 city to marry requires that there should be 
 no legal disability or bar to the union of the 
 parties ; that in fact they should not be within 
 the prohibited degrees, or so related to or 
 connected with each other as to make their 
 union unlawful.” (See Syed Ameer Ali’s Per¬ 
 sonal Law of the Muhu.mmad.ans, p. 216.) 
 
 With regard to the consent of the woman, 
 Mr. Syed Ameer Ah remarks :— 
 
 “ No contract can be said to be complete 
 unless the contracting parties understand its 
 nature and mutually consent to it. A con¬ 
 tract of marriage also implies mutual con¬ 
 sent, and when the parties see one another, 
 and of their own accord agree to bind them¬ 
 selves, both having the capacity to do so, 
 there is no doubt as to the validity of the 
 marriage. Owing, however, to the privacy 
 in which Eastern women generally live, and 
 the difficulties under which they labour in the 
 exercise of their own choice in matrimonial 
 matters, the Mohammadan law, with some¬ 
 what wearying particularity, lays down the 
 principle by which they may not only pro¬ 
 tect themselves from the cupidity of their 
 natural guardians, but may also have a 
 certain scope in the selection of their hus¬ 
 bands. 
 
 “ For example, when a marriage is con¬ 
 tracted on behalf of an adult person of either 
 sex, it is an essential condition to its validity 
 that such person should consent thereto, or, 
 in other words, marriage contracted without 
 his or her authority or consent is null, by 
 ■whomsoever it may have been entered into. 
 
 “ Among the Hanafis and the Shiahs, the 
 capacity of a woman, who is adult and sane, 
 to contract herself in marriage is absolute. 
 The Shiah law is most explicit on this point. 
 It expressly declares that, in the marriage of 
 a discreet female (rashidah') who is adult, no 
 guardian is required. The Hidaya holds 
 the same opinion. A woman (it says) who is 
 adult and of sound mind, may be married by 
 virtue of her own consent, although the con¬ 
 tract may not have been made or acceded to 
 by her guardians, and this whether she be a 
 virgin or saibbah. Among the Shafais and the 
 Malikis, although the consent of the adult 
 virgin is an essential to the validity of a con¬ 
 tract of marriage entered into on her behalf, 
 as among the Hanafis and the Shiahs, she 
 cannot contract herself in marriage without 
 the intervention of a wall. (Hamilton’s 
 Hidayah, vol. i. p. 95.) 
 
 “ Among the Shafais, a woman cannot per¬ 
 sonally consent to the marriage. The pre¬ 
 sence of the wali, or guardian, is essentially 
 necessary to give validity to the contract. 
 The wall’s intervention is required by the 
 Shafais and the Malikis to supplement the 
 presumed incapacity of the woman to under¬ 
 stand the nature of the contract, to settle 
 the terms and other matters of a similar 
 import, and to guard the girl from being vic¬ 
 timised by an unscrupulous adventurer, or 
 
316 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 from marrying a person morally or socially 
 unfitted for her. It is owing to the impor¬ 
 tance and multifariousness of the duties with 
 which a wall is charged, that the Sunni law 
 is particular in ascertaining the order in which 
 the right of guardianship is possessed^by the 
 different individuals who may he entitled to 
 it. The schools are not in accord with refe¬ 
 rence to the order. The Hanafis entrust the 
 office first to the agnates in the order of suc¬ 
 cession ; then to the mother, the sister, the 
 relatives on the mother’s side, and lastly to 
 the Kazi. The Shafais adopt the following 
 order: The father, the father’s father, the 
 son (by a previous marriage), the full bro¬ 
 ther, the consanguinous brother, the nephew, 
 the uncle, the cousin, the tutor, and lastly 
 the Kazi; thus entirely excluding the female 
 relations from the wilayet. The Malikis 
 agree with the Shafais in confiding the office 
 of guardian only to men, but they adopt an 
 order slightly different. They assign the 
 first rank to the sons of the woman (by a 
 former marriage), the second to the father ; 
 and then successively to the full brother, 
 nephew, paternal grandfather, paternal uncle, 
 cousin, manumittor, and lastly to the Kazi. 
 Among the Malikis and the Shafais, where 
 the presence of the guardian at a marriage 
 is always necessary, the question has given 
 birth to two different systems. The first of 
 these considers the guardian to derive his 
 powers entirely from the law. It conse¬ 
 quently insists not only on his presence at 
 the marriage, but on his actual participation 
 in giving the consent. According to this view, 
 not only is a marriage contracted through a 
 more distant guardian invalid, whilst one 
 more nearly connected is present, but the 
 latter cannot validate a marriage contracted 
 at the time without his consent, by according 
 his consent subsequently. This harsh doc¬ 
 trine, however, does not appear to be forced 
 in any community following the Maliki or 
 Shafai tenets. The second system is dia¬ 
 metrically opposed to the first, and seems to 
 have been enunciated by Shaikh Ziad as the 
 doctrine taught by Malik. According to this 
 system the right of the guardian, though no 
 doubt a creation of the law, is exercised only 
 in virtue of the power or special authorisation 
 granted by the woman ; for the woman once 
 emancipated from the patria potestas is mis¬ 
 tress of her own actions. She is not only 
 entitled to consult her own interests in matri¬ 
 mony, but can appoint whomsoever she 
 chooses to represent her and protect her le¬ 
 gitimate interests. If she think the nearer 
 guardian inimically inclined towards her, she 
 may appoint one more remote to act for her 
 during her marriage. Under this view of 
 the law, the guardian acts as an attorney 
 on behalf of the woman, deriving all his 
 powers from her and acting solely for her 
 benefit. This doctrine has been adopted by 
 Al-Karkhi, Ibn al-Kasim, and Ibn-i-Salamun, 
 and has been formally enunciated by the 
 Algerian Kazis in several consecutive judg¬ 
 ments. When the wall preferentially entitled 
 to act is absent, and his whereabouts un¬ 
 
 known, when he is a prisoner or has been 
 reduced to slavery, or is absent more than 
 ten days’ journey from the place where the 
 woman is residing, or is insane or an infant, 
 then the wilayet passes to the person next in 
 order to him. The Hanafis hold that the 
 woman is always entitled to give her con¬ 
 sent without the intervention of a guardian. 
 When a guardian is employed and found 
 acting on her behalf, he is presumed to derive 
 his power solely from her, so that he cannot 
 act in any circumstances in contravention of 
 his authority or instructions. When the 
 woman has authorised her guardian to marry 
 her to a particular individual, or has con¬ 
 sented to a marriage proposed to her by a 
 specific person, the guardian has no power to 
 marry her to another. Under the Shiah law, 
 a woman who is ‘ adult and discreet,’ is 
 herself competent to enter into a contract of 
 marriage. She requires no representative or 
 intermediary, through whom to give her con¬ 
 sent. ‘ If her guardians,’ says the Shardya, 
 
 ■' refuse to marry her to an equal when de¬ 
 sired by her to do so, there is no doubt that 
 she is entitled to contract herself, even 
 against their wish.’ The Shiahs agree with 
 the Hanafis in giving to females the power 
 of representing others in matrimonial con¬ 
 tracts. In a contract of marriage, full re¬ 
 gard is to be paid to the words of a female 
 who is adult and sane, that is, possessed of 
 sound understanding; she is, accordingly, not 
 only qualified to contract herself, but also 
 to act as the agent of another in giving ex¬ 
 pression either to the declaration or to the 
 consent. The Mafatih and the Jama-ush- 
 Shattat, also declare ‘ that it is not requisite 
 that the parties through whom a contract is 
 entered into should both be males, since with 
 us (the Shiahs) a contract made through (the 
 agency or intermediation of) a female is 
 valid.’ To recajoitulate. Under the Maliki 
 and Shafai law, the marriage of an adult girl 
 is not valid unless her consent is obtained to 
 it, but such consent must be given through a 
 legally authorised wall, who would act as her 
 representative. Under the Hanafi and Shiah 
 law, the woman can consent to her own 
 marriage, either with or without a guardian 
 or agent.” ( Personal Law of the Muhamma¬ 
 dans, p. 233.) 
 
 11.—The Legal Disabilities to Marriage. 
 
 There are nine prohibitions to marriage, 
 namely:— 
 
 1. Consanguinity, which includes mother, 
 grandmother, sister, niece, aunt, &e. 
 
 2. Affinity, which includes mother-in-law, 
 stejo-grandmother, daughter-in-law, step- 
 granddaughter, &c. 
 
 3. Fosterage. A man cannot marry his 
 foster mother, nor foster sister, unless the 
 foster brother and sister were nursed by the 
 same mother at intervals widely separated. 
 But a man may marry the mother of his foster 
 sister, or the foster mother of his sister. 
 
 4. A man may not marry his wife’s sister 
 during his wife’s lifetime, unless she be 
 divorced. 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 Marriage 
 
 317 
 
 5. A man married to a free woman cannot 
 marry a slave. 
 
 6. It is not lawful for a man to marry the 
 wife or muHaddcth of another, whether the 
 ‘iddah be on account of repudiation or death. 
 That is, he cannot marry until the expiration 
 of the woman’s ‘iddah, or period of proba¬ 
 tion. 
 
 7. A Muslim cannot marry a polytheist, or 
 Majuslyah. But he may marry a Jewess, or 
 a Christian, or a Sabean. 
 
 8. A woman is prohibited by reason of pro¬ 
 perty. For example, it is not lawful for a man 
 to marry his own slave, or a woman her 
 bondsman. 
 
 9. A woman is prohibited by repudiation or 
 divorce. If a man pronounces three divorces 
 upon a wife who is free, or two upon a slave, 
 she is not lawful to him until she shall have 
 been regularly espoused by another man, who 
 having, duly consummated the marriage, 
 afterwards divorces her, or dies, and her 
 ‘iddali from him be accomplished. 
 
 Mr. Syed Ameer Ali says :— 
 
 “ The prohibitions may be divided into foui- 
 heads, viz. relative or absolute, prohibitive or 
 directory. They arise in the first place from 
 legitimate and illegitimate relationship of 
 blood (consanguinity) ; secondly, from alliance 
 or affinity ( al-musdharat) ; thirdly, from fos¬ 
 terage ( ar-riza‘ ); and, fourthly, from com¬ 
 pletion of number (i.e. four). The ancient 
 Arabs permitted the union of step-mothers 
 and mothers-in-law on one side, and step-sons 
 and sons-in-law on the other. The Kuran 
 expressly forbids this custom: 1 Marry not 
 women whom your fathers have had to wife 
 (except what is already past), for this is an 
 uncleanliness and abomination, and an evil 
 way.’ (Surah iv. 26.) Then come the more 
 definite prohibitions in the next verse: ‘Ye 
 are forbidden to marry your mothers, your 
 daughters, your sisters, and your aunts, both 
 on the father’s and on the mother’s side ; your 
 brothers’ daughters and your sister’s daugh¬ 
 ters ; your mothers who have given you suck 
 and your foster-sisters ; your wives’ mothers, 
 your daughters-in-law, born of your wives 
 with whom ye have cohabited. Ye are also 
 prohibited to take to wife two sisters (except 
 what is already past), nor to marry women 
 who are already married.’ (Surah iv. 27.) 
 
 “ The prohibitions founded on consanguinity 
 (tahrlmu ’ n-nasab ) are the same among the 
 Sunnis as among the Shiahs. No marriage 
 can be contracted with the ascendants, with 
 the descendants, with relations of the second 
 rank, such as brothers and sisters or their de 
 scendants, with paternal and maternal uncles 
 and aunts. Nor can a marriage be contracted 
 with a natural offspring or [his or her de¬ 
 scendants. Among the Shiahs, marriage is 
 forbidden for fosterage in the same order as 
 in the case of nasab. The Sunnis, however, 
 permit marriage in spite of fosterage in the 
 following cases: The marriage of the father 
 of the child with the mother of his child’s 
 foster-mother, or with her daughter ; the mar¬ 
 riage of the foster-mother with the brother 
 of the child whom she has fostered; the mar* 
 
 riage with the foster-mother of an uncle or 
 aunt. The relationship by fosterage arises 
 among the Shiahs when the child has been 
 really nourished at the breast of the foster- 
 mother. Among the Sunnis, it is required 
 that the child should have been suckled at 
 least fifteen times, or at least a day and 
 night. Among the Hanafis, it is enough if it 
 have been suckled only once. Among the 
 Shafais it is necessary that it should have 
 been suckled four times. There is no dif¬ 
 ference among the Sunnis and the Shiahs re¬ 
 garding the prohibitions arising from alliance. 
 Under the Shiah law, a woman against whom 
 a proceeding by ladn (li‘an) has taken place on 
 the ground of her adultery, and who is thereby 
 divorced from her husband, cannot under any 
 circumstance re-marry him. The Shafais 
 and Malikis agree in this opiinion with the 
 Shiahs. The Hanafis, however, allow a re¬ 
 marriage with a woman divorced by ladn. 
 The Shiahs as well as the Shafais, Malikis, 
 and Hanbalis; hold that a marriage with a 
 woman who is already pregnant (by another) 
 is absolutely illegal. According to the 
 Hiddya, however, it would appear that Abu 
 Hanifah and his disciple Muhammad were of 
 opinion that such a marriage was allowable. 
 The practice among the Indian Hanifis is 
 variable. But generally speaking, such mar¬ 
 riages are regarded with extreme disappro¬ 
 bation. Among the Shafais, Malikis and 
 Hanbalis, marriages are prohibited during 
 the state of ihrarn (pilgrimage to Makkah), 
 so that when a marriage is contracted by two 
 persons, either of whom is a follower of the 
 doctrines of the above-mentioned schools 
 whilst on the pilgrimage, it is illegal. The 
 Hanafis regard such marriages to be legal. 
 With the Shiahs, though a marriage in a state 
 of ihrarn is, in any case, illegal, the woman is 
 not prohibited to the man always, unless he 
 was aware of the illegality of the union. All 
 the schools prohibit contemporaneous mar¬ 
 riages with two women so related to each 
 other that, supposing either of them to be a 
 male a marriage between them would be 
 illegal. Illicit intercourse between a man 
 and a woman, according to the Hanafis and 
 Shiahs, prohibits the man from marrying the 
 woman’s mother as well as her daughter. 
 The observant student of the law of the two 
 principal sects which divide the world of 
 Islam, cannot fail to notice the distinctive 
 peculiarity existing between them in respiect 
 to their attitude to outside people. The 
 nations who adopted the Shiah doctrines 
 never seem to have come into contact with 
 the Christian races of the West to any marked 
 extent; whilst their relations with the Mago- 
 Zoroastrians of the East were both intimate 
 and lasting. The Sunnis, on the other hand, 
 seem always to have been more or less in¬ 
 fluenced by the Western nations. In conse¬ 
 quence of the different positions which the 
 followers of the sects occupied towards non- 
 Muslims, a wide divergence exists between 
 the Shiah and Sunni schools of law regarding 
 intermarriages between Muslims and non- 
 Muslims, It has already been pointed out 
 
318 MARRIAGE 
 
 that the Kuran, for political reasons, forbade 
 all unions between Mussalmans and idolaters. 
 It said in explicit terms, ‘ Marry not a 
 woman of the Polytheists (Mushrilcin) until 
 she embraces Islam.’ But it also declared 
 that 1 such women as are muhsinas (of chaste 
 reputation) belonging to the scriptural sects,’ 
 or believing in a revealed or moral religion, 
 ‘ are lawful to Muslims.’ 
 
 “ From these and similar directions, two 
 somewhat divergent conclusions have been 
 drawn by the lawyers of the two schools. 
 The Sunnis recognise as legal and valid a 
 marriage contracted between a Muslim on one 
 side, and a Hebrew or a Christian woman on 
 the other. They hold, however, that a mar¬ 
 riage between a Mussalman and a Magian or 
 a Hindu woman is invalid. The Akhbari 
 Shiahs and the Mutazalas agree with the 
 Sunni doctors. The Usuli Shiahs do not re¬ 
 cognise as legal a permanent contract of mar¬ 
 riage between Muslims and the followers of 
 any other creed. They allow, however, tem¬ 
 porary contracts extending over a term of 
 years, or a certain specified period, with a 
 Christian, Jew, or a Magian female. Abu 
 Hanifah permits a Mussalman to marry a 
 Sabean woman, but Abu Yusuf and Muham¬ 
 mad and the other Sunni Imams, hold such 
 unions illegal. 
 
 “ A female Muslim cannot under any cir¬ 
 cumstances marry a non-Muslim. Both schools 
 prohibit a Muhammadan from marrying an 
 idolatrous female, or one who worships the 
 stars or any kind of fetish 'whatsoever. 
 
 “ These prohibitions are relative in their 
 nature and in their effect. They do not 
 imply the absolute nullity of the marriage. 
 For example, when a Muhammadan marries 
 a Hindu woman in a place where the laws of 
 Islam are in force, the marriage only is in¬ 
 valid, and does not affect the status of legi¬ 
 timacy of the offspring.” (See Personal Law 
 of the Muhammadans , p. 220.) 
 
 III.—The Religious Ceremony. 
 
 The Muhammadan law appoints no specific 
 religious ceremony, nor are any religious rites 
 necessary for the contraction of a valid mar¬ 
 riage. Legally, a marriage contracted between 
 two persons possessing the capacity to enter 
 into the contract, is valid and binding, if en¬ 
 tered into by mutual consent in the presence 
 of witnesses. And the Shl‘ah law even dis¬ 
 penses with witnesses. 
 
 In India there is little difference between 
 the rites that are practised at the marriage 
 ceremonies of the Shbahs and Sunnis. 
 
 In all cases the religious ceremony is left 
 entirely to the discretion of the Qazi or per¬ 
 son who performs the ceremony, and conse¬ 
 quently there is no uniformity of ritual. 
 Some Qa?Is merely recite the Fatil.iah (the 
 first chapter of the Qur’an), and the durud, or 
 blessing. The following is the more common 
 order of performing the service. The Qazi, 
 the bridegroom, and the bride’s attorney, with 
 the witnesses, having assembled in some con¬ 
 venient place (but not in a mosque), arrange¬ 
 ments are made as to the amount of dower or 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 mahr. The bridegroom then repeats after 
 the Qazi the following :— 
 
 1. The Istighfar. “ I desire forgiveness 
 from God.” 
 
 2. The four Quls. The four chapters of 
 the Qur’an commencing with the word “ Qul ” 
 (cix., cxii., cxiii., cxiv.). These chapters 
 have nothing in them connected with the sub¬ 
 ject of marriage, and appear to be selected 
 on account of their brevity. 
 
 3. The Kalimah, or Creed. “ There is 
 no Deity but God, and Muhammad is the 
 Prophet of God.” 
 
 4. The Sifwatu H-Iman. A profession of 
 belief in God, the Angels, the Scriptures, the 
 Prophets, the Resurrection, and the Absolute 
 Decree of good and evil. 
 
 The Qazi then requests the bride’s at¬ 
 torney to take the hand of the bridegroom, 
 and to say, “ Such an one’s daughter, by the 
 agency of her attorney and by the testimony 
 of two witnesses, has, in your marriage with 
 her, had such a dower settled upon her ; do 
 you consent to it ? ” To which the bride¬ 
 groom replies, “ With my whole heart and 
 soul, to my marriage with this woman, as 
 well as to the dower already settled upon her, 
 I consent, I consent, I consent.” 
 
 After this the Qazi raises his hands and 
 offers the following prayer : “ 0 great God ! 
 grant that mutual love may reign between this 
 couple, as it existed between Adam and Eve, 
 Abraham and Sarah, Joseph and Zalikha. 
 Moses and_ Zipporah, his highness Muham¬ 
 mad and ‘Ayishah, and his highness ‘All al- 
 Murtaza and Fatimatu ’z-Zahra.” 
 
 The ceremony being over, the bridegroom 
 embraces his friends and receives their con¬ 
 gratulations. 
 
 According to the Durru ’l-Mukhtar. p. 196, 
 and all schools of Muslim law, the bridegroom 
 is entitled to see his wife before the marriage, 
 but Eastern customs very rarely allow the 
 exercise of this right, and the husband, gene¬ 
 rally speaking, sees his wife for the first 
 time when leading her to the nuptial 
 chamber. 
 
 IV.—The Marriage Festivities. 
 
 Nilcdh is preceded and followed by festive 
 rejoicings which have been variously de¬ 
 scribed by Oriental travellers, but they are 
 not parts of either the civil or religious cere¬ 
 monies. 
 
 The following account of a shadi or wed¬ 
 ding in Hiudustan is abridged (with some 
 correction) from Mrs. Meer Hasan All’s 
 Musalmans of India. 
 
 The marriage ceremony usually occupies 
 three days and three nights. The day being 
 fixed, the mother of the bride actively em¬ 
 ploys the intervening time in finishing her 
 preparations for the young lady’s departure 
 from the paternal roof with suitable articles, 
 which might jirove the bride was not sent 
 forth to her new family without proper pro¬ 
 vision : A silver-gilt bedstead with the neces¬ 
 sary furniture; a silver pawn-dan, shaped 
 very like an English spice-box ; a chillumchi 
 or wash-hand basin ; a lota or water-jug, re- 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 319 
 
 sembling an old-fashioned coffee-pot; a silver 
 luggun, or spittoon ; a surai, or water-bottle ; 
 silver basins for water; several dozens of 
 copper pots, plates, and spoons for cooking ; 
 dishes, plates and platters in endless variety ; 
 and numerous other articles needful for house¬ 
 keeping, including a looking-glass for the 
 bride’s toilette, masnads, cushions, and 
 carpets. 
 
 On the first day the ladies’ apartments of 
 both houses are completely filled with visi¬ 
 tors of ail grades, from the wives and 
 mothers of noblemen, down to the humblest 
 acquaintance of the family, and to do honour 
 to the hostess, the guests appear in their best 
 attire and most valuable ornaments. The poor 
 bride is kept in strict confinement in a dark 
 closet or room during the whole three days’ 
 merriment, whilst the happy bridegroom is 
 the most prominent person in the assembly 
 of the males, where amusements are con¬ 
 trived to please and divert him, the whole 
 party vying in personal attentions to him. 
 The ladies are occupied in conversations and 
 merriment, and amused with native songs 
 and music of the domnis, smoking the huqqa, 
 eating pawn, dinner, &c. Company is their 
 delight and time passes pleasantly with them 
 in such an assembly. 
 
 The second day is one of bustle and pre¬ 
 paration in the bride’s home ; it is spent in 
 arranging the various articles that are to 
 accompany the bride’s mayndi or hinna' (the 
 Lawsonia inermis ), which is forwarded in the 
 evening to the bridegroom’s house with great 
 parade. The herb mayndi or hinna is in 
 general request amongst the natives of India, 
 for the purpose of dyeing the hands and feet; 
 and is considered by them an indispensable 
 article to their comfort, keeping those mem¬ 
 bers cool, and a great ornament to the person. 
 Long established custom obliges the bride to 
 send mayndi on the second night of the nup¬ 
 tials to the bridegroom; and to make the 
 event more conspicuous, presents proportioned 
 to the means of the party accompany the 
 trays of prepared mayndi. 
 
 The female friends of the bride’s family 
 attend the procession in covered conveyances, 
 and the male guests on horses, elephants, and 
 in palkies ; trains of servants and hands of 
 music swell the procession (amongst persons 
 of distinction) to a magnitude inconceivable 
 to those who have not visited the large native 
 cities of India. 
 
 Amongst the bride’s presents with mayndi 
 may be noticed everything requisite for a 
 full-dress suit for the bridegroom, and the 
 etcetras of his toilette : confectionery, dried 
 fruits, preserves, the prepared pawns, and a 
 multitude of trifles too tedious to enumerate, 
 but whiph are nevertheless esteemed luxu¬ 
 ries with the native young people, and are 
 considered essential to the occasion. One 
 thing I must not omit, the sugar-candy, 
 which forms the source of amusement when 
 the bridegroom is under the dominion of the 
 females in his mother’s zananah. The fire¬ 
 works sent with the presents are concealed 
 in flowers formed of the transparent uberuek ; 
 
 these flowers are set out in frames, and re¬ 
 present beds of flowers in their varied forms 
 and colours; these in their number and gay 
 appearance have a pretty effect in the pro¬ 
 cession, interspersed with the trays contain¬ 
 ing the dresses, &c. All the trays are first 
 covered with basketwork raised in domes, 
 and over these are thrown draperies of broad¬ 
 cloth, gold cloth, and brocade, neatly fringed 
 in bright colours. 
 
 The mayndi procession having reached the 
 bridegroom’s house, bustle and excitement 
 pervade through every department of the 
 mansion. The gentlemen are introduced to 
 the father’s hall; the ladies to the youth’s 
 mother, who in all possible state is prepared 
 to receive the bride’s friends. 
 
 The ladies crowd into the centre hall to 
 witness, through the blinds of bamboo, the 
 important process of dressing the bridegroom 
 in his bride’s presents. The centre purdah is 
 let down, in which are openings to admit the 
 hands and feet; and close to this purdah a 
 low stool is placed. When all these prelimi¬ 
 nary preparations are made, and the ladies 
 securely under cover, notice is sent to the 
 male assembly that “the bridegroom is 
 wanted”; and he then enters the zananah 
 courtyard, amidst the deafening sounds of 
 trumpets and drums from without, and a 
 serenade from the female singers within. He 
 seats himself on the stool placed for him 
 close to the purdah, and obeys the several 
 commands he receives from the hidden 
 females, with childlike docility. The moist 
 mayndi is then tied on with bandages by 
 hands he cannot see, and, if time admits, one 
 hour is requisite to fix the dye bright and 
 permanent on the hands and feet. During 
 this delay, the hour is passed in lively dia¬ 
 logues with the several purdahed dames, who 
 have all the advantages of seeing though 
 themselves unseen ; the singers occasionally 
 lauding his praise in extempore strains, after 
 describing the loveliness of his bride (whom 
 they know nothing about), and foretelling the 
 happiness which awaits him in his marriage, 
 but which, in the lottery, may perhaps prove 
 a blank. The sugar-candy, broken into small 
 lumps, is presented by the ladies whilst his 
 hands and feet are fast bound in the bandages 
 of mayndi ; but as he cannot help himself, 
 and it is an omen of good to eat the bride’s 
 sweets at this ceremony, they are sure he will 
 try to catch the morsels which they present 
 to his mouth and then draw back, teasing the 
 youth with their banterings, until at last he 
 may successfully snap at the candy, and seize 
 the fingers also with the dainty, to the 
 general amusement of the whole party and 
 the youth’s entire satisfaction. 
 
 The mayndi supposed to have done its duty 
 the bandages are removed, the old nurse of 
 his infancy (always retained for life), assists 
 him with water to wash off the leaves, dries 
 his feet a.nd hands, rubs him with perfumes, 
 and robes him in his bride’s presents. Thus 
 attired, he takes leave of his 'tormentors, 
 sends respectful messages to his bride’s 
 family, and bows his way from their guar- 
 
320 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 dianship to the male apartment, where he is 
 greeted by a flourish of trumpets and the con¬ 
 gratulations of the guests, many of wTiom 
 make him presents and embrace him cor¬ 
 dially. 
 
 The dinner is introduced at twelve, amongst 
 the bridegroom’s guests, and the night passed 
 in good-humoured conviviality, although the 
 strongest beverage at the feast consists of 
 sugar and water sherbet, The dancing- 
 
 women’s performances, the displays of fire¬ 
 works, the dinner, pawn, and huqqah, form 
 the chief amusements of the night, and they 
 break up only when the dawn of morning 
 approaches. 
 
 The bride’s female friends take sherbet and 
 pawn after the bridegroom’s departure from 
 the zananah, after which they hasten away 
 to the bride’s assembly, to detail the whole 
 business of their mission. 
 
 BRINGING HOME THE BRIDE IN AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 {A. F. Hole.) 
 
 The third day, the eventful barat, arrives 
 to awaken in the heart of a tender mother 
 all the good feelings of fond affection; she is, 
 perhaps, about to part with the great solace 
 of her life under many domestic trials ; at 
 any rate, she transfers her beloved child to 
 another protection. All marriages are not 
 equally happy in their termination; it is a 
 lottery, a fate, in the good mother’s calcula¬ 
 tion. Her darling child may be the favoured 
 
 of Heaven, for which she prays ; she may be 
 however, the miserable first wife of a licen¬ 
 tious pluralist ; nothing is certain, but she 
 will strive to trust in God’s mercy, that the 
 event prove a happy one to her dearly-loved 
 girl. 
 
 The young bride is in close confinement 
 during the days of celebrating her nuptials ; 
 on the third, she is tormented with the prepa¬ 
 rations for her departure. The mayndi must 
 
MAEEIAGE 
 
 MAEEIAGE 
 
 321 
 
 be applied to her hands and feet, the formid¬ 
 able operations of bathing, drying her hair, 
 oiling and dressing her head, dyeing her lips, 
 gums, and teeth with antimony, fixing on her 
 the wedding ornaments, the nose-ring pre¬ 
 sented by her husband’s family; the many 
 rings to be placed on her fingers and toes, 
 the rings fixed in her ears, are all so many 
 new trials to her, which though a complica¬ 
 tion of inconvenience, she cannot venture to 
 murmur at, and therefore submits to with the 
 passive weakness of a lamb. 
 
 Towards the close of the evening, all these 
 preparations being fulfilled, the marriage por¬ 
 tion is set in order to accompany the bride. 
 The guests make their own amusements for 
 the day: the mother is too much occupied 
 ■ with her daughter’s affairs to give much of 
 her time or attention to them ; nor do they 
 expect it, for they all know by experience 
 the nature of a mother’s duties at such an 
 interesting period. 
 
 The bridegroom’s house is nearly in the 
 same state of bustle as the bride’s, though of 
 a very different description, as the preparing 
 for the reception of a bride is an event of vast 
 importance in the opinion of a Musalman. 
 The gentlemen assemble in the evening, and 
 are regaled with sherbet and the huqqah, and 
 entertained with the waweA-singing and fire¬ 
 works, until the appointed hour for setting 
 out in the procession to fetch the bride to 
 her new home. 
 
 The procession is on a grand scale ; every 
 friend or acquaintance, together with their 
 elephants, are pressed into the service of the 
 bridegroom on this night of Barat. The 
 young man himself is mounted on a handsome 
 charger, the legs, tail, and mane cf which 
 are dyed with mayndi, whilst the ornamental 
 furniture of the horse is splendid with span¬ 
 gles and embroidery. The dress of the bride¬ 
 groom is of gold cloth, richly trimmed, with 
 a turban to correspond, to the top of which 
 is fastened an immense bunch of silver trim¬ 
 ming, that falls over his face to his waist, 
 and answers the purpose of a veil (this is in 
 strict keeping with the Hindu custom at 
 their marriage processions). A select few of 
 the females from the bridegroom’s houso 
 attend in his train to bring home the bride, 
 accompanied by innumerable torches, with 
 bands of music, soldiers, and servants, to give 
 effect to the procession. On their arrival at 
 the gate of the bride’s residence, the gentle¬ 
 men are introduced to the father’s apartments, 
 where fire-works, music, and singing, oceirpy 
 their time and attention until the hour for 
 departure arrives. 
 
 The marriage ceremony is performed in the 
 presence of witnesses, although the bride is 
 not seen by any of the males at the time, not 
 even by her husband, until they have been 
 lawfully united according to the common form. 
 
 The Maulawi commences by calling on the 
 young maiden by name, to answer to his de¬ 
 mand, “ Is it by your own consent this mar¬ 
 riage takes place with -? ” naming the 
 
 person who is the bridegroom; the bride 
 answers, “ It is by my consent.” The Maulawi 
 
 then explains the law of Muhammad, and 
 reads a certain chapter from that portion of 
 the Qur’an which binds the parties in holy 
 wedlock. He then turns to the young man, 
 and asks him to name the sum he proposes 
 as his wife’s dowry. The bridegroom thus 
 called upon, names ten, twenty, or, perhaps, 
 a hundred lacs of rupees ; the Maulawi re¬ 
 peats to all present the amount proposed, and 
 then prays that the young couple thus united 
 may be blessed in this world and in eternity. 
 All the gentlemen then retire except the bride¬ 
 groom, who is delayed entering the hall until 
 the bride’s guests have retreated into the side 
 rooms ; as soon as this is accomplished he is 
 introduced into the presence of his mother- 
 in-law and her daughter by the women ser¬ 
 vants. He studiously avoids looking up as 
 he enters the hall, because, according to the 
 custom of this people, he must first see his 
 wife’s face in a looking-glass, which is placed 
 before the young couple, when he is seated on 
 the masnad by his bride. Happy for him if 
 he then beholds a face that bespeaks the 
 gentle being he hopes Fate has destined to 
 make him happy. If otherwise, he must sub¬ 
 mit ; there is no untying the sacred contract. 
 
 Many absurd customs follow this first in¬ 
 troduction of the bride and bridegroom. When 
 the procession is all formed, the goods and 
 chattels of the bride are loaded on the 
 heads of the carriers; the bridegroom con¬ 
 veys his young wife in his arms to the 
 covered palankeen, which is in readiness 
 within the court, and the procession moves 
 off in grand style, with a perpetual din of 
 noisy music, until they arrive at the bride¬ 
 groom’s mansion. 
 
 The poor mother has, perhaps, had many 
 struggles with her own heart to save her 
 daughter’s feelings during the preparation for 
 departure; but when the separation takes 
 place, the scene is affecting beyond descrip¬ 
 tion. I never witnessed anything equal to it 
 in other societies ; indeed, so powerfully are 
 the feelings of the mother excited, that she 
 rarely acquires her usual composure until 
 her daughter is allowed to revisit her, which 
 is generally within a week after her marriage. 
 (See Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali’s Indian Musal- 
 mans, vol. i. p. 46.) 
 
 The above description of a wedding in India 
 has been selected as representative of such 
 ceremonies ; but there is no uniform custom of 
 celebrating Muslim nuptials, the nuptial 
 ceremonies in Afghanistan being much more 
 simple in their character, as will be seen by 
 the illustration given on the preceding page. 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, gives 
 the following interesting account of a wedding 
 in Egypt 
 
 “ Marriages in Cairo are generally con¬ 
 ducted, in the case of a virgin, in the follow¬ 
 ing manner; but in that of a widow, or a 
 divorced woman, with little ceremony. Most 
 commonly, the mother, or some other near 
 female relation, of the youth or man who is 
 desirous of obtaining a wife, describes to him 
 the personal and other qualifications of the 
 young women with whom she is acquainted, 
 
 41 
 
322 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 and directs his choice; or he employs a 
 ‘ khat'beh,’ or ‘ khatibeh ’ ( khdtibah ). a 
 
 woman whose regular business it is to assist 
 men in such cases. Sometimes two or more 
 women of this profession are employed. A 
 khat’beh gives her report confidentially, de¬ 
 scribing one girl as being like a gazelle, 
 pretty and elegant and young; and another 
 as not pretty, but rich, and so forth. If the 
 man have a mother and other near female 
 relations, two or three of these usually go 
 with a khat’beh to pay visits to several 
 hareems, to which she has access in her pro¬ 
 fessional character of a match-maker; for she 
 is employed as much by the women as the 
 men. She sometimes, also, exercises the 
 trade of a 1 dellaleh ’ (or broker), for the 
 sale of ornaments, clothing, &c., which pro¬ 
 cures her admission into almost every 
 hareem. The women who accompany her in 
 search of a wife for their relation, are intro¬ 
 duced to the different hareems merely as 
 ordinary visitors; and as such, if disappointed, 
 they soon take their leave, though the object 
 of their visit is, of course, well understood by 
 the other party; but if they find among the 
 females of a family (and they are sure to see all 
 who are marriageable) a girl or young woman 
 having the necessary personal qualifications, 
 they state the motives of their visit, and ask, 
 if the proposed match be not at once dis¬ 
 approved of, what property, ornaments, &c., 
 the objects of their wishes may possess. If the 
 father of the intended bride be dead, she may 
 perhaps possess one or more houses, shops, &c.; 
 and in almost every case, a marriageable girl 
 of the middle or higher ranks has a set of 
 ornaments of gold and jewels. The women 
 visitors, having asked these and other ques¬ 
 tions, bring their report to the expectant 
 youth or man. If satisfied with their report, 
 he gives a present to the khat’beh, and sends 
 her again to the family of his intended wife, 
 to make known to them his wishes. She 
 generally gives an exaggerated description of 
 his personal attractions, wealth, &c. For 
 instance, she will say of a very ordinary 
 young man, of scarcely any property, and 
 of whose disposition she knows nothing. 
 ‘ My daughter, the youth who wishes to 
 marry you is young, graceful, elegant, beard¬ 
 less, has plenty of money, dresses hand¬ 
 somely, is fond of delicacies, but cannot enjoy 
 his luxuries alone; he wants you as his com¬ 
 panion; he will give you everything that 
 money can procure ; he is a stayer at home, 
 and will spend his whole time with you, 
 caressing and fondling you.’ 
 
 “ The parents may betroth their daughter 
 to whom they please, and marry her to him 
 without her consent, if she be not arrived at 
 the age of puberty ; but after she has attained 
 that age, she may choose a husband for 
 herself, and appoint any man to arrange and 
 effect her marriage. In the former ease, how¬ 
 ever, the khat'beh and the relations of a girl 
 sought in marriage usually endeavour to 
 obtain her consent to the proposed union. 
 Very often a father objects to giving a 
 daughter in marriage to a man who is not of 
 
 the same profession or trade as himself; and 
 to marrying a younger daughter before an 
 elder! The bridegroom can scarcely ever 
 obtain even a surreptitious glance at the fea¬ 
 tures of his bride, until he finds her in his 
 absolute possession, unless she belong to the 
 lower classes of society; in which case it is 
 easy enough for him to see her face. 
 
 “ When a female is about to marry, she 
 should have a ‘wekeel’ (wakil, or deputy), 
 to settle the compact and conclude the con¬ 
 tract, for her, with her proposed husband. 
 If she be under the age of puberty, this is 
 absolutely necessary; and in this case, her 
 father, if living, or (if he be dead) her nearest 
 adult male relation, or a guardian appointed 
 by will, or by the Kadee, performs the office 
 of wekeel; but if she be of age, she appoints 
 her own wekeel, or may even make the con¬ 
 tract herself; though this is seldom done. 
 
 “ After a youth or man has made choice of 
 a female to demand in marriage, on the report 
 of his female relations, or that of the khat’¬ 
 beh, and, by proxy, made the preliminary 
 arrangements before described with her and 
 her relations in the hareem, he repairs with 
 two or three of his friends to her wekeel. 
 Having obtained the welteel’s consent to the 
 union, if the intended bride be under age, he 
 asks what is the amount of the required 
 mahr (or dowry). 
 
 “ The giving of a dowry is indispensable. 
 The usual amount of the dowry, if the par¬ 
 ties be in possession of a moderately good in¬ 
 come, is about a thousand riyals (or twenty- 
 two pounds ten shillings) ; or, sometimes, not 
 more than half that sum. The wealthy cal¬ 
 culate the dowry in purses, of five hundred 
 piasters (about five pounds sterling) each; 
 and fix its amount at ten purses or more. 
 
 “ It must be borne in mind that we are con¬ 
 sidering the case of a virgin bride; the dowry 
 of a widow or divorced woman is much less. 
 In settling the amount of the dowry, as in 
 other pecuniary transactions, a little haggling 
 frequently takes place; if a thousand riyals 
 be demanded through the wekeel, the party 
 of the intended bridegroom will probably 
 make an offer of six hundred ; the former 
 party then gradually lowering the demand, 
 and the other increasing the offer, they at 
 length agree to fix it at eight hundred. It is 
 generally stipulated that two-thirds of the 
 dowry shall be paid immediately before the 
 marriage-contract is made ; and the remain¬ 
 ing third held in reserve, to be paid to the 
 wife in case of divorcing her against her own 
 consent, or in case of the husband’s death. 
 
 “ This affair being settled, and confirmed by 
 all persons present reciting the opening chapter 
 of the Kuran (the Fat’hah), an early day (per¬ 
 haps the day next following) is appointed for 
 paying the money, and performing the cere¬ 
 mony of the marriage-contract, which is pro¬ 
 perly called ‘ akd en-nikah ’ (‘aqdu ’n-rikaK). 
 The making this contract is commonly called 
 ‘ ketb el-kitab ’ (katbu ’l-kitab, or the writing 
 of the writ); but it is very seldom the case 
 that any document is written to confirm the 
 marriage, unless the bridegroom is about to 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 travel to another place, and fears that he 
 may have occasion to prove his marriage 
 where witnesses of the contract cannot be 
 procured. Sometimes the marriage-contract 
 is concluded immediately after the arrange¬ 
 ment respecting the dowry, but more generally 
 a day or two after. 
 
 “ On the day appointed for this ceremony, 
 the bridegroom, again accompanied by two or 
 three of his friends, goes to the house of his 
 bride, usually about noon, taking with him 
 that portion of the dowry which he has pro¬ 
 mised to pay on this occasion. He and his 
 companions are received by the bride’s 
 wekeel, and two or more friends of the latter 
 are usually present. It is necessary that 
 there he two witnesses (and those must be 
 Muslims) to the marriage-contract, unless in 
 a situation where witnesses cannot be pro¬ 
 cured. All persons present recite the Fat’- 
 hah; and the bridegroom then pays the 
 money. After this, the marriage-contract is 
 performed. It is very simple. The bride¬ 
 groom and the bride’s wekeel sit upon the 
 ground, face to face, with one knee upon the 
 ground, and grasp each other’s right hand, 
 raising the thumbs, and pressing them against 
 each other. A ‘ fekeeh ’ ( faqlh ) is generally 
 employed to instruct them what they are to 
 say. Having placed a handkerchief over their 
 joined hands, he usually prefaces the words of 
 the contract with a khutbeh (khutbaK). consist¬ 
 ing of a few words of exhortation and prayer, 
 with quotations from the Kuran and Traditions, 
 on the excellence and advantages of marriage. 
 He then desires the bride’s wekeel to say, ‘ I 
 betroth (or marry) to thee my daughter (or 
 the female who has appointed me her wekeel), 
 such a one (naming the bride), the virgin [or 
 the adult], for a dowry of such an amount.’ 
 (The words ‘ for a dowry,’ &c., are sometimes 
 omitted.) The bride’s wekeel having said 
 this, the bridegroom says, ‘ I accept from 
 thee her betrothal [or marriage] to myself, 
 and take her under my care, and myself to 
 afford her my protection; and ye who are 
 present bear witness of this.’ The wekeel 
 addresses the bridegroom in the same manner 
 a second and a third time; and each time, 
 the latter replies as before. Both then gene¬ 
 rally add, ‘ And blessing be on the Apostles : 
 and praise be to God, the Lord of the beings 
 of the whole world. Amen.’ After which all 
 present again repeat the Fat’hah. It is not 
 always the same form of khutbeh that is re¬ 
 cited on these occasions ; any form may be 
 used, and it may be repeated by any person; 
 it is not even necessary, and is often altogether 
 omitted. 
 
 “ The contract concluded, the bridegroom 
 sometimes (but seldom, unless he be a person 
 of the lower orders) kisses the hands of 
 his friends and others there present; and they 
 are presented with sharbat, and generally re¬ 
 main to dinner. Each of them receives an 
 embroidered handkerchief, provided by the 
 family of the bride ; except the fekeeh, who 
 receives a similar handkerchief, with a small 
 gold coin tied up in it, from the bridegroom. 
 Before the persons assembled on this occa- 
 
 323 
 
 sion disperse, they settle when the ‘ leylet 
 ed-dakhleh ’ is to be. This is the night when 
 the bride is brought to the house of the 
 bridegroom, and the latter, for the first time, 
 visits her. 
 
 “ The bridegroom should receive his bride 
 on the eve of Friday, or that of Monday ; but 
 the former is generally esteemed the more 
 fortunate period. Let us say, for instance, 
 that the bride is to be conducted to him on 
 the eve of Friday. 
 
 “ During two or three or more preceding 
 nights,the street or quarter in which the bride¬ 
 groom lives is illuminated with chandeliers and 
 lanterns, or with lanterns and small lamps, 
 some suspended from cords drawn across from 
 the bridegroom’s and several other houses on 
 each side to the houses opposite; and several 
 small silk flags, each of two colours, gene¬ 
 rally red and green, are attached to these or 
 other cords. 
 
 “ An entertainment is also given on each of 
 these nights, particularly on the last night 
 before that on which the wedding is concluded, 
 at the bridegroom’s house. On these occa¬ 
 sions, it is customary for the persons invited, 
 and for all intimate friends, to send presents 
 to his house, a day or two before the feast 
 which they purpose or expect to attend. 
 They generally send sugar, coffee, rice, wax 
 candles, or a lamb. The former articles are 
 usually placed upon a tray of copper or wood, 
 and covered with a silk or embroidered ker¬ 
 chief. The guests are entertained on these 
 occasions by musicians and male or female 
 singers, by dancing girls, or by the perform¬ 
 ance of a ‘ khatmeh ’ (khatmah ). or a ‘ zikr ’ 
 (;zikr ). 
 
 “ The customs which I am now about to 
 describe are observed by those classes that 
 compose the main bulk of the population of 
 Cairo. 
 
 “ On the preceding Wednesday (or on the 
 Saturday if the wedding be to conclude on 
 the eve of Monday), at about the hour of 
 noon, or a little later, the bride goes in state 
 to the bath. The procession to the bath is 
 called ‘ Zeffet el-Hammam.’ It is headed 
 by a party of musicians, with a hautboy or 
 two, and drums of different kinds. Some¬ 
 times at the head of the bride’s party, are 
 two men, who carry the utensils and linen 
 used in the bath, upon two round trays, each 
 of which is covered with an embroidered or 
 a plain silk kerchief; also a sakka ( saqqa) who 
 gives water to any of the passengers, if asked ; 
 and two other persons, one of whom bears a 
 ‘ kamkam,’ or bottle, of plain or gilt silver, 
 or of china, containing rose-water, or 
 orange-flower water, which he occasionally 
 sprinkles on the passengers; and the other, 
 a ‘ mibkharah ’ (or perfuming vessel) of 
 silver, with aloes-wood, or some other odori¬ 
 ferous substance, burning in it; but it is 
 seldom that the procession is thus attended. 
 In general, the first persons among the bride’s 
 party are several of her married female 
 relations and friends, walking in pairs ; and 
 next, a number of young virgins. The for¬ 
 mer are dressed in the usual manner, covered 
 
324 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 with the black silk habarah ; the latter have i 
 white silk habarahs, or shawls. Then follows 
 the bride, walking under a canopy of silk, of 
 some gay colour, as pink, rose-colour, or 
 yellow; or of two colours, composing wide | 
 
 stripes, often rose-colour and yellow. It is 
 carried by four men, by means of a pole at 
 each corner, and is open only in front; and at 
 the top of each of the four poles is attached 
 an embroidered handkerchief. 
 
 a bridal procession in cairo. {From Lane's “ Egyptians.'’) 
 
 “The dress of the bride, during this pro- | is placed a small pasteboard cap, or crown, 
 cession, entirely conceals her person. She is I The shawl is placed over this, and conceals 
 generally covered from head to foot with a 1 from the view of the public the richer articles 
 red kashmere shawl; or with a white or j of her dress, her face, and her jewels, &c., 
 yellow shawl, though rarely. Upon her head ! except one or two 1 kussahs ’ (and sometimes 
 
marriage 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 325 
 
 other ornaments), generally of diamonds and 
 emeralds, attached to that part of the shawl 
 which covers her forehead. 
 
 “ She is accompanied by two or three of l 
 her female relations within the canopy ; and 
 often, when in hot weather, a woman, walk¬ 
 ing backwards before her, is constantly em¬ 
 ployed in famiing her, with a large fan of 
 black ostrich-feathers, the lower part of the 
 front of which is usually ornamented with a 
 piece of looking-glass. Sometimes one zeffeh, 
 with a single canopy, serves for two brides, 
 who walk side by side. The procession 
 moves very slowly, and generally pursues a 
 circuitous route, for the sake of greater dis¬ 
 play. On leaving the house, it turns to the 
 right. It is closed by a second party of mu¬ 
 sicians, similar to the first, or by two or three 
 drummers. 
 
 “ In the bridal processions of the lower 
 orders, which are often conducted in the same 
 manner as that above described, the women 
 of the party frequently utter, at intervals, 
 those shrill cries of joy called ‘zagliareet’; 
 and females of the poorer classes, when 
 merely spectators of a zeffeh, often do the 
 same. The whole bath is sometimes hired for 
 the bride and her party exclusively. 
 
 “ They pass several hours, or seldom less 
 than two, occupied in washing, sporting, and 
 feasting; and frequently ‘ ’al’mehs,’ or 
 female singers, are hired to amuse them in 
 the bath ; they then return in the same order 
 in which they came. 
 
 “ The expense of the zeffeh falls on the rela¬ 
 tions of the bride, but the feast that follows 
 it is supplied by the bridegroom. 
 
 “ Having returned from the bath to the 
 house of her family, the bride and her com¬ 
 panions sup together. If ’al’melis have con¬ 
 tributed to the festivity in the bath, they, 
 also, return with the bride, to renew their 
 concert. Their songs are always on the sub¬ 
 ject of love, and of the joyous event which 
 occasions their presence. After the company 
 have been thus entertained, a large quantity 
 of henna having been prepared, mixed into a 
 paste, the bride takes a lump of it in her 
 hand, and receives contributions (called ‘ nu- 
 koot ’) from her guests ; each of them sticks 
 a coin (usually of gold) in the henna which 
 she holds upon her hand ; and when the lump 
 is closely stuck with these coins, she scrapes 
 it off her hand upon the edge of a basin of 
 water. Having collected in this manner from 
 all her guests, some more henna is applied to 
 her hands and feet, which are then bound 
 with pieces of linen; and in this state they 
 remain until the next morning, when they are 
 found to be sufficiently dyed with its deep 
 orange red tint. Her guests make use of the 
 remainder of the dye for their own hands 
 This night is called ‘ Leylet el-Henna,’ or, 
 
 ‘ the Night of the Henna.’ 
 
 “It is on this night, and sometimes also 
 during the latter half of the preceding day, 
 that the bridegroom gives his chief entertain¬ 
 ment. 
 
 “ 1 Mohabhazeen ’ (or low farce-players) 
 often perform on this occasion before the 
 
 house, or, if it be large enough, in the court. 
 The other and more common performances by 
 which the guests are amused, have been before 
 mentioned. 
 
 “ On the following day, the bride goes in 
 procession to the house of the bridegroom. 
 The procession before described is called ‘ the 
 zeffeh of the bath,’ to distinguish it from 
 this, which is the more important, and which 
 is therefore particularly called ‘ Zeffet el- 
 ’Arooseh,’ or ‘ the Zeffeh of the Bride.’ In 
 some cases, to diminish the expenses of the 
 marriage ceremonies, the bride is conducted 
 privately to the bath, and only honoured 
 with a zeffeh to the bridegroom’s house. This 
 procession is exactly similar to the former. 
 The bride and her party, after breakfasting 
 together, generally set out a little after midday. 
 
 “ They proceed in the same order, and at 
 the same slow pace, as in the zeffeh of the 
 bath; and, if the house of the bridegroom is 
 near, they follow a circuitous route, through 
 several principal streets, for the sake of dis¬ 
 play. The ceremony usually occupies three 
 or more hours. 
 
 “ Sometimes, before bridal processions of 
 this kind, two swordsmen, clad in nothing 
 but their drawers, engage each other in a 
 mock combat; or two peasants cudgel each 
 other with nebboots or long staves. In the 
 procession of a bride of a wealthy family, any 
 person who has the art of performing some 
 extraordinary feat to amuse the spectators is 
 almost sure of being a welcome assistant, and 
 of receiving a handsome present. When the 
 Seyyid Omar, the Nakeel el-Ashraf (or chief 
 of the descendants of the Prophet), who was 
 the main instrument of advancing Mohammad 
 ’Alee to the dignity of Basha of Egypt, mar¬ 
 ried a daughter, about forty-five years since, 
 there walked before the procession a young 
 man who had made an incision in his abdo¬ 
 men, and drawn out a large portion of his 
 intestines, which he carried before him on a 
 silver tray. After the procession he restored 
 them to their proper place, and remained in 
 bed many days before he recovered from the 
 effects of this foolish and disgusting act. 
 Another man, on the same occasion, ran a 
 sword through his arm, before the crowding 
 spectators, and then bound over the wound, 
 without withdrawing the sword, several hand¬ 
 kerchiefs, which were soaked with the blood. 
 These facts were described to me by an eye¬ 
 witness. A spectacle of a more singular and 
 more disgusting nature used to be not un¬ 
 common on similar occasions, but is now 
 very seldom witnessed. Sometimes, also, 
 ‘ hawees ’ (or conjurors and sleight-of-hand 
 performers) exhibit a variety of tricks on these 
 occasions. But the most common of all the 
 performances here mentioned are the mock 
 fights. Similar exhibitions are also sometimes 
 witnessed on the occasion of a circumcision 
 Grand zeffehs are sometimes accompanied by 
 a numbers of cars, each bearing a group of 
 persons of some manufacture or trade, per¬ 
 forming the usual work of their craft; even 
 such as builders, whitewashes, &c., including 
 members of all, or almost all, the arts and 
 
326 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 MARRIAGE 
 
 manufactures practised in the metropolis. In 
 one car there are generally some men making 
 coffee, which they occasionally present to 
 spectators; in another, instrumental musi¬ 
 cians, and in another, ’al’mehs (or female 
 singers). 
 
 “ The bride, in zeffehs of this kind, is some¬ 
 times conveyed in a close European carriage, 
 but more frequently, she and her female rela¬ 
 tions and friends are mounted on high-saddled 
 asses, and, with musicians and female singers, 
 before and behind them, close the proces¬ 
 sion. 
 
 “ The bride and her party, having arrived at 
 the bridegroom’s house, sit down to a repast. 
 Her friends shortly after take their departure, 
 leaving with her only her mother and sister, 
 or other near female relations, and one or two 
 other women; usually the bellaneh. The 
 ensuing night is called ‘ Leylet ed-Dakhleh,’ 
 or ‘ the Night of the Entrance.’ 
 
 “ The bridegroom sits below. Before sunset 
 he goes to the bath, and there changes his 
 clothes, or he merely does the latter at home ; 
 and, after having supped with a party of his 
 friends, waits till a little before the night 
 prayer, or until the third or fourth hour of 
 the night, when, according to general custom, 
 he should repair to some celebrated mosque, 
 and there say his prayers. If young, he is 
 generally honoured with a zeffeh on this occa¬ 
 sion. In this case he goes to the mosque 
 preceded by musicians with drums and a 
 hautboy or two, and accompanied by a num¬ 
 ber of friends, and by several men bearing 
 • mashals ’ ( mash‘als ). The mashals are a kind 
 of cresset, that is, a staff with a cylindrical 
 frame of iron at the top, filled with flaming 
 wood, or having two, three, four, or five of these 
 receptacles for fire. The party usually pro¬ 
 ceeds to the mosque with a quick pace, and 
 without much order. A second group of 
 musicians, with the same instruments, or with 
 drums only, closes the procession. 
 
 “ The bridegroom is generally dressed in a 
 kuftan with red stripes, and a red gibbeh, 
 with a kashmere shawl of the same colour for 
 his turban, and walks between two friends 
 similarly dressed. The prayers are commonly 
 performed merely as a matter of ceremony, 
 and it is frequently the case that the bride¬ 
 groom does not pray at all, or prays without 
 having previously performed the wudoo, like 
 memlooks, who say their prayers only because 
 they fear their master. The procession re¬ 
 turns from the mosque with more order and 
 display, and very slowly ; perhaps because it 
 would be considered unbecoming in the bride¬ 
 groom to hasten home to take possession of 
 his bride. It is headed, as before, by musi¬ 
 cians, and two or more bearers of mashals. 
 These are generally followed by two men, 
 bearing, by means of a pole resting horizon¬ 
 tally upon their shoulders, a hanging frame, 
 to which are attached about sixty or more 
 small lamps, in four circles, one above another, 
 the uppermost of which circles is made to 
 revolve, being turned round occasionally by 
 one of the two bearers. These numerous 
 lamps, and several mashals besides those 
 
 before mentioned, brilliantly illumine the 
 streets through which the procession passes, 
 and produce a remarkably picturesque effect. 
 The bridegroom and his friends and other 
 attendants follow, advancing in the form of 
 an oblong ring, all facing the interior of the 
 ring, and each bearing in his hand one or 
 more wax candles, and sometimes a sprig of 
 henna or some other flower, except the bride¬ 
 groom and the friend on either side of him. 
 These three form the latter part of the ring, 
 which generally consists of twenty or more 
 persons. 
 
 “ At frequent intervals, the party stops for 
 a few minutes, and during each of the pauses, 
 a boy or a man, one of the persons who com¬ 
 pose the ring, sings a few words of an epitha- 
 lamium. The sounds of the drums, and the 
 shrill notes of the hautboy (which the bride 
 hears half an hour or more before the proces¬ 
 sion arrives at the house), cease during these 
 songs. The train is closed, as in the former 
 case (when on the way to the mosque) by a 
 second group of musicians. 
 
 “ In the manner above described, the bride¬ 
 groom’s zeffeh is most commonly conducted; 
 but there is another mode that is more re¬ 
 spectable, called ‘ zeffeh sadatee,’ which sig¬ 
 nifies the ‘ gentlemen’s zeffeh.’ In this, the 
 bridegroom is accompanied by his friends in 
 the manner described above, and attended 
 and preceded by men bearing mashals, but 
 not by musicians; in the place of these are 
 about six or eight men, who, from their being 
 employed as singers on occasions of this kind, 
 are called ‘ wilad el-layalee,’ or 1 sons of the 
 nights.’ Thus attended, he goes to the 
 mosque; and while he returns slowly thence 
 to his house, the singers above mentioned 
 chant, or rather sing, ‘ muweshshahs ’ (lyric 
 odes) in praise of the Prophet. Having re¬ 
 turned to the house, these same persons chant 
 portions of the Kuran, one after another, for 
 the amusement of the guests ; then, all to¬ 
 gether, recite the opening chapter (the 
 Fat’hah) ; after which, one of them sings a 
 ‘ kaseedeh ’ (or short poem), in praise of the 
 Prophet: lastly, all of them again sing mu¬ 
 weshshahs. After having thus performed, 
 they receive 1 nukoot ’ (or contributions of 
 money) from the bridegroom and his friends. 
 
 “ Soon after his return from the mosque, 
 the bridegroom leaves his friends in a lower 
 apartment, enjoying their pipes and coffee 
 and sharbat. The bride’s mother and sister, 
 or whatever other female relations were left 
 with her, are above, and the bride herself and 
 the bellaneh, in a separate apartment. If 
 the bridegroom is a youth or young man, it 
 is considered proper that he as well as the 
 bride should exhibit some degree of bashful¬ 
 ness ; one of his friends, therefore, carries 
 him a part of the way up to the hareem. 
 Sometimes, when the parties are persons of 
 wealth, the bride is displayed before the 
 bridegroom in different dresses, to the num¬ 
 ber of seven ; but generally he finds her with 
 the bellaneh alone, and on entering the apart¬ 
 ment he gives a present to this attendant, 
 and she at once retires. 
 
MARRIAGE 
 
 MARTYR 
 
 327 
 
 “ The bride has a shawl thrown over her 
 head, and the bridegroom must give her a 
 present of money, which is called ‘ the price 
 of the uncovering ’ of the face, before he at¬ 
 tempts to remove this, which she does not 
 allow him to do without some apparent re¬ 
 luctance, if not violent resistance, in order to 
 show her maiden modesty. On removing 
 the covering, he says, ‘ In the name of God, 
 the Compassionate, the Merciful,’ and then 
 greets her with this compliment: ‘ The night 
 
 be blessed,’ or ‘- is blessed,’ to which 
 
 she replies, if timidity do not choke her 
 utterance, ‘ God bless thee.’ The bride¬ 
 groom now, in most cases, sees the face of 
 his bride for the first time, and generally 
 finds her nearly what he has been led to ex¬ 
 pect. Often, but not always, a curious cere¬ 
 mony is then performed. 
 
 “ The bridegroom takes off every article of 
 the bride’s clothing except her shirt, seats 
 her upon a mattress or bed, the head of which 
 is turned towards the direction of Makkah, 
 placing her so that her back is also turned in 
 that direction, and draws forward and spreads 
 upon the bed, the lower part of the front of 
 her shirt; having done this, he stands at the 
 distance of rather less than three feet before 
 her, and performs the prayers of two rak’ahs ; 
 laying his head and hands in prostration upon 
 the part of her shirt that is extended before 
 her lap. He remains with her birt a few 
 minutes longer. Having satisfied his curiosity 
 respecting her personal charms, he calls to 
 the women (who generally collect at the door, 
 where they wait in anxious suspense) to 
 raise their cries of joy, or zaghareet, and the 
 shrill sounds make known to the persons below 
 and in the neighbourhood, and often, responded 
 to by other women, spread still further the 
 news that he has acknowledged himself satis¬ 
 fied with his bride. He soon after descends to 
 rejoin his friends, and remains with them an 
 hour, before he returns to his wife. It very 
 seldom happens that the husband, if disap¬ 
 pointed in his bride, immediately disgraces 
 and divorces her ; in general, he retains her 
 in this case a week or more. 
 
 “ Marriages, among the Egyptians, are some¬ 
 times conducted without any pomp or cere¬ 
 mony, even in the case of virgins, by mutual 
 consent of the bridegroom and the bride’s 
 family, or the bride herself ; and widows and 
 divorced women are never honoured with a 
 zeffeh on marrying again. The mere sentence, 
 1 1 give myself up to thee,’ uttered by a 
 female to a man who proposes to become her 
 husband (even without the presence of wit¬ 
 nesses, if none can easily be procured), ren¬ 
 ders her his legal wife, if arrived at puberty; 
 and marriages with widows and divorced 
 women, among the Muslims of Egypt, and 
 other Arabs, are sometimes concluded in this 
 simple manner. The dowry of widows and 
 divorced women is generally one quarter or 
 third or half the amount of that of a 
 virgin. 
 
 “ In Cairo, among persons not of the lowest 
 order, though in very humble life, the mar¬ 
 riage ceremonies are conducted in the same 
 
 manner as among the middle orders. But 
 when the expenses of such zeffehs as I have 
 described cannot by any means be paid, the 
 bride is paraded in a very simple manner, 
 covered with a shawl (generally red), and 
 surrounded by a group of her female relations 
 and friends, dressed in their best, or in bor¬ 
 rowed clothes, and enlivened by no other 
 sounds of joy than their zaghareet, which 
 they repeat at frequent intervals.” (Lane’s 
 Modern .Egyptians.') 
 
 (For the law of marriage in Hanafi law, 
 see Fatdwa-i-‘Alamgiri, p. 377; Fatawa-i- 
 Qdzi Khan, p. 380; Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 vol. i. p. 89 ; Durru ’ 1-Mukhtar . p. 196. In 
 Shhah law, Jami‘u ’sh-Shattat ; Shara’vu 7- 
 Is/ain, p. 260. For marriage ceremonies, 
 Lane’s Egyptians ; Herlclott’s Musalmans ; 
 Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali’s Musalmans ; M. C. de 
 Perceval, Hist, des Arahes.) 
 
 MARSIYAH (<LJy»). A funeral 
 
 elegy. Especially applied to those sung 
 during the Muharram in commemoration of 
 al-Hasan and al-Husain. 
 
 MARTYR. The Arabic word for 
 
 “martyr” in the Qur'an, and in Muslim theo¬ 
 logy, is shahid pi. shuhud, or shahid 
 
 7 Jug&), pi. shuhada’, the literal meaning of 
 which is “ present as a witness.” It implies 
 all that is understood by the Greek ^.ap-rus, 
 and the English martyr ; but it is also a much 
 more comprehensive term, for, according to 
 Muhammadan law, not only those who die in 
 witness of, or in defence of the faith, are 
 martyrs, but all those who die such deaths as 
 are calculated to excite the compassion and 
 pity of their fellow men. 
 
 The word occurs in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 
 71: “Whoso obeys God and the Apostle, 
 these are with those with whom God has 
 been well pleased—with prophets ( nabiyin ), 
 and confessors ( [siddiqin ), and martyrs ( shu- 
 hcida.'), and the righteous ( salihin ): a fair 
 company are they.” 
 
 A perfect martyr, or ash-shahidu ’l-kamil, is 
 one who has either been slain in a religious 
 war, or who has been killed unjustly. But 
 the schools of divinity are not agreed as to 
 whether it is necessary, or not, that such per¬ 
 sons should be in a state of ceremonial purity 
 at the time of their death, to entitle them to 
 such a high rank. 
 
 A special blessing is promised to those who 
 die in a jihad, or religious war, see Qur’an, 
 Surah iii. 163: “Count not those who are 
 killed in the way of God as dead, but living 
 with their Lord.” And according to Muslim 
 law, all persons who have died in defence 
 of the faith, or have been slain unjustly, are 
 entitled to Muslim burial without the usual 
 ablution or any change of clothes, such as are 
 necessary in the case of ordinary persons, 
 the rank of martyrdom being such as to 
 render the corpse legally pure. 
 
 But in addition to these two classes of per¬ 
 sons, namely those who are slain in religious 
 war, and those who have been killed unjustly, 
 the rank of shahid is given, in a figurative 
 
328 
 
 MARUT 
 
 sense, to any who die in such a manner as to 
 excite the sympathy and pity of mankind, 
 such as by sudden death, or from some malig¬ 
 nant disease, or in childbirth, or in the 
 acquirement of knowledge, or a stranger in 
 a foreign country, or dying on Thursday 
 night. These persons are entitled to the rank 
 of martyr, but not to the honour of being 
 buried without legal washing and purification. 
 
 (See JRaddu '/-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 952; Kash- 
 shaf Istildhatu 'l-Funun, vol. i. p. 747; 
 Ghii/asu ’ l-Lucjhah , in loco.) 
 
 MAEUT (uyjyU). [harut.] 
 MARWAH (y»). A lull near 
 
 Makkah, connected with the rites of the pil¬ 
 grimage. According to Burton, it means 
 “ hard, white flints, full of fire.” [hajj.] 
 
 MARYAM fay), [mary.] 
 
 MARY THE VIRGIN. Arabic 
 
 Maryam (yy). Heb. The 
 
 mother of Jesus. According to Muhamma¬ 
 dan tradition, and the Qur’an, she was the 
 daughter of ‘Imran and his wife Hannah, and 
 the sister of Aaron. 
 
 The account of her birth as given in the 
 Qur’an is in Surah iii. 31:— 
 
 “ Bemember when the wife of Imran said, 
 
 ‘ O my Lord! I vow to Thee what is in my 
 womb, for thy special service. Accept it 
 from me, for Thou Hearest, Knowest! ’ And 
 when she had given birth to it, she said, 1 0 
 my Lord! Verily I have brought forth a 
 female,’—God knew what she had brought 
 forth: a male is not as a female—‘ and I have 
 named her Mary, and I take refuge with Thee 
 for her and for her offspring, from Satan the 
 stoned.’ So with goodly acceptance did her 
 Lord accept her, and with goodly growth did 
 he make her grow. Zacharias reared her. 
 So oft as Zacharias went in to Mary at the 
 sanctuary, he found her supplied with food. 
 
 ‘ Oh Mary !’ said he, ‘ whence hast thou this ? ’ 
 She said, ‘ It is from God ; for God supplieth 
 whom He will, without reckoning ! ’ ” 
 
 In Surah xix. 28, is the story of her giving 
 birth to Jesus, [jesus Christ.] And when 
 she brought the child to the people, they ex¬ 
 claimed, “ 0 sister of Aaron ! Thy father was 
 not a bad man, nor was thy mother a harlot.” 
 
 Christian critics have assumed, and not 
 without much reason, that Muhammad has 
 confused the Mary of the New Testament 
 with the Miriam of the Old, by representing 
 her as the daughter of ‘Imran and the sister 
 of Aaron. It is certainly a cause of some 
 perplexity to the commentators. Al-Baizawl 
 says she was called “ sister of Aaron” because 
 she was of the Levitical race; but Husain 
 says that the Aaron mentioned in the verse is 
 not the same person as the brother of Moses. 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said that 
 “ no child is born bui; the devil hath touched 
 it, except Mary and her son Jesus.” 
 
 MARY THE COPT. Arabic 
 Mariyatu ’I-Qibtjyah AjjU). A 
 
 concubine of Muhammad’s, and the mother | 
 
 AL-MASIHU ’D-DAJJAL 
 
 of his son Ibrahim, who died in infancy. She 
 was a Christian slave girl presented to Mu¬ 
 hammad by the Eoman governor of Egypt. 
 
 [MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 MASAH The act of touch¬ 
 
 ing the boots or the turban for purification, by 
 drawing the three central fingers over the 
 boot or turban at once, whereby they become 
 ceremonially clean. (MishJcat, book ii. ch. 
 vii.; book iii. ch. x.) 
 
 al-MASANI From 
 
 Masna , “ two-and-two.” A title given to the 
 Qur’an on account of its numerous repetitions. 
 
 al-MASIH (j-a~.AU. An evident 
 
 corruption of the Heb. which answers 
 
 — * T 
 
 to the Xpwrros of the New Testament, and 
 our English Christ. It occurs seven times in 
 the Qur’an as the surname of Jesus. Al- 
 Baizawl the commentator says, “ It is origi¬ 
 nally a Hebrew word, signifying ‘the blessed 
 one,’ although some have (erroneously, as he 
 thinks) held it to come from Masah, ‘ to 
 anoint,’ either because Jesus healed people 
 with his touch, or because he had been 
 anointed by Gabriel as a prophet.” [jesus.] 
 
 al-masiiiu ’d-dajjal 
 
 JWaII). “The lying Christ.” The Anti¬ 
 christ which Muhammad said would appear 
 before the Day of Resurrection. He is generally 
 called ad-Dajjal, but in the Traditions he is 
 called al-Masihu'd-Dajjdl, and verymany have 
 been the speculations as to why he is called 
 al-Masih. The compiler of the Qamus says 
 there have been at least fifty reasons assigned 
 for his being called al-Masih. Some say it 
 is because he will have his eyes touched 
 (masah) and be rendered blind; others, that 
 the word was originally masikh, a “monster.” 
 (See Hujaju 'l-Kalimah, p. 401.) Sale, in 
 the preface to his translation of the Qur’an, 
 says Muslim writers state that the Jews will 
 give him the name of al-Masih, because they 
 will mistake him for the true Messiah, who has 
 come to restore the kingdom of Israel to them. 
 
 Regarding this personage, Abu Hurairah 
 relates that Muhammad said :— 
 
 “ The Resurrection will not be until the 
 Grecians shall attack ‘Amaq and Dabiq. 
 Then an army will come out from al-Madlnah 
 against them, the best of men on that day; 
 and when the lines of battle shall be drawn 
 up, the Grecians will say, ‘ Vacate a place 
 between us and those who made captives a 
 tribe of ours ’ (and their design will be to 
 separate the Musalmans). And the Mu¬ 
 salmans will say, ‘ By God ! we will not clear 
 a place between you and our brother Musal¬ 
 mans.’ And the Musalmans will fight the 
 Grecians and a third of the Musalmans will 
 be defeated; and God will not accept their 
 repentance. And a third of the Musalmans 
 will be slain, and they, will be the best of 
 martyrs before God. And a third of them 
 will conquer the countries of Greece ; after 
 which they will be thrown into commotions, 
 and Constantinople will be taken. And whilst 
 the Musalmans shall be dividing the plunder, 
 
MASJID 
 
 MASJID 
 
 having hung up their swords upon the olive tree, 
 all on a sudden the Devil will call out, ‘ Verily, 
 Dajjiil has attacked your wives and children 
 in your absence.’ Then, on hearing this, the 
 Musalmans will come out of the city; and this 
 information of devils will bo false, but when 
 they enter Syria, Dajjal will come out, and 
 whilst the Musalmans shall be preparing 
 their implements of war, and dressing their 
 ranks, all on a sudden prayers will begin, and 
 Jesus Son of Mary will come down, and act 
 as Imam to them. And when Dajjal, this 
 enemy of God, shall see Jesus, he will fear 
 to be near, dissolving away like salt in water. 
 And if Jesus lets him alone, verily he will 
 melt and perish, and God will kill him by 
 the hand of Jesus, who) will show to the 
 people the blood of Dajjal upon his lance.” 
 (Mishkat, book sxiii. ch. ii.) 
 
 In other traditions, Muhammad is related to 
 have said that ad-Dajjal will be a young man 
 with long hair and blind in the one eye, and 
 on his forehead will be the three letters 
 K P R, signifying kafir or infidel. He will 
 first appear midway between Syria and ‘Iraq, 
 and will do many wonders and perform many 
 miracles, and will eventually be slain by Jesus. 
 
 MASJID (a*—). Lit. “The 
 
 place of prostration.” The mosque, or place 
 of public prayer. Mosques are generally 
 built of stone or brick, in the form of a square, 
 in the centre of which is an open court-yard, 
 surrounded with cloisters for students. In 
 the centre of the wall facing Makkah is the 
 miftrab or niche, which marks the direction of 
 the Ka‘bah at Makkah, and to the right of 
 this niche is the mimbar or pulpit, from which 
 the khutbah. or Friday oration, is recited In 
 the centre of the open court-yard there is 
 usually a large tank, in which the worshippers 
 perform their ablutions ( wazu’), and adjoining 
 the mosque are latrines, in which the legal 
 washings ( ghusl ) can be performed. Along 
 the front within the doorway is a low barrier, 
 a few inches high, which denotes the sacred 
 part of the mosque. 
 
 The mosques in India and Central Asia are 
 generally constructed on the following plan :— 
 
 Mihrab. 
 
 
 
 SJ 
 
 Mimbar. 
 
 1 
 
 — o 
 
 o 
 
 o o 
 
 o 
 
 o - 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 Cloister 
 
 o c 
 
 
 Tank. 
 
 
 o | 
 
 © 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 A low harrier. 
 
 
 
 La - 9 
 
 trine. 
 
 Q Well. 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 9 La- 
 
 I trine. 
 
 329 
 
 The mosques in Turkey, Syria, and Egypt 
 are often covered buildings, not unlike Chris¬ 
 tian churches. 
 
 The first mosque erected by Muhammad 
 was at Qubii’, near al-Madlnah. It was with¬ 
 out cupola, niche, or minaret, these being 
 added by al-Walid about eighty years after¬ 
 wards, nor were there arches supported by 
 pillars, nor cloisters. An ordinary mosque in 
 an Afghan village is still of this description. 
 
 The Muslim as he enters the mosque stops 
 at the barrier and takes off his shoes, carries 
 them in his left hand, sole to sole, and puts 
 his right foot first as he passes into the 
 square devoted to prayer. If he have not 
 previously performed the ablution, ho repairs 
 
 INTERIOR OF A MOSQUE IN CAIRO. 
 
 (Acute.) 
 
 at once to the tank or well to perform the 
 necessary duty, and before he commences his 
 prayers he places his shoes and his sword 
 and pistol, if he be thus armed, a little before 
 the spot where his head will touch the ground 
 as he prostrates ; his shoes must be put one 
 upon the other, sole to sole. 
 
 The chief officer of a mosque is the Imam, 
 or leader of prayers, but there are generally 
 Maulawfs, or learned men, attached to 
 mosques for the instruction of the students. 
 Sometimes the Imam and Mauls wi are com¬ 
 bined in one, and sometimes a learned Maul- 
 awl will possess the mosque, but pay an 
 Imam as his curate to say the stated prayers. 
 There is also a Mu’azzin, or “ caller to 
 
 42 
 
MASJID 
 
 330 
 
 MASJID 
 
 prayer,” whose duty it is to give the Azan. 
 The trustee or superintendent of a mosque is 
 called mutawalli. 
 
 Although mosques are esteemed sacred build¬ 
 ings, they are also places of general resort, and 
 persons may be seen in them lounging and 
 chattering together on secular topics, and 
 eating and sleeping, although such things 
 were forbidden by Muhammad. They are, in 
 all parts of Islam, used as rest-houses for 
 strangers and travellers. 
 
 The Imam, or priest, of the mosque, is sup¬ 
 ported by endowments, or offerings, the 
 Maulawls, or professors of divinity by fees, 
 or offerings, and the students of a mosque 
 are sujoported either by endowments, or the 
 benefactions of the people. In towns and vil¬ 
 lages there is a parish allotted to each 
 mosque, and the people within the section of 
 the parish claim the services of the Imam at 
 their marriages and funerals, and they pay 
 
 to him the usual offerings made on the two 
 festivals. 
 
 In a large mosque, known as the Masjidu 
 ’ l-Jami where the khutbah, or Friday ora¬ 
 tion is delivered, a person known as the 
 khatib (also khatib'), or preacher, is appointed, 
 whose duty it is to lead the Friday prayer and 
 to preach the sermon. 
 
 Muhammad did not forbid women to attend 
 public prayers in a mosque, but it is pro¬ 
 nounced better for them to pray in private. 
 
 The following injunctions are given in the 
 Qur’an regarding mosques :— 
 
 Surah vii. 29: “0 children of Adam ! wear 
 your goodly apparel when ye repair to any 
 mosque.” 
 
 Surah ix. 18 : “ He only should visit tho 
 Masjids of God who believeth in God and 
 the last day, and observeth prayer, and 
 payeth the legal alms, and dreadeth none but 
 God.” 
 
 THE JAMA 1 MASJID AT DELHI. (A . F. Hole.) 
 
 Muhammad’s injunctions regarding mosques, 
 as handed down in the Traditions, are as 
 follows :— 
 
 “When you enter a Masjid, you must say, 
 ‘ 0 Creator! open on us the doors of Thy 
 compassion ’; and when you leave the Mas¬ 
 jid, say, ‘ O Lord I we supplicate thy muni¬ 
 ficence.’ ” 
 
 “ It is a sin to spit in a Masjid, and the 
 removal of the sin is to cover it over.” 
 
 “Whoever shall enter a Masjid, let him 
 enter it for a good object, namely, to learn 
 something himself or to teach others. For he 
 ranks as an equal with him who fights in 
 the cause of God, who thus enters a Masjid; 
 but he who enters a Masjid on any other 
 account, is like unto a man who covets the 
 property of another. Verily, a time will 
 
 come when men will attend to worldly matters 
 in a Masjid. But sit ye not with such.” 
 
 “ Do not prevent your women from coming 
 to the Masjids, but their homes are better 
 for them.” 
 
 “ Do not read poetry in a Masjid, and do 
 not buy and sell there, nor sit in a circle 
 talking before prayers on a Friday.” 
 
 “ The prayers of a man in his own house 
 are equal to the reward of one prayer, but 
 prayers in a Masjid near his home are equal 
 to twenty-five prayers, and in a Jdmi‘ (or cen¬ 
 tral mosque), they are equal to" five hundred 
 prayers,and in Jerusalem to fifty thousand,and 
 in my Masjid (at al-Madlnah) fifty thousand, 
 and at the Ka‘bah, one hundred thousand.” 
 
 The Muslim law regarding the erection and 
 endowment (waq f ') of Masjids, as contained in 
 
MASJID 
 
 MASJID 331 
 
 Sunni and Shi‘ah works, is as follows. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Sunnis :— 
 
 When a person has erected a Masjid, his 
 right therein does not cease until he has 
 separated both the area occupied by the 
 Masjid and also the road and entrance there¬ 
 unto from his own private property. 
 
 If a person build a Masjid, his right of •- 
 property in it does not cease so long as he 
 does not separate it from his private pro¬ 
 perty, and give general permission to the 
 people to come and worship in it. But as 
 soon as he separates it from his property and 
 allows even a single person to say his prayers 
 in it, his right to the property devoted to 
 God as a mosque ceases. 
 
 When a trustee or superintendent ( muta - 
 ivalli') has been appointed for a Masjid, and 
 delivery of the property has been made to 
 him, the Masjid ceases to be private pro¬ 
 
 perty. So, also, when delivery of it is made 
 to the Qazi, or his deputy. 
 
 If a person appropriate ground for the pur¬ 
 pose of erecting a Masjid, he cannot after¬ 
 wards resume or sell it, neither can it be 
 claimed by his heirs and inherited, because this 
 ground is altogether alienated from the right of 
 the individual, and appertains solely to God. 
 
 When a man has an unoccupied space of 
 ground fit for building upon, and has directed 
 a body of persons to assemble on it for 
 prayers, the space becomes a Masjid, if the 
 permission were given expressly to pray on 
 it for ever; or, in absolute terms, intending 
 that it should be for ever ; and the property 
 does not go to his heirs at his death. But if 
 the permission were given for a day, or a 
 month, or a year, the space would not become 
 a Masjid, and on his death it would be the 
 property of his heirs. 
 
 A MOSQUE IN AFGHANISTAN. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 If a man during his sickness has made his 
 own house a Masjid, and died, and it neither 
 falls within a third of his property nor is 
 allowed by his heirs, the whole of it is heri¬ 
 tage, and the act of making it a Masjid is 
 void, because, the heirs having a right in it, 
 there has been no separation from the rights 
 of mankind, and an undefined portion has 
 been made a Masjid, which is void. In the 
 same way as if he should make his land a 
 Masjid, and another person should establish 
 an undefined right, in which case the remainder 
 would revert to the property of the appro- 
 priator; contrary to the case of a person 
 making a bequest that a third of his residence 
 shall be made a Masjid, which would be 
 valid; for in such a case there is a separa¬ 
 tion, as the house maybe divided and a third 
 
 of it converted into a Masjid. (A third of a 
 man’s property being the extent to which he 
 can bequeath to other than his heirs.) 
 
 When a man has made his land a Masjid, and 
 stipulated for something out of it for himself, 
 it is not valid, according to all the jurists. 
 
 It is also generally agreed that if a man 
 make a Masjid on condition that he shall 
 have an option, the waqf is lawful and the 
 condition is void. 
 
 When a man has built a Masjid and called 
 persons to witness that he shall have the 
 power to cancel and sell it, the condition is 
 void, and the Masjid is as if he had erected 
 a Masjid for the people of the street, saying, 
 “ It is for this street especially,’’ when it 
 would, notwithstanding, be for others as well 
 as for them to worship in. 
 
MASJID 
 
 MASJID 
 
 332 
 
 When a Masjid has fallen into decay and is 
 no longer used for prayers, nor required 
 by the people, it does not revert to the ap¬ 
 propriator or his heirs, and cannot ho sold 
 according to the most correct opinions. 
 
 When of two Masjids one is old and gone 
 
 to decay, the people cannot use its materials 
 to repair the more recent one, according to 
 either the Imam Muhammad or Imam Abu 
 Yusuf. Because though the former thought 
 that the materials may be so applied, he held 
 that it is the original appropriator or his 
 
 INTERIOR OF A MOSQUE AT CAIRO. (Dr. EberS .) 
 
 heirs, to whom the property reverts, that 
 can so apply them, and because Abu Yusuf 
 was of opinion that the property in a Masjid 
 never reverts to the original appropriator, 
 though it should fall to ruin and bo no longer 
 used by the people. 
 
 If a man appropriate his land for the 
 benefit of a Masjid, and to provide for its 
 repairs and necessaries, such as oil, &c., and 
 when nothing more is required for the Mas¬ 
 jid, to apply what remains to poor Muslims 
 the appropriation is lawful. 
 
AL-MASJIDU ’L-AQSA 
 
 If a man has appropriated his land for the 
 benefit of a Masjid, -without any ultimate des¬ 
 tination for the poor, the appropriation is 
 lawful, according to all opinions. 
 
 If a man gives money for the repairs of a 
 Masjid, also for its maintenance and for its 
 benefit, it is valid. For if it cannot operate 
 as a waqf, it operates as a transfer by way of 
 gift to the Masjid, and the establishing of 
 property in this manner to a Masjid is valid, 
 being completed by taking possession. 
 
 If a person should say, “ I have bequeathed 
 a third of my property to the Masjid,” it 
 would not be lawful, unless he say “ to ex¬ 
 pend on the Masjid.” So if he were to say, 
 “ I have bequeathed a third of my property to 
 the lamps of the Masjid,” it would not be 
 lawful unless he say, “ to give light with it in 
 the Masjid.” If he say, “ I have given my 
 house for a Masjid,” it is valid as a transfer, 
 requiring delivery. (Fatdwd-i-‘Alamglrl, vol. 
 ii. p. 545; Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 356; Baillie’s 
 Digest, pp. 504-605.) 
 
 The Shi‘ah law regarding the endowment 
 of Masjids, or land for the benefit of Mas- 
 jids, does not differ in any inrportant parti¬ 
 cular from that of the Sunnis. But there is 
 a provision in the Shi‘ah law regarding the 
 sale of an endowment which is important. 
 
 If dissensions arise among the persons in 
 whose favour the waqf is made, and there is 
 apprehension of the property being destroyed, 
 while on the other hand the sale thereof is 
 productive of benefit, then, in that case, its 
 sale is lawful. 
 
 If a house belonging to a waqf should fall 
 into ruins, the space would not cease to be 
 waqf, nor would its sale be law'ful. If, how¬ 
 ever, dissensions should arise among the 
 persons for whom it was appropriated, inso¬ 
 much as to give room for apprehension that 
 it will be destroyed, its sale would be 
 lawful. 
 
 And even if there should he no such dif¬ 
 ference, nor any room for such apprehensions, 
 but the sale would be more for the advantage 
 of the parties interested, some are of opinion 
 that the sale would be lawful; but the ap¬ 
 proved doctrine is to forbid it. (Mafatih ; 
 Shara’i‘u 'l-Islam, p. 239.) 
 
 al-MASJIDU ’L-AQSA 
 
 Lit. “ The Most Distant 
 
 Mosque.” The temple at Jerusalem erected 
 by Solomon, called also al-Baitu 'l-Muqaddas, 
 or “the Holy House.” Known also in Mu¬ 
 hammadan literature as as-Sakhrah . “ the 
 Rock,” from which it is believed Muhammad 
 ascended to heaven on the occasion of his 
 celestial journey. (See Qur'an, Surah xvii.) 
 
 Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyuty has devoted a 
 whole volume to the consideration of the 
 superabundant merits existing in the Mas- 
 jidu ’1-Aqsa, which work has been translated 
 into English by the Rev. James Reynolds 
 (Oriental Translation Fund, 1836). He says 
 it is called al-Aqsa, because it is the most dis¬ 
 tant mosque to which pilgrimage is directed. 
 
 [JERUSALEM, AS-SAKHRAH.] 
 
 MASJIDU ’l-haram 333 
 
 MASJIDU ’L-HARAM 
 fV&H). “ The Sacred Mosque.” 
 
 The temple at Makkah which contains tho 
 Ka‘bah, or Cube-house, in which is placed 
 the Hajaru 'l-Aswad, or “Black Stone.” 
 The term Baitu '//ah, or “ House of God,” is 
 applied to the whole enclosure, although it 
 more specially denotes the Ka‘bah itself. 
 
 The following graphic account of this cele¬ 
 brated building is given by the traveller 
 Burckhardt, who visited it in a.d. 1814. Cap¬ 
 tain R. Burton, who visited the temple thirty- 
 eight years later, testifies to the great 
 accuracy of Burckhardt’s description, and 
 quotes his description in extenso. The account 
 by Burckhardt is given in the present article, 
 with some slight corrections. 
 
 The Ka‘bah stands in an oblong square 
 two hundred and fifty paces long, and two’ 
 hundred broad, none of the sides of which 
 runs quite in a straight line, though at first 
 sight the whole appears to be of a regular 
 shape. This open square is enclosed on the 
 eastern side by a colonnade ; the pillars stand 
 in a quadruple row; they are three deep on 
 the other sides, and united by pointed arches, 
 every four of which support a small dome, 
 plastered and whitened on the outside. These 
 domes, according to Qutbu ’d-din, are one 
 hundred and fifty-two in number. Alono- the 
 whole colonnade, on the four sides, lamps are 
 suspended from the arches. Some are lighted 
 every night, and all during the nights of 
 Ramazan. The pillars are above twenty feet 
 in height, and generally from one foot and a 
 half to one foot and three quarters in dia¬ 
 meter ; but little regularity has been observed 
 in regard to them. Some are of white 
 marble, granite, or porphyry, but the greater 
 number are of common stone of the Makkah 
 mountains. Fasy states the whole at five 
 hundred and eighty-nine, and says they are 
 all of marble excepting one hundred and 
 twenty-six, which are of common stone, and 
 three of composition. Qutbu ’d-din reckons 
 five hundred and fifty-five, of which, accord¬ 
 ing to him, three hundred and eleven are of 
 marble, and the rest of stone taken from the 
 neighbouring mountains ; but neither of these 
 authors lived to see the latest repairs of the 
 mosque, after the destruction occasioned by a 
 torrent, in a.d. 1626. Between every three or 
 four columns stands an octagonal one, about 
 four feet in thickness. On the east side are 
 two shafts of reddish gray granite, in one 
 piece, and one fine gray porphyry column 
 with slabs of white feldspath. On the north 
 side is one red granite column, and one of fine¬ 
 grained red porphyry; these are probably 
 the columns which Qutbu ’d-din states to 
 have been brought from Egypt, and princi¬ 
 pally from Akhinim (Panopolis), when the 
 chief Mahdi enlarged the mosque, in a.h. 163. 
 Among the four hundred and fifty or five 
 hundred columns, which form the 'enclosure, 
 
 I found not any two capitals or bases exactly 
 alike. The capitals are of coarse Saracenic 
 workmanship; some of them, which had 
 served for former buildings, by the ignorance 
 
THE SACKED MOSQUE, THE MASJIDli L-1-1 Alt AM A1 MAKE AH 
 
MASJ1DU L-HARAM 
 
 335 
 
 3J 
 
 THE MASJIDU ’l-HARAM. 
 
 REFERENCES TO THE PLAN AND VIEW. 
 
 1 The Ka'bah. 
 
 k T7ie Kiswah, or silfc covering with 
 
 12 Ad-Daraj or Staircase for the 
 
 a The Blaclc Stone. 
 
 the golden band. 
 
 
 Ka'bah. 
 
 b Ruknu 3 l-Yamani. 
 
 2 Pillars suspending lamps. 
 
 13 
 
 Qubbatu ’s-Sa*b. 
 
 c Ruknu ’sh-Shami. 
 
 3 & 4 Outer and Inner steps. 
 
 14 Qubbatu *l-‘ Abbas. 
 
 d Tombs of Ismd'il and his 
 
 5 Building over the Well Zamzam. 
 
 11 Paved causeways, &c. 
 
 mother. 
 
 6 Praying station, or Maqamu ’l- 
 
 m in Gravelled spaces. 
 
 e The Mi’zdb. 
 
 Ibrdhim of the Shafi'is. 
 
 15 
 
 Minaret of Bdbu ’s-Saldm. 
 
 f The Wall of Hatim. 
 
 7 Maqamu’l-lianafi. 
 
 16 
 
 ,, „ Bdbu f Ali. 
 
 g Ruknu 3 l-Irak. 
 
 8 Maqamu 3 l-MalakT. 
 
 17 
 
 ,, ,, Bdbu ’l-Wada*. 
 
 h Spot called Mi'jan. 
 
 9 Maqamu ’l-Hanbali. 
 
 18 
 
 ,, ,, Bdbu ’l-‘Umrali. 
 
 i Door. 
 
 10 Mimbar or Pulpit. 
 
 19 
 
 ,, ,, Bdbu ’ z-Ziyddah. 
 
 j Staircase to Roof. 
 
 11 Bdbu ’s-Salam or Shaibar. 
 
 20 
 
 ,, ,, Madrasah Kail Beg. 
 
 
 GATES. 
 
 
 
 21 JBabu ’s-Salam. 
 
 28 Bdbu 3 r-Rahmah. 
 
 35 Bdbu ’l-Atik. 
 
 22 „ *n-Nabl. 
 
 29 „ 3 l-Jiyad. 
 
 36 
 
 „ ’l-Ajlah or Bdbu ’l-Basi- 
 
 23 ,, ’l-‘Abbas. 
 
 30 ,, 3 l-JJjldn or Bdbu 3 sh-Sharif. 
 
 
 tiyah. 
 
 24 ,, *^lli or Dim Hashim. 
 
 31 ,, ’l-Umm Hani. 
 
 37 
 
 „ Kutubi. 
 
 25 ,, ’z-Zait or Bobu 3 l-'Ashrah. 
 
 32 ,, ’l-Wadd‘. 
 
 38 
 
 „ ’z-Ziyddah or Bdbu ’l- 
 
 26 „ * l-Baghlah. 
 
 33 „ Ibrahim or the Tailors. 
 
 
 Nadwah. 
 
 27 „ 3 s-Safa. 
 
 34 „ Binl Saham, or Bdbu ’l- 39 
 
 „ Paraibah . 
 
 * XJmrah. 
 
336 masjidu ’l-haram 
 
 of^the workmen have been placed upside down 
 upon the shafts. I observed about half-a- 
 dozen marble bases of good Grecian workman¬ 
 ship. A few of the marble columns bear 
 Arabic or Cuflc inscriptions, in which I read 
 the dates a.h. 863 and a.h. 762. A column 
 on the east side exhibits a very ancient Cuflc 
 inscription, somewhat defaced, which I could 
 neither read nor copy. Those shafts, formed 
 of the Makkan stone, cut principally from 
 the side of the mountain near the Shubaikah 
 quarter, are mostly in three pieces ; but the 
 marble shafts are in one piece. 
 
 Some of the columns are strengthened with 
 broad iron rings or bands, as in many other 
 Saracen buildings of the East; they were first 
 employed here by Ibn Dhaher Berkouk, King 
 of Egypt, in rebuilding the mosque, which 
 had been destroyed by fire in a.h. 802. 
 
 This temple has been so often ruined and 
 repaired, that no traces of remote antiquity 
 are to be found about it. On the inside of 
 the great wall which encloses the colonnades, 
 a single Arabic inscription is seen, in large 
 characters, but containing merely the names 
 of Muhammad and his immediate successors, 
 Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Usman, and ‘All. The 
 name of Allah, in large characters, occurs 
 also in several places. On the outside, over 
 the gates, are long inscriptions, in the Sulusi 
 character, commemorating the names of those 
 by whom the gates were built, long and 
 minute details of which are given by the his¬ 
 torians of Makkah. 
 
 The inscription on the south side, over 
 Babu Ibrahim, is most conspicuous ; all that 
 side was rebuilt by the Egyptian Sultan al- 
 Ghauri. a.h. 906. Over the Babu ‘All and 
 Babu ’l-‘Abbas is a long inscription, also in 
 the Sulusi character, placed there by Sultan 
 Murad ibn Sulaiman, a.h. 984, after he had 
 repaired the whole building. Qutbu ’d-dln 
 has given this inscription at length; it occu¬ 
 pies several pages in his history, and is a 
 monument of the Sultan’s vanity. This side 
 of the mosque having escaped destruction 
 in a.d. 1626, the inscription remains unin¬ 
 jured. 
 
 Some parts of the walls and arches are 
 gaudily painted, in stripes of yellow, red, and 
 blue, as are also the minarets. Paintings of 
 flowers, in the usual Muslim style, are no¬ 
 where seen; the floors of the colonnades are 
 paved with large stones badly cemented to¬ 
 gether. 
 
 Seven paved causeways lead from the 
 colonnades towards the Ka‘bah, or holy 
 house, in the centre. They are of sufficient 
 breadth to admit four or five persons to walk 
 abreast, and they are elevated about nine 
 inches above the ground. Between these 
 causeways, which are covered with fine gravel 
 or sand, grass appears growing in several 
 places, produced by the zamzam water oozing 
 out of the jars, which are placed in the 
 ground in long rows during the day. The 
 whole area of the mosque is upon a lower 
 level than any of the streets surround¬ 
 ing it. There is a descent of eight or ten 
 steps from the gates on the north side into 
 
 MAS.TIDU S L-HARAM 
 
 the platform of the colonnade, and of three 
 or four steps from the gates, on the south side. 
 
 Towards the middle of this area stands the 
 Ka‘bah ; it is one hundred and fifteen paces 
 from the north colonnade, and eighty-eight 
 from the south. 
 
 For this want of symmetry we may readily 
 account, the Ka‘bah having existed prior to 
 the mosque, which was built around it, and 
 enlarged at different periods. 
 
 The Ka‘bah is an oblong massive structure, 
 eighteen paces in length, fourteen in breadth, 
 and from thirty-five to forty feet in height. I 
 took the bearing of one of its longest sides, 
 and found it to be N.N.W. £ W. It is con¬ 
 structed of the grey Makkan stone, in large 
 blocks of different sizes, joined together in a 
 very rough manner, and with bad cement. 
 It was entirely rebuilt as it now stands in 
 a.d. 1627 : the torrent, in the preceding year, 
 had thrown down three of its sides; and, prepa¬ 
 ratory to its re-erection, the fourth side was, 
 according to Assami, pulled down, after the 
 ‘Ulama’, or learned divines, had been con¬ 
 sulted on the question, whether mortals 
 might be permitted to destroy any part of 
 the holy edifice without incurring the charge 
 of sacrilege and infidelity. 
 
 The Ka‘bah stands upon a base two feet 
 in height, which presents a sharp inclined 
 plane ; its roof being flat, it has at a distance 
 the appearance of a perfect cube. The only 
 door which affords entrance, and which is 
 opened but two or three times in the year, 
 is on the north side, and about seven feet 
 above the ground. In entering it, therefore, 
 wooden steps are used; of them I shall speak 
 hereafter. In the first periods of Islam, how¬ 
 ever, when it was rebuilt in a.h. 64, by Ibn 
 Zubair, Chief of Makkah, the nephew of 
 ‘Ayishah, it had two doors even with the 
 ground-floor of the mosque. The present 
 door (which, according to Azraqi, was brought 
 hither from Constantinople in a.d. 1633), is 
 wholly coated with silver, and has several 
 gilt ornaments. Upon its threshold are 
 placed every night various small lighted wax 
 candles, and perfuming pans, filled with 
 musk, aloe-wood, &c. 
 
 At the north-east corner of the Ka‘bah, 
 near the door, is the famous “ Black Stone ” ; 
 it forms a part of the sharp angle of the 
 building, at four or five feet above the ground. 
 It is an irregular oval, about seven inches in 
 diameter, with an undulated surface, com¬ 
 posed of about a dozen smaller stones of dif¬ 
 ferent sizes and shapes, well joined together 
 with a small quantity of cement, and per¬ 
 fectly smoothed ; it looks as if the whole had 
 been broken into many pieces by a violent 
 blow, and then united again. It is very dif¬ 
 ficult to determine accurately the quality of 
 this stone, which has been worn to its pre¬ 
 sent surface by the millions of touches and 
 kisses it has received. It appeared to me 
 like a lava, containing several small extra¬ 
 neous particles, of a whitish and of a yellow¬ 
 ish substance. Its colour is now a deep red¬ 
 dish brown, approaching to black ; it is sur¬ 
 rounded on all sides by a border, composed 
 
MASJIDU ’L-HARAM 
 
 of a substance which I took to be a close 
 cement of pitch and gravel, of a similar, but 
 not quite the same brownish colour. This 
 border serves to support its detached pieces; 
 it is two or three inches in breadth, and rises 
 a little above the surface of the stone. Both 
 the border and the stone itself are encircled 
 by a silver band, broader below than above 
 and on the two sides, with a considerable 
 swelling below, as if a part of the stone were 
 hidden under it. The lower part of the 
 border is studded with silver nails. 
 
 In the south-east corner of the Ka‘bah, or, 
 as the Arabs call it, Ruknu ’1-YamanI, there 
 is another stone, about five feet from the 
 ground ; it is one foot and a half in length, 
 and two inches in breadth, placed upright 
 and of the common Makkah stone. This the 
 people walking round the Ka‘bah touch only 
 with the right hand; they do not kiss it. 
 
 On the north side of the Ka‘bah just by its 
 door, and close to the wall, is a slight hollow 
 in the ground, lined with marble, and suf¬ 
 ficiently large to admit of three persons 
 sitting. Here it is thought meritorious to 
 pray. The spot is called Mi‘jan, and sup¬ 
 posed to be that where Abraham and his son 
 Ishmael kneaded the chalk and mud which 
 they used in building the Ka'bah; and near 
 this Mi‘jan the former is said to have placed 
 the large stone upon which he stood while 
 working at the masonry. On the basis of 
 the Ka‘bah, just over the Mi‘jan, is an ancient 
 Cufic inscription, but this I was unable to 
 decipher, and had no opportunity of copying 
 it. I do not find it mentioned by any of the 
 historians. 
 
 On the west side of the Ka‘bah, about two 
 feet below its summit, is the famous Mi’zab, 
 or water-spout, through which the rain-water 
 collected bn the roof of the building is dis¬ 
 charged so as to fall upon the ground. It 
 is about four feet in length, and six inches 
 in breadth, as well as I could judge from 
 below, with borders equal in height to its 
 breadth. At the mouth hangs what is called 
 the beard of the Mi’zab, a gilt board, over 
 which the water falls. This spout was sent 
 hither from Constantinople in a.h. 981, and is 
 reported to be of pure gold. The pavement 
 round the Ka'bah, below the Mi’zab, was laid 
 down in a.h. 826, and consists of various 
 coloured stones, forming a very handsome 
 specimen of mosaic. There are two large 
 slabs of fine verde-antico in the centre, which, 
 according to MakrizI, were sent thither as 
 presents from Cairo in a.h. 241. This is the 
 spot where, according to Muhammadan tra¬ 
 dition, Ishmael, the son of Abraham, and his 
 mother Hagar, are buried; and here it is 
 meritorious for the pilgrim to recite a prayer 
 of two rak'ahs. 
 
 On this west side is a semi-circular wall, 
 the two extremities of which are in a line with 
 the sides of the Ka‘bah, and distant from it 
 three or four feet, leaving an opening which 
 leads to the burying-place of Ishmael. The 
 wall bears the name of Hatim, and the area 
 which it encloses is called Hijr, or Hijru 
 Isma‘11, on account of its being “ separated ” 
 
 MASJIDU ’L-HARAM 337 
 
 from the Ka‘bah; the wall itself, also, is 
 sometimes so called ; and the name Hatim is 
 given by the historians to the space of ground 
 between the Ka'bah and the wall on one side, 
 and the Bi’ru ’z-Zamzam and Maqamu Ibra¬ 
 him on the other. The present Makkans, 
 however, apply the name Hatim to the wall 
 only. 
 
 Tradition says that the Ka‘bah once ex¬ 
 tended as far as the Hatim, and that this 
 side having fallen down just at the time of 
 the Hajj, the expenses of repairing it were 
 demanded from the pilgrims, under a pre¬ 
 tence that the revenues of government were 
 not acquired in a manner sufficiently pure to 
 admit of their application towards a pur¬ 
 pose so sacred, whilst the money of the pil¬ 
 grims would possess the requisite sanctity. 
 The sum, however, obtained from them, 
 proved very inadequate : all that could be 
 done, therefore, was to raise a wall, which 
 marked the space formerly occupied by the 
 Ka‘bah. This tradition, although current 
 among the Makkans, is at variance with his¬ 
 tory, which declares that the Hijr was built 
 by the Banii Quraish, who contracted the 
 dimensions of the Ka‘bah, that it was united 
 to the building by Hajjaj, and again sepa¬ 
 rated from it by Ibn Zubair. 
 
 It is asserted by Fasy, that a part of the 
 Hijr, as it now stands, was never compre¬ 
 hended within the Ka‘bah. The law regards 
 it as a portion of the Ka'bah, inasmuch as it 
 is esteemed equally meritorious to pray in the 
 Hijr as in the Ka'bah itself; and the pilgrims 
 who have not an opportunity of entering the 
 latter, are permitted to affirm upon oath that 
 they have prayed in the Ka‘bah, although 
 they may have only prostrated themselves 
 within the enclosure of the Hatim. The wall 
 is built of solid stone, about five feet in 
 height, and four in thickness, cased all over 
 with white marble, and inscribed with prayers 
 and invocations, neatly sculptured upon the 
 stone in modern characters. These and the 
 casing are the work of al-Ghaurl, the Egyp¬ 
 tian Sultan, in a.h. 917, as we learn from 
 Qutbu ’d-dln. 
 
 The walk round the Ka‘bah is performed 
 on the outside of the wall—the nearer to it 
 the better. The four sides of the Ka‘bah are 
 covered with a black silk stuff, hanging down, 
 and leaving the roof bare. This curtain, or 
 veil, is called Jciswah, and renewed annually 
 at the time of the Hajj, being brought from 
 Cairo, where it is manufactured at the 
 Sultan’s expense. On it are various prayers, 
 interwovon in the same colour as the stuff, 
 and it is, therefore, extremely difficult to 
 read them. A little above the middle, and 
 running round the whole building, is a line of 
 similar inscriptions, worked in gold thread. 
 That part of the kiswah which covers the 
 door is richly embroidered with silver. Open¬ 
 ings are left for the black stone, and the other 
 in the south-east corner, which thus remain 
 uncovered. 
 
 The kiswah is always of the same form 
 and pattern; that which I saw on my first 
 visit to the mosque was in a decayed state, 
 
 43 
 
338 MASJIDU ’l-haram 
 
 MASJIDU L-HARAM 
 
 and full of holes. On the 25th of the month 
 Zu ’1-Qadah, the old one is taken away, and 
 the Ka‘bah continues without a cover for 
 fifteen days. It is then said that “ The 
 Ka‘bah has assumed the ihram,” which lasts 
 until the tenth of Zu ’1-Hijjah, the day of the 
 return of the pilgrims from ‘Arafah to Wadi 
 Mina, when the new kiswah is put on. During 
 the first days, the new covering is tucked up 
 by cords fastened on the roof, so as to leave 
 the lower part of the building exposed; 
 having remained thus for many days, it is let 
 down, and covers the whole structure, being 
 then tied to strong brass wings in the basis 
 of the Ka'bah. The removal of the old kis¬ 
 wah w'as performed in a very indecorous 
 manner; and a contest ensued among the 
 pilgrims and the people of Makkah, both 
 young and old, about a few rags of it. The 
 pilgrims even collect the dust which sticks 
 to the walls of the Ka‘bah, under the kiswah, 
 and sell it, on their return, as a sacred 
 relic, [kiswah.] 
 
 At the moment the building is uncovered 
 and completely bare Quryan ), a crowd of 
 women assemble round it, rejoicing with cries 
 called walwalah. 
 
 The black colour of the kiswah, covering 
 a large cube in the midst of a vast square, 
 gives to the Ka'bah, at first sight, a very 
 singular and imposing appearance; as it is 
 not fastened down tightly, the slightest 
 breeze causes it to move in slow undulations, 
 which are hailed with prayers by the congre¬ 
 gation assembled round the building, as a 
 sign of the presence of its guardian angels, 
 whose wings, by their motion, are supposed 
 to be the cause of the waving of the covering. 
 Seventy thousand angels have the Ka‘bah in 
 their holy care, and are ordered to transport 
 it to Paradise, when the trumpet of the Last 
 Judgment shall be sounded. 
 
 The clothing of the Ka‘bah was an ancient 
 custom of the Pagan Arabs. The first kis¬ 
 wah, says AzraqI, was put on by Asad 
 Tubba 1 , one of the Himyarite kings of Yaman; 
 before Islam, it had two coverings, one for 
 winter and the other for summer. In the 
 early ages of Islam, it was sometimes white 
 and sometimes red, and consisted of the richest 
 brocade. In subsequent times it was fur¬ 
 nished by the different Sultans of Baghdad, 
 Egypt, or Yaman, according to their respec¬ 
 tive influence over Makkah prevailed; for 
 the clothing of the Ka‘bah appears to have 
 always been considered as a proof of sove¬ 
 reignty over the Hijaz. Kalaun, Sultan of 
 Egypt, assumed to himself and successors 
 the exclusive right, and from them the Sul¬ 
 tans at Constantinople have inherited it. 
 Kalaun appropriated the revenue of the two 
 large villages, Bisaus and Sandabair, in 
 Lower Egypt, to the expense of the kiswah, 
 and Sultan Sulaiman ibn Salim subsequently 
 added several others ; but the Ka‘bah has 
 long been deprived of this resource. 
 
 Round the Ka‘bah is a good pavement of 
 marble, about eight inches below' the level of 
 the great square; it was laid in a.h. 981, by 
 order of the Sultan, and describes an irre¬ 
 
 gular oval; it is surrounded by thirty-two 
 slender gilt pillars, or rather poles, between 
 every two of which are suspended seven glass 
 lamps, always lighted after sunset. Beyond 
 the poles is a second pavement, about eight 
 paces broad, somev'hat elevated above the 
 first, but of coarser work; then another, six 
 inches higher, and eighteen paces broad, upon 
 which stand several small buildings ; beyond 
 this is the gravelled ground, so that two 
 broad stejis may be said to lead from the 
 square down to the Ka‘bah. The small 
 buildings just mentioned, which surround the 
 Ka‘bah, are the five Maqams, with the well 
 of Zamzam, the arch called Babu ’s-Salam 
 (the Gate of Peace), and the mimbar (pulpit). 
 
 Opposite the four sides of the Ka'bah stand 
 four other small buildings, where the Imams 
 of the four orthodox Muhammadan sects, the 
 HanafI, Shafi‘1, Hanbali, and Malaki, take 
 their station, and guide the congregation in 
 their prayers. The Maqamu ’1-Malaki, on 
 the south, and that of Hanbali, opposite the 
 Black Stone, are small pavilions, open on all 
 sides, and supported by four slender pillars, 
 with a light sloping roof, terminating in a 
 point, exactly in the style of Indian pagodas. 
 
 The Maqamu ’1-HanafI, v’hich is the largest, 
 being fifteen paces by eight, is open on all 
 sides, and supported by twelve small pillars : 
 it has an upper storey, also open, where the 
 Mu’azzin, who calls to praj'ers, takes his 
 stand. This was first built in a.h. 923, by 
 Sultan Salim I.; it was afterwards rebuilt 
 by Khushgildl, Governor of Jiddah, in a.h. 
 947 ; but all the four Maqams, as they now 
 stand, were built in a.h. 1074. The Maqamu 
 ’sh-Shafi‘I is over the well Zamzam, to which 
 it serves as an upper chamber. 
 
 Near their respective Maqams, the adhe¬ 
 rents of the four different sects seat them¬ 
 selves for prayers. During my stay at Mak¬ 
 kah, the Hanafls always began their prayer 
 first; but, according to Muslim custom, the 
 Shafrls should pray first in the mosque, then 
 the Hanafls, Malakls, and Hanballs. The 
 evening prayer is an exception, which they 
 are all enjoined to utter together. The 
 Maqamu ’1-HanbalI is the place where the 
 officers of government and other great people 
 are seated during prayers ; here the Pasha 
 and the Sharif are placed, and, in their 
 absence the eunuchs of the temple. These 
 fill the space under this Maqam in front, and 
 behind it the female pilgrims who visit the 
 temple have their places assigned, to which 
 they repair principally for the two evening 
 prayers, few of them being seen in the mosque 
 at the three other daily prayers. They also 
 perform the tawaf, or walk round the Ka-bah, 
 but generally at night, though it is not un¬ 
 common to see them walking in the daytime 
 among the men. 
 
 The present building which encloses Zam¬ 
 zam, stands close by the Maqamu'1-HanbalI, 
 and was erected in a.h. 1072 ; it is of a square 
 shape, and of massive construction, with an 
 entrance to the north, opening into the room 
 which contains the well. This room is beau¬ 
 tifully ornamented with marbles of various 
 
MASJIDU ’L-HARAM 
 
 masjidu ’l-haram 339 
 
 colours; and adjoining to it, but having a 
 separate door, is a small room with a stone 
 reservoir, which is always full of Zamzam 
 water; this the pilgrims get to drink by 
 passing their hand with a cup through an 
 iron grated opening, which serves as a win¬ 
 dow, into the reservoir, without entering the 
 room. 
 
 The mouth of the well is surrounded by a 
 wall five feet in height, and about ton feet in 
 diameter. Upon this the people stand who 
 draw up the water, in leathern buckets, an 
 iron railing being so placed as to prevent 
 their falling in. In Fasy’s time, there were 
 eight marble basins in this room for the pur¬ 
 pose of ablution. 
 
 From before dawn to near midnight, the 
 well-room is constantly crowded with visitors 
 Everyone is at liberty to draw up the water for 
 himself, but the labour is generally performed 
 by persons placed there on purpose, and paid 
 by the mosque ; they expect also a trifle from 
 those who come to drink, though they dare not 
 demand it. I have been more than once in 
 the room a quarter of an hour before I could 
 get a draught of water, so great was the 
 crowd. Devout pilgrims sometimes mount 
 the wall and draw the bucket for several hours, 
 in the hope of thus expiating their evil deeds. 
 
 Before the Wahhabi invasion, the well Zam¬ 
 zam belonged to the Sharif, and the water 
 becoming thus a monopoly, was only to be 
 purchased at a high price; but one of Sa‘ud’s 
 first orders, on his arrival at Makkah, was 
 to abolish this traffic, and the holy water is 
 now dispensed gratis. The Turks consider it 
 a miracle that the water of this well never 
 diminishes, notwithstanding the continual 
 draught from it. There is certainly no dimi¬ 
 nution in its depth, for, by an accurate inspec¬ 
 tion of the rope by which the buckets are 
 drawn up, I found that the same length was 
 required both at morning and evening, to 
 reach the surface of the water. Upon in¬ 
 quiry, I learned from one of the persons who 
 had descended in the time of the Wahhabis to 
 repair the masonry, that the water was flowing 
 at the bottom, and that the well is therefore 
 supplied by a subterraneous rivulet. The 
 water is heavy to the taste, and sometimes in 
 its colour resembles milk ; but it is perfectly 
 sweet, and differs very much from that of the 
 brackish wells dispersed over the town. 
 When first drawn up, it is slightly tepid, re¬ 
 sembling, in this respect, many other foun¬ 
 tains of the Hijaz. 
 
 Zamzam supplies the whole town, and there 
 is scarcely one family that does not daily 
 fill a jar with the water. This only serves, 
 however, for drinking or for ablution, as it is 
 thought impious to employ water so sacred 
 for culinary purposes or on common occa¬ 
 sions. Almost every pilgrim when he repairs 
 to the mosque for evening prayer, has a jar 
 of the water placed before him by those who 
 earn their livelihood by performing this 
 service. 
 
 The water is distributed in the mosque to 
 all who are thirsty for a trifling fee, by water- 
 carriers, with large jars upon their backs; 
 
 these men are also paid by charitable pilgrims 
 for supplying the poorer ones with this holy 
 beverage immediately before or after prayers. 
 
 The water is regarded as an infallible cure 
 for all diseases ; and the devotees believe that 
 the more they drink of it, the better their 
 health will be, and their prayers the more 
 acceptable to the Deity. I have seen some of 
 them at the well swallowing such a quantity 
 of it, as I should hardly have thought pos¬ 
 sible. A man who lived in the same house 
 with me, and was ill of an intermittent fever, 
 repaired every evening to Zamzam, and drank 
 of the water till he was almost fainting; after 
 which he lay for several hours extended upon 
 his back, on the pavement near the Ka‘bah, 
 and then returned to renew his draught. When 
 by this practice he was brought to the verge 
 of death, he declared himself fully convinced 
 that the increase of his illness proceeded 
 wholly from his being unable to swallow a 
 sufficient quantity of the water. Many pil¬ 
 grims, not content with drinking it merely, 
 strip themselves in the room, and have 
 buckets of it thrown over them, by which 
 they believe that the heart is purified as well 
 as the outer body. 
 
 Few pilgrims quit Makkah without carry¬ 
 ing away some of this water in copper or tin 
 bottles, either for the purpose of making pre¬ 
 sents, or for their own use in case of illness, 
 when they drink it, or for ablution after 
 death. I carried away four small bottles, 
 with the intention of offering them as pre¬ 
 sents to the Muhammadan kings in the black 
 countries. I have seen it sold at Suez by 
 pilgrims returning from Makkah, at the rate 
 of one piastre for the quantity that filled a 
 coffee-cup. 
 
 The chief of Zamzam is one of the prin¬ 
 cipal ‘Ulama’ of Makkah. I need not re¬ 
 mind the reader that Zamzam is supposed to 
 be the spring found in the wilderness by 
 Hagar, at the moment when her infant son 
 Ishmael was dying of thirst. It seems pro¬ 
 bable that the town of Makkah owes its 
 origin to this well. For many miles round, no 
 sweet water is found, nor is there found in any 
 part of the adjacent country so copious a 
 supply. 
 
 On the north-east side of Zamzam stand two 
 small buildings, one behind the other, called 
 al-Qubbatain; they are covered by domes 
 painted in the same maimer as the mosque, and 
 in them are kept water-jars, lamps, carpets, 
 mats, brooms, and other articles used in the 
 very mosque. These two ugly buildings are 
 injurious to the interior appearance of the 
 building, their heavy forms and structure 
 being very disadvantageously contrasted with 
 the light and airy shape of the Maqams. I 
 heard some pilgrims from Greece, men of 
 better taste than the Arabs, express their 
 regret that the Qubbatain should be allowed 
 to disfigure the mosque. Their contents might 
 be deposited in some of the buildings adjoin¬ 
 ing the mosque, of which they form no essen¬ 
 tial part, no religious importance being 
 attached to them. They were built by 
 Khushgildl, Governor of Jiddah, a.h. 917; 
 
340 MASJIDU Vharam 
 
 one is callod Qubbatu T-‘Abbas, from having 
 been placed on the site of a small tank, said 
 to have been formed by al-‘Abbas, the uncle 
 of Muhammad. 
 
 A few paces west of Zamzam, and directly 
 opposite to the door of the Ka‘bah, stands a 
 ladder or staircase, which is moved up to the 
 wall of the Ka‘bah, on the days when that 
 building is opened, and by which the visitors 
 ascend to the door; it is of wood, with some 
 carved ornaments, moves on low wheels, and 
 is sufficiently broad to admit of four persons 
 ascending abreast. The first ladder was sent 
 hither from Cairo in a.h. 818, by Mu’yad Abu 
 ’n-Nasir, King of Egypt; for in the Hijaz, it 
 seems, there has always been so great a want 
 of artizans, that whenever the mosque re¬ 
 quired any work, it was necessary to have 
 mechanics brought from Cairo, and even 
 sometimes from Constantinople. 
 
 In the same line with the ladder, and close 
 by it stands a lightly-built, insulated, and 
 circular arch, about fifteen feet wide and 
 eighteen feet high, called Babu ’s-Salam, 
 which must not be confounded with the great 
 gate of the mosque bearing the same name. 
 Those who enter the Baitu ’llah for the first 
 time, are enjoined to do so by the outer and 
 inner Babu ’s-Salam; in passing under the 
 latter, they are to exclaim, “0 God, may it 
 be a happy entrance! ” I do not know by 
 whom this arch was built, but it appears to 
 be modern. 
 
 Nearly in front of the Babu ’s-Salam, and 
 nearer to the Ka‘bah than any of the other 
 surrounding buildings, stands the Maqamu 
 Ibrahim. This is a small building, supported 
 by six pillars about eight feet high, four of 
 which are surrounded from top to bottom by 
 a fine iron railing, which thus leaves the 
 space beyond the two hind pillars open; 
 within the railing is a frame about five feet 
 square, terminating in a pyramidal top, and 
 said to contain the sacred stone upon which 
 Abraham stood when he built the Ka‘bak, 
 and which, with the help of his son Ishmael, 
 he had removed from hence to the place 
 called Mi‘jan, already mentioned. The stone 
 is said to have yielded under the weight of 
 the Patriarch, and to preserve the impres¬ 
 sion of his foot still visible upon it; but no 
 pilgrim has ever seen it, as the frame is 
 always entirely covered with a brocade of red 
 silk richly embroidered. Persons are con¬ 
 stantly seen before the railing, invoking the 
 good offices of Abraham, and a short prayer 
 must be uttered by the side of the Maqam, 
 after the walk round the Ka‘bak is com¬ 
 pleted. It is said that many of the Compa¬ 
 nions, or first adherents of Muhammad, were 
 interred in the open space between this 
 Maqam and Zamzam, from which circum¬ 
 stance it is one of the most favourite places 
 of prayer in the mosque. In this part of the 
 area, the Khallfah Sulaiman ibn ‘Abdi ’1- 
 Malik, brother of al-Walld, built a fine reser¬ 
 voir, in a.h. 97, which was filled from a spring 
 east of ‘Arafat; but the Makkans destroyed 
 it after his death, on the pretence that the 
 water of Zamzam was preferable, 
 
 MASJIDU *L-HARAM 
 
 On the side of Maqamu Ibrahim, facing the 
 middle part of the front of the Ka‘bah, stands 
 the Mimbar, or pulpit, of the mosque ; it is 
 elegantly formed of fine white marble, with 
 many sculptured ornaments, and was sent as 
 a present to the mosque in a.h. 969, by Sul¬ 
 tan Sulaiman ibn Salim. A straight narrow 
 staircase leads up to the post of the khatib, 
 or preacher, which is surmounted by a gilt 
 polygonal pointed steeple, resembling an obe¬ 
 lisk. Here a sermon is joreaclied on Fridays, 
 and on certain festivals ; these, like the Fri¬ 
 day sermons of all mosques in the Muham¬ 
 madan countries, are usually of the same 
 tenour, with some slight alterations upon 
 extraordinary occasions. Before the Wah¬ 
 habis invaded Makkali, prayers were added 
 for the Sultan and the Sharif; but these 
 were forbidden by Sa‘ud. Since the Turkish 
 conquest, however, the ancient custom has 
 been restored. The right of preaching in the 
 Mimbar is vested in several of the first 
 ‘Ulama’ in Makkah ; they are always elderly 
 persons, and officiate in rotation. In ancient 
 times Muhammad himself, his successors, and 
 the Khallfahs, whenever they came to Makkah, 
 mounted the pulpit, and preached to the 
 people. 
 
 The khatib. or preacher, appears in the 
 Mimbar wrapped in a white cloak, which 
 covers his head and body, and with a stick 
 in hand; a practice observed also in Egypt 
 and Syria, in memory of the first age of Islam, 
 when the preachers found it necessary to be 
 armed, from fear of being surprised. As in 
 other mosques, two green flags are placed on 
 each side of him. 
 
 About the Mimbar, the visitors of the 
 Ka‘bah deposit their shoes ; as it is neither 
 permitted to walk round the Ka‘bah with 
 covered feet, nor thought decent to carry the 
 shoes in the hand, as is done in other mosques. 
 Several persons keep watch over the shoes, 
 for which they expect a small present; but 
 the vicinity of the holy temple does not inti¬ 
 midate the dishonest, for I lost successively 
 from this spot three new pairs of shoes; and 
 the same thing happens to many pilgrims. 
 
 I have now described all the buildings 
 within the enclosure of the temple. 
 
 The gravel-ground, and part of the adjoin¬ 
 ing outer pavement of the Ka‘bah is covered, 
 at the time of evening prayers, with carpets 
 of from sixty to eighty feet in length, and four 
 feet in breadth, of Egyptian manufacture, 
 which are rolled up after prayers. The 
 greater part of the pilgrims bring their own 
 carpets with them. The more distant parts 
 of the area, and the floor under the colon¬ 
 nade, are spread with mats brought from 
 Souakin ; the latter situation being the usual 
 place for the performance of the mid-day 
 and afternoon prayers. Many of these mats 
 are presented to the mosque by the pilgrims, 
 for which they have in return the satisfaction 
 of seeing their names inscribed on them in 
 large charactez’s. 
 
 At sunset, great numbers assemble for the 
 first evening prayer ; they form themselves 
 into several wide circles, sometimes as many 
 
MASJIDU ’L-HARAM 
 
 as twenty, around the Ka‘bah, as a common 
 centre before which every person makes his 
 prostration; and thus, as the Muhammadan 
 doctors observe, Makkah is the only spot 
 throughout the world in which the true be¬ 
 liever can, with propriety, turn during his 
 prayers towards any point of the compass. 
 The Imam takes his post near the gate of the 
 Ka‘bah, and his genuflexions are imitated by 
 the whole assembled multitude. The effect 
 of the joint prostrations of six or eight thou¬ 
 sand persons, added to the recollection of the 
 distance and various quarters from whence 
 they come, or for what purpose, cannot fail 
 to impress the most cool-minded spectator 
 with some degree of awe. At night, when 
 the lamps are lighted, and numbers of devo¬ 
 tees are jDerforming the Tawaf round the 
 Ka‘bah, the sight of the busy crowds, 
 the voices of the Mutawwifs, intent upon 
 making themselves heard by those to whom 
 they recite their prayers, the loud conversa¬ 
 tion of many idle persons, the running, play¬ 
 ing, and laughing of boys, give to the whole 
 a very different appearance, and one more 
 resembling that of a place of public amuse¬ 
 ment. The crowd, however, leaves the mosque 
 about nine o’clock, when it again becomes 
 the place of silent meditation and pra 3 'er to 
 the few visitors -who are led to the spot by 
 sincere piety, and not worldly motives or 
 fashion. 
 
 There is an opinion prevalent at Makkah, 
 founded on holy tradition, that the mosque 
 will contain any number of the faithful; and 
 that if even the whole Muhammadan com¬ 
 munity were to enter at once, they would all 
 find room in it to pray. The guardian angels, 
 it is said, -would invisibly extend the dimen¬ 
 sions of the building, and diminish the size 
 of each individual. The fact is, that during 
 the most numerous pilgrimages, the mosque, 
 which can contain, I believe, about thirty-five 
 thousand persons in the act of prayer, is 
 never half-filled. Even on Fridays, the 
 greater part of the Makkans, contrary to the 
 injunctions of the law, pray at home, if at 
 all, and many pilgrims follow their example. 
 I could never count more than ten thousand 
 individuals in the mosque at one time, even 
 after the return from ‘Arafat, when the whole 
 body of pilgrims was collected for a few days 
 in and about the city. 
 
 At every hour of the day persons may be 
 seen under the colonnade, occupied in read¬ 
 ing the Qur’an and other religious books; 
 and here many poor Indians, or negroes, 
 spread their mats, and pass the whole period 
 of their residence at Makkah. Here they 
 both eat and sleep ; but cooking is not allowed. 
 During the hours of noon, many persons come 
 to repose beneath the cool shade of the 
 vaulted roof of the colonnade; a custom 
 which not only accounts for the mode of con¬ 
 struction observed in the old Muhammadan 
 temples of Egypt and Arabia, but for that 
 also of the ancient Egyptian temples, the 
 immense porticoes of which were probably 
 left open to the idolatrous natives, whose 
 mud-built houses could afford them but 
 
 MASJIDU 'l-haram 341 
 
 an imperfect refuge against the mid-day 
 heats. 
 
 It is only during the hours of prayer that 
 the great mosques of these countries partake 
 of the sanctity of prayer, or in any degree 
 seem to be regarded as consecrated places. 
 In al-Azhar, the first mosque at Cairo, I have 
 seen boys crying pancakes for sale, barbers 
 shaving their customers, and many of the 
 lower orders eating their dinners, where, 
 during prayers, not the slightest motion, nor 
 oven whisper, diverts the attention of the 
 congregation. Not a sound but the voice of 
 the Imam, is heard during prayers in the 
 great mosque at Makkah, which at other 
 times is the place of meeting for men of busi¬ 
 ness to converse on their affairs, and is some¬ 
 times so full of poor pilgrims, or of diseased 
 persons ljnng about under the colonnade, in 
 midst of their miserable baggage, as to have 
 the appearance of a hospital rather than a 
 temple. Boys play in the great square, and 
 servants carry luggage across it, to pass 
 by the nearest route from one part of the 
 town to the other. In these respects, the 
 temple of Makkah resembles the other great 
 mosques of the East. But the holy Ka‘bah 
 is rendered the scene of such indecencies and 
 criminal acts, as cannot with propriety be 
 more particularly noticed. They are not 
 only practised here with impunity, but, it may 
 be said, almost publicly; and my indignation 
 has often been excited, on witnessing abomi¬ 
 nations which called forth from other passing 
 spectators nothing more than a laugh or a 
 slight reprimand. 
 
 In several parts of the colonnade, public 
 schools are held, where young children are 
 taught to spell and read ; they are most noisy 
 groups, and the schoolmaster’s stick is in 
 constant action. Some learned men of Mak¬ 
 kah deliver lectures on religious subjects 
 every afternoon under the colonnade, but the 
 auditors are seldom numerous. On Fridays, 
 after prayer, some Turkish ‘Ulama’ explain 
 to their countrymen assembled around them 
 a few chapters of the Qur’an, after which 
 each of the audience kisses the hand of the 
 expositor, and drops money into his cap. I 
 particularly admired the fluency of speech of 
 one of these ‘Ulama’, although I did not un¬ 
 derstand him, the lecture being delivered in 
 the Turkish language. His gesticulations, 
 and the inflexions of his voice, were most 
 expressive ; but, like an actor on the stage, 
 he would laugh and cry in the same minute, 
 and adapt his features to his purpose in the 
 most skilful manner. He was a native of 
 Brusa, and amassed a considerable sum of 
 money. 
 
 Near the gate of the mosque called Babu 
 ’s-Saliim, a few Arab shaikhs daily take their 
 seat, with their inkstand and paper, ready to 
 write, for any applicant, letters, accounts, 
 contracts, or any similar document. 
 
 They also deal in written charms, like those 
 current in the Black countries, such as amu¬ 
 lets, love-receipts, &c. They are principally 
 employed by Bedouins, and demand an exor¬ 
 bitant remuneration. 
 
MASJIDU 5 L-HARAM 
 
 342 MASJIDU ’l-HARAM 
 
 Winding sheets (Jcafari) and other linen 
 washed in the waters of Zamzam, are con¬ 
 stantly seen hanging to dry between the 
 columns. Many pilgrims purchase at Mak- 
 kah the shroud in which they wish to he 
 buried, and wash it themselves at the well of 
 Zamzam, supposing that, if the corpse be 
 wrapped in linen which has been wetted with 
 this holy water, the peace of the soul after 
 death will be more effectually secured. Some 
 pilgrims make this linen an article of traffic. 
 
 Makkah generally, but the mosque in par¬ 
 ticular, abounds in flocks of wild pigeons, 
 which are considered to be' the inviolable 
 property of the temple, and are called the 
 pigeons of the Baitu ’llah. Nobody dares to 
 kill any of them, even when .they enter the 
 private houses. In the square of the mosque, 
 several small stone basins are regularly filled 
 with water for their use ; here, also, Arab 
 women expose for sale, upon small straw 
 mats, corn and durrah, which the pilgrims 
 purchase, and throw to the pigeons. I have 
 seen some of the public women take this 
 mode of exhibiting themselves, and of bar¬ 
 gaining with the pilgrims, under pretence of 
 selling them corn for the sacred pigeons. 
 
 The gates ol the mosque are nineteen in 
 number, and are distributed about it, with¬ 
 out any order or symmetry. The principal 
 of these gates are : on the north side, Babu 
 ’s-Salam, by which every pilgrim enters the 
 mosque ; Babu ’l-‘Abbas ; Babu ’n-Nabi, by 
 which Muhammad is said to have always 
 entered the mosque; Babu ‘Ali. On the 
 east side: Babu Zai, or Babu ’l-‘Ashrah, 
 through which the ten first adherents of Mu¬ 
 hammad used to enter; Babu ’s-Safa; two 
 gates called BIbanu ’sh-Sharif, opposite the 
 palaces of the Sharif. On the south side: 
 Babu Ibrahim, where the colonnade projects 
 beyond the straight line of the columns, and 
 forms a small square; Babu ’l-‘Umrah, 
 through which it is necessary to pass, on 
 visiting the ‘Umrah. On the west side : 
 Babu ’z-Ziyadah, forming a projecting square 
 similar to that at Babu Ibrahim, but larger. 
 
 Most of these gates have high-pointed 
 arches, but a few round arches are seen 
 among them, which, like all the arches of 
 this kind in the Hijaz, are nearly semicircular. 
 They are without any ornament, except the 
 inscription on the exterior, which commemo¬ 
 rates the name of the builder; and they are 
 all posterior in date to the fourteenth cen¬ 
 tury. As each gate consists of two or three 
 arches, or divisions, separated by narrow 
 walls, these divisions are counted in the 
 enumeration of the gates leading into the 
 Ka‘bah, and thus make up the number thirty- 
 nine. 
 
 There being no doors to the gates, the 
 mosque is consequently open at all times. I 
 have crossed at every hour of the night, and 
 always found people there, either at prayers 
 or walking abort. 
 
 The outside walls of the mosque are those 
 of the houses which surround it on all sides. 
 These houses belonged originally to the 
 mosque ; the greater part are now the pro¬ 
 
 perty of individuals, who have purchased 
 them. They are let out to the richest pil¬ 
 grims, at very high prices, as much as five 
 hundred piastres being given, during the pil¬ 
 grimage, for a good apartment, with windows 
 opening into the mosque. Windows have, in 
 consequence, been opened in many parts of 
 the walls, on a level with the street, and above 
 that of the floor of the colonnades. Pilgrims 
 living in these apartments are allowed to 
 perform the Friday’s prayers at home, be¬ 
 cause, having the Ka‘bah in view from the 
 windows, they are supposed to be in the 
 mosque itself, and to join in prayer those 
 assembled within the temple. Upon a level 
 with the ground-floor of the colonnades, and 
 opening into them, are small apartments 
 formed in the walls, having the appearance of 
 dungeons ; these have remained the property 
 of the mosque, while the houses above them 
 belong to private individuals. They are let 
 out to watermen, who deposit in them the 
 Zamzam jars, or to less opulent pilgrims who 
 wish to live in the mosque. Some of the 
 surrounding houses still belong to the mosque, 
 and were originally intended for public schools, 
 as their name of Madrasah implies ; they are 
 now all let out to pilgrims. In one of the 
 largest of them, Muhammad ‘All Pasha 
 lived ; in another Hasan Pasha. 
 
 Close to Babu Ibrahim is a large madra¬ 
 sah, now the property of Saiyid Ageyl, one of 
 the principal merchants of the town, whose 
 warehouse opens into the mosque. This 
 person, who is aged, has the reputation of 
 great sanctity ; and it is said that the hand 
 of the Sharif Ghalib, when once in the act of 
 collaring him for refusing to advance some 
 money, was momentarily struck with palsy. 
 He has evening assemblies in his house, where 
 theological books are read, and religious 
 topics discussed. 
 
 Among other buildings forming the enclo¬ 
 sure of the mosque, is the Mihkam, or house 
 of justice, close by the Babu ’z-Ziyadah; it 
 is a fine, firmly-built structure, with lofty 
 arches in the interior, and has a row of high 
 windows looking into the mosque. It is in¬ 
 habited by the Q.azi. Adjoining to it stands 
 a large Madrasah, enclosing a square, known 
 by the name of Madrasah Sulaiman, built by 
 Sultan Sulaiman and his son Salim II., in 
 a.h. 973. It is always well filled with Turkish 
 pilgrims, the friends of the Qazi, who dis¬ 
 poses of the lodgings. 
 
 The exterior of the mosque is adorned with 
 seven minarets, irregularly distributed: 1. 
 Minaret of Babu ’l-‘Umrah ; 2. of Babu’s- 
 
 Salam; 3. of Babu ‘All; 4. of Babu ’1-Wada‘; 5. 
 of Madrasah Kail Beg ; 6. of Babu ’z-Ziyadah; 
 7. of Madrasah Sultan Sulaiman. They are 
 quadrangular or round steeples, in no way 
 differing from other minarets. The entrance 
 to them is from the different buildings round 
 the mosque, which they adjoin. A beautiful 
 view of the busy crowd below is obtained by 
 ascending the most northern one. (Taken, 
 with slight alterations, chiefly in the spelling 
 of Arabic words and names, from Burck- 
 hardt’s Travels in Arabia, vol. i. p. 243.) 
 
MASJIDU L-HARAM 
 
 MASJIDU ’n-nabi 343 
 
 Mr. Sale says: “ The temple of Mecca 
 was a place of worship, and in singular vene¬ 
 ration with the Arabs from great antiquity, 
 and many centuries before Muhammad. 
 Though it was most probably dedicated at 
 first to an idolatrous use, yet the Muhamma¬ 
 dans are generally persuaded that the Ka‘bah 
 is almost coeval with the world ; for they say 
 that Adam, after his expulsion from Paradise, 
 begged of God that he might erect a build¬ 
 ing like that he had seen there, called Baitu T- 
 Ma'mur, or the frequented house, and al Durah, 
 towards which he might direct his prayers, 
 and which he might compass, as the angels 
 do the celestial one. Whereupon God let 
 down a representation of that house in curtains 
 of light, and set it in Mecca, perpendicu¬ 
 larly under its original, ordering the patriarch 
 to turn towards it when he prayed, and to 
 compass it by way of devotion. After 
 Adam's death, his son Seth built a house in 
 the same form, of stone and clay, which being 
 destroyed by the Deluge, was rebuilt by Abra¬ 
 ham and Ishmael at God's command, in the 
 place where the former had stood, and after 
 the same model, they being directed therein 
 by revelation. 
 
 “ After this edifice had undergone several 
 reparations, it was, a few years after the 
 birth of Muhammad, rebuilt by the Quraish 
 on the old foundation, and afterwards re¬ 
 paired by Abdullah Ibn Zubair, the Khalif 
 of Mecca; and at length again rebuilt by 
 Yusuf, surnamed al Hijaj Ibn Yusuf, in the 
 seventy-fourth year of the Hijrah, with some 
 alterations, in the form wherein it now re¬ 
 mains. Some years after, however, the 
 Khalif Harun al Rashid (or, as others write, 
 his father al Mahdi, or his grandfather al 
 Mansur) intended again to change what had 
 been altered by al Hijaj, and to reduce the 
 Ka‘bah to the old form in which it was left 
 by Abdullah, but was dissuaded from med¬ 
 dling with it, lest so holy a place should 
 become the sport of princes, and being new- 
 modelled after everyone’s fancy, should lose 
 that reverence which was justly paid it. But 
 notwithstanding the antiquity and holiness of 
 this building, they have a prophecy by tradi¬ 
 tion from Muhammad, that in the last times 
 the Ethiopians shall come and utterly demo¬ 
 lish it, after which it will not be rebuilt again 
 for ever.” ( Prel. Dis., p. 83). 
 
 The following are the references to the 
 Sacred Mosque in the Qur'an :— 
 
 Surah ii. 144, 145 : “ From whatever place 
 thou comest forth, then turn your face to¬ 
 wards the Sacred Mosque ; for this is a duty 
 enjoined by thy Lord; and God is not inat¬ 
 tentive to your doings. And from whatever 
 place thou comest forth, then turn thy face 
 toward the Sacred Mosque: and wherever ye 
 be, to that part turn your faces, that men 
 have no cause of dispute against you.” 
 
 Surah v. 2: “0 Believers 1 violate neither 
 the rites of God, nor the sacred month, nor 
 the offering, nor its ornaments, nor those who 
 press on to the Sacred Mosque, seeking favour 
 from their Lord and His good pleasure in them.” 
 
 Surah viii. 33-35 : “ But God chose not to 
 
 chastise them while thou wast with them, nor 
 would God chastise them when they sued for 
 pardon. But because they debarred the faithful 
 from the Sacred Mosque, albeit they are not 
 its guardians, nothing is there on their part 
 why God should not chastise them. The 
 God-fearing only are its guardians ; but most 
 of them know it not. And their prayer at 
 the house is no other than whistling through 
 the fingers and clapping of the hands— 
 ‘ Taste then the torment, for that ye have 
 been unbelievers.’” 
 
 Surah ix. 7: “ How shall they who add 
 gods to God be in league with God and with 
 His Apostle, save those with whom ye made 
 a league at the Sacred Mosque ? So long as 
 they are true to you, be ye true to them ; for 
 God loveth those who fear Him.” 
 
 Surah ix. 28 : “ O Believers 1 only they who 
 join gods with God are unclean ! Let them 
 not, therefore, after this their yeai', come near 
 the Sacred Mosque. And if ye fear want, 
 God, if Ho please, will enrich you of His 
 abundance : for God is Knowing, Wise.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 1: “ Glory be to Him who car¬ 
 ried his servant by night from the Sacred 
 Mosque to the temple that is more remote 
 (i.e. Jerusalem), whose precinct we have 
 blessed, that we might show him of our signs ! 
 for He is the Hearer, the Seer.” 
 
 Surah xxii. 25 : “ From the Sacred Mosque 
 which we have appointed to all men, alike 
 for those who abide therein, and for the 
 stranger.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 25: “ These are they who be¬ 
 lieved not, and kept you away from the 
 Sacred Mosque, as well as the offering which 
 was prevented from reaching the place of 
 sacrifice.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 27 : “ Now hath God in truth 
 made good to His Apostle the dream in which 
 he said, ‘Ye shall surely enter the Sacred 
 Mosque, if God will, in full security, having 
 your heads shaved and your hair cut: ye 
 shall not fear ; for He knoweth what ye know 
 not: and He hath ordained you, beside this, 
 a speedy victory.” 
 
 al-MASJIDU ’L-JAMT 
 
 Lit. “ The collecting mosque.” 
 
 A title given to the chief mosque of any city 
 in which people assemble for the Friday 
 prayer and khutbah. [khutbah.] 
 
 MASJIDU ’L-KHAIF (a_^_. 
 
 «-As<:B). A mosque at Mina, three 
 miles from Makkah. Here, according to the 
 Arabs, Adam is buried, “ his head being at 
 one end of a long wall, and his feet at another, 
 whilst the dome covers his omphalic region.” 
 (Burton’s Pilgrimage, vol. ii. p. 203.) 
 
 MASJIDU ’N-UABI 
 
 “ The Prophet’s Mosque ” at al-Madlnah. It 
 is held to be the second mosque in Islam in 
 point of seniority, and the same, or, accord¬ 
 ing to others the first, in dignity, ranking 
 with the Sacred Mosque at Makkah. 
 
 The following is Captain R. F. Burton’s 
 account of its history:— 
 
344 MASJIDU ’n-nabi 
 
 MASJIDU N-NABi 
 
 “ Muhammad ordered to erect a place of 
 ■worship there, sent for the youths to whom 
 it belonged and certain Ansar, or auxiliaries, 
 their guardians; the ground was offered to 
 him in free gift, but he insisted upon pur¬ 
 chasing it, paying more than its value. 
 Having caused the soil to be levelled and the 
 trees to be felled, he laid the foundation of 
 the first mosque. 
 
 “ In those times of primitive simplicity its 
 walls were made of rough stone and unbaked 
 bricks, and trunks of date-trees supported a 
 palm-stick roof, concerning which the Arch¬ 
 angel Gabriel delivered an order that it should 
 not be higher than seven cubits, the eleva¬ 
 tion of Solomon’s temple. All ornament was 
 strictly forbidden. The Ansar, or men of 
 Medinah, and the Muhajirm, or fugitives from 
 Mecca, carried the building materials in their 
 arms from the cemetery Baki‘, near the well 
 
 of Aiyub, north of the spot where Ibrahim’s 
 mosque now stands, and the Prophet was to 
 be seen aiding them in their labours, and re¬ 
 citing for their encouragement: 
 
 ‘ 0 Allah ! there is no good but the good of 
 futurity ; 
 
 Then have mercy upon my Ansar and 
 Muhajirln,” 
 
 “ The length of this mosque was fifty-four 
 cubits from north to south, and sixty-three 
 in breadth, and it was hemmed in by houses 
 on all sides save the western. Till the seven¬ 
 teenth month of the new era, the congrega¬ 
 tion faced towards the northern wall. After 
 that time a fresh ‘ revelation ’ turned them 
 in the direction of Makkah—southwards ; on 
 which occasion the Archangel Gabriel de¬ 
 scended and miraculously opened through 
 the hills and wilds a view of theKa'bah, that 
 
 MASJIDU 'n-nabi at al-madinah. (Captain R. Burton.) 
 
 there might be no difficulty in ascertaining 
 its true position. 
 
 “ After the capture of Khaibar in a.h. 7, 
 the Prophet and his first three successors 
 restored the mosque, but Muslim historians 
 do not consider this a second foundation. 
 Muhammad laid the first brick, and Abu- 
 Hurayrah declares that he saw him carry 
 heaps of building material piled up to his 
 breast. The Khallfahs, each in the turn of 
 his succession, placed a brick close to that 
 laid by the Prophet, and aided him in raising 
 the walls. Tabrani relates that one of the 
 Ansar had a house adjacent, which Muham¬ 
 mad wished to make part of the place of 
 prayer; the proprietor was offered in ex¬ 
 change for it a home in Paradise, which he 
 gently rejected, pleading poverty. His ex¬ 
 cuse was admitted, and ‘Usman, after pur¬ 
 chasing the place for 10.000 dirhams, gave it 
 
 to the Prophet on the long credit originally 
 offered. The mosque was a square of 100 
 cubits. Like the former building, it had three 
 doors: one on the south side, where the 
 Mihrabu ’n-Nabawi, or the ‘ Prophet’s niche,” 
 now is, another in the place of the present 
 Babu ’r-Rahmah, and the third at the Bdbu 
 ‘ Usman, now called the “ Gate of Gabriel.” 
 Instead of a mihrab or prayer niche, a large 
 block of stone, directed the congregation. At 
 first it was placed against the northern wall 
 of the mosque, and it was removed to the 
 southern when Makkah became the Qiblah. 
 In the beginning the Prophet, whilst preach¬ 
 ing the kbutbah or Friday sermon, leaned, 
 when fatigued, against a post. The mimbar, 
 or pulpit, Avas the invention of a Madlnah 
 man of the Banii Najjar. It was a wooden 
 frame, two cubits long by one broad, with 
 three steps, each one span high ; on the top- 
 
MASJIDU ’N-NABI 
 
 most of these the Prophet sat when he re¬ 
 quired rest. The pulpit assumed its present 
 form about a.h. 90, during the artistic reign 
 of Walid. 
 
 “In this mosque Muhammad spent the 
 greater part of the day with his companions, 
 convei’sing, instructing, and comforting the 
 poor. Hard by were the abodes of his wives, 
 his family, and his principal friends. Here 
 he prayed, hearkening to the Azan, or devo¬ 
 tion call, from the roof. Here he received 
 worldly envoys and embassies, and the hea¬ 
 venly messages conveyed by the Archangel 
 Gabriel. And within a few yards of the hal¬ 
 lowed spot, he died, and found, it is supposed, 
 a grave. 
 
 “ The theatre of events so important to 
 Islam, could not be allowed—especially as no 
 divine decree forbade the change—to remain 
 in its pristine lowliness. The first Khalifah 
 contented himself with merely restoring some 
 of the palm pillars, which had fallen to the 
 ground. ‘Umar, the second successor, sur¬ 
 rounded the Hujrah, or ‘Ayishah’s chamber, 
 in which the Prophet ■was buried, with a mud 
 wall, and in a.h. 17, he enlarged the mosque 
 to 140 cubits by 120, taking in ground on all 
 sides except the eastern, where stood the 
 abodes of the ‘ Mothers of the Moslems ’ 
 
 (Ummu 'l-Mu'minin'). Outside the northern 
 wall he erected a suffah, called Batha—a 
 raised bench of wood, earth, or stone, upon 
 which the people might recreate themselves 
 with conversation and quoting poetry, for the 
 mosque was now becoming a place of peculiar 
 reverence to men. 
 
 “ The second Masjid was erected a.h. 29 
 by the third Khalifah, ‘Usman, who, regard¬ 
 less of the clamours of the people, overthrew 
 the old one, and extended the building greatly 
 towards the north, and a little towards the 
 west; but he did not remove the eastern limit 
 on account of the private houses. He made 
 the roof of Indian teak, and erected walls of 
 hewn and carved stone. These innovations 
 caused some excitement, which he allayed by 
 quoting a tradition of the Prophet, with one 
 of which he appears perpetually to have been 
 prepared. The saying in question was, ac¬ 
 cording to some, ‘ Were this my mosque ex¬ 
 tended to Safa, it verily would still be my 
 mosque ’; according to others, ‘ Were the 
 Prophet’s mosque extended to Zu ’1-Hulafa’, it 
 would still be his.’ But ‘Usman’s skill in the 
 quotation of tradition did not prevent the 
 new building being in part a cause of his 
 death. It was finished on the IstMuharram, 
 A.H. 30. 
 
 “ At length, Islam, grown splendid and 
 powerful, determined to surpass other nations 
 in the magnificence of its public buildings. 
 In a.h. 88, al-Walidthe First, twelfth Khalifah 
 of the Ban! Umayah race, after building the 
 noble Jami‘-Masjid of the Ommiades at Da¬ 
 mascus, determined to display his liberality 
 at al-Madlnah. The governor of the place, 
 ‘Umar ibn‘Abdu’l-Aziz, was directed to buy for 
 7,000 dinars all the hovels of raw brick that 
 hedged in the eastern side of the old mosque. 
 They were inhabited by descendants of the 
 
 MASJIDU ’N-NABI 345 
 
 Prophet and of the early Khalifahs, and in 
 more than one case, the ejection of the holy 
 tenantry was effected with considerable dif¬ 
 ficulty. Some of the women (ever the most 
 obstinate on such occasions) refused to take 
 money, and ‘Umar was forced to the objec¬ 
 tionable measure of turning them out of doors 
 with exposed faces in full day. The Greek 
 Emperor, applied to by the magnificent Kha¬ 
 lifah, sent immense presents, silver lamp 
 chains, valuable curiosities, forty loads of 
 small cut stones for pietra-dura, and a sum 
 of 80,000 dinars, or, as others say, 40,000 
 mishkals of gold. He also despatched forty 
 Coptic and forty Greek artists to carve the 
 marble pillars and the casings of the walls, 
 and to superintend the gilding and the mosaic 
 work. 
 
 “ One of these Christians was beheaded for 
 sculpturing a hog on the Qiblah wall, and 
 another, in an attempt to defile the roof, fell 
 to the ground, and his brains were dashed 
 out. The remainder apostatized, but this did 
 not prevent the older Arabs murmuring that 
 their mosque had been turned into a kanlsah 
 (or Church). The Hujrah, or chamber, where, 
 by Muhammad’s permission, ‘Izra’il, the Angel 
 of Death, separated his soul from his body, 
 whilst his head was lying inlthe lap of‘Ayishah, 
 his favourite wife, was now for the first time 
 taken into the mosque. The raw brick en¬ 
 ceinte which surrounded the three graves was 
 exchanged for one of carved stone, enclosed 
 by an outer precinct with a narrow passage 
 between. These double walls were either 
 without a door, or had only a small blocked- 
 up wicket on the northern side, and from that 
 day (a.h. 90), no one has been able to approach 
 the sepulchre. A minaret was erected at each 
 corner of the mosque. The building was en¬ 
 larged to 200 cubits by 1C7, and was finished 
 in a.h. 91. When Walid, the Khalifah. 
 visited it in state, he inquired of his lieute¬ 
 nant why greater magnificence had not been 
 displayed in the erection ; upon which ‘Umar 
 informed him, to his astonishment, that the 
 walls alone had cost 45,000 dinars. 
 
 “ The fourth mosque was erected in a.h. 191, 
 by al-Mahdi, third prince of the Banff ‘Abbas 
 or Baghdad Khalifahs—celebrated in history 
 only for spending enormous sums upon a pil¬ 
 grimage. He enlarged the building by adding 
 ten handsome pillars of carved marble, with 
 gilt capitals, on the northern side. In a.h. 
 202, al-Ma’mffn made further additions to this 
 mosque. 
 
 “ It was from al-Mahdi’s Masjid that Hakim 
 ibn Amri ’llah, the third Fatimite Khalifah of 
 Egypt, and the deity of the Druse sect, de¬ 
 termined to steal the bodies of the Prophet 
 and his two companions. About a.h. 412, he 
 sent emissaries to al-Madinah; the attempt, 
 however, failed, and the would be violators 
 of the tomb lost their lives. It is generally 
 supposed that Hakim's object was to transfer 
 the visitation to his own capital; but in one 
 so manifestly insane it is difficult to disco-ver 
 the spring of action. Two Christians, habited 
 like Maghrabi pilgrims, in a.h. 550, dug a 
 mine from a neighbouring house into the 
 
 44 
 
MAULID 
 
 346 MASJIDU ’t-taqwa 
 
 temple. They were discovered, beheaded, 
 and burned to ashes. In relating these events, 
 the Muslim historians mix up many foolish 
 preternaturalisms with credible matter. At 
 last, to prevent a recurrence of such sacrile¬ 
 gious attempts, Maliku ’l-‘AdilNuru ’d-din, of 
 the Baharite Mamluk Sultans, or, according 
 to others, Sultan Nuru ’d-din Shahid Mahmud 
 bin Zengi, who, warned by a vision of the 
 Prophet, had started for al-Madlnah only in 
 time to discover the two Christians, sur¬ 
 rounded the holy place with a deep trench, 
 filled with molten lead. By this means Abu 
 Bakr and ‘Umar, who had run considerable 
 risks of their own, have ever since been 
 enabled to occupy their last home undisturbed. 
 
 “ In a.h. 654, the fifth mosque was erected 
 in consequence of a fire, which some authors 
 attribute to a volcano that broke out close to 
 the town in terrible eruption; others, with 
 more fanaticism and less probability, to the 
 schismatic Banu Husain, then the guardians 
 of the tomb. On this occasion the Hujrah 
 was saved, together with the old and vener¬ 
 able copies of the Qur’an there deposited, 
 especially the Cufic MSS., written by Usman, 
 the third Kh alifah. The piety of three sove¬ 
 reigns, Musta‘sim (last Khalifah of Baghdad) 
 MuzafEr Shems-ud-dln-Yusuf, chief of Ya- 
 man, and Zakir Beybars, Baharite Sultan of 
 Egypt, completed the work in a.h. 688. 
 This building was enlarged and beautified by 
 the princes of Egypt, and lasted upwards of 
 200 years. 
 
 “ The sixth mosque was built, almost as it 
 now stands, by Kaid Bey, nineteenth Sultan 
 of the Circasian Mamluk kings of Egypt, in 
 a.h. 888. Musta'sim’s mosque had been struck 
 by lightning during a storm ; thirteen men 
 were killed at prayers, and the destroying 
 element spared nothing but the interior of the 
 Hujrah. The railing and dome were restored ; 
 niches and a pulpit were sent from Cairo, 
 and the gates and minarets were distributed 
 as they are now. Not content with this, Kaid 
 Bey established ‘ waqf ’ (bequests) and pen¬ 
 sions, and introduced order among the atten¬ 
 dants on the tomb. In the tenth century, 
 Sultan Sulaiman the Magnificent paved with 
 fine white marble the Rauzah or garden, 
 which Kaid Bey, not daring to alter, had 
 left of earth, and erected the fine minaret 
 that bears his name. During the dominion 
 of the later Sultans and of Mohammad Ali, a 
 few trifling presents of lamps, carpets, wax 
 candles, and chandeliers, and a few immate¬ 
 rial alterations have been made.” (See Per¬ 
 sonal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to El Medi- 
 nah and Meccah, by Richard F. Burton, 2nd 
 edition, vol. i. p. 345.) 
 
 MASJIDU ’T-TAQWA —- 
 Lit. “The Mosque of Piety.” 
 The mosque at Quba’, a place about three 
 miles south-east of al-Madlnah. It was here 
 that it is said that the Prophet’s camel, al- 
 Qaswa rested on its way from Makkah to al- 
 Madlnah, on the occasion of the Flight. And 
 when Muhammad desired the Companions to 
 mount the camel, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar did so, 
 
 but she still remained on the ground; but 
 when ‘Ali obeyed the order, she arose. Here 
 the Prophet decided to erect a place for 
 prayer. It was the first mosque erected in 
 Islam. Muhammad laid the first brick, and 
 with an iron javelin marked out the direction 
 for prayer. The Prophet, during his resi¬ 
 dence at al-Madlnah, used to visit it once a 
 week on foot, and he always made a point of 
 praying there the morning prayer on the 17th 
 of Ramazan. A prayer in the mosque of Quba’ 
 is said to be equal in merit to a Lesser Pil¬ 
 grimage to Makkah, and the place itself bears 
 rank after the mosques of Makkah and al- 
 Madlnah and before that of Jerusalem. It 
 was originally a square building of very 
 small size, but the Khalifah ‘Usman enlarged 
 it. Sultan ‘Abdu ’1-IIamid rebuilt the place, 
 but it has no pretensions to grandeur. (See 
 Burton’s Pilgrimage, vol. i. jo. 390.) 
 
 MASNUN That which is 
 
 founded upon the precept or practice of Mu¬ 
 hammad. [sunnah.] 
 
 al-MATIN ((***♦«). “The Strong” 
 
 (as a fortification is strong). One of the 
 ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah li. 58: “ God is 
 the provider, endowed with power, the Strong .” 
 
 MATJST (o^*). The text of a hook. 
 
 The notes, or commentary upon the text are 
 called the shark. A word frequently used by 
 Muhammadans in theological books. 
 
 MA’UDAH (ii^ey»). From wa'ad, 
 
 “ to bury alive.” A damsel buried alive. A 
 custom which existed before the time of Mu¬ 
 hammad in ancient Arabia, but which was 
 forbidden by him. Surah xvii. 33 : “ Kill not 
 your children from fear of want.” See also 
 Surahs xvi. 61 ; lxxxi. 8. 
 
 MAULA pi. mawdli. A 
 
 term used in Muslim law for a slave, but in 
 the Qur’an for “ a protector or helper,” i.e. 
 God Almighty. 
 
 Surah viii. 41: “ Know ye that God is your 
 protector .” 
 
 Surah ii. 386: “Thou (God) art our pro¬ 
 tector.” 
 
 Surah xlvii. 12: “ God is the protector of 
 those who believe.” 
 
 The plural form occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. 37, where it is translated by Palmer 
 thus: “ Toj evei-yone have we appointed 
 kinsfolk ” (mawdli). 
 
 MAULAWl From maula, 
 
 “ a lord or master.” A term generally used 
 for a learned man. 
 
 MAULID (Aly»). The birthday, 
 
 especially of a prophet or saint. The birth¬ 
 day of Muhammad, which is known as Mau- 
 lidu ’n-Nabi, is celebrated on the 12th of 
 Rabl‘u ’1-Awwal. It is a day observed in 
 Turkey and Egypt and in some parts 
 of Hindustan, but not in Central Asia, by the 
 recital of numerous zikrs, and by distribution 
 of alms, 
 
Me ROY 
 
 347 
 
 ma’u ’l-quds 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, vol. ii. 
 p. 171, gives the following specimen of a zikr 
 recited in the Maulidu ’n-Nabi: “0 God 
 bless our lord Muhammad among the latter 
 generations; and bless our lord Muhammad 
 in every time and period, and bless our lord 
 Muhammad among the most exalted princes, 
 unto the Day of Judgment; and bless all the 
 prophets and apostles among the inhabitants 
 of the heavens, and of the earth, and may 
 God (whose name be blessed and exalted) be 
 well pleased with our lords and our masters, 
 those persons of illustrious estimation, Abu 
 Bakr, and ‘Umar, and ‘Usman, and ‘All, and 
 with all the other favourites of God. God is 
 our sufficiency, excellent is the Guardian. 
 And there is no strength nor power but in 
 God, " the High, the Great. 0 God, 0 our 
 Lord, 0 Thou liberal of pardon, 0 Thou most 
 bountiful of the most bountiful, 0 God. 
 Amin.” 
 
 MA’U ’L-QUDS (o-as5\ pU). Lit. 
 
 “ Water of Holiness.” A term used by the 
 Sufis for such holy influences on the soul of 
 man as enable him to overcome the lusts of 
 the flesh, and to become holy. (See ‘Abdu’r- 
 Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 al-MA‘UN Lit. “ Neces¬ 
 
 saries.” The title of the cvnth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, in the last verse of which the word 
 occurs. 
 
 MATJT Or)- “Death.” Heb. 
 
 fYlp* The word is always used in 
 the Qur’an in its literal sense, meaning the 
 departure of the spirit from the body, e.g. 
 Surah ii. 182: “Every soul must taste of 
 death." But amongst the Sufis it is employed 
 in a figurative sense, e.g. al-mautu ’ l-abyaz , or 
 “ the white death,” is held to mean abstinence 
 from food, or that feeling of hunger which 
 purifies the soul. A person who frequently 
 abstains from food is said to have entered 
 this state of death. Al-mautu ’l-akhzar . “ the 
 green death,” the wearing of old clothes in a 
 state of voluntary poverty. When a person 
 has given up wearing purple and fine linen, 
 and has chosen the garments of poverty, he is 
 said to have entered this state of death. 
 Al-mautu ’l-aswad, “ the black death,” the 
 voluntary taking up of trouble, and submit¬ 
 ting to be evil spoken of for the truth’s sake. 
 When a Muslim has learnt to submit to such 
 troubles and persecutions, he is said to have 
 entered into this state of death. (See ‘Abdu 
 ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) [mamat.] 
 MA’ZUN (fc^U). A licensed or 
 privileged slave. A slave who has received 
 a remission of all the inhibitions attending his 
 state of bondage. 
 
 MEAT, [pood.] 
 
 MECCA, [makkah.] 
 
 MEDICINE. Arabic dawa’ 
 
 The only medicine recommended in the Qu’ran 
 is honey. See Surah xvi. 71 : “From its 
 (the bee’s) belly cometh forth a fluid of vary¬ 
 ing hues, which yieldeth medicine to man.” 
 
 MEDINA, [al-madinah.] 
 MEDITATION, [muraqabah.] 
 
 MENSTRUATION. Arabic mahiz 
 The catamenia, or menses, is 
 termed hayz. The woman in this condition is 
 called ha’iz or ha’izah. All books of Muham¬ 
 madan theology contain a chapter devoted to 
 the treatment of women in this condition. 
 During the period of menstruation, women are 
 not permitted to say their prayers, or to touch 
 or read the Qur’an, or enter a mosque, and 
 are forbidden to their husbands. But it is 
 related in the traditions that Muhammad 
 abrogated the law of Moses which set a mon- 
 struous woman entirely apart for seven days. 
 (Leviticus xv. 19). And Anas says that 
 when the Jews heard this they said, “ This 
 man opposes our customs in everything.” 
 
 (See Qur’an, Surah ii. 222; Mishkatu 
 Masabih, Hamilton’s ed. vol. i. p. 121 ; 
 Arabic ed. Babu ’l-Huiz.) 
 
 When the period of menses ceases, bathing 
 must be performed and prayer said. 
 
 MERCY. Arabic Bahmali 
 Heb. Drn_* The attribute of mercy 
 
 is specially mentioned in the Qur’an as one 
 which characterizes the Divine Being; each 
 chapter of that hook (with the exception of 
 the ixth), beginning with the superscription, 
 Bismillahi 'r-Rahmani 'r-Rahim, “ In the name 
 of God the Merciful, the Compassionate.” In 
 the Tafsir-i-Raufi it is said that ar-Rafiman 
 is only applicable to God, whilst ar-Ratiim 
 may be applied to the creature as well as to 
 God; but the Jalalan say the two terms are 
 synonymous, and on this account they are 
 used together. Al-Baizawi remarks that the 
 attribute of mercy expresses “ softness of 
 heart ” ( [riqqatu ’l-qalb), and “ a turning with 
 kindness and favour towards a person,” and 
 in this way it expresses God’s sympathy with 
 mankind, although the terms are not strictly 
 applicable to an unchangeable Being. In the 
 Qur’an, Job is described as speaking of God 
 as “ the most merciful of merciful ones.” 
 (Surah xxi. 83). And the angels who bear 
 the throne, and those around it who celebrate 
 God’s praises, cry out: “Our Lord 1 thou dost 
 embrace all things in mercy and knowledge 1 ” 
 (Surah xl. 7.) The “ Treasuries of the mer¬ 
 cies of the Lord,” are often referred to in the 
 Qur’an (e.g. Surahs xvii. 102 ; xviii. 81). The 
 word Rahmah, “ a mercy,” is a term used for 
 a divine book; it is frequently applied to the 
 Qur’an, which is called “ a mercy and a guid¬ 
 ance ” (Surahs x. 58 ; xvii. 84), and also to the 
 hooks of Moses (Surahs xi. 20 ; xii. 111). In 
 one place it is used for Paradise, “ They are in 
 God’s mercy ” (Surah iii. 103). The bounty 
 of God’s mercy is the constant theme both of 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions; e.g. Surah vii. 
 155 : “ My mercy embraceth everything.” To 
 despair of God’s mercy is a cardinal sin. 
 Surah xxxix. 54: “ Be not in despair of the 
 mercy of God ; verily, God forgives sins, all 
 of them.” Surah xv. 56: “ Only those who 
 err despair of the mercy of their Lord.” 
 
MICHAEL 
 
 348 
 
 In the Traditions, Muhammad is related to 
 have said : “ When God created the world He 
 wrote a book, which is with Him on the 
 exalted throne, and therein is written, ‘ Verily 
 my mercy overcomes my anger.’ ” And, 
 again, “ Verily, God has one hundred mer¬ 
 cies ; one mercy hath he sent down to men 
 and genii, but He hath reserved ninety-nine 
 mercies, by which He will be gracious to His 
 people.” ( Mishkdt , book x. ch. 4.) 
 
 The Lvth Surah of the Qur’an is entitled 
 the Suratu ’r-Rahman, or the “ Chapter of the 
 Merciful,” in which are set forth the “ boun¬ 
 ties of the Lord.” It is a chapter which is 
 sadly marred by its concluding description of 
 the sensual enjoyments of Muhammad’s para¬ 
 dise. 
 
 The Christians are spoken of in the Qur’an, 
 Surah lvii. 27, as those in whose hearts God 
 “ placed mercy ( rafunah ) and compassion 
 (rafah).” 
 
 MICHAEL. In Muhammadan 
 
 works generally, the Archangel Michael is 
 called Mi/ca’il (Iieb. > 
 
 * * T 
 
 but in the Qur’an, in which his name once 
 occurs, he is called Mikal (JL£-y«). Al- 
 Baizawl says that a Jew named ‘Abdu ’llah 
 ibn Suriya’, objected to Muhammad’s asser¬ 
 tion that the Archangel Gabriel revealed the 
 Qur’an to him, because he was an avenging 
 angel, and said that if it had been sent by 
 Michael, their own guardian angel (Daniel 
 xii. 1), they might have believed. This asser¬ 
 tion called forth the following verses from 
 Muhammad in Surah ii. 92:— 
 
 “ Whoso is the enemy of Gabriel—For he 
 it is who by God’s leave hath caused the 
 Qur'an to descend on thy heart, the confirma¬ 
 tion of previous revelations, and guidance, and 
 good tidings to the faithful—Whoso is an 
 enemy to God or his angels, or to Gabriel, or 
 to Michael, shall have God as his enemy : for 
 verily God is an enemy to the infidels. 
 Moreover, clear signs have we sent down to 
 thee, and none will disbelieve them but the 
 perverse.” 
 
 MEDIAN, [madyan.] 
 
 MIFTAHU ’L-JANNAH ( c ^— 
 “ The Key of Paradise.” A 
 
 term used by Muhammad for prayer. ( Mish¬ 
 kdt , book iii. ch. i.) 
 
 MIHJAN A liook-headed 
 
 stick about four feet long, which, it is said, 
 the Prophet always carried ; now carried by 
 men of religious pretensions. 
 
 MIHRAB (v^). A niche in 
 
 the centre of a wall of a mosque, which 
 marks the direction of Makkah, and before 
 which the Imam takes his position when he 
 leads the congregation in prayer. In the 
 Masjidu ’n-Nabl, or Prophet’s mosque, at al- 
 Madinah, a large black stone, placed against 
 the northern wall, facing Jerusalem, directed 
 the congregation, but it was removed to the 
 
 MILLAH 
 
 southern side when the Qiblah was changed 
 to Makkah. 
 
 The Mihrab, as it now exists, dates from 
 the days of al-Walld (a.h. 90), and it seems 
 probable that the Khalifah borrowed the idea 
 
 A MIIIRAB. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 a mihrab. ( W. S. Chadwick.) 
 
 from the Hindus, such a niche being a pecu¬ 
 liarly Hindu feature in sacred buildings. 
 
 The word occurs four times in the Qur’an, 
 where it is used for a chamber (Surahs iii. 
 32, 33 ; xix. 12 ; xxxviii. 20), and its plural, 
 maharih, once (Surah xxxiv. 12). 
 
 MlKA’IL (JAlShy*). [MICHAEL.] 
 MILLAH (aU). A word which 
 
 occurs in the Qur’an fifteen times. Eight 
 times for the religion of Abraham (Surahs ii. 
 124, 129; iii. 89; iv. 124; vi. 162 ; xii. 38; 
 xvi. 124 ; xxii. 77) ; twice for the religion of 
 former prophets (Surahs xiv. 16; xxxviii. 6) ; 
 once for the religion of the seven children of 
 the cave (Surah xviii. 19) ; three times for 
 idolatrous religions (Surahs xii. 37 ; vii. 86, 
 87); and once for the religion of Jews and 
 Christians (Surah ii. 114). The word is used 
 in the Traditions for the religion of Abraham 
 (Mishkdt, book x. ch. v.). 
 
 According to the Kitabu ’t-Tah-ifat, it is 
 expressive of religion as it stands in relation 
 to the prophets, as distinguished from Din 
 which signifies religion as it stands in 
 relation to God, or from Mazhab (w.jfcA*), 
 which signifies religion with reference to the 
 
MILK 
 
 MINBAR 
 
 349 
 
 learned doctors, [religion.] Sprenger and 
 Dentsch have invested the origin and mean¬ 
 ing of this word with a certain amount of 
 mystery, which is interesting. 
 
 Dr. Sprenger says ( Das Leben und die Lehre 
 des Mohammad, vol. ii. p. 276 n)“ When 
 Mohammad speaks of the religion of Abra¬ 
 ham, ho generally uses the word Milla 
 ( Millah ) and not Din. Arabian philologists 
 nave tried to trace the meaning of the word 
 from their mother tongue, thus, Malta 
 (Mallah ) signifies fire or hot ashes in Arabic 
 and Zaggag says ( Thalaby , vol. ii. p. 114), 
 that religion is called Milla because of the 
 impression which it makes, and which may 
 be compared to that which fire makes upon 
 the bread baked in ashes. Since the Arabs 
 are unable to give a better explanation, we 
 must presume that milla is a foreign word, 
 imported by the teachers of the ‘ Milla of 
 Abraham” in the Hijaz. Philo considered 
 Abraham the chief promoter of the doctrine 
 of the Unity of God, and doubtless, even 
 before Philo, Jewish thought, in tracing the 
 doctrine of the true religion, not only as far 
 back as Moses, but even to the father of their 
 nation, emancipated the indispensability of the 
 form of the law, and so prepared the road to 
 Essaism and Christianity.” 
 
 Mr. Emanuel Deutsch, in his article on 
 Islam {Literary Remains , p 130), says : “ The 
 word used in the Quran for the religion of 
 Abraham is generally Milla. Sprenger, after 
 ridiculing the indeed absurd attempts made to 
 derive it from an Arabic root, concludes that 
 it must be a foreign word introduced by the 
 teachers of the ‘ Milla of Abraham ’ into the 
 Hijaz. He is perfectly right. Milla = Memra 
 = Logos, are identical; being the Hebrew, 
 Chaldee (Targum, Peshito in slightly varied 
 spelling), and Greek terms respectively for 
 the ‘Word,’ that surrogate for the Divine 
 name used by the Targum, by Philo, by St. 
 John. This Milla or ‘ Word,’ which Abraham 
 proclaimed, he, ‘ who was not an astrologer 
 but a prophet,’ teaches according to the Hag- 
 gadah, first of all, the existence of one God, 
 the Creator of the Universe, who rules this 
 universe with mercy and lovingkindness.” 
 
 MILK. Arabic laban (^5). The 
 
 sale of milk in the udder is unlawful {Hida- 
 yah , vol. ii. p. 433). In the Qur’an it is men¬ 
 tioned as one of God’s special gifts. “Verily, 
 ye have in cattle a lesson: we give you to 
 drink from that which is in their bellies be¬ 
 twixt chyme and blood—pure milk—easy to 
 swallow for those who drink.” (Surah xvi. 
 68 .) 
 
 MINA Lit. “ A wish.” A 
 
 sacred valley near Makkah, in which part of 
 the Pilgrimage ceremonies take place. Ac¬ 
 cording to ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, it was so called 
 because Adam wished for paradise in this 
 valley. 
 
 MINARET, [manarah.] 
 MINBAR. G-enerally pronounced 
 mimbar The pulpit in a 
 
 mosque from which the khutbah (or sermon) 
 
 is recited. It consists of three steps, and is 
 sometimes a moveable wooden structure, and 
 sometimes a fixture of brick or stone built 
 against the wall. Muhammad, in addressing 
 the congregation, stood on the uppermost 
 
 A MIMBAR IN AN INDIAN MOSQUE. 
 
 ( W. S. Chadwick.) 
 
 step, Abu Bakr on the second, and ‘Umar on 
 the third or lowest. ‘Usman fixed upon the 
 middle step, and since then it has been the 
 custom to preach from that step. The 
 Shrahs have four steps to their mimbars. 
 The mimbars in the mosques of Cairo are 
 
 A MIMBAR IN AN EGYPTIAN MOSQUE. 
 
 (W. S. Chadwick.) 
 
 elevated structures, but in Asia they are of a 
 more primitive character. 
 
 Burton says: “ In the beginning the Pro¬ 
 phet leaned, when fatigued, against a post, 
 whilst preaching the khutbah or Friday ser- 
 
350 
 
 MINES 
 
 MIRACLES 
 
 mon. The raimbar, or pulpit, was an inven¬ 
 tion of a Madinah man of the Banu Najjar. 
 It was a wooden frame, two cubits long by 
 one broad, with three steps, each one span 
 high; on the topmost of these the Prophet 
 sat when he required rest. The pulpit as¬ 
 sumed its present form about a.h. 90, during 
 the artistic reign of El Walid.” 
 
 A MIMBAR IN MOSQUES AT PESHAWAIi. 
 
 MINES. Arabic ma‘din 
 
 pi. ma‘adin. In Zakat, mines are subject to 
 a payment of one fifth. ( Hidayah , vol. i. 
 39.) 
 
 MINIIAH A legal term 
 
 for a portion of camel’s or sheep’s milk which 
 another is allowed to draw, but afterwards 
 to restore the animal to its original owner. 
 
 MINORITY, [puberty.] 
 
 MlQAT Lit. “A stated 
 
 time, or place.” The stations at which Mak- 
 kan pilgrims assume the ihram or “ pilgrim’s 
 garment.” Five of these stations were esta¬ 
 blished by Muhammad (Mishkat, book xi. 
 eh. i. pt. 1), and the sixth has been added 
 since to suit the convenience of travellers 
 from the East. They are as follows: (1) 
 Zu 'l-Hulafa', for the pilgrims from al-Madi- 
 nah; (2) Juhfah, for Syria; (3) Qarnu 
 Manazil, for Najd; (4) Yaulamlam, for Ya- 
 man; (5) Zat-i-‘Irq, for ‘Iraq; (6) Ibrahim 
 Mursia, for those who arrive by sea from 
 India and the east. 
 
 The putting on of the ihram at Jerusalem 
 is highly meritorious, according to a tradition, 
 which says, “ The Prophet said, Whoever wears 
 the ihram for hajj or ‘umrah, from the Mas- 
 jidu ’1-Aqsa (i.e. the Temjile at Jerusalem) 
 to the Masjidu ’1-Haram, shall be forgiven for 
 all his past and future sins.” ( Mislikat , book 
 xi. ch. i. jit. 2.) 
 
 MlR (;~»). A title of respect used 
 
 for the descendants of celebrated Muhamma¬ 
 dan saints. More generally used for Saiyids, 
 or descendants of Fatimah, the Prophet’s 
 daughter. 
 
 MIRACLES. Supernatural powers 
 
 given to men are spoken of by Muslim lexico¬ 
 graphers as khariqu ’ l-‘adat (sA*!l 
 or •“ things contrary to custom.” In Muslim 
 theology, they are expressed by eight terms : 
 (1) Ayah (&\), pi. ay at, “ a sign”; the only 
 word used in the Qur’an for a miracle (see 
 Surahs xiii. 27; xxix. 49; liv. 2). (2) 
 
 Mujizah (bjs?**), pi. mujizdt , “ making weak 
 
 or feeble,” or that which renders the adver¬ 
 saries to the truth weak and feeble ; a term 
 used only for miracles prformed by prophets. 
 (3) Irhas pi. irha$at, lit. “laying a 
 
 foundation ”; used for any miracle performed 
 by a prophet before his assumption of the 
 prophetical office. (4) ‘Alamah (A^c), pi. 
 ‘alamat, “ a sign,” the same as ayah, and used 
 for the signs of the coming Resurrection. (5) 
 Kardmah pi. kardmdt, lit. ./‘benefi¬ 
 
 cence ”; wonders wrought by saints for the 
 good of the people as well as in proof of their 
 own saintship. (6) Mal-unah (<L^*,»), pi. 
 ma‘wandt, lit. “ help or assistance; ” used 
 also for the wonders wrought by saints. 
 (7) Istidraj lit. “promoting by 
 
 degrees ”; a term employed to express the 
 miracles wrought by the assistance of the 
 Devil with the permission of God. (8) Ihanah 
 (ASlfcl), pi. ihanat, lit. “ contempt ” ; miracles 
 wrought by the assistance of the Devil, but 
 when they turn out to the disdain and con¬ 
 tempt of the worker. 
 
 It does not appear from the Qur’an that 
 Muhammad ever claimed the power of work¬ 
 ing miracles, but, on the contrary, he asserted 
 that it was not his mission to work signs 
 and wonders in proof of his apostleship. This 
 seems to be evident from the following verses 
 in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah xxix. 49 : “ They say, Why are not 
 signs ( dyat) sent down to him from his Lord ? 
 Say: Signs are in the power of God alone, 
 and I am only an open warner.” 
 
 Surah xiii. 27-30: “ And they who believe 
 not say, Why is not a sign (ayah) sent down to 
 him from his Lord ? Say: God truly mis- 
 leadeth whom He will, and guideth to Him¬ 
 self him who turneth to Him. ... If there 
 were a Qur’an by which the mountains would 
 be set in motion, or the earth cleft by it, or 
 the dead be addressed by it, they would not 
 believe.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 92-97 : “ And they say, By no 
 means will we believe on thee till thou cause 
 a fountain to gush forth for us from the earth, 
 or till thou have a garden of palm trees and 
 grapes, and thou cause gushing rivers to gush 
 forth in its midst, or till thou make heaven 
 to fall upon us, as thou hast given out in 
 pieces ; or thou bring God and the angels to 
 vouch for thee; or thou have a house of God, 
 or thou mount up into heaven; nor will we 
 believe in thy mounting up until thou send 
 us down a book which we may read. Say: 
 Praise be to my Lord I Am I more than a 
 man, and an apostle ? And what hindereth 
 men from believing, when the guidance hath 
 come to them, but that they say, Hath God 
 sent a mere man as an apostle ? Say: Did 
 angels walk the earth as its familiars, we 
 had surely sent them an angel-apostle out of 
 heaven.” 
 
 But notwithstanding these positive asser¬ 
 tions on the part of their Prophet against his 
 ability to work miracles, there are at least 
 four places in the Qur’an where the Muham¬ 
 madans believe that miracles are referred to 
 
 1. The clefting of the moon (Surah liv. 1, 2): 
 
MIRACLES 
 
 “ The hour hath approached, and the moon 
 hath been cleft. But if the unbelievers see 
 a sign {ayah), they turn aside and say, Magic 1 
 that shall pass away 1 ” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says, in his commentary on this 
 verse, “ Some say that the unbelievers de¬ 
 manded this sign of the Prophet, and the 
 moon was cleft in two; but others say it 
 refers to a sign of the coming Resun’ection, 
 the words ‘ will be cleft ’ being expressed in 
 the prophetic preterite.” 
 
 Rodwell renders it “ hath been cleft,” as he 
 thinks Muhammad may possibly allude to 
 some meteor or comet which he fancied to 
 be part of the moon. 
 
 2. The assistance given to the Muslims at 
 the battle of Badr. Surah iii. 120, 121 : 
 “ When thou didst say to the faithful: ‘ Is it 
 not enough for you that your Lord aideth 
 you with three thousand angels sent down 
 from on high ? ’ Nay ; but if ye be steadfast, 
 and fear God, and the foe come upon you in 
 hot haste, your Lord will help you with five 
 thousand angels with their distinguishing 
 marks.” 
 
 These “ distinguishing marks,” say the 
 commentators, were when the angels rode on 
 black and white horses, and had on their 
 heads white and yellow turbans, the ends of 
 which hung down between their shoulders. 
 
 3. The celebrated night journey. Surah 
 xvii. 1: “ We declare the glory of Him who 
 transports his servant by night from the 
 Masjidu ’1-Haram to the Masjidu ’1-Aqsa (i.e. 
 from Makkah to Jerusalem).” 
 
 4. The Qur’an itself, which the Muhamma¬ 
 dans say is the great miracle of Islam, the 
 like of which has not been created, nor ever 
 will be, by the power of man. In proof of 
 this they quote Surah xxix. 48: “ It is a 
 clear sign ( aijah ) in the hearts of whom the 
 knowledge hath reached.” 
 
 Although these very doubtful assertions in 
 the Qur'an fail to establish the miraculous 
 powers of the Prophet, the Traditions re¬ 
 cord numerous occasions when he worked 
 miracles in the presence of his people. 
 
 The following are recorded in the traditions 
 of al-Bukharl and Muslim :— 
 
 (1) On the flight from Makkah, Suraqah being 
 cursed by the Prophet, his horse sank up to 
 its belly in the hard ground. 
 
 (2) The Prophet marked out at Badr the 
 exact spot on which each of the idolaters 
 should be slain, and Anas says not one of 
 them passed alive beyond the spot marked by 
 the Prophet. 
 
 (3) He cured the broken leg of ‘Abdu ’llah 
 ibn Atiq by a touch. 
 
 (4) He converted hard ground into a heap 
 of sand by one stroke of an axe. 
 
 (5) He fed a I thousand people upon one 
 kid and a sa‘ of barley. 
 
 (6) He gave a miraculous supply of water 
 at the battle of al-Hudaibiyab. 
 
 (7) Two trees miraculously moved to form 
 a shade for the Prophet. 
 
 (8) He made Jabir a good horseman by 
 his prayers. 
 
 (9) A wooden pillar wept to such an extent 
 
 MI { RAJ 351 
 
 that it nearly rent in two parts, because the 
 Prophet desisted from leaning against it. 
 
 (10) A sluggish horse became swift from 
 being ridden by the Prophet. 
 
 (11) Seventy or eighty people miraculously 
 fed on a few barley loaves and a little butter. 
 
 (12) Three hundred men fed from a single 
 cake. 
 
 The following are recorded by various 
 writers :— 
 
 (1) The Prophet was saluted by the hills 
 and trees near Makkah, with the salutation, 
 “ Peace be to thee, 0 Messenger of God I ” 
 
 (2) A tree moved from its place to the 
 shade when the Prophet slept under it. 
 
 (3) The Prophet cured a maniacal boy by 
 saying, “ Come out of him.” 
 
 (4) A wolf was made to speak by the 
 Prophet. 
 
 (For further information, see Kitabu 7- 
 Mu‘jizat, Sahihu ’l-Bukhari, Mishlcatu 7- 
 Masabih, Sahihu Muslim .) 
 
 MI‘RAJ (e^;*'*). Lit. “ An ascent.” 
 
 Muhammad’s supposed journey to heaven; 
 called also Isrd (^^A), “the nocturnal 
 journey.” It is said to have taken place in 
 the twelfth year of the Prophet’s mission, in 
 the month of Rabi‘u ’1-Awwal. 
 
 According to ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, there are some 
 divines who have regarded this miraculous 
 event as a mere vision, but, he adds, the 
 majority hold it to be a literal journey. 
 
 The only mention of the vision in the 
 Qur’an is contained in Surah xvii. 1 : “ Praise 
 be to Him who carried His servant by night 
 from the Masjidu ’1-Haram (i.e. the Makkan 
 temple) to the Masjidu ’1-Aqsa (i.e. the Temple 
 of Jerusalem).” 
 
 The following is the description of the 
 supposed journey given in the Mishlcatu 'l-Ma- 
 sabih. Muhammad is related to have said :— 
 
 “ Whilst I was sleeping upon my side, he 
 (Gabriel) came to me, and cut me open from 
 my breast to below my navel, and took out 
 my heart, and washed the cavity with Zam- 
 zam water, and then filled my heart with 
 Faith and Science. After this, a white 
 animal was brought for me to ride upon. Its 
 size was between that of a mule and an ass, 
 and it stretched as far as the eye could see. 
 The name of the animal was Buraq. Then I 
 mounted the animal, and ascended until we 
 arrived at the lowest heaven, and Gabriel de¬ 
 manded that the door should be opened. And 
 it was asked, 1 Who is it ? ’ and he said, ‘ I am 
 Gabriel.’ And they then said, ‘ Who is with 
 you?’ and he answered, ‘ It is Muhammad.’ 
 They said, ‘ Has Muhammad been called to 
 the office of a prophet?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ 
 They said, ‘ Welcome Muhammmad ; his 
 coming is well.’ Then the door was opened ; 
 and when I arrived in the first heaven, be¬ 
 hold, I saw Adam. And Gabriel said to me, 
 ‘ This is your father Adam, salute him.’ 
 Then I saluted Vdam, and he answered it 
 and said, ‘ You are welcome, 0 good son, and 
 good Prophet! ’ After that Gabriel took me 
 above, and we reached the second heaven ■ 
 and he asked the door to be opened, and it 
 
352 
 
 mi'eaj 
 
 MIRZABAH 
 
 was said, ‘Who is it?’ He said, ‘I am 
 Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘ Who is with you ? ’ 
 He said, 1 Muhammad.’ It was said, ‘ Was 
 he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ It was said, 
 ‘Welcome Muhammad; his coming is well.’ 
 Then the door was opened; and when I 
 arrived in the second region, behold, I saw 
 John and Jesus (sisters’ sons). And Gabriel 
 said, ‘ This is John, and this is Jesus ; salute 
 both of them.’ Then I saluted them, and they 
 returned it. After that they said, ‘ Welcome 
 good brother and Prophet.’ After that we 
 went up to the third heaven, and asked the 
 door to be opened ; and it was said, ‘ Who is 
 it ? ’ Gabriel said, ‘ I am Gabriel.’ They 
 said, ‘ Who is with you ? ’ He said, ‘ Muham¬ 
 mad.’ They said, ‘ Was he called? ’ Gabriel 
 said, ‘Yes.’ They said, ‘Welcome Muham¬ 
 mad ; his coming is well.’ Then the door was 
 opened ; and when I entered the third heaven, 
 behold, I saw Joseph. And Gabriel said, 
 ‘ This is Joseph, salute him.’ Then I did so, 
 and he answered it, and said, ‘Welcome, good 
 brother and good Prophet.’ After that Ga¬ 
 briel took me to the fourth heaven, and asked 
 the door to be opened ; it was said, ‘ Who is 
 that ? ’ He said, ‘ I am Gabriel.’ It was said, 
 
 ‘ Who is with you? ’ He said, 1 Muhammad.’ 
 It was said, ‘Was he called?’ He said, 
 
 ‘ Yes.’ They said, ‘ Welcome Muhammad ; his 
 coming his well.’ And the door was opened ; 
 and when I entered the fourth heaven, behold, 
 I saw Enoch. And Gabriel said, ‘ This is Enoch, 
 salute him.’ And I did so, and he answered 
 it, and said, ‘ Welcome, good brother and Pro¬ 
 phet.’ After that Gabriel took me to the 
 fifth heaven, and asked the door to be opened; 
 and it was said, ‘ Who is there ? ’ He said, 
 
 ‘ I am Gabriel.’ It was said, ‘ Who is with 
 you ? ’ He said, ‘ Muhammad.’ They said, 
 ‘Was he called?’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They 
 said, ‘ Welcome Muhammad; his coming is 
 well.’ Then the door was opened; and 
 when I arrived in the fifth region, behold, I 
 saw Aaron. And Gabriel said, 1 This is 
 Aaron, salute him.’ And I did so, and he re¬ 
 turned it, and said, ‘ Welcome, good brother 
 and Prophet.’ After that Gabriel took me to 
 the sixth heaven, and asked the door to be 
 opened; and they said, ‘Who is there?’ He 
 said, 1 1 am Gabriel.’ They said, ‘ And who is 
 with you?’ He said, ‘Muhammad.’ They 
 said, ‘ Is he called ? ’ He said, ‘Yes.’ They 
 said, 1 Welcome Muhammad ; his coming is 
 well.’ Then the door was opened ; and when 
 I entered the sixth heaven, behold, I saw 
 Moses. And Gabriel said, ‘ This is Moses, 
 salute him.’ And I did so ; and he returned 
 it, and said, ‘ Welcome, good brother and Pro¬ 
 phet.’ And when I passed him, he wept. And 
 I said to him, ‘ What makes you weep ? ’ He 
 said, ‘ Because one is sent after me, of whose 
 people more will enter Paradise than of mine.’ 
 After that Gabriel took me up to the seventh 
 heaven, and asked the door to be opened; 
 and it was said, ‘ Who is it ? ’ He said, ‘ I 
 am Gabriel.’ And it was said, ‘ Who is with 
 you?’ He said, ‘Muhammad.’ They said, 
 
 ‘ Was he called ? ’ He said, ‘ Yes.’ They 
 said, ‘ Welcome Muhammad; his coming is 
 
 well.’ Then I entered the seventh heaven, 
 and behold, I saw Abraham. And Gabriel 
 said, ‘ This is Abraham, your father, salute 
 him ’; which I did, and lie returned it, and 
 said, ‘ Welcome good son and good Prophet.’ 
 After that I was taken up to the tree called 
 Sidratu ’1-Muntaha; and behold its fruits were 
 like water-pots, and its leaves like elephant’s 
 ears. And Gabriel said, ‘ This is Sidratu ’1- 
 Muntaha.’ And I saw four rivers there ; two 
 of them hidden, and two manifest. I said to 
 Gabriel, ‘ What are these ? ’ He said, ‘ These 
 two concealed rivers are in Paradise ; and the 
 two manifest are the Nile and the Euphrates.’ 
 After that, I was shown the Baitu ’1-M‘amur. 
 After that, a vessel full of wine, another 
 full of milk, and another of honey, were 
 brought to me; and I took the milk and 
 drank it. And Gabriel said, ‘ Milk is reli¬ 
 gion; you and your people will be of it.” 
 After that the divine orders for prayers were 
 fifty every day. Then I returned, and passed 
 by Moses ; and he said, ‘ What have you been 
 ordered ? ’ I said, ‘ Fifty prayers every day.’ 
 Then Moses said, ‘ Verily, your people will 
 not be able to perform fifty prayers every 
 day ; and verily, I swear by God, I tried men 
 before you; I applied a remedy to the sons 
 of Israel, but it had not the desired effect. 
 Then return to your Lord, and ask your 
 people to be released from that. And I re¬ 
 turned ; and ten prayers were taken off. Then 
 I went to Moses, and he said as before; and 
 I returned to God’s court, and ten prayers 
 more were curtailed. Then I retuned to 
 Moses, and he said as before; then I re¬ 
 turned to God’s court, and ten more were 
 taken off. And I went to Moses, and he said 
 as before ; then I returned to God, and ten 
 more were lessened. Then I went to Moses, 
 and he said as before; then I went to God’s 
 court, and was ordered five prayers every 
 day. Then I went to Moses, and he said, 
 
 ‘ How many have you been ordered ? ’ I said, 
 
 ‘ Five prayers every day.’ He said, ‘ Verily, 
 your people will not be able to perform five 
 prayers every day; for, verily, I tried men 
 before you, and applied the severest remedy 
 to the sons of Israel. Then return to your 
 Lord, and ask them to be lightened.’ I said, 
 
 ‘ I have asked Him till I am quite ashamed; 
 
 I cannot return to Him again. But I am 
 satisfied, and resign the work of my people to 
 God.’ Then, when I passed from that place, 
 a crier called out, ‘ I have established My 
 divine commandments, and have made them 
 easy to My servants.” 
 
 Suratu ’1-Mi‘raj is a title of the xvnth 
 chapter of the Qur’an, in the first verse of 
 which there is a reference to the night journey 
 of Muhammad. It is called also the Suratu 
 Ban! Isra’Il, or the Chapter of the Children of 
 Israel. 
 
 MlRAS [inheritance.] 
 
 MlRZA A title of respect 
 
 given to persons of good family. 
 
 MIRZABAH, MIRZABBAH(^). 
 
 “ A clod-crusher.” The iron hammer with 
 
MISAQ 
 
 MIZAN 
 
 which the dead are beaten who cannot reply 
 satisfactorily to the questions put to them by 
 Munkar and Nakir. Called also Mitraqah 
 (dijk*). [punishments of the grave.] 
 
 MlSAQ “A covenant.” A 
 
 word used in the Qur’an for God’s covenant 
 with his people, [covenant.] 
 
 MISHKATU ’L-MASABIH (S/a- 
 ^.oLa^R). A well-known book of Sunni 
 tradition, much used by Sunni Muslims in 
 India, and frequently quoted in the present 
 work. It was originally compiled by the 
 Imam Husain al-Baghawi, the celebrated 
 commentator, who died a.h. 510 or 5IG, and 
 called the Masdhih.u ’s-Sunnah, or the “Lamps 
 of the Traditions.” In the year a.h. 737, 
 Shaikh Wallyu ’d-din revised the work of 
 al-Baghawi, adding an additional chapter to 
 each section, and called it the Alishkatu ’/- 
 Masabih, or the “ Niche for lamps.” In the 
 time of the Emperor Akbar, Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1- 
 Haqq translated the work into Persian, and 
 added a commentary. (See Kashfu ’z-Zunun, 
 in loco.) 
 
 MISKlN “ A poor per¬ 
 
 son.” Heb. Eccles. ix. 15, 
 
 According to Muslim law, a person who has no 
 property whatever, as distinguished from a 
 faqir ora person who possesses a little 
 
 property, but is poor. ( Hidayak, vol. i. p. 54.) 
 
 MISQAL (JlaL»). An Arabic 
 
 weight, which frequently occurs in Muham¬ 
 madan law books. Richardson gives it at a 
 dram and three-sevenths. It is also used for 
 a gold coin of that weight, [monet.] 
 
 MISR (f**)- [EGYPT.] 
 
 MISWAK (dlj—). (1) A tooth- 
 
 cleaner made of wood, about a span long. 
 It is preferred when made of a •wood which 
 has a bitter flavour. The Salvadora Indica 
 is the tree, the wood of which is used in India. 
 
 (2) The act of cleaning the teeth, which 
 is a religious ceremony founded upon the 
 example of Muhammad, and forms the first 
 part of the wazu\ or “ ablution before prayer.” 
 
 The Prophet was particularly careful in 
 the observance of miswak (see Alishkat, book 
 iii. ch. 4.) It is amongst those things which 
 are called fitrah (q.v.). 
 
 MITRAQAH The iron 
 
 hammer or mace with which the infidels will 
 be smitten in their graves by the angels 
 Munkar and Nakir. Persian gurz. [punish¬ 
 ments of the grave.] 
 
 MIYAN (eA**). A Persian word, 
 
 used as a title of respect for the descendants 
 of celebrated Muhammadan saints. 
 
 MIZAN P 1 . mawazm. 
 
 Heb. pi. Lit. “A balance.” 
 
 (1) The law contained in the Qur’an, Surah 
 xlii. 16 : “ God is He who hath sent down 
 the Book with truth and the balance.” 
 
 (2) The scales in which the actions of all men 
 
 353 
 
 shall be weighed. Surah xxi. 47: “ Just 
 balances will be set up for the Day of the 
 Resurrection, neither shall any soul be 
 wronged in aught; though, were a work but 
 the weight of a grain of mustard seed, we 
 would bring it forth to be weighed: and our 
 reckoning will suffice.” 
 
 Muhammad is related by ‘Abdu ’llah ibn 
 ‘Amr to have said: “ Verily, God will bring 
 a Muslim into the presence of all men on the 
 Day of Judgment, and will show him ninety- 
 nine large books, and each book as long as 
 the eye can reach. Then God will say to 
 him, ‘ Do you deny anything in these books ? 
 Have my writers injured you ? ’ And the 
 Muslim will say, ‘ 0 my Lord, I deny nothing 
 that is in them.’ Then God will say, 1 Have 
 you any excuse?’ And he will say, ‘No.’ 
 Then God will say, ‘ I have good news for 
 you, for there is no oppression in this day.’ 
 Then God will bring forth a piece of paper, 
 on which is written: ‘ I hear witness that 
 there is no deity but God, and I bear witness 
 that Muhammad is His servant and apostle.’ 
 And God will say, ‘ Go and weigh your 
 actions.’ And the Muslim will say, ‘ What is 
 this bit of paper compared with those large 
 books ? ’ And God will say, ‘ This bit of 
 paper is heavy, weigh it.’ Then the books 
 will be put in the scale, and the bit of paper 
 in the other, and the books containing the 
 actions will be light, and the bit of paper, 
 whereon is written the creed of the Muslim, 
 will be heavy.” (See Collection of Hadis by 
 at-Tirmizi.) 
 
 The commentators say that the scales will 
 be held by the angel Gabriel, and that they 
 are of so vast a size, one hangs over Paradise, 
 and the other over Hell, and they are capa¬ 
 cious enough to contain both heaven and 
 earth. Though some are willing to under¬ 
 stand what is said in the Traditions concern¬ 
 ing this balance allegorically, and only as a 
 figurative representation of God’s equity, yet 
 the more ancient and orthodox opinion is that 
 it is to be taken literally ; and since words 
 and actions, being mere accidents, are not 
 capable of being themselves weighed, they 
 say that the books wherein they are written 
 will be thrown into the scales, and accord¬ 
 ing as those wherein the good or the evil 
 actions are recorded shall preponderate, sen¬ 
 tence will be given; those whose balances 
 laden with their good works shall be heavy, 
 will be saved ; but those whose balances are 
 light, will be condemned. Nor will anyone 
 have cause to complain that God suffers any 
 good actions to pass unrewarded, because the 
 wicked obtain rewards for the good they do 
 in the present life, and therefore can expect 
 no favour in the next. 
 
 The old Jewish writers make mention of the 
 books to be produced at the Last Day, wherein 
 men’s actions are registered, as of the balance 
 wherein they shall be weighed, and the Bible 
 itself seems to have given the first notion of 
 both. But what the Persian Magi believe of 
 the balance comes nearest to the Muhamma¬ 
 dan opinion. They hold that on the Day of 
 Judgment, two angels, named Mihr and 
 
354 
 
 MODERATION 
 
 MONTH 
 
 Sorush, will stand on the bridge between j 
 heaven and bell, and examine every person | 
 as be passes ; that the former, who represents 
 the divine mercy, will bold a balance in bis 
 band, to weigh the actions of men; that, ac¬ 
 cording to the report be shall make thereof to 
 God, sentence will be pronounced, and those 
 whose good works are found more ponderous, 
 if they turn the scale but by the weight of a 
 hair, will be permitted to pass forward to 
 Paradise; but those whose good works shall 
 be found light, will be, by the other angel, 
 who represents God’s justice, precipitated 
 from the bridge into hell. 
 
 MODERATION. Arabic iqtisncl 
 (nWA). According to Muhammad’s 
 teaching, moderation in all religious matters 
 is better than excessive piety, and a chapter 
 in the Traditions is devoted to the subject. 
 He is related to have said :— 
 
 “ The best act in God’s sight is that which 
 is constantly attended to, although in a small 
 degree." 
 
 “ Do what you are able conveniently; be¬ 
 cause God will not be tired of rewarding as 
 long as you are not tired of doing.” 
 
 “You must continue at your prayers as 
 long as it is agreeable to you, and when you 
 are tired sit down.” 
 
 “ Verily, religion is easy, therefore hold it 
 firm.” (See Mishkat, Bdbu 'l-Iqtisad.) 
 
 MODESTY (Arabic hay a’ »U) 
 
 is frequently commended in the traditional 
 sayings of Muhammad, who is related to have 
 said :— 
 
 “ Modesty is a branch of faith.” 
 
 “Verily, modesty and faith are joined to¬ 
 gether.” ( Mishkat , book xxii. ch. xix.) 
 
 MONASTICISM (Arabic ralibd- 
 nlyah was forbidden by Mu¬ 
 
 hammad. It is related in the Traditions 
 that ‘Usman ibn Maz‘un came to the Prophet 
 with the request that he might retire from 
 society and become a monk ( rahib ). The 
 Prophet replied, “ The retirement which be¬ 
 comes my people is to sit in the corner of a 
 mosque and wait for the time of prayer.” 
 (Mishkat, book iv. ch. 8.) 
 
 In the Qur’an, the Christians are charged 
 with inventing the monastic life. Surah lvii. 
 27 : “ We gave them the Gospel, and we put 
 into the hearts of those who follow him, 
 kindness and compassion; but as to the 
 monastic life, they invented it themselves.''' 
 
 According to the Hidayah (voi. ii. p. 215), 
 capitation-tax is not to be imposed upon 
 Rahibs, whether Christian or Pagan, but this 
 is a matter of dispute. 
 
 MONEY. There are three coins 
 
 mentioned in the Qur’an, (1) Qintar (^lksi) j 
 (2) Dinar (jLua), (3) Dirham &jO), pi. 
 Darahim. 
 
 (1) Qintar. Surah iii. 68: “Among the 
 people of the Book are those to one of whom, 
 if you entrust a qintar, he will restore it.” 
 
 In the Qdmus, it is said that a qintar was 
 a-gold coin of the value of 200 dinars, but 
 
 Muhammad Tahir, the author of the Majma'u 
 ’ l-Bihdr (p. 173), says it implies a very con¬ 
 siderable sum of money, as much gold as will 
 go into the hide of a cow. It is generally 
 translated talent. 
 
 (2) Dinar. Surah iii. 68: “ There are 
 those to whom, if thou entrust a dinar, they 
 will not restore it to thee.” It was the dena¬ 
 rius, or a small gold coin. 
 
 (3) Dirham. Surah xii. 20 : “ And they 
 sold him for a mean price, dirhams counted 
 out.” A silver drachma. [qintar, dinar, 
 
 DIRHAM, WEIGHTS.] 
 
 Mr. Prinsep says: “The silver rupee 
 (rupya, silver piece), now current in Muslim 
 countries, was introduced, according to Abul- 
 fazel, by Sher Shah, who usurped the throne 
 of Delhi from Humayoon in the year 1542. 
 Previous to his time, the Arabic dirhim (silver 
 drachma), the gold dinar (denarius auri), and 
 the copper fuloos (follis), formed the cur¬ 
 rency of the Moghul dominions. Sher Shah’s 
 rupee had on one side the Muhammadan 
 creed, on the other the emperor’s name and 
 the date in Persian, both encircled in an an¬ 
 nular Hindee inscription. Since ‘ the same 
 coin was revived and made more pure,’ in 
 Akber’s reign, we may assume the original 
 weight of the rupee, from Abulfazel’s state¬ 
 ment, to have been 11J mashas. Akber’s 
 square rupee, called from its inscription the 
 jilaly, was of the same weight and value. 
 This coin was also called the chahar-yaree, 
 from the four friends of the Prophet, Abu- 
 bekr, Omar, Osman, Ali, whose names are 
 inscribed on the margin. This rupee is sup¬ 
 posed by the vulgar to have talismanic power.” 
 
 MONOGAMY. Although poly¬ 
 gamy is sanctioned in the Qur’an, the words, 
 “ and if ye fear that ye cannot be equitable, 
 then only one ” (Surah iv. 3), would seem to 
 imply a leaning to monogamy, as the safest 
 and most discreet form of matrimony. The 
 author of the Akhlaq-i-Jaldli says : “ Except¬ 
 ing, indeed, in the case of kings, who marry 
 to multiply offspring, and towards whom the 
 wife has no alternative but obedience, plu¬ 
 rality of wives is not defensible. Even in 
 their case it were better to be cautious ; for 
 husband and wife are like heart and body, 
 and like as one heart cannot supply life to 
 two bodies, one man can hardly provide for 
 the management of two homes.” (Thompson’s 
 English Translation, p. 266.) 
 
 MONOPOLY. Arabic ihtikdr 
 (jt&n-l). A monopoly of the neces¬ 
 saries of life (as, for example, the hoarding 
 up of grain with the object of raising its 
 price) is forbidden in Muhammadan law. For 
 the Prophet has said:— 
 
 “ Whoever monopolizeth is a sinner.” 
 
 “ Whosoever keepeth back grain forty 
 days, in order to increase its price, is both a 
 forsaker of God, and is forsaken of God.” 
 (Mishkat. book xii. ch. x.; Hidayah, \ ol. iv. 
 p.114.) 
 
 MONTH. Arabic shahr (;$*), pi. 
 
 shuhur. The months of the Muhammadan year 
 
MONTH 
 
 MONTH 
 
 are lunar, and the first of the month is reckoned 
 from the sunset immediately succeeding the ap¬ 
 pearance of the now moon ( hi/al ). The names 
 of the months are : (1) Muharram ; C2) 
 Safar ^ ; (3) Rabi'u’l-Awwal ; (4 ) 
 
 Rabim ’1-Akhir^-,^ ; (5) Jumada ’1-Ula 
 
 ; (6) Jumada 'I-Ukhra 
 ; (7) Rajab ; (8) Sha‘ban ; 
 
 (9) Ramazan ; (10) Shawwal 
 
 Zu ’1-Qa‘dah Mxiiij .j; (12) Zu ’1-Hijjah 
 
 Four of these months are held to be sacred, 
 namety, Muharram, Rajab, Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, Zu ’1- 
 Hijjah, and according to the teaching of the 
 Qur’an (Surah ix. 36), it is not lawful for Mus¬ 
 lims to fight during these months, except when 
 they attack those “who join other gods with 
 God, even as they attack you one and all.” 
 
 The names of the months seem to have been 
 given at a time when the intercalary year 
 was in force, although Muslim writers assume 
 that the names were merely given to the 
 months as they then stood at the time when 
 they were so named. For a discussion of the 
 formation of the Muhammadan year, the 
 reader is referred to that article, [yeah.] 
 
 (1) Muharram is the first month in the 
 Muhammadan calendar, and is so called be¬ 
 cause, both in the pagan age and in the time 
 of Muhammad, it was held unlawful ((lardin') 
 to go to war in this month. It is considered 
 a most auspicious month, and Muhammad 
 is related to have said, “ Whosoever shall 
 fast on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday 
 in this month, shall be removed from hell 
 fire a distance of seven hundred years 
 journey ; and that he who shall keep awake 
 the first night of this month, shall be for¬ 
 given all the sins of the past year ; and he who 
 shall fast the whole of the first day, shall be 
 kept from sin for the next two years.” (Ha- 
 nlsu 7- Waizin, p. 154.) The first ten days of 
 this month are observed in commemoration of 
 the martyrdom of al-Husain, and the tenth 
 day is the ‘Ashura’ fast. 
 
 (2) Safar, the second month, is supposed 
 to derive its name from safir, “ empty,” either 
 because in it the Arabians went forth to war 
 and left their homes empty, or, according to 
 Rubeh, because they left whom they attacked 
 empty. According to some writers, it was so 
 named from sufdr, “ yellowness,” because 
 when it was first so called, it was autumn, 
 when the leaves bore a yellowish tint. ( Vide 
 Lane’s Arabic Diet. ; Ghiyasu ’l-Lughah.) It 
 is held to be the most unlucky and inauspi¬ 
 cious month in the whole year, for in it, it is 
 said, Adam was turned out of Eden. (See 
 Hanisu 7- Waizin.) It was during this month 
 that the Prophet was taken ill, but his partial 
 recovery took place on the last Wednesday. 
 
 (3) Rabi‘u ’l-Awwal, and (4) Rabi'u 7- 
 Akhir . the first and second spring months, 
 are said to have been so named when the 
 calendar was first formed, and when these 
 months occurred in the spring. Muhammad 
 died on the 12th day of the RabFu ’l-Awwal. 
 
 (5) Jumada 7- Uld, and (6) Jumada 7- 
 U/chra. are the fifth and sixth months, about 
 
 355 
 
 which there is some discussion as to the 
 origin of the name. Mr. Lane, in his Dic¬ 
 tionary, says the two months to which the 
 name Jamadd (freezing) is applied, are said 
 to be so called because, when they were so 
 named, they fell in the season of freezing 
 water; but this derivation seems to have been 
 invented when the two months thus named 
 had fallen back into, or beyond, the winter, 
 for when they received this appellation, the 
 former of them evidently commenced in 
 March, and the latter ended in May. There¬ 
 fore, I hold the opinion of M. Caussin de Per¬ 
 ceval, that they were thus called because 
 falling in a period when the earth had become 
 dry and hard, by reason of paucity of rain, 
 jamad being an epithet applied to land upon 
 which rain has not fallen, which opinion is 
 confirmed by the obvious derivation of the 
 names of other months. (See Lane’s Arabic 
 Diet, in loco.) 
 
 (7) Rajab, the “ honoured ” month, so called 
 because of the honour in which the month 
 was held in the Times of Ignorance, inasmuch 
 as war was not permitted during this month. 
 The Prophet is related to have said that the 
 month Rajab was like a snowy white foun¬ 
 tain flowing from heaven itself, and that he 
 who fasts on this month will drink of the 
 waters of life. It is called Rajab-i-Muzar, 
 because the Muzar tribe held it in high 
 esteem. It is usual for religious Muslims to 
 spend the first Friday night (i.e. our Thurs¬ 
 day night) of this month in prayer. 
 
 (8) Sha‘ban, the month of separation 
 (called also the Shahru ’n-Nabi , “ the Pro¬ 
 phet’s month ”), is so called because the 
 ancient Arabians used to separate, or disperse 
 themselves, in this month in search of water 
 (for when the months were regulated by the 
 solar year, this month corresponded partly to 
 June and partly to July), or, as some say, 
 for predatory expeditions. On the fifteenth 
 day of this month is the Shab-i-Barat, or 
 “ Night of Record,” upon which it is said that 
 God registers annually all the actions of man¬ 
 kind which they are to perform during the 
 year, and upon which Muhammad enjoined 
 his followers to keep awake the whole night 
 and to repeat one hundred rak‘ah prayers. 
 
 [SHAB I-BARAT.] 
 
 (9) Ramazan, the ninth month of the 
 Muhammadan year, is that which is observed 
 as a strict fast. The word is derived from 
 ramz, “ to burn,” because it is said that, when 
 the month was first named, it occurred in the 
 hot season ; or because the month’s fast is 
 supposed to burn away the sins of men. 
 (See Ghiyasu ’l-Lughah.) The excellence of 
 this month is much extolled by Muhammad, 
 who said that during this month the gates of 
 Paradise are opened, and the gates of Hell 
 shut. (Mishkat, book vii. chap. i. sec. 1.) 
 
 [RAMAZAN.] 
 
 (10) Shawwal, lit. “ a tail,” is the tenth 
 month of the lunar year, and, according to 
 Arabic lexicons (see Ghiyasu ’l-Lughah, 
 Qamiis, &c.), it is so called because, when 
 first named, it coincided with the season 
 when the she-camels, being seven or eight 
 
356 
 
 MORTGAGE 
 
 MOSES 
 
 months gone with young, raised their tails ; 
 or, because it was the month for hunting. 
 The Arabs used to say that it was an un¬ 
 lucky month in which to make marriage 
 contracts, but the Prophet ignored their tlrus 
 auguring, and married ‘Ayishah in this month. 
 The ‘Idu'l-Fitr , or “the Feast of Breaking 
 the Fast,” occurs on the first of this month. 
 
 (11) Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, or the month of truce, 
 is the eleventh month, and so called by the 
 ancient Arabs, because it was a month in 
 which warfare was not conducted, and in 
 which the people were engaged in peaceful 
 occupations. 
 
 (12) Zu ’ l-Hijjah , the month of the Pil¬ 
 grimage, is the last month of the Muham¬ 
 madan calendar. It is the month in which 
 the pilgrimage to Makkah must be made, a 
 visit to the sacred city at another time having 
 in no way the merits of a pilgrimage. The 
 Hajj, or “ Pilgrimage,” is performed upon 
 the seventh, eighth, ninth, and tenth of this 
 month. The l Idu 'l-Azha, or “ Feast of 
 Sacrifice,” is hold on the tenth, [hajj.] 
 
 MORTGAGE, [ijarah.] 
 
 MOON. Arabic qamar The 
 
 moon is frequently mentioned in the Qur’an. 
 Muhammad on three occasions swears by it 
 (Surahs lxxiv. 35 ; lxxxiv. 18 ; xci. 2), and it 
 is said to have been set in the heavens for a 
 light (Surahs x. 5 ; lxxi. 15), to run to its 
 appointed goal (Surahs xxxv. 14: xxxix. 7), 
 and that it will be eclipsed at the Day of 
 Judgment (Surah lxxv. 8). The uvth Surah 
 of the Qur’an, which is entitled the Suratu 7- 
 Qamar, begins with a reference to the split¬ 
 ting of the moon, which is a matter of con¬ 
 troversy. It reads : “ The hour draws nigh 
 and the moon is split asunder. But if they 
 see a sign, they turn aside and say magic 
 continues.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi refers it to a miracle, and says 
 the unbelievers having asked Muhammad for 
 a sign, the moon appeared to be cloven in 
 twain. But the most natural explanation ox 
 the passage is, that the expression refers to 
 one of the signs of the Resurrection. 
 
 At an eclipse of the moon, a devout 
 Muslim is expected to recite a two rak‘ah 
 prayer. 
 
 MOORS. The name given to the 
 
 Muhammadan conquerors of Spain, on account 
 of their having come from the ancient Mauri, 
 or Mauretania, now known as the Empire of 
 Morocco. The word Mauri is supposed to 
 have been derived from the Alexandrian word 
 p.avpoi, “ blacks.” (See Smith’s Diet, of 
 Greek and Roman Geography: Mauretania.) 
 
 MOSES. Arabic Musa (^y*). Heb. 
 
 According to Muhammadanism, he is 
 
 one" of the six great prophets who founded 
 dispensations, and to whom the Taurat was 
 revealed. His special title, or kalimah, is 
 Kalimu 'lldh, “ One who conversed with God.” 
 A lengthy account is given of his intercourse 
 with Pharaoh and his dealings with the Chil¬ 
 dren of Israel in the Qur’an, which we take 
 
 from Mr. Lane’s Selections, together with the 
 remarks of the Jalalan, al-Baizawi, and other 
 commentators, in italics. (Stanley Lane- 
 Poole’s new ed. of Lane’s Selections, p. 97.) 
 
 “ We will rehearse unto thee of the history 
 of Moses and Pharaoh with truth, for the sake 
 oj people who believe. Verily Pharaoh ex¬ 
 alted himself in the land of Egypt, and 
 divided its inhabitants into parties to serve 
 him. He rendered weak one class of them, 
 namely the children of Israel, slaughtering 
 their male children, and preserving alive their 
 females, because one of the diviners said unto 
 him, A child will be Lorn among the children 
 of Israel, who will be the means of the loss of 
 thy kingdom; —for he was one of the corrupt 
 doers. And We desired to be gracious unto 
 those who had been deemed weak in the land, 
 and to make them models of religion, and to 
 make them the heirs of the possessions of 
 Pharaoh, aixd to establish them in the land of 
 Egypt, and in Syria, and to show Pharaoh 
 and Hainan and their forces what they feared 
 from them. And We said, by revelation, 
 unto the mother of Moses, the child above- 
 mentioned, of whose birth none knew save his 
 sister, Suckle him ; and when thou fearest for 
 him cast him in the river Nile, and fear not 
 his being drowned, nor mourn Jor his separa¬ 
 tion ; for We will restore him unto thee, and 
 will make him one of the apostles. So she 
 suckled him three months, during which he wept 
 not; and then she jeared for him, wherefore she 
 put him into an ark pitched within and furnished 
 with a bed for him, and she closed it and cast it 
 in the river Nile by night. And the family of 
 Pharaoh lighted upon him in the ark on the mor¬ 
 row of that night; so they put it before him, and it 
 was opened, and Moses was taken forth from it, 
 sucking milk from his thumb : that he might be 
 unto them eventually an enemy and an afflic¬ 
 tion ; for Pharaoh and Human (his Wezeer) 
 and their forces were sinners ; wherefore they 
 loere punished by his hand. And the wife of 
 Pharaoh said, when he and his servants had pro¬ 
 posed to kill him, He is delight of the eye unto 
 me and unto thee: do not ye kill him : per- 
 adventure he may be serviceable unto us, or 
 we may adopt him as a son. And they com¬ 
 plied with her desire ; and they knew not the 
 consequence. 
 
 “And the heart of the mother of Moses, 
 when she knew of his having been lighted upon, 
 became disquieted; and she had almost made 
 him known to be her son, had We not fortified 
 her heart with patience, that she might be 
 one of the believers in Our promise. And 
 she said unto his sister Maryam (Mary), 
 Trace him, that thou mayest know his case. 
 And she watched him from a distance, while 
 they knew not that she was his sister and that 
 she was watching him. And We forbade him 
 the breasts, preventing him from taking the 
 breast of any nurse except his mother, before 
 his restoration to her; so his sister said, Shall 
 I direct you unto the people of a house who 
 will nurse him for you, and who will be 
 faithful unto him ? And her offer was 
 accepted; therefore she brought his mother, and 
 he took her breast: so she returned with him to 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 her house, as Godhath said ,—And We restored 
 him to his mother, that her eye might he cheer¬ 
 ful and that she might not grieve, and that she 
 might know that the promise of God to restore 
 him unto her was true : but the greater number 
 of them (that is, of mankind ) know not this. 
 And it appeared not that this was his sister 
 and this his mother ; and he remained with her 
 until she had weaned him; and her hire was 
 paid her, for every day a deenar, which she 
 took because it was the wealth of a hostile per¬ 
 son. She then brought him unto Pharaoh, and 
 he was brought up in his abode, as God hath 
 related of him in the Chapter of the Poets (Surah 
 xxvi. 17), where Pharaoh said unto Moses, 
 Have we not brought thee up among us a child, 
 and hast thou not dwelt among us thirty years 
 of thy life ? 
 
 “ And when he had attained his age of 
 strength (thirty years or thirty and three), and 
 had become of full age (forty years), We be¬ 
 stowed on him wisdom and knowledge in reli¬ 
 gion, before he teas sent as a prophet; and thus 
 do We reward the well-doers. And he entered 
 the city of Pharaoh, which was Munf [Mem¬ 
 phis], after he had been absent from him a 
 while, at a time when its inhabitants were in¬ 
 advertent, at the hour of the noon-sleep, and he 
 found therein two men fighting ; this being of 
 his party (namely an Israelite), and this of his 
 enemies, an Egyptian, who was compelling the 
 Israelite to carry firewood to the kitchen of 
 Pharaoh without pay: and he who was of his 
 party begged him to aid him against him 
 who was of his enemies. So Moses said 
 unto the latter, Let him go. Anclit is said that 
 he replied to Moses, 1 have a mind to put the 
 burden on thee. And Moses struck him with 
 his fist, and killed him. But he intended not 
 to kill him ; and he buried him in the sand. Ho 
 said, This is of the work of the devil, who 
 hath excited my anger; for he is an enemy 
 unto the son of Adam, a manifest misleader of 
 him. He said, in repentance, 0 my Lord, 
 verily I have acted injuriously unto mine own 
 soul, by killing him; therefore forgive me. 
 So He forgave him: for He is the Very For¬ 
 giving, the Merciful.—He said, 0 my Lord, 
 by the favours with which Thou hast fa¬ 
 voured me, defend me, and I will by no means 
 be an assistant to the sinners after this.— 
 And the next morning he was afraid in the 
 city, watching for what might happen unto 
 him on account of the slain man ; and lo, he 
 who had begged his assistance the day before 
 was crying out to him for aid against another 
 Egyptian. Moses said unto him, Verily thou 
 art a person manifestly in error, because of 
 that which thou hast done yesterday and to-day. 
 But when he was about to lay violent hands 
 upon him who was an enemy unto them both 
 (namely unto Moses and him who begged his 
 aid), the latter said, imagining that he would 
 lay violent hands upon him, because of that 
 which he had said unto him, O Moses, dost 
 thou desire to kill me, as thou killedst a soul 
 yesterday ? Thou desirest not aught but to be 
 an oppressor in the land, and thou desirest not 
 to be [one] of the reconcilers.— And the Egyp¬ 
 tian heard that: so he knew that the killer was 
 
 357 
 
 Moses; wherefore he departed unto Pharaoh 
 and acquainted him therewith, and Pharaoh 
 commanded the executioners to slay Moses, and 
 they betook themselves to seek him. But a man 
 who was a believer, of the family of Pharaoh , 
 came from the furthest part of the city, run¬ 
 ning by a way that was nearer than the way 
 by which they had come: he said, 0 Moses, 
 verily the chiefs of the people of Pharaoh are 
 consulting respecting thee, to slay thee ; 
 therefore go forth from the city : verily I am 
 unto thee one of the admonishers. So ho 
 went forth from it in fear, watching in fear 
 of pursuer, or for the aid of God. He said, O 
 my Lord, deliver me from the unjust people 
 of Pharaoh ! 
 
 “And when he was journeying towards 
 Medyen, which was the city of Sho'eyb 
 (Shu‘aib), eight days journey from Misr (named 
 after Medyen \_Madyan ] the son of Abraham), 
 and he knew not the way unto it, he said, Per- 
 adventure my Lord will direct me unto the 
 right way, or the middle way. And God sent 
 unto him an angel, having in his hand a short 
 spear ; and he went with him thither. And 
 when he came unto the water (or well) of 
 Medyen, he found at it a company of men 
 watering their animals; and he found besides 
 them two women keeping away their sheep 
 from the xvater. He said unto them (namely 
 the two women), What is the matter with you 
 that ye water not ? They answered, We shall 
 not water until the pastors shall have driven 
 away their animals; and our father is a very 
 old man, who cannot water the sheep. And he 
 watered for them from another well near unto 
 them, from which he lifted a stone that none 
 could lift but ten persons. Then he retired to 
 the shade of an Egyptian thorn-tree on account 
 of the violence of the heat of the sun: and he 
 was hungry, and he said, 0 my Lord, verily I 
 am in need of the good provision which Thou 
 shalt send down unto me. And the two women 
 returned unto their father in less time than they 
 were accustomed to do: so he asked them the 
 reason thereof; and they informed him of the 
 person who had watered for them; whereupon 
 he said unto one of them, Call him unto me. 
 
 “ And one of them came unto him, walking 
 bashfully, with the sleeve of her shift over her 
 face, by reason of her abashment at him: she 
 said, My father calleth thee, that he may re¬ 
 compense thee with the reward of thy having 
 watered for us. And he assented to her call, 
 disliking in his mind the receiving of the re¬ 
 ward: but it seemeth that she intended the 
 compensation if he were of such as desired it. 
 And she walked before him ; and the wind blew 
 her garment, and her legs were discovei ed: so 
 he said unto her, Walk behind me and direct 
 me in the way. And she did so, until she came 
 unto her father, who was Sho'eyb, on whom be 
 peace ! and with him ivas prepared a supper. 
 He said unto him, Sit and sup. But he re¬ 
 plied, I fear lest it be a compensation for my 
 having watered for them, and we are a family 
 who seek not a compensation for doing good. 
 He said, Nay, it is my custom and hath been 
 the custom of my fathers to entertain the guest 
 and to give food. So he ate; and acquainted 
 
358 
 
 MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 him with his case. And when he had come 
 unto him, and had related to him the story of 
 his having killed the Egyptian and their inten¬ 
 tion to kill him and his fear of Pharaoh, he 
 replied, Fear not: thou hast escaped from 
 the unjust people. (For Pharaoh had no 
 dominion over Medyen.) One of them [namely 
 of the women] said ( and she was the one who 
 had been sent'), 0 my father, hire him to tend 
 our sheep in our stead; for the best whom 
 thou canst hire is the strong, the trustworthy. 
 So he asked her respecting him, and she 
 acquainted him with what hath been above re¬ 
 lated, his lifting up the stone of the well, and 
 his saying unto her, Walk behind me;—and 
 moreover, that when she had come unto him, 
 and he knew of her presence, he hung down his 
 head and raised it not. He therefore said, 
 Verily I desire to marry thee unto one of 
 these my two daughters, on the condition that 
 thou shalt be a hired servant to me, to tend 
 my sheep, eight years ; and if thou fulfil ten 
 years, it shall be of thine own will; and I desire 
 not to lay a difficulty upon thee by imposing 
 as a condition the ten years: thou shalt find 
 me, if God, please, one of the just, who are 
 faithful to their covenants. He replied, This 
 be the covenant between me and thee ; which¬ 
 ever of the two terms I fulfil, there shall be 
 no injustice against, me by demanding an addi¬ 
 tion thereto; and God is witness of what we 
 say. And the marriage-contract was concluded 
 according to this; and Sho’eyb ordered his 
 daughter to give unto Moses a rod wherewith 
 to drive away the wild beasts from his sheep: 
 and the rods of the prophets were in his ]>osses- 
 sion ; and the rod of Adam, of the myrtle of 
 paradise, fell into her hand; and Moses took it, 
 with the knowledge of Sho’eyb. (Surah xxviii. 
 21 - 28 .) 
 
 “ Hath the history of Moses been related 
 to thee ? when he saw fire, during his journey 
 from Medyen on his way to Egypt, and said 
 unto his family, or his wife, Tarry ye here; 
 for I have seen fire : perhaps I may bring 
 you a brand from it, or find at the fire a 
 guide to direct me in the way. For he had 
 missed the way in consequence of the darkness 
 of the night. And when he came unto it ( and 
 it was a bramble bush), he was called to by a 
 voice saying, 0 Moses, verily I am thy Lord ; 
 therefore pull off thy shoes ; for thou art in 
 the holy valley of Tuwa. And I have chosen 
 thee from among thy people; wherefore hearken 
 attentively unto that which is revealed unto 
 thee by Me. Verily I am God: there is no 
 Deity except Me; therefore worship Me, and 
 perform prayer in remembrance of Me. Verily 
 the hour is coming : I will manifest it unto 
 mankind, and its nearness shall appear unto 
 them by its signs, that every soul may be re¬ 
 compensed therein for its good and evil work : 
 therefore let not him who believeth not in 
 it, and followeth his lust, hinder thee from 
 believing in it, lest thou perish. And what is 
 that in thy right hand, 0 Moses ?—He an¬ 
 swered, It is my rod, whereon I lean and 
 wherewith I beat down leaves for my sheep 
 that they may eat them; and I have other 
 uses for it, as the carrying of provision and the 
 
 water-skin, and the driving away of reptiles• 
 He said, Cast it down, 0 Moses. So he cast 
 it down; and lo, it was a serpent running 
 along. God said, Take it, and fear it not: 
 we will restore it to its former state. And he 
 put his hand into its mouth; whereupon it be¬ 
 came again a rod. And God said, And put 
 thy right hand to thy left arm-pit, and lake it 
 forth: it shall come forth white, without 
 evil, ( that is without leprosy; shining like the 
 rays of the sun, dazzling the sight,) as another 
 sign, that We may show thee the greatest of 
 our signs of thine apost/eship. (And when he 
 desired to restore his hand to its first state, he 
 put it as before described, and drew it forth.) 
 Go as an apostle unto Pharaoh and those who 
 are with him ; for he hath acted with exceed¬ 
 ing impiety hy arrogating f o himself divinity .— 
 Aloses said, 0 my Lord, dilate my bosom, that 
 it may bear the message, and make my affair 
 easy unto me, and loose the knot of my 
 tongue ( this had arisen from his having been 
 burned in his mouth by a live coal when he was 
 a child), that they may understand my speech 
 when I deliver the message. And appoint unto 
 me a Wezeer of my family, namely Aaron 
 [Haroon] my brother. Strengthen my back 
 by him, and make him a colleague in my 
 affair, that we may glorify Thee much, and 
 remember Thee much; for Thou knowest 
 us. 
 
 “ God replied, Thou hast obtained thy pe¬ 
 tition, 0 Moses, and We have been gracious 
 unto thee another time : forasmuch as We 
 revealed unto thy mother what was revealed, 
 when she gave birth to thee and feared that 
 Pharaoh would kill thee among the others that 
 were born, saying, Cast him into the ark, and 
 then cast him, in the ark, into the river Nile, 
 and the river shall throw him on the shore ; 
 then an enemy unto Me and an enemy unto 
 him ( namely Pharaoh) shall take him. And I 
 bestowed on thee, after he had taken thee, 
 love from Me, that thou mightest be loved by 
 men, so that Pharaoh and all that saw thee 
 loved thee; and that thou mightest be bred up 
 in Mine eye. Also forasmuch as thy sister 
 Alaryam went that she might learn what became 
 of thee, after they had brought nurses and thou 
 hadst refused to take the breast of any one of 
 them, and she said, Shall I direct you unto 
 one who will nurse him ? (whereupon her pro¬ 
 posal was accepted, and she brought his mother): 
 so We restored thee to thy mother, that her eye 
 might become cheerful and that she might not 
 grieve. And thou slewest a soul, namely the 
 Copt in Egypt, and wo.st sorry for his slaugh¬ 
 ter, on account of Pharaoh, and We delivered 
 thee from sorrow ; and We tried thee with 
 other trial, and delivered thee from it. And 
 thou stayedst ten years among the people of 
 Medyen, after thou hadst come thither from 
 Egypt, at the abode of Sho'eyb the prophet, and 
 he married thee to his daughter. Then thou 
 earnest according to My decree, as to the 
 time of thy mission, when thou hadst attained 
 the age of forty years, 0 Moses; and I have 
 chosen thee for Myself. Go thou and thy 
 brother unto the people, with My nine signs, 
 and cease ye not to remember Me. Go ye 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 359 
 
 unto Pharaoh ; for he hath acted with exceed¬ 
 ing impiety, by arrogating to himself divinity, 
 and speak unto him with gentle speech, ex¬ 
 horting him to relinquish that conduct: perad- 
 venture he will consider, or will fear God, 
 and repent. (The [mere] hope with respect to 
 the two [result is expressed] because of God's 
 knowledge that he would not repent.) —They re¬ 
 plied, O our Lord, verily we fear that he may 
 be precipitately violent against us, hastening 
 to punish us, or that he may act with exceed¬ 
 ing injustice towards us. He said, Fear ye 
 not; for I am with you : I will hear and will 
 see. Therefore go ye unto him, and say, 
 Verily wo are the apostles of thy Lord : 
 therefore send with us the children of Israel 
 unto Syria, and do not afflict them, but cease 
 to employ them in thy difficult works, such as 
 digging and building, and carrying the heavy 
 burden. We have come unto thee with a sign 
 from thy Lord, attesting our veracity in assert¬ 
 ing ourselves apostles: and peace be on him 
 who followeth the right direction :— that is, he 
 shall be secure from punishment. Verily it 
 hath been revealed unto us that punishment 
 [shall be inflicted] upon him who chargeth 
 with falsehood that wherewith we have come, 
 and turneth away from it. (Surah xx. 8-50.) 
 
 “ Then We sent after them, namely the 
 apostles before mentioned [who were Sho’eyb 
 and his predecessors], Moses, with Our signs 
 unto Pharaoh and his nobles, and they acted 
 unjustly with respect to them, disbelieving in 
 the signs: but see what was the end of the 
 corrupt doers. And Moses said, 0 Pharaoh, 
 verily I am an apostle from the Lord of the 
 world unto thee. But he charged him with false¬ 
 hood: so he said, I am right not to say of God 
 aught but the truth. I have come unto you 
 with a proof from your Lord : therefore send 
 with me to Syria the children of Israel.— 
 Pharaoh said unto him, If thou hast come 
 with a sign confirmatory of thy pretension, 
 produce it, if thou be of those who speak 
 truth. So he cast down his rod; and lo, it 
 was a manifest serpent. And he drew forth 
 his hand from his bosom ; and lo, it was white 
 and radiant unto the beholders. The nobles 
 of the people of Pharaoh said, Verily this is 
 a knowing enchanter: he desireth to expel 
 you from your land. What then do ye com¬ 
 mand?—They answered, Put off for a time 
 him and his brother, and send unto the cities 
 collectors [of the inhabitants], that they may 
 bring unto thee every knowing enchanter. 
 And the enchanters came unto Pharaoh. 
 They said, Shall we surely have a reward if 
 we be the party who overcome ? He ans¬ 
 wered, Yea ; and verily ye shall be of those 
 who are admitted near unto my person. 
 They said, 0 Moses, either do thou cast dow T n 
 thy rod, or we will cast down what we have 
 with us. He replied, Cast ye. And when 
 they cast down their cords and their rods, they 
 enchanted the eyes of the men, diverting them 
 from the true perception of them; and they terri¬ 
 fied them ; for they imagined them to be ser¬ 
 pents running ; and they performed a great en¬ 
 chantment. And We spake by revelation 
 unto Moses, [saying,] Cast down thy rod. 
 
 And lo, it swallowed up what they had 
 caused to appear changed. So the truth 
 was confirmed, and that which they had 
 wrought became vain; and they were over¬ 
 come there, and were rendered contemptible. 
 And the enchanters cast themselves down 
 prostrate: they said, We believe in the 
 Lord of the worlds, the Lord of Moses 
 and Aaron. Pharaoh said, Have ye believed 
 in Him before I have given you permis¬ 
 sion? Verily this is a plot that ye have 
 contrived in the city, that ye may cause its 
 inhabitants to go forth from it. But ye shall 
 know what shall happen unto you at my hand. 
 
 I will assuredly cut off your hands and your 
 feet on the opposite sides— the right hand of 
 each and his left foot: then I will crucify you 
 all.—They replied, Verily unto our Lord 
 shall we return, after our death, of whatever 
 kind it be; and thou dost not take vengeance 
 on us but because we believed in the signs 
 of our Lord when they came unto us. 0 our 
 Lord, pour upon us patience, and cause us to 
 die Muslims ! (Surah vii. 101-123). 
 
 “ And Pharaoh said, Let me alone that I 
 may kill Moses, (/or they had diverted him 
 from killing him,) and let him call upon his 
 Lord to defend him from me. Verily I fear 
 lest he change your religion, and prevent your 
 ivorshipping me, or that he may cause cor¬ 
 ruption to appear in the earth (that is, 
 slaughter, and other offences). —And Moses said 
 unto his people, having heard this, Verily, I 
 have recourse for defence unto my Lord 
 and your Lord from every proud person 
 who believeth not in the day of account. And 
 a man who was a believer, of the family of 
 Pharaoh (it is said that he was the son of his 
 paternal uncle,) who concealed his faith, said, 
 Will ye kill a man because he saith, My Lord 
 is God,—when he hath come unto you with 
 evident proofs from your Lord ? And if he 
 be a liar, on him [will be] the evil consequence 
 of his lie; but if he be a speaker of truth, 
 somewhat of that punishment with which he 
 threateneth you will befall you speedily. Verily 
 God directeth not him who is a transgressor, 
 or polytheist, [and] a liar. 0 my people, ye 
 have the dominion to-day, being overcomers 
 in the land of Egypt; but who will defend us 
 from the punishment of God if ye kill his 
 favourite servants, if it come unto us ?—Pha¬ 
 raoh said, I will not advise you to do [aught] 
 save what I see to be advisable, which is, to 
 kill Moses; and I will not direct you save into 
 the right way. And he who had believed 
 said, 0 my people, verily I fear for you the 
 like of the(day of the confederates, the like of 
 the condition of the people of Noah and ’A'd 
 and Thamood and those who have lived 
 after them: and God willeth not injustice 
 unto His servants. And, 0 my people, verily 
 I fear for you the day of calling (that is, the 
 day of resurrection, when the people of Para¬ 
 dise and those of Hell shall often call one to 
 another). On the day when ye shall turn 
 back from the place of reckoning unto hell, ye 
 shall have no protector against God. And 
 he whom God shall cause to err shall have 
 no director. Moreover, Joseph (who was 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 360 
 
 Joseph the son of Jacob according to one 
 opinion, and who lived unto the time of Moses; 
 and Joseph the son of Abraham the son of 
 Joseph the son of Jacob, according to another 
 opinion) came unto you before Moses, with 
 evident miraculous proofs ; but ye ceased not 
 to be in doubt respecting that wherewith he 
 came unto you, until, when he died, ye said 
 without proof God will by no means send an 
 apostle after him. Thus God causeth to err 
 him who is a transgressor, or polytheist, [and] 
 a sceptic. They who dispute respecting the 
 signs of God, without any convincing proof 
 having come unto them, their disputing is very 
 hateful with God and with those who have 
 believed. Thus God sealeth every heart (or 
 the ivhole heart) of a proud contumacious 
 person. 
 
 “ And Pharaoh said, 0 Hainan, build for 
 me a tower, that I may reach the avenues, 
 the avenues of the heavens, and ascend unto 
 the God of Moses ; but verily I think him, 
 namely Moses, a liar in his assertion that he 
 hath any god but myself. And thus the wicked¬ 
 ness of his deed was made to seem comely 
 unto Pharaoh, and he was turned away from 
 the path of rectitude; and the artifice of 
 Pharaoh [ended] not save in loss. And he 
 who had believed said, 0 my people, follow 
 me : I will direct you into the right way. 0 
 my people, this present life is only a tem¬ 
 porary enjoyment; but the world to come is 
 the mansion of firm continuance. Whosoever 
 doeth evil, he shall not be recompensed save 
 with the like of it; and whosoever doeth 
 good, whether male or female, and is a be¬ 
 liever, these shall enter Paradise ; they shall 
 be provided for therein without reckoning. 
 And, 0 my people, how is it that I invite 
 you unto salvation, and ye invite me unto 
 the Fire ? Ye invite me to deny God, and 
 to associate with Him that of which I have 
 no knowledge; but I invite you unto the 
 Mighty, the Very Forgiving. [There is] no 
 doubt but that the false gods to the worship 
 of which ye invite me are not to be invoked in 
 this world, nor in the world to come, and that 
 our return [shall be] unto God, and that the 
 transgressors shall be the companions of the 
 Fire. And ye shall remember, when ye see 
 the punishment, what I say unto you ; and I 
 commit my case unto God; for God seeth 
 His servants.— This he said when they threa¬ 
 tened him for opposing their religion. Therefore 
 God preserved him from the evils which they 
 had artfully devised (namely slaughter), and a 
 most evil punishment encompassed the people 
 of Pharaoh, with Pharaoh himself (namely the 
 drowning) ; then they shall be exposed to the 
 Fire morning and evening; and on the day 
 when the hour [of judgment] shall come, it 
 shall be said unto the angels, Introduce the 
 people of Pharaoh into the most severe 
 punishment. (Surah xl. 27-49.) 
 
 “ And the nobles of the people of Pharaoh 
 said unto him, Will thou let Moses and his 
 people go that they may act corruptly in the 
 earth, by inviting to disobey thee, and leave 
 thee and thy gods ? (For he had made for 
 them little idols for them to worship, and he said, 
 
 I am your Lord and their Lord;—and therefore 
 he said, L am your Lord the Most High.) He 
 answered, We will slaughter their male chil¬ 
 dren and will suffer their females to live: and 
 verily we shall prevail over them. And thus 
 they did unto them; wherefore the children of 
 Israel complained, and Moses said unto his 
 people, Seek aid of God, and be patient; for 
 the earth belongeth unto God: He causeth 
 whomsoever He will of His servants to inherit 
 it; and the prosperous end is for those who 
 fear God. They replied, We have been 
 afflicted before thou earnest unto us and since 
 thou hast come unto us. He said, Perhaps 
 your Lord will destroy your enemy and cause 
 you to succeed [him] in the earth, and He 
 will see how ye will act therein.— And We 
 had punished the family of Pharaoh with 
 dearth and with scarcity of fruits, that they 
 might be admonished and might believe. But 
 when good betided them, they said, This is 
 ours :— that is, we deserve it;—and they were 
 not grateful for it; and if evil befell them, 
 they ascribed it to the ill luck of Moses and 
 those believers who were with him. Nay, their 
 ill-luck was only with God, He brought it 
 upon them : but the greater number of them 
 know not this. And they said unto Moses, 
 Whatsoever sign thou bring unto us, to en¬ 
 chant us therewith, we will not believe in 
 thee. So he uttered an imprecation upon them, 
 and We sent upon them the flood, ivhich en¬ 
 tered their houses and reached to the throats of 
 the persons sitting, seven days, and the locusts, 
 which ate their corn and their fruits, and the 
 kummal, or grubs, or a kind of tick, which 
 sought after what the locusts had left, and the 
 frogs, which filled their houses and their food, 
 and the blood in their waters ; distinct signs : 
 but they were proud, refusing to believe in 
 them, and were a wicked people. And when 
 the punishment fell upon them, they said. 0 
 Moses, supplicate for us thy Lord, according 
 to that w T hieh He hath covenanted with thee, 
 namely, that He will withdraw from us the 
 punishment if we believe: verily, if thou 
 remove from iis the punishment, we 
 will assuredly believe thee, and we will 
 assuredly send with thee the children of 
 Israel. But when We removed from them 
 the punishment until a period at which they 
 should arrive, lo, they brake their promise. 
 Wherefore we took vengeance on them, and 
 drowned them in the sea, because they 
 charged our signs with falsehood and were 
 heedless of them. And We caused the people 
 who had been rendered weak, by being en¬ 
 slaved, to inherit the eastern parts of the 
 earth and its western parts, which we blessed 
 with water and trees, (namely Syria) ; and the 
 gracious word of thy Lord was fulfilled on 
 the children of Israel, because they had been 
 patient; and We destroyed the structures 
 which Pharaoh and his people had built and 
 what they had erected.” (Surah vii. 124- 
 133.) 
 
 “ We brought the children of Israel across 
 the sea, and Pharaoh and his troops pursued 
 them with violence and hostility, until, when 
 drowning overtook him, he said, I believe 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 361 
 
 that there is no deity but He in whom the 
 children of Israel believe, and I am one of the 
 Muslims. But Gabriel thrust into his mouth 
 some of the mire of the sea, lest mercy should 
 be granted him, and said, Now thou believest, 
 and thou hast been rebellious hitherto, and 
 wast [one] of the corrupters. But to-day we 
 will raise thee with thy lifeless body from the 
 sea, that thou mayest be a sign unto those 
 who shall come after thee. (It is related, on 
 the authority of Ibn- Abbas, that some o f the 
 children of Israel doubted his death; wherefore 
 he was brought forth to them that they might 
 see him.) But verily many men are heedless 
 of Our signs. (Surah x. 90-92.) 
 
 “ And We brought the children of Israel 
 across the sea ; and they came unto a people 
 who gave themselves up to the worship of 
 idols belonging to them; [whereupon] they 
 said, O Moses, make for us a god (an idol for 
 us to worship), like as they have gods. He 
 replied, Verily ye are a people who are ig¬ 
 norant, since ye have requited God’s favour 
 1 awards you with that which ye have said ; for 
 that [religion] in which these are [occupied 
 shall be] destroyed, and vain is that which 
 they do. He said, Shall I seek for you any 
 other deity than God, when He hath preferred 
 vou above the peoples of your time. (Surah 
 vii. 134-136.) 
 
 “ And We caused the thin clouds to shade 
 you from the heat of the sun in the desert, and 
 caused the manna and the quails to descend 
 upon you, and said, Eat of the good things 
 which We have given you for food, and store 
 not up.—But they were ungrateful for the bene¬ 
 fit, and stored up ; wherefore it was cut off from 
 them. And they injured not Us thereby; but 
 they did injure their own souls.” (Surah 
 ii. 54.) 
 
 “ Remember, O children of Israel, when ye 
 said, 0 Moses, we will not bear patiently the 
 having one kind of food, the manna and the 
 quails ; therefore supplicate for us thy Lord, 
 that He may produce for us somewhat of that 
 which the earth bringeth forth, of its herbs 
 and its cucumbers and its wheat and its len¬ 
 tils and its onions:—he said unto them, Will 
 ye take in exchange that which is worse for 
 that which is better ?—But they refused to 
 recede; therefore he supplicated God, and He 
 said, Get ye down into a great city; for ye 
 shall have therein what ye have asked.—And 
 the marks of abjection and poverty were 
 stamped upon them: so these characteristics 
 necessarily belong to them, even if they are rich, 
 as necessarily as the stamped coin belongetli to 
 its die; and they returned with indignation 
 from God. This was because they did dis¬ 
 believe in the signs of God, and slay the pro¬ 
 phets (as Zechariah and John) unjustly : this 
 was because they rebelled and did transgress.” 
 (Surah ii. 58.) 
 
 “ And remember when Moses asked drink 
 for his people, who had become thirsty in the 
 desert, and We said, Strike with thy rod the 
 stone. (It was the stone that fled away with 
 his garment: it was light, square, like the head 
 of a man, marble or kedhdhan.) Accordingly 
 he struck it; and there gushed out from it 
 
 twelve fountains, according to the number of 
 the tribes, all men (each tribe of them) know¬ 
 ing their drinking-place. And We said unto 
 them. Eat ye and drink of the supply of God, 
 and commit not evil in the earth, acting cor¬ 
 ruptly. (Surah ii. 57.) 
 
 “ Remember also when We obtained your 
 bond that ye would do according to that which 
 is contained in the Law, and had lifted up over 
 you the mountain, namely Mount Sinai, 
 pulled it up by the roots and raised it over you 
 when ye had refused to accept the Law, and We 
 said, Receive that which We have given you, 
 with resolution, and remember that which is 
 contained in it, to do according thereto : perad- 
 venture ye will fear the Fire, or acts of dis¬ 
 obedience .—Then ye turned back after that; 
 and had it not been for the grace of God to¬ 
 wards you and His mercy, ye had certainly 
 been of those who perish. And ye know 
 those of you who transgressed on the Sab¬ 
 bath, by catching fish, when We had forbidden 
 them to do so, and they were the people of Eyleh, 
 and We said unto them, Be ye apes, driven 
 away from the society of men .—Thereupon 
 they became such, and they perished after three 
 days .—And We made it (namely that punish¬ 
 ment) an example unto those who were con¬ 
 temporary with them and those who came 
 after them, and a warning to the pious. 
 (Surah ii. GO-62.) 
 
 “ And We appointed unto Moses thirty 
 nights, at the expiration of which We ivould 
 speak to him, on the condition of his fasting 
 during them; and they were [the nights of the 
 month of] Dhu-l-Kaadeh; and he fasted 
 during them: but when they ivere ended, he dis¬ 
 liked the smell of his breath; so he used a 
 tooth-stick ; whereupon God commanded him to 
 fast ten other nights, that He might speak to 
 Him with the odour of his breath, as He whose 
 name be exalted hath said, and We completed 
 them by adding ten nights of Dhu-l-Hijjeh .- 
 so the stated time of his Lord was completed, 
 forty nights. And Moses said unto his bro¬ 
 ther Aaron, at his departure to the mountain 
 for the private collocution, Be thou my deputy 
 among my people, and act rightly, and fol¬ 
 low not the way of the corrupt doers by agree¬ 
 ing with them in acts of disobedience. And 
 when Moses came at Our appointed time, 
 and his Lord spake unto him without an in¬ 
 termediary, he said, O my Lord, show me 
 Thyself, that I may see Thee. He replied, 
 Thou shalt not see Me : but look at the moun¬ 
 tain, which is stronger than thou; and if it 
 remain firm in its place, then shalt thou see 
 Me. And when his Lord displayed Himself 
 to the mountain (that is, ivhen there appeared, 
 of His light, half of the tip of His little finger, 
 as related in a tradition which El-Hdkim hath 
 verified), He reduced it to powder, levelling it 
 even with the ground around it; and Moses 
 fell down in a swoon. And when he reco¬ 
 vered, he said, Extolled be Thy perfection I 
 I turn unto Thee repenting, and I am the 
 first of the believers in my time .— God said 
 unto him, 0 Moses, I have chosen thee above 
 the people of thy time by honouring thee, by 
 My commissions and by My speaking unto 
 
 46 +- 
 
362 
 
 MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 thee: therefore receive what I have given 
 thee, and be of those -who are grateful. And 
 We wrote for him upon the tables of the Law 
 (which were of the lote-tree of Paradise, or of 
 chrysolite, or of emerald; in number seven, or 
 ten ) an admonition concerning every requisite 
 matter of religion, and a distinct explanation 
 of everything; and said, Therefore receive 
 it with resolution, and command thy people 
 to act according to the most excellent [pre¬ 
 cepts] thereof. (Surah vii. 138-142.) 
 
 “ And the people of Moses, after it (that is, 
 after his departure for the private col/ocution'), 
 made of their ornaments (which they had bor¬ 
 rowed of thepeople of Pharaoh ), a corporeal calf 
 which Es-Samiree cast for them, and which 
 lowed; for he had the faculty of doing so in con¬ 
 sequence of their having put into its mouth some 
 dust taken from beneath the hoof of the horse of 
 Gabriel; and they took it as a god. Did they 
 not see that it spake not to them, nor directed 
 them in the way ? They took it as a god, and 
 were offenders. But when they repented, 
 and saw that they had erred, which was after 
 the return of Moses, they said, Verily if our 
 Lord do not have mercy upon us and for¬ 
 give us, we shall assuredly be of those who 
 perish. (Surah vii. 146-148.) 
 
 “ And Moses returned unto his people en¬ 
 raged against them, exceedingly sorrowful. 
 He said, 0 my people, did not your Lord 
 promise you a good true promise, that He 
 would give you the Law ? But did the time of 
 my absence seem tedious to you, or did ye 
 desire that indignation from your Lord should 
 befall you, and therefore did ye break your 
 promise to me, and abstain from coming after 
 me ?—They answered, We did not break our 
 promise to thee of our own authority; but 
 we were made to carry loads of the ornaments 
 of the people of Pharaoh (which the children 
 of Israel had borrowed of them under pre¬ 
 tence of [requiring them for] a wedding, and 
 which remained in their possession ), and we 
 cast them into the fire, by order of Es-Sa- 
 miree. And in like manner also Es-Samiree 
 cast their ornaments which he had, and some of 
 the dust which he had taken from the traces of 
 the hoofs of the horse of Gabriel; and he pro¬ 
 duced unto them a corporeal calf, of flesh and 
 blood, which lowed, by reason of the dust, the 
 property of which is to give life to that into 
 ivhich it is put; and he had put it, after he had 
 moulded the calf, into its mouth. And they 
 (namely Es-Samiree and his followers') said, 
 This is your god, and the god of Moses; but 
 he hath forgotten his lord here, and gone to 
 seek. him. God saith, But did they not see 
 that it returned them not an answer, nor was 
 able to cause them hurt or profit ? And 
 Aaron had said unto them, before the return 
 of Moses, O my people, ye are only tried by 
 it; and verily your Lord is the Compas¬ 
 sionate ; therefore follow me, by ivorshipping 
 Him, and obey ray command. They replied, 
 We will by no means cease to be devoted to 
 the worship of it until Moses return unto us. 
 Moses said after his return, O Aaron, what 
 hindered thee, when thou sawest that they 
 had gone astray, from following me ? Hast 
 
 thou then been disobedient to my command 
 by remaining among them who worshipped ano¬ 
 ther than God ?—He answered, O son of my 
 mother, seize me not by my beard (for he 
 had taken hold of his beard with his left hand), 
 nor by [the hair of] my head (for he 
 had taken hold of his hair with his right hand, 
 in anger). Verily I feared lest if I followed thee 
 (for a company of those who worshipped the 
 calf would inevitably have followed me) thou 
 shouldst saj', Thou hast made a division 
 among the children of Israel, and hast not 
 waited for my sentence. Moses said, And 
 what was thy motive for doing as thou hast, 
 O Samiree ? He answered, I saw that which 
 they saw not; therefore I took a handful of 
 dust from the foot-marks of the horse of the 
 apostle Gabriel, and cast it into the molten 
 calf; and thus my soul allured me to take a 
 handful of the dust above-mentioned, and to 
 cast it upon that which had no life, that it 
 might have life ; and I saw that thy people had 
 demanded of thee that thou wouldst make them 
 a god; so my soul suggested to me that this 
 calf should be their god. Moses said unto him, 
 Then get thee gone from among us, and [the 
 punishment] for thee during the period of thy 
 life [shall be], that thou shalt say unto whom¬ 
 soever thou shalt. see, Touch me not:— (so he used 
 to wander about the desert, and when he touched 
 anyone, or anyone touched him, they both be¬ 
 came affected with a burning fever:) and 
 verily for thee is a threat which thou shalt 
 by no means find to be false. And look at 
 thy god, to the worship of which thou hast 
 continued devoted. We will assuredly burn 
 it : then we will assuredly reduce it to pow¬ 
 der and scatter it in the sea. (And Moses, 
 after he had slaughtered it, did this.) Your 
 deity is God only, except whom there is no 
 deity. He comprehendeth all things by His 
 knowledge.—Thus, 0 Mohammad, do We re¬ 
 late unto thee accounts of what hath hap¬ 
 pened heretofore; and We have given thee, 
 from Us, an admonition; namely the Kur-an. 
 (Surah xx. 88-99.) 
 
 “ And they were made to drink down the 
 calf into their hearts (that is, the love of it 
 mingled with their hearts as drink mingleth,) 
 because of their unbelief. (Surah ii. 87.) 
 
 “ Remember, O children of Israel, when 
 Moses said unto his people who worshipped 
 the calf, O my people, verily ye have injured 
 your own souls by your taking to yourselves 
 the calf as a god; therefore turn with repen¬ 
 tance unto your Creator from the worship of it, 
 and slay one another : (that is, let the innocent 
 among you stay the criminal:) this will be best 
 for you in the estimation of your Creator. 
 And he aided you to do that, sending upon 
 you a black cloud, lest one of you should see 
 another and have compassio/i on him, until there 
 were slain of you about seventy thousand. And 
 thereupon He became propitious towards you, 
 accepting your repentance; for He is the Very 
 Propitious, the Merciful. (Surah ii. 51.) 
 
 “ Remember, also, O children of Israel, 
 when ye said, having gone forth with Moses 
 to beg pardon of God for your worship of the 
 calf, and having heard his words, 0 Moses, we 
 
MOSES 
 
 Moses 
 
 will not believe thee until we see God mani¬ 
 festly :—whereupon the vehement sound as¬ 
 sailed you, and ye died, while ye beheld what 
 happened to you. Then We raised you to life 
 after ye had been dead, that peradventure ye 
 might give thanks. (Surah ii. 52, 53.) 
 
 “ And Moses chose from his people seventy 
 men, of those who had not worshipped the calf, by 
 the command of God, at the time appointed by 
 Us for their coming to ask pardon for their 
 companions' worship of the calf; and he went 
 forth with them; and when the convulsion 
 (the violent earthquake') took them away (be¬ 
 cause, saith Ibn- Abbas, they did not separate 
 themselves from their people when the latter 
 worshipped the calf), Moses said, 0 my Lord, 
 if Thou hadst pleased, Thou hadst destroyed 
 them before my goiny forth with them, that the 
 children of Israel might have beheld it and 
 might not suspect me; and me [also]. Wilt 
 Thou destroy us for that which the foolish 
 among ns have done ? It is naught but Thy 
 trial: Thou wilt cause to err thereby whom 
 Thou pleasest, and Thou wilt rightly guide 
 whom Thou pleasest. Thou art our guardian ; 
 and do Thou forgive us and have mercy 
 upon us ; for Thou art the best of those who 
 forgive: and appoint for us in this world 
 what is good, and in the world to come ; for 
 unto Thee have we turned with repentance. 
 — God replied, I will afflict with My punish¬ 
 ment whom I please, and My mercy extendeth 
 over everything in the world; and I will ap¬ 
 point it, in the ivorld to come, for those who 
 fear and give the legal alms, and those who 
 believe on Our - signs, who shall follow the 
 apostle, the illiterate prophet, Mohammad, 
 whom they shall find written down with them 
 in the Pentateuch and the Gospel, by his name 
 and his description. He will command them 
 that which is right, and forbid them that 
 which is evil; and will allow them as lawful 
 the good things among those forbidden in their 
 law, and prohibit them the impure, as carrion 
 and other things, and will take off from them 
 their burden and the yokes that were upon 
 them, as the slaying of a soul [for an atone¬ 
 ment] in repentance, and the cutting off of the 
 mark left by impurity. And those who shall 
 believe in him and honour' him and assist 
 him and follow the light which shall be sent 
 down with him, namely the Kur-an, these shall 
 be the prosperous. (Surah vii. 154-156.) 
 
 “ And remember when Moses said unto his 
 people, 0 my people, remember the favour 
 of God towards you, since He hath appointed 
 prophets from among you, and made you 
 princes (masters of servants and other atten¬ 
 dants), and given you what He hath not given 
 any [other] of the peoples (as the manna and 
 the quails and other things). 0 my people, 
 enter the Holy Land which God hath decreed 
 for you (namely Syria), and turn not back, 
 lest ye turn losers.—They replied, 0 Moses, 
 verily there is in it a gigantic people, of the 
 remains of the tribe of ’A'd, and we will not 
 enter it until they go forth from it; but if 
 they go forth from it, then we will enter. 
 —Thereupon two men, of those who feared to 
 disobey God, namely Joshua and Caleb, of the 
 
 368 
 
 chiefs whom Moses sent to discover the circum¬ 
 stances of the giants, and upon whom God had 
 conferred favour, and who had concealed what 
 they had seen of the state of the giants, except- 
 ing from Moses, wherefore the other chiefs be¬ 
 came cowardly, said unto them, Enter ye upon 
 them through the gate of the city, and fear 
 them not; for they are bodies without hearts; 
 and when ye enter it, ye overcome ; and upon 
 God place your - dependence, if ye be believers. 
 —But they said, 0 Moses, we will never enter 
 it while they remain therein. Therefore go 
 thou and thy Lord, and fight: for we remain 
 here.— Then Moses said, 0 my Lord, verily I 
 am not master of any but myself and my 
 brother: therefore distinguish between us 
 and the unrighteous people.— God replied, 
 Verily it (namely the Holy Land) shall be for¬ 
 bidden them forty years ; they shall wander 
 in perplexity in the land: and be not thou 
 solicitous for the unrighteous people.— The 
 land through which they wandered was only 
 nine leagues in extent. They used to journey 
 during the night with diligence; but in the 
 morning they found themselves in the place 
 whence they had set forth ; and they journeyed 
 during the day in like manner. Thus they did 
 until all of them had become extinct, excepting 
 those who had not attained the age of twenty 
 years; and it is said that they were six hun¬ 
 dred thousand. Aaron and Moses died in the 
 desert; and mercy was their lot: but punish¬ 
 ment was the lot of those. And Moses begged 
 his Lord, when he was about to die, that He 
 would bring him as near as a stone's throw to 
 the Holy Land: wherefore He did so. And 
 Joshua was made a prophet after the forty 
 [years], and he gave orders to fight against 
 the giants. So he went with those who were 
 with him, and fought against them : and it was 
 Friday; and the sun stood still for him awhile, 
 until he had made an end of fighting against 
 them. (Surah v, 23-29.) 
 
 “ Karoon [or Korah] was of the people of 
 Moses (he was the son of his paternal uncle, 
 and the son of his maternal aunt, and he be¬ 
 lieved in him)-, but he behaved insolently 
 towards them; for We had bestowed upon 
 him such treasures that their keys were 
 heavy burdens for a company of men endowed 
 with strength, in number, as some say, seventy ; 
 and some, forty; and some, ten; and some, 
 another number. Remember when his people 
 (the believers among the children of Israel) said 
 unto him, Rejoice not exultingly in the abun¬ 
 dance of thy wealth ; for God loveth not those 
 who so rejoice; hut seek to attain, by means 
 of the wealth which God hath given thee, the 
 latter abode [of Paradise], by expanding thy 
 wealth in the service of God; and neglect not 
 thy part in this world, to work therein for the 
 world to come; but be beneficent unto man¬ 
 kind, by bestowing alms, as God hath been 
 beneficent unto thee ; and seek not to act 
 corruptly in the earth; for God loveth not 
 the corrupt doers. He replied, I have only 
 been given it on account of the knowledge 
 that I possess. For he was the most learned 
 of the children of Israel in the Law, after 
 Moses and Aaron. God saith, Did he not 
 
364 
 
 MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 know that God had destroyed before him, of 
 the generations, those that were mightier 
 than he in strength, and who had amassed 
 more abundance of wealth ? And the wicked 
 shall not be asked respecting their sins, be¬ 
 cause God knoweth them : therefore they shall 
 be sent into the Fire without a reckoning. And 
 Karoon went forth unto his people in his 
 pomp, with his many dependants mounted, 
 adorned with garments of gold, and silk, upon 
 decked horses and mules. Those who desired 
 the present life said, 0 would that we had 
 the like of that which hath been bestowed on 
 Karoon in this world! Verily he is possessed 
 of great good fortune !—But those unto whom 
 knowledge of what God hath promised in the 
 world to come had been given, said unto them, 
 Woe to you ! The reward of God in the world 
 to come (ivhich is Paradise ) is better for him 
 who believeth and worketh righteousness 
 than that ivhich hath been bestowed on Karoon 
 in the present world; and none shall receive it 
 but the patient in the service of God. And 
 We caused the earth to cleave asunder and 
 swallow up him and his mansion, and he had 
 no forces to defend him, in the place of God, 
 nor was he of the [number of the] saved. 
 And the next morning, those who had wished 
 for his place the day before said, Aha! God 
 enlargeth provision unto whom He pleaseth 
 of His servants, and is sparing of it unto whom 
 He pleaseth! Had not God been gracious 
 unto us, He had caused [the earth] to cleave 
 asunder and swallow up us 1 Aha 1 the un¬ 
 grateful for His benefits do not prosper! 
 (Surah xxviii. 76-82.) 
 
 “ Remember, when Moses said unto his 
 people ( when one oj them had been slain, whose 
 murderer was not known, and they asked him 
 to beg God that He would discover him to them, 
 wherefore he supplicated Him), Verily God 
 commandeth you to sacrifice a cow. They 
 said, Dost thou make a jest of us ? He said, 
 I beg God to preserve me from being one of 
 the foolish. So ivhen they knew that he de¬ 
 cidedly intended what he had ordered, they 
 said, Supplicate for us thy Lord, that He 
 may manifest to us what she is ; that is, what 
 is her age. Moses replied, He saith, She is a 
 cow neither old nor young ; but of a middle 
 age, between those two: therefore do as ye 
 are commanded. They said, Supplicate for 
 us thy Lord, that He may manifest to us 
 what is her colour. He replied, He saith, She 
 is a red cow : her colour is very bright: she 
 rejoiceth the beholders. They said, Suppli¬ 
 cate for us thy Lord, that He may manifest 
 to us what she is, whether she be a pasturing 
 or a working cow; for cow r s of the description 
 mentioned are to us like one another ; and we, 
 if God please, shall indeed be rightly directed 
 to her. (In a tradition it is said, Had they 
 not said, ‘ If God please,'—she had not ever 
 been manifested to them.) He replied, He 
 saith, She is a cow not subdued by work that 
 plougheth the ground, nor doth she water the 
 field: [she is] free from defects and the marks 
 of work; there is no colour in her different 
 from the rest of her colour. They said, Now 
 thou hast brought the truth. And they sought 
 
 her, and found her in the possession of the 
 young man who acted piously towards his 
 mother, and they bought her for as much gold 
 as her hide would contain. Then they sacri¬ 
 ficed her; but they were near to leaving it 
 undone, on account of the greatness of her 
 price. (And in a tradition it is said, Had 
 they sacrificed any cow whatever, He had satis¬ 
 fied them: but they acted hardly towards them¬ 
 selves ; so God acted hardly towards them.) 
 And when ye slew a soul, and contended to¬ 
 gether respecting it, (and God brought forth 
 [to light] that which ye did conceal— this is 
 the beginning of the story [and was the occa¬ 
 sion of the order to sacrifice this particular 
 cow,]) We said, Strike him (that is, the slain 
 person) with part of her. So he was struck 
 with her tongue, or the root oj her tail, or, as 
 some say, with her right thigh; whereupon he 
 came to life, and said, Such-a-one and such-a- 
 one slew me,—to the two sons of his uncle. 
 And he died. They two [the murderers] were 
 therefore deprived of the inheritance, and were 
 slain. Thus God raiseth to life the dead, and 
 showeth you His signs ( the proof of His 
 power), that peradventure ye may understand, 
 and know that He who is able to raise to life 
 one soul is able to raise to life many souls. 
 Then your hearts became hard, 0 ye Jews, so 
 as not to accept the truth, after that, and they 
 [were] as stones, or more hard: for of stones 
 there are indeed some from which rivers gush 
 forth; and of them there are indeed some 
 that cleave asunder and water issueth from 
 them; and of them there are indeed some 
 that fall down through fear of God; whereas 
 your hearts are not impressed, nor do they grow 
 soft, nor do they become humble. But God is 
 not heedless of that which ye do : He only 
 reserveth you unto your time. (Surah ii. 63- 
 69.) 
 
 “ Remember when Moses said to his young 
 man Joshua the son of Nun, who served him 
 and acquired knowledge from him, I will not 
 cease to go forward until I reach the place 
 where the two seas (the Sea of Greece and the 
 Sea of Persia) meet, or travel for a long space 
 of time. And when they reached the place 
 where they (the two seas) met they forgot 
 their fish: Joshua forgot to take it up, on their 
 departure; and Moses forgot to remind him ; 
 and it made its way in the sea by a hollow 
 passage, God withholding the water from it. 
 And when they had passed beyond that place, 
 and proceeded until the time of the morning- 
 meal on the following day, [Moses] said unto 
 his young man, Bring us our morning-meal: 
 we have experienced fatigue from this our 
 journey. He replied, What thinkest thou? 
 When we repaired to the rock to rest at that 
 place, I forgot the fish, and none made me 
 forget to mention it but the Devil; and it 
 made its way in the sea in a wonderful 
 manner.— Moses said, That (namely our loss 
 of the fish) is what we were desiring: for it 
 is a sign unto us of our finding him whom we 
 seek. And they returned by the way that 
 they had come, following the footsteps, and 
 came to the rock. And they found one of Our 
 servants (namely El-Khidr) unto whom We 
 
MOSES 
 
 MOSES 
 
 had granted mercy from Us (that is, the 
 gift of prophecy in the opinion of some, and the 
 rank of a saint according to another opinion, 
 which most of the learned hold), and whom 
 We had taught knowledge from Us respecting 
 things unseen. — El-Bukharee hath related a 
 tradition that Moses performed the office of a 
 preacher among the children of Israel, and was 
 asked ivho was the most knowing of men; to 
 which he answered, I:—•whereupon God blamed 
 him for this, because he did not refer the know¬ 
 ledge thereof to Him. And God said unto him 
 by revelation, Verily I have a servant at the 
 place where the two seas meet, and he is more 
 knowing than thou. Moses said, 0 my Lord, 
 and how shall I meet with him ? He answered, 
 Thou shall take with thee a fish, and put it 
 into a measuring vessel, and where thou shalt 
 lose the fish, there is he. So he took a fish, 
 and put it into a vessel. Then he departed, and 
 Joshua the son of Nun departed with him, until 
 they came to the rock, where they laid down 
 their heads and slept. And the fish became 
 agitated in the vessel, and escaped from it, and 
 fell into the sea, and it made its way in the sea 
 by a hollow passage, God withholding the water 
 from the fish so that it became like a vault over 
 it: and when Moses’ companion awoke, he for¬ 
 got to inform him of the fish. 
 
 “Moses said unto him [namely El-Khidr], 
 Shall I follow thee, that thou mayest teach 
 me [part] of that which thou hast been 
 taught, for a direction unto me ? He answered, 
 Verily thou canst not have patience with me. 
 For how canst thou be patient with respect 
 to that whereof thou comprehendest not the 
 knowledge?—He replied, Thou shalt find me, 
 if God please, patient; and I will not disobey 
 any command of thine. He said, Then if 
 thou follow me, ask me not respecting any¬ 
 thing : but be patient until I give thee an 
 account thereof. And Moses assented to his 
 condition. And they departed, walking along 
 the shore oj the sea, until, when they em¬ 
 barked in the ship that passed by them, he, 
 El-Khidr, made a hole in it, by pulling out a 
 plank or two planks from it on the outside by 
 means of an axe when it reached the middle of 
 the sea. Moses said unto him, Hast thou 
 made a hole in it that thou mayest drown its 
 people ? Thou hast done a grievous thing.— 
 (But it is related that the water entered not the 
 hole.) He replied, Did I not say that thou 
 couldst not have patience with me ? [Moses] 
 said, Chastise me not for my forgetfulness, 
 nor impose on me a difficulty in my case.— 
 And they departed, after they had gone forth 
 from the vessel, walking on, until, when they 
 found a boy who had not attained the age of 
 knowing right and wrong, playing with other 
 children, and he was the most beautiful of them 
 in countenance, and he ( El-Khidr ) slew him, 
 Moses said unto him, Hast thou slain an inno¬ 
 cent soul, without his having slain a soul? 
 Thou hast done an iniquitous thing..—He re¬ 
 plied, Did I not say that thou couldst not have 
 patience with me? [Moses] said, If I ask thee 
 concerning anything after this time, suffer 
 me not to accompany thee. Now hast thou 
 received from me an excuse for thy separating 
 
 365 
 
 thyself from me. — And they departed [and 
 proceeded] until, when they came to the 
 people of a city (which teas Antioch), they 
 asked food of its people ; but they refused to 
 entertain them : and they found therein a 
 wall, the height whereof was a hundred cubits, 
 which was about to fall down ; whereupon he 
 (El-Khidr) set it upright with his hand. Moses 
 said unto him, If thou wouldst, thou mightest 
 have obtained pay for it, since they did not 
 entertain us, notwithstanding our want of food. 
 El-Khidr said unto him, This shall be a sepa¬ 
 ration between me and thee ; but before my 
 separation from thee, I will declare unto thee 
 the interpretation of that which thou couldst 
 not bear with patience. 
 
 “ As to the vessel, it belonged to ten poor 
 men, who pursued their business on the sea ; 
 and I desired to render it unsound ; for there 
 was behind them a king, an unbeliever, who 
 took every sound vessel by force. And as 
 to the boy, his parents were believers, and we 
 feared that he would transgress against them 
 rebelliously and impiously : for, according to 
 a tradition related by Muslim, he ivas consti¬ 
 tuted by nature an unbeliever, and had he lived 
 he had so acted; wherefore we desired that 
 their Lord should create for them a better 
 than he in virtue, and [one] more disposed 
 than he to filial piety. And God created for 
 them a daughter, who married a prophet, and 
 gave birth to a prophet, by means of whom God 
 directed a people to the right way. And as to 
 the wall, it belonged to two orphan youths 
 in the city, and beneath it was a treasure 
 buried, of gold and silver, belonging to them; 
 and their father was a righteous man; and 
 thy Lord desired that they should attain 
 their age of strength and take forth their 
 treasure through the mercy of thy Lord. 
 And I did it not (namely what hath been men¬ 
 tioned) of mine own will, but by direction of 
 God. This is the interpretation of that which 
 thou couldst not bear with patience. (Surah 
 xviii. 59-81.)” 
 
 The following remarks are taken from 
 Sale’s notes of al-BaizawI and other commen¬ 
 tators :— 
 
 “ There is a tradition that Moses was a 
 very swarthy man ; and that when he put his 
 hand into his bosom, and drew it out again, 
 it became extremely white and splendid, sur¬ 
 passing the brightness of the sun. 
 
 “ Moses had an impediment in his speech, 
 which was occasioned by the following acci¬ 
 dent. Pharaoh one day carrying him in his 
 arms when a child, he suddenly laid hold of 
 his heard and plucked it in a very rough 
 manner, which put Pharaoh into such a pas¬ 
 sion, that he ordered him to be put to death : 
 but A'siyeh, his wife, representing to him that 
 ho was but a child, who could not distinguish 
 between a burning coal and a ruby, he ordered 
 the experiment to be made ; and a live coal 
 and a ruby being set before Moses, he took 
 the coal and put it into his mouth, and burnt 
 -his tongue ; and thereupon he was pardoned. 
 —This is a Jewish story a little altered. 
 
 “ It is related that the midwife appointed 
 to attend the Hebrew women, terrified by a 
 
366 
 
 MOSQUE 
 
 mu’azzin 
 
 light which appeared between the eyes of Moses 
 at his birth, and touched with extraordinary 
 affection for the child, did not discover him 
 to the officers, so that her mother kept him 
 in her house, and nursed him three months; 
 after which it was impossible for her to con¬ 
 ceal him any longer, the king then giving 
 orders to make the searches more strictly. 
 
 “ The commentators say that the mother of 
 Moses made an ark of the papyrus, and 
 pitched it, and put in some cotton; and 
 having laid the child therein, committed it 
 to the river, a branch of which went into 
 Pharaoh’s garden: that the stream carried 
 the ark thither into a fishpond, at the head of 
 which Pharaoh was then sitting with his wife 
 A'siyeh, the daughter of Muzahem; and that 
 the king, having commanded it to be taken 
 up and opened, and finding in it a beautiful 
 child, took a fancy to it, and ordered it to be 
 brought up. Some writers mention a mira- 
 raculous preservation of Moses before he was 
 put into the ark; and tell us, that his mother 
 having hid him from Pharaoh’s officers in an 
 oven, his sister, in her mother’s absence, 
 kindled a large fire in the oven to heat it, not 
 knowing the child was there ; but that he 
 was afterwards taken out unhurt.” 
 
 MOSQUE. The Muhammadan 
 
 place of worship, which is called in Arabic 
 masjid (Ai,—^). The term “mosque ”is found 
 in all European languages, and must have been 
 derived from the Arabic form of the word, 
 e.g. Spanish, mesquita ; Italian, moschea ; Ger¬ 
 man, Moschee-, French, mosque'e\ English, 
 mosque or mosk. 
 
 For an account of these buildings, see 
 MASJID. 
 
 MOTHEB. (1) Kindness towards 
 
 a mother is enjoined in the Qur’an. Surah 
 xlvi. 14 : “ We have prescribed for man kind¬ 
 ness towards his parents. His mother bore 
 him with trouble, and brought him forth with 
 trouble.” 
 
 (2) Mothers cannot be compelled to nurse 
 their children. 
 
 (3) They are not, without their husband’s 
 permission, allowed to move them to a strange 
 place. ( ldidayah , vol. i. pp. 386, 390.) 
 
 MOURNING. The period of 
 
 mourning for the dead is restricted to three 
 days, during which time the friends and rela¬ 
 tives are expected to visit the bereaved 
 family, and offer up prayers for the departed 
 ( fdtihah ), and speak words of consolation 
 ( [ta‘ziyah ). But a widow must observe the 
 custom of mourning for a period of four 
 months and ten days, which period is called 
 ifidad. During these periods of mourning, it is 
 tiie duty of all concerned to abstain from the 
 use of perfumes and ornaments, and to wear 
 soiled garments. Lamentation, buka’ (Heb. 
 bokhoh), for the dead_is strictly forbidden by 
 the Prophet ( Mishkat , book v. ch. vii.), but 
 it is nevertheless a common custom in the 
 East, amongst all sects of Muhammadans. 
 (See Arabian Nights ; Lane’s Modern Egyp¬ 
 tians ; Shaw’s Travels in Barbary.) 
 
 MU'AMD (a&U^). One who enters 
 
 into covenant Qahd) with another. An infidel 
 who is permitted by a Muslim Government to 
 enter its towns and carry on traffic, i.e. a 
 zimmi. [zimmi.] 
 
 al-MU’AKHKMR “The 
 
 Deferrer.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It does not occur in the 
 Qur’an, but is given in the Hadis. 
 
 MU‘ALLIM A teacher in 
 
 a school or mosque. Al-Mu’allimu ’l- 
 Aivwal, “ The first teacher,” is a term used 
 by philosophers for Aristotle. Amongst the 
 Sufis it is used for Adam, who is said to be 
 the first prophet. Mu‘allimu ’l-Mala'ikah, 
 “ The teacher of angels,” is also used by the 
 Sufis for Adam, because it is said in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 31: “0 Adam, declare 
 unto them (the angels) their names.” 
 
 MU'AN AQ AH Embrac¬ 
 
 ing, or throwing oneself on the neck of one’s 
 friend. A custom especially enjoined by 
 Muhammad. ( Mishkat , book xxii. ch. iii. 
 pt. 2.) 
 
 al-MU‘AQQIBAT Lit. 
 
 “ The succeeding ones.” A title given to the 
 recording angels, [kikamu ’l-katibin.] 
 
 MU'AYUIYAH The sixth 
 
 Khalifah, and the founder of the Umaiyah 
 dynasty (the Ommiades). He was the son of 
 Abu Sufyan, one of the leading Companions 
 of Muhammad, and became Khalifah on the 
 death of al-IIasan, and is regarded with great 
 hatred by the Shi'ahs. He died a.h. 60. He 
 was the first Khalifah who made the Khali- 
 fate hereditary. 
 
 al-MU‘AWWIZAT M Lit. 
 
 “The seekers of refuge.” The two last 
 chapters of the Qur’an. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Falaq (cxiii.), beginning with, 
 “ Say : I flee for refuge to the Lord of the 
 Daybreak.” 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nas (cxiv.) beginning, “Say: I 
 flee for refuge to the Lord of men.” 
 
 These chapters were ordered by Muham¬ 
 mad to be recited after each stated prayer. 
 (Mishkat , book iv. ch. xix. pt. 2.) 
 
 MU'AZ IBN JABAL (jl* ^ bW). 
 
 One of the most famous of the “Companions.” 
 He was of the Banff Khazraj, and was only 
 twenty years of age at the battle of Badr. 
 Being well skilled in the Qur’an, he w r as left 
 at Makkah to instruct the people in the 
 principles of Islam. He was also sent as the 
 head of a band of collectors of taxes to south 
 Arabia, and became Qazi of al-Yaman. After 
 Muhammad’s death, he became a leading 
 person in the counsels of Abff Bakr and ‘Umar, 
 and was placed in charge of Syria by the 
 latter Kh alifah. He died at Ta‘ffn ‘Amawas. 
 
 MU’AZZIN (oV)- Tbe caller of 
 
 the azan, or “ summons to prayer.” In small 
 mosques, the azan is given by the Imam, but 
 in the larger ones, an official is specially ap- 
 
MUBAH 
 
 pointed for the purpose. When the mosque 
 has a minaret, he calls from the top of it, but 
 in smaller places of worship, from the side of 
 the mosque. The first mu’azzin was Bilal, 
 the son of an Abyssinian slave-girl, and Mu¬ 
 hammad is related to have said, “ The 
 callers to prayer may expect Paradise, and 
 whoever serves in the office for seven years 
 shall be saved from hell fire.” ( Mishkat , book 
 iv. ch. vi.J [azan.] 
 
 MUBAH (eW*)- Lit. “Allowed.” 
 
 A term used in the religious and ceremonial 
 law of Islam for an action which a person 
 may do or let alone, being attended with 
 neither praise nor blame. 
 
 MUBARAT (iVw*). “Mutual dis¬ 
 charge.” A term used in the law of divorce 
 when a man says to his wife, “ I am dis¬ 
 charged from the marriage between you and 
 me,” and she consents thereto. It is the 
 same as /chul 1 . 
 
 au-MUBDI’ “The Pro¬ 
 
 ducer or Beginner.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It does not 
 occur in the Qur’an, but the idea is expressed 
 in Surah lxxxv. 13: “He produces and re¬ 
 stores.” 
 
 MUBTADP (gAXy*). Lit. “ An 
 
 inventor.” A heretic, or a broacher of new 
 opinions. 
 
 MUD ABBA R A slave who 
 
 has received his freedom in consequence of 
 the master’s death, in accordance with a pre¬ 
 vious promise. 
 
 MUDDAT A plaintiff in 
 
 a law-suit. 
 
 MUDDAT-'ALAIHC^^a.). a 
 
 defendant in a law-suit. 
 
 al-MUDDASSIR Lit. 
 
 “ The Enwrapped.” The title of the Lxxivth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the first verse of 
 which the word occurs. “ O Thou, enwrapped 
 in thy mantle, arise and preach.” This is 
 considered by some to be the earliest Surah 
 in the Qur’an, but others think it was the 
 XCVlth. [MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 MUFARRIHU ’L-AHZAN (e f* 
 Lit. “ The making cheerful 
 under affliction.” A term used by pious Mus¬ 
 lims for a spirit of resignation in affliction, 
 which, they say, is to be produced by possess¬ 
 ing faith with a firm belief in the decrees 
 of fate. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi 
 Terms.') 
 
 MUPSID “A pernicious 
 
 person.” It occurs in the Qur’an frequently, 
 e.g. Surah ii. 219: “God knoweth the foul 
 dealer ( [mufsid) from the fair dealer 
 ( muslih ).” 
 
 MUFTI The officer who 
 
 expounds the law, He assists the Qazi, or 
 judge, and supplies him with fatwds, or deci- 
 
 MUHAMMAD 367 
 
 sions. He must be learned in the Qur’an and 
 Hadis, and in the Muslim works of law. 
 
 al-MUGHNI ). “ The En- 
 
 richer.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It is referred to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah iv. 129 : “ God can make both 
 independent (lit. ‘ enrich ’) out of His abun¬ 
 dance.” 
 
 MUHADASAH (BjW-). Lit. 
 
 “ Discoursing together.” A term used by the 
 Sufis for the calling of a person by God 
 through some outward means, as when, ac¬ 
 cording to the Qur’an, Surah xxviii. 30, God 
 spoke to Moses out of a tree. (‘Abdu T- 
 Razziiq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 MUHADDIS (^a^). (1) The 
 
 narrator of a Hadis or acts and words of 
 Muhammad. (2) One learned in the Tradi¬ 
 tions. 
 
 al-MUHAIMIN (tf-HHD-n). “ The 
 
 Protector.” One of the ninety-nine names 
 or attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah lix. 23, “ He is . . . the Protector .” 
 
 MUHAJIR From liijrah, 
 
 “ flight.” One who performs hijrah either by 
 (1) leaving Makkah in company with the 
 Prophet, or (2) leaving a country ruled by an 
 infidel power, or (3) by fleeing from what 
 God has forbidden. 
 
 MUHA.JIRUN The pi. 
 
 of Muhdjir. The exiles or refugees. A term 
 used for all those converts to Islam who fled 
 with their Prophet from Makkah. Under 
 the title are also included all who from time 
 to time joined Muhammad at al-Madinah, 
 either from Makkah or from any other 
 quarter, up to the taking of Makkah in 
 a.h. 8. They rank first in order amongst the 
 Companions of the Prophet. 
 
 MUHALLIL (JW*). Lit. “One 
 
 who makes lawful.” The man who marries 
 a divorced wife in order to make her lawful 
 for her former husband if he wish to marry 
 her. [divorce.] 
 
 MUHAMMAD(aa^). Lit. “The 
 Praised One.” Sometimes spelt Mohammed, 
 Mohomed, or Mahomet. 
 
 Muhammad, the founder of the religion 
 generally known as Muhammadanism, but 
 called by its own adherents Islam [islam], 
 was the posthumous son of ‘Abdu ’llah, by 
 his wife Aminah. ‘Abdu ’llah belonged to 
 the family of Hashim, which was the noblest 
 tribe of the Quraish section of the Arabian 
 race, and said to be directly descended from 
 Ishmael. The father of ‘Abdu ’llah and the 
 grandfather of Muhammad, was ‘Abdu ’1- 
 Muttalib, who held the high office of custo¬ 
 dian of the Ka‘bah. [ka‘bah.] The same 
 year which saw the destruction of the Abys¬ 
 sinian invader, and formed an epoch in the 
 history of Arabia, known as the Era of the 
 Elephant, on account of the vast array of 
 elephants the invaders brought with them, 
 witnessed the birth of Muhammad. Muham- 
 
368 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 mad is said to have been born about fifty-five 
 days after the attack of Abrahah, or on the 
 12th day of the month Rabin ’1-Awwal of the 
 first year of the Era of the Elephant, which 
 M. Caussin de Perceval believes to have been 
 the fortieth year of the reign of Ohosroes the 
 Great (Kasra Anushirwan ), and calculates 
 the date to have been August 20th, a.d. 570 
 (see vol. i. pp. 282,283). According to Sprenger, 
 it was April 20th, a.d. 571 (Das Leben nnd 
 die Lehre des Mohammad, vol. i. p. 138.) 
 
 Muhammad was born at Makkah. And 
 immediately upon his birth, his mother, 
 Aminah, sent a special messenger to inform 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Muttalib of the news. The mes¬ 
 senger reached the chief as he sat within 
 the sacred enclosure of the Ka'bah, in the 
 midst of his sons and principal men, and he 
 arose with joy and went to the house of 
 Aminah. He then took the child in his arms, 
 and went to the Ka'bah, and gave thanks to 
 God. The Quraish tribe begged the grand¬ 
 father to name the child after some member 
 of the family, but ‘Abdu ’1-Muttalib said, “ I 
 desire that the God who has created the 
 child on earth may be glorified in heaven, 
 and he called him Muhammad, “ the praised 
 one.” 
 
 Al-Hafiz, on the authority of Makhzum 
 (quoted by Abu ’1-Fida’, p. 59), says that on 
 the night that Muhammad was born, the 
 palace of Chosroes was shaken, and fourteen 
 of its turrets fell; the fires of the Persians 
 were extinguished, which had not been extin¬ 
 guished before for a thousand years ; and the 
 lake Sawak sank. 
 
 It was not the custom of the better class 
 of women amongst the Arabians to nurse 
 their children, and consequently the infant, 
 soon after his birth, was made over to Su- 
 waibah, a slave-girl of his uncle Abu Lahab. 
 Suwaibah had a son, whose name was Mas- 
 ruh, whom she nursed at the same time, and 
 she had also nursed Hamzak, Muhammad’s 
 uncle, and Abu Salimak ; so that these three 
 men were his foster-brothers. Suwaibah only 
 suckled Muhammad for a few days, when the 
 child was made over to Halimah, a woman of 
 the tribe of the Banu Sa‘d. Halimah was the 
 daughter of ‘Abdu ’llah Abu Zu’aib, the son 
 of al-Haris, and she took Muhammad to her 
 desert home, amongst the Banu Sa‘d, where 
 he remained for a period of two years. The 
 foster-brother suckled by Halimah was ‘Abdu 
 ’llah, and his foster-sisters Anisah and Hara- 
 mah. 
 
 The following story connected with Mu¬ 
 hammad’s stay with Halimah is related by 
 Abu ’1-Fida’ (p. 64). When some time passed, 
 Muhammad and his foster-brother went out 
 to a distance from the house, when Hallmah’s 
 son came to his mother and said, “ Two men 
 clothed in white raiments have taken hold of 
 the Quraish boy, and have thrown him down 
 and have ripped open his belly''.” So Hali¬ 
 mah and her husband went to the place where 
 the child was, but found him standing on his 
 feet. And they said, “ What has happened to 
 thee child ? ” And he answered and said, 
 “ Two men came to me, and threw me down 
 
 and ripped up my belly.” Then Halimah’s 
 j husband said to her, “ I greatly fear that this 
 boy has got the epilepsy.” So they took him 
 j to his mother Aminah. And Halimah said 
 ; to Aminah, “ l am afraid he is possessed of a 
 devil.” But Aminah said, “ What in the 
 world can Satan have to do with my son that 
 he should be his enemy ? ” 
 
 This circumstance has been regarded as 
 the miracle when Gabriel came and took out 
 the heart of the child and washed it from the 
 stains of original sin. And some commenta¬ 
 tors say the first verse of the xcivth Surah 
 of the Qur’an alludes to it: “ Have we not 
 opened thy breast ? ” 
 
 Muhammad ever retained a most grateful 
 recollection of the kindness he had received 
 from the Banu Sa‘d, and, in after years, he 
 used to say, “Verily I am the most perfect 
 Arab amongst you. My descent is from the 
 Quraish, and my speech is the tongue of the 
 Banu Sa‘d.” 
 
 In his sixth year, Muhammad was taken by 
 his mother to al-Madinah, but on the return 
 journey she fell sick, and died at a place 
 called al-Abwa’, where her body was buried. 
 In subsequent years, Muhammad visited his 
 mother’s tomb at al-Abwa’, and wept over it, 
 saying, “ This is the grave of my mother; 
 the Lord hath permitted me to visit it, and I 
 sought leave to pray for her salvation, but it 
 was not granted. So I called my mother to 
 remembrance, and the tender memory of her 
 overcame me, and I wept.” 
 
 The little orphan was then carried on to 
 Makkah by Umm'Aiman, who, although young 
 in years, became his faithful nurse and com¬ 
 panion. The charge of Muhammad was now 
 undertaken by ‘Abdu ’1-Muttalib, but the old 
 chief died two years afterwards, and the 
 child was committed to the care of his pater¬ 
 nal uncle, Abu Talib. When Muhammad 
 was twelve years old, he was taken by his 
 uncle on a mercantile journey to Syria, and 
 proceeded as far as Busra. The expedition 
 lasted for some months. According to the 
 Muslim historian, Abu ’1-Fida’, it was at 
 Busra that Muhammad met the Christian 
 monk Buhaira’, who is related to have said to 
 Abu Talib, “Return with this youth, and 
 guard him from the hatred of the Jews ; for 
 great dignity awaits this your brother’s son.” 
 It was on this journey that Muhammad was 
 brought in contact with the profession of 
 Christianity in Syria, and had an opportunity 
 of obtaining some information as to the na¬ 
 tional and social customs of Christians. He 
 must have also passed through many Jewish 
 settlements. It is, therefore, highly probable 
 that it was on the occasion of this journey 
 that Muhammad’s mind became first im¬ 
 pressed with the absolute necessity of reform¬ 
 ing, not only the gross idolatry of Makkah, 
 but the degrading social habits of the Arabian 
 people. 
 
 After this journey, the youth of Muhammad 
 seems to have been passed uneventfully, but 
 all authorities agree in ascribing to him a cor¬ 
 rectness of manner, and a purity of morals, 
 which were at that time rare amongst the 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 369 
 
 people of Makkah. The fair character and 
 honourable bearing of the unobtrusive youth 
 won the approbation of the citizens of Mak¬ 
 kah, and by common consent he received the 
 title of al-Amln, “ The Faithful.” • 
 
 Between the years a.d. 580-590, the sacri¬ 
 legious war broke out between the Quraish 
 and the Banff Hawazin, which lasted for 
 nearly ten years. In two of the contests, 
 Muhammad, though only a lad, accompanied 
 his uncles in their local wars. They were 
 called “sacrilegious” because they were car¬ 
 ried on during the sacred months, when fight¬ 
 ing was forbidden. 
 
 The youth of Muhammad passed away 
 without any other incidents of interest. At 
 this period he was employed, like other lads, 
 in tending the sheep and goats of Makkah 
 upon the neighbouring hills and valleys. He 
 used afterwards to allude to his shepherd 
 life, and say it comported with his prophetic 
 office, even as it did with that of Moses and 
 David: “Verily there hath been no prophet 
 who hath not performed the work of a shep¬ 
 herd.” 
 
 When Muhammad had reached his twenty- 
 fifth year, on the recommendation of his 
 uncle, Abu Talib, he entered the service of 
 Khadijah. a rich widow of Makkah. She 
 was of the Quraish tribe, the daughter of 
 Kh uwailid ibn Asad. With Maisarah, her 
 servant, Muhammad was placed in charge of 
 the widow’s merchandise, and he again tra¬ 
 velled the same route which he had traversed 
 thirteen years before with his uncle. His 
 journey again extended as far as Busra, a 
 city about sixty miles to the east of the river 
 Jordan. He visited Aleppo and Damascus, 
 and was doubtless brought in frequent con¬ 
 tact with both Jews and Christians, and had 
 another opportunity of obtaining that super¬ 
 ficial acquaintance with the Jewish and 
 Christian faiths, which enabled him in after 
 years to embody so much of the teaching of 
 the Bible in the verses of the Qur’an. “ The 
 mutual animosity of Jew towards Christian,” 
 says Mr. Stobart, “ though they professed to 
 worship the true God, though they appealed 
 to the old Testament, and both equally re¬ 
 vered the name of Abraham, and professed 
 to abhor that idolatry in which he had been 
 bred, may have led Muhammad to think that 
 possibly more divine truth lay hid in both 
 these systems of belief, though covered and 
 concealed by human inventions, and may 
 have suggested to him the possibility of form¬ 
 ing out of these conflicting elements one 
 single simple catholic creed, and of thus 
 uniting mankind in the worship and love of the 
 great Father of all.” (Stobart’s Islam, p. 56.) 
 
 Muhammad having proved himself faithful 
 in the commercial interests of his mistress, was 
 soon rewarded with her hand in marriage. 
 When Muhammad married her she was a 
 widow of forty years of age, and had been 
 already twice married, and had borne to her 
 former husbands, two sons and a daughter. 
 The house of Muhammad and Khadijah was 
 a bright and happy one, and their marriage 
 fortunate and fruitful. Two sons and four i 
 
 daughters were its issue. Their oldest son 
 was al-Qasim, who died at the age of 
 two years, whence Muhammad was some¬ 
 times called Abu 'l-Qasim, or the father of 
 al-Qasim. The other son, ‘Abdu ’llah, sur- 
 named at-Tahir and at-Taiyib, died in in¬ 
 fancy. The four daughters were Zainab, 
 Ruqaiyah, Umm Qulsum, and Fatimah. 
 [fatimau.] 
 
 During her lifetime, Khadijah was Muham¬ 
 mad’s only wife, and he always looked back 
 to this period of his life with fond remem¬ 
 brance. When the world called him an im¬ 
 postor and a cheat, Khadijah was the first to 
 acknowledge him to be the “ Apostle of God.” 
 Indeed, so much did he dwell upon the mutual 
 love of Khadijah and himself, that the envious 
 ‘Ayishah declared herself more jealous of this 
 rival, who was dead, than of all the living 
 rivals who contested with her the affection of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 As yet Muhammad was almost a stranger 
 to the outside world, but he now obtained 
 some reputation among his fellow men, by 
 taking a prominent part in the resuscitation 
 of an old league, called the Federation of the 
 Fuzffl [hilfc ’l-fuzdx], formed in ancient 
 times for the repression of acts of lawlessness 
 within the walls of Makkah. A new compact 
 was formed between four or five of the chief 
 families of Makkah for the protection of the 
 weak and oppressed, and Muhammad was 
 one of the most prominent movers in this 
 federation, the revival of which resulted 
 mainly from his efforts. 
 
 In his thirty-fifth year, he settled by his 
 decision a grave difficulty, which had sprung 
 up during the reconstruction of the Ka‘bah, 
 regarding the placing of the sacred stone, 
 and which almost threatened to plunge the 
 whole of Arabia into another of their oft- 
 recurring wars. 
 
 The Ka‘bah was too low in the building, 
 and the Quraish wished to raise it higher, and 
 so they demolished it. When it was rebuilt 
 as far as the position of the Black Stone, the 
 question arose, who should be the honoured 
 instrument of raising the sacred relic into its 
 place, for each tribe claimed the honour. 
 Then the oldest citizen arose and said, “ My 
 advice is that the man who first entereth by 
 the gate of the Banff Shaibah, shall be 
 selected umpire in this difficult question, or 
 shall himself place the stone.” The proposal 
 was agreed upon, and the first man who en¬ 
 tered the gate was he who was known as al- 
 Amln, “ The Faithful,” Muhammad, the son of 
 ‘Abdu ’llah. Muhammad decided upon an ex¬ 
 pedient, which served to satisfy the contend¬ 
 ing parties. The stone was placed on a cloth, 
 and each tribe shared in the honour of rais¬ 
 ing it, by taking hold of the cloth. The stone 
 being thus deposited in its proper place, the 
 Quraish built on without interruption, and 
 the great idol Hubal was placed in the centre 
 of the sacred edifice, and around were ranged 
 the various other idols of the Arabian people. 
 “ This circumstance,” says Sir William Muir, 
 “ strikingly illustrates the absence of any 
 paramount authority at Mecca at this time. 
 
 47 
 
370 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 A curious story is related of an attempt made ] 
 about this period to gain the rule of Mecca. 
 The aspirant was Othrnan, first cousin of 
 Khadija’s father. He was dissatisfied, as the 
 legend goes, with the idolatrous system of 
 Mecca, and travelled to the court of the 
 Roman Emperor, where he was honourably 
 entertained, and admitted to Christian bap¬ 
 tism. He returned to Mecca, and on the 
 strength of an imperial grant, real or pre¬ 
 tended, laid claim to the government of the 
 city. But his claim was rejected, and he fled 
 to Syria, where he found a refuge with the 
 Ghassanide prince. But emissaries from 
 Mecca, by the aid of gifts, counteracted his 
 authority with the prince, and at last pro¬ 
 cured his death.”—Muir’s Life of Mahomet, 
 new ed. p. 31.) 
 
 Shortly after the rebuilding of the Ka‘bah, 
 Muhammad adopted ‘All, the son of his 
 friend and former guardian, Abu Talib. ‘All 
 was at this time only six years old. About 
 this period he admitted to his closest intimacy 
 another person, unconnected with him by 
 family ties, but of more equal age. This was 
 Zaid, a slave-boy belonging to Kh adljah, who, 
 to gratify her husband, made him a present 
 of the slave. Zaid was the son of Harisah, 
 of the Banff ‘Uzrah, a tribe which occupied 
 the region of South Syria, and had been taken 
 captive and sold to Khadljah’s grandfather as 
 a slave. When Harisah heard that Muham¬ 
 mad possessed Zaid, he came to Makkah and 
 offered a large payment for his release. Mu¬ 
 hammad summoned Zaid, and gave him the 
 option to go or stay. Zaid elected to stay, 
 and Muhammad, delighted with his faithful¬ 
 ness, gave him his liberty, and adopted him 
 as his son. The freed man was henceforth 
 known as Zaid ibn Muhammad. 
 
 “ Muhammad was now approaching his for¬ 
 tieth year, and increased contemplation and 
 reflection engaged his mind. The idolatry 
 and moral debasement of his peojile pressed 
 heavily upon him, and the dim and imperfect 
 shadows of Judaism and Christianity excited 
 doubts without satisfying them; and his 
 mind was perplexed with uncertainty as to 
 what was the true religion.” (Muir’s Life of 
 Mahomet, new ed. p. 35.) 
 
 It is probable that it was at this time Mu¬ 
 hammad composed those Surahs of the Qur’an 
 which express the anxious yearning of an 
 inquirer rather than the more positive teach¬ 
 ing of an Apostle, and we would assign to 
 this period the following verses of the Qur’an, 
 which, according to Muhammadan commen¬ 
 tators, are admitted to be of a very early 
 date. (See Jalalu ’d-din’s Itqan.) 
 
 Sffratu ’l-‘Asr (ciii.) :— 
 
 “ I swear by the declining day 1 
 “ Yerily, man’s lot is cast amid destruction, 
 
 “ Save those who believe and do the things 
 •which be right, and enjoin truth and enjoin 
 each other to_be patient.” 
 
 Suratu ’l-‘ Adiyat (c.):— 
 
 “ By the snorting chargers ! 
 
 “ And those that dash off sparks of fire ! 
 
 “ And those that scour to the attack at 
 morn! 
 
 “ And stir therein the dust aloft; 
 
 “ And cleave therein their midway through 
 a host! 
 
 “ Truly, man is to his Lord ungrateful, 
 
 “ And of this he is himself a witness; 
 
 “ And truly, he is vehement in the love of 
 this world’s good. 
 
 “ Ah! knoweth he not, that when that 
 which is in the graves shall be laid bare, 
 
 “ And that which is in men’s breasts shall 
 be brought forth, 
 
 “ Yerily their Lord shall on that day be in¬ 
 formed concerning them ? ” 
 
 Suratu ’1-Fatihah (i.) :—• 
 
 “ Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds, 
 
 “ The compassionate, the merciful! 
 
 “ King of the day of reckoning 1 
 “ Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do 
 we cry for help. 
 
 “ Guide Thou us on the straight path, 
 
 “The path of those to whom Thou hast 
 been gracious;—with whom thou art not 
 angry, and who go not astray.” 
 
 The latter Surah is the Fatihah, or initial 
 prayer, &c., often recited in public worship, 
 and it appears to contain, if not the very 
 words, at all events the gist of the daily 
 prayer of an anxious and inquiring soul. 
 
 These Surahs were most probably followed 
 by others of a similar character, being poeti¬ 
 cal effusions rather than express enunciations 
 of any definite teaching. For example, Surahs 
 ci., xcv., civ., xcii., xci., cvi. 
 
 Muhammad seems to have employed him¬ 
 self in such meditations as find expression in 
 these Surahs, some years before he assumed 
 the office of a divine teacher, for it was but 
 slowly and by degrees that he was led on to 
 believe that he was really called of God, to 
 preach a reformation both to liis own people 
 and to all mankind. 
 
 Bewildered by his own speculations amidst 
 uncertain flickerings of spiritual light, Mu¬ 
 hammad spent some time in retirement, and 
 in the agonies of distress repeatedly medi¬ 
 tated suicide. Perjolexed with the myste¬ 
 rious destiny of man and the failure of re¬ 
 peated revelations, he would fall into ecstatic 
 reveries, and it was during one of these sea¬ 
 sons of retirement, in the cave of Hira’, that 
 he believed an angel appeared to him in a 
 dream, and that the first revelation came. 
 According to the traditions collected by al- 
 Bukhari and Muslim (see Arabic edition, as 
 Matthew’s translation in the Mishkat is defec¬ 
 tive in several very important particulars), the 
 first communication was made to Muhammad 
 in a_ dream. 
 
 ‘Ayishah relates : “ The first revelations 
 which the Prophet of God received were in 
 true dreams. He never dreamed but it came 
 to pass as regularly as the dawn of day 
 After this the Prophet went into retirement, 
 and he used to seclude himself in a cave in 
 Mount Hira’, and worship there day and 
 night. He would, whenever he wished, return 
 to his family at Makkah, and then go back 
 again, taking with him the necessaries of life. 
 Thus he continued to return to Khadljah 
 from time to time, until one day the revela- 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 371 
 
 tion came down to him, and the angel ( Malak ) 
 came to him and said, 1 Read ’ ( 'iqra ’) ; but the 
 Prophet said, ‘ I am not a reader.’ And the 
 Prophet related that the angel took hold of 
 him, and squeezed him as much as he could 
 bear, and then said again, ‘ Read ’; and the 
 Prophet said, ‘ I am not a reader.’ Then the 
 angel took hold of him a second time, and 
 squeezed him as much as he could bear, and 
 then let him go, and said, ‘ Read ’; then the 
 Prophet said, ‘ I am not a reader.’ Then the 
 angel again seized the Prophet, and squeezed 
 him, and said :— 
 
 ‘ Read thou, in the name of thy Lord who 
 created;— 
 
 ‘ Created man out of clots of blood:— 
 
 ‘ Read thou I For thy Lord is the most 
 Beneficent, 
 
 ‘ Who hath taught the use of the pen;— 
 
 ‘ Hath taught man that which he knoweth 
 not.’ 
 
 (See Qur’an, Suratu ’l-‘Alaq (xcvi.), 
 the first five verses.) 
 
 Then the Prophet repeated the words with a 
 trembling heart. And he returned (i.e. from 
 Hira’ to Makkah) to Khadijah, and said, 
 
 ‘ Wrap me up, wrap me up.’ And they wrapped 
 him up in a garment until his fear was dis¬ 
 pelled ; and he told Khadijah what had oc¬ 
 curred, and he said to Khadijah, ‘I was 
 afraid I should die.’ Then Khadijah said, 
 ‘No, it will not be so, I swear by God. He 
 will never make thee melancholy or sad. 
 For you are kind to your relatives, you 
 speak the truth, you are faithful in trust, you 
 bear the afflictions of the people, you spend 
 in good works what you gain in trade, you 
 are hospitable, and you assist your fellow 
 men.’ After this Kh adijah took the Prophet 
 to Waraqah, who was the son of her uncle, 
 and said to him, ‘ 0 son of my uncle, hear 
 what your brother’s son says to you.’ Then 
 Waraqah said to the Prophet, ‘ 0 son of my 
 uncle, what do you see ? ’ Then the Prophet 
 told Waraqah what he had seen ; and Wara¬ 
 qah said, ‘ This is the Ndmus [ namus ] which 
 God sent to Moses. 0 would to God I were 
 young in this time ! and would to God I were 
 living at the time of your people turning you 
 out 1 ’ The Prophet said, ‘ Will my people 
 turn me out?’ And Waraqah said, ‘lies. 
 No man has ever come as you have come, 
 and not been held in enmity; but if I should 
 live to that day, I will give you great help.’ 
 Waraqah soon died, and after that the reve¬ 
 lation ceased (i.e. for a time).” 
 
 The first vision was followed by a consi¬ 
 derable period, during which no further 
 revelation was given, and during which Mu¬ 
 hammad suffered much mental depression. 
 [fitrak.] 
 
 “ During this period,” al-Bukhari says, “ the 
 Prophet was very sorrowful, so much so that 
 he wished to throw himself from the top of a 
 hill to destroy himself.” 
 
 But after a lapse of time, as he was wrapped 
 up in his garments and lay stretched upon his 
 carpet, the angel is said to have again ad¬ 
 dressed Mm, in the chapter which begins 
 (Surah Ixxiv.)— 
 
 “ 0 thou enwrapped in thy mantle, 
 Arise and preach 1 ” 
 
 Muhammad then believed himself to be a 
 commissioned Apostle, the messenger and the 
 prophet of God, sent to reclaim a fallen 
 people to the knowledge and service of their 
 God. His revelations were God’s Book, and 
 his sayings the utterances of inspiration. 
 
 The first convert to Islam was his faithful 
 wife Khadijah. the two next, ‘All and Zaid, 
 his adopted children, and afterwards his old 
 trusted friend, Abu Bakr, “ the True.” Then 
 followed ‘Usman, who was a grandson of ‘Abdu 
 ’1-Muttalib ; Talhah, the renowned warrior of 
 after days ; and ‘Abdu 'r-Rahman, a merchant 
 of some consequence. The new converts 
 soon numbered some fifty souls, either 
 members of the Prophet's family or his 
 dearest friends. 
 
 An important change now occurred in the 
 relations of Muhammad with the citizens of 
 Makkah. Their hostility was aroused, and 
 the Muslims were subjected to some perse¬ 
 cution and indignity. It was not, however, 
 until some three years of his ministration had 
 elapsed that any general opposition was or¬ 
 ganized. Hostility once excited soon showed 
 itself in acts of violence. Sa‘id, a youthful 
 convert, was attacked whilst leading a party 
 of Muslims in prayer. He defended himself, 
 and struck one of his opponents with a camel 
 goad. It was, says Sir William Muii-, “ the 
 first blood spilt in the cause of Islam.” 
 
 In the fourth year of his mission, Muham¬ 
 mad took possession of the house of Arqarn 
 (a recent convert), and there held meetings 
 for those who wished to know the teaching of 
 the Prophet more perfectly. 
 
 The house of Arqarn was in front of the 
 Ka‘bah, and was therefore in a convenient 
 position. So famous did it become as the 
 birth-place of believers, that it was after¬ 
 wards styled the “ House of Islam.” 
 
 As the number of believers increased, so 
 did the enmity of the persecutor, and in order 
 to escape the danger of perversion, Muham¬ 
 mad recommended such of his followers who 
 were without protection to seek an asylum in 
 a foreign land. Eleven men, accompanied 
 by their families, set out for the port of 
 Shneiba, where, finding two vessels about to 
 sail, they embarked in haste, and were con¬ 
 veyed to Abyssinia. 
 
 Here they met with a kind reception from 
 the Negus, or king, and their period of exile 
 was passed in peace and comfort. This is 
 termed the first hijrah, or “ flight,” to Abys¬ 
 sinia, as distinguished from the later and more 
 extensive emigration to the same land. In 
 three months the refugees returned to Mak¬ 
 kah. 
 
 About this time a strange episode occurred, 
 in which Muhammad sought a compromise 
 with his people, by admitting their gods into 
 his system as intercessors with the Supreme 
 Being. While the Quraish sat beneath the 
 Ka‘bah, he recited the following Surah as an 
 inspired message (liii.):— 
 
 “ And see ye not Lat and ‘Uzza, 
 
 And Maniit the third besides ? 
 
372 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 These are exalted females, 
 
 And verily their intercession is to be hoped 
 for." 
 
 The idolaters were reconciled, and bowed 
 before the God of Muhammad. But his heart 
 smote him, and not long after the obnoxious 
 lines (those in italics) were said to be recalled 
 by Gabriel, as suggested by the Evil One, and 
 there was substituted the uncompromising 
 denunciation of idolatry, from which he never 
 after swerved:— 
 
 “ What! shall there be male progeny unto 
 you, and females unto him ? 
 
 “ That indeed were an unjust partition. 
 
 “ They are naught but names which ye and 
 your' fathers have invented.” 
 
 In the sixth year of his mission, the cause 
 of Muhammad was strengthened by the acces¬ 
 sion of two powerful citizens, Hamzah and 
 ‘Umar. Hamzah was the uncle and also the 
 foster-brother of the Prophet, a man of dis¬ 
 tinguished bravery, whose heroism earned for 
 him the title of the “ Lion of God.” ‘Umar 
 was a bold impulsive spirit, the very man 
 needed to give strength to a cause, one who 
 in a remarkable maimer left the impress of 
 his character upon the religious system he 
 embraced. He succeeded Abu Bakr in the 
 Khalifate. and left the stamp of his fierce 
 warlike spirit upon Islam. |~ UMA:R '] 
 
 Alarmed at the bold part which Muhammad 
 and his followers were now able to assume, 
 the Quraish formed a hostile confederacy, by 
 which all intercourse with the Muslims and 
 their supporters was suspended. The seve¬ 
 rity of the ban at last overreached its object, 
 for the sympathies of the people were enlisted 
 by their privation in favour of Muhammad 
 and his followers. The interdict was can¬ 
 celled and the Hashimites restored to freedom. 
 
 In the beginning of the tenth year of 
 his mission, and in the fiftieth of his life, 
 Muhammad lost his faithful and devoted wife 
 Khadijah. For twenty-five years she had 
 been his counsellor and support, and his grief 
 at her death at first was inconsolable. She 
 was sixty-five years old when she died. Abu 
 Talib, the Prophet’s uncle and guardian, died 
 a few weeks afterwards. His conversion to 
 Islam is a matter of uncertainty. Within two 
 months of the death of Kh adijah (who was 
 his only wife during her lifetime), the Prophet 
 married Saudah, the widow of one of the 
 Abyssinian ejnigrants, and also betrothed 
 himself to ‘Ayishah, the daughter of his 
 friend Abu Bakr, then but a girl of seven 
 years. 
 
 Abu Talib had hardly been buried a fort¬ 
 night when Muhammad, followed only by his 
 faithful attendants, set out on an adventurous 
 mission to at-Ta’if, a place sixty miles to the 
 east of Makkah, and the nearest city of im¬ 
 portance. He went first to the three prin¬ 
 cipal men of the city, and explained the 
 object of his mission, and invited them to the 
 honour of supporting him in sustaining the 
 new faith. But he failed in producing con¬ 
 viction. Muhammad remained at at-Taif ten 
 days, but with no success. The mob, stirred 
 up to hasten the departure of the unwelcome 
 
 visitor, hooted at him in the streets, and 
 pelted him with stones, and at last compelled 
 him to flee out of the city. They chased 
 him fully two miles across the sandy plain, 
 until wearied and mortified, he took refuge 
 for the night in a neighbouring garden, where 
 he spent some time in earnest prayer. (Muir, 
 2nd ed., p. 114.) 
 
 Reinvigorated by the rest, he set forth on 
 the return journey to Makkah. 
 
 Repulsed from at-Ta’if, and utterly hope¬ 
 less at home, the fortunes of Muhammad 
 seemed dark, but hope dawned at last from 
 an unexpected quarter. At the yearly pil¬ 
 grimage, a little group of worshippers from 
 al-Madlnah was attracted and won over at 
 Mina by the preaching of Islam, joined his 
 mission, and the following year they met Mu¬ 
 hammad and took the oath of allegiance 
 which is known as the first Pledge of i Aqdbah. 
 This little party consisted of twelve men, ten 
 were of the Khazraj and two of the Aus 
 tribe. They plighted their faith to Muhammad 
 as follows:—“ We will not worship any but 
 one God, we will not steal, neither will we 
 commit adultery, nor will we kill our chil¬ 
 dren; we will not slander in anywise ; and we 
 will obey the Prophet in everything that is 
 just.” 
 
 At al-Madinah the claims of the new Pro¬ 
 phet found a ready response. A teacher was 
 deputed from Makkah to al-Madinah, and 
 the new faith spread with marvellous rapi¬ 
 dity. 
 
 The hopes of Muhammad were now fixed 
 on al-Madinah, visions of his journey north¬ 
 wards doubtless flitted before his imagination 
 and the musing of the day, reappeared in his 
 midnight slumbers. 
 
 He dreamed that he was swiftly carried 
 by Gabriel on a winged steed past al-Madinah 
 to the Temple of Jerusalem, where he was 
 welcomed by the former Prophets all as¬ 
 sembled in solemn conclave. From Jerusalem 
 he seemed to mount upwards, and to ascend 
 from one heaven to another, until he found 
 himself in the awful presence of his Maker, 
 who dismissed him with the order that he 
 should command his followers to pray five 
 times a day. |jmi‘eaj, bukaq.] 
 
 When the time of pilgrimage again arrived, 
 Muhammad found himself surrounded by an 
 enthusiastic band of seventy disciples from 
 al-Madinah, who in a secret defile at Mina 
 plighted their faith, the second Pledge of 
 Aqabah, whereby they promised to receive 
 and defend the Faith at the risk of their own 
 fives. After this Muhammad determined to 
 quit Makkah, and the command was given, 
 
 “ Depart unto al-Madinah, for the Lord hath 
 verily given you brethren in that city, and a 
 house in which ye may find refuge.” And so, 
 abandoning house and home, the Muslims set 
 out secretly in little parties for al-Madinah, 
 where the numbers soon reached to about 
 one hundred and fifty, counting women and 
 children. Muhammad, with Abu Bakr and 
 ‘All, with their families, were left almost 
 alone hi Makkah. The Quraish held a council, 
 and determined to slay Muhammad ; but 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 being warned of their designs, he escaped to 
 Mount Saur, near Makkah, whore he hid him¬ 
 self three days in a cave, and after three 
 more days he reached al-Madinah. 
 
 The day of his flight, or hijrah, marks the 
 Muhammadan era, or Hegira. The date of 
 the flight was the 4th of Rabi‘u ’1-Awwal, 
 and by the calculations of M. Caussin de 
 Perceval, the 20th of June, a.d. 022. 
 [hijrah.] 
 
 The flight to al-Madinah changes the 
 scene, and with it the character of the por¬ 
 tions of the Qur’an revealed there. He who 
 at Makkah is the admonisher and persuader, 
 at al-Madinah is the legislator and the war¬ 
 rior, and the verses of tho Qur’an assume a 
 more didactic tone. Poetry makes way for 
 prose, and he openly assumes the office of a 
 public Warner and prophet. 
 
 The idolaters of Makkah disappear and 
 their place is taken by the hypocrites [mu- 
 nafiqun] of al-Madinah. Here at al-Madinah 
 there was no opposition to Muhammad and 
 his doctrines; but, nevertheless, an under¬ 
 current of disaffection prevailed. The head 
 of the party was ‘Abdu ’llah ibn Ubaiy, who, 
 but for the new turn in the fortunes of the 
 city was on tho point of being its chief. 
 These disaffected citizens, the munafiqun, 
 or “ hypocrites,” as they are called, continued 
 to be the objects of bitter denunciation in the 
 Qur’an till near the close of the Prophet’s 
 career. But before the success of Islam they 
 too vanish from the scene. 
 
 The first year of Muhammad’s residence at 
 al-Madinah was chiefly occupied in building 
 the great mosque [masjidu ’n-nabi], and in 
 providing houses for himself and his followers. 
 In a short time he became the recognised 
 chief of the city. The mosque and the houses 
 were finished within seven months of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s arrival. About the middle of the 
 winter he left the house of Abu Aiyub, with 
 whom he had been staying, and installed 
 Saudah in her new residence. Shortly after¬ 
 wards he celebrated his nuptials with ‘Ayi- 
 shah, who, though she had been three years 
 affianced, vras but a girl of ten years. 
 
 Thus, at the age of fifty-three, a new phase 
 commenced in the life of Muhammad. Hi¬ 
 therto limiting himself to a single wife, he had 
 shunned the indulgence, but he now surrounds 
 himself with the cares and discord, of poly¬ 
 gamy. The unity of his family was now broken, 
 never again to be restored. Thenceforward 
 his love was to be claimed, his attentions 
 shared by a plurality of wives, and his days 
 spent between their houses, for Muhammad 
 had no separate apartments of his own. 
 
 Those Muslims who had left Makkah with 
 the Prophet and settled in al-Madinah, were 
 now known as the Refugees [muhajirun] 
 whilst those who embraced the faith at al- 
 Madinah, were designated the Assistants or 
 Allies [ansar]. Both these names in time 
 became titles of distinguished honour. 
 
 In the second year of the Hijrah, Muhammad 
 commenced hostilities against the Quraish, 
 and the first pitched battle took place at 
 Badr. With an army of 305 followers, of 
 
 373 
 
 whom two-thirds were citizens of al-Madinah, 
 Muhammad routed a force three times the 
 number. The following graphic description 
 of the battle of Badr is given by Sir William 
 Muir. (New ed. p. 230.) 
 
 “ The valley of Badr consists of a plain, 
 with steep hills to the north and east; on the 
 south is a low rocky range ; and on the west 
 rise a succession of sandy hillocks. A rivulet, 
 rising in the inland mountains, runs through 
 the valley, producing along its course nume¬ 
 rous springs, which here and there were dug 
 into cisterns for the accommodation of tra¬ 
 vellers. At the nearest of these springs, the 
 army of Mahomet halted. Habal, a citizen 
 of Medina, advised him to proceed onwards. 
 ‘ Let us go,’ he said, ‘ to the farthest spring, 
 on the side of the enemy. I know a never- 
 failing fountain of sweet water there; let us 
 make that our reservoir, and destroy the 
 other wells.’ The advice was good. It was 
 at once adopted, and the command of the 
 water thus secured. 
 
 “ The night was drawing on. So they 
 hastily constructed near the well a hut of 
 palm branches, in which Mahomet and Abu 
 Bakr slept. Sad ibn Muadz (Sa‘d ibn Mu‘az) 
 kept watch by the entrance with his drawn 
 sword. It rained during the night, but more 
 heavily towards the camp of the Coreish. 
 The Moslim army, wearied with its long 
 march, enjoyed sound and refreshing sleep. 
 The dreams of Mahomet turned upon his 
 enemies, and they were pictured to his ima¬ 
 gination as a weak and contemptible force. 
 
 “ In the morning he drew up his little 
 army, and, pointing with an arrow which he 
 held in his hand, arranged the ranks. The 
 previous day he had placed the chief banner, 
 that of the Refugees, in the hands of Musal, 
 who nobly proved his right to the distinction. 
 The Khazrajite ensign was committed to 
 Hobab; that of the Bani Aus, to Sad ibn 
 Muadz. 
 
 “ Meanwhile, dissension again broke out in 
 the camp of the Coreish, on the policy of 
 fighting against their kinsmen. Shaiba and 
 Otba (‘Utbah), two chiefs of rank, influenced, 
 it is said, by their slave Addas (the same who 
 comforted the Prophet on his flight from 
 Tayif), strongly urged that the attack should 
 be abandoned. Just then, Omeir, a diviner 
 by arrows, having ridden hastily round the 
 valley, returned to report the result of his 
 reconnaisance. ‘Ye Coreish,’ he said, after 
 telling them his estimate of the enemy’s 
 number, ‘ calamities approach you, fraught 
 with destruction. Inevitable death rideth 
 upon the camels of Yathreb (Yasrib). It is a 
 people that hath neither defence nor refuge 
 but in their swords. They are dumb as the 
 grave ; their tongues they put forth with the 
 serpent’s deadly aim. Not a man of them 
 shall we kill, but in his stead one of ourselves 
 also will be slain ; and when there shall have 
 been slaughtered amongst us a number equal 
 unto them, of what avail will life be to us 
 after that ? ’ These words began to produce 
 a pacific effect, when Abu Jakl, as before, 
 loudly opposed the proposals for peace. Turn- 
 
374 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 ing to Amir the Hadhramite, he bade him call 
 to mind the blood of his brother slain at 
 Nakhla. The flame was rekindled. Amir 
 threw off his clothes, cast dust upon his 
 body, and began frantically to cry aloud his 
 brother’s name. The deceased had been a 
 confederate of the family of Shaiba and Otba 
 (‘Utbah). Their pride and honour were 
 affected. They saw that thoughts of peace 
 must now be scattered to the winds ; and 
 they resolved signally to vindicate themselves 
 from the imputation of cowardice cast on them 
 by Abu Jahl. The army was drawn up in 
 line. The three standards for the centre and 
 wings were borne, according to ancient pri¬ 
 vilege, by members of the house of Abd al 
 Dar. They moved forward but slowly over 
 the intervening sand-hills, which the rain had 
 made heavy and fatiguing. The same cause, 
 acting with less intensity, had rendered the 
 ground in front of Mahomet lighter and more 
 firm to walk upon. The Ooreish laboured 
 under another disadvantage; they had the 
 rising sun before them, while the army of 
 Medina faced the west. 
 
 “ Mahomet had barely arrayed his line of 
 battle, when the advanced column of the 
 enemy was discerned over the rising sands in 
 front. Their greatly superior numbers were 
 concealed by the fall of the ground behind, 
 and this imparted confidence to the Moslems. 
 But Mahomet was fully alive to the critical 
 position. The fate of Islam hung upon the 
 issue of the approaching battle. Followed 
 by Abu Bakr, he hastened for a moment into 
 the little hut, and raising his hands, poured 
 forth these earnest petitions, “ 0 Lord, I be¬ 
 seech Thee, forget not Thy promise of assis¬ 
 tance and of victory. 0 Lord! if this little 
 band be vanquished, idolatry will prevail, and 
 the pure worship of thee cease from off the 
 earth 1 ’ ‘ The Lord,’ said Abu Bakr, 
 
 comforting him, ‘ will surely come to thine 
 aid, and will lighten thy countenance with the 
 joy of victory.’ 
 
 “ The time for action had arrived. Maho¬ 
 met again came forth. The enemy was 
 already close; but the army of Medina 
 remained still. Mahomet had no cavalry to 
 cover an advance, and before superior num¬ 
 bers he must keep close his ranks. Accord- j 
 ingly the Prophet had strictly forbidden his [ 
 followers to stir till he should give the order 
 for advance; only they were to check any 
 flank movement of the Coreish by the dis¬ 
 charge of arrows. The cistern was guarded 
 as their palladium. Certain desperate war¬ 
 riors of the Coreish swore that they would 
 drink water from it, destroy it, or perish in 
 the attempt. Scarcely one returned from the 
 rash enterprise. With signal gallantry, 
 Aswad advanced close to the brink, when a 
 blow from Hamza’s sword fell upon his leg, 
 and nearly severed it from his body. Still 
 defending himself, he crawled inwards and 
 made good his vow; for he drank of the 
 water, and with his remaining leg demolished 
 part of the cistern before the sword of 
 Hamza put an end to his life. 
 
 “ Already, after the fashion of Arabian j 
 
 warfare, single combats had been fought at 
 various points, when the two brothers Shaiba 
 and Otba, and Walid the son of Otba, still 
 smarting from the words of Abu Jahl, ad¬ 
 vanced into the space between the armies, 
 and defied three champions from the army of 
 Mahomet to meet them singly. Three citi¬ 
 zens of Medina stepped forward ; but Maho¬ 
 met, unwilling either that the glory or the 
 burden of the opening conflict should rest 
 with his allies, called them back; and, turn¬ 
 ing to his kinsmen said: ‘Ye sons of Hashim ! 
 arise and fight, according to your right.’ 
 Then Obeida (‘Ubaidah), Hamza, and Ali, 
 the uncle and cousins of the Prophet, went 
 forth. Hamza wore an ostrich feather in his 
 breast, and a white plum.e distinguished the 
 helmet of Ali. But their features were hid 
 by their armour. Otba, therefore, not know¬ 
 ing who his opjronents might be, cried aloud, 
 
 ‘ Speak, that we may recognise you! If ye 
 be equals, we shall fight with you.’ Hamza 
 answered, ‘ I am the son of Abd al Muttalib 
 —Hamza, the Lion of Cod, and the Lion of 
 His Prophet.’ 1 A worthy foe,’ exclaimed, 
 Otba; ‘ but who are these others with 
 
 thee ? ’ Hamza repeated their names. Otba 
 replied, 1 Meet foes, every one ! ’ 
 
 “ Then Otba called to his son Walid, 1 Arise 
 and fight.’ So Walid stepped forth and Ali 
 came out against him. They were the 
 youngest of the six. The combat was short; 
 Walid fell mortally wounded by the sword of 
 Ali. Eager to avenge his son’s death, Otba 
 hastened forward, and Hamza advanced to 
 meet him. The swords gleamed quick, and 
 again the Coreishite warrior was slain by the 
 Moslim lion. Shaiba alone remained of the 
 three champions of Mecca; and Obeida, the 
 veteran of the Moslems, threescore years and 
 five, now drew near to fight with him. Both 
 being well advanced in years, the conflict was 
 less decisive than before. At last, Shaiba 
 dealt a sword-cut on the leg of Obeida with 
 such force as to sever the tendon, and bring 
 him to the ground. Seeing this, Hamza and 
 Ali both rushed on Shaiba and despatched 
 him. Obeida survived but for a few days, 
 and was buried on the march back at Safra. 
 
 “ The fate of their champions was ominous 
 for the Ooreish, and their spirits sank. The 
 ranks began to close, with the battle-cry on 
 the Moslem side of, ‘ Ye conquerors, strike ! ’ 
 and the fighting became general. Birt there 
 were still many of those scenes of individual 
 bravery which characterise the irregular war¬ 
 fare of Asiatic armies, and often impart to 
 them a Homeric interest. Prodigies of va¬ 
 lour were exhibited on both sides; but the 
 army of the Faithful was borne forward by 
 an enthusiasm which the half-hearted Coreish 
 were unable to withstand. 
 
 “ What part Mahomet himself took in the 
 battle is not clear. Some traditions represent 
 him moving along the ranks with a drawn 
 sword. It is more likely (according to others) 
 that he contented himself with inciting his 
 followers by the promise of divine assistance, 
 and by holding out the prospect of Paradise 
 to those who fell The spirit of Omeir, a 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 lad of but sixteen years, was kindled within 
 him as he listened to the Prophet’s words. 
 Tradition delights to tell of the ardour with 
 ■which the stripling threw away a handful of 
 dates which he was eating. ‘ Is it these,’ he 
 exclaimed, ‘ that hold me back from Para¬ 
 dise? Verily I will taste no more of them 
 until I meet my Lord 1 ’ With such words, 
 he drew his sword, and, casting himself 
 upon the enemy, soon obtained the fate he 
 coveted. 
 
 “ It was a stormy wintry day. A piercing 
 blast swept across the valley. ‘ That,’ said 
 Mahomet, ‘ is Gabriel with a thousand 
 angels flying as a whirlwind at our foe.’ 
 Another, and yet another blast:—it was 
 Michael, and after him, Seraphil, each with a 
 like angelic troop. The battle raged. The 
 Prophet stooped, and lifting a handful of 
 gravel, cast it towards the Coreish, and 
 cried, ‘ Confusion seize their faces ! ’ The 
 action was well timed. The line of the 
 Coreish began to waver. Their movements 
 were impeded by the heavy sands on which 
 they stood; and, when the ranks gave way, 
 their numbers added but confusion. The 
 Moslems followed eagerly on their retreating 
 steps, slaying or taking captive all that fell 
 within their reach. Retreat soon turned into 
 ignominious flight. The Coreish, in their 
 haste to escape, cast away their armour and 
 abandoned their beasts of burden with the 
 camp and equipage. Forty-nine were killed, 
 and about the same number taken prisoners. 
 Mahomet lost only fourteen, of whom eight 
 were citizens of Medina, and six Refugees. 
 
 “ Many of the principal men of the Coreish, 
 and some of Mahomet’s bitterest opponents, 
 were slain. Chief amongst these was Abu 
 Jahl. Muadz brought him to the ground by 
 a blow which cut his leg in two. Muadz, in 
 his turn, was attacked by Ikrima (‘Ikrimah), 
 the son of Abu Jahl, and his arm nearly 
 severed from his shoulder. As the mutilated 
 limb hanging by the skin impeded his action, 
 Muadz put his foot upon it, pulled it off, and 
 went on his way fighting. Such were the 
 heroes of Bedr. Abu Jahl was yet breathing 
 when Abdallah, Mahomet’s servant, ran up, 
 and cutting off his head, carried it to his 
 master. ‘ The head of the enemy of God ! ’ 
 exclaimed Mahomet. ‘ God ! There is none 
 other God but He ! ’ ‘ There is no other!' 
 
 responded Abdallah, as he cast the bloody 
 head at the Prophet’s feet. ‘ It is more 
 acceptable to me,’ cried Mahomet, ‘ than the 
 choicest camel in all Arabia.’ 
 
 “ But there were others whose death caused 
 no gratification to Mahomet. Abdul Bokh- 
 tari had shewn him special kindness at the 
 time when he was shut up in the quarter of 
 Abu Talib ; Mahomet, mindful of this favour, 
 had commanded that he should not be 
 harmed. Abdul Bokhtari had a companion 
 seated on his camel behind him. A warrior, 
 riding up, told him of the quarter given by 
 Mahomet; but added, 1 I cannot spare the 
 man behind thee.’ ‘ The women of Mecca,’ 
 Abdul Bokhtari exclaimed, ‘ shall never say 
 that I abandoned my comrade through love 
 
 MUHAMMAD 375 
 
 of life. Do thy work upon us.’ So they 
 were killed, both he and his companion. 
 
 “ After the battle was over, some of the 
 prisoners were cruelly put to death. The fol¬ 
 lowing incident illustrates the savage spirit 
 already characteristic of the faith. Omeya 
 ibn Khalf and his son were unable to escape 
 with the fugitive Coreish, and, seeing 
 Abdal Rahman pass, implored that he 
 would make them his prisoners. Abdal 
 Rahman, mindful of an ancient friendship, 
 cast away the plunder he was carrying, and, 
 making both his prisoners, was proceeding 
 with them to the Moslim camp. As the 
 party passed, Bilal espied his old enemy—for 
 Omeya had used to persecute him—and he 
 screamed aloud, ‘ Slay him. This man is the 
 head of the unbelievers. I am lost, I am lost, 
 if he lives I ’ From all sides the infuriated 
 soldiers, hearing Bilal’s appeal, poured in 
 upon the wretched captives ; and Abdal Rah¬ 
 man, finding resistance impossible, bade them 
 save their lives as best they could. Defence 
 was vain; and the two prisoners were imme¬ 
 diately cut in pieces. 
 
 “ When the enemy had disappeared, the 
 army of Medina was for some time engaged 
 in gathering the spoil. Every man was 
 allowed to retain the plunder of anyone 
 whom he himself had slain. The rest was 
 thrown into a common stock. The booty con¬ 
 sisted of one hundred and fifteen camels, 
 fourteen horses, carpets and other articles of 
 fine leather, vestments, and much equipage 
 and armour. A diversity of opinion arose 
 about the distribution. Those who had 
 hotly pursued the enemy and exposed their 
 lives in securing the spoil, claimed the whole, 
 or at the least a superior portion; while 
 such as had remained behind upon the field 
 of battle for the safety of the Prophet and of 
 the camp, urged that they had equally with 
 the others fulfilled the part assigned to 
 them, and that, having been restrained by 
 duty from the pursuit, they were entitled to 
 a full share of the prey. The contention was 
 so sharp, that Mahomet interposed with a 
 message from heaven, and assumed posses¬ 
 sion of the whole booty. It was God who 
 had given the victory, and to God the spoil 
 belonged: ‘ They will ask thee concerning 
 the prey. Say, the prey is God’s and his 
 Prophet’s. Wherefore fear God, and dispose 
 of the matter rightly among youselves ; and 
 be obedient unto God and His Prophet, if ye 
 be true Believers ’—and so on in the same 
 strain. Shortly afterwards, the following 
 ordinance, which the Mussulman law of prize 
 recognises to the present day, was given 
 forth : ‘ And know that •whatsoever thing ye 
 plunder, verily one fifth thereof is for God 
 and for the Prophet, and for him that is of 
 kin (unto the Prophet), and for the orphans, 
 and the poor, and the wayfarer—if ye be they 
 that believe in God, and in that which We 
 sent down to cur Servant on the Day of 
 Discrimination, the day on which the two 
 armies met; and God is over all things 
 powerful.’ (See Qur’an, Surah viii.) 
 
 “ In accordance with the divine command, 
 
376 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 the booty was gathered together on the field, 
 and placed under a special officer, a citizen 
 of Medina. The next day it was divided, 
 near Safra, in equal allotments, among the 
 whole army, after the Prophet’s fifth had 
 been set apart. All shared alike, excepting 
 that the horsemen received each two extra 
 portions for their horses. To the lot of every 
 man fell a camel, with its gear; or two 
 camels unaccoutred; or a leathern couch, or 
 some such equivalent. Mahomet obtained 
 the famous camel of Abu Jahl, and a sword 
 known by the name of Dzul Ficar (Zu ’1- 
 Fiqar). The sword was' selected by him 
 beyond his share, according to a custom 
 which allowed him, in virtue of the prophetic 
 dignity, to choose from the booty, before 
 division, whatever thing might please him 
 most. 
 
 “ The sun was now declining, so they hastily 
 dug a pit on the battle-field, and cast the 
 enemy’s dead into it. Mahomet looked on, as 
 the bodies were brought up and cast in. Abu 
 Bakr, too, stood by, and, examining their 
 features, called aloud their names. ‘ Otba ! 
 Shaiba ! Omeyya ! Abu Jahl 1 ’ exclaimed 
 Mahomet, as one by one the corpses were, 
 without ceremony, thrown into the common 
 grave. 1 Have ye now found that which 
 your Lord promised you true ? What my 
 Lord promised me, that verily have I found 
 to be true. Woe unto this people 1 Ye have 
 rejected me, your Prophet! Ye cast me 
 forth, and others gave me refuge; ye fought 
 against me, and others came to my heljo! ’ 
 
 ‘ 0 Prophet! ’ said the bystanders, ‘ dost 
 thou speak unto the dead?’ ‘Yea, verily,’ 
 replied Mahomet, 1 for they well know that 
 the promise of their Lord unto them hath 
 fully come to pass.’ 
 
 “ At the moment when the corpse of Otba 
 was tossed into a pit, a look of distress over¬ 
 cast the countenance of his son, Abu Hodzeifa 
 (Abu Huzaifah). Mahomet turned kindly to 
 him, and said, ‘ Perhaps thou art distressed 
 for thy father’s fate ? ’ 1 Not so, 0 Prophet 
 of the Lord! I do not doubt the justice of 
 my father’s fate; but I knew well his wise 
 and generous heart, and I had trusted that 
 the Lord would have led him to the faith. 
 But now that I see him slain, and my hope 
 destroyed, it is for that I grieve.’ So the 
 Prophet comforted Abu Hodzeifa, and blessed 
 him, and said, ‘ It is well.’ 
 
 “ The army of Medina, carrying their dead 
 and wounded, retired in the evening to the 
 valley of Otheil, several miles from Bedr; and 
 there Mahomet passed the night. On the 
 morrow the prisoners were brought up be¬ 
 fore him. As he scrutinised each, his eye 
 fell fiercely on Nadhr, son of Harish (al-Nazr 
 ibn al-Haris). ‘ There was death in that 
 glance,’ whispered Nadhr, trembling, to a 
 bystander. ‘ Not so,’ replied the other, 
 
 1 it is but thine own imagination.’ The 
 unfortunate prisoner thought otherwise, and 
 besought Musab to intercede for him. 
 Musab reminded him that he had denied 
 the faith and persecuted Believers. ‘ Ah ! ’ 
 said Nadhr, * had the Coreish made thee 
 
 a prisoner, they would never have put 
 thee to death! ’ ‘ Even were it so,’ Musab 
 scornfully replied, 1 1 am not as thou art; 
 Islam hath rent all bonds asunder.’ Micdad, 
 the captor, fearing lest the prisoner, and with 
 him the chance of a rich ransom, was about 
 to slip from his hands, cried out, ‘ The pri¬ 
 soner is mine! ’ But at this moment the 
 command to ‘ Strike off his head 1 ’ was in¬ 
 terposed by Mahomet, who had been watch¬ 
 ing what passed. ‘ And, 0 Lord ! ’ he added, 
 ‘ do thou of thy bounty grant unto Micdad a 
 better prey than this.’ Nadhr was forth¬ 
 with beheaded by Ali. 
 
 “ Two days afterwards, about half-way to 
 Medina, Ocba, another prisoner, was ordered 
 out for execution. He ventured to expostu¬ 
 late and demand why he should be treated 
 more rigorously than the other captives. 
 
 ‘ Because of thy enmity to God and to His 
 Prophet,’ replied Mahomet. ‘ And my little 
 girl! ’ cried Ocba, in the bitterness of his 
 soul, ‘ who will take care of her ? ’ ‘ Hell- 
 
 fire ! ’ exclaimed the heartless conqueror, 
 and on the instant his victim was hewn to the 
 ground. ‘Wretch that thou wast! ’ con¬ 
 tinued Mahomet, ‘ and persecutor ! unbeliever 
 in God, in His Prophet, and in His Book! I 
 give thanks unto the Lord that hath slain 
 thee, and comforted mine eyes thereby.’” 
 
 Such was the battle of Badr Insignificant 
 in numbers, but most memorable in the 
 annals of Islam on account of its important 
 results. It was at Badr that “ the Prophet ” 
 first drew the sword in the assertion of his 
 claim as a commissioned apostle of the Most 
 High God, and the victory is attributed in 
 the Qur’an to the direct intervention of the 
 Almighty. See Surah iii. 11:— 
 
 “Ye have alread 5 r had a sign in the meet¬ 
 ing of the two hosts. The one host fought 
 in the cause of God, and the other was 
 infidel To their own eye-sight, the infidels 
 saw you twice as many as themselves: And 
 God aided with His succour whom He would : 
 And in this truly was a lesson for men endued 
 with discernment.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi, the commentator, says 3,000 
 angels fought for the Muslims on the battle¬ 
 field of Badr. 
 
 Muhammad was received in triumph at al- 
 Madinah, but his joy was interrupted by the 
 death of his daughter Ruqaiyah, the divorced 
 wife of ‘Utbah ibn Lahab, but who had been 
 afterwards married to Usman ibn ‘Affan. On 
 his retui’n to al-Madlnah (a.h. 3), Muhammad 
 found his position much strengthened, and from 
 this time the Qur’an assumes a rude dictatorial 
 tone. He who at one time only spoke as a 
 searcher after truth, now demands unhesi¬ 
 tating obedience from the whole country of 
 Arabia. 
 
 The Jews, however, were still unimpressed 
 and were slow to acknowledge Muhammad, 
 although he claimed to be but the teacher of 
 the creed of Abraham. Muhammad sought 
 but a plausible excuse for a rupture with the 
 sons of Israel, and an opportunity soon pre¬ 
 sented itself. A Muslim girl was insulted by 
 a youth of a Jewish tribe, and, taking advan- 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 377 
 
 tage of the circumstance, the whole tribe 
 was attacked, proscribed, and banished. 
 Their houses and lands were confiscated and 
 divided amongst the Faithful. In the course 
 of the same year, Ka‘b ibn al-Ashraf, a Jew, 
 was assassinated because he annoyed the 
 Muslims with his verses. About this time, 
 Muhammad married his fourth wife, Hafsah, 
 the daughter of ‘Umar the celebrated Khali- 
 fah. In the early part of the year, al-Hasan, 
 the son of Fatimali and ‘All, was born. 
 
 The tidings of the defeat at Badr aroused 
 the bitterest feelings of the Quraish. They 
 advanced upon al-Madmah 3,000 strong. In 
 ten days the Makkan army reached Zu ’1-hal- 
 fah, four miles south of al-Madmah, and then 
 moving northwards, they encamped at Uhud, 
 an isolated mountain three miles north-east 
 of the city. Muhammad, clad in armour, led 
 out his army of 1,000 men, and halted for 
 the night; and at early dawn advanced on 
 Uhud. He was soon abandoned by ‘Abdu 
 ’llah, the chief of the Hypocrites [aiunafi- 
 qun] with 300 of his followers. 
 
 Khalid ibn al-Walld, a name afterwards 
 famous in Muslim history, commanding the 
 right wing of the Quraish, attacked the 
 Muslims, and raised the cry, “ Muhammad 
 is slain! ” The confusion of the Faithful 
 was great, and defied all the efforts of Mu¬ 
 hammad to rally them. The Prophet him¬ 
 self was wounded in the face by two arrows. 
 The Muslims were completely defeated, but 
 the retreat was ably conducted by Abu Bakr, 
 ‘Umar, and ‘Usman, and the victorious 
 Quraish did not attempt a pursuit. 
 
 Abu ’1-Fida’ gives the following quaint 
 account of the battle:— 
 
 “ When the two armies engaged and ap¬ 
 proached each other, Hind, daughter of 
 ‘Utbah, the wife of Abu Sufyan, arose with 
 the women that were with her, and they heat 
 upon the tabors as they followed the men to 
 battle. And Hind said, ‘ Well done, ye sons 
 of ‘Abdu ’d-Dar, well done ? Strike ye with 
 every weapon ye possess.” And Hamzah, the 
 Prophet’s uncle, fought most valiantly that 
 day; and he slew Artak, the standard-bearer 
 of the unbelievers.” 
 
 “ And Abu Kamiyak, the Laisite slew 
 Mus‘ab, the standard-bearer of the Muslims, 
 and when Mus‘ab was slain, the Prophet gave 
 the standard of Islam to ‘All, the son of Abu 
 Talib. Now, the archers were too eager for 
 the spoil, and they left the position in which 
 Muhammad had posted them. And Khalid, 
 the leader of the unbelievers, came with the 
 cavalry to the rear of the Muslims, and raised 
 a cry that Muhammad was slain. So the 
 Muslims were overcome by the unbelievers, 
 and the Quraish gained the victory. The 
 number of martyrs in the cause of Islam who 
 fell at Uhud was seventy. The number of 
 the slain amongst the unbelievers was twenty- 
 two. The enemy even struck Muhammad. 
 Their stones hit him and he fell. His fore¬ 
 teeth were struck out, and he was wounded 
 in the face. Two nails of the helmet entered 
 the face of Muhammad. And Abu ‘Ubaidak 
 pulled one of the nails out of his face and 
 
 one tooth dropped out; and he pulled out 
 another nail and another tooth dropped out. 
 And when Abu ‘Ubaidali was taking out the 
 teeth, Sunan Abu Sa‘id sucked the blood 
 from Muhammad’s face and swallowed it. 
 Upon which the Prophet said, ‘ Whosoever 
 toucheth my blood, him shall the fire of hell 
 never touch.’ 
 
 “ Then Hind and her companions fell on 
 the Muslims who were slain, and cut off their 
 noses and their ears. And Hind cut a slice 
 from Hamzah’s liver and ate it. Then Abu 
 Sufyan, the husband of Hind, stuck his spear 
 into Hamzah’s body, and cried with a loud 
 voice, ‘ The fortunes of war are uncertain I 
 The day of Uhud for the day of Badr! Let 
 the idol of Hubal be exalted ! ’ Then Mu¬ 
 hammad sought for the body of his uncle, 
 and he found it lying on the ground with the 
 belly ripped open and the ears and nose cut 
 off'. And the Prophet said, ‘ God hath re¬ 
 vealed to me concerning the Quraish. Verily, 
 retaliation shall be made on thirty of them 
 for the death of Hamzah, and verily Hamzah 
 is now in the soventh heaven.’ Then Muham¬ 
 mad prayed for Hamzah, and went to each of 
 the bodies of the slain and prayed for them. 
 Some of the Muslims wanted Jo carry their 
 dead to al-Madmah, but the Prophet said, 
 ‘ Bury them where they fell.’ ” 
 
 There is an allusion to the defeat at Uhud 
 in the third Surah of the Qur’an: “ What 
 befell you when the two armies met by God’s 
 permission. Count not those who are killed 
 in the way of God as dead. They are living 
 with their Lord.” 
 
 The fourth year of the Hijrah (a.d. 625) 
 opened with the despatch of 500 Muslims 
 against the tribe of Asd, who were making 
 preparations to invade al-Madmah. The 
 enemy fled at the appearance of the Muslim 
 troops, and the place was sacked. 
 
 During this year there were several expedi¬ 
 tions. Amongst others, one against the Jewish 
 tribe Banff Nazir, whose homes were spoiled, 
 and the people banished, because they would not 
 accept the mission of the “ Apostle of God.” 
 There is an allusion to this event in the second 
 Sffrah of the Qur'an. A second expedition 
 was also made to Badr. but there was no 
 fighting, although the event is known as the 
 second battle of Badr; for after waiting eight 
 days for an engagement with the Quraish, the 
 Muslims returned in triumph to al-Madmah. 
 
 It was about this time that Muhammad 
 made two additions to his haram, by marry¬ 
 ing Zainab, the widow of •Ubaidali, who fell 
 at Badr, as his fifth wife, and Ummu Sali- 
 mah, the widow of Abfi Salimah, who fell at 
 the battle of Uhud. for his sixth ; thus ex¬ 
 ceeding the legal number of four wives, to 
 which he restricted his followers. 
 
 Muhammad being threatened by combined 
 contingents of the Quraish, the Banff Ghat- 
 fan and the Jewish tribes of Nazir and Qu- 
 raizah, who advanced upon al-Madinah with 
 an army of 12,000 men, he, at the advice of a 
 Persian named Salman, caused a trench to be 
 dug round the city, and then issued forth to 
 defend it at the head of 3,000 Muslims. Both 
 
 48 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 378 
 
 sides remained inactive for nearly a month, 
 when, at last, the Quraish and their allies 
 broke up the siege. This engagement is 
 known in Muslim history as Gazwatu ’l- 
 Khandaq . or the “ Battle of the Ditch.” 
 Special reference is made to this event in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 9, where the success of 
 the Muslims is atti'ibuted to the intervention 
 of God, “ who sent a blast and a host that 
 were not seen.” 
 
 The next expedition was against the Jewish 
 tribe, the Banu Quraizah, when Muhammad 
 led an army of three thousand men with 
 thirty-six horse. The Jews sustained a siege 
 of some twenty-five days, but were at last 
 compelled to capitulate. Their fate was left 
 to the decision of the Prophet’s companion, 
 Sa‘d, whose sentence was that the male cap¬ 
 tives should be slain, the female captives and 
 children sold into slavery, and the spoils 
 divided amongst the army. The Prophet 
 commended the cruel judgment of Sa‘d, as a 
 decision according to the judgment of God, 
 given on high from the seven heavens; and 
 about 700 captives were deliberately be¬ 
 headed, in parties in the presence of Muham¬ 
 mad. One of the female captives, Rihanah, 
 whose husband and male relatives had 
 perished in the massacre, the Prophet re¬ 
 served for himself. This cruel massacre of 
 the Banu Quraizah is commended in the 
 xxxmrd Surah of the Qur’an, verse 25. 
 
 Before the close of this year, Muhammad 
 married his cousin Zainab. The Prophet 
 had previously given her in marriage to 
 Zaid ibn Harisah, his freed man and adopted 
 son. But upon visiting the house of Zaid, 
 and not finding him at home, the Prophet 
 accidentally cast his eyes on Zainab, and was 
 so smitten with her beauty, that he ex¬ 
 claimed, “ Praise belongeth unto God, who 
 turneth the hearts of men even as He will.” 
 Zainab saw that she had made an impression 
 on the Prophet’s heart, and when her hus¬ 
 band returned, recounted the circumstances 
 to him. Zaid determined to part with her in 
 favour of his friend and benefactor, and 
 offered to divorce her. But the relations of 
 the Arabs to their adopted children were so 
 strict, that nothing but a revelation from 
 heaven could settle the difficulty. It was to 
 meet this domestic emergency that the Pro¬ 
 phet produced the following verses of the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 36-38, to sanction his 
 own heart’s desire:— 
 
 “ And it is not for a believer, man or woman, 
 to have any choice in their affairs, when God 
 and His Apostle have decreed a matter : and 
 whoever disobeyeth God and His Apostle, 
 erreth with palpable error. And, remember, 
 when thou saidst to him unto whom God had 
 shown favour, and to whom thou also hadst 
 shown favour, ‘ Keep thy wife to thyself, and 
 fear God ; ’ and thou didst hide in thy mind 
 what God would bring to light, and thou 
 didst fear man; but more right had it been 
 to fear God. And when Zaid had settled 
 concerning her to divorce her, we married 
 her to thee, that it might not be a crime in 
 the faithful to marry the wives of their 
 
 adopted sons, when thoy have settled the 
 affair concerning them. And the behest of 
 God is to be performed. No blame attacheth 
 to the Prophet where God hath given him a 
 permission. Such was the way of God with 
 those prophets who flourished before thee.” 
 
 The scandal of the marriage was removed 
 by the pretended revelation, and according to 
 the Traditions, Zainab used to vaunt herself 
 as the one wife of the Prophet’s harim who 
 had been given in marriage by God Himself. 
 At all events, she exchanged a husband who 
 had a pug nose and was short and ill-favoured 
 for one who was the leading chief of Arabia! 
 
 Muhammad’s numerous marriages (four 
 being the legal number—Surah iv. 3) were 
 likely to excite the jealousy and opposition of 
 less favoured Muslims, but an additional 
 chapter of the Qur’an avoided complications, 
 and allowed the “ Prophet of God ” greater 
 liberty in this respect! See Surah xxxiii. 
 49: “0 Prophet, we have allowed thee thy 
 wives whom thou hast dowered, and the 
 slaves whom thy right hand possesseth . . . 
 and any believing woman who has given 
 herself up to the Prophet, if the Prophet 
 desireth to wed her; a privilege for thee 
 above the rest of the Faithful.” 
 
 About this time certain injunctions were 
 issued for the seclusion of women, and for the 
 regulation of social and domestic intercourse 
 (Surah xxv.). These rules were made more 
 stringent in the case of the Prophet’s own 
 wives, who, in the case of incontinence, are 
 threatened with double punishment (Surah 
 xxxiii.). The jealousy of the Prophet, who 
 was now getting old, was allayed by the 
 Divine command, that his wives should, in the 
 event of his death, never marry again. The 
 obligation devolving on believers, to consort 
 equally with their several wives, was also 
 relaxed specially in the Prophet’s favour 
 (Surah xlviii.). 
 
 In the sixth year of the Hijrah several mili¬ 
 tary expeditions were made. Amongst others, 
 to the Banu Quraizah and the Banu Lahyan. 
 On his return from the last expedition Mu¬ 
 hammad stopped for a few moments to visit 
 the grave of his mother, and desired to pray 
 for her soul. But a verse from the Qur’an, 
 alleged to have been revealed on this occa¬ 
 sion, forbade his praying for the forgiveness 
 of one who died an infidel. Surah ix. 114, 
 115:— 
 
 “It is not for the Prophet or the Faithful 
 to pray for the forgiveness of those, even 
 though they be of kin, who associate other 
 beings with God, after it hath been made 
 clear to them that they are to be the inmates 
 of Hell. For neither did Abraham ask for¬ 
 giveness for his father, but in pursuance of 
 a promise which he had promised to him: 
 but "when it was shown him that lie was an 
 enemy to God, he declared himself clear of 
 him. Yet Abraham was pitiful, kind.” 
 
 Muhammad marched in person against the 
 Banu ’1-Mustaliq, and completely surprised 
 and routed them. One thousand camels, 
 five thousand sheep, and a great many 
 women and children, became the spoil of the 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 379 
 
 Muslims. One of the female captives, named 
 Juwairiyah, fell to the lot of Sabit ibn Qais, 
 who, as a meritorious act, offered to release 
 her and give her her liberty, for a certain 
 sum. On applying to Muhammad to help 
 her with the money to pay the ransom, he 
 readily agreed to do so, and when she was 
 freed he married her. Thereupon, the Mus¬ 
 lims recognised the Banff ’1-Mustaliq as allies. 
 Juwairiyah survived Muhammad forty-five 
 years. 
 
 At the last stage, returning from the cam¬ 
 paign against the Banff '1-Mustaliq, ‘Ayishah’s 
 tent and litter were by inadvertence carried 
 away, while she was for a moment absent, 
 and on her return she found herself in the 
 dark alone. Expecting the mistake to be 
 discovered, she sat down to await the issue, 
 when, after some delay, one of the followers 
 came up. and finding her in this plight, bade 
 her mount his camel, and so conducted her 
 to al-Madlnah. The citizens drew sinister 
 conclusions from the circumstance, and Mu¬ 
 hammad himself became estranged from 
 ‘Ayishah, and she retired to her father’s 
 home. Several weeks elapsed, when, at 
 length, the Prophet was supernaturally in¬ 
 formed of her innocence (Sffrah xxiv.). The 
 law was then promulgated which requires 
 four eye-witnesses to establish the charge of 
 adultery, in default of which the imputation 
 is to be punished as a slander, with eighty 
 lashes, [qazaf.J ‘Ayishah was taken back 
 to her home, and her accusers were beaten. 
 
 It was during the year a.h. 6, that Muham¬ 
 mad conceived the idea of addressing foreign 
 sovereigns and princes, and of inviting them to 
 embrace Islam. His letter to the Emperor 
 Heraclius lias been handed down by Ibn 
 ‘Abbas (Mishkat, book xvii. ch. civ.), and is 
 as follows :— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Compassionate, 
 the Merciful, Muhammad, who is the servant 
 of God, and His Apostle, to Haraql, the 
 Qaisar of Rffm. Peace be on whoever has 
 gone on the straight road. After this I say, 
 Verily, I call you to Islam. Embrace Islam, 
 and God will reward you twofold. If you 
 turn away from the offer of Islam, then on 
 you be the sins of your people. 0 people of 
 the Book (i.e. Christians), come towards a 
 creed which is fit both for us and for you. 
 It is this, to worship none but God, and not 
 to associate anything with God, and not to 
 call others God. Therefore, O ye people of 
 the Book, if ye refuse, beware 1 We are Mus¬ 
 lims, and our religion is Islam. 
 
 (Seal.) 
 
 “ Muhammad, the Apostle of God.” 
 
 The letter was sent to the Governor of 
 Busra that he might convey it to Cassar, 
 but we have no record of a reply having been 
 received. 
 
 He also wrote to Kasra-Parwiz, King of 
 Persia, but Kasra tore the letter in pieces. 
 On hearing the fate of his letter, Muhammad 
 said, “Even so shall his kingdom be shattered 
 to pieces.” His third embassy- was (o Naja- 
 sih, the King of Abyssinia, who received the 
 message with honour. The fourth was to 
 
 Jarlh ibn Matta, the Muqauqis, or Governor, 
 of Egypt. Jarlh sent a polite reply, and 
 j begged the Prophet’s acceptance of two 
 beautiful Coptic slave girls. One of these, 
 I Shirln, the Prophet gave to Hassan the poet, 
 but he reserved the other Mariyah, for him- 
 j self. In due time, Mariyah presented the 
 Prophet with a son, who was named Ibra- 
 j him, the birth of which made the mother a 
 free woman, and placed her in the honourable 
 position of the wife. But the Prophet’s ex- 
 | treme fondness for the recent addition to his 
 already extensive harim was resented by his 
 | numerous wives. ‘Ayishah and Hafsah were 
 j especially enraged, for the Prophet was in 
 ! the habit of visiting Mariyah on the day due 
 to one of these ladies. Hafsah, who, being 
 the daughter of ‘Umar, was a person of great 
 political importance, took up the matter, and 
 in order to pacify her the Prophet swor6 
 solemnly- that he would never visit Mariyah 
 again, and enjoined Hafsah to keep the secret 
 from the rest of his wives. She, however, 
 revealed it in confidence to ‘Ayishah ! Mu¬ 
 hammad was annoyed at finding his con¬ 
 fidence betrayed, and separated himself for 
 a whole month from his wives, and spent his 
 time in Mariyah’s apartment. The situation 
 was a difficult one, not merely on account of 
 the complications caused in his own domestic 
 circle, but because ‘Umar, the father of 
 Hafsah, was a most important political per¬ 
 sonage in those days. The only way out of 
 the difficulty was to produce a third direct 
 revelation from heaven, which appeared in 
 the Sffratu ’t-Tahrim, or the “ Chapter of 
 Prohibition” (lxvi.), of the Qur’an, and reads 
 as follows:— 
 
 “ Why, 0 Prophet! dost thou hold that to 
 be forbidden which God hath made lawful to 
 thee, from a desire to please thy wives, since 
 God is Lenient, Merciful? God hath allowed 
 you release from y r our oaths; and God is 
 your master; and He is the Knowing, Wise. 
 When the Prophet told a recent occurrence as 
 a secret to one of his wives (i.e. Hafsah), and 
 when she divulged it and God informed him 
 of this, he acquainted her with part and with¬ 
 held part. And when he had told her of it, 
 she said, ‘ Who told thee this ? ’ He said, 
 
 ‘ The Knowing, the Sage hath told it me. If 
 ye both be turned to God in penitence, for now 
 have your hearts gone astray . . . but if ye 
 conspire against the Prophet, then know that 
 God is his Protector, and Gabriel, and every 
 just man among the faithful; and the angels 
 are his helpers besides. Haply if he put you 
 both (i.e. Hafsah and ‘Ayishah) away, his 
 Lord will give him in exchange other wives 
 better than you, Muslims, believers, devout, 
 penitent, obedient, observant of fasting, both 
 known of men and virgins.’ ” 
 
 In the Muharram of a.h. 7, Muhammad 
 assembled a force of 1,G00 men, and marched 
 against Khaibar, a fertile district inhabited 
 by the Jews, and situated about six days’ 
 march to the north-east of al-Madlnah. The 
 attack on Khaibar taxed both the energy and 
 skill of the Warrior Prophet, for it was de¬ 
 fended by several fortresses. The fort 
 
380 
 
 MtTHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 Qarnus was defended by Kinanak, a powerful ) 
 Jewish chief, who claimed for himself the 
 title of “ King of the Jews.” Several assaults 
 were made and vigorously repulsed by the 
 besieged. Both Abu Bakr and ‘Umar were 
 equally unsuccessful in their attempts to take 
 the position, when the Prophet selected ‘All 
 to lead a detachment of picked men. A 
 famous Jewish warrior named Marhab, now 
 presented himself, and challenged ‘Ali to 
 single combat. The challenge was accepted, 
 and ‘All, armed with his famous sword 
 “ Zu ’1-Fiqar,” given to him by the Prophet, 
 cleft the hoad of his adversary in twain, and 
 secured a victory. In a few days all the 
 fortresses of the district were taken, and 
 Kh aibar was subjugated to Islam. 
 
 Amongst the female captives was Safiyah, 
 the widow of the chief Kinanak, who had 
 fallen at Qamus. One of Muhammad’s fol¬ 
 lowers begged her for himself, but the Pro¬ 
 phet, struck with her beauty, threw his 
 mantle over her, and took her to his harhn. 
 
 The booty taken at Khaibar was very con¬ 
 siderable, and in order to secure the district 
 to Muslim rule, the Jews of the district were 
 exiled to the banks of the Jordan. 
 
 It was during the Khaibar expedition that 
 Muhammad instituted Mut‘ali, an abomin¬ 
 able temporary marriage, to meet the de¬ 
 mands of his army. This is an institution 
 still observed by the ShPahs, but said by the 
 Sunnis to have been abolished by Muhammad. 
 [mut‘ah.] It was at Khaibar that an at¬ 
 tempt. was made, by a Jewess named Zainab, 
 to poison Muhammad. She dressed a kid, 
 and having steeped it in deadly poison, placed 
 it before the Prophet, who ate but a mouthful 
 of the poisoned kid when the deed was dis¬ 
 covered. Zainab was immediately put to 
 death. 
 
 The subjugation of the Jewish districts of 
 Fadak, Wadi ’1-Qura and Tannah, on the 
 confines of Syria, followed that of Khaibar. 
 This year, in the sacred month of Zu ’1- 
 Qa‘dak, Muhammad decided to perform the 
 ‘Umrah, or religious vistation of Makkah 
 [‘cmrah], and for this purpose he left al- 
 Madinah with a following of some 4,400 men. 
 When they were within two days’ march of 
 Makkah, their advance was checked by the 
 hostile Quraish, and Muhammad, turning to the 
 west from ‘Usfan, encamped at al-Hudaibiyak, 
 within seven miles of the sacred city. At this 
 spot a truce was made, which is known as the 
 treaty of al-Hudaibiyali, in which it was stipu¬ 
 lated that all hostilities should cease for ten 
 years, and that for the future the Muslims 
 should have the privilege, unmolested, of 
 paying a yearly visit of three days to the 
 Ka‘bak. 
 
 After sacrificing the victims at al-Hudai- 
 biyah, Muhammad and his followers returned 
 to al-Madlnak. 
 
 The advent of the holy month Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, 
 of the next year (a.h. 8), was eagerly expiected 
 by Muhammad and his followers, for then, 
 according to the terms of the truce of al- 
 Hudaibivah, they might, without molestation, 
 visit the holy city, and spend three days in 
 
 the performance of the accustomed rites. The 
 number of the faithful swelled on the approach 
 to nearly 2,000 men, and the Quraish thought 
 it best to retire with their forces to the 
 heights overlooking the valley. Seated on 
 his camel al-Qaswa, which eight years be¬ 
 fore had borne him in his flight from the cave 
 of Saur a hunted fugitive, the Prophet, now 
 surrounded by joyous crowds of disciples, the 
 companions of his exile, approached and 
 saluted the holy shrine. Eagerly did he press 
 forward to the Ka‘bah, touched with his 
 staff the Black Stone, seven times made the 
 circuit of the holy house, seven times jour¬ 
 neyed between as-Safa and al-Marwali, sacri¬ 
 ficed the victims, and fulfilled all the cere¬ 
 monies of the lesser pilgrimage. 
 
 While at Makkah he negotiated an 
 alliance with Maimiinak, his eleventh and last 
 wife. His marriage gained him two most 
 important converts—Kkalid, the “ Sword of 
 God,” who before this had turned the tide of 
 battle at Uhud; and ‘Anar, destined after¬ 
 wards to cany to foreign lands the victorious 
 standards of Islam. 
 
 The services of these two important con¬ 
 verts were quickly utilised. An envoy from 
 Muhammad to the Christian Prince of Bostra, 
 in Syria, having been slain by the chief of 
 Mutak—a village to the south-east of the 
 Dead Sea—a force of 3,000 men, under his 
 adopted son Zaid, was sent to exact retribu¬ 
 tion, and to call the offending tribe to the 
 faith. On the northward march, though they 
 learnt that an overwhelming force of Arabs 
 and Romans—the latter of whom met the 
 Muslims for the first time—was assembling to 
 oppose them, they resolved resolutely to push 
 forward. The result was their disastrous 
 defeat and repulse. Zaid and Ja‘far, a brother 
 of ‘All, fell defending the white banner of the 
 Prophet. Khalid, by a series of manoeuvres, 
 succeeded in drawing off the army, and con¬ 
 ducting it without further loss to al-Madinah. 
 A month later, however, ‘Amr marched un¬ 
 opposed through the lands of the hostile 
 tribes, received their submission, and restored 
 the prestige of Islam on the Syrian frontier. 
 Muhammad deeply felt the loss of Zaid and 
 Ja'far, and exhibited the tenderest sympathy 
 for their widows and orphans. 
 
 The defeat at Mutak was followed, in the 
 south, by events of the greatest moment to 
 Muhammad. Certain smouldering hostilities 
 between tribes inhabiting the neighbourhood 
 of Makkah broke forth about the end of the 
 year. These were judged to be infractions 
 of the treaty (some of these tribes being in 
 league with the Quraish), and were eagerly 
 seized upon by Muhammad, as justifying 
 those designs upon Makkah which the suc¬ 
 cess of his arms, and the dominion he pos¬ 
 sessed over numberless tribes in the north, in 
 the Hijaz, and Najd, now made it easy for him 
 to carry out. 
 
 Having, therefore, determined to attack his 
 native city, he announced ;kis intention to his 
 followers, and directed his allies among the 
 Bedouin tribe, to join him on the march to 
 Makkah. Although he took every precaution 
 
Muhammad 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 to prevent his preparations becoming known, 
 the news reached the ears of the Quraish, 
 who sent Abu Sufyan to deprecate his anger 
 and to ask him to abandon his purpose. 
 Humiliation and failure were the only result 
 of this mission. 
 
 On the 1st January, a.d. 680, Muhammad's 
 march commenced, and after eight days, 
 through unfrequented roads and deiiles, the 
 army, swelled to the number of 10,000 men, 
 halted and lighted their camp fires on the 
 heights of Marru ’z-Zahran, a day’s march 
 from the sacred city. The Prophet had been 
 joined on his march by his uncle al-‘Abbas, 
 and on the night of his arrival Abu Sufyan 
 again presented himself, and besought an 
 interview. On the morrow it was granted. 
 “Has the time not yet come, O Abu Sufyan,” 
 cried Muhammad, “ for thee to acknowledge 
 that there is but one God, and that I am his 
 Apostle.” He answered that his heart still 
 felt some hesitancy; but seeing the threaten¬ 
 ing sword of al-‘Abbas, and knowing that 
 Makkah was at the mercy of the Prophet, he 
 repeated the prescribed formula of belief, and 
 was sent to prepare the city for his approach. 
 
 The Prophet made his public entry into 
 Makkah on his favourite camel, having Abu 
 Bakr on his right hand, Usaid on his left, 
 and Usamak walking behind him. On his 
 way he recited the XLvnith Surah of the 
 Qur'an, known as the “ Chapter of Victory.” 
 He then entered the Sacred Mosque and cir¬ 
 cuited the Kalb ah seven times, touching the 
 Black Stone as he passed with his stick. 
 Observing several pictures of angels inside 
 the Ka‘bak, he ordered them to be removed, 
 at the same time crying out with a loud 
 voice, “ God is great! God is great! ” He 
 then fixed the Qiblah [qibbah] at Makkah, 
 and ordered the destruction of the 360 idols 
 which the Makkan temple contained, himself 
 destroying a wooden pigeon suspended from 
 the roof, and regarded as one of the deities of 
 the Quraish. 
 
 On the 11th day of the month of Ramazan, 
 he repaired to Mount as-Safa, where all the 
 people of Makkah had been assembled in 
 order to take the oath of allegiance to him. 
 ‘Umar, acting as his deputy, administered the 
 oath, whereby the people bound themselves 
 to obey Muhammad, to abstain from theft, 
 adultery, infanticide, lying, and backbiting. 
 
 During his stay at Makkah, Muhammad 
 sent small detachments of troops into the 
 district, who destroyed the temples of al- 
 ‘Uzza, Suwa‘, and Manat, the three famous 
 idol-temples of the neighbouring tribes. The 
 Prophet had given strict orders that these 
 expeditions should be carried out in a peace¬ 
 able manner, and that only in cases of neces¬ 
 sity should force of arms be used. Khalid 
 ibn al-Walid, however, who commanded 350 
 men, found himself opposed by the Jazimah 
 tribe, for instead of saying as they were com¬ 
 manded, “ We are Muslims,” they said, “ We 
 are Sabians ”; and the impetuous general, 
 whose name afterwards became so celebrated 
 in history, ordered the whole tribe to be slain. 
 Muhammad, when he heard of this barbarity, 
 
 381 
 
 exclaimed, “ Oh t my God, I am innocent of 
 this ”; and he despatched a large sum of money 
 for the widows and orphans of the slain, and 
 severely rebuked Khalid. 
 
 The Prophet left Makkah after a fortnight’s 
 residence, and at the head of 12,000 men 
 attacked the BanI Saqlf and the BanI Hawa- 
 zin. Malik ibn Ans, the chief of the Saqlf, 
 made a bold stand, and the Prophet rallied 
 his forces with the utmost difficulty, but 
 having thrown a handful of dust in the direc¬ 
 tion of the enemy as a signal of victory, the 
 Muslims renewed the charge, and 700 of the 
 tribe were left dead on the field. This victory 
 was followed immediately by one over the 
 Band Hawazin, in the valley of Autas. (See 
 Surah ix. 25, 26.) 
 
 The ninth year of the Hijrah is known as 
 the year of deputations, as being the year in 
 which the various tribes of Arabia submitted 
 to the claim of the Prophet, and sent embas¬ 
 sies of peace to him. It is also remarkable 
 for numerous minor expeditions. 
 
 Hearing that the Romans were assembling 
 in large force on their frontier, Muhammad 
 determined to attack them at Tabuk (a city 
 between al-Madlnah and Damascus). The 
 army sent to Tabuk was the largest employed 
 in the time of the Prophet, for it is said to 
 have numbered 20,000, and 10,000 cavalry. 
 By the time the army had arrived at Tabuk, 
 the rumoured invasion had been proved 
 unfounded. Muhammad, however, utilised a 
 portion of the force by sending it, under the 
 command of Khalid, to Dumah, where he re¬ 
 ceived the submission of the Jewish and 
 Christian tribes. A treaty with John, the 
 Christian Prince of Ailah, was made, and 
 Ukaidar, the Christian chief of Dumah was 
 converted to Islam. 
 
 The gradual submission of Arabia, and the 
 acknowledgment of the spiritual and tem¬ 
 poral supremacy of the Prophet throughout 
 the entire peninsula, followed. Indeed, in the 
 complex system which he had established, 
 the spiritual and secular functions were inti¬ 
 mately blended, and involved in each other, 
 and whilst in his humble home at al-Madlnah 
 he retained still the simple manners of his 
 earlier years, which, at his time of life, he 
 had probabty no inclination to alter, he exer¬ 
 cised all those regal and sacerdotal powers 
 which the victorious arms of his lieutenants, 
 or the voluntary submission of the most 
 distant provinces of Arabia, had caused to be 
 universally acknowledged. Tax-collectors 
 were appointed to receive the prescribed 
 offerings or tithes, which generally amounted 
 to “ a tenth part of the increase.” 
 
 The city of at-Ta’if, trusting to its natural 
 strength,- constituted itself a centre of disaf¬ 
 fection ; but at last, driven to extremities, 
 and seeing that all the neighbouring tribes 
 had one by one submitted, its chief, after a 
 vain attempt to obtain some relaxation in the 
 rules of Islam, consented to the destruction 
 of the adored idol al-Lat, and adopted the 
 new faith. 
 
 It was during the time of the next yearly 
 pilgrimage (March, a.d. 631), that Muham- 
 
382 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 mad issued an important command, the 
 crowning stone of the system he had raised, 
 which shows at once the power he wielded, 
 and the strong hold his doctrines had already 
 taken throughout Arabia. Refusing to be 
 present himself during the ceremonies of the 
 pilgrimage, he commissioned ‘All to announce 
 to the assembled multitudes in the valley of 
 Mina, that, at the expiration of the four 
 sacred months, the Prophet would hold him¬ 
 self absolved from every obligation or league 
 with idolaters; that after that year no un¬ 
 believer would be allowed to perform the pil¬ 
 grimage, or to visit the. holy places; and 
 further, he gave directions that either within 
 or without the sacred territory, war was to 
 be waged with them, that they were to be 
 killed, besieged, and laid in wait for “ where¬ 
 soever found.” He ordains, however, that if 
 they repent and pay the legal alms, they are 
 to be dismissed freely; but as regards “ those 
 unto whom the Scriptures have been deli¬ 
 vered ” (Jews and Christians, &c.), “ they are 
 to be fought against until they pay tribute by 
 right of subjection, and are reduced low.” 
 
 “ Such, then,” says Sir William Muir, “ is 
 the declared mission of Islam, arrived at by 
 slow, though inevitable steps, and now im¬ 
 printed unchangeably upon its banners. The 
 Jews and Christians, and perhaps the Ma- 
 gians,—‘people of the book’—are to be tole¬ 
 rated, but held in subjection, and under 
 tribute ; but for the rest, the sword is not to 
 be sheathed till they are exterminated, or sub¬ 
 mit to the faith which is to become ‘ superior 
 to every other religion.’ ” 
 
 About the middle of the year, a heavy 
 grief fell upon Muhammad, in the death of 
 his little son Ibrahim. 
 
 On the return of the sacred month (March, 
 a.d. 632), Muhammad, accompanied by all 
 his wives, selected his victims, assumed the 
 pilgrim garb, and set out on what is called 
 Hajjcctu ’l-Wada' , or “The Valedictory Pil¬ 
 grimage,” to the holy places, from wdiich 
 every trace of the old superstition had been 
 removed, and which, in accordance with his 
 orders of the previous year, no idolater was 
 to. visit. Appro aching the Ka‘bah by the gate 
 of the Banff Shaibah, he carefully performed 
 all the ceremonies of the ‘ Urnrah, or “lesser 
 Pilgrimage,” and then proceeded to consum¬ 
 mate those of the greater. On the 8th of the 
 holy month Zu ’1-Hijjah, he rode to the 
 Wadi Mina, some three miles east of Makkah, 
 and rested there for the night. Next day, 
 passing Muzdalifah, the midway station, he 
 reached in the evening the valley in which 
 stands the granite hill of ‘Arafah. From the 
 “ summit he spoke to the pilgrims regarding 
 its sacred precincts, announced to them the 
 perfecting of their religion,” offered up the 
 prescribed prayers, and hurried back to Muz¬ 
 dalifah for the night. On the 10th, proceed¬ 
 ing to Mina, he cast the accustomed stones, 
 slew the victims brought for sacrifice, had his 
 head shaved and his nails pared, ordering the 
 hair, &e., to be burnt; and, the ceremonies 
 ended, laid aside the pilgrim garb. At Mina, 
 during his three days’ stay, he preached to 
 
 the pilgrims, called them to witness that he 
 had faithfully fulfilled his mission, and urged 
 them not to depart from the exact obser¬ 
 vances of the religion which he had appointed. 
 Returning to Makkah, he again went through 
 the ceremonies of the ‘Urnrah, made the cir¬ 
 cuit of the temple, drank of the well Zamzam, 
 prayed in the Ka‘bah, and thus, having rigo¬ 
 rously performed all the ceremonies, that his 
 example might serve as a model for all suc¬ 
 ceeding time, he turned to al-Madinah. 
 
 The excitement and fatigue of his journey 
 to the holy places told sensibly on his health, 
 ■which for some time had shown indications 
 of increasing infirmity. In the death of Ibra¬ 
 him he had received a blow which weighed 
 down his spirit; the poison of Khaibar still 
 rankled in his veins, afflicted him at times 
 with excruciating pain, and bowed him to 
 the grave. His life had been a hard and a 
 stirring one, and now the important affairs of 
 his spiritual and temporal kingdom, and the 
 cares of his large domestic circle, denied him 
 that quiet and seclusion for which he longed. 
 
 The news of the Prophet’s failing health 
 was soon noised abroad, and tended to encou¬ 
 rage his rivals to increased energy of action. 
 Three different revolts, each headed by a dan¬ 
 gerous competitor, were now on the point of 
 breaking out. The first of these was led by 
 Musailimah, a rival prophet, who now stated 
 that Muhammad had distinctly nominated 
 him as his successor [musailimah] ; the 
 second, by Aswad, a wealthy and eloquent 
 rival, with a considerable following [aswad] ; 
 and the third, by Tulaihah, a famous warrior 
 of Najd, who claimed the prophetic office. 
 
 In the Traditions it is related that Musai¬ 
 limah addressed a letter to Muhammad, 
 which ran:— 
 
 “ Musailimah, the Prophet of God, to Mu¬ 
 hammad, the Prophet of God. Peace be to 
 you. I am your associate. Let the exercise 
 of authority be divided between us. Half 
 the earth is mine, and half belongs to the 
 Quraish. But the Quraish are a greedy 
 people, and will not be satisfied with a fair 
 division.” 
 
 To this presumptuous epistle Muhammad 
 replied:— 
 
 “ Muhammad, the Prophet of God, to Mu¬ 
 sailimah, the Liar. Peace be on those who 
 follow the straight road. The earth is God’s, 
 and He giveth it to whom He will. Those 
 only prosper who fear the Lord.” 
 
 The opposition of Musailimah was. how¬ 
 ever, a formidable one, and after Muhammad’s 
 death he was slain by Khalid during the 
 reign of Abu Bakr. 
 
 The health of Muhammad grew worse, and 
 he now requested that he might_be permitted 
 to remain in the home of ‘Ayishah, his 
 beloved wife, an arrangement to which his 
 other wives assented. 
 
 The account we now give of the closing 
 scenes of Muhammad’s life, is from the 
 graphic pen of Sir William Muir (Life of 
 Mahomet , new ed,, p. 501 et seq,), and founded 
 on the traditional histories of al-Waqidi’s 
 secretary, and Ibn Hisham, 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 “ On the night of Saturday (11 Rabhu ’1- 
 Awwal, Gth June, a.d. G32), the sickness 
 assumed a very serious aspect. The fever 
 rose to such a pitch that the hand could 
 hardly bo kept upon his skin from its burn¬ 
 ing heat. His body was racked with pain ; 
 restless and moaning, he tossed about upon 
 his bed. Alarmed at a severe paroxysm of 
 the disease, Omm Salma, one of his wives, 
 screamed aloud. Mahomet rebuked her:— 
 ‘ Quiet! ’ he said. ‘ No one crieth out thus 
 but an unbeliever.’ During the night, Ayesha 
 sought to comfort him, and suggested that 
 he should seek for consolation in the same 
 lessons he had so often taught to others when 
 in sickness : ‘ 0 Prophet 1 ’ she said, ‘ if one 
 of us had moaned thus, thou would’st surely 
 have found fault with it.’ ‘ Yes,’ he replied, 
 
 ‘ but I burn with the fever-heat of any two 
 of you together.’ ‘ Then,’ exclaimed one, 
 ‘ thou shalt surely have a double reward.’ 
 ‘ Yes,’ he answered, ‘ I swear by Him in whose 
 hands is my life, that there is not upon the 
 earth a believer afflicted with any calamity or 
 disease, but the Lord thereby causeth his 
 sins to fall from him, even as leaves are shed 
 in autumn from a tree.’ At another time he 
 said, 1 Suffering is an expiation for sin. 
 Verily, if the believer suffer but the scratch 
 of a thorn, the Lord raiseth his rank thereby, 
 and wipeth away from him a sin.' ‘ Believers,’ 
 he would affirm, ‘ are tried according to their 
 faith. If a man’s faith be strong, so are his 
 sufferings ; if he bo weak, they are propor¬ 
 tioned thereunto. Yet in any case, the suf¬ 
 fering shall not be remitted until he walk 
 upon the earth without the guilt of a single 
 transgression cleaving unto him.’ 
 
 “ Omar, approaching the bed, placed his 
 hand on Mahomet’s forehead, and suddenly 
 withdrew it, from the greatness of the heat: 
 1 0 Prophet 1 ’ he said, 1 how violent is the 
 fever on thee ! ’ ‘ Yea, verily,’ replied Ma¬ 
 
 homet, ‘but I have been during the night 
 season repeating in praise of the Lord seventy 
 Suras, and among them the seven long 
 ones.’ Omar answered: ‘ But the Lord hath 
 forgiven thee all thy sins, the former and the 
 latter; now, then, why not rest and take 
 thine ease?’ ‘Nay,’ replied Mahomet, ‘ for 
 wherefore should I not be a faithful servant 
 unto Him ? ’ 
 
 “ An attendant, while Mahomet lay covered 
 up, put his hand below the sheet, and feel¬ 
 ing the excessive heat, made a remark simi¬ 
 lar to that of Omar. Mahomet replied : 
 ‘ Even as this affliction prevaileth now against 
 me, so shall my reward hereafter be enhanced.’ 
 1 And who are they,’ asked another, 1 that suffer 
 the severest trials ? ’ ‘ The prophets and 
 
 the righteous,’ said Mahomet; and then he 
 made mention of one prophet having been 
 destroyed by lice, and of another who was 
 tried with poverty, so that he had but a rag 
 to cover his nakedness withal; ‘ yet each of 
 them rejoiced exceedingly in his affliction, even 
 as one of you in great spoil would rejoice.’ 
 
 “ On the Sunday, Mahomet lay in a very 
 weak and helpless state. Osama, who had 
 delayed his departure to see what the issue of 
 
 883 
 
 the sickness might be, came in from Jorf to 
 visit him. Removing the clothes from the 
 Prophet’s face, he stooped down and kissed 
 him, but there was no audible response. 
 Mahomet only raised his hands to heaven in 
 the attidude of blessing, and then placed them 
 upon Osama. So he returned to the camp. 
 
 “ During some part of this day Mahomet 
 complained of pain in his side, and the suf¬ 
 fering became so great, that he fell into a 
 state of unconsciousness. Omm Salma ad¬ 
 vised that physic should be given him. Asma, 
 the sister of Meimuna, prepared a draught 
 after an Abyssinian l'ecipe, and they forced it 
 into his mouth. Reviving from its effects, he 
 felt the unpleasant taste in his mouth, and 
 cried, ‘ What is this that ye have done to 
 me ? Ye have even given me physic ! ’ They 
 confessed that they had done so, and enume¬ 
 rated the ingredients of which Asma had 
 compounded it. 1 Out upon you! ’ he angrily 
 exclaimed ; ‘ this is a remedy for the pleurisy, 
 which she hath learned in the land of Abys¬ 
 sinia ; but that is not a disease which the 
 Lord will suffer to attack me. Now shall ye 
 all partake of the same dose. Let not one 
 remain in the house without being physicked, 
 even as ye have physicked me, excepting 
 only my uncle Abbas.’ So all the women 
 arose, and they poured the physic, in presence 
 of the dying Prophet, into each other’s months. 
 
 “ After this, the conversation turning upon 
 Abyssinia, Omm Salma and Omm Habiba, 
 who had both been exiles there, spoke of the 
 beauty of a cathedral in that country, called 
 the Church of Maria, and of the wonderful 
 pictures on its walls. Mahomet listened 
 quietly to them, and then said, ‘ These, verily, 
 are the people who, when a good man hath 
 lived amongst them, build over his tomb a 
 place of worship, and they adorn it with their 
 pictures. These, in the eyes of the Lord, are 
 the worst part of all the creation.’ He stopped, 
 and covered himself with the bed-clothes; 
 then casting them off in the restlessness and 
 perhaps delirium of the fever, he said : ‘ The 
 Lord destroy the Jews and Christians ! Let 
 His anger be kindled against those that turn 
 the tombs of their prophets into places of 
 worship. 0 Lord, let not my tomb be an 
 object of worship. Let there not remain 
 any faith but that of Islam throughout the 
 whole land of Arabia! ’ 
 
 “ About this time, recognising Omar and 
 some other chief men in the room, he called 
 out, ‘ Bring hither to me ink and paper, that 
 I may record for you a writing which shall 
 prevent your going astray for ever.’ Omar 
 said, ‘ He wandereth in his mind. Is not the 
 Coran sufficient for us ? ’ But the women 
 wished that the writing materials should be 
 brought; and a discussion ensued. There¬ 
 upon one said, ‘ What is his condition at this 
 present moment ? Come, let us see whether 
 lie speaketli deliriously or not.’ So they 
 went and asked him what his wishes were 
 regarding the writing he had spoken of • but 
 he no longer desired to indite it. ‘ Leave me 
 thus alone,’ he said, 1 for my present state is 
 better than that ye call me to,’ 
 
384 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 •• In the course of this day, Mahomet called 
 Ayesha to him, and said, ‘ Where is that gold 
 which I gave unto thee to keep ? ’ On her 
 replying that it was by her, he desired that 
 she should spend it at once in charity. Then 
 he dozed off in a half-conscious state; and 
 some time after asked if she had done as he 
 desii’ed her. On her saying that she had not 
 yet done so, he called for the money (which 
 was apparently a portion of the tithe income); 
 she placed it in his hand, and counted six 
 golden dinars. He directed that it should be 
 divided among certain indigent families ; and 
 then lying down, he said, ‘ Now I am at 
 peace. Verily it would not have become me 
 to meet my Lord, and this gold in my pos¬ 
 session.’ 
 
 “All Sunday night the illness of Mahomet 
 continued unabated. He was overheard pray¬ 
 ing: one of the ejaculations was to this effect: 
 
 ‘ 0 my soul 1 Why seekest thou for refuge 
 elsewhere than in God alone ? ’ The morning- 
 brought some measure of relief. The fever 
 and the pain abated ; and there was an ajopa - 
 rent return of strength. 
 
 “ The dangerous crisis of the Prophet’s 
 sickness on the preceding night having become 
 known throughout the city, the mosque was 
 crowded in the morning, at the hour of 
 prayer, by men and women, who came seek¬ 
 ing anxiously for tidings. Abu Bakr, as 
 usual, led the devotions; as Imam he stood 
 in the place of Mahomet before the congrega¬ 
 tion, his back turned towards them. He had 
 ended the first Rakaat, or series of prostra¬ 
 tions, and the people had stood up again for 
 a second, when the curtain of Ayesha’s door 
 (to the left of the audience, and a little way 
 behind Abu Bakr) slowly moved aside, and 
 Mahomet himself appeared. As he entered 
 the assembly, he whispered in the ear of 
 Fadhl (Fazl), son of Abbas, who with a ser¬ 
 vant supported him : ‘ The Lord verily hath 
 granted unto me refreshment in prayer ’; and 
 he looked around with a gladsome smile, 
 marked by all who at the moment caught a 
 glimpse of his countenance. That smile no 
 doubt was the index of deep emotion in his 
 heart. What doubts or fears may have 
 crossed the mind of Mahomet, as he lay on 
 the bed of death, and felt that the time was 
 drawing nigh-when he must render an account 
 to that God whose messenger he professed to 
 be, tradition affords us no grounds even to 
 conjecture. The rival claims of Aswad and 
 Museilama had, perhaps, suggested mis¬ 
 givings, such as those which had.long ago 
 distracted his soul. What if he, too, were an 
 impostor, deceiving himself and deceiving 
 others also ! If any doubts and questionings 
 of this nature had arisen in his mind, the 
 sight of the great congregation, in. attitude 
 devout and earnest, may have caused him 
 comfort and reassurance. That which brings 
 forth good fruit must itself be good. The 
 mission which had transferred gross and de¬ 
 based idolaters into spiritual worshippers 
 such as these, resigning every faculty to the 
 service of the one great God ; and which, 
 wherever accepted and believed in, was daily 
 
 producing the same wonderful change, that 
 mission must be divine, and the voice from 
 within which prompted him to undertake it 
 must have been the voice of the Almighty, 
 revealed through His ministering spirit. 
 Perhaps it was a thought like this which 
 passed at the moment through the mind of 
 the Prophet, and lighted up his countenance 
 with that smile of joy, diffusing gladness 
 over the crowded courts of the mosque. 
 
 “ Having paused thus for a moment at the 
 door, Mahomet, supported as before, walked 
 softly to the front, where Abu Bakr stood. 
 The people made way for him, opening their 
 ranks as he advanced. Abu Bakr heard the 
 rustle (for he never when at prayer turned 
 himself or looked to the right hand or the 
 j left), and, apprehending the cause which 
 alone at that time could create so great sen¬ 
 sation, stepped backwards to join the con¬ 
 gregation and vacate the place of leader for 
 the Prophet. But Mahomet motioned him to 
 resume the post, and taking his hand, moved 
 forward to the pulpit. There he sat on the 
 ground by the side of Abu Bakr, who re¬ 
 sumed the service, and finished it in custo¬ 
 mary form. 
 
 “ When the prayers were ended, Abu Bakr 
 entered into conversation with Mahomet. He 
 rejoiced to find him to all appearance con¬ 
 valescent. ‘ 0 Prophet,’ he said, ‘ I perceive 
 that, by the grace of God, thou art better to¬ 
 day, even as we desire to see thee. Now this 
 day is the turn of my wife, the daughter of 
 Kharija; shall I go and visit her?’ Maho¬ 
 met gave him permission. So he departed 
 to her house at A1 Sunk, a suburb of the 
 upper city. 
 
 “ Mahomet then sat himself down for a 
 little while in the court-yard of the mosque, 
 near the door of Ayesha’s apartment, and 
 addressed the people, who, overjoyed to find 
 him again in their midst, crowded round. He 
 spoke with emotion, and with a voice still so 
 powerful as to reach beyond the outer doors 
 of the mosque. ‘ By the Lord,’ he said, ‘ as 
 for myself, verily, no man can lay hold of me 
 in any matter; I have not made lawful 
 anything excepting what God hath made 
 lawful; nor have I prohibited aught but that 
 which God in His book hath prohibited.’ 
 Osama was there ; when he came to bid fare¬ 
 well (before starting on an expedition against 
 the Roman 'border), Mahomet said to him, 
 
 ‘ Go forward with the army; and the blessing 
 of the Lord be with thee! ’ Then turning to 
 the women who sat close by, ‘ 0 Fatima ! ’ he 
 exclaimed, ‘ my daughter, and Safia, my 
 aunt! Work ye both that which shall pro¬ 
 cure yoir acceptance with the Lord ; for verily 
 I have no power with him to save you in 
 anywise. Having said this, he arose and re¬ 
 entered the room of Ayesha. 
 
 “Mahomet, exhausted by the exertion he 
 had undergone, lay down upon his bed ; and 
 Ayesha, seeing him to be very weak, raised 
 his head from the pillow, and laid it tenderly 
 upon her bosom. At that moment one of her 
 relatives entered with a green tooth-pick in 
 his hand. Ayesha observed that the eye of 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 385 
 
 Mahomet rested on it, and, knowing it to be 
 snch as he liked, asked whether he wished 
 to have it. He signified assent. Chewing it 
 a little to make it soft and pliable, she placed 
 it in his hand. This pleased him; for he 
 took up the tooth-pick and used it, rubbing 
 his teeth with his ordinary vigour; then he 
 put it down. 
 
 “ His strength now rapidly sank. He 
 seemed to be aware that death was drawing 
 near. He called for a pitcher of water, and, 
 wetting his face, prayed thus : ‘0 Lord, I be¬ 
 seech thee to assist me in the agonies of 
 death ! ’ Then three times he ejaculated 
 earnestly, ‘ Gabriel, come close unto me! ’ 
 
 “ At this time he began to blow upon 
 himself, perhaps in the half-consciousness of 
 delirium, repeating the while an ejaculatory 
 form which he had been in the habit of pray¬ 
 ing over persons who were very sick. When 
 he ceased, from weakness, Ayesha took up 
 the task, and continued to blow upon him 
 and recite the same prayer. Then, seeing 
 that he was very low, she seized his right 
 hand and rubbed it (another practice of the 
 Prophet when visiting the sick), repeating all 
 the while the earnest invocation. But Maho¬ 
 met was too far gone to bear even this. He 
 now wished to be in perfect quiet: ‘ Take off 
 thy hand from me,’ he said, ‘that cannot 
 benefit me now.’ After a little he prayed in 
 a whisper, ‘ Lord grant me pardon; and join 
 me to the companionship on high 1 ’ Then at 
 intervals : ‘ Eternity in Paradise ! ’ ‘ Pardon! ’ 
 ‘Yes; the blessed companionship on high!’ 
 He stretched himself gently. Then all was 
 still. His head grew heavy on the breast of 
 Ayesha. The Prophet of Arabia was dead. 
 
 “ Softly removing his head from her bosom, 
 Ayesha placed it on the pillow, and rising up 
 joined the other women, who were beating 
 their faces in bitter lamentation. 
 
 “ The sun had but shortly passed the meri¬ 
 dian.- It was only an hour or two since Ma¬ 
 homet had entered the mosque cheerful, and 
 seemingly convalescent. He now lay cold in 
 death.” 
 
 As soon as the intelligence of the Prophet’s 
 death was published a crowd of people as¬ 
 sembled at the door of the house of ‘Ayishah, 
 exclaiming, “ How can our Apostle be dead ; 
 he who was to be our witness in the Day of 
 Judgment?” “No,” said‘Umar, “he is not 
 dead ; he has gone to visit his Lord as the 
 Prophet Moses did, when, after an absence of 
 forty days, he reappeared to his people. Our 
 Prophet will be restored to us, and those are 
 traitors to the cause of Islam who say he is 
 dead. If they say so, let them be cut in 
 pieces.” But Abu Baler entered the house at 
 this juncture, and after viewing the body of 
 the Prophet with touching demonstrations of 
 affection, he appeared at the door and 
 addressed the crowd thus: “ 0 Muslims, if 
 ye adore Muhammad, know that Muhammad 
 is dead. If ye adore God, God is alive, and 
 cannot die. Do ye forget the verse in the 
 Qur’an: 1 Muhammad is no more than an 
 apostle. Other apostles have already passed 
 before him ? ’ (see Surah iii. 138), and also 
 
 the other verse, ‘ Thou shalt surely die, 0 
 Muhammad, and they also shall die ? ' ” (see 
 Surah xxxix. 31). ‘Umar acknowledged his 
 error, and the crowd was satisfied and dis¬ 
 persed. 
 
 Al-‘Abbas presided at the preparations for 
 the burial, and the body was duly washed 
 and perfumed. There was some dispute 
 between the Quraish and the Ansar as to 
 the place of burial; but Abu Bakr silenced 
 them, affirming that he had heard Muham¬ 
 mad say that a prophet should be buried on 
 the spot where he died. A grave was accord¬ 
 ingly dug in the ground within the house of 
 ‘Ayishah, and under the bed on which the 
 Prophet died. This spot is now known as 
 the Hujrah, or chamber, at al-Madmah. The 
 last rites were performed by ‘All and the 
 two sons of al-‘Abbas. [hujrah.] 
 
 The foregoing account of Muhammad's 
 death is that of Sunni traditionists. The 
 Shi‘ahs deny almost every word of it, and give 
 the following as an authentic narrative of the 
 Prophet’s death. The manifest object being 
 to establish the claim of ‘All to be Muham¬ 
 mad’s successor. It is translated from the 
 Shi‘ah book entitled the Hciyatu ’l-Qulub (see 
 Merrick’s translation, p. 368) :— 
 
 “ The Projihet returned to his house, and 
 in the space of three days his sickness be¬ 
 came severe. He then tied a bandage on his 
 head, and leaning on the Commander of the 
 Faithful (i.e. ‘All) and Fazl-ibn-Abbas, went 
 to the mesjed and ascended the mimber (or 
 pulpit), and, sitting down, addressed the 
 people thus : ‘ The time is near when I shall 
 be concealed from you. Whoever has any 
 claim on me, let him now declare it. Verily, 
 none can claim favour at the hand of God 
 but by obeying Him, and none can expect to be 
 safe without good works, or to enjoy the favour 
 of God without obedience. Nothing but good 
 works will deliver from divine wrath, and 
 verily, if I should sin, I should go to hell. 
 0 Lord, I have delivered thy message.’ He 
 then came down from the mimber and per¬ 
 formed short prayers with the people, and 
 returned to the house of Ummsalmah, where 
 he remained one or two days. That cursed 
 woman Auyeshah, having satisfied his other 
 wives on the subject, came to the Prophet, 
 and induced him by entreaties to go to her 
 house, where his sickness became very op¬ 
 pressive. At the hour for morning prayers 
 Bilal shouted the azan, but the Prophet, near 
 his departure to the holy world, heard it not. 
 Auyeshah then sent to her father, Abubekr, 
 to go to the mesjed, and lead the devotions of 
 the people, and Hafsah sent the same mes¬ 
 sage to Omar. As these two women were 
 conversing about the matter before the Pro¬ 
 phet, not seeming to suppose that he under¬ 
 stood them, he interrupted them, saying, 
 ‘ Quit such talk ; you are like the women that 
 tried to lead Yusuf astray.’ Finding that, 
 contrary to his orders, Abubekr and Omar 
 were in the city with seditious designs, he 
 was very sorrowful; and oppressed as he was 
 with a severe disease, he rose, and leaning on 
 Aly and Fazl-bin-Abbas, with extreme dif- 
 
 49 
 
386 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 Acuity went to the mesjed, lest Abubekr oi’ 
 Omar should perform prayers, and the people 
 doubt who should be his successor. On ar¬ 
 riving at the mesjed, he found that the cursed 
 Abubekr had occupied the place of the leader 
 of prayers, and already begun the devotions 
 with the people. The Prophet, with his 
 blessed hand, signed to Abubekr to remove, 
 and he took his place, and from weakness sat 
 down to perform prayers, which he began anew, 
 regardless of Abubekr’s commencement. 
 
 “ On returning to his house Muhammad 
 summoned Abubekr, Omar, and some others, | 
 and demanded if he had not ordered them 
 to depart with the army of Asameh. They 
 replied that he had. Abubekr said that he 
 had gone and returned again; and Omar said 
 that he did not go, for he did not wish to hear 
 of the Prophet’s sickness from another. Mu¬ 
 hammad then told them to go with the army 
 of Asamah, and three times pronounced a 
 curse on any who should disobey. His 
 exertions produced such exhaustion that he 
 swooned, on which the Musalmans present 
 and his wives and children wept and lamented 
 aloud. At length the Prophet opened his 
 blessed eyes, and said, ‘ Bring me an inkstand 
 and a sheep’s shoulder-blade, that I may 
 write a direction which will prevent your 
 going astray.’ One of the Companions of the 
 Prophet rose to bring what he had ordered, 
 but Omar said, ‘ Come back, he speaks deli¬ 
 riously ; disease has overcome him, and the 
 book of God is sufficient for us.’ It is, how¬ 
 ever, a disputed matter whether Omar said 
 this. However, they said to the Prophet, 
 
 1 Shall we bring what you ordered.’ He re¬ 
 plied, ‘ After what I have heard from you I 
 do not need them, but I give you a dying 
 charge to treat my family well, and not turn 
 from them. [The compiler observes that this 
 tradition about the inkstand and shoulder- 
 blade is mentioned in several Sunni books.] 
 
 “ During the last sickness of the Prophet, 
 while he was lying with his head in Aly’s lap, 
 and Abbas was standing before him and 
 brushing away the flies with his cloak, he 
 opened his eyes and asked Abbas to become 
 his executor, pay his debts, and support his 
 family. Abbas said he was an old man with 
 a large family, and could not do it. Muham¬ 
 mad then proferred the same to Aly, who was 
 so much affected that he could not command 
 utterance for some time, but as soon as he could 
 speak, promised with the greatest devotion to 
 perform the Prophet’s request. Muhammad, 
 after being raised into a sitting posture, in 
 which he was supported by Aly, ordered Bilal 
 to bring his helmet, called Zool-jabetn (Zu ’/- 
 jabin ) ; his coat of mail, Zatul-Fazool (Zatu 7- 
 Fuzul.) ; his banner, Akab ; his sword, Zool- 
 fakar (Zu 'l-fiqar) ; his turbans, Sahdb and 
 Tahmeecih ; his two party-coloured garments, 
 his little staff, and his walking cane, Marn- 
 shook. In relating the story, Abbas remarked 
 that he had never before seen the party- 
 coloured scarf, which was so lustrous as 
 nearly to blind the eyes. The Prophet now 
 addressed Aly, saying, ‘ Jibraeel brought me 
 this article and told me to put it into the 
 
 rings of my mail, and bind it on me for a 
 girdle.' He then called for his two pairs of 
 Arab shoes, one pair of which had been 
 patched. Next he ordered the shirt he wore 
 on the night of the Maraj, or ascent to hea¬ 
 ven, and the shirt he wore at the battle of 
 Ohod. He then called for his three caps, one 
 of which he wore in journeying, another on 
 festivals, and the third when sitting among 
 his Companions. He then told Bilal to bring 
 his two mules, Shahba and Duldul, his two 
 she-camels, Ghazba and Sahba, and his two 
 horses, Jinah and Khyrdam. 
 
 “.Tinah was kept at the door of the mesjed 
 for the use of a messenger, and Khyrdam was 
 mounted by the Prophet at the battle of 
 Ohod, ■where Jibraeel cried, ‘ Advance, Khyr¬ 
 dam.’ Last, he called for his ass Yafoor. 
 Muhammad now directed Abbas to take Aly’s 
 place, and support his back. Pie then said, 
 
 1 Rise, O Aly, and take these my property, 
 while I yet live, that no one may quarrel 
 with you about them after I am gone.’ 
 
 “ When I rose,’ said Aly, ‘ my feet were so 
 cramped that it was with the utmost dif¬ 
 ficulty that I could move. Having taken the 
 articles and animals to mj’’ house, I returned 
 and stood before the Prophet, who on seeing 
 me took his ring from his right hand, point¬ 
 ing the way of truth, and put it on my right 
 hand, the house being full of the Benu Hashim 
 and other Musulmans, and while from weak¬ 
 ness his head nodded to the right and left, he 
 cried aloud, ‘ 0 company of Musulmans, Aly 
 is my brother, my successor, and Khaleefah 
 among my people and sect, he will pay my 
 debts and cancel my engagements. 0 ye sons 
 of Hashim and Abdul-mutalib, and ye other 
 Musulmans, be not hostile to Aly, and do not 
 oppose him, lest ye be led astray, and do not 
 envy him, nor incline from him to another, 
 lest ye become infidels. He then ordered 
 Abbas to give his place to Aly. Abbas re¬ 
 plied, ‘ Do you remove an old man to seat a 
 child in his place ? ’ The Prophet repeated 
 the order; and the third time Abbas rose in 
 anger, and Aly took his place. Muhammad, 
 finding his uncle angry, said to him, 1 Do 
 nothing to cause me to leave the world 
 offended with you, and my wrath send you to 
 liell.’ On hearing this, Abbas went back to 
 his place, and Muhammad directed Aly to lay 
 him down. 
 
 “ The Prophet said to Bilal, 1 Bring my two 
 sons Hasan and Husain.’ When they were 
 presented he pressed them to his bosom, 
 smelt and kissed those two flowers of the 
 garden of prophecy. Aly, fearing they would 
 trouble the Prophet, w r as about to take them 
 away ; but he said, ‘ Let them be, that I may 
 smell them, and they smell me, and we pre¬ 
 pare to meet each other ; for after I am gone 
 great calamities will befall them, but may 
 God curse those that cause them to fear and 
 do them injustice. 0 Lord, I commit them to 
 Thee and to the worthy of the Faithful, 
 namely, Aly-bin-Abutalib. The Prophet then 
 dismissed the people and they went away, but 
 Abbas and his son Fazl, and Aly-bin-Abu¬ 
 talib; and those belonging to the house- 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 hold of the Prophet, remained. Abbas then 
 said to the Prophet, 1 If the Khalafat fKlii- 
 lafah) is established among us, the Benu 
 Hashim, assure us of it, that we may rejoice ; 
 but if you foresee that they will treat us un¬ 
 justly and deprive us of the Khalafat, com¬ 
 mit us to your Companions.’ Muhammad 
 replied, ‘ After I am gone they will weaken 
 and overcome you,’ at which declaration all 
 the family wept, and, moreover, despaired of 
 the Prophet’s life. 
 
 “ Aly continued to attend Muhammad night 
 and day, never leaving him except from the 
 most imperative necessity. On one of these 
 occasions, when Aly was absent, the Prophet 
 said, ‘ Call my friend and brother.’ Auyeshah 
 and Hafsah sent for their fathers, Abubekr 
 and Omar, but he turned from them and 
 covered his face, on which they remarked, 
 
 ‘ He does not want us, he wants Aly,’ whom 
 Fatimah called ; and Muhammad pressed him 
 to his bosom, and they mingled their perspi¬ 
 ration together, and the Prophet communi¬ 
 cated to him a thousand chapters of know¬ 
 ledge, each opening to a thousand more. One 
 tradition declares that Muhammad kept Aly 
 in his bed till his pure spirit left his body, 
 his arm meanwhile embracing Aly.” 
 
 [In compiling this account of the life of 
 Muhammad, we must express our deep obli¬ 
 gations to Sir William Muir’s Life of Mahomet 
 (1st ed., 4 vols. ; 2nd ed., 1 vol. ; Smith, Elder 
 and Co., London). In many cases we have 
 given the ipsissima. verba of his narrative, 
 with his kind permission. The chief litera¬ 
 ture on the subject, in addition to Sir William 
 Muir’s work, is : Das Leben und die Lehre des 
 Mo/iammad, A. Sprenger, Berlin, 1869; Speci¬ 
 men Historic Arabum, E. Pocock, Oxon. 1650; 
 Ismael Abulfeda, De Vita et Rebus gestis Mo- 
 harnedis, J. Gagnier, Oxon. 1723; Life of 
 Mahomet, Washington Irving, London, 1850 : 
 Life of Mahomed from Original Sources, A. 
 Sprenger, Allahabad, 1851 ‘. Essays on the 
 Life of Muhammad, Syud Ahmad Khan, 
 C.S.I., London; A Critical Examination 
 of the Life and Teachings of Muhammad, 
 Syud Ameer Ali Moulla, LL.D., London, 1873; 
 Islam and its Founder, S.P.O.K., 1878; Ma¬ 
 homet et le Coran, T. Barthelemy de St. Hilaire, 
 1865; Ihe True Nature of the Imposture 
 Fully Explained, H. Prideaux, London, 1718 ; 
 the first three volumes of the modern part of 
 An Universal History, London, 1770 (spe¬ 
 cially recommended by Dr. Badger) ; Tareek- 
 i-Tabari, Zotenberg ; Das Leben Mohammed's 
 nach Ibn Ishak, bearbeitet von I bn Hischam, G. 
 Weil, 2 vols., 1864. The earliest biographers 
 whose works are extant in Arabic, are Ibn 
 Ishaq (A.h. 151), Ibn Hisham (a.h. 218), al- 
 Waqidi (a.h. 207), at-Tabari (a.h. 310).] 
 Muhammad is referred to by name in four 
 places in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah iii. 138: “ Muhammad is but an 
 apostle: apostles have passed away before 
 his time ; what if he die, or is killed, will ye 
 retreat upon your heels ? ” 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 40 : “ Muhammad is not the 
 father of any of your men, but the Apostle of 
 God, and the Seal of the Prophets.” 
 
 387 
 
 Surah xlvii. 2: “ Those who believe and 
 ! do right and believe in what is revealed to 
 Muhammad,—and it is the truth from their 
 Lord,—He will cover for them their offences 
 and set right their mind.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 29: “Muhammad is the 
 Apostle of God.” 
 
 He is said to have been foretold by Jesus 
 under the name of Ahmad. Surah Ixi. 6: 
 “ Giving you glad tidings of an Apostle who 
 shall come after me whose name shall be 
 Ahmad.” [ahmad.] 
 
 According to a tradition of Ibn ‘Abbas, the 
 Prophet said: “ My name in the Qur’an is 
 Muhammad, and in the Injil Ahmad, and in 
 the Taurat Ahyad (from the root a-e., “ to 
 shun ”), and I am called Ahyad because I 
 shun hell-fire more than any of my people.” 
 ( An-Nawaioi , Wiistenfeld’s edition, p. 28.) 
 
 MUHAMMAD, The Character of. 
 
 (1) Sir William Muir {Life of Mahomet, new 
 ed. p. 537 et seqq.), has carefully collated 
 from the traditions embodied by the secre¬ 
 tary of al-Waqidi. an account of the person 
 and character of Muhammad. “ This account,” 
 as Sir William Muir remarks, “ illustates ge¬ 
 nerally the style and contents of the Muslim 
 biographies of their Prophet.” 
 
 “ When Ayesha was questioned about Ma¬ 
 homet she used to say : ‘ He was a man just 
 such as yourselves; he laughed often and 
 smiled much.’ ‘ But how would he occupy 
 himself at home ? ’ 1 Even as any of you 
 occupy yourselves. He would mend his 
 clothes, and cobble his shoes. He used to 
 help me in my household duties; but what 
 he did oftenest was to sew. If he had the 
 choice between two matters, he would choose 
 the easiest, so as that no sin accrued there¬ 
 from. He never took revenge excepting 
 where the honour of God was concerned. 
 When angry with any person, he would say, 
 “ What hath taken such a one that he shouid 
 soil his forehead in the mud ! ” ’ 
 
 “ His humility was shown by his riding 
 upon asses, by his accepting the invitation 
 even of slaves, and when mounted, by his 
 taking another behind him. He would say 
 ‘ I sit at meals as a servant doeth, and I eat 
 like a servant: for I really am a servant ’; 
 and he would sit as one that was always 
 ready to rise. He discouraged (supereroga¬ 
 tory) fasting, and works of mortification. 
 When seated with his followers, he would 
 remain long silent at a time. In the mosque 
 at Medina they used to repeat pieces of 
 poetry, and tell stories regarding the incidents 
 that occurred in the ‘ days of ignorance,’ and 
 laugh ; and Mahomet listening to them, would 
 smile at what they said. 
 
 “ Mahomet hated nothing more than lying; 
 and whenever he knew that any of his fol¬ 
 lowers had erred in this respect, he would 
 hold himself aloof from them until he w^as 
 assured of their repentance. 
 
 “ His Speech. 
 
 “ He did not speak rapidly, running his 
 words into one another, but enunciated each 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 388 MUHAMMAD 
 
 syllable distinctly, so that, what he said was 
 imprinted in the memory of every one who 
 heard him. When at public prayers, it might 
 be known from a distance that he was read¬ 
 ing by the motion of his beard. He never 
 read in a singing or chanting style; but he 
 would draw out his voice, resting at certain 
 places. Thus, in the prefatory words of a 
 Sura, he would pause after bismiU&hi, after 
 al Rahman, and again after al Rahim. 
 
 “ Gait. 
 
 “ He used to walk so rapidly that the 
 people half ran behind him, and could hardly 
 keep up with him. 
 
 “ Habits in Eating. 
 
 “ He never ate reclining, for Gabriel had 
 told him that such was the manner of kings; 
 nor had he ever two men to walk behind 
 him. He used to eat with his thumb and his 
 two forefingers; and when he had done, he 
 would lick them, beginning with the middle 
 one. When offered by Gabriel the valley of 
 Mecca full of gold, he preferred to forego it; 
 saying that when he was hungry he would 
 come before the Lord lowly, and when full, 
 with praise. 
 
 “ Moderation. 
 
 “ A servant-maid being once long in return¬ 
 ing from an errand, Mahomet was annoyed, 
 and said ; ‘ If it were not for the law of re¬ 
 taliation, I should have punished you with 
 this tooth-pick ’ (i.e. with an inappreciably 
 light punishment). 
 
 “ Customs at Prayer. 
 
 “ He used to stand for such a length of 
 time at prayer that his legs would swell. 
 When remonstrated with, he said : ‘ What! 
 shall I not behave as a thankful servant 
 should ? ’ He never yawned at prayer. When 
 he sneezed, he did so with a subdued voice, 
 covering his face. At fimerals he never rode : 
 he would remain silent on such occasions, as 
 if conversing with himself, so that the people 
 used to think he was holding communication 
 with the dead. 
 
 “ Refusal to make Personal Use of Tithes. 
 
 “ While he accepted presents he refused to 
 use anything that had been offered as alms ; 
 neither would he allow anyone in his family 
 to use what had been brought as alms ; ‘ For,’ 
 said he, ‘ alms are the impurity of mankind ’ 
 (i.e. that which cleanses their impurity). His 
 scruples on this point were so strong that he 
 would not eat even a date picked up on the 
 road, lest perchance it might have dropped 
 from a tithe load. 
 
 “ Food Relished. 
 
 “ Mahomet had a special liking for sweet¬ 
 meats and honey. He was also fond of 
 cucumbers and of undried dates. When a 
 lamb or a kid was being cooked, Mahomet 
 would go to the pot, take out the shoulder, 
 and eat it. He used to eat moist dates and 
 
 cooked food together. What he most relished 
 was a mess of bread cooked with meat, and a 
 dish of dates dressed with butter and milk. 
 
 “ Mahomet used to have sweet (rain) water 
 kept for his use. 
 
 “ Women and Scents. 
 
 “A great array of traditions are produced 
 to prove that the Prophet was fond of women 
 and scents, and liked these of all things in the 
 world the best. Ayesha used to say: ‘ The 
 Prophet loved three things—women, scents, 
 and food; he had his heart’s desire of the 
 two first, but not of the last.’ 
 
 “ Straitened means at Medina. 
 
 “ Ayesha tells us that for months together 
 Mahomet did not get a full meal. ‘ Months 
 used to pass,’ she says again,‘ and no fire 
 would be lighted in Mahomet’s house, either 
 for baking bread or cooking meat.’ ‘ How, 
 then, did ye live ? ’ ‘By the “ two black 
 things ” (dates and water), and by what the 
 citizens used to send unto us; the Lord re¬ 
 quite them! Such of them as had milch 
 cattle would send us a little milk. The Pro- 
 j>het never enjoyed the luxury of two kinds 
 of food the same day; if he had flesh there 
 was nothing else ; and so if he had dates; so 
 likewise if he had bread.’ 
 
 “ 1 We possessed no sieves, but used to 
 bruise the grain and blow off the husks.’ 
 
 “ Appearance, Habits, life. 
 
 “ He used to wear two garments. His izar 
 (under-garment) hung down three or four 
 inches below his knees. His mantle was not 
 wrapped round him so as to cover his body, 
 but he would draw the end of it under his 
 shoulder. 
 
 “ He used to divide his time into three 
 parts: one was given to God, the second 
 allotted to his family, the third to himself. 
 When public business began to press upon 
 him, he gave up one half of the latter portion 
 to the service of others. 
 
 “ When he pointed he did so with his whole 
 hand ; and when he was astonished he turned 
 his hand over (with the palm upwards). In 
 speaking with another, he brought his hand 
 near to the person addressed ; and he would 
 strike the palm of the left in the thumb of 
 the right hand. Angry, he would avert his 
 face ; joyful, he would look downwards. He 
 often smiled, and, when he laughed, his teeth 
 used to appear white as hailstones. 
 
 “ In the interval allotted to others, he re¬ 
 ceived all that came to him, listened to their 
 representations, and occupied himself in dis¬ 
 posing of their business and in hearing what 
 they had to tell him. He would say on such 
 occasions : ‘ Let those that are here give in¬ 
 formation regarding that which passeth to 
 them that are absent; and they that cannot 
 themselves appear to make known their 
 necessities, let others report them to me in 
 their stead; the Lord will establish the feet 
 of such in the Day of Judgment.’ 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 “ Seal of Prophecy. 
 
 “ This, says one, was a protuberance on the 
 Prophet’s back of the size and appearance of 
 a pigeon’s egg. It is said to have been the 
 divine seal which, according to the predictions 
 of the Scriptures, marked Mahomet as the 
 last of the Prophets. How far Mahomet 
 himself encouraged this idea it is impos¬ 
 sible to say. From the traditions it would 
 seem to have been nothing more than a mole 
 of unusual size ; and the saying of Mahomet, 
 that ‘ God had placed it there,’ was probably 
 the germ of supernatural associations which 
 grew up concerning it. 
 
 '•'•Hair. 
 
 “ His hair used to be combed; it was 
 neither curling nor smooth. He had, says 
 one, four curled locks. His hair was ordi¬ 
 narily parted, but he did not care if it was 
 not so. According to another tradition, ‘ The 
 Jews and Christians used to let their hair fall 
 down, while the heathen parted it. Now 
 Mahomet loved to follow the people of the 
 Book in matters concerning which he had no 
 express command. So he used to let down 
 his hair without parting it. Subsequently, 
 however, he fell into the habit of parting 
 it.’ 
 
 “ Moustache. 
 
 “ Mahomet used to clip his moustache. A 
 Magian once came to him and said: ‘You 
 ought to clip your beard and allow your 
 moustaches to grow.’ ‘ Nay,’ said the Pro¬ 
 phet, ‘ for my Lord hath commanded me to 
 clip the moustaches and allow the beard to 
 grow.’ 
 
 “ Dress. 
 
 “ Various traditions are quoted on the dif¬ 
 ferent colours he used to wear—white chiefly, 
 but also red, yellow, and green. He some¬ 
 times put on woollen clothes. Ayesha, it is 
 said, exhibited a piece of woollen stuff in 
 which she swore that Mahomet died. She 
 adds that he once had a black woollen 
 dress; and she still remembered, as she 
 spoke, the contrast between the Prophet’s 
 fair skin and the black cloth. ‘ The odour of 
 it, however, becoming unpleasant, he cast it 
 off, for he loved sweet odours.’ 
 
 “ He entered Mecca on the taking of the 
 city (some say) with a black turban. He 
 had also a black standard. The end of his 
 turban used to hang down between his shoul¬ 
 ders. He once received the present of a 
 scarf for a turban, which had a figured or 
 spotted fringe ; and this he cut oft' before 
 wearing it. He was very fond of striped 
 Yemen stuffs. He used to wrap his turban 
 many times round his head, and ‘ the lower 
 edge of it used to appear like the soiled 
 clothes of an oil-dealer.’ 
 
 “ He once prayed in a silken dress, and 
 then cast it aside with abhorrence, saying: 
 ‘ Such stuff it doth not become the pious to 
 wear.’ On another occasion, as he prayed in 
 a figured or spotted mantle, the spots at¬ 
 tracted his notice ; when he had ended, he 
 
 MUHAMMAD 389 
 
 said: ‘Takeaway that mantle, for verily it 
 hath distracted me in my prayers, and bring 
 me a common one.’ His sleeve ended at the 
 wrist. The robes in which he was in the 
 habit of receiving embassies, and his fine 
 Hadhramaut mantle, remained with the Ca¬ 
 liphs ; when worn or rent, these garments 
 were mended with fresh cloth; and in after 
 times, the Caliphs used to wear them at the 
 festivals. When he put on new clothes 
 (either an under-garment, a girdle, or a tur¬ 
 ban), the Prophet would offer up a qirayer 
 such as this : ‘ Praise be to the Lord who 
 hath clothed me with that which shall hide 
 my nakedness and adorn me while I live. I 
 pray Thee for the good that is in this, and 
 the good that hath been made for it; and I 
 seek refuge from the evil that is in the same, 
 and from the evil that hath been made for it.’ 
 
 “ Shoes. 
 
 “His servant, Anas, had charge of his 
 shoes and of his water-pot. After his master’s 
 death, Anas used to show his shoes. They 
 were after the Hadhramaut pattern, with 
 two thongs. In the year 100 or 110 a.h., one 
 went to buy shoes at Mecca, and tells us that 
 the shoemaker offered to make them exactly 
 after the model of Mahomet’s, which he said 
 he had seen in the possession of Fatima, 
 granddaughter of Abbas. His shoes used to 
 be cobbled. He was in the habit of praying 
 with his shoes on. On one occasion, having 
 taken them off at prayers, all the people did 
 likewise, but Mahomet told them there was 
 no necessity, for he had merely taken off 
 his own because Gabriel had apprised him 
 that there was some dirty substance attach¬ 
 ing to them (cleanliness being required in all 
 the surroundings at prayer). The thongs of 
 his shoes once broke, and they mended them 
 for him by adding a new piece; after the ser¬ 
 vice, Mahomet desired his shoes to be taken 
 away and the thongs restored as they were ; 
 ‘ For,’ said he, 'I was distracted at prayer 
 thereby.’ 
 
 “ Tooth-picks. 
 
 “ Ayesha tells us that Mahomet never lay 
 down, by night or by day, but on waking he 
 applied the tooth-pick to his teeth before he 
 performed ablution. He used it so much as 
 to wear away his gums. The tooth-pick was 
 always placed conveniently for him at night, 
 so that, when he got uq> in the night to pray, 
 he might use it before his lustrations. One 
 says that he saw him with the toothpick in 
 his mouth, and that he kept saying aa, aa, 
 as if about to vomit. His tooth-picks were 
 made of the green wood of the palm-tree. 
 He never travelled without one. 
 
 “ Articles of Toilet. 
 
 “ He very frequently oiled his hair, poured 
 water on his beard, and applied antimony to 
 his eyes. 
 
 “ Armour. 
 
 “ Four sections are devoted to the descrip¬ 
 tion of Mahomet's armour,—his swords, coats 
 of mail, shields, lances, and bows. 
 
390 
 
 MOHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 “ Miscellaneous. 
 
 “ The Prophet used to snuff simsim (sesa- 
 mum), and wash his hands in a decoction of 
 the wild plum-tree. When he was afraid of 
 forgetting anything, he would tie a thread on 
 his finger or his ring. 
 
 “ Horses. 
 
 “ The first horse which Mahomet ever 
 possessed was one he purchased of the Bani 
 Fazara, for ten owekeas (ounces of silver) ; 
 and he called its name sakb (running water), 
 from the easiness of its paces. Mahomet was 
 mounted on it at the battle of Ohod, when 
 there was but one other horse from Medina 
 on the field. He had also a horse called 
 Sabaha (Shamjah ?) ; he raced it and it won, 
 and he was greatly rejoiced thereat. He had 
 a third horse, named Murtajis (neigher). 
 
 “ Riding Camels. 
 
 •• Besides A1 Gaswa (al-Qaswa), Mahomet 
 had a camel called Adhba (al-‘Azba), which 
 in speed outstripped all others. Yet one 
 day an Arab passed it when at its fleetest 
 pace. The Moslems were chagrined at this ; 
 but Mahomet reproved them, saying, 1 It is 
 the property of the Lord, that whensoever men 
 exalt anything, or seek to exalt it, then the 
 Lord putteth down the same. 
 
 “ Milch Camels. 
 
 “ Mahomet had twenty milch camels, the 
 same that were plundered at A1 Ghaba. Their 
 milk was for the support of his family : every 
 evening they gave two large skinsful. Omm 
 Salmah relates : ‘ Our chief food when we 
 lived with Mahomet was milk. The camels 
 used to be brought from A1 Ghaba every 
 evening. I had one called Aris, and Ayesha 
 one called A1 Samra. The herdman fed them 
 at A1 Juania, and brought them to our homes 
 in the evening. There was also one for Ma¬ 
 homet. 
 
 “ Milch Flocks. 
 
 “ Mahomet had seven goats which Omm 
 Ayman used to tend (this probably refers to 
 an early period of his residence at Medina). 
 His flocks grazed at Ohod and Himna alter¬ 
 nately, and were brought back to the house 
 of that wife whose turn it was for Mahomet 
 to be in her abode. A favourite goat having 
 died, the Prophet desired its skin to be 
 tanned. 
 
 “ Mahomet attached a peculiar blessing to 
 the possession of goats. ‘ There is no house,’ 
 he would say, ‘ possessing a goat, but a bles¬ 
 sing abideth thereon; and there is no house 
 possessing three goats, but the angels pass 
 the night there praying for its inmates until 
 the morning.’ 
 
 “ Servants. 
 
 “ Fourteen or fifteen persons are mentioned 
 who served the Prophet at various times. 
 His slaves he always freed. 
 
 “ Houses. 
 
 •* Abdallah ibn Yazid relates that he saw 
 the houses in which the wives of the Prophet 
 
 I dwelt, at the time when Omar ibn A1 Aziz, 
 | Governor of Medina (about a.h. 100) demo¬ 
 lished them. They were built of unburnt 
 1 bricks, and had separate apartments made of 
 i palm-branches, daubed (or built-up) with 
 j mud; he counted nine houses, each having 
 separate apartments, in the space extending 
 from the house of Ayesha and the gate of 
 Mahomet to the house of Asma, daughter of 
 Hosein. Observing the dwelling-place of 
 Omm Salma, he questioned her grandson con¬ 
 cerning it, and he told him that when the 
 Prophet was absent on the expedition to 
 Duma, Omm Salma built up an addition to 
 her house with a wall of unburnt bricks. 
 When Mahomet returned, he went in to 
 her, and asked what new building this 
 was. She replied, ' I purposed, 0 Prophet, 
 to shut out the glances of men thereby! ’ 
 Mahomet answered : ‘ 0 Omm Salma ! verily, 
 the most unprofitable thing that eateth 
 up the wealth of the Believer is building.’ 
 A citizen of Medina present at the time, con- 
 | firmed this account, and added that the cur- 
 | tains of the door were of black hair-cloth, 
 j He was present, he said, when the despatch 
 j of the Caliph Abd al Malik (a.h. 86-88) was 
 ! read aloud, commanding that these houses 
 | should be brought within the area of the 
 | mosque, and he never witnessed sorer weeping 
 { than there was amongst the people that day. 
 
 One exclaimed: ‘ I wish, by the Lord! that 
 j they would leave these houses alone thus 
 | as they are ; then would those that spring up 
 j hereafter in Medina, and strangers from the 
 i ends of the earth, come and see what kind of 
 building sufficed for the Prophet’s own abode, 
 
 ! and the sight thereof would deter men from 
 | extravagance and pride.’ 
 
 “ There were four houses of unburnt bricks, 
 j the apartments being of palm-branches ; and 
 j five houses made of palm-branches built up 
 with mird and without any separate apart- 
 I rnents. Each was three Arabian yards in 
 length. Some say they had leather curtains 
 for the doors. One could reach the roof with 
 the hand. 
 
 “ The house of Haritha (Haris ah) was next 
 to that of Mahomet. Now whenever Maho¬ 
 met took to himself a new wife, he added 
 another house to the row, and Haritha was 
 | obliged successively to remove his house, and 
 | to build on the space beyond. At last this 
 | was repeated so often, that the Prophet said 
 j to those about him : ‘ Verily, it shameth me 
 to turn Haritha over and over again out of 
 his house.’ 
 
 “ Properties. 
 
 “ There were seven gardens which Mukhei- 
 rick the Jew left to Mahomet. Omar ibn Al 
 Aziz, the Caliph, said that, when Governor 
 of Medina, he ate of the fruit of these, and 
 never tasted sweeter dates. Others say that 
 these gardens formed a portion of the con¬ 
 fiscated estates of the Bani Nadliir. They 
 were afterwards dedicated perpetually to 
 pious purposes. 
 
 “ Mahomet had three other properties :— 
 
 I. The confiscated lands of the Bani 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 391 
 
 Nadhir. The produce of these was appro¬ 
 priated to his own wants. One of the plots 
 was called Mashruba Omm Ibrahim, the 
 ‘ summer garden of (Mary) the mother of 
 Ibrahim,’where the Prophet used to visit her. 
 
 “ II. Fadak ; the fruits of this -were reserved 
 as a fund for indigent travellers. 
 
 “ III. The fifth share, and the lands received 
 by capitulation, in Kheibar. This was divided 
 into three parts. Two were devoted for the 
 benefit of the Moslems generally (re. for State 
 purposes) ; the proceeds of the third, Maho¬ 
 met assigned for the support of his own 
 family; and what remained over he added to 
 the fund for the use of the Moslems.’’ (The 
 Life of Mahomet, by William Muir, Esq., 
 London, 18G1, vol. iv., p. 325.) 
 
 (2) Dr. A. Sprenger, Persian translator of 
 the Government of India, and Principal of the 
 Calcutta Madrasah, gives the following valu¬ 
 able review of the character of Muhammad, 
 as regards his assumption of the prophetic 
 office:— 
 
 “ Up to his fortieth j r ear, Mohammad de- 
 voirtly worshipped the gods of his fathers. 
 The predominance of his imaginative powers, 
 and his peculiar position, gave him a turn for 
 religious meditation. He annually spent the 
 month of Ramazan in seclusion in a cave of 
 Mount Hira, where the Qorayshites used to 
 devote themselves to ascetic exercises. In 
 this retreat he passed a certain number of 
 nights in prayers, fasted, fed the poor, and 
 gave himself up to meditation; and on his 
 return to Makkah he walked seven times 
 round the Ka’bah before he went to his own 
 house. 
 
 “ When he was forty years of age, the first 
 doubts concerning idolatry arose in his mind. 
 The true believers ascribe this crisis to a 
 divine revelation, and therefore carefully con¬ 
 ceal the circumstances which may have given 
 the first impulse. It is likely that the eccen¬ 
 tric Zaid, whom he must have met in Mount 
 Hira, first instilled purer notions respecting 
 God into his mind, and induced him to read the 
 Biblical history. To abjure the gods, from 
 whom he had hoped for salvation, caused a 
 great struggle to Mohammad, and he became 
 dejected and fond of solitude. He spent the 
 greater part of his time in Hira, and came only 
 occasionally to Makkah for new provisions. 
 
 “ Undisturbed meditation increased his 
 excitement, and his overstrained brains 
 were, even in sleep, occupied with doubts and 
 speculations. In one of his visions he saw an 
 angel, who said to him, ‘ Read.’ He answered, 
 ‘ I am not reading.’ The angel laid hold of 
 him and squeezed him, until Mohammad suc¬ 
 ceeded in making an effort. Then he released 
 him, and said again, ‘ Read.’ Mohammad 
 answered, ‘ I am not reading.’ This was re¬ 
 peated three times ; and at length the angel 
 said, ‘ Read in the name of thy Lord, the 
 Creator, who has created man of congealed 
 blood ;—read, for thy Lord is most beneficent. 
 It is He who has taught by the pen (has re¬ 
 vealed the Scriptures); it is He who has 
 taught man what he does not know ’ These 
 are the initial words of a Surah of the Quran, 
 
 and the first revelation which Mohammad re¬ 
 ceived. If this dream was as momentous as 
 authentic traditions make it, it must have 
 been the crisis, which caused Mohammad to 
 seek for truth in the books of the Jews and 
 Christians. The words of the angel admit 
 hardly any other sense After much hesita¬ 
 tion he determines to study the tenets of 
 another faith, which was hostile to that of 
 his fathers. His resolve is sanctioned by a 
 vision, and he thanks the Creator, ■whom the 
 Qorayshites always considered the greatest 
 among their gods, for having sent a revela¬ 
 tion to direct man. 
 
 “ It is certain, however, that no Musalman 
 will admit the sense 'which I give to these 
 verses of the Quran ; and Mohammad himself, 
 in the progress of his career, formally denied 
 having read any part of the Scriptures before 
 the Quran had been revealed to him. This, 
 however, can only be true if he meant the 
 first verses oj the Quran, that is to say, those 
 mentioned above ; form the following revela¬ 
 tions he introduces the names of most pro¬ 
 phets, he holds up their history as an ex¬ 
 ample to the Makkians, he borrows expres¬ 
 sions from the Bible which he admired for 
 their sublimity, he betrays his acquaintance 
 •with the gospels by referring to an erro¬ 
 neously translated verse of St. John, for a 
 proof of his mission, and he frequently al¬ 
 ludes to the legends of the Rabbins and 
 Christians. Whence has the Prophet of the 
 Gentiles obtained his knowledge of the 
 Biblical history ? He answers the question 
 himself: It is God who has revealed it to me. 
 This assertion satisfies the believer, and is a 
 hint to the inquirer in tracing the sources of 
 his information. He would hardly have 
 hazarded it had he not obtained his instruc¬ 
 tion under considerable secresy. The spirit 
 of persecution at Makkah, which manifested 
 itself against Zaid, made caution necessary 
 for Mohammad, though originally he may 
 have had no ulterior views,.in making himself 
 acquainted with another faith. Yet with all 
 his precautions, the Qorayshites knew enough 
 of his history to disprove his pretensions. He 
 himself confesses, in a Surah revealed at 
 Makkah (Surah xxv. 5), that they said that the 
 Quran was a tissue of falsehood ; that several 
 people liadussisted him ; and that he preached 
 nothing more than what was contained in the 
 “ Asatyr of the Ancients,” which he used to 
 write, from the dictation of his teachers, 
 morning and evening. Who were the men 
 who instructed Mohammad ? It is not likely 
 that he would have dared to declare before 
 them, that the doctrines which he had re¬ 
 ceived from them had been revealed to him ; 
 nor is it likely that, had they been alive after 
 the new religion had become triumphant, they 
 would have allowed him to take all the credit 
 to himself. Those who exercised an influence 
 upon Mohammad were his disciples; but -we 
 find no instance in which he appeared to buy 
 secresy by submitting to the dictation of 
 others. I am inclined to think, therefore, that 
 his instructors died during his early career; 
 and this supposition enables us to ascertain 
 
392 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 the names of some of them. The few speci¬ 
 mens of the sayings of Zaid, which have been 
 preserved, prove that Mohammad borrowed 
 freely from him, not only his tenets, but even 
 his expressions; and Zaid did not long sur¬ 
 vive Mohammad’s assumption of his office. 
 It is likely that Waraqah, the cousin of Kha- 
 dyjah, who, it would appear, brought about 
 her marriage with Mohammad, who was the 
 first to declare that the Great Law [stamps] 
 would be revaled to him, and who expressed 
 a wish to assist him during the persecutions 
 to which every prophet was subject, was one 
 of his teachers. Waraqah died shortly before 
 the time when he publicly proclaimed his 
 mission. The defence of the Prophet, that 
 the man, of whom his countrymen said that 
 he assisted him in writing the Quran, was a 
 foreigner (Surah xvi. 105), and unable to 
 write so pure Arabic as the language of the 
 Quran was, leads us to suspect that one 
 of his chief authorities for the Biblical legends 
 was ’Addas, a monk of Nineveh, who was 
 settled at Makkah. (See Tafslru ’l-Baizaivi 
 on Surah xxv. 6.) And there can be no 
 doubt that the Rabbins of the Hijaz com¬ 
 municated to Mohammad their legends. The 
 commentators upon the Quran inform us fur¬ 
 ther, that he used to listen to Jabr and Yasar, 
 two sword-manufacturers at Makkah, when 
 they read the scriptures; and Ibn Ishaq says, 
 that he had intercourse with ’Abdal-Rahman, 
 a Christian of Zamamah; but we must never 
 forget that the object of these authorities, in 
 such matters, is not to instruct their readers, 
 but to mislead them. 
 
 “ It is certain, from the context, where the 
 expression occurs, and from the commenta¬ 
 tors on the Quran, that ‘ Asatyr of the 
 Ancients ’ is the name of a book ; but we 
 have very little information as to its origin 
 and contents. (See the Commentaries of al- 
 Baizawi and the Jalaian on Surah xxv.) 
 That dogmas were propounded in it, besides 
 Biblical legends, appears from several pas¬ 
 sages of the Quran, where it is said that it 
 contained the doctrine of the Resurrection. 
 (Surahs xxvii. 70, xlvi. 16.) It is also clear 
 that it was known at Makkah before Moham¬ 
 mad ; for the Qorayshites told him that they 
 and their fathers had been acquainted with it 
 before he taught it, and that all that he 
 taught was contained in it. (Surah lxviii. 15.) 
 Mohammad had, in all likelihood, besides, a 
 version of portions of the scriptures, both of 
 the genuine and some of the apocryphal 
 works ; for he refers his audience to them 
 without reserve. Tabary informs us that 
 when Mohammad first entered on his office, 
 even his wife Khadyjah had read the scrip¬ 
 tures, and was acquainted with the history of 
 the prophets. (See Bal’amy's translation of 
 Tabary in Persian.) 
 
 “ In' spite of three passages of the Quran 
 quoted above, the meaning of which they 
 clumsily pervert, almost all modern Musal- 
 man writers, and many of the old ones, deny 
 that Mohammad knew reading or writing. 
 Good authors, however, particularly among 
 the Shiahs, admit that he knew reading; but 
 
 they say he was not a skilful penman. The 
 only support of the opinion of the former is 
 one passage of the Quran, Surah vii. 156, in 
 which Mohammad says that he was the Pro¬ 
 phet of the Ummis, and an Ummi himself. 
 This word, they say, means illiterate ; but 
 others say it means a man who is not sldlful 
 in writing ; and others suppose it to mean a 
 Makkian or an Arab. It is clear that they 
 merely guess, from the context, at the mean¬ 
 ing of the word. Ummi is derived from 
 ummah, ■ nation ’ (Latin gens, Greek ethnos), 
 and on comparing the passages of the Quran, 
 in which it occurs, it appears that it means 
 gentile (Greek ethnicos). It is said in the 
 Quran, that some Jews are honest, but others 
 think there is no harm in wronging the 
 Ummis. Imam Sadiq observes (Hiyatu ’/- 
 Qulub, vol. ii. chapt er 6, p. 2) on this passage, 
 that the Arabs are meant under Ummis, and 
 that they are called so, though they knew 
 writing, because God had revealed no book to 
 them, and had sent them no prophet. Several 
 instances in which Mohammad did read and 
 write are recorded by Bokhary, Nasay, and 
 others. It is, however, certain that he wished 
 to appear ignorant, in order to raise the ele¬ 
 gance of the composition of the Quran into a 
 miracle. 
 
 * *-***• 
 
 “ According to one record, the doubts, in¬ 
 decision, and preparation of the Prophet for 
 his office lasted seven years; and so sincere 
 and intense were his meditations on matters 
 of religion, that they brought him to the 
 brink of madness. In the Quran we can 
 trace three phases in the progress of the 
 mind of Mohammad from idolatry to the for¬ 
 mation of a new creed. First, the religion of 
 the Kab’ah, in which he sincerely believed, 
 seems to have formed the principal subject of 
 his meditations. The contemplation of nature, 
 probably assisted by instruction, led him to 
 the knowledge of the unity of God; and there 
 is hardly a verse in the Quran which does not 
 shew how forcibly he was struck with this 
 truth. By satisfying the faith of his fathers, 
 he tried to reconcile it with the belief in one 
 God; and for some time he considered the 
 idols round the Ka’bah daughters of God, who 
 intercede with Him for their worshippers. 
 But he gave up this belief, chiefly because he 
 could not reconcile himself to the idea that 
 God should have only daughters, which was 
 ignominious in the eyes of an Arab ; and that 
 men should have sons, who reflect honour on 
 a family. He also connected the idolatrous 
 worship of the black stone, and the ceremo¬ 
 nies of the Hajj, and almost all the other 
 pagan usages of the Haramites, with their 
 Abraham. This idea was not his own. The 
 sceptics who preceded him held the same 
 opinion; yet it was neither ancient nor gene¬ 
 ral among the pagan Arabs. We find no con¬ 
 nexion between the tenets of Moses and those 
 of the Haramites; and though Biblical names 
 are very frequent among the Musalmans, we 
 do not find one instance of their occurrence 
 among the pagans of the Hijaz before Mo¬ 
 hammad, 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 - It lias been mentioned that the vision in 
 which he was ordered to read, caused him 
 finally to renounce idolatry ; we are told that 
 after this vision an intermission of revelation, 
 called fa.trah. took place, which lasted up¬ 
 wards of two years. The meaning of fat rah 
 is simply that, though this vision was a 
 revelation, he did not assume his office for 
 two or three years. It is certain that lie 
 composed many Surahs of the Quran during 
 this time; and it must have been during this 
 period that the tenets of the Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians seriously occupied his mind. Before 
 the vision he was an idolater; and after the 
 fatrah he possessed the acquaintance with the 
 scriptural history which we find in the 
 Quran. Even after he had declared himself 
 a prophet, he shewed, during the beginning 
 of his career, a strong leaning towards, and a 
 sincere belief in, the scriptures and Biblical 
 legends : but in proportion to his success he 
 separated himself from the Bible. 
 
 “ This is the second phase in the progress 
 of the Prophet's mind. His belief in the 
 scriptures does not imply that he ever be¬ 
 longed to the Christian or Jewish Church. 
 He never could reconcile his notions of God 
 with the doctrine of the Trinity, and with the 
 Divinity of Christ, and he was disgusted with 
 the monkish institutions and sectarian dis¬ 
 putes of the Christians. His creed was: 
 ‘He is God alone, the Eternal God; He haB 
 not begotten, and is not begotten; and none 
 is His equal.’ (See Surah cxii.) Nothing, 
 however, can be more erroneous than to 
 suppose that Mohammad was, at any period 
 of his early career, a deist. Faith, when 
 once extinct, cannot be revived: and it was 
 his enthusiastic faith in inspiration that made 
 him a prophet. Disappointed with the Jewish 
 and Christian religions, he began to form a 
 system of faith of his own: and this is the 
 third phase of the transition period. For 
 some time, it seems, he had no intention to 
 preach it publicly, but circumstances, as well 
 as the warm conviction of the truth of his 
 creed, at length prevailed upon him to spread 
 it beyond the circle of his family and friends. 
 
 “ The mental excitement of the Prophet 
 was much increased during the fatrah, and 
 like the ardent scholar in one of Schiller’s 
 poems, who dared to lift the veil of truth, he 
 was nearly annihilated by the fight which 
 broke in upon him. He usually -wandered 
 about in the hills near Makkah, and was so long 
 absent, that on one occasion, his wife being 
 afraid that he was lost, sent men in search of 
 him. He suffered from hallucinations of his 
 senses, and, to finish his sufferings, he several 
 times contemplated suicide by throwing him¬ 
 self down from a precipice. His friends were 
 alarmed at his state of mind. Some con¬ 
 sidered it as the eccentricities of a poetical 
 genius ; others thought that he was a kahin, 
 or soothsayer ; but the majority took a less 
 charitable view (see Surah lxix. 40, xx. 5), 
 and declared that he was insane ; and, as 
 madness and melancholy are ascribed to 
 supernatural influence in the East, they said 
 that he was in the power of Satan and his 
 
 393 
 
 agents, the jiim. They called in exorcists ; 
 and he himself doubted the soundness of his 
 mind. ‘ I hear a sound,’ he said to his wife, 
 ■ and see a fight. I am afraid there are jinn 
 in me.’ And on other occasions he said, ‘I 
 am afraid I am a kahin' ‘ God will never 
 allow that such should befall thee,’ said Kha¬ 
 dyjah ; ■' for thou keepest thy engagements, 
 and assistest thy relations.’ According to 
 some accounts, she added, ‘ Thou wilt be the 
 prophet of thy nation.’ And, in order to re¬ 
 move every doubt, she took him to her 
 cousin Waraqah ; and he said to her, • I see 
 thou ( i.e. thy explanation) art correct; the 
 cause of the excitement of thy husband is 
 the coming to him of the great nomos, law, 
 which is like the nomos of Moses. If I 
 should be alive when he receives his mission, 
 I would assist him; for I believe in him.’ 
 After this Khadyjah went to the monk, ’Addas, 
 and he confirmed what Waraqah had said. 
 Waraqah died soon after, before Mohammad 
 entered on his mission. 
 
 “ The words of Mohammad, ‘ I am afraid 1 
 am a kahin,’ require some explanation. The 
 Arabs, previous to the promulgation of Islam, 
 believed in kaliins, soothsayers ; and even in 
 our days they have greater faith in saints 
 and inspired persons than other equally un¬ 
 civilized nations. Such a belief is so neces¬ 
 sary a limitation of the personal freedom of 
 the Bedouins, which knows no other bounds, 
 that I consider it as the offspring of liberty. 
 Even the most refractory spirit sees no humi¬ 
 liation in confessing his wrong-doings to a 
 helpless seer, and in submitting to his deci¬ 
 sions ; and by doing so, if he has embroiled 
 himself, he can return to peace with himself 
 and with society. We find, therefore, in the 
 ancient history of Arabia, that litigations 
 were frequently referred to celebrated kahins. 
 These, it would appear, were eccentric per¬ 
 sons, of great cunning, and not without genius. 
 The specimens which we have of their 
 oracles are obscure, and usually in rhymed 
 prose and incoherent sentences : and they are 
 frequently preceded by a heavy oath to the 
 truth of -what they say, like some of the 
 Surahs of the Quran. It was believed that 
 they knew what was concealed from the 
 eyes of the common mortals ; but they were 
 looked upon with awe; for the Arabs con¬ 
 ceived that they were possessed by, or allied 
 with, Satan and the jinn. The evil spirits 
 used to approach the gates of heaven by 
 stealth, to pry into the secrets which were 
 being transacted between God and the angels, 
 and to convey them to the kahins. Existing 
 prejudices left no alternative to Mohammad 
 but to proclaim himself a prophet who was 
 inspired by God and His angels, or to be con¬ 
 sidered a kahin possessed by Satan and his 
 agents the jinn. 
 
 “Khadyjah and her friends advised him to 
 adopt the former course; and, after some he¬ 
 sitation, he followed their advice, as it would 
 appear, with his own conviction. His purer 
 notions of the Deity, his moral conduct, his 
 predilection for religious speculations, and 
 his piety, were proofs sufficiently strong to 
 
 50 
 
394 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 convince an affectionate wife that the super- j 
 natural influence, under which he was, came 
 from heaven. But, as the pagan Arabs had 
 very imperfect notions of divine inspiration, 
 it was necessary for him to prove to them, | 
 by the history of the prophets, that some J 
 seers were inspired by God ; and to this end, 
 he devoted more than two-thirds of the 
 Quran to Biblical legends, most of which he 
 has so well adapted to his own case, that if we 
 substitute the name of Mohammad for Moses 
 and Abraham, we have his own views, fate, 
 and tendency. And, in order to remove 
 every doubt as to the cause of his excite¬ 
 ment, Mohammad subsequently maintained, 
 that since he had assumed his office, heaven 
 was surrounded by-a strong guard of angels ; 
 and if the jinn venture to ascend to its pre¬ 
 cincts, a flaming dart, that is to say, a shoot¬ 
 ing star, is thrown at them, and they are pre¬ 
 cipitated to the lower regions; and, there¬ 
 fore, the kahins ceased with the commence¬ 
 ment of his mission. 
 
 “ The declaration of Waraqah, and of the 
 monk ’Addas, that the great nomos would 
 descend upon him. and the faith of his wife, 
 neither conveyed full conviction nor gave 
 they sufficient courage to Mohammad to 
 declare himself publicly the messenger of 
 God; on the contrary, they increased the 
 morbid state of his mind. A fatalist, as he 
 ivas, it was a hallucination and a fit which 
 decided him to follow their advice. One day, 
 whilst he was wandering about in the hills 
 near Makkah, with the intention to destroy 
 himself, he heard a voice ; and, on raising 
 his head, he beheld Gabriel, between heaven 
 and earth; and the angel assured him that 
 he was the prophet of God. This hallucina¬ 
 tion is one of the few clearly stated miracles 
 to which he appeals in the Quran. Not 
 even an allusion is made, in that book, to his 
 tits, during which his followers believe that 
 he received the revelations. This bears out 
 the account of Waqidy, which I have followed, 
 and proves that it was rather the exalted 
 state of his mind, than his fits, which caused 
 his friends to believe in his mission. Fright¬ 
 ened by this apparition, he retimed home ; 
 and, feeling unwell, he called for covering. 
 He had a fit, and they poured cold water 
 upon him; and when he was recovering 
 from it, he received the revelation, ‘ 0 thou 
 covered, arise and preach, and magnify thy 
 Lord, and cleanse thy garment, and fly every 
 abomination ’; and henceforth, we are told, 
 he received revelations without intermission ; 
 that is to say, the fatrah was at an end, and 
 he assumed his office. 
 
 “ This crisis of Mohammad’s struggles 
 bears a strange resemblance to the opening 
 scene of Goethe’s Faust. He paints, in that 
 admirable drama, the struggles of mind 
 which attend the transition, in men of genius, 
 from the ideal to the real—from youth to 
 manhood. Both in Mohammad and in Faust 
 the anguish of the mind, distracted by doubts, 
 is dispelled by the song of angels, which 
 rises from their own besoms, and is the voice 
 of the consciousness of their sincerity and 
 
 warmth in seeking for truth ; and in both, 
 after this crisis, the enthusiasm ebbs gra¬ 
 dually down to calm design, and they now 
 blasphemously sacrifice their faith in God to 
 self-aggrandisement. In this respect the re¬ 
 semblance of the second part of Faust to 
 Mohammad’s career at Madinah is complete. 
 As the period of transition in the life of 
 the Prophet has hitherto been completely 
 unknown in Europe, Goethe’s general picture 
 of this period, in the life of enthusiasts, is like 
 a prediction in reference to the individual 
 case of Mohammad. 
 
 “ Some authors consider the fits of the 
 Prophet as the principal evidence of his mis¬ 
 sion, and it is therefore necessary to say a 
 few words on them. They were preceded 
 by a great depression of spirits; he was 
 despondent, and his face was clouded; and 
 they were ushered in by coldness of the 
 extremities and shivering. He shook, as if 
 he were suffering of ague, and called out for 
 covering. His mind was in a most painfully 
 excited state. He heard a tinkling in his ears, 
 as if bells were ringing ; or a humming, as if 
 bees were swarming round his head ; and his 
 lips quivered; but this motion was under the 
 control of volition. If the attack proceeded 
 beyond this stage, his eyes became fixed and 
 staring, and the motions of his head became 
 convulsive and automatic. At length, per¬ 
 spiration broke out, -which covered his face 
 in large drops; and with this ended the 
 attack. Sometimes, however, if he had a 
 violent fit, he fell comatose to the ground, 
 like a person who is intoxicated; and (at 
 least at a latter period of his life) his face 
 was flushed, and his respiration stertorous, 
 and he remained in that state for some time. 
 The bystanders sprinkled water in his face ; 
 but he himself fancied that he would derive 
 a great benefit from being cupped on the 
 head. This is all the information which I 
 have been able to collect concerning the fits 
 of Mohammad. It will be observed that we 
 have no distinct account of a paroxysm be¬ 
 tween the one which he had in his infancy, 
 and the one after which he assumed his 
 office. It is likely that up to his forty-fourth 
 year they were not habitual. The alarm of 
 the nurse, under whose care he had been two 
 years before he had the former of these two 
 fits, shews that it was the first, and the age and 
 circumstances under which he had it, render 
 it likely that it was solitary, and caused by 
 the heat of the sun and gastric irritation. 
 The fit after which he assumed his office 
 was undoubtedly brought on by long-con¬ 
 tinued and increasing mental excitement, and 
 by his ascetic exercises. We know that he 
 used frequently to fast, and that he some¬ 
 times devoted the greater part of the night 
 to prayer. The bias of the Musalmans is to 
 gloss over the aberration of mind, and the 
 intention to commit suicide, of their prophet 
 Most of his biographers pass over the transi¬ 
 tion period in silence. We may, therefore, be 
 justified in stretching the scanty information 
 which we can glean from them to the utmost 
 I extent, and in supposing that he was for 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 395 
 
 some time a complete maniac ; ancl that the 
 fit after which he assumed his office was a 
 paroxysm of cataleptic insanity. This 
 disease is sometimes accompanied by such 
 interesting psychical phenomena, that even 
 in modern times it has given rise to many 
 superstitious opinions. After this jsaroxysm 
 the fits became habitual, though the moral ex¬ 
 citement cooled down, and they assumed more 
 and more an epileptic character.” (The. Life 
 of Mohammad from Original Sources, by A. 
 Sprenger, M.D., part i., Allahabad, 1851, 
 p. 949.) 
 
 (3) Dr. Marcus Dodds, in his Mohammed, 
 Buddha, and Christ ,” says :— 
 
 “ But is Mohammed in no sense a prophet ? 
 Certainly he had two of the most important 
 characteristics of the prophetic order. He 
 saw truth about God which his fellow-men 
 did not see, and he had an irresistible inward 
 impulse to publish this truth. In respect of 
 this latter qualification, Mohammed may 
 stand comparison with the most courageous 
 of the heroic prophets of Israel. For the 
 truth’s sake he risked his life, he suffered 
 daily persecution for years, and eventually 
 banishment, the loss of property, of the 
 goodwill of his fellow-citizens, and of the 
 confidence of his friends; he suffered, in 
 short, as much as any man can suffer short 
 of death, which he only escaped by flight, 
 and yet he unflinchingly proclaimed his mes¬ 
 sage. No bribe, threat, or inducement, could 
 silence him. ‘ Though they array against 
 me the sun on the right-hand and the moon 
 on the left, I cannot renounce my purpose.’ 
 And it was this persistency, this belief in his 
 call, to proclaim the unity of God, which was 
 the making of Islam. 
 
 “ Other men have been monotheists in the 
 midst of idolaters, but no other man has 
 founded a strong and enduring monotheistic 
 religion. The distinction in his case was his 
 resolution that other men should believe. If 
 we ask what it was that made Mohammed 
 aggressive and proselytizing, where other 
 men had been content to cherish a solitary 
 faith, we must answer that it was nothing 
 else than the depth and force of his own 
 conviction of the truth. To himself the dif¬ 
 ference between one God and many, between 
 the unseen Creator and these ugly lumps of 
 stone or wood, was simply infinite. The one 
 creed was death and darkness to him, the 
 other life and light. It is useless seeking for 
 motives in such a case—for ends to serve and 
 selfish reasons for his speaking ; the impossi¬ 
 bility with Mohammed was to keep silence. 
 His acceptance of the office of teacher of his 
 people was anything but the ill-advised and 
 sudden impulse of a light-minded vanity or 
 ambition. His own convictions had been 
 reached only after long years of lonely mental 
 agony, and of a doubt and distraction bor¬ 
 dering on madness. Who can doubt the 
 earnestness of that search after truth and the 
 living God, that drove the affluent merchant 
 from his comfortable home and his fond wife, 
 to make his abode for months at a time in the 
 dismal cave on Mount Hira ? If we respect 
 
 the shrinking of Isaiah or Jeremiah from the 
 heavy task of proclaiming unwelcome truth, 
 we must also respect the keen sensitiveness 
 of Mohammed, who was so burdened by this 
 same responsibility, and so persuaded of his 
 incompetency for the task, that at times he 
 thought his new feelings and thoughts were a 
 snare of the Devil, and at times he would fain 
 have rid himself of all further struggle by 
 casting himself from a friendly precipice. 
 His rolling his head in his mantle, the sound 
 of the ringing of bells in his ears, his sobbing 
 like a young camel, the sudden grey hairs 
 which ho himself ascribed to the terrific 
 Suras—what were all these but so many 
 physical signs of nervous organization over¬ 
 strained by anxiety and thought ? 
 
 “ His giving himself out as a prophet of 
 God was, in the first instance, not only sin¬ 
 cere, but probably correct in the sense in 
 which he himself understood it. He felt that 
 he had thoughts of God which it deeply con¬ 
 cerned all around him to receive, and he 
 knew that these thoughts were given him by 
 God, although not, as we shall see, a revela¬ 
 tion strictly so called. His mistake by no 
 means lay in his supposing himself to be 
 called upon by God to speak for Him and in¬ 
 troduce a better religion, but it lay in his gra¬ 
 dually coming to insist quite as much on 
 men’s accepting him as a prophet as on their 
 accepting the great truth he preached. He 
 was a prophet to his comitrymen in so far 
 as he proclaimed the unity of God, but this 
 was no sufficient ground for his claiming to 
 be their guide in all matters of religion, still 
 less for his assuming the lordship over them 
 in all matters civil as well. The modesty 
 and humility apparent in him, so long as his 
 mind was possessed with objective truth, gra¬ 
 dually gives way to the presumptuousness 
 and arrogance of a mind turned more to a 
 sense of its own importance. To put the 
 second article of the Mohammedan creed on 
 the same level as the first, to make it as 
 essential that men should believe in the mis¬ 
 sion of Mohammed as in the unity of God, 
 was an ignorant, incongruous, and false com¬ 
 bination. Had Mohammed known his own 
 ignorance as well as his knowledge, the 
 world would have had one religion the less, 
 and Christianity would have had one more 
 reformer.” (Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ, 
 p. 17.) 
 
 (4) Thomas Carlyle, in his lecture, “ The 
 Hero as Prophet,” says :— 
 
 “ Mahomet himself, after all that can bo 
 said about him. was not a sensual man. We 
 shall err widely if we consider this man as a 
 common voluptuary, intent mainly on base 
 enjoyments—nay, on enjoyments of any kind. 
 His household was of the frugalest, his com¬ 
 mon diet barley-bread and water; sometimes 
 for months there was not a fire once lighted 
 on his hearth. They record with just pride 
 that he -would mend his own shoes, patch his 
 own cloak. A poor hard-toiling, ill-provided 
 man; careless of what vulgar men toil for. 
 Not a bad man, I should say; something 
 better in him than hunger of any sort—or 
 
396 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 these wild Arab men fighting and jostling 
 three and twenty years at his hand, in close 
 contact with him always, would not have 
 reverenced him so ! These were wild men, 
 bursting ever and anon into quarrel, into all 
 kinds of fierce sincerity; without right, worth, 
 and manhood, no man could have commanded 
 them. They called him Prophet, you say ? 
 Why, he stood there face to face with them; 
 bare, not enshrined in any mystery, visibly 
 clouting his own cloak, cobbling his own 
 shoes, fighting, counselling, ordering in the 
 midst of them, they must have seen what 
 kind of a man he was, let him be called what 
 you like ! No emperor with his tiaras was 
 obeyed as this man in a cloak of his own j 
 clouting. During three and twenty years of j 
 rough actual trial, I find something of a veri¬ 
 table Hero necessary for that of itself. 
 
 “ His last words are a prayer, broken [ 
 ejaculations of a heart struggling-up in trem- < 
 bling hope towai’ds its Maker. We cannot 
 say his religion made him worse; it made 
 him better ; good, not bad. Generous things ; 
 are recorded of him; when he lost his 
 daughter, the thing he answers is, in his own 
 dialect, everyway sincere, and yet equivalent 
 to that of Christians: ‘ The Lord giveth and 
 the Lord taketh away; blessed be the name 
 of the Lord.’ He answered in like manner of 
 Said, his emancipated well-beloved slave, the 
 second of the believers. Said had fallen in 
 the w r ar of Tabuc, the first of Mahomet’s 
 fightings with the Greeks. Mahomet said it 
 was well, Said had done his Master’s work, 
 Said had now gone to his Master ; it was all 
 well with Said. Yet Said’s daughter found 
 him w T eeping over the body; the old gray¬ 
 haired man melting in tears ! What do I 
 see? said she. You see a friend weeping over 
 his friend. He went out for the last time 
 into the mosque two days before his death ; 
 asked, If he had injured any man ? Let his own 
 back bear the stripes. If he owed any man ? 
 
 A voice answered, ‘ Yes, me ; three drachms, 
 borrowed on such an occasion.’ Mahomet 
 ordered them to be paid. ‘ Better be in shame 
 now,’ said he, 1 than at the Day of Judgment.’ 
 You remember Kadijah, and the 1 No by 
 Allah! ’ Traits of this kind show us the 
 genuine man, the brother of us all, brought 
 visible through twelve centuries, the veritable 
 son of our common Mother. - ’ (Lectures on 
 Heroes, p. 66.) 
 
 (5) The Rev. Dr. Badger remarks :— 
 
 “ With respect to the private as distinct 
 from the public character of Muhammad, 
 from the time of his settlement at al-Madinali, 
 it does not appear to have deteriorated, exce]:>t 
 in one particular, from what it had been prior 
 to the flight from Mecca. He was still frugal 
 in his habits, generous and liberal, faithful to 
 his associates, treasured up the loving me¬ 
 mory of absent and departed friends, and 
 awaited his last summons with fortitude and 
 submission. That he entertained an exces¬ 
 sive passion for -women, was lustful, if you 
 will, cannot be denied ; but the fourteen 
 wives whom from first to last he married, 
 and his eleven (? two ; see Muhammad’s 
 
 wives) concubines, figure favourably by the 
 side of David’s six wives and numerous con¬ 
 cubines (2 Sam. v. 13; 1 Chron. iii. 1-9 ; xiv. 
 3), Solomon’s 700 wives and 300 concubines 
 (1 Kings xi. 3), and Rehoboam’s eighteen 
 wives and sixty concubines (2 Chron. xi. 21), 
 a plurality expressly forbidden to the sove¬ 
 reign of Israel, who was commanded not to 
 multiply wives to himself. (Deut. xvii. 17.) 
 
 “It is not so much his polygamy, consider¬ 
 ing all the circumstances of the case, which 
 justly lays Muhammad open to reproach, but 
 his having deliberately infringed one of his 
 own alleged divine revelations, which re¬ 
 stricted the number of wives to ‘ four and no 
 more ’ (Sura iv. 3); also, for having in the 
 first instance dallied with Zainab, the wife 
 of his freedman and adopted son Zaid-ibn- 
 Harithah, who complacently divorced her in 
 order that she might espouse the Prophet. 
 In this case, moreover, as has already been 
 related, he adduced the authority of God as 
 sanctioning on his behoof first, and thence¬ 
 forth in the behoof of all Muslims, the mar¬ 
 riage of a man with the divorced wife of his 
 adopted son, wdiich up to that time had been 
 considered incestuous. Whatever apology 
 may be adduced for Muhammad in this 
 matter of polygamy, there is no valid plea to 
 justify his improbity and impiety in the case 
 of Zainab.” 
 
 (6) Sir William Muir says :— 
 
 “ I would warn the reader against seeking 
 to portray in his mind a character in all its 
 parts consistent with itself as the character 
 of Mahomet. The truth is, that the strangest 
 inconsistencies blended together (according to 
 the wont of human nature) throughout the life 
 of the Prophet. The student of the history 
 will trace for himself how the pure and lofty 
 aspirations of Mahomet -were first tinged, and 
 then gradually debased by a half-unconscious 
 self-deception, and how in this process truth 
 merged into falsehood, sincerity into guile, 
 these opposite principles often co-existing 
 even as active agencies in his conduct. The 
 reader will observe that simultaneously with 
 the anxious desire to extinguish idolatry, 
 and to promote religion and virtue in the 
 world, there was nurtured by the Prophet in 
 his own heart, a licentious self-indulgence, 
 till in the end, assuming to be the favourite 
 of Heaven, he justified himself by 1 revela¬ 
 tions ’ from God in the most flagrant breaches 
 of morality. He will remark that while 
 Mahomet cherished a kind and tender dispo¬ 
 sition, ‘ weeping with them that wept,’ and 
 binding to his person the hearts of his fol¬ 
 lowers by the ready and self-denying offices 
 of love and friendship, he could yet take 
 pleasure in cruel and perfidious assassination, 
 could gloat over the massacre of an entire 
 tribe, and savagely consign the innocent babe 
 to the fires of hell. Inconsistencies such as 
 these continually present themselves from the 
 period of Mahomet’s arrival at Medina, and 
 it is by the study of these inconsistencies 
 that his character must be rightly compre¬ 
 hended. The key to many difficulties of 
 this description may be foxind, I believe, in 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 397 
 
 the chapter 1 on the belief of Mahomet in his 
 own inspiration.’ When once he had dared 
 to forge the name of the Most High God as 
 the seal and authority of his own words and 
 actions, the germ was laid from which the 
 errors of his after life freely and fatally deve¬ 
 loped themselves.” (Life of Mahomet, new 
 ed. p. 535.) 
 
 (7) Mr. Boswortli Smith, in his Mohammed 
 and Mohammedanism, says :—■ 
 
 “ Mohammed did not, indeed, himself con¬ 
 quer a world like Alexander, or Caesar, or 
 Napoleon. He did not himself weld together 
 into a homogeneous whole a vast system of 
 states like Charles the Great. He was not a 
 philosophic king, like Marcus Aurelius, nor 
 philosopher like Aristotle or like Bacon, ruling 
 by pure reason the world of thought for cen¬ 
 turies with a more than kingly power ; he 
 was not a legislator for all mankind, nor even 
 the highest part of it, like Justinian; nor 
 did he cheaply earn the title of the Great by 
 being the first among rulers to turn, like 
 Constantine, from the setting to the rising 
 sun. He was not a universal philanthropist, 
 like the greatest of the Stoics. 
 
 “ Nor was he the apostle of the highest 
 form of religion and civilisation combined, 
 like Gregory or Boniface, like Leo or Alfred 
 the Great. He was less, indeed, than most of 
 these in one or two of the elements that go 
 to make up human greatness, but he was 
 also greater. Half Christian and half Pagan, 
 half civilised and half barbarian, it was 
 given to him in a marvellous degree to unite 
 the peculiar excellences of the one with the 
 peculiar excellences of the other. ‘ I have seen,’ 
 said the ambassador sent by the triunrphant 
 Quraish to the despised exile at Medina—‘I 
 have seen the Persian Chosroes and the 
 Greek Heraclius sitting upon their thrones ; 
 but never did I see a man ruling his equals 
 as does Mohammed.’ 
 
 “ Head of the State as well as of the Church, 
 he was Caesar and Pope in one ; but he was 
 Pope without the Pope’s pretensions, Caesar 
 without the legions of Caesar. Without a 
 standing army, without a body-guard, with¬ 
 out a palace, without a fixed revenue ; if ever 
 any man had the right to say that he ruled 
 by a right divine, it was Mohammed, for he 
 had all the power without its instruments, 
 and without its supj5orts. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ By a fortune absolutely unique in his¬ 
 tory, Mohammed is a three-fold founder—of 
 a nation, of an empire, and of a religion. 
 Illiterate himself, scarcely able to read or 
 write, he was yet the author of a book which 
 is a poem, a code of laws, a Book of Common 
 Prayer, and a Bible in one, and is reverenced 
 to this day by a sixth of the whole human 
 race, as a miracle of purity of style, of wis¬ 
 dom, and of truth. It was the one miracle 
 claimed by Mohammed—his standing miracle 
 he called it; and a miracle indeed it is. But 
 looking at the circumstances of the time, at 
 the unbounded reverence of his followers, and 
 comparing him with the Fathers of the [ 
 Church or with mediaeval saints, to my mind 
 
 the most miraculous thing about Mohammed 
 is, that he never claimed the power of work¬ 
 ing miracles. Whatever he had said he could 
 do, his disciples would straightway have seen 
 him do. They could not help attributing to 
 him miraculous acts which he never did, and 
 which he always denied he could do. What 
 more crowning proof of his sincerity is 
 needed ? Mohammed to the end of his life 
 claimed for himself that title only with which 
 he had begun, and which the highest philo¬ 
 sophy and the truest Christianity will one 
 day, I venture to believe, agree in yielding to 
 him, that of a Prophet, a very Prophet of 
 God.” ( Mohammed and Mohammedanism , 
 p. 340.) 
 
 (8) Major Robert Durie Osborn, in his 
 Islam under the Arabs, says :— 
 
 “ He (Muhammad) was brought face to 
 face with the question which every spiritual 
 reformer has to meet and consider, against 
 wdiich so many noble spirits have gone to 
 ruin. Will not the end justify the means ? 
 ‘ Here am I a faithful servant of God, eager 
 only to enthrone Him in the hearts of men, 
 and at the very goal and termination of my 
 labours I am thwarted by this incapacity to 
 work a miracle. It is true, as these infidels 
 allege, that the older prophets did possess 
 this power, and I, unless the very reason and 
 purpose of my existence is to be made a 
 blank, must also do something wonderful. 
 But what kind of miracle ? In his despair, 
 Muhammad declared that the Qur’an itself 
 was that constantly-recurring miracle they 
 were seeking after. Had they ever heard 
 these stories of Noah, Lot, Abraham. Joseph, 
 Zacharias, Jesus, and others? No; neither 
 had he. They were transcripts made from 
 the ‘ preserved Table,’ that stood before the 
 throne of God. The archangel Gabriel had 
 revealed them to Muhammad, written in pure 
 Arabic, for the spiritual edification of the 
 Quraish. Thus in the twelfth Surah, where he 
 details at great length an exceedingly ridicu¬ 
 lous history of Joseph, he commences the 
 narrative with these words, as spoken by 
 God :— 
 
 • These are signs of the clear Book. 
 
 An Arabic Qur’an have we sent it down, 
 that ye might understand it.’ 
 
 And at the close of the Surah, we are told:— 
 
 £ This is one of the secret histories which 
 we reveal unto thee. Thou wast not pre¬ 
 sent with Joseph’s brethren when they 
 conceived their design and laid their plot: 
 but the greater part of men, though thou 
 long for it, will not believe. Thou shaft 
 not ask of them any recompense for this 
 message. It is simply an instruction for all 
 mankind.’ 
 
 And, again, in the Lxvuth Surah, he declares 
 respecting the Qur’an:— 
 
 ■' It is a missive from the Lord of the 
 worlds. 
 
 But if Muhammad had fabricated con¬ 
 cerning us any sayings, 
 
 We had surely seized him by the right 
 hand, 
 
 And had cut through the vein of his nock,' 
 
398 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 “ It would he easy to multiply extracts of 
 similar purport; but the above will suffice 
 by way of illustration. There are modern 
 biographers of the Prophet who would have 
 us believe that he was not conscious of false¬ 
 hood when making these assertions. He was 
 under a hallucination, of course, but he be¬ 
 lieved what he said. This to me is incredible. 
 The legends in the Qur’an are derived chiefly 
 from Talmudic sources. Muhammad must 
 have learned them from some Jew resident in 
 or near Mekka. To work them up into the 
 form of rhymed Surahs, to put his own pecu¬ 
 liar doctrines in the mouth of Jewish pa- 
 triarchs, the Virgin Mary, and the infant 
 Jesus (who talks like a good Moslem the 
 moment after his birth), must have required 
 time, thought, and labour. It is not possible 
 that the man who had done this could have 
 forgotten all about it, and believed that these 
 legends had been brought to him ready pre¬ 
 pared by an angelic visitor. Muhammad was 
 guilty of falsehood under circumstances 
 wdrere he deemed the end justified the 
 means.” ( Islam under the Arabs, p. 21.) 
 
 (9) The character of Muhammad is a his¬ 
 toric problem, and many have been the con¬ 
 jectures as to his motives, and designs. Was 
 he an impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man 
 —“ a very prophet of God ” ? And the pro¬ 
 blem might have for ever remained unsolved, 
 had not the Prophet himself appealed to the Old 
 and New Testaments in proof of his mission. 
 This is the crucial test, established by the 
 Prophet himself. He claims to be -weighed 
 in the balance with the divine Jesus. 
 
 Objection has often been made to the 
 manner in which Christian divines have at¬ 
 tacked the private character of Muhammad. 
 Why reject the prophetic mission of Muham¬ 
 mad on account of his private vices, when you 
 receive as inspired the sayings of a Balaam, 
 a David, or a Solomon ? Missionaries should 
 not, as a rule, attack the character of Mu¬ 
 hammad in dealing with Islam; it rouses 
 opposition, and is an offensive line of argu¬ 
 ment. Still, in forming an estimate of his 
 prophetic claims, we maintain that the cha¬ 
 racter of Muhammad is an important consi¬ 
 deration. We readily admit that bad men 
 have sometimes been, like Balaam and 
 others, the divinely appointed organs of inspi¬ 
 ration; but in the case of Muhammad, his 
 professed inspiration sanctioned and encou¬ 
 raged his own vices. That which ought to 
 have been the fountain of purity was, in fact, 
 the cover of the Prophet's depravity. But 
 how different it is in the case of the true 
 prophet David, where, in the words of inspi¬ 
 ration. he lays bare to public gaze the enor¬ 
 mity of his own crimes. The deep contrition 
 of his inmost soul is manifest in every line—■ 
 “ I acknowledge my transgression, and my sin 
 is ever before me: against Thee, Thee only, 
 have I sinned, and done this evil in Thy 
 sight.” 
 
 The best defenders of the Arabian Pro¬ 
 phet are obliged to admit that the matter of 
 Zainab, the wife of Zaid, and again, of Mary, 
 the Coptic slave, are “ an indelible stain ” 
 
 upon his memory ; that “ he is once or twice 
 untrue to the kind and forgiving disposition of 
 his best nature; that he is once or twice un¬ 
 relenting in the punishment of his personal 
 enemies ; and that he is guilty even more 
 than once of conniving at the assassination 
 of inveterate opponents ”; but they give no 
 satisfactory explanation or apology for all this 
 being done under the supposed sanction of God 
 in the Qur’an. 
 
 In forming an estimate of Muhammad’s 
 prophetical pretensions, it must be remem¬ 
 bered that he did not claim to be the founder 
 of a new religion, but merely of a new cove¬ 
 nant. He is the last and greatest of all 
 God’s prophets. He is sent to convert the 
 world to the one true religion which God 
 had before revealed to the five great law¬ 
 givers—Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and 
 Jesus ! The creed of Muhammad, therefore, 
 claims to supersede that of the Lord Jesus. 
 And it is here that we take our stand. We 
 give Muhammad credit as a warrior, as a legis¬ 
 lator, as a poet, as a man of uncommon genius 
 raising himself amidst great opposition to the 
 pinnacle of renown; we admit that he is, 
 without doubt, one of the greatest heroes the 
 world has ever seen; but when we consider 
 his claims to supersede the mission of the 
 divine Jesus, we strip him of his borrowed 
 plumes, and reduce him to the condition of 
 an impostor! For whilst he has adopted and 
 avowed his belief in the sacred books of the 
 Jew and the Christian, and has given them all 
 the stamp and currency which his authority 
 and influence could impart, he has attempted 
 to rob Christianity of every distinctive truth 
 which it possesses—its divine Saviour, its 
 Heavenly Comforter, its two Sacraments, its 
 pure code of social morals, its spirit of love 
 and truth—and has written his own refuta¬ 
 tion and condemnation with his own hand, by 
 professing to confirm the divine oracles which 
 sap the very foundations of his religious 
 system. We follow the Pro]Dhet in his self- 
 asserted mission from the cave of Hira’ to 
 the closing scene, when he dies in the midst 
 of the lamentations of his harim, and the 
 contentions of his friends—the visions of 
 Gabriel, the period of mental depression, the 
 contemplated suicide, the assumption of the 
 prophetic office, his struggles wflth Makkan 
 unbelief, his flight to al-Madmah, his trium¬ 
 phant entry into Makkah—and whilst we 
 wonder at the genius of the hero, we pause 
 at every stage and inquire, “ Is this the 
 Apostle of God, whose mission is to claim 
 universal dominion, to the suppression not 
 merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself ? ” 
 Then it is that the divine and holy cha¬ 
 racter of Jesus rises to our view, and the 
 inquiring mind sickens at the thought of the 
 beloved, the pure, the lowly Jesus giving 
 place to that of the ambitious, the sensual, 
 the time-serving hero of Arabia. In the 
 study of Islam, the character of Muhammad 
 needs an apology or a defence at every 
 stage ; but in the contemjflation of the Chris¬ 
 tian system, whilst we everywhere read of 
 Jesus, and see the reflection of His image in 
 
MUHAMMAD 
 
 everything we read, the heart revels in the 
 contemplation, the inner pulsations of our 
 spiritual life bound within us at the study of 
 a character so divine, so pure. 
 
 We are not insensible to the beauties of the 
 Qur’an as a literary production (although 
 they have, without doubt, been overrated): 
 but as we admire its conceptions of the 
 Divine nature, its deep and fervent trust in 
 the power of God, its frequent deep moral 
 earnestness, and its sententious wisdom, we 
 would gladly rid ourselves of our recollec¬ 
 tions of the Prophet, his licentious harlm, 
 his sanguinary battle-fields, his ambitious 
 schemes; whilst as we peruse the Christian 
 Scriptures, we find the grand central charm 
 in the divine character of its Founder. It is 
 the divine character of Jesus which gives 
 fragrance to His words ; it is the divine form 
 of Jesus which shines through all He says or 
 does; it is the divine life of Jesus which is 
 the great central point in Gospel history. 
 How, then, we ask, can the creed of Muham¬ 
 mad, the son of ‘Abdu ’llah, supersede and 
 abrogate that of Jesus, the Son of God '! And 
 it is a remarkable coincidence that, whilst the 
 founder of Islam died feeling that he had but 
 imperfectly fulfilled his mission, the Founder 
 of Christianity died in the full consciousness 
 that His work was done—“ It is finished.” 
 It was in professing to produce a revelation 
 which should supersede that of Jesus, that 
 Muhammad set the seal of his own refuta¬ 
 tion. (Hughes, Notes on Muhammadanism. 
 p. 2.) 
 
 MUHAMMAD (j**-). The title 
 
 of the xLviith Surah of the Qur’an, in the 
 second verse of which the word occurs: 
 “ Believe in what hath been revealed to Mu¬ 
 hammad.” 
 
 The name Muhammad occurs only in three 
 more places in the Qur’an 
 
 Surah iii. 138: “ Muhammad is but an 
 apostle of God.” 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 40: “ Muhammad is not the 
 father of any of your men, but the Apostle of 
 God, and the Seal of the Prophets.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 29: “ Muhammad is the 
 Apostle of God.” 
 
 MUHAMMAD, The Wives of. 
 Arabic al-azwdju ’l-mutahliardt 
 
 i.e. “ The pure wives.” Ac¬ 
 cording to the Traditions, Muhammad took 
 to himself eleven lawful wives, and two con¬ 
 cubines. (See Majma-u 7- Bihar , p. 528.) 
 
 (1) Khadijah ((iUsJAi-), a Quraish lady, the 
 daughter of Khuwailid ibn Asad. She was a 
 rich widow lady, who had been twice married. 
 She was married to Muhammad when he was 
 25 years old, and she was 40 years, and re¬ 
 mained his only wife for twenty-five years, 
 until she died (a.d. 019), aged 65, Muham¬ 
 mad being 50 years old. She bore Mu¬ 
 hammad two sons, al-Qasim and ‘Abdu 
 ’ilah, surnamed at-Taliir and at-Taiyib, and 
 four daughters, Zainab, Ruqaiyah, Fatimah, 
 and Urnmu Kulsum, Of these children, only 
 
 MUHAMMAD 399 
 
 Fatimah (the wife of ‘All) survived Muham¬ 
 mad. 
 
 (2) Saudah daughter of Zama'ah, 
 
 the widow of as-Sakran (a Quraish and one of 
 the Companions). Married about two months 
 after the death of Khadijah. 
 
 (3) ‘ Ayishah (iAAc), the ,daughter of Abu 
 Bakr. She was betrothed when she was only 
 7 years old, and was married at 10, about the 
 ninth month after the flight to al-Madinah. 
 
 (4) Juwairiyah (&j^=>), a widow, the 
 daughter of al-Haris ibn Abi Zirar, the chief 
 of the Banu Mustaliq. Muhammad ransomed 
 her from a citizen who had fixed her ransom 
 at nine ounces of gold. It is related that 
 ‘Ayishah said, “ No woman was ever a greater 
 blessing to her people than this Juwairiyah.” 
 
 (5) Hafsah (<Laa=.),the daughter of ‘Umar. 
 She was the widow of Khunais, an early con¬ 
 vert to Islam. Muhammad married her about 
 six months after her former husband’s death. 
 
 (6) Zainab, the daughter of Khuzaimah 
 
 (iUoyk the widow of Muham¬ 
 
 mad's cousin ‘Ubaidah, who was killed at the 
 battle of Badr. She was called the “ Mother 
 of the Poor,” Ummu ’ l-Masalcin , on account of 
 her care of destitute converts. She died 
 before Muhammad. 
 
 (7) Ummu Salirnah A), the widow of 
 
 Abu Salirnah, one of the Refugees, who was 
 woimded at the battle of Uhud, and after¬ 
 wards died of his wounds. 
 
 (8) Zainab the daughter of Jahsh (,_^jj 
 c^Ai),the wife of Muhammad’s adopted 
 
 son Zaid. Zaid divorced her to please the 
 Prophet. She was (being the wife of an 
 adopted son) unlawful to him, but Surah 
 xxxiii. 36 was produced to settle the dif¬ 
 ficulty. 
 
 (9) Scifiyah (iLaA), daughter of Hay! ibn 
 Akhtab, the widow of Kinanah,the Khaibar 
 chief, who was cruelly put to death. It was 
 said that Muhammad wished to divorce her, 
 but she begged that her turn might be given 
 to ‘Ayishah. 
 
 (10) Ummu Habibah ^4*^ |A), the 
 
 daughter of Abu Sufyan and the widow of 
 ‘Ubaidu’llah, one of the “ Four Enquirers,” 
 who, after emigrating as a Muslim to Abys¬ 
 sinia, had embraced Christianity there, and 
 died in the profession of that faith. 
 
 (11) Maimunah ■ the daughter of 
 
 al-Haris and widowed kinswoman of Muham¬ 
 mad, and the sister-in-law of al-‘Abbas. She 
 is said to have been 51 years of age when she 
 married Muhammad. 
 
 Muhammad’s concubines were :— 
 
 (1) Mary the Copt (<ukAiB A 
 
 Christiakslav e-girl sent to Muhammad by al- 
 Muqauqis, the Roman Governor in Egypt. 
 She became the mother of a son by Muham¬ 
 mad, named Ibrahim, who died young. 
 
 (2) Rifianah a Jewess, whose hus¬ 
 
 band had perished in the massacre of the 
 Banu Quraizah. She declined the summons 
 to conversion, and continued a Jew; but it is 
 said she embraced Islam before her death. 
 
400 
 
 MUHAMMAD 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 At tko time of Muhammad’s death, he had j 
 nine wives and two concubines living, (Sa- \ 
 hihu ’'/-Bukhari , p. 798), Kh adiiah and Zainab 
 bint Kh uzaimah having died before him. 
 
 According to the Shrahs. Muhammad had, ; 
 in all, twenty-two wives. Eight of these 
 never consummated the marriage. Their 
 names are ‘Aliyah bint Zabyan, Fatilak bint | 
 Qais, Fatimah bint Zahhaf, Asma’ bint 
 Kana'an, Mulaikah bint Suwaid, Lailah bint j 
 Kh atib, and Shabah bint Silah. Twelve were j 
 duly married. Their names are Khadijah, | 
 Saudah, Hind (or Ummu Salima.h), ‘Ayishah, J 
 Hafsah, Zainab bint Jahsh, Ramalah bint ! 
 Abi Sufyan (or Ummu Habibah), Maimunah, 
 Zainab bint ‘Umais, Juwairiyah bint al-Haris | 
 of the Band Mustaliq, Rafiyah, Khaulah bint 
 Hakim, and Ummiani, a sister to ‘Ali. Two 
 were bondwomen: Mariyatu ’1-Qibtiyah and 
 Rihanah. (See Janndtu ’l-Khulud, p. 14.) 
 
 MUHAMMAD, The Children of. 
 
 According to the Majmcdu ’ J-Bihdr. p. 538, 
 Muhammad had seven children. Two sons 
 and four daughters by Khadijah, and one son 
 by Mary, his Coptic slave. 
 
 The two sons by Kh adiiah were al-Qasim 
 and ‘Abdu ’llah (called also at-Tahir and at- 
 Taiyib) ; and the four daughters were Zainab, J 
 Ruqaiyah, Fatimah, and Ummu Kulsum. 
 The son by his bondwoman Mary was Ibra¬ 
 him. All these children died before Muham¬ 
 mad, with the exception of Fatimah, who 
 married ‘Ali, the fourth Khalifah, and from 
 whom are descended the Saiyids. [saiyid.] 
 
 Zainab married ‘Abu T-‘As bnu ’r-Rabi‘. 
 Ruqaiyah married ‘Utbah ibn Abu Lahab, by 
 whom she was divorced. She afterwards 
 married ‘Usman, the third Khalifah. 
 
 MUHAMMAD’S GRAVE, [huj- [ 
 
 KAH.] 
 
 MUHAMMADAN. Arabic Mu¬ 
 hammad^ A name seldom 
 
 used in Muhammadan works for the followers 
 of Muhammad, who call themselves either 
 Mu’mins, Muslims, or Musalmans. It is, 
 however, sometimes used in Indian papers 
 and other popular publications, and it is not, 
 as many European scholars suppose, an 
 offensive term to Muslims. 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM. The reli¬ 
 gion of Muhammad is called by its followers 
 a/-Is lam (piuA\), a word which implies the 
 entire surrender of the will of man to God- 
 [islam.] Its adherents speak of themselves I 
 as Muslims, pi. Muslimun, or Mu'min, pi. 
 Mu'minim ; a Mu’min being a “believer.” 
 
 In Persian these terms are rendered by the 
 word Musalman, pi. Musahnanan. 
 
 The principles of Islam were first enun¬ 
 ciated in portions of the Qur’an, as they were 
 revealed piecemeal by Muhammad, together 
 with such verbal explanations as were given 
 by him to his followers; but when the final 
 recension of the Qur’an was produced by the 
 Khalifah ‘Usman, about twenty-two years 
 after Muhammad's death, the Muslims pos- j 
 sessed a complete book, which they regarded 
 
 as the inspired and infallible word of God. 
 [qur’an.] But as an interpretation of its 
 precepts, and as a supplement to its teach¬ 
 ings, there also existed, side by side with the 
 Qur’an, the sayings, and practice of Muham¬ 
 mad, called the Ahddis and Sunnah. These 
 traditions of what the Prophet “ did and 
 said,” gradually laid the foundations of what 
 is now called Islam. For whilst it is a canon 
 in Islam that nothing can be received or 
 taught which is contrary to the literal injunc¬ 
 tions of the Qur’an, it is to the Traditions 
 rather than to the Qur’an that we must refer 
 for Muhammadan law on the subject of 
 faith, knowledge, purification, prayer, alms¬ 
 giving, fasting, marriage, barter, inheritance, 
 punishments, fate, duties of magistrates, reli¬ 
 gious warfare, lawful food, death, Day of 
 Judgment, &c., and each collection of tradi¬ 
 tions has sections devoted to these subjects; 
 so that it is upon these traditional sayings, 
 quite as much as upon the Qur’an itfelf, that 
 the religious and civil law of the Muslims is 
 based, both Shrah and Sunni appealing alike 
 to Tradition in support of their views. 
 
 When the Prophet was alive, men could go 
 direct to him with their doubts and difficul¬ 
 ties ; and an infallible authority was always 
 present to give “ inspired ” directions. But 
 after the deaths of all those who knew Mu¬ 
 hammad personally, it became absolutely 
 necessary to systematise the great mass of 
 traditional sayings then afloat amongst Mus¬ 
 lims, and thus various schools of jurispru¬ 
 dence were formed; the concurrent opinion 
 of those learned regarding matters of dispute 
 in Muslim law being called Ijma‘ [ijma‘]. 
 Upon this naturally followed the system of 
 analogical reasoning called Qiyas [qiyas] ; 
 thus constituting the four “ pillars ” or foun¬ 
 dations of Islam, known as the Qur'an, Hadis, 
 Ijma‘, and Qiyas. 
 
 Islam, whether it be Shi‘ah, Sunni, or Wah¬ 
 habi, is founded upon these four authorities, 
 and it is not true, as is so frequently asserted, 
 that the Shhahs reject the Traditions. They 
 merely accept different collections of Ahadls 
 to those received by the Sunnis and Wahha¬ 
 bis. Nor do the Wahhabis reject Ijma‘ and 
 Qiyas, but they assert that ljma‘ was only 
 possible in the earliest stages of Islam. 
 
 A study of the present work will show 
 what an elaborate system of dogma Muham¬ 
 madanism is. This system of dogma, toge¬ 
 ther with the liturgical form of worship, 
 has been formulated from the traditional say¬ 
 ings of Muhammad rather than from the 
 Qur’an itself. For example, the daily ritual, 
 with its purifications, which are such a pro¬ 
 minent feature in Islam, is entirely founded 
 on the Traditions, [prayer.] Circumcision 
 is not once mentioned in the Qur’an. 
 
 The Din, or religion of the Muslim, is 
 divided into Imdn, or “ Faith,” and ‘Amal, or 
 “ Practice.” 
 
 Faith consists in the acceptance of six 
 articles of belief :— 
 
 1. The Unity of God, 
 
 2. The Angels. 
 
 3. The Inspired Books, 
 
MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 4. The Inspired Prophets. 
 
 5. The Day of Judgment. 
 
 6. The Decrees of God. 
 
 Practical Religion consists in the obser¬ 
 vance of— 
 
 1. The recital of the Creed—“ There is no 
 deity but God, and Muhammad is the Prophet 
 of God.” 
 
 2. The five stated periods of prayer. 
 
 3. The thirty days fast in the month Ra¬ 
 mazan. 
 
 4. The payment of Zakat, or the legal alms. 
 
 5. The Hajj, or Pilgrimage to Makkah. 
 
 A belief in these six articles of faith, and 
 the observance of these five practical duties, 
 constitute Islam. He who thus believes and 
 acts is called a Mu'min , or “ believer but he 
 who rejects any article of faith or practice is 
 a Kafir , or “ infidel.” 
 
 Muhammadan theology, which is very ex¬ 
 tensive, is divided into— 
 
 1. The Qur’an and its commentaries. 
 
 2. The Traditions and their commentaries. 
 
 3. Usui, or expositions on the principles of 
 exegesis. 
 
 4. 1 Aqa’id , or expositions of scholastic theo¬ 
 logy founded on the six articles of faith. 
 
 5. Fiqh, or works on both civil and reli¬ 
 gious law. [theology.] 
 
 Muhammadanism is, therefore, a system 
 which affords a large field for patient study 
 and research, and much of its present energy 
 and vitality is to be attributed to the fact 
 that, in all parts of Islam, there are in the 
 various mosques students who devote their 
 whole lives to the study of Muslim divinity. 
 
 The two leading principles of Islam are 
 those expressed in its well-known creed, or 
 kalimah, namely, a belief in the absolute 
 unity of the Divine Being, and in the mis¬ 
 sion of Muhammad as the Messenger of the 
 Almighty, [kalimah.] 
 
 “ The faith,” says Gibbon, “ which he (Mu¬ 
 hammad) preached to his family and nation, 
 is compounded of an eternal truth and a 
 necessary fiction: That there is only one 
 God, and that Muhammad is the Apostle of 
 God.” (Roman Empire , vol. vi. p. 222.) 
 
 “ Mohammad’s conception of God,” says 
 Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole, “ has, I think, been 
 misunderstood, and its effect upon the people 
 consequently under-estimated. The God of 
 Islam is commonly represented as a pitiless 
 tyrant, who plays with humanity as on a 
 chessboard, and works out his game without 
 regard to the sacrifice of the pieces ; and there 
 is a certain truth in the figure. There is 
 more in Islam of the potter who shapes the 
 clay than of the father pitying his children. 
 Mohammad conceived of God as the Semitic 
 mind has always preferred to think of Him : 
 his God is the All-Mighty, the All-Knowing, 
 the All-Just. Irresistible Power is the first 
 attribute he thinks of: the Lord of the 
 Worlds, the Author of the Heavens and the 
 Earth, who hath created Life and Death, in 
 whose hand is Dominion, who maketh the 
 Dawn to appear and causeth the Night to 
 cover the Day, the Great, All-Powerful Lord 
 of the Glorious Throne; the thunder pro- 
 
 MuhaMmadanism 401 
 
 claimeth His perfection, the whole earth is 
 His handful, and the heavens shall be folded 
 together in His right hand. And with the 
 Power He conceives the Knowledge that 
 directs it to right ends. God is the Wise, the 
 Just, the True, the Swift in reckoning, who 
 knoweth every ant’s weight of good and of 
 ill that each man hath done, and who suf- 
 fereth not the reward of the faithful to 
 perish. 
 
 “‘God! There is no God but He, the 
 Ever-Living, the Ever-Subsisting. Slumber 
 seizeth Him not nor sleep. To Him belongeth 
 whatsoever is in the Heavens and whatsoever 
 is in the Earth. Who is he that shall inter¬ 
 cede with Him, save by his permission? He 
 knoweth the things that have gone before 
 and the things that follow after, and men 
 shall not compass aught of His knowledge, 
 save what He willeth. His throne compre- 
 hendeth the Heavens and the Earth, and the 
 care of them burdeneth Him not. And He is 
 the High, the Great.’— Kur-an, ii. 256. 
 
 “ But with this Power there is also the 
 gentleness that belongs only to great strength. 
 God is the Guardian over His servants, the 
 Shelterer of the orphan, the Guider of the 
 erring, the Deliverer from every affliction; in 
 His hand is Good, and He is the Generous 
 Lord, the Gracious, the Hearer, the Near-at- 
 Hand. Every soorah of the Kur-an begins 
 with the words, ‘ In the Name of God, the 
 Compassionate, the Merciful,’ and Mohammad 
 was never tired of telling the people how God 
 was Very-Forgiving, that His love for man 
 was more tender than the mother-bird for her 
 young. 
 
 “ It is too often forgotten how much there 
 is in the Kur-an of the loving-kindness of 
 God, but it must be allowed that these are 
 not the main thoughts in Mohammad’s teach¬ 
 ing. It is the doctrine of the Might of God 
 that most held his imagination, and that has 
 impressed itself most strongly upon Muslims 
 of all ages. The fear rather than the love of 
 God is the spur of Islam. There can be no 
 question which is the higher incentive to 
 good; but it is nearly certain that the love 
 of God is an idea .absolutely foreign to most 
 of the races that have accepted Islam, and to 
 preach such a doctrine would have been to 
 mistake the leaning of the Semitic mind. 
 
 “ The leading doctrine of Mohammad, then, 
 is the belief in One All-Powerful God. Islam 
 is the self-surrender of every man to the will 
 of God. Its danger lies in the stress laid on 
 the power of God, which has brought about 
 the stifling effects of fatalism. Mohammad 
 taught the foreknowledge of God, but he did 
 not lay down precisely the doctrine of Pre¬ 
 destination. He found it, as all have found 
 it, a stumbling-block in the way of man’s 
 progress. It perplexed him, and he spoke of 
 it, but often contradicted himself; and he 
 would become angry if the subject were 
 mooted in his presence : ‘ Sit not with a dis¬ 
 pute!' about fate,’ he said, ‘ nor begin a con¬ 
 versation with him.’ Mohammad vaguely re¬ 
 cognised that little margin of Free Will which 
 makes life not wholly mechanical. 
 
 51 
 
402 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 ‘ This doctrine of one Supreme God, to 
 whose will it is the duty of every man to 
 surrender himself, is the kernel of Islam, the 
 truth for which Mohammad lived and suf¬ 
 fered and triumphed. But it was no new 
 teaching, as he himself was constantly say¬ 
 ing. His was only the last of revelations. 
 Many prophets—Abraham, Moses, and Christ 
 —had taught the same faith before; hut 
 people had hearkened little to their words. 
 So Mohammad was sent, not different from 
 them, only a messenger, yet the last and 
 greatest of them, the ‘ seal of prophecy,’ the 
 ‘ most excellent of the creation of God.’ This 
 is the second dogma of Islam : Mohammad is 
 the Apostle of God. It is well worthy of 
 notice that it is not said, ‘ Mohammad is the 
 only apostle of God.’ Islam is more tolerant 
 in this matter than other religions. Its pro¬ 
 phet is not the sole commissioner of the Most 
 High, nor is his teaching the only true teach¬ 
 ing the world has ever received. Many other 
 messengers had been sent by God to guide 
 men to the right, and these taught the same 
 religion that was in the mouth of the preacher 
 of Islam. Hence Muslims reverence Moses 
 and Christ only next to Mohammad. All they 
 claim for their founder is that he was the last 
 and best of the messengers of the one God.” 
 (Introduction to Lane’s Selections, 2nd ed., 
 p. lxxix. et seqqi) 
 
 Islam does not profess to be a new religion, 
 formulated by Muhammad (nor indeed is it), 
 but a continuation of the religious principles 
 established by Adam, by Naoh, by Abraham, 
 by Moses, and by Jesus, as well as by other 
 inspired teachers, for it is said that God sent 
 not fewer than 313 apostles into the world 
 to reclaim it from superstition and infidelity. 
 The revelations of these great prophets are 
 generally supposed to have been lost, but 
 God, it is asserted, had retained all that is 
 necessary for man’s guidance in the Qur’an, 
 although, as a matter of fact, a very large pro¬ 
 portion of the ethical, devotional, and dog¬ 
 matic teaching in Islam, comes from the tra¬ 
 ditional sayings of Muhammad and not from 
 the Qui-’an itself, [traditions.] 
 
 In reading the different articles in the pre¬ 
 sent work, the reader cannot fail to be struck 
 with the great indebtedness of Muhammad to 
 the Jewish religion for the chief elements of 
 his system. Mr. Emanuel Deutsch has truly 
 remarked “ that Muhammadanism owes more 
 to Judaism than either to Heathenism or to 
 Christianity. It is not merely parallelisms, 
 reminiscences, allusions, technical terms, and 
 the like of Judaism, its lore and dogma and 
 ceremony, its Halacha, and its Haggadah, its 
 Law and Legend, which we find in the Qur’an ; 
 but we think Islam neither more nor less 
 than Judaism—as adapted to Arabia —plus 
 the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad. 
 Nay, we verily believe that a great deal of 
 such Christianity as has found its way into 
 the Qur’an, has found it through Jewish 
 channels.” (Literary Remains, p. 64.) 
 
 Its conception of God, its prophets, its 
 seven heavens and seven hells, its law of mar¬ 
 riage and divorce, its law of oaths, its puri- 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 fications and ritual, its festivals, are all of 
 marked Jewish origin, and prove that Tal¬ 
 mudic Judaism forms the kernel of Muham¬ 
 madanism, which even according to the 
 words of the founder, professed to be the 
 “ religion of Abraham.” See Surah iii. 60 : 
 “ Abraham was neither a Jew nor Christian, 
 but he was a Hanif, a Muslim.” Neverthe¬ 
 less, Muhammad, although he professed to 
 take his legislation from Abraham, incorpo¬ 
 rated into his system a vast amount of the 
 law of Moses. 
 
 The sects of Islam have become numerous ; 
 indeed, the Prophet is related to have pre¬ 
 dicted that his followers would be divided 
 into seventy-three. They have far exceeded 
 the limits of that prophecy, for, according to 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Qadir al-Jilani, there are at least 
 150. The chief sect is the Sunni, which is 
 divided into four schools of interpretation, 
 known after their respective founders, Hanafi, 
 Shafi‘i, Malaki, Hanbali. The Shi'ahs, who 
 separated from the so-called orthodox Sunnis 
 on the question of the Khalifate, maintaining 
 that ‘All and not Abu Bakr was the rightful 
 successor to Muhammad, are divided also 
 into numerous sects. [shi‘ah.] The Wah¬ 
 habis are a comparatively modern sect, who 
 are the Puritans of Islam, maintaining that 
 Islam has very far departed from the original 
 teaching of Muhammad, as expressed in the 
 Traditions. They consequently reject very 
 many of the so-called Ijtihad of the Sunnis, 
 and take the literal meaning of the Tradi¬ 
 tional sayings of the Prophet as the best 
 exposition of the Qur’an. 
 
 The SM‘ah sect is almost entirely confined 
 to Persia, although there are a few thousand 
 in Lucknow and other parts of India. Of the 
 Sunnis, the Hanafis are found chiefly in 
 Turkey, Arabia, India, and Central Asia, the 
 Shafhls in Egypt, and the Malakis in Mar- 
 rocco and Tunis. The Hanbali are a small 
 sect found in Arabia. Wahhabiism, as will 
 be seen upon reference to the article on the 
 subject, is a principle of reform which has 
 extended itself to all parts of Islam. It is 
 scarcely to be called a sect, but a school of 
 thought in Sunni Islam. 
 
 One hundred and seventy millions of the 
 human race are said to profess the religion of 
 Muhammad ; and, according to the late Mr. 
 Keith Johnstone’s computations, they are dis¬ 
 tributed as follows:-—In Europe, 5,974,000; 
 in Africa, 50,416,000 ; in Asia, 112,739,000. 
 
 Mr. W. S. Blunt divides 175 millions as 
 follows :—Turkey, Syria, and ‘Iraq, 22 mil¬ 
 lions ; Egypt, 5 millions ; North Africa, 18 
 millions; Arabia, 11J millions; Central 
 Africa, 11J millions ; Persia, 8 miillions ; India, 
 40 millions; Malays (Java), 30 millions; 
 China, 15 millions ; Central Asia, 11 millions ; 
 Afghanistan, 3 millions. No census having 
 been taken of any of these countries, except 
 India, the numbers are merely an approxi¬ 
 mation. Out of this supposed population of 
 Islam, 93,250 pilgrims were present at Mak- 
 kah in the year 1880. (Blunt’s Future of 
 Islam, p. 10.) 
 
 In some parts of the world—in Africa for 
 
MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 example — Muhammadanism is spreading; 
 and even in Borneo, and in other islands of 
 tho Indian Archipelago, we are told that it 
 has supplanted Hinduism. In Central Asia, 
 within the last twenty years, numerous vil¬ 
 lages of Shiaposh Kafirs have been forcibly 
 converted to Islam, and in Santalia and other 
 parts of India, the converts to Islam from the 
 aboriginal tribes are not inconsiderable. 
 
 But, although Muhammadanism has, per¬ 
 haps, gained in numerical strength within the 
 last few years, no candid Muslim will deny 
 that it has lost, and is still losing, its vital 
 power. Indeed, “ this want of faith and de¬ 
 cline in vitality ” are regarded as the signs of 
 the last days by many a devout Muslim. 
 
 In no Muhammadan state is Muslim law 
 administered in its strict integrity, and 
 even in the Sultan’s own dominion, some 
 of the most sacred principles of the Pro¬ 
 phet’s religion are set at naught by the 
 civil power ; and, as far as we can ascertain 
 (and we speak after a good deal of personal 
 research), the prevalence of downright infide¬ 
 lity amongst educated Muslims is unmistak¬ 
 able. “No intelligent man believes in the 
 teaching of the Muslim divines,” said a highly 
 educated Muhammadan Egyptian not long 
 ago ; “ for our religion is not in keeping with 
 the progress of thought.” The truth is, 
 the Arabian Prophet over-legislated, and, as 
 we now see in Turkey, it is impossible for 
 civilised Muhammadans to be tied hand and 
 foot by laws and social customs which were 
 intended for Arabian society as it existed 
 1,200 years ago; whilst, on the contrary, 
 Christianity legislates in spirit, and can there¬ 
 fore be adapted to the spiritual and social 
 necessities of mankind in the various stages 
 of human thought and civilisation. 
 
 Mr. Palgrave, in his Central and Eastern 
 Arabia, remarks :— 
 
 “ Islam is in its essence stationary, and was 
 framed thus to remain. Sterile like its God, 
 lifeless like its first principle and supreme 
 original in all that constitutes true life—for 
 life is love, participation, and progress, and of 
 these, the Coranic Deity has none—it justly 
 repudiates all change, all advance, all deve¬ 
 lopment. To borrow the forcible words of 
 Lord Houghton, the 1 written book ’ is there, 
 the 1 dead man’s hand,’ stiff and motionless ; 
 whatever savours of vitality is by that alone 
 convicted of heresy and defection. 
 
 “ But Christianity with its living and loving 
 God, Begetter and Begotten, Spirit and Move¬ 
 ment, nay more, a Creator made creature, 
 the Maker and the made existing in One, a 
 Divinity communicating itself by uninterrupted 
 gradation and degree, from the most intimate 
 union far off to the faintest irradiation, through 
 all that it has made for love and governs in 
 love ; One who calls His creatures not slaves, 
 not servants, but friends, nay sons, nay gods 
 —to sum up, a religion in whose seal and 
 secret ‘ God in man is one with man in God,’ 
 must also be necessarily a religion of vitality, 
 of progress, of advancement. The contrast 
 between it and Islam is that of movement 
 with fixedness, of participation with sterility, 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 403 
 
 of development with barrenness, of life with 
 petrifaction. Tho first vital principle and 
 the animating spirit of its birth must indeed 
 abide ever the same, but the outer form must 
 change with the changing days, and new off¬ 
 shoots of fresh sap and greenness be conti¬ 
 nually thrown out as witnesses to the vitality 
 within, else were the vine withered and the 
 branches dead. 
 
 “ I have no intention here — it would 
 be extremely out of place — of entering 
 on the maze of controversy, or discussing 
 whether any dogmatic attempt to reproduce 
 the religious phase of a former age is likely 
 to succeed. I only say that life supposes 
 movement and growth, and both imply 
 change; that to censure a living thing for 
 growing and changing is absurd; and that to 
 attempt to hinder it from so doing, by pin¬ 
 ning it down on a written label, or nailing it 
 to a Procrustean framework, is tantamount 
 to killing it altogether. 
 
 “ Now Christianity is living, and because 
 living must grow, must advance, must 
 change, and was meant to do so; onwards 
 and forwards is a condition of its very ex¬ 
 istence ; and I cannot but think that those 
 who do not recongnize this, show themselves 
 so far ignorant of its true nature and essence. 
 On the other hand, Islam is lifeless, and 
 because lifeless cannot grow, cannot advance, 
 cannot change, and was never intended so to 
 do; ‘ Stand still ’ is its motto and its most 
 essential condition.” ( Central and Eastern 
 Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.) 
 
 Mr. Stanley Lane Poole, in his Introduction 
 to Lane’s Selections, says :— 
 
 “ Islam is unfortunately a social system as 
 well as a religion ; and herein lies the great 
 difficulty of fairly estimating its good and its 
 bad influence on the world. It is but in the 
 nature of things that the teacher who. lays 
 down the law of the relation of man to God 
 should also endeavour to appoint the proper 
 relation between man and his neighbour. 
 ***** 
 
 “ Mohammad not only promulgated a reli¬ 
 gion ; he laid down a complete social system, 
 containing minute regulations for a man’s 
 conduct in all circumstances of life, with due 
 rewards or penalties according to his fulfil¬ 
 ment of these rules. As a religion, Islam is 
 great: it has taught men to worship one God 
 with a jmre worship who formerly worshipped 
 many gods impurely. As a social system, 
 Islam is a complete failure : it has misunder¬ 
 stood the relations of the sexes, upon which 
 the whole character of a nation’s life hangs, 
 and, by degrading women, has degraded each 
 successive generation of their children down 
 an increasing scale of infamy and corruption, 
 until it seems almost impossible to reach a 
 lower level of vice.” 
 
 Mr. W. E. H. Lecky remarks :— 
 
 “ In the first place, then, it must be ob¬ 
 served that the enthusiasm by which Maho¬ 
 metanism conquered the world, was mainly a 
 military enthusiasm. Men were drawn to it 
 at once, and without conditions, by the splen- 
 
404 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 clour of the achievements of its disciples, and 
 it declared an absolute war against all the 
 religions it encountered. Its history, there¬ 
 fore, exhibits nothing of the process of gra¬ 
 dual absorption, persuasion, compromise, and 
 assimilation, that are exhibited in the deal¬ 
 ings of Christianity with the barbarians. In 
 the next place, one of the great characte¬ 
 ristics of the Koran is the extreme care and 
 skill with which it labours to assist men in 
 realising the unseen. Descriptions, the most 
 minutely detailed, and at the same time the 
 most vivid, are mingled with powerful appeals 
 to those sensual jDassions by which the ima¬ 
 gination in all countries, but especially in 
 those in which Mahometanism has taken 
 root, is most forcibly influenced. In no other 
 religion that prohibits idols is the strain 
 upon the imagination so slight.” ( History of 
 the Rise and Influence of Rationalism, vol. i. 
 p. 223.) 
 
 “ This great religion, which so long rivalled 
 the influence of Christianity, had indeed 
 spread the deepest and most justifiable panic 
 through Christendom. Without any of those 
 aids to the imagination which pictures and 
 images can furnish, without any elaborate 
 sacerdotal organization, jn'eaching the purest 
 Monotheism among ignorant and barbarous 
 men, and inculcating, on the whole, an ex¬ 
 tremely high aud noble system of morals, it 
 spread with a rapidity, and it acquired a hold 
 over the minds of its votaries, which it is 
 probable that no other religion has altogether 
 equalled. It borrowed from Christianity that 
 doctrine of salvation by belief, which is per¬ 
 haps the most powerful impulse that can be 
 applied to the characters of masses of men, 
 and. it elaborated so minutely the charms of 
 its sensual heavens and the terrors of its 
 material hell, as to cause the alternative to 
 appeal with unrivalled force to the gross 
 imaginations of the people. It possessed a 
 book which, however inferior to that of the 
 opposing religion, has nevertheless been the 
 consolation and the support of millions in 
 many ages. It taught a fatalism which, in 
 its first age, nerved its adherents with a 
 matchless military courage, and which, 
 though in later days it has often paralysed 
 their active energies, has also rarely failed 
 to support them under the pressure of inevi¬ 
 table calamity. But, above all, it discovered 
 the great though fatal secret, of uniting in¬ 
 dissolubly the passion of the soldier with the 
 passion of the devotee. Making the conquest 
 of the infidel the first of duties, and proposing 
 heaven as the certain reward of the valiant 
 soldier, it created a blended enthusiasm that 
 soon overpowered the divided counsels and 
 the voluptuous governments of the East, and 
 within a century of the death of Muhammad, 
 his followers had almost extirpated Chris¬ 
 tianity from its original home, founded great 
 monarchies in Asia and Africa, planted a 
 noble, though transient and exotic, civilisa¬ 
 tion in Spain, menaced the capital of the 
 Eastern empire, and but for the issue of a 
 single battle, they would probably have ex¬ 
 tended their sceptre over the energetic and 
 
 progressive races of Central Europe. The 
 wave was broken by Charles Martel, at the 
 battle of Poictiers, and it is now useless to 
 speculate what might have been the conse¬ 
 quences, had Muhammadanism unfurled its 
 triumphant banner among those Teutonic 
 tribes, who have so often changed their creed, 
 and on whom the course of civilisation has 
 so largely depended.” ( Hist. of European 
 Morals, vol. ii. p. 266.) 
 
 “ The influence of Chatholicism was se¬ 
 conded by Muhammadanism, which on this 
 (suicide), as on many other points, borrowed 
 its teaching from the Christian Church, and 
 even intensified it; for suicide, which is never 
 expressly condemned in the Bible, is more 
 than once forbidden in the Qur’an, and the 
 Christian duty of resignation was exaggerated 
 by the Moslem into a complete fatalism. 
 Under the empire of Catholicism and Muham¬ 
 madanism, suicide, during many centuries, 
 almost absolutely ceased in all the civilised, 
 active and progressive part of mankind. 
 When we recollect how warmly it was ap¬ 
 plauded, or how faintly it was condemned in 
 the civilisations of Greece and Rome, when 
 we remember, too, that there was scarcely a 
 barbarous tribe from Denmark to Spain who 
 did not habitually practise it, we may realise 
 the complete revolution which was effected 
 in this sphere by the influence of Chris¬ 
 tianity.” (Hist, of European Morals, vol. ii. 
 p. 56.) 
 
 Major Durie Osborn says :— 
 
 “ When Islam penetrates to countries lower 
 in the scale of humanity than were the 
 Arabs of Muhammad’s day, it suffices to ele¬ 
 vate them to that level. But it does so at a 
 tremendous cost. It reproduces in its new 
 converts the characteristics of its first—their 
 impenetrable self-esteem, their unintelligent 
 scorn, and blind hatred of all other creeds. 
 And thus the capacity for all further advance 
 is destroyed; the mind is obdurately shut to 
 the entrance of any purer light. But it is a 
 grievous error to confound that transient 
 gleam of culture which illuminated Baghdad 
 under the first Abbaside khalifs with the legi¬ 
 timate fruits of Islam. When the Arabs 
 conquered Syria and Persia, they brought 
 with them no new knowledge to take the 
 place of that which had preceded them. 
 Mere Bedouins of the desert, they found 
 themselves all at once the masters of vast 
 countries, with everything to learn. They 
 were compelled to jout themselves to school 
 under the very people they had vanquished. 
 Thus the Persians and Syrians, conquered 
 though they were and tributary, from the 
 ignorance of their masters, retained in their 
 hands the control of the administrative ma¬ 
 chinery. The Abbaside khalifs were borne 
 into power by means of a Persian revolution, 
 headed by a Persian slave. Then began the 
 endeavour to root the old Greek philosophy, 
 and the deep and beautiful thoughts of 
 Zoroaster, on the hard and barren soil of Mu¬ 
 hammadanism. It was an impossible attempt 
 to make a frail exotic flourish on uncongenial 
 soil. It has imparted, indeed, a deceptive 
 
MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 405 
 
 lustre to this period of Muhammadan history ; 
 but the orthodox Muhammadans knew that 
 their faith and the wisdom of the Greeks could 
 not amalgamate, and they fought fiercely 
 against the innovators. Successive storms of 
 barbarians sweeping down from the north of 
 Asia, tore up the fragile plant by the roots, 
 and scattered its blossoms to the winds. The 
 new comers embraced the creed of the Koran 
 in its primitive simplicity; they hated and 
 repudiated the refinements which the Per¬ 
 sians would fain have engrafted on it. And 
 they won the day. The present condition of 
 Central Asia is the legitimate fruit of Islam; 
 not the glories of Baghdad, which were but 
 the afterglow of the thought and culture 
 which sank with the fall of the Sassanides, 
 and the expulsion of the Byzantine empe¬ 
 rors. So also in Moorish Spain. The blossom 
 and the fruitage which Muhammadanism 
 seemed to put forth thei'e were, in fact, due 
 to influences alien to Islam—to the intimate 
 contact, namely, with Jewish and Christian 
 thought; for when the Moors were driven 
 back into northern Africa, all that blossom 
 and fruitage withered away, and Northern 
 Africa sank into the intellectual darkness and 
 political anarchy in which it lies at the pre¬ 
 sent time. There are to be found in Muham¬ 
 madan history all the elements of greatness 
 —faith, courage, endurance, self-sacrifice; 
 but, closed within the narrow walls of a rude 
 theology and barbarous polity, from which 
 the capacity to grow and the liberty to 
 modify have been sternly cut off, they work 
 no deliverance upon the earth. They are strong 
 only for destruction. When that work is 
 over, they either prey upon each other, or 
 beat themselves to death against the bars 
 of their prison-house. No permanent dwell¬ 
 ing-place can be erected on a foundation of 
 sand; and no durable or humanising polity 
 upon a foundation of fatalism, despotism, 
 polygamy and slavery. When Muhammadan 
 states cease to be racked by revolutions, they 
 succumb to the poison diffused by a corrupt 
 moral atmosphere. A Darwesh, ejaculating 
 ‘ Allah ! ’ and revolving in a series of rapid 
 gyrations until he drops senseless, is an exact 
 image of the course of their history.” (Islam 
 under the Arabs, p. 93.) 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonel W. F. Butler, C.B., 
 remarks :— 
 
 “ The Goth might ravage Italy, but the 
 Goth came forth purified from the flames 
 which he himself had kindled. The 
 Saxon swept Britain, but the music of the 
 Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and 
 wooed him into less churlish habits. Visi¬ 
 goth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted 
 out their verocity in the very light of the 
 civilisation they had striven to extinguish. 
 Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the 
 Scythian waste, was touched and softened in 
 his wicker encampment amid Pannonian 
 plains ; but the Turk—wherever his scymitar 
 reached—degraded, defiled, and defamed ; 
 blasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and 
 Latin civilisation, until, when all had gone, he 
 sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for 
 
 two hundred years into hopeless decrepi¬ 
 tude.” (Good Words for September 1880.) 
 
 Literature on the subject of Muhamma¬ 
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 Muhamedis Impostures. W. Bedwell. 
 London ...... 1015 
 
 A Lytell Treatyse of the Turkes Law 
 called Alcoran. W. De Worde. Lon¬ 
 don. No date. 
 
 Mahomet Unmasked. W. Bedwell. 
 London ...... 1642 
 
 The Alcoran of Mahomet. Alex. 
 
 Ross. London.1642 
 
 Religion and Manners of Mahome¬ 
 tans. Joseph Pitts. Exon . . . 1704 
 
 History of the Saracens. S. Ockley. 
 
 London. 1708 
 
 Four Treatises by Reland and others. 
 London ...... 1712 
 
 The True Nature of the Imposture. 
 
 Dean Prideaux. London . . . 1718 
 
 Abulfeda. Translated into Latin. 
 
 J. Gagnier. London .... 1723 
 
 Muhammadanism Explained. Joseph 
 Morgan. London . . . .1723 
 
 Life of Mahomet. Count Boulain- 
 villiers. Translated. London . . 1731 
 
 Translation of Koran and Prelimi¬ 
 nary Discourse. G. Sale. London . 1734 
 
 Reflections on Mohammedism (sic.) 
 
 Anon. London.1735 
 
 The Morality of the East, extracted 
 from the Koran. Anon. London. . 1766 
 
 Roman Empire. E. Gibbon. London 1776 
 The Koran. Translated. Savary . 1782 
 
 Bampton Lectures. Rev. J. White. 
 
 Oxford.1784 
 
 The Hidayah. Translated by C. 
 Hamilton. London .... 1791 
 
 The Rise of Mahomet accounted for. 
 
 N. Alcock. London .... 1796 
 
 Life of Mahomet. Anon. London . 1799 
 
 The Mishkat. Translated by Mat¬ 
 thews. Calcutta .... 1809 
 
 History of Muhammedanism. C. 
 
 Mills. London.1817 
 
 Christianity compared with Hinduism 
 and Muhamadanism. London . . 1823 
 
 The Muhammedan System. Rev. W. 
 
 H. Mills.1828 
 
 Mahometanism Unveiled. Rev. C. 
 Forster. London .... 1829 
 
 An Apology for the Life of Moham¬ 
 med. G. Higgins. London . . . 1829 
 
 A Repin to Hiqqins. R. M. Beverley. 
 Beverley ...... 1829 
 
 Travels in Arabia. J. L. Burekhardt. 
 
 London.1829 
 
 Controversial Tracts. Rev. H. Martvn. 
 
 Edited by S. Lee. No date or place. 
 
 Animadversions on Higgins. Rev. 
 
 P. Inchbald. Doncaster . . . 1830 
 
 Notes on Bedouins and Wahhabis. 
 
 J. L. Burekhardt. London . . . 1830 
 
 Observations on the Musulmans. Mrs. 
 
 Meer Hasan Ali. London . . . 1832 
 
 Qanoon-e-Islam. Dr. Herklots. 
 London ...... 1832 
 
 History oj Muhammadanism. W. C. 
 
 Taylor. London . , , , . 1834 
 
406 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 MUHAMMADANISM 
 
 History of the Wahliabies. Sir H. J. 
 Brydges. London .... 
 
 Muhammedan Dynasties in Spain. 
 A1 Makkari. Translated. London 
 The Hero as Prophet. Thomas Car¬ 
 lyle. London ..... 
 
 Manners and Customs of the Modern 
 Egyptians. E. W. Lane. London 
 Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dic¬ 
 tionary. M. G. De Slane Translated. 
 London ...... 
 
 Selections from the Kur-dn. E. W. 
 Lane. London ..... 
 
 Life of Mohammed. Rev. George 
 Bush. New York .... 
 
 The Relation of Islam to the Gospel. 
 Dr. J. A. Moehler. Translated by J. P. 
 Menge. Calcutta .... 
 
 Life of Mahomet. Washington Ir¬ 
 ving. London ..... 
 
 Life of Mohammed. By Abulfeda. 
 Translated by Rev. W. Murray. Elgin. 
 No date. 
 
 Muhammadan Law of Sale. N. B. E. 
 Baillie. London ..... 
 
 Life of Mohammad. A Sprenger. 
 Calcutta ...... 
 
 Islamism, its Rise and Progress. F. A. 
 Neale. London ..... 
 
 Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Mecca. 
 R. F. Burton. London 
 
 Life of Mahomet. W. Muir. London 
 Mohammedan Religion Explained. 
 Rev. J. D. Macbride. London . 
 
 Ishmael. Rev. J. M. Arnold. Lon¬ 
 don ...... 
 
 Arabian Nights with Notes. E. W. 
 Lane. London ..... 
 
 Imposture instanced in the Life of 
 Mahomet. Rev. G. Akehurst. London 
 Testimony borne by the Koran. W. 
 Muir. Allahabad .... 
 
 Religions of Syria. Rev. John Wor- 
 tabet. London ..... 
 
 Muhammedan Commentary on the 
 Bible. Syed Ahmad. Ghazeepur 
 Digest of Muhammadan Law. Ha- 
 nifi Code. N. B. E. Baillie. London . 
 
 Food for Reflection. Rev. Dr. Koelle. 
 London ...... 
 
 Central and Eastern Arabia. W. G. 
 Palgrave. London .... 
 
 The Mizan ul Haqq. Dr. Pfander. 
 Translated. London .... 
 
 lin i Akbari of Abut Fazl. Trans¬ 
 lated. H. Blochman. Calcutta . 
 
 Notes on Islam. Rev. A. Brinckman. 
 London ...... 
 
 Digest of Muhammadan Law. Ima- 
 meea Code. N. B. E. Baillie. London 
 Law of Inheritance. S. G. Grady. 
 London ...... 
 
 Al Sirajiyyah. Translated. A. 
 
 Rumsey. London .... 
 
 Apology for Muhammad. John Da¬ 
 venport. London .... 
 
 Pilgrimage to Mecca. Begum of 
 Bhopal. London .... 
 
 Our Indian Musulmans. W. W. 
 Hunter. London .... 
 
 1834 
 
 1840 
 
 1840 
 
 1842 
 
 1843 
 
 1843 
 
 1844 
 
 1847 
 
 1850 
 
 1850 
 
 1851 
 
 1854 
 
 1855 
 
 1858 
 
 1859 
 1859 
 1859 
 
 1859 
 
 1860 
 1860 
 1862 
 1865 
 1865 
 1865 
 
 1867 
 
 1868 
 1868 
 1869 
 1869 
 1869 
 
 1869 
 
 1870 
 
 1871 
 
 On Dr. Hunter’s “ Indian Musul¬ 
 mans Syed Ahmed Khan . . 1871 
 
 The Koran Translated. Rev. J. M. 
 Rodwell. London .... 1871 
 
 Essays on the Life of Muhammad. 
 
 Syed Ahmed Khan. London . . 1871 
 
 Essays on Eastern Questions. W. G. 
 Palgrave. Loiidon . . . .1872 
 
 Manual of Laws. J. B. S. Boyle. 
 
 Lahore ...... 1873> 
 
 Life of Muhammad. Syed Ameer 
 
 Ali. London.1873 
 
 Tagore Lectures. Shama Churun 
 Sircar. Calcutta. .... 1873 
 
 Tagore Lectures. Shama Churun 
 Sircar. Calcutta..... 1874 
 
 Islam and Christianity. Rev. J. M. 
 
 Ai-nold. London ..... 1874 
 
 Mohammed and Mohammedanism. R. 
 Bosworth Smith. London . . . 1874 
 
 Essay on Islam. Emanuel Deutsch. 
 
 London ...... 1874 
 
 Islam under the Arabs. R. D. Os¬ 
 born. London . . . . 1876 
 
 Notes on Muhammadanism. Rev. 
 
 T. P. Hughes. London. 2nd ed. . 1877 
 
 Christianity and Islam. Rev. W. 
 
 R. W. Stephens. London . . . 1877 
 
 Islam and its Founder. J. W. H. 
 
 Stobart. London .... 1878 
 
 Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ. 
 
 Marcus Dods. London . . . 1878 
 
 Islam, its Origin , Genius, and Mis¬ 
 sion. J. J. Lake. London . . . 1878 
 
 Islam under the Khalifs of Baghdad. 
 
 R. D. Osborn. London . . . 1878 
 
 Lane's Selections from the Kuran. 
 
 New ed. S. L. Poole. London . . 1879 
 
 The Miracle Play of Hasan and 
 Husain. Sir Lewis Pelly. London . 1879 
 
 The Personal Law of Muhammedans. 
 
 Syed Ameer Ali. London . . . 1880 
 
 The Faith of Islam. Rev. E. Sell. 
 
 Madras ...... 1880 
 
 The Future of Islam. W. S. Blunt. 
 
 London.1880 
 
 The Quran. Translated. 2 vols. 
 
 Prof. E. H. Palmer. Oxford . . 1880 
 
 Commentary on the Quran. Rev. 
 
 E. M. Wherry. London . . . 1882 
 
 Reforms in Mohammadan States. 
 Moulvie Cheragh Ali. Bombay . 1883 
 
 Annals of the Early Caliphate. Sir 
 W. Muir. London .... 1883 
 
 Religio Turcia Mahometis vita. J. 
 Wallich. Stadae Suecorum . . 1659 
 
 Refutatio Al Corani. L. Marracio. 
 Patavii ...... 1698 
 
 Specimen Histories Arabum. E. Po- 
 cock. Oxon ..... 1750 
 
 Recueil desRites etC&Ononies du Pde- 
 rinage de la Mecque. Galland. Am¬ 
 sterdam ...... 1754 
 
 Bibliotheque Orientate. D’Herbelot. 
 Maestricht ...... 1776 
 
 Lettres sur I’Histoire des Arabes 
 avant I'Islamisme ..... 1836 
 
 Essai sur VHistoire des Arabes avant 
 I’Islamisme. A. P. Caussin de Percival 1848 
 
MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 407 
 
 Die Geisterlehre der Moslimen. Von 
 Hammer Purgstall. Wien . . . 1852 
 
 Geshichte des Qorans. T. Noldeke . 1860 
 
 Das Leben Mohammed's nach Ibn 
 Ishak. Bearbeitet von Ibn Hisckam, 
 by Weil ...... 1864 
 
 Mahomet et le Coran. T. B. de St. 
 
 Hilaire. Paris.1865 
 
 Geshichte der herrschenden Ideen des 
 Islams. A. von Kremer . . . 1868 
 
 Das Leben und die Lehre des Moham¬ 
 mad. A. Sprenger. Berlin . . 1869 
 
 L'lslamisme d’apres le Coran, Gar- 
 cin de Tassy. Paris .... 1874 
 
 Essai sur I'Histoire de l’lslamisme. 
 
 R. Dozy.1879 
 
 MUHARRAM Lit. “ That 
 
 ■which is forbidden.” Anything sacred. (1) 
 The first month of the Muhammadan year 
 [months.] (2) The first ten days of the 
 month, observed in commemoration of the 
 martyrdom of al-Husain, the second son of 
 Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter, by ‘All. 
 [al-husain.] These days of lamentation are 
 only observed by the Shhah Muslims, but 
 the tenth day of Muharram is observed by 
 the Sunnis in commemoration of its having 
 been the day on which Adam and Eve, 
 heaven and hell, the pen, fate, life and death, 
 were created, [ashuka’.] 
 
 The ceremonies of the Muharram differ 
 much in different places and countries. The 
 following is a graphic description of the 
 observance of the Muharram at Ispahan in 
 the year 1811, which has been taken, with 
 some slight alterations from Morier’s Second 
 Journey through Persia :— 
 
 The tragical termination of al-Husain’s life, 
 commencing with his flight from al-Madmah 
 and terminating with his death on the plain 
 of Karbala’, has been drawn up in the form 
 of a drama, consisting of several parts, of 
 which one is performed by actors on each 
 successive day of the mourning. The last 
 part, which is appointed for the Roz-i-Qatl, 
 comprises the events of the day on which he 
 met his death, and is acted with great pomp 
 before the King, in the largest square of the 
 city. The subject, which is full of affecting 
 incidents, would of itself excite great interest 
 in the breasts of a Christian audience; but 
 allied as it is with all the religious and 
 national feelings of the Persians, it awakens 
 their strongest passions. Al-Husain would 
 be a hero in our eyes; in theirs he is a 
 martyr. The vicissitudes of his life, his 
 dangers in the desert, his fortitude, his in¬ 
 vincible courage, and his devotedness at the 
 hour of his death, are all circumstances upon 
 which the Persians dwell with rapture, and 
 which excite in them an enthusiasm not to be 
 diminished by lapse of time. The celebra¬ 
 tion of this mourning keeps up in their minds 
 the remembrance of those who destroyed 
 him, and consequently their hatred for all 
 Musalmans who do not partake of their feel¬ 
 ings. They execrate Yazld and curse ‘Umar 
 with such rancour, that it is necessary to have 
 witnessed the scenes that are exhibited in 
 
 their cities to judge of the degree of fana¬ 
 ticism ■which possesses them at this time. I 
 have seen some of the most violent of them, 
 as they vociferated, “ 0 Husain ! ” walk about 
 the streets almost naked, with only their 
 loins covered, and their bodies streaming with 
 blood, by the voluntary cuts which they have 
 given to themselves, either as acts of love, 
 anguish, or mortification. Such must have 
 been the cuttings of which we read in Holy 
 Writ, which were forbidden to the Israelites 
 by Moses (Lev. xix. 28, Deut. xiv. 1), and 
 these extravagances, I conjecture, must re¬ 
 semble the practices of the priests of Baal, 
 who cried aloud and cut themselves after this 
 manner with knives and lancets, till the blood 
 gushed out upon them. 1 Kings xviii. 28; 
 see also Jeremiah xvi. 5, 6, and 7. 
 
 The preparations which w T ere made 
 throughout the city consisted in erecting 
 large tents, that are there called takiyah, in 
 the streets and open places, in fitting them 
 up with black linen, and furnishing them 
 with objects emblematical of the mourning. 
 These tents are erected either at the joint 
 expense of the district, or by men of conse¬ 
 quence, as an act of devotion; and all ranks 
 of people have a free access to them. The 
 expense of a takiyah consists in the hire of 
 a mulla, or priest, of actors and their clothes, 
 and in the purchase of lights. Many there 
 are who seize this opportunity of atoning for 
 past sins, or of rendering thanks to heaven 
 for some blessing, by adding charity to the 
 good act of erecting a takiyah, and distribute 
 gratuitous food to those who attend it. 
 
 Our neighbour Muhammad Khan had a 
 takiyah in his house, to which all the peojfie 
 of the district flocked in great numbers. 
 During the time of this assemblage we heard 
 a constant noise of drums, cymbals, and 
 trumpets. We remarked that besides the 
 takiyah in different open places and streets 
 of the town, a wooden pulpit, vuthout any ap¬ 
 pendage, was erected, upon -which a mulla, or 
 priest, was mounted, preaching to the people 
 who were collected around him. A European 
 ambassador, who is said to have intrigued 
 with Yazld in favour of al-Husain, was brought 
 forward to be an actor in one of the parts 
 of the tragedy, and the populace were in 
 consequence inclined to look favourably upon 
 us. Notwithstanding the excitation of the 
 public mind, we did not cease to take our 
 usual rides, and w T e generally passed unmo¬ 
 lested through the middle of congregations, 
 during the time of their devotions. Such 
 little scruples have they at our seeing their 
 religious ceremonies, that on the eighth night 
 of the Muharram the Grand Vizier invited 
 the whole of the embassy to attend his 
 takiyah. On entering the room we found a 
 large assembly of Persians clad in dark- 
 coloured clothes, which, accompanied with 
 their black caps, their black beards, and 
 their dismal faces, really looked as if they 
 were afflicting their souls. They neither 
 wore their dagggers, nor any parts of their 
 dress which they look upon as ornamental. 
 A mulla of high consideration sat next to the 
 
408 MUHARRAM 
 
 Grand Vizier, and kept him in serious con¬ 
 versation, whilst the remaining part of the 
 society communicated with each other in 
 whispers. After we had sat some time, the 
 windows of the room in which we were 
 seated were thrown open, and we then dis¬ 
 covered a priest placed on a high chair, 
 under the covering of a tent, surrounded by a 
 crowd of the populace; the whole of the 
 scene being lighted up with candles. He 
 commenced by an exordium, in which he 
 reminded them of the great value of each 
 tear shed for the sake of the Imam al- 
 Husain, which would be an atonement for a 
 past life of wickedness; and also informed 
 them with much solemnity, that whatsoever 
 soul it be that shall not be afflicted in the 
 same day, shall be cut off from among the 
 people. He then began to read from a book, 
 with a sort of nasal chaunt, that part of the 
 tragic history of al-Husain appointed for the 
 day, which soon produced its effect upon his 
 audience, for he scarcely had turned over 
 three leaves, before the Grand Vizier com- 
 
 MTJ3ARRAM 
 
 menced to shake his head to and fro, to utter 
 in a most piteous voice the usual Persian 
 exclamation of grief, “ Wahi! Wahi! Wahi!" 
 both of which acts were followed in a more 
 or less violent manner by the rest of the 
 audience. The chaunting of the mulla lasted 
 nearly an hour, and some parts of his story 
 were indeed pathetic, and well calculated to 
 rouse the feelings of a superstitious and lively 
 people. In one part of it, all the company 
 stood up, and I observed that the Grand 
 Vizier turned himself towards the wall, with 
 his hand extended before him, and prayed. 
 After the mulla had finished, a company of 
 actors appeared, some dressed as women, 
 who chaunted forth their parts from slips of 
 paper, in a sort of recitative, that was not 
 unpleasing even to our ears. In the very 
 tragical parts, most of them appeared to cry 
 very unaffectedly; and as I sat near the 
 Grand Vizier, and to his neighbour the priest, 
 I was witness to many real tears that fell 
 from them. In some of these mournful 
 assemblies, it is the custom for a mulla to 
 
 a muhahkam peocession in India. (By a Native Artist.) 
 
 go about to each person at the height of his 
 grief, with a piece of cotton in his hand, with 
 which he carefully collects the falling tears, 
 and which he then squeezes into a bottle, 
 preserving them with the greatest caution. 
 This practically illustrates that passage in the 
 56th Psalm, verse 8, “ Put thou my tears into 
 thy bottle.” Some Persians believe that in 
 the agony of death, when all medicines have 
 failed, a drop of tears so collected, jout into 
 the mouth of a dying man, has been known 
 to revive him; and it is for such use, that 
 they are collected. 
 
 On the Roz-i-Qatl, or day of martyrdom, 
 the tenth day, the Ambassador was invited by 
 the King to be present at the termination of 
 the ceremonies, in which the death of al- 
 Husain was to be represented. We set off 
 after breakfast, and placed ourselves in a 
 small tent, that was pitched for our accom¬ 
 modation over an arched gateway, which was 
 situated close to the room in which His 
 Majesty was to be seated. 
 
 We looked upon the great square which is 
 
 in front of the palace, at the entrance of 
 which we perceived a circle of Oajars, or 
 people of the King’s own tribe, who were 
 standing barefooted, and beating their breasts 
 in cadence to the chaunting of one yho stood 
 in the centre, and with whom they now and 
 then joined their voices in chorus. Smiting 
 the breast is a universal act throughout the 
 mourning ; and the breast is made bare for 
 that purpose, by unbuttoning the top of the 
 shirt. The King, in order to show his humi¬ 
 lity, ordered the Oajars, among whom were 
 many of his own relations, to walk about 
 without either shoes or stockings, to super¬ 
 intend the order of the different ceremonies 
 about to be performed, and they were to be 
 seen stepping tenderly over the stones, with 
 sticks in their hands, doing the duties of 
 menials, now keeping back a crowd, then 
 dealing out blows with their sticks, and set¬ 
 tling the order of the processions. 
 
 Part of the square was partitioned off by 
 an enclosure, which was to represent the 
 town of Karbala’, near which al-Husain was 
 
MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 409 
 
 put to death; and close to this were two 
 small tents, which were to represent his en¬ 
 campment in the desert with his family. A 
 wooden platform covered with carpets, upon 
 which the actors were to perform, completed 
 all the scenery used on the occasion. 
 
 A short time after we had reached our 
 tent, the King appeared, and although we 
 could not see him, yet wo were soon apprised 
 of his presence by all the people standing up, 
 and by the bowing of his officers. The pro¬ 
 cession then commenced as follows :—First 
 came a stout man, naked from the waist up¬ 
 wards, balancing in his girdle a long thick 
 pole, surmounted by an ornament made of 
 tin, curiously wrought with devices from the 
 Qur’an, in height altogether about thirty feet. 
 Then another, naked like the former, balanced 
 an ornamental pole in his girdle still more 
 ponderous, though not so high, upon which 
 
 a young darvesh resting his feet upon the 
 bearer’s girdle had placed himself, chaunting 
 , verses with all his might in praise of the 
 J King. After him a person of more strength 
 and more nakedness, a water carrier, walked 
 1 forwards, bearing an immense leather sack 
 filled with water slung over his back. This 
 | personage, we were told, was emblematical of 
 the great thirst which al-Husain suffered in 
 the desert. 
 
 A litter in the shape of a sarcophagus, 
 which was called Qabr-i-Husain, or the 
 tomb of al-Husain (a Tafziyah') succeeded, 
 borne on the shoulders of eight men. On its 
 | front was a large oval ornament entirely 
 covered with precious stones, and just above 
 it, a great diamond star. On a small projec¬ 
 tion were two tapers placed on candlesticks 
 enriched with jewels. The top and sides 
 were covered with Cashmere shawls, and on 
 
 THE MUHARRAM CEREMONIES IN THE IMAMBARAII OR TAKIAH IN INDIA. 
 
 (By a Native Artist .) 
 
 the summit rested a turban, intended to re¬ 
 present the head-dress of the Khallfah. On 
 each side w'alked two men bearing poles, 
 from which a variety of beautiful shawls 
 were suspended. At the top of which were 
 representations of al-Husain’s hand studded 
 with jewellery. 
 
 After this came four led horses, caparisoned 
 in the richest manner. The fronts of their 
 heads were ornamented with plates, entirely 
 covered with diamonds, that emitted a thou¬ 
 sand beautiful rays. Their bodies were 
 dressed with shawls and gold stuffs ; and on 
 their saddles were placed some objects emble¬ 
 matical of the death of al-Husain. When all 
 these had passed, they arranged themselves 
 in a row to the right of the King’s apart¬ 
 ment. 
 
 After a short pause, a body of fierce- 
 looking men, with only a loose white sheet 
 
 thrown over their naked bodies, marched 
 forwards. They were all begrimed with 
 blood ; and each brandishing a sword, they 
 sang a sort of a hymn, the tones of which 
 were very wild. These represented the 
 sixty-two relations, or the Martyrs, as the 
 Persians call them, who accompanied al- 
 Husain, and were slain in defending him. 
 Close after them was led a white horse, 
 covered with artificial wounds, with arrows 
 stuck all about him, and caparisoned in 
 black, rejiresenting the horse upon which al- 
 Husain w r as mounted when he was killed. A 
 band of about fifty men, striking two pieces 
 of wood together in their hands, completed 
 the procession. They arranged themselves 
 in rows before the King, and marshalled by a 
 maitre de ballet, who stood in the middle to 
 regulate their movements, they performed a 
 dance, clapping their hands in the best pos- 
 
 52 
 
410 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 sible time. The maitre de ballet all this time 
 sang in recitative, to which the dancers joined 
 at different intervals with loud shouts and 
 reiterated clapping of their pieces of wood. 
 
 MUHARRAM STANDARDS. 
 
 The two processions were succeeded by 
 the tragedians. Al-Husain came forward, 
 followed by his wives, sisters, and first 
 relatives. They performed many long and 
 
 Husain’s hand and standard. 
 
 tedious acts; but as our distance from the : 
 stage was too great to hear the many affect- I 
 ing things which they no doubt said to each ' 
 other, we will proceed at once to where the 
 
 unfortunate al-Husain lay extended on the 
 ground, ready to receive the death-stroke 
 from a ruffian dressed in armour, who acted 
 the part of executioner. At this moment a 
 burst of lamentation issued from the multi¬ 
 tude, and heavy sobs and real tears came 
 from almost every one of those who were 
 near enough to come under our inspection. 
 The indignation of the populace wanted some 
 object upon which to vent itself, and it fell 
 upon those of the actors who had performed 
 the part of Yazfd’s soldiers. No sooner was 
 al-Husain killed, than they were driven off 
 the ground by a volley of stones, followed by 
 shouts of abuse. We were informed that it 
 is so difficult, to procure performers to fill 
 these characters, that on the present occasion 
 a party of Russian prisoners were pressed 
 into the army of Yazld, and they made as 
 speedy an exit after the catastrophe as it was 
 in their power. 
 
 The scene terminated by the burning of 
 Karbala’. Several reed huts had been con¬ 
 structed behind the enclosure before men¬ 
 tioned, which of a sudden were set on fire. 
 The tomb of al-Husain was seen covered with 
 black cloth, and upon it sat a figure dis¬ 
 guised in a tiger’s skin, which was intended 
 to represent the miraculous lion, recorded to 
 have kept watch over his remains after he 
 had been buried. The most extraordinary 
 part of the whole exhibition was the repre¬ 
 sentation of the dead bodies of the martyrs : 
 who having been decapitated, were all placed 
 in a row, each body with a head close to it. 
 To effect this, several Persians buried them¬ 
 selves alive, leaving the head out just above 
 ground ; whilst others put their heads under 
 ground, leaving out the body. The heads 
 and bodies were placed in such relative posi¬ 
 tions to each other, as to make it appear that 
 they had been severed. This is done by way 
 of penance; but in hot weather, the violence 
 of the exertion has been known to produce 
 death. The whole ceremony was terminated 
 by a khutbah, or oration, in praise of al- 
 Husain. (Morier’s Second Journey through 
 Persia.) 
 
 “ The martyrdom of Hasan and Husain 
 is celebrated by the Shiahs all over India, 
 during the first ten days of the month of Mo- 
 hurrum. Attached to every Shiah’s house is 
 an Imambarrah, a hall or inclosure built ex¬ 
 pressly for the celebration of the anniversary 
 of the death of Husain. The enclosure is 
 generally arcaded along its side, and in most 
 instances it is covered in with a domed roof. 
 Against the side of the Imambarrah, directed 
 towards Mecca, is set the labut —also called 
 tazia (ta‘ziyah), or model of the tombs at Ker- 
 hela. In the houses of the wealthier Shiahs, 
 these tabuts are fixtures, and are beautifully 
 fashioned of silver and gold, or of ivory and 
 ebony, embellished all over with inlaid work. 
 The poorer Shiahs provide themselves with 
 a tabut made for the occasion of lath and 
 plaster, tricked out in mica and tinsel. A 
 week before the new moon of the Mohur- 
 rum, they enclose a space, called the tabut, 
 fchana, in which the tabut is prepared ; and 
 
MOHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 the very moment the new moon is seen, a 
 spade is struck into the ground before “ the 
 enclosure of the tombs,” where a pit is after¬ 
 wards dug, in which a bonfire is lighted, and 
 kept burning through all the ten days of the 
 Mohurrum solemnities. Those who cannot 
 afford to erect a tabut Tchana, or even to put 
 up a little tabut or taziah in their dwelling- 
 house, always have a Mohurrum fire lighted, 
 if it consist only of a night-light floating at 
 the bottom of an earthen pot or basin sunk 
 in the ground. It is doubtful whether this 
 custom refers to the trench of fire Husain 
 set blazing behind his camp, or is a survival 
 from the older Ashura (ten days) festival, 
 which is said to have been instituted in com¬ 
 memoration of the deliverance of the Hebrew 
 Arabs from Pharaoh and his host at the Red 
 Sea ; or from the yet more ancient Bael fire. 
 But, in India, these Mohurrum fires, especially 
 among the more ignorant populace, Hindus 
 as well as Mohammedans, are regarded with 
 the most superstitious reverence, and have a 
 greater hold on them even than the tabuts. 
 All day long the passers by stop before the 
 
 A MOHARRAM TABOT. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 fires and make their vows over them, and all 
 night long the crowds dance round them, and 
 leap through the flames and scatter about the 
 burning brands snatched from them. The 
 tabut is lighted up like an altar, with innu¬ 
 merable green wax candles, and nothing can 
 be more brilliant than the appearance of an 
 Imambarrah of white stone, or polished white 
 stucco, picked out in green, lighted up with 
 glass chandeliers, sconces, and oil-lamps, 
 arranged along the leading architectural lines 
 of the building, with its tabut on one side, 
 dazzling to blindness. Before the tabut are 
 placed the “ properties ” to be used by the 
 celebrants in the “ Passion Play,” the bows 
 and arrows, the sword and spear, and the 
 banners of Husain, &c.; and in front of it 
 is set a movable pulpit, also made of the 
 richest materials, and covered with rich bro¬ 
 cades in green and gold. Such is the theatre 
 in which twice daily during the first ten 
 days of the month of Mohurrum, the deaths 
 of the first martyrs of Islam are yearly com¬ 
 memorated in India. Each day has its special 
 solemnity, corresponding with the succession 
 of events during the ten days that Husain 
 was encamped on the fatal plain of Kerbela ; 
 but the prescribed order of the services in the 
 daily development of the great Shiah func¬ 
 tion of the Mohurrum would appear not to 
 
 411 
 
 be always strictly observed in Bombay.’’ 
 (Pelly’s Miracle Play of Hasan and Husain, 
 Preface, p. xvii.) 
 
 The drama, or “ Miracle Play ” which is 
 recited in Persia during the Muharram, has 
 been rendered into English by Colonel Sir 
 Lewis Pelly, K.C.B. (Allen & Co., 1879), from 
 which we take the death scene of al-Husain 
 on the battle-field of Karbala’, a scene which, 
 the historian Gibbon ( Decline and Fall, 
 vol. ix. ch. 311) says, “ in a distant age and 
 climate, will awaken the sympathy of the 
 coldest reader.” 
 
 “ llasain. —I am sore distressed at the un¬ 
 kind treatment received at the hands of the 
 cruel heavens. Pitiful tyranny is exercised 
 towards me by a cruel, unbelieving army! 
 All the sorrows and troubles of this world 
 have overwhelmed me ! I am become a butt 
 for the arrow of affliction and trouble. I am 
 a holy bird stript of its quills and feathers 
 by the hand of the archer of tyranny, and am 
 become, 0 friends, utterly disabled, and un¬ 
 able to fly to my sacred nest. They are going 
 to kill me mercilessly, for no other crime or 
 guilt except that I happen to be a prophet’s 
 grandson. 
 
 “ Shimar (challenging him). —0 Husain, why 
 dost thou not appear in the field ? Why dost 
 not thy majesty show thy face in battle ? 
 How long art thou going to sit still without 
 displaying thy valour in war ? Why dost 
 thou not put on thy robe of martyrdom and 
 come forth ? If thou art indeed so magnani¬ 
 mous as not to fear death, if thou carest not 
 about the whistling sounds of the arrows 
 when let fly from the bow, mount thou, 
 quickly, thy swift horse named Zvt’l janah, 
 and deliver thy soul from so many troubles. 
 Yea, come to the field of battle, be it as it 
 may. Enter soon among thy women, and 
 with tears bid them a last farewell; then 
 come forth to war, and show us thy great 
 fortitude. 
 
 “ Husain ( talking to himself). —Although 
 the accursed fellow, Shimar, will put me to 
 death in an hour’s time, yet the reproachful 
 language of the enemy seems to be worse 
 than destruction itself. It is better that the 
 foe should sever my head cruelly from the 
 body, than make me hear these abusive words. 
 What can I do ? I have no one left to help 
 me, no Kasim to hold my stirrup for a minute 
 when about to mount All are gone ! Look 
 around if thou canst find anyone to defend 
 the descendant of Muhammad, the chosen of 
 God—if thou canst see any ready to assist 
 the holy family of God’s Prophet! In this 
 land of trials there is no kind protector to 
 have compassion on the household of the 
 Apostle of God, and befriend them. 
 
 “ Zainab. —May I be offered for the sad 
 tones of thy voice, dear brother! Time has 
 thrown on my head the black earth of sorrow, 
 It has grieved me to the quick. Wait, bro¬ 
 ther, do not go till thy Kasim arrives. Have 
 patience for a minute, my ’All Akbar is 
 coming. 
 
 “ Husain (looking around). —Is there one 
 who wishes to please God, his Maker? Is 
 
412 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 there any willing to behave faithfully towards 
 his real friends? Is there a person ready to 
 give up his life for our sake, to save us, to 
 defend us in this dreadful struggle of Kar¬ 
 bala ? 
 
 “ Zainab. —0 Lord, Zainab’s brother has 
 no one to assist or support him! Occasions 
 of his sorrows are innumerable, without any¬ 
 one to sympathise with him in the least ? 
 Sad and desolate, he is leaning on his spear ! 
 He has bent his neck in a calamitous manner; 
 he has no famous ’Ah' Akbar, no renowned 
 ’Abbas any more! 
 
 “ Husain. —Is there anyone to pity our con¬ 
 dition, to help us in this terrible conflict of 
 Karbala? Is there a kind soul to give us a 
 hand of assistance for God’s sake ? 
 
 “ Zainab. —Brave cavalier of Karbala, it is 
 not fitting for thee to be so hurried. Go a 
 little more slowly ; troubles will come quickly 
 enough. Didst thou ever say thou hadst a 
 Zainab in the tent ? Is not this poor creature 
 weeping and mourning for thee ? 
 
 “ The Imam Husain. —Dear sister, thou 
 rest of my disquieted, broken heart, smite on 
 thy head and mourn, thou thousand-noted 
 nightingale. To-day I shall be killed by the 
 ignoble Shimar. To-day shall the rose be 
 turned out of its delightful spot by the tyranny 
 of the thistle. Dear sister, if any dust hap¬ 
 pen to settle on the rosy cheeks of my lovely 
 daughter Sukainah, be pleased to wash it 
 away most tenderly with the rose-water of 
 thy tears ? My daughter has been accus¬ 
 tomed to sit always in the dear lap of her 
 father whenever she wished to rest; for my 
 sake, receive and caress her in thy bosom. 
 
 “ Zainab. —0 thou intimate friend of this 
 assembly of poor afflicted strangers, the 
 flaming effect of thy speech has left no rest 
 in my mind. Tell me, what have we done 
 that thou shouldest so reward us ? Who is 
 the criminal among us for whose sake we 
 must suffer thus ? Take us back, brother, to 
 Madinah, to the sacred monument of our 
 noble grandfather; let us go home, and live 
 like queens in our own country. 
 
 “ Husain. — 0 my afflicted, distressed, tor¬ 
 mented sister, would to God there were a way 
 of escape for me! Notwithstanding they 
 have cruelly cut down the cypress-like stature 
 of my dear son ’All Akbar; notwithstanding 
 Kasim my lovely nephew tinged himself with 
 his own blood ; still they are intent to kill me 
 also. They do not allow me to go back from 
 ’Irak, nor do they let me turn elsewhere. 
 They will neither permit me to go to India, 
 nor the capital of China. I cannot set out 
 for the territory of Abyssinia, or take refuge 
 in Zanzibar. 
 
 “ Zainab.— Oh, how am I vexed in my mind, 
 dear brother, on hearing these sad things! 
 May I die, rather than listen to such affect¬ 
 ing words any more! What shall we, an 
 assembly of desolate widows and orphans, do 
 after thou art gone ? Oh! how can we 
 live ? 
 
 “ Husain. —0 miserable creature, weep not 
 now, nor be so very much upset; thou shaft 
 cry plentifully hereafter, owing to the wicked¬ 
 
 ness of time. When the wicked Shimar shall 
 sever my head from the body; when thou 
 shalt be made a captive prisoner, and forced 
 to ride on an unsaddled camel ; when my 
 body shall be trampled under foot by the 
 enemy’s horses, and trodden under their 
 hoofs; wheu my beloved Sukainah shall be 
 cruelly struck by Shimar, my wicked mur¬ 
 derer ; when they shall lead thee away cap¬ 
 tive from Karbala to Sham; and when they 
 shall make thee and others live there in a 
 horrible, ruined place ; yea, when thou shalt 
 see all this, then thou mayest, and verily wilt, 
 cry. But I admonish thee, sister, since this 
 sad case has no remedy but patience, to re¬ 
 sign the whole matter, submissively, to the 
 Lord, the good Maker of all! Mourn not for 
 my misfortune, but bear it patiently, without 
 giving occasion to the enemy to rejoice 
 triumphantly on this account, or speak re¬ 
 proachfully concerning us. 
 
 “ Kulsum. —Thou struttest about gaily, 0 
 Husain, thou beloved of my heart. Look a 
 little behind thee ; see how Kulsum is sighing 
 after thee with tearful eyes ! I am strewing 
 pearls in thy way, precious jewels from the 
 sea of my eyes ! Let me put my head on 
 the hoof of thy winged steed, Zu'l janah. 
 
 “ Husain. —Beloved sister, kindle not a fire 
 in my heart by so doing. Take away thy 
 head from under the hoof of my steed. 0 
 thousand-noted nightingale, sing not such a 
 sad-toned melody. I am going away; be 
 thou the kind keeper of my helpless ones. 
 
 “ Kulsum. —Behold what the heavens have 
 at length brought on me! what they have 
 done also to my brother! Him they have 
 made to have parched lips through thirst, 
 and me they have caused to melt into water, 
 and gush out like tears from the eyes! 
 Harsh severity is mingled wuth tyrannous 
 cruelty. 
 
 “ Husain. —Trials, afflictions, and pains, 
 the thicker they fall on man, the better, dear 
 sister, do they prepare him for his journey 
 heavenward. We rejoice in tribulations, 
 seeing they are but temporary, and yet they 
 work out an eternal and blissful end. Though 
 it is predestined that I should suffer martyr¬ 
 dom in this shameful manner, yet the trea¬ 
 sury of everlasting happiness shall be at my 
 disposal as a consequent reward. Thou 
 must think of that, and be no longer sorry. 
 The dust raised in the field of such battles 
 is as highly esteemed by me, 0 sister, as the 
 philoso23her’s stone was, in former times, by 
 the alchemists ; and the soil of Karbala is 
 the sure remedy of my inward pains. 
 
 “ Kulsum. —May I be sacrificed for thee 1 
 Since this occurrence is thus inevitable, I 
 pray thee describe to thy poor sister Kulsum 
 her duty after thy death. Tell me, where 
 shall I go, or in what direction set my face ? 
 What am I to do ? and which of thy orphan 
 children am I to caress most ? 
 
 “ Husain. —Show thy utmost kindness, good 
 sister, to Sukainah, my darling girl, for the 
 pain of being fatherless is most severely felt 
 by children too much fondled by their 
 parents, esj:>ccially girls. I have regard to 
 
MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 all my children, to be sure, but I love 
 Sukainah most. 
 
 “ An old Female Skive of Husain's mother. 
 —Dignified master, I am sick and weary in 
 heart at the bare idea of separation from 
 thee. Have a kind regard to me, an old slave, 
 much stricken with age ! Master, by thy 
 soul do I swear that I am altogether weary 
 of life. I have grown old in thy service ; 
 pardon me, please, all the faults ever com¬ 
 mitted by me. 
 
 “ Husain. —Yes, thou hast served us, in¬ 
 deed, for a very long time. Thou hast 
 shown much affection and love toward me 
 and my children, 0 handmaid of my dear 
 mother Fatimah; thou hast verily suffered 
 much in our house : how often didst thou 
 grind corn with thine own hand for my 
 mother! Thou hast also dandled Husain 
 most caressingly in thy arms. Thou art 
 black-faced, that is true, but thou hast, I 
 opine, a pure white heart, and art much 
 esteemed by us. To-day I am about to leave 
 thee, owing thee, at the same time, innu¬ 
 merable thanks for the good services thou 
 hast performed; but I beg thy pardon for all 
 inconsiderate actions on my part. 
 
 f: 1'he Maid. —May I be a sacrifice for 
 thee, thou royal ruler of the capital of faith ! 
 turn not my days black, like my face, thou 
 benevolent master. Truly I have had many 
 troubles on thy behalf. How many nights 
 have I spent in watchfulness at thy cradle 1 
 At one moment I would caress thee in my 
 arms, at another I would fondle thee in my 
 bosom. I became prematurely old by my dili¬ 
 gent service, 0 Husain ! Is it proper now 
 that thou shouldst put round my poor neck 
 the heavy chain of thy intolerable absence ? 
 Is this, clear master, the reward of the ser¬ 
 vices I have done thee ? 
 
 “ Husain. —Though thy body, 0 maid, is 
 now broken clown by age and infirmity, yet 
 thou hast served us all the days of thy life 
 with sincerity and love ; thou must know, 
 therefore, that thy diligence and vigilance 
 will never be disregarded by us. Excuse me 
 to-day, when I am offering my body and soul 
 in the cause of God, and cannot help thee at 
 all; but be sure I will fully pay the reward 
 of thy services in the day of universal 
 account. 
 
 “ The Maid. —Dost thou remember, good 
 sir, how many troubles I have suffered with 
 thee for the dear sake of ’Ah' Akbar, the 
 light of thine eyes ? Though I have not 
 suckled him with my own breasts, to be sure, 
 yet I laboured hard for him till he reached 
 the age of eighteen years and came here to 
 Karbala. But, alas! dear flourishing ’All 
 Akbar has been this day cruelly killed—what 
 a pity I and I strove so much for his sake, 
 yet all, as it were, in vain. Yea, what a sad 
 loss! 
 
 “ Husain. —Speak not of my ’Ah' Akbar 
 any more, 0 maiden, nor set fire to the 
 granary of my patience and make it flame. 
 (Turning to his sister .) Poor distressed 
 Zainab, have the goodness to be kind always 
 to my mother’s old maid, for she has expe- 
 
 413 
 
 rienced many troubles in our family ; she has 
 laboured hard in training ’All Akbar my 
 son. 
 
 “ Umvi Lailah (the mother of'All Akbar ).— 
 The elegant stature of my Akbar fell on the 
 ground; like as a beautiful cypress tree it 
 was forcibly felled I Alas for the memory of 
 thy upright stature I Alas, 0 my youthful 
 son of handsome form and appearance ! Alas 
 my troubles at night-time for thee ! How 
 often did I watch thy bed, singing lullabies 
 for thee until the morning! How sweet is 
 the memory of those times ! yea, how plea¬ 
 sant the very thought of those days ! Alas ! 
 where art thou now, dear child ? 0 thou 
 
 who art ever remembered by mo, come and 
 see thy mother’s wretched condition, come ! 
 
 “ Husain. —0 Lord, why is this mournful 
 voice so affecting ? Methinks the owner of 
 it, the bemoaning person, has a flame in her 
 heart. It resembles the doleful tone of a 
 lapwing whose wings are burned! like as 
 when a miraculous lapwing, the companion of 
 Solomon the wise, the king of God’s holy 
 people, received intelligence suddenly about 
 the death of its royal guardian! 
 
 “ Umm Lailah.— Again I am put in mind of 
 my dear son ! 0 my heart, melted into blood, 
 pour thyself forth ! Dear son, whilst thou 
 wast alive, I had some honour and respect, 
 everybody had some regard for me; but 
 since thou art gone, I am altogether aban¬ 
 doned. Woe be to me ! woe be to me 1 I am 
 despised and rejected. Woe unto me! woe 
 unto me ! 
 
 “ Husain. —Do not set fire to the harvest 
 of my soul any further. Husain is, before 
 God, greatly ashamed of his shortcomings 
 towards thee. Come out from the tent, for 
 it is the last meeting previous to separating 
 from one another for ever; thy distress is an 
 additional weight to the heavy burden of my 
 grief. 
 
 “ The Mother of 'AH Akbar. —I humbly 
 state it, 0 glory of all ages, that I did not 
 expect from thy saintship that thou wouldest 
 disregard thy handmaid in such a way. Thou 
 dost show thy kind regard and favour to all 
 except me. Dost thou not remember my 
 sincere services done to thee ? Am I not by 
 birth a descendant of the glorious kings of 
 Persia, brought as a captive to Arabia when 
 the former empire fell and gave place to the 
 new-born monarchy of the latter kingdom ? 
 The Judge, the living Creator, was pleased to 
 grant me an offspring, whom we called ’Ah' 
 Akbar, this day lost to us for ever. May I 
 be offered for thee ! While ’All Akbar my 
 son was alive, I had indeed a sort of esteem 
 and credit with thee; but now that my 
 cypress, my newly-sprung-up cedar, is un¬ 
 justly felled, I have fallen from credit too, 
 and must therefore shed tears. 
 
 “ Husain.- —Be it known unto thee, 0 thou 
 violet of the flower-garden of modesty, that 
 thou art altogether mistaken. I swear by the 
 holy enlightened dust of my mother Zanrah’s 
 grave, that thou art more honourable and 
 dearer now than ever. I well remember the 
 affectionate recommendations ©f ’Ah' Akbar, 
 
414 
 
 M17HARRAM 
 
 MtJHAERAM 
 
 our son, concerning thee. How much he was 
 mindful of thee at the moment of his parting! 
 How tenderly he cared for thee, and spoke 
 concerning thee to every one of his family! 
 
 “ 'AH A/cbar's Mother. —0 gracious Lord, I 
 adjure thee, by the merit of my son, ’Ah' 
 Akbar, never to lessen the shadow of Husain 
 from over my head. May no one ever be in 
 my miserable condition—never be a desolate, 
 homeless woman, like me ! 
 
 “ Husain. —0 thou unfortunate Zainab, my 
 sister, the hour of separation is come ! The 
 day of joy is gone for ever ! the night of 
 affliction has drawn near 1 Drooping, wither¬ 
 ing sister, yet most blest in thy temper, I : 
 have a request from thee which I fear to j 
 make known. 
 
 “ Zainab. —May I be a sacrifice for thy 
 heart, thou moon-faced, glorious sun! there 
 is nobody here, if thou hast a private matter 
 to disclose to thy sister. 
 
 “ Husain. —Dear unfortunate sister, who j 
 art already severely vexed in heart, if I tell 
 thee what my request is, what will be thy 
 condition then ? Though I cannot restrain 
 myself from speaking, still I am in doubt as 
 to which is better, to speak, or to forbear. 
 
 “ Zainab. —My breast is pierced ! My 
 heart boils within me like a cauldron, owing 
 to this thy conversation. Thou soul of thy 
 sister, hold not back from Zainab what thou 
 hast in thy mind. 
 
 “ Husain. —My poor sister, I am covered 
 with shame before thee, I cannot lift up my 
 head. Though the request is a trifle, yet I 
 know it is grievous to thee to grant. It is 
 this ; bring me an old, dirty, ragged garment 
 to put on. But do not ask me, I pray thee, 
 the reason why, until I myself think it proper 
 to tell thee. 
 
 “ Zainab. —I am now going to the tent to 
 fetch thee what thou seekest; but I am 
 utterly astonished, brother, as to why thou 
 dost want this loathsome thing. ( Returning 
 with a tattered shirt.) Take it, here is the 
 ragged robe for which thou didst ask. I 
 wonder what thou wilt do with it. 
 
 “ Husain. —Do not remain here, dear sister. 
 Go for awhile to thine own tent; for if thou 
 see that which I am about to do, thou wilt be 
 grievously disturbed. Turn to thy tent, poor 
 miserable sister, listen to what I say, and 
 leave me, I pray thee, alone. 
 
 “ Zainab (going away). —I am gone, but I 
 am sorry I cannot tell what this enigma 
 means. It is puzzling indeed ! Remain thou 
 with thy mysterious coat, 0 Husain ! May 
 all of us be offered as a ransom for thee, deal- 
 brother ! Thou art without any to assist or 
 befriend thee ! Thou art surrounded by the 
 wicked enemy ! Yes, thy kind helpers have 
 all been killed by the unbelieving nation ! 
 
 “ Husain (putting on the garment). —The 
 term of life has no perpetual duration in 
 itself. Who ever saw in a flower-garden a 
 rose without its thorn I I will put on this old 
 robe close to my skin, and place over it my 
 new apparel, though neither the old nor the 
 new of this world can be depended on. I 
 hope Zainab has not been observing what I 
 
 have been doing, for, poor creature, she can 
 scarcely bear the sight of any such like 
 thing. 
 
 “ Zainab. —Alas! I do not know what is 
 the matter with Husain, my brother. What 
 has an old garment to do with being a king? 
 Dost thou desire, 0 Husain, that the enemy 
 should come to know this thing and reproach 
 thy sister about it? Put off, I pray thee, 
 this old ragged garment, otherwise I shall 
 pull off my head-dress, and uncover my head 
 for shame. 
 
 “ Husain. —Rend not thy dress, modest 
 sister, nor pull off thy head-covering. There 
 is a mystery involved in my action. Know 
 that what Husain has done has a good mean¬ 
 ing in it. His putting on an old garment is 
 not without its signification. 
 
 “ Zainab. —What mystery can be in this 
 work, thou perfect high priest of faith? I 
 will never admit any until thou shalt have 
 fully explained the thing according to my 
 capacity. 
 
 “ The Imam. —To-day, dear sister, Shimar 
 will behave cruelly towards me. He will 
 sever my dear head from the body. His 
 dagger not cutting my throat, he will be 
 obliged to sever my head from behind. After 
 he has killed me, when he begins to strip me 
 of my clothes, he may perchance be ashamed 
 to take off this ragged robe and thereby leave 
 my body naked on the ground. 
 
 “ Zainab. —0 Lord, have mercy on my 
 distracted heart! Thou alone art aware of 
 the state of my mind. Gracious Creator, 
 preserve the soul of Husain! Let not heaven 
 pull down my house over me ! 
 
 “ Sulcainah. —Dear father, by our Lord it is 
 a painful thing to be fatherless; a misery, a 
 great calamity to be helpless, bleeding in the 
 heart, and an outcast! Dismount from the 
 saddle, and make me sit by thy side. To pass 
 over me or neglect me at such a time is very 
 distressing. Let me put my head on thy 
 dear lap, 0 father. It is sad thou shouldst 
 not be aware of thy dear child’s condition. 
 
 “ Husain. —Bend not thy neck on one side, 
 thou my beloved child; nor weep so sadly, 
 like an orphan. Neither moan so melodiously, 
 like a disconsolate nightingale. Come, lay 
 thy dear head on my knees once more, and 
 shed not so copiously a flood of tears from 
 thine eyes, thou spirit of my life. 
 
 “ Sulcainah. —Dear father, thou whose lot is 
 but grief, have mercy on me,mercy ! 0 thou 
 
 my physician in every pain and trouble, have 
 pity on me! have pity on me ! Alas, my 
 heart, for the mention of the word separa¬ 
 tion ! Alas, my grievance, for what is 
 unbearable! 
 
 “ Husain. —Groan not, wail not, my dear 
 Sukainah, my poor oppressed, distressed girl. 
 Go to thy tent and sleep soundly in thy bed 
 until thy father gets thee some water to 
 drink. 
 
 “ Zainab. —Alas ! alas ! woe to me ! my 
 Husain is gone from me! Alas! alas ! the 
 arrow of my heart is shot away from the 
 hand ! Woe unto me, a thousand woes I I 
 am to remain without Husain! The wor- 
 
MUHARRAM 
 
 shipper of truth is gone to meet his destined 
 fate with a blood-stained shroud! 
 
 “ Husain. —My disconsolate Zainab, be not 
 so impatient. My homeless sister, show not 
 thyself so fretful. Have patience, sister, the 
 reward of the patient believers is the best of 
 all. Render God thanks, the crown of inter¬ 
 cession is fitted for our head only. 
 
 “ Zainab. —0 my afflicted mother, thou best 
 of all women, pass a minute by those in Kar¬ 
 bala I see thy daughters prisoners of sorrow! 
 behold them amidst strangers and foreigners. 
 Come out awhile from thy pavilion in Para¬ 
 dise, 0 Fatimah, and weep affectionately over 
 the state of us, thy children! 
 
 “ Husain. —I have become friendless and 
 without any helper, in a most strange manner. 
 I have lost my troop and army in a wonderful 
 way. Where is Akbar my son? let him come 
 to me and hold the bridle of my horse, that I 
 may mount. Where is Kasim my nephew ? 
 will he not help me and get ready my stirrup 
 to make me cheerful ? Why should I not 
 shed much blood from mine eyes, seeing I 
 cannot behold ’Abbas my standard-bearer ? 
 A brother is for the day of misfortune and 
 calamity 1 A brother is better than a hundred 
 diadems and thrones! A brother is the essence 
 of life in the world ! He who has a brother, 
 though he be old, yet is young. "Who is there 
 to bring my horse for me? there is none. 
 There is none even to weep for me in this 
 state of misery ! 
 
 “ Kulsum. —Because there is no ’All' Akbar, 
 dear brother, to help thee, Zainab, thy sister, 
 will hold the horse for thee ; and seeing 
 ’Abbas, thy brother, is no longer to be found, 
 I myself will bear the standard before thy 
 winged steed instead of him. 
 
 “ Zainab. —Let Zainab mourn bitterly for 
 her brother’s desolation. Who ever saw a 
 woman, a gentlewoman, doing the duty of a 
 groom or servant ? Who can know, 0 Lord, 
 besides Thee, the sad state of Husain in Kar¬ 
 bala, where his people so deserted him that a 
 woman like myself is obliged to act as a ser¬ 
 vant for him? 
 
 “ Kulsum. —I am a standard-bearer for 
 Husain, the martyr of Karbala, O Lord God. 
 I am the sister of ’Abbas ; yea, the miserable 
 sister of both. 0 friends, it being the tenth 
 day of Muharram, I am therefore assisting 
 Husain. I am bearing the ensign for him 
 instead of ’Abbas my brother, his standard- 
 bearer. 
 
 “ Zainab. —Uncover your breasts a minute, 
 0 ye tear-shedding people, for it is time to 
 beat the drum, seeing the king is going to 
 ride. 0 Solomon the Prophet, where is thy 
 glory? what has become of thy pompous 
 letinue? Where are thy brothers, nephews, 
 and companions ? 
 
 “ Husain. —-There are none left to help me. 
 My sister Zainab holds the bridle of the horse, 
 and walks before me. Who ever saw a lady 
 acting thus ? 
 
 “ Zainab. —Thou art going all alone ! May 
 the souls of all be a ransom for thee! and 
 may thy departure make souls quit their 
 bodies! A resurrection will be produced 
 
 MUHARRAM 415 
 
 in thy tent by the cry of orphans and 
 widows. 
 
 “ Husain. —Sister, though it grieves me to 
 go, yet I do it; peradventure I may see the 
 face of Ashgar and the countenance of Akbar, 
 those cypresses, those roses of Paradise. 
 
 “ Zainab. —Would to God Zainab had died 
 this very minute before thy face, in thy sight, 
 that she might not behold such elegant 
 bodies, such beautiful forms, rolling in their 
 own blood ! 
 
 “ Husain. —0 poor sister, if thou die here 
 in this land in that sudden way that thou 
 desirest, then who will ride in thy stead, in 
 the city of Kufah, on the camel’s back ? 
 
 “ Zainab. —-Slight not my pain, dear bro¬ 
 ther, for Zainab is somewhat alarmed as to 
 the import of thy speech. What shall I do 
 with thy family—with the poor widows and 
 young children ? 
 
 “ Husain. —0 afflicted one, it is decreed I 
 should be killed by means of daggers and 
 swords ; henceforth, dear sister, thou shalt 
 not see me. Behold, this is separation between 
 me and thee ! 
 
 “ The nephew of Husain. —Dear uncle, thou 
 hast resolved to journey. Thou art going 
 once again to make me an orphan. To whom 
 else wilt thou entrust us ? Who is expected 
 to take care of us ? Thou wast, dear uncle, 
 instead of my father Hasan, a defence to this 
 helpless exiled creature. 
 
 “ Husain. —Sorrow not, thou faithful child, 
 thou shalt be killed too in this plain of trials. 
 Return thou now to thy tent in peace, without 
 grieving my soul any further, poor orphan ! 
 
 “ The Darwish from Kabul. —0 Lord God, 
 wherefore is the outward appearance of a 
 man of God usually without decoration or 
 ornament ? And why is the lap of the man 
 of this world generally full of gold and jewels ? 
 On what account is the pillow of this great 
 person the black dust of the road ? and for 
 ■what reason are the bed and the cushion of 
 the rebellious made of velvet and stuffed with 
 down ? Either Islam, the religion of peace 
 and charity, has no true foundation in the 
 world, or this young man, who is so wounded 
 and suffers from thirst, is still an infidel. 
 
 “ Husain. —Why are thine eyes pouring 
 down tears, young darwish? Hast thou also 
 lost an Akbar in the prime of his youth ? 
 Thou art immersed, as a water-fowl, in thy 
 tears. Has thine ’Abbas been slain, thirsting, 
 on the bank of the River Euphrates, that 
 thou cryest so piteously ? But if thou art 
 sad only on account of my misfortune, then it 
 matters not. Let me know whence comest 
 thou, and whither is thy face set ? 
 
 “ The Darwish. —It happened, young man, 
 that last night I arrived in this valley, and 
 made my lodging there. When one-half of 
 the night had passed, of a sudden a great 
 difficulty befell me, for I heard a child be¬ 
 moaning and complaining of thirst, having 
 given up altogether the idea of living any 
 longer in this world. Sometimes it would 
 beat its head and cry out for water ; at other 
 times it appeared to fall on the ground, faint¬ 
 ing and motionless. I have, therefore, brought 
 
41C 
 
 MUHARRAM 
 
 MUHABRAM 
 
 some water in this cup for that poor child, 
 that it may drink and be refreshed a little. 
 So I humbly beg thee, dear sir, to direct me 
 to the place where the young child may be 
 found, and tell me what is its name. 
 
 “ Husain. —0 God, let no man be ever in 
 my pitiful condition, nor any family in this 
 sad and deplorable state to which I am 
 reduced. 0 young man, the child mentioned 
 by thee is the peace of my troubled mind; it 
 is my poor, miserable little girl. 
 
 “ The Darwish. —May I be offered for thee, 
 dear sir, and for thy tearful eyes! Why 
 should thy daughter be so sadly mourning and 
 complaining ? My heart is overwhelmed with 
 grief for the abundance of tears running down 
 thy cheeks. Why should the daughter of one 
 like thee, a generous soul, suffer from 
 thirst ? 
 
 Husain. —Know, 0 young man, that we are 
 never in need of the water of this life. Thou 
 art quite mistaken if thou hast supposed us 
 to be of this world. If I will, I can make the 
 moon, or any other celestial orb, fall down on 
 the earth; how much more can I get water 
 for my children. Look at the hollow made 
 in the ground with my spear; water would 
 gush out of it if I were to like. I voluntarily 
 die of thirst to obtain a crown of glory from 
 God. I die parched, and offer myself a 
 sacrifice for the sins of my people, that 
 they should be saved from the wrath to 
 come. 
 
 “■The Darwish. —What is thy name, sir? 
 
 I perceive that thou art one of the chief 
 saints of the most beneficent God. It is 
 evident to me that thou art the brightness of 
 the Lord’s image, but I cannot tell to which 
 sacred garden thy holy rose belongs. 
 
 “ Husain. —0 darwish, thou wilt soon be 
 informed of the whole matter, for thou shalt 
 be a martyr thyself; for thy plans and the 
 result thereof have been revealed to me. 
 Tell me, 0 darwish, what is the end thou 
 hast in view in this thy hazardous enterprise ? 
 When thou shaft have told me that, I will 
 disclose to thee who I am. 
 
 “ The Darwish. —I intend, noble sir, after I 
 have known the mystery of thy affairs, to set 
 out, if God wills, from Karbala to Najaf, 
 namely, to the place where ’All, the highly 
 exalted king of religion, the sovereign lord of 
 the empire of existence, the supreme master 
 of all the ’darwishes, is buried. Yea, I am 
 going to visit the tomb of ‘All, the successor 
 of the chosen of God, the son-in-law of the 
 Prophet, the lion of the true Lord, the prince 
 of believers, Haidar, the champion of faith. 
 
 “ Husain. —Be it known unto the, 0 dar¬ 
 wish, that I, who am so sad and sorrowful, 
 am the rose of the garden of that prince. I 
 am of the family of the believers thou hast 
 mentioned. I am Husain, the intercessor on 
 the Day of Resurrection, the rose of the 
 garden of glory. 
 
 “ The Darwish. —May I be offered a sacri¬ 
 fice for thy blessed arrival ! Pardon me my 
 fault, and give me permission to fight the 
 battle of faith, for I am weary of life. It is 
 better for me to be killed, and delivered at 
 
 once from so many vexations of spirit. 
 Martyrdom is, in fact, one of the glories of 
 my faith. 
 
 “ Husain. —Go forth, 0 atom, which aspirest 
 to the glory of the sun; go forth, thou hast 
 become at last worthy to know the hidden 
 mysteries of faith. He who is slain for the 
 sake of Husain shall have an abundant 
 reward from God ; yea, he shall be raised to 
 life with ’All Akbar the sweet son of 
 Husain. 
 
 “ The Darwish (addressing Husain's antago¬ 
 nists). —You cruel people have no religion at 
 all. You are fire-worshippers, ignorant of 
 God and His law. How long will you act 
 unjustly towards the offspring of the priest¬ 
 hood ? Is the account of the Day of Resur¬ 
 rection all false ? 
 
 “ I bn Su'd (the general of Yazid's army ).— 
 0 ’ye brave soldiers of Yazfd, deprive this 
 fellow of his fund of life. Make his friends 
 ready to mourn for him. 
 
 “ Husain. —Is there anyone to help me ? 
 Is there any assistant to lend me his aid ? 
 
 “ Jafar (the king of jinns, with his troops, 
 coming to Husain's assistance). —0 king of 
 men and jinns, 0 Husain, peace he on thee 1 
 0 judge of corporeal and spiritual beings, 
 peace be on thee ! 
 
 “ Husain. —On thee be peace, thou hand¬ 
 some youth ! Who art thou, that salutest us 
 at such a time ? Though thine affairs are 
 not hidden from me at all, still it is advisable 
 to ask thy name. 
 
 “ Ja'far. —0 lord of men and jinns, I am 
 the least of thy servants, and my name is 
 Ja’far, the chief ruler of all the tribes of 
 jinns. To-day, while I was sitting on the 
 glorious throne of my majesty, easy in mind, 
 without any sad idea or thought what¬ 
 ever, I suddenly heard thy voice, when thou 
 didst sadly imjdore assistance ; and on hear¬ 
 ing thee I lost my patience and senses. And, 
 behold, I have come out with troops of jinns, 
 of various abilities and qualifications, to lend 
 thee help if necessary. 
 
 “ Husain. —In the old abbey of this perish¬ 
 able kingdom, none can ever, 0 Ja’far, attain 
 to immortality. What can I do with the 
 empire of the world, or its tempting glories, 
 after my dear ones have all died and gone ? 
 Is it proper that I, an old man, should live, 
 and Akbar, a blooming youth, die in the 
 prime of age ? Return thou, Ja’far, to thy 
 home, and weep for me as much as thou canst. 
 
 “ Ja'far ( returning). — Alas for Husain’s 
 exile and helplessness! Alas for his con¬ 
 tinual-groans and sighs ! 
 
 “ Husain (coming back from the field, dis¬ 
 mounts his horse, and making a heap of dust, 
 lays his head on it). —0 earth of Karbala, do 
 thou assist me, I pray! since I have no 
 mother, be thou to me instead of one. 
 
 “ Ibn Sa'd orders the army to stone Husain. 
 —0 ye men of valour, Husain the son of ’All 
 has tumbled down from the winged horse ; if 
 I be not mistaken, heaven has fallen to earth! 
 It is better for you to stone him most cruelly. 
 Dispatch him soon, with stones, to his com¬ 
 panions, 
 
MUHARBAM 
 
 MUHATAT 
 
 417 
 
 “ Husain. —Ah, -woe to me ! my forehead 
 is broken; blood runs down my luminous face. 
 
 “ Ibn Su'd. —Who is that brave soldier, 
 who, in order to show his gratitude to Yazid 
 his sovereign lord, will step forward and, with 
 a blow of his scymetar, slay Husain the son 
 of ’Ah'? 
 
 “ Shimar. —I am he whose dagger is famous 
 for bloodshed. My mother has borne me for 
 this work alone. I care not about the con¬ 
 flict of the Day of Judgment; I am a 
 worshipper of Yazid, and have no fear of 
 God. I can make the great throne of the 
 Lord to shake and tremble. I alone can 
 sever from the body the head of Husain the 
 son of ’All. I am he who has no share in 
 Islam. I will strike the chest of Husain, 
 the ark of God’s knowledge, with my boots, 
 without any fear of punishment. 
 
 “ Husain. —Oh, how wounds caused by 
 arrows and daggers do smart! O God, have 
 mercy in the Day of Judgment on my people 
 for my sake. The time of death has arrived, 
 but I have not my Akbar with me. Would 
 to God my grandfather the Prophet were now 
 here to see me! 
 
 * The Prophet (appearing'). —Dear Husain, 
 thy grandfather the Prophet of God has come 
 to see thee. I am here to behold the mortal 
 wounds of thy delicate body. Dear child, 
 thou hast at length suffered martyrdom by 
 the cruel hand of my own people ! This was 
 the reward I expected from them ; thanks be 
 to God! Open thine eyes, dear son, and 
 behold thy grandfather with dishevelled hair. 
 If thou hast any desire in thy heart, speak it 
 out to me. 
 
 “ Husain. —Dear grandfather, I abhor life ; 
 I would rather go and visit my dear ones in 
 the next world. I earnestly desire to see my 
 companions and friends—above all, my dearly 
 beloved son ’All Akbar. 
 
 “ The Prophet. —Be not grieved that ’All 
 Akbar thy son was killed, since it tends to 
 the good of my sinful people on the day of 
 universal gathering. 
 
 “ Husain. —Seeing ’All Akbar’s martyrdom 
 contributes to the happiness of thy people, 
 seeing my own sufferings give validity to thy 
 office of mediation, and seeing thy rest con¬ 
 sists in my being tronbled in this way, I 
 would offer my soul, not once or twice, but a 
 thousand times, for the salvation of thy 
 people! 
 
 “ The Prophet. —Sorrow not, dear grand¬ 
 child ; thou shalt be a mediator, too, in that 
 day. At present thou art thirsty, but to¬ 
 morrow thou shalt be the distributor of the 
 water of A1 Kausar. 
 
 “ Husain. —0 Lord God, besides Husain, 
 who has happened to be thus situated? 
 Every one when he dies has at least a mother 
 at his head. But my mother is not here to 
 rend her garments forme; she is not alive, 
 that she might close my eyes when I die. 
 
 Fatimah, his mother (appearing'). —I am 
 come to see thee, my child, my child ! May 
 I die another time, my child, my child ! How 
 shall ! see thee slain, my son, my son ! Rolling 
 in thine own blood, my child, my child! • 
 
 Husain. —Come, dear mother. I am anxiously 
 waiting for thee. Come, come ! I have partly 
 to complain of thee. How is it that thou 
 hast altogether forsaken thy son ? How is 
 it thou earnest so late to visit me ? 
 
 “ Fatimah. — May I be offered for thy 
 wounded, defaced body! Tell me, what dost 
 thou wish thy mother to do now for thee ? 
 
 “ Husain. —I am now, dear mother, at the 
 point of death. The ark of life is going to be 
 cast on shore, mother. It is time that my 
 soul should leave the body. Come, mother, 
 close my eyes with thy kind hand. 
 
 " Fatimah. — O Lord, how difficult for a 
 mother to see her dear child dying! I am 
 Zahrah who am making this sad noise, 
 because I have to close the eyes of my son 
 Husain, who is on the point of death. Oh, 
 tell me if thou hast any desire long cherished 
 in thy heart, for I am distressed in mind 
 owing to thy sad sighs ! 
 
 “ Husain. —Go, mother, my soul is come 
 to my throat; go, I had no other desire 
 except one, with which I must rise in the 
 Day of Resurrection, namely, to see ’All 
 Akbar’s wedding. 
 
 “ Shimar. —Make thy confession, for I want 
 to sever thy head, and cause a perpetual 
 separation between it and the body. 
 
 “ Zainab. —0 Shimar, do not go beyond thy 
 limit; let me bind something on my brother’s 
 eyes. 
 
 “ Husain. —Go to thy tent, sister, I am 
 already undone. Go away; Zahrah my 
 mother has already closed my eyes. Show 
 to Sukainah my daughter always the tender¬ 
 ness of a mother. Be very kin d to my child 
 after me. 
 
 “ Shimar (addressing Husain). — Stretch 
 forth thy feet toward the holy Kiblah, the 
 sacred temple of Makkah. See how my 
 dagger waves over thee! It is time to cut 
 thy throat. 
 
 “ Husain. —0 Lord, for the merit of me, 
 the dear child of thy Prophet; 0 Lord, for 
 the sad groaning of my miserable sister: 0 
 Lord, for the sake of young 'Abbas rolling 
 in his blood, even that young brother of mine 
 that was equal to my soul, I pray thee, in 
 the Day of Judgment, forgive, 0 merciful 
 Lord, the sins of my grandfather’s people, 
 and grant me, bountifully, the key of the 
 treasure of intercession. (T>ies .)~—(Pelly’s 
 Miracle Play. voL ii. p. 81 seqq.) 
 
 3J.U HAftRA3JLAT pi. of 
 
 Muharramah. Those persons with whom it 
 is not lawful to contract marriage, [mab- 
 riage.] 
 
 AITTHAYAT A legal terra 
 
 used for the partition of usufruct. Accord¬ 
 ing to the Hidayah, voL iv. 31:— 
 
 Partition of property is more effectual than 
 partition of usufruct in accomplishing the 
 enjoyment of the use: for which reason, if 
 one partner apply for a partition of property, 
 and another for a partition of usufruct, the 
 Qazi must grant the request of the former, 
 and if a partition of usufruct should have 
 taken place with respect to a thing capable 
 
 53 
 
418 
 
 MUHAZABAH 
 
 MUJTAHID 
 
 of a partition of property (such as a house 
 or a piece of ground), and afterwards one of 
 the partners apply for a partition of property, 
 the Qazi must grant a partition of property 
 and annul the partition of usufruct. 
 
 MUHAZARAH (s>W*). Lit. 
 
 “ Being pi'esent.” A term used by the Sufis 
 for presenting of the soul to God in the ser¬ 
 vice of zilcr in order to obtain all the spiritual 
 blessing possible from a contemplation of the \ 
 ninety-nine attributes and titles of God. 
 [zikr, GOD.] 
 
 MUIIRIM ((•;**'»). The pilgrim in 
 
 a state of Ihram,that is, after he has assumed 
 the pilgrim’s dress, [pilgrimage.] 
 
 al-MUIISI “ The 
 
 Counter.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. “ It is referred to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxxvi. 11 : “ Verily We quicken 
 the dead and write down what they have 
 done before, and the traces which they leave J 
 behind, and everything do We set down {lit. 
 reckon up) in the clear Book of our decrees.” 
 
 MUHTAKIR ( ; ^*). Lit. “A 
 
 forestaller.” One who monopolises grain and j 
 other necessaries of life, which is unlawful. 
 [monopoly.] 
 
 MUHTASIB The public 
 
 censor of religion and morals, who is ap¬ 
 pointed by a Muslim ruler, to punish Mus¬ 
 lims for neglecting the rites of their religion. 
 
 Sir Alexander Burnes, in his Travels in 
 Bokhara (vol. i. p. 313), relates that he saw 
 persons publicly scourged because they had 
 slept during prayer-time and smoked on 
 Friday, [dirrail] 
 
 Burckhardt, in his account of the Wahha¬ 
 bis (vol. ii. p. 14G), says, the neglect of reli¬ 
 gious duty is always severely punished. . . . 
 When Sa‘ud took al-Madinah, he ordered 
 some of his people after prayers in the 
 mosque to call over the names of all the 
 grown up inhabitants of the town who were 
 to answer individually. He then commanded 
 them to attend prayers regularly ; and if any, 
 one absented himself two or three times, 
 Sa‘ud sent some of his Arabs to beat the 
 man in his own house. At Makkah, when 
 the hour of prayer arrived, he ordered the 
 people to patrol the streets, armed with large 
 sticks, and to drive all the inhabitants by 
 force into the mosque; a harsh proceeding, 
 but justified by the notorious irreligion of the 
 Makkans. 
 
 Dr. Bellew, in his Kashmir and Kashgar 
 (p. 281), gives an animated account of the 
 way in which the Muhtasib performed his 
 duties in the streets of Kashgar. 
 
 al-MUHYI ( ( _ s * as *J\). “ The giver 
 
 of life.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It occurs twice in the 
 Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah xxx. 49: “Look then to the ves¬ 
 tiges of God’s mercy, how he quickens the 
 earth after its death; verily He is the 
 quickener of the dead,” 
 
 Surah xli. 39 : “ Verily, he who quickens 
 (the earth) will surely quicken the dead.” 
 
 AL-MUTD “The Re¬ 
 
 storer ” (to life). One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. The word does 
 not occur in the Qur’an, but the idea is ex¬ 
 pressed in Surah Ixxxv. 13, and many other 
 places, “ Verily He produces and restores." 
 
 al-MUTZZ “The One 
 
 who giveth honour.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. The word does 
 not occur in the Qur’an, but the attribute is 
 referred to in Surah iii. 25 : “ Thou honourest 
 whom Thou pleasest.” 
 
 al-MUJADILAH Lit. 
 
 “ She who disputed.” The title of the 
 Lvnith Surah of the Qur’an, in which the ex¬ 
 pression occurs: “Now hath God heard the 
 speech of her who disputed with thee con¬ 
 cerning her husband.” Which refers to 
 Khaulah bint Sa‘labah, the wife of Aus ibn 
 Samit, who being divorced by her husband 
 in the “ time of ignorance,” came to ask 
 whether the divorce was lawful. 
 
 MUJAHID (aaW«). A warrior in 
 
 the cause of religion, [jihad.] 
 
 al-MUJIB “The One 
 
 who answers to ” (a prayer). One of the 
 ninety-nine names or attributes of God. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an. Surah xi. 64 : “ Verily 
 my Lord is nigh and answers ” (prayer). 
 
 MU’JIZAH [miracles.] 
 
 MUJTAHID (aqa^*), pi. mujtahi- 
 
 dun. Lit., “ One who strives” to attain to a 
 high position of scholarship and learning. 
 
 The highest degree amongst Muhammadan 
 divines which is conferred either by the 
 people or the ruler of a Muslim country upon 
 eminent persons. The four doctors of the 
 Sunnis and their disciples were of this degree, 
 but there are none of these enlightened 
 teachers amongst the Sunnis of the present 
 day. They still exist in Persia, and are 
 appointed by the people, the appointment 
 being confirmed by the king. Malcolm, in 
 his account of Persia, says :— 
 
 “ There are seldom more than three or four 
 priests of the dignity of Mujtahid in Persia. 
 Their conduct is expected to be exemplary, 
 and to show no wordly bias; neither must 
 they connect themselves with the king or the 
 officers of Government. They seldom depart 
 from that character to which they owe their 
 rank. The reason is obvious; the moment 
 they deviate, the charm is broken which con¬ 
 stitutes their power; men no longer solicit 
 their advice or implore their protection; nor 
 can they hope to see the monarch of the 
 country courting popularity by walking to 
 their humble dwellings, and placing them on 
 the seat of honour when they condescend to 
 visit his court. When a Mujtahid dies, his 
 successor is always a person of the most 
 eminent rank in the ecclesiastical order; and, 
 though he may be pointed out to the popu- 
 
MUKARt 
 
 MUNAPIQ 
 
 419 
 
 lace by others of the same class seeking him 
 as an associate, it is rare to hear of any 
 intrigues being employed to obtain this en¬ 
 viable dignity. 
 
 “ The Mujtahids of Persia exercise a great, 
 though undefined, power over the courts of 
 law, the judges of which constantly submit 
 cases to their superior knowledge ; and their 
 sentence is deemed h-revocable, unless by a 
 Mujtahid whose learning and sanctity are of 
 acknowledged higher repute than that of the 
 person by whom judgment has been pro¬ 
 nounced. But the benefits which the inhabi¬ 
 tants of Persia derive from the influence of 
 these high priests, is not limited to their 
 occasional aid of the courts of justice. The 
 law is respected on account of the character 
 of its ministers ; kings fear to attack the 
 decrees of tribunals over which they may be 
 said to preside, and frequently endeavour to 
 obtain popularity by referring cases to their 
 decision. The sovereign, when no others 
 dare approach him, cannot refuse to listen to 
 a revered Mujtahid when he becomes an 
 intercessor for the guilty. The habitations of 
 this high order of priesthood are deemed 
 sanctuaries for the oppressed ; and the hand 
 of despotic power is sometimes taken off a 
 city, because the monarch will not offend a 
 Mujtahid who has chosen it for his residence, 
 but who refuses to dwell amid violence and 
 injustice.” 
 
 There is a common opinion that the title of 
 Mujtahid can only be granted to those who 
 are masters of seventy sciences. For a full 
 account of the conditions of obtaining this 
 rank, as expressed by a modern Muslim writer, 
 will be found in the article on Ijma‘. [ijma‘.] 
 
 MUKARl (< 4 ;^*). A legal term 
 
 for a person who lets horses, camels, &c., to 
 hire. ( Hidayah , vol. iii. p. 371.) 
 
 MUKATAB A slave who 
 
 ransoms himself or herself, with the permis¬ 
 sion of the owner, [slavery.] 
 
 MUKHADDARAH (S^). A 
 
 legal term for a woman in a state of purity. 
 It is also used for a veiled woman, the word 
 being derived from khidr, a “ curtain or veil.” 
 
 MUKHALATAH Lit. 
 
 “ Intermingling,” or mixing together. A term 
 used for general intercourse, but specially 
 applied to intercouse with those who are 
 ceremonially unclean. 
 
 MULES. Arabic baghl (J*j), pi. 
 
 bighdl. 
 
 Muhammad forbade the breeding of mules, 
 for Ibn ‘Abbas says the three special injunc¬ 
 tions which he received were (1) to perform 
 the ablutions thoroughly, (2) not to take 
 alms, (3) not to breed mules. ( Mishkat , book 
 xvii. ch. ii.) 
 
 The flesh of a mule is unlawful. ( Hidayah, 
 vol. iv. p. 74.) 
 
 They are not liable to zakat. (Hidayah, 
 vol. i. p. 16.) 
 
 MULHAQ (cwJ-). Lit. “ Joined.” 
 
 A term used by the Sufis for the condition 
 
 I of the human soul when “ it is absorbed into 
 the essence of God.” (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s 
 Dictionary of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 MULHID An infidel. 
 
 Lit. “ One who has deviated, or turned aside 
 from the truth.” 
 
 al-MULK (cdU\). Lit. “The 
 
 Kingdom.” The title of the Lxvnth Surah 
 of the Qur’an in the first verse of which the 
 word occurs : “ Blessed is He in whose hand 
 is the kingdom." 
 
 MULL A (!U). A Persian form 
 used for the Arabic Maulawi, “ a learned 
 man, a scholar.” 
 
 In the Ghiyazu 'l-Lughah it is said that a 
 learned man is called a Mulla because he is 
 ‘•filled” with knowledge; from mala', “to 
 fill.” 
 
 MU’MIN pi. Mu'minun ; 
 
 from Imdn, “ faith.” One who believes. 
 
 (1) A term generally used for Muhamma¬ 
 dans in the Qur’an and in all Muslim hooks. 
 
 (2) Al-Mu'min. The title of the xLth 
 Surah of the Qur'an, in the 29th verse of 
 which the word occurs: “ A man of the 
 family of Pharaoh who was a believer, but 
 hid his faith.” 
 
 (3) Al-Mu'min, “The Faithful.” One of 
 the ninety-nine names or attributes of God. 
 It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah lix. 28 : “ He 
 is . . . the Faithful.” 
 
 al-MU’MINUN (oy^yAl). Lit. 
 
 “ The Believers.” The title of the xxnird 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the first verse of 
 which the word occurs : “ Prosperous are the 
 believers." 
 
 al-MUMIT (cl^\). “ The 
 
 Killer.” One of the ninety-nine names or at¬ 
 tributes of God. It is referred to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 26 : “ He will kill you and 
 then make you alive.” 
 
 MUMSIK Lit. “One 
 
 who withholds, a miser.” Used for a miserly 
 person in contradistinction to munfiq, “ a 
 liberal person.” [mdnfiq.] 
 
 al - MUMTAHINAH 
 
 Lit. “ She who is tried.” The title of the 
 LXth Surah of the Qur'an, from the expres¬ 
 sion in the 10th verse: “0 believers! when 
 believing women come over to you as re¬ 
 fugees, then make trial cf them.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says: “ When such women 
 sought an asylum at al-Madinah, Muhammad 
 obliged them to swear that they were 
 prompted only by a desire of embracing 
 Islam, and that hatred of their husbands, or 
 love of some Muslim, had not any influence on 
 their conduct.” 
 
 MUNAFIQ pi. mundfiqun. 
 
 “ Hypocrite.” A term especially given to 
 those who in the time of the Prophet, whilst 
 outwardly professing to believe in his mis¬ 
 sion, secretly denied the faith. They form 
 the subject of the Lxiurd Surah of the 
 
420 AL-MUNAPIQUN 
 
 Qur’an, which hence is termed the Siiratu 7- 
 Munajiqin. 
 
 al - MUNAFIQUR ( 0 yiiWl\). 
 
 “ The Hypocrites.” Title of the Lxmrd 
 Surah of the Qur'an, whose opening verses 
 are:— 
 
 “ When the Hypocrites come to thee, they 
 say, 1 We bear witness that thou art the Sent 
 One of God.’ God knoweth that thou art His 
 Sent One: hut God beareth witness that the 
 hypocrites do surely lie. Their faith have 
 they used as a cloak, and they turn aside 
 others from the way of God! Evil are all 
 their doings. This, for that they believed, 
 then became unbelievers ! Therefore hath a 
 seal been set upon their hearts, and they 
 understand not.” 
 
 MUNAJAT Lit. “ Whis¬ 
 
 pering to, confidential talk.” Generally used 
 for the extempore prayer offered after the 
 usual liturgical form has been recited. 
 [pb AYERS.] 
 
 MUNASSAF («-^). Lit. “Re¬ 
 duced to one-half.” A species of prohibited 
 liquor. The juice of grapes boiled until a 
 quantity less than two-thirds evaporates. 
 {Hiddyah, vol. iv. 158.) 
 
 MUNF, MANF (<-^). The 
 
 ancient Memphis. Mentioned in the Com¬ 
 mentary of the Jalalan on the Qur’an, Surah 
 xxviii. 14, as the city in which Moses killed 
 the Egyptian. 
 
 MUNFIQ Lit. “One who 
 
 spends.” A charitable person. Qur’an, 
 Surah iii. 15 : “ Upon the patient, the truth¬ 
 ful, the devout, the charitable, and those who 
 a6k for pardon at the dawn.” [airaisiK.] 
 
 MUNKAR and NAKlR ( ; 
 
 “The Unknown’’ and “The 
 Repudiating.” The two angels who are said 
 by Muhammad to visit the dead in their 
 graves and to interrogate them as to their 
 belief in the Prophet and his religion. 
 
 They are described as two black angels 
 with blue eyes. ( Mishkat , book i. ch. v.) 
 [punishments of the grave.] 
 
 al-MUNTAQIM “ The 
 
 Avenger.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It is referred to in the 
 Qur'an, Surah xxxii. 22: “Verily We will 
 take vengeance on the sinners.” Also Surahs 
 xliii. 40, and xliv. 15. 
 
 al-MUQADDIM “The 
 
 Bringer-forward.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It does not 
 occur in the Qur’an, but is given in the 
 Hadis. 
 
 MUQAUQIS The Roman 
 
 Viceroy of Egypt; al-Muqauqis being his 
 official title. 
 
 Muhammad, in the year a.ii. 7 (a.d. 628), 
 
 MURDER 
 
 sent an embassy to this official, inviting him 
 to Islam. The Governor received the em¬ 
 bassy kindly, and sent the following reply, 
 “ I am aware that a prophet is yet to arise; 
 but I am of opinion he will appear in Syria. 
 Thy messenger hath been received with 
 honour. I send for thine acceptance two 
 female slaves, who are much admired by the 
 Copts, and also a present of raiment, and a 
 mule for thee to ride on.” 
 
 Mary, the fairest of the Coptic damsels, 
 Muhammad kept for himself, and gave the 
 other to Hassan the poet, [muhammad, mary 
 
 THE COPT.] 
 
 MUQAYAZAH (<L=jUA). Exchang¬ 
 ing, bartering, giving an equivalent in any¬ 
 thing but money. ( Hidayah , Arabic ed., vol. 
 iii. p. 8.) 
 
 al-MUQIT “The 
 
 Mighty or Guardian.” One of the ninety- 
 nine names or attributes of God. Surah iv. 
 88: “ Yerily God keepeth watch over every¬ 
 thing.” 
 
 al-MUQSIT (k~aA\). “The Equit¬ 
 able.” One of the ninety-nine names or attri¬ 
 butes of God. It does not occur’ in the Qu’ran, 
 but is given in the Hadis. 
 
 MUQTADA (^-). Lit. “Fol¬ 
 lowed, worthy to be followed.” An exem¬ 
 plary person, as being eminent for sanctity of 
 character. 
 
 MUQTADl (^AAa-Q. “ Follower.” 
 
 The person who stands behind the Imam in 
 the usual prayers and recites the Iqamah. 
 [iqamah.] 
 
 al-MUQTADIR “The 
 
 Powerful or Prevailing.” One of the ninety- 
 nine names or attributes of God. It occurs 
 three times in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah xviii. 43 : “ For God is powerful over 
 all.” 
 
 Surah liv. 42: “ As he only can punish, 
 who is the Mighty, the Strong." 
 
 Surah v. 55: “ With the powerful king.” 
 
 MURABAHAH (*My). A legal 
 
 term for selling a thing for a profit, when the 
 seller distinctly states that he purchased it 
 for so much and sells it for so much. 
 
 MURAHAQAH Arriving 
 
 at Makkah when the ceremonies of the hajj 
 are nearly finished, [hajj.] 
 
 MURAHIQ (ij.&'Sj*). A legal term 
 
 for a boy or girl who is near the age of 
 puberty. 
 
 MURAQABAH (My*). Medita¬ 
 tion ; contemplation. An act of devotion 
 performed by the Sufis, [suri.] 
 
 MURDER. Arabic qatl 
 
 Homicide of which Muhammadan law takes 
 cognisance is of five kinds : (1) Qat/u 7 -‘Amd; 
 
MURDER 
 
 MURJIYAH 
 
 421 
 
 (2) Qatl shibhu 'l-‘Amd; (3) Qatlu ’ l-Khata ’; 
 (4) Qaff qa'im maqama 'l-Khata'; (5) Quf/ 
 bi-Sabab. 
 
 (1) Qatlu 'l-‘Amd , or “'wilful 
 
 murder,” t is where the perpetrator wilfully 
 kills a person with a weapon, or something 
 that serves for a weapon, such as a club, a 
 sharp stone, or fire. If a person commit wilful 
 murder, two points are established : first, that 
 the murderer is a sinner deserving of hell, 
 for it is written in the Qur’an (Surah iv. 95), 
 “ Whosoever slayeth a believer purposely, his 
 reward is hell ”; and, secondly, that he is 
 liable to retaliation, because it is written in 
 the Qur’an (Surah ii. 173), “ It is incumbent 
 on you to execute retaliation (Q;sas) for 
 murder.” But although retaliation is the 
 punishment for wilful murder, still the heir 
 or next of kin can either forgive or com¬ 
 pound the offence ; as the verse already 
 quoted continues—“ Yet he who is pardoned 
 at all by his brother must be prosecuted in 
 reason, and made to pay with kindness.” In 
 this respect Muhammad departed from the 
 Old Testament law, which made the retalia¬ 
 tion compulsory on the next of kin. 
 
 One effect of wilful murder is that the 
 murderer is excluded from being heir to the 
 murdered person. 
 
 According to Abu Hanlfah, there is no 
 expiation for wilful murder, but ash-Shiifi‘i 
 maintains that expiation is incumbent as an 
 act of piety. 
 
 (2) Qatl shibhu ’/-‘Amcl 6 .+s> 
 
 or “ manslaughter,” or, as Hamilton more 
 correctly renders it, “ A semblance of wilful 
 murder, is when the perpetrator strike a man 
 with something which is neither a weapon 
 nor serves as such.” 
 
 The argument adduced by Abu Hanlfah is a 
 saying of the Prophet: “ Killing with a rod 
 or stick is not murder, but only manslaughter, 
 and the fine for it is a hundred camels, pay¬ 
 able within three years.” 
 
 Manslaughter is held to be sinful and to 
 require expiation, and it excludes the man- 
 slayer from inheriting the property of the 
 slain. 
 
 (3) Qatlu ’l-Khata' (Ik&M J^)> or “homi¬ 
 cide by misadventure,” is of two kinds : error 
 in intention, and error in the act. Error in 
 the act is where a person intends a parti¬ 
 cular act, and another act is thereby occa¬ 
 sioned ; as where, for instance, a person 
 shoots an arrow at a mark and it hits a man. 
 Error in intention, on the other hand, is 
 where the mistake occurs not in the act, but 
 with respect to the subject; as where a per¬ 
 son shoots an arrow at a man supposing him 
 to be game; or at a Muslim, supposing 
 him to be a hostile infidel. The slayer by 
 misadventure is required to free a Muslim 
 slave, or fast two months successively, and 
 to pay a fine within three years. He is also 
 excluded from inheriting the property of the 
 slain. 
 
 (4) Qatl qa'im maqama 'l-Khata (^IVi 
 
 or “homicide of a similar nature 
 to homicide by misadventure,” is where, for 
 
 example, a person walking in his sleep falls 
 upon another, so as to kill him. by the fall. 
 It is subject to the same rules with homicide 
 by misadventure. 
 
 (5) Qatl bi-Sabab Jjus), or » “ 
 
 cide by intermediate cause,” is where, for 
 instance, a man digs a well, or sets up a 
 stone, and another falls into the well, or over 
 the stone, and dies. In this case a fine must 
 be paid, but it does not exclude from inherit¬ 
 ance, nor does it require expiation. 
 
 No special mention is made in either the 
 Qur’an or in Muhammadan law books, of 
 taking the life by poison. (The same remark 
 applies to the Mosaic law. See Smith’s Dic¬ 
 tionary of the Bible, Article “Murder.”) 
 
 With regard to retaliation, a freeman is 
 slain for a freeman, and a slave for a slave ; 
 a freeman is also slain for the wilful murder 
 of a slave the property of another - . 
 
 According to Abu Hanlfah, a Muslim is put 
 to death for killing an unbeliever, but ash- 
 Shafri maintains otherwise, because the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ A Muslim shall not suffer death 
 for an unbeliever.” 
 
 A man is slain for a woman; a father is not 
 slain for his child, but a child is slain for the 
 murder of his father; a master is not slain 
 for the murder of his own slave, or for the 
 slave of his child. 
 
 If a j>erson immerse another into water 
 whence it is impossible for him to escape by 
 swimming, according to Abu Hanlfah, reta¬ 
 liation is not incurred, but ash-Shafi‘i main¬ 
 tains that the murderer should be drowned. 
 
 Al-Baizawi the commentator, in writing on 
 Surah ii. 174, “ This is an alleviation from 
 your Lord and a mercy,” says that in the 
 Jewish law retaliation for murder was com¬ 
 pulsory, but in the law of Christ the Chris¬ 
 tians were enjoined to forgive the murderer, 
 whilst in the Qur’an the choice is given of 
 either retaliation or forgiveness. 
 
 MURlD (■*?./*). Lit. “ One who is 
 
 desirous or willing.” A disciple of some 
 murshid, or leader, of a mystic order. Any 
 student of divinity, [sufi.] 
 
 MURJIYAH, MURJI’AH (4*/*). 
 
 Lit. “ The Procrastinators.” A sect of Mus¬ 
 lims who teach that the judgment of every true 
 believer, who hath been guilty of a grievous 
 sin, will be deferred till the Resurrection; for 
 which reason they pass no sentence on him 
 in this world, either of absolution or con¬ 
 demnation. They also hold that disobedience 
 with faith hurteth not, and that, on the other 
 hand, obedience with infidelity profiteth not. 
 As to the reason of their name the learned 
 differ, because of the different significations 
 of its root, each of which they accommodate 
 to some’opinion of the sect. Some think them 
 so called because they postpone works to 
 intention, that is, esteem works to be inferior 
 in degree to intention, and profession of the 
 faith ; others, because they allow hope, by 
 asserting that disobedience with faith hurteth 
 not, &c. ; others take the reason of the name 
 to be, their deferring the sentence of the hei- 
 
422 
 
 HURSAL 
 
 MtJSAILAMAH 
 
 nous sinner till tlie Resurrection ; and others, 
 their degrading of ‘All, or removing him from 
 the first degree to the fourths for the Murji- 
 vahs in some points relating to the office of 
 Imam,agree with the Kh arijivahs. This sect 
 is divided into four classes, three of which, 
 according as they happen to agree in parti¬ 
 cular dogmas with the Kh arijivahs. the Qadi- 
 l'iyahs, or the Jabariyahs, are distinguished 
 as Murjiyahs of those sects, and the fourth is 
 that of the pure.Murjiyahs, which last class 
 is again subdivided into five others. The 
 opinions of Mukatil and Bashar, both of a 
 sect of the Murjiyahs called Saubanians, 
 should not be omitted. The former asserted 
 that disobedience hurts not him who pro¬ 
 fesses the unity of God, and is endued with 
 faith; and that no true believer shall be cast 
 into hell; he also thought that God will 
 surely forgive all crimes except infidelity; 
 and that a disobedient believer will be 
 punished at the Day of Resurrection, on the 
 bridge Sirat, laid over the midst of hell, 
 where the flames of hell-fire shall catch hold 
 on him, and torment him in proportion to his 
 disobedience, and that he shall then be ad¬ 
 mitted into Paradise. 
 
 The latter held, that if God do cast the 
 believers guilty of grievous sins into hell, 
 yet they will be delivered thence after they 
 shall have been sufficiently punished; but 
 that it is neither possible nor consistent with 
 justice that they should remain therein for 
 ever. 
 
 MTTRSAL mursalun. A 
 
 messenger or apostle. A term frequently used 
 in the Qur’an for the prophets. It is only 
 applied to those who are said to bringers of 
 inspired books, [prophet.] 
 
 al-MURSALAT Lit. 
 
 “ Those who are sent.” The title of the 
 Lxxvirth Surah of the Qur’an, in the first 
 verse of which the word occurs. “ By the 
 angels who are sent by God, following one 
 another.” 
 
 MURSHID (^V). A guide. 
 
 From rashad, “ a straight road.” The title 
 given to the spiritual director of any religious 
 order, [soti.] 
 
 MURTADD (^y). [apostate.] 
 al - MUSABBIHAT 
 
 “ The Praisers.” A title given to those 
 Surahs of the Qur’an, which begin with 
 Subhana (Glory to), or Sabbaha (he glori¬ 
 fied), or Yusabbihu (he glorifies), or Sabbih 
 (glorify thou), viz. Surahs xvii., lvii., fix., lxi., 
 lxii., lxiv., Ixxxvii. 
 
 ‘Irbaz ibn Sariyah relates that Muhammad 
 used to repeat the Musabbil.iat before going 
 to sleep, and that he said, “ In them there 
 is a verse which is better than a thousand.” 
 Most writers say this verse is concealed like 
 the Lailatu ’l-Qadr (the night of power), or 
 the Sa‘atu ’1-Jum‘ah (the hour on Friday), 
 but ‘Abdu. ’1-Haqq says it is most probably 
 either the last verse of the Suratu ’1-Hashr 
 (lix.), “ He is God, the Pardoner, the Maker, 
 
 the Fashioner 1 To him are ascribed excellent 
 [ titles,” &c. Or, the first verse of the Suratu 
 j '1-Hadid (lvii.), “ All that is in the Heavens 
 | and in the Earth praiseth God.” (See 
 | Majma‘u ’l-Biliar, p. 86 ; Mishkat, book viii. 
 ch. i.) 
 
 MUSADDIQ (ja—). The col¬ 
 lector of the zalcat and sadaqah, or legal 
 alms. In Muhammadan states he is ap¬ 
 pointed by the state. This officer does not 
 now exist in Hindustan under British rule. 
 
 MUSAFAHAH (i&iU.). Taking 
 
 the hand. Joining or shaking hands. A 
 custom expressly enjoined by Muhammad, 
 who said, “ If two Muslims meet and join 
 hands (i.e. shake hands), their sins will be 
 forgiven before they separate.” ( Mishkat , 
 book xxii. ch. iii. pt. 2.) 
 
 MUSAILAMAH (aJu—). An im¬ 
 postor who ajspeared in the time of Muham¬ 
 mad, and claimed the Prophetic office, sur- 
 named Musailamatu ’l-Kazzab, or, “ Musai- 
 lamah the Liar.” He headed an embassy 
 sent by his tribe to Muhammad in the ninth 
 year of the Hijrah, and professed himself a 
 Muslim ; but on his return home, considering 
 that he might possibly share with Muhammad 
 in his power, the next year he set up for a 
 prophet also, pretending to join with him in 
 the commission to recall mankind from 
 idolatry to the worship of the true God ; and 
 he published written revelations, in imitation 
 of the Qur’an, of which Abu T-Faraj has 
 preserved the following passage, viz. “ Now 
 hath God been gracious unto her that was 
 with child, and hath brought forth from her 
 the soul which runneth between the perito- 
 nceum and the bowels.” 
 
 Musailamah, having formed a considerable 
 party, began to think himself upon equal 
 terms with Muhammad, and sent him a 
 letter, offering to go halves with him, in these 
 words: “ From Musailamah, the Apostle of 
 God, to Muhammad, the Apostle of God. 
 Now let the earth be half mine and half 
 thine.” But Muhammad, thinking himself too 
 well established to need a partner, wrote him 
 this answer: “ From Muhammad, the Apostle 
 of God, to Musailamah, the Liar. The earth 
 is God’s ; He giveth the same for inheritance 
 unto such of His servants as Hepleaseth; and 
 the happy issue shall attend those who fear 
 Him.” 
 
 During the few months which Muhammad 
 lived after this revolt, Musailamah rather 
 gained than lost ground, and grew very for¬ 
 midable ; but Abu Bakr, in the eleventh year 
 of the Hijrah, sent a great army against him, 
 under the command of that consummate 
 general Khali d ibn al-Walid, who engaged 
 Musailamah in a bloody battle, wherein the 
 false prophet happening to be slain by Wah- 
 shi, the negro slave who had killed Hamzah 
 at Uhud, and by the same lance, the Muslims 
 gained an entire victory, ten thousand of the 
 apostates being left dead on the spot, and the 
 rest returning to Muhammadanism. 
 
MtJSALLA 
 
 MUSTALIQ 
 
 423 
 
 MUSALLA (W). The small mat, 
 
 cloth, or carpet on which a Muslim prays. 
 The term sajjadah is used in Egypt. In Persia 
 Jai-namaz. 
 
 A MUSALLA. 
 
 MUSALLAS (oAA-). Lit. “ Made 
 
 into three, or into a third. - ’ An aromatic wine 
 composed of new wine boiled to a third part 
 and then mixed with sweet herbs. It is 
 said by Abu Hanlfah to be a lawful drink. 
 
 ( Hidayah , vol. iv. p. 1G2.) 
 
 MUSALMAN (oUL-^). The Per- 
 
 sian form of the word Muslim. A Muham¬ 
 madan. [MUHAMMADANISM.] 
 
 MUSAMARAH (S^L—). Lit. 
 
 “ Holding night conversations.” A term used 
 by the Sufis for God’s converse with the heart 
 of man. (‘Abdu’r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi 
 Terms.) 
 
 MUSAQAT (ihsL~»). A compact 
 
 entered into by two persons, by which it is 
 agreed that the one shall deliver over to the 
 other his fruit trees, on condition that the 
 other shall take care of them, and whatever 
 is produced shall belong to them both, in the 
 proportions of one half, one third, or the like, 
 as may he stipulated. ( Hidayah , vol. iv., 
 p. 54.) 
 
 al-MUSAWWIR “ The 
 
 Fashioner.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It occurs once in the 
 Qur’an, Surah lix. 24: “ He is God, the 
 Creator, the Maker, the Fashioner." 
 
 MUSHABBIHAH (4^). Lit. 
 
 “ The Assimilators.” A sect of Muham¬ 
 madans who allowed a resemblance between 
 God and His creatures, supposing Him to be 
 a figure composed of members or parts, and 
 capable of local motion. Some of the Shl'ahs 
 belong to this sect. 
 
 MUSHAHADAH (Sj*U-). A 
 
 vision or revelation. A Sufiistic expression 
 for spiritual enlightenment. 
 
 MUSHRIK pi. mushrikun. 
 
 Those who give companions to God. It is 
 used by modern Muslims for both Christians 
 and idolaters, for those who believe in the 
 Holy Trinity as well as for those who wor¬ 
 ship idols. The Wahhabis also call their 
 
 religious opponents Mushrikun, because they 
 pray to saints for assistance. In the Qur’an 
 the term is always used for the Makkan 
 idolaters, and the Imam al-Baghawf says, in 
 his commentary on Surah xcviii. 1, that the 
 term Aldu 'l-Kitab is always used for the 
 Jews and Christians and Mushrikun for those 
 who worship idols. 
 
 MUSHROOMS. Arabic karri ), 
 pi. akmu’, karri ah. Abu Hurairah 
 relates that Muhammad said : “ Mushrooms 
 are a kind of manna which God sent to 
 Moses, and its water is a cure for sore eyes.’ 
 
 ( Mishkat, book xxi. ch. i.) 
 
 MUSIC. Arabic musiqcl (Uu~y.) ; 
 musiqi which the author of 
 
 the Ghiyasu 'l-Lughah says is a Syriac word. 
 It is generally hold by Muhammadans to be 
 contrary to the teachings of the Prophet; for 
 Nafi‘ relates that when he was walking with 
 Ibn ‘Umar on a road, they heard the music of 
 a pipe, and that Ibn ‘Umar put his fingers 
 into his ears, and went on another road. 
 Nafi‘ then asked Ibn ‘Umar why he did so, 
 and he said, “ I was with the Prophet, and 
 when he heard the noise of a musical pipe, 
 he put his fingers into his ears ; and this hap¬ 
 pened when I was a child.” ( Mishkat , book 
 xxii. ch. ix., pt. 3.) 
 
 Muhammadan doctors, however, are not 
 agreed on the subject, for Abu Hanlfah says, 
 “ If a person break a lute or tabor, or pipe, 
 or cymbal belonging to a Muslim, he is re¬ 
 sponsible, because the sale of such articles is 
 lawful.” But his two disciples, Imams Muham¬ 
 mad and Abu Yusuf, do not agree with him. 
 (Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 558.) 
 
 MUSLAH (ilA*). The mutilation 
 
 of the body, which is forbidden by Muslim 
 law, except in the case of retaliation. 
 (Mishkat, book xii. ch. ii.) 
 
 MUSLIM from Islam. 
 
 One who has received Islam. A Muhamma¬ 
 dan. [MUHAMMADANISM, ISLAM.] 
 
 MUSLIM (,*1—✓»). Abu ’1-Husain 
 
 Muslim, son of al-Hajjaj al-Qushairi, the 
 compiler of the collection of the Traditions 
 known as the Sahlhu Muslim, was born at 
 Naishapur, a.h. 204, and died a.h. 261. His 
 book of traditions ranks amongst the Sunnis 
 as but second in authority to the Sahihu 7- 
 Bukhari. The two works being styled the 
 Sahihan, or the “ two authentics.” It is said 
 to contain 3,000 authentic traditions, [tra¬ 
 ditions.] 
 
 MUSTAHAZAH ) A 
 
 woman who has an issue of blood (istihazali), 
 independent of the menses or of the cleans¬ 
 ings after parturition. A mustahazali is not 
 considered junuh, or unclean, but may say 
 her prayers and perform the other religious 
 offices. Compare Leviticus xv. 3. 
 
 MUSTALIQ ((jlkxa,.). Banu Mus¬ 
 taliq. An Arabian tribe in the time of Mu¬ 
 hammad. He attacked the Banu Mustaliq 
 in a.h. 5, and took many of them prisoners. 
 
424 
 
 musta’min 
 
 AL-MUTAKABBIE 
 
 (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 237). 
 They embraced Islam at an early period. 
 
 MUSTA’MIN Lit, “ One 
 
 who seeks security.” One who, being a 
 foreigner, and not a Muslim, enters Muham¬ 
 madan territory, and claims safe conduct and 
 immunity from hostilities. 
 
 al-MUTA'ALI “The 
 
 Exalted.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah xiii. 10: “ He knows the unseen, and 
 the visible,—the Great, the Lofty One," 
 
 MU’TADDAH A woman 
 
 in her ‘iddah, or period of probation, after 
 the death of her husband, or after her 
 divorce. 
 
 MUT'AH (<£*^). Lit. “Usufruct, 
 
 enjoyment.” A marriage contracted for a 
 limited period, for a certain sum of money. 
 Such marriages are still legal amongst the 
 Shi'ahs, and exist in Persia (Malcolm's Persia. 
 vol. ii. p. 591) to the present day, but they 
 are said to be unlawful by the Sunnis. They 
 were permitted by the Arabian Prophet at 
 Autas, and are undoubtedly the greatest 
 stain upon his moral legislation; but the 
 Sunnis say that he afterwards prohibited a 
 mut'-ah marriage at Kh aibar. (f\ r ide. Mishlcat, 
 book xiii. ch. iv. pt. 2.) 
 
 The Shi‘ahs establish the legality of mut'-ah 
 not only upon the traditions, but also upon 
 the following verse in the Qur’an, the meaning 
 of which, according to the commentary Taf- 
 sir-i-Mazhari, is disputed. Surah iv. 28 : 
 “ Forbidden to you also are manned women, 
 except those •who are in yom - hands as slaves. 
 This is the law of God for you. And it is 
 allowed you, beside this, to seek out wives 
 by means of your wealth, with modest con¬ 
 duct, and without fornication. And give 
 those with whom ye have cohabited their 
 dowry. This is the law. But it shall be no 
 crime in you to make agreements over and 
 above the law. Verily, God is Knowing, 
 Wise ! ” 
 
 According to the Imamiyah Code of Juris¬ 
 prudence, the following are the conditions of 
 Mut'-ah , or “ temporary marriages.” There 
 must be declaration and acceptance, as in the 
 case of nikah, and the subject of the contract 
 must be either a Muslimah, a Christian, or a 
 Jewess, or (according to some) a Majusi: she 
 should be chaste, and due inquiries should be 
 made into her conduct, as it is abominable to 
 enter into contract with a woman addicted to 
 fornication, nor is it lawful to make such a 
 contract with a virgin who has no father. 
 Some dower must be specified, and if there is 
 a failure in this respect, the contract is void. 
 There must also be a fixed period, but its 
 extent is left entirely to the parties : it may 
 be a year, a month, or a day, only some limit 
 must be distinctly specified, so as to guard 
 the period from any extension or diminution. 
 The practice of ‘azl (extrahere ante emissionem 
 seminis ) is lawful, but if, notwithstanding this 
 the woman becomes pregnant, the child is 
 
 j the temporary husband’s; but if he should 
 deny the child, the denial is sustained by the 
 ; law. Mut'ah marriages do not admit of 
 ! divorce or repudiation, but the parties be¬ 
 come absolutely separated on the expiration 
 of the period. (Baillie’s Digest.) 
 
 There is a curious account of a discus¬ 
 sion at the Court of the Emperor Akbar 
 j with refei’ence to the subject of Mut ! ah mar¬ 
 riages in the ' Ain-i-Akbari (Translation by 
 H. Blochman, M.A., p. 173). At one of the 
 j meetings for discussion, the Emperor asked 
 | how many free-born women a man may 
 ! legally marry. The lawyers answered that 
 | four was the limit fixed by the Prophet. His 
 Majesty thereupon remarked that, from the 
 time he had come of age he had not restricted 
 j himself to that number, and in justice to his 
 j wives, of whom he had a large number, both 
 free-born and slaves, he now wanted to know 
 what remedy the law r provided for his case. 
 
 | Most of the Maulawis present expressed their 
 | opinions, when the Emperor remarked that 
 Shaikh ‘Abdu ’n-Nabi had once told him that 
 j one of the Mujtahids had had as many as 
 I nine wives. Some of those present said that 
 some learned men had allowed even eighteen 
 from a too literal translation of the second 
 verse of Suratu ’n-Nisa’ in the Qur’an, [mar¬ 
 riage.] After much discussion, the learned 
 men present, having collected every tradition 
 on the subject, decreed, first, that by mut‘ah 
 a man may marry any number of wives ; and, 
 secondly, that mut'-ah marriages were sanc¬ 
 tioned by the Imam Malik ; but a copy of 
 .the Muwatta, of the Imam Malik was brought, 
 and a passage cited from that collection of 
 traditions against the legality of mut‘ah 
 marriages. 
 
 The disputation was again revived at a sub¬ 
 sequent meeting, when at the request of the 
 Emperor, Bada’oni gave the following sum¬ 
 mary of the discussion: “Imam Malik, and 
 the Shfiahs are unanimous in looking upon 
 mut'-ah marriages as legal; Imam ash-Shafrl 
 and the great Imam Abu Hanifah look upon 
 mut'ah marriages as illegal. But should at 
 any time a Qiizl of the Malakl sect decide 
 that mut'ah is legal, it is legal, according to 
 the common belief, even for Shafris and 
 Hanafls. Every other opinion on this subject 
 j is idle talk.” This saying pleased the Em¬ 
 peror, and he at once appointed a QazI, who 
 gave a decree -which made mut'ah marriages 
 legal. 
 
 In permitting these usufructuary marriages 
 Muhammad appears but to have given 
 Divine (?) sanction to one of the abominable 
 practices of ancient Arabia, for Burckhardt 
 (vol. ii. p. 378) says, it was a custom of their 
 forefathers to assign to a traveller who became 
 their guest for the night, some female of the 
 family", most commonly the host’s own wife ! 
 
 al-MUTAUABBIR. “The 
 
 Great.” (When used of a human being it im¬ 
 plies haughtiness.) One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It occurs in the 
 Qur’an, Surah lix. 23: “ He is , . . the Great 
 One! ” 
 
425 
 
 mu'tamir 
 
 MIPTAMIR (j+z**). A performer 
 
 of the ‘Umrah. [umrah."1 
 
 MU'TAQ (( 3 -xx«). An emancipated 
 
 slave, [slavery.] 
 
 MUTAQADIM ( r jUu-). Such a 
 
 distance of time as suffices to prevent punish¬ 
 ment. It operates in a way somewhat simi¬ 
 lar to the English statutory limitations. 
 
 MUTAWALLI Lit. “A 
 
 person endowed with authority.” A legal 
 term used for a person entrusted with the 
 management of a religious foundation, [mas- 
 
 JID.] 
 
 MTJ'TAZILAH Lit. “ The 
 
 Separatists.” A sect of Muhammadans 
 founded by Wasil ibn ‘At:V, who separated 
 from the school of Hasan al-Basrl (a.h. 110). 
 The following are their chief tenets : (1) They 
 entirely reject all eternal attributes of God, 
 to avoid the distinction of persons made by 
 the Christians; saying that eternity is the 
 proper or formal attribute of his essence ; 
 that God knows by His essence, and not by 
 His knowledge : and the same they affirm of 
 His other attributes (though all the Mu ! ta- 
 zilahs do not understand these words in one 
 sense). Hence this sect is also named Mu‘at- 
 till, from their divesting God of His attri¬ 
 butes ; for they went so far as to say, that 
 to affirm these attributes is the same thing as 
 to make more eternals than one, and that the 
 unity of God is inconsistent with such an 
 opinion. This was the true doctrine of Wasil, 
 their master, who declared that whoever 
 asserted an eternal attribute asserted there 
 ■were two gods. This point of speculation 
 concerning the divine attributes was not ripe 
 at first, but was at length brought to matu¬ 
 rity by Wash's followers, after they had read 
 the books of the philosophers. (2) They be¬ 
 lieve the word of God to have been created 
 in snbjecto (as the schoolmen term it), and to 
 consist of letters and sound ; copies thereof 
 being written in books, to express or imitate 
 the original. (3) They also go farther, and 
 affirm that whatever was created in snbjecto 
 is also an accident, and liable to perish. They 
 deny absolute predestination, holding that 
 God is not the author of evil, but of good 
 only; and that man is a free agent; which 
 is the opinion of the Qadarlyah sect. On 
 account of this tenet and the first, the 
 Mu ! tazilahs look on themselves as the 
 defenders of the unity and justice of God. 
 (4) They hold that if a professor of the true 
 religion be guilty of a grievous sin, and die 
 without repentance, he will he eternally 
 damned, though his punishment will be 
 lighter than that of the infidels. (5) They 
 deny all vision of God in Paradise by the 
 corporeal eye, and reject all comparisons or 
 similitudes applied to God. 
 
 According to Shahrastani, the Mu‘tazilah 
 hold:— 
 
 “ That God is eternal; and that eternity is 
 the peculiar property of His essence ; hut they 
 
 AL-MU C TI 
 
 deny the existence of any eternal attributes 
 (as distinct from His nature). For they say, 
 He is Omniscient as to His nature; Living as 
 to His nature; Almighty as to His nature ; 
 hut not through any knowledge, power or 
 life existing in Him as eternal attributes; 
 for knowledge, power and life are part of 
 His essence, otherwise, if they are to be 
 looked upon as eternal attributes of the 
 Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of 
 eternal entities. 
 
 “ They maintain that the knowledge of God 
 is as much within the province of reason as 
 that of any other entity; that He cannot be 
 beheld with the corporeal sight; and, with 
 the exception of Himself, everything else is 
 liable to change or to suffer extinction. 
 They also maintain that Justice is the 
 animating principle of human actions: Jus¬ 
 tice according to them being the dictates of 
 Reason and the concordance of the ultimate 
 results of this conduct of man with such 
 dictates. 
 
 “ Again, they hold that there is no eternal 
 law as regards human actions; that the 
 divine ordinances which regulate the conduct 
 of men are the results of growth and deve¬ 
 lopment ; that God has commanded and for¬ 
 bidden, promised and threatened by a law 
 which grew gradually. At the same time, 
 say they, he who works righteousness merits 
 rewards, and he who works evil deserves 
 punishment. They also say that all know¬ 
 ledge is attained through reason, and must 
 necessarily be so obtained. They hold that 
 the cognition of good and evil is also within 
 the province of reason ; that nothing is known 
 to be right or wrong until reason has en¬ 
 lightened us as to the distinction; and that 
 thankfulness for the blessings of the Bene¬ 
 factor is made obligatory by reason, even 
 beforo the promulgation of any law upon the 
 subject. They also maintain that man has 
 perfect freedom ; is the author of his actions 
 both good and evil, and deserves reward or 
 punishment hereafter accordingly.” 
 
 During the reigns of the Abbaside Khalf- 
 fahs al-Ma’mun, al-Mu‘tasim, and al-Wasiq 
 (a.h. 198-228) at Baghdad, the Mu‘tazilah 
 were in high favour. Mr. Syed Ameer Ali 
 Moulvi, M.A., LL.B., in the preface to his 
 book, The Personal Law of the Mahonunedans 
 (W. H. Allen and Co.), claims to belong to 
 “ the little known, though not unimportant 
 philosophical and legal school of the Muta- 
 zalas,” and he adds, “ the young generation 
 is tending unconsciously toward the Mutaza- 
 lite doctrines.” 
 
 According to the Sharhu ’t-Muwaqif, the 
 Mu'tazilah are divided into twenty sects, viz. : 
 Wasiliyah, ‘Umariyah, Huzailiyah, Naza- 
 miyah, Aswariyah, Askafiyah, JafarTyah, 
 Basharlyah, Mazdariyah, Hishamlyah, Sal- 
 hiyah, Habitlyah, Hadbiyah, Ma‘marlyah, 
 Samamiyah, Khaiyatiyah, Jahizlyah, Ka‘bl- 
 yah, Juba’iyah, and Buhshamiyah. 
 
 al-MUTI “ The Giver.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. It is referred to in the Qur’an, Surah 
 
 54 
 
426 MUTILATION 
 
 eviii. verse 1: “Verily we have given thee al- 
 Kausar.” 
 
 MUTILATION, [theft.] 
 
 MU‘TIQ Tlie master who 
 
 emancipates a slave, [slavery.] 
 
 MUWAHIIID pi. muwah- 
 
 hiclun. A believer in one God. A term often 
 used by Muslims to express their belief as 
 as Unitarians. 
 
 MUWATTA’ OV). Lit. “That 
 
 which has been compiled.” A title given to 
 the book of traditions compiled by the Imam 
 Malik (died a.h. 179). It is the earliest com¬ 
 pilation of traditions, and is placed by some 
 amongst the Kutubu ’s-Sittah, or the “ six 
 (correct) books.” [traditions.] 
 
 MUZABANAH (&»y). Lit. “ Re¬ 
 pelling or pushing back.” Selling without 
 measure, for example, selling green dates upon 
 trees in exchange for dry ones in the house, 
 and the seller saying that the loss or gain 
 rests with him. This kind of sale is for¬ 
 bidden. (. Mishkat , book xii. ch. 5.) 
 
 MUZARA‘AH Giving 
 
 over land to the charge of another party 
 on condition of receiving a fixed proportion 
 of its produce. 
 
 MUZARABAH (^U*). In the 
 
 language of the law, Muzarabah signifies a 
 contract of copartnership, of which the one 
 party (namely, the proprietor) is entitled to 
 a profit on account of the stock, he being de¬ 
 nominated Rabbu 'l-Mdl, or proprietor of the 
 stock (which is termed Rasu ’ l-Mdl ), and the 
 other party is entitled to a profit on account 
 of his labour, and this last is denominated 
 the muzarib (or manager), inasmuch as he 
 derives a benefit from his own labour and 
 endeavours. A contract of muzarabah, there¬ 
 fore, cannot be established without a partici¬ 
 pation in the profit, for if the whole of the 
 profit be stipulated to the proprietor of the 
 stock, then it is considered as a biza‘ah ; or, 
 if the whole be stipulated to the immediate 
 manager, it must be considered as a loan. 
 
 al-MUZILL (Ja*H). “The One 
 
 who abases.” One of the ninety-nine names 
 or attributes of God referred to in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iii. 25 : “ Thou honourest whom Thou 
 pleasest and abasest whom Thou pleasest.” 
 
 al-MUZZAMMIL Lit. 
 
 “ The Wrapped up.” The title of the Lxxivth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the first verse of 
 which the word occurs. “ 0 Thou, enwrapped , 
 arise to prayer.” It is said the chapter was 
 
 MYSTICISM 
 
 revealed to Muhammad when he was wrapped 
 up in a blanket at night. 
 
 MYSTICISM. The word mysti¬ 
 cism is of a vague signification, but it is 
 generally applied to all those tendencies in 
 religion which aspire to a direct communica¬ 
 tion between man and his God, not through 
 the medium of the senses, but through the 
 inward perception of the mind. Consequently 
 the term is applied to the Pantheism of the 
 ancient Hindu, to the Gnosticism of the 
 ancient Greek, to the Quietism of Madame 
 Guyon and Fenelon, to the Pietism of Moli- 
 nos, to the doctrines of the Illuminati of Ger¬ 
 many, to the visions of Swedenborg, as well 
 as to the peculiar manifestations of mystic 
 views amongst some modern Christian sects. 
 It is a form of error which mistakes the 
 operations of a merely human faculty for a 
 divine manifestation, although it is often but 
 a blind protest in behalf of what is highest 
 and best in human nature. 
 
 The earliest mystics known are those of 
 India, the best exposition of their system 
 being the Bhdgavad-gitd (see Wilkins’ trans¬ 
 lation). Sir William Jones says:—“A figu¬ 
 rative mode of expressing the fervour of de¬ 
 votion, the ardent love of created spirits, 
 toward their Beneficent Creator, has prevailed 
 from time immemorial in Asia ; particularly 
 among the Persian Theists, both ancient 
 Hushangis and modern Sufis, who seem to 
 have borrowed it from the Indian philosophers 
 of the Vedanta School, and their doctrines 
 are also believed to be the source of that 
 sublime but poetical theology which glows 
 and sparkles in the writings of the old Aca¬ 
 demics. ‘ Plato travelled into Italy and 
 Egypt,’ says Blande Fleury, ‘ to learn the 
 Theology of the Pagans at its fountain head.' 
 Its true fountain, however, was neither in 
 Italy nor in Egypt though considerable 
 streams of it had been conducted thither by 
 Pythagoras, and by the family of Misra, but 
 in Persia or India, wdiich the founder of the 
 Italic sect had visited with a similar design.” 
 
 Almost the only religion in the world in 
 which we should have concluded, before ex¬ 
 amination, that the Pantheistic and mystic 
 spirit of Hinduism was impossible, is the 
 stern unbending religious system of Muham¬ 
 mad and his followers. But even amongst 
 Muslims there have ever been those who 
 seek for divine intuition in individual souls, 
 to the partial or entire rejection of the de¬ 
 mands of creeds and ceremonies. These 
 mystics are called Sufis, and have always 
 included the philosophers, the poets, and the 
 enthusiasts of Islam. For an account of 
 these Muslims, see the article on sufiism. 
 
an-naba’ 
 
 NAJD 
 
 427 
 
 N. 
 
 an-NABA’ (W^). “ The informa¬ 
 
 tion.’ The title of the Lxxvmth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, in the second verse of which the word 
 occurs : “ Of the mighty information whereon 
 they do dispute.” 
 
 NABALIGrH (glLB). A Persian 
 term used for a minor, [puberty.] 
 
 NABBASH A plunderer 
 
 or stripper of the dead. According to the 
 Imams Abu Yusuf and ash-Shafi‘i, the hand 
 of a plunderer of the dead should bo struck 
 off, but Abu Hanlfah and the Imam Muham¬ 
 mad are of the contrary opinion. (Hidayah , 
 vol. ii. p. 9f.) 
 
 NABl (^). Heb. Nm A pro¬ 
 phet. One who has received direct inspira¬ 
 tion ( 'wafiy ) by means of an angel, or by the 
 inspiration of the heart ( [ilham ); or has seen 
 the things of God in a dream. (Vide Kitabu 
 ’t-Ta‘ri fat.') A rasul, or “ messenger,” is one 
 who has received a book through the angel 
 Gabriel, [prophets.] 
 
 NABIZ (A*-i). A kind of wine 
 
 made from dates, which is lawful. (Hidayah, 
 vol. iv. p. 155.) 
 
 NAD-I-‘ALl ob). Persian. 
 
 An amulet on which is inscribed a prayer to 
 ‘Ali. It is much used by the ShPahs, and 
 runs thus :— 
 
 “ Cry aloud to ‘All, -who is the possessor 
 of wonders ! 
 
 From him you will find help from 
 trouble I 
 
 He takes away very quickly all grief and 
 anxiety! 
 
 By the mission of Muhammad and his 
 own sanctity! ” 
 
 NAFAQAH (<L_a_a_>). [mainten¬ 
 ance.] 
 
 an-NAFI‘ (g»UI\). “ The Profiler.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. It does not occur in the Qur’an. 
 
 NAFI‘ (jiii). A slave belonging 
 
 to Ibn ‘Umar. Many traditions have been 
 handed down by him, and his authority is 
 highly respected. Died, a.h. 117. 
 
 NAFKH (jjAS). “ Blowing.” The 
 
 blast on the Day of Judgment which will be 
 sounded by Israfil. 
 
 NAFL (J&). “A voluntary act.” 
 A term applied to such acts of devotion as 
 are not enjoined by the teaching of Muham¬ 
 mad, or by his example. A work of supere¬ 
 rogation. [prayer.] 
 
 NAFS (ys-ai). Blowing as a necro¬ 
 mancer when making incantations. 
 
 (1) It occurs in this sense in the Qur’an, 
 Surah cxiii. 4: “ I seek refuge . . . from the 
 evil of the blowers upon knots.” Referring 
 to those witches who make knots in a string 
 and blow upon them, uttering some incanta¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (2) It is also used for the inspiration which 
 Muhammad professed to have received from 
 Gabriel. (Majma‘u ’l-Bifiar , p. 376.) 
 
 NAFS (u-ai). Animal life; soul; 
 
 substance ; desire. A word which occurs in 
 the Qur’an and the Traditions for the human 
 conscience, [conscience.] 
 
 NAFSA’ (='—«). A woman in the 
 
 condition of nifds, or the period after child¬ 
 birth. 
 
 NAHJU ’L-BALAGHAH 
 
 “The Road of Eloquence.” 
 
 A celebrated book of Muhammadan tradi¬ 
 tions compiled by ash-Sharif Abu ’1-Qasim 
 al-Murtaza, a.h. 406, or his brother ash- 
 Sharif ar-Razi al-Baghdadi. (See Kashfu ’z- 
 Zunun, vol. vi. p. 406.) 
 
 an-NAHL ( “ The Bee.” 
 
 The title of the xvith Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the 70th verse of which the word occurs: 
 “ And thy Lord inspired the bee.” 
 
 NAHR (yi a4). The lawful slaugh¬ 
 tering of a camel, namely, by spearing it in 
 the hollow of the throat, near the breast¬ 
 bone. ( Hidayah , vol. iv. p. 72.) 
 
 NA’IB (‘-r-'f's). A deputy, a lieute¬ 
 nant. A Khalifah is the na’ib, or lieutenant, 
 of Muhammad. It is also used for the 
 Viceroy of Egypt, who is the naib, or deputy, 
 of the Sultan. (Lane’s Arabian Nights, 
 Intro, p. 8.) 
 
 NAJASAH (<L.W). A legal term 
 
 for an impurity of any kind. 
 
 NAJASHl (^W0. Negus. The 
 
 King of Abyssinia, often mentioned in the 
 history of Muhammad. At-Tabari, in his 
 history, p. 127, say : “Now a just king was 
 there (Abyssinia) named an-Najashl. It was 
 a land where the Quraisli used to do mer¬ 
 chandise, because they found abundance of 
 food, protection, and good traffic.” (Muir’s 
 Life of Mahomet, vol. ii. p. 133.) 
 
 NAJD (**»)- “High.” The high¬ 
 lands of Arabia. The name of the central 
 province of Arabia. One of its cities, Riyaz, 
 is celebrated as the seat of the Wahhabis. 
 (See Central and Eastern Arabia, by W. G. 
 Palgrave, London, 1865; Journey to the Wa- 
 habee Capital, by Colonel Lewis Pelly, Bom¬ 
 bay, 1866.) 
 
AN-NAJIYAH 
 
 NAMAZ 
 
 428 
 
 an-NAJIYAH “ The 
 
 Saved.” A term given to the orthodox sect of 
 Muhammadans, and consequently each sect 
 arrogates to itself the title of an-Najiyah, or 
 “ the saved.” 
 
 an-NAJJARIYAH A 
 
 sect of Muhammadans founded by Muham¬ 
 mad ibn Husain an-Najjar, "who agreed with 
 the Mu'tazilah in rejecting all eternal attri¬ 
 butes of God, to avoid distinction of persons 
 as taught by the Christians, and in holding 
 that the Word of God was created in suhjecto 
 (as the schoolmen term it),- and to consist 
 of letters and sound, and that God will not 
 be seen in Paradise with the corporeal eye; 
 but they did not receive the doctrines of that 
 sect with regard to the decrees and pi-edes- 
 tination of God, but held the views of the 
 orthodox party on this subject. According 
 to the Sharhu ’ l-Muwdqif,\ they are divided 
 into three sects, viz. : Burghusiyah, Za‘fara- 
 niyah, and Mustadrikah. 
 
 an-NAJM “The Star.” 
 
 The title of the Lmrd Surah of the Qur’an, 
 which begins with the words, “ By the star 
 when it falls.” 
 
 NAJRAN A district be¬ 
 
 tween YAman andNajd, inhabited by a Chris¬ 
 tian tribe, whose endurance and constancy in 
 their Christian belief are the subject of the 
 following verses in the Qur’an. Surah lxxxv. 
 4-11. (The verses are said to have been re¬ 
 vealed at an early date, and indicate Muham¬ 
 mad’s kind feeling towards the Christians) :— 
 
 “ Cursed be the diggers of the pit, 
 
 “ Of the fuel-fed fire, 
 
 “ When they sat around it 
 
 “ Witnesses of what they inflicted on the 
 believers 1 
 
 “ Nor did they torment them but for their 
 faith in God, the Mighty, the Praiseworthy: 
 
 “ His the kingdom of the Heavens and of 
 the Earth; and God is the witness of every¬ 
 thing. 
 
 “Verily, those who vexed the believers, 
 men and women, and repented not, doth the 
 torment of Hell, and the torment of the burning, 
 await. 
 
 “ But for those 'who shall have believed 
 and done the things that be right, are the 
 Gardens beneath whose shades the rivers 
 flow. This is the immense bliss! ” 
 
 Sir William Muir gives the following 
 account of the persecution:— 
 
 “ Dzu Nowas was a votary of Judaism, 
 which he is said to have embraced on a visit 
 to Medina. This creed he supported with an 
 intolerant and proselytizing adherence, which 
 at last proved fatal to his kingdom. His 
 bigotry was aroused by the prevalence and 
 success of Christianity in the neighbouring 
 province of Najran; and he invaded it with a 
 large army. The Christians offered a strenu¬ 
 ous resistance, but yielded at length to the 
 treacherous promise that no ill would be done 
 to them. They were offered tho choice of 
 Judaism or death, and those who remained 
 constant to the faith of Jesus were cruelly 
 
 massacred. Deep trenches were dug and 
 filled with combustible materials; the pile 
 was lighted, and the Christian martyrs cast 
 headlong into the flame. The number thus 
 miserably burned, or slain by the sword, is 
 stated at no less than twenty thousand. 
 
 “ However much the account of this me¬ 
 lancholy carnage may have been exaggerated, 
 there can be no doubt of the cruel and bloody 
 character of the tyrant’s administration in 
 Najran. 
 
 “ News of the proceedings reached the 
 Emperor Justin I., through his ambassador 
 at Hira, to which court Dzu Nowas had 
 exultingly communicated tidings of his 
 triumph. One of the intended victims, Dous 
 dzu Tholaban, also escaped to Constanti¬ 
 nople, and holding up a half-burnt gospel, 
 invoked, in the name of outraged Christen¬ 
 dom, retribution upon the oppressor. The 
 Emperor was moved, and indited a despatch 
 to the Najashi, or Prince of the Abyssinians, 
 desiring him to take vengeance upon the bar¬ 
 barous Nimyarite. Immediately an arma¬ 
 ment was set on foot, and in a short time 
 seventy thousand warriors embarked in thir¬ 
 teen hundred merchant ships or transports, 
 crossed the narrow gulph which separates 
 Yemen from Adulis. Dzu Nowas was de¬ 
 feated. In despair, he urged his horse into 
 the sea, and expiated in the waves the inhu¬ 
 manities of his career. The Abyssinian 
 victory occurred in 525 a.d.” ( Life of Maho¬ 
 met, 1st ed., Intro., p. clxii.) 
 
 NAJSH “ Exciting; 
 
 stirring up.” The practice of enhancing the 
 price of goods, by making a tender for them 
 without any intention of buying, but merely 
 to incite others to offer a higher price. It is 
 forbidden by Muhammadan law. (Hamil¬ 
 ton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 46.) 
 
 JSIAKTT The Banii ’n- 
 
 Nakh‘, an Arabian tribe, the descendants of 
 Qahlan, subdued by ‘All during the lifetime 
 of Muhammad, a.h. 10. Two hundred of this 
 tribe came to tender their allegiance to the 
 Prophet, it being the last deputation received 
 by him. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new ed., 
 p. 477.) 
 
 NAKHLAH (A&i). A valley about 
 midway between Makkah and at-Ta’if, famous 
 as the scene of the first expedition planned 
 by Muhammad against Makkah in which 
 blood was shed. (See Muir’s Life of Maho¬ 
 met, new ed., p. 216 et seq.') 
 
 NAKIH (gSM). A legal term for 
 a married man ; a married woman is termed 
 manJcu/iah (dh.^Shv»). The legal term for an 
 unmarried person is ‘azab (k_>y:). 
 
 NAKlR (;*&). One of the angels 
 
 who interrogate the dead. [munkak and 
 
 NAKIK.] 
 
 NAMAZ (jUi). The Persian and 
 
 Hindustani term for salat, the Muhammadan 
 liturgical prayer, [fkayek.] 
 
NAMES 
 
 NAMES, SURNAMES. Arabic 
 Ism (f^\),Laqab (g^-^),Kunyah 
 The teaching of Muhammad very greatly in¬ 
 fluenced the nomenclature of his followers, 
 as is evident from the chapter devoted to the 
 Traditions on the subject in the Mishkatu 7- 
 Masabih, entitled “ Babu ’1-Asami,” book 
 xxii. ch. viii., from which are extracted the 
 following traditional sayings of Muham¬ 
 mad :— 
 
 “ The best names in the sight of God are 
 ‘Abdu 'llah (the servant of God), ‘Abdu V- 
 Rahman (the servant of the Merciful One).” 
 
 “You must not name your slaves Yasar 
 (abundance), Rabdfr (gain), Najih (prospe¬ 
 rous), Aflal). (felicitous), because if you ask 
 after one of these your domestic servants, 
 and he be not present, the negative reply will 
 express that abundance, or gain, or jjrospe- 
 rity, or felicity, are not in your dwelling.” 
 
 “ The vilest name you can give a human 
 being is Maliku 'l-Amldk, or ‘ King of Kings,’ 
 because no one can be such but God Him¬ 
 self.” 
 
 “You must not say to your slaves, ‘My 
 slave,’ or ‘ My slave girl,’ for all your slaves 
 are God’s, but say, ‘ My boy,’ or 1 My girl,’ or 
 1 My youth,’ or ‘ My lass.” And a slave must 
 not say to his master, Yd Rabbi! (i.e. My 
 Lord I), but he may say to him Yd Saiijidi ! 
 (My Chief!).” 
 
 “ Call your children after your Prophet (i.e. 
 Muhammad), but the names God likes best 
 are ‘ Abdu ’llah (servant of God), ‘Abdu V- 
 Rafunan, and the next best names are Haris 
 (husbandman), and Humdm (high-minded). 
 The worst of names is Harb (enmity), or 
 Hurrah (bitterness).” [Heb. j"p^, see Ruth 
 i. 20.] 
 
 Shuraih ibn Hani’ relates that his father 
 came to the Prophet with his tribe, and the 
 Prophet heard them calling him Abu 7- 
 Halcam. When the Prophet said, “ Why do 
 you call him so ? Hakavi, ‘ Ruler,’ is an 
 attribute of God.” And the Prophet ordered 
 him to call himself Abu Shuraih, i.e. the 
 father of Shuraih, his eldest son. 
 
 Modified, somewhat, by these injunctions of 
 the Prophet, Muhammadan names have still 
 continued to be ordered amongst learned 
 Muslims according to the ancient custom of 
 Arabia. Persons are often named— 
 
 (1) By a single name, as Muhammad, Musa 
 (Moses), Da’ud (David), Ibrahim (Abraham), 
 Hasan, Ahmad. 
 
 (2) As the father or mother of certain 
 persons, e.g. Abu Da’ud, the father of David ; 
 or Urnrnu Salimah, the mother of Salimah. 
 
 (3) As the son of a certain one, e.g. Ibn 
 ‘Umar, the son of ‘Umar; Ibn‘Abbas, the son 
 of Abbas, &c. 
 
 (4) By a combination of words, e.g. Nuru 
 ’d-dln, “ Light of Religion ”; ‘Abdu ’llah, 
 “ Servant of God.” 
 
 (5) By a nickname of harmless significa¬ 
 tion, e.g. Abu Hurairah, “ the kitten’s 
 father.” 
 
 (6) By the trade or profession, e.g. al- 
 
 NAMUS 429 
 
 Mansur al-Halldj, Mansur the dresser of 
 cotton. 
 
 (7) By the name of his birth-place, e.g. 
 al-Bukhdrl . the native of Bukharah. 
 
 These rules, guiding the nomenclature of 
 the Arabians, give a strange sound to western 
 ears in the names of celebrated authors. For 
 instance, the celebrated compiler of the chief 
 book of authentic.traditions is known as “ Abu 
 ‘Abdi ’llah, Muhammad, ibn Isma‘il ibn Ibrahim 
 ibn Mughirah al-Jvrfl, al-Bukhdrl, which means 
 that his name is Muhammad and that he is 
 the father of a son named ‘Abdu ’llah, and 
 that his own father’s name was Isma’il, the 
 son of Ibrahim, the son of Mughirah, of the 
 tribe of Ju‘fi, and that he himself was born in 
 Bukhara. 
 
 Arabic names have undergone strange 
 modifications when brought in contact with 
 western languages, e.g. Averroes, the philo¬ 
 sopher, is a corruption of Ibn Rashid ; Avi¬ 
 cenna, of Ibn Sind ; Achmet, the Sultan, of 
 Almiad-, Amurath, of ul-Murad-, Saladin, the 
 celebrated warrior of the twelth century, of 
 the Arabic Salahu 'd-dln, “ the peace of reli¬ 
 gion.” 
 
 an-NAML (J^). “The Ants.” 
 
 The title of the xxvutli Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the 18th verse of -which the word occurs : 
 “ They came upon the valley of the ants.” 
 
 NAMUS (u*r*^)- The angel, 
 
 spirit, or being, which Waraqah is related to 
 have said appeared to Moses. See Sahlhu 7- 
 Bukharl, p. 3, where it is said, when Muham¬ 
 mad told Waraqah, the Jew, what he had seen 
 on Mount Hira’, Waraqah exclaimed, “It is 
 the Namus who appeared from God to 
 Moses.” 
 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq says Narniis means one who 
 can take knowledge of the secret thoughts of 
 a man, and is used in contradistinction to the 
 word Jasus, “ a spy,” who seeks to know the 
 evil deeds of another. 
 
 According to the Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rlfat, it is 
 the law of God. 
 
 Mr. Emanuel Deutschsays : “ The namus is a 
 hermaphrodite in words. It is Arabic and also 
 Greek. ItisTalmudic. Itis,inthe first instance, 
 yo/xos> ‘ Taw,’ that which by ‘ custom and 
 common consent ’ has become so. In Tal¬ 
 mudic phraseology it stands for the Thorah 
 or Revealed Law. In Arabic it further 
 means one who communicates a secret mes¬ 
 sage. And all these different significations 
 were conveyed by Waraqah to Muhammad.” 
 ( Literary Remains, p. 78.) 
 
 The word namus occurs in the ethical work 
 known as the Akhldq-i-Jalali, in the following 
 passage:— 
 
 “ The maintenance of equity, then, is rea¬ 
 lised by three things : (1) The holy institute 
 of God, (2) The equitable Prince, (3) Money, 
 or, as the old philosophers laid it down, the 
 foremost j/o/xos is the institute, the second 
 1 /ofj.o s is the Prince who conforms to the 
 institute (for religion and government are 
 twins) ; and the third yo/xos is money (yd/xos 
 
NAQL SAHIH 
 
 430 
 
 NASAB 
 
 in their language meaning discipline and cor¬ 
 rection). Thus the institute or greatest ar¬ 
 bitrator is obeyed of all; to this even the 
 Prince or secondary arbitrator is bound to 
 conform. While the third arbitrator, which 
 is money, should be invariably under the 
 authority of the second, which is the Prince. 
 An intimation of this principle we have in 
 the Qur'an, Sura lvii. 25: “We have sent 
 down the book, and the balance along with 
 it, that man might stand by the right, and we 
 have sent down steel ( (uidid ), wherein is 
 mighty joower and advantages to man.” The 
 book in this passage alludes to the institute ; 
 the balance to that which tests the quanti¬ 
 ties of things, in fact any instrument for as¬ 
 certaining the value of heterogeneous objects 
 (money being such an one), and steel to the 
 sword, which is grasped by the might of the 
 wrath-exerting doom-pronouncing Prince.” 
 (Akhlaq-i-Jalalu Thompson’s ed., p. 127.) 
 
 NAQL SAHiH ( c ^ J»). “ Cor¬ 
 
 rect relation.” A term used for a Hadis, or 
 
 tradition, related by a person of authority. 
 [traditions.] 
 
 AN-NAQSHBANDlYAH(^.J^iiJ\). 
 
 An ascetic order of Faqlrs, the followers of 
 Khwaiah PIr Muhammad Naqshband. They 
 are a very numerous sect, and perform the 
 Zikr-i-Khafl , or silent religious devotion 
 described in the article on zikr. 
 
 NAQUS (y-yiii). A thin oblong 
 
 piece of wood, which is beaten with a flexible 
 rod called wabil (J^(j), used by the Chris¬ 
 tians of Muhammad’s time to summon the 
 people to worship. At first “ the Companions ” 
 suggested either a lighted fire or the naqus as 
 the call to prayer, but Muhammad decided 
 upon the azdn. (Mishlcat , book iv. ch. v. 
 pt. i.) This method of calling Christian 
 people to prayer still exists in some Greek 
 monasteries, and was seen and illustrated by 
 the Hon. R. Curzon in 1833 (Visits to the 
 Monasteries of the Lavant). It is called the 
 simandro (or/xauSpo) and is generally beaten 
 by one of the monks, [azan.] 
 
 THE NAQUS AS USED IN A MONASTERY 
 
 an-NAR (jLM), “ the fire,” occurs 
 
 in the Qur’an very frequently for hell, e.g. 
 Surah ii. 22 : “ Fear the fire whose fuel is men 
 and stones.” 
 
 All Sunni commentators understand the 
 fire of hell in its literal sense. (See al- 
 Baizawi on the above verse.) But Sufi 
 writers understand it to be merely figurative. 
 
 NARAWA (V>). “Unlawful.” 
 
 A Persian ivord for those things which are 
 expressly forbidden by the Qur’an and Hadis. 
 It corresponds with the Arabic Hardin. 
 [law.] 
 
 an-NAS (u-A 51)' “ Mankind.” 
 
 The title of the last Surali of the Qur’an. 
 
 i The word occurs in this Surah, and is the 
 last word in the Qur’an, “ from genii and 
 men.” 
 
 NASA’ ( l wi). “To omit.” A 
 
 term used in the Qur’an for the system of 
 intercalation of the year practised by the 
 ancient Arabs, and which was abolished in 
 the Qur’an. (Surah ix. 37.) [intercalation 
 
 OF THE YEAR.] 
 
 NASAB 1). Family, race, 
 
 lineage. The term, in its legal sense, is 
 generally restricted to the descent of a child 
 from his father, but it is sometimes applied 
 to descent from the mother, and is generally 
 | employed in a larger sense to embrace other 
 
NEHEMTAH 
 
 431 
 
 an-nasa’i 
 
 relationships. (Baillie’s Dig. Muh. Law, 
 p. 389.) 
 
 an-NASA’I “ Sunanu 
 
 ’n-Nasa’i,” or al-Mujtaba (the selected), a 
 name given to the collection of traditions by 
 Abu ‘ Abdi ’r-Rahman Ahmad an-Nasa’L Born 
 a. ii. 215,died a.h. 303. He first compiled alarge 
 collection of traditions called the Sunanu 7- 
 Kubra, but he afterwards revised the whole 
 and admitted only those traditions which 
 were of authority. This collection ( Sunanu 
 ’ s-Sughra ) is one of the Kutubu ’ s-Sittah , or 
 “ six (correct) books.” [traditions.] 
 
 NASARA pi. of Nasrdn 
 
 Nazarenes. The name given to professors 
 of the Christian faith, both in the Qur’an and 
 the Traditions, and also in the theological 
 works of the Muhammadans. Christians are 
 never called either ‘ Isawl or Maslhi, in Mu¬ 
 hammadan books written before the existence 
 of modern missions ; these titles having been 
 applied to Christians by our own mission¬ 
 aries. [CHRISTIANITY.] 
 
 NASIKH (j~A>). “One who can¬ 
 cels.” A term used for a verse or sentence 
 of the Qur’an or Hadis, which abrogates a 
 previous one. The one abrogated being 
 called mansukh. [qur’an.] 
 
 NASR (/~i). One of the idols of 
 
 ancient Arabia, mentioned in the Qur’an, 
 Surah lxxi. 23. It was an idol which, as its 
 name implies, was worshipped under the form 
 of an eaqle. 
 
 an-NASR (yM). “Help.” The 
 
 title of the cxth Surah of the Qur’an, in the 
 first verse of which the word occurs : “ When 
 there comes God’s help and victory.” 
 
 NASS (o^). “ A demonstration.” 
 
 A legal term used for the express law of the 
 Qur’an or Hadis. 
 
 NASS-I-KARIM (f./u*). “ Gra¬ 
 cious revelation.” A title given to the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 NASUH (ty°»). “ Sincere in friend¬ 
 ship or repentance.” In the latter sense the 
 word occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah lxvi. 
 8 : “0 Believers ! turn to God with the turn¬ 
 ing of true repentance." 
 
 NASUT(eu^-ii). “Human nature.” 
 A term used by the Sufis to express the 
 natural state of every man before he enters 
 upon the mystic journey. They say the law 
 has been specially revealed for the guidance 
 of people in this condition, but that the law is 
 not necessary for the higher states, [sufi.] 
 
 NAUHAH (A^y). “Lamentations 
 
 for the dead.” The employment of paid 
 mourners is forbidden by the Sunni law, for 
 Abu Saudu '1-Khudri says, “ The Prophet 
 cursed both the paid mourner and him that 
 listened to her lamentations.” ( Mishkat , book 
 v. ch viii. pt. 2.) 
 
 NAU ROZ (j^y). “New Year’s 
 
 Day.” Chiefly observed amongst the Per¬ 
 sians. In Persia it is a day of great festivity. 
 It is observed the first day after the sun has 
 crossed the vernal equinox, and the festivities 
 last for a week or more. 
 
 NAWA’IB (s-*V)> pi. of ncVibah. 
 
 “ Adversities.” A legal term used for any 
 special tax levied by the sovereign of a 
 country. The ruling of the Sunni law regard¬ 
 ing it isas follows :— 
 
 “ If it extend only to what is just (such as 
 exactions for digging a canal, for the wages 
 of safe guards, for the equipment of an army 
 to fight against the infidels, for the release of 
 Muslim captives, or for the digging of a ditch, 
 the mending of a fort, or the construction of 
 a bridge), the tax is lawful in the opinion of 
 the whole of our doctors. But if it extend 
 to exactions wrongfully imposed, that is, to 
 such as tyrants extort from their subjects, in 
 that case, concerning the validity of security 
 for it, there is a difference of opinion amongst 
 our modern doctors.” (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, 
 vol. ii. p. 594.) 
 
 NAZARENES. [nasara.] 
 an-NAZI‘AT (euhjLR). “ Those 
 
 who tear out.” The title of the Lxxixth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, which opens with the 
 verse, “ By those who tear out violently,” 
 referring to the Angel of Death and his 
 assistants, who tear away the souls of the 
 wicked violently, and gently release the souls 
 of the good. 
 
 an-NAZIR (j-aaM). A Jewish 
 tribe residing in the vicinity of al-Madmah, 
 and known as the Banff ’n-Nazfr, or Nadhir. 
 They are celebrated in Muhammadan history, 
 as having accepted the Prophet’s mission 
 after the battle of Badr, but when he met 
 with reverses at Uhud they forsook him, but 
 they were afterwards defeated by the Pro¬ 
 phet and exiled, some to Khaibar, and some 
 to Hira’. They were the occasion of the 
 Lixth Surah of the Qur’an, known as the 
 Suratu 'l-Hashr, or “ Chapter of Emigration.” 
 (See al-Baizawi in loco.') 
 
 NAZR WA NIYAZ (jW jA»). 
 
 “ Vows and oblations.” These are given in 
 the name of God, or in the name of the Pro¬ 
 phet, or in the name of some Muslim saint, 
 [vows.] 
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR. [btjkht 
 
 NASSAR.] 
 
 NECKLACE. Arabic qilddah 
 (6o5ii). The wearing of necklaces 
 
 (among men) is forbidden in the Hadis 
 (Mishkat, Arabic edition, vol. ii. 5), although 
 it is a custom very common amongst the 
 Musalmans of India. 
 
 NEGUS, [najasht.] 
 NEHEMIAH. Not mentioned in 
 
 the Qur’an or in Muslim commentaries. But 
 the following legend given in the Qur’an 
 
432 
 
 NEIGHBOURS 
 
 NESTOR 
 
 Surah ii. 2G1, seems to have its origin in the 
 circuit made by Nehemiah (Neh. ii. 13):— 
 
 “ Hast thou considered him -who passed by 
 a city vrhieh had been laid in ruins. ‘ How.’ 
 said he. 1 shall God give life to this city, after 
 she hath been dead ? ’ And God caused him 
 to die for an hundred years, and then raised 
 him to life. And God said, ■' How long hast 
 thou waited ? ’ He said, 1 1 have waited a 
 day or part of a day.’ He said, ! Nay, thou 
 hast waited an hundred years. Look on thy 
 food and thy drink; they are not corrupted; 
 and look on thine ass; we would make thee 
 a sign unto men: And look on the bones of 
 thine ass, how we will raise them, then clothe 
 them with flesh.’ And when this was shown 
 to him, he said, ‘ I acknowledge that God 
 hath power to do all things.’ ” 
 
 The commentators, al-Kamalan, say it was 
 either Jeremiah, or Khi zr. or Ezekiel. 
 
 NEIGHBOURS. Arabic jar (_;W), 
 
 pL jiran. The Sunnis hold that neighbours 
 are those who worship in the same mosque, 
 but some Shrah doctors say that a neighbour 
 is anyone whose house is within forty cubits, 
 whilst others maintain that the term extends 
 to all the occupants of forty houses on either 
 side. (Baillie’s Digest, Sunni Code. p. 579 : 
 I,u. Code , p. 216.) 
 
 A neighbour has the next right of pre¬ 
 emption to a partner in the sale and purchase 
 of houses and lands. ( Hiddyah. vol. iii. 
 p. 562.) 
 
 The rights of a neighbour in case of the 
 sale of property, are established by the Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, for the Prophet has said 
 that the neighbour of a house has a superior 
 right to the purchase of that house (i.e. next 
 to immediate relatives), and the neighbour of 
 lands has a prior claim to the purchase of 
 those lands, and if he be absent, the seller 
 must wait his return. ( Hiddyah , vol. iv. 
 p. 562.) 
 
 Muslims are enjoined in the Quran (Surah 
 iv. 40; to be kind to their neighbours. In the 
 Traditions, it is said that Muhammad was 
 so frequently advised by the angel Gabriel 
 to order his people to be kind to their 
 neighbours, that he almost imagined that he 
 (the angel) wished to make neighbours heirs 
 to each other. It is also related that the 
 Prophet said, “He is not a perfect Muslim 
 who eats to his full and leaves his neighbour 
 hungry.” 
 
 Abh Hurairah says that a man once said to 
 the Prophet, “ There is a woman who wor¬ 
 ships God a great deal, but she is very abu¬ 
 sive to her neighbours.” And the Prophet 
 said “ She will be in the fire.” The man then 
 said, “But there is another woman who wor¬ 
 ships little and gives but little in alms, but 
 she does not annoy her neighbours with her 
 tongue ? ” The Prophet said, “ She will be in 
 Paradise.” ( Mishikat , book xxii. ch. xv.) 
 
 NESTOR. Arabic Nastv/r (jA^). 
 
 A Christian monk who resided in Syria, who 
 is said to have borne witness to Muhammad. 
 The legend is not accepted by Sunni writers, 
 and Sir William Muir ( Life of Mahomet, new 
 
 ed., p. 21), says it is to be rejected as a 
 puerile fabrication. It is, however, believed 
 by the Shrahs, and the following is the story 
 as given in the Shi ! ah work entitled the 
 Hayatu ’l-QuJub, on the supposed authority 
 of Abu Talib, Muhammad’s uncle :— 
 
 “As we approached SMm (Syria),” conti¬ 
 nued Abutalib), I saw the houses of that coun¬ 
 try in motion, and light above the brightness 
 of the sun beaming from them. The crowd 
 that collected to see Mohammed, that Yusoof 
 of Misree perfection, made the Bazars im¬ 
 passable wherever we went, and so loud were 
 exclamations at his beauty and excellence 
 altogether, that the sound reached the fron¬ 
 tiers of Sham. Every monk and learned 
 man came to see him. The wisest of the 
 wise among the people of the Book, who was 
 called Nestoor, visited him, and for three 
 days was in his company without speaking a 
 word. At the close of the third day, appa¬ 
 rently overwhelmed with emotion, he came 
 near and walked around the Prophet, upon 
 which I said unto him, ‘ 0 monk what do you 
 want of the child ? ’ He said, 1 I wish to 
 know his name.’ I told him it was Moham- 
 med-bin-Abdullah. At the mention of the 
 name the monk’s colour changed, and he 
 requested to be allowed to see the shoulders 
 of the Prophet. No sooner did he behold the 
 seal of prophecy [seal of peophect], than 
 he cast himself down, kissed it, and wept, 
 saying, ! Carry back this sun of prophecy 
 quickly to the place of his nativity. Yerily, 
 if you had known what enemies he has here, 
 you would not have brought him with you’ 
 The learned man continued his visit to the 
 Prophet, treated him with the greatest reve¬ 
 rence, and when we left the country gave 
 him a shirt as a memento of his friendship. I 
 carried Mohammed home with the utmost 
 expedition, and when the news of our happy 
 return reached Mekkah, great and small 
 came out to welcome the Prophet, except 
 Abujahl, who was intoxicated and ignorant 
 of the event.” 
 
 Other traditions respecting this journey 
 into Syria inform us that many more 
 miracles attended it. Savage animals and 
 birds of the air rendered the most obsequious 
 homage to the Prophet. And when the party 
 reached the bazars of Busra they met a 
 company of monks, who immediately changed 
 colour, as if their faces had been rubbed over 
 with saffron, while their bodies shook as in an 
 ague. “ They besought us to visit their chief in 
 their great church. We replied. What have you 
 to do with us? On which they said, What harm 
 is there in your coming to our place of wor¬ 
 ship ? Accordingly we went with them, they 
 supposing that Mohammed was in our com¬ 
 pany, and entered a very large and lofty 
 church, where we saw their great wise man 
 sitting among his disciples with a book in 
 his hand. After looking at the book and 
 scrutinizing us, he said to his people, ‘ You 
 have accomplished nothing, the object of our 
 inquiry is not here.’ He then asked who 
 we were, to which we replied that we were 
 Korayshl ‘ Of what family of that tribe ? ’ 
 
NEW MOON 
 
 NIMROD 
 
 433 
 
 he further demanded. We answered that we 
 were of the Benee Abdulshems. He then 
 demanded if there was no other person be¬ 
 longing to our party besides those present. 
 We told him there was a youth of the Benee 
 Hashim belonging to our company, who was 
 called the orphan grandson of Abdulmutalib. 
 On hearing this he shrieked, nearly swooned 
 away, sprang up and cried, ‘ Alas 1 alas 1 the 
 Nasaranee religion is ruined ! ’ He then 
 leaned on his crosier and fell into profound 
 thought for a long time, with eight of his 
 patriarchs and disciples standing around 
 him. At last he said, ‘ Can you show me that 
 youth? ’ Wo answered in the affirmative. 
 
 “ He then accompanied us to the bazar, 
 where we found the Prophet, with light beam¬ 
 ing from the radiant moon of his face, and 
 a great crowd of people around him, who 
 had been attracted by his extraordinary 
 beauty, and were buying his goods at the 
 highest prices, while they sold their own to 
 him at the cheapest rate. With the view of 
 proving the knowledge of the wise man, we 
 pointed out another individual as the object 
 of his inquiry, but presently he recognised the 
 Prophet himself, and shouted, ‘ By the truth 
 of the Lord Meseeh. I have found him ! ’ and 
 overpowered with emotion, came and kissed 
 his blessed head, saying, 1 Thou art holy ! ’ 
 He then asked Mohammed many things con¬ 
 cerning himself, all of which he satisfactorily 
 answered. The wise man affirmed that if he 
 were to live in the time of Mohammed’s 
 prophecy, he would fight for him in the 
 cause of truth, declaring that whoever obeyed 
 him would gain everlasting life, and whoever 
 rejected him would die eternal death.” (Mer¬ 
 rick’s translation of Hayatu ’l-Qulub, p. 64.) 
 
 NEW MOON. Arabic Hildl(JU). 
 
 The term is used for the first three days of 
 the new moon. 
 
 NEW TESTAMENT. Arabic al- 
 l Ahdu ’l-Jadid There 
 
 is no evidence in the Qur’an, or in the Tradi¬ 
 tions, that Muhammad had ever seen, or was 
 acquainted with, the New Testament. The 
 Christian scriptures are spoken of in the 
 Qur’an as the Injll, euayyeAiov, “ which was 
 given to Jesus ”; by which Muhammadans 
 understand a complete book somewhat similar 
 to the Qur’an. See Surah lvii. 27; “ We 
 caused our Apostles to follow in their foot¬ 
 steps (i.e. of Noah and Abraham), and We 
 caused Jesus the son of Mary to follow them, 
 and We gave him the Injll, and We put into 
 the hearts of those who followed him kind¬ 
 ness and compassion; but as to the monastic 
 life, they invented it themselves.” The only 
 New Testament characters mentioned by name 
 in the Qur’an are Jesus, Mary, Zacharias, John, 
 and Gabriel, and there is no direct reference 
 to the Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s 
 Supper, nor to the miracles or parables of 
 Jesus. This is all the more remarkable, 
 because the Old Testament history and its 
 leading characters, are frequently mentioned 
 in the Qur’an, [injil, Christianity.] 
 
 NEW YEAR, [natjeoz.] 
 NICKNAME. Arabic nabaz ()<*), 
 
 pi. anbdz. The calling of nicknames is for¬ 
 bidden in the Qur’an, Surah xlix. 11: “O 
 Believers, let not men laugh men to scorn who 
 haply may be better than themselves. Neither 
 let women laugh women to scorn, who haply 
 may be better than themselves. Neither de¬ 
 fame one another, nor call one another by 
 nicknames.” 
 
 This verse is said to have been given when 
 Safiyah, one of the Prophet’s wives, com¬ 
 plained that she had been taunted by the 
 other women with her Jewish origin. Muham¬ 
 mad answered her, “Canst thou not say, 
 
 ‘ Aaron is my father, Moses is my uncle, and 
 Muhammad is my husband.’” (See al-Baizawi, 
 in loco.) 
 
 NIFAQ (o^“). Hypocrisy, or pro¬ 
 fessing with the lips to believe and hiding 
 infidelity in one’s heart. ( Kita.hu ’ t-Ta>rifdt , 
 in loco.) 
 
 NIFAS ((jAai). The condition of a 
 
 woman after the birth of a child, during 
 which period she is unclean and is not per¬ 
 mitted to perform the usual prayers. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Sunnis, it is a period of forty 
 days, but according to the Shhahs, only ten. 
 
 NIGHT JOURNEY OF MU¬ 
 HAMMAD. [hi‘raj.] 
 
 NIGHT PRAYERS. Arabic 
 saldtu ’l-layl (JAM SyLo), or salcitu ’t- 
 tahajjud From eight 
 
 to twelve rak‘ah prayers recited during the 
 night, in addition to the witr prayers, which 
 consist of an odd number of rak‘ahs. These 
 prayers are Sunnah, i.e. established according 
 to the custom of the Prophet, but they are 
 voluntary acts of devotion. ( Alishkat , book 
 iv. ch. xxxii.) 
 
 NIKAH (cA&). A word which, in 
 
 its literal sense signifies conjunction, but 
 which in the language of the law implies the 
 marriage contract, [marriage.] 
 
 NIMROD. Arabic Numrud (o.^). 
 Heb. T i n?22. All Muhammadan com¬ 
 mentators say he was the son of Canaan 
 (Kan‘an), and not, as stated in Genesis x. 8, 
 the son of Cush. 
 
 He is referred to in the Qur’an in the fol¬ 
 lowing passage :— 
 
 Surah ii. 260 : “ Hast thou not thought on 
 him who disputed with Abraham about his 
 Lord, because God had given him the king¬ 
 dom ? When Abraham said, ‘ My Lord is He 
 who maketh alive and causeth to die : ’ He 
 said, ‘ It is I who make alive and cause to 
 die ! ’ Abraham said, ‘ Since God bringeth 
 the sun from the East, do thou, then bring it 
 from the West.’ The infidel was confounded ; 
 for God guideth not the evil doers.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 68, 69: “ They said: ‘ Burn 
 him, and come to the succour of your gods : 
 if ye will do anything at all.’ We said, ‘ O 
 
 55 
 
434 NIMROD 
 
 fire! be thou cold, and to Abraham a 
 safety! ’ ” 
 
 The Rabbins make Nimrod to have been 
 the persecutor of Abraham (comp. Targ. Jon. 
 on Gen. xv. 7; Tr. Bava Bathra, fol. 91a.; 
 Maimon. More Nevochim, iii. 29; Weil, Le- 
 genclen, p. 74), and the Muhammadan com¬ 
 mentators say, that by Nimrod’s order a 
 large space was inclosed at Kusa, and filled 
 with a vast quantity of wood, which being 
 set on fire, burned so fiercely that none dared 
 to venture near it; then they bound Abra¬ 
 ham, and putting him into an engine (which 
 some suppose to have been of the Devil’s 
 invention), shot him into the midst of the 
 fire, from which he was preserved by the 
 angel Gabriel, who was sent to his assistance, 
 the fire burning only the cords with which 
 he was bound. They add that the fire, 
 having miraculously lost its heat in respect 
 to Abraham, became an odoriferous air, and 
 that the pile changed to a pleasant meadow, 
 though it raged so furiously otherwise, that, 
 according to some writers, about two thou¬ 
 sand of the idolaters were consumed by it. 
 
 This story seems to have had no other 
 foundation than that passage of Moses, where 
 God is said to have brought Abraham out of 
 Ur of the Chaldees, misunderstood; which 
 word the Jews, the most trifling interpreters 
 of scripture, and some moderns who have fol¬ 
 lowed them, have translated out of the fire 
 of the Chaldees; taking the word Ur, not for 
 the proper name of a city, as it really is, but 
 for an appellative signifying “ fire.” However, 
 it is a fable of some antiquity, and credited 
 not only by the Jews, but by several of the 
 eastern Christians; the twenty-fifth of the 
 second Kanun, or January, being set apart in 
 the Syrian calendar for the commemoration 
 of Abraham’s being cast into the fire. 
 
 The Jews also mention some other perse¬ 
 cutions which Abraham underwent on account 
 of his religion, particularly a ten years’ im¬ 
 prisonment, some saying he was imprisoned 
 by Nimrod, and others by his father Terah. 
 Some tell us that Nimrod, on seeing this 
 miraculous deliverance from his palace, cried 
 out that he would make an offering to the 
 God of Abraham; and that he accordingly 
 sacrificed four thousand kine. But if he ever 
 relented, he soon relapsed into his former in¬ 
 fidelity, for he built a tower that he might 
 ascend to heaven to see Abraham’s God, 
 which being overthrown, still persisting in his 
 design, he would be carried to heaven in a 
 chest borne by four monstrous birds; but 
 after wandering for some time through the air, 
 he fell down on a moimtain with such force 
 that he made it shake, whereto (as some fancy) 
 a passage in the Qur’an alludes (Surah xiv. 
 47), which may be translated, “ Although their 
 contrivances be such as to make the moun¬ 
 tains tremble.” Nimrod, disappointed in his 
 design of making war with God, turns his 
 arms against Abraham, who being a great 
 prince, raised forces to defend himself; but 
 God, dividing Nimrod’s subjects, and confound¬ 
 ing their language, deprived him of the greater 
 part of his people, and plagued those who 
 
 NOAH 
 
 adhered to him by swarms of gnats, which 
 destroyed almost all of them; and one of 
 those gnats having entered into the nostril, or 
 ear, of Nimrod, penetrated to one of the mem¬ 
 branes of his brain, where growing bigger 
 every day, it gave him such intolerable pain 
 that he was obliged to cause his head to be 
 beaten with a mallet, in order to procure 
 some ease, which torture he suffered four 
 hundred years; God being willing to punish 
 by one of the smallest of his creatures him 
 who insolently boasted himself to be lord of 
 all. A Syrian calendar places the death of 
 Nimrod, as if the time were well known, on 
 the 8th of Tamuz, or July. (See Sale’s 
 Koran ; D’Herbelot’s Bibl. Orient. ; al-Bai- 
 zawi’s Com.) 
 
 NlNAWA (es^* 5 ). [nineveh.] 
 NINEVEH, Arabic Ninawct 
 
 Heb. 3. Not mentioned 
 
 byname in the Qur’an, but according to al- 
 Baizawf it is the city of “ a hundred thousand 
 persons, or even more,” to whom Jonah was 
 sent. See Qur’an, Surah xxxvii. 147. 
 
 an-NISA “ Women.” 
 
 The title of the ivth Surah of the Qur’an, in 
 the first verse of which the word occurs, and 
 which treats to a great extent the subject of 
 women. 
 
 NISAB (s- , b=>). An estate or pro¬ 
 perty for which zalcat, or legal alms, must be 
 paid, [zakat.] 
 
 NlYAH (Lo). A vow; intention; 
 purpose. A term used for the vow or decla¬ 
 ration of the intention to perform prayers. 
 ‘ I have purposed to offer up to God only 
 with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the 
 case may be), with my face Qiblah-wards 
 tivo (or, as the case may be) rak'ah prayers 
 farz (sunnali, nafl, or witr').' It is also used by 
 a Muslim about to perform the pilgrimage or 
 the month’s fast. The formula is necessary to 
 render an act of devotion acceptable, [prater.] 
 
 NIYAZ-I-ALLAH (Mil jU). A 
 
 Persian term for offerings in the name of God. 
 
 NIYAZ-I-BASUL (J^ jUi). A 
 
 Persian term for offerings in the name of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 NOAH. Arabic Nuh (tf). Heb. 
 
 mi A prophet to whom Muhammadans 
 
 give the Kalimah, or title, of Nabiyu ’llah, 
 “ the Prophet of God.” He is not supposed 
 to have been the inspired author of “ a Book." 
 
 The following is the account given of him 
 and of the flood in the Qur’an (with Mr. 
 Lane’s annotations in italics: see second 
 edition, by Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole) :— 
 
 “We formerly sent Noah unto his people, 
 saying, Verily I am unto you a plain admo- 
 nisher that ye worship not [any] but God. 
 Verily I fear for you, if ye worship any other, 
 the punishment of an afflictive day in this 
 world and the world to cojne. —But the chiefs 
 
NOAH 
 
 NOAH 
 
 435 
 
 who disbelieved among his people replied, 
 We see thee not to he other than a man, 
 like unto us; and we see not any to have 
 followed thee except the meanest of us, 
 as the weavers and the cobb/ers, at first thought 
 (or rashly), nor do we see you to have any 
 excellence above us : nay, we imagine you to 
 be liars in your claim to the apostolic commis¬ 
 sion. He said, 0 my people, tell me, if I have 
 an evident proof from my Lord and He hath 
 bestowed on me mercy (the gift of prophecy) 
 from Himself which is hidden from you, shall 
 we compel you to receive it when ye are 
 averse thereto ? We cannot do so. And, 0 
 my people, I ask not of you any riches for 
 it; namely, for delivering my message. My 
 reward is not due from any but God; and I 
 will not drive away those who have believed 
 as ye have commanded me [because they are 
 poor people]. Verily they shall meet their 
 Lord at the resurrection, and He will recom¬ 
 pense them, and will exact for them [repara¬ 
 tion] from those who have treated them with 
 injustice, and driven them away. But I see 
 you [to be] a people who are ignorant of the 
 end of your case. And, 0 my people, who 
 will defend me against God if I drive them 
 away? Will ye not then consider? And I 
 do not say unto you, I have the treasures of 
 God; nor [do I say], I know the things un¬ 
 seen; nor do I say, Verily I am an angel; 
 nor do I say, of those whom your eyes con¬ 
 temn, God will by no means bestow on them 
 good: (God best knoweth what is in their 
 minds :) verily I should in that case be [one] 
 of the offenders.—They replied, 0 Noah, thou 
 hast disputed with us and multiplied disputes 
 with us : now bring upon us that punishment 
 wherewith thou threatenest us, if thou be of 
 those that speak truth. He said, Only God 
 will bring it upon you, if He please to hasten 
 it unto you; for it is His affair, not mine; 
 and ye shall not escape God: nor will my 
 counsel profit you, if I desire to counsel you, 
 if God desire to lead you into error. He is 
 your Lord ; and unto Him shall ye be brought 
 back.” (Surah xi. 27-36.) 
 
 “ And it was said by revelation unto Noah, 
 Verily there shall not believe of thy people 
 [any] but they who have already believed ; 
 therefore he not grieved for that which they 
 have done.” (Surah xi. 38.) 
 
 “ And he uttered an imprecation upon them, 
 saying, 0 my Lord, leave not upon the earth 
 any one of the unbelievers ; for if Thou leave 
 them, they will lead Thy servants into error, 
 and will not beget [any] but a wicked, un¬ 
 grateful [offspring], 0 my Lord, forgive me 
 and my parents (for they were believers), and 
 whomsoever entereth my house (my abode, or 
 my place of worship), being a believer, and 
 the believing men, and the believing women, 
 (to the day of resurrection,) and add not to the 
 offenders [aught] save destruction.” (Surah 
 Ixxi. 27-29.) 
 
 “ And God answered his prayer, and said, 
 Construct the ark in our sight and according 
 to our revelation, and speak not unto Me con¬ 
 cerning those who have offended, to beg Me 
 not to destroy them; for they [shall be] 
 
 drowned. And he constructed tho ark ; and 
 whenever a company of his people passed by 
 him, they derided him. He said, If ye de¬ 
 ride us, we will deride you, like as ye deride, 
 when we are saved and ye are drowned, and ye 
 shall know on whom shall come a punishment 
 which shall render him vile, and whom shall 
 befall a lasting punishment. [Thus he was 
 employed] until when Our decree for their 
 destruction came to pass, and the baker's oven 
 overflowed with water (for this was a signal 
 unto Noah), We said, Carry into it (that is, 
 into the ark) of every pair, male and female, 
 of each of these descriptions, two (and it is 
 related that God assembled for Noah the wild 
 beasts and the birds and other creatures, and he 
 proceeded to put his hands upon each kind, and 
 his right hand fell always upon the male, and 
 his left upon the female, and he carried them 
 into the ark), and thy family (excepting him 
 upon whom the sentence of destruction hath 
 already been pronounced, namely, Noah’s 
 wife, and his son Canaan : but Shem and Ham 
 and Japheth and their three wives he took), 
 and those who have believed ; but there be¬ 
 lieved not with him save a few : they were six 
 men and their wives: and it is said that all who 
 were in the ark were eighty, half of whom were 
 men and half women. And Noah said, Embark 
 ye therein. In the name of God [be] its 
 course and its mooring. Verily my Lord is 
 very forgiving [and] merciful.—And it moved 
 along with them amid waves like mountains; 
 and Noah called unto his son, Canaan, who 
 was apart from the ark, 0 my child, embark 
 with us, and be not with the unbelievers ! 
 He replied, I will betake me to a mountain 
 which will secure me from the water. [Noah] 
 said, There is nought that will secure to-day 
 from the decree of God [any] but him on 
 whom He hath mercy. And the waves inter¬ 
 vened between them; so he became [one] of 
 the drowned. And it was said, 0 earth, 
 swallow up thy water (ivhereupon it drank it 
 up, except what had descended from heaven, 
 which became rivers and seas), and, O heaven, 
 cease from raining; —and the water abated, 
 and the decree was fulfilled, and it ( namely , 
 the ark), rested on El-Joodee (a mountain of 
 El-Jezeereh, near El-Mosil) ; and it was said, 
 Perdition to the offending people ! ” (Surah 
 xi. 39-46.) 
 
 “And Noah called upon his Lord, and 
 said, 0 my Lord, verily my son is of my 
 family, and Thou hast promised me to save 
 them, and verily Thy promise is true, and 
 Thou art the most just of those who exer¬ 
 cise judgment. God replied, 0 Noah, verily 
 he is not of thy family who should be saved, or 
 of the people of thy religion Verily it (namely, 
 thine asking Me to save him) is not a righteous 
 act; for he was an unbeliever, and there is 
 no safety for the unbelievers; therefore ask 
 not of Me that wherein thou hast no know¬ 
 ledge. I admonish thee, lest thou become 
 [one] of the ignorant.— Noah said, 0 my 
 Lord, I beg Thee to preserve me from asking 
 Thee that wherein I have no knowledge; and 
 if Thou do not forgive me and have mercy 
 upon me, I shall be of those who suffer loss, 
 
NOMOS 
 
 NUZUL 
 
 486 
 
 —It was said, 0 Noah, descend from the arlc, 
 with peace from Us, and blessings, upon thee 
 and upon peoples [that shall proceed] from 
 those who are with thee in the ark (that is, 
 their believing posterity) ; but peoples [that 
 shall proceed] from those who are with thee 
 We will permit to enjoy the provisions of this 
 world; then a painful punishment shall be¬ 
 fall them from Us, in the ivorld to come; they 
 being unbelievers .” (Surah xi. 47-50.) 
 
 The commentator, al-Baizawi, says that 
 Noah went into the ark on the tenth of Rajab, 
 and came out of it on the tenth of Muharram ; 
 which therefore became a fast; so that the 
 whole time of Noah’s being in the ark, accord¬ 
 ing to him, was six months; and that Noah 
 was two years in building the ark, which was 
 framed of Indian plane-tree; that it was 
 divided into three stories, of which the lower 
 was designed for the beasts, the middle one 
 for the men and women, and the upper for 
 the birds ; and the men were separated from 
 the women by the body of Adam, which Noah 
 had taken into the ark. 
 
 NOMOS. Greek vo/ros. [namus.] 
 
 NOSE, Cutting off. There is re¬ 
 taliation for cutting off a nose: a nose for a 
 nose. ( Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 294.) 
 
 NUBUWAH “Prophecy.” 
 
 The office or work of a nabi or prophet. 
 [prophets.] 
 
 NUH (cy). [noah.] 
 an-NUJABA’ OWh), the pi. of 
 
 Najlb. “ The Excellent ones.” According to 
 the Sufis, forty saintly characters who always 
 exist on earth for the benefit of its people. 
 (See Kashshafu ’l-Istilafiat in loco.) [abdal.] 
 
 NU‘MAN ( w U*i). The name of 
 
 several of the Kings of Hira’, Nu‘nian V. is 
 celebrated in the annals of the history of 
 Arabia, because his reign approached close 
 upon the rise of Islam, and he was the patron 
 of several poets of renown, who have cele¬ 
 brated his name. (See Muir’s Life of Maho¬ 
 met, 1st ed., Intro, p. clxxxi.) 
 
 Nu‘mdn is also the popular title of the 
 Imam Abu Hanlfah. [hanifah.] 
 
 NUMRUD [nimkod.] 
 
 NUN ( 0 y). The letter N y, which 
 
 occurs at the commencement of the Lxvmth 
 Surah of the Qur’an. The meaning of which 
 is acknowledged by all commentators to be a 
 mystery. 
 
 Al-BaizawI says it is supposed that nun 
 either means an inkstand, referring to the 
 pen of the first verse, or a fish, referring to 
 that which swallowed Jonah mentioned in 
 the 48th verse of this Surah, but he thinks it 
 is merely an initial letter, the meaning of 
 which is unknown to mortal man. 
 
 NUPTIAL FEAST. [walimah, 
 
 marriage.] 
 
 an-NUQABA’ the pi. of 
 
 Naq'ib. “ The Watchmen.” According to 
 the Sufis, they are three hundred persons 
 who are ever to be found in the world, and 
 who are engaged in its enlightenment. (See 
 Kitabu ’ t-Ta‘rifat, in loco.) [abdal.] 
 
 NUQU'U ’Z-ZABlB (s-*»)R Zf ). 
 
 “ Infusion of raisins.” Water in which raisins 
 are steeped until it becomes sweet and is 
 affected in its substance. It is a prohibited, 
 liquor. (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 159.) 
 
 an-NUR “The Light.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 
 35:— 
 
 “ God is the Light of the Heavens and of 
 the Earth. His Light is like a niche in which 
 is a lamp—the lamp encased in glass—the 
 glass, as it were, a glistening star. From a 
 blessed tree is it lighted, the olive neither of 
 the East nor the West, whose oil would 
 well nigh shine out, even though fire touched 
 it not! It is light upon light. God guideth 
 whom He will to His light, and God setteth 
 forth parables to men, for God Knoweth all 
 things.” 
 
 NUR-I-MUHAMMADI 
 
 Persian for “ The Light of Muhammad.” The 
 original essence of Muhammad, known in 
 Arabic as the Haqiqatu '1-Muh.ammadiyah, 
 under which title the subject is discussed in 
 this dictionary. [haqiqatu ’l-muhamma- 
 diyah.] 
 
 NURU ’L-AN WAR #). 
 
 “ The Light of Lights.” A title given to the 
 Divine Being. (See ‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, 
 of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 NUZUL (J^y). “Descent.” (1) 
 
 The portions of the Qur’an as they were de¬ 
 clared by Muhammad to have descended 
 from heaven by the hand of Gabriel. 
 
 (2) Property which falls to the state from 
 default of heir, or which has been confis¬ 
 cated. 
 
OATH 
 
 OATH 437 
 
 0 . 
 
 OATH. Arabic yamln (o***), pi. 
 
 yamxndt, aimdn. The teaching of the Qur’an 
 with reference to an oath, is expressed in the 
 following verses:— 
 
 Surah ii. 225 : “ God will not punish you 
 for an inconsiderate word in your oath, but 
 he will punish you for that which your 
 hearts have assented to.” 
 
 Surah v. 91: “ God will not punish you for 
 an inconsiderate word in your oaths, but he 
 will punish you in regard to an oath taken 
 seriously. Its expiation shall be to feed ten 
 poor persons with such moderate food as ye 
 feed your own families with, or to clothe 
 them ; or to set free a captive. But he who 
 cannot find means shall fast three days.” 
 
 Surah xvi. 9G : “ Take not your oaths be¬ 
 tween you deceitfully.” 
 
 The following is the teaching of Muham¬ 
 mad, as given in the Traditions :— 
 
 “ Whoever swears to a thing and says, ‘ If 
 it please God,’ and acts contrary to his oath, 
 it is no sin.” 
 
 “ Swear not by idols or by your own 
 fathers.” 
 
 “ Swear not by God except it be to the 
 truth.” 
 
 “ Whoever swears by the prayers or by the 
 fast, or by the pilgrimage, is not a Muslim.” 
 
 The Prophet used generally to swear in 
 these words : “ No, by the Turner of Hearts.” 
 
 According to the Hidayah (Hamilton’s ed., 
 vol. vi., pp. 1 , 2 ), yamln is constituted by the 
 use of the name of Almighty God, or by any 
 of those appellations by which the Deity is 
 generally known or understood. 
 
 False oaths are of three kinds :— 
 
 (1) Al-Yamlnu Ghamus 
 
 An oath taken concerning a thing already 
 past, in which is conveyed an intentional false¬ 
 hood on the part of the swearer: such an oath 
 is highly sinful, the Prophet having declared 
 —‘ Whosoever sweareth falsely, the same shall 
 be condemned to hell.” 
 
 ( 2 ) Al-Yaminu ’l-mun‘aqid ( 0 -*-*-*-^ 
 
 An oath taken concerning a matter 
 which is to come. Thus, a man swears 
 that he will do such a thing, or he will not 
 do such a thing, and where he fails in this, 
 expiation is incumbent upon him, which ex¬ 
 piation is established on the authority of the 
 sacred writings. 
 
 (3) Yaminu ’l-Laghw 0- An 
 
 oath taken concerning an incident or transac¬ 
 tion already past, where the swearer believes 
 that the matter to which he thus bears tes¬ 
 timony accords with what he swears, though 
 it should happen to be actually otherwise ; in 
 which case it may be hoped from the divine 
 mercy that the swearer will not be condemned 
 for such an oath. 
 
 The expiation, or kaffarah, is of no avail 
 for the Yaminu 'l-Ghamus. but it is neces¬ 
 sary for the Yaminu ’ 1-mun‘aqid . It con¬ 
 sists of either feeding or clothing ten poor 
 persons, or releasing a Muslim captive. 
 
 The Muslim law with regard to oaths is a 
 modification of the Talmudic law, for from 
 the Divine law the Jewish doctors deduced 
 many special cases of perjury, which are thus 
 classified:— 
 
 (1) Jus jurandum protnissorium, a rash or 
 inconsiderate oath for the future, or a false 
 assertion respecting the past (Lev. v. 4). 
 
 (2 ) Vanum, an absurd contradictory asser¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (3) Depositi, breach of contract denied 
 (Lev. xix. 11). 
 
 (4) Testimonii, judicial perjury (Lev. v. 1). 
 (H. W. P. in Smith’s Diet, of the Bible.) 
 
 The Mosaic law admitted expiation in the 
 case of rash or forgotten oaths, vide Lev. v. 
 4, but the Yaminu 'l-mun'-aqid of Muham¬ 
 madan law allows a much greater latitude, 
 for it applies to all vows or oaths excepting 
 those intentionally false made with regard to 
 future events. 
 
 The teaching of Muhammadan jurists on 
 the subject of oaths and vows, exhibits that 
 reservatio menta/is of Muhammadan morality 
 which is so similar to that of the Jewish 
 Rabbis, and which was condemned by Jesus 
 Cln-ist in St. Matt, xxiii. 16. 
 
 Sunni writers on jurisprudence say that an 
 oath should be expressed by such attributes 
 of the Deity as are commonly used in swear¬ 
 ing, such as the power, or the glory, or the 
 might of God, because an oath is usually ex¬ 
 pressed under one or other of those qualities ; 
 and the sense of yamln, viz. “ strength,” is by 
 this means obtained, since as the swearer be¬ 
 lieves in the power, glory, and might, and 
 other attributes of the Deity, it follows that 
 the mention of these attributes only is suf¬ 
 ficient to strengthen the resolution in the 
 performance of the act vowed, or the avoid¬ 
 ance thereof. 
 
 If a man swear “ by the knowledge of 
 God,” it does not constitute an oath, because 
 an oath expressed by the knowledge of God 
 is not in use; moreover, by “knowledge” is 
 frequently implied merely that which is 
 known ; and in this sense the word knowledge 
 is not expressive either of the name of God, 
 or of any of His attributes. In the same 
 manner, should a person swear “ by the 
 wrath of God,” or “ by the mercy of God,” it 
 does not constitute an oath, because an oath 
 is not commonly expressed by any of these 
 attributes; moreover, by the word rahmah 
 is sometimes understood “ rain,” and “ hea¬ 
 ven ” is also occasionally expressed by that 
 term; and by the word tihaiz is understood 
 
438 
 
 OATH 
 
 OATH 
 
 “ punishment ”; and none of these are either 
 appellations or attributes of the Deity. 
 
 If a person swear by another name than 
 that of God,—such as “ the Prophet,” or 
 “ the Holy Temple,” this does not constitute 
 an oath, as the Prophet has said, “ if any 
 man among you take an oath, he must swear 
 “ by the name of God, or else his oath is 
 void.” If a person swear by the Qur’an, it 
 does not constitute an oath, although the 
 Qur’an be the word of God, because men do 
 not swear by the Qur’an. The compiler of 
 the Hidayah observes that this is where the 
 swearer only says, “ by the Prophet,” or “ by 
 the Temple,” or “ by the Qur’an,” but if the 
 swearer say, “ If I act contrary to what I 
 now say, may I be deprived 1 of the Prophet,’” 
 or “ of the temple,” or “ of the Qur’an,” this 
 constitutes an oath, because such privation 
 would reduce the swearer to the state of an 
 infidel, and the suspension of infidelity upon 
 a condition amounts to yamln. 
 
 Abu Hanifah alleges that if a man should 
 swear “ by the truth of God,” this does not con¬ 
 stitute an oath, and in this Imam Muhammad 
 coincides. There are two opinions of Abu 
 Yusuf recorded on this point. According to 
 one, it is not an oath; but according to the 
 other it is an oath, because truth is one of 
 the attributes of the Deity, signifying the 
 certainty of the divine existence, and hence it 
 is the same as if the swearer were to say, “ by 
 God, the truth! ” and as oaths are common 
 under this mode of expression, so an oath is 
 hereby constituted. The argument of Imam 
 Muhammad and Abu Hanifah is that the 
 term “ the truth,” as here expressed, relates 
 merely to the identity of the godhead as the 
 object of obedience, and hence an oath thus 
 expressed appears to be taken by that which 
 is neither an appellation nor an attribute of 
 God. The learned jurists, however, say that 
 if a person express himself thus, “ by the 
 truth I wall do so and so,” this constitutes an 
 oath, because the truth is one of the appel¬ 
 latives or proper names of God. But if a 
 person were to say, “ I will do this truly,” it 
 does not amoirnt to an oath, because the word 
 truly can only be taken, in this case, as a 
 corroboration or confirmation of the promise 
 contained in the speech, being the same as 
 if he were to say, “ I shall do this indeed If 
 a man say, “ I swear,” or “ I vow,” or “ I 
 testify,” whether the words “by God” be 
 superadded or not, it constitutes an oath, be¬ 
 cause such words are commonly used in 
 swearing ; the use of them in the present tense 
 is undisputed; and they are also sometimes 
 used in the future tense, where the context 
 admits of a construction in the present : and 
 attestation amounts to an oath, as in that 
 sense it occurs in the sacred writings. Now 
 swearing “ by the name of God ” is both cus¬ 
 tomary and conformable to the divine ordi¬ 
 nances, but without the name of God it is 
 forbidden. When it so occurs, therefore, it 
 must be construed into a lawful oath ; hence 
 some say that intention is not requisite in it; 
 others, however, allege that the intention is 
 essential, because the words here recited bear 
 
 the construction of a promise, that is, they 
 admit of being received as applying to the 
 future, and also of being taken as a vow 
 without the name of God. 
 
 If a person, speaking in the Persian lan¬ 
 guage, were to say, “ I swear by God,” it 
 amounts to an oath, because here the idiom 
 confines the expression solely to the present; 
 but if he were to say simply, “ I swear,” 
 some allege that this does not constitute an 
 oath. If he wore to say, “ I swear by the 
 divorce of my wife,” this is not an oath, as an 
 oath is not so expressed in practice. 
 
 If a man in swearing say “ by the age ” or 
 “ the existence of God,” it constitutes an oath, 
 because the age or existence of God signifies 
 his eternity, which is one of his attributes. 
 
 If a person should say, “ If I do this may 
 I be a Jew, or a Christian, or an infidel,” it 
 constitutes an oath; because, as the swearer 
 has made the condition a sign of infidelity, it 
 follows that he is conscious of his obligation 
 to avoid the condition ; and this obligation is 
 possible, by making it an oath, in such a -way 
 as to render unlawful to himself that which is 
 lawful. And if the oath relate to anything 
 which he has done in the time past, as if he 
 were to say, “ If I have done so may I be a 
 Jew or an infidel,” and so forth, this is yami- 
 nu 7- Ghamiis, or “ perjury.” The swearer is 
 not, however, in this case made a Jew or an 
 infidel, because the words “ may I be an in¬ 
 fidel,” and so forth, relate to some future in¬ 
 definite period. Some, on the contrary, have 
 alleged that he becomes actually as an in¬ 
 fidel,” because the penalty which the swearer 
 imprecates upon himself relates to the present 
 instant of his testimony, being the same as if 
 he were to say, “ I am a Jew,” &c. But the 
 majority of doctors say, the swearer does not 
 become a Jew or infidel in either of the cases, 
 either in that of a vow with respect to the 
 f uture, or an oath regarding the past, provided 
 he consider this merely as a form of swear¬ 
 ing. But if he believe that by thus swearing 
 he fully subjects himself to the penalty ex¬ 
 pressed, he suffers accordingly, in either 
 instance, because he appears consenting to 
 infidelity, on account of having ventured upon 
 a thing by the commission of which he con¬ 
 ceives that he may be rendered an infidel. 
 
 If a person say, “If I do this, may the 
 anger of God fall upon me,” this does not 
 constitute a vow, as not being a customary 
 mode of expression for that purpose. And so 
 also, if a person were to say, “ May I be an 
 adulterer or a drunkard or an usurer,” because 
 these are not generally understood or received 
 as forms of swearing. 
 
 The following are considered the most 
 solemn and binding methods of taking an 
 oath:— 
 
 1. Saying three times “ by the Great 
 God.” 
 
 2. Taking the Qur’an and saying, “ by ■what 
 this contains of the word of God.” 
 
 3. By placing a sword on the Qur’an. 
 
 4. By saying, “I impose upon myself 
 divorcement.” 
 
 Muhammad himself was rather given to 
 
OATH 
 
 OLD TESTAMENT 439 
 
 swearing, and the Qur’an is full of wild oaths, 
 one of the most terrible of which, according 
 to the Prophet’s own words, is to “ swear by 
 the setting stars.” (Surah Ivi. 74.) 
 
 Burckhardt, in his notes on the Bedouin 
 Arabs, says that these children of the desert 
 often take hold of the middle of a tent pole 
 and swear by the life of the tent and its 
 owners. 
 
 As might be expected, from the example 
 sot them by their Prophet, Muhammadans 
 are commonly guilty of taking God’s name 
 in vain by swearing upon every petty occa¬ 
 sion. Like the p .a Aia of the Greeks, the 
 word is hardly ever out of their mouths. 
 
 [For further information on the subject 
 of Oaths, see Hamilton’s Hidayah, book vi. ; 
 the Durru ’l-Mukhtar, the Racldu 'l-M.uh.tdr, 
 and the Fatawd-i-‘Alamgiri, in loco, in which 
 there are chapters devoted to the considera¬ 
 tion of oaths and vows made under all cir¬ 
 cumstances of life, e.g. with respect to enter¬ 
 ing places of residence; with regard to 
 actions; with respect to eating and drinking, 
 speaking and conversing ; of vows in manu¬ 
 mission and divorce; with respect to buying 
 and selling, marriage, clothing, wearing orna¬ 
 ments, striking, killing, the payment of 
 money, &c. &c.] 
 
 OATH, The administration of an. 
 An oath in a court of justice is not worthy 
 of credit unless it be taken in the name of 
 God, because Muhammad said, “ Whosoever 
 takes an oath otherwise than in the name 
 of God, is most certainly a polytheist.” It 
 is incumbent upon the Qazi, or judge, to 
 request the swearer to corroborate his oath 
 by reciting some of the attributes of God. 
 For example, “ I swear by God, the Righ¬ 
 teous, the Knower of Secrets,” &c. A defen¬ 
 dant must not be required to swear by divorce 
 or emancipation, as if he should say : “ If it 
 be true my wife is divorced, or my slave is 
 free.” 
 
 If an oath be administered to a Jew, he 
 should say, “ I swear by God who revealed 
 the Taurdt to Moses.” 
 
 If to a Christian, he should say, “ I 
 swear by God who revealed the Injil to 
 Jesus.” 
 
 If to a MajusI or fire-worshipper, he should 
 say, “ I swear by God who created fire.” 
 
 An oath cannot be administered to an idola¬ 
 ter otherwise than in the name of God, in ac¬ 
 cordance with this verse in the Qur’an, “ If 
 ye ask of them who hath created you, verily 
 they will say God Almighty.” (Surah xxxix. 
 39.) 
 
 An oath cannot be administered to infidels 
 in their places of worship, because the Qazi is 
 not allowed to enter such a place. This 
 applies to the places of worship of the Jews 
 and. Christians as well as of idolaters. (AZY- 
 ddyah, vol. ii. p. 77.) 
 
 Women are not in Muslim law (as in Jewish, 
 Mishna Sheb. iv. 1), forbidden to bear wit¬ 
 ness on oath. 
 
 OBSEQUIES OF THE HEAD. 
 
 [jANAZAH.] 
 
 OFFENCE AGAINST THE PER¬ 
 
 SON. [JINAYAH.] 
 
 OFFERINGS. The Arabic word 
 nazr (j&) is often used for an offer¬ 
 ing, but in its strict theological meaning it 
 expresses a vow. Khairat (ccAj*i-)> pi. of 
 Khair, is used for ordinary acts of charity. 
 Sadaqah (AiAo) also expresses the same 
 meaning. Niydz (jLi) is an offering to a 
 saint. Zakdt (lySj), the legal alms. 
 
 [For an account of these offerings refer to 
 the words.] 
 
 OHUD. [uhud.] 
 
 OLD TESTAMENT. AUAMu ’ l - 
 ‘Atlq As*!!.) Muhammad, in 
 
 his Qur’an, professes to receive all the in¬ 
 spired books of the Old Testament. (See 
 Surah ii. 130 : “ We believe in God, and what 
 has been revealed to us, and what has been re¬ 
 vealed to Abraham, and Ishmael,and Isaac, and 
 Jacob, and the Tribes, and what was brought 
 unto the Prophets from their Lord: and we 
 will not distinguish between any of them, 
 and unto Him are we resigned ” (i.e. Muslims). 
 But there is no evidence that Muhammad 
 had ever seen the Jewish Scriptures, as now 
 received by both Jews and Christians. In the 
 Qur’an, he mentions the Taurdt of Moses, 
 the Zabur (Psalms) of David, and makes 
 several references to the historical portions 
 of the Old Testament; but Jonah is the 
 only name amongst the writers of the pro¬ 
 phetical books (either greater or minor), of 
 the Old Testament scriptures, mentioned in 
 the Qur'an. 
 
 Muhammadan writers say there have been 
 124,000 prophets, but only eight of these 
 have been apostles to whom the Almighty 
 has revealed books, and that only one hun¬ 
 dred portions, or suhuf and four books, or 
 lcutub, have been given to mankind. Ten 
 portions to Adam, the first of the prophets, 
 fifty to Seth (not once mentioned in the 
 Qur’an), thirty to Idris or Enoch, and ten to 
 Abraham. One book to Moses, another to 
 David, another to Jesus, and the fourth to 
 Muhammad. 
 
 Six of the prophets are said to have 
 brought in new laws which successively 
 abrogated the preceding, namely Adam, 
 Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muham¬ 
 mad. 
 
 It is impossible to read the Qur’an carefully 
 without arriving at the conclusion that Mu¬ 
 hammad derived his knowledge of the events 
 of Old Testament scriptures rather from the 
 Rabbins and their Talmudic teaching, than 
 from the inspired text itself. Mr. Emanuel 
 Deutsch truly says: “Judaism forms the 
 kernel of Muhammadanism, both general and 
 special. It seems as if he (Muhammad) had 
 breathed from his childhood almost the air of 
 contemporary Judaism, such Judaism as is 
 found by us crystallised in the Talmud, the 
 Targum, and the Midras.” (Literary Remains, 
 | p. 89.) 
 
440 OLD TESTAMENT 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 The following Old Testament characters 
 are mentioned by name in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Aaron, Hdrun ; Abel, Habit ; Cain, Qabll ; 
 Abraham, Ibrahim ; Adam, Adam; Terah, 
 Azar ; Korah, Qarun ; David, Dd'iid ; Goliath, 
 Jalut ; Enoch, Idris ; Elias, Ilyas ; Elijah 
 A/yasa‘ (al-Yasa 1 ') ; Ezra, ‘ Uzair ; Gabriel, 
 Jibril ; Gog, Yajuj ; Magog, Majuj ; Isaac, 
 Ishaq ; Ishmael, Ismail ; Jacob, Ya‘qub ; 
 Joseph, 1 usuf; Job, Aiyub ; Jonah, Yunus ; 
 Joshua, Yusha‘ ; Korah, Qarun ■ Lot, Lilt ; 
 Michael, Mika’il ; Moses, Musa ; Noah, Nuh ; 
 Pharaoh, Firaun ; Solomon, Sulaiman ; Saul, 
 Tdlut. 
 
 The following incidents of Old Testament 
 history are related in the Qur’an, with a 
 strange want of accuracy and a large admix¬ 
 ture of Talmudic fable : — 
 
 Aaron makes a calf. Surah xx. 90. 
 
 Cain and Abel. Surah v. 30. 
 
 Abraham visited by Angels. Surah xi. 72, 
 xv. 51. 
 
 Abraham ready to sacrifice his son. Surah 
 xxx vii. 101 . 
 
 Adam, his fall. Surah vii. 18, ii. 34. 
 
 Korah and his comjnany. Surah xxviii. 76, 
 xxix. 38, xl. 25. 
 
 Creation of the world. Surah xvi. 3, xiii. 
 3, xxxv. 1 , 12. 
 
 David’s praise of God. Surah xxxiv. 10. 
 
 Deluge. Surah liv. 9, lxix. 11, xi. 42. 
 
 Jacob goes to Egypt. Surah xii. 100. 
 
 Jonah and the fish. Surah vi. 86 , x. 98, 
 xxxvii. 139, Ixviii. 48. 
 
 Joseph’s history. Surah vi. 84, xii. 1, 
 xl. 36. 
 
 Manna and quails given. Surah vii. 160, 
 xx. 82. 
 
 Moses strikes the rock. Surah vii. 160. 
 
 Noah’s ark. Surah xi. 40. 
 
 Pharoah. Surah ii. 46, x. 76, xliii. 45, 
 xl. 38. 
 
 Solomon’s judgment. Surah xxi. 78. 
 
 Queen of Sheba. Surah xxvii. 22. 
 
 The compiler of the Kashfu 'z-Zunun 
 (ed. Fliigel, vol. ii. p. 458, article, Taurdt ) 
 attempts an account of the Old Testament 
 scriptures. 
 
 He divides the whole into four sections, and 
 gives the names of the books as follows :— 
 
 (1) The Taurdt, or the Five Books of 
 
 Moses. 
 
 (2) Yusha‘ (Joshua). 
 
 Sifru 'l-Hukkdm (Judges). 
 
 Shamu’il (Samuel). 
 
 Sifru 'l-Muluk (Kings). 
 
 (3) Sha‘ya (Isaiah). 
 
 Irmiya (Jeremiah). 
 
 Hizqil (Ezekiel). 
 
 Yunus (Jonah). 
 
 (4) Ta'rlkh. A history from Adam to the 
 
 building of the Temple. 
 
 Mazamlr (Psalms). 
 
 Aiyub (Job). 
 
 Amsal (Proverbs). 
 
 Ahbaru 'l-Hukkam qabla 'l-Muluk 
 (Ecclesiastes). 
 
 Nasha'id li-Sulaiman (Song of Solo¬ 
 mon). 
 
 Hikmah (Wisdom). 
 
 An-Nawah (Lamentations). 
 
 Urdshair (Esther). 
 
 Ddnyal (Daniel). 
 
 1 Uzair (Esdras). 
 
 [PROPHETS, TAURAT, ZAB0R.] 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS, 
 
 The testimony of the Qur’an to the. The re¬ 
 ferences in the Qur’an to the sacred scrip¬ 
 tures of the Jews and Christians are very 
 many, and in all cases Muhammad refers to 
 these sacred writings with the highest respect 
 and veneration. He acknowledges their in¬ 
 spiration, admits the existence of such docu¬ 
 ments in his own day, and appeals to them in 
 support of his own mission. 
 
 The following verses of the Qur’an, in 
 which there are references to the Old and 
 New Testament, have been placed in chrono¬ 
 logical order, and the translations given are 
 for the most part from Sir William Muir’s 
 Manual on “ The Coran,” published by the 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge:— 
 
 Surah lxxxvii. 18 : “ Verily this is in the 
 books of yore; the books of Abraham and 
 Moses.” 
 
 Surah liii. 37-40: “Hath he not been told 
 of that which is in the pages of Moses, and 
 of Abraham who acted faithfully ? That a 
 burdened soul shall not bear another’s bur¬ 
 den, and that there shall bo nothing ( imputed ) 
 to a man, but that which he himself hath 
 wrought,” &c. 
 
 Surah xxxii. 23-25 : “ And verily We gave 
 Moses the book: wherefore be not in doubt 
 as to the reception thereof, and We made it a 
 direction to the Israelites. And We made 
 from among them leaders who should direct 
 according to Our command, when they were 
 steadfast, and believed in Our signs. Verily 
 thy Lord, he will judge between, hem on the 
 Day of Resurrection as to that concerning 
 which they disagree.” 
 
 Surah liv. 43: “Are your unbelievers (Ye 
 Makkans ) better than those (i.e. of the days of 
 Noah, Lot, Moses, Sfc., just referred to ;) or is 
 there an immunity for you in the Scrip¬ 
 tures ? ” 
 
 Surah xxxiv. 30: “ And the unbelievers 
 say :—We will not believe in this Quran, nor 
 in that ( which was revealed ) before it.” 
 
 Surah xii. 45 : “ And verily We gave Moses 
 the book, and they fell to variance concern¬ 
 ing it.” 
 
 Surah xlv. 15, 16 : “ And verily We gave the 
 children of Israel the book, and wisdom, and 
 prophecy, and We nourished them with plea¬ 
 sant food, and We exalted them above the 
 rest of the world; and We gave them plain 
 directions in the matter (of religion ;) and 
 they fell not to variance until after divine 
 knowledge (or the Revelation,) had come 
 unto them, out of jealousy among themselves. 
 Verily, thy Lord will decide between them 
 on the Day of Judgment, concerning that 
 about which they disagree.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 34: “ Verily when it is said 
 unto them :—There is no God but the Lord ; 
 they arrogantly reply,—What! shall we give 
 up our gods for a phrenzied poet ? Nay, he 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 441 
 
 cometh with the truth, and attesteth (the 
 Revelations,') of the (former') apostles.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 114 : “ And verily we were 
 gracious to Moses and Aaron, and saved them 
 and their people from great tribulation ; and 
 We brought them assistance, and they were 
 the conquerors ; and We gave them the per¬ 
 spicuous book, and directed them into the 
 right way.” 
 
 Surah xxvi. 194 : “Verily it (the Qur’an) is 
 a revelation from the Lord of creation ; the 
 faithful Spirit hath caused it to descend on 
 thy heart, that thou mightest be one of the 
 warners, in the plain Arabic tongue. And 
 verily it is in the former Scriptures. What I 
 is it not a sign unto them that the wise men 
 of the Children of Israel recognize it ? ” 
 
 Surah xlvi. 12: “And when they refuse 
 to be guided thereby, they say;—this is an 
 antiquated lie. Yet preceding it there is the 
 Book of Moses, a guide and a mercy ; and 
 this Qur’an is a book attesting (previous Reve¬ 
 lation), in the Arabic tongue, to warn the 
 transgressors, and glad tidings to the righ¬ 
 teous.” 
 
 Surah xlvi. 30: “ And (call to mind) when 
 We caused a company of the Genii to turn 
 aside unto thee that they might hear the 
 Qur’an ; And, when they were present thereat, 
 they said,—Give ear. And when it was 
 ended, they returned to their people as 
 warners ; they said,—Oh our people I verily 
 we have heard a book revealed after Moses, 
 attesting the revelation that precedeth it; it 
 leadeth to the truth, and unto the straight 
 path.” 
 
 Surah xxxv. 25 : “ And if they reject thee, 
 verily 'they who preceded them rejected 
 (their prophets), who brought them clear 
 signs, and writings, and the enlightening 
 book.” 
 
 Surah xxxv. 31: “ And that which We have 
 revealed unto thee is the truth, attesting that 
 which precedeth it.” 
 
 Surah xix. 11: “Oh John! take the book 
 (the Taurat) with power ;—and We gave him 
 wisdom while a child.” 
 
 Surah xix. 28, 29: “ And she (Mary) 
 pointed to him (the infant Jesus:) they said, 
 —How shall we speak with a child in the 
 cradle ? (The infant Jesus) said,—verily I 
 am the servant of God; he hath given me 
 the book (i.e. the Gospel), and made me a 
 prophet.” 
 
 Surah xlii. 1: “ Thus doth God, the glorious 
 and the wise, communicate inspiration unto 
 thee, as he did unto those that preceded thee.” 
 
 Surah xlii. 12: “ He hath ordained unto 
 you the religion which he commanded unto 
 Noah, and which We have revealed unto 
 thee, and which We commanded unto Abra¬ 
 ham, Moses, and Jesus ;—saying, Maintain 
 the (true) religion, and be not at variance 
 therein.” 
 
 Surah xlii. 14, 15: “And they did not 
 differ until after the knowledge (of Divine 
 Revelation) came unto them, rebelliously 
 among themselves : and unless the word had 
 gone forth from thy Lord (respiting them) 
 until a fixed time, verily the matter had been 
 
 decided between them. And verily they that 
 have inherited the book after them are in a 
 perplexing doubt respecting the same. Where¬ 
 fore invite (men unto the true faith), and stand 
 fast as thou hast been commanded, and follow 
 not their desires. And say, I believe in what¬ 
 ever books God hath revealed, and I am com¬ 
 manded to decide between you : God is our 
 Lord, and your Lord. To us will (be reckoned) 
 our works—to you, yours. There is no ground 
 of dispute between us and you. God will 
 gather us together, and to Him shall be the 
 return.” 
 
 Surah xl. 55, 56: “ And verily We gave 
 unto Moses guidance, and We caused the 
 Children of Israel to inherit the book,—a 
 guide and an admonition unto people of under¬ 
 standing hearts. Wherefore be patient, for 
 the promise of God is time, and ask pardon 
 for thy sin,” &c. 
 
 Surah xl. 72: “ They who reject the book 
 and that which We have sent our messengers 
 with (the Old and New Testament), —they 
 shall know; when the collars shall be on 
 their necks, and the chains by which they 
 shall be dragged into hell;—then shall they 
 be burned in the fire.” 
 
 Surah xxv. 36: “ And verily We gave 
 Moses the book, and We appointed his bro¬ 
 ther Aaron his helper.” 
 
 Surah xx. 132 : “ And they (the Quraish) 
 say,—‘ If he doth not bring us a sign from 
 his Lord (we will not believe).' What! hath 
 not an evident demonstration come unto them 
 in the former pages ? ” 
 
 Surah xliii. 43: “ And ask those of Our 
 Apostles whom We have sent before thee, 
 whether We have appointed any besides the 
 Merciful, as a God whom they should wor¬ 
 ship.” 
 
 Surah xii. Ill: “ It is not a story ^fabri¬ 
 cated, but an attestation of (the revelation) 
 which is before it, and an explanation of 
 every matter, a guide and a mercy to the 
 people that believe.” 
 
 Surah xi. 17, 18: “These are they for 
 whom there is no portion in the next life but 
 fire: and that which they have done shall 
 perish therein; vain'will that be which they 
 have wrought. What! (shall such a one be 
 equal unto him) who proceedeth upon a plain 
 direction from his Lord ; and a witness from 
 him (i.e. from the Lord) attendeth him, and 
 before him (or it) is the Book of Moses a 
 guide and a mercy.” 
 
 Surah xi. 3 : “ And verily We gave Moses 
 the book, and they fell to variance regarding 
 it. And had not the word gone forth from 
 thy Lord, surely the matter had been decided 
 between them; and verily they are in per¬ 
 plexing doubt concerning the same.” 
 
 Surah x. 37 : “ And this Qur’an is not such 
 that it could have been fabricated by other 
 than God: but it is an attestation of that (i.e. 
 of those Scriptures) which precede it, and an 
 explanation of the book,—there is no doubt 
 therein,—from the Lord of creation. What! 
 will they say, he (Muhammad) hath forged 
 it ? Say,—then bring a Surah like unto it.” 
 
 Surah x. 93 : “ If thou art in doubt regard- 
 
 56 
 
442 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 ing that -which We have sent down unto thee, 
 then ask those who read the book ( revealed ) 
 before thee. Verily the truth hath come 
 unto thee from thy Lord; be not therefore 
 amongst those that doubt.” 
 
 Surah vi. 20 : “ Those to whom We have 
 given the book recognize him as they recog¬ 
 nise their own sons. They that have destroyed 
 their own souls, these believe not.” 
 
 Surah vi. 90 : “ These are they to whom 
 We have given the book, and wisdom, and 
 prophecy, and if these (the Quraish ) disbelieve 
 the same, verily We have given it in trust 
 unto a people who are not disbelievers there¬ 
 in. These are they whom God hath guided ; 
 wherefore persevere in the guidance of 
 them.” 
 
 Surah vi. 92: “ And they do not esti¬ 
 mate God with a just estimation, when they 
 say,—God hath not sent down— (i.e. revealed, 
 anything to Man. Say, who sent down the 
 book, which Moses brought, a light and a 
 direction to mankind ? Te (var. read, they) 
 make (or transcribe) it upon sheets of paper 
 which ye (or they) show, and ye (or they) 
 conceal much : and ye are taught that which 
 ye knew not, neither did your fathers. Say, 
 —God: then leave them to sport in their 
 follies.” 
 
 Surah vi. 93: “ And this book We have 
 revealed,—blessed,—certifying the truth of 
 that ( revelation ) which precedeth it, and that 
 thou mightest admonish the people of the 
 city (Makkah) and those around it." 
 
 Surah vi. 114 : “ He it is that hath sent 
 down to you the book, explaining (all 
 things ;) and those to whom We have given 
 the book know that it (the Qur'an) hath been 
 sent down from thy Lord in truth. Wherefore, 
 be not thou (0 Muhammad) among those that 
 doubt.” 
 
 Surah vi. 124 : “ And when a verse cometh 
 unto them, they say,—We will not believe 
 until there is brought unto us (a revelation) 
 like unto that which the apostles of God 
 brought.” 
 
 Surah vi. 154: “ Then We gave Moses the 
 book complete as to whatever is excellent, 
 and an explanation of every matter, and a 
 direction and a mercy, if haply they might 
 believe in the meeting of their Lord.” 
 
 Surah vi. 155 : “ And this book (the Qur'an) 
 We have sent down,—blessed; wherefore 
 follow it, and fear God, if haply ye may find 
 mercy ; lest ye should say,—Yerily the Scrip¬ 
 ture hath been revealed to two people (the 
 Jews and Christians) before us, and we are 
 ignorant of their reading ;—or lest ye should 
 say,—If the Scripture had been revealed to 
 us, we surely would have followed its direc¬ 
 tion better than they ; and now verily a clear 
 exposition hath come unto you from your 
 Lord, a direction and mercy,” &c. 
 
 Surah xxviii. 44: “And verily We gave 
 Moses the book, after that We had destroyed 
 the former generations,—an enlightenment 
 unto mankind, and a direction, and a mercy, 
 if haply they might be admonished.” 
 
 Surah xxviii. 47 : “ And thou wert not on 
 the side of Mount Sinai, when We called out 
 
 (to Moses;) but (thou art) a mercy from thy 
 Lord, that thou mayest admonish a people 
 unto whom no warner hath come before thee, 
 if perchance they may receive admonition;— 
 and lest, if there befall them a calamity for 
 the evil works they have committed, they 
 should say,—Oh Lord ! if thou hadst sent unto 
 us a prophet, we had followed thy revela¬ 
 tions, and been of the number of the believers. 
 And now that the truth hath come unto them 
 from us, they say,—if there were to come (a 
 revelation) like unto that which came unto 
 Moses (we should believe). What! do they 
 not disbelieve in that which was given unto 
 Moses heretofore ; they say,—two impostures 
 that mutually assist one another; and they 
 say,—verily we reject them both. Say,— 
 bring a book from God that guideth more 
 aright than these two, if ye be true; and if 
 they answer not,” &c. 
 
 Surah xxviii. 53: “ Those to whom We 
 have given the Scripture before it (i.e. before 
 the Qur'an,) believe therein ; and when it (the 
 Qur'an) is read unto them, they say,—We be¬ 
 lieve in it; verily it is the truth from our 
 Lord, surely we were Muslims from before.” 
 
 Surah xxiii. 25: “ And verily We gave 
 Moses the book, if haply they might be di¬ 
 rected ; and We made the son of Mary and 
 his mother a sign,” &c. 
 
 Surah xxi. 7: “ And We sent net before 
 thee (as Apostles) other than men whom 
 We inspired: ask, therefore, the people of 
 the Scripture, if ye know it not.” 
 
 Surah xxi. 49 : “ And verily We gave Moses 
 and Aaron the distinction (al-Furqan), and a 
 light, and an admonition to the pious,—those 
 who fear their Lord in secret, aud who 
 tremble for the hour (of Judgment). This 
 blessed admonition also We have sent down ; 
 will ye therefore deny it ? ” 
 
 Surah xxi. 105: “ And verily We have 
 
 written in the Psalms, after the Law, that 
 ‘ my servants, the righteous, shall inherit the 
 earth.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 2: “ And We gave Moses the 
 book, and made it a direction to the Children 
 of Israel, (saying )—Take ye not other than 
 Me for a patron.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 4, 5, and 7 : “ Arid We declared 
 in the book, in respect of the Children of 
 Israel,—saying, Ye shall surely work cor¬ 
 ruptly on the earth twice, and ye shall be 
 elated with great arrogance. And when the 
 threat of the first of these two (visitations) 
 came to pass, We sent against you our ser¬ 
 vants of terrible strength, &c.,and when the 
 threat of the second (visitation) came to 
 pass,” &c. 
 
 Surah xvii. 55 : “ And verily We have be¬ 
 stowed favour upon some of the prophets 
 more than upon others, and We gave David 
 the Psalms,” &c. 
 
 Surah xvii. 108: “ Say,—Believe in it (the 
 Qur'an), or believe notverily they unto 
 whom the knowledge (of Divine Revelation) 
 hath been given anterior to it, when they hear 
 it recited unto them, fall down upon their 
 faces worshipping: and they say,—Praised 
 be our Lord ; verily the promise of our Lord 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 is fulfilled. And they fall down on their 
 faces weeping, and it increaseth their humi¬ 
 lity.” 
 
 Surah xvi. 43 : “ And We have not sent 
 before thee other than men whom We have 
 inspired ;—wherefore ask the people of the 
 Scripture if ye know not. ( We sent them) 
 with evident signs and books, and We have 
 sent down unto thee the revelation, that thou 
 mightest make known to mankind that which 
 hath been revealed to them, that haply they 
 might reflect.” 
 
 Surah xiii. 45 : “ And those who disbelieve 
 say,—Thou art not sent;—say,—God sufliceth 
 for a witness between me and between you, 
 and also he with whom is the knowledge of 
 the book.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 27: “ And We gave to him 
 (i.e. to Abraham) Isaac and Jacob, and We 
 placed among his descendants prophecy and 
 the book.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 4(1: “ And contend not with 
 the people of the book ( Jews and Christians) 
 but in a generous manner, excepting those of 
 them who act wickedly ; and say,—We be¬ 
 lieve in that which hath been revealed to 
 us, and in that which hath been revealed 
 to you: and your God and our God is one, and 
 we are to Him resigned.” 
 
 Surah xxix. 47 : “ And thus have We sent 
 down to thee the book (the Qur'an,') and those 
 to whom We have given the Scripture believe 
 in it.” 
 
 Surah vii. 158: “ And I will shortly write 
 down it (i.e. my mercy,) for those who fear the 
 Lord and give alms, and those who believe 
 in our signs : those who shall follow the 
 apostle,—the illiterate prophet,—whom they 
 shall find written (i.e. described) in the Pen¬ 
 tateuch and in the Gospel among them ; he 
 shall command them to do that which is 
 excellent,” &c. 
 
 Surah vii. 168: “ And (call to mind) when 
 thy Lord commanded that there should cer- 
 tainly be sent against them (i.e. the Jews) 
 until the day of resurrection those that would 
 afflict them with grievous distress ;—verily 
 thy Lord is swift in vengeance, and he is 
 surely forgiving and merciful. And We dis¬ 
 persed them in the earth amongst the nations ; 
 there are of them that are virtuous, and there 
 are of them that are not so. And We proved 
 them with blessings, and with adversities, if 
 perchance they might return. And there 
 succeeded after them a generation that inhe¬ 
 rited the book, who receive the temporal 
 advantage of this world, and say,—It will be 
 forgiven unto us. And if there come unto 
 them an advantage the like thereof, they 
 accept it. What 1 hath there not been taken 
 from them the covenant of the book, that 
 they should not say of God other than the 
 truth, and they diligently study that which is 
 therein.” 
 
 Surah Ixxiv. 30 : “ Over it [Hell) are nine¬ 
 teen angels ; and We have not made the guar¬ 
 dians of the fire other than angels; and We 
 have not expressed their number, except as a 
 trial to those who disbelieve, and in order 
 that those to whom We have given the book 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 443 
 
 may firmly believe, and that they who believe 
 may increase in faith ; and that those to whom 
 We have given the book may not doubt, nor 
 the believers.” 
 
 Surah ii. 1-5: “ This is the book in which 
 there is no doubt,—a guide to the pious;— 
 they who believe in the Unseen, and observe 
 prayer, and spend out of that which we have 
 provided them with;—and they who believe 
 in that which hath been revealed unto thee, 
 and that which hath been revealed before 
 thee, and have faith in the life to come. 
 These walk according to the direction of their 
 Lord, and these are the blessed.” 
 
 Surah ii. 36 : “ Oh Children of Israel! re¬ 
 member My favour wherewith I have favoured 
 you, and fulfil My covenant,—I likewise will 
 fulfil your covenant; and fear Me, and believe 
 in that which I have revealed, attesting the 
 truth of the (Scripture) which is with you: 
 and be not the first to reject the same ; and 
 soil not my revelation for a small price ; and 
 clothe not the truth with error, and do not 
 conceal the truth while ye know it.” 
 
 Surah ii. 50 : “ And when We gave Moses 
 the book and the distinction ( between good and 
 evil, — Furqan,) —if haply ye might be di¬ 
 rected.” 
 
 Surah ii. 71: “ And when they (the Jews of 
 al-Madinah,) meet the believers, they say,— 
 We believe ; but when they retire privately 
 one with the other, they say,—Why do ye 
 acquaint them with what God hath revealed 
 to you, that they may therewith dispute with 
 you before your Lord? What do ye not un¬ 
 derstand ? Do they not know that God 
 knoweth what they conceal as well as that 
 which they make public.” 
 
 Surah ii. 79: “What do ye (the Jews) be¬ 
 lieve in part of the book, and reject part 
 thereof ? But whosoever amongst you doeth 
 this, his reward shall be none other than dis¬ 
 grace in the present life, and in the Day of 
 Judgment they shall be cast into a more 
 awful torment.” 
 
 Surah ii. 81: “ And verily We gave Moses 
 the Book, and caused prophets to arise after 
 him, and We gave to Jesus, the Son of Mary, 
 evident signs, and strengthened him with the 
 Holy Spirit.” 
 
 Surah ii. 89: “ And when a Book (i.e. the 
 Qur'an) came unto them from God, attesting 
 the truth of that (Scripture) which is with 
 them, (although they had from before been 
 praying for victory over those who disbe¬ 
 lieve) ; yet when that came unto them which 
 they recognised, they rejected the same.” 
 
 Surah ii. 83 : “ And when it is said unto 
 them;—Believe in that which God hath 
 revealed ; they say;—We believe in that 
 which hath been revealed unto us; and 
 they reject that which (hath been revealed) 
 after it, although it be the truth attesting 
 that which is with them.” 
 
 Surah ii. 85 : “ And verily Moses came 
 unto you with evident signs (or revelations) ; 
 then ye took the calf,” &c. 
 
 Surah ii. 86: “ For he (Gabriel) hath caused 
 it (the Qur'an) to descend upon thy heart, 
 by the command of God, attesting that 
 
444 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 ( Scripture ) which, is before it, and a direc¬ 
 tion and good tidings to the believers.” 
 
 Surah ii. 95: “ And when a prophet came 
 nnto them from God, attesting that ( Scrip¬ 
 ture) which is with them, a party of those 
 who have received the Scripture cast the 
 Book of God behind their backs, as if they 
 knew it not.” 
 
 Surah ii. 107: “ The Jews say, the Chris¬ 
 tians are not ( founded ) upon anything ; and 
 the Christians say the Jews are not ( founded ) 
 upon anything ; and yet they read the Scrip¬ 
 ture.” 
 
 Surah ii. 130 (see also Surah iii. 79) : “ Say, 
 —We believe in God and in what hath been 
 revealed unto us, and in what hath been re¬ 
 vealed unto Abraham, and Ishmael, and 
 Isaac, and Jacob, and the Tribes; and in 
 what hath been given unto Moses and unto 
 Jesus, and in what hath been given unto the 
 prophets from their Lord: we make no dis¬ 
 tinction between any of them ; and unto Him 
 we are resigned.” 
 
 Surah ii. 139 ; “ Verily We saw thee turn 
 about thy face into the Heavens ; wherefore 
 We will cause thee to turn towards a qiblah 
 that will please thee —turn therefore thy face 
 towards the holy temple : wheresoever thou 
 art, turn thy face towards it. And verily 
 those to whom the Scripture hath been given, 
 they know that this is the truth from their 
 Lord, and God is not unmindful of that which 
 they do. And if thou broughtest unto those 
 to whom the Scripture hath been given, every 
 kind of sign, they would not follow thy qiblah, 
 nor wilt thou follow their qiblah,” &c. 
 
 Surah ii. 142: “ Those to whom We have 
 given the Scripture recognise him as they 
 recognise their own sons; but verily a sec¬ 
 tion of them hide the truth, although they 
 know it.” 
 
 Surah ii. 169: “Verily they that conceal 
 the Scripture which God hath revealed, and 
 sell it for a small pricethese shall eat 
 nought but the fire in their bellies, and God 
 shall not speak unto them on the Day of 
 Judgment, neither shall He purify them; 
 they shall have bitter torment. These are 
 they that have bought error at the price of 
 direction, and punishment at the price of 
 pardon:—how shall they endure the fire 1— 
 this because God hath sent down the Book 
 in truth ; and they that dispute regarding tli6 
 Book are in a grievous error.” 
 
 Surah ii. 209 : “ Mankind was one people, 
 and God sent prophets as preachers of good 
 tidings, and warners: and He sent down the 
 Scripture with them in truth, that it might 
 decide between men in that in which they 
 differed :—and they differed not therein, ex¬ 
 cepting those to whom it was given, after 
 there came to them clear demonstrations, 
 wickedly amongst themselves; and God 
 guided those that believed to the truth con¬ 
 cerning which they disputed, by His will,” &c. 
 
 Surah ii. 254 : “ Of these prophets We have 
 preferred some above others. Some of them 
 hath God spoken unto, and He hath raised 
 some of them to high dignity. And We 
 gave unto Jesus, the Son of Mary, evident 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 signs, and We strengthened Him by the 
 Holy Spirit. And if God had pleased, those 
 that came after them would not have con¬ 
 tended with one another, after the evident 
 signs (or plain revelations) had come unto 
 them. Vet they fell to variance. And 
 amongst them were those that believed : and 
 amongst them were those that disbelieved. 
 And if God had wished, they had not con¬ 
 tended with one another; hut God doeth that 
 which pleaseth Him.” 
 
 Surah ii. 286 : “ The apostle believeth in 
 that which hath been revealed unto him from 
 his Lord : and the faithful, everyone of them, 
 believeth in God, and in His angels, and |in 
 His books, and in His apostles ; we make no 
 distinction between any one of his apostles.” 
 
 Surah lvii. 18 : “ And those that believe in 
 God, and in His apostles, these are the 
 righteous, and the witnesses with their Lord ; 
 they have their reward and their fight; but 
 they that disbelieve, and accuse Our revela¬ 
 tions of falsehood, these are the companions 
 of hell-fire.” 
 
 Surah lvii. 25 : “ We have verily sent Our 
 apostles with evident demonstrations; and 
 We revealed unto them the Scripture, and 
 the Balance, that, men might observe justice ; 
 and We revealed (the use of) Iron wherein is 
 great strength, and advantages to mankind, 
 and in order that God might know who as- 
 sisteth him and his apostles in secret,—for 
 God is mighty and glorious. And verily We 
 sent Noah and Abraham; and We placed 
 amongst their posterity, prophecy and the 
 Scripture : and amongst them were those that 
 were rightly directed, but many of them were 
 evil-doers. Afterwards We caused Our 
 apostles to follow in their footsteps; and We 
 caused Jesus, the Son of Mary, to succeed 
 them, and We gave him the Gospel: and We 
 put into the hearts of his followers compas¬ 
 sion and mercy; and as to Monasticism they 
 invented the same,—[We did not prescribe it 
 unto them,]—simply out of a desire to please 
 God, but they have not observed it with a 
 right observance. And We have given those 
 of them that believe, their reward, but many 
 of them are evil-doers. Oh ye that believe 1 
 fear God, and believe in His prophet. He 
 will give you a double portion of His mercy, 
 and will create for you a Light wherein ye 
 shall walk, and forgive you, for the Lord is 
 forgiving and merciful.” 
 
 Surah xcviii. 1: “ The unbelievers from 
 amongst the people of the Book, and the 
 idolaters, did not waver until there came unto 
 them a clear—a prophet from God reading 
 pure pages, containing right Scriptures. And 
 those to whom the Scriptures have beengivon 
 did not fall to variance, until after a clear 
 (.Revelation ) had come unto them: and they 
 are not commanded (in their own Scriptures ) 
 otherwise than that they should worship God, 
 rendering unto Him the orthodox worship, and 
 that they should observe prayer, and give 
 alms ; and this is the right faith.” 
 
 Surah Ixii. 5 : “ The likeness of those who 
 are charged with the Law (the Tourat), and 
 do not discharge (the obligations of) it, is as 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 the likeness of the Ass laden with books. 
 Evil is the likeness of the people which re- 
 jecteth the signs of God: and God doth not 
 guide the unjust people.” 
 
 Surah xlviii. 29 : “ Muhammad is the pro¬ 
 phet of God; and those who follow him are 
 fierce against the unbelievers, but compas¬ 
 sionate among themselves. Thou mayest see 
 them bowing down, prostrating themselves, 
 seeking the favour of God and his pleasure. 
 Their signs are in their faces from the marks 
 of their prostration. This is the likeness of 
 them in the Pentateuch and the likeness of 
 them in the Gospel,—as a seed which putteth 
 forth its stalk and strengtheneth it, and 
 swelleth and riseth on its stem, and de- 
 lighteth the sower thereof,—that the unbe¬ 
 lievers may be indignant thereat.” 
 
 Surah lxi. 6: “ And when Jesus, the Son 
 of Mary, said:—0 children of Israel, verily I 
 am an Apostle of God unto you, attesting 
 that which is before me of the Tourat, and 
 giving glad tidings of an apostle that shall 
 come after me, whose name is Ahmad (the 
 Praised).” 
 
 Surah iv. 43: “ Hast thou not seen those to 
 whom We have given a portion of the Scrip¬ 
 ture ?—they buy error, and desire that ye 
 may err from the way: and God best 
 knoweth your enemies. God sufficeth for a 
 patron, and God sufficeth for a helper. Of 
 those who profess Judaism there are that 
 dislocate words from their places, and say— 
 
 ‘ we have heard,—and, have disobeyed ’; and, 
 
 ‘ do thou hearken without hearing; ’ and, 
 
 ‘ look upon us ’; twisting with their tongues, 
 and reviling the faith. And if they had said, 
 
 ‘ we have heard and obeyed ’; and, ‘ hearken ’; 
 and, ‘ look upon us ’; it had been better for 
 them and more upright: but God hath cursed 
 them for their unbelief, and they shall not 
 believe, excepting a few. 0 ye unto whom 
 the Scriptures have been given ! believe in 
 what We have revealed attesting that 
 (Scripture) which is with you, before We 
 deface your countenances, and turn them 
 front backwards, or curse them as We cursed 
 those who (broke) the Sabbath; and the 
 command of the Lord was fulfilled.” 
 
 Surah iv. 49 : “ Hast thou not seen those 
 to whom a portion of the Scripture hath been 
 given? they believe in false gods and idols, 
 and they say to the unbelievers, These are 
 better directed in the way than those who 
 believe.” 
 
 Surah iv. 52: “ Do they envy mankind 
 that which God hath given them of His 
 bounty ? And verily We gave to the children 
 of Abraham the book and wisdom, and We 
 gave them a mighty kingdom. Amongst 
 them are those that believe in Him and those 
 also that turn away from Him.” 
 
 Surah iv. 58 : “ Hast thou not seen those 
 who fancy that they believe in that which 
 hath been revealed unto thee, and in that 
 which hath been revealed before thee ? They 
 desire to go for a mutual decision unto the 
 idol Jaghut: yet verily they have been com¬ 
 manded to disbelieve therein, and Satan de- 
 siretk to deceive them into a wide deception.” , 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 445 
 
 Surah iv 130 : “ To God belongs whatever 
 is in the heavens and in the earth, and verily 
 We commanded those to whom the Scripture 
 was given before you, and you likewise,— 
 Fear God, and, if ye disbelieve, verily to God 
 belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and 
 in the earth.” 
 
 Surah iv. 135 : “ 0 ye that believe! believe 
 in God and in His prophet, and in the book 
 which He hath revealed to His prophet, and 
 in the book which He revealed from before; 
 and whoever disbelieves in God, and in His 
 angels, and in His books, and in His prophets, 
 and in the last day, verily he hath wandered 
 into a wide error.” 
 
 Surah iv. 149; “Verily they that reject 
 God and His apostles, and seek to make a 
 distinction between God and His apostles; 
 and say,—We believe in a part, and we reject 
 a part; and seek to take a path between the 
 same ; these are infidels in reality, and We 
 have prepared for the infidels an ignomi¬ 
 nious punishment. But they that believe in 
 God and in His apostles, and make no dis¬ 
 tinction between any of them, to these We 
 shall surely give their reward, and God is 
 forgiving and merciful. The people of the 
 book will ask thee that thou cause a book to 
 descend upon them from the heavens, and 
 verily they asked Moses for a greater thing 
 than that,” &c. 
 
 Surah iv. 161: “ But those of them that 
 are grounded in knowledge, and the faithful, 
 believe in that which hath been revealed 
 unto thee, and in that which hath been re¬ 
 vealed before thee. And those that observe 
 prayer, and give alms, and the believers in 
 God and in the last day, unto these shall We 
 give a great reward. Verily We have re¬ 
 vealed our will unto thee, as We revealed our 
 will unto Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, 
 and Jacob, and the Tribes, and Jesus, and 
 Job, and Jonas, and Aaron, and Solomon, 
 and We gave unto David the Psalms ; and 
 Apostles, whom We have already made men¬ 
 tion of unto thee ; and Apostles, of whom AYe 
 have not made mention unto thee; and God 
 spake with Moses in open discourse,” &c. 
 
 Surah iv. 169: “Ye people of the book! 
 commit not extravagance in your religion; 
 and say not of God other than the truth. 
 For verily the Messiah, Jesus, the Son of 
 Mary, is an apostle of God, and His wora 
 which he placed in Mary, and a spirit from 
 Him. Wherefore believe in God, and in His 
 apostle; and say not,—“the Trinity”;—re¬ 
 frain ; it will be better for you. For verily 
 God is one God ;—far exalted is He above the 
 possibility that there should be unto Him pro¬ 
 geny ! to Him belongeth whatever is in the 
 heavens and in the earth, and He sufficeth as 
 a guardian.” 
 
 Surah iii. 2: “ God 1 there is no God 
 
 but He, the living, the eternal. He hath 
 caused to descend upon thee the Scripture 
 in truth, attesting that which is before it: 
 and He sent down the Tourat and the Gospel 
 from before for the guidance of mankind: 
 and He sent down the Furqan. Verily they 
 that reject the signs of God, to them shall be 
 
446 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 a fearful punishment. And God is mighty, a 
 God of vengeance.” 
 
 Surah iii. 19 : “And those to whom the book 
 was given, did not fall to variance until after 
 that the knowledge came unto them, wickedly 
 among themselves.” 
 
 Surah iii. 28: “ Seest thou not those to 
 whom a portion of the Scripture hath been 
 given? They were called unto the book of 
 God, that it might decide between them. 
 Then a party of them turned away, and went 
 aside. That was because they say,—the 
 fire shall not touch us, but for a limited 
 number of days. And that which they have 
 devised hath deceived them in their reli¬ 
 gion.” 
 
 Surah iii. 48: “And (God) shall teach 
 Him (Jesus) the Scripture, and wisdom, and 
 the Tourat, and the Gospel;—and (shall send 
 Him as) an Apostle unto the Children of 
 Israel. (Jesus shall say) Verily I have come 
 unto you— . . . attesting the truth of that 
 which (Scripture revealed) before me in the 
 Tourat, and that I may make lawful unto 
 you a part of that which is forbidden unto 
 you.” 
 
 Surah iii. 64: “0 ye people of the Book 1 
 why do ye dispute concerning Abraham ?— 
 seeing that neither the Tourat nor the Gospel 
 was revealed until after him; do ye not 
 understand ? Ah ! ye are they which dispute 
 concerning that of which ye have know¬ 
 ledge : why, therefore, do ye dispute concern¬ 
 ing that of which ye have no knowledge ? 
 and God knoweth, but ye know not.” 
 
 Surah iii. 68: “A party of the People of 
 the Book desire to cause thee to go astray: 
 but they shall not cause (any) to go astray, 
 excepting their own souls, and they perceive 
 it not. Oh Peopile of the Book ! why do ye 
 reject the signs of God, while ye bear testi¬ 
 mony (thereto) ? 0 people of the Book ! why do 
 ye clothe the truth with that which is false, 
 and hide the truth, while ye know (it) ? and a 
 party of the people of the book say,—Believe 
 in that which is sent clown unto those that 
 believe, in the early part of the day; and re¬ 
 ject (it, in) the latter part thereof; if haply 
 they may turn back : and, believe not (any) 
 excepting him that folio weth your religion. 
 Say,—Verily the direction is the direction of 
 God, that there should be given unto one (i.e. 
 to Muhammad, a revelation) like unto that 
 w'hich hath|been given unto you. Or, will they 
 dispute with you before your Lord ? say,— 
 Verily favour is hi the hand of God: He 
 giveth it unto whomsoever He pleaseth ; and 
 God is widely comprehensive (in His mercy) 
 and wise.” 
 
 Surah iii. 77 : “And verily amongst them 
 is a party that twist their tongues in (read¬ 
 ing) the book, that ye may think it is out of 
 the book, though it is not out of the book ; 
 and they say,—‘ it is from God,’ and it is not 
 from God; and they speak a falsehood con¬ 
 cerning God, knowingly.” 
 
 Surah iii. 78: “ It becometh not a man 
 that God should give him a book, and wis¬ 
 dom, and prophecy, and that he should then 
 say to mankind, Be worshippers of me be- 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 sides God; but rather, Be ye perfect, inas¬ 
 much as ye know the book, and inasmuch as 
 ye study it.” 
 
 Surah iii. 80: “ And (call to mind) when 
 God made a covenant with the prophets, 
 (sayiny) This verily is the book and the wis¬ 
 dom which I have given unto you; thereafter 
 shall come an Apostle attesting the truth of 
 that ((Scripture) which is with you; ye shall 
 surely believe in him, and assist him.” 
 
 Surah iii. 93 : “ All food was lawful to the 
 Children of Israel, excepting that which 
 Israel made unlawful to himself, befere the 
 Tourat was revealed. Say,—Bring hither 
 the Tourat, and read it, if ye be true. And 
 whoever contriveth a lie concerning God after 
 that, surely they are the transgressors.” 
 
 Surah iii. 99: “ Say; 0 ye People of the 
 Book! why do ye disbelieve in the signs of 
 God, and God is witness of that which ye do ? 
 Say, 0 ye People of the Book! why do ye 
 hinder from the way of God him that be- 
 lieveth, desiring to make it (the way of God) 
 crooked, while ye are witnesses ? ” 
 
 Surah iii. 113: “They are not all alike. 
 Amongst the People of the Book there is an 
 upright race that read the signs (or revela¬ 
 tions) of God in the night season, and they bow 
 down worshipping. They believe in God and 
 the last day, and command that which is just 
 and dissuade from that which is wicked, and 
 they make haste in doing good works. These 
 are the virtuous ones.” 
 
 Surah iii. 119: “ Behold, ye are they that 
 love them (the Jews) and they do not love 
 you, and ye believe in the entire Scrip¬ 
 ture.” 
 
 Surah iii. 184: “ They who say that God 
 hath made a covenant with us, to the effect 
 that we should not believe on an apostle until 
 he cometh unto us with a sacrifice to be con¬ 
 sumed by fire;—say,—Verily apostles have 
 come unto you before me, with evident de¬ 
 monstrations, and with that of which ye 
 speak. Why, therefore, have ye slain them, 
 if ye be true ? and if they accuse thee of im¬ 
 posture, verily the apostles before thee have 
 been accused of imposture, who came with 
 evident demonstrations, and the Scriptures, 
 and the enlightening book.” 
 
 Surah iii. 188: “And when God took a 
 covenant from those to whom the jbook was 
 given,—that they should unfold the same 
 to mankind, and that they should not 
 conceal it, and they threw it (the covenant) 
 behind their backs, and sold it for a small 
 price, and woeful is that which they have 
 sold it for ; think not that they who rejoice 
 in that which they have done, and desire to 
 be praised for that which they have not done, 
 shall escape from punishment. To them 
 shall be a grievous punishment.” 
 
 Surah iii. 199 : “ And verily of the People 
 of the Book there are those who believe in 
 God, and in that which hath been revealed to 
 you, and in that which hath been revealed to 
 them, submissive unto God ; they sell not the 
 signs of God for a small price. These are 
 they who have their reward with their Lord ; 
 for God is swift in taking account.” 
 
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 
 
 Surah v. 14-16: “ And for that they have 
 broken their covenant, We have cursed 
 them, and We have made their hearts hard ; 
 they dislocate the word from its place, and 
 they have forgotten a part of that whereby 
 they were admonished. Thou wilt not cease 
 to discover deceit in them, excepting a few 
 of them. But pardon them, and forgive, for 
 God loveth the beneficent. And of those 
 that say, We are Christians, we have taken 
 a covenant from them, and they have for¬ 
 gotten a part of that whereby they were ad¬ 
 monished. Wherefore We have placed enmity 
 and hatred between them, until the Day of 
 Judgment; and God will surely then declare 
 unto them that which they have wrought. O 
 people of the Book! verily our apostle hath 
 come unto you ; he shall make manifest unto 
 you much of that which ye have hidden of 
 the book, and he shall pass over much.” 
 
 Surah v. 47: “0 thou apostle! let not 
 those grieve thee who make haste after infi¬ 
 delity from amongst them that say, ‘ We 
 believe,’ with their mouths, but their hearts 
 believe not. And from amongst the Jews 
 there are that spy out in order to tell a false¬ 
 hood ; they spy out for another people that 
 come not unto thee. They dislocate the word 
 from out of its place. They say, ‘ If this be 
 given you, then receive it—but if it be not 
 given you, then beware.’ ” 
 
 Surah v. 50: “ And how will they make 
 thee their judge, since they have beside 
 them the Tourat, in which is the command 
 of God? Then they will turn their back after 
 that, and these are not believers. Verily We 
 have revealed the Tourat; therein is guid¬ 
 ance and light. The prophets that submitted 
 themselves to God judged thereby those that 
 were Jews ; and the doctors and priests (did 
 the same'), in accordance with that which was 
 confided to their charge of the book of God, 
 and they were witnesses thereof. Wherefore 
 fear not man, but fear Me, and sell not thou 
 the signs of God for a small price. And he 
 that doth not judge by that which God hath 
 revealed, verily they are the unbelievers. And 
 We have written for them,—verily life for 
 life, and eye for eye, and nose for nose, and 
 ear for ear, and tooth for tooth: and for 
 wounding retaliation; and he that remitteth 
 the same as alms it shall be an atonement 
 unto him. And he that judgeth not by that 
 which God hath sent down, they are the 
 transgressors. And We caused Jesus, the 
 Son of Mary, to follow in their footsteps, 
 attesting the Scripture of the Tourat which 
 preceded it; and We gave Him the Gospel, 
 wherein is guidance and light, which attests 
 the Tourat that preceded it, and a direction 
 and an admonition to the pious;—that the 
 people of the Gospel might judge according 
 to that which God hath revealed therein, and 
 he that doth not judge according to that 
 which God hath revealed, verily they are the 
 flagitious ones. And We have revealed unto 
 thee the book in truth, attesting that (,Scrip¬ 
 ture) which precedeth it, and a custodian (or 
 a witness) thereof. Wherefore judge between 
 them in accordance with that which God 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS 447 
 
 hath revealed, and follow not their vain de¬ 
 sires (by swerving) away from that which hath 
 come unto thee. To every one of you have 
 We given a law and a way; and if God had 
 pleased, He had made you all of one faith ;— 
 but (He hath not done so, in order) that He 
 might try you in that which He hath given 
 you.” 
 
 Surah v. 68 : “ Say,—0 people of the Book! 
 is there any other cause of your enmity 
 against us, but that we believe in God, and in 
 that which hath been revealed unto us, and 
 in that which hath been revealed from 
 before ?—but the most of you are evil 
 doers.” 
 
 Surah v. 77 : “ Say:—0 ye people of the 
 Book I ye are not grounded upon anything, 
 until ye set up (or observe) the Tourat and 
 the Gospel, and that which hath been revealed 
 unto you from your Lord.” 
 
 Surah v. 91: “ Thou wilt surely find the 
 most bitter amongst mankind in their hatred 
 towards those that believe to be the Jews and 
 the idolaters. And thou wilt surely find the 
 most friendly inclined amongst them towards 
 the believers, to be those who say, We are 
 Christians. That is because there are 
 amongst them clergy and monks, and they 
 are not arrogant. When they hear that which 
 hath been revealed to the prophet, thou wilt 
 see their eyes flowing with tears because of 
 that which they recognise of the truth. They 
 say, 0 our Lord ! we believe ; write us down 
 with the witnesses; and what should hinder 
 us that we should not believe in God, and in 
 that which hath come unto us of the truth ? 
 and we desire that our Lord should intro¬ 
 duce us amongst the righteous. God hath 
 rewarded them for that which they have said, 
 with gardens through which flow rivulets. 
 They shall be for ever therein and that is the 
 reward of the virtuous.” 
 
 Surah v. 119: “ And (call to mind) when 
 God said,—0 Jesus, Son of Mary ! remember 
 My favour towards thee, and towards thy 
 Mother, when I strengthened thee with the 
 Holy Spirit, that thou shouldest speak unto 
 man, in the cradle, and also in mature age; 
 and I taught thee the Scriptures, and wis¬ 
 dom, and the Tourat, and the Gospel; and 
 when thou madest of clay in the form of a bird 
 by My command, and thou blewest thereupon, 
 and it became a bird by My command; and 
 thou healedst the blind and the leper by My 
 command; and when thou didst raise the 
 dead by My command. . . . And when I spake 
 by inspiration unto the apostles, saying,— 
 Believe in Me, and in My apostle (i.e. Jesus;) 
 they said,—We believe ; bear witness that we 
 are true believers.” 
 
 Surah lxvi. 13: “ And Mary the daughter 
 of Imran, who preserved her virginity ; and 
 We breathed into her of Our spirit, and she 
 attested the words of her Lord and His 
 Scriptures, and was amongst the pious.” 
 
 Surah ix. 113 : “ Verily, God hath bought 
 from the believers their selves and their 
 wealth, on the condition of paradise for them 
 if they fight in the ways of God and whe¬ 
 ther they slay or be slain, the promise of God 
 
448 
 
 OMEE 
 
 OEPHANS 
 
 thereupon is true in the Tourat, and in the 
 Gospel, and in the Qur’an.” [Christianity, 
 
 JEWS, JUDAISM.] 
 
 OMER. [‘umab.] 
 
 OMMIADES. Arabic Banu Urnai- 
 yah (&*A y^), or ad-Daulatu ’l-Uma- 
 tvlyah &]^)\). The dynasty of 
 
 Khalifahs who reigned from a.h. 41 (a.d. 
 661) to a.h. 132 (a.d. 750), descended from 
 Mu‘awiyah, who was the great grandson of 
 Umaiyah of the Quraish tribe. Mu'awiyah, 
 the son of Abu Sufyan, took possession of 
 the Khalifate on the death of al-Hasan, and 
 established his capital at Damascus. The 
 dynasty includes the names of fourteen Khali¬ 
 fahs. 
 
 1. Mu‘awiyah, a.h. 41. 
 
 2. Yazid (son of Mu‘awiyali), a.h. 60. 
 
 3. Mu‘awiyah II. (son of Yazid), a.h. 64. 
 
 4. Marwan I. (son of al-Hakam), a.h. 64. 
 
 5. ‘Abdu ’1 Malik (son of Marwan), a.h. 65. 
 
 6. Al-Walid (son of ‘Abdu ’1-Malik), a.h. 
 
 86 . 
 
 7. Sulaiman (son of ‘Abdu ’1-Malik), a.h. 
 96. 
 
 8. ‘Umar II. (son of ‘Abdu ’l-‘Az!z, son of 
 Marwan), a.h. 99. 
 
 9. Yazid II. (son of ‘Abdu ’1-Malik), a.h. 
 
 101 . 
 
 10. Hisham (son of ‘Abdu ’1-Malik), a.h. 
 105. 
 
 11. Al-Walid II. (son of Yazid), a.h. 125. 
 
 12. Yazid III. (son of al-Walid), a.h. 126. 
 
 13. Ibrahim (son of al-Walid), a.h. 126. 
 
 14. Marwan II. (son of Muhammad, son of 
 Marwan), a.h. 127-132. 
 
 The Abbasides conquered Khorasan under 
 the brothers Ibrahim and ‘Abu ’l-‘Abbas, and 
 refused to acknowledge Marwan. Marwan 
 was afterwards defeated on the banks of the 
 Zab, and fled to Egypt, where he was again 
 defeated and slain, a.h. 132 (a.d. 750), and 
 Abu ’l-‘Abbas was proclaimed Khalifah. 
 [khalieah.] 
 
 OPTION, [khiyar.] 
 
 ORDINATION. There is no cere¬ 
 mony in Islam corresponding to the Christian 
 ordination. Sometimes the Imam of a mosque 
 is appointed by the chief man of position 
 binding a turban round his head. In Central 
 Asia, Maulawis of reputation certify as to the 
 learning and ability of their disciples by bind¬ 
 ing a turban on their heads and authorizing 
 them to teach. But it is not a custom of the 
 Muslim religion. 
 
 ORNAMENTS. Men are prohi¬ 
 bited from the use of ornaments of gold, such 
 as rings and the like, because they are ex¬ 
 pressly forbidden by the Prophet. Orna¬ 
 ments of silver are likewise unlawful, but 
 exceptions are made with respect to signet 
 rings, girdles, or swords, which may be orna¬ 
 mented with silver. ( Hidayaji , vol. iv. p. 92). 
 Ibn Zubair says the Prophet condemned the 
 use of little bells as ornaments for children, 
 
 for he said there was a devil in every bell. 
 Ibn Malik says the Prophet forbade the wear¬ 
 ing of gold rings, and he considered it just 
 as bad to use gold ornaments, (MishJcat, 
 book xx. ch. ii.) 
 
 The Wahhabis condemn the use of orna¬ 
 ments and silk dresses. 
 
 ORPHANS. Arabic yatim 
 
 pi. yatama. In Muhammadan law, the term 
 is used for a child whose father is 
 head. 
 
 Muhammad gave very special instructions 
 in the Qur’an as to the treatment of orphans. 
 See Surah iv. 2-7 :— 
 
 “ And give to the orphans their property 
 and substitute not worthless things of your 
 own for their valuable ones, and enjoy not 
 their property in addition to your own ; verily 
 this is a great crime : and if ye are appre- 
 j hensive that ye shall not deal fairly with 
 J orphans, then, of other women who seem 
 | good in your eyes, marry but two, or three, 
 or four ; and if ye still fear that ye shall not 
 I act equitably, then one only, or the slaves 
 j whom ye have acquired; this will make 
 justice on your part easier. And give women 
 their dowry as a free gift; but if of their 
 own free will they kindly give up aught 
 thereof to you, then enjoy it as convenient 
 and profitable. And entrust not to the inca¬ 
 pable the substance which God hath placed 
 with you as a means of support, but main¬ 
 tain them therewith; and clothe them, and 
 speak to them with kindly speech. And 
 make trial of orphans until they reach the 
 age of marriage; and if ye perceive in them 
 a sound judgment, then hand over their sub¬ 
 stance to them; but consume ye it not pro¬ 
 fusely and hastily. Only because they have 
 attained their majority. And let the rich 
 guardian not even touch it; and let him who 
 is poor, then use it for his support with dis¬ 
 cretion. And when ye make over their sub¬ 
 stance to them, then take witnesses in their 
 presence. God also taketh a sufficient 
 account.” 
 
 According to al-Baizawi and the Jalalan, 
 the Muslim commentators understand these 
 verses differently. Mr. Sale says the true 
 meaning seems to be: Muhammad, advising 
 his followers that if they found they should 
 wrong the female orphans under their care, 
 either by marrying them against their inclina¬ 
 tions, for the sake of their riches or beauty, or 
 by not using or maintaining them so well as 
 they ought by reason of their having already 
 several wives, they should rather choose to 
 marry other women, to avoid all occasion of 
 sin. Others say that when this passage was 
 revealed, many of the Arabians, fearing 
 trouble and temptation, refused to take upon 
 them the charge of orphans, and yet multi¬ 
 plied wives to a great excess and used them 
 ill or, as others write, gave themselves up to 
 fornication, which occasioned the passage. 
 And according to these, its meaning must be 
 either that if they feared they could not act 
 justly towards orphans, they had as great 
 reason to apprehend they could not deal 
 
OTHMAN 
 
 equitably with so many wives, and therefore 
 are commanded to marry but a certain 
 number; or else, that since fornication was a 
 crime as well as a wronging of orphans, they 
 ought to avoid that also by marrying accord¬ 
 ing to their abilities. 
 
 RARADISE 449 
 
 OTHMAN. ['usMAif.] 
 
 OUTLAWS. (1) An Apostate, if 
 
 he escapes to another country, is an outlaw. 
 (2) A fornicator should be expelled from his 
 country and be an outlaw for a whole year. 
 
 P. 
 
 PAIUHAMBAR The 
 
 Persian and Hindustani translation of the 
 Arabic Rasid and Nabl (^-p )■ 
 
 [prophet.] 
 
 PARACLETE, [faraqlit.] 
 PARADISE. The Muhammadan 
 
 Paradise is called al-Jannah (Ai*Jl), “ the 
 garden,” pi. junnat, in Arabic ; and Bihisht 
 in Persian; the word al-Firduus 
 or Paradise, being restricted to 
 one region in the celestial abodes of bliss. 
 There are eight heavens or paradises men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, and although they 
 appear to be but eight different names for 
 the place of bliss, Muhammadan divines have 
 held them to be eight different stages. 
 
 They are as follows (see Ghiya.su 7- 
 Lwjhah): — 
 
 1. Jannatu ’1-Khuld (Suratu ’1-Furqan, xxv. 
 16), The Garden of Eternity. 
 
 2. Daru ’s-Salam (Suratu ’1-An‘am, vi. 127), 
 The Dwelling of Peace. 
 
 3. Daru ’1-Qarar (Suratu ’l-Mu’min, xl. 42), 
 The Dwelling which abideth. 
 
 4. Jannatu ’l-‘Adn (Suratu ’1-Bara’ah, ix. 
 73), The Gardens of Eden. 
 
 5. Jannatu ’1-Ma’wa (Suratu ’s-Sajdah, 
 xxxii. 19), The Gardens of Refuge. 
 
 6. Jannatu ’n-Na‘Im (Suratu 1-Ma’idah, 
 v. 70), The Gardens of Delight. 
 
 7. ‘Illlyun (Suratu ’t-Tatflf, lxxxiii. 18). 
 
 8. Jannatu ’1-Firdaus (Suratu ’1-Kahf, 
 xviii. 107), The Gardens of Paradise. 
 
 These eight stages are spoken of as eight 
 doors in the Mishkat, book ii. ch. i.) 
 
 The sensual delights of Muhammad’s 
 Paradise are proverbial, and they must have 
 exercised a considerable influence upon the 
 minds of the people to whom he made known 
 his mission. There are frequent allusions to 
 them in the Qur’an. The following are spe¬ 
 cimen passages :— 
 
 Suratu ’1-Insan (Ixxvi.), 12-22 :—“ God 
 hath rewarded their constancy, with Paradise, 
 and silken robes, reclining therein on bridal 
 couches ; nought shall they know of sun or 
 piercing cold: its shades shall close over 
 them, and low shall its fruits hang down: 
 and vessels of silver and goblets like flagons 
 shall be borne round among them: flagons of 
 silver whose mea'sure themselves shall mete. 
 And there shall they be given to drink of the 
 cup tempered with zanjabil (ginger) from the 
 
 fount therein whose name is Salsabll (i.e. 
 the softly flowing). Blooming youths go 
 round among them. When thou lookest at 
 them, thou wouldst deem them scattered 
 pearls ; and when thou seest this, thou 
 wilt see delights and a vast kingdom ; their 
 clothing green silk robes and rich brocade : 
 with silver bracelets shall they be adorned; 
 and drink of a pure beverage shall their Lord 
 give them. This shall be your recom¬ 
 pense.” 
 
 Suratu ’1-Waqi‘ah (lvi.), 12-39 : “ In gar¬ 
 dens of delight, a crowd of the former and a 
 few of the later generations; on inwrought 
 couches reclining on them face to face, bloom¬ 
 ing youths go round about them with goblets 
 and ewers and a cup of flowing wine ; their 
 brows ache not from it, nor fails the sense : 
 and with such fruits as shall please them 
 best, and with flesh of such birds as they 
 shall long for; and theirs shall bo the Houris 
 (Arabic hur), with large dark eyes, like pearls 
 hidden in their shells, in recompense for their 
 labours past. No vain discourse shall they 
 hear therein, nor charge of sin, but only cry 
 ‘ Peace ! Peace!’.... Unfailing, unfor¬ 
 bidden, and on lofty couches and of a rare crea¬ 
 tion have we made the Houris, and we have 
 made them ever virgins, dear to their spouses 
 and of equal age, for the people of the right 
 hand, a crowd of the former, and a crowd of 
 the later generations.” 
 
 Suratu ’r-Rahman (lv.), 54-56: '-On 
 
 couches with linings of brocade shall they 
 recline, and the fruit of the two gardens shall 
 
 be within their easy reach.Therein 
 
 shall be the damsels with retiring glances, 
 whom neither man nor jinn hath touched 
 before them.” 
 
 Suratu ’1-Muhammad (xlvii.) 16, 17: 
 
 “ Therein are rivers of water which corrupt 
 not: rivers of milk, whose taste changeth 
 not: and rivers of wine, delicious to those 
 who quaff it; and rivers of clarified honey : 
 and therein are all kinds of fruit for them 
 from their Lord.” 
 
 The descriptions of the celestial regions 
 and the enjoyments promised to the faithful 
 are still more minutely given in the tradi¬ 
 tional sayings of the Prophet; see the Mish¬ 
 kat, book xxiii. ch. xiii. 
 
 Abu Musa relates that “ the Apostle of 
 God said, Verily there is a tent for every 
 Muslim in Paradise, it is made of one pearl, 
 its interior empty, its breadth 60 kos, and jn 
 every corner of it will be his wives : and they 
 
 57 
 
PARADISE 
 
 PARADISE 
 
 450 
 
 shall not see one another. The Muslim shall 
 love them alternately,” &c. 
 
 Abu Sa‘Id relates that “ the Apostle of 
 God said, ‘ He who is least amongst the 
 people of Paradise, shall have eighty thou¬ 
 sand slaves, and seventy-two women, and has 
 a tent pitched for him of pearls, rubies, and 
 
 emeralds.Those who die in the world, 
 
 young or old, are made of thirty years of age, 
 and not more, when they enter Paradise.’ ” 
 
 Abu SaTd also relates that “ the Apostle 
 of God said, 1 Verily a man in Paradise re¬ 
 clines upon seventy cushions, before he turns 
 on his other side. Then a woman of Para¬ 
 dise comes to him and pats him on the shoul¬ 
 der, and the man sees his face in her cheek, 
 which is brighter than a looking-glass, and 
 verily her most inferior pearl brightens the 
 east and west. Then the woman makes a 
 salarn to him, which he returns; and the 
 man says, “ Who are you? ” and she replies, 
 “ I am of the number promised of God for 
 the virtuous.” And verily she will have 
 seventy garments, and the man’s eyes will be 
 fixed on them, till he will see the marrow of 
 the bones of her legs through the calves of 
 them, and she will have crowns on her head 
 the meanest pearl of which would give light 
 between the east and west.’ ” 
 
 One of the attractions of Paradise is the river 
 Kausar. [katjsak.] According to Anas, “ the 
 Apostle of God said, it is a river which God 
 has given me in Paradise, its water is whiter 
 than milk, and sweeter than honey, and on 
 its waters are birds whose necks are like the 
 necks of camels.” 
 
 The following is an instance of the way in 
 which the Prophet endeavoured to suit his 
 paradise to the tastes of the people :— 
 
 Abu Aiyub says, “ An Arab came to the 
 Prophet and said, ‘ 0 Apostle of God ! I am 
 fond of horses; are there any in Paradise ? ’ 
 The Prophet replied, ‘ If you are taken into 
 Paradise, you will get a ruby horse, with two 
 wings, and you will mount him, and he will 
 carry you wherever you wish.’ ” 
 
 Abu Hurairah said, “Verily the Apostle of 
 God said, when an Arab was sitting near 
 him, that a man of the people of Paradise will 
 ask permission of his Lord to cultivate land, 
 and God will say, ‘ Have you not everything 
 you could wish for? What will you culti¬ 
 vate?’ The man will say, ‘ Yes, everything 
 is present, but I am fond of cultivating.’ 
 Then he will be permitted to cultivate, and 
 he will sow, and, quicker than the twinkling 
 of an eye, it will grow, become ripe, and be 
 reaped, and it will stand in sheaves like 
 mountains.” 
 
 The apologists for Islam, Carlyle for ex¬ 
 ample, have suggested that the sensual de¬ 
 lights of Muhammad’s paradise may, after all, 
 be taken in a figurative sense, as the Reve¬ 
 lation of St. John or the Song of Solomon. 
 It is quite true that such an interpretation is 
 hinted at in the Akhlaq-i-Jaldli (Thompson’s 
 translation, p. 102), and Mr. Lane in his 
 Egyptians (vol. i. p. 84) says that a Muslim 
 of some learning considered the descriptions 
 
 of Paradise figurative, but such is not the 
 view held by Muhammadan doctors, whether 
 Sunni, Skkak, or Wahhabi. They are all 
 agreed as to the literal interpretation of the 
 sensual enjoyments of the Muslim paradise, 
 and very many are the books written giving 
 minute particulars of the joys in store for 
 the faithful. 
 
 Islam, true to its anti-Christian character, 
 preaches a sensual abode of bliss, in opposi¬ 
 tion to the express teaching of our Lord in 
 Matt. xxii. 30: “ They neither marry nor are 
 given in marriage, but are as the angels of 
 God in heaven.” 
 
 Were proof needed, to show that the Pro¬ 
 phet taught a real and literal interpretation 
 of the sensual delights of the abodes of bliss, 
 a tradition of high authority is found in the 
 Sa/iihu Muslim (p. 379), vide also Mishkat , 
 book xxiii. ch. 13), in which the Prophet goes 
 to some trouble to explain the sanitary laws 
 of the heavenly kingdom, in the most literal 
 manner possible. 
 
 Sir William Muir says : “ It is remarkable 
 that the notices in the Coran of this volup¬ 
 tuous Paradise are almost entirely confined to 
 a time when, whatever the tendency of his 
 desires, Mahomet was living chaste and tem¬ 
 perate with a single wife of threescore years 
 of age. Gibbon characteristically observes 
 that ‘ Mahomet has not specified the male 
 companions of the female elect, lest he should 
 either alarm the jealousy of the former hus¬ 
 bands, or disturb their felicity by the suspi¬ 
 cion of an everlasting marriage.’ The remark, 
 made in raillery, is pregnant with reason, and 
 aims a fatal blow at the Paradise of Islam. 
 Faithful women will renew their youth in 
 heaven as well as faithful men : why should 
 not their good works merit an equal and 
 analogous reward ? But Mahomet shrank 
 from this legitimate conclusion. It is note¬ 
 worthy that in the Medina Suras—that is in 
 all the voluminous revelations of the ten 
 years following the Hegira—women are only 
 twice referred to as one of the delights of 
 Paradise; and on both occasions in these 
 simple words :—‘ and to them (believers) there 
 shall be therein pure wives.’ (Surah ii. 23, 
 Surah iv. 60.) Was it that satiety had then 
 left no longings unfulfilled ; or that a closer 
 contact with Judaism had repressed the bud¬ 
 ding pruriency of his revelation, and covered 
 with confusion the picture of a sensual Para¬ 
 dise which had been drawn at Mecca ? ” 
 ( Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 82 and note.) 
 
 Sir W. Muir has omitted a third passage, 
 Surah iii. 13, where “ women of stainless 
 purity ” are spoken of, but it is remarkable 
 how much more restrained are the Prophet’s 
 descriptions of Paradise in his later revela¬ 
 tions. For example, Surah xiii. 23, 24, 35 :— 
 “ Gardens of Eden—into which they shall 
 enter together with the just of their fathers, 
 and their wives and their descendants, and 
 the angels shall go in unto them at every 
 portal: Peace be with you, say they, because 
 ye have endured all things .... The rivers 
 flow beneath its bowers ; its food and its 
 shades are perpetual.” 
 
PARDON POE SIN 
 PARDON FOR SIN. The words 
 
 used to express pardon for sins on the part 
 of the Almighty, are ‘Afw (ytc), Maghfircih 
 (iyub*), and Ghufran The act of 
 
 seeking pardon is Istighfar 
 
 The following is the teaching of the Qur’an 
 on the subject:— 
 
 Surah liii. 32, 33 : “ God’s is what is in 
 the heavens and what is in the earth, that 
 He may reward those who do evil with evil, 
 and those who do good with good. Those 
 who shun great sins and iniquities—all but 
 venial sins,—verily thy Lord is of ample for¬ 
 giveness.” 
 
 Surah lxvii, 12: “ Verily those who fear 
 their Lord in secret, for them is forgiveness 
 and a great reward.” 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 71: “He (God) will correct 
 you for your works and pardon you for your 
 sins ; for he who obeys God and His Apostle 
 has attained a mighty happiness.” 
 
 Surah xxxv. 8 : “ Those who believe and 
 do right, for them is forgiveness.” 
 
 Surah viii. 29: “0 ye who believe! if ye 
 fear God, He will make for you a discrimi¬ 
 nation, and will cover your offences and will 
 forgive you ; for God is the Lord of mighty 
 grace.” 
 
 Repentance is expressed in the Qur’an by 
 the word Taubah (toy), which the Imam an- 
 Nawawl says means “ turning the heart from 
 sin.” ( Commentary on Saliiliu Muslim, vol. ii. 
 p. 354.) The word frequently occurs in the 
 Qur’an. For example :— 
 
 Surah iv. 20: “If they repent and amend, 
 then let them be. Verily God relenteth. He 
 is merciful.” 
 
 Surah xxv. 71: “ Whoso hath repented 
 and hath done what is right, verily it is he 
 who turneth to God with a true conversion ” 
 ( matab). 
 
 The teaching of the traditions on the sub¬ 
 ject of repentance and pardon for sin is in 
 some places exceedingly wild, as will be 
 seen from the following selections taken from 
 the sayings of the Prophet given in the Mish- 
 kat, book x. ch. iii:— 
 
 “ There was a man of the children of 
 Israel, who killed ninety-nine people, after 
 which he came out, asking if his repentance 
 would be accepted; and having met a monk, 
 he asked him, ‘ Is there acceptance for my 
 repentance?’ The monk said, ‘No.’ Then 
 the man killed the monk, and stood asking 
 people about the approval of his repentance. 
 And a man said to him, ‘ Gome to such a vil¬ 
 lage.’ Then the signs of immediate death 
 were upon him, and he tried to reach the 
 village upon his knees, and died on the way. 
 Then the angels of mercy and punishment 
 disputed about him. Then God ordered the 
 village towards which the man had attempted 
 to go to be near to the corpse ; and the vil¬ 
 lage which he had fled from to be far away 
 from him. Then God said to the angels, 
 
 ‘ Compute, and measure the distance between 
 the two villages.’ And it was found that the 
 village towards which he was going was 
 
 PARENTAGE 451 
 
 nearer to him by one span. And he was par¬ 
 doned.” 
 
 “ An incessant sinner has not sinned that 
 has asked pardon, although he may have 
 sinned seventy times a day, because asking 
 pardon is the coverer of sin.” 
 
 “ God has said, ‘ Verily if you come before 
 Me with sins equal to the dust of the earth, 
 and then come before Me without associating 
 anything with Me, verily I will come before 
 j r ou with the pardon equal to the dust of the 
 earth.” 
 
 “Verily God accepts of the repentance of 
 His servant as long as is soul does not come 
 into his throat.” 
 
 “ I swear by God that verily I ask pardon 
 of God and repent before Him more than 
 seventy times daily.” 
 
 “Verily my heart is veiled with melan¬ 
 choly, and verily I ask pardon of God one 
 hundred times a day.” 
 
 “ Verily, when a true believer commits a 
 sin, a black spot is created in his heart; and 
 if he repents and asks pardon of God, the 
 black spot is rubbed off his heart; but if he 
 increases his sins, the black spot increases, 
 so that it takes hold of the whole heart. 
 Then this spot is a rust which God has men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, ‘ their hearts became 
 rusty from their works.’ ” 
 
 “ Verily there were two men of the chil¬ 
 dren of Israel who had a friendship for each 
 other. One of them was a worshipper of God, 
 and the other a sinner. The worshipper of 
 God said to the sinner, ‘ Give up sinning.’ 
 He said, ‘Leave me to my Lord.’ At length 
 he found him committing a very great sin, 
 and said, ‘ Give up sinning ’ The sinner 
 said, ‘Leave me to my Lord. Were you 
 sent as a guard over me ? ’ The worshipper 
 said, ‘ I swear by God He will not always 
 forgive your sins, nor will He bring you into 
 Paradise.’ Then God sent an angel to them, 
 who took both their souls, and they both ap¬ 
 peared before God together. And God said 
 to the sinner, ‘ Come into Paradise.’ And he 
 said to the other: ‘ What, can you prevent 
 My compassion on my servant ? ’ He said, 
 
 ‘ I cannot, 0 my Lord.’ And God said to the 
 angels, ‘ Carry him to the Are.’ ” 
 
 PARENTAGE. The periods of 
 
 six months and of two years are fixed as the 
 shortest and longest periods of pregnancy, 
 and consequently any child born within those 
 periods is assumed to be the child of the 
 woman’s husband, even though she be either 
 a widow or divorced. This strange ruling of 
 Muslim law is founded on a declaration of 
 ‘Ayishah, who is related to have said, “ The 
 child does not remain in the womb of the 
 mother beyond two years.” 
 
 The Imam ash-Shafi‘1 has said the longest 
 period of pregnancy extends to four years. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. i. p. 383.) 
 
 If a person acknowledge the parentage of 
 a child who is able to give an account of 
 himself, and the ages of the parties are such 
 as to admit of the one being the child of the 
 other, and the parentage of the child be not 
 
452 
 
 PARENTS 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 well known to any person, and the child him¬ 
 self verify the statement, the parentage is 
 established. {Ibid., vol. iii. p. 169.) 
 
 PARENTS, Duty to, is frequently 
 
 enjoined in the Qur’an; for example, Surah 
 xvii. 24, 25: “ Thy Lord hath decreed that 
 ye shall not serve other than Him, and that 
 ye shall be kind to your parents, whether 
 one or both of them reach old age with thee ; 
 and ye must not say, ‘ Fie! ’ ( Uff) nor 
 grumble at them, but speak to them a gene¬ 
 rous speech. And lower to them the wing of 
 humility out of compassion, and say, ‘ 0 Lord 1 
 have compassion on them, as they brought 
 me up when I was little 1 ’ ” 
 
 PARISH. In connection with the 
 
 mosques of cities and villages there are ap¬ 
 pointed districts not unlike English parishes. 
 Within these districts the Imam of the 
 mosque is held responsible for the marriages 
 and burials of the people, and his services 
 can be claimed for these ceremonies, for 
 which he receives customary fees. Any other 
 Maulawx performing marriages or burials, is 
 expected to obtain the permission of the 
 Imam of the parish. In fact, the position of 
 the Imam of a mosque is similar to that of a 
 benefieed clergyman. He receives the mar¬ 
 riage and burial fees, fees at the ceremony of 
 circumcision, thank offerings on the birth of 
 a child, or on recovery from sickness, presents 
 on the festival days, &c., as well as the waqf, 
 or endowment, of the mosque. 
 
 PARSE [majus.] 
 PARTURITION, [nifas.] 
 PATIENCE. Arabic sabr (;~=), is 
 
 frequently enjoined in the Qur’an, e.g. Surah 
 ii. 148:- “0 ye who believe! seek help 
 through patience and prayer; verily God is 
 with the patient.” 
 
 PAWNING. [KAHN.] 
 
 PEN, The, of Fate, [qalam.] 
 PENTATEUCH, [taueat.] 
 
 PESTILENCE. Arabic tcddn 
 wabco’ (=b^). According to 
 the teaching of Muhammad in the traditions, 
 a pestilence is a punishment sent by God, it 
 is also an occasion of martyrdom, and that 
 Muslim who abides in the place where he is 
 at the time of a pestilence, and dies of it, is 
 admitted to the rank of a martyr. It is also 
 enjoined that' Musalmans shall not enter 
 a place where there is a pestilence raging, 
 but remain where they are until it is passed. 
 {MishJcat, book v. ch. 1.) 
 
 PHARAOH. Arabic Fifaun 
 (o?V)- Heb. The King of 
 
 Egypt in the time of Moses. Considered by 
 all Muhammadans to be the very personifica¬ 
 tion of wickedness. 
 
 Al-Baizawl says Fir‘aun was the common 
 title of the kings of Egypt, just as Caesar 
 was that of the Roman Emperors, and that 
 
 the name of Pharaoh, according to some, was 
 al-Walld ibn Mus‘ab, and according to others 
 Mus‘ab ibn Raiyam, and according to others 
 Qabus, and that he lived 620 years. Abu’l- 
 fida’ says that Mus‘ab being 170 years old, 
 and having no child, whilst he kept his herds, 
 he saw a cow calf, and heard her say at the 
 same time, “ 0 Mus‘ab, be not grieved, thou 
 shalt have a son, a wicked son, who shall be 
 cast into hell,” and that this son was the 
 wicked Fir‘aun of the time of Moses. 
 
 In the Qur’an, Surah xxxviii. 11, he is 
 surnamed Fir‘aun Zu 'l-Autad, or “ Pharaoh 
 the master of the Stakes, who called the 
 Apostles liars.” Some say the stakes refer 
 to the strength of his kingdom, others that 
 they were instruments of torture and death 
 which he used. 
 
 Pharaoh was drowned in the Red Sea, and 
 the commentators say that Gabriel would 
 not let his body sink, but that it floated as a 
 sign and a warning to the children of Israel. 
 (See Qur’an, Surah x. 90-92.) 
 
 A further account of Pharaoh, as given 
 in the Qur’an, will be found in the article on 
 Moses. The Pharaoh of Joseph’s time is said 
 to be Raiyan ibn al-Walid al-‘AmlIqi, the an¬ 
 cestor of the renowned Pharaoh in the time 
 of Moses, [moses.] 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, MUSLIM. Arabic 
 falsafah (<WuJi), or ‘ilmu ’l-hikmah 
 ^U). The following account 
 
 of Arabian philosophy is taken with permis¬ 
 sion from Professor Ueberweg’s History of 
 Philosophy, translated by G. S. Morris, M.A. 
 (Hodder and Stoughton), vol. i. p. 405 :— 
 
 “ The whole philsophy of the Arabians was 
 only a form of Aristotelianism, tempered 
 more or less with Neo-Platonic conceptions. 
 The medical and physical science of the 
 Greeks and Greek philosophy became known 
 to the Arabs especially under the rule of the 
 Abassidaj (from a.d. 750 on), when medical, 
 and afterwards (from the time of the reign 
 of Almamun, in the first half of the ninth 
 century) philosophical works were translated 
 from Greek into Syriac and Arabic by Syriac 
 Christians. The tradition of Greek philo¬ 
 sophy was associated with that combination 
 of Platonism and Aristotelianism which pre¬ 
 vailed among the last philosophers of anti¬ 
 quity, and with the study by Christian theo¬ 
 logians of the Aristotelian logic as a formal 
 organon of dogmatics ; but in view of the 
 rigid monotheism of the Mohammedan reli¬ 
 gion, it was necessary that the Aristotelian 
 metaphysics, and especially the Aristotelian 
 theology, should be more fully adopted among 
 the Arabs than among the Neo-Platonists and 
 Christians, and that in consequence of the 
 union among the former of philosophical with 
 medical studies, the works of Aristotle on 
 natural science should be studied by them 
 with especial zeal. 
 
 “ Of the Arabian philosophers in the East, 
 the most important were Alkendi (al-Kindl), 
 who was still more renowned as a mathema¬ 
 tician and astrologer; Alfarabi (al-Farabl), 
 who adopted the Neo-Platonic doctrine of 
 
PHILOSOPHY 
 
 emanation ; Avicenna (Abu Sina), the repre¬ 
 sentative of a purer Aristotelianism and a 
 man who for centuries, even among the Chris¬ 
 tian scholars of the later mediaeval centuries, 
 stood in the highest consideration as a philo¬ 
 sopher, and, still more, as a teacher of medi¬ 
 cine ; and, finally, Algazel (al-Ghazzali), who 
 maintained a philosophical skepticism in the 
 interest of theological orthodoxy. 
 
 “ The most important Arabian philosophers 
 in the West were Avempace (Ibn Badja), Abu- 
 bacer (Abu Bakr Ibn Tufail), and Averroes 
 (Ibn Rashid). Avempace and Abubacer dwell 
 in their works on the idea of the independent 
 and gradual development of man. Abubacer 
 (in his ‘ Natural Man ’) develops this idea in 
 a spirit of opposition to positive religion, 
 although he affirms that positive religion and 
 philosophical doctrine pursue the same end, 
 namely, the union of the human intellect with 
 the divine. Averroes, the celebrated com¬ 
 mentator of Aristotle, interprets the doctrine 
 of the latter respecting the active and the 
 passive intellect in a sense which is nearly 
 pantheistic and which excludes the idea of 
 individual immortality. He admits the exist¬ 
 ence of only one active intellect, and affirms 
 that this belongs in common to the whole 
 human race, that it becomes temporarily par¬ 
 ticularized in individuals, but that each of 
 its emanations becomes finally reabsorbed in 
 the original whole, in which alone, therefore, 
 they possess immortality. 
 
 “ The acquaintance of the Mohammedan 
 Arabs with the writings of Aristotle was 
 brought about through the agency of Syrian 
 Christians. Before the time of Mohammed, 
 many Nestorian Syrians lived among the 
 Arabs as physicians. Mohammed also had 
 intercourse with Nestorian monks. Hareth 
 Ibn Calda, the friend and physician of the 
 Prophet, was a Nestorian. It was not, how¬ 
 ever, until after the extension of the Moham¬ 
 medan rule over Syria and Persia, and 
 chiefly after the Abassidse had commenced 
 to reign (a.d. 750), that foreign learning, espe¬ 
 cially in medicine and philosophy, became gene¬ 
 rally known among the Arabs. Philosophy 
 had already been cultivated in those coun¬ 
 tries during the last days of Neo-Platonism, 
 by David the Armenian (about 500 a.d. ; his 
 Prolog, to Philos, and to the Isagoge, and his 
 commentary on the Categ, in Brandis’ Collec¬ 
 tion of Scholia to Arist.; his works, Venice, 
 1823 ; on him cf. C. F. Neumann, Paris, 1829) 
 and afterwards by the Syrians, especially 
 Christian Syrians, translated Greek authors, 
 particularly medical, but afterward philoso¬ 
 phical authors also, first into Syriac, and then 
 from Syriac into Arabic (or they, perhaps, 
 made use also of earlier Syriac translations 
 some of which are to-day extant). 
 
 “ During the reign and at the instance of 
 Almamun (a.d. 813-833), the first translations 
 of works of Aristotle into Arabic were made, 
 under the direction of Johannes Ibn-al-Batrik 
 ( i.e. the son of the Patriarch, who, according 
 to Renan [1.1., p. 57], is to be distinguished 
 from Johannes Mesue, the physician), these 
 translations, in part still extant, were regarded 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 458 
 
 (according to Abulfaragius, Histor. Dynast.. 
 p. 153 et all) as faithful but inelegant. 
 
 “ A man more worthy of mention is Honein 
 Ibn Ishak (.Johannitius), a Nestoi'ian, who 
 flourished under Motewakkel, and died in 
 876. Acquainted with the Syriac, Arabic, 
 and Greek languages, he was at the head of 
 a school of interpreters at Bagdad, to which 
 his son Ishak Ben Honein and his nephew 
 Hobeisch-el-Asam also belonged. The works 
 not only of Aristotle himself, but also of 
 several ancient Aristotelians (Alexander 
 Aphrodisiensis, Themistius, and also Neo- 
 Platonic exegetes, such as Porphyry and 
 Ammonius), and of Galenus and others, were 
 translated into (Syriac and) Arabic. Of 
 these translations, also, some of those in 
 Arabic are still existing, but the Syriac 
 translations are all lost. (Honein’s Arabic 
 translation of the Categories has been edited 
 by Jul. Theod. Zenker, Leips. 1846 ) In the 
 tenth century new translations, not only of 
 the works of Aristotle, but also of Theo¬ 
 phrastus, Alexander of Aphrodisias, Theo- 
 mistius, Syrianus, Ammonius, etc., were pro¬ 
 duced by Syrian Christians, of whom the 
 most important were the Nestorians, Abu 
 Baschar Mata and Jahja ben. Adi, the Tagri- 
 tan, as also Isa Ben Zai'aa. The Syriac 
 translations (or revisions of earlier transla¬ 
 tions) by these men have been lost, but the 
 Arabic translations were widely circulated 
 and have in large measure been preserved; 
 they were used by Alfarabi, Avicenna, Aver¬ 
 roes, and the other Arabian philosophers. The 
 Republic, Timoeus, and Laws of Plato, were 
 also translated into Arabic. Averroes (in 
 Spain, about 1150) possessed and paraphrased 
 the Rep., but he did not the Politics of Aris¬ 
 totle ; the book existing in MS. at Paris, 
 entitled Siaset (Siyasah), i.e. Politico, is the 
 spurious work De Regimine Principum s. 
 Secretum Secretorum; the Politics of Aristotle 
 is not known to exist in Arabic. Farther, ex¬ 
 tracts from the Neo-Platonists, especially from 
 Proclus, were translated into Arabic. The 
 Syrians were led, especially in consequence 
 of their contact with the Arabs, to extend 
 their studies beyond the Organon ; they began 
 to cultivate in the Arabic language all the 
 branches of philosophy on the basis of Aris¬ 
 totle’s works, and in this they were after¬ 
 wards followed by the Arabs themselves, who 
 soon surpassed their Syrian teachers. Alfa¬ 
 rabi and Avicenna were the scholars of 
 Syrian and Christian physicians. The later 
 Syrian philosophy bears the type of the 
 Arabian philosophy. The most important 
 representative of the former was Gregorius 
 Barhebraeus or Abulfaragius, the Jacobite, 
 who lived in the thirteenth century, and was 
 descended from Jewish parents, and whose 
 compendium of the Peripatetic philosophy 
 (JButyrum Sapientive) is still of great autho¬ 
 rity among the Syrians. 
 
 “ Alkendi (Abu Jusuf Jacub Ibn Eshak al 
 Kendi, i.e. the father of Joseph, Jacob, son of 
 Isaac, the Kendaean, of the district of Ken¬ 
 dall) was born at Busra on the Persian Gulf, 
 where later, in the tenth century, the 
 
454 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 ‘ Brothers of Purity ’ or the ‘ Sincere 
 Brethren,’ who collected in an Encyclopedia 
 the learning then acceptable to the Arabians, 
 were located. He lived during and after the 
 first half of the ninth century, dying about 
 870. He was renowned as a mathematician, 
 astrologer, physician, and philosopher. He 
 composed commentaries on the logical writ¬ 
 ings of Aristotle, and wrote also on metaphy¬ 
 sical problems. In theology he was a rational¬ 
 ist. His astrology was founded on the hypo¬ 
 thesis that all things are so bound together 
 by harmonious causal relations, that each, 
 when completely conceived, must represent 
 as in a mirror the whole universe 
 
 “ Alfarabi (Abu Nasr Mohammed ben Mo¬ 
 hammed ben Tarkhan of Farab), born near 
 the end of the ninth century, received his 
 philosophical training mainly at Bagdad, 
 where he also began to teach. Attached to 
 the mystical sect of the Sufi, which Said Abul 
 Chair had founded about a.d. 820 (under the 
 unmistakable influence of Buddhism, although 
 Tholuck [“ Ssufismus." Berlin, 1821, and 
 Bluthensammlung aus der Morgenland. Mystik, 
 Berlin, 1825] assigns to it a purely Moham¬ 
 medan origin), Alfarabi went at a later epoch 
 to Aleppo and Damascus, where he died a.d. 
 950. In logic Alfarabi follows Aristotle 
 almost without exception. Whether logic is 
 to be regarded as a part of philosophy or 
 not, depends, according to Alfarabi, on the 
 greater or less extension given to the concep¬ 
 tion of philosophy, and is therefore a useless 
 question. Argumentation is the instrument 
 by which to develop the unknown from the 
 known ; it is employed by the utens logicus ; 
 logica docens is the theory which relates to 
 this instrument, argumentation, or which 
 treats of it as its subject ( subjectum ). Yet 
 logic also treats of single concepts ( incom- 
 plexa) as elements of judgments and argu¬ 
 mentations (according to Alfarabi, as reported 
 by Albertus M., De Prcedicabil. i. 2 seq., cf. 
 Prantl, Gesch. der Log., ii. p. 302 seq.'). Alfa¬ 
 rabi defines the universal (see Alb. M., De 
 Praed., ii. 5) as the unum de multiset in multis, 
 which definition is followed immediately by 
 the inference that the universal has no exist¬ 
 ence apart from the individual ( non habet esse 
 separatum a multis). It is worthy of notice 
 that Alfarabi does not admit in its absolute 
 sense the aphorism : singulare sentitur, univer¬ 
 sale intelligitur, but teaches that the singular, 
 although in its material aspect an object of 
 sensible perception, exists in its formal aspect 
 in the intellect, and, on the other hand, that 
 the universal, although as such belonging to 
 the intellect, exists also in sensu, in so far as 
 it exists blended with the individual (Alb., 
 An. post. i. 1, 3). Among the contents of the 
 Metaphysics of Alfarabi, mention should be 
 made of his proof of the existence of God, 
 which was employed by Albertus Magnus and 
 later philosophers. This proof is founded on 
 Plat., Tim., p. 28: T (S yevofievio cfoagev irr' 
 outlov Tiros avdyKrjv elrai yevecr#ai, an( I 
 Arist., Metaph., xii. 7: «rri to ivvv ti kou 
 o Kirei, etc., or on the principle that all 
 
 change and all development must have a 
 cause. Alfarabi distinguishes ( Fontes Quces- 
 tionuni, ch. 3 seq., in Sehmolders Doc. Phil. 
 Ar., p. 44), between that which has a possible 
 and that which has a necessary existence, just 
 as Plato and Aristotle distinguish between 
 the changeable and the eternal). If the pos¬ 
 sible is to exist in reality, a cause is neces¬ 
 sary thereto. The world is composite, hence 
 it had a beginning or was caused (ch. 2). But 
 the series of causes and effects can neither 
 recede in infinitum, nor return like a circle 
 into itself : it must, therefore, depend upon 
 some necessary link, and this link is the first 
 being (ens primum). This first being exists 
 necessarily; the supposition of its non¬ 
 existence involves a contradiction. It is un¬ 
 caused, and needs in order to its existence no 
 cause external to itself. It is the cause of 
 all that exists. Its eternity implies its per¬ 
 fection. It is free from all accidents. It is 
 simple and unchangeable. As the absolutely 
 Good it is at once absolute thought, absolute 
 object of thought, and absolute thinking being 
 (intelligentia, intelligible, intelligens). It has 
 wisdom, life, insight, might, and will, beauty, 
 excellence, brightness; it enjoys the highest 
 happiness, is the first willing being and the first 
 object of will (desire). In the knowledge of 
 this being, Alfarabi {De rebus studio Arist. 
 phil. prcemitt. Comm., ch. 4, ap. Sehmolders, 
 Doc. ph. Arab., p. 22), sees the end of philo¬ 
 sophy, and he defines the practical duty of 
 man as consisting in rising, so far as human 
 force permits it, into likeness with God. In 
 his teachings respecting that which is caused 
 by or derived from God {Fontes Qucest, ch. 
 C seq,), Alfarabi follows the Neo-Platonists. 
 His fundamental conception is expressed by 
 the word emanation. The first created thing 
 was the Intellect, which came forth from the 
 first being (the Nous of Plotinus; this doc¬ 
 trine was logically consistent only for Plo¬ 
 tinus, not for Alfarabi, since the former re¬ 
 presented his One as superior to all pre¬ 
 dicates, while Alfarabi, in agreement with 
 Aristotle and with religious dogmatics, recog¬ 
 nized in his first being intelligence). From 
 this intellect flowed forth, as a new emana¬ 
 tion, the Cosmical Soul, in the complication 
 and combination of whose ideas the basis of 
 corporeality is to be found. Emanation pro¬ 
 ceeds from the higher or outer spheres to 
 the lower or inner ones. In bodies, matter 
 and form are necessarily combined with each 
 other. Terrestrial bodies are composed of 
 the four elements. The lower physical powers, 
 up to the potential intellect, are dependent on 
 matter. The potential intellect, through the 
 operation (in-beaming) of the active divine 
 intellect, is made actual {intellectus in actu or 
 in effectu ), and this actual intellect, as result¬ 
 ing from develo}Dment, may be called acquired 
 intellect {intellectus acquisitus, after the doc¬ 
 trine of Alexander of Aphrodisias, concerning 
 the vov s £7 tikt^tos). The actual human in¬ 
 tellect is free from matter, and is a simple 
 substance, which alone survives the death of 
 the body and remains indestructible. Evil is 
 a necessary condition of good in a finite 
 
PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 455 
 
 world. All things are under divine guidance 
 and are good, since all was created by God. 
 Between the human understanding and the 
 things which it seeks to know there exists 
 (as Alfarabi teaches, De Intellecto et Intel- 
 lectu, p. 48 seq .) a similarity of form, which 
 arises from their having both been formed by 
 the same first being, and which makes know¬ 
 ledge possible. 
 
 “ Avicenna (Abu Ali A1 Hosain Abdallah 
 Ibn Sina) was born at Afsenna, in the pro¬ 
 vince of Bokhara, in the year 980. His mind 
 was early developed by the study of theology, 
 philosophy, and medicine, and in his youth he 
 had already written a scientific encyclopedia. 
 He taught medicine and philosophy in Ispa¬ 
 han. Ho died at Hamadan in the fifty-eighth 
 year of his life. His medical Canon was em¬ 
 ployed for centuries as the basis of instruction. 
 In philosophy he set out from the doctrines 
 of Alfarabi, but modified them by omitting 
 many Neo-Platonic theorems and approxi¬ 
 mating more nearly to the real doctrine of 
 Aristotle. The principle on which his logic 
 was founded, and which Averroes adopted 
 and Albertus Magnus often cites, was des¬ 
 tined to exert a great influence. It was 
 worded thus : Intellects in formis agit uni- 
 versalitatem (Alb., De Prcedicab, ii. 3 and 6). 
 The genus, as also the species, the differentia 
 the accidens, and the proprium, are in them¬ 
 selves neither universal nor singular. But 
 the thinking mind, by comparing the similar 
 forms, forms the genus logicum, which answers 
 to the definition of the genus, viz. : that it is 
 predicated of many objects specifically diffe¬ 
 rent, and answers the question, 1 What is it ? ’ 
 (tells the quiditas ). It is the genus naturale 
 which furnishes the basis of comparison. 
 When the mind adds to the generic and spe¬ 
 cific the individual accidents, the singular is 
 formed (Avic., Log., Venice edition, 1508, f. 
 12, ap. Prantl, Geschichte der Logik, ii. 347 
 seq.) Only figuratively, according to Avi¬ 
 cenna, can the genus be called matter and the 
 specific difference form; such phraseology 
 (frequent in Aristotle) is not strictly cor¬ 
 rect. Avicenna distinguishes several modes 
 of generic existence, viz. : ante res, in rebus, 
 and post res. Genera are ante res in the mind 
 of God ; for all that exists is related to God 
 as a work of art is related to an artist; it 
 existed in his wisdom and will before its en¬ 
 trance into the world of manifold existence ; 
 in this sense, and only in this sense, is the 
 universal before the individual. Realized 
 with its accidents in matter, the genus con¬ 
 stitutes the natural thing, res naturalis, in 
 which the universal essence is immanent. 
 The third mode of the existence of the genus 
 is that which it has in being conceived by 
 the human intellect; when the latter abstracts 
 the form and then compares it again with the 
 individual objects to which by one and the 
 same definition it belongs, in this compa¬ 
 rison ( respectus ) is contained the universal 
 (Avic., Log., f. 12; Metaph., v. 1, 2, f. 87, in 
 Prantl, ii. p. 349). Our thought, which is 
 directed to things, contains nevertheless dis¬ 
 positions which are peculiar to itself; when 
 
 things are thought, there is added in thought 
 something which does not exist outside of 
 thought. Thus universality as such, the 
 generic concept and the specific difference, 
 the subject and predicate, and other similar 
 elements, belong only to thought. Now it is 
 possible to direct the attention, not merely to 
 things, but also to the dispositions which are 
 peculiar to thought, and this takes place in 
 logic {Metaph., i. 2; iii. 10, in Prantl, ii. p. 320 
 seq.). On this is based the distinction of 
 ‘ first ’ and ‘ second intentions.’ The direction 
 of attention to things is the first intention 
 {intentio prima) ; the second intention {in- 
 tentio secunda) is directed to the dispositions 
 which are peculiar to our thinking concern¬ 
 ing things. Since the universal as such be¬ 
 longs not to things, but to thought, it belongs 
 to the second intention. The principle of in¬ 
 dividual plurality, according to Avicenna, is 
 matter, which he regards, not with Alfarabi 
 as an emanation from the Cosmical Soul, but 
 with Aristotle as eternal and uncreated; all 
 potentiality is grounded in it, as actuality is 
 in God. Nothing changeable can come forth 
 directly from the unchangeable first cause. 
 His first and only direct- product is the intel- 
 Hgentia prima (the vov s of Plotinus, as with 
 Alfarabi); from it the chain of emanations 
 extends through the various celestial spheres 
 down to our earth. But the issuing of the 
 lower from the higher is to be conceived, not 
 as a single, temporal act, but as an eternal 
 act, in which cause and effect are synchro¬ 
 nous. The cause which gave to things their 
 existence must continually maintain them 
 in existence; it is an error to imagine that 
 things once brought into existence continue 
 therein of themselves. Notwithstanding its 
 dependence on God, the world has existed 
 from eternity. Time and motion always were 
 (Avic. Metaph., vi. 2, et al ; cf. the account in 
 the Tractatus de Erroribus, ap. Haure'au, Ph. 
 Sc., i. p. 368). Avicenna distinguishes a two¬ 
 fold development of our potential understand¬ 
 ing into actuality, the one common, depend¬ 
 ing on instruction, the other rare, and depen¬ 
 dent on immediate divine illumination. Ac¬ 
 cording to a report transmitted to us by 
 Averroes, Avicenna, in his Philosophia Orien- 
 talis, which has not come down to us, con¬ 
 tradicted his Aristotelian principles, and con¬ 
 ceived God as a heavenly body. 
 
 “ Algazel (Abu Hamed Mohammed Ibn 
 Achmed Al-Ghazzali), born a.d. 1059 at 
 Ghazzalah in Khorasan, taught first at Bag¬ 
 dad, and afterwards, having become a Sufi, 
 resided in Syria. He died a.d. 1111 at Tus. 
 He was a sceptic in philosophy, but only 
 that his faith might be all the stronger in 
 the doctrines of theology. His course in this 
 respect marked a reaction of the exclusively 
 religious principle of Mohammedanism against 
 philosophical speculation—which in spite of 
 all accommodation had not made itself fully 
 orthodox—and particularly against Aristote- 
 iianism; between the mysticism of the Neo- 
 Platonists, on the contrary, and the Sfifism 
 of Algazel, there existed an essential affinity. 
 In his Makacid al Jilasi/a (Maqdsidu ’l-Fald- 
 
456 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 sifah), ‘ The Aims of the Philosophers,’ Algazel 
 sets forth the doctrines of philosophy follow¬ 
 ing essentially Alfarahi and particularly Avi¬ 
 cenna. These doctrines are then subjected by 
 him to a hostile criticism in his Tehafot al 
 filasifa (Tahafutu ’1-FalasifaJi), ‘ Against the 
 Philosophers,’ while in his ‘ Fundamental 
 Principles of Faith,’ he presents positively 
 his own views. Averroes wrote by way of 
 rejoinder his Destructio Destructionis Philoso- 
 phorum. Algazel exerted himself especially 
 to excite a fear of the chastisements of God, 
 since in his opinion the men of his times were 
 living in too great assurance. Against the 
 philosophers he defended particularly the re¬ 
 ligious dogmas of the creation of the world 
 in time and out of nothing, the reality of the 
 divine attributes, and the resurrection of the 
 body, as also the power of God to work mi¬ 
 racles, in opposition to the supposed law of 
 cause and effect. In the Middle Ages, his 
 exposition of logic, metaphysics, and physics, 
 as given in the Makacid, was much read. 
 
 “ The result of the scepticism of Algazel 
 was in the East the triumph of an unphiloso- 
 phical orthodoxy ; after him there arose in that 
 quarter no philosopher worthy of mention. 
 On the other hand, the Arabian philosophy 
 began to flourish in Spain, where a succession 
 of thinkers cultivated its various branches. 
 
 “ Avempace (Abu Bekr Mohammed ben 
 Jahja Ibn Badja), born at Saragossa near 
 the end of the eleventh century, was cele¬ 
 brated as a physician, mathematician, astro¬ 
 nomer, and philosopher. About 1118 he 
 wrote, at Seville, a number of logical trea¬ 
 tises. At a later period he lived in Granada, 
 and afterwards also in Africa. He died at a 
 not very advanced age in 1138, without 
 having completed any extensive works ; yet 
 he wrote several smaller (mostly lost) trea¬ 
 tises, among which, according to Munk 
 (Melanges , p. 386), were Logical Tractates 
 (still existing, according to Casiri, Biblioth. 
 Arabico-Hisp. Escurialensis, i. p. 179, in the 
 library of the Escurial), a work on the soul, 
 another on the conduct of the solitary (regime 
 du solitaire'), also on the union of the universal 
 intellect with man, and a farewell letter; to 
 these may be added commentaries on the 
 Physics, Meteorology, and other works of 
 Aristotle relating to physical science. Munk 
 gives the substance of the ‘ Conduct of the 
 Solitary,’ as reported by a Jewish philoso¬ 
 pher of the fourteenth century, Moses of Nar- 
 bonne {Mel., pp. 389-409). This work treats 
 of the degrees by which the soul rises from 
 that instinctive life which it shares with the 
 lower animals, through gradual emancipation 
 from materiality and potentiality to the 
 acquired intellect {intellectus acquisitus) 
 which is an emanation from the active intel¬ 
 lect or Deity. Avempace seems (according 
 to Averroes, De Anima, fol. 168 a) to have 
 identified the intellectus materialis with the 
 imaginative faculty. In the highest grade 
 of knowledge (in self-consciousness) thought 
 is identical with its object. 
 
 “ Abubacer (Abu Bakr Mohammed ben 
 Abd ai Malic Ibn Tophail al Keisi) was born 
 
 in about the year 1100, at Wadi-Asch 
 (Guadix), in Andalusia, and died in 1185, in 
 Morocco. He was celebrated as a physician, 
 mathematician, philosopher, and poet, and 
 pursued still further the path of speculation 
 opened up by Ibn Badja. His chief work, 
 that has come down to us, is entitled 
 Haji Ibn Jakdhan {Haiyu bnu Yaqzan), 
 i.e. the Living One, the Son of the Waking 
 One. The fundamental idea is the same 
 as in Ibn Badja’s £ Conduct of the Solitary ’; 
 it is an exposition of the gradual deve¬ 
 lopment of the capacities of man to the 
 point where his intellect becomes one with 
 the Divine. But Ibn Tophail goes consider¬ 
 ably farther than his predecessor in main¬ 
 taining the independence of man in opposition 
 to the institutions and opinions of human 
 society. In his theory he represents the indi¬ 
 vidual as developing himself without external 
 aid. That independence of thought and will, 
 which man now owes to the whole course of 
 the previous history of the human race, is re¬ 
 garded by him as existing in the natural 
 man, out of whom he makes an extra histo¬ 
 rical ideal (like Rousseau in the eighteenth 
 century). Ibn Tophail regards positive reli¬ 
 gion, with its law founded on reward and 
 punishment, as only a necessary means of 
 discipline for the multitude; religious con¬ 
 ceptions are in his view only types or enve¬ 
 lopes of that truth to the logical comprehen¬ 
 sion of which the philosopher gradually 
 approaches. 
 
 “Averroes (Abul Walid Mohammed Ibn 
 Aehmed Ibn Roschd), born a.d. 1126, at Cor¬ 
 dova, where his grandfather and father filled 
 high judicial offices, studied first positive 
 theology and juris prudence, and then medi¬ 
 cine, mathematics, and philosophy. He ob¬ 
 tained subsequently the office of judge at 
 Seville, and afterwards at Cordova. He was 
 a junior contemporary and friend of Ibn Top¬ 
 hail, who presented him to Calif Abu Jacub 
 Jusuf, soon after the latter’s ascent of the 
 throne (1163), and recommended him, in place 
 of himself, for the work of preparing an 
 analysis of the works of Aristotle. Ibn 
 Roschd won the favour of this prince, who 
 was quite familiar with the problems of phi¬ 
 losophy, and at a later epoch he became his 
 physician in ordinary (1182). For a time 
 also he was in favour with a son of the prince, 
 Jacub Almansur, who succeeded to his 
 father’s rule in 1184, and he was still honoured 
 by him in 1195. But soon after this date he 
 was accused of cultivating the philosophy 
 and science of antiquity to the prejudice of 
 the Mohammedan religion, and was robbed by 
 Almansur of his dignities and banished to 
 Elisana (Lucena) near Cordova; he was 
 afterwai'ds tolerated in Morocco. A strict 
 prohibition was issued against the study of 
 Greek philosophy, and whatever works on 
 logic and metaphysics were discovered were 
 delivered to the flames. Averroes died in 
 1198, in his seventy-third year Soon after, 
 the rule of the Moors in Spain came to an 
 end. The Arabian philosophy was extin¬ 
 guished, and liberal culture sunk under the 
 
PHILOSOPHY 
 
 exclusive rule of the Koran and of dog¬ 
 matics. 
 
 “ Averroes shows for Aristotle the most 
 unconditional reverence, going in this respect 
 much farther than Avicenna; he considers 
 him, as the founders of religion are wont to 
 be considered, as the man whom alone, among 
 all men, God permitted to reach the highest 
 summit of perfection. Aristotle was, in his 
 opinion, the founder andperfecter of scientific 
 knowledge. In logic, Averroes everywhere 
 limits himself to merely annotating Aristotle. 
 The principle of Avicenna: intellectus in formis 
 agit universalitatem, is also his (Averr., DeAn., 
 i. 8., cfl Alb. M., De Prcedicab., ii. ch. 6). 
 Science treats not of universal things, but 
 of individuals under their universal aspect, 
 which the understanding recognises after 
 making abstraction of their common nature 
 (Destr. destr. fol. 17: Scientia autem non est 
 scientia rei universalis, sed est scientia parti- 
 cularium modo universal.!, quemfacit intellectus 
 in particularibus, quum abstrahit ab iisnaturani 
 unam communem, quae divisa est in materiis .) 
 The forms, which are developed through the in¬ 
 fluence of higher forms, and in the last resort 
 through the influence of Deity, are contained 
 embryonically in matter. 
 
 “ The most noticeable thing in his psycho¬ 
 logy is the explanation which he gives of the 
 Aristotelian distinction between the active 
 and the passive intellect (vovs TraOrjTLKOs and 
 TroLrjTtKOs). Thomas Aquinas, who opposes 
 the explanation, gives it in these words : Jn- 
 tellectum substantiam esse omnino ab anima sepa- 
 ratam, esseque unum in omnibus hominibus ;— 
 nec Deum facere posse quod sint plures intel¬ 
 lectus ; but, he says, Averroes added: per ra- 
 tionem concludo de necessitate quod intellectus 
 est unus numero,firmiter tamen teneo opposition 
 per fidem. In his commentary to the twelfth 
 book of the Metaphysics, Averroes compares 
 the relation of the active reason to man with 
 that of the sun to vision; as the sun, by its 
 light, brings about the act of seeing, so the 
 active reason enables us to know; hereby 
 the rational capacity in man is developed into 
 actual reason, which is one with the active 
 reason. Averroes attempts to recognise two 
 opinions, the one of which he ascribes to 
 Alexander of Aphrodisias, and the other to 
 Themistius and the other commentators. 
 Alexander, he says, had held the passive in¬ 
 tellect (vovs TraOrjTiKOs) to be a mere ‘ dis¬ 
 position’ connected with the animal faculties, 
 and, in order that it might be able perfectly 
 to receive all forms, absolutely formless ; this 
 disposition was in us, but the active intellect 
 (vovs ironqTLKof), was without us ; after our 
 death our individual intellects no longer 
 existed. Themistius, on the contrary, and 
 the other commentators, had regarded the 
 passive intellect not as a mere disposition 
 connected with the lower psychical powers, 
 but as inhering in the same substratum to 
 which the active intellect belonged ; this sub¬ 
 stratum, according to them, was distinct from 
 those animal powers of the soul which depend 
 on material organs, and as it was immaterial, 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 457 
 
 immoi'tality was to be predicated of the indi¬ 
 vidual intellect inhering in it. Averroes, on 
 the other hand, held that the passive intel¬ 
 lect (i 'ovs TraOrjTiKOS) was, indeed, more than 
 a mere disposition, and assumed (with The¬ 
 mistius and most of the other Commentators, 
 except Alexander) that the same substance 
 was passive and active intellect (namely, the 
 former in so far as it received forms, the 
 latter in so far as it constructed forms); but 
 he denied that the same substance in itself 
 and in its individual existence was both pas¬ 
 sive and active, assuming (with Alexander) 
 that there existed only one active intellect in 
 the world, and that man had only the ‘ dis¬ 
 position ’ in virtue of which he could be 
 affected by the active intellect; when the 
 active intellect came in contact with this 
 disposition there arose in us the passive 
 or material intellect, the one active intel¬ 
 lect becoming on its entrance into the 
 plurality of souls particularized in them, 
 just as light is decomposed into the diffe¬ 
 rent colom's in bodies. The passive intel¬ 
 lect was (according to Munk’s translation) : 
 
 ‘ Une chose composite de la disposition qui existe 
 en nous et d’un intellect qui se joint a cette dis¬ 
 position, et qui, en tant qu'il y est joint, est un 
 intellect predispose (en puissance) et non pas 
 un intellect en acte, mais qui est intellect en 
 acte en tant qu'il n'est plus joint a la disposi¬ 
 tion' (from the Commentaire moyen sur le traits 
 de l'Ante, in Munk’s M€l., p. 447) ; the active 
 intellect worked first upon the passive, so as 
 to develop it into actual and acquired intel¬ 
 lect, and then on this latter, which it absorbed 
 into itself, so that after our death it could be 
 said that our vovs, mind, continued to exist— 
 though not as an individual substance, but 
 only as an element of the universal mind. But 
 Averroes did not identify this universal mind 
 (as Alexander of Aphrodisias identified the 
 vons iroirjTiKO’j) with the Deity himself, 
 but conceived it (following in this the earlier 
 Arabian commentators and directly the Neo- 
 Platonists) as an emanation from the Deity, 
 and as the mover of the lowest of the celestial 
 circles, i.e. the sphere of the moon. This 
 doctrine was developed by Averroes, parti¬ 
 cularly in his commentaries on the De Anima, 
 whereas, in the Paraphrase (written earlier) 
 he had expressed himself in a more indivi¬ 
 dualistic sense (Averr., ap. Munk, Melanges, 
 p. 442 seq.). The psychological teaching of 
 Averroes resembled, therefore, in the cha¬ 
 racter of its definitions, that of Themistius, 
 but in its real content that of Alexander 
 Aphrodisiensis, since both Averroes and 
 Alexander limited the individual existence of 
 the human intellect (vovs) to the period pro- 
 ceding death, and recognized the eternity 
 only of the one universal active intellect 
 (vovs TrouqTLKOs). For this reason the doc¬ 
 trine of the Alexandrists and of the Aver- 
 roists were both condemned by the Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 “ Averroes professed himself in no sense 
 hostile to religion, least of all to Mohamme¬ 
 danism, which he regarded as the most perfect 
 
 58 
 
458 
 
 PHILOSOPHY 
 
 PLAGUES OP EGYPT 
 
 of all religions He demanded in the philo¬ 
 sopher a grateful adherence to the religion of 
 his people, the religion in which he was 
 educated. But by this ‘ adherence ’ he meant 
 only a skilful accommodation of his views 
 and life to the requirements of positive reli¬ 
 gion—a course which could not but fail to 
 satisfy the real defenders of the religious 
 principle. Averroes considered religion as 
 containing philosophical truth under the veil 
 of figurative representation; by allegorical 
 interpretation one might advance to purer 
 knowledge, while the masses held to the 
 literal sense. The highest grade of intelli¬ 
 gence was philosophical knowledge; the pecu¬ 
 liar religion of the philosopher consisted in 
 the deepening of his knowledge; for man 
 could offer to God no worthier cultus than 
 that of the knowledge of his works, through 
 which we attain to the knowlege of God him¬ 
 self in the fulness of His essence. (Averroes 
 in the larger Commentary on the Metaph ., ap. 
 Munk, Melanges, p. 455 seq.)" 
 
 Dr. Marcus Dods remarks that “inphiloso¬ 
 phy the attainments of the Arabians have 
 probably been overrated (see Lit. Hist, of 
 Middle Ages, by Berrington, p. 445) rather 
 than depreciated. As middle-men or trans¬ 
 mitters, indeed, their importance can scarcely 
 be too highly' estimated. They were keen 
 students of Aristotle when the very language 
 in which he wrote was unknown in Roman 
 Christendom: and the commentaries of Aver¬ 
 roes on the most exact of Greek philosophers 
 are said to be worthy of the text. It was at 
 the Mohammedan university in his native 
 city of Cordova, and from Arabian teachers, 
 that this precursor of Spinoza derived those 
 germs of thought whose fruit may be seen in 
 the whole history, of scholastic theology. 
 And just before Averroes entered these 
 learned halls, a young man passed from them, 
 equipped with the same learning, and gifted 
 with genius and penetration of judgment 
 which have made his opinions final wher¬ 
 ever the name of Memonides is known. Un¬ 
 doubtedly these two fellow-citizens—the 
 Mohammedan Arab and the Arabic-speak¬ 
 ing Jew—have left their mark deep on all 
 subsequent Jewish and Christian learning. 
 And even though it he doubted whether their 
 influence has been wholly beneficial, they may 
 well be claimed as instances of the intellec¬ 
 tual ardour which Mohammedan learning 
 could inspire or awaken. A recent writer of 
 great promise in the philosophy of religion 
 has assigned to the Arab thinkers the honour¬ 
 able function of creating modern philosophy. 
 1 Theology and philosophy became in the 
 hands of the Moors fused and blended ; the 
 Greek scientific theory as to the origin of 
 things interwound with the Hebrew faith in 
 a Creator. And so speculation became in a 
 new and higher sense theistic ; and the inter¬ 
 pretation of the universe, the explication of 
 God’s relation to it and its relation to God.’ 
 (Fail-bairn’s Studies, p. 398.) But specula¬ 
 tion had become theistic long before there 
 was an Arab philosophy. The same ques¬ 
 tions which form the staple of modern philo¬ 
 
 sophy were discussed at Alexandria three 
 centuries before Mohammed; and there is 
 scarcely a Christian thinker of the third or 
 fourth century who does not write in pre¬ 
 sence of the great problem of God’s connection 
 with the world, the relation of the Infinite to 
 the finite, of the unseen intangible Spirit to 
 the crass material universe. What we have 
 here to do with, however, is not to ascertain 
 whether modern philosophy be truly the off¬ 
 spring of the unexpected marriage of Aris¬ 
 totle and the Koran, but whether the religion 
 promulgated in the latter is or is not obstruc¬ 
 tive of intellectual effort and enlightenment. 
 And enough has been said to show that there 
 is nothing in the religion which necessarily 
 and directly tends to obstruct either philo¬ 
 sophy or science ; though when we consider 
 the history and achievements of that race 
 which has for six centuries been the leading 
 representative of Islam, we are inclined to 
 add that there is nothing in the religion which 
 necessarily leads on the mind to the highest 
 intellectual effort. Voltaire, in his own ner¬ 
 vous way, exclaims, ‘ 1 detest the Turks, as 
 the tyrants of their wives and the enemies of 
 the arts.’ And the religion has shown an 
 affinity for such uncivilised races. It has not 
 taken captive any race which possesses a rich 
 literature, nor has it given birth to any work 
 of which the world demands a translation ; and 
 precisely in so far as individuals have shown 
 themselves possessed of great speculative and 
 creative genius, have they departed from the 
 rigid orthodoxy of the Koran. We should 
 conclude, therefore, that the outburst of lite¬ 
 rary and scientific enthusiasm in the eighth 
 century was due, not directly to the influence 
 of the Mohammedan religion, but to the mental 
 awakening and exultant consciousness of 
 power and widened horizon that came to the 
 conquering Saracens. At first their newly- 
 awakened energy found scope in other fields 
 than that of philosophy. ‘ Marte undique ob- 
 strepenti, musis vix erat locus' But when the 
 din of war died down, the voice of the Muses 
 was heard, and the same fervour which had 
 made the Saracen arms irresistible, -was spent 
 now in the acquirement of knowledge.”— Mo¬ 
 hammed, Buddha, and Christ, p. 113.) 
 
 PICTURES. Muhammad cursed 
 
 the painter or drawer of men and animals 
 (Mishlcat, book xii, ch. i. pt. 1), and conse¬ 
 quently they are held to be unlawful. 
 
 PILGRIMAGES TO MAKKAH 
 
 are of two kinds : the Hajj or special pilgri¬ 
 mage performed in the month of Zu ’1-Hijjah, 
 and the ‘ Umrah, or visitation, which may be 
 performed at any time of the year, [hajj, 
 ‘umkah.] 
 
 PlR (;*?.). The Persian word for 
 an elder. A term used for a murshid, or 
 religious leader, [sufusji.] 
 
 PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The fol¬ 
 lowing references occur to the ten plagues of 
 Egypt in the Qur'an, 
 
PLAGtJES OP EGYPT 
 
 POETS 
 
 Surah viii. 127-135: “ Already had we 
 chastised the people of Pharaoh with dearth 
 and scarcity of fruits, that haply they might 
 take warning : and when good fell to their 
 lot they said, ‘ This is our due.’ But if ill 
 befell them, they regarded Moses and his par- 
 tizans as (the birds) of ill omen. Yet, was 
 not their evil omen from God ? But most of 
 them knew it not. And they said, ‘ What¬ 
 ever sign thou bring us for our enchantment, 
 we will not believe on thee. And we sent 
 upon them the flood and the locusts and the 
 qummal (lice) and the frogs and the blood, 
 —clear signs—but they behaved proudly, 
 and were a sinful people. And when any 
 plague fell upon them, they said, ‘ 0 Moses ! 
 pray for us to thy Lord, according to that 
 which he hath covenanted with thee: Truly 
 if thou take off the plague from us, we will 
 surely believe thee, and will surely send the 
 children of Israel with thee.’ But when we 
 had taken off the plague from them, and the 
 time which God had granted them had ex¬ 
 pired, behold 1 they broke their promise. 
 Therefore we took vengeance on them and 
 drowned them in the sea, because they treated 
 our signs as falsehoods and were heedless of 
 them. And we gave to the people who had 
 been brought so low, the eastern and the 
 western lands, which we had blessed as an 
 heritage : and the good word of thy Lord was 
 fulfilled on the children of Israel because 
 they had borne up with patience: and we 
 destroyed the works and the structures of 
 Pharaoh and his people: And we brought 
 the children of Israel across the sea, and they 
 came to a people who gave themselves up to 
 their idols. They said, ‘ 0 Moses ! make us 
 a god, as they have gods.’ He said, ‘ Verily, 
 ye are an ignorant people: for the worship 
 they practice will be destroyed, and that 
 which they do is vanity 1 ’ ” 
 
 In the Surah xvii. 103-104, they are re¬ 
 ferred to as “ nine clear signs,” which some 
 commentators understand to be the command¬ 
 ments of Moses. 
 
 “We heretofore gave to Moses nine clear 
 signs. Ask thou, therefore, the children of 
 Israel how it was when he came unto them, 
 and Pharaoh said to him, ‘Verily, I deem 
 thee, 0 Moses, a man enchanted.’ 
 
 “ Said Moses, ‘ Thou knowest that none 
 hath sent down these clear signs but the 
 Lord of the Heavens and of the Earth; and 
 I surely deem thee, 0 Pharaoh, a person 
 lost.’ ” 
 
 Mr. Sale, translating from the Jalalan and 
 al-Baizawi, says : “ These were, the chang¬ 
 ing his rod into a serpent, the making his 
 hand white and shining, the producing locusts, 
 lice, frogs, and blood, the dividing of the Red 
 Sea, the bringing water out of the rock, and 
 the shaking of Mount Sinai over the children 
 of Israel. In lieu of the three last, some reckon 
 the inundation of the Nile, the blasting of 
 the corn and scarcity of the fruits of the 
 earth. These words, however, are interpreted 
 by others not of nine miracles, but of nine 
 commandments, which Moses gave his people, 
 and were thus numbered up by Muhammad 
 
 450 
 
 himself to a Jew, who asked him the ques¬ 
 tion, viz. That they should not be guilty of 
 idolatry, nor steal, nor commit adultery or 
 murder, nor practise sorcery or usury, nor 
 accuse an innocent man to take away his life, 
 or a modest woman of whoredom, nor desert 
 the army, to which he added the observing of 
 the Sabbath as a tenth commandment, but 
 which peculiarly regarded the Jews, upon 
 which answer, it is said, the Jew kissed the 
 Prophet’s hand and feet.” 
 
 PLANETS. Arabic as-sayyclrah 
 (SjL^P). According to Arabic writers, 
 there are seven planets, called an-Najumu ’s- 
 Sayydrat fjj-.Al), or, collectively, 
 
 as-Sayyarah, the wandering stars, as distin¬ 
 guished from fixed stars, or an-Najumu ’§- 
 sawabit These planets 
 
 are said to be situated in the seven firma¬ 
 ments in the following order: (1 ) Al-Qamar, 
 Moon; (2) ‘ Utarid, Mercury; (3) Zuhrah , 
 Venus; (4) ash-Shams, Sun; (51 al-Mirrikh . 
 Mars ; (6) al-Mushtari, Jupiter; (7) Zuhal, 
 Saturn. ( Vide Kashshaf-i-Istilahat, in loco.) 
 
 It will be seen that the Arabian arrange¬ 
 ment of the planets is that of Ptolemy, who 
 placed the earth in the centre of the universe, 
 and nearest to ft the moon, whose synodic 
 revolution is the shortest of all, being per¬ 
 formed in 29^ days. Next to the moon he 
 placed Mercury, who returns to his conjunc¬ 
 tions in 116 days. After Mercury followed 
 Venus, whose periodic time is 584 days. 
 Beyond Venus he placed the Sun, then Mars, 
 next Jupiter, and lastly Saturn, beyond which 
 are the fixed stars. 
 
 PLUNDER. Arabic ahanlmah 
 fay’ (o^i). If the Imam, or 
 leader of the Muslim army, conquer a country 
 by force of arms, he is at liberty to leave 
 the land in possession of the original proprie¬ 
 tors, provided they pay tribute, or he may 
 divide it amongst the Muslims; but with 
 regard to movable property, it is unlawful 
 for him to leave it in possession of the infi¬ 
 dels, but he must bring it away with the 
 army and divide it amongst the soldiers. 
 Four-fifths of the spoils belong to the troops, 
 and the remaining one-fifth must be divided 
 into three equal portions for the relief of 
 orphans, the feeding of the poor, and the en¬ 
 tertainment of travellers. Captives form part 
 of the plunder. All cattle and baggage which 
 cannot be carried away upon a retreat, must 
 be destroyed. ( Hidayah , vol. ii. p. 159; Mishkdt, 
 book xvii. ch. viii. pt. 1.) 
 
 POETS. Arabic shd‘ir (yA&), pi. 
 shu‘arcl’. Poetry, shi‘r Mu¬ 
 
 hammad repudiated the idea of being a poet. 
 See Qur’an. 
 
 Surah xxxvi. 69: “We have not taught 
 him poetry, nor was it proper for him ; it is 
 but a reminder and a plain Qur’an.” 
 
 Surah Ixix. 40, 41: “ Verily it is the speech 
 of a noble apostle ; and it is not the speech 
 of a poet.” 
 
 The Qur’an being in manifest rhythm, and 
 
460 
 
 POETS 
 
 POETS 
 
 in some places actual poetry, the declaration 
 of the Prophet, that he was not a poet has 
 much perplexed the commentators But the 
 Imam Fakhru ’d Din ar-Razi, has hit upon 
 the following clever explanation of the dif¬ 
 ficulty. He says, that in order to be a poet 
 it is absolutely necessary that the poems 
 should not be impromptu verses, but delibe¬ 
 rately framed, and that, therefore, although 
 the Qur’an contains poetry (for example, in 
 Surah xciv., which begins thus :— 
 
 csljA* mil 
 
 Alam nashrah, laka sadraka 
 T Va wazafna ‘anka ivizraka. 
 
 “ Have we not opened thy breast for thee ? 
 
 And taken off from thee thy burden ? ” ) 
 
 it is not really poetry, because the writer did 
 not deliberately intend to produce the 
 rhythm! 
 
 The same excuse is urged for the lines 
 which Muhammad is related to have uttered 
 impromptu when his toe was wounded in 
 battle :— 
 
 Jib 
 
 Hal anti ilia isba‘un damiti ? 
 
 Wa Ji sabili ’Haiti md laqiti. 
 
 " Art thou anything but a toe covered with 
 blood ? 
 
 “ What has happened to thee has been in 
 the road of God.” 
 
 Arabic scholars (see Kashfu Is fildhdti 7- 
 Funitn, in loco ) divide the Arabic poets into 
 six periods :— 
 
 (1) Al-Jahiliyun, those in the time of igno¬ 
 rance, or before Islam, such as the ancient 
 Arabic poets Zuhair, Tarafah, Imru ’1-Qais, 
 ‘Amr ibn Kulsum, al-Haris, and ‘Antarah. 
 
 (2) Al-Mukhzaramun (lit. “spurious”), 
 those born in the time of ignorance, but who 
 embraced Islam, as Labjd and Hassan, ■whose 
 names occur in the traditions. 
 
 (3) Al-Mutaqaddimiin (lit. “ first ”), those 
 who were born in the time of Islam, of parents 
 who were converts to Islam, as Jarir and 
 Farazdaq. 
 
 (4) Al-MuwaUadun, those who were born 
 of true-born Muslims, as Bashar. 
 
 (5) Al-Muhdisfin, the third generation of 
 Muslim poets, as Abu Tammam, and Bukhtari. 
 
 (6) Al-Mutaia khkh irun (lit. “the last”), all 
 succeeding poets. 
 
 The Mutaqaddimum, the Muwatladun, and 
 the Muhdisun, correspond with the Ashdb, the 
 Tdbi‘un, and the Tali ‘Tabi‘iin , or the three 
 first generations of Muslims. 
 
 There are seven poems of ancient Arabia, 
 who are known in history as the Mu‘allaqat, 
 or “ suspended,” because they had been in 
 turn suspended on the walls of the Makkan 
 temple. They are also known as Muzahhabat, 
 or the “ golden ” poems, because they were 
 written in gold. The names of their authors 
 are Zuhair, Tarafah, Imru ’1-Qais, ‘Amru ibn 
 Kulsum, al-Haris, ‘Antarah, and Labld. The 
 
 last of the seven embraced Islam. It is re¬ 
 lated that Labld had posted up in the Ka‘bah 
 his poem, beginning:— 
 
 JLB %s, U 
 
 Ala kulla shalin ma lchala ’llalia batilu. 
 
 “ Know that everything is vanity but God.” 
 
 But that when he saw the first verses of 
 the Suratir T-Baqarah (ii.) of the Qur’an 
 posted up, he withdrew his verses and em¬ 
 braced Islam. Muhammad repaid Labld with 
 the compliment that the words, “ Know that 
 everything is vanity but God,” were the truest 
 words ever uttered by a poet. (Mishkat, book 
 xxii. ch. x.) 
 
 In the earlier part of his mission, Muham¬ 
 mad affected to despise the poets, and in the 
 Qur’an we find him saying (Surah xxvi. 224), 
 “ Those who go astray follow the poets ”; 
 and in the Traditions, Mishkat, book xxii 
 ch. x. : “A belly full of purulent matter is 
 better than a belly full of poetry.” But 
 when Labld and Hassan embraced Islam, the 
 poets rise into favour, and the Prophet utters 
 the wise but cautious saying, that “ poetry is a 
 kind of composition, which if it is good it is 
 good, and if it is bad it is bad.” In the battle 
 with the Banu Quraizah,the Prophet called out 
 to Hassan the poet, “ Abuse the infidels in your 
 verse, for truly the Holy Spirit (in the Hadis 
 it is Gabriel) will help you.” It is also re¬ 
 lated that the Prophet used to say, “ 0 Lord ! 
 help Hassan the poet by the Holy Spirit (or 
 Gabriel).” 
 
 It is generally admitted by Arabic scholars 
 that the golden age of Arabic poetry was that 
 immediately preceding or contemporaneous 
 with Muhammad, and that from the time of 
 Muhammad there was a gradual decline. This 
 is not surprising,inasmuch as the Qur’an is con¬ 
 sidered the most perfect model of composi¬ 
 tion ever revealed to mankind, and to be 
 written in the language of Paradise. 
 
 Baron MacGuckin de Slane, in his Introduc¬ 
 tion to Ibn Khallikan’s Dictionary, says 
 
 “ The oldest monuments of Arabic litera¬ 
 ture which we still possess were composed 
 within the century which preceded the birth 
 of Muhammad. They consist in short pieces 
 of verse uttered on the spur of the moment, 
 narrations of combats between hostile tribes, 
 passages in rhythmical prose and kasidas 
 (qasidahs), or elegies. The study of these 
 remains reveals the existence of a language 
 perfect in its form and application, admirably 
 suited to express the various ideas which the 
 aspect of nature could suggest to a pastoral 
 people, and as equally adapted to portray the 
 fiercer passions of the mind. The variety of 
 its inflections, the regularity of its syntax, 
 and the harmony of its prosody, are not less 
 striking, and they furnish in themselves a 
 sufficient proof of the high degree of culture 
 which the language of the Arabic nation had 
 already attained. The superior merit of this 
 early literature was ever afterwards acknow¬ 
 ledged by the Arabs themselves. It furnished 
 them not only with models, but ideas for 
 their poetical productions, and its influence 
 
POETS 
 
 POETS 
 
 461 
 
 has always continued perceptible in the Ka- 
 sida, which still contains the same thoughts, 
 the same allusions as of old, and drags its slow 
 length along in monotonous dignity. . .. (p. xv.) 
 
 “ The decline of Arabic poetry can be 
 easily traced down from the accession of the 
 Abbasides to the time of the Aiyubites: for 
 many centuries the patrons of the belles- 
 lettres were of foreign extraction, and writers 
 who sought their favour were obliged to con¬ 
 form their own judgment to that of persons 
 who were in general unable to appreciate the 
 true beauties of literary compositions. Works 
 which had obtained the patronage of the 
 prince could not fail to fix the attention of 
 other poets, who took them as models which 
 they strove to imitate and to surpass. The 
 opinion held in the schools that the ancient 
 kasidas were masterpieces of art, contributed 
 also to the perversion of good taste, their 
 plan and ideas were servilely copied, and it 
 was by refinement of expression alone that 
 writers could display their talent; verbal 
 quibbles, far-fetched allusions, thoughts bor¬ 
 rowed from the old writers, and strained so 
 as to be hardly recognisable, such were the 
 means by which they strove to attain origi¬ 
 nality ; sense was sacrificed to sound, the 
 most discordant ideas were linked together 
 for the futile advantage of obtaining a re¬ 
 currence of words having a similar written 
 form or a similar pronunciation ; poets wrote 
 for the ear and the eye, not for the mind, and 
 yet the high estimation in which their pro¬ 
 ductions were held may be judged from the 
 readiness of Ibn Khallikan to quote them. 
 His taste was that of the age in which he 
 lived, and the extracts which he gives enable 
 the reader to form an idea of the Arab mind 
 at the period of the Crusades. The same 
 feeling of impartiality which induces me to 
 express so severe a censure on the generality 
 of the Islamic poets, obliges me also to make 
 some exceptions. The kasidas of al-Muta- 
 nabbi are full of fire, daring originality, and 
 depth of thought; he often reaches the sub¬ 
 lime, and his style, though blemished by occa¬ 
 sional faults, is very fine; al-Bohtori is re¬ 
 markable for grace and elegance ; Abfi-l-Ala 
 for dignity and beauty; but Ibn-al-Farid 
 seems superior to them all, his pieces teem 
 with sentiment and poetry, in his mystic reve¬ 
 ries he soars towards the confines of another 
 world pervaded with spiritual beauty, and 
 glides with the reader from one enchanting 
 scene to another; the judgment is captivated 
 by the genius of the poet, and can hardly 
 perceive the traits of false taste which dis¬ 
 figure, from time to time, his admirable style. 
 Having pointed out the influence of the ka- 
 sida, or elegy, it may not be amiss to sketch 
 the plan generally followed in this species of 
 composition. The poet, accompanied by two 
 friends, approaches, after a long journey 
 through the desert, to the place where he saw 
 his mistress the year before, and where he 
 hopes to meet her again. At his request, 
 they direct the camels on which they are 
 mounted towards the spot, but the ruins of 
 the rustic dwellings, the withered moss, 
 
 brushwood, and branches of trees, with which 
 were formed the frail abodes where the tribe 
 had passed the summer, the hearthstones 
 blackened by the fire, the solitary raven 
 hovering around in search of a scanty nourish¬ 
 ment, every object he perceives strikes him 
 with the conviction that his beloved and her 
 family have removed to some other region 
 in the desert. Overcome with grief, heedless 
 of the consolations of his friends, who exhort 
 him to be firm, he long remains plunged in 
 silent affliction ; at length he finds relief in a 
 torrent of tears, and, raising up his head, he 
 extemporizes a mournful elegy. He com¬ 
 mences by mentioning the places which he 
 had already visited in hopes of finding her 
 whom he loved, and calls to mind the dangers 
 which he had encountered in the desert. He 
 describes the camel which, though fatigued, 
 still full of ardour, had borne him into the 
 depths of the wilderness, he vaunts his own 
 courage and extols the glory of his tribe. An 
 adventure which happened on the previous 
 night then comes to his memory: a fire blaz¬ 
 ing on a lofty hill, had attracted their atten¬ 
 tion and guided them to the tent of a gene¬ 
 rous Arab, where they found shelter and 
 hospitality. He then praises the charms of 
 his mistress, and complains of the pains of 
 love and absence, whilst his companions hurry 
 him away. He casts a parting look towards 
 the place where she had resided, and lo 1 a 
 dark cloud, fringed with rain, and rent with 
 lightnings, overhangs the spot. This sight 
 fills his heart with joy 1 an abundant shower 
 is about to shed new life upon the parched 
 soil, and thus ensure a rich herbage for the 
 flocks ; the family of his beloved will then 
 soon return, and settle again in their former 
 habitation. 
 
 “ Such may be considered as the outline of 
 the pastoral kasida. In these productions 
 the same ideas almost constantly recur, 
 and the same words frequently serve to ex¬ 
 press them. The eulogistic kasida, or poem 
 in praise of some great man, assumes also 
 the same form, with the sole difference that 
 in place of a mistress it is a generous patron 
 whom the poet goes to visit, or else, after 
 praising the object of his passion, he cele¬ 
 brates the noble qualities of the man who is 
 always ready, with abundant gifts, to bestow 
 consolation on the afflicted lover. 
 
 “ It results from this that a person familiar 
 with the mode of composition followed in the 
 kasida, can often, from a single word in a 
 verse, perceive the drift of the poet, and dis¬ 
 cover, almost intuitively, the thoughts which 
 are to follow. He has thus a means of deter¬ 
 mining the true readings amidst the mass of 
 errors with which copyists usually disfigure 
 Arabic poetry knowing what the poet intends 
 to say, he feels no longer any difficulty in 
 disengaging the author’s words from the 
 faults of a corrupted text. The same pecu¬ 
 liarity is frequently perceptible in pieces of a 
 few verses ; these generally reproduce some 
 of the ideas contained in the kasida, and for 
 this reason they are justly styled fragments 
 by Arabic writers. 
 
462 
 
 POETS 
 
 POLYGAMY 
 
 “ There exist, also, some compositions of an 
 original form : such are the dubait, or distich, 
 and the mawalia, both borrowed from the 
 Persians, and the muwashshaha, invented in 
 Spain by Ibn Abd Rabbih. Pieces of this 
 kind became general favourites by the novelty 
 of their form and matter; the mawalia was 
 adopted by the dervishes, and the muwash¬ 
 shaha was cultivated with passion and at¬ 
 tained its perfection in Andalusia, whence it 
 was transported to the East. It cannot be 
 denied that the Moorish poets, with all their 
 extravagance of thought and expression, were 
 far superior in their perception of the beau¬ 
 ties of nature and the delicacies of sentiment, 
 to their brethren of the East, and the Euro¬ 
 pean reader will often discover in their jDoems, 
 with some surprise, the same ideas, meta¬ 
 phors, and systems of versification, which 
 characterise the works of the troubadours and 
 the early Italian poets. 
 
 “ An idea borrowed from the ante-Islamic 
 poets, and of frequent recurrence in the kasi- 
 das of later authors, is the taif al-khidl(tSifu 
 ’l-khiyal ), or phantom. The lover j ourneys with 
 a caravan through the desert; for many nights 
 his grief at being separated from his beloved 
 prevents him from sleeping, but at length he 
 yields to fatigue and closes his eyes. A phantom 
 then approaches towards him, unseen by all 
 but himself, and in it he recognises the image 
 of his mistress, come to visit and console him. 
 It was sent to him by the beloved, or rather 
 it is herself in spirit, who has crossed the 
 dreary waste and fleeted towards his couch; 
 she, too, had slept, but it was to go and see 
 her lover in her dreams. They thus meet 
 in spite of the foes and spies who always 
 surround the poet, ready to betray him if he 
 obtain an interview with the beloved, and 
 who are so jealous, that they hinder him from 
 sleeping, lest he should see her image in his 
 dream ; it is only when they slumber that he 
 dare close his eyes. 
 
 “ The figurative language of the Muslim 
 poets is often difficult to be understood. The 
 narcissus is the eye ; the feeble stem of that 
 plant bends languidly under its flower, and 
 thus recalls to mind the languor of the eyes. 
 Pearls signify both tears and teeth, the latter 
 are sometimes called hailstones, from then- 
 whiteness and moisture; the lips are corne¬ 
 lians or rubies; the gums a pomegranate 
 flower; the dark foliage of the myrtle is 
 synonymous with the black hair of the be¬ 
 loved, or with the first down which appears 
 on the cheeks of youths at the period of 
 puberty. The down itself is called the izar 
 or head-stall of the bridle, and the curve of 
 the izar is compared to the letters lam and 
 nun. Ringlets trace on the cheek or neck the 
 letter waw ; they are also called scorpions, 
 either for their dark colour or their agitated 
 movements ; the eye is a sword; the eyelids, 
 scabbards; the whiteness of the complexion, 
 camphor ; and a mole or beauty-spot, musk, 
 which term denotes also dark hair. A mole 
 is sometimes compared also to an ant creep¬ 
 ing on the cheek towards the honey of the 
 mouth ; a handsome face is both a full-moon ! 
 
 and day ; black hair is night; the waist is a 
 willow-branch, or a lance ; the water of the 
 face is self-respect; a poet sells the water of 
 his face when he bestows mercenary praises 
 on a rich patron devoid of every noble 
 quality. 
 
 “ Some of the verses in Arabic poetry (as 
 in ail Eastern poetry) are of a nature such as 
 precludes translation. Had they been com¬ 
 posed by a female on a youth whom she 
 loved, they would seldom offer anything ob¬ 
 jectionable ; but as the case is not so, they 
 are utterly repugnant to European readers. 
 It must not, however, be supposed that they 
 are always the produce of a degraded pas¬ 
 sion ; in many cases they were the usual ex¬ 
 pression of simple friendship and affection, or 
 of those platonic attachments which the 
 translated works of some Greek philosophers 
 first taught the Moslims. Indeed, love and 
 friendship are so closely confounded by them, 
 that they designate both feelings by the same 
 word, and it is not uncommon to meet epis¬ 
 tles addressed by one aged doctor to another, 
 and containing sentiments of the strongest 
 kind, but which are the expression of friend¬ 
 ship only. It often happens, also, that a poet 
 describes his mistress under the attributes of 
 the other sex, lest he should offend that ex¬ 
 cessive prudery of Oriental feelings which, 
 since the fourth century of Islamism, scarcely 
 allows an allusion to women, and more parti¬ 
 cularly in poetry, and this rigidness is still 
 carried so far, that at Cairo public singers 
 dare not amuse their- auditors with a song in 
 which the beloved is indicated as a female. 
 Some of those pieces have also a mystic im¬ 
 port, as the commentators of Hafiz, Saadi, 
 and Shebisteri, have not failed to observe.” 
 {lb., p. xxxiii. et seq .) 
 
 POLL-TAX. [jizyah.] 
 
 POLYGAMY. In Muhammadan¬ 
 ism, polygamy has the express sanction of the 
 Qur’an, and is, therefore, held to be a divine 
 institution. Vide Suratu ’n-Nisa’, or Chapter 
 iv. 3 :— 
 
 “ But if ye cannot do justice between or- 
 pihans, then many what seems good to you of 
 women, by twos, or threes, or fours : and if 
 ye fear that ye cannot be equitable, then only 
 one, or what your right hand jrossesses ” {i.e 
 female slaves). 
 
 Compare this with the teaching of the Tal¬ 
 mud :— 
 
 “ A man may marry many wives, for Rabba 
 saith it is lawful to do so, if he can provide 
 for them. Nevertheless, the wise men have 
 given good advice, that a man should not 
 marry more than four wives.” (Arbah. 
 Txirim. Ev. Hazaer, 1.) 
 
 But although permission to indulge in po¬ 
 lygamy is clear and unmistakable, the 
 opening verse of the Surah from which the 
 above is taken, seems to imply some slight 
 leaning to monogamy as the highest form of 
 married life, for it reads thus :— 
 
 “ 0 ye men ! fear your Lord, who created 
 you from one soul, and created therefrom its 
 
POLYGAMY 
 
 POLYGAMY 
 
 463 
 
 mate, and diffused from them twain nume¬ 
 rous men and women.” 
 
 In the Ain-i-Akbari, it is related that a 
 certain Mujtahid, or enlightened doctor, mar¬ 
 ried eighteen wives, for he rendered the 
 Arabic word mama, “ double,” and read the 
 text already quoted, “ Marry whatever women 
 you like two and two, three and three, and 
 four and four.” And in the same work it is 
 said that another learned Maulawi married 
 eight wives, because he read the verse—-“two 
 + three + four = nine ” 1 
 
 Al-Baizawl, the Jalalan, and other Sunni 
 commentators, are all agreed that the true 
 reading of the verse limits the number of 
 lawful wives to four. The Shi‘ahs also hold 
 the same opinion, but they sanction Mut‘ah, or 
 “ temporary marriages.” [md'TAH.] 
 
 In the face of the united testimony of Islam 
 founded upon the express injunctions of the 
 Qur’an, Syed Ameer Ali has the audacity to 
 state in his Critical Examination of the Life 
 and Teachings of Muhammad, p. 223, that “ the 
 greatest and most reprehensible mistake com¬ 
 mitted by Christian writers, is to suppose that 
 Muhammad either adopted or legalised poly¬ 
 gamy. The old idea of his having introduced 
 it—a sign only of the ignorance of those 
 who hold it—is by this time exploded, but 
 the opinion that he adopted and legalised the 
 custom is still maintained by the common 
 masses as bj r many learned in Christendom. 
 No belief can be more false”! 
 
 In his more recent work on the Personal 
 Law of the Muhammadans, the same writer 
 remarks:— 
 
 “ Muhammad restrained polygamy by limit¬ 
 ing the maximum number of contempora¬ 
 neous marriages, and by making absolute 
 equity towards all obligatory on the man. It 
 is worthy of note that the clause in the 
 Quran, which contains the permission to con¬ 
 tract foui' contemporaneous marriages is im¬ 
 mediately followed by a sentence which cuts 
 down the significance of the preceding pas¬ 
 sage to its normal and legitimate dimensions. 
 The former passage says, ‘ You may marry 
 two, three, or four wives, but not more. The 
 subsequent lines declare, ‘ but if you cannot 
 deal equitably and justly with all you shall 
 marry only one.’ The extreme importance of 
 this proviso, bearing especially in mind the 
 meaning which is attached to the word 
 ‘equity’ Qadf) in the Quranic teachings, has 
 not been lost sight of by the great thinkers 
 of the Moslem world. Even so early as the 
 third century of the era of the Hijra during 
 the reign of al-Mamfin, the first Motazalite 
 doctors taught that the developed Quranic 
 laws inculcated monogamy. And though the 
 cruel persecutions of the mad bigot, Mutaw- 
 wakil, prevented the general diffusion of their 
 teachings, the conviction is gradually forcing 
 itself on all sides, in all advanced Moslem 
 communities, that polygamy is as much op¬ 
 posed to the Islamic laws as it is to the 
 general progress of civilised society and true 
 culture. In India especially, this idea is be¬ 
 coming a strong moral, if not a religious con¬ 
 viction, and many extraneous circumstances 
 
 in combination with this growing feeling are 
 tending to root out the existence of polygamy 
 from among the Mussulmans. A custom has 
 grown up in that country, which is largely 
 followed by all classes of the community, of 
 drawing up a marriage deed containing a for¬ 
 mal renunciation, on the part of the future 
 husband, of any right or semblance of right 
 which he might possess or claim to possess 
 to contract a second marriage during the 
 existence of the first. This custom serves as 
 a most efficacious check upon the growth and 
 the perpetuation of the institution of poly¬ 
 gamy. In India more than ninety-five per 
 cent, of Muhammadans are at the present 
 moment, either by conviction or necessity, 
 monogamists. Among the educated classes, 
 versed in the history of their ancestors, and 
 able to compare it with the records of other 
 nations, the custom is regarded with disappro¬ 
 bation, amounting almost to disgust. In 
 Persia, according to Colonel Macgregor’s 
 statement, only two per cent, of the popula¬ 
 tion enjoy the questionable luxury of plura¬ 
 lity of wives. It is earnestly to be hoped 
 that before long a general synod of Moslem 
 doctors will authoritatively declare that poly¬ 
 gamy, like slavery, is abhorrent to the laws 
 of Islam.” ( Personal Law of the Muhamma¬ 
 dans, p. 28.) 
 
 Syud Ahmad Khan Bahadur, in his essay, 
 Whether Ls/am has been beneficial or inju¬ 
 rious to Society in general, on the contrary, 
 defends the institution of polygamy as divine, 
 and quotes John Milton, Mr. Davenport, and 
 Mr. Higgins, as Christian writers who defended 
 the practice. 
 
 The Prophet claimed considerable indul¬ 
 gence for himself in the matter, and married 
 eleven wives, [wives of the prophet.] 
 
 The views of Dr. Marcus Dods in his Mo¬ 
 hammed, Buddha, and Christ (p. 55), give an 
 able and interesting summary of the sub¬ 
 ject :— 
 
 “ The defence of polygamy has been under¬ 
 taken from various points of view, and with 
 varying degrees of insight and of earnestness. 
 But one cannot detect much progress among 
 its defenders. F. W. Newman has nothing to 
 say in its favour which had not previously 
 been suggested by Voltaire ; nothing, we may 
 say, which does not occur to anyone who 
 wishes to present the argument for a plura¬ 
 lity of wives. It is somewhat late in the day 
 to be called upon to argue for monogamy as 
 abstractly right. Speculators like Aristotle 
 (Econ. i. 2, 8), who have viewed the subject 
 both as statesmen having a regard to what is 
 practicable and will conduce to social pros¬ 
 perity, and as philosophers reasoning from 
 first principles, have long ago demanded for 
 their ideal society, not only monogamy, but 
 also that mutual respect and love, and that 
 strict purity and modesty, which polygamy 
 kills. Let us say briefly that the only ground 
 conscience recognises as warranting two per¬ 
 sons to become one in flesh is that they be, 
 first of all, one in spirit. That absolute sur¬ 
 render of the person which constitutes mar¬ 
 riage is justified only by the circumstances 
 
464 
 
 POLYGAMY 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 that it is a surrender of the heart as well, and 
 that it is mutual. To an ideal love, poly¬ 
 gamy is abhorrent and impossible. As Mo¬ 
 hammed himself, in another connection, and 
 with more than his usual profundity, said, 
 4 God has not put two hearts in you.’ This is 
 the grand law imbedded in our nature, and by 
 which it is secured that the children born 
 into the world be the fruit of the devoted sur¬ 
 render of one human spirit to another; by 
 which, in other words, it is secured that love, 
 the root principle of all human virtue and 
 duty, be transmitted to the child and born in 
 it. This is the beneficent law expressed in 
 monogamy, and this law is traversed and 
 robbed of its effects precisely in so far as 
 even monogamous marriages are prompted 
 by fleshly or worldly rather than by spiritual 
 motives. The utilitarian argument Mr. 
 Lecky (Hist. European Morals, vol. ii. p. 295) 
 has summed up in three sentences : 4 Nature, 
 by making the number of males and females 
 nearly equal, indicates it as natural. In no 
 other form of marriage can the government 
 of the family, which is one of the chief ends 
 of marriage, be so happily sustained; and in 
 no other does the woman assume the position 
 of the equal of man.’ But we have here 
 to do only with Mohammedan apologists, and 
 their reasonings are somewhat perplexing; 
 for they first maintain that nature intended 
 us to be polygamists (see Syud Ahmadis 
 Essay, p. 8; Syud Ameer Ali’s Grit. Exam., 
 p. 225), and then, secondly, declare that the 
 greatest and most reprehensible mistake com¬ 
 mitted by Christian writers is to suppose that 
 Mohammed either adopted or legalised 
 polygamy.” Probably the most that can 
 be said for Mohammed in regard to this 
 matter, is that he restricted polygamy, and 
 that its abolition was imjiossible and unsuit¬ 
 able to the population he had to do with. 
 
 “ The allegation, however, that Mohammed 
 confined polygamy within narrower limits 
 than the Arabs had previously recognised, 
 though true, is immaterial. For, in the first 
 place, he restricted polygamy indeed in 
 others, but not in his own case; and thus 
 left upon the minds of his followers the ine¬ 
 vitable impression that an unrestricted poly¬ 
 gamy was the higher state of the two. 
 
 “ In the second place, while he restricted 
 the number of lawful wives, he did not re¬ 
 strict the number of slave-concubines. In 
 the third place, his restriction was practically 
 of little value, because very few men could 
 afford to keep more than four wives. And, 
 lastly, as to the principle, he left it precisely 
 where it was, for as Mr. Freeman justly ob¬ 
 serves (Lectures, p. 69) : 4 This is one of 
 the cases in which the first step is everything. 
 The difference between one wife and two is 
 everything ; that between four and five thou¬ 
 sand is comparatively nothing.’ 
 
 44 And if the principle be defended as at 
 least relatively good, nothing is to be urged 
 against this as matter of fact; although the 
 circumstance has been overlooked, that al¬ 
 ready very many thousands of Christian Arabs 
 had found it quite possible to five in mono¬ 
 
 gamy. But that polygamy is not incom¬ 
 patible with f a sound, if not perfectly deve¬ 
 loped, morality, and with the highest tone of 
 feeling, no one who has read the history of 
 Israel will be disposed to deny. That it may 
 suit a race in a certain stage of its develop¬ 
 ment, and may in that stage lead to purer 
 living and surer moral growth than its pro¬ 
 hibition would, may be granted. But neces¬ 
 sarily the religion which incorporates in its 
 code of morals such allowances, stamps itself 
 as something short of the" final religion.” 
 
 [marriage, mut‘ah, wives, women.] 
 
 POTIPHAR. Arabic Qitfir (^aLj>), 
 or It fir (^AiU). The treasurer of 
 Egypt in the time of Joseph, and the husband 
 of Zulaikhah. [josepii.] 
 
 PRAYER. Arabic salat (i>yL=), pi. 
 salawdt. Persian namaz (jU»), pi. 
 
 namazhd. 
 
 Prayer is the second of the five founda¬ 
 tions, or pillars, of pratical religion in Islam, 
 and is a devotional exercise which every 
 Muslim is required to render to God at least 
 five times a day, namely, at the eai'ly morn¬ 
 ing, midday, afternoon, evening, and night. 
 
 The general duty of prayer is frequently 
 enjoined in the Qur’an, but it is remarkable 
 that in no single passage are the five periods 
 mentioned. 
 
 See Suratu ’r-Rum (xxx.), 17: 44 Glorify 
 God when it is evening (mass') and at morn¬ 
 ing (subh ),—and to Him be praise in the 
 heavens and the earth,—and at afternoon 
 (‘as/ii), and at noon-tide (zuhr).” (But all 
 commentators are agreed that masS includes 
 both sunset and after sunset; and, therefore, 
 both the Maghrib and ‘Ashiyah prayers.) 
 
 Surah xi. 116: 44 Observe prayer at early 
 morning, at the close of the day, and at the 
 approach of night; for the good deeds drive 
 away the evil deeds.” 
 
 Surah xx. 130 : 44 Put up then with what 
 they say; and celebrate the praise of thy 
 Lord before the sunrise, and before its set¬ 
 ting ; and some time in the night do thou 
 praise Him, and in the extremes of the day, 
 that thou haply mayest please Him.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 80 : 44 Observe prayer at sun¬ 
 set, till the first darkening of the night, and 
 the daybreak reading—for the daybreak 
 reading hath its w’itnesses, and watch unto 
 it in the night: this shall be an excess in 
 service.” 
 
 Surah ii. 42: 44 Seek aid with patience and 
 prayer.” 
 
 Surah iv. 1-4: 44 When ye have fulfilled 
 your prayer, remember God standing and 
 sitting, and lying on your sides ; and when ye 
 are in safety, then be steadfast in prayer. 
 Verily prayer is for the believers prescribed 
 and timed.” 
 
 According to the Traditions, Muhammad 
 professed to have received instructions to 
 recite prayers Jive times a day, during his 
 mi‘raj, or ascent to heaven. The tradition 
 runs thus :— 
 
 44 The divine injunctions for prayer were 
 
PRAYER 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 465 
 
 originally fifty times a day. And as I passed 
 Moses (in heaven, during my ascent), Moses 
 said to me, ‘ What have you been ordered ? ’ 
 I replied, ‘Fifty times!’ Then Moses said, 
 ‘ Verily your people -will never be able to 
 bear it, for I tried the children of Israel with 
 fifty times a day, but they could not manage 
 it.’ Then I returned to the Lord and asked 
 for some remission. And ten prayers were 
 taken off. Then I pleaded again and ten 
 more were remitted. And so on until at last 
 they were reduced to five times. Then I 
 went to Moses, and he said, ‘ And how many 
 prayers have you been ordered ? ’ And I re¬ 
 plied 1 Five.’ And Moses said, ‘ Verily I tried 
 the children of Israel with even five, but it 
 did not succeed. Return to your Lord, and 
 ask for a further remission.’ But I said, ‘ I 
 have asked until I am quite ashamed, and I 
 cannot ask again.’” (See Sahihu Muslim, 
 vol. i. p. 91.) 
 
 This Salat, or liturgical service, has thus 
 become one of the most prominent features 
 of the Muhammadan religion, and very nume¬ 
 rous are the injunctions regarding it which 
 have been handed down in the traditions. 
 There are various minor differences amongst 
 the numerous sects of Islam regarding the 
 formula, but its main features are alike in all 
 countries. 
 
 We shall describe prayer according to the 
 Hanafi sect of Sunni Muslims. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that the service 
 should be performed in Arabic ; and that the 
 clothes and body of the worshipper should 
 be clean, and that the praying-place should 
 be free from all impurity. It may be said 
 either privately, or in company, or in a 
 mosque—although services in a mosque are 
 more meritorious than those elsewhere. 
 
 The stated prayers are always preceded by 
 the ablution of the face, hands, and feet. 
 [ablution.] 
 
 At the time of public prayer, the mu’azzin, 
 or “ crier,” ascends the minaret, or stands at 
 the side of the mosque nearest the public 
 thoroughfare, and gives the azan, or “ call to 
 prayer,” as follows :— 
 
 “ God is great! God is great! God is 
 great! God is great 1 
 
 I bear witness that there is no god but 
 God! 
 
 I bear witness that there is no god but 
 God! 
 
 I bear witness that Muhammad is the 
 Apostle of God ! 
 
 I bear witness that Muhammad is the 
 Apostle of God! 
 
 Come to prayers ! Come to prayers ! 
 
 Come to salvation ! Come to salvation ! 
 
 (The ShVahs add “ Come to good 
 works ! ”) 
 
 There is no other god but God ! ” 
 
 (The ShVahs recite tlie last sentence 
 twice.') 
 
 "In the early morning the following sen¬ 
 tence is added: “ Prayers are better than 
 sleep! ” 
 
 THE MU’AZZIN CALLING THE AZAN FROM A 
 MINARET. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 When the prayers are said in a congrega¬ 
 tion or in the mosque, they begin with the 
 Iqdmah, which is a recitation of the same 
 words as the azan, with the addition of the 
 sentence, “ Prayers are now ready! ” The 
 
 THE NIYAIL 
 
 regular form of prayer then begins with the 
 Niyah, which is said standing, with the 
 hands on either side:— 
 
 “ I have purposed to offer up to God only, 
 
 59 
 
466 
 
 PEAYEE 
 
 PEAYEE 
 
 with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the 
 case may he), with my face Qiblah-wards, 
 two (or, as the case may he) rak'ah prayers 
 Farz (Sunnah, or Nafl).” 
 
 THE TAKBIR-I-TAHEIMAH. 
 
 Then follows the Takhir-i- Tnhrimah, said 
 with the thumbs touching the lobules of the 
 ears and the open hands on each side of the 
 face :— 
 
 “ God is great I 
 
 THE QIYAM 
 
 The Qiyam, or standing position. The right 
 hand placed upon the left, below the navel 
 (the Shafts, and the two other orthodox 
 sects, place their hands on their breasts, 
 as also the Wahhabis; the Shi‘ahs keep 
 
 their hands on either side. In all the sects 
 the women perform the Qiyam with their 
 hands on their breasts), and the eyes looking 
 to the ground in self-abasement. During 
 which is said the Subhan (the Shiahs omit 
 the Subhan) :— 
 
 “ Holiness to Thee, 0 God! 
 
 And praise be to Thee 1 
 Great is Thy name ! 
 
 Great is Thy greatness 1 
 There is no deity but Thee ! ” 
 
 The Ta‘awwuz, or A‘uzubillah, is then said 
 as follows :— 
 
 “ I seek refuge from God from cursed 
 Satan.” 
 
 After which the Tasmiyah is repeated :— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the compassionate, 
 the merciful.” 
 
 Then follows the Fatihah, viz. the first 
 chapter of the Qur’an :— 
 
 “ Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds ! 
 The compassionate, the merciful! 
 
 King of the day of reckoning 1 
 Thee only do we worship, and to Thee 
 only do we cry for help. 
 
 Guide Thou us in the straight path, 
 
 The path of those to whom Thou hast 
 been gracious ; 
 
 With whom Thou art not angry, 
 
 And who go not astray.—Amen.” 
 
 After this the worshipper can repeat as many 
 chapters of the Qur’an as he may wish; he 
 should, at least, recite one long or two shcrrt 
 verses. The following chapter is usually 
 recited, namely , the Suratu ’l-Ikhlas , or the 
 112th chapter: 
 
 “ Say : He is God alone : 
 
 God the Eternal! 
 
 He begetteth not, 
 
 And is not begotten ; 
 
 And there is none like unto Him.” 
 
 THE RtJKXh 
 
 The TaJcbir-i-Muku 1 , said whilst making an 
 inclination of the head and body and 
 placing the hands upon the knees, separat¬ 
 ing the fingers a little. 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
PRAYER 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 The Tasbih-i-RuJcu‘, said in the same pos¬ 
 ture. 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the 
 Great! 
 
 (The Shl‘ahs here add “ and with His 
 praise.” This is also added by the 
 Shi‘ahs to the Tasbih-i-Sijdah.) 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the 
 Great I 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the 
 Great! ” 
 
 The Qiyam-i-Sami‘ Ullah or Tasmi‘, said 
 with the body erect, but, unlike the former 
 Qiyam, the hands being placed on either 
 
 THE TASMI 1 . 
 
 side. The Imam says aloud (when the 
 prayers are said by a person alone, he 
 recites both sentences ):— 
 
 God hears him who praises Him.” 
 
 The people then respond in a low voice — 
 
 “ 0 Lord, Thou art praised.” 
 
 TAKBIRU ’s-SIJDAH. 
 
 Takbir-i-Sijdah, said as the worshipper 
 drops on his knees. 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 Tasbih-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshipper 
 puts first his nose and then his forehead 
 to the ground. 
 
 THE TASBIH-I-SIJDAH. 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High 1 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High! 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High ! ” 
 
 Then raising his head and body and sinking 
 backward upon his heels, and placing his 
 hands upon his thighs, he says the Takbir- 
 i-Jalsah (the Shi‘ahs here omit the Takbir, 
 and say instead, “ I rise and sit by the 
 power of God ! ” 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 THE,TAKBIR-I-JAXSAH. 
 
 Then, whilst prostrating as before, he says 
 the Takblr-i-Sijdah. 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 And then during the prostration the Tasbih- 
 i-Sijdah as before. 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High 1 ” 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High ! ” 
 
 “ I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most 
 High I ” 
 
 Then, if at the close of one rak‘ah, he repeats 
 the Takbir standing, when it is called 
 Takbir-i- Qiyam; but at the end of two 
 rak‘ahs, and at the close of the prayer, he 
 repeats it sitting, when it is called Takbir- 
 i-Qu‘ud. (The Shi‘ahs here recite the 
 
468 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 Takbir:—“ God is great! ” with the 
 thumbs touching the lobides of the ear, and 
 add, “ I seek forgiveness from God, my 
 Lord, and I repent before Him ! ” 
 
 “ God is great! ” 
 
 Here ends one raJc‘ah or form of prayer. The 
 next rak‘ah begins with the Fdtihah or 1st 
 chapter of the Qur’an. At the close of 
 every two raPahs he recites the Tahiyah, 
 
 THE TAHIYAH. 
 
 which is said whilst kneeling upon the 
 ground. His left foot bent uncter him he 
 sits upon it, and places his hands upon his 
 knees and says (the ShVahs omit the Ta¬ 
 hiyah ):— 
 
 “ The adorations of the tongue are for God, 
 and also the adorations of the body, and 
 alms-giving! 
 
 “ Peace be on thee, 0 Projohet, with the 
 mercy of God and His blessing 1 
 
 “Peace be upon us and upon God’s righ¬ 
 teous servants ! ” 
 
 THE TASHAHHUD. 
 
 Then raising the first finger of the right hand 
 he recites the Tashahhud :— 
 
 “ I testify that there is no deity but God 
 (the ShVahs add, “ who has no partner ”) ; and 
 I testify that Muhammad is the servant of 
 God, and the messenger of God! ” 
 
 (Every two rak‘ahs close with the Tashah¬ 
 hud. The Darud is said whilst in the 
 same posture.') 
 
 “ 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and 
 on his descendants (the ShVahs merely recite : 
 “ God have mercy on Muhammad and his de¬ 
 scendants ” ; and omit the rest), as Thou didst 
 have mercy on Abraham and on his descend¬ 
 ants. Thou art to be praised, and Thou art 
 great. 0 God, bless Muhammad and his 
 descendants, as Thou didst bless Abraham 
 and his descendants! 
 
 “ Thou art to be praised, and Thou art 
 great 1 ” 
 
 Then the DiVa ’:— 
 
 “ 0 God our Lord, give us the blessings 
 of this life, and also the blessings of life 
 everlasting. Save us from the torments of 
 fire.” 
 
 (The Du‘a' is omitted by the ShVahs, who 
 recite the following instead ; “ Peace be on thee, 
 0 Prophet, ivith the mercy of God and His 
 blessing! Peace be upon us, and upon Gods 
 righteous servants ! ” 
 
 He then closes with the Salam. 
 
 THE SALAM. 
 
 Turning the head round to the right; he 
 says :— 
 
 “ The peace and mercy of God be with 
 you.” 
 
 Turning the head round to the left, he 
 says — 
 
 “ The peace and mercy of God be with 
 you.” 
 
PRAYER 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 469 
 
 “ Supplication is the marrow of worship.” 
 
 “ There is nothing better before God than 
 supplication.” 
 
 “ Supplicate God when ye are certain of 
 its approval, and know that God accepts not 
 the supplication of a negligent heart.” 
 
 “ Verily your Lord is ashamed of his ser¬ 
 vants when they raise up their hands to Him 
 in supplication to return them empty.” 
 
 These daily prayers are either Farz, Sun¬ 
 nah, Nafl, or Witr. Farz, are those rak‘ahs 
 (or forms of prayer), said to be enjoined by 
 God. Sunnah, those founded on the practice 
 of Muhammad. Nafl, the voluntary per¬ 
 formance of two rak'ahs, or more, which 
 may be omitted without sin. Witr, an odd 
 number of rak‘ahs, either one, three, five, or 
 seven, said after the night prayer. These 
 divisions of prayer are entirely distinct from 
 each other. They each begin afresh with the 
 Niyah, and worshippers may rest for awhile 
 between them, but not converse on worldly 
 subjects. The Wahhabis think it correct to 
 say the Sunnah prayers in their houses and 
 only the Farz prayers in the mosque. 
 
 The five times of prayer are known as 
 Zuhr, l Asr, Maghrib,‘Isha’, and Fajr. There 
 are also three voluntary periods called Ish aq, 
 Zuhd, and I'ahajjucl. 
 
 The following is a table showing the exact 
 number of rak'ahs to be performed at each 
 service:— 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Time. 
 
 The Names of the Time of Prayer. 
 
 The Number of Eak'ahs said. 
 
 Arabic. 
 
 Persian. 
 
 Urdu. 
 
 Sunnat-i-ghair-i- 
 
 mu’akkadah. 
 
 44 
 
 ci 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 e3 ^ 
 
 a d £ 
 
 3* s 
 
 i/2 fe 
 
 Sunnah after 
 Farz. 
 
 Nafl. 
 
 Witr. 
 
 
 - 
 
 i 
 
 From dawn to 
 
 Salatu ’1- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Fajr KI 
 
 
 2 2 
 
 
 
 
 Jm' 
 
 
 
 sunrise. 
 
 Fajr. 
 
 Subh. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 k** 
 
 c3 
 
 
 2 
 
 When the sun 
 
 Salatu ’z- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Zuhr KI 
 
 
 4 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 U 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 has begun to 
 
 Zuhr. 
 
 Peshin. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 «+H 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 decline. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r d 
 
 ° i 
 
 
 3 
 
 Midway between 
 
 Salatu ’1- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 ‘Asr KI 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 pH 
 
 
 
 No. 2 and 4. 
 
 ‘Asr. 
 
 DIgar. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <D 
 
 > 
 
 
 4 
 
 A few minutes 
 
 Salatu ’1- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Maghrib 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 cfl 
 
 
 
 after sunset. 
 
 Maghrib. 
 
 Sham. 
 
 KI Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rP 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 5 
 
 When the night 
 
 Salatu ’1- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 ‘Isha’ KI 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 has closed in. 
 
 ‘Isha. 
 
 Khuftan. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -d 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 When the sun 
 
 Salatu ’1- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Ishraq KI 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 1 fc* 
 
 
 
 has well risen. 
 
 ‘Ishraq. 
 
 ‘Ishraq. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 2 
 
 About 11 o’clock 
 
 Salatu ’z- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Zulia KI 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 A.M. 
 
 Zuha. 
 
 Cliast. 
 
 Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sh > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 After midnight. 
 
 Salatu’t- 
 
 Namaz-i- 
 
 Tahajjud 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 5 S3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 Tahajjud. 
 
 Tahajjud. 
 
 KI Namaz. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At the close of the whole set of prayers, 
 that is of Farz, Sunnah, Nafl, or Witr, the 
 worshipper raises his hands and offers up 
 a Munajat, or “ supplication.” This usually 
 
 THE MUNAJAT. 
 
 consists of prayers selected from the Qur’an 
 or Hadis. They ought to be said in Arabic, 
 although they are frequently offered up in 
 the vernacular. 
 
 Such supplications were highly commended 
 by Muhammad, who is related to have 
 said:— 
 
470 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 PRAYER 
 
 According to the above table, a devout 
 Muslim recites the same form of prayer at 
 least seventy-five times in the day. 
 
 ' ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Umar relates that the 
 Prophet said, “ The time for Zuhr prayers 
 begins from the inclination of the sun to¬ 
 wards the west and closes at the time when 
 the shadow of a person shall be the length of 
 his own stature, which time marks the be¬ 
 ginning of the ‘Asr prayers, and the time of 
 the ‘ Asr prayers is from that time till the sun 
 assumes a yellow appearance. The time of 
 Maghrib prayers is from sunset as long as 
 the red appearance in the horizon remains. 
 The time of ‘Isha’ prayers is from that time 
 till midnight. And the time of the Fajr 
 prayers is from the break of day till the sun 
 rises. Therefore, when the sun has risen you 
 must not recite the morning prayer, for the 
 sun rises between the horns of the devil.” 
 (Mishlcat , book iv. ch. ii.) 
 
 It is the ordinary custom of Muslims to say 
 their prayers with their feet uncovered, but 
 strictly according to the Traditions it is 
 lawful to cover the feet with boots or shoes 
 during prayer, provided they are free from 
 impurity. 
 
 Shaddad ibn Aus relates that Muhammad 
 said, “ Act the reverse of the Jews in your 
 prayer, for they do not pray in boots and 
 shoes.” 
 
 Abu Sa‘Id al-Khudri relates that “ the 
 Prophet said prayers with his companions, 
 and all on a sudden took off his shoes, and 
 put them down on his left side, and when the 
 people observed it, they took off theirs also ; 
 and when the Prophet had finished the 
 prayers, he said, ‘ What caused you to take 
 off your shoes ? ’ They replied, ‘ We did so 
 in order to follow your example.’ And the 
 Prophet said, 1 Yerily Gabriel came to me and 
 told me there was a little filth upon my 
 shoes ; therefore, when any one of you goes 
 into a Masjid, look well at your - shoes first; 
 and if you perceive any dirt, wipe it off, and 
 then say your prayers in them.’” ( Mishkat , 
 book iv. ch. ix. pt. 2.) 
 
 Any wandering of the eyes, or of the mind, 
 a coughing or the like, answering a question, 
 or any action not prescribed to be performed, 
 must be strictly avoided (unless it is between 
 the Sunnah prayers and the farz, or be dif¬ 
 ficult to avoid; for it is held allowable to 
 make three slight irregular motions, or de¬ 
 viations from correct deportment) ; otherwise, 
 the worshipper must begin again and recite 
 his prayers with due reverence. 
 
 If a person arrive late, he merely recites 
 the Niyah and Takbir, and then joins the 
 congregation in that part of the service in 
 which they are engaged. 
 
 The Muslim may say his five daily prayers 
 in his home, or shop, or in the street or 
 road, but there are said to be special bless¬ 
 ings attending prayer recited in a congre¬ 
 gation. 
 
 In addition to the daily prayers, the fol¬ 
 lowing are special services for special occa¬ 
 sions :— 
 
 Salatu ’ l-Jum‘ah ,—“ The Friday Prayer.” 
 
 It consists of two rak'ahs after the daily 
 meridian prayer. 
 
 Salatu ’l-Musafir. —“ Prayers for a tra¬ 
 veller.” Two rak‘ahs instead of the usual 
 number at the meridian, afternoon, and night 
 prayers. 
 
 Salatu ’l-Khauf —“ The prayers of fear ” 
 Said in time of war. They are two rak‘ahs 
 recited first by one regiment or company and 
 then by the other. 
 
 Salatu ’l-Tarawih. —Twenty rak‘ahs recited 
 every evening during the Ramazan, imme¬ 
 diately after the fifth daily prayer. 
 
 Salatu ’ l-Istikharah .—Prayers for success 
 or guidance. The person who is about to 
 undertake any special business performs two 
 rak‘ah prayers and then goes to sleep. 
 During his slumbers he may expect to have 
 “ ilham," or inspiration, as to the undertak¬ 
 ing for which he seeks guidance ! 
 
 Salatu 'l-Khusuf. —Two rak‘ahs said at the 
 time of an eclipse of the moon. 
 
 Salatu 'l-Kusuf. —Two rak‘ahs said at the 
 time of an eclipse of the sun. 
 
 Salatu ’ l-lstisqa ’.—Prayer in time of 
 drought, consisting of two rak'ahs. 
 
 Salatu ’l-Janazah. —Prayers at a funeral. 
 [janazah.] 
 
 The liturgical service of the Muslim is not 
 given in the Qur’an, but is founded upon very 
 minute instructions given by the Prophet, 
 and which are recorded in the Traditions, 
 and for which the Arabic scholar can refer 
 to Sahihu ’ l-Bukhari . vol. i. p. 50; Safiihu 
 Muslim, vol. i. p. 164; Sunanu ’ t-Tirmizi , 
 p. 22; Sunanu Abu Da'ud, p. 56: Sunanu 
 Muwatta’, p. 50; and the English reader to 
 Matthew’s Mishkat, book iv. 
 
 The following are selections from the say¬ 
 ings of Muhammad with reference to the 
 Liturgical prayers (vide Mishhat, book iv.) :— 
 
 “ That which leads a creature into infidelity 
 is neglect of prayers.” 
 
 “Not one of you must say your prayers 
 in a garment without covering your whole 
 body.” 
 
 “ God accepts not the prayers of a woman 
 arrived at puberty unless she covers her 
 head.” 
 
 “ People must not lift up their eyes whilst 
 saying their prayers, or they will become 
 blind.” 
 
 “ The prayers which are said in congrega¬ 
 tion increase the rewards of those said alone 
 by twenty seven degrees.” [mosque.J 
 
 “ The five stated prayers erase the sins 
 which have been committed during the in¬ 
 tervals between them, if they have not been 
 mortal sins.” 
 
 “ That prayer preparatory to which the 
 teeth shall have been cleaned with the Mis¬ 
 wak is more excellent than the prayer with¬ 
 out Miswak by seventy.” [miswak.] 
 
 “ The prayers of a person will not be ac¬ 
 cepted who has broken his ablution until he 
 completes another ablution.” 
 
 “ That person who leaves even one hair 
 without washing after uncleanness, will be 
 punished in hell accordingly.” 
 
 “ When any one of you stands up for 
 
PRAYER 
 
 prayer, he must not smooth the ground 
 by wiping away pebbles, because the com¬ 
 passion of God descends upon him at that 
 time.” 
 
 “ Order your children to say the stated 
 prayers when they are seven years of age, and 
 beat them if they do not do so when they are 
 ten years old ; and when they reach ten years, 
 divide their beds.” 
 
 “ When you stand up to prayer, spit not in 
 front, because you are then in God’s pre¬ 
 sence ; neither spit on your right side, because 
 an angel is there. Spit, therefore either on 
 your left side or under your feet, and then 
 throw earth over it.” 
 
 “ Whoever says twelve rak'ahs of Sunnah 
 prayers in the day and night, will have a 
 house built for him in Paradise; four rak'ahs 
 before the noon-day prayer, and two rak'ahs 
 after it, and two after sunset prayer, and two 
 rak'ahs after evening prayer, and two before 
 morning prayer.” 
 
 “ ‘ Tell me if any one of you had a rivulet 
 before his door and bathed five times a day 
 in it, whether any dirt would remain upon 
 his body.’ The Companions said, 1 Nothing 
 would remain.’ The Prophet said, ‘ In this 
 manner will the five daily prayers as ordered 
 by God erase all little sins.’ ” 
 
 “When any one of you says his prayers, 
 he must have something in front of him, but 
 if he cannot find anything for that purpose, 
 he must put his walking-stick into the 
 ground ; but if the ground be hard, then let 
 him place it lengthways in front of him ; but 
 if he has no staff, he must draw a line on the 
 ground, after which there will be no detri¬ 
 ment in the prayers from anyone passing in 
 front of it.” [sutkah.] 
 
 “ The best prayers for God were those of 
 David the prophet, and the best fast are his 
 also. David used to sleep half the night and 
 would be woke, and in prayer a third part of 
 the night and would fast one day and eat 
 another.” 
 
 The form of prayer, or rak‘ahs, as given 
 above, admit of no variations whether they 
 are used in private or public, and consequently, 
 notwithstanding the beauty of its devotional 
 language, it is simply a superstitious act, 
 having very little in common with the Chris¬ 
 tian idea of prayer. 
 
 We translate the Arabic Salat, and the 
 Persian Namaz by the English word prayer, 
 although this “ second foundation ” of the re¬ 
 ligion of Muhammad is something quite dis¬ 
 tinct from that prayer which the Christian 
 poet so well describes as the “ soul’s sincere 
 desire uttered or unexpressed.” It would be 
 more correct to speak, of the Muhammadan 
 Salat as a service-, “ prayer” being more cor¬ 
 rectly rendered by the Arabic du‘d\ In 
 Islam prayer is reduced to a mechanical act, 
 as distinct from a mental act; and in judging 
 of the spiritual character of Muhammadan¬ 
 ism, we must take into careful consideration 
 the precise character of that devotional ser¬ 
 vice which every Muslim is required to 
 render to God at least Jive times a day, and 
 which undoubtedly, exercises so great an in- 
 
 PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD 471 
 
 fluence upon the character of the followers of 
 Muhammad. 
 
 The devotions of Islam are essentially 
 “ vain repetitions,” for they must be said in 
 the Arabic language, and admit of no change 
 or variety. The effect of such a constant 
 round of devotional forms, which are but the 
 service of the lips, on the vast majority of 
 Muhammadans, can be easily imagined. The 
 absence of anything like true devotion from 
 these services, accounts for the fact that reli¬ 
 gion and true piety stand so far apart in the 
 practice of Islam. 
 
 The late Dean Stanley remarks ( Eastern 
 Church, p. 279), “ The ceremonial character 
 of the religion of Musalmans is, in spite of 
 its simplicity, carried to a pitch beyond 
 the utmost demands either of Rome or of 
 Russia. . . . Prayer is reduced to a mecha¬ 
 nical act as distinct from a mental act, 
 beyond any ritual observances in the West. 
 It is striking to see the figures along the 
 banks of the Nile going through their pros¬ 
 trations, at the rising of the sun, with the 
 uniformity and regularity of clockwork ; but 
 it resembles the -worship of machines rather 
 than of reasonable beings.” 
 
 PRAYERS FOR THE DEAD. 
 
 According to the teaching of Muhammad, it is 
 the duty of all true Muslims to pray for the 
 dead. ( Durru ’l-Mulchtar, p. 135.) See also 
 Mishkat, book v. chap. iii. 
 
 “ God most certainly exalts the degree of 
 a virtuous servant in Paradise, and the vir¬ 
 tuous servant says, ‘ 0 my Lord, from whence 
 is this exalted degree for me? ’ and God says, 
 ‘ It is on account of your children asking 
 pardon for you.” 
 
 “ The Prophet passed by graves in al- 
 Madinah and turned his face towards them, 
 and said, 1 Peace be to you, 0 inhabitants of 
 the graves! may God forgive us and you. Ye 
 have passed on before us, and we are follow¬ 
 ing you.” 
 
 “ A dead person in the* grave is like one 
 over his head in water, who calls to somebody 
 to take him by the hand. For he has hope 
 that his father or mother, or his brother, or 
 his friend will pray for him. For when the 
 prayer reaches the dead person, it is more 
 esteemed by him than the whole world, and 
 all that is in it; and verily God most cer¬ 
 tainly gives to the dead, on account of the 
 prayers of the people of the earth, rewards 
 like mountains, for verily the offerings of the 
 living for the dead are asking forgiveness for 
 them.” 
 
 Surah lxxi. 29: “ And Noah said, 0 my 
 God, forgive me and my parents.” 
 
 Surah ix. 114, 115 : “ It is not for the Pro¬ 
 phet to pray for the forgiveness of those, 
 who, even though they be near of kin, asso¬ 
 ciate other gods with God, after it hath been 
 made clear to them that they are to be the 
 inmates of hell. For neither did Abraham 
 ask forgiveness for his father, but in pur¬ 
 suance of a promise which he had promised 
 him, and when it was shown him that he was 
 an enemy of God, he declared himself clear of 
 him : yet Abraham was pitiful and kind.” 
 
472 
 
 PREACHER 
 
 PREDESTINATION 
 
 It is related in the Traditions that the 
 Prophet visited his mother’s grave, and wept 
 in snch a way as to cause those who were 
 standing around him to weep also. And 
 the Prophet said, “ I have asked my bene¬ 
 factor pel-mission to ask pardon for my 
 mother, which was not granted then. I 
 asked my Lord’s permission to visit her 
 grave and it was granted, therefore do ye 
 visit graves, because they remind you of 
 death.” 
 
 PREACHER. Preaching. There 
 
 are four- words generally used for a preacher : 
 khatlb muzakkir wa‘iz 
 
 and nasifi 
 
 Khatlb is always applied to the official 
 who recites the khutbah. or oration, in the 
 Friday service. The other three terms are 
 applied generally to preachers. 
 
 In the present day, preaching seldom takes 
 place in a mosque except on Fridays, when 
 the khutbah is recited, although it is not for¬ 
 bidden, and Muhammad was frequently in the 
 habit of addressing his people after the 
 prayers were over. 
 
 No Maulawi of reputation preaches in the 
 street, but paid preachers sometimes under¬ 
 take the office. 
 
 PREDESTINATION. Arabic qa- 
 dar (j^), the word generally used in 
 the Hadis; taqdir the word 
 
 usually employed in theological works. Ex¬ 
 pressions which mean “ measuring out,” or 
 “ preordering.” 
 
 Taqdir, or the absolute decree of good and 
 evil, is the sixth article of the Muhammadan 
 creed, and the orthodox believe that whatever 
 has, or shall come to pass in this world, 
 whether it be good or bad, proceeds entirely 
 from the Divine Will, and has been irrevocably 
 fixed and recorded on a preserved tablet by 
 the pen of fate. The doctrine, which forms a 
 very important feature in the Muslim system, 
 is thus taught in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah liv. 49: “ All things have been 
 created after fixed decree ” ( qadar ). 
 
 Surah iii. 139 : “ No one can die except by 
 God’s permission according to the book that 
 fixeth the term of life. ’ 
 
 Surah lxxxvii. 2 : “ The Lord hath created 
 and balanced all things and hath fixed their 
 destinies and guided them.” 
 
 Surah viii. 17: “ God slew them, and those 
 shafts were God’s, not thine.” 
 
 Surah ix. 51: “ By no means can aught 
 befall us but what God has destined for 
 us.” 
 
 Surah xiii. 30 : “ All sovereignty is in the 
 hands of God.” 
 
 Surah xiv. 4: “ God misleadeth whom He 
 w ill, and whom He will He guideth.” 
 
 Surah xviii. 101: “ The infidels whose eyes 
 were veiled from my warning and had no 
 power to hear.” 
 
 The teaching of Muhammad, as given in 
 the Traditions handed down by al-Bukhari 
 and Muslim, is as follows :— 
 
 “ God created Adam, and touched his back 
 
 with his right hand, and brought forth from 
 it a family; and God said to Adam, ‘I have 
 created this family for Paradise, and then- 
 actions will be like unto those of the people 
 of Paradise.’ Then God touched the back of 
 Adam, and brought forth another family, and 
 said, ‘ I have created this for hell, and then- 
 actions will be like unto those of the people 
 of hell.’ Then a man said to the Prophet, 
 ‘ Of what use will deeds of any kind be ? ’ He 
 said, ‘ When God createth His servant for 
 Paradise, his actions will be deserving of it 
 until he die, when he will enter therein ; and 
 when God createth one for the fire, his actions 
 will be like those of the people of hell till he 
 die, when he will enter therein.’” 
 
 “ ‘ There is not one amongst you whose 
 place is not -written by God, whether in the 
 fire or in Paradise.’ The Companions said, 
 ‘ 0 Prophet 1 since God hath appointed our 
 places, may we confide in this and abandon 
 our religious and moral duties ? ’ He said, 
 ‘ No; because the righteous will do good 
 works and the wicked will do bad works.’ 
 After which the Prophet read this verse 
 from the Qur’an: ‘ To him who giveth alms, 
 and feareth God, and yieldeth assent to the 
 excellent creed, to him will we make easy the 
 path to happiness. But to him who is 
 worldly and is indifferent, and who does not 
 believe in the excellent creed, to him will we 
 make easy the path of misery.’ ” 
 
 “ The first thing which God created was a 
 pen, and He said to it ‘ Write ’; it said, ‘ What 
 shall I write? ’ And God said, ‘ Write down 
 the quantity of every individual thing to be 
 created,’ and it wrote all that was and that 
 will be, to eternity.” 
 
 “ God hath pre-ordained five things on his 
 servants ; the duration of life, their actions, 
 their dwelling-places, their travels, and their 
 portions.” 
 
 “ When God hath ordered a creature to die 
 in any particular place, he causeth his wants 
 to direct him to that.” 
 
 “ There is not one born but is created to 
 Islam, but it is their fathers and mothers 
 who make them Jews and Christians and 
 Majusi,” 
 
 “ It was said, ‘ 0 Prophet of God ! inform 
 me respecting charms, and the medicines 
 which I swallow, and the shields which I 
 make use of for protection, whether they 
 prevent any of the decrees of God ? ’ Muham¬ 
 mad said, ‘ These also are by the decree of 
 God.’ ” 
 
 “ Verily God created Adam from a handful 
 of earth, taken from all parts, and the chil¬ 
 dren of Adam became different, like the 
 earth ; some of them red, some white, and 
 some black, some between red, white and 
 black, some gentle, and some severe, some 
 impure and some pure.” 
 
 “ The Prophet of God was asked about the 
 children of polytheists who might die in 
 their infancy, whether they would go to'hea¬ 
 ven or hell. He said, ‘ God knoweth best 
 what their actions would have been had they 
 lived; it depends on this.’” 
 
 “ The Prophet of God came out of his 
 
PREDESTINATION 
 
 PREDESTINATION 
 
 473 
 
 house when the Companions were debating 
 about fate, and be was angry, and became 
 red in the face, to such a degree that you 
 would say the seeds of a jiomegranate had 
 been bruised on it. And he said, ‘ Hath God 
 ordered you to debate of fate ? Was I sent to 
 you for this ? Your forefathers were de¬ 
 stroyed for debating about fate and destiny; 
 I adjure you not to argue on those points.’” 
 
 (See Ahadisu 'l-Bukhari and Muslim, in 
 loco.) [preserved tablet.] 
 
 The doctrine is expressed in an Arabic 
 treatise on the subject, as follows :— 
 
 “ Faith in the decrees of God, is that we 
 believe in our heart and confess with our 
 tongue that the Most High God hath decreed 
 all things; so that nothing can happen in the 
 world, whether it respects the conditions and 
 operations of things, or good or evil, or obe¬ 
 dience and disobedience, or faith and infidelity, 
 or sickness and health, or riches and poverty, 
 or life and death, that is not contained in the 
 written tablet of the decrees of God. But 
 God hath so decreed good works, obedience, 
 and faith, that He ordains and wills them, 
 and that they may be under His decree, His 
 salutary direction, His good pleasure and 
 command. On the contrary, God hath de¬ 
 creed, and does ordain and determine evil, 
 disobedience and infidelity ; yet without His 
 salutary direction, good pleasure, and com¬ 
 mand ; but being only by way of seduction, 
 indignation, and prohibition. But whosoever 
 shall say that God is not delighted with good 
 faith, or that God hath not an indignation 
 against evil and unbelief, he is certainly an 
 infidel.” 
 
 The Rev. E. Sell, in his Faith of Islam, 
 page 173, says :— 
 
 “ There are three well-defined schools of 
 thought on the subject. 
 
 “ First.—The Jabnans ( Jahariyun ), so 
 called from the word “jabr ” compulsion, 
 deny all free agency in man and say that 
 man is necessarily constrained by the force 
 of God’s eternal and immutable decree to act 
 as he does. They hold that as God is the 
 absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit 
 all men into Paradise, or cast all into hell. 
 This sect is one of the branches of the Ash’a- 
 rfans with whom on most points they agree. 
 
 “ Secondly.—The Qadrfans ( Qadariyun ), 
 who deny Al-Qadr, or God’s absolute decree, 
 say that evil and injustice ought not to be 
 attributed to God but to man, who is alto¬ 
 gether a free agent. God has given him the 
 power to do or not to do an act. This sect 
 is generally considered to be a branch of the 
 Mutazilite body ( Mu‘tazilah ), though in rea¬ 
 lity it existed before Wasil quitted the school 
 of his master Hasan. As Wasil, however, 
 followed the opinions of Mabad-al-Johm, the 
 leading Qadrfan divine, the Mutazilites and 
 Qadrfans are practically one and the same. 
 
 “ Thirdly.—The Ash’arfans maintain that 
 God has one eternal will w'hich is applied to 
 whatsoever He willeth, both of His own 
 actions and those of men; that He willeth 
 that which He knoweth and wnat is written 
 on the preserved table ; that He willeth both 
 
 good and evil. So far they agree with the 
 Jabnans ; but then they seem to allow 7 some 
 2 cower to man. The orthodox, or Sunni belief 
 is theoretically Ash’arfan, but practically the 
 I Sunnis are confirmed Jabnans. The Muta¬ 
 zilite doctrines are looked upon as quite 
 heretical. 
 
 “ No subject has been more warmly dis¬ 
 cussed in Islam than that of predestination. 
 The following abstract of some lengthy discus¬ 
 sions will present the points of difference. 
 
 “ The Ash’arfans, who in this matter re¬ 
 present in the main orthodox views, formu¬ 
 late their objections to the Mutazilite system 
 thus :— 
 
 “ (i.) If man is the causer of an action by 
 the force of his own will, then he should also 
 have the power of controlling the result of 
 that action. 
 
 “ (ii.) If it be granted that man has the 
 power to originate an act, it is necessary that 
 he should know all acts, because a creator 
 should be independent in act and choice. In¬ 
 tention must be conditioned by knowledge. 
 To this the Mutazilites well reply that a 
 man need not know the length of a road be¬ 
 fore he walks, or the structure of the throat 
 before he talks. 
 
 “ (iii.) Suppose a man wills to move his 
 body and God at the same time wills it to be 
 steady, then if both intentions come to pass 
 there will be a collection of opposites; if 
 neither, a removal of opposites ; if the exal¬ 
 tation of the first, an unreasonable prefer¬ 
 ence. 
 
 “ (iv.) If man can create an act, some of 
 his works will be better than some of the 
 works of God, e.g. a man determines to have 
 faith : now faith is a better thing than rep¬ 
 tiles, which are created by God. 
 
 “ (v.) If man is free to act, why can he not 
 make at once a human body ; why does he 
 need to thank God for grace and faith? 
 
 “ (vi.) But better far than all argument, the 
 orthedox say, is the testimony of the Book. 
 
 ‘ All things have we created under a fixed 
 decree.’ (Sura liv. 49.) ‘ When God created 
 
 you and that ye make.' (Sura xxxvii. 94.) 
 
 ‘ Some of them there were whom God guided 
 and there were others decreed to err.’ (Sura 
 xvi. 38.) As God decrees faith and obedience 
 He must be the causer of it, for •' on the hearts 
 of these hath God graven the Faith.’ (Sura 
 lviii. 22.) ‘ It is he who causeth you to laugh 
 
 and weep, to die and make alive.’ (Sura liii. 
 44.) ‘ If God pleased He would surely bring 
 
 them, one and all, to the guidance.’ (Sura 
 vi. 36.) ‘ Had God pleased, He had guided 
 
 you all aright.’ (Sura vi. 150.) ‘ Had the 
 
 Lord pleased, He would have made mankind 
 of one religion.’ (Sura xi. 120.) ‘ God will 
 
 mislead whom He pleaseth, and whom He 
 pleaseth He will place upon the straight 
 path.’ (Surah vi. 39.) Tradition records 
 that the Prophet said. ‘ God is the maker of 
 all makers and of their actions.’ 
 
 “ The Mutazilites took up the opposite 
 side of this great question and said :— 
 
 “ (i ) If man has no power to will or to do, 
 then what is the difference between praising 
 
 60 
 
474 PREDESTINATION 
 
 PRESERVED TABLET 
 
 God and sinning against Him ; between faith 
 and infidelity ; good and evil; what is the use 
 of commands and prohibitions; rewards and 
 punishments ; promises and threats ; what is 
 the use of prophets, books, &c. 
 
 “ (ii.) Some acts of men are bad, such as 
 tyranny and polytheism. If these are created 
 by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to 
 ascribe plurality to the Deity is to render 
 obedience. To this the Ash’arlans reply that 
 orders are of two kinds, immediate and me¬ 
 diate. The former, which they call ‘ Amr-i- 
 takwirn',’ is the order, 1 Be and it was.’ This 
 comprehends all existences and according to 
 it whatever is ordered must come to pass. 
 The latter they call ‘ Amr-i-tashri’f,’ an order 
 given in the Law. This comes to men 
 through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. 
 True obedience is to act according to that 
 which is revealed, not according to the secret 
 intention of God, for that we know not. 
 
 “ (iii.) If God decrees the acts of men, He 
 should bear the name of that which he de¬ 
 crees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an 
 infidel; of tyranny a tyrant, and so on ; but to 
 speak thus of God is blasphemy. 
 
 “ (iv.) If infidelity is decreed by God He 
 must wish it; but a prophet desires faith and 
 obedience and so is opposed to God. To this 
 the orthodox reply, that God knows by His 
 eternal knowledge that such a man will die 
 an infidel. If a prophet intends by bringing 
 the message of salvation to such an one to 
 make God’s knowledge become ignorance, he 
 would be doing wrong ; but as he does not 
 know the secret decrees of God, his duty is to 
 deliver his message according to the Hadis : 
 ‘ A prophet has only to deliver the clear 
 message.’ 
 
 “ (v.) The Mutazilites claimed as on their 
 side all verses of the Quran, in which the 
 words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, 
 &c., are applied to men. Such are the verses : 
 ‘ Whatever is in the heavens and the earth is 
 God’s that He may reward those who do evil 
 according to their deeds: and those who do 
 good will He reward with good things.’ (Sura 
 liii. 32.) ‘ Whoso shall have wrought evil 
 
 shall not be recompensed but with its like : 
 but whoso shall have done the things that are 
 right, whether male or female and is a be¬ 
 liever, these shall enter Paradise.’ (Sura xl. 
 43.) “Say: the truth is from the Lord; let 
 him then who will, believe; and let him who 
 will, be an infidel.’ (Sura xviii. 28.) ‘ Those 
 
 who add gods to God will say : 1 If God had 
 pleased neither we nor our fathers had given 
 Him companions.’ ‘Say: Verily ye follow 
 only a conceit, ye utter lies.’ (Sura vi. 
 149.) The Hadis is also very plain. ‘ All 
 g-ood is in Thy hands and evil is not to 
 Thee.’ 
 
 “ The Ash’anans have one famous text 
 which they bring to bear against all this rea¬ 
 soning and evidence. It is : ‘ This truly is a 
 warning ; and whoso willeth, taketh the way 
 of his Lord ; but will it ye shall not, unless 
 God will it, for God is knowing, wise.’ (Sura 
 lxxvi. 29, 30.) To the Hadis they reply (1) 
 that there is a difference between acquies¬ 
 
 cence in evil and decreeing it. Thus the ex¬ 
 pression ‘ God willeth not tyranny for His 
 servants,’ does not mean that God hath not 
 decreed it, but that tyranny is not one of 
 His attributes : so ‘ evil is not to Thee ’ means 
 it is not an attribute of God; and (2) the 
 Hadis must be explained in accordance with 
 the teaching of the Quran 
 
 “ The Muslim philosophers tried to find a 
 way out of the difficulty. Averhoes says : 
 ‘ We are free to act in this way or that, but 
 our will is always determined by some exte¬ 
 rior cause. For example, we see something 
 which pleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of 
 ourselves. Our will is thus bound by exte¬ 
 rior causes. These causes exist according to 
 a certain order of things which is founded on 
 the general laws of nature. God alone knows 
 beforehand the necessary connection which 
 to us is a mystery. The connection of our 
 will with exterior causes is determined by the 
 laws of nature. It is this which in theo¬ 
 logy we call, ‘decrees and predestination.’” 
 {Melanges de Philosophic Juive et Arabe, par 
 S. Munk, p. 458.) 
 
 PRE-EMPTION. Arabic Shufah 
 (ii*a&). Lit. “ Adjunction.” The 
 right of pre-emption is a power of possess¬ 
 ing property which is for sale, and is esta¬ 
 blished upon the teaching of Muhammad. It 
 applies not to movable property but to im¬ 
 movable property Qaqar). This right of 
 pre-emption appertains in the first place to 
 the co-sharer or partner in the property; 
 secondly, to a sharer in the immunities and 
 appendages of the property, such as the right 
 to water, or to roads ; and thirdly, to the 
 neighbour. ( Hiddyah , vol. iii. p. 594.) 
 
 PRE-EXISTENCE OF SOULS is 
 
 taught both in the Qu’ran and the Traditions. 
 
 ‘Ayishah relates that Muhammad said, 
 “ Souls before they became united with bodies 
 were like assembled armies, and afterwards 
 they were dispersed and sent into the bodies 
 of mankind.” ( Alishkat, book xxii. ch. xvi.) 
 
 There is said to be a reference to this doc¬ 
 trine in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah vii. 171: “ And when the Lord drew 
 forth their posterity from the loins of the 
 sons of Adam . . . .” 
 
 The commentator, al-Baizawi, says God 
 stroked Adam’s back and extracted from his 
 loins his whole posterity, which should come 
 into the world until the Resurrection, one 
 generation after another; and that these 
 souls were all assembled together like small 
 ants, and after they had in the presence of the 
 angels confessed their dependence upon God, 
 they were again caused to return into the 
 loins of Adam.” (See Tafsiru 'l-Baizawi, in 
 loco.) 
 
 PRESERVED TABLET. Accord¬ 
 ing to the teaching of Muhammad, both the 
 actions of men and the Qur’an were recorded 
 before creation upon a preserved tablet called 
 Lauh Mahfuz ) ; Surah xxxv. 22: 
 
 “ And if they treat thee as a liar, so did those 
 
PRIDE 
 
 who were before them treat their Apostles 
 who came to them with the proofs of their 
 mission, and with the Scriptures and with the 
 clear Book”; and Imam Muhin j«b«)), 
 
 Surah xxxvi. 11 : “ Verily, it is We who will 
 quicken the dead, and write down the works 
 which they have sent on before them, and 
 the traces which they shall have left behind 
 them : and everything have we set down in 
 the clear Book of our decrees, [predesti¬ 
 nation, QURAN.] 
 
 PRIDE, Arabic lcibr (y^), is for¬ 
 bidden in the Qur’an, see Surah xvii. 39: 
 “ Walk not proudly on the earth ; truly thou 
 canst by no means cleave the earth, neither 
 canst thou reach the mountains in height: all 
 this is evil with thy Lord and odious.” 
 
 PRIEST. There is no sacerdotal 
 
 class of ministers in the Muhammadan reli¬ 
 gion. The leader of the daily prayers is 
 called an Imam, [imam.] 
 
 PRIVACY OF DWELLINGS is 
 
 established by the teaching of Muhammad, 
 and it is therefore unlawful to enter the house 
 without Isti'zan, or “ asking permission.” The 
 injunction is given in the Qur'an, Siirah xxiv. 
 27-29 :— 
 
 “ 0 ye who believe ! enter not into other 
 houses than your own, until ye have asked 
 leave, and have saluted its inmates. This 
 will be best for you: haply ye will bear this 
 in mind. And if ye find no one therein, then 
 enter it not till leave be given you ; and if it 
 be said to you, ‘ Go ye back,’ then go ye back. 
 This will be more blameless in you, and God 
 knoweth what ye do. There shall be no harm 
 in your entering houses in ■which no one 
 dwelleth, for the supply of your needs : and 
 God knoweth what ye do openly and what ye 
 hide.” 
 
 ‘Ata’ ibn Yasar relates that “ A man once 
 asked the Prophet, ‘ Must I ask leave to go 
 into the room of my mother ? ’ The Prophet 
 said, * Yes.’ Then the man said, ‘ But I live 
 in the same home.’ The Prophet said, ‘ Yes, 
 even if you live in the same home.’ The man 
 said, * But I wait upon her ! ’ The Prophet, 
 * But you must ask permission; for, what! 
 would you like to see your mother naked ? ’ ” 
 
 It is further related that Muhammad al¬ 
 ways went first to the right and then to the 
 left of a door which had no curtain, and 
 salamed several times before he entered. 
 (Mishkat , book xxii. ch. ii.) 
 
 This has become an established rule in the 
 East, and it is considered very rude to enter 
 any dwelling without first giving notice. 
 
 PROHIBITED DEGREES OF 
 
 MARRIAGE. According to the Qur’an they 
 are seven: 1, mother; 2, daughter; 3, sister; 
 4, paternal aunt; 5, maternal aunt; 6, sister’s 
 daughter; 7, brother's daughter. And the 
 same with regard to the other sex. It is 
 also unlawful for a Muslim to marry his 
 wife’s sister (see Lev. xviii. 18) or his wife’s 
 aunt during the lifetime of his wife. Foster¬ 
 age in Muslim law establishes relationship, 
 
 PROPHET 475 
 
 and therefore a foster-sister or a foster-brother 
 is unlawful in marriage, [marriage.] 
 
 PROPHET. The Arabic words 
 
 used to express the prophetic office are nahi 
 pi. ambiya '; rasul pb rusul ; 
 
 and mursal (J-"/*) > ph mursalun. In Per¬ 
 sian, the three titles are invariably trans¬ 
 lated by the word paicjhambar (^♦jUj) (i.e. 
 a messenger). 
 
 Nahi is the Hebrew nahi am which 
 
 Gesenius says means “ one who bubbles forth ” 
 as a fountain. The Arabic lexicon, the 
 Qamus, derives the word from nubu', “ to be 
 exalted.” 
 
 According to Muhammadan writers a nabi 
 is anyone directly inspired by God, and rasul 
 and mursal, one to whom a special mission 
 has been entrusted. 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said ( Mish - 
 leaf, book xxiv. ch. i. pt. 3) that there were 
 124,000 ambiya, or prophets, and 315 apostles 
 or messengers. Nine of these special messen¬ 
 gers are entitled U!u 'l-'Azm, or* - possessors of 
 constancy, namely,’ Noah, Abraham, David, 
 Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus, and Mu¬ 
 hammad. Six are dignified with special 
 titles : Adam, Safiyu 'llah, the Chosen of God ; 
 Noah, Nabiyu 'llah, the Preacher of God; 
 Abraham, Khalilu 'llah, the Friend of God; 
 Moses, Kalimu 'Hah, the Converser with God ; 
 Jesus, Ruhu 'llah, the Spirit of God ; Muham¬ 
 mad, llasulu 'llah, the Messenger of God. 
 
 The number of sacred books delivered to 
 mankind is said to have been 104 (see Maja- 
 lisu'l-Abrar, p. 55) ; of these, ten were given 
 to Adam, fifty to Seth (a name not mentioned 
 in the Qur'an), thirty to Enoch, ten to Abra¬ 
 ham, the Taurat to Moses, the Zabur to 
 David, the Injil to Jesus, and the Qur’an to 
 Muhammad. 
 
 The one hundred scriptures given to Adam, 
 Seth, Enoch, and Abraham are termed Sahi- 
 fah (a pamphlet), and the other four Kitab (a 
 book) ; but all that is necessary for the Mus¬ 
 lim to know of these inspired records is sup¬ 
 posed to have been retained in the Qur’an. 
 
 Muhammad’s enumeration of the Old and 
 New Testament prophets, both as to name 
 and chronological order, is exceedingly con¬ 
 fused, and it is acknowledged to be a matter 
 of doubt amongst Muslim commentators whe¬ 
 ther or not Alexander the Great and iEsop 
 were inspired prophets. 
 
 The names of twenty-eight prophets are 
 said to occur in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Adam, Adam ; Idris, Enoch; Nuh, Noah; 
 Hud, Heber?; Salih, Methusaleh; Ibrahim, 
 Abraham; Isrnwil, Ishmael; Ishaq, Isaac; 
 Ya‘qub, Jacob; 1 usuf, Joseph; Lut, Lot; 
 Musa, Moses ; Harun, Aaron; Shu‘aib, Jethro ?; 
 Zalcariyd, Zacharias, the father of John the 
 Baptist; Yahya, John Baptist; ‘Isa, Jesus; 
 Da'ud, David; Sulaiman, Solomon; Ilyas, 
 Elias; A/yasa‘, Elisha; Aiyub, Job; Yunus, 
 Jonah : ‘ Uzair, Ezra; Luqmdn, IE sop? more 
 likely Balaam ; Zu ’l-Kijft, Isaiah or Oba- 
 diah ? ; Zu '/- Qurnain, Alexander the Great, 
 
476 
 
 PROPHETESSES 
 
 PUNISHMENT 
 
 An account of these prophets will be found 
 under their respective names. 
 
 A Persian book, entitled the Qisasu ’l- 
 Ambiya', the “Tales of the Prophets,” pro¬ 
 fesses to give an account of the prophets 
 mentioned in the Qur’an, but the utter reck¬ 
 lessness of the writer passes all description ; 
 for example, it is a matter of uncertainty 
 whether Zu ’l-Qarnain is Alexander the 
 Great or some celebrity who lived in the days 
 of Abraham! 
 
 PROPHETESSES. It is said that 
 
 only three women have been prophetesses : 
 Sarah, the mother of Moses, and Mary, the 
 daughter of ‘Imran; for Sarah received by 
 revelation the news of Isaac’s birth, the birth 
 of Moses was divinely communicated to his 
 mother, and Mary received from an angel the 
 happy tidings of the birth of Jesus. (See 
 Hist, of Temple of Jerusalem , translated from 
 the Arabic.) 
 
 PSALMS OF DAVID, The. 
 
 [ZABUR.] 
 
 PUBERTY. Arabic bulugh (g^b), 
 bulughlyat The puberty of a 
 
 boy is established as soon as the usual signs 
 of manhood are known to exist; but if none 
 of these signs exist, his puberty is not clearly 
 established until he have completed his 
 eighteenth year. The puberty of a girl is 
 established in the same way ; but if the usual 
 signs of womanhood are known not to exist, 
 her puberty is not established until her 
 seventeenth year has been completed. This 
 is according to the teaching of the Imam 
 Abu Hanifah. But his two disciples main¬ 
 tain that upon either a boy or girl completing 
 the fifteenth year, they are to be declared 
 adult. The Imam ash-ShafiT concurs in this 
 opinion, and it is said thei’e is also a report 
 of Abu Hanifah to the same effect. The 
 earliest period of puberty with respect to a 
 boy is twelve years, and with respect to a 
 girl nine years. 
 
 When a boy or girl approaches the age of 
 puberty and they declare themselves adult, 
 their declaration must be credited, and they 
 then become subject to all the laws affecting 
 adults, and must observe all the ordinances of 
 the Muslim faith. ( Hidayah , Hamilton’s 
 Translation, vol. iii. p. 483 ; Jamiu ’ r-Rumuz , 
 Durru ’ l-Mukhtar.) 
 
 Syed Ameer Ali says :— 
 
 “ The validity of marriages contracted for 
 minors by any guardian other than the father 
 or the grandfather, is not established until 
 ratified by the parties on arriving at puberty. 
 Such ratification in the case of males must be 
 express, and in the case of females may be 
 either express or implied. On arriving at 
 puberty, both the parties have the right of 
 either ratifying the contract entered into 
 during their minority or of cancelling it. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Sunnis, in order to effect a dis¬ 
 solution of the matrimonial tie, in exercise of 
 the right of option reserved to the parties, it 
 is necessary that there should be a decree of 
 the judge ; and until such decree is made, the 
 
 marriage remains intact. If before a decree 
 has been obtained one of the parties should 
 die, the survivor would be entitled to inherit 
 from the deceased. 
 
 “The Shiahs differ materially from the 
 Sunnis on this. They hold that a marriage 
 contracted on behalf of minors by any un¬ 
 authorised person ( fazuli ), i.e. any person 
 other than a father or a grandfather, remains 
 in absolute suspension or abeyance until as¬ 
 sented to by the parties on arriving at 
 puberty; that, in fact, no legal effect arises 
 from it until such ratification, and if in the 
 interval previous to ratification, one of the 
 parties should die, the contract would fall to 
 the ground and there would be no right of 
 inheritance in the survivor.” (Personal Law 
 of the Mahommedans, p. 269.) 
 
 PULPIT. The pulpit or mimbar 
 (y*-^*), used for the recital of the 
 Ichutbah on Fridays in the chief mosque is 
 usually a wooden structure of three steps and 
 movable, but in the large mosques of Turkey 
 and Egypt it is a fixture of brick or stone. 
 
 It is related that the Prophet, when ad¬ 
 dressing the people, stood on the uttermost 
 step, Abu Bakr on the second, and ‘Umar on 
 
 the third or lowest. ‘Usman being the most 
 humble of men, would gladly have descended 
 lower, but this being impossible, he fixed 
 upon the second step, from which it is now 
 usual to recite the khutbah on Fridays and 
 on the "two great festivals, [mosque, mim¬ 
 bar.] 
 
 PUNISHMENT is divided into 
 three classes : (1) Hadd (f*- ), (2) 
 
 Qisds (ijeUs), (3) Ta‘zib 
 
 (1) liadd (**=-), pi. Hudud (lit. “ That which 
 is defined ”), is that punishment the limits of 
 which have been defined in the Qur’an and 
 Hadis. The following belong to this class :— 
 (a) Adultery, zinS (°^))» for which the 
 adulterer must be stoned, rajm (^*=-_)). ( Mish - 
 kat, book xv. ch. 1.) 
 
 (5) Fornication, zinS ( c ^j), for which the 
 guilty persons must receive one hundred 
 stripes. (Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 2.) 
 
 (c) The false accusation of a married per¬ 
 son with adultery, qazf («—iAS) 5 for which 
 
PUNISHMENT 
 
 477 
 
 the offender must receive eighty stripes 
 (Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 4.) 
 
 (rf) Apostacy, irtidad which is 
 
 punishable with death. (Mislikat, book xiv. 
 ch. v.) 
 
 (e) Drinking wine, shurb for which 
 
 the offender must receive eighty lashes. 
 (Mishlat, book xv. ch. iv.) 
 
 (/) Theft, sariqah (iJy*), which is punished 
 by cutting off the right hand. (Qur’an, Surah 
 v. 42.) 
 
 (g) Highway robbery, qat‘u ’t-tanq 
 (3?-^^) : for robbery only, the loss of hands 
 and feet, and for robbery with murder, death, 
 either by the sword or crucifixion. (Qur’an, 
 Surah v. 37.) 
 
 (2) Qisas ((joLai), lit , “ retaliation,” is that 
 punishment which, although fixed by the law, 
 can be remitted by the person offended against, 
 or, in the case of a murdered person, by his 
 heirs. It is applicable to cases of murder 
 and of wounding. Qisas is the lex talionis of 
 Moses : “ Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, burn¬ 
 ing for burning, wound for wound, stripe for 
 stripe (Exodus xxi. 24) ; but in allowing a 
 money compensation, Muhammad departed 
 from the Jewish Code. (Qur’an, Surah ii. 
 173.) 
 
 (3) Ta‘zib is the punishment 
 
 which is left to the discretion of the Qazi or 
 Judge, [hadd, qisas, ta‘zib.] 
 
 PUNISHMENTS OF THE 
 
 GRAVE, [azabu ’l-qabk.] 
 
 PURGATORY. [barzakh.] 
 
 PURIFICATIONS. Arabic tahd- 
 rah (Hjlgb). The legal methods of 
 purification under the Muhammadan law 
 vary but slightly from those which were on- 
 joined in the Talmudic law of the Jews ; with 
 the remarkable difference that whilst with 
 the Muslim the simple act of purification 
 
 qa‘dah 
 
 suffices, the Jew was taught by the use of 
 expiatory offering to discern to its full ex¬ 
 tent the connection between the outward sign 
 and the inward fount of impurity. 
 
 The most minute regulations with reference 
 to the subject of legal purification, were laid 
 down in the Jewish law, and are found in a 
 treatise of the Mishna entitled Yadaim. See 
 also Leviticus xv. 
 
 The following are the different acts of 
 purification existing in Muhammadan law :— 
 
 1. Ghusl (J.— c ). The washing of the 
 whole body to absolve it from uncleanliness 
 and to prepare it for the exercise of prayer, 
 after the following acts : pollutio nocturna, 
 menses, coitus , puerperium. [giiusl.] 
 
 2. Ghusl-masnun (yf —•* J’— c ). Such 
 washings of the whole body as are founded 
 upon the sunnah or practice and precept of 
 Muhammad, although they are not supposed 
 to be of divine institution, namely, upon the 
 admission of a convert to Islam; before the 
 Friday prayer, on the festivals ; after washing 
 the dead; and after blood-letting, [ghusl 
 masnun.] 
 
 3. Wazii' or the simple ablution of 
 
 hands, arms, ears, face, mouth, &c., before the 
 recital of the usual prayers, [ablution.] 
 
 4. Tayyammum or the use of sand 
 
 or dust instead of water for the wazu'. 
 [tayammum.] 
 
 5. Istinja' or the abstersion of 
 
 the private parts. [Istinja’.] 
 
 6. Mistook or the cleansing of 
 
 the teeth, [miswak.] 
 
 7. Masli (£"•"*), or the touching of the 
 boots whereby they become purified for 
 prayer, [mas ah.] 
 
 8. Tathir ( ^*9^'), or the cleansing of ves¬ 
 sels, articles of clothing, &c., from impurity, 
 which is generally done by applying either 
 water, or sand and dust, the mere sprinkling 
 being sufficient, [tathir.] 
 
 Q- 
 
 QABALAH, QIBALAH (A5Li). A 
 
 deed of conveyance or transfer of right or 
 property. Any contract or bargain or sale 
 signed by a judge. ( Hidai/ah , vol. ii. p. 569.) 
 
 QABA QAUSAIN «-_jVi). Lit. 
 
 “ Two bows’ length.” An expression which 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah liii. 8-10 : “ Then 
 he drew near and hovered o’er ; until he was 
 two bows’ length off or nigher still. Then he 
 revealed to his servant what he revealed 
 him.” Commentators understand this to refer 
 to the angel Gabriel. • Mystic writers use the 
 term to express a state of nearness to God. 
 (See ‘Abdu 'r-Razzaq’s Diet, of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 . QABlL [cain.] 
 
 AL-QABIZ (uAjVsH). “The Re- 
 
 Strainer.” One of the ninety-nine attributes of 
 
 God. But the word does not occur in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 QABR (yjJ). A grave. [grave, 
 
 TOMB.] 
 
 QABUL (J^s). “Consent.” A 
 
 term in the Muhammadan law of marriage, 
 contracts, &c. 
 
 QABZ WA BAST 3 yM). Two 
 
 terms which are employed to express two 
 opposite states of the heart; qabz being a 
 contraction, and hast, an expansion, of the 
 spiritual state. (See ‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Diet, 
 of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 QA‘DAH The sitting pos¬ 
 
 ture in the daily prayer, when the tashahhiid 
 is recited, [tashahhud.] 
 
478 
 
 QADAR 
 
 QADAR (jAS). Lit. “ Measuring.” 
 
 (1) The word generally used in the Hadis for 
 fate, or predestination. (2) Al-Qadar, the 
 title of the xcvnth Surah of the Qur’an. 
 [taqdir, predestination.] 
 
 QADARlYAH (^Ai). A sect of 
 
 Muhammadans who deny absolute predesti¬ 
 nation and believe in the power ( qadr ) of 
 man’s free will. They were the ancient Mu‘- 
 tazilahs before al-Wasil separated from the 
 school of Hasan al-Basri. 
 
 QADIM (^jaS). “Ancient; old.” 
 Al-Qadim, “The one without beginning.” 
 Qadimu ’l-Aiyam, “ Ancient of days.” God. 
 
 al-QADIR (jAVaJl). “The Power¬ 
 ful.” One of the ninety-nine attributes of 
 God. The word occurs in the Qur’an, at 
 Surah ii. 19, “ God is mighty over all,” and in 
 many other passages. 
 
 QADIRlYAH An ascetic 
 
 order of Faqirs instituted a.h. 561, by Saiyid 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Qadir al-Jilani, surnamed Pir Das- 
 tagir, whose shrine is at Baghdad. It is the 
 most popular religious order amongst the 
 Sunnis of Asia, [faqir, zikr.] 
 
 QAF (1) The twenty-first 
 
 letter of the Arabic alphabet. (2) The title 
 of the Lth Surah of the Qur’an. (3) The 
 circle of mountains which Easterns fancy en¬ 
 compass the world. The Muhammadan be¬ 
 lief being that they are inhabited by demons 
 and jinn, and that the mountain range is of 
 emerald which gives an azure hue to the sky. 
 Hence in Persian az qaf ta qaf means the 
 whole world. The name is also used for 
 Mount Caucasus. 
 
 al-QAHHAR (jWalt). “ The Do¬ 
 minant.” One of the ninety-nine names of 
 God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xiii. 17 : 
 “ He is the One, the Dominant." 
 
 QA’IF (<-*?«). Lit. “ Skilful in 
 
 knowing footsteps.” One who can judge of 
 character from the outward appearance. 
 
 One instance of the_kind is related in the 
 Traditions, namely, ‘Ayishah relates, “ One 
 day the Prophet came home in high spirits, 
 and said, ‘O ‘Ayishah, verily Mujazziz al- 
 Mudliji came and saw Usamah and Zaid 
 covered over with a cloth, except their feet; 
 and he said, ‘ Verily, I know from these feet 
 the relationship of father and son.” ( Mishkat, 
 book xiii. ch. xv. pt. 1.) This knowledge is 
 called ‘I/mu 'l-Qiyafah.) 
 
 QAINUQA* A Jewish 
 
 tribe near al-Madlnah in the time of Muham¬ 
 mad. He besieged them in their stronghold 
 in the second year of the Hijrah, and, having 
 conquered them, sent most of them into exile. 
 (See Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 134.) 
 
 QAI^AR (;^ s ). [ciESAR.] 
 
 QAIS IBIS SA‘D (a*- ^ 
 
 One of the leading companions. He was of 
 the tribe Khazraj and the son of Sa‘d, a 
 
 QARI* 
 
 Companion of note. He was a man of large 
 stature and corpulent, emiment for learning, 
 wisdom, and courage. He commanded the 
 Prophet’s body-guard, and under the Khalifah 
 ‘Ali he was made Governor of Egypt. Died 
 at al-Madinah, a.h. 60. 
 
 AL-QAIYCnVI “ The Self- 
 
 Subsisting.” One of the ninety-nine attri¬ 
 butes of God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah 
 iii. 1 : “ There is no deity but God, the 
 living, the self-subsisting.” 
 
 QALAM (fJs)- Lit- “ A (reed) 
 
 pen.” (1) The pen with which God is said to 
 have pre-recorded the actions of men. The 
 Prophet said the first thing which God 
 created was the Pen ( qalam ), and that it 
 wrote down the quantity of every individual 
 thing to be created, all that was and all that 
 will be to all eternity. (See Mishkat .) (2) 
 
 Al- Qalam, the title of the Lxvnith Surah of 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 QALANDAR (jaMs). A Persian 
 title to an order of faqirs or darwishes. An 
 Ascetic. 
 
 al-QAMAR “ The moon.” 
 
 The title of the nvth Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the first verse of which the word occurs. 
 “ And the moon hath been split in sunder.” 
 [moon, shaqqu t.-qamar.] 
 
 QANA'AH (Acbi). Contentment; 
 
 resignation. 
 
 QANIT (oAi). Lit. “ One who 
 
 stands in prayer or in the service of God. 
 Godly, devout, prayerful. The term is used 
 twice in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah xvi. 121: “Verily, Abraham was a 
 leader in religion and obedient to God.” 
 
 Surah xxxix. 12: “He who observeth the 
 hours of the night in devotion.” 
 
 QAlSTCnST (yjAi). Kdiw. Canon; 
 
 a rule, a regulation, a law, a statute. 
 
 QARABAH (“M/). Lit. “Proxi¬ 
 mity.” A legal term in Muhammadan law 
 for relationship. 
 
 QARI’ pi. qurra. “A 
 
 reader." A term used for one who reads 
 the Qur’an correctly, and is acquainted with 
 the ■I/mu 't-Tajwid, or the science of reading 
 the Qur’an. In the history of Islam there are 
 seven celebrated Qurra', or “ readers,” who 
 are known as al- Qurra’u ’s-Sab‘ah, or “ the 
 seven readers.” They are— 
 
 1. Imam Ibn Kasir. Died at Makkah, a.h. 
 
 120 . 
 
 2. Imam ‘Asim of al-Kufah, who learnt 
 the way of reading the Qur’an from ‘Abdu 
 ’r-Rahman as-Salami, who was taught by the 
 Khallfahs ‘Usman and ‘All. He died at al- 
 Kufah, a.h. 127. 
 
 3. Imam Abu ‘Umr was born at Makkah, 
 a.h. 70, and died at al-Kufah, ah. 154. It 
 is on his authority that the following impor¬ 
 tant statement has been handed down : “ When 
 the first copy of the Qur’an was written out 
 
QAZP 
 
 479 
 
 al-qari‘ah 
 
 and presented to the Khallfah ‘Usman, he 
 said, ‘ There are faults of language in it, let 
 the Arabs of the desert rectify them with 
 their tongues.” The meaning of this is that 
 they should pronounce the words correctly 
 hut not alter the written copy. 
 
 4. Imam Hamzah of al-Kufah was born 
 a.h. 80, and died a.h. 156. 
 
 5. Imam al-Kisa’i who had a great reputa¬ 
 tion as a Qari’, but none as a poet. It was 
 a common saying, among the learned in 
 grammar, that there was no one who knew 
 so little poetry as al-Kisa’i. He is said to 
 have died at Tus about the year a.h. 182. 
 
 6. Imam Nafi‘,a native of al-Madinah, who 
 died a.h. 169. 
 
 7. Imam Ibn ‘Amir, who was a native of 
 Syria. His date is uncertain. 
 
 al-QARPAH (*e,un). “The Strik¬ 
 ing.” The title of the cist Surah of the 
 Qur’an, which begins with the words, “ The 
 Striking ! What is the Striking ? And what 
 shall make thee understand how terrible the 
 striking will be.” 
 
 Jalalu ’d-din says it is one of the epithets 
 given to the last day, because it will strike 
 the hearts of all creatures with terror. 
 
 QARlN Lit. “ The one 
 
 united.” The demon which is said to be in¬ 
 dissolubly united with every man. (See 
 Mishkat, book xiii. ch. xv. ; also Qur’an, 
 Surah xli. 24 ; Surah xliii. 35 ; Surah 1. 22.) 
 
 QARlNAH (^4/). The context. 
 A term used in theological and exegetical 
 works. 
 
 QARUN [korah.] 
 
 QARZ ((_/=/)• Lit. “Cutting.” 
 
 (1) A word used in the Qur’an for good 
 deeds done for God, for which a future re¬ 
 compense will be awarded, e.g. Surah v. 15 : 
 “Lend God a liberal loan and I will surely 
 put away from you your evil deeds, and will 
 cause you. to enter gardens through which 
 rivers flow.” 
 
 (2) Money advanced as a loan without in¬ 
 terest, to be repaid at the pleasure of the 
 borrower. 
 
 (3) The word is used in Persian, Urdu, and 
 Pushtoo for money lent at interest, but the 
 legal term for such a debt is riba’. 
 
 QASAM [oath.] 
 
 QASAMAH (a^L»3). Lit. “Taking 
 
 an oath.” An oath under the following cir¬ 
 cumstances :— 
 
 When a person is found slain in a place, 
 and it is not known who was the murderer, 
 and his heirs demand satisfaction for his 
 blood from the inhabitants of the district, then 
 fifty of the inhabitants selected by the next 
 of kin, must be put to their oaths and depose 
 to this effect: “ I swear by God that I did 
 not kill him, nor do I know the murderer.” 
 
 This custom is founded upon the Mosaic 
 law. See Deut. xxi. 1-9. 
 
 al-QASAS “The narra¬ 
 
 tive.” The title of the xxvrath Surah of the 
 
 Qur’an. So called because in the 25th verse 
 of this chapter Moses is said to have related 
 the narrative of his adventures to Shu‘aib. 
 
 QASM ( r -i). Lit. “To divide.” 
 
 A division of conjugal rights, which is en¬ 
 joined by the Muslim law. (See Mishkat, 
 book xiii. ch. x.) 
 
 al-QASWA’ (olyaa!!). Lit. “One 
 
 whose ears are cropt.” Muhammad's cele¬ 
 brated she-camel who conveyed him in the 
 flight from Makkah. 
 
 QATL (J«). [murder.] 
 
 QATTAT («^>Us). A slanderer. 
 
 A tale-bearer, who, according to the Tradi¬ 
 tions, will not enter the kingdom of heaven ; 
 for the Prophet has said, “ A tale-bearer 
 shall not enter Paradise.” ( Mishkat, book 
 xxii. ch. x. pt. 1.) 
 
 QAT‘U ’T-TARIQ gks). 
 
 [highway robbery.] 
 
 QAUL (jy>). -A- saying; a pro¬ 
 
 mise ; a covenant. The word occurs in the 
 Qur'an frequently in these senses. 
 
 QAULU ’L-HAQQ (^1 Jy). 
 
 “ The Word of Truth.” A title given to 
 Jesus Christ in the Qur’an, Surah xix. 35: 
 “ This was Jesus the son of Mary, the word of 
 truth concerning whom they doubt.” By the 
 commentators Husain, al-Kamalan, and 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Qadir, the words are understood to 
 refer to the statement made, but al-Baizawi 
 says it is a title applied to Jesus the son of 
 Mary, [jesus Christ.] 
 
 QAWAD ( j y>). “ Retaliation.” 
 
 Lex talionis. [murder, qisas, retaliation.] 
 
 al-QAWI “ The Strong.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xi. 69: “ Thy 
 Lord is the Strong, the Mighty.” 
 
 QAZA’ (AoS), pi. aqziyaJi. Lit. 
 
 “ Consummating.” (1) The office of a Qazi, 
 or judge. (2) The sentence of a Qazi. (3) 
 Repeating prayers to make up for having 
 omitted them at the appointed time. (4) 
 Making up for an omission in religious duties, 
 such as fasting, &e. (5) The decree existing 
 
 in the Divine mind from all eternity, and the 
 execution and declaration of a decree at the 
 appointed time. (6) Sudden death. 
 
 QAZF Lit. “Throwing 
 
 at.” Accusing a virtuous man or woman of 
 adultery ; the punishment for which is eighty 
 lashes, or, in the case of a slave, forty 
 lashes. This punishment was established by 
 a supposed revelation from heaven, when the 
 Prophet's favourite wife, ‘Ayishah, was ac¬ 
 cused of improper intimacy with Safwan 
 Ibnu ’1-Mu‘attil. Vide Qur’an, Suratu ’n- 
 j Nur (xxiv.), 4: “But to those whc accuse 
 married persons of adultery and produce not 
 four witnesses, them shall ye scourge with 
 four-score stripes.” ( Hidagah , vol. ii. p. 58.) 
 
480 
 
 QIBLAH 
 
 QIBLAH 
 
 QIBLAH (<&-*). “ Anything oppo- 
 site.” The direction in which all Muhamma¬ 
 dans must pray, whether in their public or in 
 their private devotions, namely, towards 
 Makkah. It is established by the express in¬ 
 junction of the Qur’an, contained in the 
 Sui'atu 1-Baqarah (ii.), 136-145 :— 
 
 “Fools among men will say, What has 
 turned them from their Qiblah on which 
 they were agreed ? Say, God’s is the east 
 and the west, He guides whom He will unto 
 the right path. Thus have we made you a 
 middle nation to be witnesses against men, 
 and that the apostle may be a witness against 
 you. We have not appointed the qiblah on 
 which thou wei't agreed, save that we might 
 know who follows the Apostle from him who 
 turns upon his heels, although it is a great 
 thing save to those whom God doth guide. 
 But God will not waste your faith, for verily 
 God with men is kind and merciful. We see 
 -thee often turn about thy face in the heavens, 
 but we will surely turn thee to a qiblah thou 
 shalt like. Turn, then, thy face towards the 
 Sacred Mosque, wherever ye be turn your 
 faces towards it, for verily those who have 
 the Book know that it is the truth from their 
 Lord. God is not careless of that which ye 
 do. And if thou shouldst bring to those who 
 have been given the Book every sign, they 
 would not follow your qiblah, nor do some 
 of them follow the qiblah of the others ; and 
 if thou followest their lusts after the know¬ 
 ledge that has come to thee, then art thou of 
 the evil-doers. Those whom we have given 
 the Book know him as they know their sons, 
 although a sect of them do surely hide the 
 truth the while they know. The truth (is) 
 from thy Lord, be not therefore one of those 
 who doubt thereof. Every sect has some one 
 side to which they turn (in prayer), but do ye 
 hasten onwards to good works, wherever ye 
 are, God will bring you all together. Verily, 
 God is mighty over all. From whencesoever 
 thou comest forth, there turn thy face to¬ 
 wards the Sacred Mosque ; for it is surely 
 truth from thy Lord, God is not careless 
 about what ye do. And from whencesoever 
 thou comest forth, there turn thy face to¬ 
 wards the Sacred Mosque, and wheresoever 
 ye are, turn your faces towards it, that men 
 may have no argument against you, save 
 only those of them who are unjust, and fear 
 them not, but fear me, and I will fulfil my 
 favour to you : perchance ye may be guided 
 yet.” 
 
 In explanation of these verses (which are 
 allowed to be of different periods), and the 
 change of Qiblah, al-Baizawi, the commen¬ 
 tator, remarks that when Muhammad was 
 in Makkah he always worshipped towards 
 the Ka‘bah; but after the flight to al-Madi- 
 nah, he was ordered by God to change his 
 Qiblah towards as-Sakhrah . the rock at Jeru¬ 
 salem on which the Temple was formerly 
 erected, in order to conciliate the Jews, but 
 that, about sixteen months after Ms arrival in 
 al-Madinah, Muhammad longed once more to 
 pray towards Makkah, and he besought the 
 Lord to this effect, and then the instructions 
 
 were revealed, “ Verily we have seen thee 
 turning thy face,” &c., as given above. (See 
 al-Baizawi, in loco.) 
 
 This temporary change of the Qiblah to 
 Jerusalem is now regarded as “a trial of 
 faith,” and it is asserted that Makkah was 
 always the true Qiblah. But it is impossible 
 for any non-Muslim not to see in this transac¬ 
 tion a piece of worldly wisdom on the part of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 Jalalu ’d-dln as-Suyuti admits that the 
 110th verse of the und Surah—which reads : 
 “ The east and the west is God’s, therefore 
 whichever way ye turn is the face of God ”— 
 has been abrogated by a more recent verse, 
 and that at one time in the history of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s mission there was no Qiblah at 
 all. 
 
 Major Osborne remarks in his Islam under 
 the Arabs, p. 58 :— 
 
 “ There have been few incidents more dis¬ 
 astrous in their consequences to the human 
 race than this decree of Muhammad, changing 
 the Kibla from Jerusalem to Mekka. Had he 
 remained true to his earlier and better faith, 
 the Arabs would have entered the religious 
 community of the nations as peace-makers, 
 not as enemies and destroyers. To all alike— 
 Jews, Christians, and Muhammadans—there 
 would have been a single centre of holiness 
 and devotion; but the Arab would have 
 brought with him just that element of con¬ 
 viction which was needed to enlarge and 
 vivify the preceding religions. To the Jew 
 he would have been a living witness that the 
 God who spake in times past to his fathers 
 by the prophets still sent messengers to men, 
 though not taken from the chosen seeds—the 
 very testimony which they needed to rise out 
 of the conception of a national deity to that 
 of a God of all men. 
 
 “To the Christians, his deep and ardent 
 conviction of God as a present living and 
 working power, would have been a voice recal¬ 
 ling them from their petty sectarian squabbles 
 and virtual idolatry, to the presence of the 
 living Christ. By the change of the Kibla, 
 Islam was placed in direct antagonism to 
 Judaism and Christianity. It became a rival 
 faith, possessing an independent centre of 
 existence. It ceased to draw its authenticity 
 from the same wells of inspiration. Jew and 
 Christian could learn nothing from a creed 
 which they knew only as an exterminator ; 
 and the Muhammadan was condemned to a 
 moral and intellectual isolation. And so long 
 as he remains true to his creed, he cannot 
 participate in the onward march of men. 
 The keystone of that creed is a black pebble 
 in a heathen temple. All the ordinances of 
 his faith, all the history of it, are so grouped 
 round and connected with this stone, that 
 were the odour of sanctity dispelled which 
 surrounds it, the whole religion would inevit¬ 
 ably joerish. The farther and the faster men 
 progress elsewhere, the more hopeless becomes 
 the position of the Muslim. He can only 
 hate the knowledge which would gently lead 
 him to the light. Chained to a black stone 
 in a barren Wilderness, the heart and reason 
 
QIBTI 
 
 Q1SAS 
 
 of the Muhammadan world would seem to 
 have taken the similitude of the objects they 
 reverence; and the refreshing dews and 
 genial sunshines which fertilise all olse, seek 
 in vain for anything to quicken there.” (Islam 
 under the Arabs, p. 58.) 
 
 QIBTI (i_sWj>)- Copt. The Chris¬ 
 tian descendants of the Ancient Egyptians, 
 derived from Coptos, a great city in Upper 
 Egypt now called Gooft. The favourite slave 
 of Muhammad, Mariyah, was a Copt, and is 
 known in Muslim history as Mariyatu ’1- 
 Qibtiyah. [mdhammad, wives of.) 
 
 For an account of the manners and customs 
 of the Coptic Christians, see Lane’s Modern 
 Egyptians. 
 
 QIMAR (jUi). Dice or any game 
 at chance. It is forbidden by the Muham¬ 
 madan religion. ( Mishkdt , book xvii. ch. ii. 
 pt. 2.) 
 
 QINN ((£*). A slave, especially 
 one born in the family and whose father and 
 mother are slaves. 
 
 QINTAR A talent. A 
 
 sum of money mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah 
 ii. 67 : “ And of the people of the Book there 
 are some of them who if thou entrust them 
 with a qintar give it back to you.” 
 
 Muhammad Tahir, the author of the Maj- 
 ma‘u ’l-Bihar, p. 173, says a qintar is a very 
 large sum of money. As much gold as will 
 go into the hide of a cow 1 or, according to 
 others, 4,000 dinars. Others say it is an un¬ 
 limited sum, which implies a considerable 
 amount of money. 
 
 QIRA’AH (Uyi). Lit. “Reading.” 
 
 A term given to the different methods of 
 reading the Qur’an. A science which is 
 termed ‘Ilmu ’t-Tajwid. [qur’an.] 
 
 QIRAN (oV)- “ Conjunc¬ 
 
 tion.” (1) The conjunction of two planets. 
 (2) The performance of the Hajj and the 
 ‘Umrah at the same time. 
 
 QISAS From qasas. Lit. 
 
 “ Tracking the footsteps of an enemy.” The 
 law of retaliation. The lex talionis of the 
 Mosaic law, with the important difference 
 that in the Muslim law the next of kin can 
 accept a money compensation for wilful 
 murder. 
 
 The subject of retaliation must be consi¬ 
 dered, first, as to occasions affecting life, 
 and, secondly, as to retaliation in matters 
 short of life. 
 
 (1) In occasions affecting life, retaliation is 
 incurred by wilfully killing a person whose 
 blood is under continual protection, such as 
 a Muslim or a Zimmi, in opposition to aliens 
 who have only an occasional or temporary 
 protection. A freeman is to be slain for a 
 freeman, and a slave for a slave ; but accord¬ 
 ing to Abu Hanifah, a freeman is to be slain 
 for the murder of a slave if the slave be the 
 property of another. A Muslim is also slain 
 for the murder of a zimmi, according to Abu 
 Hanifah, but ash-Shafi‘I disputes this, because 
 
 481 
 
 the Prophet said a Muslim is not to be put to 
 death for an infidel. A man is slain for a 
 woman, an adult for an infant, and a sound 
 person for one who is blind, infirm, dismem¬ 
 bered, lame, or insane. A father is not to be 
 slain for his child, because the Prophet has 
 said, “ Retaliation must not be executed upon 
 the parent for his offspring ”; but a child is 
 slain for the murder of his parent. A master 
 is not slain for his slave, and if one of two 
 partners in a slave kill such a slave, retalia¬ 
 tion is not incurred. If a person inherit the 
 right of retaliating upon his parent, the reta¬ 
 liation fails. Retaliation is to be executed 
 by the next of kin with some mortal weapon 
 or sharp instrument capable of inflicting a 
 mortal wound. 
 
 If a person immerse another, whether an 
 infant or an adult, into water from which it 
 is impossible to escape, retaliation, according 
 to Abu Hanifah, is not incurred, but his two 
 disciples maintain otherwise. 
 
 (2) Of retrdiation short of life. If a person 
 wilfully strike off the hand of another, his 
 hand is to be struck off in return, because it 
 is said in the Qur’an (Surah v. 49), “ There 
 is retaliation in case of wounds.” If a person 
 strike off the foot of another, or cut off the 
 nose, retaliation is inflicted in return. If a 
 person strike another on the eye, so as to 
 force the member, with its vessels, out of the 
 socket, there is no retaliation ; it is impos¬ 
 sible to preserve a perfect equality in extract¬ 
 ing an eye. If, on the contrary, the eye remain 
 in its place, but the faculty of seeing be de¬ 
 stroyed, retaliation is to be inflicted, as in this 
 case equality may be effected by extinguish¬ 
 ing the sight of the offender's corresponding 
 eye with a hot iron. If a person strike out 
 the teeth of another, he incurs retaliation ; for 
 it is said in the Qur’an, “ A tooth for a tooth.” 
 (Surah v. 49.) 
 
 Retaliation is not to be inflicted in the case 
 of breaking any bones except teeth, because 
 it is impossible to observe an equality in 
 other fractures. There is no retaliation, in 
 offences short of life, between a man and a 
 woman, a free person and a slave, or one slave 
 and another slave ; but ash-Shafi‘i maintains 
 that retaliation holds in these cases. Retalia¬ 
 tion for parts of the body holds between a 
 Muslim and an unbeliever, both being upon an 
 equality between each other with respect to 
 fines for the offences in question. 
 
 If the corresponding member of the 
 maimer be defective, nothing more than re¬ 
 taliation on that defective member, or a 
 fine ; and if such member be in the meantime 
 lost, nothing whatever is due. 
 
 There is no retaliation for the tongue or 
 the virile member. 
 
 (3) Retaliation may be commuted for a sum 
 of money. When the heirs of a murdered 
 person enter into a composition with the mur¬ 
 derer for a certain sum, retaliation is re¬ 
 mitted, and the sum agreed to is due, to 
 whatever amount. This is founded upon an 
 express injunction of the Qur’an: “ Where 
 the heir of the murdered person is offered 
 anything, by way of compensation, out of 
 
 61 
 
482 
 
 QISSIS 
 
 QUNUTTJ 'L-WITE 
 
 the property of the murderer, let him take 
 it.” And also in the Traditions, it is related 
 that Muhammad said ( Mishkat , book xiv.): 
 “ The heir of the murdered person is at liberty 
 either to take retaliation, or a fine with the 
 murderer’s consent.” Moreover, it is main¬ 
 tained by Muhammadan jurists that retalia¬ 
 tion is purely a matter which rests with the 
 next of kin, who are at liberty to remit 
 entirely by pardon, and that therefore a 
 compensation can be accepted which is 
 advantageous to the heirs and also to the 
 murderer. 
 
 When a person who has incurred retalia¬ 
 tion dies, the right to retaliation necessarily 
 ceases, and consequently no fine is due from 
 the murderer’s estate, [murder.] 
 
 QISSIS ( c —S). Persian hashish. 
 A Christian presbyter or priest. The word 
 occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah v. 85: 
 “ Thou shalt certainly find those to be 
 nearest in affection to them who say, ‘ We 
 are Christians.’ This because some of them 
 are priests ( qisslsun ) and monks ( ruhban ), and 
 because they are free from pride.” 
 
 QITFlR (j*aLS). Potiphar. Al¬ 
 luded to in the Qur’an, Surah xii. 21, as “ the 
 man from Egypt who had bought him ” 
 (Joseph). Al-Baizawl, the commentator, says 
 his name was Qitflr. 
 
 QIYAM (pLi). Lit. “ Standing.” 
 
 (1) The standing in the Muhammadan 
 prayers when the Subhan, the Ta‘awwuz, the 
 Tasmiyah, the Fatih,ah , and certain portions 
 of the Qur’an, are recited, [prayer.] (2) 
 Yaumu ’ l-Qiyam , the Day of Judgment. 
 
 al-QIYAMAH Lit. “ Tlie 
 
 Standing up. (1) The Day of Resurrection. 
 [resurrection.] (2) The title of the uxxvth 
 Surah of the Qur’an. (3) The Sufis use the 
 term in a spiritual sense for the state of a 
 man who, having counted himself dead to 
 the world, “ stands up ” in a new life in God. 
 (See ‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Did. of Sufi Terms.) 
 
 QIYAS (o-Wi*). Lit. “ To compare.” 
 
 The fourth foundation of Islam, that is to say, 
 the anological reasoning of the learned with 
 regard to the teaching of the Qur’an, Hadis, 
 and Ijma‘. 
 
 There are four conditions of Qiyas : (i) 
 That the precept or practice upon which it is 
 founded must be of common (‘ dmni) and not 
 of special (khass) application ; (2) The cause 
 Qillah) of the injunction must be known and 
 understood ; (3) The decision must be based 
 upon either the Qur’an, the Hadis, or the 
 Ijma‘; (4) The decision arrived at must not 
 be contrary to anything declared elsewhere 
 in the Qur’an and Hadis. 
 
 Qiyas is of two kinds, Qiyas-i-Jali, or evi¬ 
 dent, and Qiyds-i-Khafi . or hidden. 
 
 An example of Qiyas-i-Jali is as follows : 
 Wine is forbidden in the Qur’an under the 
 word khamr, which literally means anything 
 intoxicating; it is, therefore, evident that 
 opium and all intoxicating drugs are also for¬ 
 bidden. 
 
 Qiyds-i-Khafi is seen in the following ex¬ 
 ample :—In the Hadis it is enjoined that one 
 goat in forty must be given to God. To 
 some poor persons the money may be more 
 acceptable ; therefore, the value of the goat 
 may be given instead of the goat. 
 
 QTJBA’ (Aj>). A place three miles 
 
 from al-Madlnah, where the Prophet’s she- 
 camel, al-Qaswa’ knelt down as she brought 
 her master on his flight from Makkah, and 
 where Muhammad laid the foundations of a 
 mosque. This was the first place of public 
 prayer in Islam. Muhammad laid the first 
 brick with his javelin, and marked out the 
 direction of prayer. It is this mosque which 
 is mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah ix. 109:— 
 “ There is a mosque founded from its first 
 day in piety. More worthy is it that thou 
 enter therein: therein are men who aspire 
 to purity, and God loveth the purified.” 
 
 It is esteemed the fourth mosque in rank, 
 being next to that of Makkah, al-Madlnah, 
 and Jerusalem, and tradition relates that the 
 Prophet said one prayer in it was equal to a 
 a lesser pilgrimage to Makkah. [umrah.] 
 Captain Burton says :— 
 
 “ It was originally a square building of 
 very small size; Osman enlarged it in the 
 direction of the minaret, making it sixty-six 
 cubits each way. It is no longer 1 mean and 
 decayed ’ as in Burckhardt’s time. The Sul¬ 
 tan Abdel Hamid, father of Mahmud, created 
 a neat structure of cut stone, whose crenelles 
 make it look more like a place of defence 
 than of prayer. It has, however, no preten¬ 
 sions to grandeur. The minaret is of Turkish 
 shape. To the south, a small and narrow 
 Riwak ( riwaq ), or raised hypo-style, with un¬ 
 pretending columns, looks out northwards 
 upon a little open area simply sanded over ; 
 and this is the whole building.” 
 
 al-QUDDUS “ The 
 
 Holy.” One of the ninety-nine names of God. 
 It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah lix. 23: “ He 
 is God beside whom there is no deity, the 
 King, the Holy." 
 
 QUDRAH (6)A»). Power. Omni¬ 
 potence. One of the attributes of God. 
 al-Qudratu ’ l-halwa ’, The sweet cake of God, 
 i.e. The manna of Israel. The word Qudrah 
 does not occur in the Qur’an. 
 
 QUNUTU ’L-WITR (?$\ 
 
 A special supplication said after the Witr 
 prayers, or, according to some, after the 
 morning prayers. It was at such times that 
 the Prophet would pray for the liberation of 
 his friends and for the destruction of his 
 enemies. 
 
 For the different forms of supplication, see 
 Mishkat, book iv. chapters xxxvi. and xxxvii 
 
 The following is the one usually recited. 
 
 O God! direct me amongst those to whom 
 Thou hast shown the right road, and keep me 
 in safety from the calamities of this world and 
 the next, and love me amongst those Thou 
 hast befriended. Increase Thy favours on 
 me, and preserve me from ill; for verily 
 Thou canst order at Thy will, and eanst not 
 
QURAISH 
 
 483 
 
 be ordered. Verily none are ruined that Thou 
 befriendest, nor are any made great with 
 whom Thou art at enmity.” 
 
 QURAISH The Arabian 
 
 tribe from which Muhammad was descended, 
 and of which his grandfather, ‘Abdu ’1-Mut- 
 talib was chief or prince. This tribe occu¬ 
 pies a very prominent place in the Qur'an 
 and in Muhammadan history. In the Tradi¬ 
 tions, a special section is set apart for a 
 record of the saj’ings of the Prophet regard¬ 
 ing the good qualities of this tribe. 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said : “ Who¬ 
 soever wishes for the destruction of the 
 Quraish, him may God destroy.” 
 
 Ibn ‘Umar relates that the Prophet said, 
 “ The office of Khallfah should be in the 
 Quraish as long as there are two persons left 
 in the tribe, one to be ruler and the other to 
 be ruled.” (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. xii.) 
 
 The Sharif, or Sheriff of Makkah, is always 
 of the Quraish tribe, but ever since the ex¬ 
 tinction of the Abbaside Khallfaks, the Sul¬ 
 tans of Turkey have held the office of Khali- 
 fah, who are not of this tribe, [khalifah.] 
 
 For an account of the Quraish, refer to Sir 
 William Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. i. Intro, 
 cxcv. See also article Arabia. 
 
 Muhammad Tahir, in his Majma‘u ’ /-Bihar , 
 vol. ii., p. 133, says Quraish is the name of a 
 great marine monster which preys on fish, 
 and was given to this tribe on account of its 
 strength and importance amongst the tribes 
 of Arabia. Quraish is the title of the cvith 
 Surah of the Qur’an. 
 
 QURAIZAH A tribe of 
 
 Jews located near al-Madlnah in the time of 
 Muhammad. They at first professed to sup¬ 
 port his mission, but after-wards became dis¬ 
 affected. The Prophet asserted that he had 
 been commanded by God to destroy them, 
 and a complete massacre of the men took 
 place, and the women and children were taken 
 captive. The event is referred to at length 
 in the xxxuird Surah of the Qur'an. 
 
 Sir William Muir thus records the event:— 
 
 “ The men and women were penned up for 
 the night in separate yards ; the}' were sup¬ 
 plied with dates, and spent the night in 
 prayer, repeating passages from their Scrip¬ 
 tures, and exhorting one another in constancy. 
 During the night graves or trenches sufficient 
 to contain the dead bodies of the men were 
 dug in the chief market-place of the city. 
 When these were ready in the morning, Ma¬ 
 homet, himself a spectator of the tragedy, 
 gave command that the captives should be 
 brought forth in companies of five or six at a 
 time. Each company was made to sit down 
 by the brink of the trench destined for its 
 grave, and there beheaded. Party after party 
 they were thus led out, and butchered in cold 
 blood, till the whole were slain. One woman 
 alone was put to death. It was she who 
 threw the millstone from the battlements. 
 For Zoheir, an aged Jew, who had saved 
 some of his allies of the Bani Aus in the 
 battle of Boath, Thabit interceded and pro- 
 
 qur’an 
 
 cured a pardon, including tho freedom of his 
 family and restoration of his property. ‘But 
 what hath become of all our chiefs,—of Kab, 
 of Huwey, of Ozzal, the son of Samuel?’ 
 asked the old man. As one after another he 
 named the leading chiefs of his tribe, he re¬ 
 ceived to each inquiry the same reply,—they 
 had all been slain already. 1 Then of what 
 use is life to me any longer? Leave me not 
 to that bloodthirsty man who has killed all 
 that are dear to me in cold blood. But slay 
 mo also, I entreat thee. Here, take my 
 sword, it is sharp; strike high and hard.’ 
 Thabit refused, and gave him over to another, 
 who, under Ali’s orders, beheaded the aged 
 man, but attended to his last request in ob¬ 
 taining freedom for his family. When Ma¬ 
 homet w r as told of his saying, ‘ Slay me also, 
 that I may go to my home and join those 
 that have preceded me,’ he answered, ‘ Yea, 
 he shall join them in the fire of hell ? ’ 
 
 “ Having sated his revenge, and drenched 
 the market-place with the blood of eight 
 hundred victims, and having given command 
 for the earth to be smoothed over their re¬ 
 mains, Mahomet returned from the horrid 
 spectacle to solace himself with the charms 
 of Rihana, whose husband and all whose 
 male relatives had just perished in the mas¬ 
 sacre. He invited her to be his wife, but 
 she declined, and chose to remain (as, indeed, 
 having refused marriage, she had no alter¬ 
 native) his slave or concubine. She also de¬ 
 clined the summons to conversion, and con¬ 
 tinued in the Jewish faith, at which the Pro¬ 
 phet was much concerned. It is said, how¬ 
 ever. that she afterwards embraced Islam. 
 She lived with Mahomet till his death. 
 
 “ The booty was divided into four classes— 
 lands, chattels, cattle, and slaves ; and Ma¬ 
 homet took a fifth of each. There were 
 (besides little children who counted with 
 their mothers) a thousand captives; from 
 his share of these, Mahomet made certain 
 presents to his friends of slave girls and 
 female servants. The rest of the women and 
 children he sent to be sold among the Bedouin 
 tribes of Najd, in exchange for horses and 
 arms ; for he kept steadily in view the advan¬ 
 tage of raising around him a body of efficient 
 horse.” (Life of Mahomet, vol. iii. p. 276.) 
 
 QUR’AN (oVO- The sacred book 
 
 of the Muhammadans, and believed by them 
 to be the inspired word of God. It is written 
 in the Arabic language. 
 
 The word Qur'an is derived from the 
 Arabic Qara', which occurs at the commence¬ 
 ment of Surah xcv., which is said to have 
 been the first chapter revealed to Muham¬ 
 mad, and has the same meaning as the 
 
 Heb. hard, “to read,” or “to recite,” 
 
 which is frequently used in Jeremiah xxxvi., 
 as well as in other places in the Old Testa¬ 
 ment. It is, therefore, equivalent to the 
 
 Heb. K-V'TO mikra, rendered in Nehemiah 
 
 viii. 8, “ the reading.” It is the title given 
 to the Muhammadan Scriptures which are 
 
484 
 
 qur’an 
 
 usually appealed to and quoted from as al- 
 Qur’dn al-Majid. the “ Glorious Qur'an ”; | 
 al- Qur'an ash-Sharif, the “Noble Qur’an”; 
 and is also called the Furqan, “ Distin- 
 guisher ” ; Kalamu 'llah, the “ Word of God ” ; 
 and al-Kitab, “ the Book.” 
 
 According to Jalalu ’d-din as-Suyutl, in 
 his Itqan, p. 117, the Qur’an is distinguished 
 in the text of the book by the following 
 fifty-five special titles :— 
 
 1 . 
 
 Al-Kitab 
 
 The Book. 
 
 2. 
 
 Al-Mubin 
 
 The Enlightener. 
 
 3. 
 
 Al-Qur'an 
 
 The Reading. 
 
 4. 
 
 Al-Karim 
 
 The Good. 
 
 5. 
 
 Al-Kalam 
 
 The Word. 
 
 6. 
 
 Al-Burhan . 
 
 The Proof. 
 
 7. 
 
 An-Nur 
 
 The Light. 
 
 8. 
 
 Al-Huda 
 
 The Guidance. 
 
 9. 
 
 Ar-Rahmah . 
 
 The Mercy. 
 
 10. 
 
 Al-Furqan 
 
 The Distinguisher. 
 
 11. 
 
 Ash-Shifa' 
 
 The Health. 
 
 12. 
 
 Al-Mu'izah . 
 
 The Sermon. 
 
 13. 
 
 Az-Zikr 
 
 The Reminder. 
 
 14. 
 
 Al-Mubarak . 
 
 The Blessed. 
 
 15. 
 
 Al- l Ali . 
 
 The Lofty. 
 
 16. 
 
 Al-Hikmah . 
 
 The Wisdom. 
 
 17. 
 
 Al-Hakim 
 
 The Philosopher. 
 
 18. 
 
 Al-Muhaimin 
 
 The Preserver. 
 
 19. 
 
 Al-Musaddiq. 
 
 The Establisher of 
 Truth. 
 
 20. 
 
 Al-Habl 
 
 The Rope. 
 
 21. 
 
 As-Siratu 'l-Mus- 
 taqim. 
 
 The Straight Path. 
 
 22. 
 
 Al- Qaiyim 
 
 The Strong. 
 
 23. 
 
 Al-Qaulu 'l-Fasl . 
 
 The Distinguishing 
 Speech. 
 
 24. 
 
 An - Naba’u 7- 
 ■Azim. 
 
 The Exalted News. 
 
 25. 
 
 Al - Hasanu 7- 
 Iladis. 
 
 The Good Saying. 
 
 26. 
 
 Al-Masanl 
 
 The Repetition. 
 
 27. 
 
 Al- Mutashabih 
 
 The Uniform. 
 
 28. 
 
 At-Tanzil 
 
 The Revelation. 
 
 29. 
 
 Ar-Riih 
 
 The Spirit. 
 
 30. 
 
 Al- Wahy . 
 
 The Inspiration. 
 
 31. 
 
 A/-‘Arabi 
 
 The Arabic 
 
 32. 
 
 Al-Basa'ir . 
 
 The Enlighten¬ 
 ment. 
 
 33. 
 
 A1-Bay an 
 
 The Explanation. 
 
 34. 
 
 Al-'Ihn . 
 
 The Knowledge. 
 
 35. 
 
 Al-Haqq 
 
 The Truth. 
 
 36. 
 
 Al-Hadi 
 
 The Guide. 
 
 37. 
 
 Al-Ajab 
 
 The Wonderful. 
 
 38. 
 
 At-Tazkirah. 
 
 The Exhortation. 
 
 39. 
 
 Al - ‘ Urwatu 7- 
 Wusqa. 
 
 The Firm Handle. 
 
 40. 
 
 As-Sidq 
 
 The Righteous. 
 
 41. 
 
 A!-‘Adi. 
 
 The Justice. 
 
 42. 
 
 Al-Amr. 
 
 The Order. 
 
 43. 
 
 Al-Munadi . 
 
 The Preacher. 
 
 44. 
 
 Al-Bushrd 
 
 The Glad Tidings. 
 
 45. 
 
 Al-Majid 
 
 The Exalted. 
 
 46. 
 
 Az-Zabur 
 
 The Psalm. 
 
 47. 
 
 Al-Bashir 
 
 The Herald of Glad 
 Tidings. 
 
 48. 
 
 An-Nazir 
 
 The Warner. 
 
 49. 
 
 Al-‘Aziz 
 
 The Mighty. 
 
 50. 
 
 A/-Bald ; ih . 
 
 The Message. 
 
 51. 
 
 A/-Qa?as 
 
 The Narrative. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 52. As-Suhuf . . The Pamphlets. 
 
 53. Al-Mukarramah . The Excellent. 
 
 54. Al-Marfufah . The Exalted. 
 
 55. Al-Mutaharah . The Purified. 
 
 /.—The Inspiration of the Qur'an. 
 
 According to Abu Hanlfah, the great 
 Sunni Imam, the Qur’an is eternal in its 
 original essence. He says, “ The Qur’an is 
 the Word of God, and is His inspired Word 
 and Revelation. It is a necessary attribute 
 (sifah ) of God. It is not God, but still it is 
 inseparable from God. It is written in a 
 volume, it is read in a language, it is re¬ 
 membered in the heart, and its letters and its 
 vowel points, and its writing are all created, 
 for these are the works of man, but God's 
 word is uncreated (ghairu ’ l-makhlug ). Its 
 words, its writing, its letters, and its verses, 
 are for the necessities of man, for its meaning 
 is arrived at by their use, but the Word of 
 God is fixed in the essence (zat) of God, and 
 he who says that the word of God is created 
 is an infidel.” (See Kitdhu 'l-Wafiyah, 
 p. 77.) 
 
 Muhammadans believe the Qur’an to have 
 been written by “ the hands of noble, righ¬ 
 teous scribes,” mentioned in the Suratu 
 ‘Abasa (lxxx.) 15, and to have been sent 
 down to the lowest heaven complete, from 
 whence it was revealed from time to time 
 to the Prophet by the angel Gabriel. [Ga¬ 
 briel.] 
 
 There is, however, only one distinct asser¬ 
 tion in the Qur’an of Gabriel having been the 
 medium of inspiration, namely, Suratu ’1- 
 Baqarali (ii.), 91: and this occurs in a Medi- 
 nah Surah revealed about seven years after 
 the Prophet’s rule had been established. In 
 the Suratu ’sh-Shu‘ara’ (xxvi.), 193, the 
 Qur’an is said to have been given by the 
 Ruhu'l-Amxn, or “Faithful Spirit”; and in 
 the Suratu ’n-Najm (liii.), 5, Muhammad 
 claims to have been taught by the Shadidu 
 'l-Quwa, or “ One terrible in power ”; and in 
 the Traditions the agent of inspiration is 
 generally spoken of as “ an angel ” ( malaic ). 
 It is, therefore, not quite certain through 
 what agency Muhammad believed himself to 
 be inspired of God, the Holy Spirit or the 
 angel Gabriel. 
 
 According to the traditions, the revelation 
 was first communicated in dreams. ‘Ayishah, 
 one of the Prophet’s wives, relates ( Mishkat, 
 xxiv. 5) :— 
 
 “ The first revelations which the Prophet 
 received were in true dreams ; and he never 
 dreamt but it came to pass as regularly as 
 the dawn of day. After this the Prophet 
 was fond of retirement, and used to seclude 
 himself in a cave in Mount Hira’ and ■wor¬ 
 ship there day and night. He would, when¬ 
 ever he wished, return to his family at Mak- 
 kah, and then go back again, taking with 
 him the necessaries of life. Thus he conti¬ 
 nued to return to Khadljah from time to 
 time, until one day the revelation came down 
 to him, and the angel ("Arabic malak, Heb. 
 malakh, “ an angel; a prophet ”; a name of 
 
485 
 
 qur’an 
 
 office, not of nature [See Wilson’s Hebrew 
 Lexicon, p. 13]) came to him and said, ‘ Read ’ 
 (iqra ’); but the Prophet said, £ I am not a 
 reader.’ And the Prophet related that he (i.e. 
 the angel) took hold of me and squeezed me 
 as much as I could bear, and he then let me 
 go and said again, ‘ Read 1 ’ And I said, ‘ I 
 am not a reader.’ Then he took hold of me 
 a second time, and squeezed me as much as I 
 could bear, and then let me go, and said, 
 
 ‘ Read ! ’ And I said, ‘ I am not a reader.’ 
 Then he took hold of me a third time and 
 squeezed me as much as I could bear, and 
 said :— 
 
 “ 1 Read ! in the name of Thy Lord who 
 created; 
 
 Created man from a clot of blood in the 
 womb. 
 
 Read 1 for thy Lord is the most bene¬ 
 ficent, 
 
 He hath taught men the use of the 
 pen; 
 
 He hath taught man that which he 
 knoweth not.’ 
 
 (These are the first five verses of the xcvi th 
 Surah of the Qur’an. The other verses of the 
 Surah being of a later date.) 
 
 “ Then the Prophet repeated the words 
 himself, and with his heart trembling he re¬ 
 turned (i.e. from Hira’ to Makkah) to Khadi- 
 jah, and said, ‘Wrap me up, wrap me up.’ 
 And they wrapped him up in a garment till 
 his fear was dispelled, and he told Khadiiah 
 what had passed, and he said: ‘Verily, I 
 was afraid I should have died.’ Then Kha- 
 dijah said, ‘ No, it will not be so. I swear by 
 God, He will never make you melancholy or 
 ■sad. For verily you are kind to your rela¬ 
 tives, you speak the truth, you are faithful 
 in trust, you bear the afflictions of the 
 people, you spend in good works what you 
 gain in trade, you are hospitable, and you 
 assist your fellow men.’ After this Khadiiah 
 took the Prophet to Waraqah, who was the 
 son of her uncle, and she said to him, ‘ 0 son 
 of my uncle 1 hear what your brother’s 
 son says.’ Then Waraqah said to the Pro¬ 
 phet, ‘ 0 son of my brother! what do you 
 see ? ’ Then the Prophet told Waraqah what 
 he saw, and Waraqah said, ‘ That is the 
 Namus [namus] which God sent to Moses.’ 
 ‘Ayishah also relates that Haris ibn Hisham 
 asked the Prophet, ‘ How did the revelation 
 come to you ? ’ and the Prophet said, ‘ Some¬ 
 times like the noise of a bell, and sometimes 
 the angel would come and converse with me 
 in the shape of a man.’ ” 
 
 According to ‘Ayishah’s statement, the 
 Suratu T-‘Alaq (xcvi.) was the first portion 
 of the Qur’an revealed ; but it is moi'e pro¬ 
 bable that the poetical Surahs, in which there 
 is no express declaration of the prophetic 
 office, or of a divine commission, were com¬ 
 posed at an earlier period. Internal evidence 
 would assign the earliest date to the Surahs 
 az-Zalzalah (xcix.), al-‘Asr (ciii.), al-‘Adiyat 
 (c.), and al-Fatihah (i.), which are rather the 
 utterances of a searcher after truth than of 
 an Apostle of God. 
 
 Although the Qur’in now appears as ons 
 
 QUR*AN 
 
 book, the Muslim admits that it was not all 
 made known to the Prophet in one and the 
 same manner. 
 
 Mr. Sell, in his Faith of Islam, quoting 
 from the Mudariju ’n-Nubuwah , p. 509, gives 
 the following as some of the modes of inspi¬ 
 ration :— 
 
 “ 1. It is recorded on the authority of ’A'ye- 
 sha, one of Muhammad’s wives, that a bright¬ 
 ness like the brightness of the morning came 
 upon the Prophet. According to some com¬ 
 mentators, this brightness remained six 
 months. In some mysterious way Gabriel, 
 through this brightness or vision, made 
 known the will of God. 
 
 “ 2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dah- 
 iah (Dahyah), one of the Companions of the 
 Prophet, renowned for his beauty and grace¬ 
 fulness. A learned dispute has arisen with 
 regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel 
 when he assumed the bodily form of Dahiah. 
 At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel over¬ 
 came Muhammad, who was then translated 
 to the world of angels. This always hap¬ 
 pened when the revelation was one of bad 
 news, such as denunciations or predictions of 
 woe. At other times, when the message 
 brought by Gabriel was one of consolation 
 and comfort, the human nature of the Pro¬ 
 phet overcame the angelic nature of the 
 angel, who, in such case, having assumed a 
 human form, proceeded to deliver the mes¬ 
 sage. 
 
 “ 3. The Prophet heard at times the noise 
 of the tinkling of a bell. To him alone was 
 known the meaning of the sound. He alone 
 could distinguish in, and through it, the 
 words which Gabriel wished him to under¬ 
 stand. The effect of this mode of Wahl 
 ( Wahy) was more marvellous than that of 
 any of the other ways. When his ear caught 
 the sound his whole frame became agitated 
 On the coldest day, the perspiration, like 
 beads of silver, would roll down his face. 
 The glorious brightness of his countenance 
 gave place to a ghastly hue, whilst the way 
 in which he bent down his head showed the 
 intensity of the emotion through which he 
 was passing. If riding, the camel on which 
 he sat would fall to the ground. The 
 Prophet one day, when reclining with his 
 head on the lap of Zeid, heard the well- 
 known sound : Zeid, too, knew that some¬ 
 thing unusual was happening, for so heavy 
 became the head of Muhammad that it was 
 with the greatest difficulty he could support 
 the weight. 
 
 “ 4. At the time of the Mi’raj, or night 
 ascent into heaven, God spoke to the Pro¬ 
 phet without the intervention of an angel. 
 It is a disputed point whether the face of the 
 Lord was veiled or not. 
 
 “5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, 
 and placing his hands on the Prophet’s shoul¬ 
 ders made known his will. 
 
 “6. Twice, angels having each six hundred 
 wings, appeared and brought the message 
 from God. 
 
 “ 7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily 
 form, so inspired the heart of the Prophet, 
 
486 
 
 qur’an 
 
 that the words he uttered under its influence 
 were the words of God. This is technically 
 called Ilka (Uqa’), and is by some supposed | 
 to be the degree of inspiration to which the j 
 Traditions belong. (See as-Suyutis Itqan, 
 p. 103.) 
 
 “ Above all, the Prophet was not allowed 
 to remain in any error; if, by any chance, he 
 had made a wrong deduction from any pre¬ 
 vious revelation, another was always sent to | 
 rectify it. This idea has been worked up to j 
 a science of abrogation, according to which | 
 some verses of the Quran abrogate others. 
 Muhammad found it necessary to shift his 
 stand-point more than once, and thus it be- 
 came necessary to annul earlier portions of 
 his revelation, [mansukh.] 
 
 “ Thus in various ways was the revelation j 
 
 qur’an 
 
 made known to Muhammad. At first there 
 seems to have been a season of doubt, the 
 dread lest after all it might be a mockery. 
 But as years rolled on, confidence in himself 
 and in his mission came. At times, too, 
 there is a joyousness in his utterances as he 
 swears by heaven and earth, by God and 
 man ; but more often the visions were weird 
 and terrible. Tradition says :—“ He roared 
 like a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh 
 rent his heart in pieces.” Some strange 
 power moved him, his fear was uncontrol¬ 
 lable. For twenty years or more the revela¬ 
 tions came, a direction on things of heaven 
 and of earth, to the Prophet as the spiritual 
 guide of all men, to the Warrior-Chief, as 
 the founder of political unity among the Arab 
 tribes.” 
 
 A SPECIMEN OF THE FIRST TWO PAGES OF A QUR’AN. 
 
 II.—The Collation oj the Qur'an. 
 
 The whole book was not arranged until 
 after Muhammad’s death, but it is believed 
 that the Prophet himself divided the Surahs 
 [surah] and gave most of them their present 
 titles, which are chosen from some word 
 which occurs in the chapter. The following 
 is the account of the collection and arrange¬ 
 ment of the Qur’an, as it stands at present, 
 
 as given in traditions recorded by al-Bukharf 
 (see Sahihu '/-Bukhari, Arabic ed., p. 745.) 
 
 “ Zaid ibn Sabit relates :—‘ Abu Bakr sent 
 a person to me, and called me to him, at the 
 time of the battle with the people of Yama- 
 mah ; and I went to him, and ‘Umar was 
 with him; and Abu Bakr said to me, “ ‘Umar 
 came to me and said, ‘ Verily a great many 
 of the readers of the Qur’an were slain on the 
 day of the battle with the people of Yama- 
 
Q,URAN 
 
 487 
 
 qur’an 
 
 mah; and really I am afraid that if the 
 slaughter should he great, much will he lost 
 from the Qur’an, because every person re¬ 
 members something of it; and, verily, I see 
 it advisable for you to order the Qur’an to 
 be collected into one book.’ I said to ‘Umar, 
 
 ‘ How can I do a thing which the Prophet has 
 not done ? ’ He said, ‘ I swear by God, this 
 collecting of the Qur’an is a good thing.’ 
 And ‘Umar used to be constantly returning 
 to me and saying: ‘You must collect the 
 Qur’an,’ till at length God opened my breast 
 so to do, and I saw what ‘Umar had been 
 advising.’ And Zaid ibn Sabit says that, 
 ‘Abu Bakr said to me, “You are a young 
 and sensible man, and I do not suspect you of 
 forgetfulness, negligence, or perfidy; and, 
 verily, you used to write for the Prophet his 
 instructions from above; then look for the 
 Qur'an in every place and collect it.’ I said, 
 
 “ I swear by God, that if people had ordered 
 me to carry a mountain about from one place 
 to another, it would not be heavier upon me 
 than the order which Abu Bakr has given for 
 collecting the Qur’an.” I said to Abu Bakr, 
 
 “ How do you do a thing which the Prophet of 
 God did not ? ” He said, “ By God, this col¬ 
 lecting of the Qur’an is a good act.” And he 
 used perpetually to return to me, until God 
 put it into my heart to do the thing which the 
 heart of Abu Bakr had been set upon. Then 
 I sought for the Qur’an, and collected it from 
 the leaves of the date, and white stones, and 
 the breasts of people that remembered it, till 
 I found the last part of the chapter entitled 
 Tauba (Repentance), with Abu Khuzaimah 
 al-Ansarf, and with no other person. These 
 leaves were in the possession of Abu Bakr, 
 until God caused him to die; after which 
 ‘Umar had them in his life-time; after that, 
 they remained with his daughter, Hafsah; 
 after that, ‘Usman compiled them into one 
 book.’ 
 
 “ Anas ibn Malik relates : ‘ Huzaifah came 
 to ‘Usman, and he had fought with the people 
 of Syria in the conquest of Armenia ; and had 
 fought in Azurbaijan, with the people of al- 
 ‘Iraq, and he was shocked at the different 
 ways of people reading the Qur’an. And Hu¬ 
 zaifah said to ‘Usman, “ 0 ‘Usman, assist this 
 people, before they differ in the Book of God, 
 just as the Jews and Christians differ in their 
 books.” Then ‘Usman sent a person to Haf¬ 
 sah, ordering her to send those portions 
 which she had, and saying, “ I shall have a 
 number of copies of them taken, and will then 
 return them to you.” And Hafsah sent the 
 portions to ‘Usman, and ‘Usman ordered Zaid 
 ibn Sabit, Ansitri, and Abdu’llah ibn az-Zubair, 
 and Sa‘id ibn Al‘as, and ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman ibn 
 al-Haris ibn Hisham ; and these were all of 
 the Quraish tribe, except Zaid ibn Sabit and 
 ‘Usman. And he said to the three Quraish- 
 ites, “ When you and Zaid ibn-Sabit differ 
 about any part of the dialect of the Qur’an, 
 then do ye write it in the Quraish dialect, 
 because it came not down in the language of 
 any tribe but theirs.” Then they did as 
 • Usman had ordered; and when a number of 
 copies had been taken, ‘Usman returned the 
 
 leaves to Hafsah. And ‘Usman sent a copy 
 to every quarter of the countries of Islam, 
 and ordered all other leaves to be burnt, and 
 Ibn Shahab said, “Kharljah, son of Zaid ibn 
 Sabit, informed me, saying, ‘ I could not find 
 one verse when I was writing the Qur’an, 
 which, verily, I heard from the Prophet; 
 then I looked for it, and found it with Khu¬ 
 zaimah, and entered it into the Suratu ’1- 
 Ahzab.’ ” 
 
 This recension of the Qur’an produced by 
 the Khalifah ‘Usman has been handed down 
 to us unaltered; and there is probably no 
 other book in the world which has remained 
 twelve centuries with so pure a text. 
 
 Sir William Muir remarks in his Life of 
 Mahomet :— 
 
 “ The original copy of the first edition was 
 obtained from Haplisa’s (Hafsah) depository, 
 and a careful recension of the whole set on 
 foot. In case of difference between Zaid and 
 his coadjutors, the voice of the latter, as 
 demonstrative of the Coreishite idiom, was 
 to preponderate; and the new collation was 
 thus assimilated to the Meccan dialect, in 
 which the Prophet had given utterance to 
 his inspiration. Transcripts were multiplied 
 and forwarded to the chief cities in the em¬ 
 pire, and the previously existing copies were 
 all, by the Caliph’s command, committed to 
 the flames. The old original was returned 
 to Haphsa’s custody. 
 
 “ The recension of Othman (‘Usman) has 
 been handed down to us unaltered. So care¬ 
 fully, indeed, has it been preserved, that 
 there are no variations of importance,—we 
 might almost say no variations at all, amongst 
 the innumerable copies of the Coran scat¬ 
 tered throughout the vast bounds of the em¬ 
 pire of Islam. 
 
 “ Contending and embittered factions, taking 
 their rise in the murder of Othman himself 
 within a quarter of a century from the death 
 of Mahomet, have ever since rent the Maho¬ 
 metan world. Yet but one Coran has been 
 current amongst them; and the consenta¬ 
 neous use by them all in every age up to the 
 present day of the same Scripture, is an irre¬ 
 fragable proof that we have now before us 
 the very text prepared by command of the 
 unfortunate Caliph. There is probably in the 
 world no other work which has remained 
 twelve centuries with so pure a text. The 
 various readings are wonderfully few in num¬ 
 ber, and are chiefly confined to differences 
 in the vowel points and diacritical signs. 
 But these marks were invented at a later 
 date. 
 
 “ They |did not exist at all in the early 
 copies, and can hardly be said to affect the 
 text of Othman. Since, then, we possess the 
 undoubted text of Othman’s recension, it re¬ 
 mains to be inquired whether that text was 
 an honest reproduction of Abu Bakr’s edi¬ 
 tion, with the simple reconcilement of unim¬ 
 portant variations. There is the fullest 
 ground for believing that it was so. No 
 early or trustworthy traditions throw suspi¬ 
 cion of tampering with the Coran in order to 
 support his own claims upon Othman. The 
 
488 
 
 QUB AN 
 
 qur’ax 
 
 Sheeahs (Shrahs)* of later times, indeed, 
 pretend that Oihman left ont certain Snras or 
 passages which favoured Ali. But this is 
 incredible. He could not possibly have done 
 so without it being observed at the time : and 
 it cannot be imagined that Ali and his fol¬ 
 lowers (not to mention the whole body of the 
 Mussulmans who fondly regarded the Coran 
 as the word of God, would have permitted 
 such a proceeding. 
 
 “ In support of this position, the following 
 arguments may be adduced. First: When 
 Othman's edition was prepared, no open 
 breach had yet taken place between the 
 Omeyads and the Alyites. The unity of 
 Islam was still complete and unthreatened. 
 Air's pretensions were as yet undeveloped. 
 No sufficient object can, therefore, be assigned 
 for the perpetration by Othman of an offence 
 which Moslems regard as one of the blackest 
 dye. Second: On the other hand, Ali, from 
 the very commencement of Othman’s reign, 
 had an influential party of adherents, strong 
 enough in the end to depose the Caliph, to 
 storm his palace in the heart of Medina, and 
 to put an end to his life. Can we conceive 
 that these men would have remained quiet, 
 when the very evidence of their leader’s 
 superior claims was being openly expunged 
 from the book of God. Third: At the time 
 of the recension, there were still multitudes 
 alive who had the Coran, as originally deli¬ 
 vered, by heart; and of the supposed pas¬ 
 sages favouring Ali—had any ever existed— 
 there would have been numerous transcripts 
 in the hands of his family and followers. 
 Both of these sources must have proved an 
 effectual check upon any attempt at suppres¬ 
 sion. Fourth : The party of Ali shortly after 
 assumed an independent attitude, and he 
 himself succeeded to the Caliphate. Is it 
 possible that either Ali. or his party, when 
 thus arrived at power, would have tolerated 
 a mutilated Coran—mutilated expressly to 
 destroy his claims Tet we find that they 
 used the same Coran as their opponents, and 
 raised no shadow of an objection against it. 
 
 The insurgents are indeed said to have 
 made it one of their complaints against 
 Othman that he had caused a new edition 
 to be made of the Coran, and had committed 
 all the old copies to the flames : but these 
 proceedings were objected to simply as un¬ 
 authorised and saci^igious. Xo hint was 
 dropped of any alteration or omission. Such 
 a supposition, palpably absurd at the time, 
 is altogether an after-thought of the modem 
 Sheeas. 
 
 “ We may, then, safely conclude that Oth¬ 
 man’s recension was, what it professed to be, 
 a reproduction of Abu Bakr’s edition, with a 
 more perfect conformity to the dialect of 
 Mecca, and possibly a more uniform arrange- 
 
 * Sayatu ’l-Quluo, leaf 430: “ The Ansars were 
 ordained to oppose the claims of the family of 
 Muhammad, and this was the reason why the 
 other wretches took the office of Khalifah by 
 force. After thus treating one Khalifah of God, 
 theythen mutilated and changed the other Kha- 
 lifah, which is the book of God." 
 
 ment of its parts,—but still a faithful repro 
 duetion. 
 
 “ The most important question yet remains, 
 viz. Whether Abu Bakes edition was itself 
 an authentic and complete collection of Maho¬ 
 met's Revelations. The following considera¬ 
 tions warrant the belief that it was authentic 
 and, in the main, as complete as at the time 
 was possible. 
 
 “ First.—We have no reason to doubt that 
 Abn Bakr was a sincere follower of Maho¬ 
 met, and an earnest believer in the divine 
 origin of the Coran. His faithful attachment 
 to the Prophet’s person, conspicuous for the 
 last twenty years of his life, and his simple, 
 consistent, and unambitious deportment as 
 Caliph, admit no other supposition. Firmly 
 believing the revelations of his friend to be 
 the revelations of God himself, his first object 
 would be to secure a pure and complete tran¬ 
 script of them. A similar argument applies 
 with almost equal force to Omar, and the 
 other agents in the revision. The great mass 
 of Mussulmans were undoubtedly sincere in 
 their belief. From the scribes themselves, 
 employed in the compilation, down to the 
 humblest believer who brought his little 
 store of writing on stones or palm-leaves, all 
 would he influenced by the same earnest 
 desire to reproduce the very words which 
 their Prophet had declared as his message 
 from the Lord. And a similar guarantee 
 existed in the feelings of the people at large, 
 in whose soul no principle was more deeply 
 rooted than an awful reverence for the sup¬ 
 posed word of God. The Coran itself con¬ 
 tains frequent denunciations against those 
 who should presume to ‘ fabricate anything 
 in the name of the Lord,’ or conceal any part 
 of that which He had revealed. Such an 
 action, represented as the very worst descrip¬ 
 tion of crime, we cannot believe that the first 
 Moslems, in the early ardour of their faith 
 and love, would have dared to contemplate. 
 
 “ Second. — The compilation was made 
 within two years of Mahomet’s death. We 
 have seen that several of his followers had 
 the entire revelation (excepting, perhaps, 
 j some obsolete fragments) by heart; that 
 j every Moslem treasured up more or less some 
 portions in his memory : and that there were 
 official Beciters of it, for public worship and 
 tuition, in all countries to which Islam ex¬ 
 tended. These formed an unbroken link 
 between the Revelation fresh from Mahomet’s 
 lips, and the edition of it by Zeid. Thus the 
 people were not only sincere and fervent in 
 wishing for a faithful copy of the Coran; 
 they were also in possession of ample means 
 for realising their desire, and for testing the 
 accuracy and completeness of the volume 
 placed in their hands by Abu Bakr. 
 
 “ Third.—A still greater security would he 
 obtained from the fragmentary transcripts 
 which existed in Mahomet’s life-time, and 
 which must have greatly multiplied before 
 the Coran was compiled. These were in the 
 possession, probably, of all who could read. 
 And as we know that the compilation of Abu 
 Bakr came into immediate and unquestioned 
 
QUR AN 
 
 489 
 
 qur’an 
 
 use, it is reasonable to conclude that it em¬ 
 braced and corresponded with every extant 
 fragment, and therefore by common consent, 
 superseded them. We hear of no fragments, 
 sentences, or words, intentionally omitted by 
 the compilers, nor of any that differed from 
 the received edition. Had any such been 
 discoverable, they would undoubtedly have 
 been preserved and noticed in those tradi¬ 
 tional repositories which treasured up the 
 minutest and most trivial acts and sayings of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 “ Fourth.—The contents and the arrange¬ 
 ment of the Coran speak forcibly for its 
 authenticity. All the fragments that could 
 possibly be obtained have with artless sim¬ 
 plicity been joined together. The patchwork 
 bears no marks of a designing genius or a 
 moulding hand. It testifies to the faith and 
 reverence of the compilers, and proves that 
 they dared no more than simply collect the 
 sacred fragments and place them in juxta¬ 
 position. Hence the interminable repetitions ; 
 the palling reiteration of the same ideas, 
 truths, and doctrines ; hence, scriptural stories 
 and Arab legends, told over and over again 
 with little verbal variation ; hence the per¬ 
 vading want of connection, and the startling 
 chasms between adjacent passages. Again, 
 the frailties of Mahomet, supposed to have 
 been noticed by the Deity, are all with evi¬ 
 dent faithfulness entered in the Coran. Not 
 less undisguised are the frequent verses which 
 are contradicted or abrogated by later reve¬ 
 lations. The editor plainly contented him¬ 
 self with compiling and copying out in a con¬ 
 tinuous form, but with scrupulous accuracy, 
 the fragmentary materials within his reach. 
 He neither ventured to select from repeated 
 versions of the same incident, nor to reconcile 
 differences, nor by the alteration of a single 
 letter to connect abrupt transitions of con¬ 
 text, nor by tampering with the text to soften 
 discreditable appearances. Thus we possess 
 every internal guarantee of confidence. 
 
 “But it may be objected,—if the text of 
 Abu Bakr’s Coran was pure and universally 
 received, how came it to be so soon corrupted, 
 and to require, in consequence of its varia¬ 
 tions, an extensive recension? Tradition 
 does not afford sufficient light to determine 
 the cause of these discrepancies. They may 
 have been owing to various readings in the 
 older fragmentary transcripts which re¬ 
 mained in the possession of the people ; they 
 may have originated in the diverse dialects 
 of Arabia, and the different modes of pro¬ 
 nunciation and orthography; or they may 
 have sprung up naturally in the already vast 
 domains of Islam, before strict uniformity 
 was officially enforced. It is sufficient for us 
 to know that in Othman’s revision recourse 
 was had to the original exemplar of the first 
 compilation, and that there is otherwise every 
 security, internal and external, that we pos¬ 
 sess a text the same as that which Mahomet 
 himself gave forth and used.” (Life of Ma¬ 
 homet, new ed., p. 557 et seqq .) 
 
 The various readings ( qird’ak ) in the Qur’an 
 are not such as are usually understood by 
 
 the term in English authors, but different 
 dialects of the Arabic language. Ibn ‘Abbas 
 says the Prophet said, “ Gabriel taught me 
 to read the Qur’an in one dialect, and when 
 I recited it he taught me to recite it in 
 another dialect, and so on until the number 
 of dialects increased to seven.” (Mishkat, 
 book ii. ch. ii.) 
 
 Muhammad seems to have adopted this 
 expedient to satisfy the desire of the leading 
 tribes to have a Qur’an in their own dialect; 
 for ‘Abdu ’1-Haqqsays, “ The Qur’an was first 
 revealed in the dialect of the Quaraish, which 
 was the Prophet’s native tongue ; but when 
 the Prophet saw that the people of other 
 tribes recited it with difficulty, then he ob¬ 
 tained permission from God to extend its 
 currency by allowing it to be recited in all 
 the chief dialects of Arabia, which were 
 seven :—Quraish, Taiy, Hawazin, Yaman, 
 Saqif, Huzail, and Banu Tamlm. Every one 
 of these tribes accordingly read the Qur’an 
 in its own dialect, till the time of ‘Usman, 
 when these differences of reading were pro¬ 
 hibited.” 
 
 These seven dialects are called in Arabic 
 Saba‘tu Ahruf and in Persian Haft 
 Qira’at. 
 
 III. — The Divisions of the Qur'an. 
 
 The Qur’an, which is written in the Arabic 
 language, is divided into: Half, Kalimah, 
 Ayah, Surah, Ruku’, Rub‘, Nisf, Suls, Juz', 
 Manzal. 
 
 1. Ifarf (pi. Huruf ), Letters; of which 
 there are said to be 323,671, or according to 
 some authorities, 338,606. 
 
 2. Kalimah (pi. Kalimaf), Words ; of which 
 there are 77.934, or, according to some writers, 
 79,934. 
 
 3. Ayah (pi. Aya€), Verses. Ayah (Heb. 
 
 niK) is a word which signifies “ sign.” It 
 was used by Muhammad for short sections or 
 verses of his supposed revelation. The divi¬ 
 sion of verses differs in different editions of 
 the Arabic Qur’an. The number of verses in 
 the Arabic Qur’ans are recorded after the 
 title of the Surah, and the verses distinguished 
 in the text by a small cypher or circle. The 
 early readers of the Qur’an did not agree as 
 to the original position of these circles, and 
 so it happens that there are five different 
 systems of numbering the verses. 
 
 (a) Kufah verses. The Readers in the city 
 of al-Kufah say that they followed the custom 
 of ‘All. Their way of reckoning is generally 
 adopted in India. They reckon 6,239 verses. 
 
 (b) Basrah verses. The Readers of al- 
 Basrah follow ‘Asim ibn Hajjaj, a Compa¬ 
 nion. They reckon 6,204. 
 
 (c) Shami verses, The Readers in Syria 
 (Sham) followed ‘Abdu ’llak ibn ‘Umar, a 
 Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses. 
 
 (d) Makkah verses. According to this 
 arrangement, there are 6,219 verses. 
 
 (e) Madinah verses. This way of reading 
 contains 6,211 verses. 
 
 4. Surah (pi. Suwar'), Chapters A word 
 which signifies a row or series, but which 
 
 62 
 
490 qur’an 
 
 is now used exclusively for the chapters of 
 the Qur’an, which are one hundred and four¬ 
 teen in number. These chapters are called 
 after some word which occurs in the text, and, 
 if the Traditions are to be trusted, they were 
 so named by Muhammad himself, although the 
 verses of their respective Surahs were un¬ 
 doubtedly arranged after his death, and some¬ 
 times with little regard to their sequence. 
 Muslim doctors admit that the Kh alifah ‘Us¬ 
 man arranged the chapters in the order in 
 which they now stand in the Qur’an. 
 
 The Surahs of the Muhammadan Qur’an 
 are similar to the forty-three divisions of 
 
 qur’an 
 
 the Law amongst the Jews known as 
 D'HID Sidarim, or “ orders.” These were 
 
 • t : 
 
 likewise named after a word in the section, 
 e.g. The first is Bereshith, the second Noah, 
 &c. (See Buxtorf’s Tiberias, p. 181.) 
 
 Bach Surah of the Qur’an, with the excep¬ 
 tion of the ixth, begins with the words— 
 
 Mil ? 
 
 “ In the name of the Merciful, the Compas¬ 
 sionate.” 
 
 The Surahs, as they stand in Arabic edi¬ 
 tions of the Qur’an, are as follows :— 
 
 No. 
 
 Title of Surah. 
 
 | 
 
 Meaning in English. 
 
 The 
 
 According 
 to Jalalu 
 ’d-dln. 
 
 Chronologica 
 
 According 
 to Rev. 
 
 J. M. 
 Rodwell. 
 
 1 Order. 
 
 According to 
 Sir W. Muir. 
 
 1 
 
 Fatihah 
 
 Preface ... 
 
 uncertain 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 Baqarah 
 
 Cow 
 
 86 
 
 91 
 
 uncertain 
 
 3 
 
 Alu ‘Imran ... 
 
 Family of‘Imran 
 
 88 
 
 97 
 
 a. ii. 2 to 10 
 
 4 
 
 Nisa’ ... 
 
 Women ... 
 
 91 
 
 100 
 
 uncertain 
 
 5 
 
 Ma’idah 
 
 Table 
 
 112 
 
 114 
 
 A.H. 6 to 10 
 
 6 
 
 An‘am 
 
 Cattle 
 
 54 
 
 89 
 
 81 
 
 7 
 
 A‘raf ... 
 
 Araf 
 
 38 
 
 87 
 
 91 
 
 8 
 
 Anfal... 
 
 Spoils ... 
 
 87 
 
 95 
 
 A. II. 2 
 
 9 
 
 Taubah . 
 
 Repentance 
 
 113 
 
 113 
 
 The last. 
 
 10 
 
 Y unus 
 
 Jonah ... 
 
 50 
 
 84 
 
 79 
 
 11 
 
 Hud. 
 
 Hud . 
 
 51 
 
 75 
 
 78 
 
 12 
 
 Y usuf . 
 
 Joseph ... 
 
 52 
 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 13 
 
 Ra‘d ... 
 
 Thunder 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 89 
 
 14 
 
 Ibrahim 
 
 Abraham 
 
 71 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 15 
 
 Hijr. 
 
 Hijr . 
 
 53 
 
 57 
 
 62 
 
 1(1 
 
 Nahl. 
 
 Bee 
 
 69 
 
 73 
 
 88 
 
 17 
 
 Banu Isra’Il . 
 
 Children of Israel 
 
 49 
 
 67 
 
 87 
 
 18 
 
 Kahf ... 
 
 Cave 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 69 
 
 19 
 
 Maryam 
 
 Mary 
 
 43 
 
 58 
 
 68 
 
 20 
 
 Ta Ha. 
 
 TaHa. 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 75 
 
 21 
 
 Ambiya’ 
 
 Prophets 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 86 
 
 22 
 
 Hajj. 
 
 Pilgrimage 
 
 103 
 
 107 
 
 85 
 
 23 
 
 Mu’minun 
 
 Believers 
 
 73 
 
 64 
 
 84 
 
 24 
 
 Nur. 
 
 Light 
 
 102 
 
 105 
 
 A.H. 5 
 
 25 
 
 Furqan 
 
 Qur’an ... 
 
 41 
 
 66 
 
 74 
 
 26 
 
 Shu'ara’ 
 
 Poets 
 
 46 
 
 56 
 
 61 
 
 27 
 
 Naml ... 
 
 Ant 
 
 47 
 
 68 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 Qasas... 
 
 Story 
 
 48 
 
 79 
 
 83 
 
 29 
 
 ‘Ankabut 
 
 Spider ... 
 
 84 
 
 81 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 Rum ... 
 
 Greeks ... 
 
 83 
 
 74 
 
 60 
 
 31 
 
 Luqman 
 
 Luqman 
 
 56 
 
 82 
 
 50 
 
 32 
 
 Sajdah 
 
 Prostration 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 
 44 
 
 33 
 
 Ahzab 
 
 Confederates . 
 
 89 
 
 103 
 
 uncertain 
 
 34 
 
 Saba’ ... 
 
 Saba 
 
 57 
 
 85 
 
 79 
 
 35 
 
 Mala’ikah 
 
 Angels. 
 
 42 
 
 86 
 
 66 
 
 36 
 
 Ya Sin 
 
 YaSTn. 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 67 
 
 37 
 
 Saff at 
 
 Ranks ... 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 59 
 
 38 
 
 Sad . 
 
 Sad . 
 
 37 
 
 59 
 
 73 
 
 39 
 
 Zumar 
 
 Troops ... 
 
 58 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 40 
 
 Mu’min 
 
 Believer... 
 
 59 
 
 78 
 
 72 
 
 41 
 
 Fussilat 
 
 Explanation 
 
 60 
 
 71 
 
 53 
 
 42 
 
 Shura 
 
 Council ... 
 
 61 
 
 83 
 
 71 
 
 43 
 
 Zukhruf 
 
 Ornaments 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 76 
 
 44 
 
 Dukhan 
 
 Smoke ... 
 
 63 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 45 
 
 Jasiyah 
 
 Kneeling 
 
 64 
 
 72 1 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 Ahqaf 
 
 Ahqaf. 
 
 65 
 
 88 ! 
 
 64 
 
QUR AN 
 
 491 
 
 No. 
 
 Title of Surah. 
 
 Meaning in English. 
 
 The 
 
 According 
 to Jalalu 
 'd-din. 
 
 Chronologies 
 
 According 
 to Rev. 
 
 J. M. 
 Rodwell. 
 
 il Order. 
 
 According to 
 Sir W. Muir. 
 
 47 
 
 Muhammad ... 
 
 Muhammad 
 
 94 
 
 96 
 
 uncertain 
 
 48 
 
 Fath ... 
 
 Victory 
 
 111 
 
 108 
 
 A.H. 6 
 
 49 
 
 Hujurat 
 
 Chambers 
 
 106 
 
 112 
 
 uncertain 
 
 50 
 
 Qaf . 
 
 Qaf . 
 
 33 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 51 
 
 Zariyat 
 
 Scattering Winds 
 
 66 
 
 43 
 
 63 
 
 52 
 
 Tur . 
 
 Mountain 
 
 75 
 
 44 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 Najm ... 
 
 Star 
 
 22 
 
 46 
 
 43 
 
 54 
 
 Qamar 
 
 Moon 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 55 
 
 Rahman 
 
 Merciful 
 
 96 
 
 48 
 
 40 
 
 56 
 
 Waqi'ali 
 
 Inevitable 
 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 57 
 
 Hadid 
 
 Iron 
 
 93 
 
 99 
 
 uncertain 
 
 58 
 
 Mujadilah 
 
 Disputer 
 
 105 
 
 106 
 
 uncertain 
 
 59 
 
 Hashr 
 
 Assembly 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 A.H. 4 
 
 60 
 
 Mumtahinah 
 
 Proved ... 
 
 90 
 
 110 
 
 A.H. 7 
 
 61 
 
 Saff. 
 
 Array ... 
 
 110 
 
 98 
 
 uncertain 
 
 62 
 
 Jamu'ah 
 
 Assembly 
 
 108 
 
 94 
 
 uncertain 
 
 63 
 
 Munafiqin 
 
 Hypocrites 
 
 104 
 
 104 
 
 A.H. 65 
 
 64 
 
 Taghabun . 
 
 Mutual Deceit ... 
 
 109 
 
 93 
 
 82 
 
 65 
 
 Talaq 
 
 Divorce... 
 
 108 
 
 101 
 
 uncertain 
 
 66 
 
 Tahrim 
 
 Prohibition 
 
 107 
 
 109 
 
 A.H. 7 to 8 
 
 67 
 
 Muik. 
 
 Kingdom 
 
 76 
 
 63 
 
 42 
 
 68 
 
 Qalam 
 
 Pen 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 
 69 
 
 Haqqah 
 
 Inevitable Day... 
 
 77 
 
 42 
 
 51 
 
 70 
 
 Ma‘arij 
 
 Steps 
 
 78 
 
 47 
 
 37 
 
 71 
 
 Nuh. 
 
 Noah 
 
 70 
 
 51 
 
 54 
 
 72 
 
 Jinn ... 
 
 Genii 
 
 39 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 73 
 
 Muzzammil ... 
 
 Wrapped up 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 46 
 
 74 
 
 Muddassir 
 
 Enfolded 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 75 
 
 Qiyamah 
 
 Resurrection ... 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 36 
 
 76 
 
 Dahl- ... 
 
 Time 
 
 97 
 
 52 
 
 35 
 
 77 
 
 Mursalat 
 
 Messengers 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 78 
 
 Naba’ 
 
 News 
 
 79 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 79 
 
 Nazi‘at 
 
 Those who drag 
 
 80 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 80 
 
 ‘Abasa 
 
 He frowned 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 81 
 
 Takwir 
 
 Folding up 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 27 
 
 82 
 
 Infitar 
 
 Cleaving asunder 
 
 81 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 83 
 
 Tatfif . 
 
 Short Measure ... 
 
 85 
 
 41 
 
 32 
 
 84 
 
 Inshiqaq 
 
 Rending in sunder 
 
 82 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 85 
 
 Buruj... 
 
 Celestial Signs... 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 
 86 
 
 Tariq. 
 
 Night Star 
 
 35 
 
 22 
 
 29 
 
 87 
 
 A‘la. 
 
 Most High 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 88 
 
 Ghashiyah ... 
 
 Overwhelming ... 
 
 67 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 89 
 
 Fajr. 
 
 Day-break 
 
 9 
 
 39 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 Balad. 
 
 City . 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 91 
 
 Shams 
 
 Sun 
 
 25 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 92 
 
 Lail ... 
 
 Night 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 93 
 
 Zuha ... 
 
 Sun in his meridian ... 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 94 
 
 Inshirah 
 
 Expanding 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 95 
 
 Tin . 
 
 Fig . 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 96 
 
 ‘Alaq. 
 
 Congealed blood 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 97 
 
 Qadr ... 
 
 (Night of) Power 
 
 24 
 
 92 
 
 24 
 
 98 
 
 Baiyinah 
 
 Evidence 
 
 
 99 
 
 21 
 
 uncertain 
 
 99 
 
 Zalzalah 
 
 Earthquake 
 
 
 92 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 ‘Adiyat 
 
 Swift horses 
 
 .. 
 
 13 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 101 
 
 Qari‘ah 
 
 Striking 
 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 7 
 
 102 
 
 Takasur 
 
 Multiplying 
 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 103 
 
 ‘Asr ... 
 
 Afternoon 
 
 
 12 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 Humazah 
 
 Slanderer 
 
 
 31 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 105 
 
 Ffl . 
 
 Elephant 
 
 .. ... 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 13 
 
 106 
 
 Quraish 
 
 Quraish 
 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 107 
 
 Ma‘un 
 
 Necessaries 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 39 
 

 492 qur’an 
 
 qur’an 
 
 No. 
 
 Title of Surah. 
 
 Meaning in English. 
 
 The 
 
 According 
 to Jalalu 
 ’d-dln. 
 
 Dhronologica 
 
 According 
 to Bev. 
 
 J. M. 
 Bodwell. 
 
 Order. 
 
 According to 
 Sir W. Muir. 
 
 108 
 
 Kausar 
 
 Kausar ... 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 109 
 
 Kafirun 
 
 Infidels ... 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 110 
 
 Nasr ... 
 
 Assistance 
 
 101 
 
 111 
 
 30 
 
 111 
 
 Abu Lahab ... 
 
 Abu Lahab 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 112 
 
 Ikhlas 
 
 Unity ... 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 113 
 
 Falaq ... 
 
 Day-break 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 uncertain 
 
 114 
 
 Nas ... 
 
 Men 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 uncertain 
 
 5. Ruku’ (pi. Ruku’at ), an inclination of the 
 head or bow. These are sections of about 
 ten verses or less, at which the devout Mus¬ 
 lim makes a bow of reverence; they are 
 marked on the margin of the Qur’an with the 
 letter ‘aim g, with the number of the rulcu’ 
 over it. Muhammadans generally quote their 
 Qur’an by the Juz’ or Slparah and the 
 Ruku'. 
 
 6. Rub 1 . The quarter of a Juz', or Slpa¬ 
 rah. 
 
 7. Niff. The half of a Slparah. 
 
 8. Suls. The three-quarters of a Slparah. 
 These three divisions are denoted by the 
 words being written on the margin. 
 
 9. Juz’ (pi. Ajza’). Persian Slparah. 
 Thirty divisions of the Qur’an, which have 
 been made to enable the devout Muslim to 
 recite the whole of the Qur’an in the thirty 
 days of Ramazan. Muhammadans usually 
 quote their Qur’an by the Slparah or Juz’ and 
 not by the Surah. 
 
 10. Manzil (pi. Manazil, Stages). These 
 
 are seven in number, and are marked by the 
 letters ^ ^ ^ p «_i, which are said to 
 
 spell Fanil bi Shauq, “My mouth with de¬ 
 sire.” This arrangement is to enable the 
 Muslim to recite the whole in the course of 
 a week. 
 
 IV.—The Contents of the Qur’an and the 
 
 Chronological Arrangement of its Chapters. 
 
 In the Arabic Qur’an, the Surahs are placed 
 as they were arranged by Zaid ibn Sabit, 
 who seems to have put them together re¬ 
 gardless of any chronological sequence. The 
 initial, or opening prayer, stands first, and 
 then the longest chapters. But the Muham¬ 
 madan commentators admit that the Qur’an 
 is not chronologically arranged ; and Jalalu 
 ’d-dln, in his Itqan, has given a list of them 
 as they are supposed to have been revealed. 
 This list will be found under the Divisions of 
 the Qur’an in the present article. And, what 
 is still more confusing, all Muhammadan 
 doctors allow that in some of the Surahs 
 there are verses which belong to a different 
 date from that of other portions of the chap¬ 
 ter ; for example, in the Suratu ’l-‘Alaq, the 
 first five verses belong to a much earlier date 
 than the others ; and in Suratu ’1-Baqarah, 
 
 verse 234 is acknowledged by all commenta¬ 
 tors to have been revealed after verse 240, 
 which it abrogates. 
 
 If we arrange the Surahs or Chapters ac¬ 
 cording to the order given in Suyuti’s Itqan, 
 or by Sir William Muir, or by Mr Rodwell, 
 we cannot fail to mark the gradual develop¬ 
 ment of Muhammad’s mind from that of a 
 mere moral teacher and reformer to that of a 
 prophet and warrior-chief. The contrast be¬ 
 tween the earlier, middle, and later Surahs is 
 very instructive and interesting. 
 
 In the earlier Surahs we observe a predo¬ 
 minance of a poetical element, a deep appre¬ 
 ciation of the beauty of natural objects, frag¬ 
 mentary and impassioned utterances ; denun¬ 
 ciation of woe and punishment being ex¬ 
 pressed in these earlier Surahs with extreme 
 brevity. 
 
 “ With a change, however, in the position 
 of Muhammad when he openly assumes the 
 office of ‘ public warner,’ the Surahs begin to 
 wear a more prosaic and didactic tone, though 
 the poetical ornament of rhyme is preserved 
 throughout. We lose the poet in the mis¬ 
 sionary aiming to convert, and in the warm 
 asserter of dogmatic truths ; the descriptions 
 of natural objects, of the Judgment, of Hea¬ 
 ven and Hell, make way for gradually increas¬ 
 ing historical statements, first from Jewish, 
 and subsequently from Christian histories; 
 while in the twenty-nine (thirty?) Surahs 
 revealed at Medina we no longer listen to 
 vague words, often, as it would seem, with¬ 
 out defininite aim, but to the earnest dispu¬ 
 tant with the opponents of the new faith, the 
 Apostle pleading the cause of what he be¬ 
 lieves to be the truth of God. He who at 
 Mecca is the admonisher and persuader, at 
 Medina is the legislator and the warrior dic¬ 
 tating obedience, and who uses other weapons 
 than the pen of the poet and the scribe; 
 while we are startled by finding obedience to 
 God and the Apostle, God’s gifts and the 
 Apostle’s, God’s pleasure and the Apostle’s, 
 spoken of in the same breath, and epithets 
 and attributes elsewhere applied to Allah 
 openly applied to himself. 1 Whoso obeveth 
 the Apostle obeyeth Allah.’ 
 
 “The Suras, viewed as a whole, will thus 
 appear to be the work of one who began his 
 career as a thoughtful inquirer after truth, 
 
493 
 
 qur’an 
 
 and as an earnest asserter of it in such rhe¬ 
 torical and poetical forms as he deemed most 
 likely to win and attract his countrymen, but 
 who gradually proceeded from the dogmatic 
 teacher to the political founder of a system 
 for which laws and regulations had to be 
 provided as occasions arose. And of all the 
 Suras, it must be remarked that they were 
 intended not only for readers but for hearers 
 —that they were all promulgated by public 
 recital—and that much was left, as the imper¬ 
 fect sentences show, to the manner and sug¬ 
 gestive action of the reciter.” (Rodwell’s 
 Preface to the Qur’an.) 
 
 The absence of the historical element from 
 the Qur’an, as regards the details of Muham¬ 
 mad’s daily life, may be judged of by the 
 fact that only two of his contemporaries 
 (Abu Lahab and Zaid) are mentioned in the 
 entire volume, and that Muhammad’s name 
 occurs but five times, although he is all the 
 way through addressed by the angel Gabriel 
 as the recipient of the divine revelations, with 
 the word “ Say.” Perhaps also such passages 
 as Surah ii., verses 5, 246, and 274, and the 
 constant mention of guidance, direction, wan¬ 
 dering, may have been suggested by remini¬ 
 scences of his mercantile journeys in his earlier 
 years. 
 
 Sir William Muir has very skilfully arranged 
 the Surahs into six periods. (See Coran, 
 S. P. 0. K. ed.), and although they are not 
 precisely in the chronological order given by 
 Jalalu ’d-DIn in his Itqdn, the arrangement 
 seeems to be fully borne out by internal evi¬ 
 dence. With the assistance of Prof. Palmer’s 
 “Table of Contents” slightly altered ( The 
 Qur’an, Oxford ed. 1880), we shall arrange 
 the contents of the Qur’an according to these 
 periods. 
 
 THE FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 Eighteen Surahs, consisting of short rhap¬ 
 sodies, may have been composed by Muham¬ 
 mad before he conceived the idea of a divine 
 mission, none of which are in the form of a 
 message from the Deity. 
 
 Chapter GUI. 
 
 Suratu ’l-‘Asr. 
 
 The Chapter of the Afternoon. 
 
 A short chapter of one verse as follows :— 
 
 “ By the afternoon ! Verily, man is in loss ! 
 Save those who believe and do right and bid 
 each other be true, and bid each other be 
 patient.” 
 
 Chapter 0. 
 
 Suratu ’l-‘Adiydt. 
 
 The Chapter of the Chargers. 
 
 Oath by the charging of war-horses. 
 
 Man is ungrateful. 
 
 Certainty of the Judgment. 
 
 Chapter XCIX. 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zalzalah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Earthquake. 
 
 The earthquake preceding the Judgment 
 Day. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Chapter XCI. 
 
 Suratu ’sh-Shams. 
 
 The Chapter of the Sun. 
 
 Purity of the soul brings happiness. 
 Example of Samud. 
 
 ([The latter verses are clearly of a later date 
 than the first ten.) 
 
 Chapter CVI. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Quraisli. 
 
 The Chapter of the Quraish. 
 
 The Quraish are bidden to give thanks to 
 God for the trade of their two yearly cara¬ 
 vans. 
 
 Chapter I. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Fatihah. 
 
 The Opening Chapter. 
 
 A prayer for guidance. 
 
 (This short chapter, which is the opening 
 chapter of the Qur’an, is recited in the liturgy.) 
 “ Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds ! 
 The compassionate, the merciful! 
 
 King of the day of reckoning 1 
 Thee only do we worship, and to Thee 
 only do we cry for help. 
 
 Guide Thou us in the straight path, 
 
 The path of those to whom Thou hast 
 been gracious; 
 
 With whom Thou art not angry, 
 
 And who go not asti’ay..” 
 
 Chapter CL 
 Suratu ’l-Qari‘ah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Smiting. 
 
 The terrors of the last day and of hell-fire 
 (al-Hawiyah) 
 
 Chapter XCV. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Tin. 
 
 The Chapter of the Fig. 
 
 The degradation of man. 
 
 Future reward and punishment. 
 
 Chapter CII. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Takasur. 
 
 The Chapter of the Contention about 
 Numbers. 
 
 Two families of the Arabs rebuked for 
 contending which was the more numerous. 
 Warning of the punishment of hell. 
 
 Chapter CIV. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Humazah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Backbiter. 
 Backbiters shall be cast into hell. 
 
 Chapter LXXXII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-lnjitdr. 
 
 The Chapter of the Cleaving Asunder. 
 Signs of the Judgment Day. 
 
 Guardian angels. 
 
 Chapter XCII. 
 
 Suratu ’l-La.il. 
 
 The Chapter of the Night. 
 
 Promise of reward to those who give alms 
 and fear God and “ believe in the best.” 
 
194 
 
 QUR AN 
 
 Chapter CV. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Fil. 
 
 The Chapter of the Elephant. 
 
 The miraculous destruction of the Abyssi¬ 
 nian army under Abrahatu ’1-Ashram by 
 birds when invading Makkah with elephants, 
 in the year that Muhammad was born. 
 
 Chapter LXXXIX. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Fajr. 
 
 The Chapter of the Dawn. 
 
 Fate of previous nations who rejected their 
 teachers. 
 
 Admonition to those who rely too much on 
 their prosperity. 
 
 Chapter XC. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Balad. 
 
 The Chapter of the City. 
 
 Exhortation to practise charity. 
 
 Chapter XCIII. 
 
 Suratu 'z-Zuha. 
 
 The Chapter of the Forenoon. 
 
 Muhammad encouraged and bidden to re¬ 
 member how God has cared for him hitherto ; 
 he is to be charitable in return, and to 
 publish God’s goodness. 
 
 Chapter XCIV. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Inshir ah. 
 
 The Chapter of “ Have we not Expanded?” 
 
 God has made Muhammad’s mission easier 
 to him. 
 
 Chapter CVHI. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Kausar. 
 
 The Chapter of al-Kausar. 
 
 Muhammad is commanded to offer the 
 sacrifices out of his abundance. 
 
 Threat that his enemies shall be child¬ 
 less. 
 
 THE SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 Pour Surahs. The opening of Muhammad’s 
 Ministry. Surah xcvi. contains the command 
 to recite, and, according to the Traditions, it 
 was the first revelation. 
 
 Chapter XCVI. 
 
 Suratu ’l-‘Alaq. 
 
 The Chapter of Congealed Blood. 
 
 Muhammad’s first call to read the Qur’an. 
 
 Denunciation of Abu Lahab for his opposi¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (The latter verses of this Surah are admitted 
 to he of a later date 'than the jorraer.) 
 
 Chapter CXII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Ikhlas. 
 
 The Chapter of the Unity. 
 
 Declaration of God’s unity. 
 
 (This short Surah is highly esteemed , and is 
 recited in the daily liturgy.) 
 
 “ Say : He is God alone : 
 
 God the Eternal 1 
 He begetteth not, 
 
 And is not begotten ; 
 
 And there is none like unto Him.” 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Chapter LXXIV. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Muddassir. 
 
 The Chapter of the Covered. 
 
 Muhammad while covered up is bidden to 
 arise and preach. 
 
 Denunciation of a rich infidel who mocks 
 at the revelation. 
 
 Hell and its nineteen angels. 
 
 The infidels rebuked for demanding mate¬ 
 rial scriptures as a proof of Muhammad’s 
 mission. 
 
 Chapter CXI 
 Suratu Tahbat. 
 
 The Chapter of “ Let Perish.” 
 
 Denunciation of Abu Lahab and his wife, 
 who are threatened with hell fire. 
 
 THE THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 Nineteen Surahs, chiefly descriptions of 
 the Resurrection, Paradise, and Hell, with 
 reference to the growing opposition of the 
 Quraish, given from the commencement of 
 Muhammud’s public ministry to the Abyssi¬ 
 nian emigration. 
 
 Chapter LXXXVII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-AHa. 
 
 The Chapter of the Most High. 
 
 Muhammad shall not forget any of the 
 revelation save what God pleases. 
 
 The revelation is the same as that given to 
 Abraham and Moses. 
 
 Chapter XCVII. 
 
 Suratu 't-Qjadr. 
 
 The Chapter of Power. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed on the night of 
 power 
 
 Its excellence. 
 
 Angels descend thereon. 
 
 Chapter LXXXVIII 
 
 Suratu V- Ghashiyah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Overwhelming. 
 
 Description of the Last Day, Heaven and 
 Hell. 
 
 Chapter LXXX. 
 
 Suratu ‘ Abasa. 
 
 The Chapter “ he Frowned.” 
 
 The Prophet rebuked for frowning on a 
 poor blind believer. 
 
 The Creation and Resurrection. 
 
 Chapter LXXXIV. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-lnshiqaq. 
 
 The Chapter of the Rending Asunder 
 
 Signs of the Judgment Day. 
 
 The books of men’s actions. 
 
 The Resurrection. 
 
 Denunciation of misbelievers. 
 
 Chapter LXXXI. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Takwir. 
 
 The Chapter of the Folding-up. 
 
 Terrors of the Judgment Day. 
 
 The female child who has been buried 
 alive will demand vengeance. 
 
495 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Allusion to the Prophet’s vision of Gabriel 
 on Mount Hira’. 
 
 He is vindicated from the charge of mad¬ 
 ness. 
 
 Chapter LXXXYI. 
 
 Suratu ’ut-Tariq. 
 
 The Chapter of the Night Star. 
 
 By the night-star, every soul has a guar¬ 
 dian angel. 
 
 Creation and resurrection of man. 
 
 The plot of the infidels shall be frus¬ 
 trated. 
 
 Chapter CX. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nasr. 
 
 The Chapter of Help. 
 
 Prophecy that men shall join Islam by 
 troops. 
 
 Chapter LXXXV 
 Suratu 'l-Buruj. 
 
 The Chapter of the Zodiacal Signs. 
 Denunciation of those who persecute be¬ 
 lievers. 
 
 Example of the fate of Pharaoh and 
 Samud. 
 
 Cha p ter LXXXIII. 
 
 Suratu 't-TatJ\f. 
 
 The Chapter of those who give Short Weight. 
 Fraudulent traders are warned. 
 
 Sijjin, the register of the acts of the 
 wicked. 
 
 Hell and heaven. 
 
 Chapter LXXVIII. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Naba\ 
 
 The Chapter of the Information. 
 Description of the Day of Judgment, hell, 
 and heaven. 
 
 Chapter LXXVII. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Mursalat. 
 
 The Chapter of Messengers. 
 
 Oath by the angels who execute God’s 
 behests. 
 
 Terrors of the Last Day. 
 
 Hell and Heaven. 
 
 Chapter LXXYI. 
 
 Suratu 'd-Dahr. 
 
 The Chapter of Time. 
 
 Man’s conception and birth 
 Unbelievers warned and believers promised 
 a reward. 
 
 Exhortation to charity. 
 
 Bliss of the charitable in Paradise. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed by degrees. 
 
 Only those believe whom God wills. 
 
 Chapter LXXV. 
 
 Suratu 't-Qiydmah. 
 
 The Chapter of Resurrection. 
 
 The Resurrection. 
 
 Muhammad is bidden not to be hurried in 
 repeating the Qur’an so as to commit it to 
 memory. 
 
 Dying agony of an infidel. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Chapter LXX. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Ma l arij. 
 
 The Chapter of the Ascents. 
 
 An unbeliever mockingly calls for a judg¬ 
 ment on himself and his companions. 
 
 The terrors of the Judgment Day. 
 
 Man’s ingratitude. 
 
 Adultery denounced. 
 
 Certainty of the Judgment Day. 
 
 Chapter CIX. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Kafirun. 
 
 The Chapter of the Misbelievers. 
 
 The Prophet will not follow the religion of 
 the misbelievers. 
 
 Chapter CVII. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Md‘un. 
 
 The Chapter of Necessaries. 
 Denunciation of the unbelieving and un¬ 
 charitable. 
 
 Chapter LV. 
 
 Suratu 'r-Rahman. 
 
 The Chapter of the Merciful. 
 
 An enumeration of the works of the Lord 
 ending with a description of Paradise and 
 Hell. 
 
 A refrain runs throughout this chapter :— 
 
 “ Which then of your Lord’s bounties do 
 ye twain deny ? ” 
 
 Chapter LVI. 
 
 Suratu 7- Waqi‘ah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Inevitable. 
 
 Terrors of the inevitable Day of Judgment. 
 Description of Paradise and Hell. 
 
 Proofs in Nature. 
 
 None but the clean may touch the Qur’an. 
 The condition of a dying man. 
 
 THE FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 Twenty-two Surahs, given from the sixth to 
 the tenth year of Muhammad’s ministry. With 
 this period begin the narratives of the Jewish 
 Scriptures, and Rabbinical and Arab legends. 
 The temporary compromise with idolatry is 
 connected with Surah liii. 
 
 Chapter LXVII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Mulk. 
 
 The Chapter of the Kingdom. 
 
 God the Lord of heavens. 
 
 The marvels thereof. 
 
 The discomfiture of the misbelievers in 
 Hell. 
 
 The power of God exhibited in Nature. 
 
 Warnings and threats of punishment. 
 
 Chapter LIII. 
 
 Suratu ’ n-Najm. 
 
 The Chapter of the Star. 
 
 Oath by the star that Muhammad’s vision 
 of his ascent to heaven was not a delusion. 
 
 Description of the same. 
 
 The amended passage relating to idolatry. 
 
 Wickedness of asserting the angels to be 
 females. 
 
 God’s Omniscience. 
 
496 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Rebuke of an apostle who paid another to 
 take upon him his burden at the Judgment 
 Day. 
 
 Definition of true religion. 
 
 God’s attributes. 
 
 Chapter XXXII. 
 
 Suratu ’s-Sajdah. 
 
 The Chapter of Adoration. 
 
 The Qur'an is truth from the Lord. 
 
 God the Creator and Governor. 
 
 The Resurrection. 
 
 Conduct of true believers when they hear 
 the word. 
 
 Their reward. 
 
 The punishment of misbelievers. 
 
 Description of Hell. 
 
 The people are exhorted to believe and are 
 admonished by the fate of the ruined cities 
 they see around them. 
 
 They are warned of the Judgment Day. 
 
 Chapter XXXIX. 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zumar. 
 
 The Chapter of the Troops. 
 
 Rebuke to the idolaters who say they 
 serve false gods as a means of access to God 
 himself. 
 
 The unity of God, the Creator and Con¬ 
 troller of the universe. 
 
 His independence and omnipotence. 
 
 Ingratitude of man for God’s help. 
 
 Difference between the believers and un¬ 
 believers. 
 
 Muhammad is called to sincerity of reli¬ 
 gion and to Islam. 
 
 He is to fear the torment at the Judgment 
 Day if he disobeys the call. 
 
 Hell-fire is prepared for the infidels. 
 
 Paradise promised to those who avoid 
 idolatry. 
 
 The irrigation of the soil and the growth of 
 corn are signs. 
 
 The Qur’an makes the skin of those who 
 fear God creep. 
 
 Threat of the Judgment Day. 
 
 The Makkans are warned by the fate of 
 their predecessors not to reject the Qur’an. 
 
 Parable showing the uncertain position of 
 the idolaters. 
 
 Muhammad not immortal. 
 
 Warning to those who lie against God, and 
 promise of reward to those who assert the 
 truth. 
 
 Muhammad is not to be frightened with 
 the idols of the Makkans. 
 
 Their helplessness demonstrated. 
 
 The Qur’an is a guide, but the Prophet 
 cannot compel men to follow it. 
 
 Human souls are taken to God during 
 sleep, and those who are destined to live on 
 are sent back. 
 
 No intercession allowed with God. 
 
 The doctrine of the unity of God terrifies 
 the idolaters. 
 
 Prayer to God to decide between them 
 
 The infidels will regret on the Resurrection 
 
 Day- 
 
 Ingratitude of man for God’s help in 
 trouble. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 The Makkans are w T arned by the fate of 
 their predecessors. 
 
 Exhortation to repentance before it is too 
 late. 
 
 Salvation of the God-fearing. 
 
 God the creator and controller of every¬ 
 thing. 
 
 Description of the Last Judgment. 
 
 All souls driven in troops to heaven or to 
 hell. 
 
 Chapter LXXIII. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Muzzammil. 
 
 The Chapter of the Enwrapped. 
 
 Muhammad, when wrapped up in his 
 mantle, is bidden to arise and pray. 
 
 Is bidden to repeat the Qur’an and to prac¬ 
 tice devotion by night. 
 
 He is to bear with the unbelievers for a 
 while. 
 
 Pharaoh rejected the apostle sent to him. 
 
 Stated times for prayer prescribed. 
 
 Almsgiving prescribed. 
 
 Chapter LXXIX. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Ndzi‘at. 
 
 The Chapter of those who Tear Out. 
 
 The coming of the Day of Judgment. 
 
 The call of Moses. 
 
 His interview with Pharaoh. 
 
 Chastisement of the latter. 
 
 The Creation and Resurrection. 
 
 Chapter LIV. 
 
 Suratu V- Qamar. 
 
 The Chapter of the Moon. 
 
 The splitting asunder of the moon. 
 
 Muhammad accused of imposture. 
 
 The Makkans warned by the stories of 
 Noah and the Deluge, of Samud, the people 
 of Sodom, and Pharaoh. 
 
 The sure coming of the Judgment. 
 
 Chapter XXXIV. 
 
 Suratu Saba'. 
 
 The Chapter of Saba’. 
 
 The omniscience of God. 
 
 Those who have received knowledge re¬ 
 cognise the revelation. 
 
 The unbelievers mock at Muhammad for 
 preaching the Resurrection. 
 
 The birds and mountains sing praises with 
 David. 
 
 Iron softened for him. 
 
 He makes coats of mail. 
 
 The wind subjected to Solomon. 
 
 A fountain of brass made to flow for him. 
 
 The jinns compelled to work for him. 
 
 His death only discovered by means of the 
 worm that gnawed. 
 
 The staff that supported his corpse. 
 
 The prosperity of Saba’. 
 
 Bursting of the dyke (al-‘Arim) and ruin of 
 the town. 
 
 Helplessness of the false gods. 
 
 They cannot intercede for their worship¬ 
 pers when assembled at the Last Day. 
 
 Fate of the misbelievers on that day. 
 
 The proud and the weak shall dispute as to 
 which misled the others. 
 
qur’an 
 
 The affluence of the Makkans will only in¬ 
 crease their ruin. 
 
 The angels shall disown the worshippers of 
 false gods. 
 
 The Makkans accuse Muhammad of im¬ 
 posture. 
 
 So did other nations deal with their Pro¬ 
 phets and were punished for it. 
 
 Muhammad is cleared of the suspicion of 
 insanity. 
 
 The wretched plight of the misbelievers on 
 the Last Day. 
 
 Chapter XXXI. 
 
 Suratu Luqman. 
 
 The Chapter of Luqman. 
 
 The Qur’an a guidance to believers. 
 
 Denunciation of one who purchased Per¬ 
 sian legends and preferred them to the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 God in Nature. 
 
 Other gods can create nothing. 
 
 Wisdom granted to Luqman. 
 
 His advice to his son. 
 
 The obstinacy of the infidels rebuked. 
 
 If the sea were ink and the trees pens, 
 they would not suffice to write the words of 
 the Lord. 
 
 God manifest in the night and day, in the 
 sun and moon, and in rescuing men from 
 dangers by sea. 
 
 God only knows the future. 
 
 Chapter LXIX. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Haqqah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Inevitable. 
 
 The inevitable judgment. 
 
 Fate of those who denied it, of Ad, Samud, 
 and Pharaoh. 
 
 The Deluge and the Last Judgment. 
 
 Vindication of Muhammad from the charge 
 of having forged the Qur’an. 
 
 Chapter LXVIII. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Qa/am. 
 
 The Chapter of the Pen. 
 
 Muhammad is neither mad nor an im¬ 
 postor. 
 
 Denounced by an insolent opponent 
 
 Example from the fate of the owner of the 
 gardens. 
 
 Unbelievers threatened. 
 
 Muhammad exhorted to be patient and not 
 to follow the example of Jonah. 
 
 Chapter XLI. 
 
 Suratu Fussilat. 
 
 The Chapter “ Are Detailed.” 
 
 The Makkans are called on to believe the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 The creation of the heavens and the 
 earth. 
 
 Warning from the fate of ‘Ad and Samud. 
 
 The very skins of the unbelievers shall 
 bear witness against them on the Day of 
 Judgment. 
 
 Punishment of those who reject the Qur’an. 
 
 The angels descend and encourage those 
 who believe. 
 
 Precept to return good for evil. 
 
 qur’an 497 
 
 Refuge to be sought with God against 
 temptation from the devil. 
 
 Against sun and moon worship. 
 
 The angels praise God, though the idola- 
 tors are too proud to do so. 
 
 The quickening of the earth with rain is a 
 sign. 
 
 The Qur’an a confirmation of previous 
 scriptures. 
 
 If it had been revealed in a foreign tongue 
 the people would have objected that they 
 could not understand it, and that the Pro¬ 
 phet, being an Arab, should have had a 
 revelation in his own language. 
 
 Moses’ scripture was also the subject of 
 dispute. 
 
 God is omniscient. 
 
 The false gods will desert their worship¬ 
 pers at the Resurrection. 
 
 Man’s ingratitude for God’s help in trouble. 
 
 God is sufficient witness of the truth. 
 
 Chapter LXXI. 
 
 Suratu Niih. 
 
 The Chapter of Noah. 
 
 Noah’s preaching to the Antediluvians. 
 
 Their five idols also worshipped by the 
 Arabs. 
 
 Their fate. 
 
 Chapter LII. 
 
 Suratu 't-Tur. 
 
 The Chapter of the Mount. 
 
 Oath by Mount Sinai and other things. 
 
 Terrors of the Last Day. 
 
 Bliss of Paradise. 
 
 Muhammad is neither a madman, sooth¬ 
 sayer, poet, nor impostor. 
 
 Reproof of the Makkans for their super¬ 
 stitions, and for proudly rejecting the Pro¬ 
 phet. 
 
 Chapter L. 
 
 Suratu Qaf. 
 
 The Chapter of Qaf. 
 
 Proofs in nature of a future life. 
 
 Example of the fate of the nations of old 
 who rejected the apostles. 
 
 Creation of man. 
 
 God’s proximity to him. 
 
 The two recording angels. 
 
 Death and Resurrection. 
 
 The Last Judgment and exhortation to 
 believe. 
 
 Chapter XLV. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Jasiyah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Kneeling. 
 
 God revealed in nature. 
 
 Denunciation of the infidels. 
 
 Trading by sea a sign of God’s providence. 
 
 The law first given to Israel, then to Mu¬ 
 hammad in the Qur’an. 
 
 Answer to the infidels who deny the Re¬ 
 surrection, and warning of their fate on that 
 day. 
 
 Chapter XLIV. 
 
 Suratu ’d-Dukhan. 
 
 The Chapter of the Smoke. 
 
 Night of the revelation of the Qur'an. 
 
 Unity of God. 
 
 63 
 
498 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Threat of the Last Day, when a smoke shall 
 coyer the heavens, and the unbelievers shall 
 be punished for rejecting the Prophet, and 
 saying he is taught by others or distracted. 
 
 Fate of Pharaoh for rejecting Moses. 
 
 Fate of the people of Jubba‘. 
 
 The Judgment Day. 
 
 The tree Zaqqum and the punishment of 
 hell. 
 
 Paradise and the virgins thereof. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed in Arabic for an 
 admonition. 
 
 Chapter XXXVII. 
 
 Suratu 's-Saffat. 
 
 The Chapter of the Ranged. 
 
 Oath by the angels ranged in rank, by 
 those who drive the clouds, and by those 
 who rehearse the Qur’an, that God is one 
 alone! 
 
 They guard the gates of heaven, and pelt 
 the devils, who would listen there, with 
 shooting-stars. 
 
 Do the Makkans imagine themselves 
 stronger than the angels, that they mock 
 of God’s signs and deny the Resurrection? 
 
 The false gods and the Makkans shall 
 recriminate each other at the Judgment 
 Day. 
 
 They say now, “ Shall we leave our gods 
 for a mad poet ? ” 
 
 They shall taste hell-fire for their unbelief, 
 while the believers are in Paradise. 
 
 Description of the delights thereof. 
 
 The maidens there. 
 
 The blessed shall see their unbelieving 
 former comrades in hell. 
 
 Immortality of the blessed. 
 
 Az-Zaqqum the accursed tree in hell. 
 
 Horrors of that place. 
 
 The posterity of Noah were blessed. 
 
 Abraham mocks at and breaks the idols. 
 
 He is condemned to be burnt alive, but is 
 delivered. 
 
 Is commanded to offer up his son as a 
 sacrifice ; obeys, but his son is spared. 
 
 His posterity is blessed. 
 
 Moses and Aaron, too, left a good report 
 behind them; so, too, did Elias, who pro¬ 
 tested against the worship of Baal. 
 
 Lot was saved. 
 
 Jonah was delivered after having been 
 thrown overboard and swallowed by a fish. 
 
 The gourd. 
 
 Jonah is sent to preach to the people of 
 the city (of Nineveh). 
 
 The Makkans rebuked for saying that God 
 has daughters, and for saying that He is akin 
 to the jinns. 
 
 The angels declare that they are but the 
 humble servants of God. 
 
 The success of the Prophet and the con¬ 
 fusion of the infidels foretold. 
 
 Chapter XXX. 
 
 Suratu ’r-Rum. 
 
 The Chapter of the Greeks. 
 
 Victory of the Persians over the Greeks. 
 
 Prophecy of the coming triumph of the 
 latter. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 The Makkans warned by the fate of former 
 cities. 
 
 The idols shall forsake them at the Re¬ 
 surrection. 
 
 The believers shall enter Paradise. 
 
 God is to be praised in the morning and 
 evening and at noon and sunset. 
 
 His creation of man and of the universe 
 and His providence are signs. 
 
 He is the incomparable Lord of all. 
 
 Warning against idolatry and schism. 
 
 Honesty inculcated and usury reproved. 
 
 God only creates and kills. 
 
 Corruption in the earth through sin. 
 
 The fate of former idolaters. 
 
 Exhortation to believe before the sudden 
 coming of the Judgment Day. 
 
 God’s sending rain to quicken the earth is 
 a sign of His power. 
 
 Muhammad cannot make the deaf hear his 
 message. 
 
 Warning of the Last Day. 
 
 Chapter XXVI. 
 
 Suratu ’sh-Shtfara’. 
 
 The Chapter of the Poets. 
 
 Muhammad is not to be vexed by the 
 people’s unbelief. 
 
 Though called a liar now, his cause shall 
 triumph in the end. 
 
 Moses and Pharaoh. 
 
 He fears lest he may be killed for slaying 
 the Egyptian. 
 
 Pharaoh charges him with ingratitude. 
 
 Their dispute about God. 
 
 Pharaoh claims to be God himself. 
 
 The miracles of the rod and the white 
 hand. 
 
 Moses’ contest with the magicians. 
 
 The magicians are conquered and believe. 
 
 Pharaoh threatens them with condign 
 punishment. 
 
 The Israelites leave Egypt and are pur¬ 
 sued. 
 
 The passing of the Red Sea and destruc¬ 
 tion of Pharaoh and his hosts. 
 
 The history of Abraham. 
 
 He preaches against idolatry. 
 
 Noah is called a liar and vindicated 1 
 
 Hud preaches to the people of ‘Ad and 
 Salih to Samud. 
 
 The latter hamstring the she-camel and 
 perish. 
 
 The crime and punishment of the people 
 of Sodom. 
 
 The people of the Grove and the prophet 
 Shu‘aib. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed through the instru¬ 
 mentality of the Faithful Spirit (Gabriel) in 
 plain Arabic. 
 
 The learned Jews recognise its truth from 
 the prophecies in their own scriptures. 
 
 The devils could not have brought it. 
 
 Muhammad is to be meek towards be¬ 
 lievers and to warn his clansmen. 
 
 Those upon whom the devils descend, 
 namely, the poets who wander distraught in 
 every vale. 
 
499 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Chapter XV. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Hijr. 
 
 The Chapter of al-Hijr. 
 
 Misbelievers -will one day regret their 
 misbelief. 
 
 No city was ever destroyed without warn¬ 
 ing. 
 
 The infidels mockingly ask Muhammad to 
 bring down angels to punish them. 
 
 So did the sinners of old act towards their 
 apostles. 
 
 There are signs enough in the zodiac, 
 guarded as they are from the devils -who are 
 pelted with shooting-stars if they attempt to 
 listen. 
 
 All nature is under God’s control. 
 
 Man created from clay, and jinn from 
 smokeless fire. 
 
 The angels bidden to adore Adam. 
 
 The devil refuses, is cursed and expelled, 
 but respited until the Day of Judgment. 
 
 Is allowed to seduce mankind. 
 
 Hell, with its seven doors, promised to 
 misbelievers, and Paradise to believers. 
 
 Story of Abraham’s angelic guests. 
 
 They announce to him the birth of a son. 
 
 They proceed to Lot’s family. 
 
 The crime and punishment of the people of 
 Sodom. 
 
 The ruined cities still remain to tell the 
 tale. 
 
 Similar fate of the people of the Grove and 
 of al-Hijr. 
 
 The horn- draws nigh. 
 
 The Lord Omniscient Creator has sent the 
 Qur’an and the seven verses of repetition. 
 
 Muhammad is not to grieve at the worldly 
 success of unbelievers. 
 
 Those who dismember the Qui’an are 
 threatened with punishment. 
 
 Muhammad is encouraged against the mis¬ 
 believers. 
 
 Chapter LI. 
 
 Suratu 'z-Zariyat. 
 
 The Chapter of the Scatterers. 
 
 Oaths by different natural phenomena 
 that the Judgment Day will come. 
 
 Story of Abraham’s entertaining the angels. 
 
 The destruction of Sodom. 
 
 Fate of Pharaoh, of ‘Ad, of Samfid, and 
 of the people of Noah. 
 
 Vindication of Muhammad against the 
 charges of imposture or madness. 
 
 THE FIFTH PERIOD. 
 
 Thirty-one Surahs. From the tenth year 
 of Muhammad’s ministry to the flight from 
 Makkah. 
 
 The Surahs of this period contain some 
 narratives from the gospel. The rites of 
 pilgrimage are enjoined. The cavillings of 
 the Quraish are refuted ; and we have vivid 
 picturings of the Resurrection and Judgment, 
 of Heaven and Hell, with proofs of God’s 
 unity, power and providence. 
 
 From stage to stage the Surahs become, 
 on the average, longer, and some of them 
 
 qur’an 
 
 now fill many pages. In the latter Surahs of 
 this period, we meet not unfrequently with 
 Madinah passages, which have been interpo¬ 
 lated as bearing on some connected subject. 
 As examples may be taken, verse 40 of 
 Surah xxii., in which permission is given to 
 bear arms against the Makkans ; verse 33, 
 Surah xvii., containing rules for the admini¬ 
 stration of justice; verse Ill, Surah xvi., 
 referring to such believers as had fled their 
 country and fought for the faith; being all 
 passages which could have been promul¬ 
 gated only after the Flight to al-Madlnah. 
 
 Chapter XLVI. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Abqaf 
 The Chapter of al-Ahqaf. 
 
 God the only God and Creator. 
 
 The unbelievers call Muhammad a sor¬ 
 cerer or a forger. 
 
 The book of Moses was revealed before, 
 and the Qur’an is a confirmation of it in 
 Arabic. 
 
 Conception, birth, and life of man. 
 
 Kindness to parents and acceptance of 
 Islam enjoined. 
 
 The misbelievers are warned by the 
 example of ‘Ad, who dwell in Ahqaf, and by 
 that of the cities whose ruins lie around 
 Makkah. 
 
 Allusion to the jinns who listened to Mu¬ 
 hammad’s preaching at Makkah on his re¬ 
 turn from at-Taif. 
 
 Warning to unbelievers of the punishment 
 of the Last Day. 
 
 Chapter LXXII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Jinn. 
 
 The Chapter of the Jinn. 
 
 A crowd of jinns listen to Muhammad’s 
 teaching at Nakhlah. 
 
 Their account of themselves. 
 
 Muhammad exhorted to persevere in 
 preaching. 
 
 Chapter XXXV. 
 
 Suratu '1-MalSikah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Angels. 
 
 Praise of God, who makes the Angels his 
 messengers. 
 
 God’s unity. 
 
 Apostles before Muhammad were accused 
 of imposture. 
 
 Punishment in store for the unbelievers. 
 
 Muhammad is not to be vexed on their 
 account. 
 
 God sends rain to quicken the dead earth. 
 
 This is a sign of the Resurrection. 
 
 The power of God shown in all nature. 
 
 The helplessness of the idols. 
 
 They will disclaim their worshippers at the 
 Resurrection. 
 
 No soul shall bear the burden of another. 
 
 Muhammad cannot compel people to be¬ 
 lieve. 
 
 He is only a warner. 
 
 Other nations have accused their prophets 
 of imposture and perished. 
 
 Reward of the God-fearing of believers, 
 and of those who read and follow the Qur’an- 
 
500 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Punishment of hell for the infidels. 
 
 The idolaters shall be confounded on the 
 Judgment Day. 
 
 The Quraish, in spite of their promises and 
 of the examples around them, are more arro¬ 
 gant and unbelieving than other people. 
 
 If God were to punish men as they deserve, 
 he would not leave so much as a beast on the 
 earth ; but He respites them for a time. 
 
 Chapter XXXVI. 
 
 Suratu Yd Sin. 
 
 The Chapter of Ya Sin. 
 
 Muhammad is God’s messenger, and the 
 Qur’an is a revelation from God to warn a 
 heedless people. 
 
 The infidels are predestined not to believe. 
 
 All men’s work shall be recorded. 
 
 The apostles of Jesus rejected at Antioch. 
 
 Habibu ’n-Najjar exhorts the people to fol¬ 
 low their advice. 
 
 He is stoned to death by the populace. 
 
 Gabriel cries out and the sinful people are 
 destroyed. 
 
 Men will laugh at the apostles who come to 
 them, but they have an example in the 
 nations who have perished before them. 
 
 The quickening of the dead earth is a sign 
 of the Resurrection. 
 
 God’s power shown in the procreation of 
 species. 
 
 The alternation of night and day, the 
 phases of the moon, the sun and moon in 
 their orbits, are signs of God’s power. 
 
 So, too, the preservation of men in ships at 
 sea. 
 
 Almsgiving enjoined. 
 
 The unbelievers jeer at the command. 
 
 The sudden coming of the Judgment Day. 
 
 Blessed state of the believers in Paradise, 
 and misery of the unbelievers in hell. 
 
 Muhammad is no mere poet. 
 
 The Qur’an an admonition. 
 
 God’s providence. 
 
 The false gods will not be able to help their 
 worshippers. 
 
 Proofs of the Resurrection. 
 
 Chapter XIX. 
 
 Suratu Maryam. 
 
 The Chapter of Mary. 
 
 Zachariah prays for an heir. 
 
 He is promised a son, who is to be called 
 John. 
 
 Is struck dumb for three days as a sign. 
 
 John is born and given the Book, Judg¬ 
 ment, grace, and purity. 
 
 Story of Mary. 
 
 The annunciation. 
 
 Her delivery beneath a palm-tree. 
 
 The infant Jesus in the cradle testifies to 
 her innocence and to his own mission. 
 
 Warning of the Day of Judgment. 
 
 Story of Abraham. 
 
 He reproves his father, who threatens to 
 stone him. 
 
 Abraham prays for him. 
 
 Isaac and Jacob are born to him. 
 
 Moses communes with God and has Aaron 
 for a help. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Ishmael and Idris mentioned as Prophets. 
 
 Their seed, when the signs of the Merciful 
 are read, fall down adoring. 
 
 The Makkans, their successors, are pro¬ 
 mised reward in Paradise, if they repent and 
 believe. 
 
 The angels only descend at the bidding of 
 the Lord. 
 
 Certainty of the Resurrection. 
 
 Punishment of those who have rebelled 
 against the Merciful. 
 
 Reproof of one who said he should have 
 wealth and children on the Judgment Day. 
 
 The false gods shall deny their worshippers 
 then. 
 
 The devils sent to tempt unbelievers. 
 
 The gathering of the Judgment Day. 
 
 All nature is convulsed at the imputation 
 that the Merciful has begotten a son. 
 
 This revelation is only to warn mankind 
 by the example of the generations who have 
 passed away. 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Kahf. 
 
 The Chapter of the Cave. 
 
 The Qur’an is a warning especially to those 
 who say God has begotten a son. 
 
 Muhammad is not to grieve if they refuse to 
 believe. 
 
 Story of the Fellows of the Cave. 
 
 Their number known only to God. 
 
 Muhammad rebuked for promising a reve¬ 
 lation on the subject. 
 
 Ho is enjoined to obey God in all things, 
 and not to be induced to give up his poorer 
 followers. 
 
 Hell-fire threatened for the unbelievers and 
 Paradise promised to the good. 
 
 Parable of the proud man’s garden which 
 was destroyed, while that of the humble 
 man flourished. 
 
 This life is like the herb that springs up 
 and perishes. 
 
 Good works are more lasting than wealth 
 and children. 
 
 The Last Day. 
 
 The devil refuses to adore Adam. 
 
 The men are not to take him for a patron 
 
 They shall be forsaken by their patrons at 
 the Last Day. 
 
 Men would believe, but that the example 
 of those of yore must be repeated. 
 
 Misbelievers are unjust, and shall not be 
 allowed to understand, or be guided. 
 
 But God is merciful. 
 
 Story of Moses and his servant in search 
 of al-Khizr. 
 
 They lose their fish at the confluence of 
 the two seas. 
 
 They meet a strange prophet, who bids 
 Moses not question anything he may do. 
 
 He scuttles a ship, kills a boy, and builds 
 up a tottering wall. 
 
 Moses desires an explanation, which the 
 stranger gives, and leaves him. 
 
 Story of Zu ’1-Qarnain. 
 
 He travels to the ocean of the setting 
 sun. 
 
qur’an 
 
 Builds a rampart to keep in Gog and 
 Magog. 
 
 These are to be let loose again before the 
 Judgment Day. 
 
 Reward and punishment on that day. 
 
 Were the sea ink, it would not suffice for 
 the words of the Lord. 
 
 The Prophet is only a mortal. 
 
 Chapter XXYII. 
 
 Suratu ’ n-Naml. 
 
 The Chapter of the Ant. 
 
 The Qur’an a guidance to believers. 
 
 God appears to Moses in the fire. 
 
 Moses is sent to Pharaoh with signs, but 
 is called a sorcerer. 
 
 David and Solomon endowed with know¬ 
 ledge. 
 
 Solomon taught the speech of birds. 
 
 His army of men, jinns, and birds, marches 
 through the valley of the ant. 
 
 One ant bids the rest retire to their holes 
 lest Solomon and his hosts crush them. 
 
 Solomon smiles and answers hor. 
 
 He reviews the birds and misses the 
 hoopoe, who, returning, brings news of the 
 magnificence of the Queen of Sheba. 
 
 Solomon sends him back with a letter to 
 the Queen. 
 
 A demon brings him her throne. 
 
 She comes to Solomon, recognises her 
 throne; marvels at the palace with the glass 
 floor, which she mistakes for water. 
 
 Becomes a Muslim. 
 
 Samud reject Salih and perish. 
 
 Lot is saved, while the people of Sodom 
 are destroyed. 
 
 The Lord, the God of nature ; the only God 
 and Creator. 
 
 Certainty of the Resurrection. 
 
 The ruins of ancient cities an example, 
 
 The Qur’an decides disputed points for the 
 Jews. 
 
 Muhammad bidden to trust in God, for he 
 cannot make the deaf to hear his message. 
 
 The beast that shall appear at the Resur¬ 
 rection. 
 
 Terrors of the Last Day. 
 
 The Prophet bidden to worship the Lord 
 of this land, to recite the Qur’an, and to be¬ 
 come a Muslim. 
 
 Chapter XLII. 
 
 Suratu 'sh-Shura. 
 
 The Chapter of Counsel. 
 
 The Qur’an inspired by God to warn the 
 Mother of cities of the judgment to come. 
 
 God is one, the Creator of all things, who 
 provides for all. 
 
 He calls men to the same religion as that 
 of the prophets of old, which men have 
 broken up into sects. 
 
 Muhammad has only to proclaim his mes¬ 
 sage. 
 
 Those who argue about God shall be con¬ 
 futed. 
 
 None knows when the hour shall come but 
 God. 
 
 The idolaters shall only have their portion 
 in this life. 
 
 qtjr’an 501 
 
 God will vindicate the truth of His revela¬ 
 tion. 
 
 His creation and providence signs of His 
 power. 
 
 Men’s misfortunes by land and sea are due 
 to their own sins. 
 
 The provision of the next world is best for 
 the righteous. 
 
 It is not sinful to retaliate if wronged, 
 though forgiveness is a duty. 
 
 The sinners shall have none to help them 
 on the Day of Judgment. 
 
 They are exhorted to repent before it 
 comes. 
 
 Ingratitude of man. 
 
 God controls all. 
 
 No mortal has ever seen God face to 
 face. 
 
 He speaks to men only through inspiration 
 of His apostles. 
 
 This Qur’an was revealed by a spirit to 
 guide into the right way. 
 
 Chapter XL. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Mu'min. 
 
 The Chapter of the Believer. 
 
 Attributes of God. 
 
 Muhammad encouraged by the fate of 
 other nations who rejected their apostles. 
 
 The angels’ prayer for the believers. 
 
 Despair in hell of the idolaters. 
 
 The terrors of the Judgment Day. 
 
 God alone the Omniscient Judge. 
 
 The vestiges of former nations are still 
 visible in the land to warn the people. 
 
 The story of Moses and Pharaoh. 
 
 The latter wishes to kill Moses, but a 
 secret believer makes a long appeal. 
 
 Pharaoh bids Haman construct a tower to 
 mount up to the God of Moses. 
 
 God saves the believer, and Pharaoh is 
 ruined by his own devices. 
 
 Mutual recrimination of the damned. 
 
 Exhortation to patience and praise. 
 
 Those who wrangle about God rebuked. 
 
 The certain coming of the Hour. 
 
 The unity of God asserted and His attri¬ 
 butes enumerated. 
 
 Idolatry forbidden. 
 
 The conception, birth, life, and death of 
 man. 
 
 Idolaters shall find out their error in hell. 
 
 Muhammad encouraged to wait for the 
 issue. 
 
 Cattle to ride on and to eat are signs of 
 God’s providence. 
 
 The example of the nations who perished 
 of old for rejecting the apostles. 
 
 Chapter XXXVIII. 
 
 Suratu ’s-Stid. 
 
 The Chapter of Sad. 
 
 Oath by the Qur’an. 
 
 Example of former generations who pe¬ 
 rished for unbelief, and for saying that their 
 prophets were sorcerers and the Scriptures 
 forgeries. 
 
 The Makkans are warned thereby. 
 
 Any hosts of the confederates shall be 
 routed. 
 
QTTR AN 
 
 502 qur’an 
 
 Fate of the people of Noah, ! Ad, Pharaoh, I 
 Samud, and Lot. 
 
 The Makkans must expect the same. 
 
 Muhammad exhorted to be patient of what 
 they say. 
 
 He is reminded of the powers bestowed on 
 David. 
 
 The parable of the ewe lambs proposed to 
 David by the two antagonists. 
 
 David exhorted not to follow lust. 
 
 The heaven and earth were not created in 
 vain, as the misbelievers think. 
 
 The Qur’an a reminder. 
 
 Solomon, lost in admiration of his horses, 
 neglects his devotions, but, repenting, slays 
 them. 
 
 A jinn in Solomon’s likeness is set on his 
 throne to punish him. 
 
 He repents and prays God for a kingdom 
 such as no one should ever possess again. 
 
 The wind and the devils made subject to 
 him. 
 
 The patience of Job. 
 
 Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. 
 
 Elisha and Zu T-Kifl. 
 
 Happiness of the righteous in Paradise. 
 
 Misery and mutual recrimination of the 
 wicked in hell. 
 
 Muhammad only sent to warn people and 
 proclaim God’s unity. 
 
 The creation of man and disobedience of 
 Iblis, who is expelled. 
 
 He is respited till the Judgment Day, that 
 he may seduce people to misbelief. 
 
 But he and those who follow him shall 
 fill hell. 
 
 Chapter SXY. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Furqan. 
 
 The Chapter of the Discrimination. 
 
 The Discrimination sent down as a warn¬ 
 ing that God is one, the Creator and Governor 
 of all; yet the Makkans call it old folks' 
 tales. 
 
 They object that the Prophet acts and 
 lives as a mere mortal or is crazy. 
 
 Hell-fire shall be the punishment of those 
 who disbelieve in th6 Resurrection. 
 
 Description of the Judgment Day. 
 
 The Quraish object that the Qur’an was ] 
 revealed piecemeal. 
 
 Moses and Aaron and Noah were treated 
 like Muhammad, but those who called them 
 bars were punished. 
 
 ‘Ad and Samud perished for the same j 
 sin. 
 
 The ruins of the cities of the plain are 
 existing examples. 
 
 Yet they will not accept the Prophet. 
 
 God controls the shadow, gives night 
 for a repose, quickens the dead earth with 
 rain. 
 
 He lets loose the two seas, but places a 
 barrier between them. 
 
 He has created man. 
 
 He is the loving and merciful God. 
 
 The Quraish object to the Merciful as a 
 new God. 
 
 The lowly and moderate are His servants, 
 
 They abstain from idolatry, murder, false 
 witness, and frivolous discourse. 
 
 These shall be rewarded. 
 
 God cares nothing for the rejection of his 
 message by the infidels. 
 
 Their punishment shall be lasting. 
 
 Chapter XX. 
 
 Suratu Ta Ha. 
 
 The Chapter of Ta Ha. 
 
 The Qui-’an a reminder from the Merciful, 
 who owns all things and knows all things. 
 
 There is no god but He. 
 
 His are the excellent names. 
 
 Story of Moses. 
 
 He perceives the fire and is addressed from 
 it by God in the holy valley Tuvan. 
 
 God shows him the miracle of the staff 
 turned to a snake and of the white hand. 
 
 Sends him to Pharaoh. 
 
 Moses excuses himself because of the im¬ 
 pediment in his speech. 
 
 Aaron is given him as a minister. 
 
 Moses’ mother throws him into the sea. 
 
 His sister watches him. 
 
 He is restored to his mother. 
 
 Slays an Egyptian and flees to Midian. 
 
 Moses and Aaron go to Pharaoh and call on 
 him to believe. 
 
 Pharaoh charges them -with being magi¬ 
 cians. 
 
 Their contest with the Egyptian magi¬ 
 cians, who believe, and are threatened with 
 punishment by Pharaoh. 
 
 Moses leads the children of Israel across 
 the sea, by a diy road. 
 
 Pharaoh and his people are overwhelmed. 
 
 The covenant on Mount Sinai. 
 
 The miracle of the manna and quails. 
 
 As-Samiri makes the calf in Moses 
 absence. 
 
 Moses seizes his brother angrily by the 
 beard and destroys the calf. 
 
 Misbelievers threatened with the terrors of 
 the Resurrection Day. 
 
 Fate of the mountains on that day. 
 
 All men shall be summoned to judgment. 
 
 No intercession shall avail except from 
 such as the Merciful permits. 
 
 The Qur'an is in Arabic that people may 
 fear and remember. 
 
 Muhammad is not to hasten on its revela¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Adam broke his covenant with God 
 
 Angels bidden to adore Adam. 
 
 Iblis refuses. 
 
 Tempts Adam. 
 
 Adam, Eve, and the Devil expelled from 
 Paradise. 
 
 Misbelievers shall be gathered together 
 blind on the Resurrection Day. 
 
 The Makkans pass by the ruined dwellings 
 of the generations who have been aforetime 
 destroyed for unbelief. 
 
 But for the Lord’s word being passed, they 
 would have perished too. 
 
 Muhammad is exhorted to bear their in¬ 
 sults patiently and to praise God through the 
 day. 
 
 Prayer enjoined. 
 
qur’an 
 
 The fate of those of yore a sufficient 
 sign. 
 
 Let them wait and see the issue. 
 
 Chapter XLIEI. 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zukkruf 
 The Chapter of Gilding. 
 
 The original of the Qur’an is with God 
 
 The example of the nations of old who 
 mocked at the prophets. 
 
 God the Creator. 
 
 Men are bidden to praise Him who pro¬ 
 vides man with ships and cattle whereon to 
 ride. 
 
 The Arabs are rebuked for attributing 
 female offspring to God, when they themselves 
 repine when a female child is bom to any 
 one of them. 
 
 They are also blamed for asserting that 
 the angels are female. 
 
 The excuse that this was the religion of 
 their fathers, will not avail 
 
 It is the same as older nations made. 
 
 Their fate. 
 
 Abraham disclaimed idolatry. 
 
 The Makkans were permitted to enjoy 
 prosperity only until the Apostle came, and 
 now that he has come they reject him. 
 
 The are reproved for saying that had the 
 Prophet been a man of consideration at Mak- 
 kah and at-Ta’if, they would have owned 
 him. 
 
 Misbelievers would have had still more 
 wealth and enjoyment, but that men would 
 have then all become infidels. 
 
 Those who turn from the admonition shall 
 be chained to devils, who shall mislead 
 them. 
 
 God will take vengeance on them, whe¬ 
 ther Muhammad live to see it or not. 
 
 He is encouraged to persevere. 
 
 Moses was mocked by Pharaoh, whom he 
 was sent to warn. 
 
 But Pharaoh and his people were drowned. 
 
 Answer to the Arabs, who objected that 
 Jesus, too, must come under the ban against 
 false gods. 
 
 But Jesus did not assume to be a god. 
 
 Threat of the coming of the Hour. 
 
 The jovs of Paradise and the terrors of 
 HelL 
 
 The damned shall beg Malik to make an 
 end of them. 
 
 The recording angels note down the secret 
 plots of the infidels. 
 
 God has no son. 
 
 He is the Lord of all. 
 
 Chapter XH. 
 
 Suratu Yusuf. 
 
 The Chapter of Joseph. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed in Arabic that the 
 Makkans may understand. 
 
 It contains the best of stories. 
 
 Story of Joseph. 
 
 He tells his father his dream. 
 
 Jacob advises him to keep it to himself. 
 
 Jealousy of Joseph’s brethren. 
 
 They conspire to throw him in a pit. 
 
 Induce his father to let him go with them. 
 
 qur’an 503 
 
 They cast him in the pit, and bring home 
 his shirt covered with lying blood. 
 
 Travellers discover him and sell him into 
 Egypt. 
 
 He is adopted by his master. 
 
 His mistress endeavours to seduce him. 
 
 His innocence proved. 
 
 His mistress shows him to the women of 
 the city to excuse her conduct. 
 
 Their amazement at his beauty. 
 
 He is imprisoned. 
 
 Interprets the dreams of the baker and the 
 cupbearer. 
 
 Pharaoh’s dream. 
 
 Joseph is sent for to expound it. 
 
 He is appointed to a situation of trust in 
 the land. 
 
 His brethren arrive and do not recognise 
 him. 
 
 They ask for com and he requires them 
 to bring tbeir youngest brother as the condi¬ 
 tion of his giving it to them. 
 
 The goods they had brought to barter are 
 returned to their sacks. 
 
 Benja min is sent back. 
 
 Joseph discovers himself to him. 
 
 Joseph places the king's drinking-cup in 
 his brother's pack. 
 
 Accuses them all of the theft. 
 
 Takes Benjamin as a bondsman for the 
 theft. 
 
 They return to Jacob, who, in great grief, 
 sends them back again, to bring him news. 
 
 Joseph discovers himself to them and 
 sends back his shirt. 
 
 Jacob recognises it by the smell. 
 
 Jacob goes back with them to Egypt. 
 
 This story appealed to as a proof of the 
 truth of the Revelation. 
 
 Chapter XL 
 Suratu Hud. 
 
 The Chapter of Hud. 
 
 The Qur’an a book calling men to believe 
 in the unity of God 
 
 Nothing is hidden from Him. 
 
 He is the Creator of all. 
 
 Men will not believe, and deem them¬ 
 selves secure, because their punishment is 
 deferred. 
 
 They demand a sign, or say the Qur’an is 
 invented by the Prophet; but they and their 
 false gods together cannot bring ten such 
 Surahs. 
 
 Misbelievers threatened with future punish¬ 
 ment, while believers are promised Para¬ 
 dise. 
 
 Noah was likewise sent, but his people 
 objected that he was a mere mortal like 
 themselves, and only followed by the meaner 
 sort of men. 
 
 He also is accused of having invented his 
 revelation. 
 
 He is saved in the ark and the unbelievers 
 drowned 
 
 He endeavours to save his son. 
 
 The ark settles on Mount al-JudL 
 
 Hud was sent to ‘Ad. 
 
 His people plotted against him and were 
 destroyed, while he was saved. 
 
504 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Salih was sent to Samud. 
 
 The she-camel given for a sign. 
 
 The people hamstring her and perish. 
 
 Abraham entertains the angels who are 
 sent to the people of Lot. 
 
 He pleads for them. 
 
 Lot offers his daughters to the people of 
 Sodom, to spare the angels. 
 
 He escapes by night, and Sodom is de¬ 
 stroyed. 
 
 Shuaib is sent to Midian, and his people, 
 rejecting his mission, perish too. 
 
 Moses sent to Pharaoh, who shall be 
 punished at the Resurrection. 
 
 The Makkans, too, shall be punished. 
 
 They are threatened with the Judgment 
 Day, when they shall be sent to hell, while 
 the believers are in Paradise. 
 
 The Makkans are bidden to take warning 
 by the fate of the cities whose stories are 
 related above. 
 
 These stories are intended to strengthen 
 the Prophet’s heart. 
 
 He is bidden to wait and leave the issue to 
 God. 
 
 Chapter X. 
 
 Suratu Yunus. 
 
 The Chapter of Jonah. 
 
 No wonder that the Qur'an was revealed to 
 a mere man. 
 
 Misbelievers deem him a sorcerer. 
 
 God the Creator and Ruler. 
 
 No one can intercede with Him except by 
 His permission. 
 
 Creation is a sign of His power. 
 
 Reward hereafter for the believers. 
 
 Man calls on God in distress, but forgets 
 Him when deliverance comes. 
 
 Warning from the fall of former genera¬ 
 tions. 
 
 The infidels are not satisfied with the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Muhammad dare not invent a false revela¬ 
 tion. 
 
 False gods can neither harm nor profit 
 them. 
 
 People require a sign. 
 
 God saves people in dangers by land and 
 sea. 
 
 This life is like grass. 
 
 Promise of Paradise and threat of Hell. 
 
 Fate of the idolaters and false gods at the 
 Last Day. 
 
 God the Lord of alL 
 
 Other religions are mere conjecture. 
 
 The Qur’an could only have been devised 
 by God. 
 
 The Makkans are challenged to produce a 
 single Surah like it. 
 
 Unbelievers warned of the Last Day by the 
 fate of previous nations. 
 
 Reproval of those who prohibit lawful 
 things. 
 
 God is ever watchful over the Prophet’s 
 actions. 
 
 Happiness of the believers. 
 
 The infidels cannot harm the Prophet. 
 
 Refutation of those who ascribe offspring 
 to God. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 ' Muhammad encouraged by the story of 
 Noah and the other prophets of old. 
 
 Fate of Pharaoh and vindication of Moses 
 and Aaron. 
 
 The people of the Book (Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians) appealed to in confirmation of the truth 
 of the Qur’an. 
 
 The story of Jonah. 
 
 The people of Nineveh saved by repenting 
 and believing in time. 
 
 The people are exhorted to embrace Islam, 
 the faith of the Hanlf. 
 
 God alone is powerful. 
 
 Belief or unbelief affect only the individual 
 himself. 
 
 Resignation and patience inculcated. 
 
 Chapter XIV. 
 
 Suratu Ibrahim. 
 
 The Chapter of Abraham. 
 
 The Qur’an revealed to bring men from 
 darkness into light. 
 
 God is Lord of all. 
 
 No apostle sent except with the language 
 of his own people. 
 
 Moses sent to Pharaoh. 
 
 The people of Noah. 
 
 ‘Ad and Samud objected that their prophets 
 were mortals like themselves. 
 
 The prophets relied on God, who vindicated 
 them. 
 
 Frightful description of hell. 
 
 Misbelievers are like ashes blown away by 
 the stormy wind. 
 
 Helplessness of the damned. 
 
 But believers are in Paradise. 
 
 A good word is like a good tree whose root 
 is in the earth and whose branches are in the 
 sky, and which gives fruit in all seasons. 
 
 A bad word is as a tree that is felled. 
 
 God’s word is sure. 
 
 Idolaters are threatened with hell-fire. 
 
 God is the Creator of all. 
 
 He subjects all things to man’s use. 
 
 Abraham prayed that the territory of Mak- 
 kah might be a sanctuary. 
 
 The unjust are only respited till the Judg¬ 
 ment Day. 
 
 The ruins of the dwellings of those who 
 have perished for the denying the mission of 
 their apostles, are a proof of the truth of 
 Muhammad’s mission. 
 
 The Lord will take vengeance on the Last 
 Day, when sinners shall bum in hell with 
 shirts of pitch to cover them. 
 
 The Qur'an is a warning and an admoni¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Suratu 'I-Arrant. 
 
 The Chapter of Cattle. 
 
 Light and darkness are both created by 
 God. 
 
 Rebuke to idolaters. 
 
 They are exhorted to take warning by the 
 fate of those of old who rejected the pro¬ 
 phets. 
 
 Had the revelation been a material book, 
 they would have disbelieved it. 
 
505 
 
 qur’an 
 
 qur’an 
 
 If the Prophet had been an angel, he would 
 have come in the guise of a man. 
 
 Attributes of God. 
 
 Muhammad bidden to become a Muslim. 
 
 Those who have the Scriptures ought to 
 recognise Muhammad as the one foretold in 
 them. 
 
 The idolaters will 
 intercession of their 
 Day. 
 
 be disappointed of the 
 gods on the Judgment 
 
 They deny the Resurrection Day now, but 
 hereafter they will have awful proof of its 
 truth. 
 
 The nest world is preferable to this. 
 
 Prophets aforetime were also mocked at, 
 and they were patient. 
 
 God could send them a sign if He pleased. 
 
 Beasts, birds, and the like, are communities 
 like men. 
 
 Their fate is all written in the book. 
 
 They, too, shall be gathered on the Judg¬ 
 ment Day. 
 
 Arguments in proof of the supreme power 
 of God. 
 
 Muhammad is only a messenger. 
 
 He is to disclaim miraculous power. 
 
 Is not to repulse believers. 
 
 He is bidden to abjure idolatry and not 
 follow the lusts of the Makkans. 
 
 God’s omniscience. 
 
 He takes men’s souls to Himself during 
 sleep. 
 
 Sends guardian angels to watch over them. 
 
 Preserves men in danger by land and sea. 
 
 Muhammad is not to join in discussions on 
 religion with idolaters, nor to associate with 
 those who make a sport of it. 
 
 Folly of idolatry set forth. 
 
 God the Creator. 
 
 Abraham’s perplexity in seeking after the 
 true God. 
 
 Worships successively the stars, the moon, 
 and the sun, but is convinced that they are 
 not gods by seeing them set. 
 
 Turns to God and becomes a Hanlf. 
 
 Other prophets of old were inspired. 
 
 The Qur'an is also a special revelation from 
 God to the Makkans, fulfilling their Scrip¬ 
 tures, but the Jews have perverted or sup¬ 
 pressed parts of them. 
 
 Denunciation of one who falsely pretended 
 to be inspired. 
 
 The Creation a proof of God’s unity. 
 
 Rebuke to those who call the jinn His part¬ 
 ners, or attribute offspring to Him. 
 
 Idolaters are not to be abused, lest they, 
 too, speak ill of God. 
 
 The Makkans would not have believed 
 even if a sign had been given them. 
 
 Muhammad is to trust to God alone. 
 
 Men are not to abstain from food over 
 which God’s name has been pronounced. 
 
 God will vindicate His messenger. 
 
 Belief or the reverse depends on God’s 
 grace. 
 
 The jinns and false gods, together with 
 their worshippers, will be condemned to ever¬ 
 lasting torment. 
 
 God never punishes without first sending 
 an apostle with warning. 
 
 The threatened doom cannot be averted. 
 
 Denunciation of the idolatrous practices of 
 the Alabs. 
 
 Setting apart portions of the produce of the 
 land for God and for the idols, and defraud¬ 
 ing God of His portion. 
 
 Infanticide. 
 
 Declaring cattle and tilth inviolable. 
 
 God created all fruits and all cattle, both 
 are therefore lawful. 
 
 Argument proving the absurdity of some 
 of these customs. 
 
 Enumeration of the only kinds of food that 
 are unlawful. 
 
 The prohibition to the Jews of certain food 
 | was only on account of their sins. i 
 
 God’s revealed word is the only certain 
 argument. 
 
 Declaration of things really forbidden, 
 namely, harshness to parents, infanticide, 
 
 , abominable sins, and murder. 
 
 The property of orphans is to be respected 
 j and fair-dealing to be practised. 
 
 No soul compelled beyond its capacity. 
 
 The Qur’an to be accepted on the same 
 authority as the Book of Moses was. 
 
 Faith required now without signs. 
 
 No latter profession on the Judgment Day 
 shall profit them. 
 
 Good works to be rewarded tenfold, but 
 evil works only by the same amount. 
 
 Islam is the religion of Abraham the 
 Hanlf. 
 
 A belief in one God, to whom all prayer 
 and devotion is due. 
 
 Each soul shall bear its own burden. 
 
 The high rank of some of the Makkans is 
 only a trial from the Lord whereby to prove 
 them. 
 
 Chapter LXIY. 
 
 Suratu’t- Tayhabun. 
 
 The Chapter of Mutual Deceit. 
 
 God the Creator. 
 
 The Resurrection. 
 
 The Unity of God. 
 
 Wealth and children must not distract 
 men from the service of God. 
 
 Chapter XXVIII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Qasas. 
 
 The Chapter of the Story. 
 
 The history of Moses and Pharaoh. 
 
 The latter and his vizier. 
 
 Hainan oppresses the children of Israel. 
 
 Moses is exposed on the river by his 
 [ mother. 
 
 He is adopted by Pharaoh. 
 
 His sister watches him, and his mother is 
 engaged to nurse him. 
 
 He grows up and slays the Egyptian. 
 
 Flees to Midian. 
 
 Helps the two Midianites to draw water. 
 
 Serves their father Shohaib for ten years 
 and then marries his daughter. 
 
 God appears to him in the fire. 
 
 Is sent with his brother Aaron to Pha¬ 
 raoh. 
 
 Haman builds Pharaoh a high tower to 
 ascend to the God of Moses. 
 
 64 
 
506 
 
 qur’an qur’an 
 
 His punishment. 
 
 Moses gives the Law. 
 
 These stories are proofs of Muhammad’s 
 mission. 
 
 The Arabs reject the Book of Moses and 
 the Qur'an as two impostures. 
 
 Those who have the Scriptures recognise 
 the truth of the Qur’an. 
 
 The Makkans warned by the example of 
 the cities «f old that have perished. 
 
 Disappointment of the idolaters at the Day 
 of Judgment. 
 
 Helplessness of the idols before God. 
 
 Qarun’s great wealth. 
 
 The earth opens and swallows him up for 
 his pride and his insolence to Moses. 
 
 Muhammad encouraged in his faith and 
 purpose. 
 
 Chapter XXIII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Mu'minim. 
 
 The Chapter of Believers. 
 
 The humble, chaste, and honest, shall 
 prosper. 
 
 The creation, birth, death, and resurrection 
 of man. 
 
 God’s goodness in providing for men’s sus¬ 
 tenance. 
 
 Noah sent to his jieople, who reject hi in 
 because he is a mere mortal. 
 
 They are drowned, and he is saved in the 
 ark. 
 
 Moses and Aaron were also called liars. 
 
 Mary and her son the cause of their fol¬ 
 lowers division into sects. 
 
 The God-fearing encouraged. 
 
 The Quraish rebuked for their pride, and 
 for denying Muhammad, and calling him 
 possessed. 
 
 They are reminded of the famine and de¬ 
 feat they have already experienced. 
 
 Doctrine of the Resurrection. 
 
 The unity of God. 
 
 He has no offspring. 
 
 Is omniscient. 
 
 Muhammad is encouraged not to care for 
 the false accusations of the Makkans, but to 
 seek refuge in God. 
 
 Punishment, on the Day of Resurrection, of 
 those who mocked at the little party of be¬ 
 lievers. 
 
 Chapter XXII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Hcijj. 
 
 The Chapter of the Pilgrimage. 
 
 Terrors of the Last Day, yet men dispute 
 about God and follow devils. 
 
 The conception, birth, growth, and death of 
 men, and the growth of herbs in the ground 
 are proofs of the Resurrection. 
 
 But some dispute, others waver between 
 two opinions. 
 
 The most desperate means cannot thwart 
 the divine decrees. 
 
 God will decide between the Jews, Chris- | 
 tians, Sabians, Magians, and idolaters on the | 
 Judgment Day. 
 
 All nature adores God. 
 
 The misbelievers are threatened with hell- 
 fire, and the believers promised Paradise. 
 
 Punishment threatened to those who pro¬ 
 hibit men from visiting the Sacred Mosque. 
 
 Abraham, when bidden to cleanse the 
 Ka‘bah, was told to proclaim the pilgrimage. 
 
 The rules of the Hajj enjoined. 
 
 Cattle are lawful food. 
 
 Warning against idolatry and exhortation 
 to become Hanlfs. 
 
 Sacrifices at the Ka‘bah are enjoined. 
 
 All men have their appointed rites. 
 
 The name of God is to be mentioned over 
 cattle when slaughtered. 
 
 Camels may be sacrificed and eaten. 
 
 God will defend believers, but loves not 
 misbelieving traitors. 
 
 Those who have been driven from their 
 homes for acknowledging God's unity are 
 allowed to fight. 
 
 If men did not fight for such a cause, all 
 places of worship would be destroyed. 
 
 The people of Noah, ‘Ad, Samud, Abra¬ 
 ham, and Lot, called their prophets liars, 
 and were allowed to range at large, but at 
 last they were punished. 
 
 Their cities were destroyed, and the ruins 
 are visible to travellers still. 
 
 Muhammad is only sent to warn the Mak¬ 
 kans of a like fate. 
 
 Satan contrives to suggest a wrong read¬ 
 ing to the Prophet while reading the Qur'an. 
 
 The Kingdom shall be God’s upon the 
 Judgment Day. 
 
 Those who flee or are slain in the cause, 
 shall be provided for and rewarded. 
 
 Believers who take revenge and are again 
 attacked, will be helped. 
 
 All nature is subject to God. 
 
 Every nation has its rites to observe. 
 
 The idolaters treat the revelation with 
 scorn. 
 
 The false gods could not even create a 
 
 fl y- 
 
 Exhortation to worship God and fight for 
 the faith of Abraham, whose religion the 
 Muslims profess. 
 
 God is the Sovereign and Helper. 
 
 Chapter XXI. 
 
 Suratu '1-AmbiyS . 
 
 The Chapter of the Prophets. 
 
 Men mock at the revelation. 
 
 They say it is a jumble of dreams, and 
 that Muhammad is a poet, and they ask for 
 a sign. 
 
 The prophets of old were but mortal. 
 
 The people who rejected them perished. 
 
 Heaven and earth were not created in 
 sport. 
 
 Truth shall crush falsehood. 
 
 All things praise God. 
 
 If there were other gods than He, heaven 
 and earth would be corrupted. 
 
 All former prophets were taught there is 
 no god but God. 
 
 The Merciful has not begotten children. 
 
 The angels are only His servants. 
 
 The separation of earth from heaven, the 
 creation of living things from water, the 
 steadying of the earth by mountains, and 
 placing the sky as a roof over it, and the 
 
qur’an 
 
 creation of the night and day, and of the sun 
 and moon, are signs. 
 
 No one was ever granted immortality. 
 Every soul must taste of death. 
 
 The unbelievers mock at Muhammad and 
 disbelieve in the Merciful. 
 
 Man is hasty. 
 
 The infidels are threatened with punish¬ 
 ment in the next world. 
 
 Those who mocked at the prophets of old 
 perished. 
 
 No one shall be wronged on the Last 
 Day. 
 
 Moses and Aaron received a scripture. 
 Abraham destroys the images which his 
 people worshipped. 
 
 He tells them that it was the largest idol 
 which did it. 
 
 He is condemned to be burnt alive, but the 
 lire is miraculously made cool and safe. 
 
 Abraham, Lot, Isaac, and Jacob, all in¬ 
 spired. 
 
 Lot was brought safely out of a city of 
 wrong-doers. 
 
 Noah also was saved. 
 
 David and Solomon give judgment about a 
 field. 
 
 The mountains and birds are made subject 
 to David. 
 
 He is taught the art of making coats of 
 mail. 
 
 The wind and the demons are subjected to 
 Solomon. 
 
 Job was saved. 
 
 Ishmail, Idris, and Zu ’1-Kifl were patient, 
 and entered into the mercy of the Lord. 
 
 Zu ’n-Niin (Jonah) was saved in the fish’s 
 belly. 
 
 Zackariah had his prayer granted and a 
 son (John) given him. 
 
 The spirit was breathed into the Virgin 
 
 Mar^. 
 
 But their followers have divided into sects. 
 A city once destroyed for unbelief shall 
 not be restored till Gog and Magog are let 
 loose. 
 
 The promise draws nigh. 
 
 Idolaters shall be the pebbles of hell. 
 
 But the elect shall be rolled up as as-Sijill 
 rolls up a book. 
 
 As is written in the Psalms, “ The righ¬ 
 teous shall inherit the earth.” 
 
 Muhammad sent as a mercy to the worlds. 
 God is one God. 
 
 He knows all. 
 
 He is the Merciful. 
 
 Chapter XVII. 
 
 Suratu Barn Isra’il. 
 
 The Chapter of the Children of Israel. 
 Allusion to the night journey from the 
 Sacred Mosque (at Makkah) to the Remote 
 Mosque (at Jerusalem). 
 
 Moses received the book. 
 
 Noah was a faithful servant. 
 
 Israel’s two sins and their punishment. 
 
 The Qur’an a guide and a good tidings. 
 
 Man prays for evil and is hasty. 
 
 Night and day are two signs. 
 
 Every man's augury is round his neck. 
 
 qur’an 507 
 
 Each one shall have a book on the Resur¬ 
 rection Day with an account of his deeds. 
 
 Each is to bear the burden of his own 
 sins. 
 
 No city is destroyed till warned by an 
 apostle. 
 
 Choice of good in this world or the next. 
 
 Muhammad is not to associate others with 
 God. 
 
 Kindness to parents enjoined. 
 
 Moderation to be practised. 
 
 Infanticide and fornication are sins. 
 
 Homicide is not to be avenged except for 
 just cause. 
 
 Honesty and humility inculcated. 
 
 The angels are not the daughters of God. 
 
 If there were other gods, they would 
 rebel against God. 
 
 All in the heavens praise Him. 
 
 Unbelievers cannot understand the Qur’an. 
 
 The unity of God unacceptable to the 
 Makkans. 
 
 The Resurrection 
 
 Idolaters not to be provoked. 
 
 Some prophets preferred over others. 
 
 False gods themselves have recourse to 
 God. 
 
 All cities to be destroyed before the Judg¬ 
 ment Day. 
 
 Had Muhammad been sent with signs, the 
 Makkans would have disbelieved them like 
 Samud. 
 
 The vision (of the Night Journey) and the 
 Zaqqum tree of hell, are causes of conten¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Iblls’ disobedience and fall. 
 
 He is given permission to delude men. 
 
 Safety by land and sea a special mercy 
 from God. 
 
 All shall have justice at the Last Day. 
 
 The Saqif tribe at at-Ta’if nearly seduced 
 Muhammad into promulgating an unautho¬ 
 rised. sentence. 
 
 Injunction to pray. 
 
 Man is ungrateful. 
 
 Departure of the spirit. 
 
 Mankind and jinns together could not pro¬ 
 duce the like of the Qur’an. 
 
 Signs demanded of Muhammad. 
 
 He is only a mortal. 
 
 Fate of those who disbelieve in the Resur¬ 
 rection. 
 
 Moses brought nine signs, but Pharaoh 
 disbelieved in them. 
 
 His fate. 
 
 The children of Israel succeeded him in 
 his possessions. 
 
 The Qur’an was revealed as occasion re¬ 
 quired. 
 
 Those who believe the scripture recog¬ 
 nise it. 
 
 God and the Merciful One are not two 
 gods, for God has no partner. 
 
 Chapter XVI. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nafil. 
 
 The Chapter of the Bee. 
 
 God’s decree will come to pass. 
 
 He sends the angels to instruct his servants 
 to give warning that there is no other God. 
 
508 
 
 QUR’aN 
 
 The creation and ordering of all natural 
 objects are signs of His power. 
 
 The false gods are inanimate and power¬ 
 less. 
 
 God is but one. 
 
 The unbelievers who call the revelation 
 old folks’tales, must bear the burden of their 
 own sins. 
 
 On the Resurrection Day, their associates 
 will disown them. 
 
 Reception by the angels of the wicked and 
 the good in Hell and in Paradise. 
 
 The infidels strenuously deny the Resur¬ 
 rection. 
 
 The Muhajirim are promised a good re¬ 
 ward. 
 
 The Jews and Christians to be asked to 
 confirm the Qur’an. 
 
 All nature adores God. 
 
 Unity of God affirmed. 
 
 When in distress, men turn to God, but for¬ 
 get Him and become idolaters when deliver¬ 
 ance comes. 
 
 The practice of setting aside part of their 
 produce for the idols reproved. 
 
 The practice of female infanticide, while 
 they ascribe daughters to God, is reproved, 
 and disbelief in the future life also rebuked. 
 
 Satan is the patron of the infidels. 
 
 The Qur’an sent down as a guidance and 
 mercy. 
 
 The rain which quickens the dead earth, and 
 the cattle which give milk, and the vines 
 which give fruit and wine are signs. 
 
 The bee is inspired from the Lord to build 
 hives and to use those made first by men. 
 
 Its honey is lawful. 
 
 The rich Arabs are reproved for their 
 treatment of their slaves. 
 
 Helplessness of the false gods illustrated 
 by the parable of the slave and of the dumb 
 man. 
 
 Goodness of God in providing food and 
 shelter for men. 
 
 Idolaters shall be disowned by the false 
 gods at the Resurrection. 
 
 Every nation shall have a witness against 
 it on that day. 
 
 Justice and good faith inculcated, espe¬ 
 cially the duty of keeping to a treaty once 
 made. 
 
 Satan has no power over believers. 
 
 Verses of the Qur’an abrogated. 
 
 The Holy Spirit (Gabriel) is the instru¬ 
 ment of the revelation. 
 
 Suggestion that Muhammad is helped by 
 some mortal to compose the Qur’an. 
 
 This cannot be, as the person hinted at 
 speaks a foreign language and the Qur’an is 
 in Arabic. 
 
 Denunciation of misbelievers. 
 
 Warning of the fate Makkah is to expect 
 if its inhabitants continue to disbelieve. 
 
 Unlawful foods. 
 
 God will forgive wrong done through igno¬ 
 rance. 
 
 Abraham was Hanif. 
 
 The ordinance of the Sabbath. 
 
 Muhammad is to dispute with his oppo¬ 
 nents kindly. 
 
 qor’an 
 
 The believers are not to take too savage 
 revenge. 
 
 They are exhorted to patience and trust in 
 God. 
 
 Chapter XHI. 
 
 Suratu ’r-Ha‘d. 
 
 The Chapter of Thunder. 
 
 The Qur’an a revelation from the Lord, the 
 Creator and Governor of all. 
 
 Misbelievers are threatened. 
 
 God knows all, and the recording angels 
 are ever present. 
 
 Lightning and thunder celebrate God’s 
 praises. 
 
 All in heaven and earth acknowledge 
 Him. 
 
 God sends rain and causes the torrents to 
 flow. 
 
 The scum thereof is like the dross on 
 smelted ore. 
 
 The righteous and the believers are pro¬ 
 mised Paradise, and the misbelievers are 
 threatened with hell-fire. 
 
 Exhortation to believe in the Merciful. 
 
 Were the Qur’an to convulse nature, they 
 would not believe. 
 
 Further threats against misbelievers. 
 
 God notes the deeds of every soul. 
 
 Stratagem unavailing against Him. 
 
 Paradise and Hell. 
 
 Muhammad bidden to persevere in assert¬ 
 ing the unity of God. 
 
 Had he not followed the Qur’an, God would 
 have forsaken him. 
 
 Other apostles have had wives and chil¬ 
 dren. 
 
 None could bring a sign without God’s 
 permission. 
 
 For every period there is a revelation. 
 
 God can annul or confirm any part of His 
 revelation which He pleases. 
 
 He has the Mother of the Book ( i.e the 
 Eternal Original). 
 
 Whether Muhammad live to see his pre¬ 
 dictions fulfilled or not, God only knows. 
 
 His duty is only to preach the message. 
 
 The conquests of Islam pointed to. 
 
 God will support the prophets against 
 misbelievers. 
 
 Chapter XXIX. 
 
 Suratu ’l-‘Ankabut. 
 
 The Chapter of the Spider. 
 
 Believers must be proved. 
 
 Kindness to be shown to parents; but 
 they are not to be obeyed if they endeavour 
 to lead their children to idolatry. 
 
 The hypocrites stand by the Muslims only 
 in success. 
 
 The unbelievers try to seduce the be¬ 
 lievers by offering to bear their sins. 
 
 Noah delivered from the deluge. 
 
 Abraham preaches against idolatry. 
 
 Is cast into the fire, but saved. 
 
 Flees from his native land. 
 
 Isaac and Jakob born to him. 
 
 Lot and the fate of the inhabitants of 
 Sodom. 
 
 Midian and their prophet Shu-aib. 
 
509 
 
 qur’an 
 
 ‘Ad and Samud. 
 
 Fate of Qarun, Pharaoh, and Human. 
 Similitude of the spider. 
 
 Muhammad bidden to rehearse the Qur’an. 
 Prayer enjoined. 
 
 Those who have scriptures are to be mildly 
 dealt with in disputation. 
 
 They believe in the Qur’an. 
 
 Muhammad unable to read. 
 
 Signs are only in the power of God. 
 
 The idolaters reproved, and threatened 
 with punishment. 
 
 The believers promised reward. 
 
 God provides for all. 
 
 This world is but a sport. 
 
 God saves men in dangers by sea, yet they 
 are ungrateful. 
 
 The territory of Makkah inviolable. 
 Exhortation to strive for the faith 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-A'raf 
 The Chapter of al-A‘raf. 
 Muhammad is bidden to accept the Qur’an 
 fearlessly. 
 
 The Makkans must take warning by the 
 fate of those who rejected the prophets of 
 
 old. 
 
 The creation and fall of Adam. 
 
 Iblis allowed to tempt mankind. 
 
 Men are to go to mosque decently clad. 
 
 God has only prohibited sinful actions. 
 
 Men are warned not to reject the mission of 
 the apostles. 
 
 Their punishment at and after death if 
 they do so. 
 
 The happiness of believers in Paradise. 
 Description of al-A‘raf, the partition be¬ 
 tween heaven and hell. 
 
 Immediate belief in the Qur’an required. 
 God the Creator. 
 
 Humble and secret prayer enjoined. 
 
 Proofs of God’s goodness. 
 
 Noah sent to warn his people. 
 
 He is saved in the ark while they are 
 drowned. 
 
 Hud sent to ‘Ad. 
 
 They reject his preaching and are pun¬ 
 ished. 
 
 Salih sent to Samud. 
 
 Produces the she-camel as a sign. 
 
 The people hamstring her and are pun¬ 
 ished. 
 
 Lot sent to the people of Sodom. 
 
 Their punishment. 
 
 Shu‘aib sent to Midian. 
 
 His people reject him and are destroyed. 
 Thus city after city was destroyed for 
 rejecting the apostles. 
 
 Moses sent to Pharaoh. 
 
 The miracles of the snake and the white 
 hand. 
 
 The magicians contend with Moses, are 
 overcome and believe. 
 
 Pharaoh punishes them. 
 
 The slaughter of the first-born. 
 
 The plagues of Egypt. 
 
 The Israelites are delivered. 
 
 Moses communes with God, who appears 
 to him on the mount. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 The giving of the Law. 
 
 The golden calf. 
 
 Moses’ wrath against Aaron. 
 
 The seventy elders. 
 
 The coming of Muhammad, the illiterate 
 Prophet, foretold. 
 
 Some Jews are just and rightly guided. 
 
 The division into twelve tribes. 
 
 The miracle of smiting the rock. 
 
 The manna and quails. 
 
 The command to enter the city, saying, 
 “ Hittatun,” and punishment for disobe¬ 
 dience. 
 
 The Sabbath-breaking city. 
 
 The transformation of the wicked inhabi¬ 
 tants into apes. 
 
 The dispersion of the Jews. 
 
 The mountain held over the Jews. 
 
 The covenant of God with the posterity of 
 Adam. 
 
 Am I not your Lord ? 
 
 Humiliation of one who, having foretold the 
 coming of a prophet in the time of Muham¬ 
 mad, would not acknowledge the latter as 
 such. 
 
 Many, both of the jinn and of mankind, 
 predestined to hell. 
 
 The names of God are not to be perverted. 
 
 Muhammad is not possessed. 
 
 The coming of the Hour. 
 
 Creation of Adam and Eve. 
 
 Conception and birth of their first child, 
 •Abdu ’1-Haris. 
 
 Their idolatry. 
 
 Idols are themselves servants of God. 
 
 They have neither life nor senses. 
 
 Muhammad is bidden to treat his oppo¬ 
 nents with mildness. 
 
 The mention of God’s name repels devilish 
 influences. 
 
 Men are recommended to listen to the 
 Qur’an and to humble themselves before God, 
 whom the angels adore. 
 
 Charter CXIII. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Falaq. 
 
 The Chapter of the Daybreak. 
 
 The Prophet seeks refuge in God from evil 
 influences. 
 
 Chapter CXIV. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nas. 
 
 The Chapter of Men. 
 
 The Prophet seeks refuge in God from the 
 devil and his evil suggestions. 
 
 THE SIXTH AND LAST PERIOD. 
 Twenty Surahs given at al-Madinah. 
 Chapter XCVIII. 
 
 Suratu H-Baiyinah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Manifest Sign. 
 Rebuke to Jews and Christians for doubting 
 the manifest sign of Muhammad’s mission. 
 Chapter II. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Baqarah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Heifer. 
 
 The Qur’an a guidance. 
 
 Rebuke to unbelievers. 
 
510 
 
 qur’an 
 
 A parable of one who kindles fire. 
 
 God is not ashamed of trifling similitudes. 
 The creation of man. 
 
 Adam taught the names. 
 
 Iblis refuses to adore him. 
 
 The temptation and fall. 
 
 The Children of Israel. 
 
 Their trials in Egypt. 
 
 The golden calf. 
 
 The manna and quails. 
 
 Bidden to enter the city and say, “ Hit- 
 tatun.” 
 
 Moses strikes the rock. 
 
 He bids the people slaughter a dun cow to 
 discover a murder. 
 
 Charge against the Jews of corrupting the 
 Scriptures. 
 
 The golden calf. 
 
 The mountain held over them. 
 
 Gabriel reveals the Qur’an. 
 
 Harut and Marut. 
 
 Believers are not to say “ Ra‘ina,” but 
 “ Unzurna.” 
 
 Verses which are annulled will be replaced 
 by better ones. 
 
 Paradise not exclusively for Jews and 
 Christians. 
 
 Mosques to be free. 
 
 Story of Abraham. 
 
 He rebuilds the Ka‘bah. 
 
 Was a Hanif. 
 
 The qiblah free. 
 
 As-Safa and al-Marwah maybe compassed. 
 Proofs of God’s unity. 
 
 Lawful and unlawful food. 
 
 The law of retaliation for homicide. 
 Testators. 
 
 The fast of Ramazan. 
 
 Rites of the pilgrimage. 
 
 Its duration. 
 
 Fighting for religion lawful during the 
 sacred months. 
 
 Wine and gaming forbidden. 
 
 Marriage with idolaters unlawful. 
 
 The law of divorce. 
 
 Of suckling children. 
 
 The Muhajirun to be rewarded. 
 
 The Children of Israel demand a king 
 Saul (Talut). 
 
 The shechina. 
 
 The ark. 
 
 Saul and Gideon confounded. 
 
 Goliath. 
 
 Jesus. 
 
 The Ayatu ’ l-kursi (verse of the throne), 
 asserting the self-subsistence and omnipre¬ 
 sence of God. 
 
 Nimrod and Abraham. 
 
 Almsgiving. 
 
 No compulsion in religion. 
 
 Proofs of the Resurrection. 
 
 Ezekiel’s vision of the dry bones referred 
 to. 
 
 Abraham and the birds. 
 
 Almsgiving recommended. 
 
 Usurers denounced. 
 
 Laws relating to debt and trading. 
 
 Persons mentally incapable are to act by 
 agents. 
 
 The believer’s prayer. 
 
 qur’ah 
 
 Chaptee III. 
 
 Suratu Ali ‘Imran. • 
 
 The Chapter of ‘Imran’s Family. 
 
 God’s unity and self-subsistence. 
 
 The Qur’an confirmatory of previous scrip- 
 j ture. 
 
 The verses are either decisive or ambi- 
 J guous. 
 
 Example of Pharaoh’s punishment. 
 
 The battle of Badr. 
 
 Islam the true religion. 
 
 Future torment eternal. 
 
 Obedience to God and the Apostle en- 
 j joined. 
 
 Conception of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 She is brought up by Zachariah. 
 
 Birth of John. 
 
 The annunciation of the Virgin. 
 
 Birth and infancy of Jesus. 
 
 The miracle of the birds of clay. 
 
 The disciples. 
 
 Allusion to Muhammad’s dispute with a 
 Christian deputation from Najran. 
 
 Abraham a Hanif. 
 
 Reproof to Jews who pretend to believe 
 and then recant, and who pervert the scrip¬ 
 tures. 
 
 No distinction to be made between the 
 prophets. 
 
 The Jews rebuked for prohibiting certain 
 kinds of food. 
 
 The foundation of the Ka‘bah. 
 
 Abraham’s station. 
 
 Pilgrimage enjoined. 
 
 Schism and misbelief reproved. 
 
 Battle of Uhud referred to. 
 
 The victory at Badr due to angelic aid. 
 Usury denounced. 
 
 Fate of those who rejected the prophets of 
 old. 
 
 Muhammad’s death must not divert the 
 believers from their faith. 
 
 Promise of God’s help. 
 
 Further account of the battle of Badr. 
 
 The Muslim martyrs to enter Paradise. 
 
 The victory of Badr more than counter¬ 
 balanced the defeat at Uhud. 
 
 The hypocrites detected and reproved. 
 
 Death the common lot, even of apostles. 
 Prayer for the believers. 
 
 Exhortation to vie in good works and be 
 patient. 
 
 Chaptee VIII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Anfdl. 
 
 The Chapter of the Spoils. 
 
 Spoils belong to God and the Apostle. 
 
 Who are the true believers ? 
 
 The expedition of Muhammad against the 
 caravan from Syria under Abu Sufyan. 
 
 The miraculous victory at Badr. 
 
 Address to the Makkans who, fearing an 
 attack from ^Muhammad, took sanctuary in 
 the Ka‘bah, and prayed to God to decide 
 between themselves and him. 
 
 Exhortation to believe and avoid treachery. 
 Plots against Muhammad frustrated by 
 Divine interference. 
 
 The revelation treated as old folks’ tales. 
 
QUR AN 
 
 511 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Rebuke of the idolaters for mocking the 
 Muslims at prayer. 
 
 Offer of an amnesty to those who will be¬ 
 lieve. 
 
 Exhortation to fight the infidels. 
 
 Division of the spoils. 
 
 Description of the battle. 
 
 The enemy made to seem few in the Mus¬ 
 lim’s eyes, while they seemed more numerous 
 than they really were. 
 
 The infidels forsaken by Satan, their 
 leader, on the day of battle. 
 
 Fate of the hypocrites. 
 
 Warning from Pharaoh's fate. 
 
 The infidels who break their treaty. 
 
 Treachery to be met with the like. 
 
 God will help the Prophet against the 
 traitors. 
 
 A few enduring believers shall conquer a 
 multitude of infidels. 
 
 The Muslims are reproved for accepting 
 ransom for the captives taken at Badr. 
 
 The spoils are lawful. 
 
 The Muhajiruu who fled with Muhammad, 
 and the inhabitants of al-Madfnah who gave 
 him refuge, are to form ties of brotherhood. 
 
 Chapter XLYII. 
 
 Suratu, Muhammad. 
 
 The Chapter of Muhammad. 
 
 Promise of reward to believers. 
 
 Exhortation to deal severely with the 
 enemy. 
 
 Description of Paradise and of Hell. 
 
 Reproof to some pretended believers and 
 hypocrites who hesitate to obey the command 
 to make war against the unbelievers. 
 
 Their secret malice shall be revealed 
 
 Exhortation to believe, and to obey God 
 and the Apostles, and sacrifice all for the 
 faith. 
 
 Chapter LXII. 
 
 Suratu '1-Juma‘ah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Congregation. 
 
 God has sent the illiterate prophet. 
 
 The Jews rebuked for unbelief. 
 
 Muslims are not to leave the congregation 
 during divine service for the sake of mer¬ 
 chandise. 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Ma'idah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Table. 
 
 Believers are to fulfil their compacts. 
 
 Brute beasts, except those hereafter men¬ 
 tioned, are lawful, but chase during the pil¬ 
 grimage is unlawful. 
 
 The rites and sacrifices of the Pilgrimage 
 are lawful. 
 
 The Muslims are not to bear ill-will against 
 the Quraish, who prevented them at Hudai- 
 biyah from making the Pilgrimage. 
 
 Forbidden meats. 
 
 The food of Jews and Christians is lawful 
 to Muslims. 
 
 So, too, their women. 
 
 Ablutions before prayers. 
 
 Rules for purification in cases of pollu¬ 
 tion. 
 
 The Muslims are bidden to remember the 
 oath of fealty (at ‘Aqabah), and how God 
 made a similar covenant with the children of 
 Israel, and chose Iwelve wardens. 
 
 Muhammad is warned against their trea¬ 
 chery, as well as against the Christians. 
 
 Refutation of the doctrine that Christ is 
 God, and of the idea that the Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians are the sons of God and His beloved. 
 
 Muhammad sent as a warner and herald of 
 glad tidings. 
 
 Moses bade the children of Israel invade 
 the Holy Land, and they were punished for 
 hesitating. 
 
 Story of the two sons of Adam. 
 
 The crow shows Cain how to bury the body 
 of Abel. 
 
 Gravity of homicide. 
 
 Those who make war against God and His 
 Apostle are not to receive quarter. 
 
 Punishment for theft. 
 
 Muhammad is to judge both Jews and 
 Christians by the Qur’an, in accordance with 
 their own Scriptures, but not according to 
 their lusts. 
 
 Or would they prefer to be judged accord¬ 
 ing to the unjust laws of the time of the 
 pagan Arabs ? 
 
 The Muslims are not to take Jews and 
 Christians for patrons. 
 
 The hypocrites hesitate to join the be¬ 
 lievers. 
 
 They are threatened. 
 
 Further appeals to the Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians. 
 
 Fate of those before them who were trans¬ 
 formed for their sins. 
 
 The Jews reproved for saying that God's 
 hand is fettered. 
 
 Some of them are moderate, but the greater 
 part are misbelievers. 
 
 The Prophet is bound to preach his mes¬ 
 sage. 
 
 Sabians, Jews, and Christians appealed to 
 as believers. 
 
 Prophets of old were rejected. 
 
 Against the worship of the Messiah and 
 the doctrine of the Trinity. 
 
 Jews and idolaters are the most hostile to 
 the Muslims, and the Christians are nearest 
 in love to them. 
 
 Expiation for an inconsiderate oath. 
 
 Wine and gambling forbidden. 
 
 Game not to be hunted or eaten during pil¬ 
 grimage. 
 
 Expiation for violating this precept. 
 
 Fish is lawful at this time. 
 
 Rites of the Hajj to be observed. 
 
 Believers must not ask about painful things 
 till the whole Qur’an is revealed. 
 
 Denunciation of the superstitious practices 
 of the Pagan Arabs with respect to certain 
 cattle. 
 
 Witnesses required when a dying man 
 makes his testament. 
 
 The mission of Jesus. 
 
 The miracles of the infancy. 
 
512 qur’an 
 
 The Apostles ask for a table from heaven 
 as a sign. 
 
 Jesus denies commanding men to worship 
 him and his mother as gods. 
 
 Chapter LIX. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Hashr. 
 
 The Chapter of Assembly. 
 
 The chastisements of the Jews who would 
 not believe in the Qur’an. 
 
 The divisions of the spoils. 
 
 The treacherous conduct of the hypocrites. 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Suratu ’ n-Nisa ’. 
 
 The Chapter of Women. 
 
 God creates and watches over man. 
 
 Women’s dowries. 
 
 Administration of the property of orphans 
 and idiots. 
 
 Distribution of property among the heirs. 
 
 Witnesses required to prove adultery. 
 
 Believers are not to inherit women’s estates 
 against their will. 
 
 No false charge of adultery to be made 
 with a view of keeping a woman’s dowry. 
 
 Women whom it is unlawful to marry. 
 
 Men are superior to women. 
 
 Punishment of refractory wives. 
 
 Arbitration between man and wife. 
 
 Duty towards parents, kinsmen, orphans, 
 the poor, neighbours, &c. 
 
 Almsgiving for appearance sake a crime. 
 
 Believers must not pray when drunk or 
 polluted. 
 
 Sand may be used for purification when 
 water is not to be had. 
 
 Charge against Jews of perverting the 
 Scriptures and saying, “ Ra‘ina.” 
 
 They are threatened with transformation, 
 like those who broke the Sabbath, for their 
 unbelief. 
 
 Idolatry the unpardonable sin. 
 
 Some who have Scriptures believe. 
 
 Trusts to be paid back. 
 
 Quarrels to be referred to God and the 
 apostles only. 
 
 The Apostle will intercede for the be¬ 
 lievers. 
 
 Muhammad commanded to settle their dif¬ 
 ferences. 
 
 Believers to take precautions in sallying 
 forth to battle. 
 
 They are exhorted to fight, and promised 
 Paradise if they fall. 
 
 Obedience to the Prophet is obedience to 
 God. 
 
 Salutation to be returned. 
 
 The hypocrites. 
 
 Deserters are to be slain, unless they have 
 taken refuge with a tribe in league with the 
 Muslims. 
 
 Penalty for killing a believer by mistake. 
 
 Believers are not to plunder others on the 
 mere pretence that they are infidels. 
 
 Fate of the half-hearted Muslims who fell 
 at Badr. 
 
 Precautions to be taken against an attack 
 during prayers, 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Exhortation to sincerity in supporting the 
 faith. 
 
 Rebuke to the pagan Arabs for their ido¬ 
 latry and superstitious practices. 
 
 Islam the best religion, being that of Abra¬ 
 ham the Hanif. 
 
 Laws respecting women and orphans. 
 
 Equity and kindness recommended. 
 
 Partiality to one wife rather than another 
 reproved. 
 
 Fear of God inculcated. 
 
 God does not pardon the unstable in faith 
 or the hypocrites. 
 
 No middle course is allowed. 
 
 The Jews were punished for demanding a 
 book from heaven. 
 
 Of old they asked Moses to show them 
 God openly, and were punished. 
 
 They are reproached for breaking their 
 covenant with God, for calumniating Mary, 
 and for pretending that they killed Jesus, 
 whereas they only killed his similitude, for 
 God took him to Himself. 
 
 Certain lawful foods forbidden the Jews 
 for their injustice and usury. 
 
 Muhammad is inspired in the same manner 
 as the other apostles and prophets. 
 
 Jesus is only an apostle of God and His 
 Word, and a spirit from Him. 
 
 Doctrine of the Trinity denounced. 
 
 God has not begotten a son. 
 
 The law of inheritance iia the case of re¬ 
 mote kinship. f 
 
 Chapter LVIII. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Mujadilali. 
 
 The Chapter of the Disputer. 
 
 Abolition of the idolatrous custom of 
 divorcing women with the formula, “ Thou 
 art to me as my mother’s back.” 
 
 God’s omniscience and omnipresence. 
 
 He knows the secret plottings of the dis¬ 
 affected. 
 
 Discourse on the duties of true believers. 
 
 Denunciation of those who oppose the 
 Apostle. 
 
 Chapter LXV. 
 
 Suratu 't-Talaq. 
 
 The Chapter of Divorce. 
 
 The laws of divorce. 
 
 The Arabs are admonished by the fate of 
 former nations to believe in God. 
 
 The seven stories of heaven and earth. 
 
 Chapter LXIII. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Munaflqin. 
 
 The Chapter of the Hypocrites. 
 
 The treacherous designs of the hypocrites 
 revealed. 
 
 Chapter XXIV. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur. 
 
 The Chapter of Light. 
 
 (This chapter deals with the accusation of 
 unchastity against ‘Ayishah.) 
 
 Punishment of the whore and the whore¬ 
 monger. 
 
 Witnesses required in the case of an impu¬ 
 tation of unchastity to a wife. 
 
qur’an qur’an 513 
 
 Vindication of ‘Ayishah’s character and 
 denunciation of the accusers. 
 
 Scandalmongers rebuked and threatened 
 with punishment at the Last Day. 
 
 Believers are not to enter other persons’ 
 houses without permission, or in the absence 
 of the owners. 
 
 Chastity and modest deportment enjoined, 
 particularly upon women. 
 
 Those by whom women may be seen un¬ 
 veiled. 
 
 Slaves to be allowed to purchase their 
 freedom. 
 
 Slave-girls not to be compelled to prostitute 
 themselves. 
 
 God the Light of the Heavens. 
 
 Nothing keeps the believers from the ser¬ 
 vice of God, but the unbeliever’s works are 
 like the mirage on a plain, or like darkness 
 on a deep sea. 
 
 All nature is subject to God’s control. 
 
 Reproof to a sect who would not accept the 
 Projuhet’s arbitration. 
 
 Actual obedience required rather than 
 an oath that they will be obedient. 
 
 Belief in the unity of God, steadfastness in 
 prayer, and the giving of alms enjoined. 
 
 Slaves and children not to be admitted into 
 an apartment without asking permission, when 
 the occupant is likely to be undressed. 
 
 Rules for the social intercourse of women 
 past child-bearing, and of the blind, lame, or 
 sick. 
 
 Persons in whose houses it is lawful to eat 
 food. 
 
 Salutations to be exchanged on entering 
 houses. 
 
 Behaviour of the Mus lim s towards the 
 Apostle. 
 
 He is to be more respectfully addressed 
 than other people. 
 
 Chapter XXXIII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Ahzab. 
 
 The Chapter of the Confederates. 
 
 Muhammad is warned against the hypo¬ 
 crites. 
 
 Wives divorced by the formula, “ Thou art 
 henceforth to me like my mother’s back,” 
 are not to be considered as real mothers, and 
 as such regarded as unlawful. 
 
 Neither are adopted sons to be looked 
 upon as real sons. 
 
 The real ties of kinship and consanguinity 
 are to supersede the tie of sworn brother¬ 
 hood. 
 
 God’s covenant with the Prophet. 
 
 Miraculous interference in favour of the 
 Muslims when besieged by the confederate 
 army at al-Madinah. 
 
 Conduct of the hypocrites on the occasion. 
 
 Departure of the invaders. 
 
 Siege and defeat of the Banff Quraizah 
 Jews. 
 
 The men are executed. 
 
 Their women and children are sold into 
 slavery and their property confiscated. 
 
 Laws for the Prophet’s wives. 
 
 They are to be discreet and avoid ostenta¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Encouragement to the good and true be¬ 
 lievers of either sex. 
 
 Vindication of Muhammad’s conduct in 
 marrying Zainab, the divorced wife of his 
 freed man and adopted son Zaid (who is men¬ 
 tioned by name). 
 
 No term need be observed in the case of 
 women divorced before cohabitation. 
 
 Peculiar privileges granted to Muhammad 
 in the matter of women. 
 
 Limitation of his licence to take wives. 
 
 Muslims are not to enter the Prophet’s 
 house without permission. 
 
 After, they are to retire without inconve¬ 
 niencing him by familiar discourse. 
 
 Are to be very modest in their demeanour 
 to his wives. 
 
 Are not to marry any of his wives after 
 him. 
 
 Those relations who are permitted to see 
 them unveiled. 
 
 God and His angels bless the Prophet. 
 
 Slander of misbelievers will be punished. 
 
 The women are to dress modestly. 
 
 Warning to the hypocrites and disaffected 
 at al-Madinah. 
 
 The fate of the infidels at the Last Judg¬ 
 ment. 
 
 Man alone of all creation undertook the 
 responsibility of faith. 
 
 Chapter LVH. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Hadid. 
 
 The Chapter of Hon. 
 
 God the controller of all nature. 
 
 Exhortation to embrace Islam. 
 
 Those who do so before the taking of Mak- 
 kah are to have the precedence. 
 
 Discomfiture of the hypocrites and unbe¬ 
 lievers at the Last Day. 
 
 The powers vouchsafed to former apostles. 
 
 Chapter LXI. 
 
 Suratu ’s-Saff. 
 
 The Chapter of the Ranks. 
 
 Believers are bidden to keep their word 
 and to fight for the faith. 
 
 Moses was disobeyed by his people. 
 
 Jesus prophesied the coming of Ahmad. 
 
 The Christians rebuked. 
 
 Chapter XLVIII. 
 
 Suratu 'l-Fath. 
 
 The Chapter of Victory. 
 
 Announcement of a victory. 
 
 God comforts the believers and punishes 
 the hypocrites and idolaters. 
 
 The oath of fealty. 
 
 The cowardice and excuses of the desert 
 Arabs. 
 
 Those left behind wish to share the spoil 
 gained at Kh aibar. 
 
 The incapacitated alone are to be excused. 
 
 The oath of fealty at the tree. 
 
 God prevented a collision between the 
 Makkans and the Muslims, when the latter 
 were prohibited from making the pilgrimage. 
 
 Prophecy of the pilgrimage to be com¬ 
 pleted the next year. 
 
 65 
 
514 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Chapter LX. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Mumtahinah. 
 
 The Chapter of the Tried. 
 
 Exhortations to the Muslims not to treat 
 secretly with the Quraish. 
 
 Abraham’s example. 
 
 Other idolaters w'ho have not borne arms 
 against them may be made friends of. 
 
 Women who desert from the infidels are to 
 be tried before being received into Islam. 
 
 If they are really believers, they are, ipso 
 facto , divorced. 
 
 The husbands are to be recompensed to 
 the amount of the women’s dowries. 
 
 Chapter LXYI. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Talirim. 
 
 The Chapter of Prohibition. 
 
 The Prophet is relieved from a vow he had 
 made to please his wives. 
 
 The jealousies in his haram occasioned by 
 his intrigue with the Coptic slave-girl, Mary. 
 
 Exhortation to hostilities against the in¬ 
 fidels. 
 
 The example of the disobedient wives of 
 Noah and Lot. 
 
 And of the good wife of Pharaoh. 
 
 And of the Virgin Mary. 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah. 
 
 The Chapter of Repentance. 
 
 (This chapter is without the initial formula, 
 “ In the name of the Merciful,” &c.) 
 
 An immunity for four months proclaimed 
 to such of the idolaters as have made a 
 league with the Prophet, but they are to be 
 killed wherever found when the sacred 
 months have expired. 
 
 An idolater seeking refuge is to be helped, 
 in order that he may hear the word of 
 God. 
 
 None are to be included in the immunity 
 but those with whom the league was made 
 at the Sacred Mosque. 
 
 They are not to be trusted. 
 
 Exhortation to fight against the Makkans. 
 
 Idolaters may not repair to the mosques of 
 God. 
 
 Reproof to al-‘Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle, 
 who, while refusing to believe, claimed to 
 have done enough in supplying water to the 
 pilgrims and in making the pilgrimage him¬ 
 self. 
 
 Chapter XLIX. 
 
 Suratu ’ l-Hujurat. 
 
 The Chapter of the Inner Chambers. 
 
 Rebuke to some of the Muslims who had 
 presumed too much in the presence of the 
 Apostle, and of the others who had called 
 out rudely to him. 
 
 Also of a man who had nearly induced 
 Muhammad to attack a tribe who were still 
 obedient. 
 
 Of certain Muslims who contended to¬ 
 gether. 
 
 Of others who use epithets of abuse against 
 each other. 
 
 Who entertain unfounded suspicions. 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Exhortation to obedience and reproof of 
 the hypocrites. 
 
 The Muhajirun are to hold the first rank. 
 
 Infidels are not to be taken for patrons, 
 even when they are fathers or brothers. 
 
 Religion is to be preferred to ties of kin¬ 
 ship. 
 
 The victory of Hunain. 
 
 The idolaters are not to be allowed to 
 enter the Sacred Mosque at Makkah another 
 year. 
 
 The infidels are to be attacked. 
 
 The Jews denounced for saying that Ezra 
 is the son of God. 
 
 The assumption of the title Rabbi re¬ 
 proved. 
 
 Diatribe against Jewish doctors and Chris¬ 
 tian monks. 
 
 Of the sacred months and the sin of defer¬ 
 ring them. 
 
 Exhortation to the Muslims to march forth 
 to battle. 
 
 Allusions to the escape of Muhammad and 
 Abu Bakr ^from Makkah, and their conceal¬ 
 ment in a cave. 
 
 Rebuke to those who seek to be excused 
 from fighting and to those who sought to 
 excite sedition in the Muslim ranks. 
 
 Reproof to the hypocrites and half-hearted 
 and to those who found fault with the Pro¬ 
 phet for his use of the alms ( zakat). 
 
 Proper destination of the alms. 
 
 Hypoci’ites and renegades denounced. 
 
 They are warned by the example of the 
 people of old who rejected the Prophets. 
 
 Rewards promised to the true believers. 
 
 Continued denunciation of the hypocrites 
 and of those who held back from the fight. 
 
 Muhammad is not to pray at the grave of 
 any one of them who dies. 
 
 Their seeming prosperity is not to deceive 
 him. 
 
 Happiness in store for the Apostle, the be¬ 
 lievers, and the Muhajirun. 
 
 Those who may lawfully be excused mili¬ 
 tary service. 
 
 The desert Arabs are among the worst of 
 the hypocrites, though some believe. 
 
 Some people of al-Madlnah also denounced 
 as hypocrites. 
 
 Others have sinned but confessed. 
 
 Others wait for God’s pleasure. 
 
 Denunciation of some who had set up a 
 mosque from motives of political opposition. 
 
 Muhammad is not to sanction this mosque, 
 but rather to use that of Quba’, founded by 
 him while on his way from Makkah to al- 
 Madinah during the Flight. 
 
 God has bought the persons and wealth of 
 the believers at the price of Paradise. 
 
 The Prophet and the believers must not 
 ask forgiveness for the idolaters, however 
 near of kin. 
 
 Abraham only asked pardon for his idola¬ 
 trous father in fulfilment of a promise. 
 
 The three Ansars who refused to accom¬ 
 pany Muhammad to Tabfds are-forgiven. 
 
 The people of al-Madlnah and the neigh¬ 
 bouring Arabs blamed for holding back on 
 the occasion. 
 
QUR AN 
 
 515 
 
 qur’an 
 
 All sacrifices for the sake of the religion 
 are counted to them. 
 
 Exhortation to fight rigorously against the 
 infidels. 
 
 Reproof to those who receive the revela¬ 
 tion suspiciously. 
 
 God will stand by his Apostle. 
 
 V.—Sources of the Qur’an. 
 
 Muhammadanism owes more to Judaism 
 (see a book by M. Geiger, entitled, Was hat 
 Muhammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen, 
 in which that learned Jew has traced all the 
 leading features of Islam to Talmudic sources; 
 also Literary Remains of Emanuel Deutsch, 
 Essay on Isiam; also article on Judaism in 
 the present work) than it does to either 
 Christianity or Sabeanism, for it is simply 
 Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabia, plus 
 the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad; and 
 wherever Muhammad departs from the mono¬ 
 theistic principles of Judaism, as in the ido¬ 
 latrous practices of the Pilgrimage to the 
 Ka‘bah, it is evident that it is done as a 
 necessary concession to the national feelings 
 and sympathies of the people of Arabia, and 
 it is absolutely impossible for Muhammadan 
 divines to reconcile the idolatrous rites of the 
 Ka‘bah with that simple monotheism which it 
 was evidently Muhammad’s intention to esta¬ 
 blish in Arabia. 
 
 “ The sources (says Mr. Rodwell) whence 
 Muhammad derived the materials of his 
 Koran, are, over and above the more poetical 
 parts which are his own creation, the legends 
 of his time and country, Jewish traditions 
 based upon the Talmud, and the Christian 
 traditions of Arabia and of S. Syria. At a 
 later period of his career, no one would ven¬ 
 ture to doubt the divine origin of his whole 
 book. But at its commencement the case 
 was different. The people of Mecca spoke 
 openly and tauntingly of it as the work of a 
 poet, as a collection of antiquated or fabulous 
 legends, or as palpable sorcery. They ac¬ 
 cused him of having confederates, and even 
 specified foreigners who had been his coad¬ 
 jutors. Such were Salman the Persian (Sal¬ 
 man al-Farisi), to whom he may have owed 
 the descriptions of heaven and hell, ■which 
 are analogous to those of the Zendavesta; 
 and the Christian monk Sergius, or, as the 
 Muhammadans term him, Boheira (Buhai- 
 rah). From the latter, and perhaps from 
 other Christians, especially slaves natura¬ 
 lized at Mecca, Muhammad obtained access 
 to the teaching of the Apocrj’phal Gospels, 
 and to many popular traditions of which 
 those gospels are the concrete expression. 
 His wife Chadijah (Khadijah), as 'well as her 
 cousin Waraka (Waraqah), a reputed convert 
 to Christianity, and Muhammad’s intimate 
 friend, are said to have been well acquainted 
 with the doctrines and sacred books, both of 
 Jews and Christians. And not only were 
 several Arab tribes in the neighbourhood of 
 Mecca converts to the Christian faith, but on 
 two occasions Muhammad had travelled with 
 his uncle Abu Talib, as far as Bostra, where 
 
 he must have had opportunities of learning 
 the general outlines of Oriental Christian doc¬ 
 trine, and perhaps of witnessing the ceremo¬ 
 nial of their worship. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ It has been supposed that Muhammad 
 derived many of his notions concerning Chris¬ 
 tianity from Gnosticism and that it is to the 
 numerous Gnostic sects the Koran allud^ 
 when it reproaches the Christians with having 
 1 split up their religion into parties.’ But for 
 Muhammad thus to have confounded Gnos¬ 
 ticism with Christianity itself, its prevalence 
 in Arabia must have been far more universal 
 than we have reason to believe that it really 
 was. In fact, we have no historical autho¬ 
 rity for supposing that the doctrines of these 
 heretics were taught or professed in Arabia 
 at all. It is certain, on the other hand, that 
 the Basilidnns, Valentinians, and other Gnos¬ 
 tic sects had either died out, or been reab¬ 
 sorbed into the Orthodox Church, towards 
 the middle of the fifth century, and had dis¬ 
 appeared from Egypt before the sixth. It 
 remains possible, however, that the Gnostic 
 doctrine concerning the Crucifixion may have 
 been adopted by Muhammad as likely to re¬ 
 concile the Jews to Islam, as a religion em¬ 
 bracing both Judaism and Christianity, if 
 they might believe that Jesus had not been 
 put to death, and thus find the stumbling- 
 block of the Atonement removed out of their 
 path. The Jews would, in this case, have 
 simply been called upon to believe in Jesus 
 as a divinely born and inspired teacher, who, 
 like the patriarch Enoch, or the prophet 
 Elijah, had been miraculously taken from the 
 earth. But, in all other respects, the sober 
 and matter-of-fact statements of the Koran, 
 relative to the family and history of Jesus, 
 are opposed to the wild and fantastic doc¬ 
 trines of Gnostic emanations, and especially to 
 the manner in which they supposed Jesus, at 
 his baptism, to have been brought into union 
 with a higher nature. It is more clear that 
 Muhammad borrowed in several points from 
 the doctrines of the Ebionites, Essenes, and 
 Sabeites. Epiphanius describes the notions 
 of the Ebionites of Nabathsea, Moabites, and 
 Basanites, with regard to Adam Jesus, almost 
 in the very words of Sura iii. 52. He tells us 
 that they observed circumcision , were opposed 
 to celibacy, forbade turning to the sunrise, but 
 enjoined Jerusalem as their Kebla (Qiblah), (as 
 did Muhammad during twelve years), that 
 they prescribed (as did the Sabeites) wash¬ 
 ings, very similar to those enjoined in the 
 Koran, and allowed oaths (by certain natural 
 objects, as clouds, signs of the Zodiac, oil, the 
 winds, etc.), which also we find adopted 
 therein. These points of contact with Islam, 
 knowing as we do Muhammad’s eclecticism, 
 can hardly be accidental. 
 
 “ We have no evidence that Muhammad had 
 access to the Christian scriptures, though it 
 is just possible that fragments of the Old or 
 New Testament may have reached him 
 through Chadijah or Waraka, or other Mec¬ 
 can Christians, possessing MSS. of our sacred 
 volume. There is but one direct quotation 
 
51 6 qur’an 
 
 (Sura xxi. 105) in the whole Koran from the 
 Scriptures ; and though there are a few pas¬ 
 sages, as where alms , are said to he given to 
 be seen of men , and as, none forgivcth sins but 
 God only, which might seem to be identical 
 with texts of the New Testament, yet this 
 similarity is probably merely accidental. It is, 
 however, curious to compare such passages 
 as Deut. xxvi. 14, 17, and 1 Peter v. 2, with 
 Sura xxiv. 50, and Sura x. 73—John vii. 15, 
 with the ‘illiterate’ prophet—Matt. xxiv. 36, 
 and John xii. 27, with the use of the word 
 hour, as meaning any judgment or crisis, and 
 the last Judgment— the voice of the Son of God 
 which the dead are to hear, with the exter¬ 
 minating or awakening cry of Gabriel , etc. 
 The passages of this kind, with which the 
 Koran abounds, result from Muhammad’s 
 general acquaintance with scriptural phrase¬ 
 ology, partly through the popular legends, 
 partly from personal intercourse with Jews 
 and Christians. And we may be quite cer¬ 
 tain that, whatever materials Muhammad 
 may have derived from our Scriptures, 
 directly or indirectly, were carefully recast. 
 
 “ It should also be borne in mind that we 
 have no clear traces of the existence of 
 Arabic versions of the Old or New Testament 
 previous to the time of Muhammad. The 
 passage of St. Jerome—‘ Hasc autem translatio 
 nullum de veteribus sequitur interpretem ; sed 
 ex ipsoIlebraico, Arabicoque sermone,et inter- 
 dum Syro, nunc verba, nunc sensum, nunc 
 simul utrumque resonabit ’ (Prol. Gal.), ob¬ 
 viously does not refer to versions, but to 
 idiom. The earliest Ar. version of the Old 
 Testament of which we have any knowledge 
 is that of R. Saadias Gaon, a.d. 900 : and the 
 oldest Ar. version of the New Testament is 
 that published by Erpenius in 1616, and 
 transcribed in the Thebais, in the year 1271, 
 by a Coptic bishop, from a copy made by a 
 person whose name is known, but whose date 
 is uncertain. Michaelis thinks that the 
 Arabic versions of the New Testament were 
 made between the Saracen conquests in the 
 seventh century and the Crusades in the 
 eleventh century—an opinion in which he 
 follows, or coincides with, Walton (Prol. in 
 Polygl. § xiv.), who remarks—‘ Plane constat 
 versionem Arabicam apud eas (ecclesias ori- 
 entales) factam esse postquam lingua Arabica 
 per victorias et religionem Muhammedanicam 
 per Orientem propagata fuerat, et in multis 
 locis facta esset vernacula.’ If, indeed, in 
 these comparatively late versions, the general 
 phraseology, especially in the histories com¬ 
 mon to the Scriptures and to the Koran, bore 
 any similarity to each other, and if the or¬ 
 thography of the proper names had been the 
 same in each, it might have been fair to 
 suppose that such versions had been made, 
 more or less, upon the basis of others, which, 
 though now lost, existed in the ages prior to 
 Muhammad, and influenced, if they did not 
 directly form, his sources of information. 
 But this does not appear to be the ease. The 
 phraseology of our existing versions is not 
 that of the Koran, and the versions as a 
 whole appear to have been made from the 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Septuagint, the Vulgate, Syriac, Coptic, and 
 Greek; Tischendorf, indeed, says that the 
 four Gospels originem mixtam habere videntur; 
 but the internal evidence is clearly in favour 
 of the Greek origin of the Arabic Gospels. 
 This can be seen in part even from the order 
 of the words, which was retained, like that of 
 the Greek, so far as possible, even in such 
 constructions and transpositions of words as 
 violate the rules of Arabic Syntax. 
 
 “ From the Arab Jews, Muhammad would 
 be enabled to derive an abundant though 
 distorted knowledge of the Scripture histories. 
 The secrecy in which he received his instruc¬ 
 tions from them and from his Christian infor¬ 
 mants, enabled him boldly to declare to the 
 ignorant pagan _Meccans that God had re¬ 
 vealed those Biblical histories to him. But 
 there can be no doubt, from the constant 
 identity between the Talmudic perversions of 
 Scripture histories and the statements of the 
 Koran, that the Rabbis of Hejaz communi¬ 
 cated their legends to Muhammad. And it 
 should be remembered that the Talmud was 
 completed a century irrevious to the era of 
 Muhammad, and cannot fail to have exten¬ 
 sively influenced the religious creed of all the 
 Jews of the Arabian peninsula. In one pas¬ 
 sage, Muhammad speaks of an individual 
 Jew—joerhaps some one of note among his 
 professed followers, as a witness to his mis¬ 
 sion ; and there can be no doubt that his 
 relations with the Jews were, at one time, 
 those of friendship and intimacy, when we 
 find him speaking of their recognizing him 
 as they do their own children, and blaming 
 their most colloquial expressions. It is im¬ 
 possible, however, for us at this distance of 
 time to penetrate the mystery in which this 
 subject is involved. Yet certain it is, that, 
 although their testimony against Muhammad 
 was speedily silenced, the Koreish knew 
 enough of his private history to disbelieve 
 and to disprove his pretensions of being the 
 recipient of a divine revelation, and to accuse 
 him of writing from the dictation of teachers 
 morning and evening. And it is equally cer¬ 
 tain that all the information received by 
 Muhammad was embellished and recast in 
 his own mind and with his own words. There 
 is a unity of thought, a directness and sim¬ 
 plicity of purpose, a peculiar and laboured 
 style, a uniformity of diction, coupled with a 
 certain deficiency of imaginative power, which 
 indicate that the ayats (signs or verses) of the 
 Koran are the product of a single mind. The 
 longer narratives were, probably, elaborated 
 in his leisure hours, while the shorter verses, 
 each proclaiming to be a sign or miracle, were 
 promulgated as occasion required them. And, 
 whatever Muhammad may himself profess in 
 the Koran as to his ignorance even of reading 
 and writing, and however strongly modern 
 Muhammadans may insist upon the same 
 point—an assertion, by the way, contradicted 
 by many good authors—there can be no doubt 
 that to assimilate and work up his materials, 
 to fashion them into elaborate Suras, and to 
 fit them for public recital, must have been a 
 work requiring much time, study, and medi- 
 
517 
 
 qur’an 
 
 tation, and presumes a far greater degree of 
 general culture than any orthodox Muslim 
 will be disposed to admit.” (The Preface to 
 Rodwell’s El-Koran, p. xvi. et seq.) 
 
 VI.—The Recital and Reading of the Qur'an. 
 
 Tilawah (SjSU), or “the recital of the 
 Qur’an,” has been developed into a science 
 known as ‘llmu 'l-Tajwid which 
 
 includes a knowledge of the peculiarities of 
 the spelling of many words in the Qur’an ; of 
 the qird'at (ciAsiyi), or various readings; of 
 the ejaculations, responses, and prayers to be 
 said at the close of appointed passages ; of 
 thevarious divisions, punctuations, and mar¬ 
 ginal instructions ; of the proper pronunciation 
 of the Arabic words ; and of the correct into¬ 
 nation of different passages. 
 
 The reading or recital of the Qur'an should 
 commence with legal ablution and prayer. 
 The usual prayer is, “ I seek protection from 
 God against the cursed Satan! ” which is fol¬ 
 lowed by the invocation. “ In the name of God 
 the Merciful, the Compassionate! ” 
 
 The mosque is considered the most suitable 
 of all places in which to read the Qur’an, and 
 the most auspicious days of the week are 
 Friday, Monday, and Thursday. The ordi¬ 
 nary time allowed for reading the Qur’an 
 through is forty days, although by reciting a 
 juz’ or siparah daily, it can be done in thirty 
 days, which is said to have been the custom 
 of the Prophet. Some read it through by 
 manzils, or stages, of which there are seven, 
 which is done in a week. On no account 
 should it be read through in less than three 
 days, for which there is a three-fold division, 
 known in Persian as the Kkatam-i-Manzil-i- 
 Fll, the initial letters of each portion (J\ ^i) 
 forming the word fil. 
 
 Ejaculations, or responses, are made at 
 certain places. For example, at the end of 
 the Suratu ’1-Fatihah (i.) and of the Suratu T- 
 Baqarah (ii.), say, “ Amen I ” At the end of 
 the Suratu Ban! Israll (xvii.), say, “ God is 
 great I ” After the last verse of the Suratu 
 '1-Qiyamah (lxxv.), say, “ Is He not powerful 
 enough to raise the dead ? Say, Yes, for He 
 is my Lord Most High ! ” At the end of the 
 Suratu T-Mulk (lxvii ), say, “ God brings it 
 (clear water) to us and He is Lord of all the 
 Worlds ! ” 
 
 In addition to responses to be made after 
 each Surah, or Chapter, there are certain eja¬ 
 culations to be made after certain verses, for 
 example, after the sixteenth verse of the 
 third Surah, “ There ;s no God but He, the 
 Mighty, the Wise ! ” say, “ I am a witness to 
 this ! ” 
 
 There are fourteen verses hnown as the 
 Aydtu 's-Sajdah, after which a prostration is 
 made. They are Surahs vii. 205 ; xiii. 16; 
 xvi. 51; vii. 109; xix. 59; xxii. 19; xxv. 61; 
 xxvii. 26 ; xxxii. 15 ; xxxviii. 24; xli. 38; 
 liii. 62 ; lxxxiv. 20; xcvi. 18. 
 
 There are numerous instructions given as 
 to pronunciation, and there have arisen seven 
 schools of pronunciation, which are known as j 
 
 qur’an 
 
 those of the Qurra’u 's-Sab‘ah, or “ seven 
 readers (for a list of these readers, see qaki). 
 It is considered quite lawful to recite the 
 Qur’an according to the pronunciation esta¬ 
 blished by any one of these seven worthies. 
 
 There are many marks and symbols on 
 the margin of an Arabic Qur’an. Mr. Sell, 
 in his I/m i Tajwid, gives them in detail. 
 (Urn i Tajwid, Keys & Co., Madras, 1852.) 
 The symbol for full stop is O, when the 
 reader should take breath The word s. -SA 
 is written when a slight pause is made, but 
 no breath taken. There are also signs which 
 are known as waqf, or pause They were 
 originally of five kinds, but many more have 
 been added in modern times. They are dis¬ 
 tinguished by letters and words, [waqf.] 
 
 There are twenty-nine Surahs of the Qur’an 
 which begin with certain letters of the alpha¬ 
 bet. These letters, the learned say, have 
 some profound meaning, known only to the 
 Prophet himself, although it seems probable 
 that they are supply marks recorded by the 
 amanuensis. 
 
 (1) Six Surahs begin with the letters Alif, 
 Lam, Mini. ALM, viz. Surahs al-Baqa- 
 rah (ii.), Alu ‘Imran (iii.), al-‘Ankabut (xxix.), 
 al-Rum (xxx.), Luqman (xxxi.), as-Sajdah 
 (xxxii.). Golius thinks that they probably 
 stand for Amr li-Muhammad, “ At the com¬ 
 mand of Muhammad,” and to have been 
 written by the amanuensis. Jalalu ’d-din as- 
 Suyuti says that Ibn ‘Abbas said that they 
 stood for And ’llahu a‘Hmu, “I, God, know” 
 (that this is true). Al-Baizawi thinks A 
 stands for “ Allah,” L for “ Gabriel,” and M 
 for “ Muhammad.” Mr. Sale gives the mean¬ 
 ing as Aildhu Latifun Majidun, “ God is gra¬ 
 cious and exalted ”; others have suggested 
 Al/ahu h-Muhammad, “ God to Muhammad.” 
 But the general belief is that the letters have 
 a hidden meaning. 
 
 (2) At the commencement of Suratu ’1- 
 A‘raf (vii.), there is Alif, Lam, Mini, Sad. 
 
 ALMS, which may mean : A, “ Ana ” ; 
 L, “ Allah ” ; M, “ Rahman” ; S, “ Samad ” ; 
 i.e. “ I am God, the Merciful, the Eternal.” 
 
 (3) The Suratu ’r-Ra‘d (xiii.) begins with 
 the letters Alif, Lam, Mini, Ra. ALMR, 
 which al-Baizawi takes to mean, A, “ Ana ”; 
 L, “ Allahu ” ; M, “ ATimu ”; R, “ Ara.” “ I, 
 God, both know- and see.” 
 
 (4) Five Surahs begin with Alif, Lam, Ra. 
 
 ALR, which some understand to mean 
 
 Amara li Rabbi, “ My Lord hath said to me,” 
 or And 'llahu ara, “ I, God, see.” These 
 Surahs are Yunus (x.),Hud (xi.j, Yusuf (xii.), 
 Ibrahim (xiv.), al-Hijr (xv.). 
 
 (5) The Suratu Maryam (xix.) begins with 
 the letters Kaf, Ha, Yd, ‘Ain, Sad. 
 KHY‘AS, which Ibn ‘Abbas says stand for 
 five attributes of the Almighty: Karim. 
 “ Gracious ” ; Uadi, “ Guide”; Hakim (taking 
 the middle letter), “Wise”; ‘Alim, “Learned”; 
 Sadiq, “ Righteous.” 
 
 (6) The Suratu TH (xx.), as its title im¬ 
 plies, begins with the letters Ta Ha &_!=, 
 which Husain says may signify Tahir, 
 

 518 qur’an 
 
 “ Pure ”; Heidi, “ Guide ” ; being attributes 
 of God. 
 
 (7) Six Surahs commence with the letters 
 Ha Mim HM, namely, Surahs al-Mu’min 
 (xl.), Fussilat (xli.), az-Zukhruf (xliii.), ad- 
 Dukhan (xliv.), al-Jasiyah (xlv.), al-Ahqaf 
 (xlvi.). Ibn ‘Abbas says they indicate the 
 attribute Rahman, “ Merciful.” 
 
 (8) The Suratu ’sh-Shura (xlii.) begins with 
 
 Ha Mim ‘Ain Sin Qaf. HM‘ASQ, 
 
 which Muhammad ibn Ka‘b understood to 
 mean H for Rahman, “ Merciful ” ; M for 
 Rahim, “Gracious”: ‘A,‘Alim, “Learned”; 
 S, Quddus, “ Holy ”; Q, Qahhdr, “ Dominant”; 
 being attributes of God. 
 
 (9) The Suratu YS (xxxvi.), as its title im¬ 
 plies, begins with the letters Yd Sin 
 which is supposed to stand for Yd insan, 
 “ 0 man ! ” 
 
 (10) The Suratu S (xxxviii.), as its title 
 signifies, begins with the letter Sad 
 which some say means Sidq, “ Truth.” 
 
 (11) The Suratu Q (l.j, as its name implies, 
 begins with the letter Qaf which Jalalu 
 ’d-Din as-Suyutl says stands for Qadir, 
 “ Powerful,” an attribute of God. Others 
 think it means the mountain of Qaf. 
 
 (12) The Suratu ’1-Narnl (xxvii.) begins 
 with the letters Td Sin which Muham¬ 
 mad ibn Ka‘b says stand for Zu’t-taul, “ Most 
 Powerful,” and Quddus, “ Holy,” being attri¬ 
 butes of the Almighty.” 
 
 (13) Two Surahs, namely ash-Shu‘ara’ 
 
 (xxvi.), and al-Qasas (xxviii.), begin with Td 
 Sin Mim which supplies the addition of 
 
 the attribute Rahman, “ Merciful,” to those 
 of the former section, indicated by TS. 
 
 (14) The Suratu ’1-Qalam (Ixviii.) begins 
 with Nun, y N, which some say stands for 
 an ink-horn, others for a fish, and some for 
 the attribute of Nur, or “ Light.” 
 
 VII.—The Interpretation of the Qur'an. 
 
 ‘Ilmu 'l-Usui (J^3\ or the Exegesis 
 
 of the Qur’an, is a very important science, 
 and is used by the Muslim divine to explain 
 away many apparent or real contradictions. 
 The most authoritative works on the ‘Ilmu 
 Usui of the Qur’an, are Manaru 'l-Usul and 
 its commentary, the Nv.ru 'l-Anwdr, and 
 as-Suyuti’s ltqan (ed. by Sprenger). The 
 various laws of interpretation laid down in 
 these books are very complicated, requiring 
 the most careful study. We have only space 
 for a mere outline of the system. 
 
 The words ( alfdz ) of the Qur’an are of 
 four classes : Khass, ‘Amm., Mushtarak, and 
 Mu'awwal. 
 
 (1) Khass, Words used in a special sense. 
 This speciality of sense is of three kinds : 
 Khususu ’/-jins, Speciality of genus, e.g. man¬ 
 kind; Khususu ’ n-nau‘, Speciality of species, 
 e.g. a man ; khususu ’ l-‘ain , Speciality of an 
 individual, e.g. Muhammad. 
 
 (2) ‘Amm, Collective or common, which 
 embrace many individuals or things, e.g. people. 
 
 (3) Mushtarak, Complex words which have 
 
 qur’an 
 
 several significations ; e.g. ‘ain , a word which 
 signifies an Eye, a Fountain, the Knee, or the 
 Sun. 
 
 (4.) Mu'awwal, words which have several 
 significations, all of which are possible, and 
 so a special explanation is required. For 
 example, Surah cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale’s 
 translation. “ Wherefore pray unto the Lord 
 and slag (the victims).” The word trans¬ 
 lated “ slay ” is in Arabic inhar, from the root 
 nahr, which has several meanings. The fol¬ 
 lowers of the great Legist, Abu Hanifah, 
 render it “ sacrifice,” and add the words 
 (the “ victims ”). The followers of Ibn Ash- 
 Shafi‘1 say it means “ placing the hands on 
 the breast in prayer.” 
 
 II. The Sentences Qlharah ) of the Qur’an 
 are either Zahir or Khafi, i.e. either Obvious 
 or Hidden. 
 
 Obvious sentences are of four classes:— 
 Zahir, Nass, Mufassar, Muhkam. 
 
 (1.) Zahir. —Those sentences, the meaning 
 of which is Obvious or clear, without any 
 assistance from the context ( qarinah ). 
 
 (2.) Nass, a word commonly used for a 
 text of the Qur’an, but in its technical mean¬ 
 ing here expressing what is meant by a sen¬ 
 tence, the meaning of which is made clear by 
 some 'word which occurs in it. The following 
 sentence illustrates both Zdhir and Nass : 
 “ Take in marriage of such other women as 
 please you, two, three, four.” This sentence 
 is Zahir, because marriage is here declared 
 lawful; it is Nass, because the words “ one, 
 two, three, four,” which occur in the sen¬ 
 tence, show the unlawfulness of having more 
 than four wives. 
 
 (3.) Mufassar, or explained. A sentence 
 which needs some word in it to explain it and 
 make it clear. Thus : “ And the angels 
 prostrated themselves, all of them with one 
 accord, save Iblls (Satan).” Here the words 
 “ save Iblls ” show that he did not prostrate 
 himself. This kind of sentence may be abro¬ 
 gated. 
 
 (4.) Muhkam, or perspicuous. A sentence 
 as to the meaning of which there can be no 
 doubt, and which cannot be controverted, 
 thus : “ God knoweth all things.” This kind 
 of sentence cannot be abi'ogated. To act on 
 such sentences without departing from the 
 literal sense is the highest degree of obedi¬ 
 ence to God’s command. 
 
 The difference between these sentences is 
 seen when there is a real or apparent con¬ 
 tradiction between them. If such should 
 occur, the first must give place to the second, 
 and so on. Thus Muhkam cannot be abro¬ 
 gated or changed by any of the preceding, or 
 Mufassar by Nass,&c. 
 
 Hidden sentences are either Khaji, Mushkil, 
 Mujmal, or Mutashabih. 
 
 (1.) Khaji. —Sentences in which other per¬ 
 sons or things are hidden beneath the plain 
 meaning of a word or expression contained 
 therein : e.g. Suratu ’1-Ma’idah (v.), 42, “ As 
 for a thief whether male or female cut ye off 
 their hands in recompense for their doings.” 
 In this sentence the word sariq, “ thief,” is 
 understood to have hidden beneath its literal 
 
519 
 
 qur’an 
 
 meaning, both pickpockets and highway rob¬ 
 bers. 
 
 (2.) Mushkil .—Sentences which are am¬ 
 biguous ; e.g. Suratu ’d-Dahr (lxxvi.), 15, 
 
 “ And (then- attendants) shall go round 
 about them with vessels of silver and goblets. 
 The bottles shall be bottles of silver.” The 
 difficulty here is that bottles are not made 
 of silver, but of glass. The commentators 
 say, however, that glass is dull in colour, 
 though it has some lustre, whilst silver is 
 white, and not so bright as glass. Now it 
 may be, that the bottles of Paradise will be 
 like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and 
 like silver as regards their colour. But 
 anyhow, it is very difficult to ascertain the 
 meaning. 
 
 (3.) Mujmal. —Sentences which may have 
 a variety of interpretations, owing to the 
 words in them being capable of several 
 meanings; in that case the meaning which 
 is given to the sentence in the Traditions 
 relating to it should be acted on and ac¬ 
 cepted ; or which may contain some very 
 rare word, and thus its meaning may be 
 doubtful, as: “ Man truly is by creation 
 hasty ” (Surah lxx. 19). in this verse the 
 word hall. “ hasty,” occurs. It is very 
 rarely used, and had it not been for the 
 following words, “ when evil toucheth him, 
 he is full of complaint; but when good be- 
 falleth him, he becometh niggardly,” its 
 meaning would not have been at all easy to 
 understand. 
 
 The following is an illustration of the first 
 kind of Mujmal sentences : “ Stand for prayer 
 (salat) and give alms (zakat)." Both salat 
 and zakat are “ Mnshtarak ” words. The 
 people, therefore, did not understand this 
 verse, so they applied to Muhammad for an 
 explanation. He explained to them that 
 salat might mean the ritual of public prayer, 
 standing to say the words “ God is great,” 
 or standing to repeat a few verses of the 
 Qur’an; or it might mean private prayer. 
 The primitive meaning of zakat is “ growing.” 
 The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning 
 here to that of “ almsgiving,” and said, “ Give 
 of your substance one-fortieth part.” 
 
 (4.) Mutashabih.—Intricate sentences, or 
 expressions, the exact meaning of which it 
 is impossible for man to ascertain until the 
 day of resurrection, but which was known 
 to the Prophet: e.g. the letters Alif, Lam, 
 Mini (A. L. M.) ; Alif, Lam. Ra’ (A. L. R.) ; | 
 Alif, Lam, Mim, Ra’ (A. L. M. R.), &c., at j 
 the commencement of different Surahs or ! 
 chapters. Also Suratu T-Mulk (Ixvii.) 1, 
 
 “ In whose hand is the Kingdom,” i.e. God’s j 
 hand (Arabic, gad); and Suratu TH (xx.), j 
 “ He is most merciful and sitteth on His ! 
 throne,” i.e. God sitteth (Arabic, istawa); 
 and Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 115, “ The face 
 of God” (Arabic, wajhu’llah). 
 
 HI. The use (istkmal) of words in the 
 Qur’an is divided into four classes. They { 
 are either Haqiqah, Majaz, Sarih, or Rinayah. 
 
 (1.) Haqiqah.— Words which are used, in ! 
 their literal meaning; e.g. ruku ( , “a prostra- ! 
 tion ” ; zina, “adultery.” 
 
 qur’an 
 
 (2.) Majaz .—Words which are figurative ; 
 as salat in the sense of namaz , or the liturgi¬ 
 cal prayers. 
 
 (3.) Sarih. —Words the meaning of which 
 is clear and palpable: e.g. “ Thou art free," 
 “ Thou art divorced." 
 
 (4.) Rinayah. —Words which are meta¬ 
 phorical in their meaning: e.g. “ Thou art 
 separated ” ; by which may be meant, “ thou 
 art divorced." 
 
 IY. The deduction of arguments, or is- 
 tidlal, as expressed in the Qur’an, is divided 
 into four sections : 1 Ibarah , Isharah, Dalalah, 
 and Iqtiza. 
 
 (1.) ‘Ibarah, or the plain sentence. “ Mo¬ 
 thers, after they are divorced, shall give 
 suck unto their children two full years, and 
 the father shall be obliged to maintain them 
 and clothe them according to that which is 
 reasonable.” (Surah ii. 233.) From this 
 verse two deductions are made. First, from 
 the fact that the word “ them ” is in the 
 feminine plural, it must refer to the mothers 
 and not to the children; secondly, as the 
 duty of supporting the mother is incumbent 
 on the father, it shows that the relationship 
 of the child is closer with the father than 
 with the mother. Penal laws may be based 
 on a deduction of this kind. 
 
 (2.) Isharah, that is, a sign or hint which 
 may be given from the order in which the 
 words are placed; e.g. “ Bom of him,” mean¬ 
 ing, of course, the father. 
 
 (3.) Dalalah, or the argument which may 
 be deducted from the use of some special 
 word in the verse, as: “ say not to your 
 parents, ‘ Fie ! ’ (Arabic, ujf)." (Surah xvii. 
 23.) From the use of the word ujf, it is 
 argued that children may not beat or abuse 
 their parents. Penal laws may be based on 
 dalalah, thus : “ And they strive after vio¬ 
 lence on the earth; but God loveth not 
 the abettors of violence.” (Surah v. 69.) 
 The word translated “ strive ” is in Arabic 
 literally yas‘auna, “they run.” From this 
 the argument is deduced that as highway¬ 
 men wander about, they are included amongst 
 those whom “ God loveth not,” and that, 
 therefore, the severest punishment may be 
 given to them, for any deduction that comes 
 under the head of dalalah is a sufficient basis 
 for the formation of the severest penal laws. 
 
 (4.) Iqtiza. This is a deduction which 
 demands certain conditions: “ whosoever 
 
 killeth a believer by mischance, shall be 
 bound to free a believer from slavery.” 
 (Surah iv. 94.) As a man has no authority 
 to free his neighbour’s slave, the condition 
 here required, though not expressed, is that 
 the slave should be his own property. 
 
 VIII.—The Abrogation of Passages in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Some passages of the Qur’an are contradic¬ 
 tory, and are often made the subject of 
 attack; but it is part of the theological be¬ 
 lief of the Muslim doctors that certain pas¬ 
 sages of the Qur’an are mansukh (t g "' 
 or abrogated by verses revealed afterwards, 
 entitled ndsikh (o). This was the doctrine 
 
520 
 
 qur’an 
 
 QUR*AN 
 
 taught by Muhammad in the Suratu ’1-Baqa- 
 rah (ii.) 105 : “ Whatever verses we (i.e. God) 
 cancel or cause thee to forget, we bring a 
 better or its like.” This convenient doctrine 
 fell in with that law of expediency which 
 appears to be the salient feature in Muham¬ 
 mad’s prophetical career. 
 
 In the Ta/slr-i-‘Azizi, it is written, that 
 abrogated ( mansukh ) verses of the Qur’an are 
 of three kinds : (1) Where the verse has been 
 removed from the Qur’an and another given 
 in its place; (2) Where the injunction is 
 abrogated and the letters of the verse re¬ 
 main ; (3) Where both the verse and its in¬ 
 junction are removed from the text. This is 
 also the view of Jalalu ’d-Din, who says that 
 the number of abrogated verses has been 
 variously estimated from five to five hundred. 
 
 The Greek verb KaraXvco, in St. Matthew 
 v. 17, has been translated in some of the ver¬ 
 sions of the New Testament by mansukh : but 
 it conveys a wrong impression to the Muham¬ 
 madan mind as to the Christian view regard¬ 
 ing this question. According to most Greek 
 lexicons, the Greek word means to throw down, 
 or to destroy (as of a building), which is the 
 meaning given to the word in our authorised 
 
 English translation. Christ did not come to 
 destroy, or to pull down, the Law and the 
 Prophets ; but we all admit that certain pre¬ 
 cepts of the Old Testament were abrogated 
 by those of the New Testament. Indeed, 
 we further admit that the old covenant was 
 abrogated by the new covenant of grace. 
 “ He taketh away the first that he may 
 establish the second,” Heb. x. 9. 
 
 In the Arabic translation of the New Tes¬ 
 tament, printed at Beyrut a.d. 1869, KaTaXvu) 
 is translated by naqz, “to demolish”; in 
 Mr. Loewenthal’s Pushto translation, a.d. 
 1863, by batilawal, “to destroy,” or “ render 
 void ”; and in Henry Martyn’s Persian Tes¬ 
 tament, a.d. 1837, it is also translated by the 
 Arabic ibtal, i.e. “ making void.” In both the 
 Arabic-Urdu and Roman-Urdu it is unfor¬ 
 tunately rendered mansukh. a word which has 
 a technical meaning in Muhammadan theo¬ 
 logy contrary to that implied in the word used 
 by our Lord in Matthew v. 17. 
 
 Jalalu 'd-Din in his Itqan, gives the fol¬ 
 lowing list of twenty verses which are ac¬ 
 knowledged by all commentators to be abro¬ 
 gated. The verses are given as numbered in 
 the Itqan. 
 
 No. 
 
 Mansukh, or 
 abrogated verses. 
 
 Nasikh, or 
 abrogating verses. 
 
 The Subject abrogated. 
 
 1 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 119. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 145. 
 
 The Qiblah. 
 
 2 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 178. 
 
 Suratu '1-Ma’idah (v.), 
 49. 
 
 Suratu Ban! Isra’il, (xvii.), 
 35. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 187. 
 
 Qisas, or Retaliation. 
 
 3 
 
 Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 183. 
 
 The Fast of Ramazan. 
 
 4 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 184. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 185. 
 
 Fidyah, or Expiation. 
 
 5 
 
 Suratu Ali ‘Imran (iii.), 
 102. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taghabunflxiv.), 
 16. 
 
 The fear of God. 
 
 6 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 88. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 89. 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah (ix.), 5. 
 
 Jihad, or war with infidels. 
 
 7 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 216. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah(ix-), 36. 
 
 Jihad in the Sacred months. 
 
 8 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 240. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 234. 
 
 Provision for widows. 
 
 9 
 
 Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 
 191. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah (ix.), 
 
 5. 
 
 Slaying enemies in the Sacred 
 Mosque. 
 
 10 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 14. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur (xxiv.), 2. 
 
 Imprisonment of the adulte- 
 
 11 
 
 Suratu ’1-Ma’idah (v.), 
 105. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Talaq (lxv.), 2. 
 
 Witnesses. 
 
 12 
 
 Suratu ’1-Anfal (vii.). 66. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Anfal (vii.), 67. 
 
 Jihad, or war with infidels. 
 
 13 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur (xxiv.), 3. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur (xxiv.), 32. 
 
 The marriage of adulterers. 
 
 14 
 
 Suratu ’1-Ahzab (xxxiii.), 
 52. 
 
 Suratu’1-Ahzab (xxxiii.), 
 49. 
 
 The Prophet’s wives. 
 
 15 
 
 Suratu’1-Mujadilah (lviii.), 
 13, first part of verse. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Mujadilah (lviii)., 
 13, latter part of verse. 
 
 Giving alms before assembling 
 a council. 
 
 16 
 
 Suratu ’1 - Mumtahinah 
 (lx.), 11. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah (ix.), 1. 
 
 Giving money to infidels for 
 women taken in marriage. 
 
 17 
 
 Suratu 't-Taubah (ix.),39 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubah (ix.), 92 
 
 Jihad, or war with infidels. 
 
 18 
 
 Suratu ’1 - Muzzammil 
 (lxxiii.), 2. 
 
 Suratu ’1-Muzzammil 
 
 (lxxiii.), 20. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur (xxiv.), 
 58. 
 
 The night prayer. 
 
 19 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nur (xxiv.), 
 57. 
 
 Permission to young children 
 to enter a house. 
 
 20 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 7. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 11. 
 
 Division of property. 
 
 1 
 
qur’an 
 
 IX.—The Reputed Excellence of the Qur'an, 
 and its Miraculous Character. 
 
 Copies of the Qur’an are held in the greatest 
 esteem and reverence amongst Muhammadans. 
 They dare not to touch it without being first 
 washed and purified, and they read it with 
 the greatest care and respect, never holding 
 it below their girdles. They swear by it, 
 consult it on all occasions, carry it with them 
 to war, write sentences of it on their banners, 
 suspend it from their necks as a charm, and 
 always place it on the highest shelf or in 
 some place of honour in their houses. Mu¬ 
 hammadans, as we have already remarked, 
 believe the Qur’an to be uncreated and 
 eternal, subsisting in the very essence of 
 God. There have, however, been great dif¬ 
 ferences of opinion on this subject. It was a 
 point controverted with so much heat that it 
 occasioned many calamities under tho Ab- 
 baside Kh alifahs. Al-Ma’mun (aii. 218) 
 made a public edict declaring the Qur’an to 
 be created, which was confirmed by his suc¬ 
 cessors al-Mu‘tasim and al-Wasiq, who 
 whipped and imprisoned and put to death 
 those of the contrary opinion. But at length 
 al-Mutawakkil, who succeeded al-Wasiq, put 
 an end to these persecutions by revoking the 
 former edicts, releasing those that were im¬ 
 prisoned on that account, and leaving every 
 man at liberty as to his belief on this point. 
 (Abu 'l-Faraj , p. 262.) The Qur’an is, how¬ 
 ever, genoralty held to be a standing miracle, 
 indeed, the one miracle which bears witness 
 to the truth of Muhammad’s mission, an 
 assumption which is based upon the Pro¬ 
 phet’s own statements in the Qur’an (Surah 
 s. 39, xi. 16, lii. 34), where he calls upon the 
 people who charge him with having invented 
 it to procure a single chapter like it. But the 
 Mu‘tazalites have asserted that there is nothing 
 miraculous in its style and composition (vide 
 Sharhiu 'l-Muwaqif'). The excellences of the 
 Qur’an, as explained by the Prophet himself, 
 claim a very important place in the tra¬ 
 ditions (see Faza'ilu 'l-Qur'an, in the Tradi¬ 
 tions of al-Bukharf and Muslim), from which 
 the following are a few extracts:— 
 
 “ The best person amongst you is he who 
 has learnt the Qu'ran, and teaches it.” 
 
 “ Read the Qur’an as long as you feel a 
 pleasure in it, and when tired leave off.” 
 
 “If the Qur’an were wrapped in a skin and 
 thrown into a fire, it would not burn.” 
 
 “ He who is an expert in the Qur’an shall 
 rank with the 1 Honoured Righteous Scribes,’ 
 and he who reads the Qur’an with difficulty 
 and gets tired over it shall receive double 
 rewards.” 
 
 “ The state of a Musulman who reads the 
 Qur’an is like the orange fruit whose smell 
 and taste are pleasant.” 
 
 “ The person who repeats three verses 
 from the beginning of the chapter of the Cave 
 (Surah xviii.) shall be guarded from the strife 
 of ad-Dajjal ” 
 
 “ Everything has a heart, and the heart of 
 the Qur’an is the chapter Ya-sin (Surah 
 xxxvi.) ; and he who reads it, God will write 
 
 qur’an 521 
 
 for him rewards equal to those for reading 
 the whole Qur’an ten timos.” 
 
 “ There is a Surah in the Qur’an of thirty 
 verses which intercedes for a man until he is 
 pardoned, and it is that commencing with 
 the words, ‘ Blessed is he in whose hands is 
 the kingdom.’” (Surah lxvii.) 
 
 “ God wrote a book two thousand years 
 before creating tho heavens and the earth, 
 and sent two verses down from it, which are 
 the two last verses of the chapter of the Cow 
 (Surah ii.) ; and if they are not repeated in a 
 house for three nights, the devil will be near 
 that house.” 
 
 “ Verily the devil runs away from the 
 house in which the chapter entitled the Cow 
 is read.” 
 
 “ The chapter commencing with these 
 words, ‘ Say God is one God ’ (Surah cxii.), 
 is equal to a third of the Qur’an.” 
 
 “ The person that repeats the chapter of 
 the Cave (Surah xviii.) on Friday, the light 
 of faith brightens him between two Fridays.” 
 
 In the Qur’an there are many assertions of 
 its excellence ; the following are a few selected 
 verses:— 
 
 Surah iv. 94: “ Can they not consider the 
 Qur’an? Were it from any other than God, 
 they would assuredly have found in it many 
 contradictions.” 
 
 Surah ix. 16 : “ If they shall say, ‘ The 
 Qur’an is his own device.’ Then bring ten 
 Surahs like it of your devising.” 
 
 Surah xlvi. 7 : “ Will they say, ‘ Ho hath 
 devised it’? Say, If I have devised it, then 
 not one single thing can ye ever obtain for me 
 from God.” 
 
 Surah liii. 4 : “ Verily the Qur’an is none 
 other than a revelation. One terrible in 
 power taught it him.” 
 
 Maracci, von Hammer, and other Orien¬ 
 talists, have selected the xcist chapter of the 
 Qur’an, entitled the Suratu ’sh-Shams, or the 
 Chapter of the Sun, as a favourable specimen 
 of the best style of the Qur’an. It begins in 
 Arabic thus :— 
 
 „ -* «■* 
 
 " — C— — CcC-o" " cP " — 
 
 U p U\ r 
 
 ^ £> ■— %> " 
 
 -* -<>• -- A —~ c— 
 
 h&’ySj A 7 
 
 - 0 -• c ^ — - C-*- " tfJ- C ^ "CE* C - 
 
 Which Mr. Rodwell translates as follows :— 
 
 1 By the Sun and his noonday brightness ! 
 
 2 By the Moon when she followeth him ! 
 
 3 By the Day when it revealeth his glory I 
 
 4 By the Night when it enshroudeth him! 
 
 5 By the Heaven and Him who built it I 
 
 6 By the Earth and Him who spread it 
 
 forth! 
 
 7 By a soul and Him who balanced it, 
 
 8 And breathed into it its wickedness and 
 
 its piety, 
 
 66 
 
522 
 
 qur’an 
 
 9 Blessed now is he who hath kept it pure, 
 10 And undone is he who hath corrupted 
 it! 
 
 Baron yon Hammer rendered it in German 
 thus :— 
 
 1 Bey der Sonne, und ihrem schimmer ; 
 
 2 Bey dem Mond der ihr folget imrner ; 
 
 3 Bey dem Tag der sie zeigt in vollem 
 
 glanz ; 
 
 4 Bey der Nacht, die sie verfinstert ganz ; 
 
 5 Bey den Himmeln und dem der sie ge- 
 
 macht ; 
 
 6 Bey der Erde und dem der sie schuf 
 
 eben; 
 
 7 Bey der Seele und dem der sie ins 
 
 gleichgewicht gebracht, 
 
 8 Bey dem der ihr das bewusstseyn des 
 
 guten und bosen gegeben, 
 
 9 Selig wer seine Seele reinigt; 
 
 10 Wer dieselbe yerdunklet wird auf ewig 
 gepeinigt. 
 
 The renowned Orientalist, Sir William 
 Jones, praised the following account of the 
 drowning of Noah’s sons as truly magnificent, 
 and inferior in sublimity only to the simple 
 declaration of the creation of light in Genesis. 
 D’Herbelot also considers it one of the finest 
 passages hr the Qur’an (Surah si. 44-46) :— 
 
 O j - - C-o" C - C C — " — 
 
 cy < 4 ^ ^*5 
 
 G C (><■" C - —— j-'C'q 
 
 fjSs L J)*'* ci* 0^5 
 
 e" £* 
 
 ^ % dliT $ ly. J!pT l ju e'un 
 
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 It may be rendered as follows :— 
 
 “ And the ark moved on with them amid 
 waves like mountains: 
 
 “And Noah called to his son—for he was 
 apart— 
 
 “ ‘ Embark with us, 0 my child ! and stay 
 not with the unbelievers.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ I will betake myself to a moun¬ 
 tain that shall save me from the water.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ None shall be saved this day 
 from God’s decree, save him on whom He 
 shall have mercy.’ 
 
 “And a wave passed between them and 
 he was drowned. 
 
 “ And it was said, ‘ 0 earth ! swallow up 
 thy water ! and 0 heaven 1 withhold thy rain!’ 
 And the water abated, and God’s decree was 
 fulfilled, and the ark rested on al-Judi. 
 
 “ And it was said, ‘ Avaunt, ye tribe of the 
 wicked! ’ ” 
 
 X .— Commentaries on the. Qur'an. 
 
 In the earliest ages of Islam the expositions 
 of the Qur’an were handed down in the tra- 
 
 qur’an 
 
 ditional sayings of the companions and their 
 successors, but we have it on the authority 
 of the Kashfu ’z-Zunun that one Qutaibah 
 ibn Ahmad, who died a.h. 316, compiled a 
 systematic commentary on the whole of the 
 Qur’an. The work is not now extant. 
 
 Muslim commentaries are very numerous. 
 Dr. M. Arnold ( Islam and Christianity, p. 81) 
 says there are no less than 20,000 in the 
 Library at Tripolis. 
 
 The best known commentaries amongst 
 the Sunnis are those of :— 
 
 Al-Baghawl, a.h. 515. 
 
 Az-Zamakhsharl. a.h. 604. 
 
 At-Tafslru ’l-Kablr, a.h. 606. 
 
 Ibnu ’l-‘Arabi, a.h. 628. 
 
 Al-Baizawi, a.h. 685. 
 
 Al-Mudarik, a.h. 701. 
 
 Husain, a.h. 900. 
 
 Al-Jalalan, a.h. 864, a.h. 911. 
 
 Al-Mazharl, a.h. 1225. 
 
 ‘AzizI, a.h. 1239. 
 
 Amongst the Shhahs the following are 
 works of reputation :— 
 
 Shaikh Saduq, a.h. 381. 
 
 At-Tafslru ’ l-Kablr , by Saiyid Muham¬ 
 mad ar-RazI, 30 volumes, a.h. 606. 
 
 As-SafI, a.h. 668. 
 
 As-Sirru ’l-Wajlz, a.h. 715. 
 
 Sidratu 'l-Muntaka, by Mir Bakir, a.h. 
 1041. 
 
 Al-Burhan, by Saiyid Hasham, a.h. 1160. 
 
 XI.—Editions and Translations of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 The Qur’an was first printed in Arabic 
 at Rome by Pagninus Brixiensis, Romse, 1530, 
 but it was either burned or remained un¬ 
 published. Since then the following edi¬ 
 tions of the Arabic text have appeared in 
 Europe:— 
 
 Al-Coranus, seu lex Islamitica, &c., the 
 Arabic text of the Qur’an, published by A. 
 Hinkelmann, Hamburg, 1649, 4to. 
 
 Alcorani textus universus, &o., the Arabic 
 text with a Latin translation and numerous 
 extracts from the principal commentaries, 
 and preceded by a Prodromus, containing a 
 “ refutation ” of the Qur’an, by Maracci, 
 Padua, 1698, folio. 
 
 an anotated text of the Qur’an, 
 published by order and at the cost of the 
 Empress Catherine H. of Russia, at St. 
 Petersburgh in 1787, 1 vol. in folio. This 
 edition was reprinted at St. Petersburgh in 
 1790,1793, 1796, and 1798, and without any 
 change at Kasan in 1803, 1809, and 1839. 
 Another edition,'in two vols, 4to, without 
 notes, was published at Kasan, 1817, re¬ 
 printed 1821 and 1843, and a third edition, 
 in 6 vols. 8vo, at the same place, 1819. 
 
 Corani textus arahicus, &c., the first critical 
 edition of the text, by G. Fliigel, Leipzig, 
 1834, 4to. Second edition, 1842; third edi¬ 
 tion, 1869. 
 
 Coranus arabice, &c., revised repnblication 
 of Fliigel’s text, by G. M. Redslob, Leipzig, 
 1837, 8vo. 
 
523 
 
 qur’an 
 
 Beidhawii commentarius in Coranum, &c., 
 the test of the Qur’an with al-Baizawi’s 
 Commentary, by H. 0. Fleisher, two vols. 4to, 
 Leipzig, 1846. 
 
 The Muhammadans, so far from thinking 
 the Qur’an profaned by a translation, as some 
 authors have written ( Marracci de Alcoran. 
 p. 33), have taken care to have it translated 
 into various languages, although these trans¬ 
 lations are always interlineary with the 
 original text. Translations exist in Persian, 
 Urdu, Pushto, Turkish, Javan, Malayan, 
 and other languages, which have been made 
 by Muhammadans themselves. 
 
 The first translation atttempted by Euro¬ 
 peans was a Latin version translated by an 
 Englishman, Robert of Retina, and a German, 
 Hermann of Dalmatia. This translation, 
 which was done at the request of Peter, 
 Abbot of the Monastery of Clugny, a.d. 1143, 
 remained hidden nearly 400 years till it was 
 published at Basle, 1543, by Theodore Bibli- 
 ander, and was afterwards rendered into 
 Italian, German, and Dutch. The next trans¬ 
 lation in German was by Schweigger, at 
 Nurnberg, in 1616. This was followed by 
 the above-mentioned work of Maracoi, con¬ 
 sisting of the Qur’an, in Arabic, with a Latin 
 version with notes and refutations, a.d. 1698. 
 
 The oldest French translation was done 
 by M. Du Ryer (Paris, 1647). A Russian 
 version appeared at St. Petersburg in 1776. 
 M. Savary translated the Qur’an into French 
 in 1783. There have also been more recent 
 French translations by Kasimirski (Paris, 1st 
 ed. 1840, 2nd ed. 1841, 3rd ed. 1857). 
 
 The first English Qur’an was Alexander 
 Ross’s translation of Du Ryer’s French version 
 (1649-1688). Sale’s well-known work first 
 appeared in 1734, and has since passed 
 through numerous editions. A translation 
 by the Rev. J. M. Rodwell, with the Surahs 
 arranged in chronological order, was printed 
 in 1861 (2nd ed. 1876). Professor Palmer, of 
 Cambridge, translated the Qur’an in 1880 
 (Oxford Press). A Roman-Urdii edition of 
 the Qur’an was published at Allahabad in 
 1844, and a second and revised edition at 
 Ludianah in 1876 (both these being a trans¬ 
 literation of ‘Abdu ’1-Q.adir’s well-known 
 Urdu translation). 
 
 The best known translations in German 
 are those by Boysen, published in 1773, with 
 an Introduction and notes, and again revised 
 and corrected from the Arabic by G. Wahl 
 in 1828, and another by Dr. L. Ullmann, 
 which has passed through two editions (1840, 
 1853). 
 
 XI.—The Opinions o f European Writers on 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 Mr. Sale, in his Preliminary Discourse, 
 remarks :— 
 
 “ The style of the Koran is generally beau¬ 
 tiful and fluent, especially where it imitates 
 the prophetic manner, and scripture phrases. 
 It is concise, and often obscure, adorned with 
 bold figures after the Eastern taste, enlivened 
 with florid and sententious expressions, and 
 in many places, especially where the majesty 
 
 qur’an 
 
 and attributes of God are described, sublime 
 and magnificent; of which the reader cannot 
 but observe several instances, though he 
 must not imagine the translation comes up 
 to the original, notwithstanding my endea¬ 
 vours to do it justice. 
 
 “ Though it be written in prose, yet the 
 sentences generally conclude in a long con¬ 
 tinued rhyme, for the sake of which the 
 sense is often interrupted, and unnecessary 
 repetitions too frequently made, which appear 
 still more ridiculous in a translation, where 
 the ornament, such as it is, for whose sake 
 they were made, cannot be perceived. How¬ 
 ever, the Arabians are so mightily delighted 
 with this jingling that they employ it in their 
 most elaborate compositions, which they also 
 embellish with frequent passages of and al¬ 
 lusions to the Koran, so that it is next to 
 impossible to understand them without being 
 well versed in this book. 
 
 “ It is probable the harmony of expression 
 which the Arabians find in the Koran might 
 contribute not a little to make them relish 
 the doctrine therein taught, and give an 
 efficacy to arguments, which, had they been 
 nakedly proposed without this rhetorical 
 dress, might not have so easily prevailed. 
 Very extraordinary effects are related of the 
 power of words well chosen and artfully 
 placed, which are no less powerful either to 
 ravish or amaze than music itself; where¬ 
 fore as much as has been ascribed by the 
 best orators to this part of rhetoric as to any 
 other. He must have a very bad ear, who is 
 not uncommonly moved with the very ca¬ 
 dence of a well-turned sentence ; and Moham¬ 
 med seems not to have been ignorant of the 
 enthusiastic operation of rhetoric on the 
 minds of men; for which reason he has not 
 only employed his utmost skill in these his 
 pretended revelations, to preserve that dig¬ 
 nity and sublimity of style, which might seem 
 not unworthy of the majesty of that Being, 
 whom he gave out to be the author of them, 
 and to imitate the prophetic manner of the 
 Old Testament; but he has not neglected 
 even the other arts of oratory; wherein he 
 succeeded so well, and so strangely captivated 
 the minds of his audience, that several of his 
 opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft 
 and enchantment, as he sometimes complains 
 (Surah xv. 21, &c.).” 
 
 The late Professor Palmer, in his Introduc¬ 
 tion to the Qur’an, remarks :— 
 
 “ The Arabs made use of a rhymed and 
 rhythmical prose, the origin of which it is not 
 difficult to imagine. The Arabic language 
 consists for the most part of triliteral roots, 
 i.e. the single words expressing individual 
 ideas consist generally of three consonants 
 each, and the derivative forms expressing 
 modifications of the original idea are not 
 made by affixes and terminations alone, but 
 also by the insertion of letters in the root. 
 Thus zaraba means ‘ he struck,’ and qatala, 
 
 ‘ he killed,’ while mazrub and maqtul signify 
 ‘one struck’ and ‘one killed.’ A sentence, 
 therefore, consists of a series of words which 
 
524 
 
 qur’an 
 
 would each require to be expressed in clauses 
 of several words in other languages, and it is 
 easy to see how a next following sentence, 
 explanatory of or completing the first, would 
 be much more clear and forcible if it con¬ 
 sisted of words of a similar shape and imply¬ 
 ing similar modifications of other ideas. It 
 follows then that the two sentences would be 
 necessarily symmetrical, and the presence of 
 rhythm would not only please the, ear but 
 contribute to the better understanding of the 
 sense, while the rhyme would mark the pause 
 in the sense and emphasize the proposition. 
 
 “ The Qur’an is written in this rhetorical 
 style, in which the clauses are rhythmical 
 though not symmetrically so, and for the 
 most part end in the same rhyme throughout 
 the chapter. 
 
 “ The Arabic language lends itself very 
 readily to this species of composition, and the 
 Arabs of the desert in the present day em¬ 
 ploy it to a great extent in their more formal 
 orations, while the literary men of the towns 
 adopt it as the recognised correct style, deli¬ 
 berately imitating the Qur’an. 
 
 “ That the best of Arab writers has never 
 succeeded in producing anything equal in 
 merit to the Qur’an itself is not surprising. 
 
 “ In the first place, they have agreed before¬ 
 hand that it is unapproachable, and they 
 have adopted its style as the perfect stan¬ 
 dard ; any deviation from it therefore must of 
 necessity be a defect. Again, with them this 
 style is not spontaneous as with Mohammed 
 and his contemporaries, but is as artificial 
 as though Englishmen should still continue 
 to follow Chaucer as their model, in spite of 
 the changes which their language has under¬ 
 gone. With the prophet the style was 
 natural, and the words were those used in 
 every-day ordinary life, while with the later 
 Arabic authors the style is imitative and the 
 ancient words are introduced as a literary 
 embellishment. The natural consequence is 
 that their attempts look laboured and unreal 
 by the side of his impromptu and forcible 
 eloquence. 
 
 “ That Mohammed, though, should have 
 been able to challenge even his contempora¬ 
 ries to produce anything like the Qur’an, 
 
 ‘ And if ye are in doubt of what we have re¬ 
 vealed unto our servant, then bring a chapter 
 like it. . . . But if ye do it not, and ye surely 
 shall do it not, &c.,’ is at first sight surpris¬ 
 ing, but, as Noldeke has pointed out, this 
 challenge really refers much more to the 
 subject than to the mere style,—to the origi¬ 
 nality of the conception of the unity of God 
 and of a revelation supposed to be couched 
 in God’s own words. Any attempt at such a 
 work must of necessity have had all the weak¬ 
 ness and want of prestige which attaches to 
 an imitation. This idea is by no means 
 foreign to the genius of the old Arabs. 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 “ Amongst a people who believed firmly in 
 witchcraft and soothsaying, and who, though 
 passionately fond of poetry, believed that 
 every poet had his familiar spirit who inspired 
 his utterances, it was no wonder that the 
 
 q,ur’an 
 
 prophet should be taken for ‘ a soothsayer, 
 for ‘ one possessed with an evil spirit,’ or for 
 ‘ an infatuated poet.’ ” 
 
 Mr. Stanley Lane Poole, in his Introduction 
 to Lane’s Selections from the Kur-an, re¬ 
 marks :— 
 
 “It is confused in its progression and 
 strangely mixed in its contents ; but the deve- 
 lojjment of Mohammad’s faith can be traced 
 in it, and we can see dimly into the workings 
 of his mind, as it struggles with the deep 
 things of God, wrestles with the doubts 
 which echoed the cavils of the unbelievers, 
 soars upwards on the wings of ecstatic faith, 
 till at last it gains the repose of fruition. 
 Studied thus, the Kur-an is no longer dull 
 reading to one who cares to look upon the 
 working of a passionate troubled human soul, 
 and who can enter into its trials and share in 
 the joy of its triumphs. 
 
 “ In the soorahs revealed at Mekka, Mo¬ 
 hammad has but one theme—God; and one 
 object—to draw his people away from their 
 idols and bring them to the feet of that God. 
 He tells them of Him in glowing language, 
 that comes from the heart’s white heat. He 
 points to the glories of nature, and tells them 
 these are God’s works. With all the brilliant 
 imagery of the Arab, he tries to show them 
 what God is, to convince them of His power 
 and His wisdom and His justice. The soorahs 
 of this period are short, for they are pitched 
 in too high a key to be long sustained. The 
 language has the ring of poetry, though no 
 part of the Kur-an complies with the demands 
 of Arab metre. The sentences are short and 
 full of half-restrained energy, yet with a 
 musical cadence. The thought is often only 
 half expressed; one feels the speaker has 
 essayed a thing beyond words, and has sud¬ 
 denly discovered the impotence of language, 
 and broken off with the sentence unfinished. 
 There is the fascination of true poetry about 
 these earliest soorahs; as we read them we 
 understand the enthusiasm of the Prophet’s 
 followers, though we cannot fully realise the 
 beauty and the power, inasmuch as we cannot 
 hear them hurled forth with Mohammad’s 
 fiery eloquence. From first to last the 
 Kur-an is essentially a book to be heard, not 
 read, but this is especially the case with the 
 earliest chapters. 
 
 “ In the soorahs of the second period of 
 Mekka, we begin to trace the decline of the 
 Prophet’s eloquence. There are still the 
 same earnest appeals to the people, the same 
 gorgeous pictures of the Last Day and the 
 world to come; but the language begins to 
 approach the quiet of prose, the sentences 
 become longer, the same words and phrases 
 are frequently repeated, and the wearisome 
 stories of the Jewish prophets and patriarchs, 
 which fill so large a space in the later por¬ 
 tion of the Kur-an, now make their appear¬ 
 ance. The fierce passion of the earliest soo¬ 
 rahs, that could not out save in short burn¬ 
 ing verses, gives place to a calmer more 
 argumentative style. Mohammad appeals less 
 to the works of God as proofs of his teach- 
 
525 
 
 qur’an 
 
 ing, and more to the history of former 
 teachers, and the punishments of the people 
 who would not hear them. And the charac¬ 
 teristic oaths of the first period, when Mo¬ 
 hammad swears by all the varied sights of 
 nature as they mirrored themselves in his 
 imagination, have gone, and in their place we 
 find only the weaker oath ‘ by the Kur-an.’ 
 And this declension is earned still further in 
 the last group of the soorahs revealed at 
 Mekka. The style becomes more involved 
 and the sentences longer, and though the old 
 enthusiasm bursts forth ever and anon, it is 
 rather an echo of former things than a new 
 and present intoxication of faith. The fables 
 and repetitions become more and more dreary, 
 and but for the rich eloquence of the old 
 Arabic tongue, which gives some charm 
 even to inextricable sentences and dull stories, 
 the Kur-an at this period would be unreadable. 
 As it is, we feel we have fallen the whole 
 depth from poetry to prose, and the matter 
 of the prose is not so superlative as to give us 
 amends for the loss of the poetic thought of 
 the earlier time and the musical fall of the 
 sentences. 
 
 “ In the soorahs of the Medina period these 
 faults reach their climax. We read a singu¬ 
 larly varied collection of criminal laws, social 
 regulations, orders for battle, harangues to 
 the Jews, first conciliatory, then denuncia¬ 
 tory, and exhortations to spread the faith, 
 and such-like heterogeneous matters. Happily 
 the Jewish stories disappear in the latest soo¬ 
 rahs, but their place is filled by scarcely more 
 palatable materials. The chapters of this 
 period are interesting chiefly as containing 
 the laws which have guided every Muslim 
 state, regulated every Muslim society, and 
 directed in their smallest acts every Moham- 
 madan man and woman in all parts of the world 
 from the Prophet’s time till now. The Me¬ 
 dina part of the Kur-an is the most important 
 part for Islam, considered as a scheme of 
 ritual and a system of manners ; the earliest 
 Mekka revelations are those which contain 
 what is highest in a great religion and what 
 was purest in a great man.” 
 
 Mr. Rodwell, in his Introduction to his 
 Qur’an, says :— 
 
 “ The contrast between the earlier, middle, 
 and later Suras is very striking and inte¬ 
 resting, and will be at once apparent from 
 the arrangement here adopted. In the Suras 
 as far as the 54th, we cannot but notice the 
 entire predominance of the poetical element, 
 a deep appreciation (as in Sura xci.) of the 
 beauty of natural objects, brief fragmentary 
 and impassioned utterances, denunciations of 
 woe and punishment, expressed for the most 
 part in lines of extreme brevity. With a 
 change, however, in the position of Muham¬ 
 mad when he openly assumes the office of 
 ‘ public warner,’ the Suras begin to assume a 
 more prosaic and didactic tone, though the 
 poetical ornament of rhyme is preserved 
 throughout. We gradually lose the Poet in 
 the missionary aiming to convert, the warm 
 asserter of dogmatic truths ; the descriptions 
 
 qur’an 
 
 of natural objects, of the judgment, of hea¬ 
 ven and hell, make way for gradually in¬ 
 creasing historical statements, first from 
 Jewish, and subsequently from Christian his¬ 
 tories ; while, in the 29 Suras revealed at 
 Medina, we no longer listen to vague words, 
 often as it would seem without positive aim, 
 but to the earnest disputant with the enemies 
 of his faith, the Apostle pleading the cause 
 of what he believes to be the Truth of God, 
 He who at Mecca is the admonisher and per¬ 
 suader, at Medina is the legislator and war¬ 
 rior, who dictates obedience, and uses other 
 weapons than the pen of the Poet and the 
 Scribe. When business pressed, as at Medina, 
 Poetry makes way for prose, and although 
 touches of the Poetical element occasionally 
 break forth, and he has to defend himself up 
 to a very late period against the charge of 
 being merely a Poet, yet this is rarely the 
 case in the Medina Suras ; and we are startled 
 by finding obedience to God and the Apostle, 
 God's gifts and the Apostle's, God’s pleasure 
 and the Apostle’s, spoken of in the same 
 breath, and epithets and attributes elsewhere 
 applied to Allah openly applied to himself, as 
 in Sura ix. 118, 129. 
 
 “ The Suras, viewed as a whole, strike me 
 as being the work of one who began his career 
 as a thoughtful enquirer after truth, and an 
 earnest asserter of it in such rhetorical and 
 poetical forms as he deemed most likely to 
 win and attract his countrymen, and who gra¬ 
 dually proceeded from the dogmatic teacher 
 to the politic founder of a system for which 
 laws and regulations had to be provided as 
 occasions arose. And of all the Suras it 
 must be remarked that they were intended 
 non for readers but for hearers —that they 
 were all promulgated by public recital —and 
 that much was left, as the imperfect sen¬ 
 tences shew, to the manner and suggestive 
 action of the reciter. It would be impossible, 
 and indeed it is unnecessary, to attempt a de¬ 
 tailed life of Muhammad within the narrow 
 limits of a Preface. The main events thereof 
 with which the Suras of the Koran stand in 
 connection, are—The visions of Gabriel, seen, 
 or said to have been seen, at the outset of his 
 career in his 40th year, during one of his sea¬ 
 sons of annual monthly retirement, for devo¬ 
 tion and meditation to Mount Hira, near 
 Mecca,—the period of mental depression and 
 re-assurance previous to the assumption of 
 the office of public teacher—the Fatrah or 
 pause during which he probably waited for a 
 repetition of the angelic vision—his labours 
 in comparative privacy for three years, issuing 
 in about 40 converts, of whom his wife Cha- 
 dijah was the first, and Abu Bekr the most 
 important; (for it is to him and to Abu 
 Jahl the Sura xcii. refers)—struggles with 
 Meccan unbelief and idolatry followed by a 
 period during which probably he had the 
 second vision, Sura liii. and was listened 
 to and respected as a person ‘possessed’ 
 (Sura lxix. 42, lii. 29)—the first emigration 
 to Abyssinia in a.d 616, in consequence of 
 the Meccan persecutions brought on by his 
 now open attacks upon idolatry (Taghout)— 
 
526 
 
 qur’an qur’an 
 
 increasing reference to Jewish and Christian 
 histories, shewing that much time had been 
 devoted to their - study—the conversion of 
 Omar in 617—the journey to the Thaquifites 
 at Taief in a.d. 620 — the intercourse with 
 pilgrims from Medina, who believed in Islam, 
 and spread the knowledge thereof in their 
 native town, in the same year—the vision of 
 the midnight journey to Jerusalem and the 
 Heavens—the meetings by night at Acaba, a 
 mountain near Mecca, in the 11th year of his 
 mission, and the pledges of fealty there given 
 to him—the command given to the believers 
 to emigrate to Yathrib, henceforth Medinat- 
 en-nabi (the city of the Prophet ), or El-Medina 
 (the city), in April of a.d. 622 — the escape of 
 Muhammad and Abu Bekr from Mecca to the 1 
 cave of Thaur — the flight to, Medina in 
 June 20, a.d 622 — treaties made with Chris¬ 
 tian tribes—increasing, but still very imper¬ 
 fect acquaintance with Christian doctrines— 
 the Battle of Bedr in Hej. 2, and of Ohod— 
 the coalition formed against Muhammad by 
 the Jews and idolatrous Arabians, issuing in 
 the siege of Medina, Hej. 5 (a.d. 627)—the 
 convention, with reference to the liberty of 
 making the pilgrimage, of Hudaibiya, Hej. 6 
 —the embassy to Chosroes King of Persia in 
 the same year, to the Governor of Egypt 
 and to the King of Abyssinia, desiring them 
 to embrace Islam—the conquest of several 
 Jewish tribes, the most important of which 
 was that of Chaibar in Hej. 7, a year marked 
 by the embassy sent to Heraclius, then in 
 Syria, on Ms return from the Persian cam¬ 
 paign, and by a solemn and peaceful pilgri¬ 
 mage to Mecca—the triumphant entry into 
 Mecca in Hej. 8 (a.d. 630), and the demolition 
 of the idols of the Caaba—the submission of 
 the CM’istians of Nedjran, of Aiia on the Red 
 Sea, and of Taief, etc., in Hej. 9, called ‘ the 
 year of embassies or deputations,’ from the 
 numerous deputations which flocked to Mecca 
 proffering submission—and lastly in Hej. 10, 
 the submission of Hadramont, Yemen, the 
 greater part of the southern and eastern pro¬ 
 vinces of Arabia—and the final solemn pil¬ 
 grimage to Mecca. 
 
 “ While, however, there is no great diffi¬ 
 culty in ascertaining the Suras which stand 
 in connection with the more salient features 
 of Muhammad’s life, it is a much more 
 arduous, and often impracticable, task, to 
 point out the precise events to wMch indi¬ 
 vidual verses refer, and out of wMch they 
 sprung. It is quite possible that Muhammad 
 himself, in a later period of Ms career, de¬ 
 signedly mixed up later with earlier revela¬ 
 tions in the same Suras—not for the sake of 
 producing that mysterious style which seems 
 so pleasing to the mind of those who value 
 truth least when it is most clear and obvious 
 -—but for the purpose of softening down some 
 of the earlier statements which represent the 
 last hour and awful judgment as imminent; 
 and thus leading his followers to continue 
 still in the attitude of expectation, and to see 
 in his later successes the truth of Ms earlier 
 predictions. If after-thoughts of tMs kind 
 are to be traced, and they will often strike 
 
 the attentive reader, it then follows that the 
 perplexed state of the text in individual Suras 
 is to be considered as due to Muhammad 
 himself, and we are furnished with a series 
 of constant hints for attaining to chrono¬ 
 logical accuracy. And it may be remarked 
 in passing, that a belief that the end of all 
 things was at hand, may have tended to 
 promote the earlier successes of Islam at 
 Mecca, as it unquestionably was an argument 
 with the Apostles, to flee from ‘ the wrath to 
 come.’ It must be borne in mind that the 
 allusions to contemporary minor events, and 
 to the local efforts made by the new religion 
 to gain the ascendant are very few, and often 
 couched in terms so vague and general, that 
 we are forced to interpret the Koran solely 
 by the Koran itself. And for this, the fre¬ 
 quent repetitions of the same histories and 
 the same sentiments, afford much facility: 
 and the peculiar manner in which the details 
 of each Mstory are increased by fresh traits 
 at each recurrence, enables us to trace their 
 growth in the author’s mind, and to ascertain 
 the manner in wMch a part of the Koran was 
 composed. The absence of the Mstorical 
 element from the Koran as regards the de¬ 
 tails of Muhammad’s daily life, may be judged 
 of by the fact, that only two of his contempo¬ 
 raries are mentioned in the entire volume, 
 and that Muhammad’s name occurs but five 
 times, although he is all the way through 
 addressed by the Angel Gabriel as the re¬ 
 cipient of the divine revelations, with the 
 word Sat. Perhaps such passages as Sura 
 ii. 15 and v. 246, and the constant mention of 
 guidance, direction, wandering, may have been 
 suggested by reminiscences of his mercantile 
 journeys in his earlier years.” 
 
 Dr. Steingass, the learned compiler of the 
 English-Arabic and Arabic-English Diction¬ 
 aries (W. H. Allen & Co.), has obligingly 
 recorded Ms opirnon as follows :— 
 
 Invited to subjoin a few further remarks 
 on the composition and style of the Qur’an, 
 in addition to the valuable and competent 
 opinions contained in the above extracts, I 
 can scarcely introduce them better than by 
 quoting the striking words of Gothe, which Mr. 
 Rodwell places by way of motto on the reverse 
 of the title page of Ms Translation. These 
 words seem to me so much the more weighty 
 and worthy of attention, as they are uttered 
 by one who, whatever his merits or demerits 
 in other respects may be deemed to be, indis¬ 
 putably belongs to the greatest masters of 
 language of all times, and stands foremost as 
 a leader of modern thought and the intellec¬ 
 tual culture of modern times. Speaking of 
 the Qur’an in his West- Oestlicher Divan, he 
 says : “ However often we turn to it, at first 
 disgusting us each time afresh, it soon at¬ 
 tracts, astounds, and in the end enforces our 
 reverence .... Its style, in accordance with 
 its contents and aim, is stern, grand, terrible 
 —ever and anon truly sublime .... Thus 
 tMs book will go on exercising through all 
 ages a most potent influence.” 
 
 A work, then, wMch calls forth so powerful 
 
QUR*AN 
 
 QUR AN 
 
 527 
 
 and seemingly incompatible emotions, even in 
 the distant reader—-distant as to time, and 
 still more so as to mental development—a 
 work which not only conquers the repugnance 
 with which he may begin its perusal, but 
 changes this adverse feeling into astonishment 
 and admiration, such a work must be a won¬ 
 derful production of the human mind indeed, 
 and a problem of the highest interest to 
 every thoughtful observer of the destinies of 
 mankind. Much has been said in the pre¬ 
 ceding pages, to acknowledge, to appreciate, 
 and to explain the literary excellencies of the 
 Qur’an, and a more or less distinct admis¬ 
 sion that Buffon’s much-quoted saying : “ Le 
 style c’est l’homme,” is here more justified 
 than ever, underlies all these various ver¬ 
 dicts. We may well say the Qur’an is one 
 of the grandest books ever written, be¬ 
 cause it faithfully reflects the character and 
 life of one of the greatest men that ever 
 breathed. “ Sincerity,” writes Carlyle, “ sin¬ 
 cerity, in all senses, seems to me the merit of 
 the Koran.” This same sincerity, this ardour 
 and earnestness in the search for truth, this 
 never-flagging perseverance in trying to im¬ 
 press it, when partly found, again and again 
 upon his unwilling hearers, appears to me as 
 the real and undeniable “ seal of prophecy” 
 in Muhammad. 
 
 Truth, and above all religious truth, can 
 only be one. Christianity may duly rejoice in 
 the thought that, at the very moment when 
 the representative of the greatest Empire of 
 the ancient world mockingly or despairingly 
 put forth the question, “ What is truth ? ” 
 this one eternal truth was about to be written 
 down with the blood of the Divine Redeemer 
 in the salvation deed of our race, Christ’s 
 glorious and holy Gospel. But the approaches 
 to truth are many, and he who devoted all 
 his powers and energies, with untiring pa¬ 
 tience and self-denial, to the task of leading 
 a whole nation by one of these approaches, 
 from a coarse and effete idolatry, to the 
 worship of the living God, has certainly a 
 strong claim to our warmest sympathies as a 
 faithful servant and noble champion of truth. 
 
 It is, however, not my intention to dwell 
 here any longer upon this side of the ques¬ 
 tion. Praise has been bestowed in this work 
 on the Qur’an and its author without stint or 
 grudge, and the unanimity of so many dis¬ 
 tinguished voices in this respect will no 
 doubt impress the general reader in favour 
 of the sacred book of the Muhammadans, 
 which until now he may have known only by 
 name. At the same time, it will be noticed 
 that no less unanimity prevails in pointing 
 out the inferiority of the later portions of the 
 Qur’an in comparison with the earlier Surahs ; 
 a falling off, as it were, from the original 
 poetical grandeur and loftiness of its compo¬ 
 sition into prose and common-place. Gdthe, 
 we have seen, uses such a strong word as 
 disgust, again and again experienced by him 
 at the very outset of its repeated reading. 
 
 Not being an Arabic scholar himself, he 
 knew the Qur’an only through the translations 
 existing at the time, which follow through¬ 
 
 out the order of the received text. Thus 
 he was made to pass, roughly speaking, 
 from the later to the earlier Madinah Surahs, 
 and from these again to the Surahs given at 
 Makkah at the various stages which mark 
 Muhammad’s ministry, while he was yet 
 staying in his irresponsive parent town. In 
 other words, he would have proceeded from 
 the utterances of the vrorldly ruler and law¬ 
 giver to those of the inspired Divine, who 
 had just succeeded in laying the foundation- 
 stones of a new religion, under fierce struggles 
 and sufferings, but in obedience to a call 
 which, in his innermost heart, he felt had 
 gone out to him, and which he had accepted 
 with awe, humility, and resignation. While, 
 therefore, in the beginning of his studies, 
 Gothe may have met with a number of 
 details in the vast structure raised by Mu¬ 
 hammad which appeared distasteful to the 
 refined scion of the nineteenth century, his 
 interest must have been awakened, his ad¬ 
 miration kindled and kept increasing, the 
 more he became acquainted, through the 
 work itself, with the nature and personality 
 of its creator, and with the purity and exalted 
 character of the main-spring of his motives. 
 
 Those critics, on the other hand, who 
 view the Qur’an with regard to the chrono¬ 
 logical order of its constituents, follow the 
 descending scale in their estimate. Speaking 
 at first highly—nay, frequently with enthu¬ 
 siasm—of the earlier parts, they complain 
 more and more of the growing tediousness and 
 wearisomeness of the Surahs of later origin. 
 
 Ndldeke, for instance, the learned and 
 ingenious author of Geschichte des Qordns, 
 speaking of the deficiencies in style, lan¬ 
 guage, and treatment of the subject matter, 
 which, in his opinion, characterise the second 
 and third period of the Makkan revelations, 
 and in general the Madinah Surahs, pointedly 
 terminates his indictment by the sentence, 
 “ if it were not for the exquisite flexibility 
 and vigour (die ungemeine Feinheit und Kraft) 
 of the Arabic language itself, which, how¬ 
 ever, is to be attributed more to the age 
 in which the author lived than to his indivi¬ 
 duality, it would scarcely be bearable to read 
 the later portions of the Qur’an a second time.” 
 
 But if we consider the variety and hetero¬ 
 geneousness of the topics on which the Qur’an 
 touches, uniformity of style and diction can 
 scarcely be expected; on the contrary, it 
 would appear to be strangely out of place. 
 Let us not forget that in the book, as Mu¬ 
 hammad’s newest biographer, Ludolf Krehl 
 (Das Leben des Muhammed, Leipzig, 1884), 
 expresses it, “ there is given a complete code 
 of creed and morals, as well as of the law 
 based thereupon. There are also the founda¬ 
 tions laid for every institution of an extensive 
 commonwealth, for instruction, for the ad¬ 
 ministration of justice, for military organiza¬ 
 tion, for the finances, for a most careful 
 legislation for the poor: all built up on the 
 belief in the one God, who holds man’s desti¬ 
 nies in His hand.” Where so many important 
 objects are concerned, the standard of excel¬ 
 lence by which we have to gauge the compo- 
 
528 
 
 QURAN 
 
 sition of the Qur’an as a whole must needs 
 vary with the matter treated upon in each 
 particular case. Sublime and chaste, where 
 the supreme truth of God’s unity is to be 
 proclaimed; appealing in high-pitched strains 
 to the imagination of a poetically-gifted 
 people, where the eternal consequences of 
 man’s submission to God’s holy will, or of 
 rebellion against it, are pictured; touching 
 in its simple, almost crude, earnestness, when 
 it seeks again and again encouragement or 
 consolation for God’s messenger, and a solemn 
 warning for those to whom he has been sent, 
 in the histories of the prophets of old: the 
 language of the Qur’an adapts itself to the 
 exigencies of every-day life, when this every¬ 
 day life, in its private and public bearings, is 
 to be brought in harmony with the funda¬ 
 mental principles of the new dispensation. 
 
 Here, therefore, its merits as a literary 
 production should, perhaps, not be measured 
 by some preconceived maxims of subjective 
 and aesthetic taste, but by the effects which 
 it produced in Muhammad’s contemporaries 
 and fellow-countrymen. If it spoke so power¬ 
 fully and convincingly to the hearts of his 
 hearers as to weld hitherto centrifugal and 
 antagonistic elements into one compact and 
 well-organised body, animated by ideas far 
 beyond those which had until now ruled the 
 Arabian mind, then its eloquence was perfect, 
 simply because it created a civilized nation 
 out of savage tribes, and shot a fresh woof 
 into the old warp of history. 
 
 Noldeke’s above-quoted remark, it seems 
 to me, raises, however, a very important 
 question. It must, of course, be admitted that 
 the Arabic language, which is now so greatly 
 and deservedly admired, cannot be attributed 
 to Muhammad individually, but originated in 
 and was at his time the common property of 
 the Arabic-speaking section of the human 
 race, or, more accurately, of its Semitic 
 branch, who were then living within the 
 Peninsula and in some of the neighbouring 
 countries. But we may well ask ourselves, 
 what would in all probability have become 
 of this language without Muhammad and his 
 Qur’an ? This is not at all an idle and 
 desultory speculation. It is true the Arabic 
 language had already produced numerous fine 
 specimens of genuine and high-flown poetry, 
 but such poetry was chiefly, if not exclu¬ 
 sively, preserved in the memory of the people, 
 for the art of writing was certainly very little 
 known, and still less practised. 
 
 Moreover, poetry is not tantamount to 
 literature ; it may lead to it, and will always 
 form a most essential part of it; but it will 
 live on, and perhaps die, in solitary isolation, 
 unless it becomes, as it were, as Brahmans 
 say, “ twice-born,” by participating in a lite¬ 
 rary development of vaster dimensions and a 
 more general character. Divided among | 
 themselves into numerous tribes, who were [ 
 engaged in a perpetual warfare against each j 
 other, the Arabs, and with them their various j 
 dialects, would more and more have drifted ] 
 asunder, poetry would have followed in the 
 wake, and the population of Arabia would 
 
 qur’an 
 
 have broken up into a multitude of clans, 
 with their particular bards, whose love- and 
 war-songs enterprising travellers of our days 
 might now collect, like the popular songs of 
 the Kosaks of the steppe, or the Kalmuks 
 and similar nationalities, vegetating for cen¬ 
 turies in a more or less primitive state of 
 existence. 
 
 It seems, then, that it is only a work of the 
 nature of the Qur’an which could develop 
 ancient Arabic into a literary language, not¬ 
 withstanding the fact that it had already 
 been admirably handled by local poets. As 
 this book places the national life of the 
 Arabs upon an entirely new basis, giving 
 it at the same time a much-needed centre 
 and a wonderful power of expansion, it 
 became a matter of the utmost importance, 
 nay, of urgent necessity, that the contents 
 of the volume should be preserved with scru¬ 
 pulous accuracy and undisputable conformity. 
 This again was only possible by fixing upon 
 one dialect, which by its recognized excellence 
 commended itself to general acceptance, and 
 also by establishing a written text. 
 
 But not only by raising a dialect, through 
 its generalization, to the power of a language, 
 and by rendering the adoption of writing 
 indispensable, has the Qur’an initiated the 
 development of an Arabic literature; its 
 composition itself has contributed two factors 
 absolutely needful to this development: it 
 has added to the existing poetry the origins 
 of rhetoric and prose. 
 
 Although the decidedly poetical character 
 of the earlier Surahs is obvious, they differ 
 in two important points from the hitherto 
 acknowledged form of poetry, which is that 
 of the Qasidah. This form consists of baits, 
 or distichs, measured by some variation of 
 one of the fifteen (or sixteen) principal metres, 
 and each containing two half-lines, the same 
 rhyme running through both hemistichs of 
 the first bait, and through every second one 
 of the following. For instance : 
 
 1. Qifa nabki min zikra habibin wa-manzili 
 Bi-siqti ’1-liwa baina ’d-dakhuli wa-hau- 
 
 mall 
 
 2. Fa-tuziha fa ’1-maqrati lam ya‘fu ras- 
 
 muha 
 
 Li-rna nasajat-ha min junubin wa- 
 sham’ali 
 
 which would scan: 
 
 Qifa nab- | ki min zikra | habibin | wa- 
 manzili &e. 
 
 and belongs to the first variation of the metre 
 Tawil. 
 
 Emancipating himself from the fetters of 
 metre, and gradually also of the uniform 
 rhyme, Muhammad created what is now 
 called saj‘, that is to say, a rhythmical 
 prose, in which the component parts of a 
 period are balanced and cadenced by a vary¬ 
 ing rhyme, and of which e.g. the Suratu T- 
 Qiyamah (lxxv.) offers some fair examples ; 
 as (5-10):— 
 
 Bal yurtdu '1-insanu li-yafjura amarnah, 
 
 Yas'alu aiyana yaumu T-qiyamah, 
 
QUR AN 
 
 529 
 
 Fa-iza bariqa ’1-basar, 
 
 Wa-khasafa ’1-qamar 
 
 Wa-jumi‘a ’sb-sbamsu wa ’1-qamar 
 
 Yaqulu ’1-insanu yauma’izin aina ’1-mafarr. 
 
 (But man cbooseth to go astray as to his 
 future; 
 
 Ho asketh, “When this Day of Resurrec¬ 
 tion ? ” 
 
 When the eye-sight shall be dazzled, 
 
 And the moon shall be darkened, 
 
 And the sun and the moon shall be to¬ 
 gether, 
 
 On that day man shall cry, “ Where is 
 there a place to flee to ? ”) 
 
 And again (22-30): 
 
 Wa-wujiihin yauma’izin nazirah 
 Ila rabbi-ha nazirah, 
 
 Wa-wujuhin yauma’izin basirah 
 Tazannu an yuf‘ala bi-ha faqirah. 
 
 Kalla iza balaghati ’t-taraqiya 
 Wa-qila man raq 
 Wa-zanna annahu ’1-firaq 
 Wa '1-taffati ’s-saqu bi ’s-saq 
 Ila rabbi-ka yauma’izini ’1-masaq. 
 
 (On that day shall faces beam with light, 
 Out-looking towards their lord ; 
 
 And faces on that day shall be dismal, 
 
 As if they thought that some calamity 
 would therein befall them. 
 
 Assuredly when the soul shall come up to 
 the breast-bone, 
 
 And there shall be a cry, “ Who is the 
 magician to restore him ? ” 
 
 And the man feeleth that the time of his 
 departure is come, 
 
 And when one leg shall be enlaced with 
 the other, 
 
 To thy Lord on that day shall he be driven 
 on.) 
 
 This kind of rhetorical style, the peculi¬ 
 arity of which Professor Palmer, in the pas¬ 
 sage quoted, p. 523, aptly explains from the 
 etymological structure of Arabic, has become 
 the favourite model of oratorical and ornate 
 language with the later Arabs. It is fre¬ 
 quently employed in ordinary narratives, 
 such as the tales of the Arabian Nights, 
 whenever the occasion requires a more 
 elevated form of speech; it is the usual 
 garb of that class of compositions, which is 
 known by the name of Maqamat, and even 
 extensive historical works, as the Life of 
 Timur, by ‘Arab Shah, are written in it 
 throughout. 
 
 But Muhammad made a still greater and 
 more decisive step towards creating a litera¬ 
 ture for his people. In those Surahs, in 
 which he regulated the private and public 
 life of the Muslim, he originated a prose, 
 which has remained tho standard of classical 
 purity ever since. 
 
 With regard to this point, however, it has 
 been stated, seemingly in disparagement of 
 the later Arabic authors, that their accepting 
 Muhammad’s language as a perfect standard, 
 from which no deviation is admissible, has 
 led them to adopt an artificial style, as 
 unnatural “ as though Englishmen should 
 
 QUR’AN 
 
 still continue to follow Chaucer as their 
 model, in spite of the changes which their 
 language has undergone.” But is such a 
 parallel justified in facts? In English, as 
 amongst modern nations in general, the 
 written language has always kept in close 
 contact with the spoken language ; the 
 changes which the former has undergone 
 are simply the registration and legalisation 
 of the changes which in course of time had 
 taken place in the latter. Not so in Arabic. 
 From the moment when, at the epoch of its 
 fullest and richest growth, it was, through 
 the composition of the Qur’an, invested with 
 the dignity of a literary language, it was, by 
 its very nature, for many centuries to come, 
 precluded from any essential change, whether 
 this be considered as an advantage or not. 
 
 The reason for this lies in the first instance 
 in the triliteral character of the Semitic 
 roots, referred to by Professor Palmer, which 
 allows such a root to form one, two, or three 
 syllables, according to the pronunciation of 
 each letter, with or without a vowel. Let 
 us take as an example once more the root 
 z-r-b (w^o), which conveys the idea of 
 “ beating,” and serves in Arabic grammars, 
 like the Greek tvtttui, to form paradigms, by 
 way of a wholesome admonition, I suppose, 
 to the youthful student. The first of these 
 three consonants can only remain quiescent, 
 
 i.e. vowel-less, if it is preceded by a vowel, 
 
 C C 
 
 as in the Imperative i-zrib (,_yA), “beat 
 thou,” where the root appears as a mono- 
 
 -» C— 
 
 syllable, or in the aorist ya-zribu (^-j^), 
 
 “ he beats or will beat,” where it takes toge¬ 
 ther with the final u a dissylabic form. If 
 we leave the second consonant quiescent and 
 pronounce the first with a, we have zarb, with 
 . . s o- 
 
 the nominative termination zarbun ( V _ J ^) J 
 the verbal noun “ beating ” or infinitive “ to 
 beat.” Vocalising both the first letters, we 
 may obtain zarib, the active participle “ beat¬ 
 ing,” or zurub, plural of the last mentioned 
 zarb, with the nominative termination zaribun 
 
 (v_>jl<>) and zurubun (>—jy-=>). If we read all 
 three consonants with vowels, it may be 
 zaraba (>_y=>), “ he did beat,” or zarabu 
 “they did beat.” Taking, again, the 
 two forms zaraba, “ he did beat,” and ya- 
 zribu, “ he beats or will beat,” a simple change 
 of vowels suffices to transform the active 
 
 into the passive: zuriba was 
 
 -»2" CJ 
 
 beaten,” and yuzrabu (*__>^i), “he is beaten 
 or will be beaten.” Lastly, it must be 
 noticed, that the distinction between the two 
 fundamental tenses of the Arabic verb rests on 
 the principle that the affixes, representing 
 the personal pronouns, are in the preterite 
 placed at the end, in the aorist at the begin¬ 
 ning of the root: zarab-na, “ we did beat,” 
 but na-zribu, “ we beat or will beat.” 
 
 From all this it will be easily understood 
 
 67 
 
530 
 
 QTJSTANTINIYAH 
 
 qtjr’aa t 
 
 that any essential change in the written lan¬ 
 guage must deeply affect the whole system 
 of Arabic accidence, and that this language 
 will, therefore, naturally he averse to such 
 changes. But, moreover, this system stands 
 in closest connection with and dependence on 
 the syntactical structure of the language, 
 which is equally “ conservative,” if I may 
 use this expression, in its fundamental prin¬ 
 ciples. The Arabic syntax knows only two 
 kinds of sentences ( jumiah ), one called nomi¬ 
 nal ( ismiyah ), because it begins with a noun 
 the other verbal Qfidiyali), because it begins 
 with a verb. Reduced to their shortest ex¬ 
 pression. an example of the first would be: 
 
 S — GO- 
 
 Zaidun zaribun (. _. Aa Jqv), “Zaid (is) 
 
 beating”; of the second: zaraba zaidun 
 so- - 
 
 (juj, wA), “ (there) did beat Zaid.” The 
 constituent parts of the nominal sentence, 
 which we would call subject and predicate, 
 are termed mubtada "'incipient,"’.and khabar. 
 “ report,” meaning that which is enounced or 
 stated of the subject. The khabar need not 
 be an attributive, as in the sentence given 
 above, but it may be another clause, either 
 no min al or verbal, and if it is the former, its 
 own mubtada ’ admits even of a third clause 
 as a second khabar for its complement. The 
 subject of the verbal sentence is called agent, 
 or fanl. and, as mentioned before, follows the 
 verb, ovffl. in the nominative. 
 
 The verb with its agent (jr/ and fazit), or 
 the subject with its predicate ( mubtada ’ and 
 khabar ). form the essential elements of the 
 Arabic sentence. But there are a great many 
 accidental elements, called fazlah. “ what is 
 superabundant or in excess,” which may 
 enter into the composition of a clause, and 
 expand it to considerable length. Such are 
 additional parts of speech expressing the 
 various objective relations (maf-ul) in which 
 a noun may stand to an active verb, or the 
 condition ( fra !) of the agent at the moment 
 when the action occurred, or circumstances 
 of time and place ( zarf ) accompanying the 
 action, or specificative distinctions ( tamylz ') 
 in explanation of what may be vague in a 
 noun, or the dependence of one noun upon 
 another ( izafah ) or upon a preposition 
 (kha fz). or the different kinds of apposition 
 ( tawaJbv ) in which a noun may be joined to 
 another, either in the subject or the predicate, 
 and so on. 
 
 All these numerous component parts of a 
 fully-developed sentence are Influenced by 
 certain ruling principles Qaicamil. or “ re¬ 
 gents "), some merely logical, but most of 
 them expressed in words and particles, 
 which determine the vrab. that is, the gram¬ 
 matical inflection of nouns and verbs, and 
 bring into play those various vowel-changes, 
 of which we have above given examples 
 with regard to the interior of roots, and 
 which, we must now add. apply equally to 
 the terminations employed in declension and 
 conjugation, 
 
 The subject and predicate, for instance, 
 of the nominal sentence stand originally, 
 
 as it is natural, both in the nominative. 
 There are, however, certain regents called 
 nawasikh, “ effacing ones,” which, like the 
 particle inna, “ behold,” change the nomi¬ 
 native of the subject into the accusative, 
 while others, like the verb kana, “ he was,” 
 leave the subject unaltered, but place the 
 predicate in the objective case: zaid-un 
 zarib-un becomes thus either inna said-an 
 j zarib-un. or kana zaid-un zarib-an. 
 
 Again, we have seen that the aorist proper 
 of the third person singular terminates in u 
 I Qyazrib-u). But under the influence of one 
 class of regents this vowel changes into a 
 (jfazrib-a): under that of others it is dropped 
 altogether, and in both cases the meaning 
 and grammatical status of the verb is thereby 
 considerably modified. If we consider the 
 large number of these governing parts of 
 speech—a well-known book treats of the 
 •• hundred regents,” but other grammarians 
 count a hundred and fifteen and more—it 
 will be seen what delicate and careful 
 handling the Arabic syntax requires, and 
 how little scope there is left for the ex¬ 
 periments of wilful innovators. 
 
 At the time of Muhammad this then was, 
 apart from some slight dialectical differences, 
 the spoken language of his people. He took 
 it, so to say, from the mouth of his interlo¬ 
 cutors, but, wielding it with the power of a 
 master-mind, he made in the Qur’an such a 
 complete and perfect use of all its resources 
 as to create a work that, in the estimation of 
 his hearers, appeared worthy to be thought 
 the word of God Himself. 
 
 "When a long period of conquests scattered 
 the Arabs to the farthest East and to the 
 farthest "West, their spoken language might 
 deviate from its pristine purity, slurring over 
 unaccented syllables and dropping termina¬ 
 tions. But the fine idiom of their fore-fathers, 
 as deposited in the Qur’an, remained the 
 language of their prayer and their pious 
 meditation, and thus lived on with them, as 
 a bond of unity, an object of national love 
 and admiration, and a source of literary 
 development for all times. 
 
 Ai-QUB’lmJ ’L-‘AZlM (eV^ 
 Lit. “The Exalted Reading.” 
 A title given to the Introductory Chapter of 
 the Qur'an by Muhammad. (Mishkat, book 
 viii ch. i. pt. 1.) 
 
 QURBAds ((ohA), Lit. “ Approach¬ 
 ing near.” Heb. korban. A term used 
 
 in the Qur’an and in the Traditions for a 
 sacrifice or offering. Surah v. 30: “ Truly 
 when they (Cain and Abel) offered an offer¬ 
 ing.” [sacrifice.] 
 
 QUEBU ’S-SAAH v/). 
 
 “ An hour which is near.” A term used for 
 the Day of Resurrection and Judgment. 
 
 ^ QUSTAATTXlYAH 
 
 The word used in the Traditions and in Mu¬ 
 hammadan history for Constantinople. (See 
 Hadisu ' t-Tinnizi .) Istambul is 
 
QUBT 
 
 the word generally used by modern Mus¬ 
 lims. 
 
 QUTB (Vd=S). Lit. “A stake, an 
 axis, a pivot.” The highest stage of sanctity 
 amongst Muslim saints. A higher position 
 than that of ghaus. According to the Kash- 
 
 RAFI* IBN KHAD1J 531 
 
 shafu 'l-Istilahat, a qutb is one who has 
 attained to that degree of sanctity which 
 is a reflection of the heart of the Prophet 
 himself. Qutbu 'd-Dln, “the axis of reli¬ 
 gion,” a title given to eminent Muslim divines. 
 [eaqlr.] 
 
 R. 
 
 ar-RABB “The Lord,” 
 
 “ The Sustainer,” “ The Supporter.” A title 
 frequently used in the Qur’an for the Divine 
 Being, e.g. :— 
 
 Surah iii. 44: “ God (Allah) is my Lord 
 (Rabb) and your Lord (Rabb).’’ 
 
 Surah xviii. 13 : “ Our Lord (Rabb) is the 
 Lord (Rabb) of the heavens and the earth.” 
 
 From its frequent occurrence in the Qu’ran, 
 it would seem to occupy the place of the 
 
 Hebrew rfim Jehovah, the Kupios of the 
 
 t : 
 
 LXX., the Dominus of the Vulgate, and the 
 Lord of the English Bible; but all Muslim 
 writers say that whilst Allah is the Ismu ’g- 
 Zat, or “ Essential name of God,” ar-Rabb, 
 “ the Lord,” is but an Ismu Sifah, or attri¬ 
 bute, of the Almighty. 
 
 Al-Baizawl, the commentator (p. 6, line 10, 
 of Flugel’s edition), says, “ rabb, in its 
 literal meaning, is ‘ to bring up,’ that is, to 
 bring or educate anything up to its perfect 
 standard, by slow degrees, and inasmuch as 
 the Almighty is He who can bring everything 
 to perfection, the word ar-Rabb, is 
 
 especially applied to God.” 
 
 It is the Hebrew m Rab, which enters 
 
 into the composition of many names of dig¬ 
 nity and office in the Bible. 
 
 In Muslim works of theology, the word 
 occurs with the following combination: — 
 
 Rabbu '/-‘Izzah . Lord of Glory. 
 
 Rabbu 'l- 1 Alaniln . Lord of the Universe. 
 
 Rabbu ’l-Arbab . Lord of Lords. 
 
 Rabbu ’l-Ibad . Lord of (His) Servants. 
 
 The word is also used for a master or 
 owner, e.g .:— 
 
 Rabbu ’d-Dar . The Master of the house. 
 
 Rabbu ’l-Ars . A landowner. 
 
 Rabbu 'l-Mdl . A possessor of property. 
 
 Rabbu ’s-Salaf. A person who pays in 
 advance for an article. 
 
 RABBU ’N-NAU‘ (gyJ\ v>j). The 
 
 “ Lord of the Species.” An angel who is said 
 to preside over the animate and inanimate 
 creation, viz.: nabatat, “ vegetable ”; haiwa- 
 nat, “ animal”; jarndddt, “ inanimate” (stones, 
 earth, &c.), called al-‘dlamu ’s-sufli, “ the 
 lower creation,” as distinguished from al- 
 l dlamu 'l-‘ulwl, “ the heavenly world.” (See 
 Ghiya.su 'l-Lughah.) 
 
 RABUU ’L-AKHIR (/^\ &>>). 
 
 “ The last spring month.” The fourth month 
 of the Muhammadan year, [months.] 
 
 RABTU ’L-AWWAL (J^\ £*;). 
 
 “ The first spring month.” The third month 
 of the Muhammadan year, [months.] 
 
 In India, the word rabi‘ is used for spring 
 harvest, or crop sown after the rains. 
 
 RACHEL. Arabic Rahil 
 Heb. t^rn- Rahel. The wife of Jacob and 
 
 ** T 
 
 the mother of Joseph. Not mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, but the name occurs in commen¬ 
 taries. 
 
 The English form Rachel is a strange error 
 on the part of our translators, who almost 
 
 invariably represent the Hebrew p| by the 
 letter h. The correct form, Rahel, which 
 is the form familiar to Muslim writers, occurs 
 once in the English Bible, Jer. xxxi. 15. 
 
 ar-RA‘D (ac,). “ Thunder.” The 
 
 title of the xmth Surah of the Qur’an, in the 
 14th verse of which the word occurs. “ The 
 thunder celebrates his praise.” 
 
 R ADD (J^). “ Rejection, repul¬ 
 
 sion, refutation, reply; repeal, abrogation, 
 making null and void; sometimes, erasure. 
 In Muhammadan law it applies especially to 
 the return or surplus of an inheritance 
 which remains after the legal portions have 
 been distributed among the sharers, and 
 which, in default of a residuary heir, returns, 
 or is to be divided amongst the original 
 sharers. 
 
 RADDU ’S-SALAM (jM a,). 
 
 The returning of a salutation which is an in¬ 
 cumbent duty upon one Muslim to another. 
 [salutation.] 
 
 ar-RAFI‘ “ The Exalter.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes 
 of God. The word occurs in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iii. 48: “When God said, 0 Jesus! I 
 will make thee die and will take thee up again 
 to myselj 
 
 RAFI‘ IBN KHADIJ ^ 
 
 One of the Sahabah. He was 
 
 too young to be present at Badr, but he 
 accompanied Muhammad at Uhud and was 
 wounded with an arrow, on which occasion 
 the Prophet said to him, “ I will answer for 
 
RAFIZI 
 
 RA‘lNA 
 
 532 
 
 you in the Day of Judgment.” He died at 
 al-Madinah,_A.H. 73, aged 86. 
 
 RAFIZI ((_;'=■*\j). Lit. “ A forsaker.” 
 
 Syuonymous with Rafizah (pi. Rawdfiz). A 
 term used for a body of soldiers who have 
 deserted their commander and turned back 
 again, applied to a sect of Shfiahs who joined 
 Zaid the son of ‘All, the son of al-Husain, 
 the second son of the Khalifah ‘All, who, 
 when they had submitted to Zaid, demanded 
 that he should abuse Abu Bakr and ‘Umar, 
 the first two Khallfahs of the Sunnis ; but 
 Zaid refused to do so, for he said, “ They 
 were both Wazirs of my forefather Muham¬ 
 mad.” Upon this they forsook the party of 
 Zaid, and were called Rafizah. Zaid had 
 then only fourteen faithful companions left, 
 and he was soon surrounded by al-Hajjaj ibn 
 Yusuf, the general of the Imam Ja‘far’s army, 
 and fell at the head of his brave compa¬ 
 nions, not one of them surviving him. 
 
 (2) The term Rafizi is used by Sunni 
 Muslims for any sect of Shi‘ahs. 
 
 RAHBANlYAId (4^). [monas- 
 
 TICISM.] 
 
 RAHIB pi. RvJibdn. A 
 
 Christian monk. Mentioned in the Qur’an, 
 Surah v. 85 : “ Thou wilt find the nearest in 
 love to those who believe to be those who 
 say, ‘We are Christians’; that is, because 
 there are amongst them priests ( qissisun ) and 
 monks (ruhbari), and because they are not 
 proud.” [monastxcism.] 
 
 RAHlL Lit. “ That which 
 
 is fit for travelling.” A small book-stand 
 made so as to fold up for convenience in 
 travelling, but now generally used as a book¬ 
 
 stand in mosques and Muslim schools to 
 support the Qur’an and other books as the 
 student reads his lesson from them. They 
 are also used in private dwellings. 
 
 AR-RAHlM “The Com¬ 
 
 passionate.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It generally occurs in 
 conjunction with the attribute ar-Rahman, e.g. 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 158: “ The Merciful, The 
 Compassionate.” [kahman.] 
 
 RAHMAH Heb. DITI riham. 
 
 “ Mercy, compassion.” The attribute of mercy 
 is frequently dwelt upon in the Qur’an, e.g .:— 
 
 Surah vii. 54 : “ The mercy of God is nigh 
 unto those who do well.” 
 
 Surah x. 58 : “A guidance and a mercy to 
 believers.” 
 
 Surah vi. 133: “ Thy Lord is the rich one, 
 full of compassion.” 
 
 Ar-Rahman, “ The Merciful,” is one of the 
 chief attributes of the Almighty. 
 
 ar-RAHMAN (yU^-,5\),IIeb. 
 
 rahum. “ The Merciful. ’ One of the ninety- 
 nine names or attributes of God. It generally 
 occurs in conjunction with the attribute ar-Ra- 
 him, e.g. Qur’an, Surah ii. 159: “Your God is 
 one God. There is no god but He, the Merci¬ 
 ful, the Compassionate.” It also occurs in the 
 initial formula, placed at the commencement 
 of each Surah, with the exception of the ixth, 
 “ In the name of God, the Merciful, the Com¬ 
 passionate.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says that ar-Rahman is a more 
 exalted attribute than ar-Raliim, because it 
 not only contains five letters whilst Rahim 
 only has four, but it expresses that universal 
 attribute of mercy which the Almighty ex¬ 
 tends to all mankind, the wicked and the 
 good, believers and unbelievers. 
 
 RAHN ( 0 .*)). Pledging or pawn¬ 
 ing. A legal term which signifies the deten¬ 
 tion of a thing on account of a claim which 
 may be answered by means of that thing ; as 
 in the case of debt. This practice of pawn¬ 
 ing and pledging is lawful in Islam, for it is 
 related that the Prophet, in a bargain with a 
 Jew for grain, gave his coat of mail in pledge 
 for the payment. It is also said in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 283: “ Let pledges be 
 
 taken.” The word is used in the Qur’an in 
 its plural form, rihdn. (For further infor¬ 
 mation on the subject of Pawning, see Ha¬ 
 milton’s Hiddyah, vol. iv. p. 188.) 
 
 RAIHANAH A Jewess 
 
 whose husband had been cruelly murdered 
 in the massacre of the Banff Quraizah. Mu¬ 
 hammad offered to marry her if she would 
 embrace Islam; but she refused to forsake 
 the faith of her forefathers, and consented to 
 become his concubine instead of his wife. 
 
 RAIN. Arabic matar (^*), Heb. 
 
 mator. Mentioned [in the Qur’an as 
 
 x X 
 
 one of God’s special mercies. Surah vii. 55 : 
 “ He it is who sends forth the winds as 
 heralds before His mercy ; until when they 
 left the heavy cloud which We drive to a 
 dead land, and send down thereon water, and 
 bring forth therewith every kind of fruit.” 
 
 Prayers for rain are called Salatu ’l-Istisqa’, 
 and consist of two rak‘ah prayers. Anas 
 says that on one occasion they were caught 
 in the rain, and the Prophet took off his gar¬ 
 ment until he got wet, and they said, “ O 
 Prophet, why have you done this ? ” He re¬ 
 plied, “ This is fresh rain from our Lord.” 
 (Mishlcat , book iv. ch. liii.) 
 
 RATNA (LyJj). A word the use 
 
 of which is forbidden in the Qur’an, Surah 
 ii. 98: “0 ye who believe ! say not to the 
 Apostle ‘ Ra‘ina ’ (i.e. ‘ Look at us ’), but 
 say, ‘ Unzurna ’ (i.e. ‘ Regard us ).” These 
 two words have both the same signification; 
 but Muhammad had a great aversion to the 
 use of the word rd‘ind, because it had also a 
 bad meaning in Hebrew (see al-BaizawI, in 
 
RAINBOW 
 
 RAMAZAN 
 
 533 
 
 oco), alluding, perhaps, to the Hebrew verb 
 rua‘, which signifies “ to be mischievous 
 or bad.” 
 
 EAINBOW. Arabic qausu quzah 
 (CjS u-y), Heb. ntrp. Jcesheth. Lit. 
 
 “ The bow of many colours.” Not mentioned 
 in the Qur’an, hut in the Traditions. In the 
 book entitled an-Nihayah, it is said that 
 Muhammad forbade his people calling the 
 rainbow qausu quzah, because quzah is one of 
 the names of Satan (one who can assume 
 many characters in order to tempt the sons 
 of men). He enjoined them to call it Qausu 
 ’llah, “ God’s bow,” because by it God has 
 promised to protect the world from a second 
 deluge. ( Majma‘u 'l-Bihar, vol. ii. p. 142.) 
 
 The Persians call it Kaman-i-Rustum, “ the 
 bow of Rustum.” (See Muntaha 'l- 1 Arab, in 
 loco.) 
 
 BAIYAN Lit. “ One whose 
 
 thirst is quenched ” The gate of Paradise 
 through which, it is said, the observers of 
 the month of Ramazan will enter. It is men¬ 
 tioned in the Traditions ( Mishlcat, book vi. 
 ch. vii. pt. 1), but not in the Qur’an. 
 
 EAIYANIBNal-WALID (eP 
 •xAyi). The King of Egypt in the 
 time of Joseph. (See al-Baizawi on Suratu 
 Yusuf in the Qur’an. 
 
 EAJAB (s-*;). Lit. “The ho¬ 
 noured month.” The seventh month of the 
 Muhammadan year. So called because of the 
 honour in which it was held in the “ Time of 
 Ignorance,” i.e. before Islam. It is called 
 Rajabu Muzar, because the Muzar tribe 
 honoured it more than any other month. 
 [months.] 
 
 EAJ'AH (a*=-j). “Eestitution.” 
 
 Receiving back a wife who has been divorced, 
 before the time has fully elapsed when the 
 divorce must of necessity take place. In 
 other words, the continuance of the marriage 
 bond. ( Hidayah, vol. i. p. 289.) 
 
 BAJlM Lit. “ One who is 
 
 stoned.” A name given to Satan in the 
 Qur’an, Surah iii. 31: “I have called her 
 Mary, and I seek refuge in Thee for her and 
 for her seed from Satan, the pelted one ( Min 
 ash-Shaitani ’ r-Rajlmi ). 
 
 Muhammad taught that the devil and his 
 angels listen at the gates of heaven for 
 scraps of information regarding the things of 
 futurity, and when detected by the angels of 
 heaven they are pelted with shooting stars. 
 Abraham is also said to have driven the 
 devil away by pelting him with stones, which 
 legend is expressed in the throwing stones 
 at the pillars at Mina, [pilgrimage.] 
 
 EAJM ( ( *—=?■;). “ Lapidation.” 
 
 [stoning to death.] 
 
 EAK'AH (&*$))• From Buhu‘, “ to 
 
 bow, to prostrate one’s self.” A section of 
 the Muhammadan daily prayers, [prayers.] 
 
 EAMAZAN (<jbo-»j). The ninth 
 
 month of the Muhammadan year, which is 
 observed as a strict fast from dawn to Sunset 
 of each day in the month. The word Rama¬ 
 zan is derived from ramz, “ to burn.” The 
 month is said to have been so called either 
 because it used (before the change of the 
 calendar) to occur in the hot season, or be¬ 
 cause the month’s fast is supposed to bum 
 away the sins of men. ( Ghiya.su ’l-Luyhali, in 
 loco.) 
 
 The observance of this month is one of the 
 five pillars of practice in the Muslim religion, 
 and its excellence is much extolled by Mu¬ 
 hammad, who said that during Ramazan 
 “ the gates of Paradise are open, and the 
 gates of hell are shut, and the devils are 
 chained by the leg, and only those who 
 observe it will be permitted to enter at the 
 gate of heaven called Raiyan.” Those who 
 keep the fast “ will be pardoned all their 
 past venial sins.” ( Mishkat, book vii. ch. i. 
 pt. 1.) 
 
 The express injunctions regarding the ob¬ 
 servance of this month are given in the 
 Qur’an, Surah ii. 179-184 :— 
 
 “ 0 believers I a Fast is prescribed to you 
 as it was prescribed to those before you, that 
 ye may fear God, for certain days. But he 
 among you who shall be sick, or on a journey, 
 shall fast that same number of other days : 
 and as for those who are able to Iceep it and 
 yet break it, the expiation of this shall be 
 the maintenance of a poor man. And he 
 who of his own accord performeth a good 
 work, shall derive good from it: and good 
 shall it be for you to fast—if ye knew it. As 
 to the month Ramazan in which the Qur’an 
 was sent down to be man’s guidance, and an 
 explanation of that guidance, and of that 
 illumination, as soon as any one of you 
 observeth the moon, let him set about the 
 fast; but he who is sick, or upon a journey, 
 shall fast a like number of other days. God 
 wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your dis¬ 
 comfort, and that you fulfil the number of 
 days, and that you glorify God for his gui¬ 
 dance, and that you be thankful. And when 
 my servants ask thee concerning me, then 
 will I be nigh unto them. I will answer the 
 cry of him that crieth, when he crieth unto 
 me: but let them hearken unto me, and 
 believe in me, that they may proceed aright. 
 You are allowed on the night of the fast to 
 approach your wives : they are your garment 
 and ye are their garment. God knoweth that 
 ye defraud yourselves therein, so He turneth 
 unto you and forgiveth you! Now, there¬ 
 fore, go in unto them with full desire for that 
 which God hath ordained for you ; and eat 
 and drink until ye can discern a white thread 
 from a black thread by the daybreak: then 
 fast strictly till night, and go not in unto 
 them, but rather pass the time in the Mosques. 
 These are the hounds set up by God : there¬ 
 fore come not near them Thus God maketh 
 His signs clear to men that they my fear 
 Him.” 
 
 From the preceding verses it will be seen 
 i that fast does not commence until some Mus- 
 
534 
 
 RAMAZAN 
 
 EAMAZAN 
 
 lira is able to state that he has seen the new 
 moon. If the sky be over-clouded and the 
 moon cannot be seen, the fast begins irpon 
 the completion of thirty days from beginning 
 of the previous month. 
 
 It must be kept by every Muslim, except 
 the sick, the infirm, and pregnant women, or 
 women who are nursing their children. Young 
 children, who have not reached the age of 
 puberty, are exempt, and also travellers on 
 a journey of more than three days. In the 
 case of a sick person or traveller, the month’s 
 fast must be kept as soon as they are able to 
 perform it. This act is called Qazd\ or 
 expiation. 
 
 The fast is extremely rigorous and morti¬ 
 fying, and when the Ramazan happens to fall 
 in the summer and the days are long, the 
 prohibition even to drink a drop of water to 
 slake the thirst is a very great hardship. 
 Muhammad speaks of this religious exercise 
 as “ easy ” (Qur’an; Surah ii. 181), as most 
 probably it was when compared with the 
 ascetic spirit of the times; Sir William Muir 
 (Life of Mahomet , vol. iii. 49) thinks Mu¬ 
 hammad did not foresee that, when he 
 changed the Jewish intercalary year for the 
 lunar year, the fast would become a grievous 
 burden instead of an easy one ; but Muham¬ 
 madan lexicographers say the fast was 
 established when the month occurred in the 
 hot season (see Ghiyasu ’/- Lughafi). 
 
 During the month of Ramazan twenty 
 additional rok, 1 ahs, or forms of prayer, are 
 repeated after the night-prayer. These are 
 called Tarawlh. 
 
 Devout Muslims seclude themselves for 
 some time in the Mosque during this month, 
 and abstain from all worldly conversation, 
 engaging themselves in the reading of the 
 Qur’an. This seclusion is called iHilcaf. 
 Muhammad is said to have usually observed 
 this custom in the last ten days of Ramazan. 
 The Lailatu ’ l-Qadr , or the “night of power,” 
 is said by Muhammad to be either on the 
 twenty-first, twenty-third, or twenty-fifth, or 
 twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth of the month 
 of Ramazan. The exact date of this solemn 
 night has not been discovered by any but the 
 Prophet himself, and some of the Companions, 
 although the learned doctors believe it to be 
 on the twenty-seventh of this night Mu¬ 
 hammad says in the Qur'an (Suratu ’1- 
 Qadr):— 
 
 “ Verily we have caused it (the Qur’an) to 
 descend on the night of power. 
 
 And who shall teach thee what the night 
 of power is ? 
 
 The night of power excelleth a thousand 
 months; 
 
 Therein descend the angels and the spirit 
 by permission 
 
 Of their Lord in every matter; 
 
 And all is peace till the breaking of the 
 morn.” 
 
 By these verses the commentator Husain 
 understands that on this night the Qur’an 
 came down entire in one volume to the lowest 
 heaven, from whence it was revealed by 
 
 Gabriel in portions, as the occasion required. 
 The excellences of this night are said to be 
 innumerable, and it is believed that during it 
 the whole animal and vegetable kingdom bow 
 in humble adoration to the Almighty, and the 
 waters of the sea become sweet in a moment 
 of time I This night is frequently confounded 
 with the Shab-i-Barat, but even the Qur’an 
 itself is not quite clear on the subject, for in 
 Surah xliv. 1 it reads, “By this clear book. 
 See on a blessed night have we sent it down, 
 for we would warn mankind, on the night 
 wherein all things are disposed in wisdom.” 
 From which it appears that “ the blessed 
 night,” or the Lailatu 'l-mubarakah, is both the 
 night of record and the night upon which 
 the Qur’an came down from heaven, although 
 the one is the twenty-seventh day of Ramazan 
 and the other the fifteenth of Sha‘ban. 
 
 M. Geiger identifies the Ramazan with the 
 fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27); but it 
 is probable that the fast of the Tenth is iden¬ 
 tical with the ‘Ashura', not only because the 
 Hebrew Asur, “ ten,” is retained in the title 
 of that Muhammadan fast, but also because 
 there is a Jewish tradition that creation began 
 upon the Jewish fast of the Tenth,_ which 
 coincides with the Muhammadan day, ‘Ashura’ 
 being regarded as the day of creation._ More¬ 
 over, the Jewish Asur and the Muslim ‘Ashura’ 
 are both fasts and days of affliction. It is 
 more probable that Muhammad got his idea 
 of a thirty days’ fast from the Christian Lent. 
 The observance of Lent in the Eastern Church 
 was exceedingly strict, both with regard to 
 the nights as well as the days of that season 
 of abstinence; but Muhammad entirely re¬ 
 laxed the rules with regard to the night, and 
 from sunset till the dawn of day the Muslim 
 is permitted to indulge in any lawful plea¬ 
 sures, and to feast with his friends ; conse¬ 
 quently large evening dinner-parties are usual 
 in the nights of the Ramazan amongst the 
 better classes. This would be what Mu¬ 
 hammad meant when he said, “ God would 
 make the fast an ease and not a difficulty,” 
 for, notwithstanding its rigour in the day¬ 
 time, it must be an easier observance than 
 the strict fast observed during Lent by the 
 Eastern Christians of Muhammad’s day. 
 
 The following sayings of Muhammad re¬ 
 garding the fast of Ramazan are found in 
 the Traditions (see Mishkat, Arabic Ed., 
 Kitabu ’s-Saum ). 
 
 “ The difference between our fast and that 
 of the people of the book (i.e. Jews and Chris¬ 
 tians) is eating only before the first dawn of 
 day (and not afterwards).” 
 
 “ Keep not the fast till you see the new 
 moon, and if the moon be hidden from you 
 by clouds, count the days.” And in one tra¬ 
 dition it is thus :—“ A month is twenty-nine 
 nights, then keep not the fast till you see the 
 new moon, which, if she be hid from you by 
 clouds, then complete thirty days.” 
 
 “ When the darkness of the night advances 
 from the west and the day departs from the 
 east,»and the sun sets, then the keeper of the 
 fast may begin to eat.” 
 
 “ There are eight doors in Paradise, and 
 
RAMYTT ’L-JIMAR 
 
 AR-RAZZAQ 
 
 535 
 
 one is called Raiyan, by which only the 
 keepers of the fast shall enter.” 
 
 “ When the month Ramazan arrives the 
 doors of Heaven are opened ” (in another 
 tradition it is said, the doors of Paradise are 
 opened), “ and the doors of hell are shut, and 
 the devils are chained ” (in one tradition it is 
 said, the doors of God’s mercy are opened). 
 
 “ The person who fasts in the month of 
 Ramazan on account of belief in God and in 
 obedience to His command, shall be pardoned 
 of all his past sins, and the person who says 
 the night prayers of the Ramazan shall be 
 pardoned all his past sins, and the person 
 who says the prayers on the Lailatu ’1-Qadr 
 with faith and the hope of reward shall be 
 pardoned of all his past sins.” 
 
 “ If a keeper of fast does not abandon 
 lying, God cares not about his leaving off 
 eating and drinking.” 
 
 “ There are many keepers of fast who gain 
 nothing by fasting but thirst, and there are 
 many risers up at night and performers of 
 prayers who gain nothing by their rising but 
 wakefulness.” 
 
 RAMYU ’L-JIMAR \ ^). 
 
 The throwing of pebbles at the pillars, or 
 Jumrah, at Makkah. A religious ceremony 
 during the Pilgrimage, [pilgrimage.] 
 
 RAQABAH (M<). Lit. “The 
 
 Neck ”; pi. riqab. A term used in the Qur’an 
 for a captive slave. Surah iv. 94: “ Who¬ 
 soever kills a believer by mistake, then let 
 him free a believing neck.” 
 
 The word is used in India for an enclosed 
 area of land. (See Wilson’s Glossary of 
 Indian Terms.) 
 
 ar-RAQIB .51). “ The 
 
 Watcher over.” One of the ninety-nine names 
 or attributes of the Almighty. The word 
 occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. Surah iv. 1 : “Verily 
 God doth watch over you.” 
 
 ar-RAQIM ^)- A word 
 
 which occurs in the Qur'an, Surah xviii. 8: 
 “ Hast thou reckoned that the Fellows of the 
 cave and the Raqim were a wonder amongst 
 our signs ? ” The commentators are not 
 agreed as to the meaning of this word. The 
 Jalalan say, it was a brass plate or stone- 
 table, on which the names of the Fellows of 
 the Gave were written. The Kamalan say 
 it was either the name of the dog which be¬ 
 longed to the young men, or of the valley in 
 which the cave was situated. 
 
 ar-RASHID “The 
 
 Rightly Directing.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. The word occurs 
 once in the Qur’an, but it is not there used 
 for the Almighty. See Surah xi. 80: “ Is 
 there not among you one who can rightly 
 direct ? ” 
 
 RASM ({*->)), pi. Busum. Lit. 
 
 “ That which is stamped or sealed. Accord¬ 
 ing to the Qcimus, it is a very ancient Word 
 used in Arabia before the days of the Pro¬ 
 phet for custom and law, the ancient records 
 
 of the people being entitled Rawas'im . 
 
 It is a word which is very common in Hin¬ 
 dustan for the customs and usages of the 
 people. 
 
 ar-RASS A word which 
 
 occurs twice in the Qur’an, the meaning of 
 which is uncertain. 
 
 Surah xxv. 40: “ The people of ‘Ad, and 
 Samud, the people of the Rass." 
 
 Surah 1. 12 : “ Before them the people of 
 Noah and the fellows of the Rass and Samud 
 and ‘Ad and Pharaoh, called the Apostles 
 liars.” 
 
 According to the commentators al-Jalalan, 
 it is the name of a well near Midian. Some 
 take it to be the name of a town in Yama- 
 mah. 
 
 RASUL pi. Busul. “An 
 
 Apostle.” A title specially applied to Mu¬ 
 hammad, but used also for all Prophets who 
 brought inspired books, [prophet.] 
 
 RATL, RITL (Jty). (1) A certain 
 
 thing which one weighs. A weight or mea¬ 
 sure. (See The Mughrib of al-Mutarrizi, in 
 loco. (2) That which is chaste. (See the 
 Tdju ’l-‘Arus, in loco). 
 
 (1) According to the standard of Baghdad, 
 
 a weight of 12 ounces, and as a measure of 
 capacity, a pint. (Lane’s Arabic Dictionary.) 
 Muhammad used to give a rati of silver as a 
 marriage present, which has given rise to the 
 expression, As-sunnatu fl ’n-nikahi ritlun 
 (J% ^ Professor Wilson 
 
 says that at Bombay the ratal is equal to 36 
 Surat rupees, and in the Red Sea the rottolo, 
 as it is corruptly called, varies from 10 to 20 
 ounces avoirdupois. 
 
 (2) A boy not having arrived at puberty. 
 
 (3) An aged man. 
 
 ar-RA’UF G-VU- “The Kind.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. It occurs frequently in the Qur’an, e.g. 
 Surah ii. 138 : “ God is kind and merciful 
 with mankind.” 
 
 ar-RATTZAH (jL&jfl'). Lit. “ The 
 
 Garden.” The garden in which is situated 
 the tomb of Muhammad at al-Madinah. The 
 name is also given to the tomb itself by some 
 writers. 
 
 RAVEN. Arabic ghurab 
 
 Heb. ‘oreb. Mentioned once in the 
 
 Qur’an, Surah v. 34: “ Am 1 too helpless to 
 become like this raven and hide my brother’s 
 shame.” The raven is not lawful food ac¬ 
 cording to the Muslim law. (Durru ’l-Mukh- 
 tar, vol. iv. p. 523.) 
 
 RAW A (\<i)). A Persian word for 
 
 that which is lawful, [law.] 
 
 AR-RAZZAQ “ The Pro¬ 
 
 vider with Food.” One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It occurs in the 
 Qur’an once. Surah li. 58 : “ Verily God; 
 He is the Provider 
 
536 
 
 REBEL 
 
 REPENTANCE 
 
 EEBEL. Arabic bright pi. 
 
 bughat. A legal term for a person, or a body 
 of people, who withdraw themselves from 
 obedience to the rightful Imam. In case of 
 rebellion, the Imam must first call the rebels 
 to his allegiance and show them what is 
 right, and if they refuse to obey, he must 
 use force of arms. ( Hidayah, vol. ii. 248.) 
 
 RECORDING ANGELS, The. 
 
 [kiramu ’l-katibix.] 
 
 RED SEA. Arabic al-Bahru ’l- 
 Ahinar Mentioned, in 
 
 the Qur’an as al-Bahr, “ the Sea.” 
 
 Surah i. 47 : “ When we divided for you the 
 sea, and saved you and drowned Pharaoh’s 
 people.” 
 
 Surah x. 90 : “ And We brought the Chil¬ 
 dren of Israel across the sea.” 
 
 In Muhammadan works it is known as the 
 Bahru ’ l-Qulzum , or Qalzam. Jalalu ’d-DIn, 
 the commentator, says the town of Qulzum is 
 the same as Ailah (the Elath of the Bible, 
 Dent. ii. 8), a town at the head of the Arabian 
 Gulf. The AtXava of Strabo (xvi. p. 768). 
 It is referred to in the Qur’an, Surah vii. 163 • 
 “ Ask them about the city which stood by 
 the sea.” Elath was at one time a place of 
 importance, but it has now become quite in¬ 
 significant. 
 
 RELIGION. The religion of 
 
 Muhammadans is called Islam and 
 
 the laws of God Shari‘ah There are 
 
 three words used by Mus lim writers for the 
 word religion, namely, Bln, Millah, and 
 Mazhab. In the Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rlfdt, the dif¬ 
 ference between these words is as follows :— 
 
 Bln (^o) is used for religion as it stands 
 in relation to God, e.g. Blnu 'llah, “the reli¬ 
 gion of God.” 
 
 Millah (&L®), as it stands in relation to 
 the Prophet or lawgiver, e.g. Millatu Ibrahim, 
 
 “ the religion of Abraham,” or Millatu V- 
 Basul, “ the Prophet’s religion.” 
 
 Mazhab (v_,sh^), as it stands in relation 
 to the decisions of the Mujtahidun, e.g. 
 Muzhabu Abl Hanlfah. 
 
 The expression Bln, however, is of general 
 application, whilst Millah and Mazhab are 
 restricted in their use. [islam.] 
 
 RELIGIOUS DUTIES, The per¬ 
 formance of. Strictly according to Muham¬ 
 madan law, it is not lawful to accept any 
 remuneration for the performance of religious 
 duties. But these injunctions are now totally 
 disregarded, and fees are taken for almost 
 every religious duty performed by an Imam. 
 The teaching of the Hidayah on the subject 
 is as follows :— 
 
 “ It is not lawful to accept a recompense 
 for summoning the people to prayers, or for 
 the performance of a pilgrimage, or of the 
 duties of an Imam, or for teaching the Koran, 
 or the law; for it is a general rule, with our 
 doctors, that no recompense can be received 
 for the performance of any duty purely of a 
 religious nature According to Shafei, it is 
 
 allowed to receive pay for the performance 
 of any religious duty which is not required 
 of the hireling in virtue of a divine ordinance, 
 as this is only accepting a recompense for a 
 certain service; and as the acts above de¬ 
 scribed are not ordained upon the hireling, 
 it is consequently lawful to receive a recom¬ 
 pense for them. The arguments of our 
 doctors upon this point are twofold. First, 
 the prophet has said, 1 Read the Koran, but 
 do not receive any recompense for so doing ’; 
 and he also directed Othman-bin-Abeeyas, 
 that if he were appointed a Mawzin [a cryer 
 to prayer] he should not take any wages. 
 Secondly, where an act of piety is performed, 
 it springs solely from the performer (whence 
 regard is had to his competency), and conse- 
 sequently he is not entitled to any recompense 
 from another, as in the eases of fasting or 
 prayer. A teacher of the Koran, moreover, 
 is incapable of instructing another in it, but 
 by means of qualities existing in his scholar, 
 namely, capacity and docility, and therefore 
 undertakes a thing the performance of which 
 does not depend upon himself, which is conse¬ 
 quently invalid. Some of our modern doctors, 
 however, hold it lawful to receive wages for 
 teaching the Koran in the present age, be¬ 
 cause an indifference has taken place with 
 respect to religion, whence if people were to 
 withhold from paying a recompense for in¬ 
 struction in the sacred writings, they would 
 in time be disregarded;—and decrees pass 
 accordingly. 
 
 “ It is not lawful to receive wages for 
 singing or lamentation, or for any other 
 species of public exhibition, as this is 
 taking a recompense for an act which is of 
 a criminal nature, and acts of that nature 
 do not entitle to a recompense in virtue of 
 a contract.” 
 
 RE-MARRIAGE. Re-marria.ge 
 
 may take place with the divorcer before or 
 after the completion of the Hddah, provided 
 only the first or second sentence of divorce 
 has been pronounced, but it cannot take place 
 after a three-fold divorce -until the divorced 
 wife is married to another man and is 
 divorced by him after the second marriage 
 has been consummated. This is both Sunni 
 and Shi‘ah law. ( Tagore Law Lectures .) 
 
 A widow can marry again at the expira¬ 
 tion of four months and ten days after the 
 death of her former husband. There is no 
 restriction as to the period for a widower. 
 
 RENTAL. Arabic ijdrah 
 
 [hire.] 
 
 REPENTANCE. Arabic taubah 
 (<£?y). Lit. “The turning of the 
 heart from sin.” (An-Nawawl’s Commentary . 
 on Muslim, voL ii. p. 354.) It is frequently 
 enjoined in the Qur’an, e.g .:— 
 
 Surah iv. 20: “ If they repent and amend 
 let them be. Verily God is he who relenteth. 
 He is merciful.” 
 
 Surah xxiv. 32: “ Be ye wholly turned to 
 God, 0 ye believers, and it shall be well with 
 you,” 
 
RESLDUARIES 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 53 7 
 
 Surah xxv. 71: “ Whoso hath repented and 
 hath done what is right, he verily it is who 
 turneth to God with a true conversion.” 
 [pardon.] 
 
 RESIDUARIES. Arabic ‘asabah 
 ((L-ae), pi. ‘asabdt. According to Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, residuaries in their own 
 right are divided into four classes :— 
 
 (1) The offspring of the deceased. 
 
 (2) The ascendants (such as father, grand¬ 
 father, &c.). 
 
 (3) The offspring of his father, viz. the 
 brothers and their descendants. 
 
 (4) The offspring of his grandfather. 
 (Syed Ameer Ali’s Personal Law, p. 49.) [in¬ 
 heritance.] 
 
 RESIGNATION. The literal 
 
 meaning of Islam is a state or condition in 
 which a believer becomes “ resigned ” to the 
 will of God, a “ Muslim ” being one who is 
 “ resigned.” But in the Qur’an, the grace of 
 resignation is more frequently expressed by 
 the word sabr, “ patience,” e.g. Surah ii. 150 : 
 “ Give good tidings to the patient, who when 
 there falls on them a calamity, say, 1 Verily 
 we are God’s and verily to Him do we 
 return.’ ” 
 
 The word Taslim, which the compiler of 
 the Hi tabu ’t-Ta‘rifat says means to place 
 one’s neck under the commands of God, seems 
 to express the English word “resignation.” 
 
 It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 68: 
 “ They submit with submission.” 
 
 The author of the Akhlaq-i-Jalali says 
 Taslim is to “ acquiesce in and receive with 
 satisfaction (although, perhaps, repugnant to 
 the inclination) the commands of God,” as 
 exemplified in the verse above quoted. 
 
 Riza' , is also a word which expresses re¬ 
 signation, and is defined as being pleased with 
 the inevitable decrees of God, whatever they 
 may be. 
 
 RESURRECTION. Belief in al- 
 yaumu ’l-cilchir (/CM “the 
 
 Last Day,” is an article of the Muhammadan 
 Faith. The terms used in the Qur’an are— 
 
 Yaumu ’l-Qiyamah, “ Day of Standing up ” 
 (Surah ii. 79). 
 
 Yaumu ’l-Fasl, “ Day of Separation ” 
 
 (Surah Ixxvii. 14). 
 
 Yo.umu 'l-Hisab, “ Day of Reckoning ” 
 (Surah xl. 28). 
 
 Yaumu ’1-Pa‘s, “Day of Awakening” 
 
 (Surah xxx. 56). 
 
 Yaumu 'd-Din, “ Day of Judgment ” 
 
 (Surah i. 3). 
 
 Al-Yaumu ’l-Muhit, “ The Encompassing 
 Day ” (Surah xi. 85). 
 
 As-Sa‘ah, “ The Hour” (Surah viii. 186). 
 
 There are very graphic descriptions of the 
 Last Day in the poetical Surahs of the 
 Qur’an. The five following belong to an 
 early period in Muhammad’s mission :— 
 
 Surah lxxv.:— 
 
 “ It needeth not that I swear by the day of 
 the Resurrection, 
 
 Or that I swear by the self-accusing soul. 
 
 Thinketh man that we shall not re-unite 
 his bones? 
 
 Aye! his very finger tips are we able 
 evenly to replace. 
 
 But man chooseth to deny what is before 
 him: 
 
 He asketh, ‘ When this day of Resurrec¬ 
 tion?’ 
 
 But when the eye shall be dazzled, 
 
 And when the moon shall be darkened, 
 
 And the sun and the moon shall be to¬ 
 gether, 
 
 On that day man shall cry, ‘ Where is there 
 a place to flee to ? ’ 
 
 But in vain—there is no refuge— 
 
 With thy Lord on that day shall be the sole 
 asylum. 
 
 On that day shall man be told of all that he 
 hath done first and last ; 
 
 Yea, a man shall be the eye-witness against 
 himself: 
 
 And even if he put forth his plea . . . 
 (Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and 
 master this revelation: 
 
 For we will see to the collecting and the 
 recital of it; 
 
 But when we have recited it, then follow 
 thou the recital, 
 
 And, verily, afterwards it shall be ours to 
 make it clear to thee.) 
 
 Aye, but ye love the transitory, 
 
 And ye neglect the life to come. 
 
 On that day shall faces beam with light, 
 Outlooking towards their Lord; 
 
 And faces on that day shall be dismal, 
 
 As if they thought that some great calamity 
 would befall them. 
 
 Aye, when the soul shall come up into the 
 throat, 
 
 And there shall be a cry, ‘ Who hath a 
 charm that can restore him ? ’ 
 
 And the man feeleth that the time of his 
 departure is come, 
 
 And when one leg shall be laid over the 
 other, 
 
 To thy Lord on that day shall he be driven 
 on ; 
 
 For he believed not, and he did not pray, 
 But he called the truth a lie and turned his 
 back, 
 
 Then, walking with haughty mien, rejoined 
 his people. 
 
 That Hour is nearer to thee and nearer, 
 
 It is ever nearer to thee and nearer still. 
 Thinketh man that he shall be left su¬ 
 preme ? 
 
 Was he not a mere embryo ? 
 
 Then he became thick blood of which God 
 formed him and fashioned him ; 
 
 And made him twain, male and female. 
 
 Is not He powerful enough to quicken the 
 dead?” 
 
 Surah Ixxxi. 1-19 :— 
 
 When the sun shall be folded up, 
 
 And when the stars shal 1 fall, 
 
 And when the mountains shall be set in 
 motion, 
 
 And when the she-camels shall be aban¬ 
 doned, 
 
 68 
 
538 RESURRECTION 
 
 And when the wild beasts shall be gathered 
 together, 
 
 And when the seas shall boil, 
 
 And when souls shall be paired with their 
 bodies, 
 
 ■ And when the female child that had been 
 buried alive shall be asked 
 For what crime she was put to death, 
 
 And when the leaves of the Book shall be 
 unrolled, 
 
 And when the Heaven shall be stripped 
 away, 
 
 And when Hell shall be. made to blaze, 
 
 And when Paradise shall be brought near, 
 Every soul shall know what it hath pro¬ 
 duced. 
 
 It needs not that I swear by the stars of 
 retrograde motion, 
 
 Which move swiftly and hide themselves 
 away, 
 
 And by the night when it cometh darkening 
 on, 
 
 And by the dawn when it brighteneth, 
 
 That this is the word of an illustrious 
 Messenger.” 
 
 Surah lxxxii.:— 
 
 “ When the Heaven shall cleave asunder, 
 And when the stars shall disperse, 
 
 And when the seas shall be commingled, 
 And when the graves shall be turned upside 
 down, 
 
 Each soul shall recognize its earliest and 
 its latest actions. 
 
 0 man! what hath misled thee against thy 
 generous Lord, 
 
 Who hath created thee and moulded thee 
 and shaped thee aright ? 
 
 In the form which pleased Him hath He 
 fashioned thee. 
 
 Even so ; but ye treat the Judgment as a 
 lie. 
 
 Yet truly there are guardians over you— 
 Illustrious recorders— 
 
 Cognizant of your actions. 
 
 Surely amid delights shall the righteous 
 dwell. 
 
 But verily the impure in Hell-fire: 
 
 They shall be burned at it on the day of 
 doom, 
 
 And they shall not be able to hide them¬ 
 selves from it. 
 
 Who shall teach thee what the day of 
 doom is? 
 
 Once more Who shall teach thee what the 
 day of doom is ? 
 
 It is a day when one soul shall be powerless 
 for another soul: all sovereignty on that 
 day shall be with God.” 
 
 Surah lxxxiii. 4-20:— 
 
 What! have they no thought that they 
 shall be raised again 
 For the great day ? 
 
 The day when mankind shall stand before 
 the Lord of the worlds. 
 
 Yes! the register of the wicked is in 
 Sijjin. 
 
 And who shall make thee understand what 
 Sijjin is ? 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 It is a book distinctly written. 
 
 Woe, on that day, to those who treated our 
 signs as lies, 
 
 Who treated the day of judgment as a lie ! 
 None treat it as a lie, save the transgressor, 
 the criminal, 
 
 Who, when our signs are rehearsed to him, 
 saith, ‘ Tales of the Ancients ! ’ 
 
 Yes; but their own works have got the 
 mastery over their hearts. 
 
 Yes ; they shall be shut out as by a veil 
 from their Lord on that day ; 
 
 Then shall they be burned in Hell-fire: 
 Then shall it be said to them, ‘ This is what 
 ye deemed a lie.’ 
 
 Even so. But the register of the righteous 
 is in Tlllyun. 
 
 And who shall make thee understand what 
 ‘Illlyun is ? 
 
 A book distinctly written.” 
 
 Surah Ixxxiv. 1-19:— 
 
 “ When the Heaven shall have split asunder 
 And duteously obeyed its Lord ; 
 
 And when Earth shall have been stretched 
 out as a plain, 
 
 And shall have cast forth what was in her 
 and become empty, 
 
 And duteously obeyed its Lord ; 
 
 Then verily, 0 man, who desirest to reach 
 thy Lord, shalt thou meet him. 
 
 And he into whose right hand his Book 
 shall be given, 
 
 Shall be reckoned with in an easy reckon¬ 
 ing: 
 
 And shall turn, rejoicing, to his kindred. 
 But he whose Book shall be given him 
 behind his back 
 Shall invoke destruction: 
 
 But in the fire shall he burn, 
 
 For that he lived joyously among his 
 kindred, 
 
 Without a thought that he should return to 
 God. 
 
 Yea, but his Lord beheld him. 
 
 It needs not therefore that I swear by the 
 sunset redness, 
 
 And by the night and its gatherings, 
 
 And by the moon when at her full, 
 
 That from state to state shall ye be surely 
 carried onward.” 
 
 The following description belongs to a much 
 later period than the former Surahs already 
 quoted, and occurs in Surah xxii. 1-7, which 
 was given at Al-Madinah not long before Mu¬ 
 hammad’s death:— 
 
 “ 0 men (of Makkah) fear your Lord. 
 Verily the Earthquake of the Hour will be a 
 tremendous thing! 
 
 “ On the day when ye shall behold it, every 
 suckling woman shall forsake her sucking 
 babe ; and every woman that hath a burden 
 in her womb shall cast her burden; and thou 
 shalt see men drunken, yet are they not 
 drunken: but it is the mighty chastisement 
 of God! 
 
 “ There is a man who, without knowledge, 
 wrangleth about God, and followeth every 
 rebellious Satan; 
 
RESURRECTION 
 
 “ Concerning whom it is decreed, that he 
 shall surely beguile and guide into the tor¬ 
 ment of the Flame, whoever shall take him 
 for his lord. 
 
 “ 0 men! if ye doubt as to the resurrection, 
 yet, of a truth, have We created you of dust, 
 then of the moist germs of life, then of clots 
 of blood, then of pieces of flesh shapen and 
 unshapen, that We might give you proofs of 
 our power ! And We cause one sex or the other, 
 at our pleasure, to abide in the womb until 
 the appointed time ; then We bring you forth 
 infants ; then permit you to reach your age 
 of strength; and one of you dieth, and 
 another of you liveth on to an age so 
 abject that all his former knowledge is 
 clean forgotten! And thou hast seen the 
 earth dried up and barren: but when We 
 send down the rain upon it, it stirreth and 
 swelleth, and groweth every kind of luxu¬ 
 riant herb. 
 
 “ This, for that God is the Truth, and that 
 it is He who quickeneth the dead, and that 
 He hath power over everything : 
 
 “ And that ‘ the Hour ’ will indeed come— 
 there is no doubt of it—and that God will 
 wake up to life those who are in the tombs.” 
 
 Very lengthy accounts of the Day of Resur¬ 
 rection, and of the signs preceding it, are 
 given in all books of tradition, and works 
 on dogmatic theology. (See Safiihu ’/-Bukhari, 
 Arabic Ed. Kitabu ’ I-Fit an , p. 1045 ; Sahihu 
 ’l-Muslim , Arabic Ed. vol ii. p. 388 ; Mishkatu 
 ’l-Masabih, Arabic Ed. Kitabu ’l-Fitan ; Sharhu 
 ’ l-Muwaqifi , p. 579.) 
 
 The following, collected by Mr. Sale from 
 various writers, is given, with some altera¬ 
 tions, additions, and references. 
 
 It is the received opinion amongst Muslims 
 of all sects that at the Resurrection the body 
 will be raised and united to its soul, and that 
 one part of the body, namely, the lower part 
 of the spine, the os sacrum, in Arabic called 
 ‘Ajbu ’z-Zanab, “the root of the tail,” will 
 be preserved as a basis of the future edifice. 
 
 ( Mishkat , book xxiii. ch. ix.) 
 
 This hone, it is said, will remain uncor¬ 
 rupted till the last day, as a germ from 
 whence the whole is to be renewed. This 
 will be effected by a forty days’ rain which 
 God will send, and which will cover the 
 earth to the height of twelve cubits, and 
 cause the bodies to sprout forth like plants. 
 For this doctrine Muhammad is beholden to 
 the Jews, who say the same things of the 
 bone Luz, excepting that what he attributes 
 to a great rain will be effected, according to 
 them, by a dew, impregnating the dust of the 
 earth. ( Bereshit rabbahi) 
 
 The time of the Resurrection the Muham¬ 
 madans allow to be a perfect secret to all 
 but God alone ; the Angel Gabriel himself 
 acknowledged his ignorance on this point 
 when Muhammad asked him about it. (Mish¬ 
 kat, book i. ch. i.) However, they say the 
 approach of that day may be known from 
 certain signs which are to precede it. These 
 signs are distinguished into “ the lesser ” and 
 “ the greater.” 
 
 RESURRECTION 539 
 
 The lesser signs (Isharatu ’ s-Sa‘ah ) are as 
 follows :— 
 
 (1.) The decay of faith among men. 
 
 (2.) The advancing of the meanest persons 
 to eminent dignity. 
 
 (3.) A maid-servant shall become the 
 mother of her mistress (or master); by 
 which is meant either that towards the end 
 of the world men shall be much given to 
 sensuality, or that the Muhammadans shall 
 then take many captives. 
 
 (4.) Tumults and seditions. 
 
 (5.) A war with the Greeks or Romans. 
 
 (6.) Great distress in the world, so that a 
 man, when he passeth by another’s grave, 
 shall say, “Would to God I were in his 
 place 1 ” 
 
 (7.) The provinces of al-‘Iraq and Syria 
 shall refuse to pay their tribute. 
 
 (8.) The buildings of al-Madinah or Yasrib 
 shall reach to Makkah. (Mishkat, book xxiii. 
 ch. iii.) 
 
 The greater signs (‘Alamatu ’s-Sa‘ah) are 
 as follows:— 
 
 (1.) The sun’s rising in the west, which 
 some have imagined it originally did. 
 
 (2.) The appearance of the Dabbatu ’l-Arz, 
 or “beast,” which shall rise out of the earth, 
 in the temple of Makkah, or on Mount as- 
 Safa. This beast will be sixty cubits high, 
 and will be a compound of various species, 
 having the head of a bull, the eyes of a hog, 
 the ears of an elephant, the horns of a stag, 
 the neck of an ostrich, the breast of a lion, 
 the colour of a tiger, the hack of a cat, the 
 tail of a ram, the legs of a camel, and the 
 voice of an ass. She will appear three times 
 in several places, and will bring with her the 
 rod of Moses and the seal of Solomon; and, 
 being so swift that none can overtake her or 
 escape her, will with the first strike all the 
 believers on the face, and mark them with 
 the word Mu’min, “ believer,” and with the 
 latter will mark the unbelievers on the face 
 likewise with the word kafir, “ infidel,” that 
 every person may be known for what he 
 really is. The same beast is to demonstrate 
 the vanity of all religions except Islam, and 
 to speak Arabic, [dabbatu ’l-akz.J 
 
 (3.) War with the Romans or Greeks, and 
 the taking of Constantinople by seventy thou¬ 
 sand of the posterity of Isaac, who shall 
 not win that city by force of arms, but the 
 walls shall fall down while they cry out, 
 
 “ There is no deity but God ! God is most 
 great! ” As they are dividing the spoil, news 
 will come to them of the appearance of Anti¬ 
 christ, whereupon they shall leave all and 
 return back. 
 
 (4.) The coming of Antichrist, whom the 
 Muhammadans call al-Masifiu ’ d-Dajjal, “ the 
 false or lying Christ.” He is to be one-eyed, 
 and marked on the forehead with the letters 
 j ^ K F R, signifying kafir , “ infidel.” He 
 will appear first between al-‘Iraq and Syria, 
 or, according to others, in the province of 
 Khorasan. He is to ride on a white ass, be 
 followed by seventy thousand Jews of Is¬ 
 pahan, and continue on earth forty days, of 
 which one will be equal in length to a year. 
 
540 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 another to a month, another to a week, and 
 the rest will be common days. He will lay 
 waste all places, but will not enter Makkah 
 or al-Madlnah, which are to be guarded by 
 angels; and at length he will be slain by 
 Jesus, who is to encounter him at the gate 
 of Lud. [masihu ’d-dajjal.] 
 
 (5.) The descent of Jesus on earth. He is 
 to descend near the white tower to the east 
 of Damascus, when the people have returned 
 from the taking of Constantinople. He is to 
 embrace the Muhammadan religion, marry a 
 wife, get children, kill Antichrist, and at 
 length die, after forty years’—or, according 
 to others, twenty-four years’—continuance on 
 earth, and be buried at Al-Madinah. Under 
 him there will be great security and plenty in 
 the world, all hatred and malice being laid 
 aside ; when lions and camels, bears and sheep, 
 shall live in peace, and a child shall play 
 with serpents unhurt. (See Sahihu Bukhari.) 
 
 (6.) War with the Jews, of whom the 
 Muhammadans are to make a prodigious 
 slaughter, the very trees and stones dis¬ 
 covering such of them as hide themselves, 
 except only the tree called Gharqad, -which 
 is the tree of the Jews. 
 
 (7.) The appearance of Gog and Magog, 
 or, as they are called, Ya'juj and Ma'juj. 
 These barbarians, having passed the lake of 
 Tiberias, which the vanguard of their vast 
 army will drink dry, will come to Jerusalem, 
 and there greatly distress Jesus and His 
 companions, till, at His recjuest, God will 
 destroy them, and fill the earth w 7 ith their 
 carcasses, which after some time God will 
 send birds to carry away, at the prayers of 
 Jesus and His followers. Their bows, arrows 
 and quivers the Muslims will burn seven 
 years together ; and at last God will send a 
 rain to cleanse the earth, and to make it 
 fertile, [gog and magog.] 
 
 (8.) A smoke which shall fill the whole 
 earth. 
 
 (9.) An eclipse of the moon. Muhammad 
 is reported to have said, that there would be 
 three eclipses before the last hour, one to be 
 seen in the east, another in the west, and the 
 third in Arabia. 
 
 (10.) The returning of the Arabs to the 
 worship of al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, and the rest 
 of their ancient idols, after the decease of 
 every one in whose heart there was faith 
 equal to a grain of mustard-seed, none but 
 the very worst of men being left alive. For 
 God, they say, will send a cold odoriferous 
 wind, blowing from Syria, which shall sweep 
 away the souls of the faithful, and the Qur’an 
 itself, so that men will remain in the grossest 
 ignorance for a hundred years. 
 
 (11.) The discovery of a vast heap of gold 
 and silver by the retreating of the Euphrates, 
 which will be the destruction of many. 
 
 (12.) The demolition of the Ka‘bah in the 
 Makkan temple by the Ethiopians. 
 
 (13.) The speaking of beasts and inanimate 
 things. 
 
 (14.) The breaking out of fire in the pro¬ 
 vince of al-Uijaz, or, according to others, in 
 al-Yaman, 
 
 (15.) The appearance of a man of the 
 descendants of Kahtan, who shall drive men 
 before him with his staff. 
 
 (16.) The coming of al-Mahdi, “ the di¬ 
 rector,” concerning whom Muhammad pro¬ 
 phesied that the world should not have an 
 end till one of his own family should govern 
 the Arabians, whose name should be the 
 same with his own name, and whose father’s 
 name should also be the same with his 
 father’s name, and who shall fill the earth 
 with righteousness. This person the Shbahs 
 believe to be now alive, and concealed in 
 some secret place, till the time of his mani¬ 
 festation ; for they suppose him to be no 
 other than the last of the twelve Imams, 
 named Muhammad Abu ’1-Qasim, as their 
 prophet was. [shi‘ah, mahdi.] 
 
 (17.) A wind which shall sweep away the 
 souls of all who have but a grain of faith in 
 their hearts, as has been mentioned under the 
 tenth sign. ( MishJcat , book xxiii. ch. iv.) 
 
 These are the greater signs which, accord¬ 
 ing to Muhammadan traditions, are to precede 
 the Resurrection, but still leave the hour of it 
 uncertain; for the immediate sign of its being 
 come will be the first' blast of the trumpet, 
 which they believe will be sounded three 
 times. The first, “ the blast of consterna¬ 
 tion,” at the hearing of which all creatures 
 in heaven and earth shall be struck with 
 terror, except those wdiom God shall please 
 to exempt from it. The effects attributed to 
 this first sound 'of the trumpet are very 
 wonderful; for they say the earth will be 
 shaken, and not only all buildings, but the 
 very mountains, levelled; that the heavens 
 shall melt, the sun be darkened, the stars fall 
 on the death of the angels, who, as some 
 imagine, hold them suspended between heaven 
 and earth, and the sea shall be troubled and 
 dried up, or, according to others, turned into 
 flames, the sun, moon, and stars being thrown 
 into it; the Qur’an, to express the greatness 
 of the terror of that day, adds that women 
 who give suck shall abandon the care of their 
 infants, and even the she-camels which have 
 gone ten months with young (a most valuable 
 part of the substance of that nation) shall be 
 utterly neglected. (Qur’an, Surah lxxxi.) A 
 further effect of this blast will be that con¬ 
 course of beasts mentioned in the Qur’an, 
 though some doubt whether it be to precede 
 the Resurrection or not. They -who suppose 
 it will precede, think that all kinds of ani¬ 
 mals, forgetting their respective natural 
 fierceness and timidity, -will run together 
 into one place, being terrified by the sound of 
 the trumpet and the sudden shock of nature. 
 
 This first blast will be followed by a 
 second, the “ blast of examination,” when all 
 creatures, both in heaven and earth, shall die 
 or be annihilated, except those which God 
 shall please to exempt from the common fate ; 
 and this shall happen in the twinkling of an eye, 
 nay, in an instant, nothing surviving except 
 God alone, with Paradise and Hell, and the in¬ 
 habitants of those two places, and the throne of 
 Glory. The last who shall die will be the an¬ 
 gel of death. ( Malaku’l-Maut.) (ICor.xv.26.) 
 
RESURRECTION 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 541 
 
 Forty years after this will be heard the 
 “ blast of resurrection,” when the trumpet 
 shall be sounded the third time by Israfil, 
 who, together with Gabriel and Michael, will 
 be previously restored to life, and, standing 
 on the rock of the temple of Jerusalem (a.j- 
 Salchrah), shall at God’s command call to¬ 
 gether all the dry and rotten bones, and other 
 dispersed parts of the bodies, and the very 
 hairs, to judgment. This angel having, by 
 the Divine order, set the trumpet to his 
 mouth, and called together all the souls from 
 all parts, will throw them into his trumpet, 
 from whence, on his giving the last sound, at 
 the command of God, they shall fly forth like 
 bees, and fill the whole space between heaven 
 and earth, and then repair to their respective 
 bodies, which the opening earth will suffer to 
 arise; and the first who shall so arise, ac¬ 
 cording to a tradition of Muhammad, will be 
 himself. For this the earth will be prepared 
 by the rain above-mentioned, which is to fall 
 continually for forty years, and will resemble 
 the seed of a man, and be supplied from the 
 water under the throne of God, which is 
 called living water; by the efficacy and virtue 
 of ■which the dead bodies shall spring forth 
 from their graves, as they did in their 
 mother’s womb, or as corn sprouts forth by 
 common rain, till they become perfect; after 
 which breath will be breathed into them, and 
 they will sleep in their sepulchres till they 
 are raised to life at the last trump. 
 
 As to the length of the Day of Judgment, 
 the Qur’an in one place (Surah xxxii. 4) tells 
 us that it will last one thousand years, and in 
 another (Surah lxx. 4) fifty thousand. To 
 reconcile ‘this apparent contradiction, the 
 commentators use several shifts, some saying 
 they know not what measure of time God 
 intends in those passages ; others, that these 
 forms of speaking are figurative, and not to 
 be strictly taken, and were designed only to 
 express the terribleness of that day, it being 
 usual for the Arabs to describe what they 
 dislike as of long continuance, and what they 
 like as the contrary; and others suppose them 
 spoken only in reference to the difficulty of 
 the business of the day, which, if God should 
 commit to any of his creatures, they would 
 not be able to go through it in so many thou¬ 
 sand years. 
 
 That the resurrection will be general, and 
 extend to all creatures, both angels, genii, 
 men, and animals, is the received opinion, 
 and according to the teaching of the Qur’an. 
 (See Surah lxxxi.) 
 
 In the resurrection those who are destined 
 to be partakers of eternal happiness will 
 arise in honour and security, and those who 
 are doomed to misery, in disgrace and under 
 dismal apprehensions. As to mankind, they 
 will be raised perfect in all their parts and 
 members, and in the same state as they came 
 out of their mother’s wombs, that is, bare¬ 
 footed, naked, and uncircumcised; which 
 circumstances, when Muhammad was telling 
 his wife ‘Ayishah, she, fearing the rules of 
 modesty might be thereby violated, objected 
 that it would be very indecent for men and j 
 
 women to look upon one another in that con¬ 
 dition ; but he answered her, that the busi¬ 
 ness of the day would be too weighty and 
 serious to allow them the making use of that 
 liberty. 
 
 Others, however, allege the authority of 
 their Prophet for a contrary opinion as to 
 their nakedness, and say he asserted that the 
 dead should arise dressed in the same clothes 
 in which they died; although some interpret 
 these words, not so much of the outward 
 dress of the body as the inward clothing of 
 the mind; and understand thereby that every 
 person will rise again in the same state as to 
 his faith or infidelity, knowledge or ignorance 
 his good or bad works. 
 
 Muhammad taught ( Mishkat , book xxiii. 
 ch. x) that mankind shall be assembled at 
 the last day, and shall be distinguished into 
 three classes. The first, those who go on 
 foot; the second, those who ride; and the 
 third, those who creep, grovelling with their 
 faces on the ground. The first class is to 
 consist of those believers whose good works 
 have been few ; the second of those who are 
 in greater honour with God, and more accept¬ 
 able to Him ; whence ‘All affirmed that the 
 pious, when they come forth from the sepul¬ 
 chres, shall find ready prepai-ed for them 
 white-winged camels, with saddles of gold, 
 wherein are to be observed some footsteps of 
 the doctrine of the ancient Arabians ; and 
 the third class will be composed of the infidels, 
 whom God shall cause to make their appear¬ 
 ance with their faces on the earth, blind, 
 dumb, and deaf. 
 
 But the ungodly will not be thus only 
 distinguished; fox', according to the com¬ 
 mentator al-BaizawI (vol. ii. p. 480), thei'e 
 will be ten sorts of wicked men on whom 
 God shall on that day fix certain discretoi'y 
 marks. The first will appear in the form of 
 apes ; these ai'e the backbiters. The second 
 in that of swine ; these they who have been 
 gi'eedy of filthy lucre, and enriched them¬ 
 selves by public oppression. The third will 
 be brought with their heads reversed and 
 their feet distorted ; these are the usurers. 
 The fourth will wander about blind; these 
 are unjust judges. The fifth will be deaf, 
 dumb, and blind, miderstanding nothing; 
 these are they who gloi'y in their woi’ks. 
 The sixth will gnaw their tongues, which will 
 hang down upon their breasts, coiTupted 
 blood flowing from their mouths like spittle, 
 so that everybody shall detest them; these 
 are the learned men and doctors, whose 
 actions conti-adict their sayings. The seventh 
 will have their hands and feet cut off ; these 
 are they who have injured their neighbours. 
 The eighth will be fixed to the trunks of 
 palm-ti’ees or stakes of wood; these are the 
 false accusers and informers. The ninth will 
 stink worse than a con’upted corpse ; these 
 are they who have indulged their passions 
 and voluptuous appetites. The tenth will be 
 clothed with garments daubed with pitch; 
 and these are the proud, the vain-glorious, 
 and the arrogant. 
 
542 RESURRECTION 
 
 In the Traditions, Muhammad is related to 
 have said:— 
 
 “ The first person who shall receive sen¬ 
 tence on the Day of Resurrection will he a 
 martyr, who will be brought into the pre¬ 
 sence of the Almighty : then God will make 
 known the benefits which were conferred on 
 him in the world, and the person will be 
 sensible of them and confess them ; and God 
 will say, ‘ What didst thou do in gratitude for 
 them ? ’ He will reply, 4 1 fought in Thy 
 cause till I was slain.’ God will say, ‘ Thou 
 liest, for thou foughtest in order that people 
 might extol thy courage.-’ Then God will 
 order them to drag him upon his face to 
 hell. The second, a man who shall have 
 obtained knowledge and instructed others, 
 and read the Qur’an. He will be brought 
 into the presence of God, and will be given to 
 understand the benefits he had received, 
 which he will be sensible of and acknowledge ; 
 and God will say, ‘ What didst thou do in 
 gratitude thereof ? ’ He will reply, ‘ I 
 learned knowledge and taught others, and I 
 read the Qur’an to please Thee.’ Then God 
 will say, ‘ Thou liest, for thou didst study that 
 people might call thee learned, and thou didst 
 read the Qur’an for the name of the thing.’ 
 Then God will order him to be dragged upon 
 his face and precipitated into hell. The third, 
 a man to whom God shall have given abun¬ 
 dant wealth; and he shall be called into the 
 presence of God, and will be reminded of the 
 benefits which he received, and he will ac¬ 
 knowledge and confess them; and God will 
 say, 4 What return didst thou in return for 
 them ? ’ He will say, 4 1 expended my wealth 
 to please thee, in all those ways which Thou 
 hast approved.’ God will say, 4 Thou liest, 
 for thou didst it that people might extol thy 
 liberality ’; after which he will be drawn 
 upon his face and thrown into the fire.” 
 
 As to the place where they are to be as¬ 
 sembled to Judgment, the Qur’an and Tradi¬ 
 tions agree that it will be on the earth, but in 
 what part of the earth is not agreed. Some 
 say their Prophet mentioned Syria for the 
 place; others, a white and even tract of land, 
 without inhabitants or any signs of buildings. 
 Al-Ghazali imagines it will be a second earth, 
 which he supposes to be of silver; and others 
 an earth which has nothing in common with 
 ours, but the name; having, it is possible, 
 heard something of the new heavens and new 
 earth, mentioned in Scripture (Rev. xxi. 1); 
 whence the Qur’an has this expression, 44 on 
 the day wherein the earth shall be changed 
 into another earth.” (Surah xiv. 49.) 
 
 The end of the Resurrection the Muham¬ 
 madans declare to be, that they who are 
 so raised may give an account of their 
 actions, and receive the reward thereof. And 
 that not only mankind, but the genii and 
 irrational animals also shall be judged on 
 this great day; when the unharmed cattle 
 shall take vengeance on the horned, till en¬ 
 tire satisfaction shall be given to the injured. 
 
 As to mankind, when they are all assembled 
 together, they will not be immediately brought | 
 to judgment, but the angels will keep them in ; 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 their ranks and order while they attend for 
 that purpose ; and this attendance, some say, 
 is to last forty years, others seventy, others 
 three hundred; nay, some say no less than 
 fifty thousand years, each of them vouching 
 their Prophet’s authority. During this space 
 they will stand looking up to heaven, but with¬ 
 out receiving any information or orders thence, 
 and are to suffer grievous torments, both the 
 just and the unjust, though with manifest 
 difference. For the limbs of the former, par¬ 
 ticularly those parts which they used to 
 wash in making the ceremonial ablution be¬ 
 fore prayer, shall shine gloriously. And 
 their sufferings shall be light in comparison, 
 and shall last no longer than the time neces¬ 
 sary to say the appointed prayers; but the 
 latter will have their faces obscured with 
 blackness, and disfigured with all the marks 
 of sorrow and deformity. What will then 
 occasion not the least of their pain, is a won¬ 
 derful and incredible sweat, which will even 
 stop their mouths, and in which they will be 
 immersed in various degrees, according to 
 their demerits, some to the ankles only and 
 some to the knees, some to the middle, some 
 so high as their mouth, and others as their 
 ears. And this sweat will be provoked not 
 only by that vast concourse of all sorts of 
 creatures mutually pressing and treading on 
 one another’s feet, but by the near and un¬ 
 usual approach of the sun, which will be then 
 no farther from them than the distance of a 
 mile, or (as some translate the word, the sig¬ 
 nification of which is ambiguous) than the 
 length of a bodkin. So that their skulls will 
 boil like a pot, and they will be all bathed in 
 sweat. From this inconvenience, however, 
 the good will be protected by the shade of 
 God’s throne; but the wicked will be so 
 miserably tormented with it, also with hun¬ 
 ger and thirst, and a stifling air, that they 
 will cry out, 44 Lord, deliver us from this an¬ 
 guish, though thou send us into hell-fire! ” 
 What they fable of the extraordinary heat of 
 the sun on this occasion, the Muhammadans 
 certainly borrowed from the Jews, who say 
 that, for the punishment of the wicked in 
 the Last Day, that planet shall be drawn 
 forth from its sheath, in which it is now put 
 up, lest it should destroy all things by its 
 excessive heat. 
 
 When those who have risen shall have 
 waited the limited time, the Muhammadans be¬ 
 lieve God will at length appear to judge them, 
 Muhammad undertaking the office of inter¬ 
 cessor, after it shall have been declined by 
 Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, 
 who shall beg deliverance only for their own 
 souls. ( Mishkat , book xxiii. ch. xii.) On 
 this solemn occasion God will come in the 
 clouds, surrounded by angels, and will pro¬ 
 duce the books wherein the actions of every 
 person are recorded by their guardian angels, 
 and will command the prophets to bear wit¬ 
 ness against those to whom they have been 
 respectively sent. Then everyone will be 
 examined concerning all his words and 
 actions, uttered and done by him in this life ; 
 not as if God needed any information in those 
 
RESURRECTION 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 543 
 
 respects, but to oblige the person to make 
 public confession and acknowledgment of 
 God’s justice. The particulars of which they 
 shall give an account, as Muhammad himself 
 enumerated them, are: of their time, how 
 they spent it; of their wealth, by what means 
 they acquired it, and how they employed it ; 
 of their bodies, wherein they exercised them ; 
 of their knowledge, what use they made of it. 
 It is said, however, that Muhammad has 
 affirmed that no less than seventy thousand 
 of his followers should be permitted to enter 
 Paradise without any previous examination; 
 which seems to be contradictory to what is 
 said above. To the questions, it is said, each 
 person shall answer, and make his defence in 
 the best manner he can, endeavouring to ex¬ 
 cuse himself by casting the blame of his evil 
 deeds on others ; so that a dispute shall arise 
 even between the soul and the body, to which 
 of them their guilt ought to be imputed : the 
 soul saying, “ 0 Lord, my body I received 
 from thee; for thou createdst me without a 
 hand to lay hold with, till I came and entered 
 into this body; therefore punish it eternally, 
 but deliver me.” The body on the other 
 side will make this apology, 0 Lord, thou 
 createdest me like a stock of wood, having 
 neither hand that I could lay hold with, nor 
 foot that I could walk with, till this soul, like 
 a ray of light, entered into me, and my tongue 
 began to speak, my eye to see, and my foot 
 to walk; therefore punish it eternally, but 
 deliver me.” 
 
 But God will propound to them the fol¬ 
 lowing parable of the blind man and the 
 lame man, which, as well as the preceding 
 dispute, was borrowed by the Muhammadans 
 from the Jews. (Gemma, Sanhedr., ch. xi.) 
 
 A certain king having a pleasant garden, 
 in which were ripe fruits, set two persons to 
 keep it. One of them was blind, and the 
 other lame, the former not being able to see 
 the fruit nor the latter to gather it. The 
 lame man, however, seeing the fruit, per¬ 
 suaded the blind man to take him upon his 
 shoulders, and by that means he easily 
 gathered the fruit, which they divided be¬ 
 tween them. The lord of the garden coming 
 some time after, and inquiring after his fruit, 
 each began to excuse himself ; the blind man 
 said he had no eyes to see with, and the lame 
 man that he had no feet to approach the 
 trees. But the king, ordering the lame man 
 to be set on the blind, jeassed sentence on 
 and punished them both. And in the same 
 manner will God deal with the body and the 
 soul. As these apologies will not avail on 
 that day, so will it also be in vain for anyone 
 to deny his evil actions, since men and angels 
 and his own members, nay, the very earth 
 itself, will be ready to bear witness against 
 him. 
 
 Though the Muhammadans assign so long 
 a space for the attendance of the resusci¬ 
 tated before their trial, yet they tell us the 
 trial itself will be over in much less time, 
 and, according to an expression of Muham¬ 
 mad, familiar enough to the Arabs, will last 
 no longer than while one may milk an ewe, 
 
 or than the space between two milkings of a 
 she-camel. Some, explaining those words so 
 frequently used in the Qur’an, “ God will be 
 swift in taking an account,” say that he will 
 judge all creatures in the space of half a day, 
 and others that it will be done in less time 
 than the twinkling of an eye. 
 
 At this examination they also believe that 
 each person will have the book wherein all 
 the actions of his life are written delivered 
 to him, which books the righteous will receive 
 in their right hand, and read with great plea¬ 
 sure and satisfaction; but the ungodly will 
 be obliged to take them against their wills 
 in their left, which will be bound behind 
 their backs, their right hand being tied up to 
 their necks. 
 
 To show the exact Justice which will be 
 observed on this great day of trial, the next 
 thing they describe is the rnizan or “ balance,” 
 wherein all things shall be weighed. They 
 say it will be held by Gabriel, and that it is 
 of so vast a size that its two scales, one of 
 which hangs over Paradise, and the other 
 over hell, are capacious enough to contain 
 both heaven and earth. Though some are 
 willing to understand what is said in the 
 Qur’an concerning this balance allegorically, 
 and only as a figurative representation of 
 God’s equity, yet the more ancient and ortho¬ 
 dox opinion is that it is to be taken literally; 
 and since words and actions, being mere acci¬ 
 dents, are not capable of being themselves 
 weighed, they say that the books wherein 
 they are written will be thrown into the 
 scales, and according as those wherein the 
 good or the evil actions are recorded shall 
 preponderate, sentence will be given; those 
 whose balances laden with their good works 
 shall be heavy will be saved, but those 
 whose balances are light will be condemned. 
 Nor will anyone have cause to complain that 
 God suffers any good action to pass unre¬ 
 warded, because the wicked for the good 
 they do have their reward in this life, and 
 therefore can expect no favour in the next. 
 
 The old Jewish writers make mention as 
 well of the books to be produced at the last 
 day, wherein men’s actions are registered, as 
 of the balance wherein they shall be weighed, 
 and the Scripture itself seems to have given 
 the first notion of both. But what the Per¬ 
 sian Magi believe of the balance comes 
 nearest to the Muhammadan opinion. They 
 hold that on the day of judgment two angels, 
 named Mihr and Surush, will stand on the 
 bridge as-Sirat, to examine every person as 
 he passes ; that the former, who represents 
 the divine mercy, will hold a balance in his 
 hand, to weigh the actions of men; that 
 according to the report he shall make thereof 
 to God, sentence will be pronounced, and 
 those whose good works are found more 
 ponderous, if they turn the scale but by the 
 weight of a hair, will be permitted to pass 
 forward to Paradise; but those whose good 
 works shall be found light will be by the 
 other angel, who represents God’s Justice, 
 precipitated from the bridge into hell. 
 
 This examination being past, and every- 
 
544 
 
 RESURRECTION 
 
 RICHES 
 
 one’s works weighed in a just balance, that 
 mutual retaliation will follow, according to 
 which every creature will take vengeance 
 one of another, or have satisfaction made 
 them for the injuries which they have suf¬ 
 fered. And since there will be no other way 
 of returning like for like, the manner of 
 giving this satisfaction will be by taking 
 away a proportionable part of the good 
 works of him who offered the injury, and 
 adding it to those of him who suffered it. 
 Which being done, if the angels (by whose 
 ministry this is to be performed) say, “Lord, 
 we have given to every one his due, and there 
 remaineth of this person’s good works so 
 much as equalleth the weight of an ant,” 
 God will of his mercy cause it to be doubled 
 unto him, that he may be admitted into Para¬ 
 dise. But if, on the contrary, his good works 
 be exhausted, and there remain evil works only, 
 and there be any who have not yet received 
 satisfaction from him, God will order that an 
 equal weight of their sins be added unto his, 
 that he may be punished for them in their 
 stead, and he will be sent to hell laden with 
 both. This will be the method of God’s deal¬ 
 ing with mankind. 
 
 As to brutes, after they shall have like¬ 
 wise taken vengeance of one another, as we 
 have mentioned above, He will command them 
 to be changed into dust, wicked men being 
 reserved to more grievous punishment, so 
 that they shall cry out, on hearing this sen¬ 
 tence pronounced on the brutes, “ Would to 
 God that we were dust also ! ” 
 
 As to the genii, many Muhammadans are 
 of opinion that such of them as are true 
 believers will undergo the same fate as the 
 irrational animals, and have no other reward 
 than the favour of being converted into dust, 
 and for this they quote the authority of their 
 Prophet. But this, however, is judged not so 
 very reasonable, since the genii, being capable 
 of putting themselves in the state of believers 
 as well as men, must consequently deserve, 
 as it seems, to be rewarded for their faith, as 
 well as to be punished for their infidelity. 
 Wherefore some entertain a more favourable 
 opinion, and assign the believing genii a place 
 near the confines of Paradise, where they will 
 enjoy sufficient felicity, though they be not 
 admitted into that delightful mansion. But 
 the unbelieving genii, it is universally agreed, 
 will be punished eternally, and be thrown 
 into hell with the infidels of mortal race. It 
 may not be improper to observe that under 
 the denomination of unbelieving genii the 
 Muhammadans comprehend also the devil 
 and his companions. 
 
 The trials being over and the assembly 
 dissolved, the Muhammadans hold that those 
 who are to be admitted into Paradise will 
 take the right-hand way, and those who are 
 destined to hell-fire will take the left, but 
 both of them must first pass the bridge, 
 called in Arabic as-Sirat, which they say is 
 laid over the midst of hell, and described to 
 be finer than a hair and sharper than the 
 edge of a sword; so that it seems very diffi¬ 
 cult to conceive how anyone shall be able to 
 
 stand upon it, for which reason most of the 
 sect of the Mu‘tazilites reject it as a fable, 
 though the orthodox think it a sufficient proof 
 of the truth of this article that it was seriously 
 affirmed by him who never asserted a false¬ 
 hood, meaning their Prophet; who, to add 
 to the difficulty of the passage, has likewise 
 declared that this bridge is beset on each 
 side with briars and hooked thorns, which 
 will, however, be no impediment to the good, 
 for they shall pass with wonderful ease and 
 swiftness, like lightning, or the wind, Mu¬ 
 hammad and his Muslims leading the way 
 whereas the wicked, what with the slipperi¬ 
 ness and extreme narrowness of the path 
 the entangling of the thorns, and the extinc¬ 
 tion of the light which directed the former to 
 Paradise, will soon miss their footing, and fall 
 down headlong into hell, which is gaping 
 beneath them. 
 
 RETALIATION, [qisas.] 
 REUBEN. Heb. Reubain. 
 
 Jacob’s first-born son. Referred to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xii. 10: “A speaker from 
 amongst them said, ‘ Slay not Joseph, but 
 throw him into the bottom of the pit: some 
 of the travellers may pick him up.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi, the commentator, says the 
 name of Joseph’s eldest brother was either 
 Yuhuza, or Rubil. Josephus gives the name 
 as Roubel, and explains it as the “ pity of 
 God.” (Ant. i. 19, s. 8.) 
 
 REVELATION. [inspiration 
 
 PROPHETS.] 
 
 REVENGE. [qisas.] 
 
 RIBA (bj). “Usury.” A term 
 
 in Muslim law defined as “ an excess accord¬ 
 ing to a legal standard of measurement or 
 weight, in one or two homogeneous articles 
 opposed to each other in a contract of ex¬ 
 change, and in which such excess is stipulated 
 as an obligatory condition on one of the parties 
 without any return.” 
 
 The word riba appears to have the same 
 meaning as the Hebrew neshec, which 
 
 included gain, whether from the loan of 
 money, or goods, or property of any kind. In 
 the Mosaic law, conditions of gain for the loan 
 of money or goods were rigorously prohibited. 
 See Exod. xxii. 25; Lev. xxv. 36. [usury.] 
 
 RIBAT (bbj). A station or fort 
 on the frontier of an enemy’s country, erected 
 for the accommodation of Muslim warriors 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 357..) 
 
 RICHES. Arabic daulah (&jo), 
 Qur’an lix. 7, mdl (Jb»), Jcasratu ’l- 
 mcil (JUb sy^), “Great wealth.” 
 Muhammad is related to have said, “ Who¬ 
 ever desires the world and its riches in a 
 lawful manner, in order to withhold himself 
 from begging, or to provide a livelihood for 
 his family, or to be kind to his neighbours, 
 will appear before God in the Last Day with 
 
RIKAZ 
 
 RITES 
 
 545 
 
 his face as bright as a full moon. But who¬ 
 ever seeks the riches of the world for the 
 sake of ostentation, will appear before God in 
 his anger. (Mishkat, book xxii. ch. xxiii.) 
 
 In the Qur’an it is said :— 
 
 Surah xviii. 44: “ Wealth (maf) and chil¬ 
 dren are an adornment of this world, but en¬ 
 during good works are better with thy Lord 
 as a recompense, and better as a hope.” 
 
 Surah viii. 28 : “ Know that your wealth 
 and your children are but a temptation.” 
 
 In the irrrd Surah, 12, 13, the possessions 
 of this world are contrasted with those of the 
 world to come in the following language: 
 “ Seemly unto men is a life of lusts, of 
 women, and children, and hoarded talents of 
 gold and silver, and of horses well-bred, and 
 cattle, and tilth:—that is the provision for 
 the life of this world; but God, with Him is 
 the best resort. Say, ‘ But shall we tell you 
 of a better thing than this ? ’ For those who 
 fear are gardens with their Lord, beneath 
 which rivers flow; they shall dwell therein 
 for aye, and pure wives and grace from God ; 
 the Lord looks on His servants, who say, 
 1 Lord, we believe ; pardon Thou our sins and 
 keep us from the torment of the fire,’—upon 
 the patient, the truthful, the devout, and 
 those who ask for pardon at the dawn.” 
 
 RIKAZ Treasures buried 
 
 in the earth,particularly those treasures which 
 have been buried at some remote period. 
 
 In the Hidayah, the word rikaz includes 
 kanz, “ treasure,” or other property buried in 
 the earth, and ma‘din, “ mines.” Such trea¬ 
 sures are subject to a zakat of a fifth. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. i. p. 39.) 
 
 RING'S. Arabic Jchatim 
 
 pi. khawatim Silver signet-rings are lawful, 
 but a gold ring is not allowed. (See Sahiihu 
 ’l-Bukhari, p. 871.) 
 
 Ibn ‘Umar says, “ The Prophet took a gold 
 ring and put it on his right hand, but he 
 afterwards threw it away, and took a silver 
 ring, on which was engraved Muhammadun 
 Rasulu ’llah, i.e. ‘ Muhammad the Messenger 
 of God,’ and he said, ‘ Let none of you en¬ 
 grave on your ring like mine.’ And when he 
 wore the ring he used to have the signet 
 under his finger and close to the palm of his 
 hand.” ‘All says the ring was on the little 
 finger of the left hand, and that Muhammad 
 forbade a ring being worn upon the fore or 
 middle finger. 
 
 Anas says the Prophet’s ring was of silver 
 and on his right hand ! 
 
 Modern Muslims usually wear a silver 
 ring on the little finger of the right hand, 
 with a signet of cornelian or other stone, 
 upon which is engraved the wearer’s name, 
 with the addition of the word l abdu (juc), 
 “ His servant,” meaning the servant or wor¬ 
 shipper of God. This signet-ring is used for 
 signing documents, letters, &c. A little ink 
 is daubed upon it with one of the fingers, 
 and it is pressed upon the paper—the person 
 who uses the ring having first touched the 
 paper with his tongue and moistened the 
 
 place upon which the impression is to be 
 made. There is no restriction in Muslim 
 law regarding rings for women. They are 
 generally of gold, and are worn on the 
 fingers, in the ears, and in the nose. 
 
 RIQQ (jj). The servitude of a 
 
 slave, [slavery.] 
 
 RISAIjAH Apostleship. 
 
 The office of an apostle or prophet, [pro¬ 
 phets.] 
 
 RISING UP. Arabic qiyam 
 
 It is a subject of discussion amongst students 
 of the Traditions, as to whether or not it is 
 incumbent on a Muslim to rise up when a 
 visitor or stranger approaches. 
 
 Abu Umamah says : “ The Prophet came 
 out of his house leaning on a stick, and we 
 stood up to meet him, and he said, 1 Do not 
 stand up like the Gentiles who give honour 
 to others.’ ” 
 
 Anas says: “There was no one more be¬ 
 loved by the Companions than the Prophet; 
 but when they saw him, they used not to rise, 
 for they knew he disliked it.” 
 
 Abu Hurairah says: “ The Prophet used 
 to sit with us in the mosque and talk, and 
 when he rose up, we also rose, and remained 
 standing till we saw him enter his house.” 
 
 The general practice amongst Muhamma¬ 
 dans is according to the last tradition, but it 
 is held to be very overbearing for a person to 
 require others to rise for him. 
 
 Mu‘awiyah says that “ the Prophet said, 
 ‘ He who is pleased at other people rising for 
 him, does but prepare a place for himself in 
 the fire of hell.” ( Mishkat , book xxii. ch. 
 iv.) [salutation.] 
 
 RITES. Arabic mansak, mansik 
 (ud— l*), pi. mcmasik. The rites and 
 ceremonies attending religious worship in 
 general. Qur’an, Surah xxii. 35 : “To every 
 nation we appointed rites (mansak ) to men¬ 
 tion the name of God over the brute beasts 
 which he has provided for them. 
 
 The term mansik is more frequently used 
 for a place of sacrifice, while mansak applies 
 to religious observances, but the plural 
 manasik is common to both, and rendered by 
 Professor Palmer and Mr. Rodwell in their 
 translations of the Qur’an, “ rites.” 
 
 The principal rites of the Muslim religion 
 are the Hajj, or Pilgrimage to Makkah, 
 with the ceremonies at the Makkan Temple 
 [hajj] ; the daily ritual of the liturgical 
 prayers [prayer] ; the marriage and funeral 
 ceremonies ; and, with the Shiahs, the cere¬ 
 monies of the Muharram. The sacrifice on 
 the great festival, although primarily part 
 of the Makkan Pilgrimage ceremonies, is 
 celebrated in all parts of Islam on the ’Idu 1- 
 Azha, or Feast of Sacrifice, [idu ’l-azha.] 
 The ceremony of Zikr can hardly be said to 
 be one of the rites of orthodox Islam, al¬ 
 though it is common in all parts of the 
 Muslim world; it belongs rather to the 
 mystic side of the Muhammadan religion. 
 [sufi, ZIKR.] 
 
 69 
 
546 
 
 RIVER. 
 
 RTTH 
 
 RIVER. Arabic nahr (ft), pi. 
 
 anhdr ; Heb. nahar. The word 
 
 jar bahr, “ sea,” being also used for a 
 
 large river, [sea.] 
 
 According to Muhammadan law rivers are 
 of three descriptions: 
 
 1. Those which are not the property of 
 any, and of which the waters have not been 
 divided, like the Tigris and the Euphrates. 
 The care of these rivers, being the duty of 
 the State, and the charge of keeping them in 
 order must be defrayed from the public 
 treasury, but these expenses must be dis¬ 
 bursed from the funds of tribute and capita¬ 
 tion-tax, and not from those of tithe and alms. 
 
 2. Rivers which are appropriated and 
 divided, and yet at the same time jrablic 
 rivers on which boats sail. The clearing of 
 such rivers must be done at the expense of 
 the proprietors, although its waters are used 
 for the public benefit. 
 
 3. Water-courses which are held in pro¬ 
 perty and divided, and on which no boats 
 sail. The keeping of such streams rests 
 entirely with the proprietors. 
 
 In countries where much of the cultivation 
 of land depends upon irrigation, the right to 
 water, or as it is called in Arabic shirb, is a 
 subject of much litigation, and chapters are 
 devoted to the consideration of the subject 
 in the Hidayah, Fatawa-i- 1 Alamgiri, Duru 'l- 
 MuJchtar, and other works on Muslim law. 
 
 For the Rivers of Paradise, see bden. 
 
 RIWAYAH Relating the 
 
 words of another. A word used for both an 
 ordinary narrative, and also for an authori¬ 
 tative tradition, [tradition.] 
 
 RIYA’ “ Hypocrisy ; dissi¬ 
 
 mulation. ” Condemned in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah ii. 266 : “ 0 ye who believe! make 
 not your alms void by reproaches and injury, 
 like him who spendeth his substance to be 
 seen of men, and believeth not in God, and 
 in the Last Day, for the likeness of such an 
 one is that of a rock with a thin soil upon it, 
 on which rain falleth, but leaveth it hard.” 
 
 Surah iv. 41, 42 : “ We have made ready a 
 shameful chastisement for the unbelievers, 
 and for those who bestow their substance in 
 alms to be seen of men, and believe not in 
 God and in the Last Day.” 
 
 RIZA‘ A legal term, which 
 
 means sucking milk from the breast of a 
 woman for a certain time. The period of 
 fosterage, [fosterage.] 
 
 RIZWAN The name of 
 
 the gardener or keeper of Paradise. 
 
 ROAD OF GOD. Arabic sabUu 
 ’lldh (<h5\ An expression used 
 
 in the Qur’an and Traditions for any good 
 act, but especially for engaging in a religious 
 war. [sabilu ’blah.] 
 
 ROMAN. [GREEKS.] 
 
 ROSARY. Arabic siibhah ■>). 
 
 The rosary amongst Muhammadans consists 
 
 of 100 beads, and is used by them for count¬ 
 ing the ninety-nine attributes of God, toge¬ 
 ther with the essential name Allah [god] ; or 
 the repetition of the Tasbih (“ 0 Holy God ! ”), 
 the Tahmld (“Praised be God!”), and the 
 TaJcblr (“ God is Great! ”), or for the recital 
 of any act of devotion. It is called in Per¬ 
 sian and in Hindustani the Tasbih 
 
 The introduction of the rosary into Chris¬ 
 tendom is ascribed by Pope Pius V., in a Bull, 
 a.d. 1596, to Dominic, the founder of the 
 Black Friars (a.d. 1221), and it is related 
 that Paul of Pherma, an Egyptian ascetic of 
 the fourth century, being ordered to recite 
 300 prayers, collected as many pebbles which 
 he kept in his bosom, and threw out one by 
 one at every prayer, which shows that the 
 rosary was probably not in use at that 
 period. 
 
 ‘Abdu ’1-IIaqq, the commentator on the 
 Mishlcatu I’-Masabih, says that in the early 
 days of Islam the Muhammadans counted 
 God’s praises on small pebbles, or on the 
 fingers, from which the Wahhabis maintain 
 that their Prophet did not use a rosary. It 
 seems probable that the Muslims borrowed 
 the rosary from the Buddhists, and that the 
 Crusaders copied their Muslim opponents and 
 introduced it into Christendom. 
 
 ROZAH (*>})))■ The Persian word 
 for the Arabic saum, or fasting, [fasting, 
 
 RAMAZAN.] 
 
 RUB‘ (g>j). A fourth. A legal 
 
 term used in Muhammadan law, e.g. “ a 
 fourth,” or the wife’s portion when her hus¬ 
 band dies without issue. 
 
 RTTH (ty), pi- arwdh ; Heb. 
 
 ruakh, “ spirit; soul; life.” Ibnu ’l-Asir, 
 author of the Nihayah, says it is the nervous 
 fluid or animal spirit. A vaporous substance, 
 which is the principle of vitality and of sen¬ 
 sation, and of voluntary motion. 
 
 In the Kitabu 't-Ta‘rifat, it is defined as a 
 subtle body, the source of which is the hol¬ 
 low of the corporeal heart, and which dif¬ 
 fuses itself into all the other parts of the 
 body by means of the pulsing veins and 
 arteries. See also Gen. ix. 4 : “Flesh with 
 the life thereof, which is the blood thereof.” 
 Many of the ancients believed the soul to re¬ 
 side in the blood. (See Virgil’s JEn., ix. 
 p. 349.), The breath which a man breathes 
 
HUH 
 
 RUKH 
 
 547 
 
 and which pervades the whole body. Called 
 in Persian jan (^L-). The philosophers say 
 it is the blood, by the exhausting of which 
 life ceases. The word is generally rendered 
 in Hindustani as of the feminine gender, but 
 Arabic authors render it as often masculine 
 as feminine. (See Lane’s Arabic Dictionary, 
 in loco.) 
 
 In the Qur’an the word is sometimes used 
 for Jesus, who is known as Ru.hu 'llah (“the 
 Spirit of God ”), for the angel Gabriel, and 
 also for life, grace, soul, and the Spirit of 
 Prophecy. (A complete list of texts is given 
 in the article spirit.) 
 
 According to the Kitabu 't-Ta‘rifat, p. 76, 
 spirit is of three kinds:— 
 
 (1) Ar-Ruhu 'l-Insani (^jL “ th® 
 human spirit,” by which is understood the 
 mind of man, which distinguishes him from 
 the animal, and which is given to him, by the 
 decree of God, from heaven, of the true es¬ 
 sence of which we know nothing. It is this 
 spirit which is sometimes united to the body 
 and sometimes separated from it, as in sleep 
 or death. 
 
 (2) Ar-Ruhu 'l-Haiwdni 
 
 “the animal spirit,” by which is understood 
 the life, the seat of which is in the heart, and 
 which moves in the veins with the pulsations 
 of the body. 
 
 (3) Ar-Ruhu ’1-A‘zam. ( ^ UcM) “the 
 
 exalted spirit,” that human spirit which is 
 connected with the existence of God, but 
 the essence of which is unknown to all but 
 the Almighty. The spiritual faculty in man. 
 It is called also al-‘Aqlu 'l-Awwal, “ the first 
 intelligence”; al-Haqiqatu 'l-Muhammadiyah, 
 “ the essence of Muhammad ” ; an-Nafsu 7- 
 Wahidah, “ the single essence ” ; al-Haqi¬ 
 qatu 'l-Samdwiyah, “ The original spirit of 
 man first created by God.” 
 
 The following terms are also found in Mus¬ 
 lim works :— 
 
 Ar-Ruhu 'n-Nabati (^.'LjJ^ “the 
 
 vegetable spirit.” 
 
 Ar-Ruhu ’t-Tabi‘i (^nJal) “ the ani¬ 
 
 mal spirit.” 
 
 Ar-Ruhu 'l-Ildhi £yi\),“the divine 
 
 spirit.” 
 
 Ar-Ruhu 's-Sufli (^L&sJl £yl\),“the lower 
 spirit,” which is said to belong merely to ani¬ 
 mal life. 
 
 Ar-Ruhu 7-‘ Ulwi (^y*)! C^)’ “ lofty 
 or heavenly spirit.” 
 
 Ar-Ruhu '1-Ja.ri “ the travel¬ 
 
 ling spirit,” or that which leaves the body in 
 sleep and gives rise to dreams. 
 
 Ar-Ruhu ’l-Muhlcam £^)> “the 
 
 resident spirit,” which is said never to leave 
 the body, even after death. 
 
 Ruhu 'l-llqd' (ctiiPJl Cj;)’ “the spirit of 
 casting into.” Used for Gabriel and the spirit 
 of prophecy, [spirit.] 
 
 ar-RUHU ’L-AMIN c»N). 
 
 “ The faithful spirit.” Occurs in the Qur’an 
 Surah xxvi. 193: “Verily from the Lora ol 
 
 the Worlds hath this book come down; the 
 faithful spirit hath come down with it upon 
 thy heart, that thou mayest become a warner 
 in the clear Arabic tongue.” It is supposed 
 to refer to the Angel Gabriel, [spirit.] 
 
 RUHU ’LLAH (W Cj) ). “ The 
 
 Spirit of God.” According to Muhammad, it 
 is the special Kalimah, or title of Jesus. See 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 169 : “ The Messiah, 
 Jesus, the son of Mary, is only an Apostle of 
 God, and His Word, which He conveyed into 
 Mary and a spirit proceeding from Himself.” 
 (.Ruhun min-hu). 
 
 Suratu ’1-Ambya’ (xxi.), 91: “ Into whom 
 (Mary) we breathed of our spirit." 
 
 Suratu ’t-Tahrlm (lxvi ), 12 : “ Into whose 
 womb we breathed of our spirit .” 
 
 It is also used in the Qur’an for Adam, 
 Suratu ’s-Sajdah (xxxii.), 8; Suratu ’1-Hijr 
 (xv.), 29; and Suratu Sad (xxxviii.), 72; 
 where it is said that God breathed his spirit 
 into Adam, but Adam is never called Ruhu 
 ’llah in any Muhammadan book. [spirit, 
 JESUS.] 
 
 RUHU ’L-QUDUS t»). 
 
 “ The Holy Spirit ” (lit. “ Spirit of Holiness ”). 
 The expression only occurs three times in the 
 Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah ii. 81: “We gave Jesus the Son of 
 Mary manifest signs and aided him with the 
 Holy Spirit .” 
 
 Surah ii. 254 : “ Of them is one to whom God 
 spoke (i.e. Moses) ; and we have raised some 
 of them degrees ; and we have given Jesus 
 the son of Mary manifest signs, and strength¬ 
 ened him by the Holy Spirit .” 
 
 Surah v. 109: “ When God said, ‘ 0 Jesus, 
 son of Mary 1 remember my favours towards 
 thee and towards thy mother, when I 
 aided thee with the Holy Spirit, till thou 
 didst speak to men in the cradle, and when 
 grown up.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says the meaning of the expres¬ 
 sion Ruhu 'l-Qudus is the Angel Gabriel, 
 although some understand it to refer to the 
 spirit of Jesus, and others to the Gospel of 
 Jesus, whilst some think it is the Ismu 7- 
 A‘zam, or “the exalted name of God,” where¬ 
 by Jesus raised the dead. (See Tafsiru 7- 
 Baizawi, p. 65.) [spirit, holt spirit.] 
 
 RUINOUS BUILDINGS. The 
 
 owner of a ruinous wall in any building is 
 responsible for any accident occasioned by 
 its fall, after having received due warning 
 and requisition to pull it down, and a person 
 building a crooked wall is responsible for 
 the damage occasioned by its falling. But 
 the owner of a ruinous house is not respon¬ 
 sible for accidents occasioned by the fall of 
 any article from it, unless such article 
 belong to him. (Hidayah, Grady’s Ed., pp. 
 664, 665.) 
 
 RUKH (cj). The name of a mon¬ 
 strous bird, which is said to have power 
 sufficient to carry off a live elephant. ( (tSu- 
 yagu ’1-Luyh.ah, in loco.) 
 
548 AE-RUKNU ’L-YAMANI 
 
 ar-RUKNU ’L-YAMANI (^\ 
 The Yamani pillar. The 
 
 south corner of the Ka‘bah, said to be one of 
 the most ancient parts of the temple, [mas- 
 jidu ’l-haram.] 
 
 Burkhardt says : “ In the south-east corner 
 of the Ka‘ba.h, or as the Arabs call it, Rokn 
 el Yamany, there is another stone about five 
 feet from the ground ; it is one foot and a 
 half in length, and two inches in breadth, 
 placed upright, and of the common Meccah 
 stone. This the people walking round the 
 Ka‘bah touch only with the right hand ; they 
 do not kiss it.” (Captain Burton says he 
 had frequently seen it kissed by men and 
 women.) 
 
 Burton remarks : “ The Rukn el Yamani is 
 a corner facing the south. The part alluded 
 to (by Burkhardt) is the wall of the Ka‘bah, 
 between the Shami and Yemani angles, dis¬ 
 tant about three feet from the latter, and 
 near the site of the old western door, long 
 since closed. The stone is darker and redder 
 than the rest of the wall. It is called El 
 Mustajab (or Mustajab min el Zunub, or 
 Mustajab el Dua, “ where prayer is granted ”). 
 Pilgrims here extend their arms, press their 
 bodies against the building, and beg pardon 
 for their sins.” (El Medinah and Mecca, 
 yoI. ii. p. 160.) 
 
 RUKU‘ (££))■ A posture in tlie 
 
 daily prayers. An inclination of the head 
 with the palms of the hands resting upon the 
 knees, [prayers.] 
 
 RULE OF FAITH. The Muham¬ 
 madan rule of faith is based upon what are 
 called the four foundations of orthodoxy, 
 namely, the Qur’an, or, as it is called, Kalamu 
 'llah, “the Word of God; the Hadis (pi. 
 ATiadig), or the traditions of the sayings and 
 practice of Muhammad ; Ijma‘, or the consent 
 of the Mujtahidun, or learned doctors; and 
 Qiyas, or the analogical reasoning of the 
 learned. 
 
 In studying the Muhammadan religious 
 system, it must be well understood that 
 Islam is not simply the religion of the Qur’an, 
 but that all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, 
 
 RULERS 
 
 Shi‘ah, or Wahhabi, receive the Traditions as 
 an authority in matters of faith and practice. 
 The Sunni Muhammadans arrogate to them¬ 
 selves the title of traditionists; but the 
 ShPahs also receive the Hadis as binding 
 upon them, although they do do not acknow¬ 
 ledge the same collection of traditions as 
 those received by their opponents, [qur’an, 
 TRADITIONS, IJMA‘, QIYAS, RELIGION, ISLAM.] 
 
 RULERS. The ideal administra¬ 
 tion of the Muslim world, as laid down in the 
 Traditions, is that the whole of Islam shall be 
 under the dominion of one Imam or leader, who 
 is the Khalifah (A&JU,), or vicegerent, of the 
 Prophet on earth. The rulers of provinces under 
 this Imam are called Amir (^*,A)(pb Umara ’). 
 The Eastern titles of Sultan and Shah are not 
 established in the Muhammadan religion. 
 
 The word Malik, Heb. Melekh, occurs 
 
 in the Qur’an for a “ king,” and is used for 
 King Saul (Surah ii. 248). The word is still 
 retained in Asia for the chiefs of villages. 
 
 In the Qur’an (Surah iv. 62), believers are 
 enjoined to “ obey the Apostle and those in 
 authority,” but the chief injunctions are 
 found in the Traditions. 
 
 In the Mishkatu ’l-Masabih, book xvi. ch. 
 i., the following sayings of Muhammad regard¬ 
 ing rulers are recorded:— 
 
 “ Whoever obeys me obeys God, and who¬ 
 ever disobeys me disobeys God. Whoever 
 obeys the Amir obeys me. An Imam is 
 nothing but a shield to fight behind, by which 
 calamities are avoided ; and if he orders you 
 to abstain from that which is unlawful, he 
 will have great regard ; but if he enjoins that 
 which God has forbidden, he will bear the 
 punishment of his own acts.” 
 
 “ If God appoints as your Amir a man who 
 is a slave, with his ears and nose cut off, and 
 who puts people to death according to God’s 
 book, then you must listen and obey him in 
 all things.” 
 
 “ If a negro slave is appointed to rule over 
 you, you must listen to him and obey him, 
 even though his head be like a dried grape.” 
 
 “ It is indispensable for every Muslim to 
 listen to and approve the orders of the Imam, 
 whether he likes or dislikes, so long as he is 
 not ordered to sin and act contrary to law. 
 When he is ordered to sin, he must neither 
 attend to it nor obey it.” 
 
 “ There is no obedience due to sinful 
 commands, nor to any order but what is 
 lawful.” 
 
 “ He who shall see a thing in his ruler which 
 he dislikes, let him be patient, for verily 
 there is not one who shall separate a body 
 of Muslims the breadth of a span, and he 
 dies, but he dies like the people of igno¬ 
 rance.” 
 
 “ The best Imams are those you love, 
 and those who love you, and those who 
 pray for compassion on you, and you on 
 them ; and the worst of Imams are those 
 you hate, and those who hate you; and 
 those whom you curse, and who curse you.” 
 Auf said, “ 0 Prophet of God! when they 
 
RULERS 
 
 are our enemies and we theirs, may we not 
 fight against them ? ” He said, “ No, so long 
 as they keep on foot the prayers amongst 
 you.” This he repeated. “ Beware,'he who 
 shall be constituted your ruler, see if he does 
 anything in disobedience to God, and if he 
 does, hold it in displeasure, but do not with¬ 
 draw yourselves from his obedience.” 
 
 “ There will be Amirs among you, some of 
 whose actions you will find conformable to 
 law, and some contrary thereto ; then when 
 anyone who shall say to their faces, ‘ These 
 acts are contrary to law,’ verily he shall be 
 pure; and he who has known their actions to 
 be bad, and has not told them so to their 
 faces, has certainly not remained free from 
 responsibility, and he who has seen a bad act 
 and obeyed it, is their companion in it.” The 
 Companions said, “ May we not fight them? ” 
 The Prophet said, “ No, so long as they per¬ 
 form prayers.” 
 
 “He who is disobedient to the Imam will 
 come before God on the Day of Resurrection 
 without a proof of his faith, and he who dies 
 without having obeyed the Imam, dies as the 
 people of ignorance.” 
 
 “ Prophets were the governors of the chil¬ 
 dren of Israel, and when one died, another 
 supplied his place; and verily there is no 
 prophet after me, and the time is near when 
 there will be after me a great many Khali- 
 fahs.” The Companions said, “ Then what do 
 you order us ? ” The Prophet said, “ Obey 
 the Khalifah, and give him his due; for 
 verily God will ask about the duty of the 
 subject.” 
 
 “ When two Khalifahs have been set up, 
 put the last of them to death, and preserve 
 the other, because the second is a rebel.” 
 
 “Whoever wishes to make divisions 
 amongst my people, kill with a sword.” 
 
 “ He who acknowledges an Imam must 
 obey him as far as in his power, and if another 
 pretender comes, kill him.” 
 
 “ Verily the time is near that you will be 
 ambitious of ruling ; and it is at hand that 
 this love of rule will be a cause of sorrow at 
 the Resurrection, although the possession of 
 it appears pleasant, and its departure un¬ 
 pleasant.” 
 
 “ That is the best of men who dislikes 
 power.” 
 
 “ Beware 1 you are all guardians of the 
 subject, and you will all be asked about your 
 obedience. The Imam is the guardian of the 
 subject, and he will be asked respecting this. 
 A man is as a shepherd to his own family, 
 and will be asked how they behaved, and 
 about his conduct to them ; and a wife is a 
 guardian to her husband’s house and children 
 and will be interrrogated about them ; and a 
 slave is a shepherd to his master’s property, 
 
 ru’ya 549 
 
 and will be asked about it, whether he took 
 good care of it or not.” 
 
 “ There is no Amir who oppresses the sub¬ 
 ject and dies, but God forbids Paradise to 
 him.” 
 
 “ Verily the very worst of Amirs are those 
 who oppress the subject.” 
 
 “ 0 God ! he who shall be ruler over my 
 people and shall throw them into misery, 0 
 God 1 cast him into misery; and he who 
 shall be chief of my people and be kind to 
 them, then be kind to him.” 
 
 “ Verily, just princes will be upon splendid 
 pulpits on the right hand of God; and both 
 God’s hands are right.” 
 
 “ God never sent any Prophet, nor ever 
 made any Khalifah, but had two counsellors 
 with him, one of them directing lawful deeds 
 (that is, a good angel), and the other sin 
 (that is, the devil). He is guarded from sin 
 whom God has guarded.” [koalifau.] 
 
 ar-RUM (cjjH). The Arabic form 
 
 of the Latin Roma, or Romanus. The ancient 
 Byzantine, or Eastern Roman Empire. Still 
 used in Eastern countries as a name for the 
 Turkish Empire. 
 
 The title of the xxxth Surah of the Qur’an, 
 which opens with the word. “ The Greeks 
 are overcome in the highest parts of the 
 land; but after being overcome they shall 
 overcome in a few years.” [greeks.] 
 
 RTJQAIYAH A daughter 
 
 of Muhammad by his wife Khadljah. She 
 was married to ‘Utbah, the son of Abu 
 Lahab, but being divorced by her husband, 
 she was married to ‘Usman, the third Kha¬ 
 lifah. 
 
 RUQBA Lit. “ Waiting.” 
 
 Giving a thing on condition that if the donor 
 die before the receiver it shall become the 
 property of the receiver and his heirs ; but if 
 the receiver die first, the property given shall 
 return to the donor. It is forbidden in Mus¬ 
 lim law, because it exposes each of the parties 
 to the temptation of wishing for the other’s 
 death. 
 
 RUQYAH (<Laj). “ Enchanting.” 
 
 The use of spells. The word used in the 
 Hadis for exorcism and incantation, [exor¬ 
 cism.] 
 
 RU’YA’ “A dream; a 
 
 vision. A term used in the Qur’an for the 
 visions of the Prophets. It occurs five times. 
 Once for the vision of Joseph (Surah xii. 5); 
 twice for the dream of the Egyptian king 
 (Surah v. 43) ; once for the vision of Abra¬ 
 ham (Surah xxxvii. 105) ; once for Muham¬ 
 mad’s vision (Surah xvii. 62.). [dreams.] 
 
550 
 
 SA 
 
 SABBATH 
 
 S. 
 
 SA‘ (gU) or SUWA‘ ($ r ). A 
 
 certain measure used for measuring corn, 
 and upon which depend the decisions of 
 Muslims relating to measures of capacity. It 
 occurs in the Qur’an, Surah xii. 72, for the 
 drinking-cup placed by Joseph in his bro¬ 
 ther’s pack. 
 
 The compiler of the Tdju ’ l- l Arus , says 
 that according to five different readers of the 
 Qur’an, it is given suwa‘ in that verse, but in 
 the majority of texts it is sa‘. 
 
 The Qamus explains suwa‘ as a certain 
 vessel from which one drinks, and sa‘, a 
 measure of capacity. Its invariable measure 
 being, according to ancient authorities, four 
 times the quantity of corn that fills two 
 hands of a man of moderate size. 
 
 Al-Baizawl records, besides suwa i and .sd‘, 
 the reading suu‘ and suwayh. 
 
 SABA’ (W-). (1) A tribe of 
 
 Yaman, whose dwelling-places are called 
 Ma’rib, mentioned in the xxx ivth Surah of 
 the Qur’an (entitled the Suratu Saba’), verse 
 14 :— 
 
 “ A sign there was to Saba’ in their dwel¬ 
 ling places:—two gardens, the one on the 
 right hand and the other on the left:—‘ Eat 
 ye of your Lord’s supplies, and give thanks 
 to him : Goodly is the country, and gracious 
 is the Lord ! ’ 
 
 “ But they turned aside : so we sent upon 
 them the flood of Iram; and we changed 
 them their gardens into two gardens of bitter 
 fruit and tamarisk and some few jujube 
 trees. 
 
 “ Such was our retribution on them for 
 their ingratitude.” 
 
 M. Caussin de Perceval, Hist, des Arabes, 
 vol. iii., as well as M. de Sacy, fix this event 
 in the second century of the Christian era. 
 
 (2) Also the name of a province referred 
 to in the Qur’an, Surah xxvii. 21, where it 
 
 seems to be identical with the Sheba 
 
 of the Bible, or the country of the Queen 
 of Sheba:— 
 
 “Nor tarried it (the lapwing) long ere it 
 came and said, ‘ I have gained the knowledge 
 that thou knowest not, and with sure tidings 
 have I come to thee from Saba’: 
 
 “ ‘ I found a woman reigning over them, 
 gifted with everything, and she hath a 
 splendid throne; 
 
 “ And I found her and her people worship¬ 
 ping the sun instead of God ; and Satan hath 
 made their works fair seeming to them, so 
 that he hath turned them from the Way: 
 wherefore they are not guided, 
 
 “ To the worship of God, who bringeth to 
 light the secret things of heaven and earth, 
 and knoweth what men conceal and what they 
 manifest: 
 
 “ God: there is no god but He 1 the lord 
 of the glorious throne 1 ” 
 
 For a discussion of the identity of the 
 Saba' of Arabia with the Sheba of the Bible, 
 refer to the word Sheba in Smith’s Dictionary 
 of the Bible. 
 
 SAB‘ATU-AHRUF 
 
 [seven dialegts.] 
 
 SABA‘U ’L-MASANI (jUutt 
 Lit. “The Seven Repetitions.” A 
 
 title given to the Introductory Chapter of 
 the Qur’an by Muhammad himself. ( Mishlcat , 
 book viii. ch. i.) There are three reasons as¬ 
 signed for this title :— 
 
 (1) Because it is a chapter of seven verses, 
 which is said to have been revealed twice 
 over. 
 
 (2) Because it contains seven words twice 
 repeated, namely, Allah, God ; Rahman, Com¬ 
 passionate ; Rahim, Merciful; Iyalca, Thee 
 and to Thee ; Sirat, Way; l Alaihim, to whom 
 and with whom : Ghair. Not, and La, Not. 
 
 (3) Because the seven verses are generally 
 recited twice during an ordinary prayer. 
 (See Majma‘u 'l-Bihdr, in loco ; and Abdu T- 
 Haqq.) 
 
 SABBATH. The term used in the 
 
 Qur’an for the Jewish Sabbath is Sabt («t~~>), 
 
 a corruption of the Hebrew Frt Shabbath. 
 
 It occurs five times in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah ii. 61: “Ye know, too, those of you 
 who transgressed on the Sabbath, and to 
 whom We (God) said, ‘ Become scouted 
 apes.’ ” 
 
 Surah iv. 50 : “ Or curse you as We (God) 
 cursed the Sabbath breakers.” 
 
 Surah iv. 153; “ We (God) said to them 
 (Israel), ‘ Break not the Sabbath.’ ” 
 
 Surah vii. 163: “ And ask them (the 
 Jews) about the city that stood by the sea 
 when its inhabitants broke the Sabbath; 
 when their fish came to them appearing 
 openly on their Sabbath-day, but not to them 
 on the day when they kept no Sabbath.” 
 
 Surah xvi. 125 : “ The Sabbath was only 
 ordained for those who differed about it.” 
 
 In explanation of these verses, the com¬ 
 mentator, al-Baizawi relates the following 
 traditions. Moses gave orders for the obser¬ 
 vance of the Day of Rest on Friday ; but the 
 Jews would not obey, and declared that they 
 would observe Saturday, as it was on that day 
 that God rested from creation, so it came to 
 pass that “the Sabbath was ordained for 
 those who differed about it.” But in the 
 time of Bang David, certain people began to 
 break the Sabbath by fishing in the Red Sea 
 near the town of Ailah (Elath), and as a 
 punishment they were turned into apes. 
 
 For an account of the Muhammadan Sab¬ 
 bath, see FKioAr. 
 
SABEAIS'S 
 
 SACRIFICE 
 
 551 
 
 SABEAX3. Arabic Sabi’ 
 
 pL SabPuiu Probably from the Hebrew 
 
 T T 
 
 tsaba. “a host." Gen. ii. 1. i.e. " Those who 
 worship the hosts of heaven." According to 
 some Arabic writers, the Sdb'ii’i were a cer¬ 
 tain sect of unbelievers who worshipped the 
 stars secretly, and openly professed to be 
 Christians. According to others, they are of 
 the religion of Sabi', the son of Seth, the s on 
 of Adam : whilst others say their religion 
 resembled that of the Christian?, except that 
 their qiblah was towards the south, from 
 whence the wind blows. In the Qi 7s it is 
 said they were :t the religion of Xoah. The 
 word sabr also means one who has departed 
 from one religion to another religion, and the 
 Arabs used to call the Prophet as-pdlf. be¬ 
 cause he departed from the religion of the 
 Quraish to al-Islam. (See Lane’s Di '. h 
 loco.) Al-Baizawi says some assert they 
 were worshippers of angels, other? that they 
 were the worshippers of the stars. 
 
 They are mentioned three times in the 
 Qur'an, and from the following verses it would 
 appear that Muhammad regarded them as 
 believers in the true God. 
 
 Surah ii. 50 : - They who believe and they 
 who are Jews, and the Christians, and the 
 SaG' ons—whoever believeth in God and the 
 Last Pay. and doeth that which is right, 
 shall have their reward with their Lord." 
 
 Surah v. "3: •• They who believe, and the 
 Jews and the 5P-: :ss. and the Christians — 
 whoever of them believeth in God. and in the 
 Last Day, and doeth what is right. on them 
 shall no fear come : neither shall they be put 
 to grief." 
 
 Surah xxii. 17: They who believe, and 
 the Jews, and the Sth ::;s. and the Chris¬ 
 tians. and the Magians, and these who join 
 other gods with God. verily God shall decide 
 between them on the Day of Resurrect:.n." 
 
 SABI’ (e^U). [SABA£A>~S.~ 
 SABILU ’LEAK (iltt J~~). “The 
 
 road of God." A term used for religious war¬ 
 fare and other meritorious deeds : e.;. Qur'an. 
 Surah ii.:— 
 
 Verse 119: "And say not of those who 
 are slain in th( ro-.i : or God that they are 
 dead, but rather that they are living." 
 
 Verse 263: •• Those who expend their 
 wealth in the road of God~ [jihad." 
 
 SABT [sabbath/ 
 
 SAC RAMEKTS, CHKISTIAX. 
 
 [EUCHARIST, BAPTISM.! 
 
 SACBIFICE. There are sis words 
 used in the Muhammadan religion to express 
 the idea of sacrifice. 
 
 ^1' zabh. Hebrew rQ* zebach. Like 
 
 the Hebrew word v Gen. xxxi. 5l\ the Arabic 
 is used generally for slaughtering animals, 
 whether on the Great Festival of Sacrifice 
 [tdc l-azha]. or. at ordinary times, for food. 
 
 In the Qdmus. the word zabh is defined " to 
 split or pierce : to cut the throat of any crea¬ 
 ture " In the Qur'an, the word is used for 
 the slaughtering the heifer by Moses Surah 
 ii. 63). f or the slaying of the sons of Israel bv 
 Pharaoh Surah ii 16 . for sacrificing t: idols 
 (Surah v. 4) : and for the intention of Abra¬ 
 ham t: sacrifice his s:s Surah xxxvil. 101 
 
 (2 • Hebrew *2^* -ban 
 
 T . T 
 
 (Lev. iL 11), Lit. - Approaching near." It 
 occurs twice in the Qur'an, for the sacrifice 
 to he devoured by fire from heaven, which 
 the Jews demanded of Muhammad Surah iiL 
 179), and for the offering of the sons of Adam 
 (Surah v. 30 . It is a word frequentIv em¬ 
 ployed in Islam to express the erdinarv sacri¬ 
 fice. and the great festival is called in Persia 
 the 'Id-i- Qftrban . or “ Feast of Sacrifice." 
 
 (3' Lit. T injure the jugular 
 
 vein." Used for stabbing the breast of a 
 camel, as in sacrifice, hence the sacrifice it¬ 
 self. It occurs once in the Qur'an. Surah 
 cviii. 1. 2: - Verily we have given thee al¬ 
 ls. r.i-'.ar. so pray t: thy Lord and > im’r e." 
 which al-Baizawi says means to sacrifice a 
 camel, the most costly victim of the Arabians. 
 The -Id' i-Azha is called the Yamn'.i 'n- 
 \ akr . [idu e-azha[ 
 
 (lb L A word which does 
 
 not occur in the Qur'an, but in the Tradi¬ 
 tions it is the subject of a Chapter in Mis - 
 c . V-JLfus :: b b ook iv. eh. xlixh. Acc ruing 
 to the !g.: ::7s. it is derived fr:m . r. ; ,’ta. 
 3 word which expresses that time of the dav 
 when the sun has risen to a considerable 
 height, about 10 a.m. >: 5: z-Z i. being 
 a voluntary prayer at that hour). UzAiiriA 
 is therefore the sacrifice offered about ~ 10 
 o'clock on the day of the Great Festival. 
 
 v 5> jii Shut, or. according to another 
 reading. Sadi. Occurs rcur times in the 
 Qur'an. Surahs ii. 193. v. 2. 96. 9S. fer :rer- 
 ing of an animal for sacrifice sent to the 
 temple at Mskkah. when the pilgrim is net 
 able to reach in time. The <g: .:7s defines it 
 as that •• which is presented." AI-Bainawi 
 (Jbcpi:-. p. 100) gives S: b as the plural 
 form of H : : : end H as that cf Sadi- 
 Tne letter occurs ::: tne cenr an. Surah 
 xxvii. 35. tor an offering :r girt, and seems tc 
 have the same meaning us the Hebrew 
 
 J-JTOO wincAuA whieh is used in the b .i 
 
 Testament for a gift or tribute glen. ;v. 3). 
 and also for the unbloody sacrifice ;r - meat 
 offering " [Lev. ii. 1\ 
 
 (6) Occurs in the Qur'an. 
 
 Surah xxii. 35 : " ’Ve have appointeti to every 
 nation a rite c ." Surah ii 122 : -■ Shew 
 
 us our rites " v : -si c : also verse 196. Al- 
 B.iicc.vi T tfi . p. 91 . t; the first passage, 
 says the word me ns a place of devotion, :r 
 a sacrifice whieh draws a man near to Gcd. 
 and mentions another reading. : a 
 
 place of worship, o: which unaJsic is like¬ 
 wise the plural. The word, as quoted above, 
 as well as the plursl form, is translated bv 
 the late Professor Palmer rites." "sites." 
 
552 
 
 SACRIFICE 
 
 SACRIFICE 
 
 II. There are only two occasions upon which 
 Muhammadans sacrifice, namely, on the 
 Great Festival held on the 10th day of Zu ’1- 
 Hijjah [‘idu ’l-azha] and on the birth of a 
 child [aqiqah]. 
 
 (1) The great sacrifice recognised by the 
 Muslim faith is that on the Great Festival, 
 called the ‘Idu 'l^Azhd, or “Feast of Sacri¬ 
 fice.” This sacrifice is not only offered by 
 the pilgrims at Makkah, but in all parts of 
 Islam, upon the day of sacrifice. In the first 
 place, this sacrifice is said to have been esta¬ 
 blished in commemoration of Abraham having 
 consented to sacrifice his son (most Muslims 
 say it was Ishmael), as recorded in the 
 Qur’an, when it is said God “ ransomed his 
 (Abraham’s) son with a costly victim ” (Surah 
 xxxvii. 107) ; but Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, in 
 his commentary on the Mishkat, also says 
 that al-Uzhiyah, “the saci-ifice,” is that 
 which at the special time (i.e. on the 
 festival) is slaughtered with the object of 
 obtaining nearness to God. 
 
 (2) The teaching of the Qur’an on the sub¬ 
 ject of sacrifice is conveyed in the following 
 verses (Surah xxii. 37) :— 
 
 “ The bulky (camels) we made for you one 
 of the symbols of God (JSha‘Siri ’lidhi), therein 
 have ye good. So mention the name of God 
 over them as they stand in a row (for sacri¬ 
 fice), and when they fall down (dead), eat of 
 them and feed the easily contented and him 
 who begs. Thus have we subjected them to 
 you : haply ye may give thanks. Their flesh 
 will never reach to God, nor yet their blood, 
 but the piety from you will reach Him.” 
 
 Al-Baizavri on this verse says, “ It, the 
 flesh of the sacrifice, does not reach unto 
 God, nor its blood, but the piety ( taqwa) that 
 is the sincerity and intention of your heart.” 
 (Tafsiru 'l-Baizawi , vol. ii. p. 52.) 
 
 (3) In the Traditions ( Mishkat , book iv. ch. 
 xlix.) we have the following :— 
 
 Anas says: “ The prophet sacrificed two 
 rams, one was black, and the other was white, 
 and he put his foot on their sides as he killed 
 them, and cried out, ‘ Bi'-smi ’ lidhi , Allahu 
 akbar! In the name of God! God is most 
 great! ’ ” 
 
 ‘Ayishah says: “ The Prophet ordered a 
 ram with horns to be brought to him, and 
 one that should walk in blackness, sleep in 
 blackness, and look in blackness ” (by which 
 he meant with black legs, black breast and 
 belly, and black eyes), “ and he said, ‘ 0 
 ‘Ayishah, give me a knife and sharpen it! ’ 
 And I did so. Then the Prophet took hold 
 of the ram and threw him on his side and 
 slew it. And when he was killing it he said, 
 
 ‘ In the name of God ! 0 God accept this from 
 Muhammad, and from his children, and from 
 his tribe! ’ Afterwards he gave to the people 
 their morning meal from the slaughtered 
 ram.” 
 
 Jabir says: “ The Prophet sacrificed two 
 rams on the day of the Festival of Sacrifice, 
 which were black or white, and had horns, 
 and were castrated; and when he turned 
 their heads towards the Qiblah, he said, 
 ‘Verily I have turned my face to Him who 
 
 brought the heavens and the earth into 
 existence from nothing, according to the 
 religion of Abraham, and I am not of the 
 polytheists. Verily my prayers, my worship¬ 
 ping, my life, and my death, are for God, the 
 Lord of the universe, who hath no partner; 
 and I have been ordered to believe in one 
 God, and to abandon associating any other 
 god with Him ; and I am one of the Mus¬ 
 lims. O God 1 this sacrifice is of Thee, and 
 for Thee; accept it then from Muhammad 
 and his people ! ’ And he added, ‘ In the 
 name of God! the Great God ! ’ and then 
 killed them.” 
 
 ‘All said : “ The Prophet has ordered me 
 to see that there be no blemish in the animal 
 to be sacrificed; and not to sacrifice one with 
 the ears cut, either at the top or the bottom, 
 or split lengthways, or with holes made in 
 them. The Prophet prohibited sacrificing a 
 ram with broken horns, or slit ears.” 
 
 ‘Ayishah relates that the Prophet said : 
 ts Man hath not done anything, on the day of 
 sacrifice, more pleasing to God than spilling 
 blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will 
 come on the Day of Resurrection, with its 
 horns, its hair, its hoofs, and will make the 
 scales of his actions heavy; and verily its 
 blood reacheth the acceptance of God before 
 it falleth upon the ground; therefore be 
 joyful in it.” 
 
 Zaid Ibn Arqam relates : “ The Companions 
 said, ‘ 0 messenger of God 1 what are these 
 sacrifices, and whence is their origin?’ He 
 said, ‘ These sacrifices are conformable to 
 the laws of your father Abraham.’ They 
 said, ‘ 0 Prophet! what are our rewards 
 therefrom ? ’ He said, ‘ There is a reward 
 annexed to every hair.’ The Companions 
 then said, ‘ 0 Prophet! what are the rewards 
 from the sacrifices of camels and sheep, that 
 have wool ? ’ He said, ‘ There is a good 
 reward also for every hair of their wool.’ ” 
 
 (4) The following is the teaching of the 
 Hidayah regarding the nature and conditions 
 of the sacrifice :— 
 
 It is the duty of every free Muslim arrived 
 at the age of maturity to offer a sacrifice, on 
 the ‘Idu ’1-Azha, or “ Festival of the Sacrifice,” 
 provided he be then possessed of aNisdb («.e. 
 sufficient property), and be not a traveller. 
 This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah, Muham¬ 
 mad, Zufar, and Hasan, and likewise of Abu 
 Yusuf, according to one tradition. According 
 to another tradition, and also according to ash- 
 Shafi‘i, sacrifice is not an indispensable duty, 
 but only laudable. At-Tahawi reports that, 
 in the opinion of Abu Hanifah, it is indispens¬ 
 able, whilst the disciples hold it to be in a 
 strong degree laudable. The offering of a 
 sacrifice is incumbent on a man on account 
 of himself, and on account of his infant child. 
 This is the opinion of Abu Hanifah in one 
 tradition. In another he has said that it is 
 not incumbent on a man to offer a sacrifice 
 for his child. In fact, according to Abu 
 Hanifah and Abu Yusuf, a father or guardian 
 is to offer a sacrifice at the expense of the 
 child (when he is possessed of property), 
 eating what parts of it are eatable, and 
 
SACRIFICE 
 
 SACRIFICE 
 
 selling the remaining parts that are valuable 
 in their substance, such as the skin, &c. 
 Muhammad, Zufar, and ash-Shafi‘i have said 
 that a father is to sacrifice on account of his 
 child at his own expense, and not at that of 
 the child. The sacrifice established for one 
 person is a goat; and that for seven, a cow 
 or a camel. If a cow be sacrificed for any 
 number of people fewer than seven, it is 
 lawful; but it is otherwise if sacrificed on 
 account of eight. If for a party of seven 
 people the contribution of any one of them 
 should be less than a seventh share, the 
 sacrifice is not valid on the part of any one 
 of them. If a camel that is jointly and in 
 an equal degree the property of two men 
 should be sacrificed by them on their own 
 account, it is lawful; and in this case they 
 must divide the flesh by weight, as flesh is 
 an article of weight. if, on the contrary, 
 they distribute it from conjectural estimation, 
 it is not lawful, unless they add to each share 
 of the flesh part of the head, neck, and joints. 
 If a person purchase a cow, with an intent to 
 sacrifice it on his own account, and he after¬ 
 wards admit six others to join with him in 
 the sacrifice, it is lawful. It is, however, 
 most advisable that he associate with the 
 others at the time of purchase, in order that 
 the sacrifice may be valid in the opinion of 
 all our doctors, as otherwise there is a dif¬ 
 ference of opinion. It is related from Abu 
 Hanifah that it is abominable to admit others 
 to share in a sacrifice after purchasing the 
 animal, for, as the purchase was made with 
 a view to devotion, the sale of it is therefore 
 an abomination. 
 
 The time of offering the sacrifice is on the 
 morning of the day of the festival, but it is not 
 lawful for the inhabitants of a city to begin 
 the sacrifice until their Imam shall have 
 finished the stated prayers for the day. 
 Villagers, however, may begin after break of 
 day. The place, in fact, must regulate the 
 time. Thus, where the place of celebration 
 is in the country, and the performers of it 
 reside in the city, it is lawful to begin in the 
 morning ; but if otherwise, it must be deferred 
 until the stated prayers be ended. If the 
 victim be slain after the prayers of the 
 Mosque, and prior to those offered at the 
 place of sacrifice [idgah), it is lawful, as is 
 likewise the reverse of this. Sacrifice is 
 lawful during three days—that is, on the 
 day of the festival, and on the two ensuing 
 days. Ash-Shafi‘I is of opinion that it is 
 lawful on the three ensuing days. The sacri¬ 
 fice of the day of the festival is far superior 
 to any of the others. It is also lawful to 
 sacrifice on the nights of those days, although 
 it be considered as undesirable. Moreover, 
 the offering of sacrifices on these days is 
 more laudable than the custom of omitting 
 them, and afterwards bestowing an adequate 
 sum of money upon the poor. If a person 
 neglect the performance of a sacrifice during 
 the stated days, and have previouslj 7 deter¬ 
 mined upon the offering of any particular 
 goat, for instance ; or, being poor, have pur¬ 
 chased a goat for that purpose,—in either of 
 
 558 
 
 these cases it is incumbent on him to bestow 
 it alive in charity. But if he be rich, it is in 
 that case incumbent on him to bestow in 
 charity a sum adequate to the price, whether 
 he have purchased a goat with an intent to 
 sacrifice it or not. It is not lawful to sacri¬ 
 fice animals that are blemished, such as those 
 that are blind, or lame, or so lean as to have 
 no marrow in their bones, or having a great 
 part of their ears or tail cut off. Such, 
 however, as have a great part of their ears 
 or tail remaining may lawfully be sacrificed. 
 Concerning the determination of a great part 
 of any member, there are, indeed, various 
 opinions reported from Abu Hanifah. In 
 some animals he has determined it to be the 
 third ; in others more than the third ; and in 
 others, again, only the fourth. In the opinion 
 of the two disciples, if more than the half 
 should remain, the sacrifice is valid, and this 
 opinion has been adopted by the learned Abu 
 ’1-Lais. If an animal have lost the third of 
 its tail, or the third of its ears or eye-sight, it 
 may be lawfully sacrificed; but if, in either 
 of these cases, it should have lost more than 
 a third, the offering of it is not lawful. The 
 rule which our doctors have laid down to 
 discover in what degree the eye-sight is im¬ 
 paired is as follows. The animal must first 
 bo deprived of its food for a day or two that 
 it may be rendered hungry, and having then 
 covered the eye that is impaired, food must 
 be gradually brought towards it from a dis¬ 
 tance, until it indicate by some emotion that 
 it has discovered it. Having marked the 
 particular spot at which it observed the food, 
 and uncovered the weak eye, the perfect eye 
 must then be bound, and the same process 
 carried on, until it indicate that it has ob¬ 
 served it with the defective eye. If, then, 
 the particular distance from those parts to 
 where the animal stood be measured, it may 
 be known, from the proportion they bear to 
 each other, in what degree the sight is im¬ 
 paired. 
 
 It is not lawful to offer a sacrifice of any 
 animal except a camel, a cow, or a goat; for 
 it is not recorded that the Prophet, or any of 
 his companions, ever sacrificed others. Buf¬ 
 faloes, however, are lawful as being of the 
 species of a cow. Every animal of a mixed 
 breed, moreover, is considered as of the same 
 species with the mother. 
 
 If a Christian or any person whose object 
 is the flesh, and not the sacrifice, be a sharer 
 with six others, the sacrifice is not lawful on 
 the part of any. It is lawful for a person 
 who offers a sacrifice either to eat the flesh 
 or to bestow it on whomsoever he pleases, 
 whether rich or poor, and he may also lay it 
 up in store. It is most advisable that the 
 third part of the flesh of a sacrifice be 
 bestowed in charity. It is not lawful to give 
 a part of the sacrifice in payment to the 
 butcher. It is abominable to take the wool 
 of the victim and sell it before the sacrifice 
 be performed, but not after the sacrifice. In 
 the same maimer, it is abominable to milk 
 the victim and sell the milk. It is most 
 advisable that the person who offers the 
 
 70 
 
554 
 
 SAD 
 
 SAFIYU LLAH 
 
 sacrifice should himself perform it, provided 
 he be well acquainted with the method, but 
 if he should not be expert at it, it is then 
 advisable that he take the assistance of 
 another, and be present at the operation. It 
 is abominable to commit the slaying of the 
 victim to a KitabT (a Jew or Christian). If, 
 however, a person order a Kitfibi to slay his 
 victim, it is lawful. It is otherwise where a 
 person orders a Magian, or worshipper of fire, 
 to slay his victim, for this is inadmissible. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iv. 76.) 
 
 (5) From the foregoing references to the 
 Qur’an, the Traditions, ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, al- 
 Baizawi, it will appear that whilst the Mu¬ 
 hammadan sacrifice is (1) Commemorative, 
 having been instituted in commemoration of 
 Abraham’s willingness to offer his son; (2) 
 Seif Dedicatory, as expressed in the Tra¬ 
 ditional sayings of Muhammad; and (3) 
 Eucharistic, according to the verse in the 
 Qur'an already quoted, “ Haply ye may give 
 thanks ” ; that the expiatory character of the 
 sacrifice is not clearly established, for there 
 is no offering for, or acknowledgment of, sin, 
 connected with the institution. Muham¬ 
 madanism, true to its anti-Christian character, 
 ignores the doctrine that “without shedding 
 of blood there is no remission.” (Lev. xvii. 
 11; Heb. ix. 22.) 
 
 (6) At the birth of a child it is incumbent 
 upon the Muslim father to sacrifice a goat 
 (one for a girl and two for a boy) at the 
 ceremony called ‘ Aqlqcth , which is celebrated 
 on either the seventh, fourteenth, twenty- 
 first, twenty-eighth, or thirty-fifth day after 
 birth, when the hair is first shaved and its 
 weight in silver given to the poor. ‘Abdu ’1- 
 Haqq says ‘Aqiqah comes from '•aqq, “ to 
 cut,” and refers to cutting the throat of the 
 animal. Others refer it to cutting the hair. 
 The idea of the sacrifice on this occasion is 
 dedicatory and eucharistic. Buraidah says, 
 “We used, in the time of ignorance, when 
 children were born to us, to slay sheep and 
 rub the child’s head with the blood; but 
 when Islam came we sacrificed a sheep on 
 the seventh day, and shaved the child’s head 
 and rubbed saffron on it.” 
 
 SAD (oL>). The fourteenth letter 
 
 of the Arabic alphabet. The title of the 
 xxxvmth Surah of the Qur’an, which begins 
 with the letter. 
 
 SADAQAH (Sixe^pl. sadaqat. From 
 
 $adq, “to be righteous, truthful”; Hebrew 
 PT4 tsedek. A term used in the Qur’an for 
 
 “ Almsgiving,” e.g. Surah ii. 265: “ Kind 
 
 speech and pardon are better than alms¬ 
 giving ( sadaqah ) followed by annoyance, for 
 God is rich and clement.” 
 
 Sadaqatu ’l-Fitr is the alms given on the 
 lesser Festival, called the ‘Idu ’l-Fitr, which 
 consists of half a sd‘ of wheat, flour, or fruits, 
 or one sa‘ of barley. This should be dis¬ 
 tributed to the poor before the pirayers of the 
 festival are said. ( Hidayah, vol. i. p. 62.) 
 [idu ’l-fitr] 
 
 SA‘D IBN ABl WAQQAS 
 
 ep). Called also Sa‘d ibn 
 Malik ibn Wahb az-Zubri. He was the 
 seventh person who embraced Islam, and was 
 present with Muhammad in all his battles. 
 He died at ‘Atlq a.h. 55, at the age of 79, 
 and was buried at al-Madlnah. 
 
 SA‘D IBN MU‘AZ (jU- & a*-). 
 
 The chief of the Banu Aus. He embraced 
 Islam at al-Madlnah after the first pledge at 
 ‘Aqabah. He died of wounds received at the 
 battle of the Ditch, a.ii. 5. (See Muir’s Life 
 of Mahomet, vol. iii. 282.) 
 
 SAD IBN ‘TJBADAH 
 iaLc). One of the Compianions, and 
 an Ansar! of great reputation. He carried 
 the standard at the conquest of Makkah. 
 Died a.h. 15. 
 
 SADR (jd-o), or Sadru ’ s-Sudur. 
 
 The chief judge. Under Muhammadan rule, 
 he was especially charged wdth the settle¬ 
 ment of religious grants and the appointment 
 of law officers. 
 
 SADtJM (fjd-.). [sodom.] 
 as-SAFA (AAl). A hill near 
 
 Makkah. One of the sacred places visited by 
 the pilgrims during the Hajj. [pilgrimage.] 
 
 SAFAR Lit. “The void 
 
 month.” The second month of the Muham¬ 
 madan year. So called because in it the 
 ancient Arabs went forth on their predatory 
 expeditions and left their houses sifr, or 
 empty ; or, according to some, because when 
 it was first named it occurred in the autumn, 
 ■when the leaves of the trees were sufr, or 
 “ yellow.” ( Ghiyasu ’l-Lughah, in loco.) 
 [months.] 
 
 SAFF (^&*>). An even row or line 
 
 of things. 
 
 (1) A term used for a row of persons 
 standing up for prayers. 
 
 (2) As-Saff, the title of the LXlth Surah 
 of the Qur’an, in the 6th verse of which the 
 word occurs for the close unbroken line of 
 an army. 
 
 as-SAFFAT (cAilob), pi. of sclffah, 
 “ Ranged in ranks.” The title of the xxxvuth 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the first verse of 
 which the angels are mentioned as being 
 ranged in ranks. 
 
 SAF I YAH (<uAo). One of the 
 
 wives of Muhammad. She was the widow of 
 Kinanah,the Jewish chief of Khaibar, who 
 was cruelly put to death. In after years it 
 is said Muhammad wished to divorce her, 
 but she begged to continue his wife, and re¬ 
 quested that her turn might be given to 
 ‘Ayishah, as she wished to be one of the 
 Prophet’s “ pure wives ” in Paradise. 
 
 SAFlYU ’LLAH (aM £>). Lit. 
 
 “ The Chosen of God.” A title given in the 
 Traditions to Adam, the father of mankind. 
 
 [ADAM.] 
 
SAFURA 
 
 SAINTS 
 
 555 
 
 SAFURA' The Zipporah 
 
 of the Bible. The wife of Moses. According 
 to Muslim Lexicons, she was the daughter of 
 Shu £ aib. [muses.] 
 
 SAFWAN IBN UMAIYAH 
 
 (Ly\ ^ A SahabI of reputa¬ 
 
 tion. A native of Makkah. He was slain 
 the same day as the Kh alifah ‘Usman. 
 
 SAHABI (^W*), fem. Sahabiyah. 
 
 “ An associate.” One of the Companions of 
 Muhammad. The number of persons entitled 
 to this distinction at the time of Muhammad’s 
 death is said to have been 144,000, the 
 number including all persons who had ever 
 served as followers of the Prophet, and who 
 had actually seen him. The general opinion 
 being that one who embraced Islam, saw the 
 Prophet and accompanied him, even for a 
 short time, is a SahabI, or “ associate.” 
 [ashab.J 
 
 SAHIBU ’N-NISAB (sA-sR 
 
 A legal term for one possessed of a certain 
 estate upon which zakat, or “ legal alms,” 
 must be paid. Also for one who has suf¬ 
 ficient means to enable him to offer the sacri¬ 
 fice on the great festival, or to make the 
 pilgrimage to Makkah. The possessor of 
 200 dirhems, or five camels, is held to be a 
 Sahibu ’n-Nisab, as regards zakat. 
 
 SAHIBU 'Z-ZAMAN (gUjH 
 
 “ Lord of the Age.” A title given by the 
 Shiahs to the Imam Mahdi. ( Ghiyasu 7- 
 Lughah, in loco.) 
 
 SAHlFAH pi. suhuf. Lit. 
 
 “ A small book or pamphlet.” A term gene¬ 
 rally used for the one hundred portions of 
 scripture said to have been given to Adam, 
 Seth, Enoch, and Abraham, although it is 
 used in the Qur'an (Surah lxxxvii. 19) for 
 the books of Abraham and Moses : “ This is 
 truly written in the books (suhuf) of old, the 
 books (suhuf) of Abraham and Moses.” 
 [prophets.] 
 
 SAHIFATU ’L - A‘MAL (*w 
 JUcSI). The “Book of Actions,” 
 which is said to be made by the recording 
 angels (Kiramu 'l-Katibln) of the deeds of 
 men, and kept until the Day of Judgment, 
 when the books are opened. See Qur’an :— 
 Surah 1. 16 : “ When two (angels) charged 
 with taking account shall take it, one sitting 
 on the right hand and another on the left.” 
 
 Surah xvii. 14, 15 : “ And every man’s fate 
 have We (God) fastened about his neck ; and 
 on the Day of Resurrection will We bring 
 forth to him a book, which shall be proffered 
 to him wide open: Read thy Book: There j 
 needeth none but thyself to make out an 
 account against thee this day.” [kiramu ’l- 
 
 KATXBIN, RESURRECTION.] 
 
 SAHlHU ’L-BUKHARl 
 ^ia-fR). The title of the first of the 
 Kutubu ’ s-Sittah, or “ six correct ” books of 
 traditions received by the Sunnis. It was j 
 
 compiled by Abu ‘Abd Tlah Muhammad ibn 
 Isma‘11 al-Bukhari, who was born at Bukha- 
 rah, a.h. 194, and died at Khartang, near 
 Samarkand, a.h. 256. It contains 9,882 tra¬ 
 ditions, of which 2,623 are held to be of un¬ 
 disputed authority. They are arranged into 
 160 books and 3,450 chapters, [traditions.] 
 
 SAHlHU MUSLIM (,0— c ^). 
 
 The title of the second of the Kutubu 's-Sittah, 
 or “ six correct ” books of the traditions re¬ 
 ceived by the Sunnis. It was compiled by 
 Abu ’1-Husain Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj al- 
 Qushairi, who was bom at Naishapur, a.h. 
 204, and died a.h. 261. The collection con¬ 
 tains 7,275 traditions, of which, it is said, 
 4,000 are of undisputed authority. The 
 books and chapters of the work were not ar¬ 
 ranged by the compiler, but by his disciples. 
 The most celebrated edition of this work is 
 that with a commentary by Muhyiyu ’d-dln 
 Yahya an-Nawawi, who died a.h. 676. [tra¬ 
 ditions.] 
 
 SAHM Lit. “An arrow 
 
 used for drawing lots.” A term in Muham¬ 
 madan law for a portion of an estate allotted 
 to an heir. (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. iv. 
 p.487.) _ 
 
 SAHUR The meal which 
 
 is taken before the dawn of day during the 
 Ramazan. It is called in Persian Ta-am-i- 
 Sahari. In Hindustani, Saharqahi. In Pushto 
 Peshmani. [ramazan.] 
 
 SA’IBAH (LJU). Anything set 
 
 at liberty, as a slave, or she-camel, and de¬ 
 voted to an idol. Mentioned once in the 
 Qur’an, Surah v. 102: “ God hath not or¬ 
 dained anything on the subject of sSibah, but 
 the unbelievers have invented it.” 
 
 SA’ID IBN ZALD (jy eP •***-)• 
 
 A SahabI who embraced Islam in his youth. 
 He was present with Muhammad in all his 
 engagements except at Badr. He is held to 
 be one of the ‘■Asharah Mubashsharah, or ten 
 patriarchs of the Muslim faith. Died at 
 ‘Aaiq, a.h. 51, aged 79. 
 
 SAIFU ’LLAH (AH <-&*-.). “The 
 
 Sword of God.” A title given by Muhammad 
 to the celebrated General Kh alid ibn al-Walid. 
 (Mishkat, book xxiv. ch. viii.) 
 
 SAIHUN (©.,«-). The river 
 
 Jaxartes. Said to have been one of the rivers 
 of Eden, [eden.] 
 
 SAINTS. In Muhammadan coun¬ 
 tries, reputed saints are very numerous. 
 Very many religious leaders obtain a great 
 reputation for sanctity even before their 
 deaths, but after death it is usual for the 
 followers of any weH-knowm religious teacher 
 to erect a shrine over his grave, to light it 
 up on Thursdays, and thus establish a saintly 
 reputation for their departed guide. Very 
 disreputable persons are thus often reckoned 
 to have died in the “ odour of sanctity.” At 
 Hasan Abdal in the Punjab (celebrated in 
 
556 
 
 SAKHR 
 
 SA { IR 
 
 the story of Lala Rookh), there is a shrine 
 erected over a departed cook, who for many 
 years lived on his peculations as keeper of 
 the staging bungalow. When he died, about 
 ten years ago, his family erected over his re¬ 
 mains a shrine of some pretensions, which 
 even in the present generation is an object 
 of devout reverence, but which, in the next, 
 will be the scene of reputed miracles. This 
 is but an example of many thousands of 
 shrines and saintly reputations easily gained 
 throughout Islam. 
 
 It is generally asserted that according to 
 the teachings of Islam, the Prophets ( ambiya ) 
 were without sin, but there is a tradition, re¬ 
 lated by Anas, which distinctly asserts the 
 contrary, and states that Muhammad not 
 only admitted his own sinfulness, but also 
 the fall of Adam, the murder committed by 
 Moses, and the three lies told by Abraham. 
 (See Mishkat, book xxiii. ch. xii.) But it is 
 very remarkable that, according to this 
 Hadis, Muhammad does not charge Jesus 
 Christ with having committed sin. The 
 immaculate conception and the sinlessness 
 of Christ are admitted doctrines of Islam. 
 
 [JESUS CHRIST.] 
 
 The terms plr and wall are common titles 
 for those who, by reputed miracles and an 
 ascetic life, have established a reputation for 
 sanctity, for whom in Persian the title bu- 
 zurg is generally used. The titles qutb and 
 ghaus are very high orders of sanctity, whilst 
 zahid and ‘abid are employed for persons who 
 devote their lives to religious contemplation 
 and worship 
 
 The Sufis use the word salik, “ pilgrim ” or 
 “ traveller,” for one who has renounced the 
 world for the “ path ” of mysticism, whilst 
 faqlr is a title of more general application to 
 one who is poor in the sight of God. Shaikh 
 and mb', used for old men, also express a 
 degree of reputation in the religious world ; 
 shaikh (in India) being a title generally con¬ 
 ferred on a convert from Hinduism to Islam. 
 Saiyid, or “ lord,” is a title always given to 
 the descendants of Muhammad, mir being 
 sometimes used for the same. Miyan, 
 “ master ” or “ friend,” is generally used for 
 the descendants of celebrated saints, or as a 
 mere title of respect. 
 
 SA‘lR (;**“>)• “-A. flaming fire.” 
 
 The special place of torment appointed for 
 the Sabeans. (See al-Baghawi’s Commentary 
 on the Qur’an.') It occurs sixteen times in 
 the Qur’an (Surah iv. 11, and fifteen other 
 places), where it does not seem to be applied 
 to any special class. 
 
 SAIYIBAH (‘W'). A legal term 
 
 for a woman who departs from her husband, 
 whether through divorce or the death of her 
 husband, after the first connection. 
 
 SAIYID (•*--)• A term used for 
 
 the descendants of Muhammad from his 
 daughter Fatimah by ‘All. The word only 
 occurs twice in the Qur’an—in Surah iii. 34, 
 where it is used for John Baptist; and in 
 Surah xii. 25, where it stands for the husband 
 
 of Zalikhah. According to the Majmu 7- 
 Bihdr, p. 151. it means “ lord, king, exalted, 
 saint, merciful, meek, husband,” &c. 
 
 There are two branches of Saiyids—those 
 descended from al-Hasan and those descended 
 from al-Husain (both the sons of ‘All.) 
 
 These descendants of Muhammad are 
 prayed for at every period of the daily 
 prayers [praters], and they are held in all 
 Muhammadan countries in the highest respect, 
 however poor or degraded their position may 
 be. 
 
 The term Saiyid is also given as a name to 
 persons who are not descended from Muham¬ 
 mad, e.g. Saiyid Shah, Saiyid Amin, &c., al¬ 
 though it is a mere assumption. In addition 
 to the term Saiyid, the term Badshah, Shah, 
 Mir, and Sharif, are applied to those de¬ 
 scended from Bib! Fatimah. 
 
 The author of the Akhlaq-i-.Tala.li esti¬ 
 mated in his day the descendants of Muham¬ 
 mad to be not less than 200,000. 
 
 SAJDAH (5a*~,) ; vulg. sijdah. Lit. 
 
 “ Prostration.” 
 
 (1) The act of worship in which the per¬ 
 son’s forehead touches the ground in pros¬ 
 tration. [prayer.] 
 
 (2) As-Sajdah, the title of the xxxiind 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the 15th verse of 
 which the word occurs : “ They only believe 
 in our signs who, when they are reminded of 
 them, fall down adoring and celebrate the 
 praises of their Lord.” 
 
 SAJDATU ’S-SAHW 
 
 “ The prostrations of forgetfulness.” Two 
 prostrations made on account of forgetful¬ 
 ness or inattention in prayer. Muhammad 
 said, “ When any of you stand up for prayer, 
 and the devil comes to you and casts doubt 
 and perplexity into your mind, so that you 
 do not know how many rak‘ahs you have re¬ 
 cited, then prostrate yourself twice. 
 
 SAJDATU ’SH-SHUKR (8**- 
 “A prostration of thanks¬ 
 giving.” When a Muslim has received some 
 benefit or blessing, he is enjoined to make a 
 prostration in the direction of Makkah, and 
 say, “Holiness to God! and Praise be to 
 God. There is no deity but God! God is 
 most Great! ” ( Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol i. 
 
 p. 816.) 
 
 SAJJADAH (Sola--.). The small 
 
 carpet, mat, or cloth, on which the Muslim 
 prays, [jai-namaz, musalla.] 
 
 SAKHR (_?*-=). The jinn or devil 
 
 who is said to have obtained possession of 
 
AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 557 
 
 Solomon's magic ring, and to have personated 
 the King for forty days, when Sakhr flew 
 away and threw the ring into the sea, where 
 it was swallowed by a fish, which was after¬ 
 wards caught and brought to Solomon, who 
 by this means recovered his kingdom. 
 
 as-SAKHRAH (S^). “ The 
 
 Rock.” The sacred rock at Jerusalem on 
 which the Temple was erected, and on which 
 now stands the Qubbatu ’ s-Sakhrah . the 
 “ Dome of the Rock,” known to English 
 readers as the Mosque of ‘Umar. This rock 
 is said to have come from Paradise, and to 
 be the foundation-stone of the world, to 
 have been the place of prayer of all prophets, 
 and, next to the Ka‘bah, the most sacred 
 spot in the universe. Imam Jalalu'd-din as- 
 
 Suyuti, in his history of the Temple of Jeru¬ 
 salem (Reynolds’ edition, p. 44), gives the fol¬ 
 lowing traditional account of the glorious 
 Sakhrah. 
 
 “ We are informed by Ibn al-Mansur that 
 the Rock of the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas, in the 
 days of Solomon, was of the height of twelve 
 thousand cubits; each cubit at that time 
 being the full cubit, viz. one modern cubit, 
 one span and one hand-breadth. Upon it 
 also was a chapel, formed of aloes (or sandal) 
 wood, in height twelve miles (sic ); also above 
 thia was a network of gold, between two 
 eyelet-beads of pearl and ruby, netted by 
 the women of Balka in the night, which net 
 was to serve for three days ; also the people 
 of Emmaus were under the shadow of the 
 chapel when the sun rose and the people of 
 
 the dome of the ROCK. ( Courier .) 
 
 Baitu ’r-Rahmah when it set, and even others 
 of the valleys were under its shadow ; also 
 upon it was a jacinth (or ruby), which shone 
 in the night like the light of the sun; but 
 when the light began to dawn its brilliancy 
 was obscured; nor did all these cease until 
 Nebuchadnezzar laid all waste, and seized 
 whatever he found there, and carried it into 
 Greece. 
 
 “ Again, by a tradition we learn that the 
 Sakhrah of Baitu ’1-Muqaddas was raised 
 ftloft into the sky, to the height of twelve | 
 
 miles, and the space between it and heaven 
 was no more than twelve miles. All this 
 remained in the same state until Greece (or 
 Rome) obtained the mastery over it, subse¬ 
 quent to its devastation by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 But when the Greeks obtained possession of 
 it, they said, “ Let us build thereupon a 
 building far excelling that which was there 
 before.” Therefore they built upon it a 
 building as broad at the base as it was 
 high in the sky, and gilded it with gold, 
 and silvered it with silver. Then, entering 
 
558 
 
 AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 therein, they began to practise their associ¬ 
 ating Paganism, npon which it turned upside- 
 down orer them, so that not one of them 
 came out. 
 
 “ Therefore, when the Grecian (king) saw 
 this, he summoned the Patriarch and his 
 ministers (deacons), and the chiefs of Greece, 
 and said, ‘ What think ye?’ who replied, 
 1 We are of opinion that our idol-gods are 
 not well pleased, and therefore will not 
 receive ns favourably.’ Hereupon he com¬ 
 manded a second temple to be built, which 
 they did, spending a great sum thereon, and 
 having finished the second building, seventy 
 thousand entered it as they had entered the 
 first. But it happened to them as it had 
 happened to the first; when they began their 
 Paganism it turned over upon them. Now 
 their king was not with them. Therefore, 
 when he saw this, he assembled them a third 
 time, and said unto them, ‘ What think ye ? ’ 
 who said, ‘ We think that our Lord is not 
 well pleased with ns, because we have not 
 offered unto him abundantly; therefore he 
 has destroyed what we have done, therefore 
 we should greatly wish to build a third.’ 
 They then built a third, until they thougho 
 they had carried it to the greatest possible 
 height, which having done, he assembled the 
 Christians, and said unto them, ‘ Do ye 
 observe any defect?’ who said, ‘None, 
 except that we must surround it with crosses 
 of gold and silver.’ Then all the people 
 entered it, to read and cite (sacred things). 
 Having bathed and perfumed themselves, 
 and having entered it, they began to practise 
 their associating Paganism, as the others had 
 done before them; whereupon down fell the 
 third building upon them. Hereupon the 
 king again summoned them together, and 
 asked their counsel about what he should do. 
 But their dread was very great; and whilst 
 they were deliberating, there came up to 
 them a very old man, in a white robe and a 
 black turban; his back was bent double and 
 he was leaning upon a staff. So he said, 
 ‘ 0 Christian people, listen to me! listen to 
 me 1 for I am the oldest of any of you in 
 years, and have now come forth from among 
 the retired votaries of religion, in order to 
 inform you that, with respect to this place, 
 all its possessors are accursed, and all holi¬ 
 ness hath departed from it, and hath been 
 transferred to this (other) place. I will 
 therefore point out this as the place wherein 
 to build the Church of the Resurrection. I 
 will show you the spot, but you will never 
 see me after this day, for ever. Do, there¬ 
 fore, with a good will that which I shall tell 
 yon.’ Thus he cheated them, and augmented 
 their accursed state, and commanded them 
 to cut up the rock, and to build with its 
 stones upon the place which he commended 
 them. 
 
 “ So whilst he was talking with them he 
 became concealed; and they saw him no 
 more. Thereupon they increased in their 
 infidelity, and said, ‘ This is the Great 
 Word. Then they demolished the Mosques, 
 and carried away the columns and the stones, 
 
 and all the rest, and built therewith the 
 Church of the Resurrection, and the church 
 which is in the valley of Hinnon. Moreover, 
 this cursed old man commanded them, 
 ‘ When ye have finished their building upon 
 this place, then take that place whose owners 
 are accursed, and whence all holiness hath 
 departed, to be a common sewer to receive 
 your dang.’ By this they gratified their 
 Lord. Also they did this, as follows : At 
 certain seasons, all the filth and excrement 
 was sent in vessels from Constantinople, and 
 was at a certain time all thrown upon the 
 Rock, until God awoke our Prophet Mu¬ 
 hammad (the peace and blessing of God be 
 with him!), and brought him by night there¬ 
 unto ; which he did on account of its peculiar 
 consecration, and on account of the greatness 
 of its super-excellence. We learn, also, that 
 God, on the Day of Judgment, will change 
 the Sakhrah into white coral, enlarging it to 
 extend over heaven and earth. Then shall 
 men go from that Rock to heaven or hell, 
 according to that great word, ‘ There shall 
 be a time when this earth shall change into 
 another earth, and the heaven shall turn 
 white ; the soil shall be of silver; no pol¬ 
 lution shall ever dwell thereon.’ Now from 
 ‘A’ish (may the satisfying favour of God rest 
 upon him H, I said, ‘ 0 apostle of God, on 
 that day when this earth shall become an¬ 
 other earth, and this sky shall change, where 
 shall men be on that day ? ’ He replied, 
 ‘ Upon the bridge as-Sirat.’ Again, a certain 
 divine says, ‘ that in the Law, God says to 
 the Rock of the Holy Abode, “ Thou art my 
 seat; thou art near to me ; from thy founda¬ 
 tion have I raised up the heavens, and from 
 beneath thee have I stretched forth the 
 earth, and all the distant inaccessible moun¬ 
 tains are beneath thee. Who dies within 
 thee is as if he died within the world of 
 heaven, and who dies around thee is as if he 
 died within thee. Days and nights shall not 
 cease to succeed, until I send down upon 
 thee a Light of Heaven, which shall obliterate 
 all the (traces) of the infidels of the sons of 
 Adam, and all then- footsteps. Also I will 
 send upon thee the hierarchy of angels and 
 prophets ; and I will wash thee until I leave 
 thee like milk; and I will fix upon thee a 
 wall twelve miles above the thick-gathering 
 clouds of earth, and also a hedge of light. 
 By my hand will I insure to thee thy support 
 and thy virtue ; upon thee will I cause to 
 descend my spirits and my angels, to worship 
 within thee ; nor shall any one of the sons of 
 Adam enter within thee until the Day of 
 Judgment. And whosoever shall look upon 
 this chapel from afar shall say, ‘ Blessed be 
 the face of him who devoutly worships and 
 adores in thee ! ’ Upon thee will I place walls 
 of light and a hedge of thick clouds—five 
 walls of ruby and pearl.”’ Also from the 
 Book of Psalms, ‘ Great and glorious art 
 thou, thou threshing-floor ! Unto thee shall 
 be the general assemblage: from thee shall 
 all men rise from death.’ Moreover, from 
 the same author, God says to the Rock of 
 the Holy Abode, ‘ Who loveth thee, him will 
 
AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 AS-SAKHRAH 
 
 559 
 
 I love; who lovetli thee, loveth me; who 
 hateth thee, him will I hate. From year to 
 year my eyes are upon thee, nor will I forget 
 thee until I forget my eyes. Whoso prayeth 
 within thee two rak‘ahs, him will I cause to 
 cast off all his sins, and to be as guiltless as 
 I brought him from his mother’s womb, unless 
 he return to his sins, beginning them afresh.’ 
 This is also a tradition of old standing: ‘ 1 
 solemnly engage and promise to everyone 
 who dwells therein, that all the days of his 
 life the bread of coni and olive-oil never 
 shall fail him ; nor shall the days and the 
 nights fail to bring that time, when, out of 
 the supremacy of my bounty, I will cause to 
 descend upon thee the assemblage of man for 
 judgment—the whole company of risen mor¬ 
 tals.’ There is a tradition that ‘ Muqatil Ibn 
 Sulaiman came to this Temple to pray, and 
 sat by the gate looking towards the Rock ; 
 and we had assembled there in great numbers ; 
 he was reading and we were listening. Then 
 came forward ‘All Ibn al-Badawi, stamping 
 terribly with his slippers upon the pavement. 
 This greatly afflicted him, and he said to 
 those around him, “ Make an opening for me.” 
 Then the people opened on each side, and he 
 made a threatening motion with his hand to 
 warn him and prevent this stamping, saying, 
 “ Tread more gently ! That place at which 
 Muqatil is ”—pointing with his hand—“ and 
 on which thou art stamping, is the very place 
 redolent of Heaven’s breezes ; and there is not 
 a spot all around it—not a spot within its 
 precincts a hand’s-breadth square—wherein 
 some commissioned prophet, some near angel, 
 hath not prayed.” ’ Now from the mother of 
 ‘Abdu ’llah, daughter of Khalid, from her 
 mother, ‘ the moment is surely fixed, when 
 the Ka‘bah shall be led as a bride to the 
 Sakhrah. and shall hang upon her all her 
 pilgrimage merits, and become her turban.’ 
 Also it is said that the Sakhrah is the middle 
 of the Mosque; it is cut off from every 
 touching substance on all sides. No one 
 supports it but He who supports and holds 
 up the sky; so that nothing falls thence hut 
 by His good permission ; also upon the upper 
 part of the west side stood the Prophet (the 
 blessing and peace of God be with him !) on 
 the night when he rode al-Buraq. This side 
 began to shake about, from veneration of 
 him ; and upon the other side are the marks 
 of the angels’ fingers, who held it up when it 
 shook; beneath it is a deep hole cut out on 
 each side, over which is the gate opened to 
 men for prayer and devotion. ‘ I resolved,' 
 says a certain author, ‘ one day to enter it, 
 in great fear lest it should fall upon me, on 
 account of the sins I had contracted ; then, 
 however, I looked, and saw its darkness, and 
 some holy pilgrims entering it at the darkest 
 part, who came forth therefrom quite free 
 from sin. Then I began to reflect upon 
 entering. Then I said, “ Perhaps they entered 
 very slowly and leisurely, and I was too much 
 in a hurry ; a little delay may facilitate the 
 matter.” So I made up my mind to enter; 
 and entering, I saw the Wonder of Wonders, 
 the Rock supported in its position or course 
 
 on every side ; for I saw it separated from 
 the earth, so that no point of the earth 
 touched it. Some of the sides were separated 
 by a wider interval than others; also, the 
 mark of the glorious Foot is at present in a 
 stone divided from the Rock, right over 
 against it, on the other side, west of the 
 Qiblah ; it is upon a pillar. Also the Rock 
 is now almost abutting upon the side of the 
 crypt, only divided from it by that space 
 which allows room for the gate of the crypt, 
 on the side of the Qiblah. This gate, also, is 
 disjointed from the base of the Qiblah ; it is 
 between the two. Below the gate of the crypt 
 is a stone staircase, whereby one may descend 
 into the crypt. In the midst of this crypt is 
 a dark-brown leather carpet, upon which 
 pilgrims stand when they visit the foundation 
 of the Rock; it is upon the eastern side. 
 There are also columns of marble abutting 
 on the lower side upon the path of the rows 
 of trees upon the side of the Qiblah, and on 
 the other side forming buttresses to the 
 extremity of the Rock ; these are to hinder 
 it from shaking on the side of the Qiblah. 
 There are buildings besides these. There is 
 a building in the Chapel of the Rock. Be¬ 
 neath the chapel, the spot marked by the 
 angels’ fingers is in the Rock, on the western 
 side, divided from the print of the glorious 
 Foot above-mentioned, very near to it, over 
 against the western gate, at the end.’ ” (Hist. 
 Jerusalem, from the Arabic MS. of Jalalu’d- 
 dln as-Suyuti, Reynolds’ ed. 1835.) 
 
 Dr. Robinson (Biblical. Researches, vol. i. 
 p. 297) says the followers of Muhammad 
 under ‘Umar took possession of the Holy 
 City a.d 636, and the Khallfah determined 
 to erect a mosque upon the site of the Jewish 
 Temple. An account of this undertaking, as 
 given by Muslim historians, will be found in 
 the article on Jerusalem. The historians 
 of the crusades all speak of this great 
 Sakhrah as the Templum Domini, and describe 
 its form and the rock within it. (Will. Tyr., 
 8, 2, ib. 12, 7. Jac. de Vitriac, c. 62.) 
 
 Lieut. E. R. Conder, R.E., remarks that 
 the Dome of the Rock belongs to that obscure 
 period of Saracenic art, when the Arabs had 
 not yet created an ai-chitectural style of 
 their own, and when they were in the habit of 
 employing Byzantine architects to build their 
 mosques. The Dome of the Rock, Lieut. Con¬ 
 der says, is not a mosque, as it is sometimes 
 wrongly called, but a “ station ” in the outer 
 court of the Masjidu ’1-Aqsa. 
 
 We are indebted to this writer for the fol¬ 
 lowing account of the gradual growth of the 
 present building (Tent Work in Palestine, 
 vol. ii. p. 320) 
 
 “ In a.d. 831 the Caliph El Mamfin restored 
 the Dome of the Rock, and, if I am correct, 
 enclosed it -with an outer wall, and gave it its 
 present appearance. The beams in the roof 
 of the arcade bear, as above-stated, the date 
 913 a.d. ; a well-carved wooden cornice, 
 hidden by the present ceiling, must then 
 have been visible beneath them. 
 
 “In 1016 a.d. the building was partly 
 destroyed by earthquake. To this date 
 
560 
 
 as-sakkrah 
 
 ■akivah 
 
 ieltsr resttrstiens of the trigisal mtsaics 
 is the dome, as evidenced by inscriptions. 
 The treser: —: od-work of the err :1a 
 etfr.-t Hsseis. s:s the Saltan Habeas, 
 as shown by ss irstrtptits dated I T- as 
 •• The rise? rest fell into the hards of 
 the Crsssders. ~h: christened ti Terr.c'tm 
 ard established ir 1112 a-l>. a ehspter 
 of Castss. 
 
 •■The Htly Rack —as thes etet isto its 
 ■present shape ssd cowered with tsar tie slab s. 
 as altar tests erected :s it. The —trhs —ere 
 tarried ts frtst 111-5 asd. t: 1186 a.d. The 
 
 dttse ssd various fragments of t-mwed 
 
 
 parapet arthes. ssd to save .a s trs.el 
 the —htle “'t : rlsss tstsait. ss at Besme- 
 
 Arat —titers — ht sescrti-e tse Dine ti tse 
 Bock.” ~rEsr§»~.Tv.~ 
 
 > A T\ T X A TT -— A -- . A word 
 
 which e tottrs is the Qur'an ere nines. (1) 
 F or that —hits was is the Ark of the Covenant. 
 5 art h is 219: " The sign of his (Saul's) 
 kirgamt is that there shall corse to yon the 
 Ark TS: 5 1 with the saJdnak is it from yonr 
 Ltri. asd the relics that the fa mil y cf Moses 
 asd the tastily cf A arcs left, asd the angels 
 dear it.” With reference to this verse, al- 
 Baizawf. the great Muslim commentator, 
 says : -The ark here mentioned is the bos 
 containing the Bttks of Moses Arabic 
 1 r Si. sastely. fa? Tara'. :r law . which was 
 trade of b:x-v;:d asd gilded over with gold, 
 ard was three cubits l:rg ard two wide, ard 
 ir it was • the saldmk from yonr Lord,' The 
 treating :: which is. that with the Ark there 
 was f-a yttalih. ard peace, namely, the 
 71: df IBooks ;f Moses . becanse when 
 Moses went f orth t: war he always took the 
 Ark —its hits, which gave repose to the 
 hearts :f the children of IsraeL Bnt some 
 say -stair that Ark there was an idol 
 trade either of emerald or sapphire, with the 
 head asd tail of a c-at. ard ss —o wings : 
 ard that this ereatrre made a noise when 
 the Ark —as carried forth to —ar. But others 
 say tart the Ark contained images of the 
 trirhets. trim Adam to Moses. Others 
 assert that the meaning of saldnah is ‘ know¬ 
 ledge era sister::s’ 'Tellers, that the Ark 
 contained the tables of the Law. the rod of 
 Mtses. and Aarcs's turban.” (Tafstru 7- 
 IT - let's ea.. voL iL p. 128.) 
 
 - It is als: rsed is the Quran for help 
 attata or gr_:e. Surah xhiiL 26 
 ■•ITser thtse —h: misbelieved pnt in their 
 hearts parse—the pique of tgstrasce— ard 
 God sen a: - r Hw Saldnah nper His Apjcstle 
 and rp:r the believers, ard obliged them to 
 beet t: the — ::a :i piety.” Al-Baizawi 
 says that ir this verse the word saldnah 
 means the tranquillity ard repwose of sonl, 
 which is the meaning given ir all Arabic dic- 
 
 fse word :-:a-sss in. three other places in 
 a sfrr"i;T sense :— 
 
 rssss is 26 : ■ Sod sest a;—s His SaHnaA 
 sttr Has At : sale and sper the believers, 
 and sent i:st a—pies which ye corld rot see, 
 and punished thtse who did not believe.” 
 
 Sarah is. 40 : - Go i sest down His SaJdnak 
 ss :shim. asd aided '-fw with hosts.” 
 
 Surah si—hi 2: "It is He who sent down 
 the saidrah into the hearts ;f believers, that 
 they slight save faith added to faith.” 
 
 Here of she Muslim commentators seem to 
 understand that the Aral:: < , r -d.Tuah is 
 
 Test:: ! with the Hebrew Sb e d u n a k, 
 
 a term winch, althorgh not found ir the 
 Bible, has been used by the later Jews, and 
 borrowed by the Christians from them, to 
 express the visible Matesty of the Divine 
 Presence, especially wses resting or dwelling 
 between the Chembin or the Mercy Seat 
 ir the Tabernacle, ard in the Temple of 
 to 1:tats. Babbistcal writers iderttrv the 
 
SALAF 
 
 SALATU ’l-KHUSUF 561 
 
 Shechnah -with the Holy Spirit, and some 
 Christian 'writers have thought that the three¬ 
 fold expression for the Deity—the Lord, the 
 Word of the Lord, and the Shechinah —indi¬ 
 cates the knowledge of a trinity of persons 
 in the God-head. 
 
 For the Talmudic views regarding the 
 Shechinah, the English reader can refer to 
 Dr. Hershon’s Talmudic Miscellany (Triibner 
 & Co., London). 
 
 SALAF (1) Ancestors; men 
 
 of repute for piety and faith in past generations. 
 
 (2) Money lent without interest, [sal am.] 
 
 SAL AM (fA~). A contract invol¬ 
 ving an immediate payment of the price, and 
 admitting a delay in the delivery of the arti¬ 
 cles purchased. The word used in the Hadis 
 is generally salaf. In a sale of this kind, the 
 seller is called musallam i/ai-hi ; the pur¬ 
 chaser, rabbu ’ s-salam, and the goods pur¬ 
 chased, musallam-fi-hi. ( Kitabu’t-Ta‘rifdt .) 
 
 as-SALAM’ ((& -«). ‘‘The 
 
 Peace(ful) one. (1) One of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. It occurs once 
 in the Qur'an, Surah lix. 20: “ He is God, 
 than whom there is no other . . . the Peace¬ 
 ful.” Al-Baizawl explains the word as “He 
 who is free from all loss or harm ” 
 (As) j fjsai ^S). 
 
 (2) As-Saldmu ‘alai-kum f'A_SI), 1 
 
 “ The peace be on you,” the common saluta¬ 
 tion amongst Muslims. [salutation], 
 
 as-SALAT (SjL=SS , in construction 
 frequently spelled i^), pi. salawdt. ; 
 The term used in the Qur'an, as well as 
 amongst all Muslims in every part of the 
 world, for the liturgical form of prayer, j 
 which is recited five times a day, an account 
 of which is given in the article on prayer. 
 Its equivalent in Persian and Urdu is namaz, 
 which has been corrupted into nniiiz by the 
 Afghans. The word occurs with this mean- j 
 ing in the Qur'an, Surah ii. 239: “ Observe 
 th sprayers” and in very many other places. It 
 has also the meaning of prayer or supplication 
 in its general sense, e.g. Surah ix. 104: “ Pray j 
 for them, of a truth thy prayers shall assure 
 their minds.” Also blessing, e.g. Surah xxxiii. 
 
 56 : “ Yerily God and His Angels bless (not 
 “ pray for,” as rendered by Palmer) the Pro¬ 
 phet.” (See Lane’s Dictionary, in loco.') 
 
 The word salat occurs with various com¬ 
 binations used to express different periods, 
 and also special occasions of prayer. 
 
 The five stated liturgical prayers which 
 are held to be of divine institution :— 
 
 (1) Saldtu ’l-Zuhr, the meridian prayer. 
 
 (2) Saldtu ’ l-‘Asr , the afternoon prayer. 
 
 (3) Saldtu ’l-21aghrib, the sunset prayer. 
 
 (4) Saldtu ’l-‘Ishd’, the night prayer. 
 
 (5) Saldtu ’ l-Fajr, the prayer at dawn. 
 
 ( Obs. The jmidday prayer is reckoned the 
 first in order.) 
 
 Also for the three voluntary daily litur¬ 
 gical prayers:— 
 
 (1) Saldtu 'l-Ishraq, when the sun has well 
 risen. 
 
 (2) Saldtu ’l-Zuha, about 11 A.si. 
 
 (3) Saldtu 'l-Tahajjud, after midnight. 
 
 Liturgical prayers said on special occa¬ 
 sions are given below, [prayer.] 
 
 SALATU ’L-HAJAH SL>). 
 
 “ Prayer of necessity.” Four rak‘ah prayers, 
 or, according to some, twelve rak‘ahs recited 
 after the night prayer in times of necessity, 
 or trouble. (Raddu ’l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 719.) 
 
 SALATU ’L-TDAIN iU). 
 
 “Prayers of the two festivals.” The two 
 rak‘ah prayers recited on the two Muham¬ 
 madan festivals, the ‘Idu T-Fitr and the 
 ‘Idu ’1-Azha. 
 
 SALATU ’L-ISTIIfflAKAH (SIX- 
 Lit. “ Prayer for conciliat¬ 
 ing favour.” Two rak‘ahs recited for suc¬ 
 cess in an undertaking. Jabir relates that 
 Muhammad taught him Istikhdrah, and that 
 after reciting two rakmhs he should thus sup¬ 
 plicate God: “ 0 God, I seek Thy good help 
 in Thy great wisdom. I pray for ability to 
 act through Thy power. I ask this thing of 
 thy goodness. Thou knowest, but I know 
 not. Thou art powerful, but I am not. Thou 
 art knower of secrets. O God, if Thou 
 knowest that the matter which I am about 
 to undertake is good for my religion, for my 
 fife, for my future, then make it easy, and 
 prosper me in it. But if it is bad for my 
 religion, my life, and my future, then put it 
 away from me, and show me what is good.” 
 {Mishkat, book iv. 40.) 
 
 SALATU ’L - ISTISQA’ (SIX- 
 Aa~juAl), from saqy, “Watering.” 
 Two rak‘ah prayers recited in the time of 
 dearth. 
 
 SALATU ’L - JIXAZAH (fflU 
 
 &_11). The funeral service. 
 
 [BURIAL OF THE DEAD, JTSAZAH.J 
 
 SALATU ’L-JUM‘AH S5X-). 
 
 Lit. “ The prayer of assembly.” The Friday 
 Prayer. It consists of two rak‘ahs recited 
 at the time of zuhr, or midday prayer on 
 Friday, [fridat, khutbah.] 
 
 SALATU ’L-KHAUF (<—H!^=). 
 
 The “Prayers of Fear.” Two rak‘ahs of 
 prayers recited first by one regiment and 
 then by another in time of war, when the 
 usual prayers cannot be recited for fear of 
 the enemy. These prayers are founded upon 
 an injunction in the Qur’an, Surah iv. 102: 
 “ And when ye go to war in the land, it shall 
 , be no sin for you to curtail your prayers, if ye 
 ! fear that the enemy come upon you.” This was 
 also the Talmudic law ( Tr. Berachoth iv. 4) : 
 “ He that goeth in a dangerous place may 
 pray a short prayer.” 
 
 SALATU ’L-KHTUSUF (S2u- 
 Prayers said at an eclipse 
 of the moon, consisting of two rak‘ahs of 
 prayer ( Mishkat, book iv. eh. li.) 
 
 71 
 
562 SALATU ’l-kusuf 
 
 SALATU ’L-KUSUF fiU). 
 
 Prayers at an eclipse of the sun, consisting 
 of two rak‘ahs of prayer. ( Mishkat, book iv. 
 ch. li.) 
 
 SALATU ’L-MARlZ iU). 
 
 “ Prayer of the sick.” When a person is 
 too sick to stand up in the usual prayers, he 
 is allowed to recite them either in a reclining 
 or sitting posture, provided he performs the 
 usual ablutions. It is ruled that he shall in 
 such a case make the prostrations, &c., men¬ 
 tally. ( Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 891.) 
 
 SALATU ’L-WITR «U). 
 
 The Witr prayers. The word witr means 
 either a unit, or an odd number, and is used 
 for either a single or odd number of rak‘ah 
 prayers recited after the evening prayer 
 (‘isha’). (Mislikat, book iv. ch. xxxvi.) 
 
 There is considerable controversy amongst 
 the learned doctors as to whether it is farz, 
 ivajib, or sunncih, but it is generally held to 
 be sunnah, i.e. founded on the example of the 
 Prophet, but with no divine command. 
 Amongst the Hanafi sect, it is also known as 
 Qunutu 'l- Witr, but the Shafids recite the 
 Q,uniit separately. 
 
 SALATU ’R-RAUHATB (SSl- 
 s-'Acjll). “A prayer for things de¬ 
 sired.” Two rak‘ah prayers recited by one 
 who desires some object in this world. Ac¬ 
 cording to the orthodox, it is forbidden in 
 Islam. (Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 717.) It 
 is recited by some persons in the first week 
 of the month Rajab. 
 
 SALATU ’S-SAFAR (yU\ SSu,). 
 
 “ Prayers of travel.” A shortened recital of 
 prayer allowed to travellers. It is founded 
 on a tradition by Ya‘la ibn Umaiyah, who 
 says, “I said to ‘Umar, ‘God hath said, 
 “ When ye go to war in the land, it shall be 
 no sin for you to shorten your prayers if ye 
 fear that the infidels may attack you”; but 
 now verily we are safe in this journey, and 
 yet we shorten our prayers.’ ‘Umar replied, 
 
 ‘ I also wondered at the thing that astonished 
 you; but the Prophet said, God hath done 
 you a kindness in curtailing your prayers, 
 therefore accept it, Ibn ‘Umar says, ‘ I tra¬ 
 velled with the Prophet, and he did not say 
 more than two rak'ahs of prayer, and Abu 
 Bakr and ‘Umar and ‘Usman did the same.’ 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says, ‘ The Prophet used to say 
 on a journey the noon and afternoon prayer 
 together, and the sunset and evening prayer 
 together.’ ” (Mishlcat, book iv. ch. xlii.) 
 
 The established prayers for a traveller are, 
 therefore, two rak'ahs instead of the four farz 
 rak'ahs at the noon and afternoon and even¬ 
 ing prayers, and the usual two farz at the 
 morning and the usual three farz at the sun¬ 
 set prayers; all voluntary prayers being 
 omitted. (Raddu 'l-Muhtar, vol. i. p. 821.) 
 
 SALATU ’T-TAEAWIH (S!L- 
 “ Prayer of rest.” So called 
 because of the pause or rest made for ejacu- 
 
 SAL1H 
 
 lations between every four rak'ahs. OAbau 
 
 I'-Haqq .) 
 
 Twenty rak‘ah prayers recited after the night 
 prayer during the month of Ramazan. They 
 are often followed with recitations known as 
 zilcrs [zikr], and form an exciting service of 
 devotion. The Imam recites the Tarawlh 
 prayers with a loud voice. 
 
 Abu Hurairah says : “ The Prophet used 
 to encourage people to say night prayers in 
 Ramazan without ordering them positively, 
 and would say, ‘ He who stands up in prayer 
 at night, for the purpose of obtaining reward, 
 will have all his sins pardoned ’; then the 
 Prophet died, leaving the prayers of Ramazan 
 in this way.” It is said ‘Umar instituted the 
 present custom of reciting the twenty rak‘ahs.” 
 (Mishkat, book iv. ch. xxxviii.) [ramazan.] 
 
 SALATU ’T-TASBlH &o). 
 
 “ Prayer of praise.” A form of prayer 
 founded on the following tradition related by 
 Ibn ‘Abbas, who says :— 
 
 “ Verily the Prophet said to my father, ‘ 0 
 ‘Abbas ! 0 my uncle ! shall I not give to you, 
 shall I not present unto you, shall I not in¬ 
 form you of a thing which covers acts of sin? 
 When you perform it, God will forgive your 
 sins, your former sins, and your latter sins, 
 and those sins which you did unknowingly, 
 and those which you did knowingly, your 
 great sins, and your small sins, your disclosed 
 sins and your concealed sins ? It is this, 
 namely, that you recite four rak'ahs of 
 prayer, and in each rak‘ah recite the Fatihatu 
 'l-Kitab (i.e. the Introductory chapter of 
 the Qur’an), and some other Surah of 
 the Qur’an; and when you have recited 
 these portions of the Qur’an in the position 
 of Qiyam, then say, “ Holiness to God ! ” (Sub- 
 hdna'lldhi), and “Praise be to God 1 ” (Wa 
 'l-Hamdu li-llahi), and “ There is no deity 
 but God 1 ” ( Wa Id Ildha ilia huiva), and “ God 
 is most great! ’’ ( Wa 'lld.hu Akbar ), fifteen 
 times. Then perform a ruku‘ and recite it 
 ten times; then raise up your head and 
 say it ten times, then make the sajdah and 
 say it ten times ; then raise your head and say 
 it ten times ; then make another sajdah, and 
 say it ten times, then raise your head again 
 and say it ten times ; altogether seventy-five 
 times in every rak‘ah ; and do this in each of 
 the rak‘ah. If you are able to say this form 
 of prayer every day, then do so, but if not, 
 do it once every Friday, and if not each week, 
 then say it once a month, and if not once a 
 month, then say it once a year, and if not once 
 a year, then do it once in your lifetime.’” 
 (Mishkat, book iv. ch. xli.) 
 
 The foregoing is a striking illustration of 
 the mechanical character of the Muslim reli¬ 
 gion as regards its system of devotion 
 [zikr.] 
 
 SALE, The Law of. [bai‘.] 
 
 SALIB Or-sE). “A crucifix; a 
 
 cross.” [cross.] 
 
 §ALIH °). A prophet men¬ 
 
 tioned in the Qur’an (Surah vii. 71), who was 
 sent to the tribes ‘Ad and Sjamud. Al- 
 
SALTS 
 
 Baizawi says he was the son of ‘Ubaid, the 
 son of Asaf, the son of Masih, the son of 
 ‘Ubaid, the son of Hazir, the son of Samud. 
 Bochart thinks he must be the Pileg of 
 Genesis xi. 16. D’Herbelot makes him the 
 Salah of Genesis xi. 13. 
 
 The following is the account of him in the 
 Qur’an, with the commentators’ remarks in 
 italics (see Lane’s Selections 2nd ed., by Mr. 
 Stanley Lane Poole):— 
 
 “ And }Ve sent unto the tribe of Thamood 
 their brother Salih. He said, O my people, 
 worship God. Ye have no other deity than 
 Him. A miraculous proof of my veracity hath 
 come unto you from your Lord, this she- 
 camel of God being a sign unto you. \_He 
 had caused her, at their demand, to come forth 
 f rom the heart of a rock. ] Therefore let her 
 feed in God’s earth, and do her no harm, lest 
 a painful punishment seize you. And remem¬ 
 ber how He hath appointed you vicegerents 
 in the earth after [the tribe of] ’A'd, and 
 given you a habitation in the earth: ye 
 make yourselves, on its plains, pavilions 
 wherein ye dwelt in summer , and cut the moun¬ 
 tains into houses wherein ye dwelt in winter. 
 Remember then the benefits of God, and do 
 not evil in the earth, acting corruptly.—The 
 chiefs who were elated with pride, among his 
 people, said unto those who were esteemed 
 weak, namely, to those who had believed 
 among them, Do ye know that Salih hath been 
 sent unto this ? And they hamstrung the she- 
 camel ( Kudar [the son of Salif] doing so by 
 their order and slaying her with the sword) ; 
 and they impiously transgressed the com¬ 
 mand of their Lord, and said, 0 Salih, bring 
 upon us that punishment with which thou 
 threatenest us for killing her, if thou be [one] 
 of the apostles. And the violent convulsion 
 (a great earthquake, and a cry from heaven ) 
 assailed them, and in the morning they were 
 in their dwellings prostrate and dead. So he 
 turned away from them, and said, 0 my 
 people, I have brought unto you the message 
 of my Lord and given you faithful counsel; 
 but ye loved not faithful counsellors.” 
 (Surah vii. 71-77.) 
 
 SALIK Lit. “A tra¬ 
 
 veller.” A term used by the mystics for a 
 devotee, or one who has started on the hea¬ 
 venly journey, [sufi.] 
 
 SALSABlL (Jm-JL). Lit. “The 
 
 softly flowing. A fountain in Paradise, 
 mentioned in the Qur’an in Surah lxxvi. 19, 
 and from which the Muslims in heaven are 
 said to drink. “ A spring therein named 
 Salsabil, and there shall go round about 
 them immortal boys.” 
 
 SALUTATIONS. Arabic as-saldm 
 (j.A-Ji), “ peace.” Heb. 
 
 shalom, the act of giving the prayer 
 
 of peace ; pi. taslimdt. The duty of giving 
 and returning a salutation is founded on ex¬ 
 press injunctions in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah xxiv. 61 : “ When ye enter houses, | 
 
 SALUTATIONS 563 
 
 then greet each other with a salutation from 
 God, the Blessed and the Good.” 
 
 Surah iv. 88: “When ye are saluted with 
 a salutation, salute ye with a better than it, 
 or return the same salutation.” 
 
 ‘All says that Muhammad established it as 
 an incumbent duty that one Muslim should 
 salute another. [fitrah.] The ordinary 
 salutations of the Muslim is “ as-Salamu ‘alai- 
 kum,” i.e. “ The peace be on you.” And the 
 usual reply is “ Wa ‘alai-kum as-saldm," i.e. 
 “ And on you also be the peace.” 
 
 The supposed origin of this salutation is 
 given in a tradition by Abu Hurairah, who 
 relates that the Prophet said:— 
 
 “ God created Adam in his own likeness, 
 and his stature was sixty cubits ; and God 
 said to Adam, ‘ Go and salute that party of 
 angels who are sitting down, and listen 
 to their answer; for verily it shall be the 
 salutation and reply for you and your chil¬ 
 dren.’ Adam then went and said to the 
 angels, ‘ as-Salamu ’•alai-kum' i.e. ‘ The peace 
 be on you,’ and the angels replied, ‘ as- 
 Salamu ‘alaika wa rahmatu 'lldhi,' i.e. ‘ The 
 peace be on thee, and the mercy of God.’ ” 
 
 This form is now usually given in reply 
 by devout persons. (Sahihu '/-Bukhari, 
 p. 919.) 
 
 Muhammad instructed his people as follows 
 regarding the use of the salutation:— 
 
 “ The person riding must salute one on 
 foot, and he who is walking must salute those 
 who are sitting, and the small must salute 
 the larger, and the person of higher degree 
 the lower. It is therefore a religious duty 
 for the person of high degree, when meet¬ 
 ing one of a lower degree; the giving of the 
 Salam being regarded as a benediction. For,” 
 says Muhammad, “ the nearest people to God 
 are those who salute first. When a party is 
 passing, it is sufficient if one of them give the 
 salutation, and, in like manner, it is sufficient 
 if one of the party return it of those sitting 
 down.” 
 
 The Jews in the time of Muhammad seem 
 to have made the salutation a subject of an¬ 
 noyance to Muhammad ; for it is related when 
 they went to the Prophet they used to say, 
 
 “ As-sammu ‘alai-ka,” “ On you be poison.” 
 To which the Prophet always replied, “ Wa 
 ‘alai-ka,” “ And on you.” 
 
 Usamah ibn Zaid says: “The Prophet 
 once passed a mixed assembly of Muslim 
 polytheists, idolaters, and Jews, and he gave 
 the salutation, but he meant it only for the 
 Muslims.” 
 
 Jarir relates that on one occasion the Pro¬ 
 phet met a party of women, and gave them 
 the salutation. But this is contrary to the 
 usual practice of Muhammadans ; and ‘Abdu 
 ’1-Haqq, in his commentary on this tradition, 
 says: “ This practice was peculiar to the 
 Prophet, for the laws of Islam forbid a man 
 saluting a woman unless she is old.” 
 
 In the East it is usual to raise the right 
 hand (the raising of the left hand being dis¬ 
 respectful, as it is the hand used for legal 
 ablutions) when giving the Salam, but this 
 custom, common though it be, is not in ae- 
 
564 
 
 SALVATION 
 
 SARACEN 
 
 cordance with the traditions. For ‘Amr ibn 
 Shu'aib relates, from his fore-fathers, that 
 the Prophet said, “ He is not of us who likens 
 himself to another. Do not copy the Jews 
 or the Christians in your salutation. For a 
 Jew’s salutation is by raising his fingers, and 
 the Christians salute with the palm of the 
 hand. ( Mishkat , book xxii. ch. i.) 
 
 In Central Asia, the salutation is generally 
 given without any motion of the body, in 
 accordance with the above tradition. 
 
 SALVATION. The Arabic word 
 najdt (SW-')> “ salvation,” only occurs 
 once in the Qur’an, namely, Surah xl. 44: 
 “ 0 my people I how is it that I bid you to 
 salvation, but that ye bid me to the fire ? ” 
 Nor is the word generally used in Muslim 
 works of divinity, although the orthodox sect 
 of Muslims claims for itself the title of Naji- 
 yah, or those who are being saved. 
 
 The word inaghfirah, “ forgiveness,” is fre¬ 
 quently used in the Qur’an to express what 
 Christians understand by “salvation”; also 
 Islam, Iman, and Din, words which express 
 the idea of a state of salvation. 
 
 According to Islam, a man obtains salva¬ 
 tion by a recital of the Kalimah, or creed ; 
 but if/he be an evil doer, he will suffer the 
 pains of a purgatorial fire until his sins are 
 atoned for ; whilst he who has not accepted 
 the Muslim creed will endure the pains of 
 everlasting punishment, [hell.] 
 
 as-SAMAD “ The Eternal.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. It occurs once in the Qur’an, Surah 
 cxii. : “ God the Eternal.” 
 
 In its original meaning, it implies a lord, 
 because one repairs to him in exigencies ; or 
 when applied to God, because affairs are 
 stayed or rested on Him. Hence, according 
 to al-Muhkam, in loco, and the Lisanu ’/-‘Arab, 
 it signifies the Being that continues for ever— 
 the Eternal One. 
 
 SAMAHAH (<LA*~>). [benefi¬ 
 cence.] 
 
 SAMARITAN, [as-samiri.] 
 as-SAMP “TheHearer.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine names or attributes of 
 God. The word frequently occurs in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 as-SAMIRI Mentioned 
 
 in the Qur’an (Surah xx. 87: “As-Samiri 
 has led them astray”) as the person who 
 made the golden calf for the Children of 
 Israel. In Professor Palmer’s translation, it 
 is rendered “ the Samaritan,” which is ac¬ 
 cording to al-Baizawi, who says his name 
 was Musa ibn Zafar, of the tribe of Samari¬ 
 tans. [moses.] 
 
 SAMUEL. Arabic Islimawil 
 or Shamwil ; Heb. 
 
 referred to in the Qur’an (Surah ii. 247) as 
 “ the prophet ” to whom the Children of 
 
 Israel said, “ Raise for us a King, and we 
 will fight for him in God’s way.” 
 
 Husain, the commentator, says^ it is not 
 quite certain who he was. He was either 
 Yusha 1 ibn Nun, or Sham'un ibn Safiya, or 
 Ishmawil. ( Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 65.) 
 
 The Kamalan give his name as Shamwil, 
 but say it was originally Isma’il, and that the 
 meaning is the same. 
 
 SAN‘A’ (eUa-=). A city in al- 
 
 Yaman, the Viceroy of which, Abrahatu ’1- 
 Ashram, an Abyssinian Christian, marched 
 with a large army and some elephants upon 
 Makkah, with the intention of destroying the 
 Temple (see Qur’an, Surah cv.) in the year 
 Muhammad was born. Hence the year was 
 known as that of the Elephant. 
 
 SANAD (au*). Lit. “ That on 
 
 which one rests, as a pillar or cushion.” An 
 authority ; a document; a warrant. A term 
 used in Muslim law. 
 
 SANAM °), pi. asndm. The 
 
 word used in the Qur’an for an idol, e.g. 
 Surah xiv. 38 : “ Turn me and my sons away 
 from serving idols ” [idols.] 
 
 SANCTUARY. The Prophet for¬ 
 bade putting a murderer to death in a 
 mosque, but he may be taken by force from 
 the mosque and slain outside the building. 
 The same rule applies to persons guilty of 
 theft. ( Mishkat, book iv. ch. viii.) 
 
 The custom of sanctuary was derived^from 
 the Levitical law of refuge. The six cities being 
 established as cities of refuge for the invo¬ 
 luntary manslayor. The altar of burnt offer¬ 
 ings was also a place of refuge for those who 
 had undesignedly committed smaller offences. 
 (Deut. xix. 11, 12; Joshua xx.) According 
 to Lecky ( European Morals, vol. ii. p. 42), 
 the right of sanctuary was possessed by the 
 Imperial statues and by the Pagan temples. 
 Bingham ( Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 554) says it 
 seems to have been introduced into the Chris¬ 
 tian Church by Constantine. 
 
 SANDALS, [shoes.] 
 
 SAQAR “ A scorching 
 
 heat.” According to the commentator, al- 
 Baghawl it is the special division of hell set 
 apart for the Magi. It is mentioned thus in 
 the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah liv. 48: “ Taste ye the touch of 
 saqar .” 
 
 Surah lxxiv. 26 : “ I will broil him in saqar ! 
 And what shall make thee know what saqar 
 is ? ” It leaveth nought and spareth nought, 
 blackening the skin of man. 
 
 SARACEN. A term used by 
 
 Christian writers for the followers of Muham¬ 
 mad, and applied not only to the Arabs, but 
 to the Turks and other Muslim nations. 
 
 There is much uncertainty as to the origin 
 of this word. The word ^apaKgvos was 
 used by Ptolemy and Pliny, and also by Am- 
 mianus and Procopius, for certain Oriental 
 tribes, long before the death of Muhammad 
 
SABAH 
 
 SAUL 
 
 565 
 
 (see Gibbon). Some etymologists derive it 
 from the Arabic sharq, “ the rising sun, the 
 East’’(see Wedgwood’s Diet). Others from 
 sahra', “ a desert,”—the people of the desert 
 (see Webster). Gibbon thinks it may be from 
 the Arabic saraqah, “ theft,” denoting the 
 thievish character of the nation; whilst some 
 have even thought it may be derived from 
 Sarah the wife of the Patriarch Abraham. 
 
 SARAH. Arabic Sarah (SjbQ, Heb. 
 mil?, Greek Sappa. Abraham’s wife. 
 Not mentioned by name in the Qur’an, but re¬ 
 ferred to in Surah xi. 74 : “ And his wife was 
 standing by laughing, and We gave her the 
 glad tidings of Isaac, and of Jacob after 
 Isaac.” 
 
 SARAQAH [theft.] 
 
 SARF (•-i/ 5 ). (1) A term used 
 
 for a special kind of sale or exchange. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Hidayah, bavu ’?-sarf , or ?arf 
 sale, means a pure sale, of which the articles 
 opposed to each other in exchange are both 
 representatives of price, as gold for gold or 
 silver for silver. (See Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 vol. ii. p. 551.) 
 
 (2) That part of grammar which relates to 
 the declining of nouns and the conjugating of 
 verbs. 
 
 SARlH (ei/®). Explicit or clear. 
 
 A term used in Muslim law for that which is 
 express in contradistinction to that which is 
 kinayah,[or implied. For example, the Talaqu 
 ’§-sarih, is an explicit form of divorce, whilst 
 Talaqu 'l-kindyah is an implied form of 
 divorce, as when a man says to his wife, 
 “ Thou art free.” 
 
 SARIQ (jjU). A thief, [theft.] 
 SATAN. Arabic Shaitan 
 
 [devil.] 
 
 SATR (yt»). A curtain or veil. 
 A term used for the seclusion of women, 
 called also hi jab. In the Traditions it is 
 used for necessary and decent attire, babu ’s- 
 satr being a special chapter in the Mishkatu 
 ’l-Masdbifi (book iv. ch. ix.). The satr for a 
 man being from the waist to the knee, and 
 for a free woman from the neck to the feet; 
 but for a slave girl from the waist to the knee 
 as in the case of a man. That part of the 
 body which must be so covered is called 
 ‘aurah or ‘aurat, “ shame or modesty,” from 
 which the Hindustani word, ‘aurat, “ a 
 woman,” is derived, [harim. women.] 
 
 SATTUQAH (fcyt-). Base coin. 
 
 The term is used for a coin which is current 
 amongst merchants, but is not received at the 
 public treasury. Goins in which the pure 
 metal predominates are not considered base. 
 (See Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. ii. p. 560.) 
 
 SATJDAH One of the 
 
 wives of Muhammad. She was the widow of 
 Sakran, a Quraish, and one of the early com¬ 
 panions of the Prophet. Muhammad mar¬ 
 
 ried her within two months of the death of 
 Khadiiah. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, now ed. 
 p. 117.) She died a.h. 55. 
 
 SAUL. Arabic Talut Heb. 
 
 Shaool. King of Israel. Mentioned 
 
 T 
 
 in the Qur’an as a king raised up of God to 
 reign over Israel, to whom was given an ex¬ 
 cellent degree of knowledge and personal 
 appearance. 
 
 The following is the account given of Saul 
 in the Qur’an, with Mr. Lane’s rendering of 
 the commentator’s remarks in italics. (Mr. 
 Stanley Lane Poole’s 2nd Ed.) 
 
 “ Hast thou not considered the assembly 
 of the children of Israel after the death of 
 Moses, when they said unto a prophet of 
 theirs, namely Samuel, Set up for us a king, 
 under whom we will fight in the way of God ? 
 He said unto them, If fighting be prescribed 
 as incumbent on you, will ye, peradventure, 
 abstain from fighting ? They replied, And 
 wherefore should we not fight in the way of 
 God, since we have been expelled from our 
 habitations and our children by their having 
 been taken prisoners and slain?—The people of 
 Goliath [Jaloot] had done thus unto them .—- 
 But when fighting was commanded them, 
 they turned back, excepting a few of them, 
 who crossed the river with Said. And God 
 knoweth the offenders. And the prophet 
 begged his Lord to send a king ; whereupon he 
 consented to send Saul. And their prophet 
 said unto them, Verily God hath set up Saul 
 as your king. They said, How shall he have 
 the dominion over us, when we are more 
 worthy of the dominion than he, ( for he was 
 not of the royal lineage, nor of the prophetic, 
 and he was a tanner, or a tender of flocks or 
 herds,) and he hath not been endowed with 
 ample wealth ? He replied, Verily God hath 
 chosen him as king over you, and increased 
 him in largeness of knowledge and of body, 
 (for he was the wisest of the children of Israel 
 at that time, and the most comely of them, and 
 the most perfect of them in make,) and God 
 giveth his kingdom unto whom He pleaseth ; 
 and God is ample in His beneficence, knowing 
 with, respect to him who is worthy of the king¬ 
 dom.— And their prophet said unto them, 
 when they demanded of him a sign in proof of 
 his kingship. Verily the sign of his kingship 
 shall be that the ark shall come unto you (in 
 it were the images of the prophets : God sent it 
 down unto Adam, and it passed into their pos¬ 
 session ; but the Amalekites took it from them 
 by force : and they used to seek victory thereby 
 over their enemy, and to advance it in the fight, 
 and to trust in it, as He—whose name be 
 exalted!—hath said) ; therein is tranquillity 
 [sakinah] from your Lord, and relics of what 
 the family of Moses and the family of Aaron 
 have left: namely, the two shoes (or sandals) 
 of Moses, and his rod, and the turban of 
 Aaron, and a measure of the manna that used 
 to descend upon them, and the fragments of 
 the tables [of the Law]: the angels shall 
 bear it. Verily in this shall be a sign unto 
 you of his kingship, if ye be believers. Accord- 
 
566 
 
 SAUM 
 
 SEA 
 
 ingly the angels bore it between heaven and 
 earth, while they looked at it, until they placed 
 it by Saul; whereupon they acknowledged his 
 kingship, and hastened to the holy war ; and 
 he chose of their young men seventy thousand. 
 
 “ And when Saul went forth with the 
 troops from Jerusalem, and it was violently 
 hot weather, aud they demanded of him water, 
 he said, Verily God will try yon by a river, 
 that the obedient among you, and the diso¬ 
 bedient, may appear, (and it was between the 
 Jordan and Palestine ), and whoso drinketh 
 thereof, he is not of my party (but he who 
 tasteth not thereof, he is of my party), 
 excepting him who takes forth a draught in 
 his hand, and is satisfied therewith, not 
 adding to it; for he is of my party; —then 
 they drank thereof abundantly, excepting a 
 few of them, who were content only with the 
 handful of water. It is related that it sufficed 
 them for their own drinking and for their 
 beasts, and they were three hundred and some¬ 
 what more than ten. And when he had passed 
 over it, he and those who believed with him, 
 they said, We have no power to-day to con¬ 
 tend against Goliath and his troops. And 
 they were cowardly, and passed not over it. 
 They who held it as certain that they should 
 meet God at the resurrection (and they were 
 those who had passed over it) said, How many 
 a small body of men hath overcome a great 
 body by the permission (or will) of God! 
 And God is with the patient, to defend and 
 aid. —And when they went forth to battle 
 against Goliath and his troops, they said, O 
 our Lord, pour upon us patience, and make 
 firm our feet, by strengthening our hearts for 
 the holy war, and help us against the unbe¬ 
 lieving people !—And they routed them by 
 the permission (or will) of God, and David, 
 who was in the army of Saul, slew Goliath.” 
 (Surah ii. 247-252.) 
 
 SAUM ( rr ). “Fasting.” The 
 
 usual Arabic term used for this religious act 
 whether during the Ramazan or at any other 
 time. Its equivalent in Persian is rozah. 
 
 [FASTING, RAMAZAN.] 
 
 SAUMU ’T-TATAWWU‘ ( r ,-o 
 A voluntary fast other than 
 the month of Ramazan. 
 
 SAUT 6=y~). [dirrah.] 
 
 SAWAB “ Recompense ; 
 
 reward ”; e.g. Qur’an, Surah iii. 195 : “ A re¬ 
 ward from God; for God, with Him are the 
 best rewards.'” 
 
 as-SAWADU ’L-A‘ZAM 
 
 Lit. “The exalted multi¬ 
 tude.” A term used in the Traditions and in 
 Muslim theology for the Assembly of God, or 
 the congregation of faithful men, or for a 
 large majority. 
 
 SAWA’IM pi. of Sd'imah. 
 
 Flocks and herds which are grazing and for 
 which zakat must be collected, [zazat.] 
 
 SCHOOLS. Arabic mdktab (s~^), 
 pi. makdtib; madrasah (A-)-^*), pi. 
 madaris. According to Muslim law, all edu¬ 
 cation should be carried on in connection 
 with religious instruction, and consequently 
 schools are generally attached to mosques 
 [education.] 
 
 SCRIPTURE, HOLY. The ex¬ 
 pression, “ Holy Scripture,” is rendered in 
 Persian by Pak Nawishtah (AxAy dHj), “the 
 Holy Writing,” its equivalent in Arabic being 
 al-Kitabu ’l-Muqaddas (^Aiull ■. ),“ the 
 
 Holy Book,” or Kalamu 'Hah (Alii 
 Word of God.” These terms, whilst they are 
 generally understood by Muslims to refer to 
 the Qur’an, more correctly include all books 
 acknowledged by Muhammadans to be the 
 Word of God. They profess to receive all the 
 Jewish Scripture and the New Testament as 
 well as the Qur’an as the revealed Word of 
 God. [prophets, inspiration.] 
 
 SCULPTURE. Arabic ansdb 
 (v^). The making of carved, 
 graven, or sculptured figures, is understood 
 to be forbidden in the Qur’an under the term 
 sanam Or” 5 )’ “ an idol ” (see Surah xiv. 38) ; 
 also in Surah v. 92: “Verily wine, and 
 games of chance, and statues (ansab), and 
 divining arrows, are an abomination of Satan’s 
 device.” 
 
 Consequently sculpture is not allowed ac¬ 
 cording to Muslim law, although ar-Raghib 
 says a sanam is that which diverts the mind 
 from God. 
 
 SEA. Arabic bahr “The 
 
 sea,” al-bahr, is a term applied in the Qur’an 
 to the Red Sea, known amongst Muhamma¬ 
 dans as the Bahru ’l-Qidzum. [red sea.] 
 Surahs ii. 47 ; vii. 134. “ The ships that sail 
 
 like mountains in the sea,” are amongst the 
 “ signs ” of God. (See Surah xlii. 31.) In 
 Surah lii. 6, Muhammad swears by “ the 
 swelling sea.” In Surah xvii. 68 : “ It is the 
 Lord who drives the ships for you in the sea, 
 that ye may seek after plenty from Him.” In 
 Surah xviii. 109, it occurs as an illustration 
 of the boundless character of the Word of 
 God. “ Were the sea ink for the words of 
 my Lord, the sea would surely fail before the 
 words of my Lord fail; aye, though we 
 brought as much ink again.” 
 
 In Muhammadan works, in the Traditions 
 and commentaries, the Arabic bahr is used 
 for large rivers, as the Euphrates and the 
 
 Nile, in the same sense as the Hebrew O ' 1 
 
 T 
 
 yam (but the word nahr, Hebrew 
 
 nahar, occurs in the Qur’an for “ rivers ”). 
 
 It is related that Muhammad said, “ Let 
 none but three classes of people cross the sea 
 (for it has fire under it which causes its 
 troubled motion), namely, (1) those who per¬ 
 form the Hajj, or ‘ Pilgrimage ’; (2) those 
 who make the ‘umrah, or ‘ visitation ’; (3) 
 those who go forth to war.” ( Majma‘u ’l- 
 Bihar, vol. i. p. 76.) 
 
STJ.L 07 PROPHECY 
 
 77 ITS *17 ISLaM 567 
 
 .ae ::Z:-=Ar are Ae ~a~as c: Ae seas 
 
 ctrrretn is V ~ '~ -- ~ - - AaeraTtre -— 
 
 t—a '.-A _: : • Ae r:-..z. : _i „ 
 
 Oe»=a-. 
 
 A.-TAt-s 7-Arzzzz. Ae 37‘7 :r 3 -t— - 
 
 Sea. 
 
 Al-BrnK 'b -Jr'£:. Ae 3Ae :r Persia:. 
 
 7 -7 - : :: : -5: 
 
 tie Bed Sea. 
 
 A-TAA* "i-Iic. Ae Sea :f Z:t cr I*ead 
 
 Sea. 
 
 AISa-'-s '.-Khz-. Ae sea ::" Ae 
 
 C ast At Sea 
 
 SEAL OF PEOPHECY. Ka 
 
 ' :-.V : - ' _a A ~ It :: 
 
 is saii to Are bees it ZAe seal tAA. 
 a: ::riAg 7: ue treZAras :: tie SirAares. 
 r art ei \ f -- -t - t_z An - Seal zz tt_e ?r:- 
 
 ; -' ' • 
 
 : -IS ' : ; __ ‘ :-ii 
 
 Ae sire :i Ae ksofc :: a AiAl i-izzzzj. 
 CAers saj n »i- Ae sAe :: a zig&zAi err 
 cr iTj; Ae sire c-i a i:sei A. 
 
 Smash -Aidr. P-Hat: saar A ^as a rie:e 
 cf I;;A -rerj :Ae A arrearage. aai 
 
 iasenbed Tiziim A. • God as ass ari. As a: 
 
 Associate.'' 
 
 Aid A~-i~. -=A:se -a-ere = r~- - A 
 
 trferei to r—rre A Arr Aiirra: 
 
 err; 
 
 .. .. ~-iS- 
 
 AZ.ZSZZ 
 
 re:: as 
 
 rensea. s^jerr. 
 
 A tarsi it -=Asre h A' 
 
 Arss gtst Astr::Ift:si seA e:L :A:A : 
 Aere •='as • ::Ien:t :: ~~ rt :r Ae rtot. 
 See VAr. - j-=- j,f- r. 5-=i_ 
 
 •At-A P-Haqq A: says A Asatrteared 
 A:rt Ae PrtAets lark =i:At retire A 
 
 it er:—- 
 
 ?.?r~er:e. 
 
 SECTS or ISLAM. AtEa-A:^ 
 -Tj . pL v~js. ZI~.- is ie- 
 
 _s:ea t: a 
 —:Ai. :e 
 
 trrbeZei A 
 
 
 se-etitj-—: sears. art —7 rerr.e 
 A A lei A: se-enj-Aree. 3~erj ::e A 
 Aese setts —Z r: to HZ ssrstr : a: sett-' 
 Tie d—rartrtas stti, 0 PrapAet. AAA A 
 A: ; ~ He said - ~Ae rZAitr. AH ts rrt- 
 ressed :t —e ari =7 I irr.raArrs. ' IS\sl- 
 c. £t. roci L A. A rt. A' 
 
568 
 
 SECTS OF ISLAM 
 
 SECTS OF ISLAM 
 
 5. Zaidiyah , who hold that prayers can 
 only be led by a descendant of ‘All. 
 
 6. ‘Abbaslyah, who say al-‘Abbas, the 
 uncle of Muhammad, was the only rightful 
 Imam. 
 
 7. Imamiyah, who state that the world is 
 never left without an Imam of the Banu 
 Hashim to lead the prayers. 
 
 8. Ndrislyah, who say it is blasphemy for 
 one person to say he is better than another. 
 
 9. Tanasukhiyah. who believe in the trans¬ 
 migration of souls. 
 
 10. LaHniyah. those who curse the names 
 of Talhah, Zubair, and ‘Ayishah. 
 
 11. Raji‘lyah, who believe that ‘All is 
 hidden in the clouds and will return again to 
 this earth. 
 
 12. Murtaziyah, who say it is lawful for 
 a Muslim to fight against his Imam. 
 
 II.—The Kh arinyah, “ the Aliens,” who 
 are divided into— 
 
 1. Azraqiyah, who say there is- no holy 
 vision now to be obtained by the sons of men, 
 as the days of inspiration are past. 
 
 2. Riyaziyah, who say a man is saved by 
 good works, and not by faith. 
 
 3. Sa‘lablyah, who say God is indifferent 
 to the actions of men, as though He were in 
 a state of sleep. 
 
 4. Jazimlyah, who hold true faith has not 
 yet been made evident. 
 
 5. Khalfiyah, who say to run away even 
 from double the number of infidels is a mortal 
 sin for Muslims. 
 
 6. Kuziyah, who say that the human body 
 is not made ready for prayer unless the 
 ablutions be such as entirely cleanse the 
 body. 
 
 7. Kanzlyah, who do not regard the giving 
 of zafcat as necessary. 
 
 8. Mu l tazilah, who maintain that evil 
 actions are not according to the decree of 
 God, and that the prayers of a sinful man 
 are not acceptable to God, and that faith is 
 of man’s free will, and that the Qur’an is 
 created, and that almsgiving and prayer do 
 not benefit the dead, and that there is no 
 niizdn or Jcitab, &c., at the Day of Judg¬ 
 ment. 
 
 9. Maimuniyah, who hold that belief in the 
 unseen is absurd. 
 
 10. Muhkamiyah, who say God has not re¬ 
 vealed His will to mankind. 
 
 11. Sirajiyah, who believe the example of 
 the saints is of no importance. 
 
 12. Akhnaslyah, who hold that there is no 
 punishment for sin. 
 
 HI.—The Jabariyah, the “ Demers of Free 
 Will,” who are divided into— 
 
 1. Muztariyah, who hold that both good 
 and evil are entirely from God, and man is 
 not responsible for his actions. 
 
 2. Af‘aliyah, who say man is responsible 
 for his actions although the power to do and 
 to act is alone from God. 
 
 3. Ma‘iyah, who behove that man possesses 
 an entirely free will. 
 
 4. Tariqiyah, who say faith without works 
 will save a man. 
 
 5. Ba/chtlyah, who believe that as every 
 | mortal receives according to God’s special 
 
 gift, it is not therefore lawful for one to give 
 j to another. 
 
 6. Mutamanniyah, who hold that good 
 ' works are those from which Wmfort and hap¬ 
 piness are derived in this world. 
 
 7. Kas/dnlyah, they who say punishment 
 and reward is inflicted by God only according 
 to the actions of man. 
 
 8. Habibiyah , who hold that as one friend 
 never injures another, so God, who is a God 
 of love, does not punish his own creation. 
 
 9. Khaufiyah . who say that just as a friend 
 does not terrify his friend, so God does not 
 terrify his people by judgments. 
 
 10. Fikriyah, who say contemplation is 
 better than worship, and more pleasing to 
 God. 
 
 11. Hasabiyah, who hold that in the world 
 there is no such a thing as fate or predestina¬ 
 tion. 
 
 12. Hujjatiyah , who say that inasmuch as 
 God doeth everything and everything is of 
 God, man cannot be made responsible for 
 either good or evil. 
 
 IV.—The Qadarlyah, the “ Asserters of 
 Free Will,” who are divided into— 
 
 1. Afiadlyah, who accept the injunctions 
 of God, but not those of the Prophet. 
 
 2. §anawlyah, who say there are two 
 eternal principles, good and evil ; good 
 being of Tazdanand evil being of Ahraman. 
 
 3. Kaisanlyah, who say our actions are 
 either the creation of God or they are not. 
 
 4. Shaitanlyah, who deny the personality of 
 Satan. 
 
 5. Sharikiyah, who say faith is yhair makh- 
 luq , or “ uncreated.” 
 
 6. Wahmiyah, who say the actions of man 
 are of no consequence, whether they be good 
 or evil. 
 
 7. Ruwaidiyah, who maintain that the 
 world has an eternal existence. 
 
 8. Nakisiyah, who say it is lawful to fight 
 ugainst the Imam or Khalifah. 
 
 9. Mutabarriyah, who say the repentance 
 of sinners is not accepted by God. 
 
 10. Qasitiyah, who hold that the acquire¬ 
 ment of wealth and learning is a religious 
 duty ordered by God. 
 
 11. Nazamlyah, who maintain that it is 
 lawful to speak of the Almighty as a thing 
 (shad). 
 
 12. Mutawallifiyah, who say it is not 
 evident whether evil is by God’s decree or 
 not. 
 
 Y.—The Jahimlyah, the followers of Jahim 
 ibn Safwan, who are divided into— 
 
 V 1. Midattaliyah, who say the names and 
 attributes of God are created 
 
 2. Mutarabisiyah, who hold that the power, 
 knowledge, and purpose of God are created. 
 
 3. Mutaraqibiyah, who say God has a 
 place. 
 
 v 4. Waridiyah, who state that those who 
 enter hell will never escape from it, and that 
 a niu'min, or “ believer,” will never enter 
 hell. 
 
SECTS OF ISLAM 
 
 SEYEM DIALECTS 
 
 5. Harqigdh, who say the inhabitants of 
 hell will so burn, that in time they will be an¬ 
 nihilated. 
 
 - 6. MaJdduqiyah. who believe that the 
 
 Qur'an, the Taurat, the InjH, and the Zubur 
 are created. 
 
 7. ‘Ibariyah, who say Muha mma d was a 
 learned man. and a philosopher, but not a 
 
 prophet. 
 
 8. Famyah, who say both Paradise and 
 Hell will be annihilated. 
 
 X 9. Zanddiqiyah. who say the Mi-raj. or 
 ‘■ascent of Muhammad to heaven," was only 
 in the spirit, and that the world is eternal, 
 and that there is no Day of Judgment. 
 
 10. Lafziyah, who hold that the Qur'an is 
 not an inspired writing, but that its instruc- 
 
 s tions are of God. 
 
 11. Qabriyah, who say there is no punish¬ 
 ment in the grave. 
 
 12. Waqifiyah. who state that it is not 
 certain whether the Qur'an is create or un¬ 
 create. 
 
 VL—The Murjiyah, or “ Procrastinators." 
 who are divided into— 
 
 1. Tariqiyah, who say nothing is necessary 
 
 but faith. 
 
 2. Shaiyah, who maintain that when once a 
 person has repeated the M uhammadan creed 
 
 he is saved. 
 
 3. Raj}yah. who believe that the worship 
 of God is not necessary to piety, nor are good 
 
 works necessary. 
 
 4. ShaJJnyah. who say a man cannot be 
 certain if he has faith or not, for faith is 
 
 spirit. 
 
 5. Xahiyah. who say faith is knowledge, 
 and those who do not know the command¬ 
 ments of God have not faith. 
 
 6. -Amahyah, who say faith is but good 
 
 works. 
 
 7. Manqusiyah, who say faith is sometimes 
 less and sometimes more. 
 
 8. Alustasniyah, who deprecate assurance 
 in religion, but say, ■■ we are believers if God 
 
 wills it." 
 
 9. Ash-anyah. who say qiyas. or “ analo¬ 
 gical reasoning, in matters of faith is un¬ 
 lawful. 
 
 10. Bidiyah, who hold that it is a duty to 
 obey a ruler, even if he give orders which are 
 
 evil. 
 
 11. Alushalbihiyah , who say God did lite¬ 
 rally make Adam in his own image. 
 
 12. Hashaiciyah. who consider that in 
 Muslim law there is no difference between 
 icajib. sunnah, and mustahab. 
 
 TIL—The Saji yah. or “ Saved Ones," make 
 up the complete number of seventy-three. 
 
 Mr. Sale traces all the Muhammadan sects 
 to four sources :— 
 
 1. The Mu-taziliyahs, the followers of 
 Wasil ibn‘Ata. who may be said to have been 
 the first inventor of scholastic divinity in 
 
 Islam. 
 
 2. The Sijatiyahs. or Attributists, who hold 
 the contrary opinions of the Alu-taziliyahs. 
 
 3. The Kharijiyahs, or Aliens. Those who 
 revolted from ‘AIL 
 
 4 The ShvaAs, or the followers of ‘All 
 
 569 
 
 The author of the Shari u 'l-Muwaqif says 
 there are eight leading divisions of the sects 
 of Islam:— 
 
 1. The Mn‘t a?flah. 
 
 2. The Shrahs. 
 
 3. The Khawarij. 
 
 1. The Murjiyah. 
 
 5. The Xajjariyah. 
 
 6. The Jabariyah. 
 
 7. The Mushabbihlyah. 
 
 8. The Xajiyah. 
 
 For an account of these leading sects, the 
 reader is referred to the articles under their 
 respective titles. 
 
 Shaikh ‘Abdu "1-Qadir says there are not 
 less than 150 sects in Islam. 
 
 SERMOX. The oration delivered 
 
 at the Friday midday prayer is called the 
 khutbaft ( a . : exhortations at any other 
 time are termed -ra-z (hr. - Tne former is 
 an established custom in Islam, and the dis¬ 
 course is always delivered at the Masjidu 7- 
 Jaird 1 . or principal mosque, on Fridays, but 
 sermons on other occasions although thev 
 are in accordance with the practice of Mu¬ 
 hammad. are not common. Very few Mau- 
 lawis preach except on Fridays, "khlibah." 
 
 SERPEXT, Arabic haiyah (£?=-), 
 
 occurs in the Qur'an once for the serpent 
 made from Moses' rod (Surah h. 21). The 
 word used in another place 'Surah vii 104) 
 
 is Mr ban The Hebrew 
 
 taimeen is also used for a large serpent in 
 Muslim books, but it does not occur in the 
 Qur'an. 
 
 In the Qur'an, c-urah ii. 34, it is said Satan 
 made Adam and Eve to backslide and “ drove 
 them out from what they were in," but no men¬ 
 tion is made of the serpent. 
 
 The commentators say that when the devil 
 attempted to get into Eden to tempt Adam, 
 he was stopped by the angelic guard at the 
 gates of Paradise, whereupon he begged of 
 the animals to carry him in to speak to Adam 
 and his wife, but they all refused except the 
 serpent, who took him between his teeth and 
 so introduced him to our first parents. 'Taf- 
 siru l--Azi-i. p. 124.) 
 
 SETH. Arabic Shis ; Heb. 
 
 Dw" Sheth. The third son of Adam. A 
 
 prophet to whom it is said God revealed 
 fifty small portions of scripture, [pbophets.] 
 In the fourth century there existed in Egypt 
 a sect of gnostics, calling themselves Sethians, 
 who regarded Seth as a divine emanation. 
 (Meanders CL Hist. voL ii p. 115), which will 
 account for Muhammad classing hfm as an 
 inspired prophet with a revelation. 
 
 SEVEX DIALECTS. Arabic 
 
 SaVatu Ahruf £*—.). The 
 
 Prophet is related to have said that the 
 Qur'an was revealed in seven dialects Alish- 
 Ldi. book ii. ch. iL). The word ahruf, trans¬ 
 lated “ dialects." may admit of two interpre¬ 
 tations Seme understand it to mean that 
 
 7 % 
 
570 
 
 SEVEN SALAMS 
 
 ASH-SHAFl‘1 
 
 the Qur’an contains seven kinds of revela- I 
 tion: Commandment ( amr ), prohibition 
 ( nahy ), history ( qissah ), parable ( misal ), ex¬ 
 hortation (wa‘z), promises ( [iva‘dah ), and 
 threatening (wa‘id). But the more common 
 interpretation of ahruf is “ dialects,” by which 
 is understood that by changing the inflec¬ 
 tions and accentuations of words, the text of 
 the Qur’an may be read in the then existing 
 “ seven dialects ” of Arabia, namely, Quraish, 
 Taiy,Hawazin, Yaman, Saqlf, Huzail, Tamlm. 
 [qur’an.] 
 
 SEVEN SALAMS. Seven verses 
 
 of the Qur’an, in which the word sal am 
 “ peace,” occurs :— 
 
 Surah xxxvi. 58: “ Peace shall be the word j 
 spoken unto the righteous by a merciful 
 God.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 77 : “ Peace be on Noah and 
 on all creatures.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 109: “ Peace be on Abra¬ 
 ham.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 120: “ Peace be on Moses 
 and Aaron.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 130: “ Peace be on Elias.” 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 181: “ Peace he on His 
 apostles.” 
 
 Surah xcvii. 5 : “ It is peace until the break¬ 
 ing of the morn.” 
 
 These verses are recited by the religious 
 Muslim during sickness, or in seasons of 
 danger or distress. In some parts of Islam 
 it is customary to write these seven verses of 
 the Qur’an on paper and then to wash off the 
 ink and drink it as a charm against evil. 
 
 SHA’BAN ( 0 W*~). Lit. “The 
 
 month of separation.” The eighth month of 
 the Muhammadan year. So-called because 
 the Arabs used to separate themselves in 
 search of water during this month. 
 
 SHAB-I-BARAT («Aj» s-*). The 
 
 Persian title for the fifteenth day of the 
 month Sha'ban, which is called in Arabic 
 Lailatu 'n-nisf min Sha‘bdn, or “ the night of 
 the middle of Sha‘ban.” 
 
 On this night, Muhammad said, God regis¬ 
 ters annually all the actions of mankind 
 which they are to perform during the year ; 
 and that all the children of men, who are to 
 be born and to die in the year, are recorded. 
 Muhammad, it is said, enjoined his followers 
 to keep awake the whole night, to repeat one 
 hundred rak‘ah prayers, and to fast the next 
 day ; but there are generally great rejoicings 
 instead of a fast, and large sums of money 
 are spent in fireworks. It is the “ Guy 
 Fawkes Day” of India, being the night for 
 display of fireworks. 
 
 The Shab-i-Bardt is said to be referred to 
 in the xLrvth Surah of the Qur’an, verse 2, 
 as “ the night on which all things are dis¬ 
 posed in wisdom,” although the commenta¬ 
 tors are not agreed as to whether the verse 
 alludes to this night or the Shab-i-Qadr, on 
 the 27th of the month of Ramazan. 
 
 The Shab-i-Bardt is frequently confounded 
 with the Luilatu ’ l-Qadr , or, as it is called in 
 India, "the "Shab-i-Qadr 
 
 SHAB-I-QADR (j-*i s-**). [lai- 
 
 I.ATO ’l-QADR.] 
 
 SHADI (^AV). Persian. Lit. 
 “Festivity.” The ordinary term used for 
 weddings amongst Persian and Urdu-speaking 
 peoples. In Arabic the term is ‘urs ((j-^c). 
 [marriage.] 
 
 SHADIDU ’L-QUWA(^yA 
 
 Lit. “ One terrible in power.” A title given 
 to the agent of inspiration in the Suratu ’1- 
 Najm (liii.), verse 5: “Verily the Qur’an is 
 no other than a revelation revealed to him : 
 one terrible in power (shadidu ’ l-quwa ) taught 
 it him.” 
 
 Commentators are unanimous in assigning 
 this title to the angel Gabriel. 
 
 SHAF‘ (£aa,). A term used for 
 
 rate 1 ahs of prayer when recited in pairs. 
 
 SHAFA‘AH (Ac \aa>). [interces¬ 
 sion.] 
 
 ash-SHAFIT (^.*iUA). Imam 
 
 Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi‘i, the founder 
 of one of the four orthodox sects of Sunnis, 
 was born at Askalon in Palestine a.h. 150. 
 He was of the same tribe as the Prophet, 
 and is distinguished by the appellation of 
 al-Imamu ’1-MuttalibI, or Quraish MuttalibI, 
 because of his descent from the Prophet’s 
 grandfather, ‘Abdu ’1-Muttalib. He derived 
 his patronymic ash-Shafki from his grand¬ 
 father, ShafiT Ibn as-Sa’ib. His family were 
 at first among the most inveterate of Mu¬ 
 hammad’s enemies. His father, carrying the 
 standard of the tribe of Iiashim at the battle 
 of Badr, was taken prisoner by the Muslims, 
 but released on ransom, and afterwards be¬ 
 came a convert to Islam. Ash-Shafi‘1 is 
 reported by Muslim writers to be the most 
 accurate of all the traditionists, and, if their 
 accounts be well founded, nature had indeed 
 endowed him with extraordinary talents for 
 excelling in that species of literature. It is 
 said that at seven years of age he had got 
 the whole Qur’an by rote, at ten he had 
 committed to memory the Muwatta' of 
 Malik, and at fifteen he obtained the rank 
 of Mufti. He passed the earlier part of his 
 life at Gaza, in Palestine (which has oc¬ 
 casioned many to think he was born in that 
 place); there he completed his education 
 and afterwards removed to Makkah. He 
 came to Baghdad a.h. 195, where he gave 
 lectures on the traditions, and composed his 
 first work, entitled al-Usul. From Baghdad 
 he went on a pilgrimage to Makkah, and 
 from thence afterwards passed into Egypt, 
 where he met with Imam Malik It does 
 not appear that he ever returned from that 
 country, but spent the remainder of his life 
 there, dividing his time between the exercises 
 of religion, the instruction of the ignorant, 
 and the composition of his later works. He 
 died at Cairo a.h. 204. Although he was 
 forty-seven years of age before he began to 
 publish, and died at fifty-four, his works are 
 more voluminous than those of any other 
 Muslim doctor, He was a great enemj' to 
 
SHAGHAB 
 
 SHAQQTJ ’s-SADE 571 
 
 the scholastic divines, and most of his pro¬ 
 ductions (especially upon theology), were 
 ■written with a view to controvert their 
 absurdities. He is said to have been the 
 first who reduced the science of Jurispru¬ 
 dence into a regular system, and to have 
 made a systematic collection of traditions. 
 Imam Hambal remarks that until the time 
 of ash-Shafi‘i men did not know how to 
 distinguish between the traditions that were 
 in force and those that were cancelled. His 
 first work was, as before-mentioned, the 
 Usui, or “ fundamentals,” containing all the 
 principles of the Muslim civil and canon law. 
 His nest literary productions were the Sunan 
 and Masnad, both works on the traditional 
 law, which are held in high estimation among 
 the Sunnis. His works upon practical di¬ 
 vinity are various, and those upon theology 
 consist of fourteen volumes. His tomb is 
 still to be seen at Cairo, where the famous 
 Salahu 'd-din afterwards (a.h. 587) founded 
 a college for the preservation of his works 
 and the propagation of his doctrines. The 
 mosque at HIrah was built by Sultan Ghiyasu 
 "d-DIn for the same purpose. Imam ash- 
 Shafi‘1 is said to have been a person of acute 
 discernment and agreeable conversation. His 
 reverence for God was such that he never 
 was heard to mention his name except in 
 prayer. His manners were mild and ingra¬ 
 tiating, and he reprobated all unnecessary 
 moroseness or severity in a teacher, it being 
 a saying of his that whoever advised his 
 brother tenderly and in private did him a 
 service, but that public reproof could only 
 operate as a reproach. His principal pupils 
 were Imam Ahmad ibn Hambal and az- 
 Zuhairi, the former of whom afterwards 
 founded a sect [hxxbal]. 
 
 The Shafi'i sect of Sunnis is chiefly met 
 with in Egypt and Arabia. 
 
 STTAGTTAT?, A double 
 
 treaty of marriage common amongst the 
 pagan Arabs, viz. the man marrying the 
 sister or daughter of another, and in return 
 giving his sister or daughter in order to 
 avoid paying the usual dower. It is strictly 
 forbidden by the Muhammadan religion (see 
 Mishkat, book xii. ch. 11), although it is 
 even now practised by the people of Central 
 Asia 
 
 SHAH (Aa). Persian. “ A King.” 
 
 A title usually given to members of the 
 Ascetic order, and to Saiyids, as Faqir 
 Shah, Akbar Shah. It has. however, become 
 a common addition to surnames, both in 
 India and other countries, and no longer 
 denotes a position of dignity. 
 
 SHAH AD AH “Evidence.” 
 
 [wixxesses.J Martyrdom, [maktibs.] 
 
 SHAHID (a-.ja). [martyrs, tvrr- 
 
 JfESS.] 
 
 ash- SHAHID (A*ii\). “ The 
 
 Witness.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. It frequently occurs in 
 
 the Qur'an for the Almighty (e.g. Surah iii. 
 93) as one who seeth all things. 
 
 SH AHEMSHAH (sU^A). A 
 
 Persian title given to the King of Persia— 
 “ King of Kings.” It is a title strictly for¬ 
 bidden in Traditions, in which it is related 
 that Muhammad said “ * King of Kin gs' is 
 the vilest name you can call a man, for there 
 is no other King of Kings but God ” (Mishkat, 
 book xxii. ch. viiL) 
 
 SHAIKH (pr=»), pi. shuyukk, ash- 
 yakh, or mashayikh. A venerable old man. 
 A man above fifty years of age. A man of 
 authority. A superior of an order of Dar- 
 weshes. Shaykhu 'l-1 slam, a title given to 
 the chief Maulawi or Qazi of the cities of 
 Constantinople, Cairo, Damascus, &c. 
 
 SHAITAM (o^.). [devil.] 
 
 SHA.JJAH (i—a— a), pi. shijdj. 
 
 [worses.] 
 
 SHAKING HAMDS. Arabic 
 rnusdfahah Is enjoined in 
 
 the Traditions, and is founded upon the 
 express example of Muhammad himself. 
 
 Al-Bara’ ibn ‘Azib says the Prophet said, 
 “ There are no two Muslims who meet and 
 shake hands but their sins will be forgiven 
 them before they separate.” (Mishkat, book 
 xxii. ch. iii.) 
 
 ash-SHAKUK “The 
 
 Acknowledger : f Thanksgiving.” One of the 
 ninety-nine special attributes of the Al- 
 mighty. Qur'an, Surah xxxv. 27: “Terily 
 He (God) is forgiving, and an acknowledger 
 of thanksgiving.” When used for anyone 
 but God it means one who is grateful, e.g 
 Qur'an. Surah xxxiv. 12: “Few of my ser¬ 
 vants are grateful.” 
 
 ash-SHA’H ( r U11). Lit “That 
 
 which is on the left-hand (looking to the 
 rising sun),” i.e. the northern country to 
 Makkah. Syria. 
 
 ash-SHAMS (l.—_£J\). “ The 
 
 Sun.” The title of the xcist Surah of the 
 Qur'an, which begins with the word. 
 
 SHAQQH ’S-SADE ,ja). 
 
 Lit. “ The splitting open of the heart.” Anas 
 relates that “ the Angel Gabriel came to the 
 Prophet, when he was playing with boys, 
 and took hold of him, and laid him on the 
 ground, and split open his heart, and brought 
 out a little bag of blood, and said to Mu¬ 
 hammad, ; This is the devil's part of you. 
 After this, Gabriel washed the Prophet's 
 heart with zamzam water, then sewed it up 
 and replaced it. Then the boys who were 
 with the Prophet came running to his nurse, 
 saying, ‘ Terily Muhammad is killed.’ ” Anas 
 also says that he “ had seen the marks of the 
 sewing in the Prophet's breast.” ( Mishkat . 
 book xxiv. ch. vL) 
 
 According to the commentators al-Baizawi. 
 al-Kamalan, and Husain, the first verse of 
 
572 
 
 SHAB 
 
 shi‘ah 
 
 the xcivth Surah of the Qur’an refers to this 
 event: “Have we not opened thy breast for 
 thee, and taken off from thee thy burden, 
 which galled thy back ? ” But it seems 
 probable that this simple verse of one of the 
 earliest chapters of the Qur’an refers merely 
 to the enlightenment of Muhammad’s heart, 
 and that his followers afterwards invented 
 the miracle in order to give a supernatural 
 turn to the passage, [muhammad.] 
 
 SHAR‘ [law.] 
 
 SHARAB In its original 
 
 meaning, “ that which is drunk.” A drink. 
 Always applied to wine and intoxicating 
 drinks. In mystic writings, sharab, “ wine,” 
 signifies the dominion of Divine love over 
 the heart of man. 
 
 SHARH (c/“). Lit. “ Expound¬ 
 ing.” A term used for a commentary written 
 in explanation of any book or treatise, as 
 distinguished from tafslr , which is used only 
 for a commentary of the Qur’an. These 
 expositions are written either in the text, or 
 on the side of the book or treatise they 
 attempt to expound. The term, however, 
 generally used for marginal notes is hashiyak. 
 For example, the Tanwlru 'l-Absar is the 
 matn, or text, of a great work on Muham¬ 
 madan laws, written by Shamsu ’d-Din Mu¬ 
 hammad a.h. 995: the Durru 'l-Mukhtar is 
 a shark, or commentary written on that work 
 by ‘Ala ’d-Din Muhammad, a.h. 1088 ; and 
 the Hashiyah, or marginal notes on these two 
 works, is the Raddu '/-Muhtar, by Muhammad 
 Amin. 
 
 SHARI’AH (<£*>/.). The law, in¬ 
 cluding both the teaching of the Qur’an and 
 of the traditional sayings of Muhammad. 
 [law.] 
 
 SHART (1=^). The conditions of 
 
 marriage, of contracts, &c. 
 
 SHAVING. The shaving of the 
 
 beard is forbidden in the Traditions, for Ibn 
 ‘Umar relates that the Prophet said: “Do 
 the opposite of the polytheists; let your 
 beards grow long and clip your mustachios.” 
 The shaving of the head is allowed, provided 
 the whole and not a part is shaven, for the 
 Prophet said : “ Shave off all the hair of the 
 head or let it alone. ( Mishkat , xx. ch. iv. 
 pt. 3.) 
 
 In Afghanistan it is the custom to shave 
 the head, but not in other parts of Islam. 
 
 SHAVING THE HEAD. Arabic 
 tahliq ((jAfio). Eorbidden in the 
 Radis ( Mishkat , book xiv. ch. v.), although 
 it is most common amongst the Muhamma¬ 
 dans of India and Central Asia. 
 
 SHAWWAL (jy.)- Lit “The 
 
 month of raising the tail.” The tenth month 
 of the Muhammadan year. For a discussion 
 of the meaning of the title of this month, see 
 Lane’s Arabic Diet, in loco. ) 
 
 SHA‘YA’ (=G*a). [isaiah.] 
 
 SHECHINA. [SAKINAH, TABUT.] 
 SHEM. Arabic Sam A son 
 
 of Noah. Not mentioned in the Qur’an, but 
 his name is given in commentaries. 
 
 SHl‘AH Lit. “ Followers.” 
 
 The followers of ‘All, first cousin of Mu- 
 hammand and the husband of his daughter 
 Fatimah. The Shi‘ahs maintain that ‘All 
 was the first legitimate Imam or Khallfah, or 
 successor, to the Prophet, and therefore reject 
 Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Usman, the first three 
 Kli alifahs of the Sunni Muslims, as usurpers. 
 They are also called the Imamiyahs, because 
 they believe the Muslim religion consists in 
 the true knowledge of the Imam or rightful 
 leaders of the faithful. Also the I$na- 
 ‘ashariyah, or the twe/veans, as. followers of 
 the tivelve Imams. The Sunni Muslims call 
 them the Rdfizl, or the forsakers of the 
 truth. The Shi‘ahs strenuously maintain 
 that they are the “ orthodox ” Muslims, and 
 arrogate to themselves (as do also the 
 Sunnis) the title of al-Mu'minun, or the 
 “ True Believers.” 
 
 The spirit of division, which appeared 
 among the followers of Muhammad, even 
 before his death, broke out with greater 
 a iolence after it: and the rapid strides of his 
 successors to even imperial power, only af¬ 
 forded a wider sphere for ambition. The 
 great and radical difference between the 
 Ski‘ahs and Sunnis, as we have already re¬ 
 marked, arises from the former maintaining 
 the divine and indefeasible right of ‘All to 
 succeed to the Khalifate on the death of the 
 Prophet. ‘Ali’s claims, they assert, rested on 
 his nearness of kindred to Muhammad, of 
 whom he was a cousin, and on his having 
 married Fatimah, the only offspring of the 
 Prophet which survived him. They also 
 assert that he was expressly declared his 
 successor by the Prophet himself, under 
 direct guidance from God. 
 
 The text quoted in defence of the divine 
 institution of the Khalifate in the Prophet’s 
 own family, is the 118th verse of the Suratu 
 ’1-Baqarah, or the Second Chapter of the 
 Qur’an, which reads :— 
 
 “ And when his Lord tried Abraham with 
 words and he fulfilled them,_He said, ‘ I am 
 about to make of thee an IMAM to mankind 
 he said, ‘ Of my offspring also ? ’ ‘ My cove¬ 
 nant,’ said God, ‘ embraceth not evil doers.’ ” 
 
 According to the Shf‘ahs, this passage 
 shows that the Imamate, or Khalifate, is a 
 divine institution, and the possessor thereof 
 must be of the seed of Abraham. This the 
 Sunnis would also admit, as they hold that 
 the true Khallfah can only be one of the 
 Quraish tribe [khalifah], but from the ex¬ 
 pression, “ my covenant embraceth not evil 
 doers,” the Shi‘ah doctors establish the super¬ 
 natural character of the Khalifate, and hold 
 that the divinely appointed leader must 
 himself be without spot or blemish or capa¬ 
 city to sin. The primeval creation of ‘All is 
 therefore a dogma of the Shi‘ah faith. 
 
 The author of the Haydtu ’ l-Qulub (Mef* 
 
shi'ah 
 
 shi‘ah 
 
 573 
 
 rick’s ed., p. 4), says : “ The Prophet de¬ 
 clared that the Most High had created him, 
 and ‘All and Fatimah, and Hasan and Husain, 
 before the creation of Adam, and when as yet 
 there was neither heaven, nor earth, nor dark¬ 
 ness, nor light, nor sun, nor moon, nor para¬ 
 dise, nor hell.’ [haqiqatu ’l-mdhammadiyaii.] 
 
 The Shi'ah traditions also give very lengthy 
 accounts of the nomination of ‘All by the 
 Prophet to be his successor. The following 
 is the account given in the Hcujatu ’l-Llulftb 
 (p. 334) :— 
 
 “ When the ceremonies of the pilgrimage 
 were completed, the Prophet, attended by 
 ‘AH, and the Muslims, left Makkah for al- 
 Madinah. On reaching Ghadirkhum, the 
 Prophet halted, although that place had 
 never been known as a stopping-place for 
 caravans because it had neither water nor 
 pasturage. The reason for stopping at this 
 place being a direct message from the Al¬ 
 mighty. The Prophet had received divine 
 messages on the subject before, but He had 
 not before expressly appointed the time of 
 ‘All’s inauguration.” 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 “ As the day was very hot, the Prophet 
 ordered them to take shelter under some 
 thorn trees. Having ordered all the camel- 
 saddles to be piled up for a puljiit, he com¬ 
 manded a herald to summon the people 
 around him. Most of them had bound their 
 cloaks on their feet as a protection from the 
 excessive heat. When all the people were 
 assembled, the Prophet ascended the pulpit 
 made of camel-saddles, and, calling to him 
 the Commander of the Faithful (‘All), placed 
 him on his right hand. Muhammad then 
 gave praise to God, and foretold his own 
 death, saying that he had been called to the 
 gate of God. He then said, ‘ I leave among 
 you the Book of God, to which, while you 
 adhere, you will never go astray. I leave 
 with you the members of my family who can¬ 
 not be separated from the Book of God until 
 both they and the Book join me at the foun¬ 
 tain of al-Kausar ’ [kaijsar.] He then, 
 with a loud voice, said, ‘ Am I not dearer to 
 you than your own lives ? ’ And all the 
 people said, ‘ Yes.’ He then took the hands 
 of ‘All and raised them up so high, that the 
 white of his arm-pits appeared, and said, 
 ‘ Whosoever from his heart receives me as his 
 master, then let him receive ‘Ali. 0 Lord, 
 befriend ‘All. Be the enemy of all his ene¬ 
 mies. Help all who help him, and forsake 
 all who forsake him. ” 
 
 The writer also says :— 
 
 “ Certain authorities, both Shi‘ah and 
 Sunni, declare that when the Prophet died, 
 the hypocritical Muhajirs and Ansars, such as 
 Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman ibnu 
 ’l-‘Auf, instead of visiting the family of the 
 Prophet to comfort them at the time of his 
 deatiq, assembled at the abode of the Banu 
 Saudah, and plotted to seize the Khalifate. 
 Most of them did not perform the prayers at 
 the Prophet’s burial, although ‘All sent to 
 call them for the purpose. This plan was to 
 make Abu Bakr Khalifah, and for this they 
 
 had plotted in the Prophet’s lifetime. The 
 hypocritical Ansars, however, wished to make 
 Sa‘d ibnu ’1-Abfidah Khalifah, but they were 
 over-ruled by the Muhajirs. A certain man 
 brought the information that Abu Bakr was 
 constituted IGialifah, when ‘Ali was in the 
 act of filling in the earth of the Prophet’s 
 grave, and said that the hypocrites had 
 feared that if they waited till the funeral 
 ceremony was over, they would not succeed 
 in their design of depriving ‘All of his rights. 
 ‘Ali laid his spade on the ground and recited 
 the first verses of the xxixth Surah of the 
 Qur’an : ‘ A. L. M. Do men reckon that they 
 will be left alone who say, “ We believe,” and 
 not be tried ? We did try those who were 
 before them, and God will surely know those 
 who are truthful, and he will surely know 
 those who are liars.’ ” 
 
 The Shi'ahs believe that at this time God 
 made special revelations to Fatimah, the 
 Prophet’s daughter, and ‘All’s wife. These 
 revelations are said to have been possessed by 
 the last of the Imams, al-Mahdi, and to lie 
 still in his possession, [mahdi.] 
 
 It need scarcely be added that the Sunni 
 writers deny every word of these traditions. 
 
 The strong hand of the Sunni Khalifah 
 ‘Umar kept the claims of ‘All in abeyance ; 
 but when ‘Umar died, the Khalifate was 
 offered to ‘Ali, on condition that he would 
 govern according to the Qur’an, and the tra¬ 
 ditions as received by the Sunnis. The 
 answer of ‘Ali not being deemed satisfactory, 
 the election devolved upon ‘Usman (Othman). 
 Usman was assassinated a.h. 35, and ‘All 
 was elected on_liis own terms, in spite of the 
 opposition of ‘Ayishah, the favourite wife of 
 the Prophet, who had become a great in¬ 
 fluence in Islam. 
 
 One of the first acts of ‘All was to recall 
 Mu‘awiyah from Syria. Mubiwiyah refused, 
 and then claimed the Khalifate for himself. 
 His claims were supported by ‘Ayishah. ‘All 
 was eventually assassinated at Kiifah, a.h. 
 40, and upon his death his son Hasan was 
 elected Khalifah, but he resigned it in favour 
 of Mu‘awiyah, on the condition that he should 
 resume it on the death of the latter. Mu‘a- 
 wiyah consented to this arrangement, al¬ 
 though secretly determining that his own sor_ 
 Yazid should be his successor. 
 
 Upon the death of Mu‘awiyah, a.h. 60, his 
 son Yazid, “ the Polluted,” obtained the posi- 
 sition of Imam or Kh alifah. without the form 
 of election, and with this event commenced 
 the great Shi‘ah schism, which has divided 
 the forces of Islam until this day. 
 
 The leading, or “ orthodox ” sect of the 
 Shi'ahs, the Imamlyahs, receive the following 
 as the rightful Khalifahs 
 
 1. ‘All, the son-in-law of the Prophet. 
 
 2. Al-Hasan, the son of ‘All. 
 
 3. Al-Husain, the second son of ‘Ali. 
 
 4. ‘Ali, surnamed Zainu ’l-‘Abidin, the son 
 of al-Husain. 
 
 5. Muhammad al-Baqir, son of Zainu '1- 
 ‘Abidin. 
 
 6. Ja‘far as-Sadiq, son of Muhammad al- 
 Baqir. 
 
 0 
 
SHI AH 
 
 574 shi‘ah 
 
 7. Musa al-Karim. son of Ja-far 
 & At-K ara. son of Musa. 
 
 A Muhammad st-Taqi. son of ar-Rar-a. 
 
 10. •All an-Xaqi. son of Muhammad at- 
 
 Taqx- 
 
 11. Al-Hasan al--Asian, son of 'Ah an- 
 Xaqi. 
 
 12. Muhammad, son of al-Hasan al-Askan. 
 
 I: '■ : -AT.;.' ff. - 
 
 • - ; s still alive, though he ha? 
 
 withdrawn for a time, and they say he will 
 again appear in the last days as the -1/.:.It. 
 or •• Director.” which the Prophet prophesied 
 would appear before the .Day of Judgment. 
 
 gMAKPll 
 
 The Tmamltes trace the descent of this 
 T~ar~. Muhammad as direct frcm ‘All. thus 
 he twelfth lawful Imam, on which 
 they are called the I.<aa-'askarsy rfc. 
 re - Twelvemos.” They assert that this 
 a bov. how j rerse- 
 
 msimgj 
 ac. 
 or 
 
 last Imam, whilst 
 cured hy the Ahbaside Kh alitahs. disappeared 
 down a well in the courtyard of a house at 
 Hi hah near Baghdad, and Torn Khaldun says, 
 so late a? even in hi? day. devout bri er? 
 would assemble everv evening after sunset 
 
 ' Then, 
 
 succession at 
 
 e nave oeen two 
 
 t.-.T, .it rV 
 
 treat sc 
 
 
 .hr — r nr 
 
 .e 
 le 
 
 death of ‘A3 Zainu l- ; Abidin, when part of 
 the sect adhered t: his sen Zaid. the founder 
 of the Zsidiyah sect. And the second on the 
 death :i as-Sadia. when his father ntminated 
 his seoend sen. Musa al-Karim, a? his sneoes- 
 s:r. instead cf ahcwhrg the Kha lit ate t: go in 
 Isma-ITs family: th:; e ~h: adhered 11 Isma-ITs 
 iamhv being called J( rib The meat 
 body of the 
 
 Karim and his descendants as the 
 Imams. 
 
 greater: 
 decider, but 
 
 The Isna-Tiyah. like the Twelveans. 
 make profession :f a I:yal attachment to the 
 cause of ’AT. Their schism was c-eeasicred 
 by a dispute regarding the succession to the 
 ' iec:h ai Imam Ja £ ;ar Sadiq. 
 
 Jafar had four sous, the eldest cf whom was 
 Ismail One day. however. Ismail was seen in 
 a state cf inebriety, and his father disinherited 
 him. and appointed his sen Musa. The 
 ber :: the Shi-ahs accepted this 
 -a"! number, who regarded 
 the iruukemes; :: the hrlre as cr evidence 
 that he accepted the 1 ether meauing and net 
 the legal precepts cf Mam (I), r e t r a in ed 
 attached t: Ismail They say frcm the time 
 
 Ismail, the T— 5— ? were visible, but frcm his 
 
 death - ----or the sue cession :f concealed 
 
 Imams. The f ourth c-f these - concealed ~ 
 Imams was a certain -Abdu liar, who lived 
 ab tut the third century of the HI rah. 
 
 The : : mentions :: the briars regar. hu g 
 the succession have become endless, and 
 c: the rrmerbiai seventw-three sects of Ulan. 
 
 SHI‘AH 
 
 not fewer than thirty-two are assigned to the 
 S bars. aud. . rding t: the 5 - 
 Mir.raqij. there are as many as seventy- 
 three scots of the Shi-ahs alone. 
 
 According to the Sia.-hj l-M. icaqif. the 
 three principal sects of the Shi-as are (1) 
 Ghdai. or Zealots, the title generally given 
 to those who. through their excessive zeal 
 for the Imams, have raised them above the 
 of h uman beings. (2) Zaidiyah, 
 these who separated after the appointment 
 of Muhammad Back- to the Khalifate, and 
 followed Zaid. (S’) Iiai.luih. or those who 
 lodged ic ier belie e? :1c rigltiul 
 Imam, to the exclusion of IsmaH. and which 
 appears to be what may be called the ortho- 
 - i i the Shi-as. e ft se :in: 
 great divisions have grown innumerable sects, 
 which it would be tedious to define. All 
 Shrah religionists are more or less inf; r 
 with mysticism. 
 
 Many of the Shiahs have carried their 
 veneration for -All so far. as to raise him to 
 the position of a divine person, and most of 
 the sect? make their Imams partakers of the 
 diviue nature. These views have their foun¬ 
 dation in the traditions already quoted, which 
 assert the pre-existence of Muhammad and 
 •Aii. aud they have undoubtedly been fostered 
 by the gnostic tendencies of all forms of per- 
 sieu belief, est Sufism ”stn.j 
 
 Si 5 the accession of Isma-'IL the first of 
 :1c Sal dynasty. . A a a : - • 1 faith 
 
 has been the national religion of Persia. 
 Xaair Shah, when at the summit cf his power, 
 attempted to convert the Persians to the 
 Snarl form of Islam, in order to assist his 
 ambitious designs, but the attempt failed, and 
 tic attachment title Persian? t: tie Surah 
 faith has remained as decided as ever. 
 
 Sir Lewis Peily remarks :— 
 
 •• Though the personal history of All and 
 hi? sons wtj ale exciting cause or tie Shiah 
 -chism. its predisptsing cause lies far deeper 
 in the impassable ethnological gulf which 
 separates the Aryan ana Semi::: rates. 
 Owing to their strongly centralised form of 
 government, the empire of the - --.rides 
 succumbed at once before the onslaught of 
 the Saracen;: still, Persia was never really 
 converted to Islam, and when Mohammed, 
 the son of Aii. the son of Abdullah, the son 
 of Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Moham¬ 
 med. proclaimed the Incarnate as inherent of 
 divine right, in the descendants of the Caliph 
 Alt, the van one shed Persians rose as one man 
 against their Arab ecncuercrs. The sons of 
 Abbas had ail espoused the cause of their 
 cousin Aii against Moawiyah. and when Yezid 
 srooeeiedt: th: 1 . . refused 
 
 to ackntwledge him. and retired to Mecca. 
 It was he who tried to dissuade Husain from 
 going to Cuia. His son was Aii. who, by 
 order of the Caliph ~aiid. was dogged and 
 paraded through the streets of Damascus, 
 mounted on a camel, with his face to its tail, 
 and it was tc a ventre -h-s insult on his father 
 that Mohammed resolved to overthrow the 
 dynasty of the Ommiades 
 
 ■■ The Persians, in their hatred of the 
 
shi‘ah 
 
 Arabs, had from the first accepted the rights 
 of the sons of Ali and Fatimah to the Imamate ; 
 and Mohammed cunningly represented to 
 them that the Imamate had been trans¬ 
 mitted to him by Abou Hashim, the son of 
 Mohammed, another son of the Caliph Ali, 
 ■whose mother was a daughter of the tribe of 
 Hanifah. This was a gross fraud on the de¬ 
 scendants of Fatimah, but the Persians cared 
 not so long as they threw off the Arab yoke.” 
 (Miracle Plai/, Intro., p. xvi. : W. H. Allen & 
 Co., 1879.) 
 
 The Muhammadans of the province of 
 Oudh in British India are for the most part 
 Shl'ahs, and there are a few in the region of 
 TIrah, on the frontier of India With the 
 exception of the province of Oudh, the Mu¬ 
 hammadans of India are for the most part 
 Sunnis of the HanafI sect, but practices pecu¬ 
 liar to the Shl'ahs have long prevailed in 
 certain localities. In most parts of India, 
 where the parties are Shrahs, the law of 
 this school of jurisprudence is always ad¬ 
 ministered, especially with regard to mar¬ 
 riage and inheritance. 
 
 It is not correct, as stated hy Sale (Intro¬ 
 duction to the Koran) and others, that the 
 Shl‘ahs reject the Sunnah, or Traditions; 
 for although the Shrahs do not receive the 
 “ six correct hooks of the Sunnis,” they ac¬ 
 knowledge five collections of their own, 
 namely : (1), Al-KafI, (2) Manlayastahzirahu 
 'l-Faqlh, (3) Tahzlb, (4) Istibsar, (5) Nahju 
 ’1-Balaghah. [traditions.] The works 
 written on the traditions are very numerous. 
 
 The Rev. James L. Merrick (Boston, 1850) 
 has translated into English portions of the 
 Hayatu 'l-Qulub, the most popular book of 
 traditions amongst the Shl‘ahs. It was ori¬ 
 ginally compiled by Muhammad Baqir, son of 
 Muhammad TakI, whose last work was the 
 well-known Haqqu ’l-Yaqin , a.h. 1027 (a.d. 
 1627). 
 
 The Shrali school of jurisprudence is of 
 earlier date than that of the Sunnis, for Abu 
 Hanifah, the father of the Sunni Code of 
 Muslim law, received his first instructions in 
 jurisprudence from Ja‘far as-Sadiq, the sixth 
 Imam of the Shl‘ahs ; but this learned doctor 
 afterwards separated from his teacher, and 
 established a code of laws of his own. 
 
 The differences between the Shrahs and the 
 Sunnis are very numerous, but the following 
 are the principal points :— 
 
 (1) The discussion as to the office of Imam, 
 already alluded to. 
 
 (2) The Shrahs have a profound veneration 
 for the Khallfah ‘All, and some of their sects 
 regard him as an incarnation of divinity, 
 whilst they all assert that next to the Pro¬ 
 phet, ‘All is the most perfect and excellent 
 of men. 
 
 (3) They still possess Mujtahids, or “ en¬ 
 lightened doctors,” whose opinion is final in 
 matters of Muslim law and doctrine. The 
 Mujtahid is the highest degree amongst Mu¬ 
 hammadan doctors. The Sunnis say, in the 
 present divided condition of Islam it is im¬ 
 possible to appoint them, but the Shl‘ahs still 
 
 SH1 C AH 575 
 
 elect them in Persia, and the appointment is 
 confirmed hy the king, [mcjtahid.] 
 
 (4) They observe the ceremonies of the 
 Muharram in commemoration of al-Hasan 
 and al-Husain, whilst the Sunnis only observe 
 the tenth day of the Muharram, or the 
 ‘ Aslmra ’, being, they say, the day on which 
 God created Adam, [muharram.] 
 
 (5) They include the Majusl, or fire wor¬ 
 shippers, amongst the Ahlu ’l-Kitdb, or people 
 who have received an inspired record from 
 God, whilst the Sunnis only acknowledge 
 the Jews, Christians, and Muslims as such. 
 
 (6) They admit the principle of religious 
 compromise called Taqiyah (Jit. “ Guarding 
 oneself ”). A pious fraud, whereby the 
 Shl‘ah Muhammadan believes he is justified 
 in either smoothing down, or denying, the 
 peculiarities of his religious belief in order 
 to save himself from persecution, [taqiyah.] 
 
 (7) There are also various minor differences 
 in the liturgical ceremonies of the Shrahs, 
 which will be found in the account of the 
 liturgical prayers, [prayer.] 
 
 (8) The differences between the civil law 
 of the Shl‘ahs and Sunni have been carefully 
 noted in Mr. N. B. E. Baillie’s Introduction to 
 his Digest of the Imameea Code (London, 
 1869):— 
 
 (a) “ With regard to the sexes, any connec¬ 
 tion between them, which is not sanctioned hy 
 some relation founded upon contract or upon 
 slavery, is denounced by both the sects as 
 zina', or fornication. But, according to the 
 Hanaflyahs, the eontract’must be for the lives 
 of the parties, or the woman be the slave of 
 the man, and it is only to a relation founded 
 on a contract for life that they give the name 
 of nikah, or marriage. According to the 
 Shl‘ahs, the contract may be either tem¬ 
 porary, or for life, and it is not necessary 
 that the slave should be the actual property 
 of the man ; for it is sufficient if the usufruct 
 of her person be temporarily surrendered to 
 him by her owner. To a relation established 
 in any of these ways they give the name of 
 nikah, or marriage, which is thus, according 
 to them, of three kinds, permanent, tempo¬ 
 rary, and servile. It is only their permanent 
 marriage that admits of any comparison with 
 the marriage of the Hanaflyahs. And here 
 there is, in the first place, some difference in 
 the words by which the contract is effected. 
 According to the Hanaflyahs, the words may 
 be sarih (express) or kinayah (ambiguous). 
 According to the Shrahs, they must always be 
 express ; and to the two express terms of the 
 other sect ( nikah and tazwij) they add a third 
 mut‘ah, which is rejected by the others as in¬ 
 sufficient. [mut‘ah.] Further, while the Hana¬ 
 flyahs regard the presence of witnesses as 
 essential to a valid contract of marriage, the 
 Shl‘ahs do not deem it to he in anywise neces¬ 
 sary. The causes of prohibition correspond, to 
 some extent, ir both schools; but there is 
 this difference between them, that the Hana- 
 flyah includes a difference of dar, or nation¬ 
 ality, among the causes of prohibition, and 
 excludes li‘an, or imprecation, from among 
 them ; while the Shl‘ah excludes the former 
 
SHI AH 
 
 SHI* AH 
 
 576 
 
 and includes the latter. There is, also, some 
 difference between them as to the conditions 
 and restrictions under which fosterage be¬ 
 comes a ground of prohibition. And with 
 regard to infidelity, though both schools 
 entirely prohibit any sexual intercourse 
 between a Muslimah or Musalman woman 
 and a man who is not of her own religion, 
 the Hanafi allows of such intercourse, under 
 the sanction of marriage or of slavery, 
 between a Muslim and any woman who is a 
 /i •itdbiyah, that is, who belongs to any sect 
 that is supposed to have a revealed religion, 
 while the Shiah restricts such connection to 
 mut‘ah, or temporary and servile marriages. 
 Among Kitabiyah both schools include 
 Christians and Jews, but the Hanafi rejects 
 Majusls, or fire-worshippers, who are included 
 among them by the Shiahs. The ShTahs 
 do not appear to make any distinction be¬ 
 tween invalid and valid marriages, all that 
 are forbidden being apparently void accord¬ 
 ing to them. But the distinction is of little 
 importance to the parties themselves, as 
 under neither of the schools does an unlawful 
 marriage confer any inheritable quality upon 
 the parties ; and the rights of the children 
 born of such marriages are determined by 
 another consideration, which will be adverted 
 to in the proper place hereafter. 
 
 “ (6) With regard to the servile marriage of 
 the ShTahs, it is nothing more than the right 
 of sexual intercourse which every master 
 has with his slaves; but there is the same 
 difference between the two sects, in this case, 
 as in that of marriage by contract. Accord¬ 
 ing to the Hanafiyahs, the right must be 
 permanent, by the woman’s being the actual 
 property of the man. According to the Shiahs, 
 the right may be temporary, as when it is 
 conceded for a limited time by the owner of j 
 the slave. When a slave has borne a child to 
 her own master, which he acknowledges, she 
 becomes his umm-ul-walad, or mother of a 
 child, and cannot be sold, while she is en¬ 
 titled to emancipation at her master’s death. J 
 According to the Hanafiyahs, these privi¬ 
 leges are permanent, but, according to the 
 ShTahs, the exemption from sale is restricted 
 to the life of her child, and her title to 
 emancipation is at the expense of her child’s 
 share in the master’s estate. If that be 
 insufficient, her enfranchisement is only pro 
 tanto, or so far as the share will go. Where 
 the child’s father has only an usufructuary 
 right in the mother, the child is free, though 
 the mother, being the property of another, 
 does not acquire the rights of an umm-ul- 
 walad. 
 
 “ (c) With regard to the persons -who may be 
 legally slaves, there seems to be little, if any, 
 difference between the two sects. According 
 to the ShTahs, slavery is the proper condition 
 of the harabis, or enemies, with the exception 
 only of Christians, Jews, and Majusls, or 
 fire-worshippers, so long as they continue in 
 a state of zimmah, or subjection, to the Mus¬ 
 sulman community. If they renounce their 
 S immah, they fall back into the condition of 
 ordinary harabis, and if a person should buy 
 
 from a harabi his child, or wife, or any of 
 his consanguineous relations, the person 
 so purchased is to be adjudged a slave. 
 There seems also to be but little diffe¬ 
 rence in the manner in which slaves may 
 be enfranchised, or their bondage qualified. 
 But there is an important difference as to 
 children ; for, according to the Hanafiyahs, 
 a child follows the conditions of its mother, 
 being free or a slave, as she is the one or the 
 other ; while, according to the ShTahs, it is 
 free, if either of its parents be so. Both the 
 sects are agreed that marriage may be dis¬ 
 solved by the husband at any time at his 
 pleasure, and to such dissolutions they both 
 give the name of talaq. 
 
 “ ( cl ) But there are some important diffe¬ 
 rences between the repudiation of the two sects 
 Thus, while the Hanafiyahs recognize two 
 forms, the Sunni and Bida‘i, or regular and 
 irregular, as being equally efficacious, and 
 subdivide the regular into two other forms, 
 one of which they designate as ahsan, or best, 
 and the other as hasan, or good, the ShTahs 
 reject these distinctions altogether, recog¬ 
 nizing only one form of the Sunni, or regular. 
 So also as to the expressions by which repu¬ 
 diation may be constituted ; while the Hana¬ 
 fiyahs distinguish between what they call 
 sarlh, or express words, which are inflections 
 of the word t.okdq, and various expressions 
 which they term kinayah, or ambiguous, the 
 Shiahs admit the former only. Further, the 
 Hanafiyahs do not require intention when 
 express words are used; so that, though a 
 man is actually compelled to use them, the 
 repudiation is valid according to them. Nor 
 do they require the presence of witnesses 
 as necessary in any case to the validity 
 of a repudiation; while, according to the 
 ShTahs, both intention and the presence 
 of two witnesses in all cases are essential 
 Both sects agree that repudiation may be 
 either bain (absolute) or raja'll (revocable), 
 and that a repudiation given three times 
 cannot be revoked, nor a woman so repudi¬ 
 ated be again manned by her husband until 
 she has been intermediately married to an¬ 
 other man, and the marriage with him has 
 been consummated. But, according to the 
 Hanafiyahs, repudiation may be made irrevo¬ 
 cable by an aggravation of the terms, or the 
 addition of a description, and three repudi¬ 
 ations may be given in immediate succession, 
 or even unico contextu, in one expression; 
 while, according to the ShTahs, on the other 
 hand, the irrevocability of a repudiation is 
 dependent on the state in which the woman 
 may be at the time that it is given, and 
 three repudiations, to have their full effect, 
 must have two intervening revocations. 
 To the bd’in and raja^i repudiations of 
 both sects, the ShTahs add one peculiar to 
 themselves, to which they give the name of 
 the taldq-u’l-‘iddah, or repudiation of the 
 l idduh, and which has the effect of rendering 
 the repudiated woman for ever unlawful to 
 her husband, so that it is impossible for 
 them ever to marry with each other again 
 The power of revocation continues until the 
 
SHI f AH 
 
 57 7 
 
 SHI f AH 
 
 expiration of the ‘ iddah , or probationary 
 period for ascertaining whether a woman is 
 pregnant or not. After it has expired, the 
 repudiation becomes absolute, according to 
 both schools. So long as it is revocable, the 
 parties are still in a manner husband and 
 wife ; and if either of them should happen to 
 die, the other has a right of inheritance in 
 the deceased’s estate. 
 
 “ (e) With regard to parentage, maternity is 
 established, according to the Hanafiyahs, by 
 birth alone, without any regard to the con¬ 
 nection of the parents being lawful or not. 
 According to the Shl'ahs, it must in all cases 
 be lawful; for a waladu 'z-zinS, or illegitimate 
 child, has no descent, even from its mother, 
 nor are there any mutual rights of inheritance 
 between them. For the establishment of 
 paternity there must have been, at the time 
 of the child’s conception, according to both 
 sects, a legal connection between its parents 
 by marriage or slavery, or a semblance of 
 either. According to the Hanafiyahs, an 
 invalid marriage is sufficient for that pur¬ 
 pose, or even, according to the head of the 
 school, one that is positively unlawful; but, 
 according to the Shiahs, the marriage must 
 in all cases be lawful, except when there is 
 error on the part of both or either of the 
 parents. Again, as to the children by slaves, 
 express acknowledgment by the father is 
 required by both the sects, except when the 
 slave is his ummu 'l-walad, or has already 
 borne a child to him ; for though, according 
 to the Shiahs, there are two reports on the 
 subject, yet, by the most generally received 
 of these, a slave does not become the wife of 
 her master by mere coition, and her child is 
 not affiliated to him without his acknow¬ 
 ledgment. With regard to children begotten 
 under a semblance of right, the Hanafiyahs 
 require some basis for the semblance in the 
 relation of the parties to each other; while, 
 according to the Shiahs, bona fide belief on 
 the part of the man that the woman is his 
 wife or his slave seems to be all that is 
 required; while no relation short of a legal 
 marriage or slavery, without such belief 
 either on the part of the man or the woman, 
 would apparently be sufficient. 
 
 “ CO On the subject of testimony, both 
 schools require that it shall be direct to the 
 point in issue; and they also seem to be agreed 
 that when two or more witnesses concur in 
 asserting a fact in the same terms, the judge is 
 bound by their testimony, and must give his 
 judgment in conformity with it. They agree 
 in requiring that a witness should in general 
 have full knowledge, by the cognizance of 
 his own senses, of the fact to which he is 
 bearing testimony; but both allow him, in 
 certain exceptional cases, to testify on infor¬ 
 mation received from others, or when he is 
 convinced of the fact by inference from cir¬ 
 cumstances with which it is connected. 
 
 “ Qj) Nasab, or descent, is included by both 
 sects among the exceptional facts to which a 
 witness is allowed to testify when they are 
 generally notorious, or when he is credibly 
 informed of them by others But according 
 
 to the Hanafiyahs, it is enough if the infor¬ 
 mation be received from two just men, or 
 one just man and two just women; while the 
 Shiahs require that it should have been 
 received from a considerable number of 
 persons in succession, without any suspicion 
 of their having got up the story in con¬ 
 cert. The Hanafiyahs class marriage among 
 the exceptional facts, together with Nasab; 
 but, according to the Shiahs, it more 
 properly follows the general rule, which 
 requires that the witness should have the 
 direct evidence of his own senses to the 
 fact to which he is giving his testimony. 
 They seem, however, to admit an excep¬ 
 tion in its favour; for they reason that as 
 we adjudge Khadijah to have been the 
 mother of Fatimah, the daughter of the 
 Prophet, though we know it only by general 
 notoriety and tradition, which is but con¬ 
 tinued hearsay, so also we may equally 
 decide her to have been the Prophet’s wife, for 
 which we have the same evidence, though we 
 were not present at the contract of marriage, 
 nor even heard the Prophet acknowledge 
 it. Both sects are agreed that a witness 
 may lawfully infer and testify that a thing 
 is the property of a particular person when 
 he has seen it in his possession; and so, 
 according to the Hanafiyahs, ‘ When a person 
 has seen a man and woman dwelling in the 
 same house, and behaving familiarly with 
 each other in the manner of married persons, 
 it is lawful for him to testify that she is his 
 wife, in the same way as when he has seen 
 a specific thing in the hands of another.’ 
 The Shrahs do not apply this principle 
 of inference to the case of marriage, and 
 there is no ground for saying that, according 
 to them, marriage will be presumed in a 
 case of proved continual cohabitation. 
 
 “ (A) There is difference between the two 
 schools as to the person who is entitled to 
 claim a right of shuf'ah, or pre-emption. 
 According to the Hanafiyahs, the right may 
 be claimed, firstly, by a partner in the thing 
 itself; secondly, by a partner in its rights of 
 water and way; and thirdly, by a neighbour. 
 According to the Shi‘ahs, the right belongs 
 only to the first of these, with some slight 
 exception in favour of the second. The claim 
 of the third they reject altogether. In gift 
 the principal difference between the schools 
 is, that a gift of an undivided share of a thing, 
 which is rejected by the Hanafiyah, is quite 
 la wful according to the Shi‘ahs. 
 
 “ (i) In appropriation and alms there do not 
 seem to be any differences of importance 
 between the two schools. And in wills the 
 leading difference seems to be that, while, 
 according to the Hanafiyahs, a bequest in 
 favour of an heir is positively illegal, it 
 is quite unobjectionable according to the 
 Shrahs 
 
 “(_/) In respect of inheritance, there are 
 many and important differences between 
 the two sects, but they admit of being 
 reduced to a few leading principles, which 
 I now proceed to notice, following the order 
 in which the different branches of the 
 
 73 
 
578 
 
 SHI AH 
 
 subject are treated of in this volume. The 
 impediments to inheritance are four in num¬ 
 ber, according to the Hanafiyahs, viz. 
 slavery, homicide, difference of religion, and 
 difference of dar, or country. Of these the 
 Shrahs recognize the first; the second also 
 with some modification, that is, they require 
 that the homicide be intentional, in other 
 words, murder, while with the Hanafiyahs it 
 operates equally as an impediment to inherit¬ 
 ance, though accidental. For difference of 
 religion the Shrahs substitute infidelity, and 
 difference of country they reject entirely. 
 Exclusion from the whole inheritance, ac¬ 
 cording to the Hanaflvahs, is founded upon 
 and regulated by two principles. The one 
 is that a person who is related to the de¬ 
 ceased through another has no interest in 
 the succession during the life of that other, 
 with the exception of half-brothers and 
 sisters by the mother, who are not excluded 
 by her. The other principle is, that the 
 nearer relative excludes the more remote. 
 The former of these principles is not ex¬ 
 pressly mentioned by the Shrahs, but it is 
 included without the exception in the second, 
 which is adopted by them, and extended, so 
 as to postpone a more remote residuary to a 
 nearer sharer—an effect which is not given 
 to it by the Hanaflvahs. 
 
 “ With regard to partial exclusion or the 
 diminution of a share, there is also some 
 difference between the sects. According to 
 the Hanaflvahs, a child, or the child of a 
 son, how low soever, reduces the shares of 
 a husband, a wife, and a mother, from the 
 highest to the lowest appointed for them; 
 while, according to the Shla‘hs, the reduction 
 is effected by any child, whether male or 
 female, in any stage of descent from the 
 deceased. Further, when the deceased has 
 left a husband or wife, and both parents, 
 the share of the mother is reduced, accord¬ 
 ing to the Hanaflvahs, from a third of the 
 whole estate to a third of the remainder, 
 in order that the male may have double 
 the share of the female; but, according 
 to the Shrahs, there is no reduction of 
 the mothers third in these circumstances, 
 though, when the deceased has left a hus¬ 
 band, the share of the father can only be a 
 sixth. The shares and the person for whom 
 they are appointed being expressly men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur'an, there is no difference 
 in respect of them between the two schools. 
 But they differ materially as to the relatives 
 who are not sharers. They are divided by 
 the Hanafiyahs into residuaries and distant 
 kindred. The residuaries in their own 
 right they define as every male in whose 
 line of relation to the deceased no female 
 enters ; ‘ and the distant kindred,’ as ! all 
 relatives who are neither sharers nor resi¬ 
 duaries.’ The residuaries not only take any 
 surplus that may remain after the sharers 
 have been satisfied, but also the whole 
 estate when there is no sharer, to the 
 entire exclusion of the distant kindred, 
 though these may, in fact, be much nearer 
 in blood to the deceased. This preference 
 
 SHI C AH 
 
 of the residuary is rejected with peculiar 
 abhorrence by the Shrahs, who found their 
 objection to it, certainly with some appear¬ 
 ance of reason, on two passages of the Qur’an 
 cited below. Instead of the triple division 
 of the Hanafiyahs, they mix up the rights of 
 all the relatives together, and then separate 
 them into three classes, according to their 
 proximity to the deceased, each of which in 
 its order is preferred to that which follows ; 
 so that while there is a single individual, 
 even a female, of a prior class, there is 
 no room for the succession of any of the 
 others. 
 
 “ Within the classes operation is given to 
 the doctrine of the return by the Shrahs, 
 nearly in the same way as by the Hana¬ 
 fiyahs : that is, if there is a surplus over 
 the shares, it reverts to the sharers, with 
 the exception of the husband or wife, and 
 is proportionately divided among them. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Hanafiyahs, this surplus is 
 always intercepted by the residuary, and it 
 is only when there is no residuary that there 
 is with them any room for the doctrine of 
 the- return. When the shares exceed the 
 whole estate, the deficiency is distributed by 
 the Hanafiyahs over all the shares by rais¬ 
 ing the extractor of the case—a process 
 which is termed the ‘aid, or increase. This 
 is also rejected by the Shrahs, who make 
 the deficiency to fall exclusively upon those 
 among them whose relationship to the de¬ 
 ceased is on the father's side. With regard 
 to the computation of shares, there does not 
 appear to be any difference between the 
 schools.” A Digest of Mookummudan Law. 
 Imameea Code. N. B. E. Baillie, London (1869). 
 
 Air. Wilfrid S. Blunt, in his Future of Islam, 
 has the following remarks on the present 
 position of the Shrah sect:— 
 
 “ In theory, I believe the Shias still hold 
 that there is an Imam and Caliph, but they 
 will not tolerate the pretension of any one now 
 in authority to the title, and leave it in abey¬ 
 ance until the advent of the Mohady ( Mahdi ), 
 or guide, who is to reunite Islam and restore 
 its fortunes. So much is this the case that, 
 sovereign though he be and absolute master 
 in Persia, the Shah is to the present day 
 looked upon by the Persians as a usurper, 
 and he himself acknowledges the fact in a 
 rather curious ceremony. It is a maxim with 
 Alussulmans of all sects that prayer is not 
 valid if made in another man’s house without 
 his permission, and this being so, and the 
 Shah admitting that his palaces of right be¬ 
 long not to himself but to the Mohady, he 
 is obliged to lease them according to legal 
 form from an alem Qalini ) or mujtahed, act¬ 
 ing for the supposed Mohady, before he can 
 pray in them to his spiritual profit. 
 
 “ It w-ill be readily understood that, with 
 such an organization and with such tendencies 
 to deductive reasoning, a wide basis is given 
 for divergence of opinion among the Shiites, 
 and that while the more highly educated of 
 their mollahs occasionally preach absolute 
 ; pantheism, others consult the grosser incli¬ 
 nations of the vulgar, and indulge their 
 
shi'ah 
 
 SHIRK 
 
 579 
 
 hearers with the most extravagant tales of 
 miracle and superstition. These are a con¬ 
 stant source of mockery to the Sunites. 
 Among the more respectable Shiite beliefs, 
 however, there seems to be a general convic¬ 
 tion in Persia that a reform of Islam is at 
 hand, and that a new leader may be expected 
 at any moment and from any quarter, so that 
 enthusiasts are constantly found simulating 
 the gifts of inspiration and affecting a divine 
 mission. The history of the Babites, so well 
 described by M. de Gobineau in his Religions 
 of Asia, is a case in point, and similar occur¬ 
 rences are by no means rare in Persia. I met 
 at Jeddah a highly educated Persian gentle¬ 
 man, who informed me that he had himself been 
 witness, when a boy, to a religious prodigy, no¬ 
 torious, if I remember rightly, at Tabriz. On 
 that occasion, one of these prophets, being 
 condemned to death by the supreme govern¬ 
 ment, was bound to a cross with two of his 
 companions, and, after remaining suspended 
 thus for several hours, was fired at by the 
 royal troops. It then happened that, while 
 the companions were dispatched at the first 
 volley, the prophet himself remained unhurt, 
 and, incredible to relate, the cords which 
 bound him were cut by the bullets, and he 
 fell to the ground on his feet. ‘ You Chris¬ 
 tians,’ said another Persian gentleman once 
 to me, ‘ talk of your Christ as the Son of 
 God and think it strange, but with us the 
 occurrence is a common one. Believe me, 
 we have “ sons of God ” in nearly all our vil¬ 
 lages.’ [sofi.] 
 
 “ Thus, with the Shiites, extremes meet. 
 No Moslems more readily adapt themselves 
 to the superficial atheisms of Europe than do 
 the Persians, and none are more ardently 
 devout, as all who have witnessed the miracle 
 play of the two Imams will be obliged to 
 admit. Extremes, too, of morality are seen, 
 fierce asceticisms and gross licentiousnesses. 
 By no sect of Islam is the duty of pilgrimage 
 more religiously observed, or the prayers 
 and ablutions required by their rule per¬ 
 formed with a stricter ritual. But the very 
 pilgrims who go on foot to Mecca scruple not 
 to drink wine there, and Persian morality is 
 everywhere a by-word. In all these circum¬ 
 stances there is much to fear as well as to 
 hope on the side of the Shiite sect; but their 
 future only indirectly involves that of Islam 
 proper. Their whole census does not pro¬ 
 bably exceed fifteen millions, and it shows 
 no tendency to inci-ease. Outside Persia we 
 find about one million Iraki Arabs, a few in 
 Syria and Afghanistan, and at most five mil¬ 
 lions in India. One small group still main¬ 
 tains itself in the neighbourhood of Medina, 
 where it is tolerated rather than acknow¬ 
 ledged, and a few Shiites are to be found in 
 most of the large cities of the west, but every¬ 
 where the sect of Ali stands apart from and 
 almost in a hostile attitude to the rest of 
 Islam. It is noticeable, however, that within 
 the last fifty years the religious bitterness of 
 Shiite and Sunite is sensibly in decline.” 
 
 For information on the History of the 
 ShTahs, the English reader can refer to Mal¬ 
 
 colm’s History of Persia, 2 vols. (a.d. 1815) ; 
 Morier’s Travels, 2 vols. (a.d. 1812); Mark¬ 
 ham’s History of Persia (a.d. 1874). A trans¬ 
 lation of their traditions is found in the Life 
 and Religion of Mohammad, by the Rev. 
 James L. Merrick. Boston (1850). For Shi‘ah 
 Law, consult Tagore Lectures, 1874; A Digest 
 of Moohumnuidan Law. The Imameea Code. 
 N. B. E. Baillie (1869). [muharram.] 
 
 SHIRB The share of water 
 
 used for tillage, [river.] 
 
 SHIRK “ Idolatry; pagan¬ 
 
 ism ; polytheism.” Ascribing plurality to the 
 Deity. Associating anything with God. 
 
 According to Wahhabi writers. Shirk is 
 defined to be of four kinds : Shirku 'l-Hlm, 
 ascribing knowledge to others than God; 
 Shirku ’t-tasarruf, ascribing power to others 
 than God ; Shirku 'l-‘ibddah, offering worship 
 to created things ; Shirku ’l-‘adah, the per¬ 
 formance of ceremonies which imply reliance 
 on others than God. 
 
 (1) Shirku 'l-Hlm is illustrated by the 
 statement that prophets and holy men have 
 no knowledge of secret things unless as 
 revealed to them by God. Thus some 
 wicked persons made a charge against 
 ‘Ayishah. The Prophet was troubled in 
 mind, but knew not the truth of the matter 
 till God made it known to him. To ascribe, 
 then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, and 
 saints is Polytheism. “ All who pretend to 
 have a knowledge of hidden things, such as 
 fortune-tellers, soothsayers, and interpreters 
 of dreams, as well as those who profess to 
 be inspired, are all liars.” Again, “ should 
 anyone take the name of any saint, or invoke 
 his aid in the time of need, instead of calling 
 on God, or use his name in attacking an 
 enemy, or read passages to propitiate him, 
 or make him the object of contemplation—it 
 is Shirku 'l-Hlm." 
 
 (2) Shirku 't-tasarruf is to suppose that 
 anyone has power with God. He who looks 
 up to anyone as an intercessor with God 
 commits Shirk. Thus: “ But they who take 
 others beside Him as lords, saying, ‘We only 
 serve them that they may bring us near God,’ 
 —God will judge between them (and the 
 Faithful) concerning that wherein they are 
 at variance.” (Surah xxxix. 4.) Intercession 
 may be of three kinds. For example, a 
 cri min al is placed before the King. The 
 Yizier intercedes. The King, having regard 
 to the rank of the Yizier, pardons the of¬ 
 fender. This is called Shafa‘at-i- Wajahah, 
 or “ intercession from regard.” But to sup¬ 
 pose that God so esteems the rank of any¬ 
 one as to pardon a sinner merely on account 
 of it is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes 
 intercede for the criminal. The King, from 
 love to them, pardons him. This is called 
 Shafd‘at-i-mahabbah, or “intercession from 
 affection.” But to consider that God so 
 loves anyone as to pardon a criminal on his 
 account is to give that loved one power, and 
 this is Shirk, for such power is not possible 
 in the Court of God. “ God may out of His 
 bounty confer on His favourite servants the 
 
580 
 
 SHIRK 
 
 SHOES 
 
 epithets of Habib, ‘ favourite,’ or Khalil, 
 
 1 friend,’ <fcc.; but a servant is but a ser¬ 
 vant, no one can put his foot outside the 
 limits of servitude, or rise beyond the rank 
 of a servant.” Again, the King may him¬ 
 self wish to pardon the offender, but he fears 
 lest the majesty of the law should be lowered. 
 The Vizier perceives the King’s wish, and 
 intercedes. This intercession is lawful. It 
 is called Shafd-at-i-ba-izn, “ intercession by 
 pel-mission,” and such power Muhammad 
 will have at the Day of Judgment. Wahhabis 
 hold that he has not that power now, though 
 all other Musalmans consider that he has, 
 and in consequence (in Wahhabi opinion) 
 commit the sin of Shirku H-tasarruf. The 
 Wahhabis quote the following passages in 
 support of their view. “ Who is he that can 
 intercede with Him but by His own per¬ 
 mission .” (Surah ii. 256) “ Say: Intercession 
 is wholly with God 1 His the kingdoms of 
 the heavens and of the earth.” (Surah xxxix. 
 45.) They also say : “ Whenever an allusion 
 is made in the Qur’an, or the Traditions to the 
 intercession of certain prophets or apostles, it 
 is this kind of intercession and no other that 
 is meant.” 
 
 (3) Shirlcu ’l-‘Ibadah is prostration before 
 any created being, with the idea of wor¬ 
 shipping it; perambulating the shrines of 
 departed saints. “ Prostration, bowing down, 
 standing with folded arms, spending money 
 in the name of an individual, fasting out of 
 respect to his memory, proceeding to a dis¬ 
 tant shrine in a pilgrim’s garb and calling 
 out the name of the saint.” It is wrong “ to 
 cover the grave with a sheet, to say prayers 
 at the shrine, to kiss any particular stone, to 
 rub the mouth and breast against the walls 
 of the shrine, &c.” This is a stern condem¬ 
 nation of the very common practice of visiting 
 
 the tombs of saints and of some of the special 
 practices of the pilgrimage to Makkah. All 
 such practices as are here condemned are 
 called Ishrak fl ’l-‘Ibaclah, “ association in 
 worship.” 
 
 (4) Shirku ’l-‘ddah is the keeping up of 
 superstitious customs, such as the Istikharah, 
 seeking guidance from beads, &c., trusting 
 to omens, good or bad, believing in lucky 
 and unlucky days, adopting such names as 
 ‘Abdu ’n-Nabi (Slave of the Prophet), and 
 so on. In fact, the denouncing of such 
 practices and calling them Shirk brings 
 Wahhablism into daily contact with the other 
 sects, for scarcely any people in the world 
 are such profound believers in the virtue of 
 charms and the power of astrologers as 
 Musalmans. The difference between the first 
 and fourth Shirk, the Shirku H-Hlm and the 
 Shirku ’ l-‘adah, seems to be that the first is 
 the belief, say in the knowledge of a sooth¬ 
 sayer, and the second the habit of consulting 
 him. 
 
 To swear by the name of the Prophet, of 
 ‘All, of the Imams, or of PIrs (Leaders) is 
 to give them the honour due to God alone. 
 It is Ishrak fi ’ l-adab, “ Shirk in associa¬ 
 tion.” [WAHHABI.] 
 
 SHIRKAH (<&^). “Partnership.” 
 
 The term signifies the union of two or more 
 persons in one concern. It is applied in Mus¬ 
 lim law to contracts as well as to partner¬ 
 ships Shirkah, or association, with regard 
 to the essence and person of God, is forbidden 
 in Islam. 
 
 SHIS [SETH.] 
 
 SHOES. The removal of the san¬ 
 dals, shoes, or boots, from the feet upon en¬ 
 tering either a mosque or house, or during 
 
 THE SHOES OF THE FAITHFUL. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 worship, is not enjoined in Muhammadan 
 law, although it has become a common cus¬ 
 tom in all Eastern countries, for the modern 
 Muslim uncovers his feet upon entering the 
 Ka‘bah at Makkah (Burckhardt’s Arabia, 
 vol. i. p. 270), the Muhammadans of Pales¬ 
 tine remove the shoes upon entering their 
 places of worship (Robinson’s Researches, 
 vol. ii. p 36) and it is also the practice to 
 
 take off the shoes in Egypt (Lane, vol. i. 
 pp. 16, 105; vol. ii. p. 11), and in Hindustan. 
 
 The number of traditions which prove that 
 Muhammad allowed his followers to worship 
 with their feet covered, is very numerous, 
 and they are held to be Akadls of good 
 authority, and supported by the fatwds of 
 eminent doctors of law. 
 
 Shaddad ibn Aus relates that the Prophet 
 
SHROUD 
 
 581 
 
 said, “Act the reverse of the Jews in your 
 prayers, for they do not pray in boots or 
 shoes.” 
 
 Abu Sa‘Id al-Khudri says “ the Prophet 
 said his prayers with the Companions, and 
 suddenly took off his shoes, and put them 
 down on his left side; and when the peoplo 
 observed it, they took off theirs also, and when 
 prayers were finished, the Prophet asked 
 why they took their shoes off. The Compa¬ 
 nions replied, ‘ We followed your example.’ 
 The Prophet then said, ‘Verily Gabriel came 
 to me and told mo there was a little filth on 
 my shoes. Therefore, when any of you enter 
 a mosque, look well at your shoes, and if you 
 perceive any dirt on them, wipe it off, and 
 then say your prayer in them.’ ” 
 
 ‘Amr ibn Shu‘aib relates that he saw the 
 Prophet saying his prayers sometimes with 
 his shoes and sometimes without. ( Mishkat , 
 book iv. ch. 9.) 
 
 In the Hidai/ah it is enjoined that when 
 there is any uncleanness on the shoes, such 
 as dung, blood, &c., they must bo rubbed 
 with earth, and then they become legally 
 clean and fit for worship. (Arabic edition, 
 vol. i. p. 26.) 
 
 This is confirmed by the Durru ’l-Mu/chtdr 
 (vol. i. pp. 30, 65), and by numerous tradi¬ 
 tions. ( Mishkat , book iii. ch. ii.) 
 
 If the dirt cannot be removed from the 
 shoes by rubbing them with earth, the law 
 permits the Muslim to make them ceremonially 
 clean by wetting his three fingers and draw¬ 
 ing them once over the upper part of the 
 shoes or boots, [masah.] 
 
 According to the Traditions, when a Mus¬ 
 lim sits down on the floor, he should take off 
 his shoes and place them on one side, and he 
 should take off the right shoe first and then 
 the left. ( Mishkat , book xx. ch. iii.) 
 
 SHROUD. Arabic leaf an 
 
 The act of shrouding is called takfin. A 
 wooden coffin is called tdbfit, the use of which 
 is generally held to be forbidden by Sunnis, 
 but it is used by the Shhahs. 
 
 Muhammad is related to have said :— 
 
 “ Do not be expensive in your shrouds, for 
 they soon rot.” 
 
 “ Plain white is the best for the shrouds of 
 your dead.” 
 
 “The best cloth for a shroud is ftidlah” (i.e. 
 a white striped cloth used in Arabia). 
 
 ‘Ayishah says : “ The Prophet was shrouded 
 in three garments, but there was neither a 
 coat nor a turban.” 
 
 These three garments are still used as 
 shrouds in all parts of Islam. 
 
 (1) Izar, a piece of cloth which covers 
 from the waist to the feet. 
 
 (2) Rida.’, covering from the feet to the 
 shoulders. 
 
 (3) Lifafah, a large sheet covering the 
 whole body from head to feet, and closed at 
 the ends. 
 
 The bodies of martyrs are not shrouded, 
 but are buried in the garments in which they 
 fell, for it is related that Muhammad so or¬ 
 dered the men who fell in the battle of Uljud 
 
 ASH-SHU C AEA 
 
 to be buried; their weapons being first re¬ 
 moved from their bodies, they were buried in 
 their blood-stained clothes, [burial.] 
 
 SHU’AIB The Muslim 
 
 commentators generally suppose Shu‘aib to 
 be the same person with the father-in-law of 
 Moses, who is named in scripture Reuel or 
 Rageul and Jethro But Ahmad ibn ‘Abdi 
 ’l-Hallm charges those who entertain this 
 opinion with ignorance. They say (after the 
 Jews) that ho gave his son-in-law [moses] 
 that wonder-working rod with which he per¬ 
 formed all those miracles in Egypt and the 
 desert, and also gave excellent advice and 
 instruction; whence he had the surname of 
 Khatlbu ’1-Ambiya’ (oL-oU! >__A~.), the 
 “ Preacher to the Prophets.” 
 
 The account given of him in the Qur’an, 
 Surah vii. 83-91, is as follows:— 
 
 “ And unto Midian did we send their bro¬ 
 ther Shu‘aib, who said, ‘ 0 my people ! serve 
 God, ye have no god save Him. There has 
 come to you a manifest sign from your Lord: 
 then give good weight and measure, and be 
 not niggardly of your gifts to men, and do 
 not evil in the earth after it has been righted. 
 That is better for you if ye are believers; 
 and sit not down in every path, threatening 
 and turning from the path of God those who 
 believe in Him, and craving to make it 
 crooked. Remember when ye were few and 
 He multiplied you ; and see what was the 
 end of the evil-doers! And if there be a 
 party of you who believe in what I am sent 
 with, and a party who believe not, then wait 
 patiently until God judges between us, for He 
 is the best of judges ! Said the crowd of 
 those who were big with pride amongst his 
 people, ‘We will of a surety turn thee out, O 
 Shu‘aib, and those who believe with thee, 
 from our village ; or else thou shalt return 
 unto our faith.’ Said he, ‘ What even if we 
 be averse therefrom? We shall have devised 
 a lie against God if we return unto your faith 
 after God has saved us from it; and what 
 should ail us that we should return thereto, 
 unless that God our Lord should please? Our 
 Lord embraces everything in His knowledge; 
 on God do we rely. 0 our Lord! open be¬ 
 tween us and between our people in truth, 
 for Thou art the best of those who open. 
 And the chiefs of those who disbelieved 
 amongst his people said, ‘ If ye follow Shu‘aib, 
 verily, ye shall be the losers.’ Then there 
 took them the earthquake, and in the morn¬ 
 ing they lay in their dwellings prone. Those 
 who called Shu‘aib a liar, (were) as though 
 they had not dwelt therein. Those who 
 called Shu‘aib a liar, they were the losers 
 then ! And he turned away from them and 
 said, ‘ 0 my people ! I preached to you the 
 messages of my Lord, and I gave you good 
 advice; how should I be vexed for a people 
 who do misbelieve ? ’ ” 
 
 ash-SHU‘ARA (A^). “ The 
 
 Poets.” The title of the xxvith Surah of 
 the Qur’an, so called because at the conclu¬ 
 sion of the chapter the Arabian poets are 
 severely censured, [poets.] 
 
582 
 
 SI JILL 
 
 shhf'ah 
 
 SHUF’AH (J*aA). [preemption.] 
 
 ash-SHURA “ The Con¬ 
 
 sultation.” The title of the XLimd Surah of 
 the Qur’an. Taken from the 36th verse, in 
 which the believers are commended for taking 
 consultation together. 
 
 SHTJRB (sj^>). Lit. “ Drinking.” 
 
 A term used for wine-drinking, which is for¬ 
 bidden by the Muslim law. [drunkenness.] 
 
 SIBC4HAH (ii-). Lit. “A dye.” 
 
 A word which occurs in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 
 132 : “ The dye of God ! And who is better 
 than God at dyeing ? And we are worshippers 
 of Him ” ; which both Mr. Sale and Mr. Rod- 
 well translate baptism, but which Professor 
 Palmer says must be rendered “ dye.” Ac¬ 
 cording to al-Baizawi, it stands in the text for 
 the Islam of God, but refers to Christian 
 baptism, [baptism.] 
 
 SIDDlQ “ One who speaks 
 
 the truth.” It occurs in the Qur'an for Idris 
 (generally identified with Enoch), who is de¬ 
 scribed as a man of eminent truthfulness. 
 Professor Palmer translates the word “ con¬ 
 fessor ” (see Surah xix. 57.) 
 
 As-Siddiq is a title said to have been given 
 to the first Khalifah Abu Bakr by Muham¬ 
 mad himself. 
 
 SIDBATTT ’L-MUNTAHA (S,ju. 
 Lit. “ The Lote-tree of the 
 extremity.” A tree in the seventh heaven, 
 having its roots in the sixth. Its fruits were 
 like water-pots, and its leaves like elephant’s 
 ears. ( Mishkat, book xxiv. ch. vii. pt. 1.) 
 
 It is mentioned twice in the Qur’an, Surah 
 liii. 8-18 
 
 “ Then came he (Gabriel or the angel) 
 nearer and approached, 
 
 And was at the distance of two bows, or 
 even closer,— 
 
 And he revealed to his servant what he 
 revealed. 
 
 His heart falsified not what he saw. 
 
 What! will ye then dispute with him as to 
 what he saw ? 
 
 He had seen him also another time, 
 
 Near the Sidrah-tree, which marks the 
 boundary. 
 
 Near which is the garden of repose. 
 
 When the Sidrah-tree was covered with 
 what covered it, 
 
 His eye turned not aside, nor did it wan¬ 
 der : 
 
 For he saw the greatest of the signs of his 
 Lord.” 
 
 The Sidrah-tree is the Zizyphus jujula of 
 Linnaeus, the prickly plum, which is called 
 Ber in India. A decoction of its leaves is 
 used in India to wash the dead, on account of 
 the sacredness of the tree. 
 
 SIFAH (^). pi. Sifdt. An attri¬ 
 bute. Used for the attributes of God. The 
 Qur’an is also said to be a §ifah of the 
 Almighty. 
 
 Ismu ’s-Sifah, the name of an attribute, is 
 a term applied to any of the ninety-nine 
 names or attributes of God. [god.] 
 
 SI FAT I YAH (AAlao). Prom Sifdt, 
 
 “ attributes.” A school of thought rather 
 than a sect of Islam, although it is given by 
 Mr. Sale as one of the Muhammadan sects. 
 The orthodox Sunni claims to be a Sifati, 
 or Attributist (as opposed to the Mu‘tazilahs, 
 who reject the idea of God’s attributes being 
 eternal), and maintains that the attributes of 
 God are eternally inherent in His essence 
 without separation or change; every attri¬ 
 bute being conjoined with Him as life with 
 knowledge, or knowledge with power. With 
 regard to the verses of the Qur’an which are 
 held to be Mutashabih, and assign some re¬ 
 semblance between God and His creatures, 
 the Sifatiyahs say the expressions “ hands,” 
 “ face,” “ sitting,” &c., must simply be ac¬ 
 cepted as they stand, without any attempt at 
 explanation. [mu‘tazilah, wahhabi.] 
 
 _ as-SIHAHU ’S-SITTAH (cWJI 
 also called al-Kutubu ’s-Sittah 
 (aa-J1 ). “ The six correct 
 
 (books).” The title given to the six most 
 trustworthy collections of traditions received 
 by Sunni Muslims, namely, those by— 
 
 (1) Abu‘Abdi ’llah Muhammad ibnIsma'il 
 al-Bukhan, born A.H. 194; died a.h. 256. 
 
 (2) Abu ’1-Husain Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj 
 al-Qushairi, born a.h. 204, died a.h. 261. 
 
 (3) Abu ‘Isa Muhammad ibn ‘Isa ’l-Tirmizi, 
 born a.h. 209, died a.h. 279. 
 
 (4) Abii Da’ud Sulaiman ibn Ash'as as- 
 Sajastanl, born a.h. 202, died a.h. 275. 
 
 (5) Abu ‘Abdi ’r-Rahman Ahmad ibn 
 Shu‘aib an-Nasa’i, born a.h. 215, died a.h. 
 303. 
 
 (6) Abu ‘Abdi ’llah Muhammad ibn Yazid, 
 ibn Majah, al-Qazwini, born a.h. 209, died 
 a.h. 273. 
 
 The above are generally esteemed the six 
 authentic collections, but some substitute for 
 the Sunan Ibn Majah the Muivatta ’ of Abu 
 ‘Abdi ’llah Malik ibn Anas ibn Malik ibn 
 Abi ‘Amir ibn ‘Amr ibn al-Haris al-Asbahi 
 al-Himyari, born a.h. 95, died a.h. 179. 
 
 (The above words in italics denote the 
 popular title of the collection.) 
 
 Al-Bukhari and Muslim are held in highest 
 reputation, and are called as-Sahihan, or 
 “the two authentics.” 
 
 The collection by Malik, the founder of the 
 second orthodox sect of the Sunnis, is the 
 most ancient collection of traditions, and is 
 held in high [reputation, but it is sometimes 
 omitted from the list by the Hanafis, because 
 he is the founder of a certain school of 
 jurisprudence, [traditions.] 
 
 SIJDAH. [sajdah.] 
 
 SI JILL (Jc?-). A register. The 
 
 record of a court of justice. The decree of 
 a judge. In the Qur’an, the word occurs 
 when it is used for the angel which has 
 charge of the register of the fate of mankind, 
 
8UJIV 
 
 SIZHI5V 
 
 r ' D 
 
 or, aaetriizg to others, h trap near the rrl! 
 
 itself. 
 
 Sarah xii. 104 : “ The day -*hen —h! 
 rollup the hear eras as at-.’ivrJ.l rolls up his 
 book* : as We prodused it 2 t the rrn crea¬ 
 tion, ariH ire bring h hath again.' 
 
 SUJtN (. A d-Kp pi: in 
 
 ■*Mth is kept the register t: the at-tioc* of 
 the ■wiik&i. and hetre this register hsehi 
 Quran, Sarah b™; : 7 The book of 
 the -sucked is in S;fir. and —hat shall make 
 
 thee kr.-;t - it -—la at ., • 
 
 book." 'See also 1/ii -Air, look r. eh. hi 
 
 pt.3.) 
 
 SIKAXDAB r -X- . The Per¬ 
 sian for Alexander, by which is meant 
 Asia tier the Great, 'zc 'L-vasyaur/ 
 
 SIKHIS1I from. the Pan;ah! “.ri 
 
 i ■: : 1 . . - - • ' - a : 
 
 or - pupil The relist :r of the ~ ~ ~.s it 
 the Patjab. Poraled -.7 Kazak, Vao ~ „s 
 bom it the tillage tf Tal-raadi t:» 
 as Katkatl . :t the azks if the r.~er La-rt. 
 tear Lahore, A am*. 14*1 . 
 
 The histtrp of the Sfka religair tas tit 
 -ret vs; subjected to the - rttit7t: e - mp 
 
 mate saurt-e. or sturtes. •a’hette tae st steer 
 :f Klrak _at hi; : t .t its : 7 
 
 Tte literature ati trailr.its tf htk'~ isn p:e- 
 
 K» rS TT—SS ,-S 
 
 sett 2 stratte ttae: 
 
 31 that 
 
 ,S>- -A- 
 
 ata 
 
 - a 
 
 tat .7 at* arena 
 At; teet lei 
 
 so pa.- 
 
 t-tse.p tttetiei his tree; t: e a itmunmise 
 betveea three rwo great rehgftts. hr. 
 
 te sacred :f the ;kh- — h: 
 
 -*■- - -■ • 
 
 Gras: t 
 
 :t_T at 
 
 a: ::iettairelatt:- ;hip ^uah li ~ - a -il r u a 
 
 It the Irar:ir:aair ' . - 
 
 . a :: he saps — 
 
 1 " a ' •' • . a a . - a 
 
 ni —— Mm* ibaai God. Siaak 
 
 hits a: ~ — 7 :± hi * "r 
 
 ii= disciples, it —a= : » ag :: :ih :i:i n:: 
 
 y v: these ~ ~ ~ 1 -"• -- 
 
 rriifssi^. ~ii= II tz£±ij i :m : 
 
 :i 1 
 
 5IIT!H. 
 
 7 -r 
 
 :ih Is" In 
 
 ri_~ a: 
 
 Pi 
 
584 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 Eternal Spirit, and the intimate association 
 of the Divine with all that is manifest. Arab 
 Muhammadans believe in the unity of a per¬ 
 sonal God; but mankind and the world were, 
 to them, mere objects upon which the will of 
 God was exercised. The Sufis approached 
 nearer to the Christian sentiment embodied 
 in the phrase, “ Christ in us.” 
 
 The Persian conquerors of Hindustan car¬ 
 ried with them the mysticism and spirituality 
 of the Islamo-Magian creed. It was through 
 Persia that India received its flood of Muham¬ 
 madanism ; and the mysticism and asceticism 
 of the Persian form of Islam found con¬ 
 genial soil for development among the specu¬ 
 lative ascetics of northern India. It is, 
 therefore, only reasonable to suppose that any 
 Hindi! affected by Muhammadanism would 
 show some traces of Sufi influence. As a 
 fact we find that the doctrines preached by 
 the Sikh Gurus were distinctly Suflistic ; and, 
 indeed, the early Gurus openly assumed the 
 manners and dress of faqlrs, thus plainly 
 announcing their connection with the Suflistic 
 side of Muhammadanism. In pictures they 
 are represented with small rosaries in their 
 hands, quite in Muhammadan fashion, as 
 though ready to perform zikr. Guru Arjun, 
 who was fifth in succession from Nanak, was the 
 first to lay aside the dress of a faqlr. The doc¬ 
 trines, however, still held their position; for 
 we find the last Guru dying while making an 
 open confession of Suflism. His words are : 
 “ The Smritis, the S'astras, and the Vedas, 
 all speak in various ways : I do not ac¬ 
 knowledge one (of them). 0 possessor of hap¬ 
 piness, bestow thy mercy (on me). I do not 
 say, 1 1,’ I recognise all as 1 Thee.’ ”—( Si/chan 
 de Raj di Vithifl, p. 81.) Here we have not 
 only the ideas, but the very language of Sufis, 
 implying a pantheistic denial of all else than 
 Deity. The same manner of expression is found 
 in the Adi Granth itself, e.g. “Thou art I; 
 I am thou. Of what kind is the difference ? ” 
 (Translation, p. 130); and again, “ In all the 
 One dwells, the One is contained” (p. II). 
 Indeed, throughout the whole Adi Granth, a 
 favourite name for Deity is the “ True One,” 
 that is, that which is truly one—the Absolute 
 Unity. It is hardly possible to find a more 
 complete correspondence of ideas than that 
 furnished by the following sentences, one 
 taken from the Yusuf wa Zulaxhha of JamI, 
 the Persian Sufi; and the others, from the 
 Jap-ji and the Adi Granth. JamI says :— 
 
 “ Dismiss every vain fancy, and abandon 
 every doubt; 
 
 Blend into one every spirit, and form, and 
 place; 
 
 See One—know One—speak of One— 
 
 Desire One—chant of One—and seek 
 One.” 
 
 In the Jap-ji, a formula familiar to every 
 Sikh household, we find :— 
 
 “ The Guru is Isar (Siva), the Guru is 
 Gorakh (Vishnu), Brahma, the Guru is 
 the mother Parbatl. 
 
 If I should know, would I not tell? The 
 story cannot be told. 
 
 0 Guru, let me know the One ; that the 
 One liberal patron of all living beings 
 may not be forgotten by me.” 
 
 In the Adi Granth, we read:— 
 
 “ Thou recitest the One ; thou placest the 
 One in (thy) mind ; thou recognizest 
 the One. 
 
 The One (is) in eye, in word, in mouth ; 
 thou knowest the One in both places 
 (i.e. worlds). 
 
 In sleeping, the One; in waking, the 
 One ; in the One thou art absorbed.” 
 
 (India Office MS., No. 2484, fol. 568.) 
 
 It is not only with respect to the idea of 
 the unity of God that this identity of expres¬ 
 sion is discernible; for other technical terms 
 of Suflism are, also, reproduced in Sikhism. 
 Thus the Sufi Farldu ’d-DIn Shakrganj calls 
 Deity “the light of life,” and Jalalu ’d-DIn 
 speaks of “ flashes of His love,” while JamI 
 represents the “ light ” of the Lord of Angels 
 as animating all parts of the universe; and 
 Nizami exclaims, “ Then fell a light, as of a 
 lamp, into the garden (of my heart),” when he 
 feels that a ray of the Divine has entered into 
 his soul. It is not difficult to collect many 
 such instances from the works of Persian 
 Sufis. Turning to Sikhism, we find that 
 the Adi Granth is full of similar expressions. 
 It is enough to cite the following exclamation 
 of Nanak himself : “ In all (is) light. He (is) 
 light. From His light, there is fight in all.” 
 (India Office MS., No. 2484, fol. 35.) And 
 in another place he says: “ The Luminous 
 One is the mingler of fight (with himself).” 
 (fol. 186.) On fol. 51 we find : “ There death 
 enters not; fight is absorbed in the Luminous 
 One.” 
 
 Another favourite metaphor of Sufis for 
 the Deity is “the Beloved”; for example, 
 when Hafiz says : “ Be thankful that the 
 Assembly is lighted up by the presence of the 
 Beloved.” This term is well recognized in 
 Sikhism; thus in the Adi Granth, “If thou 
 call thyself the servant of the Beloved, do not 
 speak despitefully (of Him). (India Office 
 MS., No. 2484, fol. 564.) “Love to the 
 Beloved naturally puts joy into the heart. 
 I long to meet the Lord ( Prabhu ) ; therefore 
 why should I be slothful.” (India Office 
 MS., 2484, fol. 177.) Also, “In my soul 
 and body are excessive pangs of separation, 
 how shall the Beloved come to my house 
 and meet (with me) ? ” And again: “ The 
 Beloved has become my physician.” (India 
 Office MS., No. 1728, fol. 87.) The words 
 used in the Panjabi texts are pirip, pritam, 
 and piri, “ a lover,” or “ beloved one.” 
 
 Another remarkable proof of Persian in¬ 
 fluence is found in the form of the Adi Granth 
 itself. It consists of a collection of short 
 poems, in many of which all the verses com¬ 
 posing the poem rhyme together, in singular 
 conformity with the principle regulating the 
 construction of the Persian ghazal. This 
 resemblance is rendered more striking by the 
 fact that the name of Nanak is worked into 
 the composition of the last line of each of 
 the poem's, This last characteristic is too 
 
SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 585 
 
 persistent to be considered the result of 
 accident; and ■while it is altogether foreign 
 to the practice of Hindu verse, it is in 
 precise accord with the rule for the correct 
 composition of the ghazal. 
 
 The foregoing facts seem conclusive as to 
 the influence of Persian Sufiism on the origin 
 of the Sikh religion. Dr. Trumpp, when dis¬ 
 cussing the philosophy of the Adi Granth, 
 admits the intimate connection between Sikh¬ 
 ism and Sufiism in the following words :— 
 “We can distinguish in the Granth a grosser 
 
 and a finer kind of Pantheism.In this 
 
 finer shade of Pantheism, creation assumes 
 the form of emanation from the Supreme (as 
 in the system of the Sufis); the atomic 
 matter is either likewise considered co-etemal 
 with the Absolute and immanent in it, be¬ 
 coming moulded into various, distinct forms 
 by the energizing vigour of the absolute joti 
 (light) ; or, the reality of matter is more or 
 less denied (as by the Sufis, who call it the 
 
 to fir/ dr) s( > that the Divine joti is the 
 only real essence in all.”—(Introduction to 
 Translation of the Adi Granth, pp. c. ci.) 
 
 Any doubt that may remain on the ques¬ 
 tion seems to be set at rest by the express 
 statement in the life of Guru Arjun, who was 
 urged by his followers to reduce to writing 
 the genuine utterances of Xanak, because 11 by 
 reciting the numerous verses and speeches 
 uttered by other Sufis, which have received the 
 name of Baba Nanak, pride and worldly wis¬ 
 dom are springing up in the hearts of men.” 
 (Sikhan de Raj di Vithia, p. 29.) And in the 
 Adi Granth itself, we find the following re¬ 
 markable verses ascribed to Xanak :— 
 
 “ A ball of intoxication, of delusion, is 
 given by the Giver. 
 
 The intoxicated forget death, they enjoy 
 themselves four days. 
 
 The True One is found by the Softs, who 
 keep fast his Court.” 
 
 (Translation, p. 23.) 
 
 Here we have not only a plain claim of kin¬ 
 ship with the Sufis, but the incorporation of 
 several of their favourite terms. 
 
 The traditions of Xanak preserved in the 
 Janam-Sakhi, are full of evidences of his 
 alliance with Muhammadanism. He was a 
 Hindu by birth, of the Tedi Khattri caste ; 
 and was the son of the patwari, or village- 
 accountant, of the place now called Xankana, 
 in the neighbourhood of Lahore. In his 
 very early days, he sought the society of 
 faqirs ; and used both fair and unfair means 
 of doing them service, more especially in the 
 bestowal of alms. At fifteen years of age, he 
 misappropriated the money which his father 
 had given him for trade : and this induced his 
 parents to send him to a relative at Sultanpur, 
 in order that he might be weaned from his 
 affection for faqirs (India Office MS. Xo. 
 1728, fol. 29). Elis first act in his new home 
 was to join the service of a Muhammadan 
 Xawab, named Daulat Kh an Lodi ; and, while 
 serving him, he continued to give to faqirs 
 all his salary, except the bare maintenance he 
 reserved for himself. While in the service of 
 
 this Muhammadan, Xanak received the ecsta¬ 
 tic exaltation which he felt to be Divine inspi¬ 
 ration. It is stated in the tradition of his life, 
 that Xanak went to the river to perform his 
 ablutions, and that whilst so engaged, he was 
 translated bodily to the gates of Paradise. 
 “ Then a goblet of amrita (the water of life) 
 was given (to him ) by command (of God). 
 The command was : 1 This amrita is the goblet 
 of my name; drink thou it.’ Then the Guru 
 Xanak made salutation, and drank the goblet. 
 The Lord (Sahib) had mercy (and said) : 
 1 Xanak, I am with thee ; I have made thee 
 happy, and whoever shall take thy name 
 they all shall be rendered happy by me. Go 
 thou, repeat my name, and cause other people 
 to repeat it. Remain uncontaminated from the 
 world. Continue (steadfast) in the name, in 
 alms-giving, in ablutions, in service, and in the 
 remembrance (of me). I have given to thee 
 my own name : do thou this work.’ ” (fol. 33.) 
 Here we have notions closely akin to those 
 of the Sufis, who lay much stress on the re¬ 
 petition of the name of God, which they term 
 zikb. on religious ablutions [wAzcr’,g.z\], 
 
 and on meditating on the unity of God [wah- 
 daxiyah, q . vi ] Xo sooner had Xanak reco¬ 
 vered from his trance than he uttered the 
 key-note of his future system in the celebrated 
 phrase, “ There is no Hindu, and there is no 
 Musalman.” (fol. 36.) The Janam-Sakhi then 
 goes on to say that, “ The people went to the 
 Khan (his former employer) and said, 1 Baba 
 Xanak is saying, There is no Hindu, there is 
 no Musalman.’ The Kh an replied, 1 Do not 
 regard his statement; he is a faqir.’ A QazI 
 sitting near said: 1 0 Khan! it is surprising 
 that he is saying there is no Hindu and no 
 Musalman.’ The Khan then told an attendant 
 to call Xanak; but the Guru Xanak said: 
 
 1 What have I to do with thy Kh an ? ’ Then 
 the people said : 1 This stupid is become mad.’ 
 .... Then the Baba (Xanak) was silent. 
 When he said anything, he repeated only this 
 statement: 1 There is no Hindu, there is no 
 Musalman.’ TLe QazI then said: 1 Khan, is 
 it right that he should say, There is no Hindu, 
 there is no Musalman ? ’ Then the Kh an said: 
 
 1 Go, fetch him .’ The attendant went, and 
 said: 1 Sir, the Khan is calling (you). The 
 Khan says : For God’s sake give me an inter¬ 
 view [Panj. aj bard Khudaj de tan / i = Persian 
 az baraj Khuda] ; I want to see thee.’ The 
 Guru Xanak arose and went, saying: 1 Xow 
 the summons of my Lord (Sahib) is come, I 
 will go.’ He placed a staff upon his neck and 
 went. The Khan said: 1 Xanak, for God’s 
 sake take the staff from off thy neck, 
 gird up thy waist; thou art a good faqir.’ 
 Then Guru Xanak took the staff from off (his) 
 neck, and girded up his loins. The Kh an 
 said : 1 0 Xanak, it is a misfortune to me that 
 a steward such as thou shouldst become a 
 faqir.’ Then’the Kh an seated the Guru Xanak 
 near himself and said: 1 QazI, if thou desirest 
 to ask anything, ask now ; otherwise this one 
 will not again utter a word.’ The QazI be¬ 
 coming friendly, smiled and said : 1 Xanak, 
 what dost thou mean by saying, There is no 
 Hindu, there is no Musalman ? ’ Xanak re- 
 
586 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 plied : ... ‘ To be called a Musalman is dif- 
 cult; -when one (becomes it) then he may be 
 called a Musalman. First of all, having 
 made religion (din) sweet, he clears away 
 Musalman wealth. Having become firm 
 religion (din) in this way brings to 
 an end the revolution of dying and living.’— 
 (1. 0. MS., 2484, fol. 84.) When Nanak had 
 uttered this verse, the Qazi became amazed. 
 The Khan said: ‘ 0 Qazi, is not the ques¬ 
 tioning of him a mistake ? ’ The time of 
 the afternoon prayer had come. All arose 
 and went (to the mosque) to prayers, 
 and the Baba (Nanak) also went with 
 them.” Nanak then demonstrated his 
 supernatural power by reading the thoughts 
 of the Qazi. “ Then the Qazi came and fell 
 down at his feet, exclaiming, ‘Wonderful, 
 wonderful! on this one is the favour of God.’ 
 Then the Qazi believed ; and Nanak uttered 
 this stanza : ‘ A (real) Musalman clears away 
 self; (he possesses) sincerity, patience, 
 purity of speech: (what is) erect he does 
 not annoy: (what) lies (dead) he does not 
 eat. 0 Nanak ! that Musalman goes to heaven 
 (bihisht).' When the Baba had uttered this 
 stanza, the Saiyids, the sons of the Shaikhs, 
 the Qazi, the Mufti, the Kh an, the chiefs 
 and leaders were amazed. The Kh an said : 
 ‘Qazi, Nanak has reached the truth; the 
 additional questioning is a mistake.’ Wher¬ 
 ever the Baba looked, there all were saluting 
 him. After the Baba had recited a few 
 stanzas, the Kh an came and fell down at his 
 feet. Then the people, Hindus and Musal- 
 mans, began to say to the Khan that God 
 (Khuda.) was speaking in Nanak.” (India 
 Office MS. 1728, fol. 36-41.) 
 
 The foregoing anecdotes are taken from the 
 India Office MS., No. 1728; but the ordinary 
 Janam-Sakhis current in the Panjab vary the 
 account somewhat by saying that when the 
 Kh an reproved Nanak for not coming to him 
 when sent for, the latter replied: “ ‘ Hear, 0 
 Nawab, when I was thy servant I came before 
 thee ; now I am not thy servant; now I am be¬ 
 come the servant of Kh uda (God).’ The Nawab 
 said : ‘ Sir, (if) you have become such, then 
 come with me and say prayers (niwaj—ninaz, 
 see prayer). It is Friday.’ Nanak said: 
 
 ‘ Go, Sir.’ The Nawab, with the Qazi and 
 Nanak, and a great concourse of people, went 
 into the Jami‘ Masjid and stood there. All 
 the people who came into the Masjid began 
 to say, 1 To-day Nanak has entered this sect.’ 
 There was a commotion among the respect¬ 
 able Hindus in Sultanpur ; and Jairam, being 
 much grieved, returned home. Nanak! per¬ 
 ceiving that her husband came home dejected, 
 rose up and said, ‘Why is it that you are 
 to-day so grieved ? ’ Jairam replied, • Listen, 
 O servant of Paramesur (God), what has thy 
 brother Nanak done ! He has gone, with the 
 Nawab, into the Jami‘ Masjid to pray; and, 
 in the city, there is an outcry among the 
 Hindus and Musalmans that Nanak has be¬ 
 come a Turk (Muslim) to-day.’” (India 
 Office MS., No. 2885, fol. 39.) 
 
 From the foregoing it is perfectly clear 
 
 that the immediate successors of Nanak be¬ 
 lieved that he went very close to Muham¬ 
 madanism ; and we can scarcely doubt the 
 accuracy of their view of the matter, when we 
 consider the almost contemporaneous cha¬ 
 racter of the record, from which extracts 
 have been given, and the numerous con¬ 
 firmatory evidences contained in the religion 
 itself. It is particularly worthy of remark 
 that a “ cup of amrita ” (he. immortality) is 
 considered the symbol of inspiration ; just as 
 Hafiz exclaims, “ Art thou searching, 0 Hafiz, 
 to find the waters of eternal fife ? ” And the 
 same poet expresses his own ecstasy in a 
 way almost identical with the reception 
 accorded to Nanak at the gate of Paradise. 
 His words are : “ Then he gave into my hand 
 a cup which flashed back the splendour of 
 Heaven so gloriously, that Zuhrah broke out 
 into dancing and the lute-player exclaimed, 
 ‘ Drink I ’ ” The staff (inuttaka) that is men¬ 
 tioned is, also, that of a faqir, on which a 
 devotee supports himself while in meditation. 
 Another significant fact is that when Nanak 
 speaks of himself as the servant of God, he 
 employs the word Khuda, a Persian Muham¬ 
 madan term; but when his brother-in-law 
 Jairam speaks of God, he uses the Hindu 
 word Paramesur. It will, also, be noticed 
 that Muhammadans are affected by the logic 
 and piety of Nanak; and to them he shows 
 himself so partial that he openly accompanies 
 them to the mosque, and thereby causes his 
 Hindu neighbours and friends to believe that 
 he is actually converted to the faith of Islam. 
 But, of course, the most remarkable expres¬ 
 sion of all is the emphatic and repeated 
 announcement that “ There is no Hindu; 
 there is no Musalman.” This can mean 
 nothing else than that it was Nanak’s settled 
 intention to do away with the differences be¬ 
 tween those two forms of belief, by instituting 
 a third course which should supersede both 
 of them. 
 
 Nanak’s whilom employer, in consequence 
 of the foregoing manifestations of wisdom, 
 became his devoted admirer. After this, 
 Nanak undertook a missionary tour ; and it is 
 noticeable that the first person he went to and 
 converted was Shaikh Sajan (p who 
 
 showed himself to be a pious Muhammadan. 
 Nanak then proceeded to Panipat, and was met 
 by a certain Shaikh Tatihar, who accosted 
 him with the Muhammadan greeting, “ Peace 
 be on thee, 0 Darvesh!” (Salam-aleka Darves ); 
 to which Nanak immediately replied, “ And 
 upon you be peace, 0 servant of the Pir ! 
 (aleka us-salamu, ho Pir he dasta-pes).” 
 (India Office MS., No. 1728, fol. 48.) Here we 
 find Nanak both receiving and giving the 
 Muhammadan salutation; and also the ac¬ 
 knowledgment that he was recognized as a 
 darvesh. The Panjabi form of the Arabic 
 salutation is given lest it might be thought 
 that the special character of the words is 
 due to the translation. The disciple then 
 called his master, the Pir Shaikh Sharaf, who 
 repeated the salutation of peace, and after a 
 long conversation acknowledged the Divine 
 mission of Nanak, kissed his hands and feet, 
 
SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 587 
 
 and left him. (fol. 52.) After the departure of 
 this PIr, the Guru Nanak wandered on to 
 Dehli, where he was introduced to Sultan 
 Ibrahim Lodi, who also called him a darvesh. 
 The previous conversations and acts are 
 found to have awakened the curiosity of 
 Nanak’s attendant Mardana, who asked in 
 surprise: “Is God, then, one?” To which 
 Nanak firmly replied : “ God (Khuda) is one.” 
 (fol. 55.) This was intended to satisfy Mar¬ 
 dana that there is no difference between the 
 Muhammadan and the Hindu God. 
 
 Nanak is nest said to have proceeded to 
 the holy city of Benares, and there he met 
 with a Pandit named Satrudas. The MS. 1728 
 (fol. 56) says : “He came to this Nanak, and 
 cried,‘Earn! Ram!’ Seeing his (Nanak’s) 
 disguise ( bhekhu ), he sat down, and said to 
 him, ‘ 0 devotee ( bhagat ), thou hast no sali- 
 grdm\ no necklace of tulsl ; no rosary; no 
 tika of white clay ; and thou callest (thyself) 
 a devotee ! What devotion hast thou ob¬ 
 tained ? ’ ” In other words, the Pandit is 
 made to challenge his piety; because he 
 has none of the marks of a Hindu upon 
 him. Nanak explains his peculiar position 
 and views ; and is reported to have converted 
 the Hindu Pandit to his own way of think¬ 
 ing. This anecdote, also, shows that the 
 immediate successors of Nanak were aware 
 that their great Guru occupied an interme¬ 
 diate position between Muhammadanism 
 and Hinduism; for we see that he is made to 
 convert Muhammadans on the one hand, and 
 Hindus on the other. After this primary 
 attack on Hinduism, Nanak is said to have 
 converted some Jogis, Khattris,Thags, necro¬ 
 mancers, witches, and even the personified 
 Kaliyug, or present age of the world. These 
 conquests over imaginary Hindus are obviously 
 allegorical; though they clearly point to a well 
 recognized distinction between the teaching 
 of Nanak and that of orthodox Hinduism. 
 
 The most significant associate which Nanak 
 found was, undoubtedly, Shaikh Farid. He 
 was a famous Muhammadan PIr, and a strict 
 Sufi, who attracted much attention by his 
 piety, and formed a school of devotees of his 
 own. Shaikh Farid must have gained con¬ 
 siderable notoriety in his day ; for his special 
 disciples are still to be found in the Panjab, 
 who go by the name of Shaikh Farid’s faqirs. 
 This strict Muhammadan became the confi¬ 
 dential friend and companion of Nanak; and 
 if all other traditions had failed, this alone 
 would have been enough to establish the 
 eclectic character of early Sikhism. The 
 first greeting of these famous men is significant 
 enough. Shaikh Farid exclaimed, “Allah, 
 Allah, 0 Darvesh”; to which Nanak replied, 
 “ Allah is the object of my efforts, 0 Farid ! 
 Come, Shaikh Farid! Allah, Allah (only) is ever 
 my object.” The words in the original being 
 Allah, Farid,juhdi; hamesa an, Sekh Farid, 
 juhdi Allah Allah. (India Office MS., No. 
 1728, fol. 86.) The use of the Arabic 
 term juhd implies the energy of the purpose 
 with which he sought for Allah; and the 
 whole phrase is forcibly Muhammadan in tone. 
 
 An intimacy at once sprang up between 
 
 these two remarkable men; and Shaikh Farid 
 accompanied Nanak in all his wanderings 
 for the nest twelve years. The intended com¬ 
 promise between Hinduism and Islam is 
 shown not only in the fact of this friendship, 
 but in the important circumstance that no 
 less than 142 stanzas composed by Shaikh 
 Farid are admitted into the Adi Granth 
 itself. An examination of these verses still 
 further proves the mingling of the two reli¬ 
 gions which Nanak effected. They are dis¬ 
 tinctly Sufiistic in tone, containing such lines 
 as, “Youth is passing, I am not afraid, if 
 love to the Beloved does not pass ”; and still 
 more pointedly, “ Full of sins I wander about; 
 the world calls me a Darvesh ”; while, be¬ 
 tween these declarations of steady adherence 
 to Islam, comes the remarkable Hindu line, 
 “ As by fire the metal becomes purified, so the 
 fear of Hari removes the filth of folly.” The 
 fact that the compositions of a genuine Sufi 
 should have been admitted into the canonical 
 book of the Sikhs, and that they should con¬ 
 tain such a clear admixture of Hindu and 
 Muhammadan ideas, is conclusive evidence 
 that Nanak, and his immediate successors, 
 saw no incongruity in the mixture. 
 
 As soon as Nanak and his friend Shaikh 
 Farid begin to travel in company, it is related 
 that they reached a place called Bisi,ar, 
 where the people applied cow-dung to every 
 spot on which they had stood, as soon as they 
 departed. (I. 0. MS., No. 1728, fol. 94.) The 
 obvious meaning of this is, that orthodox 
 Hindus considered every spot polluted which 
 Nanak and his companion had visited. This 
 could never have been related of Nanak had 
 he remained a Hindu by religion. 
 
 In his next journey Nanak is said to have 
 visited Patan, and there he met with Shaikh 
 Ibrahim, who saluted him as a Muslim, 
 and had a conversation with him on the 
 Unity of God. Nanak expressed his views in 
 the following openly Sufiistic manner: “ Thou 
 thyself (art) the wooden tablet; thou (art) 
 the pen; thou (art) also the writing upon 
 (it). O Nanak, why should the One be called 
 a second ? ” (India Office MS. 1728, fol. 117.) 
 The PIr asks an explanation of this verse in 
 these words : “ Thou sayest, ‘ There is One, 
 why a second ? ’ but there is one Lord ( Safiib ), 
 and two traditions. Which shall I accept, 
 and which reject ? Thou sayest, 1 The only 
 One, he alone is one ’; but the Hindus are 
 saying that in (their) faith there is certainty; 
 and the Musalmans are saying that only in 
 (their) faith is there certainty. Tell me, in 
 which of them is the truth, and in which is 
 there falsity?” Nanak replied, “There is 
 only one Lord (Sahib), and only one tradi¬ 
 tion.” (fol. 119.) This anecdote serves still 
 further to illustrate the intermediate position 
 between the two religions ascribed to Nanak 
 by his immediate followers. 
 
 Shortly after the foregoing episode, Nanak 
 was captured among the prisoners taken by the 
 Emperor Babar, who seems to have been 
 attracted by the Guru’s piety, and to have 
 shown him some attentions. The chronicler 
 informs us that “ all the people, both Hindus 
 
588 SIKHISM 
 
 and Musalmans, began to salute (Nanak).” 
 (fol. 137.) After his release, Nanak recom¬ 
 menced his missionary work, and is described 
 as meeting a Muhammadan named Miyan 
 Mitha, who called upon him for the Kalimah 
 [see kalimah], or Muhammadan confession 
 of faith (fol. 143); which leads to a long con¬ 
 versation, in which Nanak lays emphasis on 
 the Sufi doctrine of the Unity of God. In 
 this conversation Nanak is made to say, “ The 
 book of the Qur’an should be practised.” (fol. 
 144.) He also acknowledged that “ justice is 
 the Qur’an.” (fol. 148.) When the Miyan asked 
 him what is the one great name, Nanak took 
 him aside and whispered in his ear, “Allah” 
 [god]. Immediately the great name is ut¬ 
 tered, Miyan Mitha is consumed to ashes ; 
 but a celestial voice again utters the word 
 “ Allah! ” and the Miyan regains life, and 
 falls at the feet of Nanak. (fol. 147.) 
 
 Nanak then proceeded to convert some 
 Jainas, and even a Rakshasas, or Hindu 
 demon; and nest went to Multan, where he 
 converted the famous Pir, Makhdum Baha’u- 
 'd-Din. In Kashmir he met with a Hindu 
 Pandit who recognized him as a sadhu, or vir¬ 
 tuous person; but asked him why he had aban¬ 
 doned caste usages, why he wore skins, and 
 ate meat and fish. The Pandit’s scruples 
 having been satisfied, he flung away his idols, 
 and became a devoted believer in Nanak’s 
 doctrines. This anecdote again furnishes us 
 with distinct evidence that Nanak took up 
 an intermediate position between Islam and 
 Hinduism, and sought to bring both under one 
 common system. 
 
 In precise conformity with this deduction 
 is the tradition of Nanak’s pilgrimage to 
 Makkah. The particulars of his visit to that 
 holy place are fully given, in all accounts 
 of Nanak’s life; and although, as Dr. 
 Trumpp reasonably concludes, the whole 
 story is a fabrication, yet the mere invention 
 of the tale is enough to prove that those who 
 most intimately knew Nanak considered his 
 relationship to Muhammadanism sufficiently 
 close to warrant the belief in such a pilgrim¬ 
 age. In the course of his teaching in Mak¬ 
 kah, Nanak is made to say: “Though men, 
 they are like women, who do not obey the 
 Sunnat, and Divine commandment, nor the 
 order of the book (i.e. the Qur’an).” (/. 0. 
 MS. No. 1728, fol. 212.) He also admitted the 
 intercession of Muhammad, denounced the 
 drinking of bhang, wine, &c., acknowledged 
 the existence of hell, the punishment of the 
 wicked, and the resurrection of mankind ; in 
 fact, the words here ascribed to Nanak con¬ 
 tain a full confession of Islam. These tenets 
 are, of course, due to the narrator of the tale ; 
 and are only useful as showing how far 
 Nanak’s followers thought it possible for him 
 to go. 
 
 A curious incident is next related to the 
 effect that Makhdum Baha’u ’d-DIn, the Pir of 
 Multan, feeling his end approaching, said to 
 his disciples, “ 0 friends, from this time the 
 faith of no one will remain firm; all will 
 become faithless ( [be-nnan ).” His disciples 
 asked for an explanation; and in reply he 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 delivered himself of an oracular statement i 
 “ 0 friends, when one Hindu shall come to 
 Heaven ( bihisht ), there will be brilliancy 
 (ujala) in Heaven.” To this strange an¬ 
 nouncement his disciples replied: “ Learned 
 people say that Heaven is not decreed for 
 the Hindu ; what is this that you have said ? ” 
 (/. 0. MS. 1728, fol. 224.) The Pir told them 
 that he was alluding to Nanak ; and sent one 
 of his disciples to ask Nanak if he, also, had 
 received an intimation of his approaching 
 death. 
 
 In this anecdote we have the extraordinary 
 admission from a Muhammadan that Nanak 
 would succeed in breaking up the faith of 
 Islam It is in ^consequence of a Hindu’s 
 having conquered Heaven itself, and vindi¬ 
 cated his right to a place in the paradise of 
 Muhammad, that those who were then in the 
 faith of the Prophet would lose confidence in 
 his teaching. Here again the words em¬ 
 ployed are useful; for the Pir is made to say 
 that Muslims will become be-iman, the Arabic 
 term specially applicable to the “ faith ” of 
 Islam; and Heaven is called in the Panjabi 
 story bhisat, that is bihisht, the Paradise of 
 Muhammadans [see paradise] ; for had the 
 Hindu heaven been intended, some such word 
 as swarg, or paralok, or Brahmalnk would have 
 been used. 
 
 The final incident in the life of this en¬ 
 lightened teacher is in precise accord with all 
 that has been said of his former career. Nanak 
 came to the bank of the Ravi to die—in con¬ 
 formity with Hindu custom—by the side of a 
 natural stream of water. It is expressly said 
 that both Hindus and Muslims accom¬ 
 panied him. He then seated himself at the 
 foot of a Sarih tree, and his Assembly of the 
 faithful ( Sangat ) stood around him. His sons 
 asked him what their position was to be ; and 
 he told them to subordinate themselves to 
 the Guru Angad whom he had appointed as 
 his successor. They were to succeed to no 
 power or dignity merely on the ground of 
 relationship); no hereditary claim was to be 
 recognized ; on the contrary, the sons were 
 frankly told to consider themselves non¬ 
 entities. The words are : “ Sons, even the 
 dogs of the Guru are not in want; bread and 
 clothes will be plentiful; and should you 
 mutter ‘ Guru! Guru! ’ (your) life will be 
 (properly) adjusted.” (/. 0. MS. 1728,fol. 238.) 
 The anecdote then proceeds in the following 
 remarkable manner: “ Then the Hindus and 
 Musalmans who were firm in the name (of 
 God), began to express themselves (thus): 
 the Musalmans said, ‘ We will bury (him) ’; 
 and the Hindus said, ‘ We will burn (him).’ 
 Then the Baba said, ‘ Place flowers on both 
 sides ; on the right side those of the Hindus, 
 on the left side those of the Musalmans, (that 
 we may perceive) whose will continue green 
 to-morrow. If those of the Hindus keep 
 green, then burn (me); and if those of the 
 Musalmans keep green, then bury (me).’ 
 Then the Baba ordered the Assembly to 
 repeat the praises (of God); and the As¬ 
 sembly began to repeat the praises accord¬ 
 ingly. [After a few verses had been recited] 
 

 iSSTsK 
 
 rZSS XT I STJ.-S 15 - ~ a;~l : -- 
 ibex ii :xji as :« be fas raaxvaxi as ra: aa 
 
 if l V ----l - ,- i 1; ”;- : 1 ~-i: a. 
 
 Aai Xia 1 1 15 i-saraa-axa 1 ..? ' _ -aaa - as aaa 
 
 Zra rax - 1 rn as — sain-ta = if ar 
 
 :iaa ifni V i.- i > 
 
 r-t - f;— ic Kotf 
 
 sxar>isa raa: 
 r<sirs—1 ex— icasr 
 ~ "n~r» ri fcj iM if an naiaaiaa-ixa —acsaa — _ 
 
 sssa if : lisa; ri aa~a fv-aa raa 
 
 cal Tair Zaa aaiassair' rasar if 2 Taxi‘5 
 far' - isa-iaia as tss r~~.t r aZ a - ia-aas 
 raaixaa :ar Ira? 5x.1s~arr.1Z— Z:1 x 
 
 Zrci. if? f-srasu ~nsr; rxkaa frirr 
 Z - a • LliZ; • a 1 1 
 
 HLaai anZaZs Z arrsc :- 1me 1 raa 1 
 ranr Viasa a-s~a sraaf— ssra-aaZ rir aaa 
 iZi if Zaa 1 Zara r r~a :i—ararZna a_i 
 a: Zara a Za SEZa ~ 2 LZ: ~r ZT : a 3 
 raa ~ai risa 1: aais aa: sxa :f Z'aaai a aa a 
 
 iiZ:ZZ-iia; a~aa : aa~aa Za a: a aa- 
 rnaZ iris: a.a ran—.1 if yz.a car aaa: 
 fas fmxi ZZ—Ix Zai 11 aZa ~m 5. aaa 
 
590 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 any other being with the Absolute Supreme. 
 This exalted idea of Divine Majesty enabled 
 Nanak to treat with indiffei’ence the crowd 
 of Hindu deities. To such a mind as that of 
 Nanak it would have been sheer waste of 
 time to argue, with any earnestness, about 
 the attributes, powers, or jurisdictions, of a 
 class of beings, the whole of whom were sub¬ 
 ordinate to one great, almighty, and incom¬ 
 prehensible Ruler. Without any overt attack 
 on the Hindu pantheon, he caused the whole 
 cluster of deities to subside into a condition 
 similar to that of angels in modern Christi¬ 
 anity ; whose existence and operations may be 
 the subject of conversation, but the whole of 
 whom sink into utter insignificance compared 
 with the central idea of the Divine Majesty. 
 The One God, in Nanak’s opinion (and, it 
 may be added, in the opinion of all Sufis), 
 was the creator of plurality of form, not the 
 creator of matter out of nothing. The phe¬ 
 nomenal world is the manifestation of Deity, 
 and it is owing to pure deception that the 
 idea of severalty exists. In the Adi Granth 
 we read— 
 
 “ The cause of causes is the Creator. 
 
 In His hand are the order and reflection. 
 
 As He looks upon, so it becomes. 
 
 He Himself, Himself is the Lord. 
 
 Whatever is made, (is) according to His 
 own pleasure. 
 
 He is far from all, and with all. 
 
 He comprehends, sees, and makes dis¬ 
 crimination. 
 
 He Himself is One, and He Himself is 
 many. 
 
 He does not die nor perish, He neither 
 comes nor goes. 
 
 Nanak says : He is always contained (in 
 all).”—( Translation , p. 400.) 
 
 Notwithstanding this conception that the 
 Supreme One comprehends both spirit and 
 matter, and therefore is what is ; He is never¬ 
 theless spoken of as in some way different 
 from the creatures He has formed, and has 
 been endowed with moral and intellectual 
 qualities. Thus we find in the Adi Grantli — 
 “ Whose body the universe is, He is not 
 in it, the Creator is not in it. 
 
 Who is putting (the things) together, He 
 is always aloof (from them), in what 
 can He be said (to be contained) ? ” 
 
 (Translation, p. 474.) 
 
 The soul of man is held to be a ray of 
 light from the Light Divine; and it necessarily 
 follows that, in its natural state, the soul of 
 man is sinless. The impurity, which is only 
 too apparent in man, is accounted for by the 
 operation of what is called Maya, or Delusion; 
 and it is this Maya which deludes creatures 
 into egotism and duality, that is, into self- 
 consciousness or conceit, and into the idea 
 that there can be existence apart from the 
 Divine. This delusion prevents the pure soul 
 from freeing itself from matter, and hence 
 the spirit passes from one combination of 
 matter to another, in a long chain of births 
 and deaths, until the delusion is removed, 
 and the entramelled ray returns to the 
 
 Divine Light whence it originally emanated. 
 The belief in metempsychosis is thus seen to 
 be the necessary complement of pantheism ; 
 and it is essential to the creed of a Hindu, a 
 Buddhist, and a Sufi. 
 
 In Sikhism, as in Buddhism, the prime 
 object of attainment is not Paradise, but the 
 total cessation of individual existence. The 
 method by which this release from transmi¬ 
 gration is to be accomplished is by the perfect 
 recognition of identity with the Supreme. 
 When the soul fully realizes what is summed 
 up in the formula so ham, “ I am that,” i.e. 
 “ I am one with that which was, and is, and 
 will be,” then emancipation from the bondage 
 of existence is secured. This is declared by 
 Nanak himself in the Adi Granth in these 
 words— 
 
 “ Should one know his own self as the so 
 ham, he believes in the esoteric mys¬ 
 tery. 
 
 Should the disciple ( Gur-mukhi ) know 
 his own self, what more can he do, or 
 cause to be done ?”■—(2. 0. MS. 2484, 
 fol. 53.) 
 
 The principles of early Sikhism given above 
 are obviously too recondite for acceptance 
 among masses of men ; accordingly we find 
 that the pantheistic idea of Absolute Sub¬ 
 stance became gradually changed into the 
 more readily apprehended notion of a self- 
 conscious Supreme Being, the Creator and 
 Governor of the universe. Here Dr. Trumpp 
 himself admits the influence of Muhamma¬ 
 danism, when he says : “ It is not improbable 
 that the Islam had a great share in working 
 silently these changes, which are directly 
 opposed to the teaching of the Gurus.”— 
 (Introduction to Translation of the Adi 
 Granth, p. cxii.) The teaching of Nanak 
 was, however, very practical. His followers 
 are daily reminded in the Jap-.Ti that, “ With¬ 
 out the practice of virtue there can be no 
 worship.” 
 
 In all that has preceeded we have confined 
 ourselves strictly to the intimate relationship 
 subsisting between early Sikhism and the 
 Muhammadan religion. It is, however, need¬ 
 ful to allude to the fact that certain surviving 
 relics of Buddhism had no small share in 
 moulding the thoughts of the Founder of the 
 Sikh religion. A full examination of this 
 part of the subject would be out of place in 
 the present work. It must suffice to say that 
 Buddhism held its position in the Panjab long 
 after it had disappeared from other parts of 
 Northern India ; and the abundance of Bud¬ 
 dhistic relics, which are continually being un¬ 
 earthed in the district, prove the wide-spread 
 and long-continued influence of the tenets of 
 the gentle-hearted Buddha. Indications of 
 this influence on early Sikhism are seen in 
 its freedom from caste, in the respect for 
 animal life, the special form of metempsy¬ 
 chosis accepted, the importance ascribed to 
 meditation, the profuse charity, the reverence 
 paid to the seat of the Guru (like the Bud¬ 
 dhistic worship of the throne), Nanak’s respect 
 for the lotos, his missionary tours, and the 
 curious union subsisting between the Guru 
 
SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 591 
 
 and his Sangat. In the Travels of Guru Tegh 
 Bahadur, translated from the original Gur- 
 mukhl by an excellent scholar, Sirdar Atar 
 Singh, we find the following remarkable sen¬ 
 tence : “ The Guru and his Sangat are like 
 the warp and woof in cloth,— there is no dif¬ 
 ference between them” (p. 37). In the Adi 
 Granth there is an entire SukhmanI, or poem, 
 by Guru Arjun, wholly devoted to a recita¬ 
 tion of the advantages of “ the society of the 
 pious,” the term employed being, however, 
 in this case, sadh kai sang. (/. 0. MS. 2484, 
 fol. 134.) In addition to these points of 
 resemblance, there is found in early Sikhism 
 a curious veneration for trees, offerings to 
 which were sometimes made, as will be seen 
 by reference to pp. 67, 70, and 83, of the 
 Travels of Guru Tegh Bahadur, just cited. 
 In precise conformity with the tradition that 
 Buddha died under a Sal tree, we have seen 
 that Nanak purposely breathed his last under 
 a Sarih tree. Anyone familiar with Bud¬ 
 dhism will readily recognize the remarkable 
 coincidences stated above ; but the most con¬ 
 clusive of all is the positive inculcation of 
 views identical with the crowning doctrine of 
 Buddhism—the Nirvana itself. The following 
 is what Dr. Trumpp says on the subject: — 
 
 “ If there could be any doubt on the pan¬ 
 theistic character of the tenets of the Sikh 
 Gurus regarding the Supreme, it would be 
 dissolved by their doctrine of the Nirban. 
 Where no personal God is taught or believed 
 in, man cannot aspire to a final personal com¬ 
 munion with him, his aim can only be absorp¬ 
 tion in the Absolute Substance, i.e. individual 
 annihilation. We find, therefore, no allusion 
 to the joys of a future life in the Granth, as 
 heaven or paradise, though supposed to 
 exist, is not considered a desirable object. 
 The immortality of the soul is only taught so 
 far as the doctrine of transmigration requires 
 it; but when the soul has reached its highest 
 object, it is no more mentioned, because it no 
 longer exists as individual soul. 
 
 “ The Nirban, as is well known, is the grand 
 object which Buddha in his preaching held 
 out to the poor people. From his atheistic 
 point of view, he could look out for nothing 
 else; personal existence, with all the con¬ 
 comitant evils of this life, which are not coun¬ 
 terbalanced by corresponding pleasures, neces¬ 
 sarily appeared to him as the greatest evil. 
 His whole aim was, therefore, to counteract 
 the troubles and pain of this existence by a 
 stoical indifference to pleasure and pain, and 
 to stop individual consciousness to its utmost 
 limit, in order to escape at the point of death 
 from the dreaded transmigration, which he 
 also, even on his atheistic ground, had not 
 ventured to reject. Buddhism is, therefore, 
 in reality, like Sikhism, nothing but unre¬ 
 stricted Pessimism, unable to hold out to man 
 any solace, except that of annihilation. 
 
 “ In progress of time, Buddhism has been 
 expelled from India, but the restored Brah¬ 
 manism, with its confused cosmological le¬ 
 gends, and gorgeous mythology of the Puranas, 
 was equally unable to satisfy the thinking 
 minds. It is, therefore, very remarkable, that 
 
 Buddhism in its highest object, the Nirban, 
 soon emerges again in the popular teachings 
 of the medieval reformatory movements. 
 Namdev, Trilochan, Kabir, Ravidas, &c., and 
 after these Nanak, take upon themselves to 
 show the way to the Nirban, as Buddha in 
 his time had promised, and find eager lis¬ 
 teners ; the difference is only in the means 
 which these Bhagats [saints] propose for ob¬ 
 taining the desired end.” (Introduction to 
 Translation of the Adi Granth, p. cvi.) 
 
 Such, then, was the Sikh religion as founded 
 by Guru Nanak. It is based on Hinduism, 
 modified by Buddhism, and stirred into new 
 life by Suflism. There seems to be super¬ 
 abundant evidence that Nanak laboured ear¬ 
 nestly to reconcile Hinduism with Muhamma¬ 
 danism, by insisting strongly on the tenets on 
 which both parties could agree, and by sub¬ 
 ordinating the points of difference. It is 
 impossible to deny that Nanak in his life-time 
 actually did effect a large amount of reconci¬ 
 liation, and left behind him a system designed 
 to carry on the good work. The circumstances 
 which led to the entire reversal of the project, 
 and produced between Muhammadans and 
 Sikhs the deadliest of feuds, does not come 
 within the purview of the present article. It 
 is enough to state that the process was gra¬ 
 dual, and was as much due to political causes 
 as to a steady departure from the teachings 
 of the Founder of Sikhism. 
 
 The Sikhs acknowledge ten Gurus, whose 
 names, with the year in which each died, are 
 given in the following list:— 
 
 Date of Duration 
 
 Name. Death, of Guru-ship. 
 
 Guru Nanak 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1538 
 
 Tears. 
 
 34 
 
 Guru Angad . 
 
 1552 
 
 14 
 
 Guru Amar-Das 
 
 1574 
 
 22 
 
 Guru Ram-Das 
 
 1581 
 
 7 
 
 Guru Arjun 
 
 1606 
 
 25 
 
 Guam Har-Govind . 
 
 1638 
 
 32 
 
 Guru Har-Ra,I 
 
 1660 
 
 22 
 
 Guru Har-Kisan 
 
 1664 
 
 4 
 
 Guru Tegh-Bahadur 
 
 1675 
 
 11 
 
 Guru Govind Singh. 
 
 1708 
 
 33 
 
 It is thus seen that the Sikh fraternity 
 was under the guidance of personal Gurus 
 from a.d. 1504, when Nanak received the 
 spiritual impulse which gave birth to the 
 new sect, until a.d. 1708, a total period of 
 204 years. After the death of Guru Govind 
 Singh, the Adi Granth itself was taken to be 
 the ever-existing impersonal guide. 
 
 The first successor of Nanak was appointed 
 on account of his devotion to the cause. 
 Shortly after the supposed visit to Makkah, 
 Nanak met with a devotee named Lahana, 
 whose faith and earnestness were so fully 
 demonstrated that Nanak named him, in 
 preference to either of his sons, as his 
 successor in the leadership of the new sect. 
 His name was also changed from Lahana to 
 Angad ( =anga-da, “ body-giving ”), implying 
 that he was willing to give his very body to 
 the cause of God. He was a poor and igno¬ 
 rant man, and maintained himself by rope- 
 
592 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 making. He is said to have heard the whole 
 account of Nanak’s life from Bhap Bala, who 
 had long been with the Founder. It is re¬ 
 lated that all the counsel which Nanak had 
 given to the Sikhs was sedulously inculcated 
 by him. (, Sikhan de Raj di Vithi/i, p. 19.) 
 Like his predecessor, the Founder, he also 
 named as his successor a devoted servant; 
 although he had sons whom he might have 
 appointed. 
 
 Amar-Das, the third Guru, was a simple- 
 minded and inoffensive man, who was as un¬ 
 learned as his two predecessors ; nevertheless, 
 he composed several verses incorporated in 
 the Adi Granth. It was in his time that we 
 hear of the first differences between the Sikhs 
 and the Muhammadans. The gentle disposi¬ 
 tion of Amar-Das was unsuited to the posi¬ 
 tion of ruler among the strong-willed people 
 of the Panjab ; accordingly, when a difference 
 occurred, he was quite incapable of settling 
 the matter. It is related that Amar-Das was 
 completely absorbed in the service of Para- 
 mesur (God). ( Sikhan de Raj di Vithi/i, p. 
 25.) The use of this word indicates a marked 
 inclination towards the Hindu side of Sikh¬ 
 ism ; and we may suppose that such an 
 inclination would be resented by the firmer 
 adherents to Islam; for we find that the 
 Muslims began to annoy this Guru’s disciples 
 by trivial acts of aggression. The disciples 
 asked their Guru what they had better do ; 
 and he suggested various temporising exjoe- 
 dients, which only emboldened the aggressors. 
 When again appealed to, he desired his dis¬ 
 ciples to endure the wrong, as it was more 
 meritorious to submit than to resent an insult. 
 The weak conduct of this Guru left a legacy 
 of ill-will for his successors to deal with. 
 Amar-Das nominated his son-in-law as his 
 successor; an example which initiated the 
 hereditary Guru-ship which followed. 
 
 Ram-Das was a poor lad, who got a scanty 
 living by selling boiled grain. He was taken 
 into the family of Amar-Das, and married 
 his daughter. He had acquired the elements 
 of education, and was a peaceful and non- 
 aggressive man. On attaining the Guru-ship, 
 he set himself industriously to the acquisition 
 of disciples ; and took large contributions 
 from them in the shape of voluntary offerings. 
 This wealth jilaced him above his brothers 
 in the faith ; and conferred upon him the ele¬ 
 ments of a royal state. He restored an old 
 tank in magnificent style, for the purpose of 
 religious ablution, and called it Amritsar, 
 or the lake of the water of life. This tank 
 enabled the Sikhs to perform their ablu¬ 
 tions in a luxurious manner, and necessarily 
 attracted many to the spot. In the course of 
 time, a town grew up round the tank, which 
 gradually increased in importance, and is now 
 one of the most important places in the Panj¬ 
 ab. This assumption of dignity and increas¬ 
 ing wealth in all probability awakened the 
 anxiety of the Muhammadan governors of the 
 country ; and the gradual drifting into common 
 Hinduism accentuated the feeling. It is clear 
 that the Muhammadans who had fought so 
 desperately to overturn the ancient Hindu 
 
 kingdoms, could not view with indifference 
 the up-growth of a Hindu sovereignty in their 
 very midst. Ram-Das named his son as his 
 successor in the Guru-ship—an act which 
 sealed the fate of the Sikh attempt at com¬ 
 promise in religious matters ; for every Mu¬ 
 hammadan felt his position as a citizen threa¬ 
 tened by the establishment of a rallying- 
 point for disaffected Hindus. 
 
 Guru Arjun, the fifth Guru, was an active 
 and ambitious man. He laid aside the dress 
 of a faqlr, which had been worn by all his 
 predecessors, and converted the voluntary 
 offerings of his disciples into a tax. This 
 raised him to some importance, and enabled 
 him to take men into his pay, a proceeding 
 which conferred additional dignity upon 
 him, and, at the same time, intensified the 
 jealousy of his Muhammadan neighbours. 
 As an additional means of uniting his com¬ 
 munity into one compact body, he collected 
 the words of Nanak, and those of other 
 saintly personages, into a book, which he 
 called Granth, i.e. “ the book ; ” and strictly 
 enjoined his followers to accept no speech as 
 authoritative which was not contained in “ the 
 book.” The spark which lit the torch was, 
 however, a distinct interference in political 
 affairs, which provoked the resentment of 
 the Muhammadan ruler at Delhi, and occa¬ 
 sioned the arrest and, ultimately, the death 
 of the Guru. It is not clear whether the 
 Emperor actually executed him, or whether 
 the Guru committed suicide; but his death 
 was brought about by the ruler of Delhi; and 
 this was enough to inflame the passions of 
 the Sikhs, who were eager to revenge his 
 death. 
 
 Har-Govind succeeded his father in the 
 Guru-ship; and at once proceeded to arm 
 his followers, and slay those who had been 
 personally concerned in jrrocuring the death 
 of the late Guru. This did not, however, 
 prevent him from entering the service of the 
 Emperors Jahangir and Shah-Jahan in a mili¬ 
 tary capacity; but his turbulence got him 
 into much trouble, and he spent a preda¬ 
 tory, rather than a religious, life. Under his 
 Guru-ship the Sikhs were changed from 
 faqlrs into soldiers ; and were freely recruited 
 from the warlike Jat population, who eagerly 
 availed themselves of any opportunity for 
 securing plunder. It is evident that the 
 actions of this Guru must have led him into 
 frequent contests with the Muhammadan 
 authorities ; and provoked the efforts after¬ 
 wards made to break up what the rulers must 
 have felt to be a dangerous confederation. 
 
 Har-Rap was the grandson of the last 
 Guru; and was chosen as successor because 
 Har-Govind distrusted the fitness of his sons 
 for the office. Har-Ra,i fought against 
 Aurangzlb in the interest of Dara-Shikoh; 
 and when the latter was defeated he made 
 his submission to the Emperor, and was 
 pardoned. 
 
 Har-Kishan was the younger son of the 
 preceding. Nothing eventful occurred during 
 his short tenure of power. He was called to 
 Delhi by the Emperor Aurangzlb, and was 
 
SIKHISM 
 
 SIKHISM 
 
 593 
 
 there attacked by small-pox, of which disease 
 he died. The succession to the Guru-ship 
 was broken by his death; for he was too 
 weak to appoint a successor, and merely 
 indicated that the next Guru would be found 
 in Bakala, a village near Anand-pur. 
 
 Tegh-Bahadur, who happened to be residing 
 in Bakala, was the son of Ilar-Govind, and 
 had been passed over by his father in favour 
 of Har-Rap. He was by nature contempla¬ 
 tive, and not particularly anxious to assume 
 the delicate position of leader among the 
 bellicose Sikhs. Aurangzib was in the full 
 fury of his Islamizing mania, and was accord¬ 
 ingly specially solicitous to suppress the 
 ambitious projects of the Sikhs. The Panjab 
 appears to have been too carefully guarded to 
 be pleasant to Tegh-Bahadur, and he, there¬ 
 fore, began a wandering life over the north 
 of India. An account of his travels has been 
 translated from Panjabi into English by the 
 learned Sirdar Atar Singh ; and the story is 
 singularly interesting to the student of Sikh 
 history. We learn from one anecdote that, 
 even in the time of this ninth Guru, Muham¬ 
 madans could feel a certain respect for the 
 Sikhs. The tale relates that a small party of 
 Hindus and Muhammadans went to rob the 
 Guru; but at the last moment the Muham¬ 
 madans felt remorse, for they said, “ he was 
 undoubtedly a prophet.”—( Travels of Guru 
 Tegh Bahadur, p. 24.) On reaching S'ivaram 
 the Guru met a Saiyid seated under a Sarlh 
 tree (the same kind of tree, be it remarked, as 
 that under which Nanak breathed his last); and 
 the Saiyid saluted the Guru with reverence, 
 saying: “I am really happy now, having 
 seen your divine countenance.” — ( Travels, 
 &c., p. 46.) Still more marked is the friendly 
 feeling shown by the courteous reception which 
 Tegh-Bahadur received from Sharafu ’d-Din, a 
 Muhammadan gentleman residing near Patiala. 
 This Muslim sent him presents, and then 
 went out to meet him. He conducted him with 
 much ceremony to his own palace, ■where he 
 entertained him. It is specialty mentioned that 
 “ the Guru’s eyes fell upon a mosque, and 
 Sharafu ’d-Din immediately said that that was 
 the house of God.”—( Travels , &c., p. 2.) Not¬ 
 withstanding this reverential treatment by 
 pious Muhammadans, it is certain that Tegh- 
 Bahadur spent his life in violent antagonism 
 to the Muslim rulers of the country. The 
 book of Travels, from which we are quoting, 
 gives numerous instances of this, as may be 
 seen by those who care to study the details, 
 in pp. 45, 49, 57, 58, 69, 126, 130, 131. Some 
 desperate fights took place, and after a 
 specialty severe engagement it is said on 
 p. 58 that “ from that day the Muhammadans 
 never ventured to fight with the Guru.” How¬ 
 ever, the Guru appears to have been hunted 
 from place to place, and on many occasions 
 he narrowly escaped capture. The apparent 
 contradiction involved in the reverential 
 attitude of pious Muhammadans, and the 
 skirmishes with Muhammadan soldiery, finds 
 its explanation in the supposition that the 
 religious aspect of Sikhism was not antago¬ 
 nistic to Muhammadan ideas, while its 
 
 political aspect provoked the violence of the 
 Coui-t of Delhi. In the present day much the 
 same state of things is recognizable with 
 respect to the Wahhabis. The English Govern¬ 
 ment would never dream of interfering with 
 the religious opinions of that, or any other, 
 sect; but when their doctrines find expression 
 in the subversion of civil authority, the 
 leaders soon find themselves in the Andaman 
 islands. Tegh-Bahadur was at length arrested, 
 and the Emperor is stated to have endeavoured 
 earnestly to bring him over to the pure Mus¬ 
 lim faith; but when he proved obdurate he 
 was thrown into prison, where long-continued 
 cruelty induced him to command a Sikh, who 
 was with him, to cut off his head. 
 
 Govind Singh was the tenth and last Guru, 
 and he succeeded his father Tegh-Bahadur 
 when only 15 years of age. He was brought 
 up under Hindu guidance, and became a 
 staunch devotee of the goddess Durga ; and, 
 by his pronounced preference for Hinduism, 
 he caused a division in the Sikh community. 
 He introduced several important changes into 
 the constitution of Sikh society. The chief 
 among these was the establishment of the 
 Kha/sd, by which he bound his disciples into 
 an army, and conferred upon each of them the 
 name Singh, or lion. He freely admitted all 
 castes to the ranks of his army ; and laboured 
 more earnestly over their military than over 
 their religious discipline. The nature of the 
 changes which Govind Singh effected in the 
 fraternity is best shown by the fact that the 
 special followers of Nanak personally, sepa¬ 
 rated themselves from him, and formed a com¬ 
 munity of their own, rejecting the title of Singh 
 In other words, they preferred the religious to 
 the military idea. This Guru fought against 
 the Muhammadans with determination ; and 
 was so incensed against them that he insti¬ 
 tuted a fine of 25 rupees for saluting a 
 Muhammadan tomb, however saintly. To¬ 
 wards the end of his Guru-ship an attempt 
 was made to raise this fine to 5,000 rupees ; 
 but it was ultimately fixed at 125 rupees 
 (Travels, &c., pp. 69 and 130.) The spirit 
 of toleration so marked during the life of 
 Nanak was clearly gone; and in yet later 
 times this hostility gave birth to the 
 maxim that “ a true Sikh should always 
 be engaged in war with the Muhamma¬ 
 dans and slay them, fighting them face to 
 face.” After a turbulent reign, Guru Govind 
 Singh was treacherously slain by the dagger 
 of a Pathan follower. He refused to name a 
 successor, telling his followers that after his 
 death the Granth Sahib, or “ the Lord the 
 Book,” was to be their guide in every re¬ 
 spect. (Sikhan de Raj dl Vithif, p. 79.) 
 
 The foregoing sketch of the relation of the 
 Sikhs to the Muhammadans is sufficient to 
 show that the religion of Nanak began in 
 large-hearted tolerance; and that political 
 causes operated to convert its adherents 
 into a narrow-minded sect. The Hinduism 
 which Nanak had disciplined, reasserted 
 its superiority under his successors, and ulti¬ 
 mately became predominant. While this 
 change was in progress the religious aspect 
 
 75 
 
594 
 
 SILSILAH 
 
 SIN 
 
 of the movement became gradually con¬ 
 verted into a military and political propa¬ 
 ganda. No contrast, indeed, could -well be 
 greater than that between the inoffensive and 
 gentle-minded Nanak, and the warlike and 
 ambitious Gurus of later times. But while 
 we cannot help being painfully impressed with 
 the apparently undying feud which still sub¬ 
 sists between the Sikhs and the Muham¬ 
 madans, it seems perfectly clear that the 
 intention of the Founder was to reconcile the 
 differences between those creeds ; and that in 
 this excellent work he attained a large mea¬ 
 sure of success. His pious object was de¬ 
 feated by political causes, and by the war¬ 
 like nature of the people of the Panjab The 
 name “Muhammadan,” in the various coun¬ 
 tries in which it exists, is allowed to cover 
 differences in religious belief quite as great 
 as those between the views of Nanak and those 
 of Muhammad ; and in all probability would 
 have done so in this instance also, but for the 
 reasons pointed out. We cannot, however, 
 concern ourselves with probabilities; it is 
 enough for the purposes of this article to 
 have established the fact that Sikhism, in 
 its inception, was intimately associated with 
 Muhammadanism; and that it was intended 
 as a means of bridging the gulf which sepa¬ 
 rated the Hindus from the believers in the 
 Prophet. 
 
 There are five leading sects of Sikhs, the 
 names of which need only be mentioned. They 
 are:— 
 
 1. The Udasis, or those who are “ indif¬ 
 
 ferent ” to the world. 
 
 2. The Suthre, or the “ pure.” 
 
 3. The Diwane, or “ mad ” saints. 
 
 4. The Nirmale Sadhu, or “ spotless 
 
 saints.” 
 
 5. The Akalis, or worshippers of the 
 
 “ Eternal One.” 
 
 [The foregoing able review of the connec¬ 
 tion between Sikhism and the teachings of 
 Islam has been contributed, specially for the 
 present work, by Mr. Frederic Pincott, 
 M.R.A.S.] 
 
 The authorities upon which this article is 
 based are :—Dr. Trumpp’s Translation of the 
 Adi Granth ; the text of the Adi Granth, 
 India Office MS. No. 2484; the Janam-Salchi 
 of Guru Nanak in old Panjabi, 1. 0. MS. 
 No. 1728 ; the Janam-Patri of Guru Nanak, 
 
 I. 0. MS. No. 2885; Sikhan de Raj di Vithija 
 (an Account of the Rule of the Sikhs, in Pan¬ 
 jabi) ; The Travels of Guru Tegh-Bahadur and 
 Guru Gobind Singh, translated from the ori¬ 
 ginal Gur-mukhi by Sirdar Atar Singh, Chief 
 of Bhadaur ; Jap-Ji Sahib, the Panjabi text 
 with commentary in Urdu, by Sirdar Atar 
 Singh; Sri Guru Charitra Prabhakar, by 
 Pandit Gyani Sant Singh; Sri Nanalc Prukas, 
 by Bha^ Santokh Singh; Sri Granth Gur- 
 Pratdp Suraj Rasa, by Bha^ Santokh Singh. 
 
 [FAQIR, MUHAMMADANISM, SUFI.] 
 
 SILSILAH (&~U). Lit. “A 
 
 chain.” (1) The line of succession in any 
 
 religious order, traced either to some religious 
 leader of reputation, or to the four rightly 
 directed Khalifahs, or to the Prophet him¬ 
 self. (2) An unbroken tradition. 
 
 SIMON PETER. Arabic 8ham‘un 
 Not mentioned by name in 
 the Qur’an, but al-Baizawi says he is the 
 Apostle who was sent to Antioch to succour 
 the two disciples in prison (said to be John 
 and Jude), and who is referred to in Surah 
 xxxvi. 13 : “ And we strengthened them 'with 
 a third.” 
 
 SIMSAR (jV—pi. samasiraTi. 
 
 A term used in Muhammanan law for agents 
 or brokers. 
 
 SIN. Arabic zamb (s-Jj), khatiah 
 (&£*&■), ism Heb. dsham, 
 
 T T 
 
 Nttn Mffit’. Muhammadan doctors 
 
 divide sin into two classes. Kahirah, “ great,” 
 and saghirah, “ little ” sins. Kabirah sins are 
 those great sins of which, if a Musalman do 
 not repent, he will be sent to the purgatorial 
 hell reserved for sinful Muslims, whilst 
 saghirah are those venial sins which are in¬ 
 herent in our fallen nature. 
 
 Muhammadan writers are not agreed as to 
 the exact number of kabirah sins, but they are 
 generally held to be the following seven¬ 
 teen :— 
 
 1. Kufr, or infidelity. 
 
 2. Constantly committing little sins. 
 
 3. Despairing of God’s mercy. 
 
 4. Considering oneself safe from the wrath 
 of God. 
 
 5. False witness. 
 
 6. Qazf, or falsely charging a Muslim 
 with adultery. 
 
 7. Taking a false oath. 
 
 8. Magic. 
 
 9. Drinking wane. 
 
 10. Appropriation of the property of or¬ 
 phans. 
 
 11. Usury. 
 
 12. Adultery. 
 
 13. Unnatural crime. 
 
 14. Theft. 
 
 15. Murder. 
 
 16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an 
 infidel enemy. 
 
 17. Disobedience to parents. 
 
 The following are sayings of Muhammad, 
 as given in the Traditions, on the subject of 
 sin (Mishkat, book i. ch. ii.):— 
 
 “ He is not a believer who commits adul¬ 
 tery, or steals, or drinks liquor, or plunders, 
 or embezzles, when entrusted with the 
 plunder of the infidel. Beware! beware ! ” 
 
 “ The greatest sin is to associate another 
 with God, or to vex your father and mother, 
 or to murder your own species, or to commit 
 suicide, or to swear, or to lie.” 
 
 “ The greatest of sins before God is that 
 you call any other like unto the God who 
 created you, or that you murder your child 
 from an idea that it will eat your victuals, or 
 
SINAI 
 
 that you commit adultery with your neigh¬ 
 bour’s wife.” 
 
 “ Abstain ye from seven ruinous destructive 
 things, namely, (1) associating anything with 
 God; (2) magic; (3) killing anyone without 
 reason ; (4) taking interest on money; (5) 
 taking the property of the orphan; (6) run¬ 
 ning away on the day of battle; (7) and 
 taxing an innocent woman with adultery.” 
 
 “ Do not associate anything with God, al¬ 
 though they kill or burn you. Do not affront 
 your parents, although they should order you 
 to leave your wives, your children, and your 
 property. Do not abandon the divine prayers, 
 for he who does so will not remain in the 
 asylum of God. Never drink wine; for it is 
 the root of all evil. Abstain from vice, for 
 from it descends the anger of God. Refrain 
 from running away in battle, although ye be 
 killed. When a pestilence shall visit man¬ 
 kind, and you are in the midst of it, remain 
 there. Cherish your children, and chastise 
 them in order to teach them good behaviour, 
 and instruct them in the fear of God.” 
 
 It is related that a Jew once said to his 
 friend, “ Take me to this Prophet.” He said, 
 “ Do not call him a prophet, for if he hears it 
 he will be pleased.” And they came to the 
 Prophet and asked him about the nine (sic) 
 wonders (i.e. Ten Commandments), which ap¬ 
 peared (from the hands of Moses). He said, 
 “ Do not associate anything with God, nor 
 steal, nor commit adultery, nor murder, nor 
 take an inoffensive person before the king to 
 be killed, nor practise magic, nor take inte¬ 
 rest, nor accuse an innocent woman of adul¬ 
 tery, nor turn your backs on the field of 
 battle; and it is proper, particularly for the 
 Jews, not to work on Saturday.” The Jews 
 kissed the hands and feet of the Prophet, and 
 said, “ We bear witness that you are a Pro¬ 
 phet.” He said, “ What prevented you from 
 being my disciples ? ” They replied, “ David 
 called on God to perpetuate the gift of pro¬ 
 phecy in his family, and we fear the Jews will 
 kill us if we become your followers.” 
 
 SINAI. Arabic Saina’ ), Heb. 
 
 VPD Sinai. In the Qur’an Turn Saina’ 
 (g L u-) , also Juiu Sinin (° ^j^b), 
 “Mount Sinai”; and at-J'ur (yij), “the 
 Mount ”; Chaldee Tun. In Muslim 
 
 commentaries, Jabalu Musa (err* 
 
 “ the Mount of Moses.” 
 
 It is referred to in the Qur’an as the moun¬ 
 tain on which God gave the tables of the Law 
 (Surah vii. 139), and as the place where God 
 assembled the prophets and took a compact 
 from them (Surah iii. 75). In Surah xcv. 2, 
 Muhammad makes the Almighty swear “by 
 Mount Sinai ”; and in Surah xxiii. 20, we are 
 told that, “ a tree growing out of Mount 
 Sinai produces oil and a condiment for those 
 who eat.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi (Fleischer’s ed., vol. i. p. 343), 
 and the author of the Majma‘u 'l-Bihar (p. 57), 
 both say that Moses received the tables of 
 the Law on the mountain called Jabalu Zubair 
 
 AS-SIRATU ’l-mustaqim 595 
 SINGING. Arabic gMna’ ( c Ui). 
 
 Among Muslim theologians, singing is gene¬ 
 rally held to be unlawful, and the objection is 
 founded on a tradition recorded by Jabir, who 
 relates that Muhammad said, “ Singing and 
 hearing songs causeth hypocrisy to grow in 
 the heart, even as rain causeth the corn to 
 grow in the field.” (Mishkat, book xxii. 
 ch. ix. pt. 3.) 
 
 Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, in his commentary, 
 remarking on this tradition, says, it is not a 
 tradition of any authority, and adds, “The 
 traditionists all agree that there is no Hadis 
 of any authority forbidding the practice of 
 singing ” (vol. iv. p. 63.) 
 
 The Sufis, ■who engage in the service of 
 song as an act of worship, say Muhammad 
 only forbade songs of an objectionable cha¬ 
 racter. Still most divines of reputation re¬ 
 gard the practice with disfavour. 
 
 SlPARAH (sy*-.). The Persian 
 
 term for the thirty juz\ or divisions of the 
 Qur'an. From si, “ thirty,” and parah, “ a 
 portion.” 
 
 The Qur’an is said to have been thus divided 
 to enable the pious Muslim to recite the whole 
 of the Qur’an in the month of Ramazan. 
 Muhammadans generally quote the Qur’an by 
 the Siparah and not by the Surah, [qur’an.] 
 
 SIQAH (&2>). “ Worthy of con¬ 
 
 fidence.” A term used in the study of the 
 Hadis for a traditionist worthy of confidence. 
 
 SIRAT (by). Lit. “A road.” The 
 
 word occurs in the Qur’an thirty-eight times, 
 in nearly all of which it is used for the 
 Siratu ’l-Mustaqim, or the “right way” of 
 religion. In Muslim traditions and other 
 writings it is more commonly used for the 
 bridge across the infernal fire, which is de¬ 
 scribed as finer than a hair and sharper than 
 a sword, and is beset on each side with briars 
 and hooked thorns. The righteous will pass 
 over it with the swiftness of the lightning, 
 but the wicked will soon miss their footing 
 and will fall into the fire of hell. (Mulla ‘AH 
 Qari, p. 110.) 
 
 Muhammad appears to have borrowed his 
 idea of the bridge from the Zoroastrian system, 
 according to which the spirits of the departed, 
 both good and bad, proceed along an ap¬ 
 pointed path to the “ bridge of the gatherer ” 
 (chinvat peretu). This was a narrow road 
 conducting to Heaven or Paradise, over 
 which the souls of the pious alone could pass, 
 whilst the wicked fell into the gulf below. 
 (Rawlinson’s Seventh Oriental Monarchy, 
 p. 636.) 
 
 The Jews, also, believed in the bridge of 
 hell, which is no broader than a thread, over 
 which idolaters must pass. (Midrash, Yalkut, 
 Reubeni, sect. Gehinnom.) 
 
 as-SIRATU ’L-MUSTAQlM (byn 
 “ The right way,” i.e. the 
 Muhammadan religion; e.g. Qur’an, Surah 
 iii. 44: “Fear God and obey me: of a truth 
 God is my Lord and your Lord: Therefore 
 
596 
 
 SIRIUS 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 worship Him. This is the right ivay." It 
 occurs in about thirty other places. 
 
 SIRIUS. Arabic ash-Shi'ra^f*^). 
 
 “ The dog-star.” The Almighty is called in 
 the Qur’an, Surah liii. 50, Rabbu ’sh-Shi‘ra, 
 the “ Lord of the Dog-star.” 
 
 The Kamalan say that before the time of 
 Muhammad this star was worshipped by the 
 Banu Khuza‘ah. hence the reference to it in 
 the Qur’an. 
 
 SITTING-. Arabic julus (^^h,). 
 
 The traditionists are very particular in de¬ 
 scribing the precise position'in which Muham¬ 
 mad used to sit. 
 
 Ihn ‘Umar says: “ I saw him sit with his 
 knees up and the bottom of his feet on the 
 ground, and his arms round his legs.” 
 
 Jabir says: “ I saw him sitting reclining 
 upon a pillow which was put under his 
 arm.” 
 
 Kailah says : “ I saw him sitting in the 
 mosque upon his buttocks, in the greatest 
 humility and lowliness.” 
 
 Jabir says, again : “ The Prophet used, after 
 he had said morning prayer, to sit with his 
 feet drawn under him, until sun-rise.” (Mish 
 lcdt, book xxii. ch. v.) 
 
 Muhammadans always sit on the ground 
 in their places of public worship. In social 
 gatherings, people of inferior position always 
 sit lower than their superiors. 
 
 S_IX FOUNDATIONS OF FAITH. 
 Al-Iman (<yUj^\), or “the Faith,” is 
 defined as consisting of the six articles of 
 belief:— 
 
 1. Allah, God. 
 
 2. Al-Mala’ikah, the Angels. 
 
 3. Al-Kutub, the Books (of the Prophets). 
 
 4. Ar-Rusul, the Prophets. 
 
 5. Al- Yaumu ’ l-Akhir, the Last Day. 
 
 6. Al-Qadar, the Decrees of God. 
 
 These Six Articles of Faith are entitled 
 Sifatu ’l-Imdn, “ the Attributes of Faith,” or 
 Arkanu ’l-Imdn, “ the Pillars of Faith.” [mu- 
 iiammadanism.] 
 
 SIYAR (^~>), pi. of sir ah. Lit. 
 
 “ Going in any manner or pace.” The record 
 of a man’s actions and exploits Stories of 
 the ancients. 
 
 Kitdbu ’s-Siyar is the title given to a his¬ 
 tory of the establishment of Islam, hence as- 
 Siyur means an historical work on the life 
 of Muhammad, or any of his Companions, or 
 of his successors, &c. The earliest book of 
 the kind written in Islam is that by Imam 
 Muhammad ibn Ishaq, who died a.h. 51. 
 (Kashfu ’z-Zunun, Fliigel’s edition, vol. iii. 
 p. 634.) 
 
 SLANDER, [qazf.] 
 
 SLAUGHTER OF ANIMALS. 
 
 [food, zabh.] 
 
 SLAVERY. Arabic ‘ Ubudiyah 
 
 Heb. ‘aboddh. A slave, 
 
 r 
 
 ‘Abd ('V c ) (Surahii. 220), Heb. *yyy‘ebed\ 
 Mamlulc (osl(Surah xvi. 77) ; A female 
 slave, amah (4m!) (Surah ii. 220). The term 
 generally used in the Qur’an for slaves is 
 mo. malakat aimamkum, 
 “ that which your right hands possess.” 
 
 Muhammad found slavery an existing 
 institution, both amongst the Jews and the 
 idolaters of Arabia, and therefore it is 
 recognised although not established in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 I. —The Teaching of the Qur’an on the 
 subject of slavery is as follows : 
 
 (1) Muslims are allowed to cohabit with any 
 of their female slaves. Surah iv. 3 : “ Then 
 marry what seems good to you of women, 
 by twos, or threes, or fours ; and if ye fear 
 that ye cannot be equitable, then only one, 
 or what your right hands possess .” Surah iv. 
 29: “ Take of what your right hands possess 
 of young women.” Surah xxxiii. 49: “0 
 prophet! verily We make lawful for thee 
 wives to whom thou hast given their hire 
 (dowry), and what thy right hand possesses 
 out of the booty God hath granted thee.” 
 
 (2) They are allowed to take possession of 
 married women if they are slaves. Surah iv. 
 28: “ Unlawful for you are . . . married 
 women, save such as your right hands possess.” 
 (On this verse al-Jalalan the commentators 
 say : “ that is, it is lawful for them to cohabit 
 with those women whom you have made 
 captive, even though their husbands be alive 
 in the Ddru ’l-Harb .”) 
 
 (3) Muslims are excused from strict rides 
 of decorum in the presence of their female slaves , 
 even as in the presence of their wives. Surah 
 xxiii. 5: “ Those who are strict in the rules 
 of decorum, except for their wives, or what 
 their right hands possess.” See also Surah 
 lxx. 29. 
 
 (4) The helpless position of the slave as 
 regards his master illustrates the helpless 
 position of the false gods of Arabia in the 
 presence of their Creator. Surah xvi. 77 : 
 
 “ God has struck out a parable, an owned 
 slave, able to do nothing, and one provided 
 with a good provision, and one who expends 
 therefrom in alms secretly and openly, shall 
 they be held equal? Praise be to God, most 
 of them do not know 1 ” See also Surah 
 xxx. 27. 
 
 (5) Muslims shall exercise kindness towards 
 their slaves. Surah iv. 40 : “ Serve God and 
 do not associate aught with Him, and show 
 kindness to your parents and to kindred . . 
 and to that which your right hands possess.” 
 
 (6) When slaves can redeem themselves it 
 is the duty of Muslims to grant the emanci¬ 
 pation. Surah xxiv. 33: “ And such of those 
 whom your right hands possess as crave a 
 writing (i.e. a document of freedom), write 
 it out for them if ye know any good in them, 
 and give them of the wealth of God which 
 He has given you. And do not compel your 
 slave-girls to prostitution if they desire to 
 keep continent.” 
 
 From the teaching of the Qur’an above quoted 
 
SLAVERY 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 597 
 
 it -will be seen that all male and female slaves 
 taken as plunder in war are the lawful 
 property of their master; that the master 
 has power to take to himself any female 
 slave, either married or single ; that the 
 position of a slave is as helpless as that of 
 the stone idols of Arabia; but they should 
 be treated with kindness, and be granted 
 their freedom when they are able to ask for 
 and pay for it. 
 
 II.—From the Teaching of the Tradi¬ 
 tions, it appears that it was the custom of 
 Muhammad either to put to death or take 
 captive those of the enemy who fell into his 
 hands. If a captive embraced Islam on the 
 field of battle he was a free man ; but if he 
 were made captive, and afterwards embraced 
 Islam, the change of creed did not emanci* 
 pate him. ‘Atiyatu ’1-Qurazi relates that, 
 after his battle with the Banu Quraizah, the 
 Prophet ordered all those who were able to 
 fight to be killed, and the women and children 
 to be enslaved. 
 
 Very special blessings are attached to the 
 emancipation of a slave. Abu Hurairah 
 relates that Muhammad said, “ Whosoever 
 frees a slave who is a Muslim, God will 
 redeem every member of his body, limb for 
 limb, from hell fire.” Abu Zarr asked which 
 slave was the best to emancipate, and the 
 Prophet replied, “ That -which is of the 
 highest price and most liked by his master.” 
 An Arab once asked the Prophet what act 
 would take him to Paradise, and the Pro¬ 
 phet said, “ Free a slave, or assist one in 
 redeeming a bond of slavery.” The following 
 are some of the sayings of Muhammad re¬ 
 garding the treatment of slaves : 
 
 “It is well for a slave who regularly 
 worships God and discharges his master’s 
 work properly.” 
 
 “ Whoever buys a slave and does not 
 agree about his property, then no part of it 
 is for the purchaser of the slave.” 
 
 “ When a slave of yours has money to 
 redeem his bond, then you must not allow 
 him to come into your presence afterwards.” 
 
 “ Behaving well to slaves is a means of 
 prosperity, and behaving ill to them is a 
 cause of loss.” 
 
 “ When any one of you is about to beat 
 his slave, and the slave asks pardon in the 
 name of God, then withhold yourself from 
 beating him.” 
 
 “ It is incumbent upon the master of 
 slaves to find them in victuals and clothes, 
 and not order them to do what they are not 
 able to do.” 
 
 “ When a slave-girl has a child by her 
 master she is free at his death.” 
 
 “ Whoever frees a slave, and the slave 
 has property, it is for the master, unless 
 the master shall have agreed that it was 
 the slave’s at the time of freeing him.” (See 
 Mishkatu ’l-Masabifr, Safiihu ’ (-Bukhari , Sa- 
 fiifru Muslim.') 
 
 HI. —With regard to the Enslaving of 
 Captives, the author of the Hidaijali says : 
 
 “The Imam, with respect to captives, has 
 it in his choice to slay them, because the 
 
 Prophet put captives to death, and also 
 because slaying them terminates wicked¬ 
 ness ; or, if he choose, he may make them 
 slaves, because by enslaving them the 
 wickedness of them is remedied, and at 
 the same time the Muslims reap an advan¬ 
 tage ; or, if he please, he may release them 
 so as to make them freemen and Zimmis, 
 according to what is recorded of ‘Umar; 
 but it is not lawful so to release the ido¬ 
 laters of Arabia, or apostates. It is not 
 lawful for the Imam to return the captives 
 to their own country, as this would be 
 strengthening the infidels against the Mus¬ 
 lims. If captives become Muslims, let not 
 the Imam put them to death, because the 
 wickedness of them is hereby remedied 
 without slaying them ; but yet he may law¬ 
 fully make them slaves, after their conver¬ 
 sion, because the reason for making them 
 slaves (namely, their being secured within 
 the Muslim territory) had existence previous 
 to their embracing the faith. It is otherwise 
 where infidels become Muslims before their 
 capture, because then the reason for making 
 them slaves did not exist previous to then’ 
 conversion. It is not lawful to release infidel 
 captives in exchange for the release of 
 Muslim captives from the infidels. Accord¬ 
 ing to the two disciples, this is lawful (and 
 such also is the opinion of ash-Shafi‘i), be¬ 
 cause this produces the emancipation of 
 Muslims, which is preferable to slaying the 
 infidels or making them slaves. The argu¬ 
 ment of Imam Abu Hanifah is that such an 
 exchange is an assistance to the infidels, 
 because those captives will again return to 
 fight the Muslims, which is a wickedness, 
 and the prevention of this wickedness is 
 preferable to effecting the release of the 
 Muslims, since, as they remain in the hands 
 of the infidels, the injury only affects them, 
 and does not extend to the other Muslims, 
 whereas the injury attending the release of 
 infidel captives extends to the whole body of 
 Muslims. An exchange for property (that 
 is, releasing infidel prisoners in return for 
 property) is also unlawful, as this is assisting 
 the infidels, as was before observed, and the 
 same is mentioned in the Mazhabu 'l-Mashhur. 
 In the idairu ’ l-Kabir it is asserted that an 
 exchange of prisoners for property may be 
 made where the Muslims are necessitous, 
 because the Prophet released the captives 
 taken at Badr for a ransom. If a captive 
 become a Muslim in the hands of the 
 Muslims, it is not lawful to release and send 
 him back to the infidels in return for their 
 releasing a Muslim who is a captive in their 
 hands, because no advantage can result from 
 the transaction. If, however, the converted 
 captive consent to it, and there be no appre¬ 
 hension of his apostatizing, in this case the 
 releasing of him in exchange for a Muslim 
 captive is a matter of discretion. It is not 
 lawful to confer a favour upon captives by 
 releasing them gratuitously, that is, without 
 receiving anything in return, or their be¬ 
 coming Zimmis, or being made slaves. Ash- 
 Shafi‘i says that showing favour to captives 
 
598 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 in this way is lawful, because the Prophet 
 showed favour in this way to some of the 
 captives taken at the battle of Badr. The 
 arguments of the Hanafi doctors upon this 
 point are two-fold: First, it is said in the 
 Qur’an, ‘ Slay idolaters wherever ye find them ’; 
 secondly, the right of enslaving them is 
 established by their being conquered and 
 captured, and hence it is not lawful to annul 
 that right without receiving some advantage 
 in return, in the same manner as holds with 
 respect to all plunder; and with respect to 
 what ash-Shafi‘i relates that the Prophet 
 showed favour in this way to some of the 
 captives taken at the battle of Badr, it is 
 abrogated by the text of the Qur’an already 
 quoted. (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. ii. p. 160.) 
 
 IV. -— Slave Traffic is not only allowed 
 but legislated for by Muhammadan law, and 
 is clearly sanctioned by the example of the 
 Prophet as given in the Traditions (see 
 Sahihu Muslim, Ritabu ’l-Buyu‘, vol. i. p. 2). 
 In the Law of Sale (see Raddu ’l-Muhtar. 
 Hiddyah, Hamilton’s ed., vol. ii. p. 458), 
 slaves, male and female, are treated merely 
 as articles of merchandize. In chapters on 
 sale, and option, and wills, the illustrations 
 are generally given as regards slaves, and 
 the same, or very similar, rules apply both 
 to the sale of animals and bondsmen. 
 
 The following traditions ( Mishlcat , book 
 xiii. chap, xx.) with reference to the action of 
 the Prophet in this matter are notable :— 
 
 “ ‘Imran ibn al-Husain said a man freed 
 six slaves at his death, and he had no other 
 property besides; and the Prophet called 
 them, and divided them into three sections, 
 and then cast lots ; he then ordered that two 
 of them should be freed, and he retained 
 four in slavery, and spoke severely of the 
 man who had set them free.” 
 
 “ Jabir said we used to sell the mothers 
 of children in the time of the Prophet, and 
 of Abu Bakr; but ‘Umar forbade it in his 
 time.” 
 
 V. -—The Manumission of Slaves is per¬ 
 mitted by Muhammadan law under the fol¬ 
 lowing forms : (1) ‘ Atdq QAtq, l‘taq) ; (2) 
 Kitabah ; (3) Tadbir ; and (4) Istilad. 
 
 (1) i Ataq, in its literal sense, means power, 
 and in law expresses the act of the owner of 
 a slave (either male or female) giving im¬ 
 mediate and unconditional freedom to his 
 slave. This act is lawful when it proceeds 
 from a person who is free, sane, adult, and 
 the actual owner of the slave in question. 
 If such a person say to his slave, “ Thou art 
 free,” or “ Thou art muHaq ,” or “ Thou art 
 consecrated to God,” or make use of any 
 similar expression to his slave, the slave 
 becomes ipso facto free, whether the owner 
 really mean emancipation or not. 
 
 (2) Kitabah, literally “ a writing,” sig¬ 
 nifies a bond of freedom granted to a slave 
 (male or female), in return for money paid. 
 It is founded on the teaching of the Qur’an, 
 Surah xxiv. 3 6 : “ And such of those as your 
 right hands possess as crave a writing, write 
 it out for them if ye know any good in them,” 
 which precept is held to be recommendatory, 
 
 although not injunctive. The slave thus 
 ransomed is called mukatab, until the ransom 
 is fully paid. During the interval between 
 the promise of freedom and the payment of 
 the money the mukatab enjoys a certain 
 degree of freedom, but is nevertheless placed 
 under certain restrictions. For example, 
 although he is free to move from place to 
 place, he cannot marry, or bestow alms, or 
 become bail, or grant a loan, or make a 
 pilgrimage, &c., without the permission of 
 his master. 
 
 (3) Tadbir signifies literally, “ arrange¬ 
 ment, disposition, plan,” but in the language 
 of the law it means a declaration of freedom 
 made to a slave (male or female), to take effect 
 after the master’s death. If the owner of a 
 slave say, “ Thou art free at my death,” or 
 “ Thou art a mudabbir,” or words to that 
 effect, the slave can claim his freedom upon 
 the decease of his master, and any children 
 born to him in the interval are placed in the 
 same position. 
 
 (4) Istilad, Lit. “ the offspring’s claim,” 
 signifies a man having a child born to him 
 of a female slave, which he claims and 
 acknowledges as his own, which acknow¬ 
 ledgment becomes ipso facto the cause of 
 the freedom of the female slave. The woman 
 is then called ummu 'l-ivalad, “ the mother of 
 offspring,’’ and stands in relation to her 
 master as his wife, the child being also free. 
 
 (5) In addition to the above forms of 
 emancipation, it is also established that the 
 manumission of slaves is the legal penalty 
 or expiation ( [kaffarah ) for certain sins, e.g. 
 for breaking the fast of Ramazan the expi¬ 
 ation is either the release of a slave or 
 feeding seven poor persons ; this expiation 
 is also made for a rash oath [oath], as also 
 for the rash form of divorce known as zihar 
 [zihar], (See Raddu ’ l-Muhtar, vol. ii. p. 
 175; iii. p. 92; ii. p. 952.) 
 
 VI. —Modern Muslim Slavery. The slaves 
 of the Arabs are mostly from Abyssinia and 
 negro countries ; a few, chiefly in the homes 
 of wealthy individuals, are from Georgia and 
 Circassia. 
 
 Mr. Lane says, in Egypt “ Abyssinian and 
 white female slaves are kept by many men 
 of the middle and higher classes, and often 
 instead of wives, as requiring less expense, 
 and being more subservient, but they are 
 generally indulged with the same luxuries 
 as free ladies ; their vanity is gratified by 
 costly dresses and ornaments, and they rank 
 high above free servants, as do also the male 
 slaves. Those called Abyssinians appear to 
 be a mixed race between negroes and whites, 
 and from the territories of the Gallas. They 
 are mostly kidnapped and sold by their own 
 countrymen. The negro female slaves, as 
 few of them have considerable personal 
 attractions (which is not the case with the 
 Abyssinians, many of whom are very beau¬ 
 tiful), are usually employed only in cooking 
 and other menial offices. 
 
 “ The female slaves of the higher classes 
 are often instructed in plain needlework and 
 embroidery, and sometimes in music and 
 
SLAVERY 
 
 SLAYER? 
 
 599 
 
 dancing. Formerly many of them pos¬ 
 sessed sufficient literary accomplishments to 
 quote largely from esteemed poems, or even 
 to compose extemporary verses, which they 
 would often accompany with the lute. The 
 condition of many concubine slaves is happy, 
 and that of many quite the contrary. These, 
 and all other slaves of either sex, are gene¬ 
 rally treated with kindness, but at first they 
 are usually importuned, and not unfrequently 
 used with much harshness, to induce them 
 to embrace the Muhammadan faith, which 
 almost all of them do. Their services are 
 commonly fight; the usual office of the male 
 white slave, who is called (memlook) mamluk, 
 is that of a page, or a military guard. 
 
 “ Eunuchs are employed as guardians of 
 the women, but only in the houses of men 
 of high rank or of great wealth; on account 
 of the important office which they fill, they 
 are generally treated in public with special 
 consideration. I used to remark, in Cairo, 
 that few persons saluted me with a more 
 dignified and consequential air than these 
 pitiable but self-conceited beings. Most of 
 them are Abyssinians or negroes. Indeed, 
 the slaves in general take too much advan¬ 
 tage of the countenance of their masters, 
 especially when they belong to men in power.” 
 (Arabian Nights, vol. i. p 55.) 
 
 In Central Asia the great slave-trade is 
 carried on with Kafiristan. The Kafirs, 
 inasmuch as they enslave each other in war, 
 sell their own countrymen and countrywomen 
 into slavery, and, when the slave market is 
 dull, the Muhammadans residing on their 
 borders make inroads upon the Kafirs and 
 carry them (especially the women who are 
 very fair and pretty) into slavery. Some 
 Kafir slaves have risen to eminence in Cabul, 
 the late Sher Afi Khan’s commander-in-chief, 
 Feramoz Khan, being a Kafir slave. 
 
 In Hindustan British rule has abolished 
 slavery, but it nevertheless exists in noble 
 families, where the slaves seem willingly to 
 assent to their condition of bondage. 
 
 VII.—The Treatment of Slaves. —It has 
 been already shown that, both according to 
 the teaching of the Qur’an and also according 
 to the injunctions of Muhammad, as given in 
 the Traditions, kindness to slaves is strictly 
 enjoined ; and it must be admitted that the 
 treatment of slaves in Muhammadan countries 
 contrasts favourably with that in America, 
 when slavery existed as an institution under 
 a Christian people. 
 
 Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, vol. i. p. 55), 
 writing from his personal observations of 
 slavery in Egypt, remarks : — 
 
 “ The master is bound to afford his slaves 
 proper food and clothing, or to let them 
 work for their own support, or to sell, give 
 away, or liberate them. It is, however, 
 considered disgraceful for him to sell a slave 
 who has been long in his possession; and it 
 seldom happens that a master emancipates 
 a female slave without marrying her to some 
 man able to support her, or otherwise pro¬ 
 viding for her. 
 
 “The Prophet strongly enjoined the duty 
 
 of kindness to slaves. ‘ Feed your slaves,’ 
 said he, ! with food of that which ye eat, 
 and clothe them with such clothing as ye 
 wear; and command them not to do that 
 which they are unable.’ These precepts are 
 generally attended to, either entirely or in a 
 degree.” 
 
 “ Some other sayings of the Prophet on this 
 subject well deserve to be mentioned; as the 
 following:— 
 
 “ ! He who beats his slave without fault, 
 or slaps him on the face, his atonement for 
 this is freeing him.’ 
 
 “ 1 A man who behaves ill to his slave will 
 not enter into Paradise.’ 
 
 “ 1 Whoever is the cause of separation 
 between mother and child by selling or 
 giving, God will separate him from his 
 friends on the day of resurrection.’ 
 
 “ ‘ When a slave wishes well to his master, 
 and worships God well, for him are double 
 rewards.’ 
 
 “ It is related of Othman (‘Usman), that he 
 twisted the ear of a memlook belonging to him, 
 on account of disobedience, and afterwards, 
 repenting of it, ordered him to twist his ear 
 in like manner ; but he would not. Othman 
 urged him, and the slave advanced and began 
 to wring it by little and little. He said to 
 him, ‘ Wring it hard, for I cannot endure the 
 punishment of the Day of Judgment [on ac¬ 
 count of this act].’ The memlook answered, 
 ‘ 0 my master, the day that thou fearest I 
 also fear.’ 
 
 “ It is related also of Zainu ’1-Abidin, that 
 he had a memlook who seized a sheep and 
 broke its leg; and he said to him, ‘ Why 
 didst thou this ? ’ He answered, ‘ To pro¬ 
 voke thee to anger.’ ‘ And I,’ said he, ‘ will 
 provoke to anger him who taught thee ; and 
 he is Iblis (i.e. the Devil) : go, and be free, 
 for the sake of God.’ 
 
 “ Many similar anecdotes might be added; 
 but the general assertions of travellers in the 
 East are far more satisfactory evidence in 
 favour of the humane conduct of most Mus¬ 
 lims to their slaves.” 
 
 But although this testimony of Mr. Lane’s 
 will be borne out with regard to the treat¬ 
 ment of slaves in Islam in all parts of the 
 Muhammadan world, the power which a 
 Muslim possesses over the persons of his 
 bondsman or bondsmaid is unlimited. For 
 example, according to the Hidayah (vol. iv. 
 p. 282), “ A master is not slain for the murder 
 of his slave,” nor “if one of two partners in 
 a slave kill the slave is retaliation incurred.” 
 In this the law of Muhammad departs from 
 that of Moses. See Exodus xxi. 20 : “ And 
 if a man smite his servant, or his maid, with 
 a rod, and he die -under his hand, he shall be 
 surely punished. (Heb. avenged.) Notwith¬ 
 standing, if he continue a day or two, he 
 shall not be punished: for he is his money.” 
 
 Slaves have no civil liberty, but are en¬ 
 tirely under the authority of their owners, 
 whatever may be the religion, sex, or age, of 
 j the latter; and can possess no property, 
 j unless by the owner’s permission. The 
 { owner is entire master, while he pleases, of 
 
600 
 
 SLAVERY 
 
 SNEEZING 
 
 the person and goods of his slave; and of 
 the offspring of his female slave, which, if 
 begotten by him or presumed to be so, he 
 may recognise as his own legitimate child, 
 or not: the child, if recognised by him, enjoys 
 the same privileges as the offspring of a free 
 wife, and if not recognised by him is his slave. 
 
 He may give away or sell his slaves, 
 excepting in some cases which have been 
 mentioned, and may marry them to whom 
 he will, but not separate them when married. 
 A slave, however, according to most of the 
 doctors, cannot have more than two wives 
 at the same time. Unemancipated slaves, 
 at the death of their master, become the 
 property of his heirs : and when an emanci¬ 
 pated slave dies, leaving no male descendants 
 or collateral relations, the former master is 
 the heir; or, if he be dead, his heirs inherit 
 the slave’s property. As a slave enjoys less 
 advantages than a free person, the law, in 
 some cases, ordains that his punishment for 
 an offence shall be half of that to which the 
 free is liable for the same offence, or even 
 less than half: if it be a fine, or pecuniary 
 compensation, it must be paid by the owner, 
 to the amount, if necessary, of the value of 
 the slave, or the slave must be given in 
 compensation. 
 
 The owner, but not the part owner, may 
 cohabit with any of his female slaves who 
 is a Muhammadan, a Christian, or a Jewess, 
 if he has not married her to another man; 
 but not with two or more who are sisters, or 
 who are related to each other in any of the 
 degrees which would prevent their both 
 being his wives at the same time if they 
 were free: after having so lived with one, 
 he must entirely relinquish such intercourse 
 with her before he can do the same with 
 another who is so related to her. He cannot 
 have intercourse with a pagan slave. A 
 Christian or Jew may have slaves, but not 
 enjoy the privilege above mentioned with one 
 who is a Muhammadan. The master must 
 wait a certain period (generally from a month 
 to three months) after the acquisition of a 
 female slave before he can have such inter¬ 
 course with her. If he find any fault in her 
 within three days, he is usually allowed to 
 return her. 
 
 When a man, from being the husband, 
 becomes the master of a slave, the marriage 
 is dissolved, and he cannot continue to live 
 with her but as her master, enjoying, how¬ 
 ever, all a master’s privileges; unless he 
 emancipates her, in which case he may again 
 take her as his wife, with her consent. In 
 like manner, when a woman, from being the 
 wife, becomes the possessor of a slave, the 
 marriage is dissolved, and canuot be renewed 
 unless she emancipates him, and he consents 
 to the reunion. 
 
 There is absolutely no limit to the number 
 of slave-girls with whom a Muhammadan 
 may cohabit, and it is the consecration of 
 this illimitable indulgence which so popu¬ 
 larizes the Muhammadan religion amongst 
 uncivilized nations, and so popularizes slavery 
 in the Muslim religion, 
 
 In the Akhldq-i-Jilali, which is the popular 
 work upon practical philosophy amongst 
 the Muhammadans, it is said that “ for 
 service a slave is preferable to a freeman, 
 inasmuch as he must be more disposed to 
 submit, obey and adopt his patron’s habits 
 and pursuits.” 
 
 Some Muslim writers of the present day 
 (Syed Ameer Ali’s Life oj Mohammed, p. 257) 
 contend that Muhammad looked upon the 
 custom as temporary in its nature, and 
 held that its extinction was sure to be 
 achieved by the progress of ideas and 
 change of circumstances; but the slavery 
 of Islam is interwoven with the Law of 
 marriage, the Law of sale, and the Law of 
 inheritance, of the system, and its abolition 
 would strike at the very foundations of the 
 code of Muhammadanism. 
 
 Slavery is in complete harmony with the 
 spirit of Islam, while it is abhorrent to that 
 of Christianity. That Muhammad amelio¬ 
 rated the condition of the slave, as it existed 
 under the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot 
 doubt; but it is equally certain that the 
 Arabian legislator intended it to be a per¬ 
 petual institution. 
 
 Although slavery has existed side by side 
 with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary 
 to the spirit of the teaching of our divine 
 Lord, who has given to the world the grand 
 doctrine of universal brotherhood. 
 
 Mr. Lecky believes ( European Morals, 
 vol. ii. p. 70) that it was the spirit of 
 Christianity which brought about the aboli¬ 
 tion of slavery in Europe. He says, “ The 
 services of Christianity were of three kinds. 
 It supjDlied a new order of relations, in 
 which the distinction of classes was un¬ 
 known. It imparted a moral dignity to the 
 servile classes. It gave an unexampled 
 impetus to the movement of enfranchise¬ 
 ment.” 
 
 SLEEPING-. Arabic naum G*y)- 
 Heb. num. It is usual for Mus¬ 
 lims to sleep with the head in the direction of 
 Makkah. 
 
 Abu Zarr relates that on one occasion he 
 was sleeping on his belly, and the Prophet 
 saw him, and, kicking him, said, “ 0 Jundub ! 
 this way of sleeping is the way the devils 
 sleep 1 ” 
 
 Abbab says he saw the Prophet sleeping on 
 his back, with one leg lying over the other, 
 but Jabir says the Prophet forbade that way 
 of sleeping. ( Mishlcat , book xxii. ch. v. 
 pt. 1.) 
 
 SNEEZING. Arabic ‘utds (y-lL®). 
 
 According to the Muhammadan religion, it is 
 a sacred duty to reply to a sneeze. For 
 example, if a person sneeze and say imme¬ 
 diately afterwards, “ God be praised ” (al- 
 harndu li-llah, M5 a.*aJ\), it is incumbent upon 
 at least one of the party to exclaim, “ God 
 have mercy on you” ( Yarhamu-ka 'Hah, 
 
 <3.151). This custom of replying to a sneeze 
 existed amongst the Jews, whose sneezing 
 
SODOM 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 formula was “ Tobim khayim ! ” i.e. “ Good 
 life.” 
 
 There are interesting chapters on saluting 
 after sneezing in Tylor’s Primitive Culture, 
 and Isaac D’Israeli’s Curiosities of Litera¬ 
 ture. 
 
 Replying to a sneeze is amongst the 
 duties called Farz Kafa'i. (Mishkat, book v. 
 ch. i. pt. 1.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that Muhammad 
 said, “ Verily God loves sneezing and hates 
 yawning.” ( Mishkat, book xxii. ch. vi.) 
 
 SODOM. Arabic Sadum 
 Heb. Q'ilp Sedom. “ The City of 
 
 Lot.” The Qamus says it is more correctly 
 Zazum. The city is not mentioned by name 
 in the Qur’an, but it is admitted to be one 
 of the “ overturned cities ” referred to in 
 Surahs ix. 71; lxix. 9. Amongst Muhamma¬ 
 dans, this city is associated with sodomy, 
 or unnatural crime, called in Arabic Kwatah. 
 Pcederastia, is held to be forbidden by Mus • 
 lim law, and the reader will find a discus¬ 
 sion on the subject in Hamilton’s Hidayah, 
 vol. ii. p. 26. The prevalence of this vice 
 amongst Muhammadans is but too well 
 known. (See Vambery’s Sketches of Central 
 Asia, p. 192.) 
 
 SOLOMON. Arabic Sulaimdn 
 Heb. Shelumoh. 
 
 Both according to the Qur’an and the Muham¬ 
 madan commentators, Solomon was cele¬ 
 brated for his skill and wisdom. The fol¬ 
 lowing is the account given of him in the 
 Qur’an, with the commentators’ remarks in 
 italics, as given in Mr. Lane’s Selections 
 from the Kur’an (2nd ed. by Mr. Stanley 
 Lane-Poole):— 
 
 “ And We subjected unto Solomon the wind, 
 blowing strongly, and being light at his desire, 
 which ran at his command to the land that 
 We blessed ( namely Syria ) ; and We knew all 
 things (knowing that ivhat We gave him would 
 stimulate him to be submissive to his Lord). 
 And We subjected, of the devils, those who 
 should dive for him in the sea and bring 
 forth from it jeivels for him, and do other 
 work besides that; that is, building, and 
 performing other services; and We watched 
 over them, that they might not spoil ivhat they 
 executed; for they used, when they had finished 
 a work before night, to spoil it, if they were 
 not employed in something else.” (Surah xxi. 
 81, 82.) 
 
 “ We gave unto David Solomon his son. 
 How excellent a servant ivas he! For he 
 was one who earnestly turned himself unto 
 God, glorifying and praising Him at all times. 
 Remember when, in the latter part of the 
 day, after the commencement of the declining 
 of the sun, the mares standing on three feet 
 and touching the ground with the edge of the 
 fourth foot, swift in the course, were dis¬ 
 played before him. They were a thousand 
 mares, which were displayed before him after 
 he had performed the noon-prayers, on the 
 occasion of his desiring to make use of them 
 
 601 
 
 in a holy war; and when nine hundred of 
 them had been displayed, the sun set, and he 
 had not performed the afternoon prayers. So 
 he was grieved, and he said, Verily I have 
 preferred the love of earthly goods above 
 the remembrance of my Lord, (that is, the 
 performance of the afternoon prayers,) so that 
 the sun is concealed by the veil. Bring them 
 (namely the horses) back unto me. Therefore 
 they brought them back. And he began to 
 sever with his sword the legs and the necks, 
 slaughtering them, and cutting off their legs, 
 as a sacrifice unto God, and gave their flesh 
 in alms; and God gave him in compensation 
 what was better than they were and swifter, 
 namely the wind, which travelled by his com¬ 
 mand whithersoever he desired. And We tried 
 Solomon by depriving him of his kingdom. 
 This was because he married a woman of whom 
 he became enamoured, and she used to worship 
 an idol in his palace without his knowledge. 
 His dominion was in his signet; and he pulled 
 it off once and deposited it with his wife, who 
 was named El-Emeeneh (Aminah); and a jinnee 
 came unto her in the form of Solomon, and took 
 it from her. And We placed upon his throne 
 a counterfeit body : namely that jinnee, who 
 was Sak.hr (Sakhr), or another. He sat upon 
 the throne of Solomon, and the birds and other 
 creatures surrounded him; and Solomon went 
 forth, with a changed appearance, and saw him 
 upon his throne, and said unto the people, I am 
 Solomon:—but they denied him. Then he re¬ 
 turned unto his kingdom, after some days, 
 having obtained the signet and put it on, and 
 seated himself upon his throne. He said, 0 
 my Lord, forgive me, and give me a do¬ 
 minion that may not be to anyone after me 
 (or beside me ); for Thou art the Liberal 
 Giver. So We subjected unto him the wind, 
 which ran gently at his command whither¬ 
 soever he desired; and the devils also, every 
 builder of wonderful structures, and diver that 
 brought up pearls from the sea, and others 
 bound in chains which connected their hands to 
 their necks. And We said unto him, This is 
 Our gift, and bestow thou thereof upon whom¬ 
 soever thou wilt, or refrain from bestowing, 
 without rendering an account. And verily 
 for him was ordained a high rank with Us, 
 and an excellent retreat. (Surah xxxviii 
 29-39.) 
 
 “We bestowed on David and Solomon 
 knowledge in judging men and in the language 
 of the birds and other matters; and they said, 
 Praise be to God who hath made us to excel 
 many of His believing servants, by the gift of 
 prophecy and by the subjection of the jinn and 
 mankind and the deoils. And Solomon in¬ 
 herited from David the gift of prophecy and 
 knowledge; and he said, 0 men, we have 
 been taught the language of the birds, and 
 have had bestowed on us of everything 
 wherewith prophets and kings are gifted. 
 Verily this is manifest excellence. And his 
 armies of jinn and men and birds were 
 gathered together unto Solomon, and they 
 were led on in order, until, when they came 
 unto the valley of ants, (which was at Et- 
 Taif \_at-Tdij~), or in Syria, the ants whereof 
 
 76 
 
602 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 were small or great), an ant (the queen of the 
 ants), having seen the troops of Solomon, said, 
 O ants, enter your habitations, lest Solomon 
 and his ti'oops crush you violently, while they 
 perceive not. And Solomon smiled, after¬ 
 wards laughing at her saying, which he heard 
 from the distance of three miles, the wind con¬ 
 veying it to him: so he withheld his forces 
 when he came in sight of their valley, until the 
 ants had entered their dwellings : and his troops 
 were on horses and on foot in this expedition. 
 And he said, 0 my Lord, inspire me to he 
 thankful for Thy favour which Thou hast 
 bestowed upon me and upon my parents, and 
 to do righteousness which Thou shalt ap¬ 
 prove, and admit me, in Thy mercy, among 
 Thy servants, the righteous, the prophets and 
 the saints. 
 
 “ And he examined the birds, that he might 
 see the lap-wing, that saw the water beneath 
 the earth, and directed to it by pecking the 
 earth, whereupon the devils used to draw it 
 forth when Solomon wanted it to perform the 
 ablution for prayer; but he saw it not: and 
 he said, Wherefore do I not see the lap¬ 
 wing ? Is it one of the absent ? And when 
 he was certain of the case he said, I will 
 assuredly punish it with a severe punish¬ 
 ment, by plucking out its feathers and its tail 
 and casting it in the sun so that it shall not be 
 able to guard against excessive thirst; or I 
 will slaughter it; or it shall bring me a 
 manifest convincing proof showing its excuse. 
 And it tarried not long before it presented 
 itself unto Solomon submissively, and raised its 
 head and relaxed its tail and its icings : so he 
 forgave it; and he asked it what it had met 
 with during its absence ; and it said, I have 
 become acquainted with that wherewith thou 
 hast not become acquainted, and I have come 
 unto thee from Seba (a tribe of El-Yemen) 
 with a sure piece of news. I found a woman 
 reigning over them, named Bilkees ( Bilqis), 
 and she hath been gifted with everything 
 that princes require, and hath a magnificent 
 throne. (Its length was eighty cubits, and its 
 breadth, forty cubits; and its height, thirty 
 cubits : it was composed of gold and silver 
 set with fine pearls and with rubies and 
 chrysolites, and its legs were of rubies and 
 chrysolites and emeralds : upon it were closed 
 seven doors: to each chamber through which one 
 passed to it was a closed door.) I found her 
 and her people worshipping the sun instead 
 of God, and the devil hath made their works 
 to seem comely unto them, so that he hath 
 hindered them from the right way, wherefore 
 they are not rightly directed to the worship 
 of God, who produceth what is hidden (namely, 
 the rain and vegetables) in the heavens and 
 the earth, and knoweth what they [that is, 
 mankind and others] conceal in their hearts, 
 and what they reveal with their tongues. 
 God: there is no deity but He, the Lord of 
 the magnificent throne, between which and the 
 throne of Bilkees is a vast difference. 
 
 “ Solomon said to the lapwing. We will see 
 whether thou hast spoken truth or whether 
 thou art of the liars. Then the lapwing 
 guided them to the water , and it was drawn 
 
 forth by the devils; and they quenched their 
 thirst and performed the ablution and prayed. 
 Then Solomon wrote a letter, the form whereof 
 was this:—From the servant of God, Solomon 
 the son of David, to Bilkees the queen of Seba. 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the 
 Merciful, Peace be on whomsoever followeth 
 the right direction. After this salutation, 1 
 say , Act ye not proudly towards me; but come 
 unto me submitting. He then sealed it with 
 musk, and stamped it with his signet, and said 
 unto the lapwing, Go with this my letter and 
 throw it down unto them ( namely Bilkees and 
 her people) : then turn away from them, but 
 stay near them, and see what reply they will 
 return. So the lapwing took it, and came 
 unto her, and around her were her forces; and 
 he threw it down into her lap ; and when she 
 saw it, she trembled with fear. Then she con¬ 
 sidered ichat was in it, and she said unto the 
 nobles of her people, 0 nobles, an honourable 
 (sealed) letter hath been thrown down unto 
 me. It is from Solomon; and it is this :— 
 In the name of God, the Compassionate, the 
 Merciful. Act ye not proudly towards me : 
 but come unto me submitting.—She said, 0 
 nobles, advise me in mine affair. I will not 
 decide upon a thing unless ye bear me wit¬ 
 ness.—They replied, We are endowed with 
 strength and endowed with great valour; but 
 the command helongeth to thee ; therefore 
 see what thou wilt command us to do, and 
 ice will obey thee. She said, Verily kings, 
 when they enter a city, waste it, and render 
 the mighty of its inhabitants abject; and 
 thus will they do who have sent the letter. 
 But I will send unto them with a gift, and I 
 will see with what the messengers will 
 return, whether the gift will be accepted, or 
 whether it will be rejected. If he be merely a 
 king, he will accept it; and if he be a prophet, 
 he will not accept it. And she sent male and 
 female servants, a thousand in equal numbers, 
 five hundred of each sex, and five hundred 
 bricks of gold, and a crown set with jewels, 
 and musk and ambergris and other things, by a 
 messenger ivith a letter. And the lapwing 
 hastened unto Solomon, to tell him the news ; 
 on hearing which, he commanded that bricks of 
 gold and silver should be cast, and that a 
 horse-course should be extended to the length of 
 nine leagues from the place where he was, and 
 that they should build around it a ivall with 
 battlements, of gold and silver, and that the 
 handsomest of the beasts of the land and of the 
 sea should be brought ivith the sons of the 
 jinn on the right side of the horse-course and 
 on its left. 
 
 “ And when the messenger came with the 
 gift, and with him his attendants, unto Solo¬ 
 mon, he (Solomon) said, Do ye aid me with 
 wealth ? But what God hath given me 
 (namely, the gift of prophecy and the kingdom) 
 is better than what He hath given you, of 
 ivorIdly goods; yet ye rejoice in your gift, 
 because ye glory in the showy things of this 
 world. Return unto them with the gift that 
 thou hast brought; for we will surely come 
 unto them with forces with which they have 
 not power to contend, and we will surely 
 
SOLOMON 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 603 
 
 drive them out from it, (that is, from their 
 country, Seha, which was named after the 
 father of their tribe,) abject and contemptible, 
 if they come not unto us submitting. And when 
 the messenger returned unto her with the gift, 
 she placed her throne within seven doors, within 
 her palace, and her palace was within seven 
 palaces; and she closed the doors, and set 
 guards to them, and prepared to go unto Solo¬ 
 mon, that she might see what he would command 
 her to do. She departed with twelve thousand 
 Icings, each Icing having with him many thou¬ 
 sands, and proceeded until she came as near to 
 him as a league’s distance; when he knew of 
 her approach, he said, 0 nobles, which of you 
 will bring unto me her throne before they 
 come unto me submitting ? An ’efreet (j I frit) 
 of the jinn, answered, I will bring it unto thee 
 before thou shalt arise from thy place wherein 
 thou sittest to judge from morning until mid¬ 
 day ; for I am able to do it, and trustworthy 
 with respect to the jewels that it compriseth 
 and other matters. Solomon said, 1 desire it 
 more speedily. And thereupon he with whom 
 was knowledge of the revealed scripture 
 (namely his Wezeer, Asaf the son of Barkhiya, 
 who was a just person, acquainted with the 
 most great name of God, which ensured an 
 answer to him who invoked thereby) said, I 
 will bring it unto thee before thy glance can 
 be withdrawn from any object. And he said 
 unto him, Look at the sky. So he looked at it; 
 then he withdrew his glance, and found it 
 placed before him : for during his look towards 
 the sky, Asaf prayed, by the most great name, 
 that God would bring it; and it so happened, 
 the throne passing under the ground until it 
 came up before the throne of Solomon. And 
 when he saw it firmly placed before him, he 
 said, This is the favour of my Lord, that 
 He may try me, whether I shall be thankful 
 or whether I shall he unthankful. And he 
 who is thankful is thankful for the sake of 
 his own soul, which will have the reward 
 of his thankfulness; and as to him who is 
 ungrateful, my Lord is independent and 
 bountiful. 
 
 “ Then Solomon said, Alter ye her throne 
 so that it may not he known by her, that 
 we may see whether she be rightly directed 
 to the knowledge thereof, or whether she be 
 of those who are not rightly directed to the 
 knowledge of that which is altered. He desired 
 thereby to try her intelligence. So they altered 
 it, by adding to it, or taking from it, or in 
 some other manner. And when she came, it 
 was said unto her, Is thy throne like this ? 
 She answered, As though it were the same. 
 She answered them ambiguously like as they 
 ad questioned her ambiguously, not saying, Is 
 this thy throne?—and had they so said, she 
 had answered, Yes.) And when Solomon saw 
 her knowledge, he said, And we have had 
 knowledge bestowed on us before her, and 
 have been Muslims. But what she wor¬ 
 shipped instead of God hindered her from 
 worshipping Him; for she was of an unbe¬ 
 lieving people. It was said unto her also, 
 Enter the palace. (It had a floor of white, 
 transparent glass, beneath which was running 
 
 water, wherein were fish. Solomon had made 
 it on its being said unto him that her legs and 
 feet were hairy, like the legs of an ass. And 
 when she saw it, she imagined it to be a 
 great water, and she uncovered her legs, 
 that she might wade through it; and Solomon 
 was on his throne at the upper end of the 
 palace, and he saw that her legs and her feet 
 were handsome. He said unto her, Yerily it 
 is a palace evenly spread with glass. And 
 he invited her to embrace El-Isldm, where¬ 
 upon she said, 0 my Lord, verily I have 
 acted unjustly towards mine own soul, by 
 worshipping another than Thee, and I resign 
 myself, with Solomon, unto God, the Lord of 
 the worlds. And he desired to marry her; 
 but he disliked the hair upon her legs; so the 
 devils made for him the depilatory of quick¬ 
 lime, wherewith she removed the hair, and he 
 married her ; and he loved her, and confirmed 
 her in her kingdom. He used to visit her every 
 month once, and to remain with her three days ; 
 and her reign expired on the expiration of the 
 reign of Solomon. It is related that he began 
 to reign when he was thirteen years of age, and 
 died at the age of three and fifty years. Extolled 
 be the perfection of Him to the duration of 
 whose dominion there is no end! ” (Surah 
 xxvii. 15-45.) 
 
 We subjected unto Solomon the wind, 
 which travelled in the morning (unto the 
 period when the sun began to decline) the 
 distance of a month's journey, and in the 
 evening from the commencement of the declining 
 of the sun into its setting) a month’s journey. 
 And We made the fountain of molten brass 
 to flow for him three days with their nights in 
 every month, as water floweth ; and the people 
 worked until the day of its flowing, with that 
 which had been given unto Solomon. And of 
 the jinn were those who worked in his 
 presence, by the will of his Lord ; and such 
 of them as swerved from obedience to Our 
 command We will cause to taste of the 
 punishment of hell in the world to come (or, 
 as it is said by some, We cause to taste of its 
 punishment in the present world, an angel 
 beating them with a scourge from hell, the 
 stripe of which bumeth them). They made 
 for him whatever be pleased, of lofty halls 
 (with steps whereby to ascend to them), and 
 images (for they were not forbidden by his 
 law), and large dishes, like great tanks for 
 watering camels, around each of which as¬ 
 sembled a thousand men, eating from it, and 
 cooking-pots standing firmly on their legs, cut 
 out from the mountains in El-Yemen, and to 
 which they ascended by ladders. And We said, 
 Work, 0 family of David, in the service of 
 God, with thanksgiving unto Him for what 
 He hath given you :—hut few of My servants 
 are the thankful. And when We decreed 
 that he (namely Solomon) should die, and he 
 died, and remained standing, and leaning upon 
 his staff for a year, dead, the jinn meanwhile 
 performing those difficult works as they were 
 accustomed to do, not knowing of his death, 
 until the worm ate his staff, whereupon he fell 
 down, nothing showed them his death but 
 the eating reptile (the worm) that ate his 
 
604 
 
 SOLOMON 
 
 SPEAKING 
 
 staff. And when he fell down, the jinn 
 plainly perceived that if they had known 
 things unseen (of which things was the death 
 of Solomon), they had not continued in the 
 ignominious affliction (that is, in their diffi¬ 
 cult works), imagining that he was alive, 
 inconsistently with their opinion that they 
 knew things unseen. And that the period was 
 a year was known by calculating what the worm 
 had eaten of his staff since his death in each 
 day and night or other space of time.'’ (Surah 
 xxxiv. 11-13.) 
 
 Mr. Sale, quoting from the commentators 
 al-Jalalan and al-Baizawi, has the following 
 remarks on the foregoing account of Solo¬ 
 mon :— 
 
 “ Some say the spirits made him (Solomon) 
 two lions, which were placed at the foot of 
 his throne; and two eagles, which were set 
 above it; and that when he mounted it, the 
 lions stretched out their paws; and when he 
 sat down, the eagles shaded him with their 
 wings ; and thar he had a carpet of green 
 silk, on which his throne was placed, being 
 of a prodigious length and breadth, and suf¬ 
 ficient for all his forces to stand on, the men 
 placing themselves on his right hand, and 
 the spirits [or jinn] on his left; and that 
 when all were in order, the wind at his com¬ 
 mand took up the carpet and transported it 
 with all that were upon it wherever he 
 pleased; the army of birds at the same time 
 dying over their heads and forming a kind 
 of canopy to shade them from the sun. The 
 commentators tell us that David, having 
 laid the foundations of the Temple of Jeru¬ 
 salem, which was to be in lieu of the taber¬ 
 nacle of Moses, when he died, left it to be 
 finished by his son Solomon, who employed 
 the genii in the work; that Solomon, before 
 the edifice was quite completed, perceiving 
 his end drew nigh, begged of God that his 
 death might be concealed from the genii till 
 they had entirely finished it; that God there¬ 
 fore so ordered it that Solomon died as he 
 stood at his prayers, leaning on his staff, 
 which supported the body in that posture a 
 full year; and the genii, supposing him to be 
 alive, continued their work during that term, 
 at the expiration whereof, the temple being 
 perfectly completed, a worm, which had 
 gotten into the staff, ate it through, and the 
 corpse fell to the ground and discovered the 
 king’s death. That after the space of forty 
 days, which was the time the image had been 
 worshipped in his house, the devil flew away, 
 and threw the signet into the sea : the signet 
 was immediately swallowed by a fish, which 
 being taken and given to Solomon, he found 
 the ring in its belly, and, having by this 
 means recovered the kingdom, took Sakhr, 
 and, tying a great stone to his neck, threw 
 him into the Lake of Tiberias. The Arab 
 historians tell us that Solomon, having 
 finished the Temple of Jerusalem, went in 
 pilgrimage to Makkah, where having stayed 
 as long as he pleased, he proceeded towards 
 al-Yaman; and leaving Makkah in the morn¬ 
 ing he arrived by noon at San'a’, and being 
 extremely delighted with the country rested 
 
 there; but wanting water to make the 
 ablution, he looked among the birds for the 
 lapwing which found it for him. Some say 
 that Bilqls, to try whether Solomon was a 
 prophet or not, drest the boys like girls and 
 the girls like boys, and sent him in a casket 
 a pearl not drilled and an onyx drilled with a 
 crooked hole; and that Solomon distinguished 
 the boys from the girls by the different 
 manner of their taking water, and ordered 
 one worm to bore the pearl, and another to 
 pass a thread through the onyx.” 
 
 SON. Arabic ibn pi. band ; 
 
 Heb. ien; walacl (aJj), pi. auldd ; 
 
 Heb. vxilad. The evidence 
 
 X T 
 
 of a son in favour of his parents in a court of 
 law is not admissible. A son cannot be the 
 slave of his father. A father can slay his 
 son without punishment being inflicted upon 
 him for the murder. 
 
 According to the law of inheritance of both 
 Sunni and Shi'ah, when there are several sons 
 they divide the property of their deceased 
 father equally, the eldest son being according 
 to Skl‘ah law, entitled to take possession of 
 his father's sabre, Qur’an, signet-ring, and 
 robes of honour. (Personal Law, by Syed 
 Ameer Ali, p. 74.) 
 
 For the Muslim doctrine regarding the 
 son-ship of Christ, refer to article jesus 
 
 CHRIST. 
 
 SORCERY, [magic.] 
 
 SOUL. There are two words used 
 
 in the Qur’an for the soul of man, ruh 
 
 Heb. n*n ™akh, and nafs (u"")> 
 
 nephesh ; e.g .:— 
 
 Surah xvii. 87 : “ They will ask thee of the 
 spirit (ruh). Say, the spirit proceedeth at 
 my Lord’s command, but of knowledge only a 
 little to you is given.” 
 
 Surah iii. 24: “ Each soul (nafs) shall be 
 paid what it has earned.” 
 
 Muslim theologians do not distinguish be¬ 
 tween the ruh and nafs, but the philosophers 
 do. Nafs seems to answer the Greek {j/v^g, 
 
 “ soul or life,” human beings being distin¬ 
 guished as an-nafsu ’n-natiqah, “ the soul 
 which speaks”; animals as an-nafsu 'l-hai- 
 waniyah, “ the animal life ”; and vegetables 
 as an-nafsu ’n-nabatiyah ; "whilst ruh ex¬ 
 presses the Greek Trvevpa^ “ spirit.” Man 
 thus forming a tripartite nature of 
 jism, “body”; nafs, “soul”; and 
 
 ruh, “ spirit ” ; an idea which does not find 
 expression in the Qur’an, but which is ex¬ 
 pressed in the New Testament, 1 Thess, v. 
 23: “ And I pray God your whole spirit and 
 soul, and body be preserved blameless until 
 the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” This 
 tripartite nature of man is used by Dr. 
 Pfander, and other controversialists, as an 
 illustration of the Trinity in Unity, [spirit.] 
 
 SPEAKING, [conversation.] 
 
SPIDER 
 
 SPIRIT 
 
 605 
 
 SPIDER, The. Arabic al-‘Ankabut 
 (eyj-.SU*D). The title of the xxixth 
 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in the 40th verse of 
 which is given the parable of the spicier: 
 “ The likeness for those who take to them¬ 
 selves guardians instead of God is the like¬ 
 ness of the spider who buildoth her a house : 
 But verily, frailest of all houses surely is the 
 house of the spider. Did they but know 
 this I ” 
 
 SPIRIT. Arabic (c^j). The word 
 
 ruh (pi. arwafi), translated “ spirit,” is the 
 Arabic form corresponding to the Hebrew 
 
 mi ruakh. It occurs nineteen times in 
 the Qur’an:— 
 
 1. Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 81: “ We 
 strengthened him (Jesus) by the Holy Spirit 
 (Ruhu ’l-Qudus).” 
 
 2. Suratu ’1-Baqarah (ii.), 254: “ We 
 strengthened him (Jesus) by the Holy Spirit 
 (Ruhu ’/-Qudus ).” 
 
 3. Suratu ’n-Nisa’ (iv.), 169 : “ The Maslh, 
 Jesus, son of Mary, is only an apostle of God, 
 and His Word which He conveyed into Mary 
 and a Spirit (proceeding) from Himself 
 (Rufuin min-hu)." 
 
 4. Suratu ’1-Mai’dah (v.), 109 : “ When I 
 strengthened thee (Jesus) with the Holy 
 Spirit ( Ruhu 7- Qudus).” 
 
 5. Suratu ’n-Nahl (xvi.), 2: “ He will cause 
 the angels to descend with the spirit {Ruh) 
 on whom He pleaseth among his servants, 
 bidding them warn that there be no God but 
 me.” 
 
 6. Suratu ’n-Nahl (xvi.), 104 : “ The Holy 
 Spirit ( Ruhu 'l-Qudus) hath brought it (the 
 Qur’an) down with truth from thy Lord.” 
 
 7. Suratu ’1-Mi‘raj (xvii.), 87 : “ They will 
 ask thee of the spirit. Say: The spirit (ar- 
 Ruh) proceedeth at my Lord’s command, but 
 of knowledge only a little to you is given.” 
 
 8. Suratu ’sh-Shu‘ara’ (xxvi.), 193: “ The 
 faithful Spirit ( ar-Ruhu 7 -Amin) hath come 
 down with it (the Qur’an).” 
 
 9. Suratu ’1-Mu’min (xl.), 15 : “ He sendeth 
 forth the Spirit ( ar-Ruh) at His own behest 
 on whomsoever of His servants He pleaseth.” 
 
 10. Suratu ’1-Mujadilah (lviii.), 23: “On 
 the hearts of these (the faithful) hath God 
 graven the Faith, and with a spirit (pro¬ 
 ceeding from Himself ( Ruhun min-hu) hath 
 He strengthened them.” 
 
 11. Suratu ’1-Ma‘arij (lxx.), 4 : “ The angels 
 and the Spirit ( ar-Ruh) ascend to Him in a 
 day, whose length is fifty thousand years.” 
 
 12. Suratu T-Qadr (xcvii.), 4: “ Therein 
 descend the angels and the Spirit {ar-Ruh) 
 by permission of their Lord for every 
 matter.” 
 
 13. Suratu ’sh-Shura (xlii.), 52: “ Thus 
 have we sent the Spirit {ar-Ruh) to thee 
 with a revelation, by our command.” 
 
 14. Suratu Maryam (xix.), 17: “ And we 
 sent our spirit ( Ruha-na ) to her, Mary , and 
 he took before her the form of a perfect man.” 
 
 15. Suratu ’1-Ambiya’ (xxi.), 91: “ Into 
 
 whom (Mary) we breathed of our Spirit 
 {min Ruhi-nd).’’ 
 
 16. Suratu ’t-Tahrlm (Ixvi.), 12: “ Into 
 whose womb {i.e. Mary’s) we breathed of our 
 Spirit (min Ruhi-na).” 
 
 17. Suratu ’s-Sajdah (xxxii.), 8: “ And 
 breathed of His Spirit ( min Riihi-hi) into 
 him (A.dam).” 
 
 18. Suratu’1-Hijr (xv.), 29: “ And when I 
 shall have finished him (Adam) and breathed 
 of my Spirit {min Ruhl) into him.” 
 
 19. Suratu Sad (xxxviii.), 72: “ And when 
 I have formed him (Adam) and breathed of 
 my Spirit (min-Ruhi) into him.” 
 
 Of the above quotations, all Muslim com¬ 
 mentators are agreed in applying Nos. 1, 2, 
 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, to the angel Gabriel; 
 Nos. 3, 15, 16, are said to be Jesus, the Ruhu 
 ’ llah , or “Spirit of God”; Nos. 17, 18, 19, 
 the Ruh, or “ Life,” given to Adam; Nos. 9, 
 13, “the Spirit of Prophecy”; No. 10 is held 
 to mean God’s grace and strength. With re¬ 
 ference to No. 7, there is some discussion. The 
 Khalifah ‘All is related to have said that 
 it was an angel with 7,000 mouths, in each 
 mouth there being 7,000 tongues, which un¬ 
 ceasingly praised God. Ibn ‘Abbas held that 
 it meant the angel Gabriel. Mujahid, that 
 it meant beings of another world. 
 
 The Commentators al-Kamalan say the 
 Jews came and asked Muhammad regarding 
 the spirit of man, and the Prophet replied, 
 “ The Spirit proceedeth at my Lord’s com¬ 
 mand, but of knowledge only a little to you 
 is given,” from which it is evident that it is 
 impossible for the finite mind to understand 
 the nature of a spirit. 
 
 The philosophical bearings of the question 
 are fully discussed, from an Oriental stand¬ 
 point in the Kashshafu 'stilahati ’l-Funun, A 
 Dictionary of Technical Terms used in the 
 Sciences of the Mussalmans, edited by W. 
 Nassau Lees, LL.D., 1862, vol. i. p. 541; also 
 in the Sharhu 'l-Mawaqif p. 582. 
 
 Muhammadan writers hold very conflicting 
 views regarding the state of the soul or 
 spirit after death. All agree that the Angel 
 of Death (Malaku ’l-Maut), separates the 
 human soul from the body at the time of 
 death, and that he performs his office with 
 ease and gentleness towards the good, and 
 with force and violence towards the wicked, 
 a view which they establish on the testimony 
 of the Qur’an, Surah lxxix. V, where the 
 Prophet swears by “ those who tear out vio¬ 
 lently and those who gently release.” After- 
 death the spirits enter a state called al- 
 Barzakh . or the interval between death and the 
 Resurrection, the ’'AiSijs of Dm New Testa¬ 
 ment. The souls of the faithful are said to 
 be divided into three classes: (1) those of 
 the Prophets who are admitted into Paradise 
 immediately after death; (2) those of the 
 martyrs who, according to a tradition of Mu¬ 
 hammad, rest in the crops of green birds, 
 which eat the fruits and drink of the waters 
 of Paradise ; those of all other believers, con¬ 
 cerning the state of whose souls before the 
 Resurrection there is great diversity of 
 opinion. Some say they stay near the graves, 
 either for a period of only seven days, or, 
 according to others, until the Day of Resur- 
 
606 
 
 SPIRIT 
 
 STANDARDS 
 
 rection. In proof of this, they quote the 
 example of Muhammad, who always saluted 
 the spirits of the departed when passing a 
 grave-yard. Others say, all the departed 
 spirits of the faithful are in the lowest 
 heaven with Adam, because the Prophet de¬ 
 clared he saw them there in his pretended 
 ascent to heaven. [mpraj.] Whilst others 
 say the departed spirits dwell in the forms of 
 white birds under the throne of God (which 
 is a Jewish tradition). 
 
 Al-Baizawi says the souls of the wicked 
 are carried down to a pit in hell called Sijjin 
 [sijjin] ; and there is a' tradition to the 
 effect that Muhammad said the spirits of the 
 wicked are tormented until the Day of Resur¬ 
 rection, when they are produced with their 
 bodies for judgment. 
 
 The author of the Sharhu 'l-Maiuaqif (p. 
 583), says that some Muslim philosophers 
 state that after death the spirit of man will 
 either be in a state of enlightenment or of 
 ignorance. Those who are in a state of igno¬ 
 rance will go on from worse to worse, and 
 those who are in a state of enlightenment 
 will only suffer so far as they have con¬ 
 tracted qualities of an undesirable character 
 when in the body, but they will gradually 
 improve until they arrive at a state of per¬ 
 fect enjoyment. This view, however, is not 
 one which is tenable with the views pro- I 
 
 pounded by the Qur’an, in which there are 
 very decided notions regarding the future 
 state of heaven and hell, [soul.] 
 
 SPITTING. According to the 
 
 Traditions, Muslims must spit on the left 
 side, and cover it over with earth. Spitting 
 in mosques is forbidden. (See ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq’s 
 Commentary on the Mishhat, vol. i. p. 295.) 
 
 Muhammad said: “ Spit not in front, for 
 you are in God’s presence. Spit not on the 
 right hand, for there standeth the angel who 
 recordeth your good actions.” 
 
 SPOILS, The. Arabic al-Anfdl 
 (JU^). The title of the vmth 
 
 Surah of the Qur’an, in which are given in¬ 
 structions regarding the division of the spoils 
 taken at the battle of Badr, a dispute having 
 arisen between the young men who had fought 
 and the old men who had stayed under the 
 ensigns ; the former insisting they ought to 
 have the whole, and the latter that they 
 deserved a share, [plunder.] 
 
 STANDARDS. Arabic ‘alam (^), 
 
 pi. a‘ldm. Regarding the standards used by 
 Muhammad, there are the following tradi¬ 
 tions :— 
 
 Jabir says : “ The Prophet came into Mak- 
 kah with a white standard.” 
 
 MUHAMMADAN STANDARDS. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 .1, Muslim Standard of Central Asian Tribes. 4. Horse-tail Standard of Modern Turks 
 
 2. Standard of the Turkish Empire. 5. Standard of Egypt. 
 
 3. Standard of the Empire of Morocco. 6. Standard of Persia. 
 
STANDARDS 
 
 STONING TO DEATH 607 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas says: “ The Prophet had two 
 standards, a large black one and a small 
 white one.” 
 
 Al-Bara’ ibn ‘Azib says: “ The standard, 
 I remember, was a square one, and black 
 spotted with divers colours.” 
 
 In the struggle between the Shr'ahs and 
 the Sunnis, the Fatimides adopted green as 
 the colour of their standard, whilst the Bani 
 Umaiyah assumed white for theirs. 
 
 In Central Asia, the ordinary Muslim 
 standards are either black or green, and are 
 triangular. The sign of the crescent, as it 
 appears on Turkish standards, was adopted 
 after the taking of Byzantium ; for, long before 
 the conquest of Constantinople, the crescent 
 had been used in the city for an emblem of 
 sovereignty, as may be seen from the medals 
 struck in honour of Augustus and Trajan. 
 [crescent.] 
 
 There is a standard still preserved at Con¬ 
 stantinople amongst the ancient relics, and 
 called cis-Sinjaqu ’sk-sharif, which is held to 
 
 MPHARRAM STANDARDS. 
 
 be a most sacred emblem, and is only pro¬ 
 duced on very special occasions. It is said 
 to be the ancient standard of the Prophet. 
 
 A modern writer, describing this flag, says : 
 “ It is made of four layers of silk, the top¬ 
 most of which is green, those below being 
 composed of cloth, embroidered with gold. 
 Its entire length is twelve feet, and from it 
 is suspended the figure of a human hand, 
 which clasps a copy of the Qur’an, transcribed 
 by the Khalifah ‘Usman. In times of peace, 
 the banner of the Prophet is kept in a 
 chamber appropriated to the purpose, along 
 with the clothes, teeth, the venerable locks, 
 the stirrups, and the bow of the Prophet.” 
 
 In the Muharram, when the martyrdom of 
 al-Hasan and al-Husain is celebrated, nume¬ 
 rous standards are carried about in the pro¬ 
 cession. 
 
 The origin of the horse-tail standard borne 
 by modern Turks, appears to have been from 
 the people bearing the horse-tail as a distinc¬ 
 
 tion of rank, the two ranks of pashas being 
 distinguished respectively by two and three 
 tails, and a further distinction of rank being 
 marked by the elevation of one of the tails 
 above the others. 
 
 MUHARRAM STANDARD. 
 
 According to the Traditions, the Mahdi, in 
 the Last Days, will appear from the direction 
 of Khorosan with black ensigns, and there 
 seems to be every reason to regard the black 
 standard as the primitive ensign of Islam, 
 although the Wahhabis have generally car¬ 
 ried green standards. 
 
 STATUES, [sculpture.] 
 STONING TO DEATH. Arabic 
 rajm In Muslim law, the 
 
 punishment of lapidation is only inflicted for 
 adultery. (Under the Jewish law idolaters 
 and bearers of false witness were also 
 stoned.) It is founded, not upon the Qur’an, 
 where the only punishment awarded is one 
 hundred stripes (Surah xxiv. 2), but upon 
 the Traditions ( Alishhat , book xv. ch. 1), 
 where Muhammad is related to have said, 
 “ Vei'ily God hath ordained for a man or 
 woman not married one hundred lashes and 
 expulsion from their town one year, and for 
 a man or woman having been married one 
 hundred lashes and stoning.” ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq 
 says the hundred lashes, in addition to the 
 stoning, is abrogated by the express example 
 of the Prophet, who ordered stoning only; 
 for ‘Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Umar relates the fol¬ 
 lowing tradition : — 
 
 “A Jew came to the Prophet and said, 
 ‘ A man and woman of ours have committed 
 adultery.’ And the Prophet said, ‘ What do 
 you meet with in the Book of Moses in the 
 
608 STONING TO DEATH 
 
 SUFI 
 
 matter of stoning ? ’ The Jew said, 1 We do 
 not find stoning in the Bible, but we disgrace 
 adulterers and whip them.’ Then ‘Abdu 
 ’llah ibn Salam, who was a learned man of 
 the Jews, and had embraced Islam, said, 
 ‘You lie, 0 Jewish tribe! verily the order 
 for stoning is in the Book of Moses.’ Then 
 the book was brought, and opened; and a 
 Jew put his hand upon the revelation for 
 stoning, and read the one above and below 
 it; and ‘Abdu ’llah said, ‘ Lift up your hand.’ 
 And he did so, and behold the revelation for 
 stoning was produced in the book, and the 
 Jews said, 1 ‘Abdu ’llah spoke true, 0 Mu¬ 
 hammad ! the stoning revelation is in the 
 Book of Moses.’ Then the Prophet ordered 
 both the man and woman to be stoned.” 
 (Mishlcat , book xv. ch. i.) 
 
 The author of the Hidayah (vol. ii. p. 9) 
 gives the following instructions as to the 
 correct way of carrying out the sentence:— 
 
 “ It is necessary, when a whoremonger is 
 to be stoned to death, that he should be 
 carried to some barren place void of houses 
 or cultivation, and it is requisite that the 
 stoning be executed—first by the witnesses, 
 and after them by the Imam or Qazi, and 
 after those by the rest of the bystanders, 
 because it is so recorded from ‘All, and also 
 because in the circumstance of the execu¬ 
 tion being begun by the witnesses there is a 
 precaution, since a person may be very bold 
 in delivering his evidence against a criminal, 
 but afterwards, when directed himself to 
 commence the infliction of that punishment 
 which is a consequence of it, may from com¬ 
 punction retract his testimony ; thus, causing 
 the witnesses to begin the punishment may 
 be a means of entirely preventing it. Ash- 
 Shafi‘i has said that the witnesses beginning 
 the punishment is not a requisite, in a case 
 of lapidation, any more than in a case of 
 scourging. To this our doctors reply that 
 reasoning upon a case of lapidation from a 
 case of scourging is supposing an analogy 
 between things t which are essentially dif¬ 
 ferent, because all persons are not acquainted 
 with the proper method of inflicting flagella¬ 
 tion, and hence, if a witness thus ignorant 
 were to attempt, it might prove fatal to the 
 sufferer, and he would die where death is not 
 his due, contrary to a case of lapidation, as 
 that is of a destructive nature, and what 
 every person is equally capable of executing, 
 wherefore if the witnesses shrink back from 
 the commencement of lapidation the punish¬ 
 ment drops, because their reluctance argues 
 their retraction. 
 
 “ In the same manner punishment is re¬ 
 mitted when the witnesses happen to die, or 
 to disappear, as in this case the condition, 
 namely, the commencement of it by the 
 witnesses, is defeated. This is when the 
 whoredom is established upon the testimony 
 of witnesses: but when it is established 
 upon the confession of the offender, it is then 
 requisite that the lapidation be executed, 
 first by the Imam or the Qazi, and after 
 them by the rest of the multitude, because 
 it is so recorded from ‘All. Moreover, the 
 
 Prophet threw a small stone like a bean at 
 Ghamdfyah who had confessed whoredom. 
 When a woman is to be stoned, a hole or 
 excavation should be dug to receive her, as 
 deep as her waist, because the Prophet 
 ordered such a hole to be dug for Ghamdivah 
 before mentioned, and ‘All also ordered a 
 hole to be dug for Shuraha Hamdiani. It 
 is, however, immaterial whether a hole be 
 dug or not, because the Prophet did not issue 
 any particular ordinance respecting this, and 
 the nakedness of a woman is sufficiently 
 covered by her garments; but yet it is 
 laudable to dig a hole for her, as decency is 
 thus most effectually preserved. There is 
 no manner of necessity to dig a hole for a 
 man, because the prophet did not so in the 
 case of Ma‘iz. And observe, it is not lawful 
 to bind a person in order to execute punish¬ 
 ment upon him in this case, unless it appears 
 that it cannot otherwise be inflicted. 
 
 “ The corpse of a person executed by 
 lapidation for whoredom is entitled to the 
 usual ablutions, and to all other funeral cere¬ 
 monies, because of the declaration of the 
 Prophet with respect to Ma‘iz. ‘ Do by the 
 body as ye do by those of other believers ’; 
 and also, because the offender thus put to 
 death is slain in vindication of the laws of 
 God, wherefore ablution is not refused, as 
 in the case of one put to death by a sentence 
 of retaliation ; moreover the Prophet allowed 
 the prayers for the dead to Ghamdiyah, after 
 lapidation.” ( Hidayah , book ii. p. 9.) 
 
 This punishment of lapidation for adultery 
 has become almost obsolete in modern times ; 
 even in Bukharah. where the institutes of 
 Muhammad are supposed to be most strictly 
 observed, it is not inflicted. 
 
 SUBHAH (a**-.). The rosary of 
 ninety-nine beads, [rosary.] 
 
 SUBHAN ( 0 W~). [tasbih.] 
 SUBHANA ’LLAHI gU*-). 
 
 “ Holiness be to God! ” An ejaculation which 
 is called the Tasbih. It occurs in the litur¬ 
 gical prayer, and is used as an ejaculation of 
 surprise or fear, [tasbih.] 
 
 SUFAH Banii Sufah. An 
 
 ancient tribe of Arabia. The descendants of 
 Tabikha and Elyas (Muir, vol. i. p. cxcix.) 
 
 SUFI more correctly 
 
 Sufiy. (The Persian form of the plural 
 being jyo Sufiyan .) A man of the people 
 called Sufiyah, who profess the mystic 
 
 principles of Tasawiouf. There is consi¬ 
 
 derable discussion as to the origin of this word. 
 It is said to be derived (1) from the Arabic 
 Suf, “ wool,” on account of the woollen dress 
 worn by Eastern ascetics; (2) or from the 
 Arabic Safu, “purity,” with reference to the 
 effort to attain to metaphysical purity (which 
 is scarcely probable) ; (3) or from the Greek 
 cro<£ta> “ wisdom ” ; (4) or, according to the 
 Ghiya.su ’ l-Lughat , it is derived from the 
 Sufah, the name of a tribe of Arabs who in 
 
SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 the “time of ignorance,” separated themselves 
 from the world, and engaged themselves 
 exclusively in the service of the Makkah 
 Temple. 
 
 It might at first sight appear almost an 
 impossibility for mysticism to engraft itself 
 upon the legal system of the Qur’an, and 
 the Ahadis, with the detailed ritual and cold 
 formality which are so strikingly exemplified 
 in Islam ; but it would appear that from the 
 very days of Muhammad, there have been 
 always those who, whilst they called them¬ 
 selves Muslims, set aside the literal meaning of 
 the words of Muhammad for a supposed mystic 
 or spiritual interpretation, and it is generally 
 admitted by Sufis that one of the great 
 founders of their system, as found in Islam, 
 was the adopted son and son-in-law of the 
 Prophet, ‘All ibn Abl Talib. The Sufis 
 themselves admit that their religious system 
 has always existed in the world, prior to the 
 mission of Muhammad, and the unprejudiced 
 student of their system will observe that 
 Tasawwuf, or Suflism, is but a Muslim 
 adaptation of the Vedanta school of Hindu 
 philosophers, and which also we find in the 
 writings of the old academics of Greece, and 
 Sir William Jones thought Plato learned from 
 the sages of the East. 
 
 The Sufis are divided into innumerable 
 sects, which find expression in the numerous 
 religious orders of Darweshes or Faqirs 
 [faqir] ; but although they differ in name 
 and in some of their customs, as dress, 
 meditations and recitations, they are all 
 agreed in their principal tenets, particularly 
 those which inculcate the absolute necessity 
 of blind submission to a murshid, or inspired 
 guide. It is generally admitted that, quite 
 irrespective of minor sects, the Sufis are 
 divided into those who claim to be only the 
 Ilhamiyah, or inspired of God, and those who 
 assert that 'they are Ittihadiyah, or unionist 
 with God. 
 
 I. The Doctrine of the Sufis. 
 
 The following is a succinct account of the 
 doctrines of the Sufis :— 
 
 1. God only exists. He in all things, and 
 all things in Him. 
 
 2. All visible and invisible beings are an 
 emanation from Him, and are not really 
 distinct from Him. 
 
 3. Religions are matters of indifference : 
 they however serve as leading to realities. 
 Some for this purpose are more advantageous 
 than others, among which is al-Islam, of 
 which Suflism is the true philosophy. 
 
 4. There does not really exist any dif¬ 
 ference between good and evil, for all is 
 reduced to Unity, and God is the real Author 
 of the acts of mankind. 
 
 5. It is God who fixes the will of man: 
 man therefore is not free in his actions. 
 
 6. The soul existed before the body, and 
 is confined withiu the latter as in a cage. 
 Death, therefore, should be the object of the 
 wishes of the Sufi, for it is then that he 
 returns to the bosom of Divinity. 
 
 7. It is by this metempsychosis that souls 
 
 609 
 
 which have not fulfilled their destination here 
 below are pui-ified and become worthy of re¬ 
 union with God. 
 
 8. Without the grace of God, which the 
 Sufis call Fayazanu ’//ah, or Fazlu 'lldh, no 
 one can attain to this spiritual union, but 
 this, they assert, can be obtained by fervently 
 asking for it. 
 
 9. The principal occupation of the Sufi, 
 whilst in the body, is meditation on the 
 ivahddniyah , or Unity of God, the remem¬ 
 brance of God’s names [ziicr], and the pro¬ 
 gressive advancement in the Tariqah, or 
 journey of life, so as to attain unification 
 with God. 
 
 II The Sufi Journey. 
 
 Human life is likened to a journey ( [safar ), 
 and the seeker after God to a traveller 
 ( sa/ilc). 
 
 The great business of the traveller is to 
 exert himself and strive to attain that perfect 
 knowledge ( ma‘rifah ) of God which is dif¬ 
 fused through all things, for the Soul of man 
 is an exile from its Creator, and human 
 existence is its period of banishment. The 
 sole object of Suflism is to lead the wan¬ 
 dering soul onward, stage by stage, until it 
 reaches the desired goal —perfect union with 
 the Divine Being. 
 
 The natural state of every human being is 
 humanity ( nasut ), in which state tbe disciple 
 must observe the Law ( sharvah ) ; but as this 
 is the lowest form of spiritual existence, the 
 performance of the journey is enjoined upon 
 every searcher after true knowledge. 
 
 The various stages (manazil) are differently 
 described by Sufi writers, but amongst those 
 of India (and, according to Malcolm, of Persia 
 also,) the following is the usual journey 
 
 The first stage, as we have already re¬ 
 marked, is humanity (nasut'), in which the 
 disciple must live according to the Law 
 (shari‘ah), and observe all the rites, customs, 
 and precepts of his religion. The second is 
 the nature of angels (mala/cut), for which 
 there is the pathway of purity (tariqah). 
 The third is the possession of power (jubrut), 
 for which there is knowledge (ma‘rifah) ; and 
 the fourth is extinction ( fanS) (i.e. absorp¬ 
 tion into the Deity), for which there is Truth 
 (haqiqali). 
 
 The following more extended journey is 
 marked out for the traveller by a Sufi 
 writer, ‘Aziz ibn Muhammad Nafasi, in a 
 book called al-Maqsadu ’l-Aqsa, or the “ Re¬ 
 motest Aim,” which has been rendered into 
 English by the lamented Professor Palmer 
 (Oriental. Mysticism, Cambridge, 1867) :— 
 
 When a man possessing the necessary re¬ 
 quirements of fully-developed reasoning 
 powers turns to them for a resolution of his 
 doubts and uncertainties concerning the real 
 nature of the Godhead, be is called a talib, 
 
 “ a searcher after God.” 
 
 If he manifest a further inclination to 
 prosecute his inquiry according to their 
 system, he is called a murid, or “ one who 
 inclines.” 
 
 Placing himself then under the spiritual 
 
 77 
 
610 
 
 SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 instruction of some eminent leader of the 
 sect, he is fairly started irpon his journey 
 and becomes a sdlik, or “ traveller,” whose 
 whole business in life is devotion, to the 
 end that he may ultimately arrive at the 
 knowledge of God. 
 
 1. Here he is exhorted to serve God, as 
 the first step towards a knowledge of Him. 
 This is the first stage of his journey, and is 
 called ‘ubudiyah (<Lo^c), or “service.” 
 
 2. When in answer to his prayers the 
 Divine influence or attraction has developed 
 his inclination into the love of God, he is 
 said to have reached the stage called ‘Ishq 
 
 or “ love.” 
 
 3. This Divine Love, expelling all worldly 
 
 desires from his heart, leads him to the next 
 stage, which is zuhd or “ seclusion.” 
 
 4. Occupying himself henceforward with 
 
 contemplations and investigations of meta¬ 
 physical theories concerning the nature, 
 attributes, and works of God, he reaches 
 ma'rifah or “ knowledge.” 
 
 5. This assiduous contemplation of start¬ 
 ling metaphysical theories is exceedingly 
 attractive to an oriental mind, and rot 
 unfrequently produces a state of mental 
 excitement. Such ecstatic state .is con¬ 
 sidered a sure prognostication of direct 
 illumination of the heart by God, and con¬ 
 stitutes the next stage, called wajd 
 
 or “ ecstasy.” 
 
 6. During this stage he is supposed to 
 receive a revelation of the true nature of 
 the Godhead, and to have reached the stage 
 called haqlquh (da^.), or “truth.” 
 
 7. He then proceeds to the stage of wasl 
 ( or “ union with God.” 
 
 8. Further than this he cannot go, but 
 pursues his habit of self-denial and con¬ 
 templation until his death, which is looked 
 upon as fana' (cLi), “total absorption into 
 the Deity, extinction.” 
 
 To develop this quasi “ spiritual life ” the 
 Sufi leaders have invented various forms of 
 devotion called zikr (^£j), or “ recitations.” 
 These eccentric exercises have generally 
 attracted the notice of travellers in the East, 
 and have been described by Lane, Vambery, 
 Burton, and other Orientalists. For an ac¬ 
 count of these ceremonies of Zikr the reader 
 is referred to the article under that head. 
 [zikr.] 
 
 III. The Perfect Man in Sufi Spiritualism. 
 
 The late Professor E. H. Palmer of Cam¬ 
 bridge has in his Oriental Mysticism, com¬ 
 piled from native sources, given a very 
 correct idea of what may be considered the 
 spiritual side of Muhammadanism, as ex¬ 
 pressed in the teaching of Muslim Sufis. 
 
 “ The perfect man is he who has fully 
 comprehended the Law, the Doctrine, and 
 the Truth: or, in other words, he who is 
 endued with four things in perfection, viz. 1. 
 Good words; 2. Good deeds ; 3. Good prin¬ 
 ciples ; 4. The sciences. It is the business of 
 
 the Traveller to provide himself with these 
 things in perfection, and by so doing he will 
 provide himself with perfection. 
 
 “ The Perfect Man has had various other 
 names assigned to him, all equally applicable, 
 viz. Elder, Leader, Guide, Inspired Teacher, 
 Wise, Virtuous, Perfect, Perfecter, Beacon 
 and Mirror of the world, Powerful Antidote, 
 Mighty Elixir, ’Isa (Jesus) the Raiser of the 
 Dead, Khizar the Discoverer of the Water of 
 Life, and Solomon who knew the language of 
 Birds. 
 
 “ The Universe has been likened to a 
 single person, of whom the Perfect Man is 
 the Soul; and again, to a tree, of which man¬ 
 kind is the fruit, and the Perfect Man the 
 pith and essence. Nothing is hidden from the 
 Perfect Man ; for after arriving at the know¬ 
 ledge of God, he has attained to that of the 
 nature and properties of material objects, and 
 can henceforth find no better employment 
 than acting mercifully towards mankind. 
 Now there is no mercy better than to devote 
 oneself to the perfection and improvement of 
 others, both by precept and example. Thus 
 the Prophet is called in the Coran 1 a mercy 
 to the Universe.’ (Cor. cap. 21, v. 107.) But 
 with all his perfection the Perfect Man can¬ 
 not compass his desires, but passes his life in 
 consistent and unavoidable self-denial: he is 
 perfect in knowledge and principle, but im¬ 
 perfect in faculty and power. 
 
 “ There have indeed been Perfect Men pos¬ 
 sessed of power; such power as that which 
 resides in kings and rulers ; yet a careful 
 consideration of the poor extent of man’s 
 capacities will shew that his weakness is pre¬ 
 ferable to his power, his want of faculty pre¬ 
 ferable to his possession of it. Prophets and 
 saints, kings and sultans, have desired many 
 things, and failed to obtain them; they have 
 wished to avoid many things, and have had 
 them forced upon them. Mankind is made 
 up of the Perfect and the Imperfect, of the 
 Wise and the Foolish, of Kings and Subjects, 
 but all are alike weak and helpless, all pass 
 their lives in a manner contrary to their de¬ 
 sires ; this the Perfect Man recognises and 
 acts upon, and, knowing that nothing is 
 better for man than renunciation, forsakes all 
 and becomes free and at leisure. As before 
 he renounced wealth and dignity, so now he 
 foregoes eldership and teachership, esteem¬ 
 ing freedom and rest above everything: the 
 fact is, that though the motive alleged for 
 education and care of others is a feeling of 
 compassion and a regard for discipline, yet 
 the real instigation is the love of dignity : as 
 the Prophet says, ‘ The last thing that is re¬ 
 moved from the chiefs of the righteous is 
 love of dignity.’ I have said that the Perfect 
 Man should be endued with four things in 
 perfection: now the Perfectly Free Man 
 should have four additional characteristics, 
 viz. renunciation, retirement, contentment, and 
 leisure. He who has the first four is vir¬ 
 tuous, but not free: he who has the whole 
 eight is perfect, liberal, virtuous, and free. 
 Furthermore, there are two grades of the 
 Perfectly Free—those who have renounced 
 
SUFI 
 
 wealth and dignity only, and those who have 
 further renounced eldership and teachership, 
 thus becoming free and at leisure. These 
 again are subdivided into two classes ; those 
 who, after renunciation, retirement and con¬ 
 tentment, make choice of obscurity, and those 
 who, after renunciation, make choice of sub¬ 
 mission, contemplation, and resignation; but 
 the object of both is the same. Some writers 
 assert that freedom and leisure consists in 
 the former course, while others maintain that 
 it is only to be found in the latter. 
 
 “ Those who make choice of obscurity are 
 actuated by the knowledge that annoyance 
 and distraction of thought are the invariable 
 concomitants of society ; they therefore avoid 
 receiving visits and presents, and fear them 
 as they would venomous beasts. The other 
 class, who adopt submission, resignation and 
 contemplation, do so because they perceive 
 that mankind for the most part are ignorant 
 of what is good for them, being dissatisfied 
 with what is beneficial, and delighted with 
 circumstances that are harmful to them ; as 
 the Ooran says, ‘ Perchance ye may dislike 
 what is good for you, and like what is hurt¬ 
 ful to you.’ (Cor. cap. 2, v. 213.) For this 
 reason they retire from society equally with 
 the other class, caring little what the world 
 may think of them. 
 
 “ Fellowship has many qualities and effects 
 both of good and evil. The fellowship of the 
 wise is the only thing that can conduct the 
 Traveller safely to the Goal; therefore all 
 the submission, earnestness, and discipline 
 that have been hitherto inculcated are merely 
 in order to render him worthy of such fellow¬ 
 ship. Provided he have the capacity, a 
 single day, nay, a single horn-, in the society 
 of the wise, tends more to his improvement 
 than years of self-discipline without it. 
 ‘ Verily one day with thy Lord is better than 
 a thousand years.’ (Cor. cap. 22, v. 46.) 
 
 “ It is, however, possible to frequent the 
 society of the wise without receiving any 
 benefit therefrom, but this must proceed 
 either from want of capacity or want of will. 
 In order then to avoid such a result, the 
 Sufis have laid down the following rules for 
 the conduct of the disciple when in the pre¬ 
 sence of his teachers. 
 
 “ Hear, attend, but speak little. 
 
 “ Never answer a question not addressed 
 to you ; but if asked, answer promptly 
 and concisely, never feeling ashamed to say, 
 ‘ I know not.’ 
 
 “ Do not dispute for disputation’s sake. 
 
 “ Never boast before your elders. 
 
 “ Never seek the highest place, nor even 
 accept it if it be offered to you. 
 
 “ Do not be over-ceremonious, for this 
 will compel your elders to act in the same 
 manner towards you, and give them need¬ 
 less annoyance. 
 
 “ Observe in all cases the etiquette ap¬ 
 propriate to the time, place, and persons 
 present. 
 
 “ In indifferent matters, that is, matters 
 involving no breach of duty by their omis¬ 
 sion or commission, conform to the practice 
 
 SUFI 611 
 
 and wishes of those with whom you are 
 associating. 
 
 “ Do not make a practice of anything 
 which is not either a duty or calculated to 
 increase the comfort of your associates; 
 otherwise it will become an idol to you ; 
 and it is incumbent on every one to break 
 his idols and renounce his habits.” 
 
 IV. Renunciation. 
 
 “ This leads us to the subject of Renuncia¬ 
 tion, which is of two kinds, external and in¬ 
 ternal. The former is the renunciation of 
 worldly wealth; the latter, the renunciation 
 of worldly desires. Everything that hinders 
 or veils the Traveller’s path must be re¬ 
 nounced, whether it relate to this world or 
 the next. Wealth and dignity are great hin¬ 
 drances ; but too much praying and fasting 
 are often hindrances too. The one is a shroud 
 of darkness, the other a veil of light. The 
 Traveller must renounce idolatry, if he desire 
 to reach the Goal, and everything that bars 
 his progress is an idol. All men have some 
 idol, which they worship; with one it is 
 wealth and dignity, with another overmuch 
 prayer and fasting. If a man sit always upon 
 his prayer-carpet, his prayer-carpet becomes 
 his idol. And so on with a great number of 
 instances. 
 
 “ Renunciation must not be performed 
 without the advice and permission of an 
 elder. It should be the renunciation of 
 trifles, not of necessaries, such as food, cloth¬ 
 ing, and dwelling-place, which are indispens¬ 
 able to man; for without them he would be 
 obliged to rely on the aid of others, and this 
 would beget avarice, which is ‘ the mother of 
 vice.’ The renunciation of necessaries produces 
 as corrupting an influence upon the mind as the 
 possession of too much wealth. The greatest 
 of blessings is to have a sufficiency, but to 
 over-step this limit is to gain nought but 
 additional trouble. 
 
 “ Renunciation is the practice of those who 
 know God, and the characteristic mark of 
 the wise. Every individual fancies that he 
 alone possesses this knowledge, but know¬ 
 ledge is an attribute of the mind, and there 
 is no approach from unaided sense to the at¬ 
 tributes of the mind, by which we can dis¬ 
 cover who is, or who is not, possessed of this 
 knowledge. Qualities however are the sources 
 of action; therefore a man’s practice is an 
 infallible indication of the qualities he pos¬ 
 sesses ; if, for instance, a man asserts that he 
 is a baker, a carpenter, or a blacksmith, we 
 can judge at once if he possesses skill in 
 these crafts by the perfection of his handi¬ 
 work. In a word, theory is internal, and 
 practice external, the presence of the prac¬ 
 tice, therefore, is a proof that the theory too 
 is there. 
 
 “ Renunciation is necessary to the real con¬ 
 fession of faith ; for the formula ‘ There is no 
 God but God,’ involves two things, negation 
 and proof. Negation is the renunciation of 
 other Gods, and proof is the knowledge of 
 God. Wealth and dignity have led many 
 from the right path, they are the gods the 
 
612 
 
 SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 people worship; if then you see that one has 
 renounced these, you may be sure that he 
 has expelled the love of this world from his 
 heart, and completed the negation ; and who¬ 
 soever has attained to the knowledge of God 
 has completed the proofs. This is really con¬ 
 fessing that ‘ there is no God hut God ’; and 
 he who has not attained to the knowledge of 
 God, has never really repeated the confession 
 of faith. Early prejudices are a great stum¬ 
 bling-block to many people; for the first 
 principles of Monotheism are contained in the 
 words of the Hadis : ‘ Every one is born with 
 a disposition [for the true faith], but his 
 parents make him a Jew, a Christian, or a 
 Magian.’ The Unitarians also say, that the 
 real confession of faith consists in negation 
 and proof; but they explain negation by re¬ 
 nunciation of self, and proof by acknowledg¬ 
 ment of God. 
 
 “ Thus, according to the Sufis, confession 
 of faith, prayer and fasting contain two dis¬ 
 tinct features, namely, form and truth ; the 
 former being entirely inefficacious without 
 the latter. Renunciation and the knowledge 
 of God are like a tree ; the knowledge of God 
 is the root, renunciation the branches, and all 
 good principles and qualities are the fruit 
 To sum up, the lesson to be learnt is that in 
 repeating the formula the Traveller must ac¬ 
 knowledge in his heart that God only always 
 was, God only always will be. This world and 
 the next, nay, the very existence of the Tra¬ 
 veller, may vanish, hut God alone remains. 
 This is the true confession of faith; and al¬ 
 though the Traveller before was blind, the 
 moment he is assured of this his eyes are 
 opened, and he seeth. 
 
 V. Helps to Devotion. 
 
 “ The Sufis hold that there are three aids 
 necessary to conduct the Traveller on his 
 path. 
 
 “ 1. Attraction (injizab ; 2. De¬ 
 
 votion Qibddah aoLc) ; 3. Elevation Quruj 
 
 “ Attraction is the act of God, wdio draws 
 man towards Himself. Man sets his face to¬ 
 wards this world, and is entangled in the love 
 of wealth and dignity, until the grace of God 
 steps in and turns his heart towards God. 
 The tendency proceeding from God is called 
 Attraction ; that which proceeds from man is 
 called Inclination, Desire and Love. As the 
 inclination increases, its name changes, and it 
 causes the Traveller to renounce everything 
 else becoming a Kiblah, to set his face to¬ 
 wards God; when it has become his Kibiah, 
 and made him forget everything hut God, it 
 is developed into Love. [qibx.ah.] 
 
 “ Most men when they have attained this 
 stage are content to pass their lives therein, 
 and leave the world without making further 
 progress. Such a person the Sufis call 
 Attracted majzub ). 
 
 “ Others, however, proceed from this to 
 self-examination, and pass the rest of their 
 lives in devotion. They are then called De¬ 
 voutly Attracted majzub-i- 
 
 Sdlik ). If devotion be first practised, and the 
 attraction of God then step in, such a person 
 is called an Attracted Devotee cdlL. 
 
 Sdlik-i-majzub). If he practise and complete 
 devotion, but is not influenced by the at¬ 
 traction of God, he is called a Devotee (cdlL. 
 Salik ). 
 
 “ Sheikh Shehab-uddfn, in his work entitled 
 'Awdrif al Ma'drif, says that an elder or 
 teacher should be selected from the second 
 class alone : for although many may be esti¬ 
 mable and righteous, it is hut few who are 
 fit for such offices, or for the education of 
 disciples. 
 
 “ Devotion is the prosecution of the jour¬ 
 ney, and that in two ways, to God and in 
 God. The first, the Sufis say, has a limit; 
 the second is boundless; the journey to God 
 is completed when the Traveller has attained 
 to the knowledge of God; and then com¬ 
 mences the journey in God, which has for its 
 object the knowledge of the Nature and 
 Attributes of God, a task which they confess 
 is not to be accomplished in so short a space 
 as the lifetime of man. 
 
 The knowledge wisest men have shared 
 Of Thy great power and Thee 
 Is less, when with Thyself compared, 
 Than one drop in a sea. 
 
 “ The Unitarians maintain that the journey 
 to God is completed when the Traveller has 
 acknowledged that there is no existence save 
 that of God ; the journey in God they explain 
 to be a subsequent inquiry into the mysteries 
 of nature. 
 
 “ The term Elevation or ascent ( 5 y £ 
 Hiruj) is almost synonymous with Progress. 
 
 VI. The Intellectual and Spiritual Development 
 of Man. 
 
 “ Every animal possesses a vegetative 
 spirit, a living spirit, and an instinctive 
 spirit; but man has an additional inheritance, 
 namely the Spirit of Humanity. Now this 
 was breathed by God into man directly from 
 Himself, and is therefore of the same cha¬ 
 racter as the Primal Element: * And when I 
 have fashioned him and breathed My spirit 
 into him.’ (Cor. cap, 15. v. 29.) The Sufis 
 do not interpret this of the Life, but of the 
 Spirit of Humanity, and say that it is fre¬ 
 quently not attained until a late period of 
 life, thirty or even eighty years. Before man 
 can receive this Spirit of Humanity, he must 
 be furnished with capacity, which is only to 
 be acquired by purifying oneself from all evil 
 and immoral qualities and dispositions, and 
 adorning oneself with the opposite ones. 
 Sheikh Muhiy-uddin ibn ul ’Arab!, in his 
 ‘ Investigations ’ says that the words 
 
 ‘ and when I have fashioned him,’ refer to 
 this preparation, and the rest of the sentence, 
 1 and breathed My spirit into him,’ refers to 
 the accession of the Spirit of Humanity. 
 
 “ Two conditions are therefore imposed 
 upon the Traveller, first, to attain Huma¬ 
 nity, second, to acquire capacity. 
 
 “ There are three developments of cha¬ 
 racter that must be suppressed before man 
 
SUFt 
 
 SUFI 
 
 can attain to Humanity; the animal, the 
 brutal ,and the fiendish. He who only eats 
 and sleeps, and gives way to lust, is mere 
 animal; if besides these he gives way to 
 anger and cruelty, he is brutal; and if in 
 addition to all these he is crafty, lying, and 
 deceitful, he is fiendish. 
 
 “ If the Traveller is moderate in his food, 
 rest, and desires, and strives to attain a 
 knowledge of himself and of God, then is the 
 time for acquiring capacity by freeing himself 
 from all that is evil and base, and adorning 
 himself with the opposite qualities; after 
 that by prayer he may obtain the Spirit of 
 Humanity. Some one has truly said that 
 there is none of the perfection, essence, or 
 immortality of man, save only among such as 
 are ‘ created with a godly disposition.’ When 
 the Traveller has once been revivified by the 
 Spirit of Humanity he becomes immortal, and 
 inherits everlasting life. This is why it has 
 been said that ‘ man has a beginning but no 
 end.’ 
 
 “ If when he has attained this Spirit of 
 Humanity, he is earnest, and does not waste 
 his life in trifling, he soon arrives at the 
 Divine Light itself. For ‘ God guideth whom 
 He pleaseth unto His Light.’ The attain¬ 
 ment of this light is the ] completion of Man’s 
 upward progress, but no one can attain to it 
 but those who are pure in spirit and in their 
 lives. Mohammed asserted that he himself 
 had attained it, 4 To the light have I reached, 
 and in the light I live ; ’ now this light is the 
 Nature of God; wherefore he said, ‘ who 
 seeth me seeth God.’ [nur-i-muiiammad.] 
 
 “ The germ that contains the Primal Ele¬ 
 ment of Man is the lowest of the low, and the 
 Divine Light is the highest of the high ; it is 
 between these extremes that the stages of 
 man’s upward or downward progress he. 4 We 
 have created man in the fairest of propor¬ 
 tions, and then have thrown him back to be 
 the lowest of the low, save only such as be¬ 
 lieve and act with righteousness; and verily 
 these shall have their reward.’ (Cor. cap. 
 95, v. 4). This reward is said by the Sufis 
 to be defined by the word ajrat , 1 reward,’ 
 itself. This word contains three radical 
 letters \ g and^ ; ^ stands for iS\e\ ‘ return,’ 
 
 g for dLcj. •' paradise,’ and j for that is 
 4 those who have handed down the faith.’ 
 Their acting righteously is their return to the 
 Nature of God, for when they have finished 
 their upward progress and reached this they 
 are in Paradise, and in the presence of their 
 God. He therefore is a man, in the true sense 
 of the word, who being sent down upon earth 
 strives upward towards Heaven. These as¬ 
 pirations are indispensable to man ; he might 
 by the Almighty Power of God exist without 
 all beside, even had the Heavens and the 
 elements themselves never been; but these 
 things are the aim and want of all. 
 
 “ It has been said that the Primal Ele¬ 
 ment or constructive spirit as well as the 
 Spirit of Humanity proceed direct from God. 
 They are therefore identical, and are both in¬ 
 cluded by the Sufis in the one term Conco- 
 
 613 
 
 mitant Spirit. Now this Spirit, although 
 distinct and individual, comprehends and 
 governs the entire Universe. The Simple 
 Natures are its administrators and exponents ; 
 of these the Seven Sires beget, and the Four 
 Mothers conceive from the incarnation of this 
 spirit in them, and their offspring is the triple 
 kingdom, Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. 
 And so it is with the Lesser World of Man. 
 
 “ Now this Spirit hath two functions, ex¬ 
 ternal and internal; the external is revealed 
 in the material generation just alluded to, the 
 internal abides in the heart of man. Who¬ 
 soever purifies his heart from worldly impres¬ 
 sions and desires, reveals this internal func¬ 
 tion of the Spirit within him, and illumines 
 and revivifies his soul. 
 
 “ Thus the Spirit at once comprehends the 
 Universe and dwells in the heart of man. 
 
 VII. Of the Upward Progress or Ascent of 
 Man. 
 
 44 When Man has become assured of the 
 truth of Revelation, he has reached the stage 
 of Belief, and has the name of Mumin, 
 4 Believer.’ When he fui-ther acts in obe¬ 
 dience to the will of God, and apportions the 
 night and day for earnest prayer, he has 
 reached the stage of worship, and is called 
 an ’A'bid, or 4 Worshipper.’ When he has 
 expelled the love of this world from his 
 heart, and occupies himself with a contem¬ 
 plation of the mighty Whole, he reaches 
 the next stage, and becomes a Zahid, or 
 4 Recluse.’ When in addition to all this he 
 knows God, and subsequently learns the mys¬ 
 teries of nature, he reaches the stage of 
 Acquaintance, and is called ’ A'rif 4 One who 
 knows.’ The next stage is that in which he 
 attains to the love of God, and is called a 
 Well , or 4 Saint.’ When he is moreover gifted 
 with inspiration and the power of working 
 miracles, he becomes a Nebi, 4 Prophet ’; and 
 when entrusted next with the delivery of 
 God’s own message, he is called an 4 Apostle,’ 
 Rusul. When he is appointed to abrogate a 
 previous dispensation and preach a new one, 
 he is called Ulu ’I’Azm, 4 One who has a mis¬ 
 sion.’ When this mission is final, he has 
 arrived at the stage called Khatm, or 4 the 
 Seal.’ This is the Upward Progress of Man. 
 The first stage is the 4 Believer,’ the last the 
 4 Seal.’ 
 
 44 After separation from the body, the soul 
 of Man returns to that Heaven which corre¬ 
 sponds to the stage which he has attained ; 
 thus the Believer at last dwells in the first or 
 lowest Heaven, and the Seal in the Heaven of 
 Heavens; for it will be noticed that the 
 stages of upward progress correspond to the 
 number of degrees in the Heavenly Spheres, 
 namely, seven inferior and two superior. 
 
 44 The metaphysicians say that these stages 
 and degrees do not in reality exist, but that 
 the Heavenly Intelligence which corresponds 
 to the degree of intelligence attained by Man, 
 attracts and absorbs his soul into itself after 
 separation from the body. Thus every one 
 who has attained intelligence corresponding 
 to that of the highest sphere, his soul returns 
 
614 
 
 SUFI 
 
 thereto; and he who has attained intelligence 
 corresponding to the lowest sphere, his soul 
 in like manner returns to that; those who 
 have not attained intelligence corresponding 
 to any of these will be placed in Hell, which 
 is situate below the lowest sphere. 
 
 “ As each of the Heavenly Spheres is fur¬ 
 nished with knowledge and purity in propor¬ 
 tion to its position, the rank of Man’s soul in 
 the future state will, according to this last 
 account, be in proportion to his degree of 
 knowledge and purity of life while upon the 
 earth. 
 
 “ The Unitarians say that man’s Upward 
 Progress has no end, for if he strive for a 
 thousand years, each day will teach him 
 something that he knew not befoi'e, inasmuch 
 as the knowledge of God has no limit. So 
 Mohammed says, ‘ He who progresses daily is 
 yet of feeble mind.’ 
 
 “ The religious account says that the soul 
 of every man returns to an individual place 
 after separation from the body. This the 
 metaphysicians deny ; for how, say they, can 
 the soul of a man return to a certain place 
 when it has not originally come from a cer 
 tain place ? The soul of man is the Primal 
 Spirit, and if a thousand persons live, it is the 
 same spirit that animates them all; and in 
 like manner if a thousand die, the same spirit 
 returns to itself, and is not lessened or dimi¬ 
 nished. If a myriad persons build houses and 
 make windows therein, the same sun illumines 
 them all, and though every one of them should 
 be destroyed, the sun would not be lessened 
 or diminished. The sun is the lord of the 
 sensible world, and the exponent of the attri¬ 
 butes of the Primal Spirit. The Primal 
 Spirit is the lord of the invisible world and 
 the exponent of the Nature of God. 
 
 “ When the heart of man has been revivi¬ 
 fied and illumined by the Primal Spirit, he 
 has arrived at Intelligence; for Intelligence is 
 a light in the heart, distinguishing between 
 truth and vanity. Until he has been so re¬ 
 vivified and illumined, it is impossible for him 
 to attain to intelligence at all. But having 
 attained to intelligence, then, and not till then, 
 is the time for the attainment of knowledge, 
 for becoming Wise. Intelligence is a Primal 
 Element, and knowledge the attribute there¬ 
 of. When from knowledge he has succes¬ 
 sively proceeded to the attainment of the 
 Divine Light, and acquaintance with the 
 mysteries of nature, his last step will be Per¬ 
 fection, with which his Upward Progress con¬ 
 cludes. 
 
 “ But dive he ever so deeply into the trea¬ 
 sury of mysteries and knowledge, unless he 
 examine himself and confess that after all he 
 knows naught, all that he has acquired will 
 slip through his hands, and leave him far 
 poorer than before. His treasure of to-day 
 should as much exceed the treasure of yes¬ 
 terday as an ocean exceeds a drop ; but this 
 can never be, unless he, leaving all else for 
 contemplation and self-examination, have 
 freedom and leisure to learn how poor he 
 really is, and how much he needs the saving 
 help of God. 
 
 supi 
 
 “ One class of Unitarians explain the Up¬ 
 ward Progress of Man thus. They say that 
 every atom of existent beings is filled with 
 light; 
 
 Arise and look around, for every atom 
 that has birth 
 
 Shines forth a lustrous beacon to illu¬ 
 mine all the earth : 
 
 but that man walks abroad in darkness, 
 blinded by the lusts of life, and laments the 
 want of light that would, were he but aware 
 of it, involve him in the glorious sheen of 
 brightest day : 
 
 ’Twere well to catch the odours that 
 about our senses play, 
 
 For all the world is full of blasts to bear 
 the sweets away. 
 
 What they mean is this, that all existent 
 beings are compounded of two things, dark¬ 
 ness and light, which are indistinguishably 
 blended together. The light belongs to the 
 Invisible, and the darkness to the Sensible 
 world ; but the two are intimately connected, 
 and the former exercises a paramount in¬ 
 fluence upon the latter. The object of man, 
 according to them, is to separate the light 
 from the darkness, that its nature and attri¬ 
 butes may be understood, and in this consists 
 his Upward Progress. 
 
 “ Although the light and the darkness can 
 never be entirely separated, for the one is as 
 it were the veil of the other, the light can be 
 made to prevail, so that its attributes may 
 become manifest. 
 
 “ Now it is possible to separate thus far 
 the light from the darkness in certain cases ; 
 in the bodies of men and animals, for in¬ 
 stance, there are certain organs always at 
 work, whose sole object is this separation. 
 Thus, when food is introduced into the sto¬ 
 mach, the liver receives the cream and es¬ 
 sence of it and transmits it to the heart; the 
 heart, in like manner, extracts the essence of 
 this, which is the life, and transmits it to the 
 brain ; lastly, the brain extracts the essence 
 of this, and transforms it into the elixir of 
 life, the real light of all. 
 
 “ The elixir evolved by the brain is the 
 instinctive spirit, and is, as it were, a lamp 
 in a lantern; but it gives forth after all but a 
 flickering and cloudy light, and man’s object 
 should therefore be to strengthen and purify 
 it by Renunciation and Contemplation, until 
 it give forth the true light which is the Spirit 
 of Humanity. When man has attained to 
 this he necessarily becomes free from all that 
 is evil, and is adorned instead with every 
 good and noble quality. 
 
 “ The body of man is like a lantern, the 
 Vegetative Spirit is the lamp, the Animal 
 Spirit is the wick, the Instinctive Spirit the 
 oil, and the Spirit of Humanity the fire that 
 kindles all. ‘ Verily its oil would almost 
 shine even though no fire kindled it.’ (Cor. 
 cap. 24, v. 35.) In other words, the Instinc¬ 
 tive Spirit should feed and supply the Spirit 
 of Humanity, as the oil feeds and supplies 
 the flame in a lamp. The Traveller must 
 aim at completing this lamp, so that his 
 heart may be illumined, and he may see 
 
SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 615 
 
 things as they really are. When the Spirit of 
 Humanity a 1 light upon light ’ (Cor. cap. 24, 
 y. 35) has thus kindled the Instinctive Spirit, 
 God ‘ guideth whom He plcaseth to His 
 own light’ (idem), that is, to the divine 
 light of His own nature, reaching which the 
 Traveller’s Upward Progress is complete; 
 for ‘ from Him they spring, and unto Him 
 return.’ ” 
 
 VIII. Sufiism adapted to Muhammadanism. 
 
 A clear and intolligible exposition of the 
 principles of Sufiism, or Oriental Spiritual¬ 
 ism, is given by Muhammad al-Misrl, a 
 Sufi of the Ilhamlyah school of thought, in 
 the following categorical form (translated by 
 Mr. J. P. Brown, in the Journal of the Ameri¬ 
 can Oriental Society). It represents more 
 particularly the way in which this form of 
 mysticism is adapted to the stern and dog¬ 
 matic teaching of Islam. 
 
 Question. —-What is the beginning of at- 
 Tasawwuf ? 
 
 Answer. — Iman, or faith, of which there 
 are six pillars, namely, (1) Belief in God, 
 (2) in His Angels, (3) in His Books, (4) and 
 in His Prophets, (5) in the Last Day, and (6) 
 in His decree of good and evil. 
 
 Q. —What is the result of at-Tasawwuf ? 
 
 A. —It is not only the reciting with the 
 tongue these pillars of faith, but also esta¬ 
 blishing them in the heart. This was the 
 reply made by the Murshid Junaidu ’1- 
 Baghdadl, in answer to the same question. 
 
 Q. —What is the distinction between a Sufi 
 and an ordinary person ? 
 
 A. —The knowledge of an ordinary person 
 is but Imanu-i-Taqlidi, or “ a counterfeit 
 faith,” whereas that of the Sufi is Iman-i- 
 Tafiqiqi, or “ true faith.” 
 
 Q. —What do you mean by counterfeit 
 faith ? 
 
 A. —It is that which an ordinary person 
 has derived from his forefathers, or from 
 the teachers and preachers of his own 
 day, without knowing why it is essential 
 that a man should believe in these six 
 articles for his soul’s salvation. For example, 
 a person may be walking in the public streets 
 and find a precious jewel which, perhaps, 
 kings had sought for in vain, and rulers who 
 had conquered the whole world had sought 
 for and yet had not found. But in this 
 precious jewel he has found that which is 
 more effulgent than the sun, when it is so 
 bright that it obscures the lesser light of 
 the moon; or even he has found an alchemy 
 which can convert copper into gold. And 
 yet, perhaps, the finder knows not the value 
 of the precious jewel, but thinks it a counter¬ 
 feit jewel, and one which he would give 
 away even for a drink of water if he were 
 thirsty. 
 
 Q. —What is the establishment of faith ? 
 
 A. —The establishment of faith consists in 
 a search being made for the true origin of 
 each of these six pillars of faith, until the 
 enquirer arrives at al-Haqiqah, “ the Truth.” 
 Many persons pursue the journey for ten, or 
 
 twenty, or thirty, or even forty years, and, 
 wandering away from the true path, enter 
 upon the path of error, and hence there are 
 known to be seventy-three ways, only one of 
 which is the way of Salvation. [sects.] At 
 last, by a perfect subjection to the teaching 
 of the Murshid, or guide, they find out the 
 value of the lost jewel which they have 
 found, and their faith becomes manifest, and 
 you might say that, with the light of a lamp, 
 they have reached the sun. They then find 
 out that the Tariqah, or journey of the Sufi, 
 is consistent with the Shariah, or law of 
 Islam. 
 
 Q. —In matters of faith and worship, to 
 what sect are the Sufis attached ? 
 
 A. —(To this reply the author says, speak¬ 
 ing, of course, of his own people, that they 
 are chiefly of the Sunni sect. But he does 
 not notice that mystic doctrines are more 
 prevalent amongst the Shbahs.) 
 
 (2.—When Bayazld al-Bistaml was asked 
 of what sect he was, he replied, “I am of 
 the sect of Allah.” What did he mean? 
 
 A. —The sects of Allah are the four ortho¬ 
 dox sects of Islam. [Here our author departs 
 from true Sufi teaching.] 
 
 Q.— Most of the Sufis, in their poems, use 
 certain words which we hear and under¬ 
 stand as showing that they were of the 
 Metempsychosians. They say, “ I am some¬ 
 times Lot, sometimes a vegetable, sometimes 
 an animal, at other times a man.” What 
 does this mean ? 
 
 A. —Brother 1 the prophet has said: “ My 
 people, in the future life, will rise up in 
 companies ”—that is, some as monkeys, others 
 as hogs, or in other forms—as is written in a 
 verse of the Qur’an, Surah lxxviii. 18: “ Ye 
 shall come in troops,” which has been com¬ 
 mented on by al-BaizawI, who cites a tra¬ 
 dition to the effect that, at the resurrection, 
 men will rise up in the form of those animals 
 whose chief characteristics resemble their 
 own ruling passions in life: the greedy, 
 avaricious man as a hog; the angry, pas¬ 
 sionate man as a camel; the tale-bearer or 
 mischief-maker as a monkey. For though 
 these men, while in this life, bore the human 
 form externally, they were internally no¬ 
 thing different from the animals whose 
 characters are in common with their own. 
 The resemblance is not manifest during the 
 life, but becomes so in the other existence, 
 after the resurrection. Let us avoid such 
 traits ; repentance before death will free us 
 from these evils. The Prophet said with 
 regard to this: “ Sleep is the brother of 
 death. The dying man sees himself in his 
 true character, and so knows whether or not 
 he is, by repentance, freed from his ruling 
 passion of life. In like manner, he will see 
 himself during his slumbers, still following 
 in the path of bis passions.” For instance, 
 the money-calculator, in sleep, sees himself 
 engaged in his all-absorbing occupation ; and 
 this fact is a warning from God not to allow 
 himself to be absorbed in any animal passion 
 or degrading occupation. It is only by 
 prayerful repentance that anyone can hope 
 
616 
 
 SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 to see himself, in his sleep, delivered from 
 his ruling carnal passion, and restored to his 
 proper human, intellectual form. If in your 
 slumbers you see a monkey, consider it as a 
 warning to abandon or abstain from the 
 passion of mischief; if a hog, cease to seize 
 upon the goods of others; and so on. Go 
 and give yourself up to an upright Murshid , 
 or spiritual guide, who will, through his 
 prayers, show you in your slumbers the 
 evil parts of your character, until one by 
 one they have passed away, and have been 
 replaced by good ones—all through the 
 power of the name of God, whom he will 
 instruct you to invoke [zikr] : at length you 
 will only see in your slumbers the forms of 
 holy and pious men, in testimony of that 
 degree of piety to which you will have 
 attained. This is wdiat is meant by that 
 expression of certain poets, referring to 
 one’s condition previous to the act of re¬ 
 pentance, w'hen the writer says, “ 1 am 
 sometimes an animal, sometimes a vegetable, 
 sometimes a man ”; and the same may be 
 said by the Sufis, in application to them¬ 
 selves, as of any other part of creation, for 
 man is called the alchiru 'l-maujudat, or “ the 
 climax of beings ”: for in him are com¬ 
 prised all the characteristics of creation. 
 Many mystical books have been written on 
 this subject, all showing that man is the 
 larger part, and the world the smaller part, 
 of God’s creation. The human frame is said 
 to comprise all the other parts of creation; 
 and the heart of man is supposed to be even 
 more comprehensive than the rainbow, be¬ 
 cause, when the eyes are closed, the mental 
 capacity can take in the whole of a vast 
 city ; though not seen by the eyes, it is seen 
 by the capacious nature of the mind. Among 
 such books is the Hauzu ’l-Hayat , or the 
 “ Well of Life,” which says that, if a man 
 closes his eyes, ears, and nostrils, he cannot 
 take cold; that the right nostril is called 
 the sun, and the left the moon; that from 
 the former he breathes heat, and from the 
 latter cold air. 
 
 Q.-—Lxplain the distinctive opinions of the 
 Sufis in at-Tanasu/ch, or the Transmigration 
 of Souls. 
 
 A. —0 Brother! our teaching regarding 
 al-Barsakh (Qur’an xxiii. 102) has nothing 
 whatever to do w r ith at-Tanasulch. Of all 
 the erring sects in the world, those who 
 believe in Metempsychosis, or Transmigra¬ 
 tion of Souls, is the very worst. 
 
 Q .—The Sufis regard certain things as 
 lawful which are forbidden. For instance, 
 they enjoin the use of wine, wine-shops, the 
 wine-cup, sweethearts; they speak of the 
 curls of their mistresses, and the moles on 
 their faces, cheeks, &c., and compare the 
 furrows on their brows to verses of the 
 Qur’an. What does this mean ? 
 
 A. —The Sufis often exchange the external 
 features of all things for the internal, the 
 corporeal for the spiritual, and thus give an 
 imaginary signification to outward forms. 
 They behold objects of a precious nature in 
 their natural character and for this reason 
 
 the greater part of their words have a 
 spiritual and figurative meaning. For in¬ 
 stance, when, like Hafiz, they mention wine, 
 they mean a knowledge of God, which, 
 figuratively considered, is the love of God. 
 Wine, viewed figuratively, is also love : love 
 and affection are here the same thing. The 
 wine-shop, with them, means the murshidu ’/- 
 lcd.mil , or spiritual director, for his heart is 
 said to be the depository of the love of God ; 
 the wine-cup is the Talqln, or the pronunci¬ 
 ation of the .name of God in a declaration of 
 faith, as : “ There is no God but Allah 1 ” or 
 it signifies the words which flow from the 
 Murshid's mouth respecting divine know¬ 
 ledge, and which, when heard by the Salilc, 
 or “ one who pursues the true path,” intoxi¬ 
 cates his soul, and divests his heart of 
 passions, giving him pure spiritual delights. 
 The sweetheart means the excellent pre¬ 
 ceptor, because, when anyone sees his be¬ 
 loved, he admires her perfect proportions, 
 with a heart full of love; the Sali/c beholds 
 the secret knowledge of God which fills the 
 heart of his spiritual preceptor, or Murshid, 
 and through it receives a similar inspiration, 
 and acquires a full perception of all that he 
 possesses, just as the pupil learns from his 
 master. As the lover delights in the pre¬ 
 sence of his sweetheart, so the Salilc rejoices 
 in the company of his beloved Murshid, or 
 preceptor. The sweetheart is the object of 
 a worldly affection, but the preceptor of a 
 spiritual attachment. The curls or ringlets 
 of the beloved are the grateful praises of the 
 preceptor, tending to bind the affections of 
 the disciple; the moles on her face signify 
 that when the pupil, at times, beholds the 
 total absence of all worldly wants on the 
 part of the preceptor, he also abandons all 
 the desires of both worlds—he perhaps even 
 goes so far as to desire nothing else in life 
 than his preceptor ; the furrows on the brow 
 of the beloved one, which they compare to 
 verses of the Qur’an, mean the light of the 
 heart of the Murshid; they are compared to 
 verses of the Qur’an, because the attributes 
 of God, in accordance with the injunction of 
 the Prophet: “ Be ye endued with divine 
 qualities,” are possessed by the Murshid. 
 
 Q. —The Murskids and their disciples often 
 say: “We see God.” Is it possible for any¬ 
 one to see God ? 
 
 A. —It is not possible. What they mean 
 by this assertion is that they know God, that 
 they see His power ; for it is forbidden to 
 mortal eyes to behold Him, as is declared in 
 the Qur’an, Surah vi. 103: “No sight reaches 
 Him ; He reaches the sight—the subtle, the 
 knowing.” The Prophet commanded us to 
 “adore God, as thou wouldst didst thou see 
 Him ; for, if thou dost not see Him, He sees 
 thee.” This permission to adore Him is a 
 divine favour, and they say that they are 
 God’s servants by divine favour. ‘All said : 
 “Should the veil fall from my eyes, how 
 would God visit me in truth ? ” This saying 
 proves that no one really sees God, and that 
 even the sainted ‘All never saw Him. 
 
 Q .—Can it possibly be erroneous to say 
 
SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 617 
 
 that, by seeing the traces of anyone he may 
 be beheld ? 
 
 -A.—One may certainly be thus seen. 
 When any person sees the brightness of the 
 sun, he may safely say that he has seen the 
 sun, though, indeed, he has not really seen 
 it. There is another example, namely: 
 Should you hold a mirror in your hand, you 
 see a figure in it, and you may, therefore, 
 say that you see your own face, which is 
 really an impossibility, for no one has ever 
 seen his own face, and you have asserted 
 what is not strictly correct. 
 
 Q. —Since everyone sees the traces of 
 God, as everyone is able to do, how is it 
 that the Sufis declare that they only see 
 Him? 
 
 A. —Those who make this statement do 
 not know what they see, for they have never 
 really seen Him. A person who has eaten 
 of a sweet and savoury dish given to him, 
 but of which he knows not the name, seeks 
 for it again with a longing desire after it, and 
 thus wanders about in search of what has 
 given him so much delight, even though ho 
 be ignorant of what it really was. So are 
 those who seek after God, without knowing 
 Him, or what He is. 
 
 Q. —Some Sufis declare : “ We are neither 
 afraid of Hell, nor do we desire Heaven ”—a 
 saying which must be blasphemous. How is 
 this ? 
 
 A. —They do not really mean that they do 
 not fear Hell, and that they do not wish for 
 Heaven. If they really meant this, it would 
 be blasphemous. Their meaning is not as 
 they express themselves; probably they wish 
 to say: “ O Lord, Thou who createdst us, 
 and madest us what we are, Thou hast not 
 made us because we assist Thy workings. 
 We are in duty bound to serve Thee all the 
 more devotedly, wholly in obedience to Thy 
 holy will. We have no bargaining with 
 Thee, and we do not adore Thee with the 
 view of gaining thereby either Heaven or 
 Hell! ” As it is written in the Qur’an, Surah 
 ix. 112: “Verily, God hath bought of the 
 believers their persons and their wealth, for 
 the Paradise they are to have,” which means 
 that His bounty has no bounds, His mercy 
 no end; and thus it is that He benefits 
 His faithful servants. They would say: 
 “Thou hast no bargaining with anyone; our 
 devotion is from the sincerity of our hearts, 
 and is for love of Thee only. Were there 
 no Heaven, nor any Hell, it would still be 
 our duty to adore Thee. To Thee belongs 
 the perfect right to put us either in Heaven 
 or in Hell, and may Thy commands be exe¬ 
 cuted agreeably to Thy blessed will! If 
 Thou puttest us in Heaven, it is through 
 Thine excellence, not on account of our 
 devotion ; if Thou puttest us in Hell, it is 
 from out of Thy great justice, and not from 
 any arbitrary decision on Thy part; so be it 
 for ever and for ever I ” This is the true 
 meaning of the Sufis when they say they do 
 not desire Heaven or fear Hell. 
 
 Q .—Thou saidst that there is no conflict 
 between the Sharl‘ak, “ law,” and the Haqiqah, 
 
 “ truth,” and nothing in the latter incon¬ 
 sistent with the former; and yet these two 
 are distinguished from one another by “ a 
 something ” which the Ah/u 'l-Haqlqah , “ be¬ 
 lievers in the truth,” conceal. Were there 
 nothing conflicting, why should it be thus 
 hidden ? 
 
 A .—If it be concealed, it is not because 
 there is a contrariety to the law, but only 
 because the thing hidden is contrary to the 
 human mind ; its definition is subtle, and not 
 understood by everyone, for which reason 
 the Prophet said : “ Speak to men according 
 to their mental capacities, for if you speak 
 all things to all men, some cannot under¬ 
 stand you, and so fall into error.” The Sufis, 
 therefore, hide some things conformably with 
 this precept. 
 
 Q. —Should anyone not know the science 
 which is known to the Sufis, and still do 
 what the law plainly commands, and be 
 satisfied therewith, would his faith and 
 Islam be less than that of the Sufis ? 
 
 A. —No. He would not be inferior to the 
 Sufis ; his faith and Islam would be equal 
 even to that of the prophets, because Iman 
 and Islam are a jewel which admits of no 
 division or separation into parts, and can 
 neither be increased nor diminished, just as 
 the portion of the sun enjoyed by a king and 
 by a faqlr is the same, or as the limbs of the 
 poor and the rich are equal in number : just 
 as the members of the body cf the king and 
 the subject are precisely alike, so is the faith 
 of the Muslim the same in all and common to 
 all, neither greater nor less in any case. 
 
 Q.—Some men are prophets, saints, pure 
 ones, and others Fasiqs (who know God, but 
 perform none of His commands); what dif¬ 
 ference is there among them ? 
 
 A .—The difference lies in their ma‘rifak, 
 or “ knowledge of spiritual things ”; but in 
 the matter of faith they are all equal; just 
 as, in the case of the ruler and the subject, 
 their limbs are all equal, while they differ in 
 their dress, power, and office. 
 
 IX. Sufi Poetry. 
 
 The very essence of Suflism is poetry, and 
 the Eastern Mystics are never tired of expa¬ 
 tiating on the ‘ Ishg , or “ love to God,” which 
 is the one distinguishing feature of Sufi mys¬ 
 ticism. The Masnawl, which teaches in the 
 sweetest strains that all nature abounds with 
 love divine, that causes even the lowest plant 
 to seek the sublime object of its desire; the 
 works of the celebrated Jam!, so full of 
 ecstatic rapture; the moral lessons of the 
 eloquent Sa'di; and the lyric odes of Hafiz, 
 may be termed the Scriptures of the Sufi 
 sect; and yet each of these authors contains 
 passages which are unfit for publication in 
 an English dress, and advocate morals at 
 variance with what Christianity teaches us 
 to be the true reflection of God's Holy Will. 
 Whilst propriety demands the suppression 
 of verses of the character alluded to, we 
 give a few odes as specimens of the higher 
 order of Sufi poetry. 
 
 78 
 
618 
 
 SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 Jalalu ’d-din ar-Ruml, tho author of the 
 Masnawi (a.h. 670), thus writes :— 
 
 “ I am the Gospel, the Psalter, the Qur’an ; 
 
 I am'Uzza and Lat—(Arabic deities)—Bell 
 and the Dragon. 
 
 Into three and seventy sects is the world 
 divided, 
 
 Yet only one God; the faithful who believe 
 in Him am I. 
 
 Thou knowest what are fire, water, air and 
 earth ; 
 
 Fire, water, air, and earth, all am I. 
 
 Lies and truth, good, bad, hard and soft, 
 
 Knowledge, solitude, virtue, faith, 
 
 The deepest ground of hell, the highest 
 torment of the flames, 
 
 The highest paradise, 
 
 The earth and what is therein, 
 
 The angels and the devils, Spirit and man, 
 am I. 
 
 What is the goal of speech, 0 tell it Shams 
 Tabrlzl ? 
 
 The goal of sense ? This :—The world 
 
 Soul am I.” 
 
 *■#*#* 
 
 And again:— 
 
 “Are we fools ? We are God’s captivity. 
 
 Are we wise ? We are His promenade. 
 
 Are we sleeping ? We are drunk with 
 God. 
 
 Are we waking ? Then we are His 
 heralds. 
 
 Are we weeping ? Then His clouds of 
 wrath. 
 
 Are we laughing? Flashes of His love.” 
 
 * * * * * 
 
 “Every night God frees the host of spirits ; 
 
 Frees them every night from fleshly prison. 
 
 Then the soul is neither slave nor master; 
 
 Nothing knows the bondsman of his bond¬ 
 age ; 
 
 Nothing knows the lord of all his lordship. 
 
 Gone from such a night, is eating sorrow; 
 
 Gone, the thoughts that question good or 
 evil. 
 
 Then without distraction, or division, 
 
 In this One the spirit sinks and slumbers.” 
 
 The following is from the mystic poet 
 Mahmud:— 
 
 “All sects but multiply the I and Thou; 
 
 This I and Thou belong to partial being. 
 
 When I and Thou, and several being 
 vanish, 
 
 Then mosque and church shall find Thee 
 nevermore. 
 
 Our individual life is but a phantom; 
 
 Make clear thine eye, and see reality.” 
 
 The following verses are by Farldu ’d-din 
 Shakrgunj (a.h. 662) :— 
 
 “ Man, what thou art is hidden from thy¬ 
 self ; 
 
 Know’st not that morning, mid-day, and 
 the eve 
 
 Are all within Thee ? The ninth heaven 
 art Thou; 
 
 And from the spheres into the roar of 
 time 
 
 Didst fall ere-while, Thou art the brush 
 that painted 
 
 The hues of all the world—the light of 
 life 
 
 That ranged its glory in the nothingness.” 
 “Joy! joy! I triumph now; no more I 
 know 
 
 Myself as simply me. I burn with love. 
 The centre is within me, and its wonder 
 Lies as a circle everywhere about me. 
 
 Joy! joy ! No mortal thought can fathom 
 me. 
 
 I am the merchant and the pearl at once. 
 Lo! time and space lie crouching at my 
 feet. 
 
 Joy! joy ! When I would revel in a rap¬ 
 ture, 
 
 I plunge into myself, and all things know.” 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modem Egyptians, gives a 
 translation of a Sufi poem recited by an 
 Egyptian Darwesh:— 
 
 “ With my love my heart is troubled; 
 
 And mine eye-lid hind’reth sleep: 
 
 My vitals are dissever’d; 
 
 While with streaming tears I weep. 
 
 My union seems far distant: 
 
 Will my love e’er meet mine eye ? 
 
 Alas ! Did not estrangement 
 
 Draw my tears, I would not sigh. 
 
 By dreary nights I’m wasted: 
 
 Absence makes my hope expire : 
 
 My tears, like pearls, are dropping ; 
 
 And my heart is wrapt in fire. 
 
 Whose is like my condition ? 
 
 Scarcely know I remedy. 
 
 Alas! Did not estrangement 
 
 Draw my tears, I would not sigh. 
 
 0 turtle-dove ! acquaint me 
 
 Wherefore thus dost thou lament ? 
 
 Art thou so stung by absence ? 
 
 Of thy wings depriv’d and pent ? 
 
 He saith, ‘ Our griefs are equal: 
 
 Worn away with love, I he.’ 
 
 Alas ! Did not estrangement 
 
 Draw my tears, I would not sigh. 
 
 0 First, and sole Eternal! 
 
 Show thy favour yet to me. 
 
 Thy slave, Ahmad El-Bekree, 
 
 Hath no Lord excepting Thee. 
 
 By Ta-ha, the Great Prophet! 
 
 Do thou not his wish deny. 
 
 Alas ! Did not estrangement 
 
 Draw my tears, I would not sigh.” 
 
 Dr. Tholuck quotes this verse from a Dar¬ 
 wesh Breviary :— 
 
 “Yesterday I beat the kettle-drum of do¬ 
 minion, 
 
 I pitched my tent on the highest throne ; 
 
 I drank, crowned by the Beloved, 
 
 The wine of unity from the cup of the 
 Almighty.” 
 
 One of the most characteristic Sufi poems 
 is the Persian poem by the poet JamI, en¬ 
 titled Salamdn and Absal. The whole nar¬ 
 rative is supposed to represent the joys of 
 Love Divine as compared with the delusive 
 fascinations of a Life of Sense. The story is 
 
SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 619 
 
 that of a certain King of Ionia, who had a 
 son named Salaman, who in his infancy 
 was nursed by a young maiden named Absal, 
 who, as he grew up, fell desperately in 
 love with the youth, and in time ensnared j 
 him. Salaman and Absal rejoiced together : 
 in a life of sense for a full year, and thought 
 their pleasures would never end. A certain 
 sage is then sent by the king to reason with 
 the erring couple. Salaman confesses that 
 the sage is right, but pleads the weakness of 
 his own will. Salaman leaves his native land 
 in company with Absal, and they find them¬ 
 selves on an island of wonderful beauty. 
 Salaman, unsatisfied with himself and his 
 love, returns once more to his native country, 
 where he and Absal resolve to destroy them¬ 
 selves. They go to a desert and kindle a 
 pile, and both walk into the fire. Absal 
 is consumed, but Salaman is preserved in the 
 fire, and lives to lament the fate of his be¬ 
 loved one. In course of time he is introduced 
 by the sage to a celestial beauty called Zuh- 
 rah, with whom he becomes completely ena¬ 
 moured, and Absal is forgotten. 
 
 “. . . . Celestial beauty seen, 
 
 He left the earthly ; and once come to 
 know 
 
 Eternal love, he let the mortal go.” 
 
 In the epilogue to the poem, the author 
 explains the mystic meaning of the whole 
 story in the following language :— 
 
 “ Under the outward form of any story 
 An inner meaning lies—this story now 
 Completed, do thou of its mystery 
 (Whereto the wise hath found himself a 
 way) 
 
 Have thy desire—no tale of I and Thou, 
 Though I and Thou be its interpreters. 
 What signifies the King ? and what the 
 Sage ? 
 
 And what Salaman not of woman bom ? 
 And what Absal who drew him to de¬ 
 sire? 
 
 And what the Kingdom that awaited 
 
 him 
 
 When he had drawn his garment from 
 her hand ? 
 
 What means that Fiery Pile ? and what 
 the Sea ? 
 
 And what that heavenly Zuhrah who at 
 last 
 
 Clear’d Absal from the mirror of his 
 soul ? 
 
 Learn part by part the mystery from 
 me ; 
 
 All ear from head to foot and under¬ 
 standing be. 
 
 The incomparable Creator, when this 
 world 
 
 He did create, created first of all 
 The first intelligence —first of a chain 
 Of ten intelligences, of which the last 
 Sole Agent is this our Universe, 
 
 Active intelligence so call’d, the one 
 Distributor of evil and of good, 
 
 Of joy and sorrow. Himself apart from 
 matter, 
 
 In essence and in energy—His treasure 
 
 Subject to no such talisman—He yet 
 Hath fashion’d all that is—material 
 form, 
 
 And spiritual sprung from Him—by 
 Him 
 
 Directed all, and in His bounty drown’d. 
 Therefore is He that Firman-issuing 
 King 
 
 To whom the world was subject. But 
 because 
 
 What he distributes to the Universe 
 Himself from still higher power receives, 
 The wise, and all who comprehend 
 aright, 
 
 Will recognise that higher in the Sage. 
 
 His the Prime Spirit that, spontaneously 
 Projected by the tenth intelligence, 
 
 Was from no womb of matter reproduced 
 A special essence called the Soul—a 
 Child 
 
 Fresh sprung from heaven in raiment 
 undefiled 
 
 Of sensual taint, and therefore call’d 
 Salaman. 
 
 And who Absal ?—The lust-adoring 
 body, 
 
 Slave to the blood and sense—through 
 whom the Soul, 
 
 Although the body’s very life it be, 
 
 Does yet imbibe the knowledge and de¬ 
 sire 
 
 Of things of sense; and these united 
 thus 
 
 By such a tie God only can unloose, 
 
 Body and soul are lovers each of other. 
 
 What is the Sea on which they sail’d ?— 
 the Sea 
 
 Of animal desire—the sensual abyss, 
 Under whose waters lies a world of 
 being 
 
 Swept far from God in that submersion. 
 
 And wherefore was Absal in that Isle 
 Deceived in her delight, and that Sala¬ 
 man 
 
 Fell short of his desire?—that was to 
 show 
 
 How passion tires, and how with time 
 begins 
 
 The folding of the carpet of desire. 
 
 And what the turning of Salaman’s 
 heart 
 
 Back to the King, and looking to the 
 throne 
 
 Of pomp and glory? What but the 
 return 
 
 Of the lost soul to its true parentage, 
 And back from carnal error looking up 
 Repentant to its intellectual throne. 
 
 What is the Fire ?—Ascetic discipline, 
 That burns away the animal alloy, 
 
 Till all the dross of matter be consumed, 
 And the essential Soul, its raiment 
 clean 
 
 Of mortal taint, he left. But foras¬ 
 much 
 
 As, any life-long habit so consumed, 
 
 May well recur a pang for what is lost, 
 
SUFI 
 
 620 sufi 
 
 Therefore the Sage set in Salaman’s 
 eyes. 
 
 A soothing fantom of the past, but still 
 
 Told of a better Venus, till his soul 
 
 She fill’d, and blotted out his mortal 
 love. 
 
 For what is Zuhrah ?—That divine per¬ 
 fection, 
 
 Wherewith the soul inspir’d and all 
 array’d 
 
 Its intellectual light is royal blest. 
 
 And mounts the throne, and wears the 
 crown, and reigns 
 
 Lord of the empire of humanity. 
 
 This is the meaning of this mystery, 
 
 Which to know wholly ponder in thy 
 heart, 
 
 Till all its ancient secret be enlarged. 
 
 Enough—the written summary I close, 
 
 And set my seal: 
 
 The truth God only Knows.” 
 
 X. The True Character of Sufiism. 
 
 It will be seen that the great object of the 
 Sufi Mystic is to lose his own identity. 
 Having effected this, perfection is attained. 
 This ideal conception of the Sufi is thus 
 expressed by Jalalu ’d-dinu ’r-Ruml in his 
 book, the Magnaivi (p. 78). It represents 
 Human Love seeking admission into the 
 Sanctuary of Divinity :— 
 
 “One knocked at the door of the Be¬ 
 loved, and a voice from within inquired, 
 ‘Who is there?’ Then he answered, ‘It is 
 7.’ And the voice said, ‘ This house will 
 not hold me and thee.’ So the door remained 
 shut. Then the Lover sped away into the 
 wilderness, and fasted and prayed in soli¬ 
 tude. And after a year he returned, and 
 knocked again at the door, and the voice 
 again demanded, ‘ Who is there ? ’ And the 
 Lover said, ‘ It is Thou.' Then the door was 
 opened.” 
 
 The Sufi doctrines are undoubtedly pan¬ 
 theistic, and are almost identical with those 
 of the Brahmans and Buddhists, the Neo- 
 Platonists, the Beghards and Beguins. There 
 is the same union of man with God, the same 
 emanation of all things from God, and the 
 same final absorption of all things into 
 the Divine Essence. And these doctrines 
 are held in harmony with a Muhammadan 
 view of predestination, which makes all a 
 necessary evolution of the Divine Essence. 
 The creation of the creature, the fall of those 
 who have departed from God, and their final 
 return, are all events pre-ordained by an 
 absolute necessity. 
 
 Bayazldu ’1-BistamI, a mystic of the ninth 
 century, said he was a sea without a bottom, 
 without beginning and without end. Being 
 asked, “What is the throne of God?” he 
 answered, “ I am the throne of God.” “ What 
 is the table on which the divine decrees are 
 written?” “I am that table.” “What is 
 the pen of God—the word by which God 
 created all things ? ” “I am the pen.” 
 “What is Abraham, Moses, and Jesus?” 
 “ I am Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.” “ What 
 
 are the angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil ? ” 
 “ I am Gabriel, Michael, Israfil, for what¬ 
 ever comes to true being is absorbed into 
 God, and this is God.” Again, in another 
 place, al-Bistaml cries, “ Praise to me, I am 
 truth. I am the true God. Praise to me, I 
 must be celebrated by divine praise.” 
 
 The chief school of Arabian philoso¬ 
 phy, that of al-Ghazzali (a.h. 505), passed 
 over to Sufiism by the same reasoning 
 which led Plotinus to his mystical theology. 
 After long inquiries for some ground on 
 which to base the certainty of our know¬ 
 ledge, al-Ghazzali was led to reject entirely 
 all belief in the senses. He then found it 
 equally difficult to be certified of the accu¬ 
 racy of the conclusions of reason, for there 
 may be, he thought, some faculty higher 
 than reason, which, if we possessed, would 
 show the uncertainty of reason, as reason 
 now shows the uncertainty of the senses. He 
 was left in scepticism, and saw no escape but 
 in the Sufi union with Deity. There alone can 
 man know what is true by becoming the truth 
 itself. “ I was forced,” he said, “ to return to 
 the admission of intellectual notions as the 
 bases of all certitude. This, however, was not 
 by systematic reasoning and accumulation of 
 proofs, but by a flash of light which God 
 sent into my soul! For whoever imagines 
 that truth can only be rendered evident by 
 proofs, places narrow limits to the wide com¬ 
 passion of the Creator.” 
 
 Sufiism (says Mr. Cowell) has arisen from 
 the bosom of Muhammadanism as a vague 
 protest of the human soul, in its intense 
 longing after a purer creed. On certain 
 tenets of the Qur’an the Sufis have erected 
 their own system, professing, indeed, to 
 reverence its authority as a divine revela¬ 
 tion, but in reality substituting for it the 
 oral voice of the teacher, or the secret 
 dreams of the Mystic. Dissatisfied with the 
 barren letter of the Qur’an, Sufiism appeals 
 to human consciousness, and from our 
 nature’s felt wants, seeks to set before us 
 nobler hopes than a gross Muhammadan 
 Paradise can fulfil. 
 
 Whilst there are doubtless many amongst 
 the Sufis who are earnest seekers after truth, 
 it is well known that some of them make 
 their mystical creed a cloak for gross sensual 
 gratification. A sect of Sufis called the 
 Muhabiyah , or “ Revered,” maintain the 
 doctrine of community of p iro P er Iy and 
 women, and the sect known as the Mala- 
 matiyah , or “ reproached,” maintain the 
 doctrine of necessity, and compound all 
 virtue with vice. Many such do not hold 
 themselves in the least responsible for sins 
 committed by the body, which they regard 
 only as the miserable robe of humanity 
 which encircles the pure spirit. 
 
 Some of the Sufi poetry is most objection¬ 
 able. MacGuckin de Slane, in his Introduction 
 to Ibn Khallikan’s Biographical Dictionary, 
 says :—“ It often happens that a poet describes 
 his mistress under the attributes of the 
 other sex, lest he should offend that exces¬ 
 sive prudery of Oriental feelings which, since 
 
SUFI 
 
 SUFI 
 
 621 
 
 the fourth century of Islamism, scarcely 
 allows an allusion to women, and more 
 particularly in poetry; and this rigidness is 
 still carried so far, that Cairo public singers 
 dare not amuse their auditors with a song 
 in which the beloved is indicated as a female. 
 It cannot, however, be denied that the feel¬ 
 ings which inspired poetry of this kind were 
 not always pure, and that polygamy and 
 jealousy have invested the morals of some 
 Eastern nations with the foulest corruption.” 
 
 The story of the Rev. Dr. ‘Imadu ’d-dln 
 (the eminent native clergyman, a convert 
 from Islam, now residing at Amritsar) is a 
 remarkable testimony to the unsatisfying 
 nature of Sufiistic exercises to meet the 
 spiritual need of anxious soul. The following 
 extract from the printed autobiography of 
 his life will show this :— 
 
 “ I sought for union with God from tra¬ 
 vellers and faqlrs, and even from the insane 
 people of the city, according to the tenets of 
 the Sufi mystics. The thought of utterly 
 renouncing the world then came into my 
 mind with so much power, that I left every¬ 
 body, and went out into the desert, and 
 became a faqir, putting on clothes covered 
 with red ochre, and wandered here and there, 
 from city to city and from village to village, 
 step by step, alone, for about 2,000, or (2,500 
 miles) without plan or baggage. Faith in 
 the Muhammadan religion will never, indeed, 
 allow true sincerity to be produced in the 
 nature of man; yet I was then, although 
 with many worldly motives, in search only 
 of God. In this state I entered the city of 
 Karuli, where a stream called Cholida flows 
 beneath a mountain, and there I stayed to 
 perform the Hisbu 'l-bahar. I had a book 
 with me on the doctrines of mysticism and 
 the practice of devotion, which I had re¬ 
 ceived from my religious guide, and held 
 more dear even than the Qur’an. In my 
 journeys I slept with it at my side at nights, 
 and took comfort in clasping it to my heart 
 whenever my mind was perplexed. My 
 religious guide had forbidden me to show 
 this book, or to speak of its secrets to any¬ 
 one, for it contained the sum of everlasting 
 happiness ; and so this priceless hook is even 
 now lying useless on a shelf in my house. 
 I took up the book, and sat down on the 
 bank of the stream, to perform the cere¬ 
 monies as they were enjoined, according to 
 the following rules:—The celebrant must 
 first perform his ablutions on the bank of 
 the flowing stream, and, wearing an unsewn 
 dress, must sit in a particular manner on one 
 knee for twelve days, and repeat the prayer 
 called Jugopar thirty times every day with a 
 loud voice. He must not eat any food with 
 salt, or anything at all, except some barley 
 bread of flour lawfully earned, which he has 
 made with his own hands, and baked with 
 wood that he has brought himself from the 
 jungles. During the day he must fast 
 entirely, after performing his ablutions in 
 the river before daylight; and he must 
 remain barefooted, wearing no shoes; nor 
 must he touch any man, nor, except at an 
 
 appointed time, even speak to anyone. The 
 object of all this is, that he may meet with 
 God, and from the longing desire to obtain 
 this, I underwent all this pain. In addition 
 to the above, I wrote the name of God on 
 paper 125,000 times, performing a certain 
 portion every day; and I cut out each word 
 separately with scissors, and wrapped them 
 up each in a ball of flour, and fed the fishes 
 of the river with them, in the way the book 
 prescribed. My days were spent in this 
 manner; and during half the night I slept, 
 and the remaining half I sat up, and wrote 
 the name of God mentally on my heart, and 
 saw Him with the eye of thought. When all 
 this toil was over, and I went thence, I had 
 no strength left in my body; my face was 
 wan and pale, and I could not even hold 
 myself up against the wind.” 
 
 Major Durie Osborn, in his Islam under the 
 Khalifs of Baghdad (p. 112), says: “The 
 spread of this Pantheistic spirit has been and 
 is the source of incalculable evil throughout 
 the Muhammadan world. The true function 
 of religion is to vivify and illuminate all the 
 ordinary relations of life with light from a 
 higher world. The weakness to which reli¬ 
 gious minds are peculiarly prone is to sup¬ 
 pose that this world of working life is an 
 atmosphere too gross and impure for them 
 to live in. They crave for better bread than 
 can be made from wheat. They attempt to 
 fashion a world for themselves, where nothing 
 shall soil the purity of the soul or disturb the 
 serenity of their thoughts. The divorce 
 thus effected between the religious life and 
 the worldly life, is disastrous to both. The 
 ordinary relations of men become emptied of 
 all divine significance. They are considered 
 as the symbols of bondage to the world or to 
 an evil deity. The religious spirit dwindles 
 down to a selfish desire to acquire a felicity 
 from which the children of this world are 
 hopelessly excluded Pre-eminently has this 
 been the result of Muhammadan mysticism. 
 It has dug a deep gulf between those who can 
 know God and those who must wander in 
 darkness, feeding upon the husks of rites and 
 ceremonies. It has affirmed with emphasis, 
 that only by a complete renunciation of the 
 world is it possible to attain the true end of 
 man’s existence. Thus all the best and purest 
 natures—the men who might have put a soul 
 in the decaying Church of Islam—have been 
 drawn off from their proper task to wander 
 about in deserts and solitary places, or ex¬ 
 pend their fives in idle and profitless pas¬ 
 sivity disguised under the title of 1 spiritual 
 contemplation.’ [zikr.] But this has only 
 been part of the evil. The logical result of 
 Pantheism is the destruction of a moral law. 
 If God be all in all, and man’s apparent in¬ 
 dividuality a delusion of the perceptive 
 faculty, there exists no will which can act, 
 no conscience which can reprove or applaud. 
 The individual is but a momentary seeming ; 
 he comes and goes like ‘ the snow-flake on the 
 river; a moment seen, then gone for ever.’ 
 To reproach such an ephemeral creature for 
 being the slaves of its passions, is to chide the 
 
622 
 
 SUFTAJAH 
 
 SUNNAH 
 
 thistledown for yielding to the violence of 
 the wind. Muhammadans have not been 
 slow to discover these consequences. Thou¬ 
 sands of reckless and profligate spirits have 
 entered the orders of the derweshes to enjoy 
 the licence thereby obtained. Their affecta¬ 
 tion of piety is simply a cloak for the practice 
 of sensuality; their emancipation from the 
 ritual of Islam involves a liberation also from 
 its moral restraints. And thus a movement, 
 animated at its outset by a high and lofty 
 purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful 
 source of ill. The stream which ought to 
 have expanded into a fertilising river, has be¬ 
 come a vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged 
 with disease and death.” [faqir.] 
 
 (For further information on the subject 
 of Eastern Mysticism the English reader is 
 referred to the following works: Hunt’s 
 Pantheism ; Tholuck’s Sufismus; Malcolm’s 
 History of Persia ; Brown’s Danveshes ; Ox¬ 
 ford Essays for 1855, by E. B. Cowell; 
 Palmer’s Oriental Mysticism ; De Slane’s 
 Introduction to Ibn Khallikan; Bicknell’s 
 Translation of Hafiz of Shiraz ; Ouseley’s 
 Persian Poets; Vaughan’s Hours with the 
 Mystics. Persian and Arabic books on the 
 subject are too numerous to mention. ‘Abdu 
 ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of the Technical Terms 
 of the Shfis was published in Arabic by Dr. 
 Sprenger in Calcutta in 1845.) [faqie ; 
 
 ZIKK.] 
 
 SUFTAJAH The delivery 
 
 of property by way of loan, and not by way 
 of trust. It is forbidden by the Sunni law. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 244.) 
 
 SUHAIL IBN ‘AMR eP 
 
 One of the most noble of the Quraish, and one 
 of then- leaders on the day of the action of 
 Badr. He was taken prisoner on that occa¬ 
 sion. He embraced Islam after the taking of 
 Makkah. He is said to have died a.h. 18. 
 
 SUICIDE. Arabic Qatlu nafsi-hi 
 J-^). Suicide is not once re¬ 
 ferred to in the Qur’an, but it is forbidden in 
 the Traditions, where Muhammad is related 
 to have said: “Whosoever shall kill himself 
 shall suffer in the fire of hell ” (al-Bukhari, 
 Arabic ed., p. 984); and “ shall be excluded 
 from heaven for ever” (ibid. p. 182). It is 
 also related that the Prophet refused the 
 funeral rites to a suicide ( Abu Da’ud, Arabic 
 ed., vol. ii. p. 98), but it is usual in Muham¬ 
 madan countries to perform the funeral 
 service, although forbidden by the custom of 
 the Prophet himself. 
 
 SUKR (y£~). [drunkenness.] 
 SULAIM Banu Sulaim. 
 
 One of the powerful tribes of ancient Arabia, 
 descended from the Banu ‘Adwan. 
 
 SULAIMAN ( 0 UJ~). [solomon.] 
 
 SULH (e 1 - 5 ). “ Concord ; recon¬ 
 
 ciliation ; peace.” It occurs in the Qur’an, as 
 follows :— 
 
 Surah iv. 127: “ And if a woman fears j 
 
 from her husband perverseness or aversion, 
 it is no crime in them both that they should 
 be reconciled to each other, for reconciliation 
 is best.” 
 
 SUES “Three-quarters” 
 
 of a Siparah of the Qur’an, or of the Qur’an 
 itself, [qdb’an.] 
 
 SULTAN (tjUsL.). A word in 
 
 modern times used for a ruler or king, as the 
 Sultan of Turkey. Its literal meaning is 
 “ strength ” or “ might,” and in this sense it 
 occurs in the Qur’an :— 
 
 Surah xvii. 35 : “ We have given his next of 
 kin authority.” 
 
 Surah lxix. 29: “ My authority has pe¬ 
 rished from me.” 
 
 Surah li. 38 : “ We sent him (Moses) to 
 Pharaoh with a manifest power (miracle , or 
 authority).” 
 
 SUNNAH Lit. “ A path or 
 
 way ; a manner of life.” A term used in the 
 religion of the Muslim to express the custom 
 or maimer of life. Hence the tradition which 
 records either the sayings or doings of Mu¬ 
 hammad. Consequently all traditional law is 
 divided into (1) Sunnatu '1-Fi‘l, or what Mu¬ 
 hammad did; (2) Sunnatu ’l-Qaul, or what 
 Muhammad enjoined; (3) Sunnatu’t-Taqrir, 
 or that which was done or said in the pre¬ 
 sence of Muhammad, and which was not for¬ 
 bidden by him, 
 
 Those things which the Prophet emphatically 
 enjoined on his followers are called Sunnatu 
 ’l-Huda, “ Sunna of Guidance,” or as-Sunnatu 
 ’ l-Mu'akkadah : as, for example, the sound¬ 
 ing of the azan before prayers. Those things 
 which have not been emphatically enjoined, 
 are called as-Sunnatu ’ l-Za'idah , or “ Supero- 
 gatory Sunnah.” 
 
 The Honourable Syed Ahmed Khan, C.S.I., 
 says in his Essay on the Traditions, that 
 “ npon examining the sayings (or the Ahadis), 
 and the deeds (or the Sunnah) of the Pro¬ 
 phet, we find (1) some of them relating to 
 religion, (2) others connected with the pecu¬ 
 liar circumstances of his life, (3) some bear¬ 
 ing upon society in general, and (4) others 
 concerning the art of Government.” When 
 Muhammad spoke on the subject of religion, 
 he is held to have been inspired, and also 
 when he performed a religious act he is be¬ 
 lieved to have been guided by inspiration; 
 but with regard to other matters, the degree 
 to which he was inspired is held to be a sub¬ 
 ject for investigation as well as for discrimi¬ 
 nation. In support of this view, the follow¬ 
 ing tradition is related by Rafi 1 ibn Khadij : 
 “ The Prophet came to al-Madmah when the 
 people were grafting the male bud of a date 
 tree into the female in order to produce greater 
 abundance of fruit, and he said, ‘ Why do you 
 do this ? ’ They replied, 1 It is an ancient 
 custom.’ The Prophet said, ‘ Perhaps it 
 would be better if you did not do it.’ And 
 then they left off the custom, and the trees 
 yielded but little fruit. The people com¬ 
 plained to the Prophet, and he said, ‘ I am 
 j no more than a man. When I order any- 
 
SUNNI 
 
 623 
 
 thing respecting religion, receive it; but when 
 I order you about the affairs of the world, 
 then I speak only as a man.’ ” ( Mishkat, 
 
 book i. ch. vi. pt. 1.) 
 
 ‘Abdu ’llah ibn Mas ! ud says: “ The Pro¬ 
 phet drew a straight line for us, and said, 
 1 This is the path of God.’ Then he drew 
 several other lines on the right and left of it, 
 and said, There are the paths of those who 
 follow the devil. Yerily my path ( sunnah ) is 
 straight and you must follow it.’” 
 
 It is upon the sayings and customs of Mu¬ 
 hammad that that traditional law is founded 
 which is handed down in the Hadis, and 
 which is treated of under the article tbadi- 
 hon. 
 
 SUNNI Lit, “One of the 
 
 path.” A Traditionist. A term generally 
 applied to the large sect of Muslims who 
 acknowledge the first four Khalifahs to have 
 been the rightful successors of Muhammad, 
 and who receive the Kutubu 's-Sittah, or “ sis 
 authentic” books of tradition, and who belong 
 to one of the four schools of jurisprudence 
 founded by Imam Abu Hanifah, Imam ash- 
 Shafi-T, Imam Malik, or Imam Ahmad ibn 
 Hambal. 
 
 The word Sunni is really a Persian form, 
 with its plural Sunnlyan, and stands for that 
 which is expressed by the Arabic Ahlu ’s- 
 Sunnah, “ the People of the Path.” The 
 word sunnah meaning a “ path,” but being 
 applied to the example of Muhammad. 
 
 A Sunni is held to be a traditionist, not 
 that any section of Islam rejects the tradi¬ 
 tions, but merely that the Sunnis have arro¬ 
 gated to themselves this title, and the rest of 
 the Muslim world has acquiesced in the as¬ 
 sumption ; hence it comes to pass that al¬ 
 though the ShPahs, even to a greater degree 
 than the Sunnis, rest their claims upon tra¬ 
 ditional evidence, they have allowed then- 
 opponents to claim the title of traditionists, 
 and consequently Mr. Sale and many Euro¬ 
 pean writers have stated that the Shrahs 
 reject the traditions. 
 
 The Sunnis embrace by far the greater 
 portion of the Muhammadan world. Accord¬ 
 ing to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt's census, they are 
 145 millions, whilst the Shrahs are but some 
 15 millions. 
 
 TA‘ALLUQ 
 
 The principal differences between the 
 Su nn is and the Shrahs are treated of in the 
 article shi-ah. 
 
 SUPEREROGATION, ACTS OF. 
 
 [napl.] 
 
 SURAH Lit. “ A row or 
 
 series.” A term used exclusively for the 
 chapters of the Qur’an, of which there are 
 one hundred and fourteen in number. These 
 chapters are called after some word which 
 occurs in the text, e.g. Siiratu 'l-Hadld, the 
 “ Chapter of Iron.” The ancient Jews divided 
 the whole law of Moses into fifty-four siderlm, 
 or “ sections,” which were named after the 
 same manner as the Surahs of the Qur’an. 
 [qub’ax.] 
 
 SUTRAH (Syc-,). Lit. “ That 
 
 wherewith anything is concealed or covered.” 
 Something put up before one engaged in 
 prayer facing Makkah, to prevent others 
 from intruding upon his devotions. It may 
 be a stick, or anything a cubit in height and 
 an inch in thickness. (Mishkat, book iv. 
 ch. x.) [pkayeb.] 
 
 S U VVA £ (£V*)- idol mentioned 
 
 in Surah lxxi. 22. Professor Palmer says it was 
 an idol in the form of a woman, and believed 
 to be a relic of antediluvian times. (Intro¬ 
 duction to the Quran, p. xiL) 
 
 SWEARING, [oath.] 
 
 SWINE. Arabic khinzir (yy^), 
 
 pi. khanazlr. Heb. khazlr. Swine’s 
 
 flesh is strictly forbidden to Muslims in four 
 different places in the Qur’an, namelv, Surahs 
 ii. 168, v. 4, vi. 146, xvi. 116 ; in which places 
 its use is prohibited with that which dieth of 
 itself and blood. 
 
 In the Traditions, it is related that Mu¬ 
 hammad said that “ when Jesus the Son of 
 Mary shall descend from the heavens upon 
 your people as a just king, and he will break 
 the cross and will kill all the swine. (Mish- 
 kat, book xxiii. ch. vi.) 
 
 SYNAGOGUES, [chyrches.] 
 SYRIA, [shah.] 
 
 T. 
 
 TA‘AH (icUs). Lit. “ Obedience.” 
 
 A word which occurs once in the Qur’an, 
 Surah iv. S3 : “ They say • Obedience I ’ ” It 
 is an old Arabic word used for the worship 
 and service of God. 
 
 TA‘ALLUQ (jlrf). LiL “ That 
 
 which is suspended.” A division or district. 
 A term applied in India to a district including 
 
 a number of villages, for which a fixed 
 amount of revenue is paid, and the possession 
 of which is hereditary as long as the revenue 
 is paid. These ta-alfuqs, or, as they are com¬ 
 monly called, taluks, are of two kinds: (1) 
 Huzuri (from “the State ”), of which 
 
 the revenue is paid direct to Government; 
 and (2) Mazkuri (from “ specified ”), 
 
 of which the revenue is paid through a chief, 
 
624 
 
 ta'am 
 
 TAGHLIB 
 
 ■who thus farms the revenue. The term was 
 introduced to India by the Muslim con¬ 
 querors. 
 
 TA‘AM ((*UL). [food.] 
 
 TA'AWWUZ The ejacula¬ 
 
 tion : “ I seek refuge from God from the 
 cursed Satan,” which forms part of the Mu¬ 
 hammadan daily prayer. It is called also 
 ‘ciuzun bi-’llah. [peayek.] 
 
 TABABBTJK (c^A). The commu¬ 
 tation for an offering incumbent upon a reli¬ 
 gious medicant holding some endowment 
 (waqf). 
 
 TABA‘TJ ’T-TABITN &). 
 
 Lit. “ The followers of the followers.” Those 
 who conversed with the TaLbun (which 
 term is used for those who conversed with 
 Companions of Muhammad). Traditions re¬ 
 lated by them are received, but are of less 
 authority than those related by persons who 
 had seen the Prophet, [traditions.] 
 
 TABIB A doctor of me¬ 
 
 dicine. One who practises at-tibb, the “ science 
 of medicine.” Hakim (lit. “ a philosopher ”) 
 is also used to express a medical practi¬ 
 tioner.” 
 
 TABTUN pi. of TaW. 
 
 Those who conversed with the Associates or 
 companions of Muhammad. The traditions 
 which they related are of high authority and 
 form part of the Sunnah or traditional law. 
 [teaditions.] 
 
 TABLES OF THE LAW. Arabic 
 Alwcth (eV^)’ pi- °f Lauh. The 
 giving of the Law to Moses on tables is men¬ 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah vii. 142 : “ We 
 wrote for him (Moses) upon tables ( alwah ) a 
 monition concerning every matter.” But 
 Muslim doctors are not agreed as to the 
 number of the tables. The commentators 
 al-Jalalan say that there were either seven 
 or ten. [ten commandments.] 
 
 TABUK (Ay>), A valley in 
 
 Arabia, celebrated as the scene of one of 
 Muhammad’s military expeditions, and as the 
 place where he made a treaty with John the 
 Christian prince of Ailah. [teeaty.] 
 
 TABUT O^b-). (1) The Ark of 
 
 the Covenant, mentioned in the Qur’an, Surah 
 ii. 249 : “ Verily the sign of his (Saul’s) king- 
 ship shall be that the Ark (Tabut) shall come 
 to you: and in it Sakinah from your Lord, 
 and the relics left by Moses and Aaron; the 
 angels shall bear it.” 
 
 Tabut is the Hebrew ron Tebah used for 
 
 T *• 
 
 Noah’s Ark, and the Ark of bulrushes, 
 Ex. ii. 3, and not 'Aron, the word in 
 
 the Bible for the Ark of the Covenant. 
 
 The commenoator, al-Baizawi, says the 
 Sakinah was either the Taurat, or Books of 
 Moses, or an idol of emeralds or rubies, the 
 head and tail of which was like that of a 
 
 goat, and the wings of feathers, and which 
 uttered a feeble cry; and when the ark was 
 sent after an enemy, then this was sent. But 
 some say it was a representation of the pro¬ 
 phets. 
 
 Al-Jalalan say the relics left in the Ark 
 were the fragments of the two tables of the 
 Law, and the rod and robes and shoes of 
 Moses, the mitre of Aaron, and the vase of 
 manna, [ark of the covenant, sakinah.] 
 
 (2) A coffin or bier for the burial of the 
 dead. 
 
 (3) The representation of the funeral of al- 
 Husain. [mtjharram.] 
 
 (4) The box or ark in which the body of 
 the child Moses was placed by his mother for 
 fear of Pharaoh. See Qur’an, Surah xx. 39: 
 “ When we spake unto thy mother what was 
 spoken: ‘ Cast him into the ark: then cast 
 him on the sea [the river], and the sea shall 
 
 | throw him on the shore: and an enemy to me 
 and an enemy to him shall take him up.’ 
 And I myself have made thee an object of 
 love, That thou mightest be reared in mine 
 eye.” 
 
 TADBlB (p!J)"). Post obit manu¬ 
 mission of slaves. In its primitive sense it 
 means looking forward to the event of a busi¬ 
 ness. In the language of the law, it means a 
 declaration of a freedom to be established 
 after the master’s death. As when the 
 master says to his slave, “ Thou art free 
 after my death.” The slave so freed is called 
 a mudabbir. (Hamilton’s Middy ah , vol. i. 
 p. 475.) [slavery.] 
 
 TAFAKKUB (,&>)• Lit. “Con¬ 
 templation or thought.” According to the 
 Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rifat, it is the lamp of the 
 heart whereby a man sees his own evils or 
 virtues. 
 
 TAFSIB (^*w£»). Lit. “ Explain¬ 
 ing.” A term used for a commentary on any 
 book, but especially for a commentary on the 
 Qur’an, [commentaries.] 
 
 at-TAGHABXTN “ Mu¬ 
 
 tual deceit.” The title of the 64th Surah of 
 the Qur’an, the ixth verse of which begins 
 thus: 
 
 “ The day when He shall gather you to¬ 
 gether for the day of the assembly will be 
 the day of Mutual Deceit .” 
 
 That is, when the blessed will deceive or 
 disappoint the damned by taking the places 
 which they w T ould have had in Paradise had 
 they been true believers, and vice versa. 
 
 TAGHLIB (s-l*»). An Arabian 
 
 tribe who, on the first spread of Islam, were 
 occupying a province in Mesopotamia and 
 professing the Christian faith. The Banu 
 Taghlib sent an embassy to Muhammad, 
 formed of sixteen men, some Muslims and 
 some Christians. The latter wore crosses of 
 gold. The Prophet made terms with the 
 Christians, stipulating that they should them¬ 
 selves continue in the profession of their 
 religion, but should not baptize their children 
 
AT-TAGHTIS 
 
 into Christian faith. (Sir W. Muir, from 
 Katibu 'l-Waqidi, p. Cl.) 
 
 at-TAGtHTIS (u~Aax^). A term 
 
 which occurs in the Kashfu ’z-Zunun for 
 “ baptism.” [injil, sighbah.] 
 
 TAGHUT An idol men¬ 
 
 tioned in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah iv. 54 : “ They believe in Jibt and 
 Taghut.” 
 
 Surah ii. 257: “ Whoso disbelieves in 
 Taghut and believes in God, he has got a 
 firm handle, in which is no breaking off.” 
 
 Siirah ii. 259: “But those who misbelieve 
 their patrons are Taghut, these bring them 
 forth to darkness.” 
 
 Jalalu ’d-dln says Taghut was an idol of 
 the Quraish, whom certain renegade Jews 
 honoured in order to please the tribe. 
 
 Mr. Lane observes that in the Arabian 
 Nights the name is used to express the devil 
 as well as an idol. 
 
 TA HA The title of the 
 
 xxth Surah of the Qur'an, which begins with 
 these Arabic letters. Their meaning is un¬ 
 certain. Some fancy the first letter stands 
 for tuba, “ beatitude,” and the second for 
 Hawiyah, the name of the lowest pit of hell. 
 Tah is also, like sah, and the English “ hush,” 
 an interjection commanding silence, and might 
 be here employed to enjoin a silent and reve¬ 
 rential listening to the revelation to follow. 
 
 TAHALITF The swear¬ 
 
 ing of both plaintiff and defendant. In a 
 civil suit of both seller and purchaser. In a 
 disagreement, if both should take an oath, 
 the QazI must dissolve the sale, or contract. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 85.) 
 
 TAHANNUS Avoiding 
 
 and abstaining from sin. Worshipping God 
 for a certain period in seclusion. The word 
 is used in the latter sense for the seclusion of 
 Muhammad on Mount Hira’, when he is sup¬ 
 posed to have received his first revelation. 
 (Mishkat, book xxiv. c. v.) [inspiration, 
 qur’an]. 
 
 TAHARAH (SjVgL). “ Purifica¬ 
 tion,* including wazu’, tayammum, masah, 
 ghusl, and niiswak, accounts of which are 
 given under their respective articles, [puri¬ 
 fication.] 
 
 TAHIR (j*U=). A woman in a 
 
 state of purity, [purification.] 
 
 TAHLlL The ejaculation, 
 
 “Lit ilciha ilia ’lldli! ” (am N ii\ S), 
 “ There is no deity but God! ” ( Mishkat, 
 book x. ch. ii.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said, “ That person who recites ! There is no 
 deity but God,’ one hundred times, shall re¬ 
 ceive rewards equal to the emancipating of 
 ten slaves, and shall have one hundred good 
 deeds recorded to his account, and one hun¬ 
 dred of his sins shall be blotted out, and the 
 
 TAIY 625 
 
 words shall be a protection from the devil.’’ 
 [zikr.] 
 
 TAHMID (*v*va,j). The ejaculation, 
 “ al-Hamdu li-’lldh!” (MI 
 “ God be praised 1 ” (Mishkat, book x. 
 ch. ii.) 
 
 ‘Umar ibn Shu‘aib relates from his fore¬ 
 fathers that the Prophet said, “ He who recites 
 ‘ God be praised,’ a hundred times in the 
 morning and again a hundred times in the 
 evening, shall be like a person who has pro¬ 
 vided one hundred horsemen for a jihad, or 
 ‘ religious war.’ ” 
 
 TAIIRlF (<-jbj*,>). The word used 
 
 by Muhammadan writers for the supposed 
 corruption of the Jewish and Christian scrip¬ 
 tures. [corruption of the scriptures.] 
 
 at-TAHRIM ). “ The Pro¬ 
 
 hibition.” The title of the 6Gth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, which begins with the words : “ Why 
 0 Prophet! dost thou forbid that which God 
 hath made lawful to thee, from a desire to 
 please thy wives.” The object of this chapter 
 was to free Muhammad from his obligation 
 to his wife Hafsah, to whom he had recently 
 sworn to separate entirely from the Coptic 
 slave-girl Mariyah. 
 
 TAHZlB (s-s>.AQi). A book of tra¬ 
 ditions received by the Shi‘ahs, compiled by 
 Shaikh Abu Ja‘far Muhammad, a.h. 4GG. 
 
 at-TA’IF (i_A!U=5\). The name of a 
 
 town, the capital of a district of the same 
 name in Arabia, which Muhammad besieged 
 a.h. 8, but the city was surrounded by strong 
 battlements and was provisioned for some 
 months. The siege was, therefore, raised by 
 Muhammad, after he had cut down and 
 burned its celebrated vineyards. (Muir’s 
 Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 432.) 
 
 TAIRAH (^=)- “Lightness; 
 
 levity of mind.” Condemned in the Hadis. 
 
 TAIY (^L). An Arabian tribe who 
 
 emigrated from al-Yaman to the Najd about 
 the third century. Some of them embraced 
 Judaism and some Christianity, while a por¬ 
 tion remained pagans and erected a temple to 
 the idol Fuls. The whole tribe eventually 
 embraced Islam, a.d. G32, when ‘All was sent 
 to destroy the temple of Fuls. 
 
 Hatim at-Ta’Iy, a Christian Bedouin Arab, 
 celebrated for his hospitality, is the subject 
 of Eastern poetry. He lived in the “ time 
 of ignorance,” viz. before Muhammad, but 
 his son ‘Adi became a Muslim, and is num¬ 
 bered among the “ Companions.” Hatim at- 
 Ta’Iy's most famous act of liberality was that 
 which he showed to an ambassador of the 
 Greek Emperor, sent to demand of him as a 
 present for his master, a horse of very great 
 price. The generous Arab, before he knew 
 the object of this person’s mission, slaughtered 
 his horse to regale him, having nothing at 
 the time in his house to serve in its stead. 
 It is also said that he often caused as many 
 as forty camels to be slaughtered for the 
 
 79 
 
626 
 
 TAJ 
 
 TALISMAN 
 
 entertainment of liis guests and the poor 
 Arabs of the desert. 
 
 TAJ (sV»). “ A crown ; a diadem.” 
 
 The Muslim Khallfahs never wore a crown, 
 the word is therefore not used in Muslim 
 theology, but it is used by the Sufi faqlrs for 
 the cap worn by a leader of a religious 
 order, which is generally of a conical shape. 
 [kulaii.] 
 
 at-TAKASUR (/V&tK ). “Multiply¬ 
 ing.” The title of the cund Surah of the 
 Qur’an, the opening verses, of which are : 
 
 “ The desire of Increasing riches occupieth 
 you 
 
 Till you come to the grave.” 
 
 TAIvBlR (]■+■&). The expression, 
 “ Allahu dkbar! ” All), “ G-ocl is 
 
 very great 1 ” ( Mishkat , book x. ch. ii.) 
 
 The ejaculation frequently occurs in the 
 daily liturgy and in the funeral office. 
 [prayer.] 
 
 TAKBlRU ’T-TAHRlMAH (j~*s 
 ^Uq^Al). The first takblr in the 
 liturgical prayer, said standing, after the recital 
 of which the worshipper must give himself 
 up entirely to worship, [prayer, takbir.] 
 
 TAKHARUJ (ejlfcJ). An arrange¬ 
 ment entered into by some heirs-at-law with 
 others for their share of the inheritance, in 
 consideration of some specific thing which 
 excludes them from inheritance. (Hamilton’s 
 Ilidai/ah, vol. iii. p. 201.) 
 
 at-TAKWIR (j^jlN). “The 
 
 Folding-up.” The title of the Lxxxist Surah 
 of the Qur’an, which opens a solemn announce¬ 
 ment of the Judgment Day by the words : 
 “When the sun shall be folded up." 
 
 TAKYAH (4&). Lit. “A pillow ; 
 
 a place of repose.” Used in all Muhammadan 
 countries for— 
 
 (1) A place in which some celebrated saint 
 has stayed. In Central Asia, these places 
 are often merely marked by a few stones and 
 a flag, but they are held sacred. 
 
 (2) A monastery, or religious house, in 
 which faqirs and ascetics reside, as the Tak- 
 yahs at Constantinople and Cairo. 
 
 (3) A hostel or rest-house, as the Takyah 
 at Damascus, which is a hostel for pilgi'ims. 
 Dr. Robinson describes it as a large quad¬ 
 rangular enclosure, divided into two courts, 
 in the southern court of which there is a 
 large mosque. Around the wall of the court 
 runs a row of cells, with a portico or gallery 
 of columns in front. This takyah was founded 
 by Sultan Salim, a.d. 1516. ( Researches , 
 vol. iii. p. 459.) 
 
 TALAQ (j$k). (1) The sentence 
 
 of divorce, [divorce.] (2) The title of the 
 Lxvth Surah of the Qur’an which treats of 
 the subject of divorce. 
 
 TALBlYAH (a*JJ). Lit. “Waiting 
 
 or standing for orders.” The recitation of 
 the following words during the pilgrimage to 
 Makkah: “ Labbailca! Allahummah ! Lab- 
 baika ! Labbaika ! La Sharxka taka ! Labbai- 
 ka ! Inna 'l-hamda wa-ni‘amata laka! Wa 7- 
 mulka ! La Sharika-laka ! ” “ I stand up for 
 Thy service, 0 God I I stand up! I stand 
 up! There is no partner with Thee! I 
 stand up for Thy service! Yerily Thine is 
 the praise, the beneficence, and the kingdom ! 
 There is no partner with Thee 1 ” 
 
 From the Mishkat (book xi. ch. ii. pt. 1), it 
 appears that this hymn was in use amongst 
 the idolaters of Arabia before Muhammad’s 
 time, [hajj.] 
 
 TALHA.H (AisU=), S on of ‘TJbaidu 
 
 ’llah, the Quraish, was a grand-nephew of 
 Abu Baler. He was a distinguished Compa¬ 
 nion, and was honoured with the position of 
 one of the '■Asharah Mubashsharah, or “ten 
 patriarchs of the Muslim faith.” He saved 
 the life of Muhammad at the battle of Uhud. 
 He was slain in the fight of the Camel, a.h. 
 36, aged 64, and was buried at al-Basrah. 
 
 TALIB (<—Ab). Lit. “One who 
 
 seeks.” An inquirer. A term generally 
 used for a student of divinity, is Talibu 7- 
 Hlm. 
 
 TALISMAN. Arabic (^AL) til- 
 
 sam ; pi. talasim. The English word is a cor¬ 
 ruption of the Arabic. A term applied to 
 mystical characters, and also to seals and 
 stones upon which such characters are 
 engraved or inscribed. The characters are 
 astrological, or of some other magical kind. 
 Talismans are used as charms against evil, 
 for the preserving from enchantment or from 
 accident; they are also sometimes buried 
 with a hidden treasure to protect it. [amolet, 
 
 EXORCISM.] 
 
TALKING 
 
 TANFIL 
 
 TALKING-, [conversation.] 
 
 TALMUD. The traditional law 
 
 of the Jews. From Heb. “TO 1 ? lamarl, “ to 
 
 learn.” The learning of the Rabbis. Mr. 
 Emanuel Deutsch says :— 
 
 “ It seems as if Muhammad had breathed 
 from his childhood almost the air of contem¬ 
 porary Judaism, as is found by us crystallized 
 in the Talmud, the Targum and the Midrash. 
 ***** 
 
 “ It is not merely parallelisms, reminis¬ 
 cences, allusions, technical terms, and the 
 like of Judaism, its law and dogma and cere¬ 
 mony, its Halacha and its Haggadah (its law 
 and legend), which we find in the Koran; but 
 we think Islam neither more nor less than 
 Judaism as adapted to Arabia—plus the 
 Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad.” 
 (.Literary Remains, p. 64.) 
 
 How much Muhammad was indebted to the 
 Jewish Talmud for his doctrines, ethics, and 
 ceremonial, is shown in an essay by the 
 Jewish Rabbi, Abraham Geiger, in answer to 
 the question put by the University at Bonn: 
 “ Inquiratur in fontes Alcorani seu legis Mo- 
 hammedicse eos, qui ex Judaeismo derivandi 
 sunt,” of which a German translation has 
 appeared, Was hat Mohammed aus dem Juden- 
 thume aufgenommen ? (Bonn, 1833), and is 
 treated of in the present work in the article 
 on JUDAISM. 
 
 The Talmud consists of two parts: The 
 Mishna, or the text (what is called in Arabic 
 the Matn), and the Gemara, or Commentary 
 (Arabic Shark). These two form the Tal¬ 
 mud.) 
 
 The Mishna (from Shanah, to “ repeat ”) or 
 the oral law of the Jews, was not committed 
 to writing until about the year a,d. 190, by 
 Rabbi Judah, although it is said it was first 
 commenced by Rabbi Akibah, a.d. 130. 
 
 The Gemara (lit. “ that which is perfect ”) 
 are two commentaries on the Mishna. The 
 one compiled by Rabbi Jochonam at Jeru¬ 
 salem about the middle of the third century, 
 and the other by Rabbi Ashe at Babylon, 
 about the middle of the sixth. 
 
 Canon Farrar (Life of Christ, vol ii. 
 p. 348), says: “ Anything more utterly un- 
 historieal than the Talmud, cannot be con¬ 
 ceived. It is probable that no human writ¬ 
 ings ever confounded names, dates, and facts, 
 with more absolute indifference.” 
 
 And doubtless it is this unsatisfactory 
 feature in the Talmud of the Jews which, to 
 a great extent, accounts for the equally 
 unhistorical character of the Quran. 
 
 For information on the Talmud, the English 
 reader can consult the following works : The 
 Talmud, by Joseph Barklay, LL.D., Bishop of 
 Jerusalem, 1878; A Talmudic Miscellany, by 
 Paul Isaac Hershon, 1880; Selections from the 
 Talmud, by H. Polono; The Talmud, an 
 article in the Quarterly Review, October, 
 1867, by Emanuel Deutsch; The Talmud, a 
 chapter in The Home and Synagogue of the 
 Modern Jew (Religious Tract Society). A 
 complete translation of the Talmud is being 
 
 627 
 
 undertaken by Mr. P. I. Hershon. See Dr. 
 Farrar’s Preface to the Talmudic Miscellany. 
 
 TALQIN ((£?&'). Lit. “Instruct¬ 
 ing.” An exhortation or instruction imparted 
 by a religious teacher. It is specially used 
 for the instruction given at the grave of a 
 departed Muslim, at the close of the burial 
 service, when one of the mourners draws 
 near the middle of the grave, addresses the 
 deceased, and says :— 
 
 “ 0 servant of God, and child of a female 
 servant of God. 
 
 “ 0 son of such an one, remember the faith 
 you professed on earth to the very last; this 
 is your witness that there is no deity but 
 God, and that certainly Muhammad is His 
 Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the 
 Resurrection from the dead are real; that 
 there will be a Day of Judgment; and say : ‘ I 
 confess that God is my Lord, Islam my reli¬ 
 gion, Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and 
 peace of God) my Prophet, the Qur’an my 
 guide, the Ka‘bah my Qiblah, and that Mus¬ 
 lims are my brethren.’ 0 God, keep him (the 
 deceased) firm in his faith, and widen his 
 grave, and make his examination (by Munkir 
 and Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have 
 ! mercy on him, 0 Thou most Merciful! ” 
 
 [BURIAL.] 
 
 TALUT [SAUL.] 
 
 TAMATTU 4 Lit. “ Keaping 
 
 advantage.” The act of performing the 
 ‘Umrah until its completion, and then per¬ 
 forming the Hajj as a separate ceremony, 
 j thus reaping the advantages of both, [iiajj, 
 umrah.] 
 
 TAMlM (/An independent 
 | Arab tribe of Makkan origin who occupied 
 the north-eastern desert of Najd. They 
 fought by the side of Muhammad at Makkah 
 and Hunain. 
 
 TAMJID (as&aj). The expression, 
 
 
 “ La haula wa Id quvjwata ilia bi-’llahi V 
 ’•aliyi ’l-‘azim ” 6^3 3 
 
 “ There is no power and strength 
 but in God, the High one, the Great.” (Mish- 
 kdt, book x. ch. ii.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah relates that the Prophet 
 said, “ Recite very frequently, ‘ There is no 
 power and strength but in God,’ for these 
 words are one of the treasures of Paradise. 
 For there is no escape from God but with 
 God. And God will open for the reciter 
 thereof seventy doors of escape from evil, the 
 least of which is poverty.” 
 
 TANASUIffl fe-US). (1) In Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, the death of one heir after 
 another before the partition of an inheritance. 
 
 (2) At-Tanasukh. The metempsychosis or 
 Pythagorean system of the transmigration of 
 souls, a doctrine held by the Hindus and 
 Buddhists, but forming no part of the Muham- 
 j madan system. 
 
 TANFlL “ Plundering in 
 
 ! religious warfare.” Commended in the Qur’an, 
 
628 
 
 TAQARRUB 
 
 TASLIM 
 
 Surah viii. 1: “ They ■will question thee about 
 the spoils. Say: The spoils are God’s and 
 the Apostle’s.” 
 
 TAQARRUB (v^). Lit. “ Seek¬ 
 ing admittance or striving to draw near.” A 
 term used to express the desire of propitiating 
 the Deity by prayer, almsgiving, or sacrifice. 
 
 TAQDlR (y.Aib). Lit. “To mea¬ 
 sure.” The doctrine of Fate or Predestina¬ 
 tion, al-Qadr. [predestination.] 
 
 TAQlYAH (<Ufu). Lit. “ Guarding 
 
 oneself.” A Shrah doctrine. A pious fraud 
 whereby the Shl‘ah Muslim believes he is 
 justified in either smoothing down or in 
 denying the peculiarities of his religious 
 belief, in order to save himself from religious 
 persecution. A Shrah can, therefore, pass 
 himself off as a Sunni to escape persecution. 
 
 The Shi'ah traditionists relate that certain 
 persons inquired of the Imam Sadiq if the 
 Prophet had ever practised taqlyah, or “ re¬ 
 ligious dissimulation,” and the Imam replied, 
 
 “ Not after this verse was sent down to the 
 Prophet, namely, Surah v. 71: ‘0 thou 
 
 Apostle 1 publish the whole of what has been 
 revealed to thee from thy Lord ; if thou do it 
 not, thou hast not preached His message, and 
 God will not defend thee from wicked men; 
 for God guides not the unbelieving people.’ 
 When the Most High became surety for the 
 Prophet against harm, then he no longer dis¬ 
 simulated, although before this revelation ap¬ 
 peared he had occasionally done so.” (The 
 Hayatu ’1-Qulub , Merrick’s ed., p. 96.) 
 
 [SI11‘AH.] 
 
 TAQLlD (A4a>). Lit. “ Winding 
 
 round.” (1) Putting a wreath round a victim 
 destined to be slain at Makkah. (2) Girding 
 with a sword, as a sign of investiture of a 
 high dignitary. (2) A term used in Muham¬ 
 madan law for the following of a religious 
 leader without due inquiry. 
 
 TAQWA [abstinence.] 
 
 TARAWlH (c^V)- The plural of 
 
 tarwifi, “ Rest.” The prayers, of usually j 
 twenty rak‘ahs, recited at night during the 
 month of Ramazan; so called because the 
 congregation sit down and rest after every 
 fourth rak‘ah and every second “ Satam." 
 
 [RAMAZAN.] 
 
 TARIKAH (<&/). A legacy, a 
 
 bequest, an inheritance. 
 
 AT-TARIQ (jjU=Sl). “ The night- 
 comer.” The title of the Lxxxvith Surah of 
 the Qur’an, beginning thus : 
 
 “ By the heaven, and by the night-comer ! 
 
 But what shall teach thee 
 
 What the night-comer is? 
 
 ’Tis the star of piercing radiance ” 
 
 According to al-Wahidi, these words were 
 revealed when Abu Talib, at the time of the 
 evening meal, was startled by a shooting 
 star. Noldeke, however, observes that the 
 three verses seem rather to apply to a planet 
 or a fixed star of particular brightness. 
 
 TARlQAH (&>>). “A path.’’ A 
 
 term used by the Sufis for the religious life. 
 
 [SUFI.] 
 
 TARWIYAH Lit. “ Satis¬ 
 
 fying thirst,” or, according to some, “ giving 
 attention.” The eighth day of the pilgrim¬ 
 age ; so called either because the pilgrims 
 give their camels water on this day, or be¬ 
 cause Abraham gave attention ( rawwa ) to the 
 vision wherein he was instructed to sacrifice 
 his son Ishmael (?) on this day. 
 
 TASAWWUF (uys). A word 
 
 used to express the doctrines of the Sufis or 
 Muhammadan mystics. Sufiism. The word 
 does not occur in the celebrated Arabic Dic¬ 
 tionary, the Qdmus, which was compiled a.h. 
 817, nor in the Sihdh, a.h. 393. [sofi.] 
 
 TASBlH (1) The ejacula¬ 
 
 tion, “ Subhdna ’Hah!” 0 W-), 
 “ I extol the holiness of God ! ” or “ 0 Holy 
 God ! ” A most meritorious ejaculation, which, 
 if recited one hundred times, night and morn¬ 
 ing, is said by the Prophet to atone for man's 
 sins, however many or great. ( Mishkat , book 
 x. ch. ii.) 
 
 (2) A Rosary, [rosary, zikr.] 
 
 TASHAHHUD Lit. “ Tes¬ 
 
 timony.” A declaration of the Muslim faith 
 recited during the stated prayers, immediately 
 after the Tahlyah, in the same attitude, but 
 with the first finger of the right hand ex¬ 
 tended, as a witness to the Unity of God. It 
 is as follows : “ I testify that there is no deity 
 but God, and I testify that Muhammad is the 
 Messenger of God.” It is also used as an 
 expression of faith upon a jaerson becoming 
 a Muhammadan. ( Mishkat , book iv. ch. xvi.) 
 [prayers.] 
 
 TASHRIQ Lit. “ Drying 
 
 flesh in the sun.” A name given to three 
 days after the sacrifice at Makkah during the 
 Pilgrimage, either because the flesh of the 
 victim is then dried, or because they are not 
 slain until sunrise, [hajj.] 
 
 TASLIM The benediction 
 
 at the close of the usual form of prayer, “ As- 
 salamu ‘alaikum iva rahmatu ’Hah /” 
 
TASMI* 
 
 TAURAT 
 
 629 
 
 6li\ “ The peace and mercy of 
 
 God be with you.” [praters.] 
 
 TASMr (£**~A'). The following- 
 
 ejaculation which is recited by the Imam in 
 the daily prayers: “ God hears him who 
 praises Him.” [prayers.] 
 
 TASMIYAH (**♦.-?). Lit. “ Giving a 
 
 name.” (1) A title given to the Basmallah, or 
 the initial sentence,)“ In the name of God, the 
 Compassionate, the Merciful.” This occurs 
 at the commencement of each chapter or 
 Surah of the Qur'an, with the exception of 
 the rxth Surah, [qur’an.] (2) Also used 
 at the commencement of any religious act 
 (except sacrifice), such as prayer, ablutions, 
 &c. (3) The usual “ grace before meat,” 
 
 amongst Muslims, [bismillah.] 
 
 TASNIM Lit. “ Anything 
 
 convex and shelving at both sides.” The 
 name of a fountain in Paradise mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, Surah lxxxiii. 28: “ Mingled 
 therewith shall be the waters of Tasnim." 
 
 TASWlB (s-Repeating the 
 
 phrase, “ As-salatu khairun mina 'n-ndum ” 
 (i.e. “Prayer is better than sleep”), in the 
 Azan for the early morning prayer, [azan, 
 [prater.] 
 
 TATAWWIJ 1 Au acfc of 
 
 supererogation. A term which includes both 
 the sunnah and najl actions of the Muslim 
 (q.v.). 
 
 at-TATFIF (oh^aksJl). “ Giving 
 
 Short Measure.” The title of the Lxxxmrd 
 Surah of the Qur’an, beginning with the 
 words: 
 
 “ Woe to those who stint the measure : 
 
 Who when they take by measure from 
 others, exact the full; 
 
 But when they mete to them or weigh to 
 them, minish— 
 
 Have they no thought that they shall be 
 raised again 
 For a great day.” 
 
 We learn from the Itqan that some com¬ 
 mentators see in this passage allusions to 
 
 Madinah circumstances, and consequently 
 think that the Surah, or at least part of it, 
 was revealed in that town. But in connec¬ 
 tion with such obviously Makkan verses, as 
 30 and following, where it is said : 
 
 “ The sinners, indeed, laugh the faithful to 
 scorn, 
 
 And when they pass by them, they wink at 
 one another, 
 
 And when they return to their own people, 
 they return jesting, 
 
 And when they see them, they say, ‘ Verily 
 these are the erring ones ’ ”— 
 
 it appears evident, that the pride and arro¬ 
 gance of the Makkans, founded on their ill- 
 gotten wealth, is contrasted with the humble 
 and precarious condition of the followers of 
 Muhammad, to convey at the same time a 
 solemn warning, that the positions will be 
 reversed on the Great Day of Reckoning. 
 
 TATHlR A purifying or 
 
 cleansing of anything which is ceremonially 
 unclean. For example, if a dog drinks from 
 a vessel, it becomes najis, or “ impure,” but 
 it can be purified ( [tatjfir ) by washing it seven 
 times. A mosque which has been defiled can 
 be cleansed with dry earth or water, and by 
 recitals from the Qur’an. If the boots on the 
 feet have been defiled, they can be purified 
 by rubbing them on dry earth. 
 
 Bara’ ibn ‘Azib says that Muhammad 
 taught that the micturation of an animal 
 lawful for food does not render clothes cere¬ 
 monially unclean. ( Mishkat , book iii. ch. 
 ix.) [purification.] 
 
 TATTOOING. Muhammad for¬ 
 bade the custom of the idolaters of Arabia to 
 prick the hands of their women and to rub 
 the punctures over with wood, indigo, and 
 other colours. ( Mishkat , book xii. ch. i. 
 pt. 1.) 
 
 TAUBAH (*>y). (1) Repentance. 
 
 (2) At-Taubah, a title of the ixth Surah of 
 the Qur’an, [pardon, repentance.] 
 
 at-TAUBATU ’N-NASUH 
 
 Lit. “ Sincere repentance.” 
 A term used by divines for true repentance 
 of the heart, as distinguished from that only 
 of the lips. 
 
 TATJHlD (A^-y). A term used to 
 express the unity of the Godhead, which is the 
 great fundamental basis of the religion of 
 Muhammad, [god.] 
 
 TAUJlH Any pious eja¬ 
 
 culation recited by the pious before or after 
 the Takblr. ( Mishkat , book iv. ch. xii.) 
 [prater.] 
 
 TAURAT (t^y). The title given 
 in the Qur’an (Surah iii. 2), and in all Mu¬ 
 hammadan works, for the Books of Moses. 
 
 It is the Hebrew min Torah, “ the Law.” 
 
 T 
 
 The author of the Kashfu ’g-Zunun (the 
 
TAXATION 
 
 630 AT-TATTWAB 
 
 bibliograpMcal dictionary of Haji Khalifah), 
 says:— 
 
 “ The Tanrat is the inspired book which 
 God gave to Moses, and of which there are 
 three well-known editions. (1) The Tauratu 
 ’ s-Saba‘in , • the Torah of the Seventy,' which 
 was translated from the Hebrew into Greek 
 by seventy-two learned Jews. (It is admitted 
 by Christian writers jthat the Law, i.e. the 
 Pentaiench, alone was translated first). It 
 has since been translated into Syriac and 
 Arabic. (2) The Tauratu 7- Qarrcrin ira Rab- 
 bamyin, • the Tanrat of the learned doctors 
 and rabbins.' (3) The Tauratu 's-Samirah, 
 
 ‘ The Samaritan Pentateuch.’ ” 
 
 The same writer says the learned who have 
 examined these editions of the Tanrat, found 
 that although they agreed with each other 
 and taught the unity of God, they do not 
 contain an account of the stated prayers, 
 the fast, the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and 
 almsgiving, nor anything regarding heaven 
 or hell, which is, he adds, a proof of the 
 Tanrat having been altered by the Jews. 
 (Kashfu ’z-Zunun, Fliigel’s edition, vol. ii. 
 p. 459.) 
 
 Although Muhammad professed to establish 
 the Tanrat of Moses (see Qur’an, Surahs ii. 
 ISO: in. 78; iv. 135), it would appear from 
 the Traditions that he did not view with 
 favour the reading of it in his presence. 
 
 It is related that 'Umar once brought a copy 
 of the Tanrat to the Prophet, and said, “ This 
 is a copy of the Tanrat.” Muhammad was 
 silent, and ‘Umar was about to read some 
 portions of it. Then Abu Bakr said, “ Your 
 mother weeps for yon. Don’t you see the 
 Prophet’s face look angry.” Then ‘Umar 
 looked, and he saw the Prophet was angry, 
 and he said, •• God protect me from the anger 
 of God and of His Apostle. I am satisfied 
 with God as my Lord, Islam as my creed, and 
 Muhammad as my Prophet.” Then Muham¬ 
 mad said, “ If Moses were alive and found my 
 propheey, he would follow me.” [old tes- 
 TAME5T.] 
 
 at-TAL \\ AB (w!yM). Literally 
 
 “ One who turns frequently,” hence •• the Re¬ 
 lenting.” One of the ninety-nine names or 
 attributes of God. Preceded by the article, 
 as a name of God, it occurs four times in the 
 Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii 35, 51, 122. 155), and 
 twice in the Suratu f-Taubah (ix. 105. 119). 
 In three of these passages, God’s relenting 
 mercy is illustrated by striking instances 
 taken from ancient and contemporaneous his¬ 
 tory, viz. in the case of Adam, of the Jews 
 after their worshipping the golden calf, and 
 of the three men who did not accompany 
 Muhammad in the expedition to Tabuk, and 
 who, put under interdiction after his return, 
 were not released from it till after fifty days 
 of penance. 
 
 Surah ii 35 : “ And words of prayer learned 
 Adam from his Lord: and God relented to¬ 
 wards him : verily, He is the Relenting, the 
 Merciful” 
 
 Surah ii. 51: “ And remember when Moses 
 said to his people : 1 0 my people ! verily ye 
 
 have sinned to your own hurt, by your taking 
 to yourself the calf to worship it: Be turned 
 then to your Creator, and slay the guilty 
 among you; this will be best for you with 
 your Creator.’ So he relented towards you : 
 verily He is the Relenting, the Merciful” 
 
 Surah iv. 119: “ He has also turned in 
 Mercy unto the three who were left behind, 
 so that the earth, spacious as it is, became 
 too strait for them: and their souls became 
 so straitened within them, that there was no 
 refuge from God but unto Himself. Then 
 was He turned to them that they might turn 
 to Him. Yerily, God is He that turneth, the 
 Merciful" 
 
 In the other places, mentioned above, and 
 in two more (Surahs xxiv. 10, and xlix. 12), 
 where the word is used as an adjective with¬ 
 out the article, it describes God as ever 
 ready to turn in forgiveness to man in general 
 and to the Muslim in particular, if they turn 
 in repentance unto him. 
 
 TAWAF (>A A). The ceremony 
 
 of circumambulating the Ka ; bah seven times, 
 three times in a quick step and four at the 
 ordinary pace. It is enjoined in the Qur’an, 
 Surah xxil 27. Shaikh -Abdu 1-Haqq says 
 it was the custom of the Arabian idolaters to 
 perform the tawaf naked, [hajj.] 
 
 TA‘WlZ (Ay*- ; ). Lit. “ To flee for 
 
 refuge.” An amulet or charm. A gold or 
 silver ease, inclosing quotations from the 
 Qur’an’ or Hadis, and worn upon the breast, 
 arm, neck, or waist, [amulet.] 
 
 TAXATION, There are three 
 
 words used for taxation in Muslim books of 
 law. (1) • Ushr (Auc), “the tenth”; (2) 
 Kharaj i ghi-), “land revenue”; (3) Jizyah 
 “ capitation tax.” 
 
 (1) Lands, the proprietors of which become 
 Muslims, or which the Imam divides among 
 the troops, are • Ushri, or subject to tithe, 
 because it is necessary that something 
 should be imposed and deducted from the 
 subsistence of Muslims, and a tenth is the 
 proportion most suitable to them, as that 
 admits the construction of an oblation or 
 act of piety; and also, because this is the 
 most equitable method, since in this way the 
 amount of what is levied depends upon the 
 actual product of the lands. 
 
 (2) Lands, on the other hand, which the Imam 
 subdues by force of arms and then restores 
 to the people of the conquered territory, are 
 Kharaji. or subject to tribute, because it is 
 necessary that something be imposed and 
 deducted from the subsistence of infidels, 
 and tribute is the most suitable to their 
 situation, as that bears the construction of 
 a punishment, since it is a sort of hardship, 
 the tax upon tribute land being due from 
 the proprietor, although he should not have 
 cultivated it. It is to be remarked, however, 
 that Makkah is excepted from this rule, as 
 Muhammad conquered that territory by force 
 of arms, and then restored it to the inhabi¬ 
 tants without imposing tribute. 
 
 
 
TAXATION 
 
 TA'ZIAH 
 
 631 
 
 It is 'written in the Jami‘u ’?-Sayhir that 
 all land subdued by force of arms, if 
 watered by canals cut by the Gentiles, is 
 subject to tribute, whether the Imam have 
 divided it among the troops, or restored it 
 to the original inhabitants ; and if there be 
 no canals, but the land be watered by 
 springs, which rise within, it is subject to 
 tithe, in either case, because tithe is pecu¬ 
 liar to productive land, that is, land capable 
 of cultivation, and which yields increase, and 
 the increase produced from it is occasioned 
 by water. The standard, therefore, by which 
 tribute is due is the land being watered by 
 tribute water, namely, rivers, and the standard 
 by which tithe is due is the land being watered 
 by tithe water, namely, springs. 
 
 If a person cultivate waste lands, the im¬ 
 position of tithe or tribute upon it (according 
 to Abu Yusuf) is determined by the neigh¬ 
 bouring soils ; in other words, if the neigh¬ 
 bouring lands be subject to tithe, a tithe is ! 
 to be imposed upon it, or tribute if they be 
 subject to tribute ; because the rule respect- ' 
 ing anything is determined by what is nearest ! 
 to it; as in the case of a house, for instance, 
 the rule with respect to it extends to its 
 court-yard, although it be not the owner’s 
 immediate property. The tribute established 
 and imposed by ‘Umar upon the lands of al- 
 ‘Iraq was adjusted as follows :—Upon every 
 jarib of land through which water runs (that 
 is to say, which is capable of cultivation) one 
 sa‘ and one dirham, and upon every jarib 
 of pasture-land five dirhams, and upon every 
 jarib of gardens and orchards ten dirhams, 
 provided they contain vines and date-trees. 
 
 This rule for tribute upon arable and 
 pasture lands, gardens, and orchards, is 
 taken from ‘Umar, who fixed it at the rates 
 above-mentioned, none contradicting him; 
 wherefore it is considered as agreed to by 
 all the Companions. Upon all land of any 
 other description (such as pleasure-grounds, 
 saffron-fields, and so forth) is imposed a 
 tribute according to ability ; since, although 
 ‘Umar has not laid down any particular rule 
 with respect to them, yet as he has made 
 ability the standard of tribute upon arable 
 land, so in the same manner, ability is to be 
 regarded in lands of any other description. 
 The learned in the law allege that the utmost 
 extent of tribute is one half of the actual 
 product, nor is it allowable to exact more ; 
 but the taking of a half is no more than 
 strict justice, and is not tyrannical, because, 
 as it is lawful to take the whole of the per¬ 
 sons and property of infidels, and to dis¬ 
 tribute them among the Muslims, it follows 
 that taking half their incomes is lawful a 
 fortiori. 
 
 (3) ,7tz?/a7i, or capitation-tax, is of two kinds. 
 The first species is that which is established j 
 voluntarily, and by composition, the rate of 
 which is such as may be agreed upon by 
 both parties. The second is that which the 
 Imam himself imposes, where he conquers 
 infidels, and then confirms them in their 
 possessions, the common rate of which is 
 fixed by his imposing upon every avowedly 
 
 rich person a tax of forty-eight dirhams per 
 annum, or four dirhams per month; and 
 upon every person in middling circumstances 
 twenty-four dirhams per annum, or two 
 dirhams per month ; and upon the labouring 
 poor twelve dirhams per annum, or one 
 dirham per month. 
 
 (For further information see Raddu ’l- 
 Muhtdr, vol. ii. 7 ; Fatdwa-i-‘Alamgiri, ii. 860; 
 Hidayuh, vol. i. 102.) 
 
 TAYAMMUM ( r ^). Lit, “In¬ 
 tending or proposing to do a thing.” The 
 ceremony of ablution performed with sand 
 instead of water, as in the case of ivazu’. The 
 permission to use sand for this purpose, when 
 water cannot be obtained, is granted in the 
 Qur’an, Surah v. 9:— 
 
 “ If ye cannot find water, then take fine 
 surface sand and wipe your faces and your 
 hands therewith. God does not wish to make 
 any hindrance for you.” 
 
 It is related in the Traditions that Muham¬ 
 mad said : “ God has made me greater than 
 all preceeding prophets, inasmuch as my 
 ranks in worship are like the ranks of angels; 
 and the whole earth is fit for my people to 
 worship on; and the very dust of the earth 
 is fit for purification when water cannot be 
 obtained. ( Mishhat , book iii. ch. xi.) 
 
 Tayammum, or “ purification by sand,” is 
 allowable under the following circumstances : 
 (1) When water cannot be procured except at 
 a distance of about two miles ; (2) in case of 
 sickness when the use of water might be in¬ 
 jurious ; (3) when water cannot be obtained 
 without incurring danger from an enemy, a 
 beast, or a reptile; and (4) when on the 
 occasion of the prayers of a Feast day or at a 
 funeral, the worshipper is late and has no 
 time to perform the wazu’. On ordinary days 
 this substitution of tayammum for ivazii' is not 
 allowable, [wazu’.] 
 
 TA‘ZlAH Lit. “A conso¬ 
 
 lation.” A representation or model of the 
 tomb of Hasan and Husain at Karbala’, car¬ 
 ried in procession at the Muharram by the 
 Shhahs. It is usually made of a fight 
 frame of wood-work, covered with paper, 
 painted and ornamented, and illuminated 
 within and without. It is sometimes of con¬ 
 siderable size and of elaborate execution ac¬ 
 cording to the wealth of the owner, [muhar- 
 RAM.] 
 
632 
 
 ta'zir 
 
 TA ZIR 
 
 TA‘ZIE From ‘azr, “to 
 
 censure or repel.” That discretionary cor¬ 
 rection which is administered for offences, for 
 which Hadd, or “ fixed punishment,” has not 
 been appointed. 
 
 According to the Sunni law the following 
 are the leading principles of Ta‘zlr :— 
 
 Ta‘zir, in its primitive sense, means “ pro¬ 
 hibition,” and also “ instruction ” ; in Law it 
 signifies an infliction undetermined in its 
 degree by the law, on account of the right 
 either of God, or of the individual ; and the 
 occasion of it is any offence for which hadd, 
 or “ stated punishment,” has not been ap¬ 
 pointed, whether that offence consist in word 
 or deed. 
 
 (1) Chastisement is ordained by the law, 
 the institution of it being established on the 
 authority of the Qur’an, which enjoins men 
 to chastise their wives, for the purpose 
 of correction and amendment; and the same 
 also occurs in the Traditions. It is, more¬ 
 over, recorded that the Prophet chastised a 
 person who had called another perjured; and 
 all the Companions agree concerning this. 
 Reason and analogy, moreover, both evince 
 that chastisement ought to be inflicted for 
 acts of an offensive nature, in such a manner 
 that men may not become habituated to the 
 commission of such acts ; for if they were, 
 they might by degrees be led into the per¬ 
 petration of others more atrocious. It is 
 also written in the Fatawa-i-Timur Tashl of 
 Imam Sirukhsh, that in ta‘zlr, or “ chastise¬ 
 ment,” nothing is fixed or determined, but 
 that the degree of it is left to the discretion 
 of the QazI, because the design of it is cor¬ 
 rection, and the dispositions of men with 
 respect to it are different, some being suf¬ 
 ficiently corrected by reprimands, whilst 
 others, more obstinate, require confinement, 
 and even blow T s. 
 
 (2) In the Fatawa-i-Shaft l it is said that 
 there are four orders or degrees of chastise¬ 
 ment :—First, the chastisement proper to the 
 most noble of the noble (or, in other words, 
 princes and men of learning), which consists 
 merely in admonition, as if the QazI were to 
 say to one of them, “ I understand that you 
 have done thus, or thus,” so as to make him 
 ashamed. Secondljq the chastisement proper 
 to the noble (namely, commanders of armies, 
 and chiefs of districts), which may be per¬ 
 formed in two ways, either by admonition (as 
 above), or by jarr, that is, by dragging the 
 offender to the door and exposing him to 
 scorn. Thirdly, the chastisement proper to 
 the middle order (consisting of merchants 
 and shopkeepers), which may be performed 
 by jarr (as above), and also by imprison¬ 
 ment ; and Fourthly, the chastisement proper 
 to the lowest order in the community, which 
 may be performed by jarr, or by imprison¬ 
 ment, and also by blows. 
 
 (3) It is recorded from Abu Yusuf that the 
 ruler of a country may inflict chastisement 
 by means of property, that is, by the exaction 
 of a small sum in the manner of a fine, pro¬ 
 portioned to the offence; but this doctrine is 
 rejected by many of the learned. 
 
 (4) Imam Timur Tashl says that chastise¬ 
 ment, where it is incurred purely as the right 
 of God, may be inflicted by any person what¬ 
 ever; for Abu Ja'far Hinduanl, being asked 
 whether a man, finding another in the act of 
 adultery with his wife, might slay him, re¬ 
 plied, “If the husband know that expostu¬ 
 lation and beating will be sufficient to deter 
 the adulterer from a future repetition of his 
 offence, he must not slay him; but if he sees 
 reason to suppose that nothing but death 
 will prevent a repetition of the offence, in 
 such case it is allowed to the husband to 
 slay that man: and if the woman were con¬ 
 senting to his act, it is allowed to her husband 
 to slay her also ; ” from which it appears that 
 any man is empowered to chastise another 
 by blows, even though there be no magistrate 
 present. He has demonstrated this fully in 
 the Muntafi‘ / and the reason of it is that the 
 chastisement in question is of the class of 
 the removal of evil with the hand, and the 
 Prophet has authorized every person to re¬ 
 move evil with the hand, as he has said: 
 “ Whosoever among ye see the evil, let him 
 remedy it with his own hands ; but if he be 
 unable so to do, let him forbid it with his 
 tongue.” Chastisement, therefore, is evidently 
 contrary to punishment, since authority to 
 inflict the latter does not appertain to any but 
 a magistrate or a judge. This species of chas¬ 
 tisement is also contrary to the chastisement 
 which is incurred on account of the right of 
 the individual (such as in cases of slander, 
 and so forth), since that depends upon the 
 complaint of the injured party, whence no 
 person can inflict it but the magistrate, even 
 under a private arbitration, where the plain¬ 
 tiff and defendant may have referred the 
 decision of the matter to any third person. 
 
 (5) Chastisement, in any instance in which 
 it is authorized by the law, is to be inflicted 
 where the Imam sees it advisable. 
 
 (6) If a person accuse of whoredom a male 
 or female slave, an ummu 'l-walad, or an infidel, 
 he is to be chastised, because this accusation 
 is an offensive accusation, and punishment for 
 slander is not incurred by it, as the condition, 
 namely, Ihsan (or marriage in the sense which 
 induces punishment for slander), is not at¬ 
 tached to the accused : chastisement, there¬ 
 fore, is to be inflicted. And in the same 
 manner, if any person accuse a Muslim of 
 any other thing than whoredom (that is, 
 abuse him, by calling him a reprobate, or a 
 villain, or an infidel, or a thief), chastisement 
 is incurred, because he injures a Muslim 
 and defames him; and punishment (hadd) 
 cannot be considered as due from analogy, 
 since analogy has no concern with the 
 necessity of punishment: chastisement, there¬ 
 fore, is to be inflicted. Where the aggrieved 
 party is a slave, or so forth, the chastisement 
 must be inflicted to the extremity of it: but 
 in the case of abuse of a Muslim, the 
 measure of the chastisement is left to the 
 discretion of the magistrate, be it more or 
 less ; and whatever he sees proper let him 
 inflict, 
 
TA C ZIE 
 
 633 
 
 (7) If a person abuse a Muslim, by calling 
 him an ass, or a hog, in this case chas¬ 
 tisement is not incurred, because these ex¬ 
 pressions are in no respect defamatory of 
 the person towards whom they are used, it 
 being evident that he is neither an ass nor a 
 hog. Some allege that, in our time, chas¬ 
 tisement is inflicted, since, in the modern 
 acceptation, calling a man an ass or a hog 
 is held to be abuse. Others, again, allege that 
 it is esteemed such only where the person 
 towards whom such expressions are used 
 happens to be of dignified rank (such as a 
 prince, or a man of letters), in which case 
 chastisement must be inflicted upon the 
 abuser, as by so speaking he exposes that 
 person of rank to contempt; but if he be 
 only a common person, chastisement is not 
 incurred: and this is the most approved 
 doctrine. 
 
 (8) The greatest number of stripes in 
 chastisement is thirty-nine (see 2 Cor. xi. 24), 
 and the smallest number is three. This is 
 according to Abu Hanifah and Imam Mu¬ 
 hammad. Abu Yusuf says that the greatest 
 number of stripes in chastisement is seventy- 
 five. The restriction to thirty-nine stripes is 
 founded on a saying of the Prophet: “The 
 man who shall inflict scourging to the 
 amount of punishment, in a case where pun¬ 
 ishment is not established, shall be accounted 
 an aggravator ” (meaning a wanton aggra- 
 vator of punishment), from which saying it 
 is to be inferred that the infliction of a num¬ 
 ber of stripes in chastisement, to the same 
 amount as in punishment, is unlawful; and 
 this being admitted, Abu Hanifah and Imam 
 Muhammad, in order to determine the utmost 
 extent of chastisement, consider what is the 
 smallest punishment: and this is punishment 
 for slander with respect to a slave, which is 
 forty stripes; they therefore deduct there¬ 
 from one stripe, and establish thirty-nine as 
 the greatest number to be inflicted in chas¬ 
 tisement. Abu Yusuf, on the other hand, 
 has regard to the smallest punishment with 
 respect to freemen (as freedom is the original 
 state of man), which is eighty stripes ; he 
 therefore deducts fi ve, and establishes seventy- 
 five as the greatest number to be inflicted in 
 chastisement as aforesaid, because the same 
 is recorded of ‘All, whose example Abu Yusuf 
 follows in this instance. It is in one place 
 recorded of Abu Yusuf that he deducted only 
 one stripe, and declared the utmost number 
 of stripes in chastisement to be seventy-nine. 
 Such, also, is the opinion of Zafr ; and this is 
 agreeable to analogy. Imam Muhammad, in 
 his book, has determined the smallest num¬ 
 ber of stripes in chastisement to be three, 
 because in fewer there is no chastisement. 
 The more modern doctors assert that the 
 smallest degree of chastisement must be left to 
 the judgment of the Imam or QazI, who is 
 to inflict whatever he may deem sufficient for 
 chastisement, which is different with respect 
 to different men. It is recorded of Abu 
 Yusuf that he has alleged that the degree 
 thereof is in proportion to the degree of the 
 offence; and it is also recorded from him j 
 
 ta'zie 
 
 that the chastisement for petty offences 
 should be inflicted to a degree approaching 
 to the punishment allotted for offences of a 
 similar nature; thus the chastisement for 
 libidinous acts (such as kissing and touch¬ 
 ing), is to be inflicted to a degree approaching 
 to punishment for whoredom; and the chas¬ 
 tisement for abusive language to a degree 
 approaching to punishment for slander. 
 
 (9) If the QazI deem it fit in chastisement 
 to unite imprisonment with scourging, it is 
 lawful for him to do both, since imprison¬ 
 ment is of itself capable of constituting 
 chastisement, and has been so employed, for 
 the Prophet once imprisoned a person by way 
 of chastising him. But as imprisonment is 
 thus capable of constituting chastisement, in 
 offences where chastisement is incurred by 
 their being established, imprisonment is not 
 lawful before the offence be proved, merely 
 upon suspicion, since imprisonment is in 
 itself a chastisement: contrary to offences 
 which induce punishment, for there the ac¬ 
 cused may be lawfully imprisoned upon 
 suspicion, as chastisement is short of punish¬ 
 ment (whence the sufficiency of imprisonment 
 alone in chastisement) ; and such being the 
 case, it is lawful to unite imprisonment with 
 blows. 
 
 (10) The severest blows or stripes may be 
 used in chastisement, because, as regard is 
 had to lenity with respect to the number of 
 the stripes, lenity is not to be regarded with 
 respect to the nature of them, for otherwise 
 the design would be defeated ; and hence, 
 lenity is not shown in chastisement by in¬ 
 flicting the blows or stripes upon different 
 parts or members of the body. And next to 
 chastisement, the severest blows or stripes 
 are to be inflicted in punishment for whore¬ 
 dom, as that is instituted in the Qur’an. 
 Whoredom, moreover, is a deadly sin, in¬ 
 somuch that lapidation for it has been 
 ordained by the law. And next to punish¬ 
 ment for whoredom, the severest blows or 
 stripes are to be inflicted in punishment for 
 wine-drinking, as the occasion of punish¬ 
 ment is there fully certified. And next to 
 punishment for wine-drinking, the severity 
 of the blows or stripes is to be attended to in 
 punishment for slander, because there is a 
 doubt in respect to the occasion of the 
 punishment (namely, the accusation), as an 
 accusation may be either false or true ; and 
 also, because severity is here observed, in 
 disqualifying the slanderer from appearing 
 as an evidence : wherefore severity is not 
 also to be observed in the nature of the 
 blows or stripes. 
 
 (11) If the magistrate inflict either punish¬ 
 ment or chastisement upon a person, and the 
 sufferer should die in consequence of such 
 punishment or chastisement, his blood is 
 Nadar, that is to say, nothing whatever is 
 due upon it, because the magistrate is autho¬ 
 rized therein, and what he does is done by 
 decree of the law; and an act which is 
 decreed is not restricted to the condition of 
 safety. This is analogous to a case of phle¬ 
 botomy ; that is to say, if any person desire 
 
 80 
 
634 
 
 TAZKTYAH 
 
 TOLERATION 
 
 to be let blood, and should die, the operator 
 is in no respect responsible for his death: and 
 so here also. It is contrary, however, to the 
 ease of a husband inflicting chastisement upon 
 his wife, for his act is restricted to safety, as 
 it is only allowed to a husband to chastise 
 his wife: and an act which is only allowed 
 is restricted to the condition of safety, like 
 walking upon the highway. Ash-ShaiH main¬ 
 tains that, in this case, the fine of blood is 
 due from the public treasury: because, 
 although where chastisement or punishment 
 prove destructive, it is homicide by misad¬ 
 venture (as the intention is not the destruc¬ 
 tion, but the amendment of the sufferer), yet 
 a fine is due from the public treasury, since 
 the advantage of the act of the magistrate 
 extends to the public at large, wherefore the 
 atonement is due from then- property, namely, 
 from the public treasury. The HanafI doc¬ 
 tors. on the other hand, say that whenever 
 the magistrate inflicts a punishment or¬ 
 dained of God upon any person, and that 
 person dies, it is the same as if he had died 
 by the visitation of God, without any visible 
 cause: wherefore there is no responsibility 
 for it. (See the HidayaJi : the Durru 7- 
 J lukhtar: the Fatdwd-i-‘JJamffin. in loco.) 
 [pcxismiEXT.] 
 
 TAZKIYAH (S^y). Lit. “Purify¬ 
 
 ing." (1) Giving the legal alms, or zakdt. 
 
 (2) The purgation of witnesses. (See 
 Hamilton's Hi Jay ah. vol. ii. p. 671.) An 
 institution of inquiry into the character of 
 witnesses. 
 
 TAZ WTJ (jri*y"). Lit. “ Joining.” 
 A term used for a marriage contract, [mar¬ 
 riage.] 
 
 TE4IPLE AT MAKKAH, The. 
 
 [masjidc ’l-haram.] 
 
 TERAH. [azak.] 
 
 THEFT, [laecexy.] 
 
 THEOLOGY. Arabic al-‘Ihnu 7- 
 IlJhi (*^)> ‘‘The Science of 
 
 God." In the Traditions, the term -Ilm. 
 “ knowledge," is specially applied to the 
 knowledge of the Qur'an. 
 
 Shaikh • Abdu 7-Haqq. in his remarks on 
 the term -Ilm. says religious knowledge con¬ 
 sists in an acquaintance with the Qur'an and 
 the Traditions of Muhammad. 
 
 Muhammadan theology may be divided 
 into— 
 
 (1) ‘Ilmu 't-Ta fsir. a knowledge of the 
 Qur'an and the commentaries thereon. 
 
 (2) ‘limit 'l-Hadis, a knowledge of the 
 Traditions. 
 
 (8) ‘limit 'l-Usiil. a knowledge of the roots, 
 or of the four principles of the foundations of 
 Muslim law. being expositions of the exegesis 
 of the Qur'an and the Hadis, and the principles 
 of lima 1 and Qiyas. 
 
 (4) ‘limit 'l-Fiqh. Muslim law, whether 
 moral, civil, or ceremonial. 
 
 (5) ‘limu 7 -‘Aqdid. scholastic theology, 
 founded on the six articles of the Muslim 
 
 creed, the Unity of God, the Angels, the 
 Books, the Prophets, the Resurrection, and 
 Predestination. [tlai.] 
 
 THEADER. Arabic Ea‘d (acj). 
 
 In the Qur'an. Surah xiii. 13, 14. it is said: 
 •• He (God) it is who shows you the lightning 
 for fear and hope (of rain) ; and He brings up 
 heavy clouds, and the thunder celebrates His 
 praise ; and the angels, too, fear him, and He 
 sends the thunder-clap and overtakes there¬ 
 with whom He will; yet they wrangle about 
 God! But He is strong in might.” 
 
 at-tibbe ’r-ruhani 
 
 Lit. “ The science (medical) 
 
 of the heart.” A term used by the Sufis for 
 a knowledge of the heart and of remedies for 
 its health. (See Kitabu 't-Ta‘rijat.) 
 
 TILAWAH (S/A?). Lit. "Reading.” 
 
 The reading of the Qur'an, [qur'ax.] 
 
 at-TIH (e~5\). “ The Fig.” The 
 
 title of the xevth Surah of the Qur’an, the 
 J opening words of which are: I swear by 
 the jig and by the olive.” 
 
 TliSTATU 'L-KHABAL 
 
 Lit. i; The clay of putrid 
 
 matter." The sweat of the people of helL 
 An expression used in the Traditions. (Mish- 
 Icat. book xv. ch. vii. pt. 1.) 
 
 at-TIRMIZI 6-vyM). The Jdrni'u 
 
 ’ t-Tirmizi , or the “Collection of Tirmizr.” 
 One of the six correct books of Sunni tradi¬ 
 tions collected by Abu -Isa Muhammad ibn 
 •Isa ibn Saurah at-Tirmizi, who was born at 
 Tirmiz on the banks of the Jaihun, a.h. 
 209. Died a.h. 279. [tkamtioxs.] 
 
 TITHE, [taxation.] 
 
 TOBACCO. Arabic dukhan (<yU-o) 
 
 (smoke). In some parts of Syria tabagh (jtA) 
 and tutun : in India and Central Asia, 
 
 tamaku. corruption of the Persian tambal-ii 
 ( AQa?). Tobacco was introduced into Tur¬ 
 key, Arabia, and other parts of Asia soon 
 after the beginning ef the seventeeth cen¬ 
 tury of the Christian era. and very soon after 
 it had begun to be regularly imported from 
 America into western Europe. Its lawfulness 
 to the Muslim is warmly disputed. The 
 Wahhabis have always maintained its un¬ 
 lawfulness. and even other Muslims hardly 
 contend for its lawfulness, but it has become 
 generally used in Muslim countries. In India, 
 smoking is allowed in mosques: but in Af¬ 
 ghanistan and Central Asia, it is generally 
 forbidden. The celebrated Muslim leader, 
 the Akhund of Swat, although an opponent 
 of the Wahhabis, condemned the use of 
 tobacco on account of its exhilarating effects. 
 
 TOLER ATIOX, RELIGIOHS. 
 
 Muhammadan writers are unanimous in 
 asserting that no religious toleration was 
 extended to the idolaters of Arabia in the 
 time of the Prophet. The only choice given 
 them was death or the reception of Islam 
 
TOLERATION 
 
 TOMBS 
 
 But they are not agreed as to how far 
 idolatry should be tolerated amongst peoples 
 not of Arabia. Still, as a matter of fact, 
 Hindus professing idolatry are tolerated in 
 all Muslim countries. Jews, Christians, and 
 Majusis are tolerated upon the payment of 
 a capitation tax [jizyah, treaty]. Persons 
 paying this tax are called Zimmis, and enjoy 
 a certain toleration. (Fatawa-i- 1 Alamgiri, 
 yoI. i. p. 807.) [zevimi.] 
 
 According to the Hanafis, the following 
 restrictions are ordained regarding those who 
 do not profess Islam, but enjoy protection on 
 payment of the tax 
 
 It behoves the Imam to make a distinction 
 between Muslims and Zimmls, in point both 
 of dress and of equipage. It is, therefore, 
 not allowable for Zimmls to ride upon 
 horses, or to use armour, or to use the same 
 saddles and wear the same garments or head¬ 
 dresses as Muslims, and it is written in the 
 Jami‘u ’ s-Saghir , that Zimmls must be 
 directed to wear the kistlj openly on the 
 outside of their clothes (the kistlj is a 
 woollen cord or belt which Zimmls wear 
 round their waists on the outside of their 
 garments); and also that they must be 
 directed, if they ride upon any animal, to 
 provide themselves a saddle like the panniers 
 of an ass. 
 
 The reason for this distinction in point of 
 clothing and so forth, and the direction to 
 wear the kistlj openly, is that Muslims are 
 to be held in honour (whence it is they are 
 not saluted first, it being the duty of the 
 highest in rank to salute first [salutation]), 
 and if there were no outward signs to dis¬ 
 tinguish Muslims from Zimmls, these might 
 be treated with the same respect, which is 
 not allowed. It is to be observed that the 
 insignia incumbent upon them to wear is 
 a woollen rope or cord tied round the waist, 
 and not a silken belt. 
 
 It is requisite that the wives of Zimmls 
 be kept separate from the wives of Muslims, 
 both in the public roads, and also in the 
 baths ; and it is also requisite that a mark 
 be set upon their dwellings, in order that 
 beggars who come to their doors may not 
 pray for them. The learned have also re¬ 
 marked that it is fit that Zimmls be not 
 permitted to ride at all, except in cases of 
 absolute necessity, and if a Zimmi be thus, 
 of necessity, allowed to ride, he must alight 
 wherever he sees any Muslims assembled ; 
 and, as mentioned before, if there be a neces¬ 
 sity for him to use a saddle, it must be made 
 in the manner of the panniers of an ass. 
 Zimmls of the higher orders must also be 
 prohibited from wearing rich garments. 
 
 The construction of churches or syna¬ 
 gogues in the Muslim territory is unlawful, 
 this being forbidden in the Traditions ; but 
 if places of worship originally belonging to 
 Jews or Christians be destroyed, or fall to 
 decay, they are at liberty to repair them, 
 because buildings cannot endure for ever, 
 and as the Imam has left these people to the 
 exercise of their own religion, it is a neces¬ 
 sary inference that he has engaged not to 
 
 635 
 
 prevent them from rebuilding or repairing 
 their churches and synagogues. If, however, 
 they attempt to remove these, and to build 
 them in a place different from their former 
 situation, the Imam must prevent them, 
 since this is an actual construction ; and the 
 places which they use as hermitages are 
 held in the same light as their churches, 
 wherefore the construction of those also is 
 unlawful. 
 
 It is otherwise with respect to such places 
 of prayer as are within their dwellings, which 
 they are not prohibited from constructing, 
 because these are an appurtenance to the 
 habitation. What is here said is the rule 
 with respect to cities, but not with respect 
 to villages or hamlets, because, as the tokens 
 of Islam (such as public prayer, festivals, and 
 so forth) appear in cities, Zimmis should not 
 be permitted to celebrate the tokens of infi¬ 
 delity there in the face of them ; but as the 
 tokens of Islam do not appear in villages 
 or hamlets, there is no occasion to prevent 
 the construction of synagogues or churches 
 there. 
 
 Some allege that Zimmis are to be prohi¬ 
 bited from constructing churches or syna¬ 
 gogues, not only in cities but also in villages 
 and hamlets, because in the villages various 
 tokens of Islam appear, and what is recorded 
 from Abu Hanifah (that the prohibition 
 against building churches and synagogues is 
 confined to cities, and does not extend to 
 villages and hamlets) relates solely to the 
 villages of al-Kufah, because the greater part 
 of the inhabitants of villages are Zimmls,there 
 being few Muslims among them, wherefore 
 the tokens of Islam did not there appear ; 
 moreover, in the territory of Arabia Zimmls 
 are prohibited from constructing churches 
 or synagogues, either in cities or villages, 
 because the Prophet has said: “ Two religions 
 cannot be possessed together in the peninsula 
 of Arabia.” (See Fatawa-i - 1 Alamgiri, Durru 
 ’ l-Mukhtar , Hidayah, in loco.) [ zemmi .] 
 
 TOMBS. The erection of tombs 
 
 and monuments over the graves of Muslims 
 is forbidden by the strict laws of Islam. For 
 the teaching of the Traditions on the subject 
 is unmistakable, as will be seen by the fol¬ 
 lowing Ahadis ( Mishkat , book v. ch. vi. 
 pt. 1): 
 
 Jabir says: “ The Prophet prohibited 
 
 building with mortar on graves.” 
 
 Abu T-Haiyaj al-Asadl relates that the 
 Khallfah ‘All said to him : “ Shall I not give 
 you the orders which the Prophet gave me, 
 namely, to destroy all pictures and images, 
 and not to leave a single lofty tomb without 
 lowering it within a span from the ground.” 
 
 Sa‘d ibn Abl Waqqas said, when he was 
 ill: “ Make me a grave towards Makkah, and 
 put unburnt bricks upon it, as was done upon 
 the Prophet’s.” 
 
 The Wahhabis consequently forbid the 
 erection of monuments, and when they took 
 possession of al-Madmah, they intended to 
 destroy the handsome building which covers 
 the grave of the Prophet, but were prevented 
 
TOMBS 
 
 TOMBS 
 
 636 
 
 by accident. (See Burton’s Pilgrimage, vol. i. 
 p. 354.) [WAHHABI.] 
 
 But notwithstanding the general consensus 
 of orthodox opinion, that the erection of such 
 buildings is unlawful, domed tombs of sub¬ 
 stantial structure, similar to the illustration 
 given on this page, are common to all Mu¬ 
 hammadan countries, and masonry tombs are 
 always erected over the graves of persons of 
 respectability. 
 
 Some have a head-stone, in which there 
 are recesses for small oil lamps, which are 
 lighted every Thursday evening. Persons of 
 distinction are generally honoured with tombs 
 constructed with domes. The specimens given 
 in the illustrations are common to all parts of 
 the Muslim world. 
 
 The most common form of structure is not 
 dissimilar to that which is erected in Christian 
 cemeteries, but it is usual to put a head-stone 
 to the grave of a male on which is a figure 
 representing the turban as a sign of authority. 
 Sometimes there is a cavity in the top of the 
 grave-stone filled with mould, in which 
 flowers are planted. 
 
 Writing of the grave-yards of Damascus, 
 Mr. Wellsted says : “ I know of nothing which 
 displays the Moslem character to more ad¬ 
 vantage than the care they bestow on their 
 bnrial-grounds. On Friday, the Moslem Sun¬ 
 day, those of Damascus afford at once a 
 touching and animated scene. The site 
 selected for the remains of those most che¬ 
 rished in life is generally picturesquely 
 situated, in some lower spot, beneath the lofty 
 cypress or quivering poplar. Here a head¬ 
 stone of marble, covered with inscriptions, 
 and of a male, surmounted with a turban, 
 mingles with costlier buildings, of an oblong 
 form, very tastefully and elaborately inscribed 
 with sentences from the Koran. The greatest 
 care is observed in preserving these sepul¬ 
 chral monuments. A small aperture is left 
 in some portions, which is filled with earth, 
 and in them the females plant myrtle and 
 other flowers, and not infrequently water 
 them with then- tears. On the day I have 
 named, they may be perceived in groups, 
 hastening to perform the sad but pleasing 
 office of mourning for the departed.’ (Travels 
 to the City of the Calij)hs, vol. i. p. 348.) 
 
 Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, vol. i. p. 433) 
 says the tomb “ is a hollow, oblong vault, one 
 side of which faces Mekkeh, generally large 
 enough to contain four or more bodies, and 
 having an oblong monument of stone or brick 
 constructed over it with a stela at the head 
 and foot. Upon the former of these two 
 stelae (which is often inscribed with a text 
 from the Kur-an, and the name of the de¬ 
 ceased, with the date of his death), a turban, 
 or other head-dress, is sometimes carved, shew¬ 
 ing the rank or class of the person or persons 
 buried beneath ; and in many cases, a cupola, 
 supported by four walls, or by columns, &c., 
 is constructed over the smaller monument. 
 The body is laid on its right side, or inclined 
 by means of a few crude bricks, so that the 
 face is turned towards Mekkeh; and a person 
 is generally employed to dictate to the de¬ 
 ceased the answers which he should give 
 when he is examined by the two angels 
 Munkir and Nekeer.” [talqin.] 
 
 The tombs of the imperial family of 
 Turkey are amongst the most interesting 
 sights of the city of Constantinople. They 
 
TOMBS 
 
 tom£s 
 
 are principally erected in the outer courts of 
 mosques and behind the mihrab. One of the 
 finest of these mausoleums is that of Sultan 
 Sulaiman I., who died a.d. 1566. It is an 
 octagonal building of divers coloured marbles, 
 with cupola and fluted roof; four pillars 
 support the dome, which is elaborately 
 painted in red and delicate arabesque. It 
 contains the remains of three Sultans, Sulai¬ 
 man I., Sulaiman II., and Ahmad II., besides 
 some female members of the family. The 
 biers are decorated with rich embroideries 
 and costly shawls, and with turbans and 
 aigrettes; and that of Sulaiman I. is sur¬ 
 rounded by a railing inlaid with mother-of- 
 pearl. 
 
 The mausoleum of the Emperor Jahangir 
 at Shahdarrah, near Lahore, is one of the 
 finest Muhammadan tombs in the world. It 
 is situated in a garden 1,600 feet square. 
 There is, first, a fine corridor 233 feet long, 
 from which to the central dome is 108 feet. 
 The passage to the tomb is paved with beau¬ 
 tifully streaked marble from Jaipur and 
 other places. The sarcophagus stands on a 
 white marble platform, 13 feet 5 inches long, 
 from north to south, and 8 feet 9 inches 
 broad. The sarcophagus itself is of white 
 marble, and is 7 feet long. On the east and 
 west sides of it are the ninety-nine names of 
 God. [god, names of] most beautifully 
 carved, and on the south side is inscribed: 
 “ The glorious tomb of His High Majesty, 
 the Asylum of Protectors, Nuru ’d-dln Mu¬ 
 hammad, the Emperor Jihangir, a.h. 1037 
 (a.d. 1627). On the north end of the tomb is 
 in Arabic, “ Allah the Living God. There 
 is no deity but God over the invisible world 
 and all things. He is the Merciiul and the 
 Compassionate.” On the top is a short pas¬ 
 sage from the Qur’an, written in beautiful 
 Tughra. The central dome of the building 
 is 27 feet square, and on the four sides there 
 are fine screens of trellis work. Just inside 
 the entrance, and to the right of it, is a stair¬ 
 case with twenty-five steps, which leads up 
 to a magnificent tesselated pavement, at each 
 corner of which is a minaret 95 feet high 
 from the platform. This platform is 211 feet 
 6 inches square, and is truly beautiful. A 
 marble wall ran round the pavement, but it 
 was taken away by the Sikhs, and it has been 
 replaced by a poor substitute of masonry. 
 The minarets are four storeys high, and are 
 built of magnificent blocks of stone 8 feet 
 by 61 feet, and in them are steps leading to 
 the top of the building, from which there is 
 a fine view of Lahore. 
 
 The tomb of Ahmad Shah Abdali at Kan¬ 
 dahar, is an octagonal structure, overlaid 
 with coloured porcelain bricks, and is sur¬ 
 mounted with a gilded dome, surrounded by 
 small minarets. The pavement inside is 
 covered with a carpet, and the sarcophagus 
 of the Afghan king is covered with a shawl. 
 The tomb itself is made of Kandahar stone, 
 inlaid with wreaths of flowers in coloured 
 marble. The interior walls are prettily 
 painted and the windows are of fine trellis 
 work in stone. 
 
 637 
 
 The sepulchre of the Taimur, who died 
 a.d. 1405, is at Samarkand in Bukharah, and 
 is described by M. Vambery as a neat little 
 chapel crowned with a splendid dome, and 
 encircled by a wall in which there is an 
 arched gate. On both sides are two small 
 domes, minature representations of the large 
 one in the centre. The court-yard between 
 the wall and the chapel is filled with trees ; 
 the garden being much neglected. Upon 
 entering the dome, there is a vestibule which 
 leads to the chapel itself. This is octagonal, 
 and about ten short paces in diameter. In 
 the middle, under the dome, that is to say, 
 in the place of honour, there are two tombs, 
 placed lengthways, with the head in the 
 direction of Makkah. One of these tombs is 
 covered with a very fine stone of a dark 
 green colour, two and a half spans broad and 
 ten long, and about the thickness of six 
 fingers. It is laid flat in two pieces over the 
 grave of Taimur. The other grave is 
 covered with a black stone. It is the tomb 
 of Mir Syud Bakar, the teacher and spiritual 
 guide of Taimur, and beside whose grave the 
 great Ameer gratefully desired to be buried. 
 Round about lie other tombstones great and 
 small. The inscriptions are simple, and are 
 in Arabic and Persian. 
 
 It has often been the case that Muham¬ 
 madan kings have erected their mausoleums 
 during their lifetime, although such acts are 
 strictly contrary to the teachings of their 
 Prophet. A remarkable instance of this is to 
 be seen at Bijapur in India, where the un¬ 
 finished tomb of ‘Ali ‘Adi Shah (a.d. 1557) is 
 still to be seen, having never been completed 
 after his burial. His successor, Ibrahim (a.d, 
 1579), warned by the fate of his predecessor’s 
 tomb, commenced his own on so small a plan 
 —116 feet square—that, as he was blessed 
 with a long and prosperous reign, it was only 
 by ornament that he could render the place 
 worthy of himself. This he accomplished by 
 covering every part with the most exquisite 
 and elaborate carvings. The ornamental car¬ 
 vings on this tomb are so numerous, that it is 
 said the whole Qur’an is engraven on its 
 walls. The principal apartment in the tomb 
 is a square of forty feet, covered by a stone 
 roof perfectly flat in the centre, and supported 
 by a cove projecting ten feet from the wall 
 on every side. Mr. Fergusson says : “ How 
 the roof is supported is a mystery, which can 
 only be understood by those who are familiar 
 with the use the Indians make of masses of 
 concrete, which, with good mortar, seems 
 capable of infinite applications unknown in 
 Europe.” (Architecture , vol. iii. p. 562.) 
 The tomb of Mahmud, Ibrahim’s successor 
 (a.d. 1626), was also built in his lifetime, and 
 remarkable for its simple grandeur and con¬ 
 structive boldness. It is internally 135 feet 
 each way, and its area is consequently 18,225 
 square feet, while the Pantheon at Rome has 
 only an area of 15,833 feet. 
 
 The tomb of Imam ash-ShafiT, the founder 
 of one of the four orthodox sects of the Sun¬ 
 nis, and who died a.h. 204, is still to be seen 
 near the city of Cairo. It is surmounted b 
 
638 
 
 TOMBS 
 
 TOMBS 
 
 a large dome, with a weathercock in the 
 form of a boat. It is said to have been 
 erected by Yusuf Salahu ’d-DIn (Saladin). 
 The interior is cased to a height of eight feet 
 with marble, above which the whole build¬ 
 ing is coloured in recent and unartistic style. 
 The windows contain coloured glass. There 
 are three niches, with a fourth in the form 
 of a mihrab, marking the direction of Mak- 
 kah. The covering of the tomb of the cele¬ 
 brated Muslim doctor is of simple brocade, 
 embroidered with gold. It is enclosed with 
 a wooden railing, inlaid with mother-of- 
 pearl, the corners being clasped with silver 
 fittings. At the head of the tomb is a large 
 turban, partly covered with a Cashmere 
 shawl. Near the head of the tomb is a marble 
 pillar, with sculptured inscriptions, coloured 
 red and gold. From the roof are suspended 
 a few porcelain lamps ; and lamps of glass, 
 as well as ostrich eggs, hang in profusion 
 from the canopy of the tomb and from light 
 wooden beams. The walls and tomb-enclo¬ 
 sure are adorned with scrolls. Close to the 
 building are four' other tombs of the Imam’s 
 family. 
 
 The tomb of Zubaidah, the beloved wife 
 of the celebrated Kh alifah Harunu ’r-Kashld, 
 the hero of the tales of The Thousand and 
 One Nights, is a simple edifice standing on a 
 sloping eminence, within an extensive cemetery 
 outside the city of Baghdad. It is a building 
 of an octagonal shape, thirty feet in diameter, 
 and surmounted by a spire. In the upper part 
 of the building are two ranges of windows, 
 
 the upper of which presents the flattened and 
 the lower the pointed arch. The spire is a 
 mere sharpened cone, ornamented without 
 with convex divisions corresponding to con¬ 
 cave arches within. The interior is occupied 
 by three oblong buildings of masonry, coated 
 with lime. A modern Pacha and his wife 
 have now the honour' of reposing beside 
 the remains of the fair Persian, and an 
 inscription over the porch testifies that 
 their remains were deposited nine centuries 
 after the favourite wife of the renowned 
 Khalifah. 
 
 A very interesting specimen of tomb ar¬ 
 chitecture is found at Sultaniah in Persia. It 
 is the sepuchre of one Muhammad Khuda- 
 bandia. Texier ascribes the building to 
 Khudabandiah. of the Sufi dynasty, a.d. 
 1577-85 ; but Fergusson says its style shows 
 that the monument must be two or three 
 hundred years older than that king. Ker 
 Porter says it is the work of the Tartar Mu¬ 
 hammad Khudabandia, who was the suc¬ 
 cessor of Ghazan Kh an, the builder of the 
 celebrated mosque at Tabriz, who, being 
 seized with as much zeal for his Shi‘ite faith as 
 his predecessor had been for the Sunnite, his 
 intention was to lodge in this mausoleum the 
 remains of ‘ Ali and his son al-Husain. This in¬ 
 tention, however, was not carried into effect, 
 and consequently the bones of the founder re¬ 
 pose alone in this splendid shrine, and not under 
 the central dome, but in a side chamber. The 
 general plan of this building is an octagon, 
 with a small chapel opposite the entrance, in 
 
 THE TAJ AT AGBA. (A, F. Hole.) 
 
TOMBS 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 639 
 
 which the body lies. Internally, the dome is 
 81 feet in diameter by 150 feet in height, the 
 octagon being worked (Mr. Fergusson says) 
 into a circle by as elegant a series of brackets 
 as, perhaps, ever were employed for this pur¬ 
 pose. The form of the dome is singularly 
 graceful and elegant, and superior to any¬ 
 thing of the kind in Persia. The whole is 
 covered with glazed tiles, rivalling in richness 
 those of the celebrated mosque at Tabriz; 
 and with its general beauty of outline, it 
 affords one of the finest specimens of this 
 style of architecture found in any country. 
 
 The grave of the Persian poet Hafiz, at 
 Shiraz in Persia, is a single block of beau¬ 
 tiful marble from Yezd, of which about eigh¬ 
 teen inches appear above the ground. It is 
 a fine slab, is perfectly flat, and is nine feet 
 long by two feet nine inches in width. Raised 
 in low relief, in the centre of the top of the 
 slab, is one of the poet’s odes in the beau¬ 
 tiful letters of the Persian alphabet, and 
 round the edges, in a band about five inches 
 deep, is another ode. The tomb, which is 
 probably about two hundred years old, is 
 situated in a square enclosure or garden, and 
 the ground around is thickly beset with 
 tombs, mostly flat like that of the poet. 
 
 The finest specimen of monumental archi¬ 
 tecture is the celebrated Taj at Agra, erected 
 over the grave of Urjummad Banu Begum, 
 called Mumta.z-i-Mah.aU , or the “Exalted 
 One of the Palace,” the favourite wife of 
 the Emperor Shah Jahan, who died about 
 a.d. 1629. The designs and estimates for 
 the building are said to have been prepared 
 by a Venetian named Geronimo Verroneo ; 
 but the architect died at Lahore before its 
 completion, and the work is supposed to have 
 been handed over to a Byzantine Turk. Mr. 
 Keene says that it is certain Austin, the 
 French artist, was consulted. Mr. Fergusson 
 gives the following particulars of this re¬ 
 markable building :— 
 
 “ The enclosure, including garden and outer 
 court, is a parallelogram of 1,860 feet by more 
 than 1,000 feet. The outer court, surrounded 
 by arcades and adorned by four' gateways, is 
 an oblong, occup 3 7 ing in length the whole 
 breadth of the enclosure, and is about 450 
 feet deep. The principal gateway leads from 
 this court to the garden, where the tomb is 
 seen framed in an avenue of dark cypress 
 trees. The plinth of white marble is 18 feet 
 high, and is an exact square of 313 feet each 
 way. At the four corners stand four columns 
 or towers, each 137 feet high, and crowned 
 with a little pavilion. The mausoleum itself 
 occupies a space of 186 feet square, in the 
 centre of this larger square, and each of the 
 four corners is cut off opposite each of the 
 towers. The central dome is 50 feet in 
 diameter by 80 feet in height. On the plat¬ 
 form in front of the juwab, or false mosque, 
 is a tracing of the topmost spine, a gilded 
 spike crowning the central dome to the 
 height of 30 feet. The interior is lighted 
 from marble-trellised-screen lights above 
 and below.”— Fergusson's History of Archi¬ 
 tecture, vol. ii. p. 693.) [ziyarah.] 
 
 TRADITION. It is the belief of 
 
 all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shi‘ah, or 
 Wahhabi, that in addition to the revelation 
 contained in the Qur’an, the Prophet received 
 the Wahy ghair Matlu (lit. “ an unread re¬ 
 velation”), whereby he was enabled to give 
 authoritative declarations on religious ques¬ 
 tions, either moral, ceremonial, or doctrinal. 
 Muhammad traditions are therefore supposed 
 to be the uninspired record of inspired say¬ 
 ings, and consequently occupy a totally dif¬ 
 ferent position to what we understand by tra¬ 
 ditions in the Christian Church. The Arabic 
 words used for these traditions are Hadis 
 pi. Ahadis, “ a saying ”; and Sunnah 
 (4a- pi- Sunan “a custom.” The word 
 Hadis, in its singular form, is now generally 
 used by both Muhammadan and Christian 
 writers for the collections of traditions. 
 They are records of what Muhammad did 
 (Sunnatu ’l-Ji'l), what Muhammad enjoined 
 (Sunnatu ’ l-qaul ), and that which was done in 
 the presence of Muhammad and which he did 
 not forbid (Sunnatu ’ t-taqrir ). They also in¬ 
 clude the authoritative sayings and doings 
 of the Companions of the Prophet. 
 
 The following quotations from the Tradi¬ 
 tions as to the sayings of Muhammad on the 
 subject of this oral law, will explain the 
 position which he intended to assign to it. 
 
 “That which the Prophet of God hath 
 made unlawful is like that which God him¬ 
 self hath made so.” 
 
 “ I am no more than a man, but when I en¬ 
 join anything respecting religion receive it, 
 and when I order anything about the affairs 
 of the world, then I am nothing more than 
 man.” 
 
 “ Verily the best word is the word of God, 
 and the best rule of life is that delivered by 
 Muhammad.” 
 
 “ I have left you two things, and you will 
 not stray as long as you hold them fast. 
 The one is the book of God, and the other 
 the law ( sunnah ) of His Prophet.” 
 
 “ My sayings do not abrogate the word of 
 God, but the word of God can abrogate my 
 sayings.” 
 
 “ Some of my injunctions abrogate others.” 
 (Mishkat, book i. ch. vi.) 
 
 Muhammad gave very special injunctions 
 respecting the faithful transmission of his 
 sayings, for, according to at-Tirmizi, Ibn 
 ‘Abbas relates that Muhammad said: “ Con¬ 
 vey to other persons none of my words, ex¬ 
 cept those ye know of a surety. Verily he 
 who represents my words wrongly shall find 
 a place for himself in the fire.” 
 
 But notwithstanding the severe warning 
 given by their Prophet, it is admitted by all 
 Muslim scholars that very many spurious tra¬ 
 ditions have been handed down. Abu Da’ud 
 received only four thousand eight hundred 
 traditions out of five hundred thousand, and 
 even in this careful selection, he states, that he 
 has given “ those which seem to be authentic 
 and those which are nearly so.” (Vide Ibn 
 Kh allikan, vol. i. p. 590.) 
 
 Out of forty thousand persons who have 
 
040 
 
 TEADITIOX 
 
 TEADITIOX 
 
 been instrumental in handing down tradi¬ 
 tions, al Bukhari only acknowledges two 
 thousand as reliable authorities. 
 
 In consequence of the unreliable character 
 of the Traditions, the following canons have 
 been framed for the reception or rejection 
 • .• A . . by Shaikh $ 
 
 ’d-Din Ahmad, ed. by Captain X. Lees) :— 
 
 L With reference to the character of those 
 who have ha n ded down the tradition :— 
 
 (1) Sadisu 3 s-Sakih , a genuine tradition, is 
 one whieh has been handed down by truly 
 pious persons who have been distinguished 
 for their int e^rritv. 
 
 (2) Sadisu 'l-Sasan, a mediocre tradition, is 
 one the n arrators of which do not approach 
 in moral excellence to those of the Sahlh 
 class. 
 
 (8) Sadisu 'z-Za'if. a weak tradition, is one 
 whose narrators are of questionable autho¬ 
 rity. 
 
 The disputed claims of narrators to these 
 three classes have proved a fruitful source of 
 learned discussion, and very numerous are 
 the works written upon the subject. 
 
 TL With reference to the original relators 
 of the Hadis :— 
 
 (1) Sadisu ’l-Marfir, an exalted tradition is 
 a saying, or an act, related or performed by 
 the Prophet himself and handed down in a 
 tradition. 
 
 (2) Sadisu ’l-Mauquf a restricted tradition, 
 is a saying or an act related or performed 
 by one of the ashdb. or Companions of the 
 Prophet. 
 
 (3) Sadisu ’l-Maqiu \ an intersected tradi¬ 
 tion, is a saying or an act related or per¬ 
 formed by one of the Tab vim. or those who 
 conversed with the Companions of the Pro¬ 
 phet. 
 
 ITT. With reference to the links in the 
 chain of the narrators of the tradition, a 
 Hadis is either Muttasil, connected, or Mun- 
 qaii‘, disconnected. If the chain of narrators 
 is complete from the time of the first utter¬ 
 ance of the saying or performance of the act 
 recorded to the time that it was written down 
 by the collector of traditions, it is Muttasil; 
 but if the chain of narrators is incomplete, it 
 is Munqatv. 
 
 IT. With reference to the manner in which 
 the tradition has been narrated, and trans¬ 
 mitted down from the first:— 
 
 (1) Sadisu 'l-Muiawatir, an undoubted tra¬ 
 dition. is one which is handed down by very 
 many distinct chains of narrators, and which 
 has been always accepted as authentic and 
 genuine, no doubt ever having been raised 
 against it. The learned doctors say there are 
 only five such traditions: hut the exact num¬ 
 ber is disputed. 
 
 (2) Sadisu 'l-Mashhur, a well-known tradi¬ 
 tion, is one which has been ban ded down by at 
 least three distinct lines of narrators. It is 
 called also Mustafiz, diffused. It is also 
 used for a tradition which was at first re¬ 
 corded by one person, or a few individuals, 
 and afterwards became a popular tradition. 
 
 (3) Sadisu 'l-'Aziz, a rare tradition, is one 
 related by only two lines of narrators. 
 
 (1) Sadisu 7- Gharib. a poor tradition, is one 
 related by only one line of narrators. 
 
 (5) Kh abaru ’1-Wahid, a single saying, is a 
 term also used for a tradition related by one 
 person and banded down by one line of 
 narrators. It is a disputed point whether 
 a Kh obar Wahid can form the basis of 
 Muslim doctrine. 
 
 (6} Sadisu '1-Mursal (lit. “ a tradition let 
 loose”), is a tradition which any collector of 
 traditions, snch as al-Bukhari and others, 
 records with the assertion, “the Apostle of 
 God said." 
 
 (7) Rucayah, is a Hadis which commences 
 with the words "if is related without the 
 authority being given, 
 
 (8) Sadisu ' -Mauzu‘. an invented tradition, 
 is one the untruth of which is beyond dispnte. 
 
 The following is a specimen of a hadis, as 
 given in the collection of at-Tirmizi, which 
 | will exemplify the way in which a tradition 
 ' is recorded:— 
 
 Abu Kuraib said to us ( haddasa-na) that 
 Ibrahim ibn Yusuf ibn Abi Ishaq said to us 
 (haddasa-na). from ('an) his father, from (‘an ) 
 Abu Ishaq, from ( ; aji) Tulata ibn Musarif, 
 
 ) that he said. I have heard (samvtu), from 
 •Abdu 'r-Rahman ibn Ausajah, that he said 
 yaqulu), I have heard (sami‘tu) from Bara 
 ibn aAzib that he said (yaqulu) I have heard 
 (sami‘tu) that the Prophet said, "Whoever 
 shall give in charity a milch cow, or silver, 
 or a leathern bottle of water, it shall be 
 equal to the freeing of a slave.” 
 
 The Honourable Syed Ahmed Khan Baha¬ 
 dur, C.S.L, an educated Muhammadan gen¬ 
 tleman, in an Essay on Mohammedan Tradi¬ 
 tions. gives the following information:— 
 
 The Style of Composition employed in the 
 imparting of a Tradition. 
 
 For the purpose of expressing how a tra¬ 
 dition had been communicated from one per¬ 
 son to another, certain introductory verbal 
 forms were selected by duly qualified per¬ 
 sons, and it was incumbent upon every one 
 about to narrate a tradition, to commence by 
 that particular form appropriated to the said 
 tradition, and this was done with the view of 
 securing for each tradition the quantum of 
 credit to which it might be justly entitled. 
 
 These introductory verbal forms are as 
 follow: (1) "Hesaidto me”; (2) , 
 
 Jysi " I heard him saying ”: (3) LJ Jls “ He 
 told me ”; (4) Sz " He related to me ”; 
 (5) :: He informed me”; (6) \ily\ “ He 
 
 informed me ” ; (7) ,.vn From.” 
 
 The first four introductory forms were to 
 be used only in the case of an original nar¬ 
 rator communicating the very words of the 
 tradition to the next one below him. The 
 fifth and sixth introdnetory verbal forms 
 were used when a narrator inquired of the 
 narrator immediately above bim whether 
 such or such a fact, or circumstance, was or 
 was not correct. The last form is not suf¬ 
 ficiently explicit, and the consequence is that 
 it cannot be decided to which of the two per- 
 
TEA DITI05 
 
 -‘irioy 
 
 641 
 
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 ~ ee ; trter facta be err trim *.; lev -tern. r 
 re ram:t be -a-Zisi-iziorHj pr-.T=d wietier 
 e saw rmer tetstrs. ene. tr mere 
 
 raters. As tc my extemb tirr? * 
 vrz~i wilt xji rereired m be V- - w— --e 
 learned m inded it ttar —f—>f« 
 
 First :Bs ie fcrr. w* ef t eemrmty mat 
 tie marralne is not Btreoriaos frr caads- 
 • • " ' . tie tin • : • tin-- 
 
 ~ r ~: i be: Bred it saefa i tine mi it mi i 
 I reamer- tilt it Ti; poeatUe. ltirmi. tot 
 penned, tilt ei-ey TBted jam jtbar. tret it 
 :;t sauted tilt tiers t;:-- 
 etrs imems-r_m— :etT~; tine 
 
 tti: mi -'-at 
 
 learned itrirrbrre- id i 
 
 [* — - l — r-TT .i-r- ■ 
 
 Ser-ttmy: O 
 
 tut i tt-t be rrt ~e<t mat met nene; ea i 
 tier:. it east eaee tt tier- ire-tine. 
 
 Thirdly: itiers isser* tilt it ttr be 
 
 i erne 15 t . rb i :e z er- - -r.i b . e 
 m Vwr tie tnditi'tc. re frtm tie icier. 
 
 -' :rm_ — - t - t _ r _t nrer e tt -: 
 
 - - • ' ' . - ' —. t - 
 
 jvticec 7» dec- Atm- 
 
 Tie issacfasas : 
 rers-ere win lired 
 
 rate-— ire 
 
 wit. me en:epr:zr tf m 
 it. me tere-T :i tie Prt tier's wtr-de . 
 
 triet n r rra-rer-e. :r wt- 
 
 tree tilt ieetl—-letmei rets are w:ii mt- 
 mientmi ti beiter. t: tier?, me 
 tette-r :: me itmte b-mtet tilt, teemre :t 
 —ener tarts, ltd nererdre tattitr; ii-= 
 :eet tirtmet itt mat mre?. 
 
 First Perstre trrib - : :r~t:mm frr mem 
 - ~ e it nr esrib _ : armrmrs. -5 ~ei _j 
 
 amtited by trt tie. tin aime 
 extreme. 
 
 bxi: Persmrs mm are 
 seetdtii ltd due trt a tste 
 
 Sex-mi: Perscers —it ire tmtts rrr 
 
 ite- ere :r enter tirt me trimmers related 
 
 by ters-em :f me rr rinse iassee should. 
 te leeermed le me. ittrim ta tier re- 
 necte-e merit?, ltd lit tilt miena re¬ 
 lated by terse ce : -—g - trier tie tiree diet 
 -lasses it rid be. i" nine. -mir refeetei : 
 
 mints related b-terset? tf 
 
 it ;r rmi.red 
 
 tried =•: bets' i? m 
 
 ‘.sues ;y eno? zmcmr 
 
 e si:tii tct be termed i tetebtdinz- 
 tilt, w'retenr i irremce is met wtti in 
 ten theirs. etese iteer me tcmtr mere 
 ' ~.i- 5 >t mitr mere mrettitn-e ltd ei ;m 
 tarns tf tie narrators, stce. besides tie 
 . t b mm: t: "ter 
 
 tiemi eameee wiici mestt . teamen, met 
 tmermtites . ltd we ?tii tew ernsder —ir.se 
 tarm-ib eatse? wteri trtdtu-e enitt nter 
 mine iiii 
 
 b A mrmmdere-ititt :: tie reab -emee 
 : tie eaytts :f tie Prrpffiec. 
 
 . i-1 it it ■ . : 
 
 raters it xtierstatetes tie me -mee f tie 
 rVctiec'i tame. 
 
 :£ tie Prtpiec s si-its. 
 
 tint' — t e - me w_re me ter 
 
 bet tec ? .me t-meet :t t reitns :i tie Ptt- 
 riets sayms. er ettmee-i err tese - '— ~~ 
 tt.—t; ef ee 
 
 rr raw 
 
 • ear r ' 
 
642 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 praiseworthy custom among the public, forged 
 hadis in order to secure success. Such 
 fabrication is restricted exclusively to those 
 hadis which treat of the advantages and 
 benefits which reading the Qur’an and pray¬ 
 ing procure to any one, both in this world 
 and the next; which show how reciting pas¬ 
 sages from the Qur’an cures every disease, 
 etc.: the real object of such frauds being to 
 lead the public into the habit of reading the 
 Qur’an and of praying. According to our 
 religion, the perpetrators of such frauds, or 
 of any others, stand in the list of sinners. 
 
 (2) Preachers, with a view of collecting 
 large congregations around them, and of 
 amusing their hearers, invented many tradi¬ 
 tions, such traditions being only those which 
 describe the state and condition of paradise 
 and of hell, as well as the state and condition 
 of the soul after death, etc., in order to 
 awaken the fear of God’s wrath and the hope 
 of salvation. 
 
 (3) Those persons who made alterations in 
 the religion of the Prophet, and who, urged 
 by their prejudices, carried the same to ex¬ 
 tremes, and who, for the purpose of success¬ 
 fully confronting them controversial anta¬ 
 gonists, forged such traditions in order to 
 favour their own interested views. 
 
 (4) Unbelievers who maliciously coined 
 and circulated spurious hadis. Learned men, 
 however, have greatly exerted themselves in 
 order to discover such fabricated'traditions, 
 and have written many works upon the sub¬ 
 ject, laying down rules for ascertaining false 
 traditions and for distinguishing them from 
 genuine ones. 
 
 The modes of procedure were as follows : 
 Such persons examined the very words em¬ 
 ployed in such traditions, as well as them 
 style of composition; they compared the con¬ 
 tents of each hadis with the commands and 
 injunctions contained in the Qur’an, with 
 those religious doctrines and dogmas that 
 have been deduced from the Qur’an, and 
 with those hadis which have been proved to 
 ho genuine; they investigated the nature of 
 the import of such traditions, as to whether 
 it was unreasonable, improbable, or impos¬ 
 sible. 
 
 It will, therefore, be evident that the hadis 
 considered as genuine by Muhammadans, 
 must indispensably possess the following 
 characters : The narrator must have plainly 
 and distinctly mentioned that such and such 
 a thing was either said or done by the Pro¬ 
 phet ; the chain of narrators from the last 
 link up to the Prophet, must be unbroken ; 
 the subject related must have come under 
 the actual ken of its first narrators ; every 
 one of the narrators, from the last up to the 
 Prophet, must have been persons conspicuous 
 for their piety, virtue, and honesty; every 
 narrator must have received more than one 
 hadis from the narrator immediately pre¬ 
 ceding him; every one of the narrators must 
 be conspicuous for his learning, so that he 
 might be safely presumed to be competent 
 both to understand correctly, and faithfully 
 deliver to others, the sense of the tradition : 
 
 the import of the tradition must not be con¬ 
 trary to the injunctions contained in the 
 Qur’an, or to the religious doctrines deduced 
 from that Book, or to the traditions proved 
 to be correct; and the nature of the import 
 j of the tradition must not be such as persons 
 | might hesitate in accepting. 
 
 Any tradition thus proved genuine can be 
 made the basis of any religious doctrine; but 
 notwithstanding this, another objection may 
 be raised against it, which is, that this tradi¬ 
 tion is the statement of one person only, and 
 therefore, cannot, properly, be believed in 
 implicitly. For obviating this, three grades 
 | have been again formed of the hadis proved 
 j as genuine. These three grades are the fol- 
 | lowing: Mutawatir, Mashhur, and 
 
 p.6. KJiabar-i-Ahad. 
 
 Mutawatir is an appellation given to those 
 hadis only that have always been, from the 
 time of the Prophet, ever afterwards recog¬ 
 nised and accepted by every associate of the 
 Prophet, and every learned individual, as 
 authentic and genuine, and to which no one 
 has raised any objection. All learned Mu¬ 
 hammadan divines of every period have 
 declared that the Qur'an only is the Hadis 
 Mutawatir; but some doctors have declared 
 certain other hadis also to be Mutawatir, the 
 number, however, of such hadis not exceed¬ 
 ing five. Such are the traditions that are 
 implicitly believed and ought to be religiously 
 observed. 
 
 Mashhur is a title given to those traditions 
 that, in every age, have been believed to be 
 genuine, by some learned persons. These are 
 the traditions which are found recorded in 
 the best works that treat of them, and, 
 having been generally accepted as genuine, 
 form the nucleus of some of the Muslim doc¬ 
 trines. 
 
 Khabar-i-Ahad (or hadis related by one 
 person), is an appellation given to traditions 
 that do not possess any of the qualities be¬ 
 longing to the traditions of the first two 
 grades. Opinions of the learned are divided 
 whether or not they can form the basis of 
 any religious doctrine. 
 
 Persons who undertook the task of collect¬ 
 ing traditions had neither time nor opportu¬ 
 nity for examining and investigating all the 
 above particulars, and some of them col¬ 
 lected together whatsoever came under their 
 notice, while others collected only those 
 whose narrators were acknowledged to be 
 trustworthy and honest persons, leaving en¬ 
 tirely upon their readers the task of investi¬ 
 gating and examining all the above-mentioned 
 particulars, as well as of deciding their com¬ 
 parative merits, their genuineness, and the 
 quantum of credit due to them. 
 
 There is some difference of opinion as to 
 who first attempted to collect the traditions, 
 and to compile them in a book. Some say 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Malik ibn Juraij of Makkah, who 
 died a.h 150, whilst others assert that the 
 collection, which is still extant, by the Imam 
 Malik, who died a.h. 179, was the first collec¬ 
 tion. The work by Imam Malik is still held 
 
TRADITION 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 643 
 
 in very great esteem, and although not gene¬ 
 rally included among the standard six, it is 
 believed by many to be the source from 
 whence a great portion of their materials are 
 derived. 
 
 The following are the Sikahu ’s-Sittah, or 
 “ six correct ” hooks, received by Sunni 
 Muslims :— 
 
 (1) Muhammad Isma’il al-Bulchari, a.h. 
 256. 
 
 (2) Muslim ibnu T-Hajjaj, a.h. 261. 
 
 (3) Abu ‘Isa Muhammad, at-Tirmizi, a.h. 
 279. 
 
 (4) Abu Da’ud as-Sajistani, a.h. 275. 
 
 (5) Abu ‘Abdi ’r-Rahman an-Nasai, a.h. 
 303. 
 
 (6) Abu ‘Abdi ’llah Muhammad Ibn Maiah, 
 a.h. 273. 
 
 According to the Ithafu 'n-Nubala', there 
 are as many as 1,465 collections of traditions 
 in existence, although the six already re¬ 
 corded are the more generally used amongst 
 the Sunnis. 
 
 It is often stated by European writers that 
 the Shi'ahs reject the Traditions. This is 
 not correct. The Sunnis arrogate to them¬ 
 selves the title of Traditionists; but the 
 Sbi‘ahs, although they do not accept the col¬ 
 lections of traditions as made by the Sunnis, 
 receive five collections of Ahadls, upon which 
 their system of law, both civil and religious, 
 is founded. 
 
 (1) The Kafi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad 
 ibn Ya'qub, a.h. 329. 
 
 (2) The Man-la-yastalizirahu 'l-Faqih, by 
 Shaikh ‘All, a.h. 381. 
 
 (3) The Tahzib, by Shaikh Abu Ja'far 
 Muhammad ibn •Ali ibn Husain, a.h. 466. 
 
 (4) The Istibsar, by the same author. 
 
 (5) The Nahju 'l-Balaghah, by Saiyid ar- 
 RazI, a.h. 406. 
 
 There are many stories which illustrate 
 the importance the Companions of the Pro¬ 
 phet attached to Sunnah. The Khalifah 
 ‘Umar looked towards the black stone at 
 Makkah, and said, “By God, I know that 
 thou art only a stone, and canst grant no 
 benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not 
 known that the Prophet kissed thee, I would 
 not have done so, but on account of that I do 
 it.” Abdu ’llah ibn ‘Umar was seen riding 
 his camel round and round a certain place. 
 In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so 
 doing, he said : “ I know not, only I have seen 
 the Prophet do so here.” Ahmad ibn Hanbal 
 is said to have been appointed on account 
 of the care with which he observed the Sun¬ 
 nah. One day when sitting in an assembly, he 
 alone of all present observed some formal 
 custom authorised by the practice of the 
 Prophet. Gabriel at once appeared and in¬ 
 formed him that now, and on account of his 
 act, he was appointed an Imam. And on 
 another occasion it is said this great tradi- 
 tionist would not even eat water-melons, 
 because, although he knew the Prophet ate 
 them, he could not learn whether he ate 
 them with or without the rind, or whether he 
 broke, bit or cut them : and he forbade a 
 woman, who questioned him as to the pro¬ 
 
 priety of the act, to spin by the light of 
 torches passing in the streets by night, be¬ 
 cause the Prophet had not mentioned that it 
 was lawful to do so. 
 
 The modern Wahhabis being, for the most 
 part, followers of Ibn Hanbal, attach great 
 importance to the teaching of the Traditions, 
 and have therefore caused a revival of this 
 branch of Muslim literature, [wahhabi.] 
 
 We are indebted to Sir William Muir’s 
 Introduction to the Life of Mahomet, for the 
 following :— 
 
 “Mahometan tradition consists of the say¬ 
 ings of the friends and followers of the Pro¬ 
 phet, handed down by a real or supposed 
 chain of narrators to the period when they 
 were collected, recorded, and classified. The 
 process of transmission was for the most part 
 oral. It may be sketched as follows. 
 
 “ After the death of Mahomet, the main 
 employment of his followers was arms. The 
 pursuit of pleasure, and the formal round of 
 religious observances, filled up the interstices 
 of active life, but afforded scanty exercise for 
 the higher faculties of the mind. The tedium 
 of long and irksome marches, and the lazy 
 intervals from one campaign to another, fell 
 listlessly upon a simple and semi-barbarous 
 race. These intervals were occupied, and 
 that tedium beguiled, chiefly by calling up 
 the past in familiar conversation or more for¬ 
 mal discourse. On what topic, then, would 
 the early Moslems more enthusiastically des¬ 
 cant than on the acts and sayings of that 
 wonderful man who had called them into ex¬ 
 istence as a conquering nation, and had 
 placed in their hands ‘ the keys both of this 
 world and of Paradise ’ ? 
 
 “ Thus the converse of Mahomet’s followers 
 would be much about him. The majesty of 
 his character gained greatness by contempla¬ 
 tion ; and, as time removed him farther and 
 farther from them, the lineaments of the mys¬ 
 terious mortal who was wont to hold familiar 
 intercourse with the messengers of heaven, 
 rose in dimmer, but in more gigantic propor¬ 
 tions. The mind was unconsciously led on to 
 think of him as endowed with supernatural 
 power, and ever surrounded by supernatural 
 agency. Here was the material out of which 
 Tradition grew luxuriantly. Whenever there 
 was at hand no standard of fact whereby 
 these recitals may be tested, the memory was 
 aided by the unchecked efforts of the imagi¬ 
 nation ; and as days rolled on, the latter 
 element gained complete ascendancy. 
 
 “ Such is the result which the lapse of time 
 would naturally have upon the minds and 
 the narratives of the As-hab or ‘ Companions ’ 
 of Mahomet, more especially of those who 
 were young when he died. And then another 
 race sprang up who had never seen the Pro¬ 
 phet, who looked up to his contemporaries 
 with a superstitious reverence, and who lis¬ 
 tened to their stories of him as to the tidings 
 of a messenger from the other world. ‘ Is it 
 possible, father of Abdallah ! that thou hast 
 been with Mahomet ? ’ was the question ad¬ 
 dressed by a pious Moslem, to Hodzeifa, in the 
 mosque of Kufa; ‘ didst thou really see the 
 
644 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 Prophet, and wert thou on familiar terms 
 with him ? ’—‘ Son of my uncle ! it is indeed 
 as thou sayest.’—‘ And how wert thou wont 
 to behave towards the Prophet?’—‘Verily, 
 we used to labour hard to please him.’— 
 1 Well, by the Lord 1 ’ exclaimed the ardent 
 listener, ‘ had I been but alive in his time, I 
 would not have allowed him to put his blessed 
 foot upon the earth, but would have borne 
 him on my shoulders wherever he listed.’ 
 (j Hishami, p. 295.) Upon another occasion, 
 the youthful Obeida listened to a Companion 
 who was reciting before an assembly how 
 the Prophet’s head was shaved at the Pil¬ 
 grimage, and the hair distributed amongst 
 his followers; the eyes of the young man 
 glistened as the speaker proceeded, and he 
 interrupted him with the impatient exclama¬ 
 tion,—‘ Would that I had even a single one of 
 those blessed hairs ! I would cherish it for 
 ever, and prize it beyond all the gold and 
 silver in the world.’ (Katib al Wackidi, 
 p. 279.) Such were the natural feelings of 
 fond devotion with which the Prophet came 
 to be regarded by the followers of the ‘ Com¬ 
 panions.’ 
 
 “ As the tale of the Companions was thus 
 taken up by their followers, distance began 
 to invest it with an increasing charm, while 
 the products of living faith and warm imagi¬ 
 nation were being fast debased by supersti¬ 
 tious credulity. This second generation are 
 termed in the language of the patriotic lore 
 of Arabia, Tdbiun, or ‘ Successors.’ Here and 
 there a Companion survived till near the end 
 of the first century ; but, for all practical pur¬ 
 poses, they had passed off the stage before 
 the commencement of its last quarter. Their 
 first Successors, who were in some measure 
 also their contemporaries, flourished in the 
 latter half of the same century, though some 
 of the oldest may have survived for a time 
 in the second. 
 
 “ Meanwhile a new carrse was at work, 
 which gave to the tales of Mahomet’s com¬ 
 panions a fresh and an adventitious impor¬ 
 tance. 
 
 “The Arabs, a simple and unsophisticated 
 race, found in the Coran ample provisions for 
 the regulation of all their affairs, religious, 
 social, and political. But the aspect of Islam 
 soon underwent a mighty change. Scarcely 
 was the Prophet dead when his followers 
 issued forth from their barren peninsula, 
 armed with the warrant of the Coran to im¬ 
 pose the faith of Mahomet upon all the 
 nations of the earth. Within a century they 
 had, as a first step to this universal subjuga¬ 
 tion, conquered every land that intervened 
 between the banks of the Oxus and the far¬ 
 thest shores of Northern Africa and of Spain ; 
 and had enrolled the great majority of their 
 peoples under the standard of the Coran. 
 This vast empire differed widely indeed from 
 the Arabia of Mahomet’s time; and that 
 which ■well sufficed for the patriarchal sim¬ 
 plicity and limited social system of the early 
 Arabs, became utterly inadequate for the 
 hourly multiplying wants of their descendants. 
 Crowded cities, like Fostat, Kufa, and Damas¬ 
 
 cus, required an elaborate compilation of 
 laws for the guidance of their courts of jus¬ 
 tice : new political relations demanded a 
 system of international equity : the specula¬ 
 tions of a people before whom literature was 
 preparing to throw open her arena, and the 
 controversies of eager factions upon nice 
 points of Mahometan faith, were impatient of 
 the narrow limits which confined them : —all 
 called loudly for the enlargement of the 
 scanty and naked dogmas of the Coran, and 
 for the development of its defective code of 
 ethics. 
 
 “ And yet it was the cardinal principle of 
 early Islam, that the standard of Law, of 
 Theology, and of Politics, was the Coran and 
 the Coran alone. By it Mahomet himself 
 ruled; to it in his teaching he always re-, 
 ferred; from it he professed to derive his 
 opinions, and upon it to ground his decisions. 
 If he, the Messenger of the Lord, and the 
 Founder of the faith, was thus bound by the 
 Coran, much more were the Caliphs, his un¬ 
 inspired substitutes. New and unforeseen 
 circumstances were continually arising, for 
 which the Coran contained no provision. It 
 no longer sufficed for its original object. 
 How then were its deficiencies to be sup¬ 
 plied ? 
 
 “ The difficulty was resolved by adopting 
 the Custom or ‘ Sunnat’ of Mahomet, that is, 
 his sayings and his practice, as a supplement 
 to the Coran. The recitals regarding the 
 life of the Prophet now acquired an unlooked- 
 for value. He had never held himself to be 
 infallible, except when directly inspired of 
 God; but this new doctrine assumed that a 
 heavenly and unerring guidance pervaded 
 every word and action of his prophetic life. 
 Tradition was thus invested with the force of 
 law, and with some of the authority of inspi¬ 
 ration. It was in great measure owing to 
 the rise of this theory, that, during the first 
 century of Islam, the cumbrous recitals of 
 tradition so far outstripped the dimensions of 
 reality. The prerogative now claimed for 
 Tradition stimulated the growth of fabri¬ 
 cated evidence, and led to the preservation of 
 every kind of story, spurious or real, touch¬ 
 ing the Prophet. Before the close of the 
 century it had imparted an almost incredible 
 impulse to the search for traditions, and had 
 in fact given birth to the new profession of 
 Collectors. Men devoted their lives to the 
 business. They travelled from city to city, 
 and from tribe to tribe, over the whole Maho¬ 
 metan world ; sought out by personal inquiry 
 every vestige of Mahomet's biography yet 
 lingering among the Companions, the Succes¬ 
 sors, and their descendants; and committed 
 to writing the tales and reminiscences with 
 which they used to edify their wondering and 
 admiring auditors. 
 
 “ The work, however, too closely affected 
 the public interests, and the political aspect 
 of the empire, to be left entirely to private 
 and individual zeal. About a hundred years 
 after Mahomet, the Caliph Omar II. issued 
 circular orders for the formal collection of 
 all extant traditions. [He committed to Abu 
 
TRADITION 
 
 TRADITION 
 
 Baer ibn Muhammad the task of compiling all 
 the traditions he could meet with. This tra- 
 ditionist died a.h. 120, aged 84. Sprenger’s 
 Mohammed, p. 67.] The task thus begun 
 continued to be vigorously prosecuted, but we 
 possess no authentic remains of any compi¬ 
 lation of an earlier date than the middle or 
 end of the second century. Then, indeed, 
 ample materials had been amassed, and they 
 have been handed down to us both in the 
 shape of Biographies and of general Collec¬ 
 tions, which bear upon every imaginable 
 point of Mahomet’s character, and detail the 
 minutest incidents of his life. 
 
 “It thus appears that the traditions we 
 now possess remained generally in an unre¬ 
 corded form for at least the greater part of a 
 century. It is not indeed denied that some 
 of Mahomet’s sayings may possibly have been 
 noted down in writing during his life-time, 
 and from that source copied and propagated 
 afterwards. We say possibly, for the evidence 
 in favour of any such record is meagre, sus¬ 
 picious, and contradictory. The few and un¬ 
 certain statements of this nature may have 
 owed their origin to the authority which a 
 habit of the kind would impart to the name 
 of a Companion, supposed to have practised 
 it. . . . It is hardly possible that, if the cus¬ 
 tom had prevailed of writing down Maho¬ 
 met’s sayings during his life, we should not 
 have had frequent intimation of the fact, with 
 notices of the writers, and special references 
 to the nature, contents, and peculiar autho¬ 
 rity of their records. But no such references 
 or quotations are anywhere to be found. It 
 cannot be objected that the Arabs trusted so 
 implicitly to their memory that they regarded 
 oral to be as authoritative as recorded nar¬ 
 ratives, and therefore would take no note of 
 the latter ; for we see that Omar was afraid 
 lest even the Coran, believed by him to be 
 divine and itself the subject of heavenly care, 
 should become defective if left to the memory 
 of man. Just as little weight, on the other 
 hand, should be allowed to the tradition that 
 Mahomet prohibited his followers from noting 
 down his words ; though it is is not easy to 
 see how that tradition could have gained 
 currency at all, had it been the regular and 
 constant practice of any persons to record 
 his sayings. The truth appears to be that 
 there was in reality no such practice ; and 
 that the story of the prohibition, though spu¬ 
 rious, embodies the after-thought of serious 
 Mahometans as to what Mahomet would 
 have said, had he foreseen the loose and fa¬ 
 bricated stories that sprang up, and the real 
 danger his people would fall into of allowing 
 Tradition to supersede the Coran. The evils 
 of Tradition were, in truth, as little thought 
 of as its value was perceived, till many years 
 after Mahomet’s death. 
 
 “ But even were we to admit all that has 
 been advanced, it would prove no more than 
 that some of the Companions used to keep me¬ 
 moranda of the Prophet’s sayings. Now, un¬ 
 less it be possible to connect such memoranda 
 with extant Tradition, the concession would 
 be useless. But it is not, as far as I know, 
 
 645 
 
 demonstrable of any single tradition or class 
 of traditions now in existence, that they were 
 copied from such memoranda, or have been 
 derived in any way from them. To prove, 
 therefore, that some traditions were at first 
 recorded, will not help us to a knowledge 
 of whether any of these still exist, or to a 
 discrimination of them from others resting on 
 a purely oral basis. The very most that 
 could be urged from the premises is, that our 
 present collections may contain some tradi¬ 
 tions founded upon a recorded original, and 
 handed down in writing; but we are unable 
 to single out any individual tradition and 
 make such affirmation regarding it. The 
 entire mass of extant tradition rests in this 
 respect on the same uncertain ground, and 
 the uncertainty of any one portion (apart 
 from internal evidence of probability) attaches 
 equally to the whole. We cannot with con¬ 
 fidence, or even with the least show of likeli¬ 
 hood, affirm of any tradition that it was re¬ 
 corded till nearly the end of the first century 
 of the Hegira. 
 
 “ We see, then, how entirely tradition, as 
 now possessed by us, rests its authority on 
 the memory of those who handed it down ; and 
 how dependent therefore it must have been 
 upon their convictions and their prejudices. 
 For, in addition to the common frailty of 
 human recollection which renders tradi¬ 
 tional evidence notoriously infirm, and to the 
 errors or exaggerations which always distort 
 a narrative transmitted orally through many 
 witnesses, there exist throughout Mahometan 
 Tradition abundant indications of actual fa¬ 
 brication ; and there may everywhere be 
 traced the indirect but not less powerful and 
 dangerous influence of a silently working 
 bias, which insensibly gave its colour and its 
 shape to all the stories of their Prophet trea¬ 
 sured up in the memories of the believers. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ That the Collectors of Tradition rendered 
 an important service to Islam, and even to 
 history, cannot be doubted. The vast flood 
 of tradition, poured forth from every quarter 
 of the Moslem empire, and daily gathering 
 volume from innumerable tributaries, was 
 composed of the most heterogeneous ele¬ 
 ments ; without the labours of the tradi- 
 tionists it must soon have formed a chaotic 
 sea, in which truth and error, fact and fable, 
 would have mingled together in undistin- 
 guishable confusion. It is a legitimate infe¬ 
 rence from the foregoing sketch, that Tradi¬ 
 tion, in the second century, embraced a large 
 element of truth. That even respectably 
 derived traditions often contained much that 
 was exaggerated and fabulous, is an equally 
 fair conclusion. It is proved by the testi¬ 
 mony of the Collectors themselves,that thou¬ 
 sands and tens of thousands were current 
 in their times, which possessed not even a 
 shadow of authority. The mass may be 
 likened to the image in Nebuchadnezzar’s 
 dream, formed by the unnatural union of 
 gold, of silver, of, the baser metals, and of 
 clay ; and here the more valuable parts were 
 
646 TRANSMIGRATION 
 
 TRINITY 
 
 fast commingling hopelessly with the bad.” 
 (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, vol. i., Intro, p. 
 xxviii.) 
 
 TRANSMIGRATION OF SOULS. 
 
 [tanasckh.] 
 
 TREATY. Arabic ‘Ahd (Age). The 
 
 observance of treaties is enjoined in the 
 Qur’an (Surah viii. 58 ; ix. 4); but if peace 
 be made with aliens for a specified term (e.g. 
 ten years), and afterwards the Muslim leader 
 shall perceive that it is most advantageous 
 for the Muslim interest to break it, he may 
 in that case lawfully renew the war, after 
 giving the enemy due notice. ( Hidayah, vol. 
 ii. p. 151; Arabic edition, vol. ii. p. 423.) 
 
 The negotiations between John the Chris¬ 
 tian prince of Ailah, are an interesting inci¬ 
 dent in the life of Muhammad, as indicating 
 the spirit of Islam, in its early history, towards 
 Christianity. In the first place, Muhammad 
 addressed to John the following letter:— 
 
 “ To John ( Yahya ), the son of Rubah, and 
 the chiefs of the tribe of Ailah. Peace be 
 unto you! Praise be to God, besides whom 
 there is no God. I will not fight against you 
 until I receive an answer to this letter. Be¬ 
 lieve, or else pay tribute fjizyaK). Be obe¬ 
 dient unto God and to His Apostle. Receive 
 the embassy of God’s Apostle, and honour 
 them, and clothe them with excellent vest¬ 
 ments, and not with inferior raiment. Spe¬ 
 cially honour Haris ibn Zaid, for as long as 
 my messengers are pleased, so am I likewise. 
 Ye know' the tribute. If ye desire security 
 by sea and by land, obey God and His Apostle, 
 and you will be defended from every attack, 
 whether by Arab or by foreigner. But if you 
 oppose God and His Apostle, I will not accept 
 a single thing from you until I have fought 
 against you, and have slain your men, and 
 have taken captive your women and children. 
 For, in truth, I am God’s Apostle. Believe in 
 God and in His Apostle, as you do in the 
 Messiah the son of Mary ; for truly he is the 
 Word of God, and I believe in him as an apostle 
 of God. Submit, then, before trouble reaches 
 you. I commend this embassy to you. Give 
 to Harmalah three measures of barley, for 
 Harmalah hath indeed interceded for you. As 
 for me, if it were not for the Lord and for this 
 intercession, I would not have sent any em¬ 
 bassy to you, until you had been brought 
 face to face with my army. But now sub¬ 
 mit to my embassy, and God will be your 
 protector, as well as Muhammad and all his 
 followers. This embassy doth consist of 
 Shurahbll, and Ubaiy, and Harmalah, and 
 Haris ibn Zaid. Unto you is the protection 
 of God and of his Apostle. If you submit, 
 then peace be unto you, and convey the 
 people of Maqnah back to their land.” 
 
 Upon receipt of this message, John has¬ 
 tened to Muhammad’s camp, where he was 
 received with kindness ; and having made sub¬ 
 mission and having agreed to pay tribute of 
 300 dinars a year, the following treaty was 
 ratified :— 
 
 “ In the name of God, the Merciful, the 
 
 Gracious. A treaty of Peace from God, and 
 from Muhammad the Apostle of God, granted 
 unto Yahya ibn Rubah and unto the tribe of 
 Ailah. For them who stay at home and for 
 those who travel abroad, there is the security 
 of God and the security of Muhammad the 
 Apostle of God, and for all who are with 
 them, whether they belong to Syria, or to al- 
 Yaman, or to the sea-coast. Whoso breaketh 
 this treaty, his wealth shall not save him; 
 it shall be the fair prize of whosoever shall 
 capture him. It shall not be lawful to 
 hinder the men of Ailah from going to the 
 springs which they have hitherto used, nor 
 from any journey they may desire to make, 
 whether by land or by sea. This is the wri¬ 
 ting of Juhaim and Shurahbll by the command 
 of the Apostle of God.” [toleration.] 
 
 TRIBUTE. [jihad, jizyah, taxa¬ 
 tion, TREATY.] 
 
 TRINITY. Arabic Taslls (e-JJJ), 
 
 “ Holy Trinity,” as-Sdlu.su 'l-Aqdas 
 
 The references to the doctrine of 
 the Holy Trinity in the Qur’an occur in two 
 Surahs, both of them composed by Muham¬ 
 mad towards the close of his career at al- 
 Madinah. 
 
 Surah iv. 169: “Believe, therefore, in God 
 and His apostles, and say not ‘ Three.’” 
 
 Surah v. 77 : “ They misbelieve who say, 
 ‘Verily God is the third of three.’ . . . The 
 Messiah, the Son of Mary, is only a prophet, 
 
 . . . and his mother was a confessor ; they 
 both ate food.” 
 
 Surah v. 116: “ And when God shall say, 
 
 1 0 Jesus son of Mary, hast thou said unto 
 mankind: Take me and my mother as two 
 Gods besides God ? ” 
 
 Al-Baizawi, in his remarks on Surah iv. 
 169, says, the Christians made the Trinity 
 consist of Allah, al-Masih, and Maryam ; and 
 Jalalu ’d-dln takes the same view. Al- 
 Baizawi, however, refers to a view taken of 
 the Trinity, by some Christians in his day, 
 who explained it to be, Ah, Father, or the 
 Essence of God; Ibn, Son, or the Knowledge 
 of God ; and Ruh.u 'l- Quds, the Life of God. 
 
 In a work quoted in the Kashfu ’ z-Zunun, 
 entitled al-Insanu ’/-Kamil (written by the 
 Shaikh ‘Abdu ’1-Karim ibn Ibrahim al-Jili, 
 lived a.h. 767-811) it is said that when the 
 Christians found that there was at the com¬ 
 mencement of the Injil the superscription 
 ^ ‘ In the name of the 
 
 Father and Son,’ they took the words in their 
 natural meaning, and [thinking it ought to be 
 Ab, father, Umm, mother, and Ibn, son] un¬ 
 derstood by Ah, the Spirit, by Umm, Mary, 
 and by Ibn, Jesus ; and on this account they 
 said, Sdligu Salasatin, i.e. ‘ (God is) the third 
 of three.’ (Surah v. 77.) But they did not 
 understand that by Ab is meant God Most 
 High, by Umm, the Mahiyatu 'l-Haqd'iq, or 
 ‘ Essence of Truth ” ( Quidditas veritatuvi), and 
 by Ibn, the Book of God, -which is called the 
 Wujudu ’l-Mutlaq, or 1 Absolute Existence,’ 
 being an emanation of the Essence of Truth, 
 as it is implied in the words of the Qur’an, 
 
TROYES 
 
 TURBAN 
 
 647 
 
 Surah xiii. 9: ‘ And with him is the Ummu 
 'l-Kitab, or the Mother of the Book." ” 
 
 In the Ghiuasu 'l-Lughat, in loco , it is said 
 the Xazarenes (Aasdrd) say there are three 
 aqanim, or principles, namely, wujud (entity), 
 hayat (life), and Him (knowledge) ; and also Ab 
 (Father), I bn (Son), and Ruhu ’l-Quds (Holy 
 Spirit). [INJIL, JESUS, SPIRIT.] 
 
 It is evident neither Muhammad nor 
 his followers (either immediate or remote), 
 had any true conception of the Catholic doc¬ 
 trine of the Trinity, but the elimination of the 
 Holy Spirit from the Trinity is not strange, 
 when we remember that Muhammad was 
 under the impression that the angel Gabriel 
 was the Holy Ghost. 
 
 As the doctrine of the Holy Trinity is one 
 of several stumbling-blocks to the Muslim’s 
 reception of Christianity, we cannot refrain 
 from quoting Charles Kingsley’s words ad¬ 
 dressed to Thomas Cooper on the subject 
 (vol. i. p. 311) :— 
 
 “ They will say 1 Three in one ’ is contrary 
 to sense and experience. Answer, ‘ That is 
 your ignorance.’ Every comparative anato¬ 
 mist will tell you the exact contrary, that 
 among the most common, though the most 
 puzzling phenomena, is multiplicity in unity 
 —divided life in the same individual of every 
 extraordinary variety of ease. That distinc¬ 
 tion of persons with unity of individuality I 
 (what the old schoolmen properly called sub¬ 
 stance) is to be met with in some thousand 
 species of animals, e.g. all the compound 
 polypes, and that the soundest physiologists, 
 like Huxley, are compelled to talk of these 
 animals in metaphysic terms, just as para¬ 
 doxical as, and almost identical with, those 
 of the theologian. Ask them then whether 
 granting one primordial Being who has con¬ 
 ceived and made all other beings, it is absurd 
 to suppose in Him, some law of multiplicity 
 in unity, analogous to that on which He has 
 constructed so many millions of His crea¬ 
 tures. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ But my heart demands the Trinity, as 
 much as my reason. I want to be sure that 
 God cares for us, that God is our Father, 
 that God has interfered, stooped, sacrificed 
 Him self for us. I do not merely want to love 
 Christ—a Christ, some creation or emanation 
 of God’s—whose will and character, for 1 
 aught I know, may be different from God's. 
 
 I want to love and honour the absolute, 
 abysmal God Himself, and none other will 
 satisfy me: and in the doctrine of Christ 
 being co-equal and co-eternal, sent by, sacri¬ 
 ficed by, His Father, that He might do His 
 Father's will, I find it: and no puzzling texts, 
 like those you quote, shall rob me of that 
 rest for my heart, that Christ is the exact 
 counterpart of Him in whom we live, and 
 move, and have our being.” 
 
 TROVES, Arabic luqtah (AksS) , 
 
 signifies property which a person finds on 
 the ground, and takes away for the purpose 
 of preserving it in the manner of a trust. A 
 trove under ten dirhams must be advertised 
 
 for some days, or as long as he may deem 
 expedient; but if it exceed ten dirhams in 
 value, he must advertise it for a year. 
 (Hamilton’s Hidayah, voL ii. p. 266.) 
 
 TRUMPET. Arabic stir (jy«). 
 
 According to the Qur’an, Surah xxxix. 68, 
 the trumpet at the Day of Resurrection 
 shall be blown twice. “ The trumpet shall 
 be blown (first), and those who are in the 
 heavens and in the earth shall swoon (or 
 die), save whom God pleases. Then it shall 
 be blown again, and, lo ! they shall rise again 
 and look on.” 
 
 Al-Baizawi says there will only be these 
 two blasts, but Traditionists assert there will 
 be three. The blast of consternation, the blast 
 of examination, and the blast of resurrection, 
 for an account of which, see the article on 
 RESURRECTION. 
 
 TUBBA* (frj). A tribe of Himva- 
 
 rite Arabs, whose kings were called Tubba‘, 
 or “ Successors,” and who are mentioned in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xliv. 35 : “ Are they better 
 than the people of Tubba‘ and those before 
 them? Yerily, they were sinners, and we 
 destroyed them.” 
 
 TUHR (^=). The period of purity 
 
 in a woman, [divorce, purification.] 
 
 TULAIHAH (i^i). A chief of 
 
 the Banff Asad, a warrior of note and in¬ 
 fluence in Xajd, who claimed to have a 
 divine commission in the days of Muhammad, 
 but who was afterwards subdued by Khalid 
 under the Khalifate of Abu Bakr, and em¬ 
 braced Islam. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, 
 vol. iv. p. 246.) 
 
 TUR (jyb). Chaldee -^*3. (1) A 
 
 mount. At-Tiir, the mountain mentioned in 
 in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 60: “ When we took 
 a covenant Qnisag ) with you, and held the 
 mountain (ready to fall)'over you.” This 
 is generally understood to mean Thru SaincT, 
 or Mount Sinai, but al-BaizawI says it was 
 Jabal Zubail. In Persian, the mountain is 
 called Koh-i-Tur, or the Mount of Tur. In 
 Arabia, the name is given to the Mount 
 Sinai of Scripture. 
 
 (2) The title of the Lund Surah of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 TURBAN. Arabic ‘imama.li 
 Persian dastdr Hindustani 
 
 pagn The turban, which 
 
 consists of a stiff round cap, occasionally 
 rising to a considerable height, and a long 
 piece of muslin, often as much as twenty-four 
 yards in length, wound round it, is amongst 
 all Muhammadan nations a sign of autho¬ 
 rity and honour, and it is held to be dis¬ 
 respectful to stand in the presence of a 
 person of respectability, or to worship God, 
 with the head uncovered. Shaikhs and per¬ 
 sons of religious pretensions wear green tur¬ 
 bans. The Coptic Christians in Egvpt wear 
 a blue turban, having been compelled to do 
 so by an edict published in a.xj. 1301. In 
 
648 
 
 TURK 
 
 TUWA 
 
 some parts of Islam, it is usual to set apart 
 a Maulawi, or to appoint a chief or ruler, by 
 placing a turban on his head. 
 
 The mitre, bonnet, hood, and diadem of the 
 Old Testament are but varieties of the head¬ 
 dress known in the East as the turban. Canon 
 Cook, in the Speaker’s Commentary, on Exodus 
 xxviii. 4, 37, says the mitznepheth, or “mitre” 
 of the Hebrew Bible, “ according to the de¬ 
 rivation of the word, and from the statement 
 in verse 39, was a twisted band of linen 
 coiled into a cap, to which the name mitre 
 in its original sense closely answers, but which 
 in modern usage would rather be called a 
 turban.” 
 
 The term used in the Hebrew Bible for put¬ 
 ting on the tzaniph or the peer, “ bonnet,” in 
 
 Ex.xxix. 9,Lev. viii. 13,is Iran khavash, “ to 
 
 — T 
 
 bind round,” and would therefore indicate 
 that even in the earliest periods of Jewish his¬ 
 tory the head-dress was similar in character 
 to that now seen amongst the different Muslim 
 tribes of the world. 
 
 Josephus’ account of the high priest’s mitre 
 is peculiar; he says ( Antiquities, book iii. ch. 
 vii. p. 3): “ Its make is such that it seems to 
 be a crown, being made of thick swathes, but 
 
 MUSLIM TURBANS. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 the contexture is of linen, and it is doubled 
 many times, and sewn together; besides which, 
 a piece of fine linen covers the whole cap 
 from the upper part, and reaches down to the 
 forehead and the seams of the swathes, which 
 would otherwise appear indecently; this ad¬ 
 heres closely upon the solid part of the head, 
 and is thereto so firmly fixed that it may not 
 fall off during the sacred service about the 
 sacrifices.” 
 
 The varieties of turban worn in the East 
 are very great, and their peculiarities are best 
 illustrated by the accompanying drawing, 
 giving seventeen different styles of tying up 
 the turban. In books written upon the sub¬ 
 ject in Eastern languages, it is said that there 
 are not fewer than a thousand methods of 
 binding the turban. It is in the peculiar 
 method of tying on, and of arranging this 
 head-dress, that not only tribal and religious 
 distinctions are seen, but even peculiarities of 
 disposition. The humility or pride, the virtue 
 or vice, as well as the social standing of the 
 individual, is supposed to be indicated in his 
 method of binding the turban upon his head. 
 And travellers in the East can at once dis¬ 
 tinguish the different races by their turbans. 
 [dress.] 
 
 TUEK. Arabic tarle or turJc (e=)y), 
 pi. atrak. (1) A term applied by European 
 writers to express Muhammadans of all j 
 nationalities. (See Book of Common Prayer, 
 Collect for Good Friday.) 
 
 (2) An inhabitant of Turkomania, Turki- 
 stan or Transoxania, so named from Tur, 
 eldest son of Faridun, to whom his father 
 gave it for an inheritance. Also of those 
 numerous races of Tartars who claim to be 
 descended from Turk, a son of Japhet. Turki ( 
 chin, a Chinese Tartar. 
 
 (3) A native of European or Asiatic 
 Turkey. Halaku, the Turk, a grandson of 
 Jengiz Khan, took Baghdad a.d. 1258, and 
 about forty years afterwards ‘Usman (Oth- ! 
 man) founded the ‘Usman! or Turk dynasty 
 
 at Constantinople, a.d. 1299. Hence Muham¬ 
 madans were known to the European Chris¬ 
 tians as Turks. 
 
 The word Turk is also frequently used by 
 Sikh writers to express Muhammadans in 
 general. The terms Turk and Musulman are 
 employed interchangeably, [khalifah.] 
 
 TUWA A sacred valley 
 
 mentioned in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xx. 12: “0 Moses ! verily I am thy 
 Lord, so take off thy sandals ; thou art in the 
 sacred valley of Tawa, and I have chosen 
 thee.” 
 
 Surah Ixxix. 16: “ Has the story of Moses 
 reached you ? when his Lord addressed him 
 in the holy valley of Tuwa,” 
 
UBADAH 
 
 UKAZ 
 
 649 
 
 U. 
 
 ‘UBADAH IBN as-SAMIT (mL* 
 ^). One of the Ansars of 
 
 al-Madinah, who was afterwards employed 
 by Abu Bakr to collect the scattered sen¬ 
 tences of the Qur’an. 
 
 ‘UBUDlTAH [slavery]. 
 
 al-UFUQU ’L-A‘LA (JWM 
 
 Lit. “ The Loftiest Tract.” (1) The place in 
 which it is said Gabriel was when he taught 
 Muhammad, see Surah liii. 7: “ One mighty 
 in power ( Shadiclu ’ l-Quwa ) taught him, en¬ 
 dowed with sound understanding, and ap¬ 
 peared, he being in the loftiest tract.” 
 
 (2) According to the Sufis, it is the highest 
 spiritual state a man can attain in the mystic 
 life. 
 
 UHNTTKH (£y^). The Enoch of 
 
 the Old Testament, supposed to be the Idris 
 of the Qur’an. A full account of this per¬ 
 sonage will be found in the article on idris. 
 
 UHUD (^). Ohod. A hill about 
 
 three miles distant from al-Madinah, and de¬ 
 scribed by Burckhardt as a rugged and 
 almost insulated offshoot of the great moun¬ 
 tain range. Celebrated for the battle fought 
 by Muhammad and the victory gained over 
 the Muslims by the Quraish, a.h. 3. (Muir’s 
 Life of Mahomet, new ed. p. 266 seqq.') 
 
 [MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 ‘UJ (55^). The son of ‘Uq. A 
 
 giant who is said to have been born in the 
 days of Adam, and lived through the Deluge, 
 as the water only came up to his waist, and 
 to have died in the days of Moses, the great 
 lawgiver having smitten him on the foot with 
 his rod. He lived 3,500 years. ( Ghiyasu V- 
 Lughat, in Ioco.~) The Og of the Bible, con¬ 
 cerning whom as-Suyutl wrote a long book 
 taken chiefly from Rabbinic traditions. 
 (Ewald, Gesch. i. 306.) An apocryphal book 
 of Og was condemned by Pope Gelasius. 
 (Dec. vi. 13.) 
 
 UKAIDAR The Christian 
 
 chief of Dumah, who was taken prisoner by 
 Khalid. a.h. 9. (Muir’s Life of Mahomet, new 
 ed. p. 458.) 
 
 In the Traditions it is said : “ Khalid took 
 Ukaidar prisoner because the Prophet for¬ 
 bade killing him. And the Prophet did not 
 kill him, but made peace with him, when he 
 paid the poll-tax.” ( Mishkat, book xvii. 
 ch. ix.) 
 
 Sir W. Muir says he became a Muslim, 
 but revolted after the death of Muhammad. 
 
 ‘UKAZ (£>I£c). An annual fair of 
 
 twenty-one days, which was held between at- 
 
 Ta’if and Nakhlah, and which was opened on 
 the first day of the month of Zu ’1-Qa‘dah, 
 at the commencement of the three sacred 
 months. It was abolished by Muhammad. 
 
 Mr. Stanley Lane Poole says ( Selections 
 from the Kur-an) :— 
 
 “ There was one place where, above all 
 others, the Kaseedehs (Qasldahs) of the an¬ 
 cient Arabs were recited: this was ’Okadh 
 (‘Ukaz), the Olympia of Arabia, where there 
 was held a great annual Fair, to which not 
 merely the merchants of Mekka and the 
 south, but the poet-heroes of all the land re¬ 
 sorted. The Fair of ’Okadh was held during 
 the sacred months,—a sort of ‘ God’s Truce,’ 
 when blood could not be shed without a vio¬ 
 lation of the ancient customs and faiths of 
 the Bedawees. Thither went the poets of 
 rival clans, who had as often locked spears 
 as hurled rhythmical curses. There was little 
 fear of a bloody ending to the poetic contest, 
 for those heroes who might meet there with 
 enemies or blood-avengers are said to have 
 worn masks or veils, and their poems were 
 recited by a public orator at their dictation. 
 That these precautions and the sacredness of 
 the time could not always prevent the ill- 
 feeling evoked by the pointed personalities of 
 rival singers leading to a fray and bloodshed 
 is proved by recorded instances ; but such 
 results were uncommon, and as a rule the 
 customs of the time and place were respected. 
 In spite of occasional broils on the spot, and 
 the lasting feuds which these poetic contests 
 must have excited, the Fair of ’Okadh was a 
 grand institution. It served as a focus for 
 the literature of all Arabia: everyone with 
 any pretensions to poetic power came, and if 
 he could not himself gain the applause of the 
 assembled people, at least he could form one 
 of the critical audience on whose verdict 
 rested the fame or the shame of every poet. 
 The Fair of ’Okadh was a literary congress, 
 without formal judges, but with unbounded 
 influence. It was here that the polished 
 heroes of the desert determined points of 
 grammar and prosody; here the seven Golden 
 Songs were recited, although (alas for the 
 charming legend!) they were not afterwards 
 ‘suspended’ on the Kaabeh; and here ‘a 
 magical language, the language of the Hijaz,’ 
 was built out of the dialects of Arabia, and 
 was made ready to the skilful hand of Mo¬ 
 hammad, that he might conquer the world 
 with his Kur-an. 
 
 “ The Fair of ’Okadh was not merely a 
 centre of emulation for Arab poets: it was 
 also an annual review of Bedawee virtues. 
 It was there that the Arab nation once-d-year 
 inspected itself, so to say, and brought forth 
 and criticised its ideals of the noble and the 
 beautiful in life and in poetry. For it was in 
 poetry that the Arab—and for that matter 
 
 82 
 
umar 
 
 650 ‘tjktjf 
 
 each man all the ■world over—expressed his 
 highest thoughts, and it was at ’Okadh that 
 these thoughts were measured by the stan¬ 
 dard of the Bedawee ideal The Fair not 
 only maintained the highest standard of 
 poetry that the Arabic language has ever 
 reached: it also upheld the noblest idea of 
 life and duty that the Arab nation has yet 
 set forth and obeyed. 'Okadh was the press, 
 the stage, the pulpit, the Parliament, and the 
 Academie Franqaise of the Arab people: and 
 when, in his fear of the infidel poets (whom 
 Imra-el-Keys was to usher to hell), Moham¬ 
 mad abolished the Fair, he destroyed the 
 Arab nation, even whilst he created his own 
 Dew nation of Muslims; and the Muslims 
 cannot sit in the places of the old pagan 
 Arabs.” 
 
 ‘ L K L F (wi Ac). Lit. “ Remaining 
 behind.” A term used to express a life of 
 prayer of one who remains constantly in the 
 mosque. 
 
 ‘TTL AINPA ’ (cUlc), pi. of ‘dlim. 
 
 “ One who knows; learned ; a scholar.” In 
 this plural form the word is used as the title 
 of those bodies of learned doctors in Muham¬ 
 madan divinity and law, who. headed by their 
 Shaikhu 1-Islam, form the theocratic element 
 of the government in Muslim countries, and 
 who by their fatwas or decisions in questions 
 touching private and public matters of im¬ 
 portance, regulate the life of the Muhamma¬ 
 dan community. Foremost in influence and 
 authority are naturally reckoned the ‘Ulama’ 
 of Constantinople, the seat of the Khalifah, 
 and of Makkah, the Holy City of Islam. Like 
 the Ashab or Companions of the Prophet 
 under his immediate successors, they cor¬ 
 respond in a certain measure to what we 
 would call the representative system of our 
 modem constitutions, in partially limiting 
 and checking the automatism of an other¬ 
 wise absolute Oriental ruler. 
 
 ULUHlYAH “Divinity; 
 
 godhead ” 
 
 ULU ’L-‘AZAT ft). “ The 
 
 Possessors of Constancy.” A title given to 
 certain prophets in the Qur'an, said by the 
 commentators to have been Xoah, Abraham. 
 David, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Jesus, and 
 Muhammad (Vide Ghiyasu 'l-Luahat.') See 
 Surah xlvi. 34: “ Then be thou constant, 
 as the Apostles endowed with a purpose 
 were constant, and hasten not on.” 
 
 "DAI AY A’ (A~»\), pi. of amln. 
 
 “ Faithful Ones.” A title given by the Sufis 
 to those pious persons who do not make their 
 religious experiences known. They are 
 known also as the MoJamatlyah. or those 
 who are willing to undergo misrepresention 
 rather than boast of their piety. 
 
 TAIAE (_-*c) IBX al-KHATTAB. 
 
 (Omar) the second Khalifah, who succeeded 
 Abu Bakr, A.H. 13 (a.d. 634), and was assas¬ 
 sinated by Firoz, a Persian slave, a.h. 23 
 
 (a.d. 644), after a prosperous reign of ten 
 years. His conversion to Islam took place in 
 the sixth year of Muhammad’s mission, and 
 the Prophet took ‘Umars daughter Hafsah 
 as his third wife. 
 
 ‘Umar is eminent amongst the early 
 Khalifahs for having chiefly contributed 
 to the spread of Islam. Under him the 
 great generals, Abu ‘Ubaidah, Kh alid ibn 
 al-TValid, Tazid, drove the Greeks out of 
 Syria and Phoenicia ; Sa‘d ibn Abi Waqqas, 
 Qaqa’ah, Xuman, completed the conquest of 
 the two Traqs and the overthrow of the 
 Persian Empire : ‘Amr ibn al-‘As (commonly 
 called Amro) subdued Egypt and part of the 
 Libyan coast, after having, as commander in 
 Palestine, prepared by his victories and a 
 severe siege, the surrender of Jerusalem 
 [jebusalem] into the Khalifah’s own hands. 
 ‘Umar’s name is, moreover, intimately con¬ 
 nected with the history of Islam, by the 
 initiatory and important share which he took 
 in the first collection of the Qur’an, under 
 Abu Bakr, by the official introduction of the 
 Muhammadan era of the Hijrah, and by the 
 first organisation of the dhvan. or civil list of 
 the Muhammadans. The two former subjects 
 have been treated of in this Dictionary in their 
 proper places ; the third institution, which 
 laid the foundation to the marvellous suc¬ 
 cesses of the Muslim arms under this and 
 the succeeding Governments, is ably explained 
 in the following extract from Sir M. Muir’s 
 Annals of the Early Caliphate :— 
 
 “ The Arabian nation was the champion of 
 Islam, and to fight its battles every Arab 
 was jealously reserved. He must be the 
 soldier, and nothing else. He might not 
 settle down in any conquered province as cul¬ 
 tivator of the soil: and for merchandise or 
 other labour, a busy warlike life offered but 
 little leisure. Xeither was there any need. 
 The Arabs lived on the fat of the conquered 
 land, and captive natives served them. Of 
 the booty taken in war, four parts were dis¬ 
 tributed to the army in the field: the fifth 
 was reserved for the State: and even that, 
 after discharging public obligations, was 
 shared among the Arabian people. In the 
 reign of Abu Bakr, this was a simple matter. 
 But in the Caliphate of .Omar, the spoil of 
 Syria and of Persia began in ever-increasing 
 volume to pour into the treasury of Med in a, 
 where it was distributed almost as soon as 
 received. Mhat was easy in small beginnings, 
 by equal sharing or discretionary preference, 
 became now a heavy task. And there began, 
 also, to arise new sources of revenue in the 
 land assessment, and the poll-tax of subject 
 countries, which, after defraying civil and 
 military charges, had to be accounted for to 
 the Central Government: the surplus being, 
 like the royal fifth, the patrimony of the Arab 
 nation. 
 
 “ At length, in the second or third year of 
 his Caliphate, Omar determined that the dis¬ 
 tribution should be regulated on a fixed and 
 systematic scale. The income of the com¬ 
 monwealth was to be divided, as heretofore, 
 amongst the Faithful as their heritage, but 
 
‘UMAR 
 
 upon a rule of precedence befitting the mili¬ 
 tary and theocratic groundwork of Islam. 
 For this end three points only were con¬ 
 sidered : priority of conversion, affinity to 
 the Prophet, and military service. The 
 widows of Mahomet, ‘ Mothers of the Faith¬ 
 ful,’ took the precedence with an annual 
 allowance of 10,000 pieces each; and all his 
 kinsmen were with a corresponding liberality 
 provided for. The famous Three Hundred of 
 Bedr had 5,000 each; presence at Hodeibia 
 (Hudaiblyah) and the Pledge of the Tree, gave 
 a claim to 4,000; such as took part in quell¬ 
 ing the Rebellion (immediately after Muham¬ 
 mad’s death), had 3,000 ; and those engaged 
 in the great battles of Syria and Irac, as well 
 as sons of the men of Bedr, 2,000; those 
 taking the field after the actions of Cadesiya 
 and the Yerrnuk, 1,000. Warriors of distinc¬ 
 tion received an extra grant of 500. And so 
 they graduated downwards to 200 pieces for 
 the latest levies. Nor were the households 
 forgotten. Women had, as a rule, one-tenth 
 of a man’s share. Wives, widows, and chil¬ 
 dren had each their proper stipend ; and in 
 the register, every infant, as soon as born, 
 had the title to be entered, with a minimum 
 allowance of ten pieces, rising with advancing 
 age to its proper place. Even Arab slaves 
 (so long as any of that race remained) had, 
 strange to say, their portion. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ The Arabian aristocracy thus created 
 was recognised by the whole Moslem world. 
 The rank and stipend now assigned descended 
 in the direct line of birth. Even rewards 
 given for special gallantry in the field were 
 heritable. By making thus the revenues of 
 Islam the heritage of the nation militant, 
 their martial genius was maintained, and their 
 employment perpetuated as the standing 
 army of the Caliphate. 
 
 # # # # * 
 
 “ To carry out this vast design, a register 
 had to be drawn and kept up of every man, 
 woman and child, entitled to a stipend from 
 the State—in other words, of the whole Arab 
 race employed in the interests of Islam. 
 This was easy enough for the higher grades, 
 but a herculean task for the hundreds and 
 thousands of ordinary fighting men and their 
 families who kept streaming forth from the 
 Peninsula; and who, by the extravagant 
 indulgence of polygamy, were multiplying 
 rapidly. But the task was simplified by 
 the strictly tribal composition and dispo¬ 
 sition of the forces. Men of a tribe, or 
 branch of a tribe, fought together; and the 
 several corps and brigades being thus terri¬ 
 torially arranged in clans, the Register as¬ 
 sumed the same form. Every soul was 
 entered under the stock and tribe and class 
 whose lineage it claimed. And to this ex¬ 
 haustive classification we owe in great mea¬ 
 sure the elaborate genealogies and tribal 
 traditions of Arabia before Islam. The 
 Register itself, as well as the office for its 
 maintenance and for pensionary account was 
 
 ‘UMAR 651 
 
 called the Dewan (Diwan), or Department of 
 the Exchequer.” (Sir W. Muir, Annals of the 
 Early Caliphate, London, 1883, p. 228.) 
 
 It was fortunate for Islam, that the reign of 
 Abu Bakr, short in duration, but pregnant with 
 decisive issues, should precede that of ‘Umar. 
 During the critical period, immediately after 
 Muhammad’s death, when three false pro¬ 
 phets and a prophetess gathered increasing 
 numbers round their rebellious standards, 
 when in the north, east, and south of the 
 Peninsula, tribe after tribe, apostatized from 
 the newly-adopted creed, and -when al- 
 Madinah itself was repeatedly threatened by 
 hostile invasions of the neighbouring clans 
 it needed all the spirit of compromise and 
 conciliation which blended in Abu Bakr’s 
 character with penetrating shrewdness and 
 dauntless courage, to steer the bark of the 
 Muslim commonwealth through the dangers 
 which were surrounding it on every side. 
 ‘Umar’s irrepressible impetuosity would, at 
 that time, probably have caused more harm 
 than good, while, on the other hand, the 
 unprecedented success which crowned Abu 
 Bakr’s wise and temporising politics, taught 
 him to temper his own impulses of bold en¬ 
 terprise with prudence and cautiousness, 
 when, in his turn, the reponsibilities of office 
 rested on his shoulders. 
 
 The original violent bent of Umar’s nature 
 is forcibly illustrated by the history of his 
 conversion, as it is told in various traditions. 
 In his youth and early manhood, a zealous 
 and devoted adherent of the religion of his 
 forefathers, he hated and persecuted Muham¬ 
 mad as a dangerous innovator, who had 
 come to lead his people astray, and to sow 
 discord between them. Infuriated at some 
 fresh success of the pretended Prophet, he 
 sallied forth one day to kill him, when he met 
 his kinsman, Nu'aim ibn ‘Abdi ’llah, who, 
 seeing him armed and fiercely excited, asked 
 him: “ Whither goest thou, and what is thy 
 intent ? ” “I seek Muhammad,” was ‘ Umar’s 
 reply, “ and I will slay him; he has vilified 
 our gods and dishonoured our ancestors.” 
 “ Passion blinds thee,” retorted Nu‘aim; 
 “ knowest thou not that, if thou killest Mu- 
 | hammad, thou wilt draw the vengeance of 
 j the Hashimites and the Banu Muttalib 
 j upon thy head ? Better far it would be for 
 thee, to heed the welfare of thy own family, 
 and to bring back to the right path those 
 members of it wffio have forsworn their ances¬ 
 tral religion.” “ And wbo are they,” asked 
 ‘Umar. “ Thy brother-in-law, Sa‘Id ibn 
 Zaid, and Fatimah, thy very own sister,” 
 answered Nu‘aim. 
 
 Forthwith the incensed man hurried on to 
 the house of the culprits. Here Khabbab ibn 
 al-Aratt, a devoted disciple of Muhammad, 
 the same who had made them acquainted 
 with his teaching and won them over to 
 Islam unknown to ‘Umar, was reading with 
 them at that moment a new fragment of the 
 Qur’an. When he heard ‘Umar coming, he 
 concealed himself, and Fatimah tried to 
 hide the manuscript in the bosom of her 
 dress. On entering, ‘Umar asked: “ What 
 
652 
 
 UMAR 
 
 UMAR 
 
 have you been reading just now ? I heard 
 your voices ! ” “ Nothing,” she replied, “ thou 
 art mistaken.” “You have been reading 
 something, and I am told that you belong to 
 the sect of Muhammad.” With these words 
 he threw himself upon his brother-in-law, and 
 struck him. Fatimah rushed in between 
 them. Both husband and wife boldly con¬ 
 fessed: “ Yes, we are Muslims; we believe 
 that there is no god but God, and that Mu¬ 
 hammad is his sent one ; kill us, if thou 
 wilt.” 
 
 No sooner had ‘Umar seen the blood flowing 
 from a wound which he had inflicted on his 
 sister, than shame for his own unmanly act, 
 coupled with admiration of their courageous 
 conduct, brought about a powerful revulsion 
 of his feelings. He asked to be shown the 
 manuscript, and when, after his solemn pro¬ 
 mise not to destroy it, the fragment was 
 handed over to him, he read :— 
 
 “ Not to sadden thee have We sent down 
 this Qur’an to thee, 
 
 But as a warning for him who feareth; 
 
 A missive from Him who hath made the 
 earth and the lofty heavens, 
 
 The God of Mercy who sitteth on His 
 throne! 
 
 His, whatsoever is in the heavens and 
 whatsoever is in the earth, and whatso¬ 
 ever is between them both, and what¬ 
 soever is beneath the humid soil! 
 
 And thou needest not raise thy voice in 
 prayer : He verily knoweth the secret 
 whisper , and the yet more hidden ! 
 
 God 1 there is no God but Him ! Most 
 excellent His titles ! ” 
 
 (Surah xx. 1-7.) 
 
 “ How nobly said and how sublime ! ” ex¬ 
 claimed ‘Umar, when he had read the pas¬ 
 sage. Thereupon Khabbab came forth from 
 his place of concealment, and summoned him 
 to testify to the teaching of Muhammad. 
 ‘Umar asked where Muhammad was, went to 
 him, and made his profession of faith to the 
 Prophet himself. 
 
 Henceforth ‘Umar remained attached to 
 the person of Muhammad with the most 
 devoted friendship, and embraced the cause 
 of Islam with all the energies of his strong 
 nature. We find ‘Umar, immediately after 
 Muhammad’s death, unable at first to grasp 
 the reality of the fact. When the news was 
 imparted to him, he exclaimed wildly before 
 the assembly of the faithful: “ The Prophet 
 is not dead; he has only swooned away.” And, 
 again, when Mughirah tried to convince him 
 that he was mistaken—“ Thou liest!” he cried, 
 “ the Prophet of the Lord shall not die, until 
 he have rooted out every hypocrite and unbe¬ 
 liever.” At this point Abu Bakr quoted the 
 verses of the Qur’an, revealed after the 
 defeat at Uhud : “ Muhammad is no more 
 than an Apostle ; verily the other apostles 
 have gone before him. What then! If he 
 were to die or be killed, would you turn back 
 on your heels ? ” And he added the memo¬ 
 rable appeal: “ Let him then know, whosoever 
 worshippeth Muhammad, that Muhammad in¬ 
 
 deed is dead ; but whoso worshippeth God , 
 let him know that the Lord liveth and doth 
 not die.” 
 
 Then, and only then, on hearing those 
 words, spoken by the hook, as if he had never 
 heard them before, the truth burst upon 
 ‘Umar with crushing force. “ By the Lord,” 
 he would tell in later days, “ it was so that 
 when I heard Abu Bakr reciting those verses, 
 I was horror-struck, my limbs trembled, I 
 dropped down, and I knew of a certainty that 
 Muhammad indeed was dead.” 
 
 The paramount ascendency which Muham¬ 
 mad, during his lifetime, exercised over 
 ‘Umar, could not failjto soften his passionate 
 and vehement nature, and to train him to 
 those habits of self-command, which form 
 one of the most essential elements in the 
 character of a good ruler. If it was an act 
 of wise foresight on the part of Muhammad 
 to designate, at the approach of death, the 
 older and sedater Abu Bakr as his successor, 
 by appointing him to conduct the public 
 prayers during his last illness, he could at 
 the same time feel assured that ‘Umar, far 
 from contesting the choice of his dying 
 friend, would respect it and make it respected 
 against any defection or rival ambition by his 
 cordial and powerful support. But it was 
 equally natural and wise on the part of Abu 
 Bakr, when the time had come, to fix the 
 choice of his own successor upon ‘Umar. It 
 is related that, feeling his end to be near, and 
 willing to fortify his own conviction by the 
 sense of others, he first consulted ‘Abdu ’r- 
 Rahman, the son of ‘Auf, who praised ‘Umar 
 “ as the fittest man, but withal inclined to be 
 severe.” “ Which,” responded the dying Kha- 
 lifah, “ is because he saw me soft and tender¬ 
 hearted, when himself the Master, he will 
 forego much of what thou sayest. I have 
 watched him narrowly. If I were angry with 
 one, he would intercede in his behalf ; if over- 
 lenient, then he would be severe.” ‘Usman, 
 too, confirmed Abu Bakr's choice. “ What is 
 hidden of ‘Umar,” he said, “ is better than 
 that which doth appear. There is not his 
 equal amongst us all.” 
 
 And so it was: as in bodily stature ‘Umar 
 towered high above his fellow-men, so he 
 excelled in every quality required in an 
 imposing commander of the Faithful (Amir 
 al-Mu’minin), this being the title which he 
 adopted in preference to the more cumber¬ 
 some of “ Successor of the Apostle of God ” 
 (Khalifatu ’r-Rasuli ’llah). It lies outside 
 the scope of the present work to give a com¬ 
 plete biography of ‘Umar, and we must refer 
 the reader who should wish to make himself 
 acquainted with it, to the above-quoted 
 attractive volume of Sir W. Muir, Annals of 
 the Early Caliphate. Our less ambitious 
 object here has merely been to sketch, as it 
 were, in a few salient traits culled from it, 
 the picture of a man, who, as a founder of 
 Islam, was second only to Muhammad him¬ 
 self. Gifted with a high and penetrating 
 intellect, and possessed of a strong sense of 
 justice, he was impartial, skilful, and fortu¬ 
 nate in the choice of his military and civij 
 
UMAR 
 
 ‘UMAR 
 
 agents, and had learnt to temper severity 
 with clemency and wise forbearance. While 
 it was he who, in his earlier days, after the 
 battle of Badr, had advised that the prisoners 
 should all be put to death, his later resent¬ 
 ment against Khalid, with whose name the 
 cruel fate of Malik ibn Nuwairah and the 
 gory tale of the “ River of Blood ” are linked 
 in history, on the contrary, took rise in 
 Khalid’s unscrupulous and savage treatment 
 of a fallen foe. And the fanatic intolerance 
 of some of the Muslim captains is favourably 
 contrasted with ‘Umar’s treatment of the 
 Christianised Arab tribe of the Banu Tagh- 
 lib. They had tendered their submission to 
 Walid ibn ‘Uqbah, who, solicitous for the 
 adhesion to Islam of this great and famous 
 race, pressed them with some rigour to ab¬ 
 jure their ancient faith. ‘Umar was much 
 displeased at this—“ Leave them,” he wrote, 
 “ in the profession of the Gospel. It is only 
 within the bounds of the peninsula, where 
 are the Holy Places, that no polytheist tribe 
 is permitted to remain.” Walid was removed 
 from his command ; and it was enjoined on 
 his successor to stipulate only that the usual 
 tribute should be paid, that no member of 
 the tribe should be hindered from embracing 
 Islam, and that the children should not be 
 educated in the Christian faith. The last 
 condition can only have been meant as a 
 nominal indication of the supremacy of Islam, 
 for if it had been enforced, we should not read 
 of the Banu Taghlib continuing in the profes¬ 
 sion of Christianity under the next two dy¬ 
 nasties and even later. The tribe, deeming 
 in its pride the payment of tribute ( jazyah ) 
 an indignity, sent a deputation to the Kha- 
 lifah, declaring their willingness to pay the 
 tax if only it were levied under the same 
 name as that taken from the Muslims. ‘Umar 
 evinced his liberality by allowing the conces¬ 
 sion ; and so the Banu Taghlib enjoyed the 
 singular privilege of being assessed as Chris¬ 
 tians at a “ double tithe ” Qushr), instead of 
 paying jazyah, the obnoxious badge of subju¬ 
 gation. (Sir W. Muir, Annals, p. 218.) 
 
 As the original asperity of ‘Umar’s cha¬ 
 racter had been mellowed in the school of 
 life and in close communion with Muham¬ 
 mad and Abu Bakr, so the same influences, 
 together with the responsibilities of his posi¬ 
 tion, tended to blend his natural boldness and 
 impetuosity with prudence and cautiousness. 
 While his captains in Syria and the ‘Iraq 
 were continually urging him to push on his 
 conquests to the north and east, he would 
 not allow any advance to be ventured upon, 
 before the Muslim rule in the occupied pro¬ 
 vinces was well established and firmly conso¬ 
 lidated. In like manner he evinced a singular 
 dread of naval enterprise, ever after an expedi¬ 
 tion sent to Abyssinia across the Red Sea in 
 the seventh year of his reign had met with a 
 signal disaster; and he was countenanced in 
 this aversion for the treacherous element by 
 a not less daring general than ‘Amr, son of 
 al-‘As, who, consulted on the subject, wrote 
 to him :— 
 
 “ The sea is a boundless expanse, whereon 
 
 653 
 
 great ships look but tiny specks; there is 
 nought saving the heavens above and the 
 waters beneath. Trust it little, fear it much. 
 Man at sea is an insect floating on a splinter ; 
 if the splinter break, the insect perisheth.” 
 
 When the wily ‘Amr wished to raise his 
 people in the estimation of the Egyptians, 
 he had a feast prepared of slaughtered 
 camels, after the Bedouin fashion; and the 
 Egyptians looked on with wonder, while 
 the army satisfied themselves with the 
 rude repast. Next day he commanded a 
 sumptuous banquet to be set before them, 
 with all the dainties of the Egyptian table; 
 and here again the warriors fell to with equal 
 zest. On the third day, there was a grand 
 parade of all the troops in battle array, and 
 the people flocked to see it. Then ‘Amr 
 addressed them, saying: “ The first day’s 
 entertainment was to let you see the plain 
 and simple manner of our life at home; the 
 second, to show you that we can not the less 
 enjoy the good things of the lands we enter; 
 and yet retain, as ye see in the spectacle here 
 before you, our martial vigour notwithstand¬ 
 ing.” 
 
 ‘Amr gained his end, for the Gopts retired, 
 saying one to the other, “ See ye not that the 
 Arabs have but to raise their heel upon us, 
 and it is enough! ” ‘Umar was delighted 
 with his lieutenant’s device, and said of him, 
 “ Of a truth it is on wisdom and resolve, as 
 well as on mere force, that the success of 
 warfare doth depend.” 
 
 But, at the same time, ‘Umar was much too 
 thoughtful and far-seeing himself not to recog¬ 
 nise the danger for the future of Islam, which 
 was lurking in this sudden acquisition of un¬ 
 measured riches. On one occasion, when he 
 was about to distribute the fifth of some 
 Persian spoils, he was seen to weep. “ What,” 
 it was said to him, “ a time of joy and thank¬ 
 fulness, and thou sheddest tears.” “Yea,” 
 replied the simple-minded Khalifah, “ it is 
 not for this I weep ; but I foresee that the 
 wealth which the Lord hath bestowed upon 
 us will become a spring of worldliness and 
 envy, and in the end a calamity to my 
 people.” 
 
 Moreover, the luxury and ostentation which 
 was thus engendered in the enriched leaders, 
 was utterly repulsive to his own frugal 
 habits and homely nature. On his first visit 
 to Syria, Abu ‘Ubaidah, Yazld, and Khalid. 
 met him in state to welcome him. A bril¬ 
 liant cavalcade, robed in Syrian brocade, and 
 mounted on steeds richly caparisoned, they 
 rode forth as he approached. At the sight of 
 all their finery, Umar’s spirit was stirred 
 within him. He stooped down, and, gather¬ 
 ing a handful of gravel, flung it at the asto¬ 
 nished chiefs. “ Avaunt! ” he cried ; “ is it 
 thus attired that ye come out to meet me ? 
 All changed thus in the space of two short 
 years ! Verily, had it been after two hun¬ 
 dred, ye would, have deserved to be degraded.” 
 
 This primitive simplicity of the Arab 
 chieftain is another grand and highly capti¬ 
 vating feature in ‘Umar’s character. We see 
 in our mind’s eye the mighty mover of armies, 
 
654 
 
 UMM 
 
 UMMU ’l-Mu’M]NIN 
 
 at the time when the destinies of Islam were 
 trembling in the balance on the battle-field of 
 Qadisiyah, issuing on foot from the gates of 
 al-Medinah in the early morning, if perchance 
 he might meet some messenger from the 
 scene of combat. At last a courier arrived 
 outside the city, who to ‘Umar’s question re¬ 
 plies shortly, “ The Lord has discomfited the 
 Persian host.” Unrecognised,‘Umar followed 
 the messenger, leading the camel, and with 
 his long strides keeping pace with the 
 high-stepping animal, to glean from him the 
 outline of the great battle. When they en¬ 
 tered al-Madinah, the people crowded round 
 the Kh alifah. saluting him, and hearing the 
 happy news, wished him joy of the triumph. 
 The courier, abashed, cried out, “ 0 Com¬ 
 mander of the Faithful, why didst thou not 
 tell me ? ” but his mind was instantly set at 
 rest by the Khalifah’s kindly answer: “ It is 
 well, my brother.” 
 
 Or we may fancy him perambulating, whip 
 in hand, the streets and markets of al-Madi¬ 
 nah, ready to punish the offenders on the 
 spot, may be his own son and his boon com¬ 
 panions, who had indulged in the use of wine. 
 For on this head ‘Umar did not brook plea¬ 
 santry. When news of some arch-transgressors 
 on this score was sent from Damascus, and 
 indulgence from the strict enforcement of 
 the law was claimed for them on the plea of 
 their exalted position and military merits, he 
 wrote hack: “ Gather an assembly and bring 
 them forth. Then ask, Is wine lawjul, or is 
 it forbidden ? If they say forbidden, lay eighty 
 stripes upon each of them ; if they say law¬ 
 ful, then behead them every one.” The 
 punishment, if inflicted by ‘Umar’s own hand, 
 was telling, for it became a proverb: 
 ‘Umar’s whip is more terrible than another’s 
 sword. 
 
 Or, again, with the groan of repentance of 
 the well-chastised offender still ringing in 
 our ears, we may watch the same ‘Umar, as 
 journeying in Arabia in the year of famine, 
 he comes upon a poor woman, seated with 
 her hungry and weeping children round a 
 fire, whereon is an empty pot. He hurries to 
 the next village, procures bread and meat, 
 fills the pot, and cooks an ample meal, 
 leaving the little ones laughing and at play. 
 
 Such a man was ‘Umar, the great Khali¬ 
 fah, brave, wise, pious. No fitter epitaph 
 could adorn his tombstone, than his dying 
 words :—“ It had gone hard with my soul, if 
 I had not been a Muslim.” [Damascus, jebu- 
 
 SALEM, JIHAD, MUHAMMAD.] 
 
 (The Editor is indebted to Dr. Steingass, 
 the learned author of the English-Arabic 
 Dictionary, a.d. 1882, and Arabic-English 
 Dictionary, a.d. 1884 (W. H. Allen & Co., 
 London), for this review of ‘Umar’s influence 
 on the Muslim religion.) 
 
 UMM (^), pi. ummdt, ummahdt. 
 “Mother.” Heb. bn. A word which 
 
 frequently occurs in combination with other 
 words, e.g. Ummu ’/-Qura, “the mother of 
 villages,” the metropolis Makkah: Ummu ’l- 
 ‘ Ulum, “ the mother of sciences,” grammar. 
 
 UMMAH Heb. ummah. 
 
 T 
 
 A people, a nation, a sect. The word occurs 
 about forty times in the Qur’an. 
 
 Ummatu Ibrahim, the people of Abraham. 
 
 Ummatu ‘■Isa, the people of Jesus. 
 
 Ummatu Muhammad, the people of Muham¬ 
 mad. 
 
 UMMl (u'*!). The title assumed 
 
 by Muhammad, and which occurs in the 
 Qur’an, Surah viiL 15G : “ Who shall follow 
 the Apostle, the illiterate Prophet (an-Nabiyu 
 'l-ummi) ” ; and in the 158th verse of the 
 same Sm - ah. 
 
 Commentators are not agreed as to the 
 derivation of this word, the following are the 
 three most common derivations of it:— 
 
 (1) From Umm, “mother,” i.e. one just as 
 he came from his mother’s womb. 
 
 (2) From Ummah, “ people,” i.e. a gentile, 
 one who was ignorant; alluding to the time 
 of Muhammad’s ignorance. 
 
 (3) From Ummu ’l-qura, “ the mother of 
 villages,” a name given to Makkah; i.e. a 
 native of Makkah. 
 
 Muhammad appears to have wished to he 
 thought ignorant and illiterate, in order to 
 raise the elegance of the Qur’an into a 
 miracle. 
 
 UMMU HABIBAH (£»-* r \). One 
 
 of Muhammad’s wives. She was the daughter 
 of Abu Sufyan, and the widow of ‘Ubaidu’llah, 
 one of the “ Four Inquirers,” who, after emi¬ 
 grating as a Muslim to Abyssinia, embraced 
 Christianity there, and died in profession of 
 that faith. 
 
 UMMU KULSUM The 
 
 youngest daughter of Muhammad by his 
 wife Khadijah. She had been manned to her 
 cousin ‘Utaibah, son of Abu Lahab, but 
 separated from him and became, after the 
 death of her sister Ruqaiyah, the second wife 
 of ‘Usman, the later Khalifah. She died a 
 year or two before Muhammad, who used, 
 after her death, to say he so dearly loved 
 ‘Usman, that had there been a third daughter, 
 he would have given her also in marriage to 
 him. 
 
 UMMU ’L-KITAB (w>U J). Lit. 
 
 “ The Mother of the Book.” 
 
 (1) A title given in the Hadis to the first 
 Surah of the Qur’an. 
 
 (2) In the Suratu Ahli ‘Imran (iii.) 5, it is 
 used for the Qur’an itself. 
 
 (3) In the Suratu ’r-Ra‘d (xiii.) 39, it seems 
 to be applied to the preserved tablet, on which 
 were written the decrees of God and the fate 
 of every human being. 
 
 UMMU’L-MU’MINlN( c ^ r ^\ r \). 
 
 “ A mother of the Faithful.” A title which 
 English authors restrict either to the Pro- 
 l phet’s wife Khadijah. or to ‘Ayishah; but it is 
 ] a title applied to each of the wives of Muham- 
 j mad. Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 6 : “ His wives 
 ] are their mothers,” 
 
USMAN 
 
 UMMU ’b-QURA 
 
 UMMU ’L-QTJRA (^s5\ r \). Lit. 
 
 “ Mother of Villages.” A name given to 
 Makkah. The Metropolis. 
 
 UMMU ’L-WALAD (jJjR r ^). A 
 
 term used in Muhammadan law for a female 
 slave who has borne a child to her master, 
 and who is consequently free at his death. 
 [slavery.] 
 
 UMMU SALMAH r \). One 
 
 of the wives of the Prophet. The widow of 
 Abu Salmah, to whom she had borne several 
 children. Abu Salmah was killed at Uhud, and 
 Muhammad married his widow four months 
 afterwards. 
 
 ‘UMRA A life grant, or 
 
 interest in anything, e.g. if the proprietor of a 
 house says to another, “ This is yours as long 
 as you live.” 
 
 ‘UMRAH A Lesser Pilgri¬ 
 
 mage, or a visitation to the sacred mosque at 
 Makkah, with the ceremonies of encompassing 
 the Ka‘bah and running between al-Marwah 
 and as-Safa, but omitting the sacrifices, &c. It 
 is a meritorious act, but it has not the sup¬ 
 posed merit of the Hajj or Pilgrimage. It 
 can be performed at any time except the 
 eighth, ninth, and tenth days of the month 
 Zu '1-Hijjah, these being the days of the Hajj 
 or Greater Pilgrimage, [iiajj.] 
 
 UMUMlYAH “ Mater¬ 
 
 nity.” A term used in Muslim law. ( Hida - 
 yah, vol. iii. p. 417.) 
 
 UNBELIEVERS. There are seve¬ 
 ral terms used in Islam for those who are 
 unbelievers in the mission of Muhammad, 
 e -9■ 
 
 Kafir (fi\S), One who hides the truth. A 
 term generally applied to idolaters, and not 
 to Jews or Christians. 
 
 Mushrik One who gives com¬ 
 
 panions to God. Believers in the Blessed 
 Trinity are so called. The term is also applied 
 by the Wahhabis to any Muslim who observes 
 ceremonies which are not clearly enjoined in 
 the precepts of the Muslim religion, as visit¬ 
 ing shrines, &c. 
 
 Mu/hid [ASA*) , One who has deviated 
 from the truth. 
 
 Murtadd An apostate from Islam. 
 
 Dahri An Atheist. 
 
 (For further explanations, refer to the words 
 in their places.) 
 
 UNCLEAN MEATS, [food.] 
 UNCLEANNESS, [purification.] 
 UNITY OF GOD. [tauhid.] 
 UNLAWFUL. Arabic 
 
 [law.] 
 
 ‘UQAB (v-Acfi). A black eagle. 
 
 A celebrated standard belonging to Muham¬ 
 mad. (See Hayatu ’ l-Qulub, p. 88, Merrick's 
 edition.) [standards.] 
 
 655 
 
 ‘UQBA (JyJte). Lit. “End.” A 
 
 reward or punishment. Hence used to ex¬ 
 press the life to come either of good or evil. 
 [paradise, hell.] 
 
 ‘UQBAH (A*5e) IBN ‘AMIR al- 
 
 JUHANI. A Companion of great celebrity. 
 He was afterwards Governor of Egypt, where 
 he died, a.h. 58. 
 
 UQNUM pi. aqanirn. Ac¬ 
 
 cording to Muslim lexicographers, it is “ a 
 word which means the root or principle of a 
 thing, and, according to the Nasara (Naza- 
 renes), there are three Aqanlm, namely, 
 wujud (entity or substance), hayat (life), and 
 ‘ilm (knowledge); and also, Ab (Father), Ibn 
 (Son), and Ruhu ’l-Quds (Holy Spirit) ; and 
 it is also the name of a book amongst the 
 Nazarenes which treats of these three. (See 
 Ghiyasu ’l-Lughat, in loco.) [trinity'.] 
 
 ‘UQUBAH (A»yic). “Punishment; 
 
 chastisement.” A legal term for punishment 
 inflicted at the discretion of the magistrate. 
 ‘Ugubah shadidah is severe punishment ex¬ 
 tending to death, [tazir.] 
 
 al-‘UQULU ’L-‘ASHARAH 
 V 1 '* 5 ')- Lit. “ The Ten Intelligences.” 
 Ten angels who, according to the philoso¬ 
 phers, were created by God in the following 
 manner: First, He created one angel; who 
 then created one heaven and one angel, this 
 second angel then created a second heaven 
 and a third angel ; and so on until there 
 were created nine heavens and ten angels. 
 The tenth angel then, by the order of God, 
 created the whole world. (See Ghiyasu 7- 
 Lughat, in loco.) 
 
 ‘URS (<_r*; c )- (1) Marriage festi¬ 
 
 vities, as distinguished from nika/i,“ the mar¬ 
 riage ceremony.” [marriage.] 
 
 (2) A term also used for the ceremonies 
 observed at the anniversary of the death of 
 any celebrated saint or murshid. 
 
 ‘USHR pi- a‘shctr and 
 
 ‘ushur. A tenth or tithe given to the Muslim 
 State or Baitu 'l-Mal. [baitu ’l-mal. ] 
 
 ‘USMAN (©Use) IBN ‘AFFAN. 
 
 The third Khalifah, who succeeded ‘Umar 
 a.h. 23 (a.d. 643), and was slain by Muham¬ 
 mad, son of Abu Bakr and other conspira¬ 
 tors on the 18th of Zu '1-Hijjah, a.h. 35 
 (June 17th, a.d. 656), aged eighty-two, and 
 having reigned twelve years. He is known 
 amongst Muslims as Zu ’n-Nurain, “ The 
 Possessor of the Two Lights,” because he 
 married two of the Prophet’s daughters, Ru- 
 qaiyah and Ummu Kulsum. His chief merit 
 with regard to the cause of Islam was the 
 second and final revision of the sacred book, 
 which he caused to be made, and of which an 
 exhaustive account has been given in our 
 article on the Qur’an. 
 
 Although Muhammadan historians distin¬ 
 guish the reigns of the first four Khalifahs 
 as founded on faith (dim), from those-of the 
 later ones, as based on the world and its 
 
656 
 
 USUL 
 
 USURY 
 
 passions and vanities (dunyawi), it must be 
 admitted that worldly motives entered al¬ 
 ready largely into the politics of ‘Usman and 
 ‘Ali, as contrasted with Abu Bakr and ‘Umar. 
 ‘Usman, by his weakness and nepotism, ‘Ali 
 by holding aloof with culpable indifference, 
 during the protracted death-struggle of his 
 predecessor, by abetting his murderers in the 
 open field, and by his vacillating spirit, 
 where firmness of purpose was needed, gave 
 rise to those fierce dissensions between rival 
 religious and political parties, which led, for 
 the time being, to the establishment of the 
 Umaiyah dynasty, and eventually caused the 
 division of Islam into the two great sects of I 
 the Sunnis and Shi‘ahs. 
 
 USUL (J^), pi. of asl. Lit. j 
 
 “Roots.” The roots or fundamentals of the j 
 Muhammadan religion, as opposed to furu ‘ j 
 (&/)’“ branches,” a term used for Muham- I 
 madan law, civil, ceremonial, and religious, j 
 The usul of Islam are universally held to be 
 four : (1) Th e Qur'an, (2) The Hadis, (3) Ijma -, 
 and (4) Qiyas, terms which will be found ex¬ 
 plained under their respective titles. 
 
 '■Ilmu 7- Usui is the science of interpreta- | 
 tion or exegesis of these four fundamentals 
 
 USURY. Arabic riba' (bj). A 
 
 word which, like the Hebrew neshek, 
 
 includes all gain upon loans, whether from the I 
 loan of money, or goods, or property of any j 
 kind. In the Mosaic law, conditions of gain for j 
 the loan of money or goods, were rigorously [ 
 prohibited : “ If thou lend money to any of my 
 people that is poor by thee, thou shalt not j 
 be to him as an usurer, neither shalt thou | 
 lay upon him usury.” (Exodus xxii. 25.) j 
 “ If thy brother be waxen poor . . . take no | 
 usury of him or increase : but fear thy God ; 
 that thy brother may live with thee. Thou j 
 shalt not give him thy money upon usury, | 
 nor lend him thy victuals for increase.” (Le- j 
 viticus xxv. 35-37.) 
 
 (1) The teaching of the Qur’an on the 
 subject is given in Surah ii. 276: “They 
 who swallow down usury, shall arise in the 
 Last Day only as he ariseth, whom Satan 
 has infected by his touch. This for that they 
 say, ‘ Selling is only the like of usury,’ and 
 yet God hath allowed selling and forbidden [ 
 usury; and whosoever receiveth this admo- ] 
 nition from his Lord, and abstaineth from it, I 
 shall have pardon for the past and his lot | 
 shall be with God. But they who return to j 
 usury, shall be given over to the Fire,— 
 therein to abide for ever.” 
 
 (2) In the Traditions, Muhammad is related 
 
 to have said:— j 
 
 “ Cursed be the taker of usury, the giver 
 of usury, the writer of usury, and the witness 
 of usury, for they are all equal.” 
 
 “ Verily the wealth that is gained in usury, 
 although it be great, is of small advantage.” 
 (Sahifru Muslim, Babu ’r-Riba’). 
 
 (3) 576a’, in the language of the law, signifies 
 “ an excess,” according to a legal standard of 
 measurement or weight, in one of two homo¬ 
 
 geneous articles (of weight or measurement of 
 capacity) opposed to each other in a contract 
 of exchange, and in which such excess is 
 stipulated as an obligatory condition on one 
 of the parties, without any return, that is, 
 without anything being opposed to it. The 
 sale, therefore, of two loads of barley, for 
 instance, in exchange for one load of wheat, 
 does not constitute usury, since these articles 
 are not homogeneous ; and, on the other hand, 
 the sale of ten yards of cloth in exchange for 
 five yards of cloth, is not usury, since al¬ 
 though these articles be homogeneous, still 
 they are not estimable by iveight or measure¬ 
 ment of capacity. 
 
 Usury, then, as an illegal transaction, is 
 occasioned (according to most Muhammadan 
 doctors) by rate, united with species, where, 
 however, it must be observed, that rate, 
 amongst the Musalmans, applies only to 
 articles of weight or measurement of capa¬ 
 city, and not to articles of longitudinal mea¬ 
 surement, such as cloth, &c., or of tale, such 
 as eggs, dates, walnuts, &c., when exchanged 
 from hand to hand. Ash-Shafi‘i maintains 
 that usury takes place only in things of an 
 esculent nature, or in money, and according 
 to him, therefore, articles of the last-men¬ 
 tioned description would give occasion to 
 usury. It is, furthermore, to be observed, 
 that superiority or inferiority in the quality 
 has no effect in the establishment of the 
 usury; and hence it is lawful to sell a quan¬ 
 tity of the better sort of any article in ex¬ 
 change for an equal quantity of an inferior 
 sort. Nor does usury exist where the qua¬ 
 lities of an article of weight or measurement 
 by capacity are not ascertained by some 
 known standard of measurement. Thus it is 
 lawful to sell one handful of wheat in ex¬ 
 change for two handfuls, or two handfuls for 
 four, because, in such case, the measurement 
 not having been made according to a legal 
 standard, the superiority of measurement, 
 establishing usury, has not taken place, and, 
 since the law has fixed no standard of mea¬ 
 sure beneath half a sa‘, any quantity less 
 than such is considered equivalent to a 
 handful. 
 
 Where the quality of being weighable or 
 measureable by capacity, and correspondence 
 of species (being the causes of usury) both 
 exist, the stipulation of inequality or of sus¬ 
 pension of payment to a future period, are 
 both usurious. Thus it is usurious to sell 
 either one measure of wheat in exchange for 
 two measures,—or one measure of wheat for 
 one measure deliverable at a future period. 
 If, on the contrary, neither of these circum¬ 
 stances exist (as in the sale of wheat for 
 money), it is lawful, either to stipulate a 
 superiority of rate, or the payment at a 
 future period. If, on the other hand, one of 
 these circumstances only exist (as in the sale 
 of wheat for barley, or the sale of one slave 
 for another), then a superiority in the rate 
 may legally he stipulated, but not a suspen¬ 
 sion in the payment. Thus one measure of 
 wheat may lawfully be sold for two measures 
 of barley, or one slave for two slaves: but it 
 
USWAH 
 
 is not lawful to sell one measure of wheat for 
 one measure of barley, payable at a future 
 period ; nor one slave for another, deliverable 
 at a future period. 
 
 According to the majority of doctors, every¬ 
 thing in which the usuriousness of an excess 
 has been established by the Prophet on the 
 ground of measurement of capacity (sucti as 
 wheat, barley, dates and salt), or on the 
 ground of weight (like gold or silver), is forever 
 to be considered as of that nature, although 
 mankind should forsake this mode of estima¬ 
 tion ; because the custom of mankind, which 
 regulates the measurement, is of inferior force 
 to the declaration of the Prophet; and a 
 superior court cannot yield to an inferior. 
 Abu Yusuf, however, is of opinion that in all 
 things practice or custom ought to prevail, 
 although in opposition to the ordinances of 
 the Prophet ; for the ordinance of the Pro¬ 
 phet was founded on usage and practice of 
 his own time. In ordinances, therefore, the 
 prevalent customs among mankind are to be 
 regarded ; and as these are liable to alter, 
 they must be attended to rather than the 
 letter of an ordinance. 
 
 Usury cannot take place between a master 
 and his slave, because whatever is in the 
 possession of the slave is the property of the 
 master, so that no sale can possibly take 
 place between them, and hence the possibility 
 of usury is excluded a fortiori. Nor can it 
 take place between a Muslim and a hostile 
 infidel in a hostile country, in accordance 
 with the saying of the Prophet: “There is 
 no usury between a Muslim and a hostile in¬ 
 fidel in a foreign land,” and on the further 
 ground, that the property of a hostile infidel 
 being free to the Muslim, it follows that it is 
 lawful to take it by whatever mode may be 
 possible, provided there be no deceit used. 
 It is otherwise with respect to a zimmi, or 
 protected alien, as his property is not of a 
 neutral nature, because of the protection that 
 has been accorded to him, and, therefore, 
 usury is as unlawful in his case as in that of 
 a Muslim. Abu Yusuf and ash-Shafi‘1 con¬ 
 ceive an analogy between the case of a hostile 
 infidel, in a hostile country, and that of a 
 zimmi, and hence they hold, contrary to the 
 other Muslim doctors, that usury can take 
 place also between a Muslim and a hostile 
 infidel in a foreign land. 
 
 The testimony of a person who receives 
 usury is inadmissible in a court of law. It is 
 recorded in the Mabsut, however, that the 
 evidence of a usurer is inadmissible only in 
 case of his being so in a notorious degree; 
 because mankind often make invalid con¬ 
 tracts, and these are in some degree usu¬ 
 rious. ( Hidayuh , Grady’s edition, p. 362.) 
 
 For further information on the subject of 
 usury and for cases, illustrative of the above- 
 stated principles, see Hidayah, Hamilton’s 
 translation, vol. ii., p. 489, seqq. ; Grady’s 
 edition, p. 289 seqq ; the Durru V- Mukhtdr : 
 the Fatawa-i-‘ Alamgiri, in loco.- 
 
 USWAH, also ISWAH 
 
 “ An example,” The word occurs in the 
 
 uteeine eelations 657 
 
 Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 21: ‘* Ye had in the 
 Apostle of God a good example” (uswatun 
 hasanatun). Ar-Eaghib says it is the condi¬ 
 tion in which a man is in respect of another’s 
 imitating him. 
 
 UTERINE RELATIONS. Arabic 
 zawu ’l-arham ^o), called by 
 
 the English lawyers “ distant kindred.” 
 
 They are divided into four classes :— 
 
 (1) Persons descended from the deceased, 
 how low soever, i.e. the children of daughters 
 or of son’s daughters. 
 
 (2) Those from whom the deceased is de¬ 
 scended, how high soever, i.e. False grand¬ 
 parents, in contradistinction from the True, a 
 true grandfather being one between whom 
 and the deceased no female intervenes; a 
 true grandmother, one between whom and 
 the deceased no false grandfather intervenes. 
 
 (3) Those descended from the parents of the 
 deceased, how low soever, i.e. the daughters 
 of full-brothers and of half-brothers (by the 
 same father only), the children of half- 
 brothers (by the same mother only), and the 
 children of sisters. 
 
 (4) The children of the two grandfathers 
 and two grandmothers of the deceased, i.e. 
 father’s half-brothers and sisters by the same 
 mother only and their children; the de¬ 
 ceased’s paternal aunts and their children; 
 maternal uncles and aunts and their children; 
 the daughters of full paternal uncles and 
 half-paternal uncles by the same father only. 
 
 This classification, however, does not ex¬ 
 haust the distant kindred, which, in the lan¬ 
 guage of the law, are defined as those rela¬ 
 tions of a deceased person who are neither 
 sharers nor residuaries. [inheritance.] 
 Thus, cousins who are children of residuaries, 
 but are not residuaries themselves (e.g. 
 paternal uncles’ daughters) are distant kin¬ 
 dred, though not members of any of the fore¬ 
 going classes, or related through any member 
 of such a class. 
 
 When the distant kindred succeed, in conse¬ 
 quence of the absence of sharers and residua¬ 
 ries, they are admitted according to the order 
 of their classes. Within the limits of each par¬ 
 ticular class, it is a general rule that a person 
 nearer in degree succeeds in preference to one 
 more remote ; and in all classes, if there be 
 several of an equal degree, the property goes 
 equally among them if they are of the same 
 sex. There is, however, some disagreement 
 as to cases in which persons through whom 
 they are related to the deceased are of 
 different sexes or of different blood; and 
 it is maintained by Muhammad, against 
 Abu Yusuf, that regard must be had 
 partly to the “ roots ” or intermediate rela¬ 
 tions, and not only to the “ branches,” 
 or actual claimants. Thus all are agreed 
 that if a man leave a daughter’s son and 
 a daughter’s daughter, the male will 
 have a double portion, for there is no dif¬ 
 ference of sex in the intermediate relations ; 
 but if there be a daughter's son’s daughter 
 and a daughter’s daughter’s son, it is said 
 by Abu Yusuf that the male will have a 
 
 83 
 
658 
 
 UZAIR 
 
 VOWS 
 
 double portion, on account of his sex; but by 
 Muhammad, that the female, instead of the 
 male, will take the double portion, by reason 
 of her father’s sex. And on the other hand, 
 all are agreed that if there be two daughters 
 of different brothers, they will take equally 
 between them ; but if there be a daughter of 
 a brother and a daughter of a half-brother by 
 the father only, Muhammad rules that the 
 latter will take nothing ; for having regard 
 to the circumstances that a brother excludes 
 a half-brother by the father only, he considers 
 that there is nothing to be handed down to 
 the descendant of the latter, and that the 
 whole will go to the descendant of the 
 former. 
 
 This rule of Muhammad, which in its appli¬ 
 cation to the different classes of the distant 
 kindred, leads to curious results of a complex 
 character, soems to deserve a particular notice, 
 as resting to a large extent on the principle 
 of representation, which otherwise is all but 
 
 foreign to the Muhammadan law of inheri¬ 
 tance. (A. Rumsey, Moohummudan Law of 
 Inheritance, p. 56 ; Syed Ameer Ali, Personal 
 Law, p. 52 ; Durru ’1-MuJchtar, p. 873.) 
 
 ‘UZAIE (/y 5 ). [EZRA.] 
 
 UZHlYAH [sacrifice.] 
 
 ‘UZLAH (^) c ). “ Retirement.” 
 
 A term used by the Sufis for a religious life 
 of retirement from the world. 
 
 ‘UZR (^Ac). “ An excuse.” A 
 
 legal term for a claim or an objection. 
 
 al-‘UZZA An idol men¬ 
 
 tioned in the Qur’an. Surah liii. 19 : “ What 
 think ye then of al-Lat and al-‘Uzza, and 
 Manat, the third idol besides.” According to 
 Husain, it was an idol of the tribe of Ghata- 
 fan. For a discussion on the subject, see the 
 article on lat. 
 
 Y. 
 
 VEILS, [dress.] 
 
 VESSELS. In the early days of 
 
 Islam, there were four kinds of drinking- 
 vessels forbidden to Muhammadans on 
 account of their being used for wine, namely, 
 hantam a green vessel; dubba (hu), 
 
 a large gourd hollowed out; naqir off 
 a cup made from the hollowed root of a tree; 
 muzajfat (es^iy*)) a vessel covered with a 
 kind of black pitch, or the glutinous sub¬ 
 stance with which the bottom of boats are 
 payed. ( Mishkat , book i. ch. i. pt. i.) But, 
 according to Muslim law, the vessels used by 
 Christians and Jews, and even by idolaters, 
 are lawful, but they must be free from the 
 taste or smell of wine. 
 
 VIGIL. Arabic ‘arafah (Aiye). The 
 
 only Muhammadan festival which has a vigil 
 is the ‘■Idu'l-Azhd, or “ Feast of Sacrifice.” 
 
 [‘IDD ’l-AZHA.] 
 
 VISITING THE SICK. Arabic 
 ‘iyadah (SoLc). An incumbent reli¬ 
 gious duty enjoined by Muhammad on his 
 followers. The following traditions illustrate 
 his teaching on the subject ( Mishlcat, book 
 v. ch. i.) : — 
 
 “ When a Muslim visits a sick brother, he 
 gathers the fruits of Paradise from the time 
 he leaves his home until he returns.” 
 
 “ If a Muslim visit a sick person, and say 
 seven times, ‘ I ask the Almighty God, who is 
 Lord of the great throne, to give thee health,’ 
 the prayer shall be granted, unless the ap¬ 
 pointed time oi his death hath surely come.” 
 
 “ Verily God will say at the Day of Resur¬ 
 rection, 1 O sons of Adam ! I was sick and ye I 
 did not visit me.’ And the sons of Adam will 
 
 say, ‘ 0 our Defender 1 how could we visit 
 thee, for Thou art the Lord of the universe 
 and art free from sickness ? ’ And God will 
 say, ‘ O men ! did you not know that such a 
 one of my servants was sick, and you did not 
 visit him ? Do you not know that had you 
 visited that servant you would have met me 
 there ? ’ ” 
 
 ‘Ayishah says : “ When any one of us was 
 sick, the Prophet used to rub his hands upon 
 the sick person’s body, after which he would 
 say, ‘ 0 Lord of man ! take away this pain 
 and give health; for Thou art the giver of 
 health; there is no health but thine, that 
 health which leaveth no sickness.” 
 
 “ When any person complained of being out 
 of order, or having a wound or sore, the Pro¬ 
 phet would say, when passing his finger over 
 the part affected, 1 In the name of God, the 
 earth of our ground mixed with the spittle of 
 our mouth; we have done this in order to re¬ 
 store the sick to health, by permission of our 
 Lord.’ ” 
 
 VOWS. Arabic nazr ( pi. nuzur. 
 
 Heb. neder. They who fulfil their vows 
 
 are amongst those who drink of the waters 
 of Kafur in Paradise (Qur'an, Surah lxxvi. 7); 
 and the non-performance of a vow is sin 
 (Mishlcat, book xiii. ch. xxii.). But the Pro¬ 
 phet is related to have said, “ Do not make a 
 vow for it cannot alter fate ; still it does ex¬ 
 tract something from the wealth of the 
 stingy.” 
 
 The atonement for a vow which has been 
 not performed is the same as for an oath 
 namely, the freeing of a slave, or clothing ten 
 poor persons, or feeding ten persons, or three 
 days fast. (Hidauah, Arabic ed., vol. i. p. 
 350.) [OATH.] 
 
WADl'AH 
 
 WAHHA bt 
 
 659 
 
 W. 
 
 WADI‘AH Lit. “ A thing 
 
 put down.” The legal term for a deposit. 
 (See Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. p. 259.) 
 
 al-WADUD “ The Loving 
 
 One,” or “The Beloved One.” One of the 
 the ninety-nine special attributes of God. 
 It occurs twice in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xi. 92 : “ My Lord is Merciful and 
 Loving.” 
 
 Surah lxxxv 14: “He is the Forgiving, 
 the Loving.” 
 
 Al-Maliku V- Wadud, the “ King of Love.” 
 
 WAHDANlYAH (4^). (1) A 
 
 theological term for the doctrine of the Unity 
 of God. (2) The name of a sect of Sufis. 
 [god, SIKHISM, SUFI.] 
 
 WAHDATU ’L-WUJUDlYAH 
 s-^). A pantheistic sect of 
 
 Sufis, who say that everything is God, and 
 of the same essence. 
 
 al-WAHHAB “ The 
 
 Bestower of gifts.” One of the ninety-nine 
 special attributes of God. It occurs in the 
 Qur’an, e.g. Surah iii. G: “Thou art He who 
 bestoweth gifts.” 
 
 WAHHABI A sect of 
 
 Muslim revivalists founded by Muhammad, 
 son of ‘Abdu ’1-Wahhab, but as their oppo¬ 
 nents could not call them Muhammadans, 
 they have been distinguished by the name of 
 the father of the founder of their sect, and 
 are called Wahhabis. 
 
 Muhammad ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Wahhab was born 
 at Ayinah in Najd in a.d. 1691. Carefully 
 instructed by his father in the tenets of the 
 Muslim faith, according to the Hanbali sect, 
 the strictest of the four great schools of inter¬ 
 pretation, the son of ‘Abdu '1-Wahhab deter¬ 
 mined to increase his knowledge by visiting 
 the schools of Makkah, al-Basrah and Bagh¬ 
 dad. The libraries of these celebrated centres 
 of Muhammadanism placed within the reach 
 of the zealous student those ponderous folios 
 of tradition known as the “ six correct books,” 
 and also gave him access to numerous manu¬ 
 script volumes of Muslim law. Having per¬ 
 formed the pilgrimage to Makkah with his 
 father, and visited the Prophet’s tomb at al- 
 Madinah, he remained at the latter place to 
 sit at the feet of Shaikh ‘Abdu ’Hah ibn Ibra¬ 
 him, by whom he was carefully instructed in 
 all the intricacies of the exegetical rules laid 
 down for the exposition of ethics and juris¬ 
 prudence. 
 
 For some years he resided with his father 
 at Horemelah, a place which, according to 
 Palgrave, claims the honour of his birth ; but 
 after his father's death, he returned to his 
 
 native village, Ayinah, where he assumed the 
 position of a religious leader. 
 
 In his various travels, Muhammad ibn 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Wahhab had observed the laxities 
 and superstitions of those who, whilst they 
 professed to accept the stern unbending 
 precepts of the Prophet of Arabia, had 
 succeeded in stretching the rigid lines of 
 Islam almost to breaking. Omens and augu¬ 
 ries, sacred shrines and richly ornamented 
 tombs, the use of intoxicating drugs, the silks 
 and satins of the wealthy, all seemed to the 
 earnest reformer lamentable departures from 
 the first principles of Islam, and unwarrant¬ 
 able concessions to the luxury, idolatry, and 
 superstitions of the age. Having carefully 
 studied the teachings of the Qur’an and the 
 sacred traditions, he thought he had learned 
 to distinguish between the essential elements 
 of Islam and its recent admixtures, and now 
 once more in the home of his childhood, he 
 determined to teach and to propagate nothing 
 but the “ pure faith,” as laid down by the 
 precepts and practice of the Prophet himself. 
 The Muslim world had departed from the 
 worship of the Unity, and had yielded a 
 blind allegiance to Walls, PIrs, and Saints, 
 and all because the teachings of the sacred 
 traditions had been neglected for that of 
 learned but ambitious teachers. 
 
 To accept any doctrine other than that of 
 those “ Companions ” who received their in¬ 
 structions from the Prophet’s lips, was simply 
 the blind leading the blind; and, therefore, 
 the Reformer, refusing to join his faith to the 
 uncertain leading-strings of even the four 
 orthodox doctors, determined to establish 
 the right of private judgment in the inter¬ 
 pretation of those two great foundations of 
 Islam—the Qur’an and the Ahadis. 
 
 His teaching met with acceptance, but his 
 increasing influence excited the opposition of 
 the ruler of his district, and he was compelled 
 to seek an asylum at Deraiah, under the pro¬ 
 tection of Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud, a chief of 
 considerable influence. The protection of the 
 religious teacher was made a pretext for 
 more ambitious designs, and that which the 
 zealous cleric had failed to accomplish by his 
 persuasive eloquence, the warrior chief now 
 sought to attain by the power of the sword ; 
 and he thus established in his own person 
 that Wahhabi dynasty which, after a che¬ 
 quered existence of more than a hundred 
 years, still exercises so powerful an influence 
 not only in Central and Eastern Arabia, but 
 wherever the Muhammadan creed is pro¬ 
 fessed. Like other great men before 
 him, the Chief of Deraiah strengthened his 
 position by a matrimonial alliance, which 
 united the interests of his own family with 
 
660 
 
 WAHHABI 
 
 WAHHABI 
 
 that of the reformer. He married the 
 daughter of Muhammad ibn‘Abdu’l-Wahhab, 
 and she became the mother of the celebrated 
 Wahhabi chief ‘Abdu ’l-‘AzIz, who, upon the 
 death of his father (a.d. 1765), led the Wah¬ 
 habi army to victory, and succeeded in push¬ 
 ing his conquests to the remotest corners of 
 Arabia. 
 
 ‘Abdu ’l-‘AzIz was not only a brave war¬ 
 rior, but a pious Muslim, and it is said that 
 he fell a victim to the scrupulous regularity 
 with which he performed his devotions in 
 public. A Persian fanatic plunged his sharp 
 Khurasan dagger into his side, just as he 
 was prostrating himself in prayer in the 
 mosque of Deraiah (a.d. 1803). 
 
 But the great military champion of the 
 reformed doctrines was Sa‘ud, the eldest son 
 of ‘Abdu ’l-‘Az!z, who during the lifetime of 
 his father led the Wahhabi armies to vic¬ 
 tory, and threatened even the conquest of the 
 whole Turkish empire. He is said to have 
 been a remarkably handsome man, praised 
 for his wisdom in counsel and skill in war. 
 Having wielded the sword from his youth (for 
 he fought his first battle when a lad of 
 twelve), he was regarded by the wild Arabs 
 of the desert as a fit instrument to effect the 
 conversion of the world, and men from all 
 parts of Arabia flocked round his standard. 
 
 Sa‘ud gained several decisive victories over 
 Sulaiman Pasha, and afterwards, with an 
 army of 20,000 men, marched against Kar¬ 
 bala’, the famed city of the East, which con¬ 
 tains the tombs of the Shrah Khallfahs. 
 Tne city was entered with the Wahhabi cry, 
 “ Kill and strangle all infidels which give 
 companions to God,” and every vestige of 
 supposed idolatry, from the bright golden 
 dome of al-Husain’s tomb to the smallest 
 tobacco pipe, was ground to the very dust, 
 whilst the offerings of the numerous devotees, 
 which formed the rich treasure of the sacred 
 shrines, served to replenish the impoverished 
 exchequer of the Wahhabi chief. 
 
 The following year the fanatical army 
 effected the conquest of Makkah, and, on the 
 27th April 1803, Sa‘ud made his formal entry 
 into the sacred city of the Ka‘bah. The 
 sanctity of the place subdued the barbarous 
 spirit of the conquerors, and not the slightest 
 excesses were committed against the people. 
 The stern principles of the reformed doc¬ 
 trines were, however, strictly enforced. Piles 
 of green huqqas and Persian pipes were col¬ 
 lected, rosaries and amulets were forcibly 
 taken from the devotees, silk and satin 
 dresses were demanded from the wealthy and 
 worldly, and the whole, collected into the 
 one heterogeneous mass, was burnt by the 
 infuriated reformers. So strong was the feel¬ 
 ing against the pipes, and so necessary did a 
 public example seem to be, that a respect¬ 
 able lady, whose delinquency had well nigh 
 escaped the vigilant eye of the Muhtasib, was 
 seized and placed on an ass, with a green 
 pipe suspended from her neck, and paraded 
 through the public streets—a terrible warn¬ 
 ing to all of her sex who may be inclined to 
 indulge in forbidden luxuries. When the 
 
 usual hours of prayer arrived, the myrmidons 
 of the law sallied forth, and with leathern 
 whips drove all slothful Muslims to their 
 devotions. The mosques were filled. Never 
 since the days of the Prophet had the sacred 
 city witnessed so much piety and devotion. 
 
 Not one pipe, not a single tobacco-stopper, 
 was to be seen in the streets or found in the 
 houses, and the whole population of Makkah 
 prostrated themselves at least five times 
 a day in solemn adoration. Having carried 
 out his mission with fidelity, Sa‘ud hastened 
 to convey the news of his success to the 
 Sultan of Tui-key in the following charac¬ 
 teristic letter:— 
 
 “ Sa‘ud to Salim.—I entered Makkah on 
 the fourth day of Muharram in the 1218th 
 year of the Hijrah. I kept peace towards 
 the inhabitants, I destroyed all things that 
 were idolatrously worshipped. I abolished 
 all taxes except those required by the law. 
 
 I confirmed the QazI whom you had ap¬ 
 pointed agreeably to the commands of the 
 Prophet of God. I desire that you will give 
 orders to the rulers of Damascus and Cairo 
 not to come up to the sacred city with the 
 Mahinal and with trumpets and drums. Reli¬ 
 gion is not profited by these things. May the 
 peace and blessing of God be with you.” 
 [jiahmal.] 
 
 Before the close of the year, al-Madlnah 
 was added to the Wahhabi conquests, and so 
 thoroughly did Sa‘ud carry out the work of 
 reform, that even the Hujrah, containing the 
 tomb of the Prophet, did not escape. Its 
 richly ornamented dome was destroyed, and 
 the curtain which covered the Prophet’s 
 grave would have been removed, had not the 
 Leader of the Faithful been warned in his 
 dreams not to commit so monstrous a sacri¬ 
 lege. [hujrah.] 
 
 For nine years did the Wahhabi rule exist 
 at Makkah, and so strong was the position 
 occupied by the Wahhabi army, and so ra¬ 
 pidly did Wahhabi opinions spread amongst 
 the people, that the Sultan of Turkey began 
 to entertain the worst fears for the safety of 
 his empire. ‘All Pasha was therefore ordered 
 by the Sultan of Turkey to collect a strong 
 army to suppress the Wahhabi movement; 
 and eventually, Makkah and al-Madinah 
 were taken from the fanatics. 
 
 Upon the death of Sa‘ud (a.d. 1814), his 
 son, ‘Abdu ’llah, became the Leader of the 
 Faithful. He was even more distinguished 
 than his father for personal bravery, but he 
 lacked that knowledge of men which was so 
 necessary for one called upon to lead the un¬ 
 disciplined nomadic tribes of the Arabian 
 deserts. ‘Abdu ’llah and hi^ army met with \S 
 a series of reverses, and he was at last taken 
 prisoner by Ibrahim Pashah and sent to Con- 
 stantinople. He was executed in the public 
 square of St. Sophia, December 19th, 1818. 
 Turk!, the son of ‘Abdu’llah, abandoned all 
 hope of regaining the position, and fled to 
 Riyaz, where he was afterwards assassinated. 
 Faizul succeeded his father a.d. 1830, and 
 established the Wahhabi rule in Eastern 
 Arabia, making Riyaz the capital of his king- 
 
WAHHABI 
 
 WAHHABI 
 
 661 
 
 clom. It was this chief who entertained the 
 traveller Palgrave in 1863, and received 
 Lieutenant-Colonel (now Sir Lewis Pelly), as 
 Her Majesty’s representative, in 1865. Faizul 
 died in 1866, soon after Sir Lewis Pelly's 
 visit, and was succeeded by his son ‘Abdu 
 ’Hah. 
 
 But although the great political and mili¬ 
 tary power of the Wahhabis had been well 
 nigh crushed, and the rule of the dynasty of 
 Sa‘ud circumscribed within the limits of the 
 province of Najd,the principles laid down by 
 Muhammad ibn ‘Abdu ’1-Wahhab were still 
 zealously maintained by certain religious 
 teachers within the sacred mosque itself. 
 And so it came to pass that when a restless 
 spirit from India was endeavouring to redeem 
 a lawless life by performing the pilgrimage 
 to Makkah, he fell in with teachers who had 
 imbibed Wahhabi doctrines and were secretly 
 disseminating them amongst the pilgrims. 
 Saiyid Ahmad, the freebooter and bandit 
 of Rai Bareli, having performed the sacred 
 rites of the Pilgrimage, returned from Mak¬ 
 kah (a.d. 1822), resolved to reclaim the 
 
 whole of North India to the Faith of Islam. 
 Bing a direct descendant from the Prophet, 
 he possessed (unlike the Wahhabi of Najd) 
 the necessary qualification for a Leader of 
 the Faithful, and the Muslims of India at 
 once hailed him as the true Khallfah or al- 
 Mahdl. Unheeded by the British Govern¬ 
 ment, he traversed our provinces with a nu¬ 
 merous retinue of devoted disciples, and 
 converted the populace to his reformed doc¬ 
 trines by thousands. He appointed deputies 
 at Patna, and then proceeded to Delhi, where 
 he met with a ready listener in Muhammad 
 Isma’il, who became his most devoted dis¬ 
 ciple, and recorded the sayings of the new 
 Khallfah in the well-known Wahhabi book, 
 entitled the Siratu ’ l-Mustaqim. 
 
 On the 21st December 1826, Saiyid Ahmad, 
 the Leader of the Faithful, declared a religious 
 war, or Jihad, against the Sikhs, and, hoping 
 to unite the hosts of Islam in Central Asia 
 under his banner, he commenced an insurrec¬ 
 tion on the Peshawar frontier. A fanatical 
 war of varied successes followed, and lasted 
 for four years ; but the Wahhabi army was 
 soon reduced in strength, and its disasters 
 culminated in the death of its chief, who was 
 slain by Sher Singh in an engagement at 
 Balakot in Hazarah, May 1831. The rem¬ 
 nant of the Saiyid’s army fled across the 
 border and settled at Sattana, where in 1857, 
 their numbers were augmented by mutineers, 
 who joined their camp. They were even¬ 
 tually displaced by the British Government 
 in the Umbeyla War of 1863, but there are 
 still some three hundred of them residing at 
 Palosi on the banks of the Indus, where 
 they are ruled by Shaikh ‘Abdu ’llah, an old 
 mutineer of 1857, who has recently married 
 his daughter to a former Imam of the Pesha¬ 
 war, Sadar Bazar, in order to combine the 
 Wahhabi influences of Peshawar with those 
 of the Palosi settlement. 
 
 But as in the case of the Wahhabis of Najd, 
 so with the Wahhabis of India. The reli¬ 
 
 gious tenets of the reformers did not die with 
 their political leader. What Sa‘ud of Najd 
 and Ahmad of Bareli failed to accomplish 
 with the sword, the cheapness of lithographic 
 printing has enabled less daring leaders to 
 accomplish with the pen. The reformed 
 doctrines, as embodied in the Siratu 'l-Mus- 
 taqbn and the Taqwiyatu ’l-Iman, still exer¬ 
 cise a powerful influence upon Muhammadan 
 thought in India. 
 
 Wahhablism has sometimes been desig¬ 
 nated the Protestantism of Islam, and so it 
 really is, although with this remarkable dif¬ 
 ference, that whilst Christian Protestantism 
 is the assertion of the paramount authority of 
 sacred scripture to the rejection of traditional 
 teachings, Wahhablism is the assertion of the 
 paramount authority of the Qur’an with the 
 Traditions. But both systems contend for first 
 principles, and if there appears to be any in¬ 
 congruity in applying the term Protestant to 
 a sect which receives, instead of rejects, tra¬ 
 dition, it arises from the very important fact 
 that what is called “ tradition ” in Islam oc¬ 
 cupies a totally different place in the Muham¬ 
 madan system from that which it does in the 
 Christian, Tradition in Islam being nothing 
 less than the supposed inspired sayings of the 
 Prophet, recorded and handed down by un¬ 
 inspired writers, and being absolutely neces¬ 
 sary to complete the structure of the faith. 
 The daily prayer, the customs of the pilgri¬ 
 mage, and numerous other duties and dogmas 
 held to be of Divine institution, being found not 
 in the Qur’an but in the Ahadis, or Tradi¬ 
 tions. Hence it is that the Wahhabis of Najd 
 and India call themselves Ahl-i-Hadls, or the 
 people of Tradition, and promote in every 
 way they can the study of those records. 
 (tradition.] 
 
 The Wahhabis speak of themselves as 
 Muwahhiid, or “ Unitarians,” and call all 
 others Mushrik, or those who associate 
 another with God; and the following are 
 some of their distinctive religious tenets :— 
 
 1. They do not receive the decisions of the 
 four orthodox sects, but say that any man 
 who can read and understand the Qur’an and 
 the sacred Hadis can judge for himself in 
 matters of doctrine. They, therefore, reject 
 Ijma‘ after the death of the Companions of 
 the Prophet. 
 
 2. That no one but God can know the 
 secrets of men, and that prayers should not 
 be offered to any prophet, wall, pir, or saint; 
 but that God may be asked to grant a peti¬ 
 tion for the sake of a saint. 
 
 3. That at the Last Day, Muhammad will 
 obtain permission (izii) of God to intercede 
 for his people. The Sunnis believe that per¬ 
 mission has already been given. 
 
 4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the 
 shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate 
 before them, or to perambulate ( tawaf) 
 round them, they do not even perform any 
 act of reverence at the Prophet’s tomb at al- 
 Madinah. 
 
 5. That women should not be allowed to 
 visit the graves of the dead, on account of 
 their immoderate weeping. 
 
662 
 
 WAHHABI 
 
 WAHY 
 
 0. That only four festivals ought to be 
 observed, namely, ‘Idu ’1-Fitr, ‘Idu ’1-Azha, 
 ‘Ashura, and al-Lailatu ’l-Mubarakah. 
 
 7. They do not observe the ceremonies of 
 Mauliid, which are celebrated on the anni¬ 
 versary of Muhammad’s birth. 
 
 8. They do not present offerings ( Nazr) at 
 any shrine. 
 
 3. They count the ninety-nine names of 
 God on their fingers, and not on a rosary. 
 
 10. They understand the terms “ sitting of 
 God” (Arabic Istiwa’), and “ hand of God” 
 (Yadu ’lldh), which occur in the Qur’an, in 
 their literal ( Haqlqi) sense, and not figura¬ 
 tively ( Majazi ) ; but, at the same time, they 
 say it is not revealed hoiv God sits, or in 
 what sense he has a hand, &c., and on this 
 account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity 
 and the Sonship of Christ do not present the 
 same difficulties to the mind of a Wahhabi 
 which they do to that of a Sunni. 
 
 Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, in his Future of Islam, 
 says :— 
 
 “ I believe it is hardly now recognised by 
 Mohammedans how near Abd el Wahhab was 
 to complete success. Before the close of the 
 eighteenth century, the chiefs of the Ibn 
 Saouds, champions of Unitarian Islam, had 
 established their authority over all Northern 
 Arabia as far as the Euphrates, and in 1808 
 they took Mecca and Medina. In the mean¬ 
 while, the Wahhabite doctrines were gaining 
 ground still further afield. India was at one 
 time very near conversion, and in Egypt, and 
 North Africa, and even in Turkey, many 
 secretly subscribed to the new doctrines. 
 Two things, however, marred the plan of 
 general reform and prevented its full accom¬ 
 plishment. In the first place, the reform was 
 too completely reactive. It took no account 
 whatever of the progress of modern thought, 
 and directly it attempted to leave Arabia it 
 found itself face to face with difficulties which 
 only political as well as religious success 
 could overcome. It was impossible, except 
 by force of arms, to Arabianise the world 
 again, and nothing less than this was in con¬ 
 templation. Its second mistake, and that was 
 one that a little of the Prophet’s prudence 
 which always went hand in hand with his 
 zeal might have avoided, was a too rigid in- 
 sistance upon trifles. Abd el Wahhab con¬ 
 demned minarets and tombstones because 
 neither were in use during the first years of 
 Islam. The minarets,therefore, were every¬ 
 where thrown down, and when the holy 
 places of Hejaz fell into the hands of his fol¬ 
 lowers, the tombs of saints which had for 
 centuries been revered as objects of pilgri¬ 
 mage were levelled to the ground. Even the 
 Prophet’s tomb at Medina was laid waste 
 and the treasures it contained distributed 
 among the soldiers of Ibn Saoud. This 
 roused the indignation of all Islam, and turned 
 the tide of the Wahhabite fortunes. Respect¬ 
 able feeling which had hitherto been on their 
 side now declared itself against them, and 
 they never after regained their position as 
 moral and social reformers. Politically, too, 
 it was the cause of their ruin. The outside 
 
 Musalman world, looking upon them as sacri¬ 
 legious barbarians, was afraid to visit Mecca, 
 and the pilgrimage declined so rapidly that 
 the Hejazi became alarmed. The source of 
 their revenue they found cut off, and it 
 seemed on the point of ceasing altogether. 
 Then they appealed to Constantinople, urging 
 the Sultan to vindicate his claim to be pro¬ 
 tector of the holy places. What followed is 
 well known. After the peace of Paris, Sultan 
 Mahmud commissioned Mehemet Ali to de¬ 
 liver Mecca and Medina from the Wahhabite 
 heretics, and this he in time effected. The 
 war was carried into Nejd ; Deriyeh, their 
 capital, was sacked, and Ibn Saoud himself 
 taken prisoner and decapitated in front of St. 
 Sophia at Constantinople. The movement of 
 reform in Islam was thus put back for, per¬ 
 haps, another hundred years. 
 
 “ Still, the seed cast by Abd el Wahhab 
 has not been entirely without fruit. Wahhab¬ 
 ism, as a political regeneration of the world, 
 has failed, but the spirit of reform has re¬ 
 mained. Indeed, the present unquiet attitude 
 of expectation in Islam has been its indirect 
 result. Just as the Lutheran reformation in 
 Europe, though it failed to convert the Chris¬ 
 tian Church, caused its real reform, so Wah- 
 habbism has produced a real desire for re¬ 
 form if not yet reform itself in Mussulmans. 
 Islam is no longer asleep, and were another 
 and a wiser Abd el Wahhab to appear, not 
 as a heretic, but in the body of the orthodox 
 sect, he might play the part of Loyola or 
 Borromeo with success. 
 
 “ The present condition of the Wahhabites 
 as a sect is one of decline. In India, and I 
 believe in other parts of Southern Asia, their 
 missionaries still make converts and their 
 preachers 'are held in high esteem. But at 
 home in Arabia, ther zeal has waxed cold, 
 giving place to liberal ideas which in truth 
 are far more congenial to the Arabian mind. 
 The Ibn Saoud dynasty no longer holds the 
 first position in Nejd, and Ibn Rashid who has 
 taken their place, though nominally a Wah¬ 
 habite, has little of the Wahhabite fanaticism. 
 He is in fact a popular and national rather 
 than a religious leader, and though still de¬ 
 signated at Constantinople as a pestilent 
 heretic, is counted as their ally by the more 
 liberal Sunites. It is probable that he would 
 not withhold his allegiance from a Caliph of 
 the legitimate house of Koreysh.” 
 
 (The following English works may be con¬ 
 sulted on the subject of Wahhabiism: Burck- 
 hardt’s Bedouins and Wahhabys ; Brydge’s 
 Brief History of the Wahhabis ; Sir Lewis 
 Pelly’s Political Mission to Najd ; Hunter’s 
 Musahnans of India ; Palgrave’s Central and 
 Eastern Arabia ; Lady Ann Blunt’s Pilgri¬ 
 mage to Najd ; Dr. Badger’s Imams and Sey- 
 yids of'Oman ; Blunt’s Future of Islam.) 
 
 al-WAHID OV^)- “The One.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine special attributes of 
 the Almighty. It occurs frequently in the 
 Qur’an, e.g. Surah ii. 158 : “ Your God is One 
 God.” 
 
 WAHY (^3=-^). [inspiration.] 
 
WA*IZ 
 
 WA‘I? (hfdj). “A preacher.” 
 
 The word khatib is generally applied to the 
 Maulawi who recites the khutbah on Fridays ; 
 wa‘iz is of more general application. In the 
 Qcimus dictionary, the waHz is defined as one 
 who reminds mankind of those punishments 
 and rewards which soften the heart. The 
 usual time for preaching is on Fridays, and 
 in the months of Muharram and Ramazan. 
 [khdtbah.] 
 
 WAJD (a_c^). “ Ecstasy.” A 
 
 Sufi term for the fifth stage of the mystic 
 journey, when the spiritual traveller attains 
 to a state of mental excitement which is 
 supposed to indicate a high state of divine 
 illumination, [suei.] 
 
 WAJH Lit. “Presence; 
 
 face.” The word occurs in the Qur’an for the 
 presence of God. Surah ii. 109 : “ Wherever 
 ye turn there is the face of God (Wajhu 
 llah ).” 
 
 WAJIB Lit. “ That which 
 
 is obligatory.” A term used in Muhammadan 
 law for those injunctions, the non-observance 
 of which constitutes sin, but the denial of 
 which does not attain to downright infidelity. 
 For example, that Muslim who does not 
 offer the sacrifice on the day of the Great 
 Festival [idu ’l-azha] commits a sin, and if 
 he says the sacrifice is not a divine institution, 
 he is a sinner, but not an infidel; and he who 
 does not observe the fast [kamazan] is a 
 sinner, but if he deny that the fast is a 
 divine institution, he is an infidel. The sacri¬ 
 fice being wdjib, whilst the fast is farz. 
 [law.] 
 
 (2) A term which frequently occurs in com¬ 
 bination with others. For example, al- 
 Wdjibu 'l-wujud, “ the necessary existence ” 
 —God ; Wdjibu ’ l-ittiba“ worthy to be 
 obeyed,” as a teacher or prophet; Wdjibu 7- 
 add', “ necessary to be discharged,” as a debt 
 or duty. 
 
 al-WAJID (asAjH). “ The Finder, 
 
 Inventor, or Maker.” One of the ninety-nine 
 attributes of God, but the word does not 
 occur in the Qur’an. 
 
 WAKALAH, WIKALAH (8\$). 
 
 The office of substitute. An embassy; an 
 agency ; attorneyship. For the Muhammadan 
 law, with regard to agency for sale, see 
 Hamilton’s Hidayah, vol. iii. pp. 1-62. 
 [agent, bail, sale.] 
 
 WAKlL An attorney, an 
 
 agent, an ambassador, [agent.] 
 
 al-WAKIL “The Guar¬ 
 
 dian.” One of the ninety-nine special attri¬ 
 butes of God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah 
 iv. 83: “ For God is all sufficient for a 
 Guardian.” 
 
 WALA’ (oSj). Lit. “Proximity, 
 
 kin, friendship.” A peculiar relationship 
 voluntarily established, and which confers a 
 right of inheritance on one or both parties 
 connected. It is of two kinds :— 
 
 WALIYU *L-‘AHD 663 
 
 (1) Wald’u ’(-‘Atdqah Rela¬ 
 
 tionship between a master and a manumitted 
 slave, in which the former inherits any pro¬ 
 perty the latter may acquire after emancipa¬ 
 tion. 
 
 (2) Wald'u ’ l-Muivdlat oSj), The 
 
 connection arising out of mutual friendship, 
 especially between a Muhammadan and a 
 convert. (See Hidayah, Grady’s edition, 
 p. 513.) 
 
 WALAHAN The demon 
 
 who troubles people when they are perform¬ 
 ing their ablutions. ( Mishkdt, book ii. ch. 
 7.) The name signifies grief or distraction of 
 mind. (See Muntaha 7 -‘Arab.) 
 
 WALl pi. auliya’, “ One 
 
 who is very near.” (1) Saints, or holy men, 
 e.g. Surah x. 63: “ Are not, verily, friends 
 {auliya") of God they on whom there is no 
 fear ? ” [saints.] 
 
 (2) Next of kin or kindred, e.g. Surah viii. 
 73: *' These shall be next of kin to each 
 other.” 
 
 Wall ‘ahd, an heir, especially to a sove¬ 
 reignty. 
 
 Wall ba‘ld, a legal guardian of a more 
 remote degree than father, brother, or uncle. 
 
 Wall jabir, an authoritative guardian re¬ 
 cognised by law. 
 
 Wall ni l mat, a title of respect for a father, 
 a patron, a benefactor. 
 
 Wallyu 'd-dam, a relative entitled to exact 
 retaliation. 
 
 (3) A benefactor or helper, e.g. Surah ii. 
 114 : “ Thou hast no helper but God.” 
 
 (4) Al- Wall, “the Helper.” One of the 
 ninety-nine special attributes of God. 
 
 WALl pi. wuldt. A prince 
 
 or governor. A term used for the ruler of 
 a country. It is assumed by the Ameer of 
 Afghanistan in his treaties. 
 
 The title implies one who rules a Muslim 
 country as an Amir, or in behalf of the Kha- 
 llfah of Islam. 
 
 (2) God. Qur’an, Surah xiii. 12: “ Nor 
 have they any governor beside Him.” 
 
 al-WALID IBN ‘UQBAH 
 
 <^). A celebrated Companion. 
 A brother to the Khallfah ‘Usman, who was 
 Governor of al-Kufah, and died in the reign 
 of Mu‘awiyah. 
 
 WALIMAH The nuptial 
 
 feast. 7’Ae wedding breakfast, which is gene¬ 
 rally given on the morning after the mar¬ 
 riage. The custom is founded on the example 
 of Muhammad, -who is related to have given 
 a feast of dates and a meal on the occasion 
 of his marriage with Saflyah. 
 
 Ibn Mas‘ud says the Prophet regarded the 
 wedding feast as of divine authority, and he 
 who is invited on such an occasion must 
 accept the invitation. ( Mishkdt, book xiii. 
 ch. ix. pt. 1.) 
 
 WALIYU ’L-‘AHD J,), 
 
 Vulg. Wali‘nhd. The heir to a kingdom or 
 state 
 
664 
 
 WALKING 
 
 WASITAH 
 
 WALKING, [deportment.] 
 
 WAQF (<-aS^). Lit. “Standing, 
 stopping, halting.” (1) A term -which in the 
 language of the law signifies the appropriation 
 or dedication of property to charitable uses 
 and the service of God. An endowment. The 
 object of such an endowment or appropria¬ 
 tion must be of a perpetual nature, and such 
 property or land cannot be sold or transferred. 
 If a person build a mosque his right of pro¬ 
 perty is extinguished as soon as prayers have 
 been recited in the building. 
 
 According to the Imam Abu Yusuf, if the 
 place in which a mosque is situated should 
 become deserted or uninhabited, inasmuch as 
 there is no further use for the mosque, no 
 person coming to worship therein, still the 
 property does not revert to the original owner 
 and founder. But Imam Muhammad alleges 
 that in such a case the land and the mate¬ 
 rial (bricks, &c.) again become the juoperty 
 of the founder or his heir. 
 
 If a person construct a reservoir or well 
 for public use, or a caravansera, for travellers, 
 or a hostel on an infidel frontier for the ac¬ 
 commodation of Muslim warriors, or dedicate 
 ground as a burying-place, his right is not 
 extinguished until the magistrate, at his re¬ 
 quest, issues a decree to that effect. This is 
 the opinion of Imam Abu Hanlfah, but Imam 
 Abu Yusuf maintains that the person’s right 
 of property ceases on the instant of his say¬ 
 ing : “ I have made over this for such and 
 such purposes.” Whilst Imam Muhammad 
 asserts that as soon as the property is used 
 for the purpose to which it is dedicated, it 
 ceases to be the property of the original 
 owner. (See Hamilton’s Hidayah , vol. ii. 
 p. 334.) 
 
 (2) A term used for a full pause, and parti¬ 
 cularly for certain pauses in the reading of 
 the Qur’an, which are marked with the letters 
 in the text. 
 
 WAQF AH (** 6 j). Lit. The “ in¬ 
 evitable.” (I) A term generally used for an 
 accident or an unavoidable circumstance in 
 life. 
 
 (2) The Day of Judgment. See Qur’an, 
 Surah lvi. 2 : “ When the inevitable happens 
 none shall call its happening a he.” 
 
 (3) The title of the Lvith Sirrah of the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 al-WAQIDI (fcsJrtjN)- His full 
 
 name: Abu ‘Abdi ’llah Muhammad ibn 
 ‘Umar al-Waqidi. A celebrated Muslim his¬ 
 torian, much quoted by Muir in his Life of 
 Mahomet. Born at al-Madinah a.h. 130, died 
 a.h. 207. He is said to have left a library of 
 600 boxes of books. 
 
 WAQS pi. auqiis. Any pro¬ 
 
 perty under the regulated value or number 
 upon which zakat or legal alms is due. 
 
 WAQT (‘-=-'* 5 ). The present time 
 
 as distinguished from al-Waqtu ’ d-Da’im , or 
 the eternal existence of God. 
 
 al-WAQTU’B-DATM(^U\c^5\). 
 
 Lit. “ The Everlasting Time.” A Sufi term 
 for the extent of the existence of the Eternal 
 One. (‘Abdu ’r-Razzaq’s Dictionary of Sufi 
 Terms.) 
 
 WARAQAH Waraqah ibn 
 
 Naufal ibn Asad ibn ‘Abdi ’l-‘Uzza. The 
 cousin of Khadiiah: to whom she first made 
 known the supposed revelation, or dream, of 
 Muhammad, and who is related to have said 
 that the Prophet must have seen the Namus 
 which God sent to Moses. (I Mishkat , book 
 xxiv. ch. v. pt. 1.) 
 
 In the Arabic Dictionary aj- Qamus, it is 
 stated that Waraqah was the son of one of Kh a- 
 dijah’s uncles, and that it is not certain if he 
 ever embraced Islam. ‘Abdu ’1-Haqq, the 
 commentator on the Mishkat, says he had 
 embraced Christianity and had translated the 
 Gospels into Arabic. There does not seem to 
 be any good authority for the supposition 
 that he was originally a Jew. He appears to 
 have died soon after the incident in the cave 
 at Hira’. [muhammad.] 
 
 WARFARE. There are three 
 
 terms used in the Traditions for warfare. 
 
 (1) Jihad (Ag=Q, warfare carried on by 
 Muslims for the extension of Islam. 
 
 (2) Fitan (^j^i), seditions and commotions 
 which will precede the Resurrection. 
 
 (3) Malahim pi. of maltiamah, war¬ 
 
 fare carried on between Muslim nations and 
 tribes. These are also signs of the Resur¬ 
 rection. [fitan, jihad, malahim.] 
 
 al-WARIS OjV')- “ The Heir ” 
 
 (of all things). One of the ninety-nine attri¬ 
 butes of the Almighty. 
 
 WAS AN (G 6 ), pi. auscm. An 
 
 idol, [idolatry.] 
 
 WASANl from wasan, an 
 
 idol. An idolater, [idolater.] 
 
 WASAYA (LUj), pi. of waslyah. 
 
 Lit. “ Precepts.” Used in Muslim law for 
 wills and regulations concerning them 
 [wills.] 
 
 AL-WASF .“The Capa¬ 
 
 cious.” One of the ninety-nine attributes of 
 God. It occurs in the Qur’an, Surah ii. 248 : 
 
 “ God is the Capacious one and knows.” 
 
 WASlLAH 0*4-;). Lit. “Near¬ 
 ness.” The name of the highest station in 
 Paradise, which Muhammad said was re¬ 
 served for one person only, and which he 
 hoped to obtain for himself. ( Mishkat , book 
 xxiv. ch. ii. pt. 2.) 
 
 It is usual for religious Muhammadans to 
 pray, after the call to prayer (azaii) has been 
 concluded, that Muhammad may obtain this 
 station of Wasi/ah. Hence the place of in¬ 
 tercession, and the office of mediator. That 
 which effects nearness to God. 
 
 WASITAH (£kAj). A thing or 
 
 person intervening; an agent; a broker. 
 Hence, a mediator. 
 
WASL 
 
 WATER 
 
 665 
 
 WASL (J^). “Meeting; union.” 
 
 A ijufi term used for the seventh stage in the 
 spiritual journey, when the mystic, as it were, 
 sees the Divine One face to face. The stage 
 previous to fana' , or extinction in the essence 
 of the Eternal One. [suri.] 
 
 WASWASAH (S-j-j). Lit. “In¬ 
 spiring,” or “ suggesting.” A suggestion 
 from the devil. The machinations of the 
 devil, to the consideration of which a chapter 
 is devoted in the Traditions. ( Mishlcat, book 
 i. ch. iii.) 
 
 Muhammad said, “ There is not a single 
 child of mau. except Mary and her son, who 
 is not touched by the devil at the time of his 
 birth, and hence the child makes a loud cry 
 when he is born, nor is there one human 
 being who has not a devil appointed to attend 
 him. The devil sticks close to the sons of 
 Adam, and also an angel; the business of the 
 devil is to do evil, and that of the angel to 
 guide them unto truth.” 
 
 WATER. Arabic w’ (A»), pi* 
 
 miyah, amwdh. Heb. »iayim, waters. 
 
 In the Qur’an, Surah xxi. 31, it is said, “ We 
 clave them (the heavens and the earth) asun¬ 
 der, and by means of water, We gave life to 
 everything.” Which, as Sprenger (vol. i. 
 p. 30n) remarks, is one of the principles of 
 the Ebionite doctrine. Al-Baizawi says it 
 means either that God made all animals from 
 water, or that the chief element in animal life 
 is water, or that animal life is supported 
 chiefly by water. 
 
 Muhammadan writers say there are seven 
 kinds of water which are lawful for the pur¬ 
 poses of purification and drinking :— 
 
 Ma'u 'l-matar , rain-water. 
 
 Ma’u 'l-^ain, spring-water. 
 
 Ma'u '1-bVr, well-water. 
 
 Ma'u 'l-barad, hail-water. 
 
 Ma’u 's-salj, snow-water. 
 
 Ma’u ’l-bahr , sea-water. 
 
 Ma’u 'n-nahr, river-water. 
 
 Water which is considered lawful for ablu¬ 
 tion is also lawful for drinking, and vice versa. 
 Ibn ‘Umar relates that Muhammad was 
 asked about the water of the plains in which 
 animals go to drink, &c., and he said, “ When 
 the water is equal to two qullahs, it is not 
 impure.” ‘Abdu T-Haqq says two qullahs 
 are equal to 250 mans. (Mishlcat , Matthew’s 
 ed., vol. i. p. 107.) [wells.] 
 
 Mr. Sell, in his Faith of Islam, says :— 
 
 “ Minute regulations are laid down with 
 regard to the water which may be used for 
 purification. The following kinds of water 
 are lawful :—rain, sea, river, fountain, well, 
 snow, and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The 
 first kind is authorised by the Quran. 1 He 
 sent you down water from heaven that He 
 might thereby cleanse you, and cause the 
 pollution of Satan to pass from you.’ (Sura 
 viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned 
 by the Traditions. I give one illustration. A 
 man one day came to the Prophet and said : 
 ‘ I am going on a voyage and shall only have 
 
 a small supply of fresh water; if I use it for 
 ablutions I shall have none wherewith to 
 quench my thirst, may I use sea-water ? ’ 
 The Prophet replied : ‘ The water of the sea 
 is pure.’ Tirmfzi states that this is a Hadfs- 
 i-Sahfh. Great difference of opinion exists 
 with regard to what constitutes impurity in 
 water, and so renders it unfit for ablutions. 
 It would be wearisome to the reader to enter 
 into all details, but I may briefly say that, 
 amongst the orthodox, it is generally held that 
 if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into 
 flowing water, or into a reservoir more than 
 15 feet square, it can be used, provided always 
 that the colour, smell, and taste are not 
 changed. It is for this reason that the pool 
 near a mosque is never less than ten cubits 
 square. If of that size, it is called a dah dar 
 dah (literally 10x10). It may be, and com¬ 
 monly is, larger than this. It should be 
 about one foot deep.” 
 
 Rights regarding water. According to Mu¬ 
 hammadan law, water is of four kinds:— 
 
 (1) The water of the ocean, to which every 
 person has a perfect and equal right, for the 
 enjoyment of the ocean is co mm on to every¬ 
 one, in the same manner as the light of the 
 sun or the air we breathe. 
 
 (2) The waters of large rivers, such as the 
 Euphrates, the Tigris, the Indus, or the 
 Oxus, from which every person has an abso¬ 
 lute right to drink, and also a conditional 
 right to use it for the purpose of irrigating 
 his lands. For example, if a person desire 
 to cultivate waste land, and dig a watercourse 
 or canal for the purpose of conveying water 
 to it from the river, he may lawfully do so, 
 provided the act be in no sense detrimental 
 to the people. The same law applies to the 
 erection of a water-mill on the banks of a 
 river. 
 
 (3) Water in which several have a share; 
 in which case also the right of drinking is 
 common to all, whilst there are certain re¬ 
 strictions regarding its use for the purposes 
 of irrigation, which will be hereafter treated 
 of. 
 
 (I) Water whiah is kept in vessels ; which 
 is regarded as property, except in times of 
 scarcity, when it is even lawful to seize it for 
 common use. 
 
 The law regarding the division of water for 
 the purposes of irrigation, known as shirb 
 or “ a right to water,” is most im¬ 
 portant in the East, where so much of 
 the cultivation of land depends not upon 
 the fall of rain but upon irrigation. In Af¬ 
 ghanistan, there are more disputes and more 
 murders committed over the division of water 
 than with regard to any other question. A 
 claim of shirb, or “ right of water,” is valid, 
 independent of any property in the ground, 
 for a person may become endowed with it, 
 exclusive of the ground, either by inheritance 
 or bequest; and it sometimes happens that 
 when a person sells his lands, he reserves to 
 himself the right of shirb. No person can 
 alter or obstruct the course of water running 
 through his ground, and in the case of dis¬ 
 putes regarding a rivulet held jointly by 
 
 84 
 
666 
 
 WA'Z 
 
 WIDOWS 
 
 several, it is the duty of the judge to make 
 a distribution of the water according to the 
 extent of land which they severally possess; 
 for, as the object of right to water is to 
 moisten the lands, it is hut fit that each 
 should receive a just proportion. A rivulet 
 must not be dammed up for the convenience 
 of one partner without the consent of the 
 others; nor can he dig a trench or erect a 
 a mill upon a rivulet used for irrigation, with¬ 
 out the general consent of all persons con¬ 
 cerned. The same restriction applies, also, 
 to a water-engine or a bridge. One partner 
 cannot alter the mode of partition without 
 the others’ consent, nor increase the number 
 of sluices or openings through which he re¬ 
 ceives his share, nor convey his share into 
 lands not entitled to receive it, nor even to 
 lands which are entitled to receive it, nor can 
 he shut up any of the sluices, or exchange 
 the manner of division in any way, as, for 
 example, by taking the water in rotation 
 instead of division by sluices. A right to 
 waier cannot be consigned as a dower, nor 
 given as a consideration in Kkul-. when a wife 
 bargains for her divorce [khcl - ], nor in 
 composition for a claim, nor sold to discharge 
 the debts of a defunct owner. It is also noted 
 that if a person, by irrigating his lands, should 
 bv that means overflow those of his neigh¬ 
 bour, he is not liable to make compensation, as 
 he was not guilty of any transgression. 
 
 WA‘Z (Acj). A sermon, [khttt- 
 
 BAH, VVATZ.] 
 
 WAZlFAH (iiA.), from wazf, “ a 
 daily ration of food.” (1) A term used for a 
 daily lesson, or portion from the Qur’an 
 which is read by devout Muslims. The 
 Qur'an is divided into thirty siparahs as the 
 daily icazifah to be read during the month of 
 Ramazan. 
 
 (2) A pension or stipend granted to pious 
 persons 
 
 (8) Revenue collected at a stipulated rate. 
 
 WAZlR (f.)i)- A Yezeer. The 
 principal minister in a Muhammadan country. 
 There are three opinions respecting the ety- 
 mologv of the word. Some derive it from 
 wizr. a burden,” because the icazir bears 
 the burden of state; others from wazar, “ a 
 refuge.” because the ruler has recourse to the 
 counsels of the icazir : others from azr, “ the 
 back, or strength,” because the ruler is 
 strengthened by his icazir as the human 
 frame is by the back. 
 
 Mr. Lane (Arabian Nights, Intro., p. 23), 
 savs : “ The post of wezeer was the highest 
 that was held by amofficer of the pen : and 
 the person who occupied it was properly 
 the next to the Sultan: but the Turkish Sul¬ 
 tans of Egypt made the office of naib, or 
 “ viceroy,” to have the pre-eminence. Under 
 them, the post of icezeer was sometimes occu¬ 
 pied bv an officer of the pen, and sometimes 
 bv an officer of the sword: and in both cases 
 the icezeer was called ; the Saheb.’ 
 
 Khalil az-Zahir relates that Muhammad 
 said, “ Whosoever is in authority over Mus¬ 
 
 lims, if God prosper him, shall be given a 
 virtuous icazir. The icazir shall remind him 
 when he forgetteth his duty, and shall assist 
 him when he doth remember it. But to a bad 
 ruler God giveth an evil-minded wazir, who, 
 when the ruler forgetteth his duty, does not 
 remind him of it, and when he remembereth 
 his duty, doth not assist him to perform it.” 
 WEDDING. [aiAKRIAGE.] 
 
 WEEK. Arabic usbii‘ (g^-A), subu‘ 
 (g*v-); Heb. shavua‘. The 
 
 Muhammadan week fas the Jewish and Chris¬ 
 tian) begins with Sunday and ends with Satur¬ 
 day. In the Qur’an, Surah vii. 52, it is said 
 “ God created the heavens and the earth in 
 six days.” In Surah xvi. 125, it is said, “ the 
 Sabbath was only made for those who dis¬ 
 pute thereon,” which al-Baizawi says means 
 that the Sabbath was established for the 
 Jews who disputed with Moses regarding it; 
 but there is no injunction in the Qur’an for 
 the due observance of the Sabbath, [day, 
 
 FBXDAT.] 
 
 WEEPING, [btxka’.] 
 
 WELLS. Arabic bi’r (}£?), pi. 
 
 ab'ar. Heb. ^-1 Beer. If a person dig a 
 
 well for public use, it is held by Imam Mu¬ 
 hammad that his right to the well ceases as 
 soon as the people drink of the well; but 
 Imam Abu Hanifah is of opinion that it does 
 not become common property until the magi¬ 
 strates issue a decree to that effect. ( Hida- 
 yah, vol. ii. p. 357.) 
 
 If a person dig a well in a high road 
 (where no person is entitled to dig a well), he 
 is liable to a fine for any accident which may 
 happen by people falling into it. ( Hidayah , 
 voL ii. p. 719.) 
 
 If any animal, or impurity of any kind, 
 fall into a well, all the water must be drawn 
 out before the well can be lawfully used ; and 
 if it be impossible to draw the whole of the 
 water, then not less than 300 bucketfuls must 
 be drawn out. If the animal has in any way 
 become putrified in the well, then the water 
 must not be used for three whole days ; but in 
 any other case the water can be used after 
 the lapse of a whole day. ( Sharhu 7- Wiqa- 
 yah, p. 10.) 
 
 WHISTLING. Arabic muJca’ 
 (AA»). Mentioned in the Qur’an, 
 Surah viii. 35 : “ Their (the Quraish) prayer 
 at the House vas naught but whistling and 
 clapping hands ! Taste, then, the torment, for 
 that ve misbelieve.” From which it is under¬ 
 stood that whistling was one of the idolatrous 
 ceremonies in the days of ignorance in the 
 Makkan temple. Whistling is therefore gene¬ 
 rally held to be unlawful for pious Muslims. 
 
 AVID OUTS. Arabic arrnalah 
 Heb. abndjiah. Mourn¬ 
 
 ing is incumbent upon a widow for a period 
 of four months and ten days after the 
 death of her husband. (Hamilton’s Hidayah , 
 
WILLS 
 
 WILLS 
 
 667 
 
 vol. i. p. 370.) After this period she may 
 lawfully take another husband, provided she 
 be not pregnant of her first husband. A 
 widow’s share of her late husband’s property 
 is on e-eighth when there is a child, or a son’s 
 child, how low soever, and a fourth when 
 there is no child. Though a man may have 
 as many as four wives, the provision for 
 two or more is the same as that for one: the 
 fourth or eighth, as the case may, being 
 divisible among them equally. (Bailhe’s Law 
 o f Inheritance, p. 59.) 
 
 If a Muslim, whose wife was once a Chris¬ 
 tian should die, and his widow appear before 
 a Qazi and declare that she is Muslim, and 
 that she embraced the faith prior to the 
 death of her husband, and the heirs assert 
 the contrary, the assertion of the heirs is to be 
 credited to the exclusion of the rights of the 
 widow. And if a Christian die, and his widow 
 appear before the Qazi as a Muslim, and the 
 heirs declare the contrary, the assertion of 
 the heirs is to be credited to the exclusion of 
 the widow. (Grady’s Hidayah, p. 347.) 
 
 WILLS. Arabic wasTycih (L^j), 
 
 pi. wasaya, which term is held by Muslim 
 legists to mean “ an endowment with the 
 property of anything after death, as if one 
 person should say to another, 1 Give this 
 article of mine, after my death, to a parti¬ 
 cular person.’ ” 
 
 The testator is called must, fern, mushy ah. 
 The legatee is termed musa la-hu. The legacy, 
 musa bi-hi. The person appointed to carry 
 out the will, or the executor, is called the 
 wasiy, pi. ausiyd. 
 
 It is not necessary that the will of a Mus¬ 
 lim should be executed in writing, hut it must 
 be certified to by two male witnesses, or one 
 male and two females. 
 
 The following are some of the chief points 
 in Muslim law, regarding the making and the 
 execution of wills :— 
 
 Wills are lawful and valid to the extent of 
 a third of the testator’s property, but not to 
 any further extent unless by consent of the 
 heirs, and it is laudable to avoid making 
 bequests when the heirs are poor. 
 
 A bequest to an heir is not valid unless 
 confirmed by the other heirs, and a bequest 
 to a person from whom the testator has 
 received a mortal wound is not valid; and 
 if a legatee slay his testator, the bequest in 
 his favour is void. 
 
 A bequest to a part of the heirs is not valid. 
 
 Bequests are valid between Muslims and 
 Zimmis, that is, between Muhammadans and 
 Jews or Christians under protection, [zimmi.] 
 
 The acceptance or rejection of bequests is 
 not determined until after the death of the 
 testator. 
 
 The legatee becomes proprietor of the 
 legacy by his acceptance of it, which may be 
 either expressed or implied 
 
 A bequest by an insolvent person is void, as 
 also that of an infant, or a mulcatab (a slave 
 who has ransomed himself). A bequest 
 in favour of a fcetus in the womb is also 
 invalid; but ash-Shafi‘i says it is valid. 
 
 A female slave may be bequeathed, with 
 the exception of her progeny. To bequeath 
 the offspring of a female slave is unlawful. 
 
 A bequest is rescinded by the express de¬ 
 claration of the testator, or by any act on his 
 part implying his retractation, or which ex¬ 
 tinguishes his property in the legacy. But 
 the testator’s denying his bequest is not a 
 retractation of it, nor his declaring it unlawful 
 or usurious, nor his desiring the execution of 
 it to be deferred. A bequest to one person is 
 annulled by a subsequent bequest of the same 
 article to another, unless that other be not 
 then alive. 
 
 A legacy after being divided off by the 
 magistrate, descends to the legatee’s heirs in 
 case of his decease. 
 
 Concerning the Bequest of a Third of the 
 Estates. 
 
 If a person leave a third of his property 
 to one man and a third to another, and 
 the heirs refuse their consent to the execution 
 of the whole, it is then restricted to one 
 third. 
 
 If a person bequeath the third of his 
 estate to one, and then a sixth of it to 
 another, and the heirs refuse their consent, 
 in that case one-third of his estate is divided 
 into three shares, of which two are given to 
 the legatee of the third and one to the 
 legatee of the sixth. 
 
 A bequest of a son’s portion of inheritance 
 is void, hut not the bequest of an equivalent 
 to it. For example: If a person say, “ I 
 bequeath my son’s portion,” such a bequest is 
 null; but the bequest will be valid if he say, 
 “ I bequeath an equivalent to my son’s por¬ 
 tion.” 
 
 A bequest of a “ portion ” of the estate is 
 executed to the extent of the smallest portion 
 inherited from it, and a bequest of “ part of 
 the estate,” undefined, may be construed to 
 apply to any part. 
 
 A person bequeathing a third of any par¬ 
 ticular property, if two-thirds of it he lost, 
 and the remainder come within a third of 
 the testator’s estate, the legatee is entitled 
 to the whole of such remainder; and a bequest 
 of “ the third of ” an article, part of which 
 is afterwards destroyed, holds with respect 
 to a third of the remainder 
 
 A legacy of money must be paid in full 
 with the property in hand, although all the 
 rest of the estate should be expended in 
 debts. 
 
 A legacy left to two persons, one of them 
 being at that time dead, goes entire to the 
 living legatee. 
 
 A legacy being bequeathed to two persons 
 indefinitely, if one of them die, a moiety of 
 it only goes to the other. 
 
 A bequest made by a poor man is of force 
 if he afterwards become rich. 
 
 A bequest of any article, not existing in 
 the possession or disposal of the testator at 
 his decease, is null, unless it was referred to 
 his property, in which case it must he dis¬ 
 charged by a payment of the value. 
 
668 
 
 WILLS 
 
 WILLS 
 
 An acknowledgment of debt, upon a death¬ 
 bed, is efficient to the extent of a third of the 
 estate. 
 
 Any accident occasioning uncertainty with 
 respect to the legatees, annuls the bequest. 
 
 An heir, after partition of the estate, ac¬ 
 knowledging a bequest in favour of another, 
 must pay the acknowledged legatee his pro¬ 
 portion of such bequest. 
 
 The Period of Making Wills. 
 
 As has already been remarked, Muham¬ 
 madan wills are not as a rule written docu¬ 
 ments, and therefore the institutions of the 
 law are entirely made for verbal rather than 
 written bequests. 
 
 Gratuitous acts, of immediate operation, if 
 executed upon a death-bed, take effect to the 
 extent of one-third of the property only. 
 
 An acknowledgment on a death-bed is valid 
 in favour of the person who afterwards be¬ 
 comes an heir, but not a bequest or gift; 
 neither is an acknowledgment so made valid, 
 if the principle of inheritance had existed in 
 the person previous to the deed. 
 
 Such acknowledgment, gift, or bequest, in 
 favour of a son, being a slave, who after¬ 
 wards becomes free, previous to the father’s 
 decease, is nevertheless void. 
 
 Rules for Ascertaining a Death-bed Illness. 
 
 The following curious paragraph occurs in 
 the Hi day ah on this subject:— 
 
 “ Paralytic, gouty, or consumptive persons, 
 where their disorder has continued for a 
 length of time, and who are in no immediate 
 danger of death, do not fall under the de¬ 
 scription of mariz or ‘ sick,’ whence deeds of 
 gift, executed by such, take effect to the ex¬ 
 tent of their whole property; because, when a 
 long time has elapsed, the patient has be¬ 
 come familiarised to his disease, which is not 
 then accounted as sickness. The length of 
 time requisite, by its lapse, to do away with 
 the idea of sickness in those cases, is deter¬ 
 mined at one year; and if, after that time, the 
 invalid should become bed-ridden, he is then 
 accounted as one recently sick. If, therefore, 
 any of the sick persons thus described make 
 a gift in the beginning of their illness, or after 
 they are bedridden, such gift takes effect 
 from the third of their property, because at 
 such time there is apprehension of death 
 (whence medicine is given to them), and 
 therefore the disorder is then considered as 
 a death-bed illness.” ( Hiddyah , Grady’s ed., 
 p. 685.) 
 
 Emancipation of Slaves upon a Death-bed. 
 
 Emancipation and deeds of gift on a death¬ 
 bed, take effect to the extent of a third of 
 the property, and emancipation precedes in 
 their execution the actual bequests. 
 
 The appropriation of a sum by bequest to 
 the emancipation of a slave is annulled by 
 the subsequent loss or failure of any part of 
 it, but not the appropriation of a sum to the 
 performance of a pilgrimage. 
 
 A slave, exceeding one-third of the pro¬ 
 perty, emancipated on death-bed, is exempted 
 
 from emancipatory labour by the heirs as¬ 
 senting to his freedom. 
 
 A bequest of emancipation in favour of a 
 slave is annulled by his being made over in 
 compensation for an offence committed by 
 him. 
 
 Where the heir and the legatee agree con¬ 
 cerning a slave having been emancipated by 
 the testator, the allegation of the heir is 
 credited with respect to the date of the 
 deed. 
 
 Bequests for Pious Purposes. 
 
 In the execution of bequests to certain 
 pious purposes, the duties ordained by the 
 command of God precede those which are 
 voluntary, and are then benevolent acts to¬ 
 wards mankind. 
 
 If a person will that “ the pilgrimage which 
 was incumbent upon him be performed on 
 his behalf after his death,” the heirs must 
 depute a person for this purpose and pay all 
 his expenses to Makkah. 
 
 But when all the purposes mentioned be 
 of equal importance, the arrangement of the 
 testator must be followed. 
 
 A legacy, appropriated to pilgrimage, if 
 lost, must be repaired to the extent of a third 
 of the estate. 
 
 Wills made by Jews and Christians. 
 
 Zimmis, or Jews and Christians paying 
 tribute for protection, can make bequests, 
 and they are held good in Muslim law, and 
 are subject to the same restrictions with 
 those of Muslims. 
 
 A church or synagogue founded during 
 health descends to the founder’s heirs, but the 
 bequest of a house to the purpose of an infidel 
 place of worship, is appropriated, whether 
 any'particular legatees be mentioned or other 
 wise. 
 
 Abu Hanifah says the bequests of Zimmis 
 are of four - kinds:— 
 
 (1) Those made for purposes held sacred 
 in their belief, but not in that of Muslims, 
 such as the building of a church or synagogue, 
 which according to Hanifah is valid under 
 certain restrictions. 
 
 (2) Those made for purposes held pious by 
 Muslims and not by Zimmis, such as the 
 building of a mosque, in which case the be¬ 
 quest is invalid. 
 
 (3) Those made for a purpose held sacred 
 by both Muslims and Zimmis, such as an offer¬ 
 ing to the Temple at Jerusalem, which are 
 valid. 
 
 (4) Those made for purposes held to be 
 wrong by both Zimmis and Muslims, such as 
 the support of singers and dissolute women, 
 which are invalid as being sinful. 
 
 The will of a sensualist or innovator is the 
 same as of an orthodox Mussulman, unless he 
 proceed to avowed apostasy. The will of a 
 female apostate is valid, but not that of a 
 male apostate. 
 
 A Zimmi may bequeath the whole of his 
 property ; but if he bequeath a part only, the 
 residue is transmitted to his heirs. 
 
WILLS 
 
 An emancipation granted by him on his 
 death-bed, takes effect in toto. 
 
 Any bequest in favour of a Zimmi is valid, 
 and he may make a bequest in favour of an 
 unbeliever of a different sect not being a 
 hostile infidel. 
 
 Usufructuary Wills. 
 
 An article bequeathed in usufruct must be 
 consigned to the legatee ; but if it constitute 
 the sole estate, being a slave, he is possessed 
 by the heirs and legatee alternately ; or, being 
 a house, it is held among them in their due 
 proportions ; nor are the heirs in the latter 
 instance allowed to sell their slaves. The 
 bequest becomes void on the death of the 
 legatee. 
 
 A bequest of the produce of an article does 
 not entitle the legatee to the personal use of 
 the article; nor does a bequest of the use 
 entitle him to let it to hire. A bequest of the 
 use of a slave does not entitle the legatee 
 to carry him out of the place, unless his 
 family reside elsewhere. A bequest of a 
 year’s product, if the article exceed a third of 
 the estate, does not entitle the legatee to a 
 consignment of it. 
 
 In a bequest of the use of an article to one, 
 and the substance of it to another, the legatee 
 of usufruct is exclusively entitled to the use 
 during his term. A bequest of an article to 
 one, and its contents to another, if con¬ 
 nectedly expressed, entitles the second legatee 
 to nothing. 
 
 A bequest of the fruit of a garden implies 
 the present fruit only, unless it be expressed 
 in perpetuity, and a bequest of the produce of 
 an animal implies the existent produce only 
 in every instance. 
 
 The Executors. 
 
 An executor having accepted his appoint¬ 
 ment in presence of the testator, is not after¬ 
 wards at liberty to reject it, but his silence 
 leaves him an option of rejection; but any 
 act indicative of his acceptance binds him 
 to the execution of the office. 
 
 Having rejected the appointment after the 
 testator’s decease, he may still accept of it, 
 unless the magistrate appoint an executor in 
 the interim. 
 
 Where a slave, a reprobate, or an infidel 
 are appointed, the magistrate must nominate 
 a proper substitute. 
 
 The appointment of the testator’s slave is 
 invalid if any of the heirs have attained to 
 maturity, but not otherwise. 
 
 In case of the executor’s incapacity, the 
 magistrate must give him an assistant; but 
 he must not do so on the executor pleading 
 incapacity without due examination; and if 
 he appear perfectly equal to the office, he 
 cannot be removed, not even on the complaint 
 of the heirs, unless his culpability be ascer¬ 
 tained. 
 
 One of two joint executors cannot act 
 without the concurrence of the other, except 
 in such matters as require immediate execu¬ 
 tion, or which are of an incumbent nature, or 
 
 winds 669 
 
 in which the interest or advantage of the 
 estate are concerned. 
 
 In case of the death of a joint executor, 
 the magistrate must appoint a substitute, 
 unless the deceased have himself nominated 
 his successor. The executor of an executor 
 is his substitute in office. 
 
 An executor is entitled to possess himself 
 of the portions of infant and absent adult 
 heirs on their behalf, but not of the legacies 
 of infant or absent legatees. 
 
 An executor may sell a slave of the estate, 
 for the discharge of the debts upon it, in 
 absence of the creditors, unless the slave be 
 involved in debt. 
 
 An executor having sold and received the 
 price of an article which afterwards proves 
 to be the property of another, is accountable 
 to the purchaser for the price he had so 
 received; but if this has been lost he may 
 reimburse himself from the person to whom 
 the article had fallen by inheritance. 
 
 An executor may accept a transfer for a 
 debt due to his infant ward, or sell or pur¬ 
 chase movables on his account. He may also 
 sell movables on account of an absent adult 
 heir, but he cannot trade with his ward’s por¬ 
 tion. He may sell movable property on 
 account of the infant or absent adult brother 
 of the testator. 
 
 The power of a father’s executor precedes 
 that of the grandfather. If there be no exe¬ 
 cutor, the grandfather is the father’s repre¬ 
 sentative. 
 
 Evidence with respect to Wills. 
 
 The evidence of two executors to the ap¬ 
 pointment of a third is not valid, unless he 
 claim or admit it, and the evidence of orphans 
 to the appointment of an executor is not 
 admitted if he deny it. 
 
 The testimony of executors with respect to 
 property on behalf of an infant or of an absent 
 adult is not admitted. 
 
 The mutual evidence of parties on behalf 
 of each other to debts due to each from an 
 estate is valid, but not their evidence to lega¬ 
 cies, unless each legacy respectively consists 
 of a slave. 
 
 A mutual evidence of this nature is void 
 where it involves a right of participation in 
 the witnesses. 
 
 WlNDS. Arabic riydh pi. 
 
 of rih. Heb. mn rualch. There are four 
 
 special winds mentioned in the Qur’an: 
 Sarsar, a violent hurricane (Surah lxix. 6); 
 ‘ aqlm , a barren wind (Surah h. 42); lawaqih, 
 fertilizing winds (Surah xv. 22); mubash- 
 shirat, harbingers of rain (Surah xxx. 47). 
 And it is related that the Prophet said 
 he was assisted by an east wind at the 
 battle of the Ditch, and that the tribe of 
 ‘Ad was destroyed by a .vest- wind. A 
 special chapter is devoted to the Prophet’s 
 sayings with regard to the wind, as it_ap- 
 pears that he had a superstition of it. ‘Ayi- 
 shah said, that when the clouds appeared, the 
 
670 
 
 WINE 
 
 WITE 
 
 Prophet used to change colour, and come out 
 of his house and walk to and fro, nor would 
 his alarm cease until the stonn had passed 
 away. When she expressed her surprise at 
 his excitement, he said, “ 0 • Ayishah. perad- 
 venture these winds be like those which de¬ 
 stroyed the tribe of hid.” 
 
 m. Heb. T2PT khemer, Is. i. 22, 
 “ old wine.” Wine under the term 
 Jthamr which is generally held 
 
 to imply all things which intoxicate, is for¬ 
 bidden in the Qur’an in the following 
 verses:— 
 
 Surah ii. 21(i: “ They will ask thee con¬ 
 cerning wine and games of chance. Say : In 
 both is great sin, and advantage also, to 
 men: hut their sin is greater than their 
 advantage.” 
 
 Surah v. 92: "O believers' surely wine 
 and games of chance, and statues, and the 
 divining arrows, are an abomination of Satan’s 
 work! Avoid them, that ye may prosper. 
 Only would Satan sow hatred and strife 
 among you, by wine, and games of chance, 
 and turn you aside from the remembrance of 
 God, and from prayer : will ye not, therefore, 
 abstain from them ? Obey God and obey the 
 Apostle, and be on your guard : but if ye turn 
 back, know that our Apostle is only bound to 
 deliver a plain announcement.” 
 
 Al-Jalalan. the commentators, on these 
 verses, say, Only that wine is forbidden 
 which intoxicates the brain and affects the 
 steadiness of the body.” But all Muslim 
 doctors hold that wine of any kind is for¬ 
 bidden. 
 
 Imam Abu Hanifah says: “ This doctime 
 is founded upon a precept of the Prophet, 
 who said, ‘ Whoever drinks wine, let him suffer 
 correction by scourging as often as he drinks 
 thereof.” (Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. ii. 58.) 
 
 If a Musalman drinks wine, and is seized 
 whilst bis breath yet smells of wine, or be 
 brought before the Qazi whilst he is yet. in¬ 
 toxicated, and two witnesses give evidence 
 that he has drunk wine, scourging is to be 
 inflicted. The punishment is eighty lashes 
 for a free man. and forty lashes for a slave. 
 
 Mr. Lane says: “ Several stories have been 
 told as to the occasion of Muhammad’s pro¬ 
 hibiting the drinking of wine. Busbequius 
 says: ‘Muhammad, making a journey to a 
 friend at noon, entered into his house, where 
 there was a marriage feast, and, sitting down 
 with the guests, he observed them to be very 
 merry and jovial, kissing and embracing one 
 another, which was attributed to the cheer¬ 
 fulness of them spirits raised by the wine : so 
 that he blessed it as a sacred thing in being 
 thus an instrument of much love among men. 
 But, returning to the same house the next 
 day, he beheld another face of things, as gore- 
 blood on the ground, a hand cut off, an arm, 
 foot, and other limbs dismembered, which he 
 was told was the effect of the brawls and 
 fightings occasioned by the wine, which made 
 them mad, and inflamed them into a fury, 
 thus to destroy one another. Whereon lie 
 
 changed his mind, and turned his former 
 blessing into a curse, and forbade wine ever 
 after to all his disciples.’ Epist. 3. This 
 prohibition of wine hindered many of the 
 Prophet’s contemporaries from embracing his 
 religion. Yet several of the most respectable 
 of the pagan Arabs, like certain of the Jews 
 and early Christians, abstained totally from 
 wine, from a feeling of its injurious effects 
 upon moral, and, in their climate, upon 
 health; or, more especially, from the fear of 
 being led by it into the commission of foolish 
 I and degrading actions. Thus Keys (Qais), 
 the son of Asim, being one night overcome 
 with wine, attempted to grasp the moon, and 
 swore that he would not quit the spot where 
 he stood until he had laid hold of it. After 
 leaping several times with the view of doing 
 so, he fell flat upon his face : and when he re¬ 
 covered his senses, and was acquainted with 
 the cause of his face being bruised, he made 
 a solemn vow to abstain from wine ever 
 after.”—Lane’s Arabian Nights, vol. i. pp. 
 217, 21S. 
 
 WITNESS. Arabic shahid 
 
 dual shaMdan ; pi. shuhada, or shuhud. 
 
 Terms which are used for witness in legal 
 cases, an account of which is given in the 
 article on evidence; and also for those who 
 die as martyrs for the Muslim faith, or meet 
 with sudden death from any accidental cir¬ 
 cumstance. [martte.] 
 
 WITH (/y). Lit. “ An odd num¬ 
 ber.” TFYfr rak'ahs are an odd number of 
 rak'ahs, 3, 5, or 7, which may be said after 
 the last prayer at night, and before the dawn 
 of day. Usually they are added to the 
 Salatu ’l-‘Isha. Imam Abu Hanifah says 
 they are tcajib, that is, ordered by God, 
 | although they are not authorised by any text 
 in the Qur’an. But they are instituted by 
 traditions, each of which is generally received 
 as a Hadis Sahih; and so witr rak’ahs are 
 regarded as being of divine authority. Imam 
 ShafaT, however, considers them to be sun- 
 nah only. 
 
 The Traditions referred to are:— 
 
 The Prophet said: “ God has added to your 
 prayers one prayer more : know that it is 
 toitr, say it between the Salatu ’l-‘Isha and 
 the dawn.” 
 
 On the authority of Buzar, it is recorded 
 that the Prophet said: “ Witr is icajib upon 
 Muslims,” and in order to enforce the prac¬ 
 tice, he added : “ Witr is right; he who does 
 not observe it is not my follower.” 
 
 The Prophet, the Companions, the Tabi‘un 
 and the Taba'u ’t-Tabi‘in, all observed it. 
 
 The word witr literally means “ odd num¬ 
 ber,” and a tradition says : “ God is odd, He 
 loves the odd.” 
 
 Musalmans pay the greatest respect to an 
 odd number. It is considered unlucky to 
 begin any work, or to commence a journey on 
 a day, the date of which is an even number. 
 
 The number of lines in a page of a book is 
 nearly always an odd number. |~ salatu ’l- 
 
 I WITE.] 
 
wrvBS 
 
 WIVES 
 
 WIVES. Arabic zauj (s^j), pi. 
 
 azwaj , also zaujah, pi. zaujat. Although 
 Muhammad himself claimed the special in¬ 
 dulgence of eleven lawful wives, he limited 
 his followers to four, allowing at the same 
 time as many female concubines or domestic 
 slaves as the master’s right hand possessed. 
 See Qur’an, Surah iv. 3 : “ Marry what seems 
 good to you of women, by twos, or throes, or 
 fours, or what your right hand possesses.” 
 [marriage.] 
 
 According to the Shhahs, he also sanc¬ 
 tioned temporary marriages, an account of 
 which will be found in the article on MUX'AH. 
 
 Regarding the treatment of wives, the fol¬ 
 lowing verse in the Qur’an (Surah iv. 38) 
 allows the husband absolute power to cor¬ 
 rect them: “ Chide those whose refractori¬ 
 ness you have cause to fear. Remove them 
 into sleeping chambers apart, and beat 
 them. But if they are obedient to you, then 
 seek not occasion against them.” 
 
 (For other injunctions in the Qur’an on the 
 subject, see the article women.) 
 
 The following is Muhammad’s teaching, as 
 given in the Traditions (see Mishkat, Arabic 
 edition; Balm ’n-Nikah ) :— 
 
 “ That is the most perfect Muslim 
 whose disposition is the best, and the best of 
 you is he who behaves best to his wives.” 
 
 “ When a man has two wives and does not 
 treat them equally, he will come on the Day 
 of Resurrection with half his body fallen 
 off.” 
 
 “ When a man calls his wife, she must 
 come, although she be at an oven.” 
 
 “ The Prophet used to divide his time 
 equally amongst his wives, and he would 
 say, ‘ 0 God, I divide impartially that which 
 thou hast put in my power.’” 
 
 “ Admonish your wives with kindness, be¬ 
 cause women were created from a crooked 
 bone of the side; therefore, if you wish to 
 straighten it, you will break it, and if you let 
 it alone, it will always be crooked.” 
 
 “ Not one of you must whip his wife like 
 whipping a slave.” 
 
 “ A Muslim must not hate his wife, for 
 if he be displeased with one bad quality in 
 her, then let him be pleased with another that 
 is good.” 
 
 “ A Muslim cannot obtain anything 
 better than an amiable and beautiful wife, 
 such a wife who, when ordered by her hus¬ 
 band to do a thing, will obey, and if her hus¬ 
 band looks at her will be happy; and if her 
 husband swears by her, she will make him a 
 swearer of truth; and if he be absent from her, 
 she will honour him with her own person and 
 property.” 
 
 It is related that on one occasion the Pro¬ 
 phet said : “ Beat not your wives.” Then 
 ‘Umar came to the Prophet and said, “ Our 
 wives have got the upper hand of their hus¬ 
 bands from hearing this.” Then the Prophet 
 permitted beating of wives. Then an im¬ 
 mense number of women collected round the 
 Prophet’s family, and complained of their 
 husbands beating them. And the Prophet 
 said, “ Verily a great number of women are 
 
 071 
 
 assembled in my home complaining of their 
 husbands, and those men who beat their 
 wives do not behave well. He is not of my 
 way who teaches a woman to go astray and 
 who entices a slave from his master.” 
 
 The legal position of a wife under Sunni, 
 and, with some slight differences, under Shi‘ah 
 law also, may be generally stated as fol¬ 
 lows : — 
 
 Her consent to a marriage is necessary. 
 She cannot legally object to be one of four 
 wives. Nor can she object to an unlimited 
 number of hand-maids. She is entitled to a 
 marriage settlement or dower, which must bo 
 paid to her in case of divorce or separation. 
 She may, however, remit either whole or part 
 of the dower. She may refuse to join her 
 husband until the dower is paid. She may be 
 at any time, with or without cause, divorced 
 by her husband. She may seek or claim 
 divorce (khul ‘I from her husband with her 
 husband’s consent. She may be chastised by 
 her husband. She cannot give evidence 
 in a court of law against her husband. Ac¬ 
 cording to the Sunnis, her evidence in favour 
 of her husband is not admissible, but the 
 Shi'ahs maintain the opposite view. Her 
 husband can demand her seclusion from public. 
 If she becomes a widow, she must observe 
 hiclad, or mourning, for the space of four 
 months and ten days. In the event of her 
 husband’s death, she is entitled to a portion 
 of her husband’s estate, in addition to her 
 claim of dower, the claim of dower taking 
 precedence of all other claims on the estate. 
 
 There are special arrangements made by 
 Muslim law for the partition of the husband’s 
 time amongst his wives in case he may have 
 two or more wives. For it is related that 
 Muhammad said, “ The man who has two or 
 more wives, and who, in partition of his time, 
 inclines particularly to one of them, shall in 
 the Day of Judgment incline to one side by 
 being paralytic.” And ‘Ayishah relates that 
 the Prophet said, “ 0 God, I make an equal 
 partition amongst my wives as to what is in 
 my power; do not, therefore, bring me to 
 account for that which is not in my power, 
 namely, the affections.” It is therefore ruled 
 that the wife of a prior marriage and of a 
 recent one, are all alike in the matter of the 
 partition of time spent with them. The hus ¬ 
 band can, however, arrange and determine 
 the measure of the partition of his time as 
 to whether it he one day or more at a time. 
 But if a man marry two wives, the one a free 
 woman and the other a bond-maid, he must 
 divide his time into three portions, giving 
 two portions to the free woman and one to 
 the bond-maid. When the husband is on a 
 journey, his wives can make no claim to ac¬ 
 company him on the journey, and it is entirely 
 at his option to carry along with him whom¬ 
 soever he pleases, but it is preferable for him 
 to cast lots and take with him on the journey 
 her upon whom the lot may happen to fall. 
 The time of the journey is not to be counted 
 against a husband, and he is therefore not 
 obliged to make up for the partition lost 
 within that time. It is also allowed by the 
 
672 
 
 WIVES 
 
 WIVES 
 
 law, of one wife to give up her right as re¬ 
 gards partition of time to any other of her 
 husband's wires. But if a woman give up 
 her right, she is not at liberty to resume it. 
 Durru 'l-Mukhtar. in loco.) 
 
 The position of a wife as regards the law 
 of divorce, is treated under the article 
 DIVORCE. 
 
 We are indebted to Moulvi Syed Ameer 
 A If. M.A., LL.B., a Muhammadan Barrister- 
 at-Law, and Presidency Magistrate of Cal¬ 
 cutta, for the following able exposition of the 
 position of wives under the Muslim law :— 
 
 " Prior to the Islamic legislation, and 
 especially among the pagan Arabs, women 
 had no Locus standi in the eye of the law. 
 The pre-Islamic Arab customs as well as the 
 Rabbinical law, dealt most harshly with 
 them. (3 Caussin de Perceval, Hist. des. 
 Arabes, p. 337.) 
 
 “ The Koran created a thorough revolu¬ 
 tion in the condition of women. For the first 
 time in the history of Oriental legislation, the 
 principle of equality between the sexes was 
 recognised and practically carried into effect. 
 ‘ The women,’ says the Koran, ■ ought to be¬ 
 have towards their husbands in like manner 
 as their husbands should behave towards 
 them, according to what is just.’ (Koran, 
 chap. iL . v. 228.) And Mohammed in his dis¬ 
 course on Jabl-i-Arafat. emphasised the pre¬ 
 cept by declaring in eloquent terms, ‘ Ve men. 
 ve have rights over your wives, and your 
 wives have rights over you.’ (Ibn H isham.) 
 In accordance with these precepts the Ma - 
 hommedan law declares equality between the 
 married parties to be the regulating principle 
 of all domestic relationship. Fidelity to the 
 marriage bed is inculcated on both sides: 
 and unfaithfulness leads to the same conse¬ 
 quences, whether the delinquent be the hus¬ 
 band or the wife. Chastity is required 
 equally from man and woman. 
 
 - The husband is legally bound to maintain 
 his wife and her domestic servants, whether 
 she and her servants belong to the Moslem 
 faith or not. This obligation of the husband 
 comes into operation when the contract itself 
 comes into operation, and the wife is subjected 
 iherebv to the marital controL It continues 
 in force during the conjugal union, and in 
 certain cases even after it is dissolved. 
 
 " The maintenance ( ’nafkah) of a wife in¬ 
 cludes everything connected with her support 
 and comfort, such as food, ra im ent, lodging, 
 <fce„ and must be provided in accordance with 
 the social position occupied. (1 Fatawa-i- 
 Alamgiri, p. 737: 1 Fatawa-i-Kazi Khan : 
 Jama-ush-.Shattdt: Fusul-lmadiyah : MafatHi : 
 1 Hed.. Eng. Trans., p. 392.) 
 
 « The wife is not entitled merely to main¬ 
 tenance in the Engash sense of the word, but 
 lip.- a right to claim a habitation for her own 
 exclusive use, to be provided consistently 
 with the husband's means. 
 
 - If the wife, however, is a minor, so that 
 the marriage cannot be consummated, accord¬ 
 ing to the Kanafi and the Shiah doctrines, 
 there is no legal obligation on the husband s 
 part to maintain her. (1 Fat&wa-drAlamgzn, 
 
 p. 773; Kanz-ud-F>akail;\ 1 Hed., Eng. 
 Trans., p. 394; .Tama-ush-Shaft at.) 
 
 With the Shafeis it makes no difference, 
 in the obligation of the husband to maintain 
 his wife, whether the wife be a minor or not. 
 (. Kitab-ul-Anwar ; 1 Hed., Eng. Trans., p. 
 394.)_ 
 
 " Kor is a husband, under the Hanafi and 
 the Shiah law, entitled to the custody of the 
 person of a minor wife whom he is not bound 
 to maintain. (In re Khatija Bibi, 5 Bengal 
 Laic Reports, 0. C. J. 557.) 
 
 l; If the husband be a minor and the wife 
 an adnlt, and the incapacity to complete or 
 consummate the contract be solely on his 
 part, she is entitled to maintenance. (1 Hed., 
 Eng. Trans., p. 395; Fusul-i-Imadiyah ; 1 
 Fatawa-i-Kazi Khan, p. 480; Jama-ush- 
 Shattat.) 
 
 ‘■It makes no difference in the husband’s 
 liability to maintain the wife whether he be 
 in health or suffering from illness, whether he 
 be a prisoner of war or undergoing punish¬ 
 ment, ‘ justly or unjustly,’ for some crime, 
 whether he be absent frcm home on pleasure 
 or business, or gone on a pilgrimage. (1 
 Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, p. 733.) In fact, as long 
 as the status of marriage subsists, and as 
 long as the wife is subject to the marital 
 power, so long she is entitled to maintenance 
 from him. Xor does she lose her right by 
 being afflicted with any disease. (1 Fatawa- 
 i-Alamgiri, g. 734; Jama-ush-Shattat.) 
 
 “ Mhen the husband has left the place of 
 the conjugal domicil without making any ar¬ 
 rangement for his wife’s support, the Kazi i3 
 authorised by law to make an order that her 
 maintenance shall be paid out of any fund or 
 property which the husband may have left 
 in deposit or in trust, or invested in any trade 
 or business. (1 Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, p. 750.) 
 
 " A wife may contract debts for her sup¬ 
 port during the husband’s absence, and if 
 such debts are legitimate, contracted bona 
 fide for her support, the creditors have a 
 " right of recovery ” against the husband. 
 ( Kail-ul-ilaram .) In the same way, if the 
 husband be un able for the time being to 
 maintain his wife, ‘ it would not form a cause 
 for separation,’ says the Hedayah, ! but the 
 magistrate may direct the woman to pledge 
 her husband’s credit and procure necessaries 
 for herself, the husband remaining liable for 
 the debts.’ (1 Hed., Eng. Trans., p. 297.) 
 
 “ "When the husband is absent and has left 
 real property either in the possession of his 
 wife or of some other person on her behalf, 
 the wife is not entitled to sell it for her sup¬ 
 port, though she may raise a temporary loan 
 on it, which the husband will be bound to dis¬ 
 charge, provided the mortgage was created 
 bona fide for her or her children’s support, 
 and did not go beyond the actual necessity of 
 the case. Under such circumstances the 
 mortgagee is bound to satisfy himself that 
 the money advanced is applied legitimately to 
 the support of the family of the absent 
 husband. (1 Fatawa-i-Alamgiri, p. 737.) 
 
 “ Mhen the woman abandons the conjugal 
 domicil without any valid reason, she is not 
 
WIVES 
 
 WIVES 
 
 673 
 
 entitled to maintenance. (1 Fatawa-i-Alam- 
 giri, p. 733; Fusul-i-Imadiyah ; Jama-ush- 
 Sliattat.) Simple refractoriness, as has been 
 popularly supposed, does not lead to a for¬ 
 feiture of her right. If she live in the house 
 but do not obey the husband’s wishes, she 
 would not lose her right to her proper main¬ 
 tenance. If she leave the house against his 
 will without any valid reason, she would lose 
 her right, but would recover it on her return 
 to the conjugal domicil. ( Fatdwa-i-Alam- 
 giri ; Jama-ush-Shat tat ; Kitab-min Id-Euhaz- 
 zar al-Falcih.) 
 
 “ What is a valid and sufficient reason for 
 the abandonment of the conjugal domicil is a 
 matter for the discretion of the Kazi or judge. 
 As a general principle and one which has 
 been adopted and enforced by the Kazis’ 
 mahkamas in Algeria, a wife who leaves her 
 husband’s house on account of his or his 
 relations’ continued ill-treatment of her, does 
 not come within the category of nashizah 
 and continues entitled to her maintenance. 
 
 A woman who is imprisoned for some 
 offence, or is undergoing incarceration in the 
 civil jail for non-payment of a debt, or who 
 goes on a voyage or pilgrimage without her 
 husband’s consent, has no right to claim any 
 maintenance during her absence. (1 Fatawa- 
 i-Alamgiri, p. 734.) 
 
 “ Among the Shiahs, if she goes on an 
 obligatory pilgrimage, even without her hus¬ 
 band’s consent, she is nevertheless entitled to 
 maintenance. 
 
 “ The husband’s liability to support the 
 wife continues during the whole period of 
 probation, if the separation has been caused 
 by any conduct of his, or has taken place in 
 exercise of a right possessed by her. The 
 husband would not, however, be liable to sup¬ 
 port the wife during the iddat, if the separa¬ 
 tion is caused by her misconduct. ( Fatawa- 
 i-Alamgiri, p. 746; Jama-ush-Shaft at ; 1 Fa- 
 tawa-i-Kazi Khan, p. 481. 
 
 “ If she is pregnant at the time of separa¬ 
 tion her right remains intact until she is con¬ 
 fined of the child. 
 
 “ The tdedaya seems to imply that a woman 
 is not entitled to maintenance during the 
 period of probation she observes on the death 
 of her husband. (1 Hed. p. 407.) As the 
 Koran, however, distinctly says, 1 Such of you 
 as shall die and leave wives ought to bequeath 
 to them a year’s maintenance,’ several jurists 
 have held that a widow has a right to be 
 maintained from the estate of her husband for 
 a year, independently of any share she may 
 obtain in the property left by him. This 
 right would appertain to her whether she be 
 a Moslemah or non-Moslemah. 
 
 “ In the case of probation (iddat) observed 
 by a woman on the death of her husband, the 
 Sunnis calculate the period from the actual 
 date of his decease ; the Shiahs from the day 
 on which the wife receives the news of the 
 death. 
 
 “ According to the Sunnis, the liability of 
 the husband to maintain a pregnant wife from 
 whom he has separated ceases at her confine¬ 
 ment. (1 Hed. p. 360.) The Shiahs, on the 
 
 other hand, hold that the liability lasts for 
 the same period after confinement as if the 
 woman was not enceinte. (Jama-ush-Shattat.) 
 
 “ If the husband be insane, the wife is en¬ 
 titled, according to the Shafei' doctrines and 
 the views of the compilers of the Fatdwa-i- 
 Alamgiri, to maintenance for the period of one 
 year, which is fixed by the Kazi in order to 
 discover whether the insanity is curable or 
 not. The Malikis, with whom the author of 
 the Heddya seems to agree, deny to the wife 
 the right of asking for a dissolution of the 
 marriage tie on the ground of the husband’s 
 insanity. Among them the wife, therefore, 
 retains the right of maintenance during the 
 insanity of her husband, however long con¬ 
 tinued. With the Shiahs the wife is entitled 
 to a cancellation of the marriage contract if 
 the husband’s insanity be incurable. Should 
 she exercise this right and dissolve the mar¬ 
 riage, her right to maintenance ceases. 
 
 “ The Mahommedan law lays down dis¬ 
 tinctly (1) that a wife is bound to live with 
 her husband, and to follow him wherever he 
 desires to go ; (2) and that on her refusing to 
 do so without sufficient or valid reason, the 
 courts of justice, on a suit for restitution of 
 conjugal rights by the husband, would order 
 her to live with her husband. 
 
 “ The wife cannot refuse to live with her 
 husband on pretexts like the following :— 
 
 “ (1.) That she wishes to live with her 
 parents. 
 
 “ (2.) That the domicil chosen by the 
 husband is distant from the home of her 
 father. 
 
 “ (3.) That she does not wish to remain 
 away from the place of her birth. 
 
 “ (4.) That the climate of the place where 
 the husband has established his domicil is 
 likely to be injurious to her health. 
 
 “ (5.) That she detests her husband. 
 
 “ (6.) That the husband ill-treats her fre¬ 
 quently (unless such ill-treatment is actually 
 proved, which would justify the Kazi to grant 
 a separation). 
 
 “ The obligation of the woman, however, to 
 live with her husband is not absolute. The 
 law recognises circumstances which justify 
 her refusal to live with him. For instance, 
 if he has habitually ill-treated her, if he has 
 deserted her for a long time, or if he has 
 directed her to leave his house or even con¬ 
 nived at her doing so, he cannot require her 
 to re-enter the conjugal domicil or ask the 
 assistance of a court of justice to compel her 
 to live with him. The bad conduct or gross 
 neglect of the husband is, under the Mussul¬ 
 man law, a good defence to a suit brought 
 by him for restitution of conjugal rights. 
 
 “ In the absence of any conduct on the hus¬ 
 band’s part justifying an apprehension that, if 
 the wife accompanied him to the place chosen 
 by him for his residence, she would be at his 
 mercy and exposed to his violence, she is 
 bound by law to accompany him wherever he 
 goes. At the same time the law recognises 
 the validity of express stipulations, entered 
 into at the time of marriage, respecting the 
 conjugal domicil. If it be agreed that the 
 
 85 
 
674 
 
 WIVES 
 
 WIVES 
 
 husband shall allow his wife to live always 
 with her parents, he cannot afterwards force 
 her to leave her father’s house for his own. 
 Such stipulation in order to be practically 
 carried into effect, must be entered in the deed 
 of marriage ; a mere verbal understanding is 
 not sufficient in the eye of the law. 
 
 “ If the wife, however, once consent to 
 leave the place of residence agreed upon at 
 the time of marriage, she would be presumed 
 to have waived the right acquired under ex¬ 
 press stipulation, and to have adopted the 
 domicil chosen by the husband. If a special 
 place be indicated in the deed of marriage as 
 the place where the husband should allow 
 the wife to live, and it appear subsequently 
 that it is not suited for the abode of a respect¬ 
 able woman, or that injury is likely to happen 
 to the wife if she remain there, or that the 
 wife’s parents were not of good character, the 
 husband may compel the wife to remove from 
 such place or from the house of such parents. 
 
 “ The husband may also insist upon his 
 wife accompanying him from one place to 
 another, if the change is occasioned by the 
 requirements of his duty. 
 
 “ Every case in which the question of 
 conjugal domicil is involved will depend, says 
 De Me'nerville, upon its own special features, 
 the general principle of the Mussulman law 
 on the subject being the same as in other 
 systems of law, viz. that the wife is bound to 
 reside with her husband, unless there is any 
 valid reason to justify her refusal to do so. 
 The sufficiency or validity of the reasons is 
 a matter for the consideration of the Kazi or 
 judge, with special regard to the position in 
 life of the parties and the usages and customs 
 of the particular country in which they reside.” 
 
 Faqir Jani Muhammad As‘ad, the author 
 of the AEhlaq-i-Jala.li . gives the following 
 sage advice, which expresses very much the 
 ordinary Oriental view of the question :— 
 
 As regards the. Selection of a Wife. 
 
 The best of wives would be such an one as 
 is graced with intellect, honour, chastity, good 
 sense, modesty, tenderness of heart, good 
 manners, submission to her husband, and 
 gravity of demeanour. Barren she should 
 not be, but prolific. ... A free woman is 
 preferable to a bond woman, inasmuch as 
 this supposes the accession of new friends 
 and connections, and the pacification of 
 enemies and the furtherance of temporal 
 interests. Low birth is likewise objec¬ 
 tionable on the same account. A young 
 maiden is to be preferred, because she may 
 he expected more readily to attend to her 
 husband’s guidance and injunctions; and if 
 she be further graced with the three quali¬ 
 ties of family, property, and beauty, she 
 would be the acme of perfection. 
 
 To these three qualities, however, sundry 
 dangers may attach; and of these we should 
 accordingly beware. For family engenders 
 conceit; and whereas women are noted for 
 weakness of mind, she will probably be all 
 the slower to submit to the husband’s con¬ 
 trol ; nay, at times she will view him in the 
 
 light of a servant, which must needs prove a 
 perversion of interest, an inversion of rela¬ 
 tion, and an injury in this world and the 
 next. As to property and beauty, they are 
 liable to the same inconvenience; while in 
 beauty there is this further and peculiar evil, 
 that a beauty is coveted of many; and since 
 women possess less of that judgment which 
 restrains from crime, it may thus lead to 
 mischief without end. 
 
 As regards the Management of a Wife. 
 
 There are three things to be maintained 
 and three things to be avoided. 
 
 Of the three things to be maintained :— 
 
 1. Dignity. —The husband should constantly 
 preserve a dignified bearing towards her, that 
 she may forbear to slight his commands and 
 prohibitions. This is the primary means of 
 government, and it may be effected by the 
 display of his merits and the concealment of 
 his defects. 
 
 2. Complaisance. —He is to comply with his 
 ■wife as far as to assure her of his affection 
 and confidence; otherwise, in the idea of 
 having lost it, she will proceed to set herself 
 in opposition to his will. And this withal, 
 he is to be particular in veiling and secluding 
 her from all persons not of the harim, in con¬ 
 versing with her in conciliatory terms, and 
 consulting her at the outset of matters in 
 such a manner as to ensure her consent. 
 (Observe the seclusion and veiling is here put as 
 a compliment rather than a restraint .) 
 
 3. Towards her friends and connections he 
 is to follow the course of deference, politeness, 
 cordiality, and fair dealing, and never, except 
 on proof of her depravity, to take any wife 
 besides her, however superior in family, pro¬ 
 perty and person. For that jealousy and 
 acrimony which, as well as weakness of judg¬ 
 ment, is implanted in the nature of women, 
 incites them to misconduct and vice. Except¬ 
 ing, indeed, in the case of kings, who marry 
 to multiply offspring, and to whom the wife 
 has no alternative but obedience, plurality of 
 wives is not defensible. Even in the case of 
 kings, it would be better to be cautious; for 
 husband and wife are like heart and body, 
 and like as one heart cannot supply life to 
 two bodies, one man cannot properly provide 
 for two wives or divide his affection equally 
 between them. 
 
 The wife should be empowered to dispose 
 of provisions as occasion may require, and to 
 prescribe to the domestics the duties they are 
 to perform. In order that idleness may not 
 lead her into wrong, her mind should be kept 
 constantly engaged in the transaction of 
 domestic affairs and the superintendence of 
 family interests. 
 
 As to the three things to be avoided in a 
 husband towards his wife :— 
 
 1. Excess of affection, for this gives her the 
 predominance and leads to a state of perver¬ 
 sion. When the power is overpowered and 
 the commander commanded, all regularity 
 must infallibly be destroyed. If troubled 
 with redundance of affection, let him at least 
 conceal it from her. 
 
WIVES 
 
 WIVES 
 
 2. Let him not consult her on matters of 
 paramount importance; let him not make her 
 acquainted with his secrets, nor let her know 
 the amount of his property, or the stores he 
 possesses, beyond those in present consump¬ 
 tion, or her weakness of judgment will infal¬ 
 libly set things wrong. 
 
 3. Let him allow her no musical instru¬ 
 ments, no visiting out of doors, no listening 
 to men’s stories, nor intercourse with women 
 noted for such practices; especially where 
 any previous suspicion has been raised. 
 
 The particulars which wives should abide 
 by are five :— 
 
 1. To adhere to chastity. 
 
 2. To wear contented demeanour. 
 
 3. To consider their husband’s dignity and 
 treat them with respect. 
 
 4. To submit to their husband’s directions. 
 
 5. To humour their husbands in their 
 moments of merriment and not to disturb 
 them by captious remarks. 
 
 “The Refuge of Revelation (Muhammad) 
 declared that if the worship of one created 
 thing could be permitted to another, he would 
 have enjoined the worship of husbands. Philo¬ 
 sophers have said, ‘ A good wife is as a mother 
 for affection and tenderness ; as a slave-girl 
 for content and attention; as a friend for con¬ 
 cord and sincerity. Whilst, on the other 
 hand, a bad wife is as a rebel for unruliness 
 and contumacy ; as a foe for contemptuous¬ 
 ness and reproach ; and as a thief for treache¬ 
 rous designs upon her husband’s purse.” 
 
 The Arab philosophers also say there are 
 five sorts of wives to be avoided: the 
 yearners, the favourers, the deplorers, the 
 backbiters, and the toadstools. The yearner 
 is a widow' who has had a child by a former 
 husband, and who will indulge her child out 
 of the property of her present one. The 
 favourer is a woman of property u'ho makes 
 a favour of bestowing it upon her husband. 
 The deplorer is one who is the widow of a 
 former husband whom she will ever aver to 
 be better than her present one. The back¬ 
 biter is one invested with the robe of conti¬ 
 nence, and who will ever and anon in his 
 absence brand his blind side by speaking of 
 his faults. The toadstool is an unprincipled 
 beauty, who is like vegetation springing up 
 to corruption. (See Akhldg-i-Jalali, Thomp¬ 
 son’s ed., p. 263.) 
 
 Mr. Lane, in his Modern Egyptians, re¬ 
 marks :— 
 
 “ Polygamy, which is also attended with 
 very injurious effects upon the morals of the 
 husband and the wives, and only to be de¬ 
 fended because it serves to prevent a greater 
 immorality than it occasions, is more rare 
 among the higher and middle classes than it 
 is among the lower orders ; and it is not very 
 common among the latter. A poor man may 
 indulge himself with two or more wives, each 
 of whom may be able, by some art or occu¬ 
 pation, nearly to provide her own subsistence ; 
 hut most persons of the middle and higher 
 orders are deterred from doing so by the con¬ 
 sideration of the expense and discomfort 
 which they would incur. A man having a 
 
 675 
 
 wife who has the misfortune to be barren, 
 and being too much attached to her to divorce 
 her, is sometimes induced to take a second 
 wife, merely in the hope of obtaining off¬ 
 spring ; and from the same motive, he may 
 take a third, and a fourth ; but fickle passion 
 is the most evident and common motive both 
 to polygamy and repeated divorces. They 
 are comparatively very few who gratify this 
 passion by the former practice. I believe 
 that not more than one husband among 
 twenty has two wives. 
 
 “ When there are two or more wives belong¬ 
 ing to one man, the first (that is, the one first 
 married) generally enjoys the highest rank; 
 and is called 1 the great lady.’ Hence it often 
 happens that, when a man who has already 
 one wife wishes to marry another girl or 
 woman, the father of the latter, or the female 
 herself who is sought in marriage, will not 
 consent to the union unless the first wife be 
 previously divorced. The women, of course, 
 do not approve of a man’s marrying more 
 than one wife. Most men of wealth, or of 
 moderate circumstances, and even many men 
 of the lower orders, if they have two or more 
 wives, have, for each, a separate house.” 
 
 Mi’s. Meer Hassan Ali, an Englishwoman 
 who spent twelve years in a Muhammadan 
 zananah at Lucknow, and who in 1832 pub¬ 
 lished her Observations on the Musalmans of 
 India, says :— 
 
 “ Although ho (the Muslim) may be the 
 husband of many wives in the course of time, 
 and some of them prove greater favourites, 
 yet the first wife takes precedence in all 
 matters were dignity is to be preserved. 
 And when several wives meet (each have 
 separate habitations if possible), all the rest 
 pay to the first wife that deference which 
 superiority exacts from inferiors; not only 
 do the secondary wives pay this respect to 
 the first, but the whole circle of relations 
 and friends make the same distinction, as a 
 matter of course ; for the first wife takes 
 precedence in every way. 
 
 ***** 
 
 “ The latitude allowed by the law pre¬ 
 serves the many-wived Musalman from the 
 world’s censure ; and his conscience rests un¬ 
 accused when he adds to his numbers, if he 
 cannot reproach himself with having neglected 
 or unkindly treated any of the number bound 
 to him, or their children. But the privilege 
 is not always indulged in by the Musalmans ; 
 much depends upon circumstances, and more 
 on the man’s disposition. If it be the happy lot 
 of a kind-hearted, good man to be married to a 
 woman of assimilating mind, possessing the 
 needful requirements to render home agree¬ 
 able, and a prospect of an increasing family, 
 then the husband has no motive to draw him 
 into further engagements, and he is satisfied 
 with one wife. Many such men I have known 
 in Hindustan, particularly among the Say- 
 yuds and religious characters, who deem a 
 plurality of wives a plague to the possessors 
 in proportion to their numbers.” 
 
 There is a curious work published in Per¬ 
 sian, entitled Kitdbi Kulsum Naneh, in which 
 
676 
 
 WIVES 
 
 WIVES 
 
 are given the maxims regarding wives as they 
 are supposed to exist in Persia. It pretends to 
 be a grave work, compiled under the direction 
 of seven matron law-givers, but is really a 
 specimen of Persian humour, a jeu d’esprit, 
 founded upon female customs and supersti¬ 
 tions. The work is of little worth as regards 
 its legal value, but shows the popular views 
 of Persian women regarding their own and 
 the opposite sex. The chapter relating to 
 “ The Conduct of the Wife to her Husband, 
 Mother-in-Law, and other Relations,” is a 
 fair specimen of its character. 
 
 “ That man is to be praised who confines 
 himself to one wife; for if he takes two it is 
 wrong, and he will certainly repent of his 
 folly. Thus say the seven wise women— 
 
 Be that man’s life immersed in gloom 
 Who weds more wives than one, 
 
 With one his cheeks retain their bloom, 
 His voice a cheerful tone; 
 
 These speak his honest heart at rest, 
 
 And he and she are always blest; 
 
 But when with two he seeks for joy, 
 Together they his soul annoy ; 
 
 With two no sun-beam of delight 
 Can make his day of misery bright. 
 
 “ That man, too, must possess an excellent 
 disposition, who never fails to comply with 
 hi6 wife’s wishes, since the hearts of women 
 are gentle and tender, and harshness to them 
 would be cruel. If he be angry with her, 
 so great is her sensibility, that she loses her 
 health and becomes weak and delicate. A 
 wife, indeed, is the mirror of her husband, 
 and reflects his character; her joyous and 
 agreeable looks being the best proofs of his 
 temper and goodness of heart. She never 
 of herself departs from the right path, and 
 the colour’ of her cheeks is like the full-blown 
 rose; brrt if her husband is continually angry 
 with her, her colour fades, and her com¬ 
 plexion becomes yellow as saffron. He 
 should give her money without limit: God 
 forbid that she should die of sorrow and dis¬ 
 appointment ! in which case her blood would 
 be upon the head of her husband. 
 
 “ The learned conclave are unanimous in 
 declaring that many instances have occurred 
 of women dying from the barbarous cruelty 
 of their husbands in this respect; and if the 
 husband be even a day-labourer, and he does 
 not give his wages to his wife, she will 
 claim them on the Day of Judgment. It is 
 incumbent on the husband to bestow on the 
 wife a daily allowance in cash, and he must 
 also allow her every expense of feasting, and 
 of excursions, and the bath, and every other 
 kind of recreation. If he has not generosity 
 and pride enough to do this, he will assuredly 
 be punished for all his sins and omissions on 
 the Day of Resurrection. And whenever he 
 goes to the market, he must buy fruit and 
 other little things, and put them in his hand¬ 
 kerchief, and take them to his wife, to shew 
 his affection for her, and to please her J 
 heart. And if she wishes to undertake a little j 
 journey, to go to the house of her friends for 
 a month, to attend the baths, or enjoy any j 
 
 other pastime, it is not fit for the husband 
 to deny those wishes, and distress her mind 
 by refusal. And when she resolves upon 
 giving an entertainment, it is wajib that he 
 should anticipate what she wants, and bring 
 to her all kinds of presents, and food, and 
 wine, required on the festive occasion. And 
 in entertaining her guests, and mixing among 
 them, and doing all that hospitality and cor¬ 
 dial friendship demand, she is not to be inter¬ 
 rupted or interfered with by her husband 
 saying, ‘ What, have you done ? where have 
 you been ? ’ And if her female guests choose 
 to remain all night, they must be allowed to 
 sleep in the woman’s room, while the hus¬ 
 band sleeps apart and alone. The learned 
 conclave unanimously declare that the woman 
 who possesses such a husband—a man so 
 accommodating and obedient, is truly fortu¬ 
 nate ; but if he happens to be of an opposite 
 character, morose, disobliging, and irritable, 
 then indeed must she be the most wretched 
 of womankind. In that case she must of 
 necessity sue for a divorce, or make him 
 faithfully promise future obedience and readi¬ 
 ness to devote himself wholly to her will and 
 pleasure. If a divorce is denied, she must 
 then pray devoutly to be unburthened of her 
 husband, and that she may soon become a 
 widow. By artifice and manoeuvring the 
 spouse may thus be at length induced to 
 say: ‘ Do, love, whatever you please, for I 
 am your dutiful slave.’ Bfbi Jan Afroz says, 
 
 ‘ A woman is like a nosegay, always retain¬ 
 ing its moisture so as never to wither.’ It is 
 not, therefore, proper that such a lovely 
 object should be refused the comfort and 
 felicity of taking pleasant walks in gardens 
 with her friends, and manifesting her hospi¬ 
 tality to her guests ; nor is it reasonable that 
 she should be prevented from playing on the 
 dyra, and frequently visiting her acquain¬ 
 tance. 
 
 “ Should her husband, however, maliciously 
 and vexatiously refuse these rights, she can¬ 
 not remain longer in his house. An old or 
 ugly woman does not lie under the same 
 obligation ; she may submit to any privation 
 without infringing the rules of decorum. 
 The conclave also declare that the husband’s 
 mother, and other relations, are invariably 
 inimical to the wife: it is therefore wajib 
 that she should maintain her authority when 
 thwarted in her views, by at least once a 
 day using her fists, her teeth, and kicking, 
 and pulling their hair, till tears come into 
 their eyes, and fear prevents further inter¬ 
 ference with her plans. Kulsum Naneh says 
 that she must continue this indomitable 
 spirit of independence until she has fully 
 established her power, and on all occasions 
 she must ring in her husband’s ears the 
 threat of a divorce. If he still resists, she 
 must redouble all the vexations which she 
 knows from experience irritate his mind, and 
 day and night add to the bitterness and 
 misery of his condition. She must never, 
 whether by day or by night, for a moment 
 relax. For instance, if he condescends to 
 hand her the loaf, she must throw it from 
 
WOMEN 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 her, or at him, with indignation and con¬ 
 tempt. She must make his shoe too tight 
 for him, and his pillow a pillow of stone : so 
 that at last he becomes weary of life, and is 
 glad to acknowledge her authority. On the 
 other hand, should these resources fail, the 
 wife may privately convey from her hus¬ 
 band’s house everything valuable that she 
 can lay her hands upon, and then go to the 
 Kazi, and complain that her husband has 
 beaten her with his shoe, and pretend to 
 shew the bruises on her skin. She must 
 state such facts in favour of her case as she 
 knows cannot be refuted by evidence, and 
 pursue every possible plan to escape from 
 the thraldom she endures. For that purpose, 
 every effort of every description is perfectly 
 justifiable, and according to law. 
 
 “ And the seven learned expounders of the 
 customs regarding the conduct and demeanour 
 of women in Persia declare, that among the 
 forbidden things is that of allowing their fea¬ 
 tures to he seen by men not wearing turbans, 
 unless indeed they are handsome, and have 
 soft and captivating manners; in that case 
 their veils may be drawn aside without the 
 apprehension of incurring blame, or in any 
 degree exceeding the discretionary power 
 with which they are traditionally invested. 
 But they must scrupulously and religiously 
 abstain from all such liberties with Mullahs 
 and Jews ; since, respecting them, the pro¬ 
 hibition is imperative. It is not necessary, 
 however, to be very particular in the pre¬ 
 sence of common people; there is nothing 
 criminal in being seen by singers, musicians, 
 hammam-servants, and such persons as go 
 about the streets to sell their wares and 
 trinkets.” (Atkinson’s Customs and Manners 
 of the Women of Persia, p. 54.) 
 
 WOMEN. Arabic nisei’ (A~>). 
 
 I.—The Condition of Women before the time oj 
 Muhammad. 
 
 Although the condition of women under 
 Muslim law is most unsatisfactory, it must 
 be admitted that Muhammad effected a vast 
 and marked improvement in the condition of 
 the female population of Arabia. 
 
 Amongst the Arabs who inhabited the 
 peninsula of Arabia the condition of women 
 was extremely degraded, for amongst the 
 agan Arabs a woman was a mere chattel, 
 he formed the integral part of the estate of 
 her husband or father, and the widows of a 
 man descended to his son or sons by right of 
 inheritance, as any other portion of patri¬ 
 mony. Hence the frequent unions between 
 step-sons and mothers-in-law, which were 
 subsequently forbidden by Islam, were branded 
 tinder the name of Nikaltu ’l-Maqt, or “ odious 
 marriages.” 
 
 The pre-Mamie Arabs also carried their 
 .aversion to women so far as to destroy, by 
 bttrying alive, many of their female children. 
 This fearful custom was common amongst 
 the tribes of Quraish and Knrdah. For 
 
 677 
 
 although they used to call the angels 
 “ daughters of God,” they objected (as do the 
 Badawl to this day) to female offspring, and 
 used to bury their infant daughters alive. 
 This horrible custom is referred to in the 
 Qur’an, where it is said, Surah vi. 138: 
 “ Thus have their associates made seemly to 
 many of the idolaters the killing of their 
 children to destroy them.” And, again, Hnirah 
 xvi. 60,61: “When anyone of them has tidings 
 of a female child, his face is overclouded and 
 black, and he has to keep back his wrath. 
 He skulks away from the public for the evil 
 tidings he has heard;—is he to keep it in 
 disgrace, or to bury it in the dust ? ” 
 
 It is said the only time on which Usman 
 shed a tear, was in the days of igno¬ 
 rance, when his little daughter, whom he was 
 burying alive, wiped the dust of the grave- 
 earth from his beard. 
 
 The ancient Arabic proverbs illustrate 
 the ideas of pre-Islamic Arabia as to the 
 position of women, e.g. :— 
 
 “ A man can bear anything but the men¬ 
 tion of his wives.” 
 
 “ Women are the whips of Satan.” 
 
 “ Trust neither a king, a horse, nor a 
 woman.” 
 
 “ Our mother forbids us to err and runs 
 into error.” 
 
 “ What has a woman to do with the coun¬ 
 cils of a nation ? ” 
 
 “ Obedience to a woman will have to be 
 repented of.” 
 
 II. — The Teaching of the Qur'an. 
 
 It has often been asserted by European 
 writers that the Qur’an teaches that women 
 have no souls. Such, however, is not the 
 case. What that book does teach on the 
 subject of women will be gathered from the 
 following selections :— 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 35 :— 
 
 “ Verily the resigned men and the resigned 
 women, 
 
 The believing men and the believing 
 women, 
 
 The devout men and the devout women, 
 The truthful men and the truthful 
 women, 
 
 The patient men and the patient women, 
 The humble men and the humble women, 
 The charitable men and the charitable 
 women, 
 
 The fasting men and the fasting women, 
 The chaste men and the chaste women, 
 And the men and women who oft re* 
 member God, 
 
 For them hath God prepared forgiveness 
 and a mighty recompense.” 
 
 Surah xxiv. 31:— 
 
 “ Speak to the believing women that they 
 refrain their eyes, and observe continence; 
 and that they display not their ornaments, 
 except those which are external; and that 
 they throw their veils over their bosoms, and 
 
WOMEN 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 678 
 
 display not their ornaments, except to their 
 husbands or their fathers, or their husbands’ 
 fathers, or their sons, or their husbands’ 
 sons, or their brothers, or them brothers’ 
 sons, or their sisters’ sons, or their women, or 
 their slaves, or male domestics who have no 
 natural force, or to children who note not 
 women’s nakedness. And let them not strike 
 their feet together, so as to discover their 
 hidden ornaments. (See Isaiah iii. 16.) And 
 be ye all turned to God, 0 ye Believers! that 
 it may he well with you.” 
 
 Surah lx. 10-12 
 
 “ 0 Believers! when believing women 
 come over to you as refugees (Muhajirs), 
 then make trial of them. God best knoweth 
 their faith ; but if ye have also ascertained 
 their faith, let them not go hack to the in¬ 
 fidels ; they are not lawful for them, nor are 
 the unbelievers lawful for these women. But 
 give them hack what they have spent for 
 their dowers. No crime shall it be in you to 
 marry them, provided ye give them their 
 dowers. Do not retain any right in the in¬ 
 fidel women, but demand back what you 
 have spent for their dowers, and let the unbe¬ 
 lievers demand back what they have spent j 
 for their wives. This is the ordinance of God 
 which He ordaineth among you: and God is 
 Knowing, Wise. 
 
 “ And if any of your wives escape from 
 you to the Infidels from whom ye afterwards 
 take any spoil, then give to those whose ! 
 wives shall have fled away, the like of what | 
 they shall have spent for their dowers ; and J 
 fear God in whom ye believe. 
 
 “ 0 Prophet! when believing women come 
 to thee, and pledge themselves that they will 
 not associate aught with God, and that they 
 will not steal or commit adultery, nor kill 
 their children, nor bring scandalous charges, 
 nor disobey thee in what is right, then plight j 
 thou thy faith to them, and ask pardon for 
 them of God: for God is Indulgent, Mer¬ 
 ciful ! ” 
 
 Surah iv. 1:— 
 
 “ 0 Men ! fear your Lord, who hath created 
 you of one man ( nafs, soul), and of him 
 created his wife, and from these twain hath 
 spread abroad so many men and women. 
 And fear ye God, in whose name ye ask 
 mutual favours—and reverence the wombs 
 that bare you. Verily is God watching 
 you! 
 
 ’ “ And entrust not to the incapable the 
 substance which God hath placed ■with you 
 as a means of support; hut maintain them 
 therewith, and clothe them, and speak to 
 them with kindly speech.” 
 
 “ Men are superior to women on account of 
 the qualities with which God had gifted the 
 one above the other, and on account of the 
 outlay they make from their substance for 
 them. Virtuous women are obedient, careful 
 during the husband’s absence, because God 
 hath of them been careful. But chide those 
 
 for whose refractoriness ye have cause to 
 fear; remove them into sleeping-chambers 
 apart, and scourge them, but if they are 
 obedient to you, then seek not occasion 
 J against them ; verily God is High, Great! 
 
 *■#*#* 
 
 “ And if a wife fear ill-usage or aversion on 
 | the part of her husband, then shall it be no 
 fault in them if they can agree with mutual 
 agreement, for agreement is best. Men’s 
 souls are prone to avarice, but if ye act 
 kindly and piously, then, verily, your actions 
 are not unnoticed by God 1 
 
 “ And ye may not have it at all in your 
 power to treat your wives with equal justice, 
 even though you fain would do so; but yield 
 not wholly to disinclination, so that ye leave 
 one of them as it were in suspense; if ye 
 j come to an understanding and act in the fear 
 of God, then verily, God is Forgiving, Mer¬ 
 ciful ! 
 
 “ But if they separate, God can compensate 
 both out of His abundance ; for God is Vast, 
 Wise ! ” 
 
 Surah xxiv. 4-9 :— 
 
 “ They who defame virtuous women, and 
 bring not four witnesses, scourge them with 
 fourscore stripes, and receive ye not their tes¬ 
 timony for ever, for these are perverse per¬ 
 sons— 
 
 “ Save those who afterwards repent and 
 live virtuously; for truly God is Lenient, 
 Merciful! 
 
 “ And they who shall accuse their wives, 
 and have no witnesses but themselves, the 
 testimony of each of them shall be a testi¬ 
 mony by God four times repeated, that he is 
 indeed of them that speak the truth. 
 
 “ And the fifth time that the malison of 
 God be upon him, if he be of them that 
 lie. 
 
 “ But it shall avert the chastisement from 
 her if she testify a testimony four times 
 repeated, by God, that he is of them that 
 lie ; 
 
 “ And a fifth time to call down the wrath 
 J of God on her, if he have spoken the 
 truth.” 
 
 III. — The Teaching of Muhammad , as given 
 in the Traditions, 
 
 \ will be gathered from the following quota- 
 J tions:— 
 
 “ I have not left any calamity more detri¬ 
 mental to mankind than women.” 
 
 “ A bad omen is found in a woman, a house, 
 or a horse.” 
 
 “ The best women are those that ride on 
 camels, and the virtuous women of the 
 Quraish are those who are affectionate to 
 young children and who are most careful 
 of their husband’s property.” 
 
 “ The world and all things in it are valu¬ 
 able, but more valuable than all is a virtuous 
 woman,” 
 
 “Look to your actions and abstain from 
 
WOMEN 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 the world and from women, for verily the first 
 sin which the children of Israel committed 
 was on account of women.” 
 
 “ God will reward the Muslim who, having 
 beheld the beauties of a woman, shuts his 
 eyes.” 
 
 “ Do not visit the houses of men when 
 they are absent from their homes, for the 
 devil circulates within you like the blood in 
 your veins. It was said, ‘ O Prophet, in 
 your veins also ? ’ He replied, ‘ My veins 
 also. But God has given me power over the 
 devil and I am free from wickedness.’ ” 
 
 “ Two women must not sit together, be¬ 
 cause the one may describe the other to her 
 husband, so that you might say the husband 
 had seen her himself.” 
 
 “ Do not follow up one look at a woman 
 with another; for verily the first look is ex¬ 
 cusable, but the next is unlawful.” 
 
 ILL—Muhammadan law secures the following 
 Rights to Women. 
 
 An adult woman may contract herself in 
 marriage without her guardian’s consent, and 
 an adult virgin cannot be married against 
 her will. When divorced or a widow, she is 
 at liberty to marry a second husband. She 
 must be treated with respect, and it is not 
 lawful for a judge to see more than her face 
 and the palms of her hands. She should go 
 abroad veiled. She is not required to engage 
 in war, although she may be taken by her 
 husband on a military expedition, but she can 
 have no share in the plunder. She is not to 
 be slain in war. 
 
 The fine for a woman is half that of a man, 
 and in evidence the testimony of two women 
 is but equal to that of one man, except in 
 the case of a birth, when the evidence of one 
 woman is to be accepted. Her evidence is 
 not accepted in the case of retaliation. 
 [qisas.] In the event of a person being 
 found slain in the house or village belonging 
 to a woman, the oath (in the matter of evi¬ 
 dence) is administered to her fifty times re¬ 
 peatedly before the fine is imposed. If she 
 apostatize from the faith of Islam, she is not 
 to be put to death, but to be imprisoned until 
 she return to the faith; for although Imam 
 ash-Shafi‘i maintains that she is to be put 
 to death, Imam Abu Hanrfah holds that 
 the Prophet has forbidden the slaying of 
 women, without making any distinction be¬ 
 tween those'who are apostates or those who 
 are original infidels. But, according to an 
 express injunction, they are to be stoned to 
 death for adultery, and beaten for fornication. 
 Women who have no means of subsistence 
 are to be supported by the state. 
 
 (The law of divorce is treated under the 
 article divohce.) 
 
 It is a curious arrangement of Muslim law, 
 that (according to the Hidayah, Grady’s ed., 
 p. 340) a woman may execute the office of a 
 Qazi or judge, except in the cases hadd and 
 gifdf , in conformity with the rule that her 
 
 679 
 
 evidence is accepted in every legal case except 
 in that of hadd and qisa$, or “ retaliation.” 
 There is, in fact, no distinct prohibition 
 against a woman assuming the government of 
 a state. The rulers of the Muhammadan State 
 of Bhopal in Central India have been women 
 for several generations. 
 
 IV.—The Position of Women in Muhammadan 
 Countries 
 
 has been the subject of severe criticism as 
 well as of some controversy. Mr. Stanley 
 Lane-Poole says :— 
 
 “ The fatal blot in Islam is the degradation 
 of women. . . . Yet it would be hard to lay 
 the blame altogether on Mohammad. The 
 real roots of the degradation of women lie 
 much deeper. When Islam was instituted, 
 polygamy was almost necessitated by the 
 number of women and their need of support; 
 and the facility of divorce was quite neces¬ 
 sitated by the separation of the sexes, and the 
 consequence that a man could not know or 
 even see the woman he was about to marry 
 before the marriage ceremony was accom¬ 
 plished. It is not Mohammad whom we must 
 blame for these great evils, polygamy and 
 divorce; it is the state of society which de¬ 
 manded the separation of the sexes, and in 
 which it was not safe to allow men and 
 women freely to associate ; in other words, it 
 was the sensual constitution of the Arab that 
 lay at the root of the matter. Mohammad 
 might have done better. He might boldly 
 have swept away the traditions of Arab 
 society, unveiled the women, intermingled the 
 sexes, and punished by the most severe mea¬ 
 sures any license which such association 
 might at first encourage. With his bound¬ 
 less influence, it is possible that he might 
 have done this, and, the new system once 
 fairly settled, and the people accustomed to 
 it, the good effects of the change would have 
 begun to show themselves. But such an idea 
 could never have occurred to him. We must 
 always remember that we are dealing with a 
 social system of the seventh century, not of 
 the nineteenth. Mohammad’s ideas about 
 women were like those of the rest of his con¬ 
 temporaries. He looked upon them as charm¬ 
 ing snares to the believer, ornamental articles 
 of furniture difficult to keep in order, pretty 
 playthings ; but that a woman should be the 
 counsellor and companion of a man does not 
 seem to have occurred to him. It is to be 
 wondered that the feeling of respect he always 
 entertained for his first wife, Khadeejeh, 
 (which, however, is partly accounted for by 
 the fact that she was old enough to have 
 been his mother,) found no counterpart in his 
 general opinion of womankind: ‘Woman was 
 made from a crooked rib, and if you try to 
 bend it straight, it will break ; therefore treat 
 your wives kindly.’ Mohammad was not the 
 man to make a social reform affecting women, 
 nor was Arabia the country in which such a 
 change should be made, nor Arab ladies per¬ 
 haps the best subjects for the experiment. 
 
680 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 WRITING 
 
 Still he did something towards bettering the 
 condition of women: he limited the number 
 of wives to four : laid his hand with the ut¬ 
 most severity on the incestuous marriages 
 that were then rife in Arabia ; compelled hus¬ 
 bands to support their divorced wives during 
 their four months of probation; made irre¬ 
 vocable divorce less common by adding the 
 rough, but deterring, condition that a woman 
 triply divorced could not return to her hus¬ 
 band without first being married to some one 
 else—a condition exceedingly disagreeable to 
 the first husband ; and required four- wit¬ 
 nesses to prove a charge of adultery against 
 a wife—a merciful provision, difficult to be 
 fulfilled. The evil permitted by Mohammad 
 in leaving the number of wives four instead 
 of insisting on monogamy was not great. 
 Without considering the sacrifice of family 
 peace which the possession of a large harem 
 entails, the expense of keeping several wives, 
 each of whom must have a separate suite of 
 apartments or a separate house, is so great, 
 that not more than one in twenty can afford 
 it. It is not so much in the matter of wives 
 as in that of concubines that Mohammad 
 made an irretrievable mistake. The condi¬ 
 tion of the female slave in the East is indeed 
 deplorable. She is at the entire mercy of her 
 master, who can do what he pleases with her 
 and her companions: for the Muslim is not re¬ 
 stricted in the number of his concubines, as 
 he is in that of his wives. The female white 
 slave is kept solely for the master's sensual 
 gratification, and is sold when he is tired of 
 her, and so she passes from master to master, 
 a very wreck of womanhood. Her condition 
 is a little improved if she bear a son to her 
 tyrant: but even then he is at liberty to re¬ 
 fuse to acknowledge the child as his own. 
 though it must be owned he seldom does this. 
 Kind as the Prophet was himself towards 
 bondswomen, one cannot forget the unutter¬ 
 able brutalities which he suffered his fol¬ 
 lowers to inflict upon conquered nations in 
 the taking of slaves. The Muslim soldier was 
 allowed to do as he pleased with any ; in¬ 
 fidel ! woman he might meet with on his vic¬ 
 torious march. When one thinks of the 
 thousands of women, mothers and daughters, 
 who must have suffered untold shame and 
 dishonour by this license, he cannot find 
 words to express his horror, And this cruel 
 indulgence has left its mark on the Muslim 
 character, nay, on the whole character of 
 Eastern life." (Selections from the Kur-an, 
 2nd ed., Preface.) 
 
 The strict legislation regarding women as 
 expressed in Muhammadan law. does not 
 affect their position amongst wild and uncivi¬ 
 lized tribes. Amongst them she is as free as 
 the wild goats on the mountain tops. Amongst 
 the Afreedees in the Afghan hills, for ex¬ 
 ample. women roam without protection from 
 hill to hill, and are engaged in tending cattle 
 and other agricultural pursuits. If ill-treated 
 bvtheir husbands, they either demand divorce 
 or run away to some neighbouring tribe. Not 
 a few of the tribal feuds arise from such cir¬ 
 cumstances. 
 
 Amongst the Bedouins ( Badawis ), Mr. Pal- 
 grave tells us, their armies are led by a 
 maiden of good family, who, mounted amid 
 the fore ranks on a camel, shames the timid 
 and excites the brave by satirical or enco¬ 
 miastic recitations. ( Arabia , vol. ii. p. 71.) 
 
 The influence which Afghan women have 
 exercised upon Central Asian politics has 
 been very great, and, as we have already 
 remarked, the Muhammadan State of Bhopal 
 in Central India has for several generations 
 past been governed by female sovereigns. 
 [CONCUBINES, DIVORCE, MARRIAGE. WTVES.] 
 
 WORD OF GOD. [inspiration, 
 
 OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS, PROPHETS, QUR’AN.] 
 
 WOUNDS. Arabic shijaj (sW^O, 
 
 pi. of shajjah. The Muhammadan law only 
 treats of wounds on the face and head, all 
 other wounds being compensated for by arbi¬ 
 trary atonement. 
 
 According to the Hidayah, shijaj are of 
 ten kinds :— 
 
 Harisak, a scratch, such as does not draw 
 blood. 
 
 Damvah , a scratch which draws blood 
 without causing it to flow. 
 
 Damiyah. a scratch which causes the blood 
 to flow. 
 
 Bazi-ah, a cut through the skin. 
 
 Matalahimah, a cut into the flesh. 
 
 Simhaq, a wound reaching to the pericra¬ 
 nium. 
 
 Musihah. a wound which lays bare the 
 bone. 
 
 Hashimah, a fracture of the skull. 
 
 Munaqqilah, a fracture which requires part 
 of the skull to be removed. 
 
 Ammah, a wound extending to the mem¬ 
 brane which encloses the brain 
 
 According to the injunctions of the Pro¬ 
 phet, a twentieth of the complete fine for 
 murder is due for musihah ; a tenth for 
 hashimah : three-twentieths for munaqqilah ; 
 and a third for ammah. All other fines are 
 left to the discretion of the judge. 
 
 WRITING. Arabic ‘Ilrnu ’l-Khatt 
 (ksd\ Sir William Muir, in the 
 
 Introduction of his Life of Mahomet, -writes 
 on this subject as follows:— 
 
 ” De Saey and Caussin de Perceval concur 
 in fixing the date of the introduction of Arabic 
 writing into Mecca at a.d. 560 (Mem. de 
 (Acad.. voL 1. p. 306 ; C. de Peru, voL i. p. 
 294.) The chief authority is contained in a 
 tradition given by Ibn Khallican, that the 
 Arabic system was invented by Moramir at 
 Anbar, whence it spread to Hira. It was 
 thence, shortly after its invention, intro¬ 
 duced into Mecca by Harb, father of Abu 
 Sofian, the great opponent of Mahomet. ( Ibn 
 Khallican, by Slane, vol. ii. p. 284.) Other 
 traditions give a later date: but M. C. de 
 Perceval reconciles the discrepancy by re¬ 
 ferring them rather to the subsequent arrival 
 
WETTING 
 
 WETTING 
 
 681 
 
 of some zealous and successful teacher than 
 to the first introduction of the art (vol. i. 
 p. 295). I would observe that either the 
 above traditions are erroneous, or that some 
 sort of writing other than Arabic must have 
 been known long before the date specified, 
 i.e. a.d. 560. Abd a! Muttalib is described 
 as writing from Mecca to his maternal rela¬ 
 tives at Medina for help, in his younger 
 days, i.e. about a.d. 520. And still farther 
 back, in the middle of the fifth century, 
 Cussei (Qusaig) addressed a written demand 
 of a similar tenor to his brother in Arabia 
 Petraea. ( Kutih al Waclcidi, 11£; Tabari , 
 18, 28.) 
 
 “ The Himyar or Musnad writing is said by 
 Ibn Khallican to have been confined to 
 Yemen; but the verses quoted by G. de 
 Perceval (vol. i. p. 295) would seem to imply 
 that it had at one period been known and 
 used by the Meccans, and was in fact . sup¬ 
 planted by the Arabic. The Syriac and 
 Hebrew were also known and probably exten¬ 
 sively used in Medina and the northern parts 
 of Arabia from a remote period. 
 
 “ In fine, whatever the system employed 
 may have been, it is evident that writing of 
 some sort was known and practised at Mecca 
 long before a.d. 560. At all events, the fre¬ 
 quent notices of written papers leave no 
 room to doubt that Arabic writing was well 
 known, and not uncommonly practised, there 
 in Mahomet’s early days. I cannot think, 
 with Weil, that any great ‘ want of writing 
 materials ’ could have been felt, even ‘ by 
 the poorer Moslems in the early days of 
 Islam.’ ( Mohammed , p. 350.) Reeds and 
 palm-leaves would never be wanting.” (Muir’s 
 Mahomet, Intro.,p. viii.) 
 
 The intimate connection of the Arabic 
 alphabet, as it is now in use, with the 
 Hebrew, or rather Phoenician alphabet, is 
 shown not only by the form of the letters 
 themselves, but by their more ancient nume¬ 
 rical arrangement, known by the name of 
 Abjad, and described under that head on 
 page 3 of the present work. This arrange¬ 
 ment, it will be remembered, is contained in 
 the six meaningless words :— 
 
 C - C 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 CO 00 C> £7? 03 lO M 00 S Si Oi 
 
 oooo oooo o 
 
 c - C£ 
 
 
 03 tC 
 
 I liJ 
 
 H!5 0) S Ci 3t 
 O O O O O O 
 O O © © © O 
 
 c - - - 
 
 ^ 03 tc H- 4 
 
 oooo 
 
 The first six of these words correspond to 
 the Hebrew alphabet, the last two consist of 
 the letters peculiar to Arabic, and it will be 
 seen that the words abjad, hawwaz, and 
 hutti (as we transcribe them according to our 
 system of transliteration), express the nine 
 units, together with ten, kalaman and sufas, 
 the tens from twenty to ninety, and qarashat, 
 saichaz, and zazayh, the hundreds together 
 with one thousand. 
 
 The present arrangement of the Arabic 
 alphabet, in the form which the letters take 
 as finals, is the following :— 
 
 Finals. 
 
 Order, j 
 
 Reduced 
 
 Order. 
 
 Sepa¬ 
 
 rate. 
 
 Joined. | 
 
 Trans¬ 
 
 literation. 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 a (i, u) 
 
 2 
 
 ! j 
 
 V* 
 
 s- 
 
 b 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 4 
 
 ) l 
 
 
 , t. „ 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 ) f 
 
 6 
 
 e 
 
 j 
 
 6 
 
 
 C 
 
 e 
 
 h 
 
 7 
 
 J 1 
 
 t 
 
 c 
 
 kh 
 
 8 
 
 r 4 1 
 
 «3 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 9 
 
 ) l 
 
 «3 
 
 
 z 
 
 10 
 
 
 j 
 
 ; 
 
 r 
 
 11 
 
 J l 
 
 j 
 
 j 
 
 z 
 
 12 
 
 6 ' 
 
 lt* 
 
 u~ 
 
 s 
 
 13 
 
 J i 
 
 J* 
 
 LT 
 
 sh 
 
 14 
 
 1 7 1 
 
 o 5 
 
 U* 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 
 u 3 
 
 a* 
 
 Z 
 
 16 
 
 1 8 1 
 
 L 
 
 k 
 
 t 
 
 17 
 
 I l 
 
 k 
 
 k 
 
 Z 
 
 18 
 
 1 9 { 
 
 S 
 
 £ 
 
 ‘ 
 
 19 
 
 j ( 
 
 t 
 
 a 
 
 g h 
 
 20 
 
 1 10 I 
 
 c_i 
 
 «—a 
 
 f 
 
 21 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 q 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 d 
 
 
 k 
 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 l 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 I* 
 
 r 
 
 m 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 & 
 
 n 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 s 
 
 d 
 
 h 
 
 27 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 w 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 c; 
 
 cS 
 
 y 
 
 On examining these characters, as repre¬ 
 sented in the above synopsis, it will at once 
 be seen that, with the exception of the first 
 and the seven last ones, each character stands 
 for two or three sounds, their only distinction 
 consisting in from one to three dots, which 
 are added at the top or bottom of the letter, 
 and that thereby the number of characters is 
 reduced from twenty-eight to seventeen. It 
 will, moreover, be noticed that several of 
 these characters have an appendix or tail, 
 which is well adapted to mark the end of a 
 word, but which would prevent the letter 
 from being readily joined to a following one, 
 and therefore is dispensed with if the letter 
 be initial or connected with others. Sup¬ 
 pressing those dots and cutting off these 
 tails, and arranging the characters in their 
 reduced order, and in that form which fits 
 
 86 
 
682 
 
 WRITING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 them to appear as initials or medials, we 
 obtain the following simplified schedule :— 
 
 Initials and Medials. 
 
 Reduced 
 
 Order. 
 
 Final. 
 
 Ini¬ 
 
 tial. 
 
 Me¬ 
 
 dial. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 
 a (i, u) 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 b, t, s 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 j, h, kh 
 
 4 
 
 
 A 
 
 J 
 
 Jk 
 
 d, z 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 r, z 
 
 6 
 
 u** 
 
 u~ 
 
 
 _ 
 
 s, sh 
 
 7 
 
 lP 
 
 
 *=> 
 
 -3 
 
 s, z 
 
 8 
 
 L 
 
 h 
 
 L 
 
 L 
 
 t, z 
 
 9 
 
 £ 
 
 e 
 
 £ 
 
 X 
 
 S gh 
 
 10 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 f, q 
 
 11 
 
 
 ed 
 
 S' 
 
 s; 
 
 k 
 
 13 
 
 J 
 
 J 
 
 j 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 r 
 
 r 
 
 *• 
 
 * 
 
 m 
 
 14 
 
 a 
 
 
 > 
 
 A 
 
 n 
 
 15 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 £> 
 
 9 
 
 h 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 w 
 
 17 
 
 
 <_s 
 
 l 
 
 
 y 
 
 A further examination of this reduced list 
 shows, that the characters, 1, 4, 5 and 16, \ 
 o, j and do not admit of the horizontal 
 prolongation towards the left which serves 
 to connect a letter with a following one, or, in 
 other words, that they can only be joined to 
 a preceding letter, and that the characters 
 14 and 17, viz. ^ and ^, in their initial and 
 medial form, differ from the character b 
 only by the superadded dots, and may there¬ 
 fore count for one with it, finally limiting the 
 number of characters to fifteen. Thus the 
 whole Arabic alphabet resolves itself into 
 the four signs 
 
 ) : J ' 
 
 which can be joined to a preceding letter, but 
 must, even in the middle of a word, remain 
 separate from a following one, and the eleven 
 signs 
 
 which can be connected either way. 
 
 These, then, are the graphical elements, in 
 their simplest expression, by means of which 
 Arabic, etymologically perhaps the richest 
 language in existence, was originally written, 
 and which were expected to transmit the 
 sacred text of the inspired book to the 
 coming generations. The first in the above 
 series of connectible characters (4) repre¬ 
 sents five different sounds, b, t, s, n, and y ; 
 the second (A) three sounds, h,j, and kh ; the 
 next five L, c, i), together with d 
 
 andj two sounds each, s and sh, s and z, t 
 and z, ‘ and gh,f and q, d and z, r and z, re¬ 
 spectively, and only five out of the whole 
 number of fifteen ^ S, \) are single 
 
 signs for a single consonantal sound each. 
 As for the vowels, only the long ones, a, i, 
 and i, were in this system of writing graphi¬ 
 cally expressed, being represented by the so- 
 called weak consonants, \ . and , , which, 
 
 in this case, act as letters of prolongation. 
 Yet the corresponding short vowels, a, u, and 
 i, were of the utmost importance for the cor¬ 
 rect reading of a text, for the whole system 
 i of Arabic inflection is based upon them, and 
 : their faulty employment in the recital of the 
 I Qur’an would frequently lead to grave mis- 
 j takes, or, at all events, grievously shock the 
 pious and the learned. 
 
 | So it will be easily understood that the 
 want of additional signs was soon felt, to 
 j obviate this double insufficiency of the 
 original alphabet, that is to say, on the one 
 hand to distinguish between letters of the 
 same form but of different sound, and on the 
 other hand to show with what vowel a letter 
 was to be enounced in accordance with the 
 rules of the I‘rab or grammatical inflection. 
 
 Accounts differ as to when and by whom 
 these signs were invented and introduced 
 into the sacred as well as the secular writing. 
 We must here at once remark that the form 
 in which they now appear is by no means 
 their oldest form, as we have also, with re¬ 
 gard to the characters of the alphabet them¬ 
 selves, to distinguish between two styles of 
 writing, the one called Cufic, used in inscrip¬ 
 tions on monuments and coins, in copies of 
 the Qur’an, and documents of importance, the 
 other of a more cursive character, better 
 adapted to the exigencies of daily life. This 
 latter style, it is true, seems to have existed, 
 like the former, long before Muhammad, and 
 resembles in a document of the second century 
 of the Hijrah, which has come down to us, 
 already very much the so-called Naskhi 
 character now in use. But the two kept 
 from the first quite apart, and developed 
 independently from each other up to the 
 middle of the fourth century of the Muham¬ 
 madan era, when the more popular system 
 began to supplant the older one, which it 
 finally superseded even in the transcriptions 
 of the sacred book. 
 
 In tracing the origin of the vowel-marks 
 and the diacritical signs, as we may now call 
 them, in the first instance of the Cufic alpha¬ 
 bet, we will follow Ibn Khallikan, whose in¬ 
 formation on the subject seems the most in¬ 
 telligible and self-consistent that has reached 
 us. In his celebrated biographical dictionary, 
 he relates that Ziyad, a natural brother of the 
 first Umaiyah Khalifah Mu‘awiyah, and then 
 Governor of the two ‘Iraqs, directed Abu 
 Aswad ad-Du’ilf, one of the most eminent of 
 the Tabi‘un, to compose something to serve 
 as a guide to the public, and enable them to 
 understand “ the book of God,” meaning 
 thereby a treatise on Grammar, the elements 
 of which Abu Aswad was said to have learned 
 from ‘All, the son-in-law of the Prophet him¬ 
 self. He at first asked to be excused, but 
 when he heard a man, on reciting the passage 
 (Surah ix. 3): Anna ’ lla/ia bari'un mina ’l- 
 mushrikina iva rasuluku, pronounce the last 
 
WETTING 
 
 WETTING 
 
 683 
 
 word rasulihi , which changes the meaning of 
 the passage from “ That God is clear of the 
 idolaters, and His Apostle also,” into “ That 
 God is clear of the idolators and of His 
 Apostle,” he exclaimed, “ I never thought 
 that things would have come to such a pass.” 
 He then went to Ziyad and said, “ I shall do 
 what you ordered; find me an intelligent 
 scribe who will follow my directions.” On 
 this a scribe belonging to the tribe of ‘Abdu 
 ’1-Qais was brought to him, but did not give 
 him satisfaction: another then came, and 
 ‘Abdu ’l-Aswad said to him : “ When you see 
 me open ( fatah ) my mouth in pronouncing 
 a letter, place a point over it; when I close 
 (zamm) my mouth, place a point before the 
 letter, and when I pucker up ( kasar ) my 
 mouth, place a point under the letter.” 
 Noldeke, the learned author of Geschichte des 
 Knrans, rejects this part of the story as a 
 fable, and it is certainly not to be taken in 
 the literal sense, that each time a letter was 
 pronounced, the scribe was supposed to watch 
 the action of the dictater’s lips. But it 
 seems reasonable enough to assume that in 
 cases where much depended on the correct 
 vocalisation of a word, and where the reciter 
 would naturally put a particular emphasis on 
 it, Abu Aswad should instruct his amanu¬ 
 ensis not to rely upon his ears only in 
 fixing upon the sound, but also call the tes¬ 
 timony of his eyes to his aid. At any rate, 
 the name of the vowel-points: Fatfah, 
 “ opening,” for a, zammah, “ contraction,” 
 for u, and kasrah, “ fracture ” (as the pucker¬ 
 ing up of the mouth may fitly be called), is 
 well explained, and the notation itself: 
 for fatfiah, •—for zammah uni for kasrah, 
 is that which we still find in some of the old 
 Cufic manuscripts of the Qur’an marked in 
 red ink or pigment. We refer the reader 
 to the first specimen of Cufic writing given 
 below (p. 687), which he is requested to 
 compare with the transcript in the modern 
 Arabic character and with our Roman trans¬ 
 literation, when he will readily perceive that 
 the points or dots in the Cufic fragment cor¬ 
 respond to the short vowels of the translite¬ 
 ration, while, in the Arabic transcript, they 
 serve to distinguish the consonants. Take, 
 for instance, the point above the second 
 letter of the third word, and it will at once be 
 seen that in the Cufic form it expresses the a 
 after the n of tanazzalat, for it recurs again 
 after the l in the last syllable, and that in the 
 Naskhi character it distinguishes the n (5) 
 itself from the preceding double-pointed t 
 (j), both which letters remain without a dis¬ 
 tinctive sign in the Cufic. 
 
 To return to Ibn Khallikan; he relates 
 in another place, after Abu Ahmad al- 
 ‘Askari, that in the days of ‘Abdu ’1-Malik 
 ibn Marwan, the fifth Kh alifah of the TJmai- 
 yah dynasty, the erroneous readings of the 
 Qur’an had become numerous and spread 
 through ‘Iraq. This obliged the governor, 
 al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, to have recourse to his 
 katibs, for the purpose of putting distinctive 
 marks on the words of uncertain pronuncia¬ 
 
 tion ; and it is said that Nasr ibn ‘ Asim under¬ 
 took that duty and imagined single and double 
 points (nuqat, pL of nuqtah, “ drop,” “ dot ”), 
 which he placed in different manners. The 
 people then passed some time without making 
 any copies of the Qur’an but with points, 
 the usage of which did not, however, prevent 
 some false readings from taking place, and 
 for this reason they invented the I‘jam (signs 
 serving to distinguish the letters of the same 
 form from ono another), and they thus placed 
 the vjam posteriorly to the nuqat. 
 
 Pnma facie, this seems to contradict the 
 passage quoted previously, according to 
 which Abu Aswad would be the inventor of the 
 nuqat or vowel-points, and the same remark 
 applies to another account of the same 
 author, which we shall adduce presently. 
 Pending our attempt to reconcile the diffe¬ 
 rent statements, we notice here two fresh par¬ 
 ticulars of some importance. For the first 
 time mention is made of double points, and 
 we shall scarcely be wrong if we refer 
 thi3 to the way in which the Nunnation or 
 Tanwin, that is the sounding of an n after the 
 vowels, is expressed in the early writing. It 
 is simply by doubling the vowel-signs in the 
 same position in which the single points are 
 
 placed: * * for an, * - for un, and ( . for 
 
 in. Secondly, we meet with the distinct 
 assertion that the invention of the ijam or 
 diacritical signs followed that of the nuqat 
 or vowel-points. Noldeke thinks the reverse 
 more probable, not only because the letter b 
 (s->) is found already pointed on coins of 
 ‘Abdu ’1-Malik, but also because the diacri¬ 
 tical signs are in the ancient manuscripts, 
 like the letters themselves, written with black 
 ink, while the vowel-points are always of a 
 different colour. But the early use of a 
 pointed b does not prove that the other letters 
 were similarly marked at the same time. 
 On the contrary, if such a distinction was 
 once established for the b, which would be 
 most liable to be confounded with one of its 
 four sister-forms, the other characters of a 
 like shape could for some time dispense with 
 distinctive signs, as for an Arabian reader 
 accustomed to hear, see, and think certain 
 groups of consonants together, and deeply 
 imbued with an instinctive consciousness of 
 the phonetic laws of his language, the danger 
 of mistaking one letter for another would not 
 be by far so great as it appears to us. And 
 as for the argument taken from the different 
 colour of the ink, Noldeke himself remarks 
 that it was natural to use the same tint 
 for the consonants and their distinctive signs, 
 which form only a part of them, while the 
 vowel-points are an entirely new element. 
 
 According to a third tradition, it was 
 Yahya ibn Ya‘mar (died a.h. 129) and al- 
 Hasan al-Basrl (died a.h. 110), by whom al- 
 Hajjaj caused the Qur’an to be pointed, and it 
 is stated that Ibn Shirin possessed a copy of 
 it, in which Taliya ibn Ya‘mar had marked 
 the vowel points. He was remarkable as a 
 Shrah of the primitive class, to use Ibn Khal- 
 likan’s expression : one of those who, in assert- 
 
684 
 
 WETTING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 ing the superior merit of the People of the 
 House, abstained from depreciating the merit 
 of those Companions ■who did not belong to 
 that family. It is related by ‘Asim ibn Abi 
 ’n-Najud, the Qur’an reader (died a.h. 127), 
 that al-Hajjaj summoned Yahya on that 
 account into his presence and thus addressed 
 him:— 
 
 “ Do you pretend that al-Hasan and al- 
 Husain 'were of the posterity of the Apostle 
 of God ? By Allah, I shall cast to the ground 
 that part of you which has the most hair on 
 it (that is : I shall strike off your head), un¬ 
 less you exculpate yourself.” “ If I do so,” 
 said Yahya, “shall I have amnesty? ” “ You 
 shall,” replied al-Hajjaj. “ Well,” said 
 Yahya, “ God, may His praise be exalted! 
 said: 
 
 ‘ And We gave him (Abraham) Isaac 
 and Jacob, and guided both aright; and 
 We had before guided Noah; and of his 
 posterity, David and Solomon, and Job, 
 and Joseph, and Moses and Aaron: Thus 
 do We reward the righteous: And 
 Zachariah, John, Jesus, and Elias : all 
 were just persons.’ (Surah vi. 81, 85). 
 Now, the space of time between Jesus and 
 Abraham is greater than that which sepa¬ 
 rated al-Hasan and al-Husain from Muham¬ 
 mad, on all of whom be the blessing of God 
 and his salvation ! ” Al-Hajjaj answered, “ I 
 must admit that you have got out of the dif¬ 
 ficulty ; I read that before, but did not un¬ 
 derstand it.” In the further course of con¬ 
 versation, al-Hajjaj said to him: “Tell me 
 if I commit faults in speaking.” Yahya 
 remained silent, but as al-Hajjaj insisted on 
 having an answer, he at length replied : “ 0 
 Emir, since you ask me, I must say that you 
 exalt what should be depressed, and depress 
 what should be exalted.” This has the 
 grammatical meaning: You put in the nomi¬ 
 native ( raf ) what should be in the accusa¬ 
 tive ( nash ), and vice versa ; but it is, at the 
 same time an epigrammatical stricture on al- 
 Hajjaj’s arbitrary rulership, which, it is said, 
 won for Yahya the appointment as Qazi in 
 Marw, that is to say, a honorary banishment 
 from the former’s court. 
 
 According to other sources, Yahya had 
 acquired his knowledge of grammar from 
 Abu Aswad ad-Du’ill. It is related that, 
 when Abu Aswad drew up the chapter on 
 the agent and patient (fa'il, subject, and 
 maful, object of the verb), a man of the tribe 
 of Lais made some additions to it, and that 
 Abu Aswad, having found on examination 
 that there existed, in the language of the de¬ 
 sert Arabs, some expressions which could not 
 be made to enter into that section, he stopped 
 short and abandoned the work. Ibn Khal- 
 likan thinks it possible that this person was 
 Yahya ibn Ya‘mar, who, having contracted 
 an alliance by oath with the tribe of Lais, 
 was considered as one of its members. But it 
 is equally possible that the before-mentioned 
 Nasr ibn ‘Asim, whose patronymic was al- 
 Laisi, may have been that man, and this 
 supposition would enable us to bring the dif¬ 
 ferent statements which we have quoted 
 
 into some harmony. To Abu Aswad the 
 honour can scarcely be contested of having 
 invented the simple vowel-points or nuqat. 
 Nasr ibn ‘Asim, walking in his track, may 
 have added the double points to designate the 
 Tanwin. Lastly, Yahya would have com¬ 
 pleted the system by devising the i‘jam, or 
 diacritical signs of the consonants, and intro¬ 
 duced it to a fuller extent into the writing of 
 the Qur’an, in which task he may have been 
 assisted by al-Hasan al-Basri, one of the 
 most learned and accomplished Qur’an- 
 readers amongst the Tabi‘un. 
 
 But whoever may have been the inventor 
 of the diacritical signs in their earlier form, 
 we must again remark that their shape in 
 Cufic manuscripts, like that of the vowel- 
 points, is essentially different from the dots 
 which are now employed for the same pur¬ 
 pose. They have the fcrm of accents (ill), 
 or of horizontal lines (^-), or of triangular 
 points, either resting on their basis or with 
 their apex turned to the right ( -» ^). As it 
 cannot be our intention to give here an ex¬ 
 haustive treatise on Arabic writing, we pass 
 over the rema inin g orthographical signs made 
 use of in the old copies of the Qur’an, in 
 order to say a few words on the system of 
 notation which is employed in the NaskhI 
 character and our modern Arabic type. 
 
 If, with regard to the Cufic alphabet, we 
 have spoken of diacritical signs to distin¬ 
 guish between the consonants, and of vowel- 
 points, we must now reverse these expres¬ 
 sions, calling the former diacritical points, 
 the latter vowel-signs. For, as already has 
 been seen from the synopsis of the alphabet 
 on p. 681, the point or dot is there made use 
 of for the distinction of consonants, while the 
 vowels, which in the Greek and Latin alpha¬ 
 bets rank as letters equally with the conso¬ 
 nants, have no place in that synopsis. As 
 this style of writing was to serve the pur¬ 
 poses of daily life, it is probable that the want 
 of some means of fixing the value of the 
 consonants was here more immediately felt, 
 and that therefore the use of points for this 
 end preceded the introduction of the vowel 
 marks, or to speak more accurately, of 
 marks for the short vowels. For the long 
 vowels a, i, and it, were, as in the Cufic 
 writing, also expressed by the weak conso¬ 
 nants ^ and j taken as letters of pro¬ 
 longation. 
 
 When, later on, the necessity arose to re¬ 
 present the short vowels equally in writing, 
 the point or dot, as a distinctive mark, was 
 disposed of, and other signs had to be in¬ 
 vented for that purpose. This was accom¬ 
 plished, we are told, by al- Kh alH. the cele¬ 
 brated founder of the Science of Arabic 
 Prosody and Metric. His device was simply 
 to place the abbreviated form of the before- 
 mentioned weak consonants themselves above 
 or beneath the letter after which any short 
 vowel was to be pronounced. The origin of 
 the zammah or u (—) from the j is at once 
 evident. The sign for the fatfiak or a (-L.) 
 differs only by its slanting position from the 
 
WRITING 
 
 WETTING 
 
 form which the \ assumes frequently in such 
 words as for ; and the Jcasrah or i 
 (~) is derived from the bend towards the 
 right which the letter (_s takes in its older 
 shape (c_). The Tanwin was then, as in the 
 Cufic writing, expressed by doubling the 
 signs for the simple vowels : _1_ for an, _±L or 
 _5L for un, and for in. 
 
 There remains a third set of signs supple¬ 
 mentary to the Arabic alphabet, which may 
 be called orthographical signs, and which, in 
 their present form, were probably also in¬ 
 vented and introduced by al-Khalil; at all 
 events, this is distinctly stated with regard to 
 two of them, the Hamzah and the Tashdld. 
 The Hamzah, to be well understood, must be 
 considered in connection with the letter ‘am 
 (£) of which its sign ( c ) is the abbreviated 
 form. If the latter assertion needed proof 
 against the erroneous opinion, put forth by 
 some writers, that the Hamzah is derived from 
 the this proof would be afforded by the 
 following anecdote. The Khallfah Harunu ’r- 
 Rashld was sitting one day with a favourite 
 negro concubine, called IDaalisah, when the 
 poet Abu Nuwas entered into his presence 
 and recited some verses in his praise. Ab¬ 
 sorbed in conversation with the fascinating 
 slave-girl, the Khallfah paid no attention to 
 the poet, who, leaving him in anger, wrote 
 upon ar-Rashid’s door :— 
 
 Aac glo US' ^ 
 
 tUlU. 
 
 Laqad za‘a shrrl ‘ala babikum, karnd za‘u 
 ‘iqdun ‘ala Khalisah. 
 
 “ Forsooth, my poetry is thrown away at 
 your door, as the jewels are thrown 
 away on the neck of Khalisah.” 
 
 When this was reported to Harun, he or¬ 
 dered Abu Nuwas to be called back. On re¬ 
 entering the room, Abu Nuwas effaced the 
 final stroke of the g in the word gU 
 {za‘a, “ is lost ” or “ thrown away ”), changing 
 it thereby into C U> ( zd'a ), written with the 
 Hamzah and entirely different in meaning. 
 For when the Khallfah asked : “ What have 
 you written upon the door ? ” the answer was 
 now : 
 
 “ Truly, my poetry sparkles upon your 
 door, as the jewels sparkle on the neck 
 of Khalisah.” 
 
 The fact is, that both the letter ‘ain and 
 the Hamzah are different degrees of the 
 distinct effort, -which we all make with the 
 muscles of the throat, in endeavouring to 
 pronounce a vowel without a consonant. In 
 the case of the ‘ain, this effort is so strong 
 for the Arabic organ of speech, that it par¬ 
 takes in itself of the nature of a consonant, 
 and found, as such, from the first, a repre¬ 
 sentative in the written alphabet, while the 
 slighter effort, embodied in the Hamzah, was 
 left to the utterance of the speaker. But 
 when their language became the object of a 
 favourite study with the learned Arabs, this 
 
 6S5 
 
 difference not only called for a graphical ex¬ 
 pression, but led even to a further distinction 
 between what is called Ramzatu ’l-Qat‘ or 
 Hamzah of Disjunction, and Hamzalu 7- Wasl 
 or Hamzah of Conjunction. We will try 
 shortly to explain this difference. 
 
 If we take the word amir, “ a com¬ 
 mander or chief,” the initial a remains the 
 same, whether the word begins the sentence 
 or is preceeded by another word : we say 
 
 J\i amirun qala, “ a commander said ” 
 (according to the Arabic construction lite¬ 
 rally “ as for a commander, he said ”), as 
 
 well as JU qala amirun, “ there said a 
 commander ” (in Arabic literally “ he said, 
 namely, a commander ”). Here the Hamzah 
 (o), with the A/if (\) as its prop and the 
 fathah or a as its vowel, is called Ram- 
 zatu ’l-Qat‘, because in the latter case it 
 disjoins or cuts off, as it were, the initial 
 a of the word amirun from the final a of 
 the word qala ; and the same holds good if 
 the Hamzah is pronounced with i, as in 
 imarah, “ commandership,” or with u, 
 
 * i 
 
 as in umara’, “ commanders,” plural 
 
 of amir. But it would be otherwise with 
 the a of the article J\ al, if joined 
 
 — j £ 
 
 with the word amir. In J\j al-amiru 
 
 qala, “ the commander said,” it would pre¬ 
 serve its original sound, because it begins the 
 sentence ; but if we invert the order of words, 
 we must drop it in pronunciation altogether, 
 and only sound the final a of qala instead, 
 thus: qala ’l-amiru, “ said the commander,” 
 and the same would take place if the preced¬ 
 ing word terminated in another vowel, as 
 yaqulu ’ l-amiru , “ says the commander,” or 
 bi-qauli ’l-amiri, “ by the word of the com¬ 
 mander.” Here the Hamzah would no longer 
 
 be written _i_ but _A_ («y*SI Jli, etc.), and 
 would be called Ramzatu ’ l-Wasl or Ram¬ 
 zatu ’s-Silah, because it joins the two -words 
 together in closest connection. 
 
 In the article, as it has been stated above, and 
 in the word airndn, “ oath,” the original sound 
 of the Hamzatu 7- Wasl is fathah, a ; it occurs 
 besides in a few nouns, in several derived 
 forms of the verb, and in the Imperative of 
 the primitive triliteral verb, in all of which 
 cases it is sounded with kasrah or i, except 
 in the Imperative of those triliteral verbs 
 whose aorist takes zammah or u for the 
 vowel of the second radical, where the Ham- 
 
 C -» £ 
 
 zah is also pronounced with zammah (u>iL^ 
 uskut, “ be silent ”). But the reader must 
 always keep in mind that it preserves this 
 original pronunciation only at the beginning 
 of a sentence ; if it is preceded by any other 
 word, the final vowel of that preceding word 
 takes the place of the Hamzah, and if this 
 word terminates in a consonant, the Hamzah 
 is generally pronounced with i. We say 
 generally, because the only exceptions are 
 after the preposition min, where it is 
 
WEITING 
 
 WETTING 
 
 686 
 
 sounded with a, and after the pronominal 
 affixes of the second and third person plural, 
 
 A hem and hum. where it takes u. 
 
 We can pass over more rapidly the other 
 signs of this class, which are the Maddah, 
 the Tashdld, and the Jazmah or Sukun If 
 in consequence of any grammatical operation 
 an A Iff , as prop of a Hamzah sounded with 
 
 r'athah, comes to stand before another such 
 
 22 
 
 Alif, we write f, pronounced a, instead of 
 and the upper horizontal sign is called Mad¬ 
 dah or Madd. •• lengthening,” *- prolongation.” 
 While thus the Maddah is the sign for the 
 doubling of an Alif. the Tashdld (A_ is the 
 sign for the doubling of a consonant (*=hb). 
 If, lastly, a consonant is not to be followed 
 by a voweL the sign or c , named Jaz¬ 
 mah (cutting off) or Sukun (rest), is placed 
 above it, and the consonant is called 
 "quiescent ” ( sUcinah ), in contradistinction 
 from a "moved” consonant (muharrakafi). 
 that is, one sounded with a vowel (haraJcah, 
 “ motion”). 
 
 We have seen that the Hamzatu 1-Qat‘ 
 (_f_) is an abbreviated form of the letter 
 •Ain (£), In similar manner, the sign for 
 the Hamzatu T-Wasl or Hamzatu 's-Silah 
 ( ~° ) is an abbreviated form of the initial 
 ^ (s') of the word Silah. The sign for the 
 Maddah (—), as wricten in old manuscripts, 
 seems to be a stretched out form for the 
 word Madd (jA itself, and the sign for the 
 Tashdld ( - ) represents the initial of the 
 word Shiddah. which is the technical term 
 for it. The original sign for the Jazmah 
 
 c ) is the cypher or zero, employed to indi¬ 
 cate the absence of a vowel sound. A native 
 Arab scholar of our days, the late Nasif al- 
 Tn.zijT of Beyrout, has combined the vowel 
 marks as well as the last-mentioned ortho¬ 
 graphical signs in the words: 
 
 AJckwttu 'I-Mjaa. 
 
 “ I write out the Alphabet,” 
 and these words, together with the two 
 formulas given on page 682 and 
 
 .< , 1 C—» - . ^ _ and the dot as a diacritical 
 
 sign, contain the whole system of Arabic 
 w r i ting, as it were, in a nut-shelL 
 
 However indispensable these various sup¬ 
 plementary signs may seem to us for fining 
 the meaning of an Arabic test, educated 
 Arabs themselves look at them in a different 
 light. Although the need for them was from 
 the first most urgently felt for the purpose 
 of securing the correct reading of the Quran, 
 several of the learned doctors of early Islam 
 strongly opposed their introduction into the 
 sacred book as a profane innovation. The 
 great Sunni traditionist; Malik ihn Anas (died 
 a.h. 179), prohibited their use in the copies 
 employed at the religious service in the mosque 
 (wm.maha.tv. ’banasahif), and allowed them 
 only in the smaller copies, destined for the 
 
 instruction of the young in schools. In 
 course of time, however, when even the 
 office of reading the Quran publicly more 
 and more frequently devolved upon persons 
 who had not received a special theological 
 training, the necessity of carefully marking 
 the text with these signs all through went 
 on increasing, and became at last a generally 
 acknowledged principle. In secular litera¬ 
 ture and in epistolary intercourse amongst 
 the educated, on the contrary, their use 
 should, according to the competent authori¬ 
 ties, be limited to those cases where ambi¬ 
 guity is to be apprehended from their omis¬ 
 sion. If there is no danger of miscompre¬ 
 hension, we are told by Hajl Khalifah, it is 
 preferable to omit them, especially in ad¬ 
 dressing persons of consequence and refine¬ 
 ment, whom it would be impolite not to 
 suppose endued with a perfect knowledge 
 of the written language. Moreover, to a 
 chastened taste, a superabundance of those 
 extraneous signs seems to disfigure the 
 graceful outline of the Arabic character. 
 "When a piece of highly elaborate penman¬ 
 ship was presented to ‘Abdn TLah ibn Tahir, 
 the accomplished governor of Khurasan under 
 the AbbaMde Khalifah al-Mamun, he ex¬ 
 claimed, How beautiful this would be if there 
 were not so much coriander seed scattered 
 over it.” The diacritical points of the conso¬ 
 nants. of course, are now always added, for 
 they have grown to be considered as inte¬ 
 gral elements of the alphabet itself. Their 
 absence, or their accidental mis application, 
 gave rise, in former times, to numberless ludi¬ 
 crous or serious perplexities and mistakes, 
 instances of which abound in Muhammadan 
 history. AI-Baladori, e.g., relates that the 
 poet al-Farazdaq (died *.w. ILO) interceded 
 by letter with Tamim, governor of the boun¬ 
 daries of Sind, in order to obtain release 
 from military service for the son of a poor 
 woman ox the tribe of Taiy. The youth's 
 
 name was Hubaish ( i_-.) ; but as the dia- 
 
 ritical p oints were not marked in al-F arazdaq's 
 letter, Tamim was at a loss whether to read 
 Hubaish or Khu nais ___A and salved 
 the difficulty by sending home all soldiers 
 whose names contained the dubious letters. 
 A more tragical event is recorded by Hajl 
 KhaGfah, to which we would fain apply the- 
 Italian saying: S'e non e vero, e hen trovato. 
 The Khalif ah al-Mutawakkil is said to have 
 sent an order to one of his officials to ascertain 
 the number of Zimmis in his province, and to 
 report the amount. Unfortunately. “ a drop 
 felL” as the Arabic original expresses it, 
 upon the second letter of the word 1 
 (ahsl. count ”), and the result was, that the 
 officious functionary submitted the ill-fated 
 Zimmis to a certain painful and degrading 
 operation, in consequence of which they all 
 died but two. 
 
 On the other band, the employment of 
 these signs in the Qur'an, together with 
 several others, to mark its division into 
 verses, chapters, sections, and portions of 
 sections, to call attention to the pauses that 
 
WRITING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 687 
 
 should be observed in reciting it, and to indi¬ 
 cate the number of ruku‘ or inclinations with 
 which the recital is to be accompanied, gave 
 occasion for graphical embellishment of 
 various kinds. Brilliantly coloured ink or a 
 solution of gold to write with, delicately 
 tinted and smoothly pressed pergament or 
 paper, frequently overspread with gold or 
 silver dust, highly finished ornamental de¬ 
 signs of that fanciful and elegant description 
 which ha3 received the name of arabesques, 
 such are the means which serve to render the 
 copies of the Qur’an of the halcyon days of 
 Islam gorgeous and oftentimes artistically 
 beautiful. Writing became indeed an art, 
 diligently cultivated, and eloquently treated 
 upon in prose and verse by its possessors, to 
 whom it opened access to the most exalted 
 positions in the State. Amongst the most 
 celebrated calligraphists are mentioned the 
 Wazlr Muhammad ibn All ibn Muqlah (died 
 a.h. 328), ‘All ibn Hilal, surnamed al-Bauwab 
 (died a.h. 413), and Abu ’d-Durr Yaqut ibn 
 Yaqut ibn ‘Abdi ’llah ar-Rumi al-Must‘asami 
 (died a.h. 698), whose father and grand¬ 
 father had excelled in the art before him, but 
 who, according to HajI Khalifah, was never 
 surpassed in it by any of his successors. 
 
 It was a natural consequence of the 
 
 general development of the art of writing, 
 that various styles were invented and cul¬ 
 tivated independently of each other, and it 
 will now be our task shortly to speak of the 
 principal varieties, trying to describe their 
 distinguishing features by help of a few illus¬ 
 trations chosen from Bresnier’s Count de 
 ( Lanyue Arabe. Along with the fundamental 
 j distinction already mentioned, of the Cufic or 
 monumental, and the NaskhI or manuscript 
 style, there runs, in the first instance, that of 
 the Maghrib-Berber or Western, and Mashriq 
 j or Eastern style. It must, however be re¬ 
 marked, that the Western NaskhI stands in 
 closer connection and has preserved a greater 
 j resemblance with the Western Cufic, than is 
 the case with the Eastern NaskhI in reference 
 to the Eastern Cufic, as the reader will 
 scarcely fail to perceive on comparing the 
 following specimens. 
 
 The first is the before-mentioned fragment 
 i of the Qur’an, written in the Cufic manuscript 
 style, and provided with the vowel-points 
 ; as invented by Abu Aswad ad-Du’ill (or 
 Nasr ibn ‘Asim, 3ee page 682). Like the 
 remainder of our specimens, we accompany 
 it with a transcript in modern type, a trans¬ 
 literation in Roman character, and a render¬ 
 ing into English. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 L —U 
 
 La Jb a 
 
 tinaams 
 
 Lo it 
 
 o 
 
 " J 
 
 Jml A 
 
 j mud 
 
 1 
 
 CUFIC MANUSCRIPT CHARACTER. 
 
 ~ j - c 
 
 V* ^ J 
 
 — c -»- -O' 
 
 ^ I 
 
 - a -'c - 
 
 Wa ma tanazzalat bi-hi ash- 
 ihayatinu wa ma 
 yanbagjii la-hum wa ma 
 ( yaitatVina ). 
 
 “ The Satans were not sent down with it 
 (the Qur'an) : it beseemed them not, 
 and they had not the power." 
 
 (Surah xxvi. 210 ; the words in italics cor¬ 
 respond to the word yastatVuna, which is not 
 contained in the Cufic original.) 
 
 The next two specimens illustrate the Cufic 
 style, as it is employed on monuments, and 
 more particularly so its Maghrebian develop¬ 
 ment. 
 
688 
 
 WRITING 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 WETTING 
 
 core moxotf.xtal charactee. 
 
 No. 2 Is part of an inscription copied from 
 a public building in Tarragona in Spain. It 
 reads:— 
 
 m q* ^ m ^ 
 
 ' (iAib) dl!\ JU=\ 
 
 Sismi 'Rahil barakatun nrina 'llaki K-‘abdi 
 
 'Hahi ’•abdi r-rahmam amiri ' l-rnwminina 
 atala 'Hahn (baqffa-hu). 
 
 In the name of God! May a blessing 
 from God be upon ‘Abdillah ‘Abdur¬ 
 rahman, Co m ma n der of the Faithful: 
 may God lengthen his life." 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 MAGHRIB MOVOIENTAi CHARACTER. 
 
 No. 3. an insciipidcn taken from the Al¬ 
 hambra. exhibits a style of monumental 
 writing which can scarcely be called Gone 
 any longer, so muc-h resembles it the Naskhi 
 character. While in the previous specimen 
 neither vowel points nor diacritical signs are 
 made use of, here we find them emploved in 
 the shape, which they assume in manuscripts 
 written in that hand The reader will not 
 have much dimc-ulty in tracing the compo¬ 
 nent letters by comparison with the follow- 
 ins transcript and transliteration :— 
 cAfeA-J 2^ -vn 2 ,U2\ b 
 
 Yd icdrisa 5 Uansari la -an kaldlaat imam 
 jalalin tasiakMffu 'r-Tawasiya. 
 
 “ O thou who inheritest from the Ansars, 
 and not by way of distant kindred, a 
 heirloom of glory that makes every 
 summit of fame appear low." 
 
 It will be noticed that the « (f) of the 
 word tastakhiffa is left without the diacri¬ 
 tical point which distinguishes this letter 
 from the letter j ( q ). This tallies with 
 a remark of HajI Xha lTfah. according to 
 which the diacritical points of these two 
 letters may he put or omitted ad libitum : and 
 we seem therefore justified in concluding 
 that the necessity for their distinction was 
 latest felt and provided for. Hence arises one 
 of the peculiarities which at once mark the 
 difference between the Western and Eastern 
 styles of writing, and which the reader will 
 observe in the next three specimens, present¬ 
 ing instances of the Maghrib manuscript 
 character. 
 
 The first (No. I) is written in a bolder 
 hand, and consequently shows more strik¬ 
 ingly the close relationship with the monu¬ 
 mental style of the Western Arabs. 
 
 No. 4. 
 
 ITFICAI. FORM OP THE MAGHRIB MAEC SCRIPT CHARACTER 
 
WRITING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 689 
 
 l^AC dll\ dJiqic 
 Aj l r dlM dijl wJ^*-3 
 
 Qalat '• A yishatu raziya ’Uahu ‘an-hd 
 fa-jitu rasula ’llahi salla ’Uahu ‘alai-hi. 
 
 “ ‘Ayishah, may God be gracious to her, 
 related: 
 
 I went to the Apostle of God. may God's 
 blessing be upon him,” &c. 
 
 On comparing the initial letter of either 
 line, it will be found that the one is i 
 (in qdlat), the other i (in fa-jitu) ; but in the 
 Maghrebian original, the former is marked by 
 a dot above, the latter by a dot beneath the 
 
 character, instead of the superscribed double 
 and single point respectively in the tran¬ 
 script. This is the distinguishing feature 
 between the two styles previously alluded to, 
 and it seems to prove that the use of the dia¬ 
 critical points for these two letters is of later 
 origin, and dates from a time when the two 
 great divisions of the nation had definitely 
 separated and followed each their own desti¬ 
 nies. Another point to which we draw at¬ 
 tention, is the different form of the Tashdid, 
 as seen in the word Allah. The Maghrib 
 form is _I_ instead of _A_; and while in the 
 Oriental writing the vowel signs are placed 
 over it, the Western style places the sign for 
 the Tashdid and for the vowel frequently 
 side by side, as it is done here. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 Lidia Ahuqrdtu rahinia-hu ’lldhu ’l-‘umru 
 qasirun tea ’s-sina-ata taicilatun 
 wa ’l-waqtu zaiyiqun wo. ’t-tajribatu khatirun 
 wa ’l-qaza’u ‘asirun. 
 
 “ Hippocrates, may God have compassion 
 upon him, said : Life is short, art is 
 long, 
 
 Time is narrow, experience dangerous, 
 judgment difficult.”' 
 
 No. 6.j 
 
 
 
 SUPERIOR lLAGHRIB WRITING. 
 
 AS Vi tejb, AJO |*i>j I—>A> S 
 
 dU yyo dU A* Ap 
 
 -I ~A^p . dii j 
 
 o\p\ ^ i 
 
 jSi ^ \j\ 
 
 ^ ^1*} yt } ij-si 
 
 87 
 
WBITKG 
 
 690 toikg 
 
 - A . : • ■ 
 
 "... 
 
 an yashraba an 
 
 o . :s ".. oo Ih :.-j • ’ : 
 
 bird a sJiurbi-hi ja'snna-bu ajiradu van 
 
 an la 
 
 raha zarara 'sh-shv £ m sSiha anna 
 'l-'adaia lam 
 
 bi-l-daili fa 'iza shariba 
 . fa-ia makalam tama zaliia ’sl- 
 siuirba yuhlisti 
 
 ’ l-haz m za Jdsedan ha-kali'l- : 
 
 Si .-. i . . .: ! • : - : .. 
 
 f"j4« - :•! R wm iaiwa yaghli •ala 
 
 non. 
 
 ows nor tortid5 a 
 an who Las a desire to drink at 
 
 to satisfy Lis desire. If. however, lie 
 drinks, and sleeps after dr- kb-g . fr is 
 tetter 
 
 tl.it. not to sleep, this bang so because 
 sleep eorateraets. it this ease, the evil 
 erect of drinking: 
 
 te a;es s:. 
 
 ^ti -- 
 
 ret-essitw produce 
 
 Xo 
 
 a disturbance atd derangement in the 
 digestion, just as if cold water were 
 poured into a Teasel 
 containing food that is being boiled.” 
 
 These two fragments scarcely call forth 
 any farrier remark, except that in the last 
 both forms of the Tashdid are employed, the 
 ordinary form even more frequently than the 
 Maghrebian : for the latter occurs only Twice, 
 in .’-'s *. -s/ rbi. "which is the second "word in 
 the fourth line, and in ask~shmba. which is 
 the last word but one in the same line 
 Moreover, it will be nseful to notice the pecu¬ 
 liar shape which the letters a Id) and i 
 : take in the Maghrib character, as in the 
 words ajicadu towards the end of the second 
 line, and i jzar, near the beginning of the first. 
 
 Dismissing the Ma ghtib-Berber style of 
 Arable writing, with its numerous local varie¬ 
 ties. a; less interesting for the English reader, 
 we now mm to the Oriental style, where we 
 meet awq-rn with a hiparrition. viz. into the 
 Eastern Xaskhi. as it is written in Arabia 
 itself. Egypt, and Syria, and the Ta^IIq, 
 current in Persia. India, and Central Asia. 
 
 Xo. 7 is a specimen of the XaskhT in the 
 more limited sense of the word meaning the 
 style generally employed in manuscripts, and 
 derived from nasUi or nuskhah, “ copy.” 
 
 w . »k - i i T-q m h c. good zgi?w3" mawtscbipt. 
 
 . 1 oo ’ 
 
 .ooo: r::':-oo' • . of: 
 
 atom agral la-Jzum 
 A " a; ■ 
 
 azzi . a 1 
 
 ~c zn£ hrnman iaJzbiajdtna. TEa iz qulna 
 H-l-zaaldi-hati "pfudi. 
 
 “ tie said: ■ O A -- ~ Tn inform -w q f their 
 names.’ and when he had informed 
 them of their names. He said: • Did I 
 not say to you. 
 
 That I know the hidden things of the 
 heavens and of the earth, and know 
 what ye bring to light. 
 
 And what ye hide? ’ And when we said 
 to the angels: ■ Bow down 
 
 'Surah ii 31, 32.) 
 
 
WRITING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 691 
 
 From this ordinary Naskhi several more 
 ornate manuscript styles are derived, as the 
 Rihani. Yaquti, and Sulus. They are dis¬ 
 tinguished principally by the relative pro¬ 
 portions of the characters ; and in the Sulus 
 
 in particular, of -which we give a specimen 
 under No. 8, the letters are three times the 
 size of the ordinary Naskhi. while the 
 Rihani and Yaquti show intermediate pro¬ 
 portions between the two. 
 
 No. 8. 
 
 & lLUb style. 
 
 Kuntu nabiyan wa ’ l-adamu baina 'l-inai 
 ira ’t-tini. 
 
 “ I was a prophet, when man was yet a 
 mixture of water and clay/’ 
 
 It will be observed that beneath the ^ 
 (/«) of the words (al-adaimt) and UM 
 
 (al-rnai). in the Sulus fragment, the letter is 
 written a second time in a smaller character, 
 and that, moreover, in the word it is 
 
 surmounted by the sign J_, which in Magh¬ 
 rib writing, as we have seen, generally repre¬ 
 sents the Tashdid. This is done in the 
 above-mentioned ornate styles, especially 
 with those letters which a dmi t of diacritical 
 points, viz. e, •>,> u*, &c - Vindi¬ 
 
 cate that no suc-h diacritical point is intended, 
 the sign is placed on the top of the 
 letter, or to make still surer of preventing 
 
 a mistake, the letter itself is repeated in a 
 minute shape at the bottom. Only the letter 
 & ( h). as distinguished from j (f), is, in this case, 
 written above the line, because it frequently 
 occurs as abbreviation of yH, huica, " He,” or 
 AUaii, “ God,” and it would therefore be 
 considered irreverential towards the Deity to 
 write it beneath the other letters. As a fea¬ 
 ture common to this division of the Eastern 
 Arabic manuscript style, we lastly point out 
 the inclination of the characters from the 
 left to the right, in contradistinction both to 
 the Maghrib and Ta-liq writing, where the 
 letters are traced perpendicularly, or even 
 with a slight bend from the right to the 
 left. 
 
 Two other deviations from the pure Naskhi 
 style are the Jari and Diwani, officially 
 employed in Turkey, and exhibited in the 
 specimen No. 9:— 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 JARI AND DIWAXT 
 
692 
 
 WRITING 
 
 WRITING 
 
 The Jar! fragment in the upper division 
 is a facsimile of the formula which accom¬ 
 panies the seal of the Sultan, and runs as 
 follows:— 
 
 yjiH} Aai 
 
 j ^ — - l r? \ \ ^ I * t h 
 
 Nishdni sharlfi ‘dlishan sdmi makan va 
 tughra'i ghflrrd'i jihdn ard'i sitani khd- 
 qdn nufiza bi 'l-aun ar-rabbani wa V 
 saun as-samadanl hulcmi oldur ki . . . 
 
 “ This is the noble, exalted, brilliant sign- 
 manual, the world-illuminating and 
 adorning cipher of the Khaqan (may it 
 be made efficient by the aid of the Lord 
 
 and the protection of the Eternal). 
 His order is that, etc.” 
 
 The beauty of this style is considered to 
 consist in its being written either diagonally 
 from the top to the bottom of the page, or as¬ 
 cending eliptically from the bottom to the top. 
 
 The Diwani style, of which the lower 
 division gives an example, is used in the 
 official correspondence of the Turkish admi¬ 
 nistration. The final letters, and even words, 
 are placed on the top of one another, and in 
 its more intricate varieties the letters run 
 together in a fanciful manner, which renders 
 the decipherment of this writing frequently 
 very difficult. 
 
 Finally, we present in No. 10 a specimen 
 of the Persian Ta‘llq writing 
 
 TA‘LIQ CHARACTER. 
 
 ylij Mji jSLi A> iS 
 
 Hamin chashmi daram zi khwdnandaqdn 
 
 Ki ndmam ba niku barand bar zabdn. 
 
 “ Such hope I cherish that in minstrel’s 
 
 lay, 
 
 With right fair fame my name will live 
 for aye I ” 
 
 {Firdausi.) 
 
 From this style of writing the Shikastah 
 is derived, and bears the same relation to it 
 which the Diwani bears to Naskhl. While 
 in general preserving the peculiar outline 
 of the Ta‘llq, it superposes finals and words, 
 and joins letters in a similar way to the 
 Diwani, with which, however, it contrasts 
 favourably by a far more elegant and grace¬ 
 ful delineation of the characters. 
 
 It remains now only to add a few words on 
 the wilting materials which the Arabs, and 
 Orientals in general, make use of. From the 
 nature of the character and from the direc¬ 
 tion of the writing from the right to the left, 
 it will be easily understood that our quill 
 and steel jiens would answer the purpose 
 rather indifferently. The bolder stroke re¬ 
 quires a broader nib, and, at the same time, 
 the edges of the writing instrument should be 
 smooth enough to glide with ease over the 
 paper, so as to enable the hand to give that 
 fine swing and swell to the curved lines, 
 which form one of the chief beauties of the 
 Arabic writing. These conditions are admi¬ 
 rably fulfilled by the qalam or reed pen. For 
 the same reasons their ink is richer and their 
 
 paper more glossy than those which we employ 
 ourselves. The best ink is said to be made 
 of lamp-black and vinegar or verjuice, to 
 which red ochre is added, well beaten up and 
 mixed with yellow arsenic and camphor. The 
 paper, before being used for writing, is sub¬ 
 mitted to the action of the press, or made 
 smooth by placing it on a well-levelled board 
 of chestnut wood, and polishing it with an egg 
 of crystal of about half a pound’s weight. 
 
 We cannot here enter into further particu¬ 
 lars on the subject. The reader who might 
 feel interested in it, will find some curious de¬ 
 tails in a short poem by Abu ’1-Hasan ‘All ibn 
 al-Bauwab, which De Sacy has published and 
 translated in his Chrestomathie. As mentioned 
 before, this calligraphist was one of the 
 greatest masters of his art, so much so that 
 when he died, a.h. 413 or 423, the following 
 lines were written in his praise :— 
 
 “ Thy loss was felt by the writers of former 
 times, and each successive day justi- 
 fies their grief. The ink-bottles are 
 therefore black with sorrow, and the 
 pens are rent through affliction.” 
 
 Ibn Khallikan, from whom we quote, finds 
 these verses very fine. Without disparaging 
 his taste, we can happily assure our readers 
 that Ibn al-Bauwabs verses are finer. With 
 regard to the qalam, however, he rather mys¬ 
 tifies us on the very point which would be 
 most interesting, namely, the manner in 
 which the nib should be cut or made. He 
 says:— 
 
 “ Give your whole attention to the making 
 of your nib, for on this, verily, all else 
 depends. 
 
WUJUD 
 
 YA HU 
 
 “ But do not flatter yourself that I am 
 going to reveal this secret; it is a 
 secret which I guard with a miser’s 
 jealousy. 
 
 “ All that I will tell is, that you must 
 observe the golden mean between a 
 too much rounded and too much 
 pointed form.” 
 
 Disappointed as we are at this oracular 
 saying, we will condone him for his niggardly 
 reticence on account of his final lines, with 
 which we will also terminate our article :— 
 
 “ Let your hand devote its fingers to 
 writing only useful things that you will 
 leave behind you on quitting this abode 
 of illusion ; 
 
 “ For man will find, when the book of his 
 actions will bo unrolled before him, all 
 that he has done during the days of 
 his life.” 
 
 WUJUD (Jys-j). An existence. 
 
 Philosophers say existences are of three 
 kinds :— 
 
 Wajibu 7- Wujud, a necessary existence— 
 God. 
 
 Mumkinu 7- Wujud, a possible existence— 
 Creation. 
 
 Mumtani‘u 7- Wujud, an impossible exis¬ 
 tence—an Associate with God. 
 
 WUQUF (jys,). “Standing.” 
 
 A name given to those ceremonies of the Pil¬ 
 grimage which are performed on Mount 
 ‘Arafah. (Burton, Pilgrimage, vol. ii. p. 383.) 
 
 WUZU’ The ablution made 
 
 before saying the appointed prayers. Those 
 which are said to be of divine institution are 
 four in number, namely: to wash (1) the face 
 from the top of the forehead to the chin, and 
 as far as each ear; and (2) the hands and 
 
 69$ 
 
 arms up to the elbow ; (3) to rub (masafi) 
 with the wet hand a fourth part of the head; 
 also (4) the feet to the ankles. The autho¬ 
 rity for these actions is the Qur’an, Surali v. 
 8 : “ 0 Believers ! when ye address yourselves 
 to prayer, wash your hands up to the elbow, 
 and wipe your heads, and your feet to the 
 ankles.” The Sunnis wash the feet: the 
 Skralis are apparently more correct, for they 
 only wipe, or rather rub ( masah ) them. In 
 these ablutions, if the least portion of the 
 specified part is left untouched, the whole 
 act becomes useless and the prayer which 
 follows is vain. 
 
 The Sunnak regulations (or those esta¬ 
 blished on the example of Muhammad) re¬ 
 garding it are fourteen in number. (1) to 
 make the intention or nlyah of wuzu', thus : 
 “I make this wwsM’forthe purpose of putting 
 away impurity ”; (2) to wash the hand up to 
 the wrist, but care must be taken not to put 
 the hands entirely into the water, until each 
 has been rubbed three times with water 
 poured on it; (3) to say one of the names of 
 God at the commencement of the wu 2 i?,tkus : 
 “ In the name of the Great God,” or “ Thanks 
 be to God ”; (4) to clean the teeth ( miswak ) ; 
 (5) to rinse the mouth three times ; (6) to 
 put water into the nostrils three times ; (7) to 
 do all the above in proper order; (8) to do 
 all without any delay between the various 
 acts; (9) each part is to be purified three 
 times ; (10) the space between the fingers of 
 one hand must be rubbed with the wet 
 fingers of the other ; (11) the beard must be 
 combed with the fingers ; (12) the whole head 
 must be rubbed once; (13) the ears must 
 be washed with the water remaining on the 
 fingers after the last operation ; (14) to rub 
 under and between the toes with the little 
 finger of the left hand, drawing it from the 
 little toe of the right foot and between each 
 toe in succession. [ablution, prayer, 
 water.] 
 
 Y. 
 
 YADU ’LL AH j*). “Hand 
 
 of God.” The expression occurs in the 
 Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah xlviii. 10: “ God’s hand is above 
 their hands.” 
 
 Surah v. 69 : “ The Jews say, ‘ God’s hand 
 is fettered.” 
 
 The expression is a subject of contro¬ 
 versy amongst the Muhammadans. The 
 Wahhabis maintain that it is wrong to hold 
 that it is merely a figurative expression, but 
 rather that God doth possess a hand in such 
 a manner as it exists, without attempting to 
 explain the manner how. On the other hand, 
 
 some maintain that it is merely a figurative 
 expression for God’s power. 
 
 YAGHUS An idol men¬ 
 
 tioned in the Qur’an, Surah lxxi. 23. Pro¬ 
 fessor Palmer says it was in the figure of a 
 lion. Al-Baizawi says it was the name of a 
 hero who lived between the days of Adam 
 and Noah, who was afterwards worshipped 
 in an idol of the name. 
 
 YA HU (ys> l»). “0 He!” that 
 
 is, “O God.” An exclamation often recited 
 byfaqlrs or darveshes in their religious zikrs. 
 The third personal pronoun singular, hu 
 
694 
 
 YAITCD 
 
 !i*c.“he £ 
 —h-t esters.' 
 
 sr; for G-.d. sle. “He 
 
 Y A H . ~D . the rloral of 
 
 Yc'.-Zd 4 . Heb.-.Je-s-s. The 
 
 : _ 
 
 —:r£ reel hi the Qas 1 aa [t.tgeAer AA Sam 
 IshzI, ::r hi _Ta 5 . rrr lH53iL._ 
 
 YAEYa _-.- J ■' 
 
 ; .• •• ; r . : " - ' a . A: 
 
 YA J ^ J YTa ?'7a J w J s*%- ■■- • 
 
 3-1*4 > _' ICa 4-'. • 
 
 A~sn~. AAf (,* 1 * 1 ). The s uqat 
 
 he rilgrErsfgsih -• 
 
 TAX 
 
 lie p 
 
 TAYA 4 f AS (< 
 
 A pro*inee 
 
 YAhUST . 
 
 ; ire eer- 
 
 . : VT= 
 
 ■A '--- - ±B —45 : - ±rev ■-. sav. . 
 lit if tZli&c ~!ii .yf iff. mi feed, 
 
 fess «e did T-Lr imc dbcassss: 
 'urged, snd — e 5£—=d t±le 
 It m ~- tha cezimmig did 
 
 it see= 
 
 - Y _AA -• 
 
 re — 
 
 -V- 
 
 c HzcrD.-Yz.fr; ~ J*. ; liar A; 
 
 YA'o'TEh A== . H~c. »»*“*- 
 -- _ I'KK’ 
 
 -re g:rrt free — isr v-tr j :rar sheheree 
 after he es taped :: a Ae belly of As ~ = v 
 
 rAOITJ ’l-ashusa* 
 
 Sarah mviL 145, 146: “ We east hbn on a 
 barrer shore: sard he '“as sick: ari -we trade 
 to grow e ver him s povrd free.® 
 
 YA'QUB [wjSac . ^JACOB.' 
 
 Ya SIY k). The rsre Arabic 
 liters j mi v - corresponding to 
 Ae ~~glisr ; arr s. The Ale of Ae inrrl 
 ' : .. : • :••;-• 
 letters. tie mystic impen of which is 
 said is be —A : vsr AI-Baira-A says per- 
 
 Aey —ear T3 Ixsm ___ s\ b). - 0 
 
 Aar! “ Hrsair srgjesTs A: they —ear I* 
 Snigid! (ju_ b). “ O Saiyid * “ whilst die 
 
 ask Ae rtaa 
 i.r --- - - - s -vg 
 
 Crts 
 
 ya. 
 
 ' is known alone to 
 s chapter —as Ae 
 '- Quran. - Ae heart of Ae Qsrar.” 
 ara it is errsearertlj held A high esAaa- 
 ti:r- la is nsraTy rear t: ayirg perstrs. 
 
 I a Sit is a Ale A v ea a: lltAaaaaaar Ath 
 : ' ' ' : ; rtir—el t: as •• 1 SaAii." 
 
 A Ae first “ease ci Ae S Aar reieta-ei. to. 
 
 YASBTB «->-= . The ancient 
 
 ratre ;a al-llalAal.. — err :red once A Ae 
 yarA A 5AA If .^::::At :: 
 
 Ae :reair:As:, Ae Prtahet changed Ae 
 ratre :t r Tssnb a: Hat—-.rr A-lSahi, “the 
 Cirr if Ae Prtrhet.” because TrsnJ was s 
 ratre cx sh a me art reproach. 'Mqjwuru 7- 
 SSA sol iiL p. 4S9.) ' 
 
 YA-SITB w—*i). L i. “Aprince 
 
 :t Aet" The Hirg si Ae Bees. A title 
 giver x: -All {Mrjmsrm. 1-Bik5r. voL 5L 
 p. 502.) A - a --- of _cre of Htthartmad’s 
 htrees. Bit-r ~, r Air’s AibAiarj.) 
 
 YaTETELIB. 'tasbib.' 
 
 YATlhl A-*'. "obpsaa.] 
 
 YAim (<•_£)■ -4 day of twentv- 
 
 :A. “right art A," 
 
 The sever A vs of Ae vreek are Atvp 
 as:— 
 
 5 "rt . T-aJacl As: dsv. Srr 
 T - se 
 
 llram -sa.Ar . thAr A, TresAv. 
 Fttra '.-Art. ttttrA day. ~&AesAv. 
 
 Y lit frA A. ThrrsAy. 
 
 1': • t eel, -ev sf AsseAtlv, irA. 
 
 T - . rilliA itv. SartrAj 
 
 YAUhrU 'D-DIN •••' Dav 
 
 ci Trfgxrerx."_ _ 
 
 5AA L : ■• are —g si Ae Dai of Jadg* 
 
 SttrA IvvAr. 17: •• '' rat shaTtraieA&e 
 it— —At Ae Dsv of Jwkjm*eMt is? ' 
 
 AL-YATJini’U-AKHTR 1^2\ 
 
 ■■ _re _ast a'-aj.' A rare giver A Ae Quran 
 t: Ae Tag -f Irtgrer:. 
 
 YAH T - ‘ As JtL UR A ! * * t 
 
 . The tenth, dav of the month 
 
 ■tf HtAarrar, [-AsarKAtj 
 
YAUMTJ L-FASL 
 
 YAZID 
 
 695 
 
 YAUMU ’L-FASL (J-aN r y.)- 
 
 “ Day of Severing.” The Day of Judgment. 
 Surah lxxvii. 13, 14: “For the Day of 
 Severing ! and who shall teach thee what the 
 Day of Severing is ? ” 
 
 YAUMTJ ’L-FITR ( r} >). “ The 
 
 Day of breaking the fast.” ['idc ’l-fitr.] 
 
 YAUMU ’L-HARA’ r y_). 
 
 “ The day of the stony country ” mentioned 
 in the Traditions. (Hishkatu 'l-Masabih, book 
 xxiv. ch. ix.) The day on which Yazid sent 
 an army to al-Madinah and laid it in ruins. 
 (See Ockley’s Saracens, p. 425.) 
 
 YAUMU ’L-HASHR r ^>). 
 
 “ Day of Assembly.” The Day of Judgment. 
 
 YAUMU ’L-HISAB ryi ). 
 
 “Day of Reckoning.” The Day of Judg¬ 
 ment. Surah xl. 28: “And Moses said, 
 Yerily, I will take refuge in my Lord and 
 your Lord from every one who is big with 
 pride, and believes not on the Dai/ of Reckon¬ 
 ing." 
 
 YAUMU ’L-INQITA* (g^l r y.). 
 
 “ The Day of Cessation.” The day on which 
 anything terminates. In law, the last day on 
 which anyone who has become possessed of 
 property illegally may restore it, or make 
 compensation to the owner. 
 
 YAUMU ’L-JAM‘ r y.). 
 
 “Day of Gathering.” The Day of Judgment. 
 Surah lxiv. 9: “ On the day when He shall 
 gather you to the Day of Gathering.” 
 
 YAUMU ’L-IOrULUD (ojl&J\ 
 
 “ Day of Eternity.” Surah 1. 34 : “ Enter 
 into it in peace : this is the Day of Eternity.” 
 
 YAUMU ’L-KHURUJ (<r^ rf-)- 
 
 “ The Day of Exodus.” The Day of Judg¬ 
 ment. Surah 1. 41: “ The day when they 
 shall hear the shout in truth; that is, the 
 Day of Coining Forth.” 
 
 YAUMU L-QARR (/T ft). 
 
 “ The Day of Rest.” The day after the sacri¬ 
 fice at the Hajj, when the pilgrims rest. 
 
 YAUMU ’L - QIYAMAH ( rr -> 
 «L»Ua3\). “ Day of Standing up.” The 
 Day of Resurrection.” [resurrection.] 
 
 YAUMU ’L-WA‘lD fy.)- 
 
 “ The Day of Threatenings.” The Day of 
 Judgment' Surah 1. 19 : “ And the trumpet 
 shall be blown!—that is the threatened 
 day.” 
 
 YAUMUjST MA'LOMUE ( r ^* &). 
 
 “ A Known Day,” i.e. known to God. The 
 Day of Judgment. Surah lvi. 50: “ Gathered 
 shall they surely be for the tryst of a known 
 day.” 
 
 YAUMU ’R-EAHR r y). 
 
 “ Day of Sacrifice.” A term used for the 
 Feast of Sacrifice, [‘idu x-azha.] 
 
 YAUMU ’S-SABU‘ ??.). 
 
 The “ Day of Sabu\” mentioned in the follow¬ 
 ing tradition ( J lishkatu ’ l-Masabih , book xxiv. 
 ch. 16) :— 
 
 “ Abu Hurairah says, ‘ Whilst a man was 
 with his goats, behold a wolf came in amongst 
 them, and took a goat; and the man released 
 it. And the wolf said to the man, “ Who 
 is to guard these goats on the day of Sabu‘, 
 when there will be no shepherd but me.” 
 And the people said, “ The wolf speaks.” 
 And the Prophet said, “ I believe that the 
 wolf did speak.” Abu Bakr and -Umar also 
 said so.’ ” 
 
 ■Abdu ’1-Haqq says there is a difference 
 of opinion as to what the Day of Sabu ; is, 
 either it is a day of insurrection, or a fes¬ 
 tival amongst the ancient Arabs, when the 
 flocks were left to themselves. 
 
 YAUMU ’T - TAGHABUR ( r y_ 
 (^1*^51). “ Day of Mutual Deceit.” 
 
 The Day of Judgment. Surah lxiv. 9: “ On 
 that day when he shall gather you to the Day of 
 Gathering, that is the Day of Mutual Deceit.” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says : “ Both the righteous and 
 the wicked will disappoint each other by re¬ 
 versing their positions, the wicked being 
 punished, while the righteous are in bliss.” 
 
 YAUMU ’T-TALAQ #_). 
 
 “ Day of Meeting.” The Day of Judgment. 
 Surah xl. 15 : “ He throws the Spirit by his 
 bidding upon whom He will of His servants, 
 to give warning of the Day of Meeting.'' 
 
 YAUMU ’T-TARAD r y). 
 
 “ A Day of Mutual Outcry.” A name given 
 to the Day of Judgment in the Qur'an. Surah 
 xl. 34 : “0 my people ! verily I fear for you 
 the day of crying out to one another.” 
 
 YA‘UQ (oy*0- ^- n idol mentioned 
 
 in the Qur’an, Surah lxxi. 23. Professor 
 Palmer says it was in the figure of a horse. 
 Al-Baizawi says it is the name of a certain 
 hero who lived between the days of Adam 
 and Xoah, and was afterwards worshipped in 
 an idol of the name. 
 
 YAWRING. Arabic tasawub 
 (*_jj\-S). From the Traditions it 
 appears yawning is regarded as an evil; for 
 Abu Hurairah relates that Muhammad said. 
 “ God loves sneezing and hates yawning. As 
 for yawning, it is of the devil. Therefore, if 
 any of you yawn, let him suppress it as much 
 as possible. If he cannot stop it, let him put 
 the back of his left hand upon his mouth; for, 
 verily, when anyone yawns and opens his 
 mouth, the devil laughs.” (Mishkdt, book 
 xxii. ch. vi.) 
 
 YAZID The son of Muki- 
 
 wiyah. The second Kh alifah of the house of 
 Umaiyah (Ommiyah), who reigned from a.d. 
 679 to a.d. 683 (a.h, 60—64). He is celebrated 
 in Muslim history as the opponent of al- 
 Husain. (See Ocklev's Hist. Saracens, p. 
 393.) 
 
696 
 
 YEAR 
 
 YUSUF 
 
 TEAR. Arabic sanah pi. 
 
 sanun, sanaioat ; ‘dm (f^), pi. a‘wam ; 
 haul (Jy=»), pi. ahwdl; Persian sal 
 (J L -). pl- salha. 
 
 The ancient Arabian year is supposed to 
 have consisted of twelve lunar months, as 
 now observed by the Muhammadans; but 
 about the year a.d. 412, the Arabians intro¬ 
 duced a system of intercalation, whereby one 
 month was intercalated into every three 
 years. (See M. de Perceval, vol. i. p. 242). 
 This system of intercalation existed in the 
 time of Muhammad ; but it is related that, at 
 the farewell pilgrimage, the Prophet recited 
 the khutbah on the Day of Sacrifice, and 
 said: “ A year is twelve months only, as at 
 the time of the creation,” and thus again in¬ 
 troduced the lunar year. (See Mishkat, book 
 sd. ch. xL) The Muhammadan year, there¬ 
 fore, consists of twelve lunar months, without 
 any intercalation to make it correspond with 
 the course of the sun, and amounts very 
 nearly to 354 days and 9 hours. Hence the 
 Muhammadan New Year’s Day, Nau Roz, 
 will happen every year about eleven days 
 earlier than in the preceding year. 
 
 There also existed amongst the Arabians a 
 system of commutation whereby the Muhar- 
 ram, the last of the three continuous sacred 
 months [months], became secular, and Safar 
 sacred. Some traditions say that the power 
 also existed of commuting the isolated sacred 
 month Rajah, for the one succeeding it, 
 Shaman. When this was done, it became 
 lawful to war in the sacred months of Mu- 
 harram and Rajab : and Safar and Sha‘ban 
 acquired the sacredness of the months for 
 which they had been substituted. It is with 
 reference to this custom that Muhammad 
 says in the Qur’an (Surah ix. 36, 37) :— 
 
 Yerily, twelve months is the number of 
 months with God, according to God’s Book, 
 ever since the day when He created the 
 Heavens and the Earth; of these, four are 
 sacred: this is the right usage. Therefore, 
 wrong not yourselves therein, and attack 
 those who join gods with God, one and all, as 
 they attack you one and all; and know that 
 God is with those who fear Him. To cany over 
 a sacred month to another is only an increase 
 of unbelief. They who do not believe are led 
 in error by it. They allow it one year and 
 forbid it another, that they may make good 
 the number of months which God hath hal¬ 
 lowed, and they allow that which God hath 
 prohibited.” 
 
 This system of commutation is said to have 
 been introduced by Qusaiy, who wished, by 
 abridging the long three months’ cessation of 
 hostilities, to humour the warlike Arabs, as 
 well as to obtain the power of making a | 
 sacred month secular when it might best I 
 suit his purpose ; but Sir Milliam Muir is in¬ 
 clined to think that this system of commuta¬ 
 
 tion was an ancient one, and merely restored by 
 Qusaiy. (Muir’s Mahomet, vol. i. p. ccviii.) 
 
 Both in India and in Egypt. in the present 
 day, the Muhammadans use the lunar year 
 for their religious observances and the ordi¬ 
 nary affairs of life ; but for the purposes of 
 agriculture and other calculations, for which 
 the lunar year is inconvenient, they employ 
 the Julian calendar. 
 
 To find the number of solar years elapsed 
 since any given Muhammadan date, subtract 
 the given year of the Hijrah from the cur¬ 
 rent year of the Hijrah, and from the re¬ 
 mainder deduct three per cent.; the remainder 
 will be the number of solar years which have 
 elapsed. Thus, suppose we see a manuscript 
 written a.h. 681, and wish to know its real 
 age in Christian or solar years, we subtract, 
 in the first place, the number 681 from the 
 current year of the Hijrah, say 1256, and 
 there remains 575 ; from this last we deduct 
 three per cent, or 17, and there remains 558, 
 which at that period is the real age of the 
 manuscript in solar years. 
 
 If the object, however, be to find the pre¬ 
 cise Christian date corresponding to any 
 given year of the Hijrah, apply the following 
 rule :—From the given number of Musalman 
 years, deduct three per cent., and to the re¬ 
 mainder add the number 621-54 ; the sum is 
 the period of the Christian era at which the 
 given current Musalman year ends. For 
 example: from a.h. 942, deduct three per 
 cent., or 28-26, and the remainder is 913-74. 
 To this last add 621-54, and the sum is 
 1535-28, which shows that a.h. 942 ended in 
 | the spring of a.d. 1536. This simple rule is 
 founded on the fact that 100 lunar years are 
 very nearly equal to 97 solar years, there 
 being only eight days of excess in the former 
 : period: hence to the result found, as just 
 | stated, it will be requisite to add 8 days, as a 
 | correction for every century. 
 
 The following is a more accurate rule. 
 Express the Muhammadan date in years and 
 decimals of a year; multiply by -970225; to 
 i the product add 621-54, and the sum will be 
 the precise period of the Christian era. (Dr. 
 Forbes.) 
 
 If it is desired to find the year of the Hij¬ 
 rah which comes in in a given year of the 
 Christian era ; it is sufficient to subtract 621 
 from the year given, and to multiply the 
 remainder by 10,307. (Murray.) 
 
 YUHANNA The Arabic 
 
 ! Christian name for John the Baptist, and 
 | John the Apostle, the corresponding Muslim 
 name being Yahya. [yahta,] 
 
 YUNUS (u~>}»). [JONAH.] 
 
 YUSHA‘ [JOSHUA.] 
 
 YUSUF (<-fl-jj). [joseph.J 
 
Z ABH 
 
 ZABT 
 
 697 
 
 Z. 
 
 ZABH (^qo). Heb. nit zebakh. 
 
 Arabic lexicographers define the word to 
 mean the act of cutting the throat. In the 
 language of the law, it denotes the act of j 
 slaying an animal agreeably to the prescribed 
 forms, without which its flesh is not lawful 
 for the food of man. See Qur’an, Surah ii. 
 167, 168:— 
 
 “ Eat of the good things wherewith we 
 have provided you, and give thanks unto 
 God, if ye are His worshippers. He has only 
 forbidden for you that which is dead, and 
 blood, and flesh of swine, and whatsoever has 
 been consecrated to other than God ; but he 
 who is forced, neither revolting nor trans¬ 
 gressing, it is no sin for him : for verily God 
 is forgiving and merciful." 
 
 The injunctions in the Traditions are more 
 explicit ( Mishkat , book xviii. ch. i.), for 
 example : Abu Tufail relates that ‘All was 
 once asked, “Has the Prophet ever told you 
 anything with regard to religion which he has 
 not told others ? ” And ‘All replied, “ Nothing, 
 unless it be that which I have in the scab¬ 
 bard of my sword.” Then ‘All brought 
 out of his scabbard a piece of paper, and 
 thereon was written : “May God curse those 
 who slay without repeating the name of God, 
 in the same manner as the polytheists did in 
 the names of their idols ; may God curse those 
 who remove their neighbours’ landmarks; 
 may God curse those who curse their fathers ; 
 may God curse those who harbour innovators 
 in matters of religion.” 
 
 According to Sunni law, zabh is of two 
 kinds : (1) Ikhtiyari , of choice ; and (2) Lzti- 
 rari, of necessity. 
 
 The first is effected by cutting the throat 
 above the breast and reciting the words 
 Alla.hu akbar, “ God is most great ” ; aud the 
 second by reciting these words upon shooting 
 an arrow or discharging a gun. 
 
 The latter act, however, is merely a sub¬ 
 stitute for the former, and accordingly is not 
 of any account unless the former be imprac¬ 
 ticable ; for the proper zabh is held to be by 
 the shedding of blood, and the former method 
 is most effectual for this purpose. 
 
 It is absolutely necessary that the person 
 who slays the animal should be a Muslim or 
 a Icitabi (J.e. a Jew or a Christian), and that 
 he should do it in the name of God alone ; 
 it signifies not whether the person he a man 
 or a woman, or an infant, or an idiot, or an 
 uncircumcised person. 
 
 An animal slain by a Magian is unlawful, 
 as also that slain by an idolater or a poly¬ 
 theist. Zabh performed by an apostate from the 
 Muslim faith (who is worthy of death) is also 
 unlawful; but, according to Abu Hanifah, if 
 a Jew or a Christian become an apostate from 
 
 his own creed, his zabh is lawful, for the Mus¬ 
 lim law still regards him, with respect to zabh, 
 in the same light as formerly. 
 
 If the slayer wilfully omit the invocation, 
 “ In the name of the most great God,” the 
 flesh of the animal is unlawful; but if he omit 
 the invocation through forgetfulness, it is 
 lawful, although there is some difference of 
 opinion on this subject amongst the Sunni 
 doctors. Ash-Shafi‘1 is of opinion that the 
 animal is lawful in either case, but the Imam 
 Mfilik maintains that it is unlawful in both. 
 
 Abu Yusuf and all the HanafI doctors have 
 declared, that an animal slain under a wilful 
 omission of the invocation is utterly unlaw¬ 
 ful, and that the magistrate must forbid the 
 sale of meat so killed. 
 
 It is a condition of zabh ikhtiyari that the 
 invocation be pronounced over the animal at 
 the time of slaying it; but in the case of zabh 
 iztirdri (i.e. when a person slays an animal 
 in hunting), the condition is that the invoca¬ 
 tion be pronounced at the time of letting 
 loose the hound or hawk, or of shooting the 
 arrow or gun, or casting the spear. 
 
 It is a condition of zabh that nothing but 
 the invocation Bismi ’llahi Allahi akbar, “ In 
 the name of God, God the most great,” should 
 be said. That is, no prayer or other matter 
 must be mentioned. 
 
 The place for slaying is betwixt the throat 
 and the head of the breast-bone (Arabic 
 labbah), and the vessels it is requisite to cut 
 are four, al-hulqum, “the wind-pipe,” al-mart, 
 “ the gullet,” and al-waridan, or al-wadajdn, 
 “ the two jugular veins.” 
 
 Ash-Shafi‘i holds that if a man slay an 
 animal with a nail or horn or teeth, the flesh 
 is unlawful, but this is not the opinion of 
 other doctors. (See Durru ' l-Mukhtar and 
 Hidayah, in loco.) 
 
 az-ZABANIYAH Lit. 
 
 “ Guards.” The angels in charge of hell, of 
 whom Malik is said to be the chief. Surah 
 xcvi. 17, 18: “So let him call his council: 
 we will call the guards of hell ( az-Zaba - 
 niyah)." 
 
 ZABIHAH Lit. “Cut or 
 
 divided lengthways.” Heb. }“Qf zebakh. An 
 
 animal slaughtered according to the law : a 
 sacrifice, f lawful food, sacrifices.] 
 
 ZABIR (jAj). A name for Mount 
 
 Sinai. Al-Baizawi says it is the mountain 
 on which the Lord conversed with Moses. 
 [sihai, THE.] 
 
 ZABT (W*). “ Occupation, sei¬ 
 
 zure.” In Muhammadan law it means aitach- 
 ment, distraint, or sequestration; taking 
 
 as 
 
ZAINAB 
 
 698 ZABUE 
 
 lands under the management of Government 
 officers. 
 
 ZABUE pi- zubur. Also 
 
 zubur , pL of zibr. From the Heb. 
 
 zimrah, “ a psalm or chant” (Psa. lxxxi. 2, 
 xeviii. 5). The title given to the Psalms of 
 David in the Qur’an, where it occurs only 
 three times. 
 
 Suratu u-Xisa’ (iv.) 1G1: “ And to David 
 we gave Psalms (zaburan ).” 
 
 Suratu i-Miraj (xvii.) 57: “ And Psalms 
 (zaburan ) we gave to David.” 
 
 Suratu ’1-Ambiya’ (xxi.) 105: And now, 
 since the exhortation (zikr) was given, have 
 we written in the Psalms ( fl ’ z-saburi ) that 
 my servants the righteous shall inherit the 
 earth.” 
 
 Both Sale and Rodwell take this last to be 
 a quotation from Psa. xxxvii. 29 (it appears 
 to be the only direct quotation from either 
 the Old or New Testament in the whole of 
 the Qur’an), and they have both translated the 
 Arabic zikr “the law,” meaning, of course, 
 the Taurat. Amongst Muslim commentators, 
 there is considerable difference of opinion as 
 to what is meant in this verse by zikr and 
 zabur. 
 
 The commentator al-Baizawi says there 
 are three views. Said ibn Jnbair and Mu- 
 jaiyid explained the word zabur to mean all 
 inspired books, and that by zikr was meant 
 the Preserved Tablet (al-Lauhu ’ l-Mahfuz). 
 Ibn ’Abbas and az-Zahhak said by zabur was 
 meant the Taurat, and by zikr those books 
 which came after. And SiiaTu said the zabur 
 was the Book of David, and the zikr that of 
 Moses. 
 
 Al-Baghawi and al-Jalalan decide in favour 
 of the first interpretation, Husain decides in 
 favour of the third, whilst al-Baizawi leaves 
 it an open question. 
 
 Jalalu ’d-dln as-Suyuti gives the word zabur 
 as one of the fifty-five titles of the Qur'an. 
 
 ZACHARIAS. Arabic Zahariy o’ 
 
 (sAjAj). [z AKAKIY A’.] 
 
 ZAFlR (pfj). Lit. “Drawing 
 
 back the breath because of distress ; groan¬ 
 ing.” In the Qur’an, for the groans of hell. 
 Surah xi. 108: “ In the Fire, there shall 
 they groan.” 
 
 ZA'FTRANlYAH A 
 
 sect of Muslims, who say the Qur’an is a 
 created thing, the orthodox school maintain¬ 
 ing that the Word of God is uncreated. 
 (Kitabu 't-Ta‘rifat. in loco.) 
 
 ZAHF Lit. “A swarming 
 
 multitude.” An army; a mili tary force ar¬ 
 rayed for battle. 
 
 Qur’an, Surah viii 15 : “ 0 ye who believe ! 
 when ye meet the marshalled hosts of the un¬ 
 believers, turn not your backs to them.” 
 Hence, battle, combat. 
 
 ZAHID Lit. “ Abstinent; 
 
 continent.” An ascetic person. Zahid-i- 
 khushk, Persian, “ a dissembler, a hypocrite.” 
 
 ZAHIE (ysUs). “Outward, exte¬ 
 rior, manifest.” A word much used in Mus¬ 
 lim theology to express that which is mani¬ 
 fest, as distinguished from bafin. “ interior,” 
 or khafi. “ that which is hidden.” 
 
 
 az-ZAHIR “ The Evident.” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. 
 
 Qur'an, Surah lviii. 3: “ He is the First 
 and the Last, the Evident and the Hidden.” 
 
 ZAHIRU ’L-MAZHAB (yfcU, 
 An expression used by 
 HanafI Muslims for those theological ques¬ 
 tions which are decided in the four well- 
 known Sunni books : al-Jlabsut. al-Jamvu 7- 
 Kabir. al-Jami‘u 's-Saijhir, as-Sairu i-Kabir. 
 
 ZAHIRU ’L-MTIHKINAT (>Vh 
 An expression used by 
 theologians for the proofs of God’s existence, 
 power, and attributes, as exhibited in nature. 
 
 ZAID IBN al-HARIS Aj 
 
 ^). Muhammad’s freedman and 
 adopted son. Muhammad having seen and 
 admired Zaid’s wife Zainab, her husband 
 divorced her. The relations of the ancient 
 Arabs to their adopted children were very 
 strict, and Muhammad’s marriage with the 
 divorced wife of his adopted son occasioned 
 much scandal amongst his contemporaries. 
 A revelation was consequently produced 
 which revoked the inconvenient restrictions. 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 37: "And when Zaid had 
 settled the necessary matter of her divorce, 
 we did wed her to thee, that it might not be 
 a crime in the faithful to many the wives of 
 their adopted sons, when they have settled the 
 necessary affair concerning them.” 
 
 Zaid was slain at the battle of Mutah. as 
 he carried the standard of Islam, ah. 8. 
 
 ZAIDlYAH A Shhah 
 
 sect. Those who followed Zaid the son of 
 All ibn al-Husain instead of the other son 
 Ja-far as-Sadiq. [she 1 ah.] 
 
 ZAIGH (e-ij). Lit. “Turned 
 
 aside” (from the Truth). It occurs in the 
 Qur’an, Surah iii 5, 6: “In whose hearts is 
 perversity. ... 0 Lord, pervert not our 
 hearts.” 
 
 ZAFNAB The daughter of 
 
 Kli uzaimah and the widow of ‘Ubaid, Mu¬ 
 hammad’s cousin, who was slain at Badr. 
 She married Muhammad in the third year of 
 the Hijrah. Zainab was renowned for her 
 kindness to the poor, and was called CJmmu 
 ’ l-Masakin , “ the mother of the poor,” from 
 her care of destitute converts. She and 
 Khadijah were the only wives of the Prophet 
 who died before him. 
 
 ZAINAB The daughter 
 
 of Jahsh and the divorced wife of Muham¬ 
 mad’s adopted son Zaid. Being the wife of 
 an adopted son, she was unlawful to the 
 Prophet, but a pretended revelation (see 
 Qur’an, Surah xxxiii. 37) settled the dif¬ 
 ficulty, and Muhammad married her. [hnr- 
 
 HAIMAI).] 
 
ZAINAB BINT MUHAMMAD 
 
 ZAKAT 
 
 ZAINAB BINT MUHAMMAD 
 The daughter of 
 Muhammad by Kha diiah. She married Abu 
 I- 4 As. The story of the conversion of Abu 
 1- 4 As, through the devotion of his wife, is 
 told by Muir (voL iv. p. 7). She died 
 A H. 61. 
 
 ZA’IR A pilgrim to 
 
 Muhammad's grave at al-Madinah, as distin¬ 
 guished from a hajl. or pilgrim to Makkah. 
 According to Burton, Za'irs are ordered to 
 visit the tomb perfumed and in their best 
 clothes. The person who conducts the zSir 
 to the sacred spot, is called a rtmzawucir. who 
 on the occasion of Captain Barton’s visit re¬ 
 cited the following prayer:— 
 
 “ In the name of Allah and in the Faith of 
 Allah's Prophet! 0 Lord, cause me to enter 
 
 the entering of truth, and cause me to issue 
 forth the issuing of Truth, and permit me to 
 draw near to Thee and make me a King vic¬ 
 torious ! ” (i.e. over the world, the flesh, and 
 the devil). Then follow blessings on the Pro¬ 
 phet, and afterwards : “ O Allah! open to me 
 the doors of Thy mercy, and grant me en¬ 
 trance into it, and protect me from the stoned 
 devil! ” (Barton's El-Medinah. and .1 leccah ., 
 vol. ii. p. 296.) 
 
 ZAKARIYA’ Zacharias. 
 
 The father of John Baptist; the husband of 
 Hannah’s sister, and the uncle of the Virgin 
 Mary. Mentioned four times in the Qur’an:— 
 
 Surah iii. 32: “ So with goodly accep¬ 
 tance did her Lord accept her, with goodly 
 growth did He make her grow, and Zakariya' 
 reared her. So oft as Zakariya’ went in to 
 Mary at the sanctuary, he found her supplied 
 with food. 4 Oh Mary ! ’ said he, 1 whence 
 hast thou this ? ’ She said, 4 It is from God ; 
 verily God supplieth whom He will without 
 reckoning ! ’ There did Zakariya’ call upon 
 his Lord ; 1 0 my Lord! ’ said he, 4 vouchsafe 
 me from Thyself good descendants: Thou 
 verily art the hearer of prayer.’ Then did 
 the angels call to him, as he stood praying in 
 the sanctuary : •' God announced John (Yahya) 
 to thee, who shall be a verifier of the Word 
 from God, and a great one, chaste, and a pro¬ 
 phet of the number of the just.’ He said, 
 4 0 my Lord! how shall I have a son now 
 that old age has come upon me and my wife 
 is barren ? ’ He said: 4 Thus will God do his 
 pleasure.’ He said, ‘ Lord! give me a token.’ 
 He said, ! Thy token is, that not for three 
 days shalt thou speak to man but by signs. 
 But remember thy Lord often, and praise 
 Him at even and at mom.’” 
 
 Surah vi. 85 : 44 And Zakariya’, John, Jesus, 
 and Elias : all were just persons.” 
 
 Surah six. 1-12: “ A recital of thy Lord’s 
 mercy to His servant Zakariya’, when he 
 called upon his Lord with secret calling. He 
 said: 4 O Lord, verily my bones are weak 
 and the hoar hairs glisten on my head, and 
 never, Lord, have I prayed to Thee with ill 
 success. But now I have fear for my kin¬ 
 dred after me ; and my wife is barren : Give 
 me, then, a successor as Thy special gift and 
 
 699 
 
 an heir of the family of Jacob : and make 
 him, Lord, well-pleasing to Thee.’ ‘ 0 Zaka¬ 
 riya, verily We announce to Thee a son,— 
 his name Yahya ('John) : that name We have 
 given to none before him.’ He said : 4 O my 
 Lord! how when my wife is barren shall I 
 have a son, and when I have now reached 
 old age, failing in my powers ? ’ He said: 
 4 So shall it be. Thy Lord hath said. Easy 
 is this to Me. for I created thee aforetime 
 when thou wast not hing ,’ He said: 4 Vouch¬ 
 safe me, O my Lord ! a sign.’ He said: 4 Thy 
 sign shall be that for three nights, though 
 j sound in health, thou speakest not to man.’ 
 And he came forth from the sanctuary to his 
 people, and made signs to them as though 
 he would say, ’Praise God at mom and 
 even.’ ” 
 
 Surah xxi. 89: 44 And Zakariya’, when he 
 called upon his Lord saying, 44 O my Lord 
 leave me not childless: but there is no 
 better heir than Thyself.’ So We heard hinn 
 and gave him Yahya (John), and We made 
 his wife fit for child-bearing.” 
 
 ZAKAT (SySj). In ita primitive 
 
 sense the word zakat means purification, 
 whence it is also used to express a portion of 
 property bestowed in alms, as a sanctification 
 of the remainder to the proprietor. It is an 
 institution of Islam and founded upon an ex¬ 
 press command in the Qur'an (vide Surah ii. 
 77), being one of the five foundations oi 
 practical religion. 
 
 It is a religious duty incumbent upon any 
 person who is free, sane, adult, and a Muslim, 
 provided he be possessed in full property of 
 such estate or effects as are termed in the 
 language of the law nisab, and that he has 
 been in possession of the same for the space 
 \ of one complete year. The nisdb. or fixed 
 amount of property upon which zakat is due, 
 varies with reference to,the different kinds of 
 property in possession, as will be seen in the 
 I present article. 
 
 The one complete year in which the pro¬ 
 perty is held in possession is termed haidu 7- 
 h.av.1. Zakat is not incumbent upon i man 
 against whom there are debts equal to or 
 exceeding the amount of his whole property, 
 nor is it due upon the necessaries of life, 
 such as dwelling-houses, or articles of cloth¬ 
 ing, or household furniture, or cattle kept 
 for immediate use, or slaves employed as 
 actual servants, or armour and weapons de¬ 
 signed for present use, or upon books of 
 science and theology used by scholars, or 
 upon tools used by craftsmen. 
 
 (1) The zakat of camels. Zakat is not 
 due upon less than five camels, and upon five 
 camels it is one goat or sheep, provided they 
 subsist upon pasture throughout the year, 
 because zakat is only due upon such camels as 
 live on pasture, and not upon those which are 
 fed in the home with forage. One goat is due 
 upon any number of camels from five to nine; 
 two goats for any number of camels from ten 
 to fourteen; three goats f .r any number from 
 twenty to twenty-four. Upon any number of 
 camels from twenty-five to thirty-five the 
 
ZAKAT 
 
 zakha’iru ’llah 
 
 700 
 
 zakat is a bint mikhas. or a yearling female 
 camel; from thirty-sis to forty-five, a bint 
 labftn. or a two-year-old female camel; from 
 forty-sis to sixty, a hiqqah. or a three- 
 year-old female camel : from sisty-one to 
 seventy-five, a Jaz-ah. or tour-year-old female 
 camel: from seventy-five to ninety, two 
 camels' female two-year-old colts : and from 
 ninety-one to one hundred and twenty, two 
 camels' female three-year-old colts. 'When 
 the number of camels esceeds one hundred 
 and twenty, the zakat is calculated by the 
 aforesaid rule. 
 
 (2) The zakat of bulls, coics. and bu ffaloes. 
 Xo zakat is due upon fewer than thirty cattle, 
 and upon thirty cattle which feed on pasture 
 for the greater part of the year, there is due at 
 the end of the year a tabvah, or a one-year- 
 old calf : and upon forty is due a musim. or a 
 calf of two years old: and where the number 
 esceeds forty, the zakat is to he calculated 
 according to this rule. For esample, upon 
 sisty, the zakat is two yearling calves : upon 
 seventy, one tabvah and one musim: upon 
 eighty, two musims ; upon ninety, three 
 tabvah : upon one hundred, two tabvahs and 
 one musim : and thus upon every ten head of 
 cattle a musim and a tabvah alternately. 
 Thus upon one hundred and ten kine, the 
 zakat is two musims and one tabvah : and 
 upon one hundred and twenty, four tabvahs. 
 The usual method, however, of calculating 
 the zakat upon large herds of cattle is by 
 dividing them into thirties and forties, impos¬ 
 ing upon every thirty one tabvah. or upon 
 every forty one musim. 
 
 (3) Zakat upon sheep and goats. Xo zakat 
 is due upon less than forty, which have t fed 
 the greater part of the year upon pasture, 
 upon which is due one goat, until the num¬ 
 ber reaches one hundred and twenty : for one 
 hundred and twenty-one to two hundred, it is 
 two goats or sheep : and above this, one for 
 every hundred. The same rules apply to both 
 sheep and goats, because in the Traditions 
 the original word ghanam applies to both 
 species. 
 
 (4) Zakat upon horses. When horses and 
 mares are kept indiscriminately together, feed¬ 
 ing for the greater part of the year on pas¬ 
 ture, it is the option of the proprietor to give 
 a zakat of one dinar per head for the whole, 
 or to appreciate the whole, and give five per 
 cent, upon the total value. Xo zakat what¬ 
 ever is due upon droves of horses consisting 
 entirely of males, or entirely of mares. There 
 is no zakat due upon horses or mules, unless 
 they are articles of merchandise, nor is it due 
 Upon war horses, or upon beasts of burden, 
 or upon cattle kept for drawing ploughs and 
 so forth, 
 
 (5) Zakat upon silver. It is not due upon 
 silver of less value than two hundred dir¬ 
 hams. hut if one he possessed of this sum for 
 a whole year, the zakat due upon it is five 
 dirhams. Xo zakat is due upon an excess 
 above the two hundred dirhams till such ex¬ 
 cess amount to forty, upon which the zakat is 
 one dirham, and for every succeeding forty, 
 one dirham. Those dirhams in which silver 
 
 predominates are to he accounted silver, and 
 the laws respecting silver apply to them, 
 although they should contain some alloy: 
 and the same rule holds with regard to all 
 articles falling under the denomination of 
 plate, such as cups and goblets. 
 
 (6) Zakat upon gold. Xo zakat is due upon 
 gold under the value of twenty misqals, and 
 the zakat due upon twenty misqals is half a 
 misqaL When the quantity of gold exceeds 
 twenty misqals, on every four misqals above 
 twenty are due two qirats, and so on in pro- 
 protion. 
 
 Zakat is due upon gold and silver bullion, 
 and upon all gold and silver ornaments and 
 utensils. 
 
 (7) Zakat upon articles of merchandise. 
 Articles of merchandise should be appraised, 
 and a zakat of 24 per cent, paid upon the 
 value, if it exceed two hundred dirhams in 
 value. 
 
 (8) Zakat upon mines, or buried treasures. 
 Alines of gold, silver, iron, lead, or copper, are 
 subject to a zakat of one-fifth (/.-hums') ; but if 
 the mine is discovered within the precincts of 
 a person's own home, nothing is due. And if 
 a person find a deposit of buried treasure, a 
 fifth is due upon it. Xo zakat is due upon 
 precious stones. 
 
 (9) Zakat upon the fruits of the earth. 
 Upon everything produced from the ground 
 there is a tenth Qdshir or ‘ushr ), whether the 
 soil be watered by the overflow of rivers or 
 by periodical rains, excepting the articles of 
 wood, bamboo, and grass, which are not sub¬ 
 ject to the tithe. Land watered by means of 
 buckets, or machinery, or watering camels, 
 is subject to a twentieth. Honey and fruits 
 collected in the wilderness are subject to 
 tithe. 
 
 The zakat is received by a collector duly 
 appointed for the purpose, although it is law¬ 
 ful for the possessor to distribute his alms 
 himself. If a person come to the collector, 
 and make a declaration on oath as to the 
 amount of his property upon which zakat is 
 due, his statement is to be credited. 
 
 There are seven descriptions of persons upon 
 whom zakat may be bestowed. 
 
 (1) Faqirs. or persons possessed of pro¬ 
 perty. the whole of which, however, does not 
 amount to a nisab. 
 
 (2) Mishins, or persons who have no pro¬ 
 perty whatever. 
 
 (3) The collector of zakat. 
 
 (4) Slaves. 
 
 (5) Debtors. 
 
 (6) Fi sabili "llah. i.e. in the service of God. 
 or religious warfare. 
 
 (7) Travellers. 
 
 The above laws with reference to zakat 
 are those according to the Hanafiyah sect, 
 but the differences amongst the Imams of 
 the Sunnis on this subject are but small. 
 They may be seen npon reference to Ha¬ 
 milton's translation of the Hidayah, vol. i. 
 
 p. 1. 
 
 ZAMA'IEU ’LLAH (<sl5\ /WA). 
 
 Lit. “ Repositories of God.” A Sufi term for 
 
ZAKIR 
 
 2AKN 
 
 701 
 
 a class of believers -who, on account of then- 
 spiritual attainments, are the means of pre¬ 
 venting troubles in a nation, in the same 
 manner as stores (zalch&ir 1 of grain keep 
 away famines. 
 
 ZAKIR (^j). One who remem¬ 
 bers God by reciting His names and praises. 
 The reciter of a zikr. [zikr.] 
 
 ZALALAH (&U). “Error.” The 
 
 word frequently occurs in the Qur'an, e.g. 
 Surah ii. 15: “ These are they who have 
 purchased error, at the price of the guidance.” 
 
 ZAMB (<—^5), pi. zunub. “ A 
 
 sin; a crime.” A charge of such. The word 
 occurs frequently in the Qur’an, e.g .:— 
 
 Surah xxvi. 13: “ They have a charge 
 against me (i.e. Aaron), and I fear lest they 
 put me to death.” 
 
 Surah xl. 2 : [From God] “ the forgiver of 
 sin.” 
 
 Surah Ixxxi. 9 : “ For what crime she was 
 put to death.” [sin.] 
 
 ZAMZAM (pyj)- The sacred well 
 
 within the precincts of the mosque at Mak- 
 kah. It is supposed to be the identical spring 
 from which Hagar and Ishmael drank in the 
 wilderness (Genesis xvi. 4), but which is 
 stated in the Scriptures to have been between 
 Kadesh and Bared. 
 
 The origin of the word zamzam is uncer¬ 
 tain. According to Johnson’s Arabic Dic¬ 
 tionary, it means the low buzzing sound, 
 made by the ancient fire-worshippers, and 
 may therefore allude to the murmuring of 
 the water of the well. Some Muslim com¬ 
 mentators derive it from zamrn ! zamm ! i.e. 
 “ fill! fill! ” Hagar’s words to Ishmael when 
 she saw the water. Sale translates it: 
 “ Stay ! Stay! ” and adds that Hagar called 
 out in the Egyptian language to prevent 
 Ishmael wandering. 
 
 The building which encloses the well Zam¬ 
 zam stands close by the Maqam Hanbali, and 
 was erected in a.h. 1072 (a.d. 1661). Accord¬ 
 ing to Burckhardt, it is of a square shape, and 
 of massive construction, with an entrance to 
 the north, opening into the room which 
 contains the well. This room is beauti¬ 
 fully ornamented with marbles of various 
 colours; and adjoining to it, but having a 
 separate door, is a small room with a stone 
 reservoir, which is always full of Zamzam 
 water. This the pilgrims get to drink by 
 passing their hand, with a cup, through an 
 iron-grated opening which serves as a win¬ 
 dow, into the reservoir, without entering the 
 room. The mouth of the well is surrounded 
 by a wall five feet in height, and about ten 
 feet in diameter. Upon this the people stand 
 who draw up the water in leathern buckets, 
 an iron railing being so placed as to prevent 
 their falling in. The water is then poured 
 into earthen jars, called dauraq, which Cap¬ 
 tain Burton describes as little amphorae, each 
 marked with the name of the donor and a 
 peculiar cypher. These jars are placed in 
 long rows on the ground, along the paved 
 
 causeways which lead up to the Ka-bah, and 
 between which grass appears growing in 
 several places, produced by the Zamzam 
 water oozing out of the jars. 
 
 The Zamzam water is held in great esteem 
 throughout the East. It is used for drinking 
 and ablution, but for no baser purposes ; and 
 the Makkans advise pilgrims always to break 
 their fast with it. Captain Burton says : “ It 
 is apt to cause diarrhoea and boils, and I 
 never saw a stranger drink it without a wry 
 face. Sale is decidedly correct in his asser¬ 
 tion : the flavour is salt-bitter, much resem¬ 
 bling an infusion of a teaspoonful of Epsom 
 salts in a large tumbler of tepid water. 
 Moreover, it is exceedingly ‘ heavy ’ to the 
 taste; for this reason, Turks and other 
 strangers prefer rain-water collected in cis¬ 
 terns, and sold for five farthings a guglet. 
 The water is transmitted to distant regions 
 in glazed earthen jars covered with basket- 
 work, and sealed by the Zem Zends ( Zam- 
 zamis, or dispensers of the holy water). 
 Religious men break their lenten fast with it, 
 apply it to their eyes to brighten vision, and 
 imbibe a few drops at the hour of death, 
 when Satan stands by holding a bowl of 
 purest water, the price of the departing soul. 
 The copious supply of the well is considered 
 at Meccah miraculous ; in distant countries it 
 facilitates the pronunciation of Arabic to the 
 student; and everywhere the nauseous 
 draught is highly meritorious in a religious 
 point of view.” 
 
 According to the same author, the name 
 has become generic for a well situated within 
 the walls of a mosque, and amongst these, 
 naturally, the Zamzam of al-Madinah stands 
 nearest in dignity to the Makkah well, with 
 which it is said to be connected by a subter¬ 
 raneous passage. Others believe that it is 
 filled by a vein of water springing directly 
 under the Prophet’s grave, whence it is gene¬ 
 rally called Bi’ru ’n-Xabi, or the Prophet's 
 well. It stands at the south-east angle of 
 an enclosure within the court of the mosque 
 of al-Madinah, called the garden of Fatimah, 
 under a wooden roof supported by pillars of 
 the same material. 
 
 Z AN ANAH (<sA»)). A Persian 
 
 adjective derived from the word zan, “ a 
 woman.” That which belongs to women. It 
 denotes the household of a Muhammadan, 
 his wives and children, and the apartments 
 in which they reside. For a full account of 
 an Indian zananah by Mrs. Meer Ali, see 
 
 HARIH. 
 
 “ A zananah mission ” is a Christian mis¬ 
 sion established for the benefit of the wives 
 and daughters of Muhammadans. 
 
 ZANJABIL “ Ginger.” 
 
 An aromatic with which the cups of Para¬ 
 dise are flavoured. See Qur’an, Surah Ixxvi. 
 17: “ And they shall drink therein a cup 
 tempered with zanjabil.” 
 
 ZANN (y^), pi. zunun. “Opinion; 
 
 suspicion.” In Muhammadan law, a pre¬ 
 sumption that a charge is well-founded, 
 
ZAQQUM 
 
 702 
 
 ZIHAR 
 
 although the evidence is inconclusive. A?- 
 Zannu ’l-Ghalib. expresses a strong presump¬ 
 tion of truth in a charge, although the evi¬ 
 dence does not amount to conviction. The 
 “ Not proven ” of Scotch law. The word 
 gann, in the sense of “ suspicion,” occurs in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xlix. 12: “0 Believers ! avoid 
 frequent suspicions, for some suspicions are 
 a crime.” 
 
 ZAQQUM An infernal 
 
 tree described in the Qur’an. 
 
 Surah xxxvii. 60-64: “ Is this the better 
 repastor the tree az-Zaqqum? Verily We 
 have made it for a subject of discord to the 
 wicked: Lo, it is a tree which cometh up 
 from the bottom of hell; its fruit is as it 
 were the heads of Satans; and, lo! the I 
 damned shall surely eat of it and fill their | 
 bellies with it.” 
 
 Surah xliv. 43, 44: “Verily the tree of az- 
 Zaqqum shall be the sinner’s food.” 
 
 Surah Ivi. 51-53: “Then verily ye, 0 ye | 
 the erring, the imputers of falsehood, shall j 
 surely eat of the tree of Zaqqum, and fill J 
 your bellies with it.” 
 
 It is a name now given to a thorny tree, 
 whose fruit is sweet and styptic, and from ! 
 the stone of which oil is extracted. (Richard¬ 
 son’s Dictionary.) 
 
 ZARAM!YAH (A^j). A sect of 
 
 Shrah Muhammadans, who say that the next 
 Imams after ‘All were Muhammad ibn Han- j 
 fiyah, ‘Abdullah, ‘All ibn ‘Abdillah ibn j 
 Abbas, and afterwards his progeny, as far as 
 Mansur, until at last the Divine power en¬ 
 tered into Abu Muslim, who, they assert, was 
 not really slain. ( [Kas/ifu ’l-Isti/akat, in j 
 loco.) 
 
 ZARARlYAH A sect of 
 
 Muslims founded by one of the Companions, 
 named Zararah, who say the attributes of ! 
 God are not eternal. (Kitabu ’t-Ta‘rifdt, in \ 
 loco.) 
 
 ZARB (vrU Lit. “ Striking.” 
 
 In arithmetic, “ Multiplication.” The con¬ 
 cluding foot of a line in poetry. A term used | 
 by Sufi mystics for the ceremony of zikr. 
 
 az-ZARIYAT (c^UH). “The ! 
 
 Scatterers.” The title of the List Surah of 
 the Qur’an which begins with the words “ By 
 the Scatterers who scatter.” By whichis un¬ 
 derstood the winds of heaven. 
 
 az-ZARR (j^). “TheDistresses” 
 
 One of the ninety-nine attributes of God. In 
 the Qur’an the word is applied to Satan. 
 
 Surah lviii. 11: “ Only of Satan is this j 
 clandestine talk, that he may bring the j 
 faithful to grief; but, unless by God’s per- | 
 mission, not aught shall he hcmn them ( laisa j 
 bi-zarrihini) ! in God, then, let the faithful ’ 
 trust.” 
 
 God, therefore is called the “ Distresser,” 
 in so far as evil befalls man only by His 
 permission. 
 
 ZARRAH (SjA). “ An atom.” 
 
 The word occurs in the Qur'an in the follow¬ 
 ing verse:— 
 
 Surah xcix. 6: “On that day shall men 
 come up in separate bands to behold their 
 works ; and whosoever shall have wrought 
 an atom’s weight of good shall behold it, and 
 whosoever shall have wrought an atom’s 
 weight of evil shall behold it.” 
 
 ZAT (l=A 3), pi. zawdt. From zu, 
 “ a possessor,” of which zat is the feminine. 
 In the Dictionary al- Mughrab it is defined 
 as the essence of a thing, meaning that by 
 being which a thing is what it is, or that in 
 being which a thing consists; or the ultimate 
 and radical constituent of a thing. It is 
 used for the nature or essence of God, 
 Allah being called the Ismu ’ z-Zdt , or “ Es¬ 
 sential name of God.” Zatu ’llah , the “ Es¬ 
 sence of God,” is a scholastic theological 
 expression. In Muslim law, zat signifies the 
 body connected with the soul, in opposition 
 to badn, which means the “material body.” 
 
 ZAWU ’L-ARHAM (^\ 
 
 [uterine relations.] 
 
 ZAWU ’L-FURUZ ^). 
 
 The Sharers of inheritance whose shares are 
 specified in the Qur’an itself. [inherit¬ 
 ance.] 
 
 ZEALOTS, [ghulat.] 
 
 ZIHAR Lit. “Likening to 
 
 the back.” A form of imprecation which in¬ 
 volves the separation of husband and wife 
 until expiation is made. According to the 
 Hidayah, zihdr signifies the likening of a 
 woman to a kinswoman within the prohi¬ 
 bited degrees, which interpretation is found 
 in the comparison being applied to any of 
 the parts or members of the body improper 
 to be seen. The usual formula is : Anti 
 ‘ataiya ka-zaliri uinmi, “ Thou art unto me as 
 my mother’s back.” 
 
 Before the establishment of Muhammadan¬ 
 ism, zihar stood as a divorce, but Muham¬ 
 mad changed it to a temporary prohibition, 
 for which expiation must be performed, viz. 
 either freeing a slave, or two months’ fast, or 
 feeding sixty persons. Qur’an, Suratu ’1-Muja- 
 diiali (lviii.), 1-5 :— 
 
 “ God hath heard the words of her who 
 pleaded with thee against her husband, and 
 made her plaint to God; and God hath heard 
 your mutual intercourse : for God Heareth ! 
 Beholdeth. 
 
 “ As to those of you who put away their 
 wives by saying, “ Be thou to me as my mother's 
 back" —their mothers they are not; they 
 only are their mothers who gave them birth 1 
 they certainly say a blameworthy thing and 
 an untruth : 
 
 “ But truly, God is Forgiving, Indulgent. 
 
 “ And those who thus put away their 
 wives, and afterwards would recall their 
 words, must free a captive before they can 
 come together again. To this are ye warned 
 to conform: and God is aware of what ye 
 do. 
 
ZIKE 
 
 Z1KR 
 
 703 
 
 “ And he who findeth not a captive to set 
 free, shall fast two months in succession 
 before they two come together. And he who 
 shall not be able to do so, shall feed sixty poor 
 men. This, that he may believe in God and 
 His Apostle. These are the statutes of God: 
 and for the unbelievers is an afflictive chastise¬ 
 ment ! ” 
 
 The above injunction was occasioned by 
 Khaulah, the daughter of Saiabah, having 
 pleaded her case with the Prophet, because 
 she had been divorced by her husband Aus 
 ibn as-Samit, by the formula above-mentioned, 
 and which was understood by the Arabs to 
 imply perpetual separation. Muhammad had, 
 in the first instance, decreed the divorce in 
 accordance with ancient Arabic law, but re¬ 
 laxed his order in consequence of the woman's 
 earnest pleadings. 
 
 ZIKE ( /j). Lit. “ Eememberiug.” 
 
 Heb. zakhar. The religious ceremony, 
 
 or act of devotion, which is practised by the 
 various religious orders of Faqirs, or Dar- 
 weshes. Almost every religious Muhamma¬ 
 dan is a member of some order of Faqirs, 
 and, consequently, the performance of zikr is 
 very common in all Muhammadan countries : 
 but it does not appear that any one method 
 of performing the religious service of zi/cr is 
 peculiar to any order. 
 
 Zikrs, are of two kinds : zikr jati, that 
 which is recited aloud, and zikr khafi. that 
 which is performed either with a low voice 
 or mentally. 
 
 The Xaqslibandiyah order of Faqirs 
 usually perform the latter, whilst the Cliish- 
 tiyah and Qadiriyah orders celebrate the 
 former. There are various ways of going 
 through the exercise, but the main features 
 of each are similar in character. The fol¬ 
 lowing is a zikr jali, as given in the book 
 Qauhi 'l-Jamil, by Maniawi Shah Waliyu 
 Tlah, of Delhi:— 
 
 The worshipper sits in the usual sitting 
 posture and shouts the word Allah (God), 
 drawing his voice from his left side and then 
 from his throat. 
 
 Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word 
 Allah still louder than before, first from his 
 right knee, and then from his left side. 
 
 Folding his legs under him he repeats the 
 word Allah first from his right knee and then 
 from his left side, still louder! 
 
 Still remaining in the same position, he 
 shouts the word Allah, first from the left 
 knee, then from the right knee, then from the 
 left side, and lastly in front, still louder! 
 
 Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards 
 Makkah, he closes his eyes, says “ La "— 
 drawing the sound as from his navel up 
 to his left shoulder: then he says ilaha, 
 drawing out the sound as from his brain; 
 and lastly “ ilia ’llahu," repeated from his left 
 side with great energy. 
 
 Each of these stages is called a zarb. 
 They are, of course, recited many hundreds 
 of times over, and the changes we have de¬ 
 scribed account for the variations of sound 
 
 and motion of the body described by Eastern 
 travellers who have witnessed the perform¬ 
 ance of a zikr. 
 
 The following is a zikr khafi. or that which 
 is performed in either a low voice or men¬ 
 tally. 
 
 Closing his eyes and lips, he says, “ with 
 the tongue of the heart,’’ 
 
 Allahu Samvun, “ God the Hearer.” 
 
 Allahu Basirun, “God the Seer.” 
 
 Allahu ‘Alimun, “ God the Knower.” 
 
 The first being drawn, as it were, from the 
 navel to the breast; the second, from the 
 breast to the brain; the third, from the 
 brain up the heavens ; and then again re¬ 
 peated stage by stage backwards and for¬ 
 wards. 
 
 He says in a low voice, “ Allah," from the 
 right knee, and then from the left side. 
 
 With each exhalation of his breath, he 
 says, “ la ilaha," and with each inhalation, 
 “ ilia ’llahu." 
 
 This third zarb is a most exhausting act 
 of devotion, performed, as it is, hundreds or 
 even thousands of times, and is, therefore, 
 considered the most meritorious. 
 
 It is related that Maulawl Habibu 'llah, 
 living in the village of Gabasanri, in the 
 Gadun country, on the Peshawur frontier, 
 became such an adept in the performance of 
 this zarb, that he recited the first part of the 
 zikr la ilaha with the exhalation of his breath 
 after the mid-day prayer; and the second 
 part, ilia ’llahu, with the inhalation of his 
 breath before the next time of prayer, thus 
 sustaining his breath for the period of about 
 three hours ! 
 
 Another act of devotion, which usually ac¬ 
 companies the zikr, is that of Muraqabah, or 
 meditation. 
 
 The worshipper first performs zikr of the 
 following:— 
 
 Allaho haziri, “ God who is present with 
 me.” 
 
 Allaho naziri, “ God who sees me." 
 
 Allaho shahidi, “ God who witnesses me." 
 
 Allaho ma-i, “ God who is with me.” 
 
 Having recited this zikr, either aloud or 
 mentally, the worshipper proceeds to medi¬ 
 tate upon some verse or verses of the Qur'an. 
 Those recommended for the Qadiriyah Faqirs 
 by Maniavl Shah Walivu'llah are the follow¬ 
 ing, which we give as indicating the line of 
 thought which is considered most devotional 
 and spiritual by Muslim mystics:— 
 
 1. Suratu i-Hadid (lvii.), 3 :— 
 
 “ He (God) is first. He is last. The Mani¬ 
 fest, and the Hidden, and who knoweth all 
 things.” 
 
 2. Suratu i-Hadid (lvii.), 4 :— 
 
 “ He (God) is with you wheresoever ye be.” 
 
 3. Suratu Qaf (L). 16 :— 
 
 ’“We (God) are closer to him (man) than 
 his neck-vein.” 
 
 4. Suratu '1-Baqarah (ii.) 109:— 
 
 “ Whichever wav ve turn, there is the face 
 of God.” 
 
 5. Suratu 'n-Xisa' (iv.), i25 :— 
 
 “ God encompasseth all things." 
 
704 
 
 ZIKR 
 
 ZIKR 
 
 6. Suratu ’r-Rahman (lv.), 26, 27 :— 
 
 “ All on earth shall pass away, hut the 
 face of thy God shall abide resplendent with 
 majesty and glory.” 
 
 Some teachers tell their disciples that the 
 heart has two doors, that which is fleshly, and 
 that which is spiritual; and that the zikr jail 
 has been established for the opening of the 
 former, and zikr khafi for the latter, in order 
 that they may both be enlightened. 
 
 To the uninitiated such a ceremony appears 
 but a meaningless rite, but to the Sufi it is 
 one calculated to convey great benefit to his 
 inner man, as will appear from the following 
 instructions which are given by a member 
 of the Order respecting the zilcr, which he 
 says is a union of the heart and the tongue 
 in calling upon God's name. “• In the first 
 place, the Shaikh, or teacher, must with his 
 heart recite, ‘ Them is no God but Allah, 
 and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah,’ 
 whilst the Murid keeps his attention fixed by 
 placing his heart opposite that of the Shaikh; 
 he must close his eyes, keep his mouth firmly 
 shut, and his tongue pressed against the 
 roof of his mouth ; his teeth tight against 
 each other, and hold his breath ; then, with 
 great force, accompany the Shaikh in the 
 zilcr, which he must recite with his heart, 
 and not with his tongue. He must retain 
 his breath patiently, so that within one re¬ 
 spiration he shall say the zilcr three times, 
 and by this means allow his heart to he im¬ 
 pressed with the meditative zilcr.'''’ 
 
 “ The heart,” the same writer continues, 
 “ in this manner is kept constantly occupied 
 with the idea of the Most High God; it will 
 be filled with awe, love, and respect for Him; 
 and, if the practiser arrives at the power of 
 continuing to effect this when in the com¬ 
 pany of a crowd, the zilcr is perfect. If he 
 cannot do this, it is clear that he must con¬ 
 tinue his efforts. The heart is a subtle part 
 of the human frame, and is apt to wander 
 away after worldly concerns, so that the 
 easier mode of arriving at the proceeding is 
 to compress the breath, and keep the 
 mouth firmly closed with the tongue forced 
 against the lips. The heart is shaped like 
 the cone of a fir-tree; your meditations 
 should be forced upon it, whilst you men¬ 
 tally recite the zilcr. ■ Let the “ La ” be up¬ 
 ward, the “ Ilaha ” to the right, and the whole 
 phrase “ La ilaha ilia ’llahu ” (There is no 
 God but Allah ) be formed upon the fir-cone, 
 and through it pass to all the members of the 
 whole frame, and they feel its warmth. By 
 this means the world and all its attractions 
 disappear from your vision, and you are 
 enabled to behold the excellence of the Most 
 High. Nothing must be allowed to distract 
 your attention from the zilcr, and ultimately 
 you retain, by its medium, a proper concep¬ 
 tion of the Tauhid, or Unity of God. 
 
 “ The cone-shaped heart rests in the left 
 breast and contains the whole truth of man. 
 Indeed, it signifies the ‘ whole truth’; it com¬ 
 prises the whole of man's existence within 
 itself, and is a compendium of man; mankind, 
 great and small, are but an extension of it, 
 
 and it is to humanity what the seed is to the 
 whole tree which it contains within itself : in 
 fine, the essence of the whole of God’s book 
 and of all His secrets is the heart of man. 
 Whoever finds a way to the heart obtains his 
 desire ; to find a way to the heart is needed by 
 a heartful service, and the heart accepts of 
 the services of the heart. It is only through 
 the fatigues of water and ashes that the 
 Murid reaches the conversation of the heart 
 and the soul ; he will be then so drawn to¬ 
 wards God that afterwards, without any dif¬ 
 ficulty, he may without trouble, in case of 
 need, turn his face from all others towards 
 Him. He will .then know the real meaning 
 of the Tarlc (the abandonment of the world), 
 the Haqiqat. (the truth), the Hurriyat (the 
 freedom), and the Zilcr (the recital of God’s 
 names and praises).” 
 
 As a curious instance of the superstitious 
 character of this devotional exercise, the 
 Chishtlyah order believe that if a man sits 
 cross-legged and seizes the vein called kai- 
 mas, which is under the leg, with his toes, 
 that it will give peace to his heart, when 
 accompanied by a zilcr of the “ nafi wa isbat,’’ 
 which is a term used for the Kalimah, 
 namely :— 
 
 La ilaha ilia ’Ualni, “ There is no deity but 
 God.” 
 
 The most common form of zilcr is a recital 
 of the ninety-nine names of God [names op 
 god], for Muhammad promised those of his 
 followers who recited them a sure entrance 
 to Paradise ( Mishlcat, book cxi.) ; and to faci¬ 
 litate the recital of these names, the zalcir (or 
 reciter) uses a tasbih (or rosary), [tasbih.] 
 
 In addition to the forms of zilcr already 
 mentioned there are three others, which are 
 even of more common use, and are known as 
 Tasbih, Tahmid, and Takbir. They are used 
 as exclamations of joy and surprise, as well 
 as for the devotional exercise of zilcr. 
 
 Tasbih is the expression Subhana ’llah ! 
 
 “ Holiness be to God! ” 
 
 Tahmid, Alhamdu li-’llah ! “ Praise be to 
 God! ” 
 
 Takbir , Allahu ukbar ! “ God is great 1 ” 
 
 When the Tasbih and Tahmid are recited 
 together it is said thus, Subhana ’llahi bi- 
 liamdi-hi, i.e. “ Holiness be to God with His 
 praise.” It is related in the Hadis that Mu¬ 
 hammad said, “ Whoever recites this sentence 
 a hundred times, morning and evening, will 
 have all his sins forgiven.” 
 
 Muhammad said, “ Repeat the Tasbih a 
 hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall 
 be recorded by God for you, ten virtuous 
 deeds for each repetition.” 
 
 In forming our estimation of Muhammad 
 and Muhammadanism, w r e must take into 
 consideration the important place the devo¬ 
 tional exercise of zikr occupies in the system, 
 not forgetting that it has had the authorita¬ 
 tive sanction of “ the Prophet ” himself. 
 
 The following is a graphic description of 
 one of these devotional performances, by Dr. 
 Eugene Schuyler, in his work on Turkistan :— 
 
 “ At about ten o’clock one Thursday even¬ 
 ing, in company with several friends, we went 
 
ZXEE 
 
 ZIEL 
 
 10-5 
 
 4* Ifoe saosqae. to: tst? ti ®h tizodneii. 
 >:me Tdirry roar. y:-Tig to: olsL Tar?- it 
 ddsir ioee* io irm :■: dde : . :■ >. reedriiig 
 irtyer- Tidd Iroi roe* to: x Tor to: Te- 
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 :ir:iie. it : ;t ddree Tex - rf rroao eitoidor. 
 xo; T5» grroo drr'.igrd lie stzoe 20 : 5 :oz*.. 
 "We to-.i iK t poiddoro am roe .lorroar and 
 
 XL-TOri -.It • • • • . ■ • • " 
 
 dde perfrrzoer* :t xrardmpttas dt: Ttteo on 
 lidaLr oundie g: to; to: ddedr t— rdtof. 5 :t 10 * 
 
 - • - - ti ; xi.-: -L' fT^r;...- m- - _m. 
 
 Toey Tire ■-•• t ; *,-- doe Tern* *1 It Lee: . : is 
 in God! Klt AZ> : '•.*• Tn.iwwfe.il; Mj %'•• ■- 
 W- >.?—>- i, .-~.— lies; wn' Hart- is o: 
 
 imet - oil 9 iio**; t: rds Tare edaaitsfi 
 
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 20 SC :o dde det.d rrer doe lan sfesenfer Te¬ 
 xt::; to; :r..- " _ r: . - £ do;o - do: : __ 
 
 fiordi.er. to. toso : to a* if dfrerrri.? tT 
 10 ? —: xeraanif t: xtr:- do; detro Toes; 
 jeik xaerfreKei f:r dmiired; tol .mzinrei; 
 rf iuhsee. to: dbif —Zkr orotZx laere i for to 
 .43 rfirs dde or: xanjame Tare 
 — _ iorrsteei io rxpicnry. 
 Trod" to; pats: r~erf tet; not le t: soirre n 
 sox "x.-.~i- If to~roe itTei ro 00 ~xt — or 
 
 TtS - i X :. DO ZOidf i*Sf - XHiriqx T~-.tr x t- 
 
 re.ooei- to; itarsrc.? to: TagnltTel ioe so- 
 
 dd n ff.E- 5*3 T-3TJ 30 3'. ~ r T. tOL fTrrrdk OZ3: 
 
 :xer dde dead. :r podded 1 b dtdk :m rf 
 dde rfrtie toil EatOe: toodder for: n_ C*ssb- 
 g:~.ti.xQter-s.or z:~ e t:to roixrLOToar roe?, 
 to: *■: tee too 3>er?3o:T.T:;o_ toot n ~' -e:-tzoe 
 oereeetrx :'x-oer t: reor-e for 1 :-t onoe; 
 
 • o.'.r: 2 Li res xsr-i n_ or :_:.Te~.x . 
 
 :j :ooerf. “oao tost xoaie* reotooe an- 
 rorejxo:tr-ee ttio roe ro to: to-st tk repoo. 
 to: ootZx ioe orj xtf forori: :n:. - He oxes ; 
 He Sts* I Gol oxe* . ’ to oosr *1 :t2x. Tno to 
 Ln:£sa&m .i to; 'mot to to; or roo: . loan 
 ore wi xfxi oex 'lost tor: io rtoaore. lie 
 :>:>ox i-ertoo; o r; “ero o: - I ti Lt*r "-r - 
 aZl 570.00 : ioe ooetiTore ?nfli iorretse: io 
 o'iOL'Orrx. too etro roe t oos - 000 : ^r 
 
 toe fonooer of oof ororo rooo. to: 7020 000 —- 
 wwrai «nn mn»< l iiML iribjwt Sfcgy wwraJ in a 
 —.to; fro— ore t: siLe ioe oo:*;:::*. iea.o- 
 
 ooo iion 10 : ltit; rj_io -He 5rsi 
 Z:<: Sth ;' Siio-sn:. loare 00 : i.eeo sozoe- 
 t>— ix toM to: Tna n'-'V io ix. ~mr ott 30 
 parsons ra Teii oarxas or ire^zoe j.osijj .vejr 
 oiiiofol to: tt: cf zox odaoos x=re *c or.or>, 
 
 ■ • - • to re . ' jSex* t^- 
 
 oSOSJfMt . 
 
 tui-nie.: 3® see to* r535r 
 o:oof:or sie i£ Toof, I i ~:to 1 Oct: oeioo 
 to izooress; : o toot xhe iLexoiees ras 
 «E oi iooso. xor.ee mo-ionos ~eoe mifiorx: 
 ISOOiOT of toj x:ST30O rf TOSCT OTOO .... 
 Toe ioio.vraoioo* rf fte xrfee xt xhtx r~ 
 —:i - Vr'- o too T-are rfrsan tamptrei :x 
 oorsi fooooiio resim-es. lie To too* or i iooi 
 ~ - rrrrao oeTri t r Toe sioe rf to* otoo ro 
 :ri=ar to tott to* x-r :-e te ox ts T.rreer r io. 
 'T’otso TOerse rerotTorof are zoareSx roZOsErforns 
 rf afetoiootesf xrrof- xrfro tL-rtys sso io 
 proioe-e to* store eoerr :o toe oetrsrs. too 
 ioe orrtoox — errroT - e i rx ode* rf Te r .- 
 
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 •'ji . - toil gross* to: srdf . to: ide 
 
 Oeaosrf t eeo_ o.et: idair irettos toto. T-decr 
 lists- ro £a9 tkoo Toe gornoo' 
 
 Toe Llo-too to. :;xoc itrrefdes in 
 T . ofitordor o * to: Gtirr otx; tesore pnoBf 
 ggihsta- amd are gju — afair 3® tiwse Ekn^eam 
 to© Itfixe xisoe: Oht^i crnef. 
 
 TTr. are rroienei. i: Mr. Boito* assomn rf 
 
 Tz-Lvoe: toi. • 
 
 ::.’ to* i.ZrTior ortTorr oes rop i i iin rf roe 
 
 i Toeee to. re .it.* rf sic*, 
 
 Toe sfffaco r-ox eHsaaaao'®* rx ode rerixti 
 • o - r to; • . • . • ;: 
 
 loe Zirfoirr i-tisa doe feren oye 
 
 i.edex.5 Trrrr.s. — rT - oexi eotOEf xarfoof T.tf- 
 sapef rf ioe T mo. to: tT an.th pause doe 
 1‘srrishsf. plaroafl io a edrcle isb! doe ~t:eTL 
 respiofl io do mo :x dde Trri -ATtii’ 
 Go: rr ■ Hk.ei' Hun^z or 31. He. Io 
 son* rf doe er.'/iede* doex si ro xdrfr deed. 
 dde eliCTf ri:®e T.r idrise rf etdd oddar. ao: 
 
 rofix Zoot Torrrsmentf 
 
 xdoe odder 
 OTin dde 
 
 err : ror.sif rro • • .i *.-~ie t -.ro. se x. f,. tjx. 
 rfro. ide rrfoT t : ide rrfx. to: or ~ -Or iier 
 Tr - — t rdroT : ooo.o. to; ix rroedo:.:.- 
 etlhrfrrvtr-i toi too Tdare trr-e :dder s&ae- 
 •• r r. r . 
 
 io roet-orei rtieoeef. xdrd i srid: :rme¬ 
 mo:--. dde exe* tioseo or roxei xor: dde 
 STui toi tre re- rfo oei on fooi. Tdese 
 s— exer::se* tre 'oof-errtTei ooier Td- 
 rotsne rf Ifarixedab erxiTtoro rfdoeXirfoe 
 rirr— ~jn cZ. : - rxeion-doo~. to: ids: 
 
 rooder ooit rf doe Te^deei 'erfedrtdiDi. :: 
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 dde eoarfsef tre roLde. et d: 
 r- id* ditoi. pro nf-ig iott 
 rigdrf :::t. toi iorretsiog ar ex=rx ser dde 
 
 dde loix. Tdi* 
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 nr*. d-Texar. zoate? dr t poinr td: rerr.tx t; 
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 rrrnat ri t.• : ->xt too ioe ror.s sm- 
 dtsro:. sxrixi t . psrsex-sre loogsr doto to* 
 orders: ddex nmerxHr d-.e-* deads lade r.ff 
 ddsir mi.too iroo t seeooo exile Tiroio dde 
 order, a- r»--e ddeir moos xidddo ddose rf 
 roerr dreidrso 3sam ddsir sdrrodsr* tg-tiofi 
 set'- rddsr. y-i. e -ix x nose dde xess. eo: 
 xdrd to • .. rsoeti Tx Adit- i Goo 
 or Tt Ho: . Tr x : t::_ too; 
 
 dda x*.-- exra*-r rf dde dody. rr- on sri 
 — losir somre errreoooo ; erdotosreo 
 
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 to doese exsmses. They tre. ;;_ : r--: -;r dde 
 ooix one* told use ore do Tdrfr dexorians. 
 To t : • t o ::. :; :_:;e :r 
 
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 roo: x; dorersn sssnes. xdi rf las Torre 
 do.to idree doxr-?.. tod —dddd are rrervede-d. 
 
 srHorro : r to; to . xeroeori 
 
 ■ —x-L. ljgp T (Jjzw 
 
 
ZIKR 
 
 ZIKR 
 
 706 
 
 accompanied, and followed by certain cere- j 
 monies peculiar to this order. The first com¬ 
 mences with praises which all the Dervishes 
 offer to their sheikhs, seated before the altar. 
 Four' of the more ancient come forward the 
 first, and approach their superior, embrace 
 each other as if to give the kiss of peace, 
 and nest place themselves two to his right, 
 and two to his left. The remainder of the 
 Dervishes, in a body, press forward in a pro¬ 
 cession, all having their arms crossed, and 
 their heads inclined. Each one, at first, | 
 salutes - by a profound bow the tablet on 
 which the name of his founder is inscribed. 
 Afterwards, putting his two hands over his 
 face and his beard, he kneels before the 
 Sheikh, kisses his hand respectfully, and j 
 then they all go on with a grave step to take 
 their places on the sheep-skins, which are I 
 spread in a half-circle around the interior of j 
 the hall. So soon as a circle is formed, the 1 
 
 Dervishes together chant the Takbeer ( Tak¬ 
 hir, the exclamation Allahu akbar, ‘ God is 
 exalted’) and the Fatiha ( Fdtihah , the first 
 chapter of the Qur'an). Immediately after¬ 
 wards the shaikh pronounces the words ‘ La 
 ilaha ill’ Allah’ (There is no deity but God), 
 and repeats them incessantly; to which the 
 Dervishes repeat ‘ Allah! ’ balancing them¬ 
 selves from side to side, and putting their 
 hands over their faces, on their breasts, and 
 their abdomen, and on their knees. 
 
 “ The second scene is opened by the 
 Hamdee Mohammedee, a hymn in honour of the 
 Prophet, chanted by one of the elders placed 
 on the right of the sheikh. During this chant 
 the Dervishes continue to repeat the word 
 ‘ Allah ! ’ moving, however, then- bodies for¬ 
 ward and aft. A quarter of an horn' later 
 they all rise up, approach each other, and 
 press their elbows against each other, balan¬ 
 cing from right to left, and afterwards in a 
 
 zikr. (A. F. Hole.) 
 
 reverse motion,—the right foot always firm, 
 and the left in a periodical movement, the 
 reverse of that of the body, all observing 
 great precision of measure and cadence. In 
 the midst of this exercise, they cry out the 
 words ‘ Ya Allah ! ’ followed by that of ‘ Ya 
 Hoo ! ’ Some of the performers sigh, others 
 sob, some shed tears, others perspire great 
 drops, and all have their eyes closed, their 
 faces pale, and the eyes languishing. 
 
 “A pause of some minutes is followed by 
 a third scene. It is performed in the middle 
 of an Bahee, chanted by the two elders on 
 the right of the sheikh. The Bahees are 
 spiritual cantiques , composed almost exclu¬ 
 sively in Persian by sheiks deceased in the 
 odour of sanctity. The Dervishes then hasten 
 their movements, and, to prevent any relaxa¬ 
 tion, one of the first among them puts him¬ 
 self in then centre, and excites them by his 
 example. If in the assembly there be any 
 strange Dervishes, which often happens, 
 
 they give them, through politeness, this 
 place of honour: and all fill it successively, 
 the one after the other, shaking themselves 
 as aforesaid. The only exception made is in 
 favour of the Mevlevees; these never perform 
 any other dance than that peculiar to their 
 own order, which consists in turning round 
 on each heel in succession. 
 
 “ After a new pause commences the fourth 
 scene. Now all the Dervishes take off their 
 turbans, form a circle, bear their arms and 
 shoulders against each other, and thus make 
 the circuit of the hall at a measured pace, 
 striking theh - feet at intervals against the 
 floor, and all springing up at once. This 
 dance continues during the Bahees, chanted 
 alternately by the two elders to the left of 
 the sheikh. In the midst of this chant the 
 cries of ‘ Ya Allah ! ’ are increased doubly, as 
 also those of ‘ Ya Hoo ! ’ with frightful bowl¬ 
 ings, shrieked by the Dervishes together in 
 the dance. At the moment that they would 
 
ZIKR 
 
 ZTKR 
 
 707 
 
 seem to stop from sheer exhaustion, the 
 sheikh makes a point of exerting them to 
 new efforts by walking through their midst, 
 making also himself most violent movements. 
 He is next replaced by the two elders, who 
 double the quickness of the step and the 
 agitation of the body ; they even straighten 
 themselves up from time to time, and excite 
 the envy or emulation of the othei-s in their 
 astonishing efforts to continue the dance, 
 until their strength is entirely exhausted. 
 
 “ The fourth scene leads to the last, which 
 is the most frightful of all, the wholly pro¬ 
 strated condition of the actors becoming con¬ 
 verted into a species of ecstasy which they 
 call Halet ( Halah ). It is in the midst of this 
 abandonment of self, or rather of religious 
 delirium, that they make use of red hot irons. 
 Several cutlasses and other instruments of 
 sharp-pointed iron are suspended in the 
 niches of the hall, and upon a part of the 
 wall to the right of the sheikh. Near the 
 close of the fourth scene, two Dervishes take 
 down eight or nine of these instruments, heat 
 them red-hot, and present them to the sheikh. 
 He, after reciting some prayers over them, 
 and invoking the founder of the Order, Ahmed 
 er Rufa'ee, breathes over them, and raising 
 them slightly to the mouth, gives them to the 
 Dervishes, who ask for them with the greatest 
 eagerness. Then it is that these fanatics, 
 transported by frenzy, seize upon these irons, 
 gloat upon them tenderly, lick them, bite 
 them, hold them between their teeth, and end 
 by cooling them in their mouths! Those 
 who are unable to procure any, seize upon 
 the cutlasses hanging on the wall with fury, 
 and stick them into their sides, arms, and 
 legs. 
 
 “ Thanks to the fury of their frenzy, and to 
 the amazing boldness which they deem a 
 merit in the eyes of the Divinity, all stoically 
 bear up against the pain ■which they expe¬ 
 rience with apparent gaiety. If, however, 
 some of them fall under their sufferings, they 
 throw themselves into the arms of their con¬ 
 freres, but without a complaint or the least 
 sign of pain. Some minutes after this the 
 sheikh walks round the hall, visits each one 
 of the performers in turn, breathes upon their 
 wounds, rubs them with saliva, recites 
 prayers over them, and promises them speedy 
 cures. It is said that twenty-four hours after¬ 
 wards nothing is to be seen of their wounds. 
 
 “ It is the common opinion among the Ru¬ 
 fa’ees that the origin of these bloody prac¬ 
 tices can be traced back to the founder of 
 the Order. They pretend that one day, during 
 the transport of his frenzy, Ahmed Rufa/ee 
 put his legs in a burning basin of coals, and 
 was immediately cured by the breath and 
 saliva and the prayers of ’Abdul Kadir Ghi- 
 lanee; they believe that their founder received 
 this same prerogative from heaven, and that 
 at his death he transmitted it to all the 
 sheikhs his successors. It is for this reason 
 that they give to these sharp instruments, 
 and to these red-hot irons, and other objects 
 employed by them in their mysterious frenzy, 
 the name of Gul, which signifies ‘ rose, - 
 
 wishing to indicate thereby that the use 
 made of them is as agreeable to the soul of 
 the elect Dervishes as the odour of this flower 
 may be to the voluptuary. 
 
 “ These extraordinary exercises seem to 
 have something prodigious in them, which 
 imposes on common people, but they have not 
 the same effect on the minds of men of good 
 sense and reason. The latter believe less in 
 the sanctity of these pretended thaumaturges 
 than in the virtue of certain secrets which 
 they adroitly use to keep up the illusion and 
 the credulity of the spectators, even among 
 the Dervishes themselves. It is thus, per¬ 
 haps, that some assemblies of these fanatics 
 have given, in this age of light, and in the 
 heart of the most enlightened nation, the 
 ridiculous spectacle of those pious and bar¬ 
 barous buffooneries known by the name of 
 convulsions. At all times, and amongst 
 every people of the earth, weakness and cre¬ 
 dulity, enthusiasm and charlatanry, have but 
 too frequently profaned the most holy faith, 
 
 | and objects the most worthy of our veneration. 
 
 “ After the Rufa’ees, the Sa’dees have also 
 the reputation of performing miracles, pretty 
 much of the same sort as the preceding. One 
 reads in the institutes of this Order, that 
 Sa’d ed Deen Jebawee, its founder, when cut 
 ting wood in the vicinity of Damascus, found 
 three snakes of an enormous length, and 
 that, after having recited some prayers and 
 blown upon them, he caught them alive, and 
 used them as a rope with which to bind his 
 fagot. To this occurrence they ascribe the 
 j pretended virtue of the sheikhs and the Der¬ 
 vishes of this society, to find out snakes, to 
 handle them, to bite them, and even to eat 
 them, without any harm to themselves. Their 
 exercises consist, like those of the Rufa’ees 
 and other Orders, at first in seating them¬ 
 selves, and afterwards in rising upright; but 
 in often changing the attitude, and in re¬ 
 doubling their agitation even until they be¬ 
 come overcome with fatigue, when they fall 
 upon the floor motionless and without know¬ 
 ledge. Then the sheikh, aided by his vicars, 
 employs no other means to draw them out of 
 this state of unconsciousness than to rub their 
 arms and legs, and to breathe into their ears 
 the words ‘ La ilaha ill’ Allah.’ 
 
 “ The Mevlevees are distinguished by the 
 singularity of their dance, which has nothing 
 in common with that of the other societies. 
 They call it Sem’a ( Sama *) in place of Devr 
 (Daur), and the halls consecrated to it are 
 called Sem’a khanehs. Their construction is 
 also different. The apartment represents a 
 kind of pavilion, sufficiently light, and sus¬ 
 tained by eight columns of wood These 
 Dervishes have also prayers and practices 
 peculiar to themselves. Among them the 
 public exercises are not ordinarily made by 
 more than nine, eleven, or thirteen individuals. 
 They commence by forming a circle, seated 
 on sheep-skin spread upon the floor at equal 
 distances from each other; they remain nearly 
 a half-hour in this position, die arms folded, 
 the ’eyes closed, the head inclined, and ab¬ 
 sorbed in profound meditation 
 
ZIKB 
 
 ZiKB 
 
 708 
 
 “ The sheikh, placed on the edge of his 
 seat on a small carpet, breaks silence by a 
 hymn in honour of the Divinity ; afterwards 
 he invites the assembly to chant with him 
 the first chapter of the Koran. ‘ Let us 
 chant the Fatiha,’ he says, in ‘ glorifying the 
 holy name of God, in honour of the blessed 
 religion of the prophets, but] above all, of 
 Mohammed Mustaplia, the greatest, the most 
 august, the most magnificent of all the celes¬ 
 tial envoys, and in memory of the first four 
 Caliphs, of the sainted Fatimah, of the chaste 
 Khadeeja, of the Imams Hasan and Husain, 
 of all the martyrs of the memorable day, of 
 the ten evangelical disciples, the virtuous 
 sponsors of our sainted Prophet, of all his 
 zealous and faithful disciples, of all the 
 Imams, Mujtahids (sacred interpreters), of all 
 the doctors, of all the holy men and women 
 of Mussulmanism. Let us chant also in 
 honour of Hazreti Mevlana, the founder of 
 our Order, of Hazreti Sultan ul ’Ulema (his 
 father), of Sayid Burhan ed Deen (his 
 teacher), of Sheikh Shems ed Din (his conse- 
 crator), of Valideh Sultan (his mother), of 
 Mohammed ’Allay ed Deen Efendi (his son 
 and vicar), of all the Chelebees (his succes¬ 
 sors), of all the sheikhs, of all the Dervishes, 
 and all the protectors of our Order, to whom 
 the Supreme Being deigns to give peace and 
 mercy. Let us pray for the constant pro¬ 
 sperity of our holy society, for the preserva¬ 
 tion of the very learned and venerable Che- 
 lebee Efendi (the General of the Order), our 
 master and lord, for the preservation of the 
 reigning Sultan, the very majestic and cle¬ 
 ment Emperor of the Mussulman faith, for 
 the prosperity of the Grand Yizier, and of the 
 Sheikh ul Islam, and that of all the Moham¬ 
 medan militia, of all the pilgrims of the holy 
 city of Mekkeh. Let us pray for the repose 
 of the souls of all the instit-utors, of all the 
 sheikhs, and of all the Dervishes of all other 
 Orders ; for all good people, for all those who 
 have been distinguished by their good works, 
 their foundations, and their acts of benefi¬ 
 cence. Let us pray also for all the Mussul¬ 
 mans of one and the other sex of the east 
 and the west, for the maintenance of all pros¬ 
 perity, for preventing all adversity, for the 
 accomplishment of all salutary vows, and for 
 the success of all praiseworthy enterprises: 
 finally, let us ask God to deign to preserve in 
 us the gift of His grace, and the fire of holy 
 love.’ 
 
 “ After the Fatiha, which the assembly 
 chant in a body, the Sheikh recites the Fa¬ 
 tiha and the Salawat, to which the dance of 
 the Dervishes succeeds. Leaving their 
 places all at once, they stand in a file to the 
 left of the superior, and, approaching near 
 him with slow steps, the arms folded, and 
 the head bent to the floor, the first of the 
 Dervishes, arrived nearly opposite the Sheikh, 
 salutes, with a profound inclination, the 
 tablet which is on his seat, on which is the 
 name of Hazreti Mevlana, the founder of the 
 Order. Advancing next by two springs for¬ 
 ward, to the right side of the superior, he 
 turns toward him, salutes him with reverence, 
 
 and commences the dance, which consists in 
 turning on the left heel, in advancing slowly, 
 and almost insensibly making the turn of the 
 hall, the eyes closed, and the arms open. He 
 is followed by the second Dervish, he by the 
 third, and so on with all the others, who end 
 by filling up the whole of the hall, each re¬ 
 peating the same exercises separately, and all 
 at a certain distance from each other. 
 
 “ This dance lasts sometimes for a couple 
 of hours ; it is only interrupted by two short 
 pauses, during which the Sheikh recites dif¬ 
 ferent prayers. Towards the close of the 
 exercises, he takes a part in them himself, 
 by placing himself in the midst of the Der¬ 
 vishes ; then returning to his seat, he recites 
 some Persian verses expressive of good 
 wishes for the prosperity of the religion, and 
 the State. The General of the Order is again 
 named, also the reigning Sultan, in the fol¬ 
 lowing terms : ‘ The Emperor of the Mussal- 
 mans, and the most august of monarchs of 
 the house of ’Othman, Sultan, son of a sultan, 
 
 grandson of a sultan, Sultan-, son of 
 
 Sultan-, Khan,’ &c. 
 
 “ Here the poem mentions all the princes of 
 blood, the Grand Yizier, the Muftee, all the 
 Pashas of the empire, the ’Ulemas, all the 
 Sheikhs, benefactors of the Order, and of all 
 the Mussulman peers, invoking the benedic¬ 
 tion of heaven on the success of their arms 
 against the enemies of the empire. ‘ Finally, 
 let us pray for all the Dervishes present and 
 absent, for all the friends of our holy society, 
 and generally for all the faithful, dead and 
 living, in the east and in the west. 
 
 “ The ceremony terminates by chanting the 
 Fatiha, or first chapter of the Koran.” 
 
 (John P. Brown, The Dervishes, or Oriental 
 Spiritualism ,p. 218 seqq .) 
 
 These ceremonies of zilcr would at first sight 
 appear to have little in common with original 
 Muhammadanism, but there appears to be 
 little doubt that the practice of reciting the 
 word Allah and other similar expressions, com¬ 
 menced in the days of Muhammad himself, 
 and this even the Wahhabis admit, who at 
 the same time condemn the extravagances of 
 the Howling and Dancing Darveshes of Tur- 
 kistan, Turkey, and Egypt. 
 
 A chapter is devoted to the Prophet’s in- 
 ■ junctions on the subject in all large books of 
 j traditions, called Babu ’ z-Zilcr , from which 
 | the following sayings of Muhammad have 
 | been selected:— 
 
 Whenever people sit and remember God, they 
 are surrounded by angels which cover them 
 with God’s favour, and peace descends upon 
 them, and God remembers them in that 
 assembly which is near him. 
 
 Yerily there are angels who move to and 
 fro on the roads and seek for the remem¬ 
 berers of God, and when they find an as¬ 
 sembly remembering God, they say to one 
 another, “ Come ye to that which ye were seek¬ 
 ing.” Then the angels cover them with their 
 wings as far as the lowest heaven, called the 
 region of the world. The Prophet said:—When 
 the angels go to the court of God, God asks 
 them, while knowing better than they, “ What 
 
ZIKR 
 
 do my servants say and do ? ” Then the 
 angels say, “ They are reciting the Tasbih, 
 the Takblr, the Tahmid, and the Tamjid for 
 Thee.” And God says, “Have they seen 
 Me?” The angels say, “No, by God, they 
 have not seen Thee.” Then God says, “ What 
 would their condition be if they had seen 
 Me?” The angels say, “If they had seen 
 Thee, they would be more energetic in wor¬ 
 shipping Thee and in reciting the Tamjid, 
 and they would be more excessive in repeat¬ 
 ing the Tasbih.” God says, “ Then what do 
 they want ? ” The angels say, “ Paradise.” 
 Then God says, “ Have they seen Paradise ? ” 
 The angels say, “ We swear by God they 
 have not.” Then God says, “What would 
 their state have been had they seen Para¬ 
 dise?” The angels say, “If they had seen 
 Paradise, they would be very ambitious for 
 it, and would be excessive wishers of it, and 
 very great desirers of it.” God says, “ What 
 thing is it they seek protection from ? ” The 
 angels say, “ From hell fire.” God says, 
 “ Have they seen the fire ? ” The angels say, 
 
 “ No, by God, if they had seen the fire-” 
 
 God says, “ How would they have been had 
 they seen the fire ? ” The angels say, “ If they 
 had seen the fire, they would be great run¬ 
 ners from it, and would be great fearers of 
 it.” Then God says, “ I take ye as witnesses 
 that verily I have pardoned them.” One of 
 the angels said, •• There is a person amongst 
 them who is not a rememberer of Thee, 
 and is only come on account of his own 
 needs.” 
 
 There is a polish for everything that takes 
 rust, and the polish for the heart is the re¬ 
 membrance of God, and there is no act that 
 redeems from God’s punishments so much as 
 the remembrance of Him. The Companions 
 said, “ Is not fighting with the infidels also 
 like this?” He said, “No, although he 
 fights until his sword be broken.” 
 
 “ Shall I not inform you of an action which 
 is better for you than fighting with infidels 
 and cutting off their heads, and their cutting 
 off yours ? ” The Companions said, “Yes, 
 inform us.” The Prophet said, “ These 
 actions are remembering God.” 
 
 ‘Abdullah ibn Aus said :—An ‘Arab! came 
 to the Prophet and asked, “ Which is the best 
 of men ? ” The Prophet said, “ Blessed is the 
 person whose life is long and whose actions 
 are good.” The ‘Arab! said, “ 0 Prophet! 
 which is the best of actions, and the most 
 rewarded ? ” He said, “ The best of actions 
 is this, that you separate from the world, and 
 die whilst your tongue is moist in repeating 
 the name of God.” 
 
 A man said, “ 0 Prophet of God, really the 
 rales of Islam are many, tell me a thing by 
 which I may lay hold of rewards.” The Pro¬ 
 phet said, “Let your tongue be always moist 
 in the remembrance of God.” 
 
 “ Verily there are ninety-nine names of God ; 
 whosoever counts them up shall enter into 
 Paradise.” And in another tradition it is 
 added, “ God is Witr and like Witr.” 
 
 When Zu ’n-Nun (Jonah) the prophet 
 prayed his Lord, when he was in the fish’s 
 
 ZIKR 709 
 
 belly, he said, “ There is no Deity but Thee. 
 
 I extol Thy holiness. Verily I am of the un¬ 
 just ones.” And a Mussalman who suppli¬ 
 cates God with this petition will have his 
 prayer granted. 
 
 The best expressions are these four: 
 Subhana Allahi, al-Hamdu Lillahi, La ilaha 
 ilia ’llahu, and Allahu akbar ; and it does not 
 matter with which of them you begin. 
 
 Verily I like repeating these four expres¬ 
 sions : O Holy God! Praise be to God! 
 There is no deity but God! and God is 
 Great! better than anything upon which the 
 sun shines. 
 
 No one can bring a better deed on the Day 
 of Resurrection (unless he shall have said 
 the like or added to it) than he who has re¬ 
 cited, “ 0 Holy God! Praise be to Thee! ” 
 one hundred times every morning and 
 evening. 
 
 There are two expressions light upon the 
 tongue and heavy in the scale of good works, 
 and they are, “ 0 Holy God ! Praise be to 
 Thee! ” and “ 0 Holy God! the Mighty 
 One ! ” 
 
 That person who shall say, “ There is no 
 deity but God, who has no partner, to whom 
 is dominion and praise and power,” one hun¬ 
 dred times, shall receive rewards equal to the 
 emancipating of ten slaves ; and one hundred 
 good actions shall be written for him, and one 
 hundred of his sins shall be blotted out; and 
 those words shall be a protection to him from 
 the devil and his wickedness, in that day in 
 which he shall have repeated them, until the 
 night. Nor can anyone perform a better deed 
 for the Day of Resurrection than this, unless 
 he has done even more. 
 
 Moses said, “ 0 my Lord, teach me how I 
 am to call upon Thee.” And God said, “ O 
 Moses, recite ‘ There is no deity but God! ’” 
 Then Moses said, “ 0 my Lord every one of 
 Thy people say this.” And God said, “ 0 
 Moses, if the seven heavens and their inhabi¬ 
 tants and the seven earths were put into one 
 scale, and this expression, ‘ There is no deity 
 but God,’ into another, these words would ex¬ 
 ceed in weight.” 
 
 Reciting “ 0 Holy God ” is half the scale 
 of good works, and reciting “ God be praised,” 
 fills the scale. The recital of “ There is no 
 deity but one,” removes the curtain between 
 the worshipper and his God. 
 
 He who recites with an unsullied heart 
 “ There is no deity but God,” shall have the 
 doors of heaven open for him until he reaches 
 the throne of God, as long as he abstains 
 from great sins. 
 
 The ejaculation, “ There is no power and 
 strength but in God,” is medicine for ninety- 
 nine pains, the least of which is melancholy. 
 
 “ There are two qualities which, being prac¬ 
 tised by anyone, shall cause him to enter 
 Paradise ; they are small and easy, and it is 
 easy for anyone to practise them. One of 
 them is this: saying ‘ God is holy ’ ten 
 times after every prayer, ‘ Praised be God ’ 
 ten times, and ‘ God is great ’ ten times.” And 
 verily I saw the Prophet counting these 
 words on his hand, and he would say, “ Then 
 
ZIMMI 
 
 710 AZ-ZULU 5 l-auwal 
 
 these words are one hundred and fifty with 
 the tongue in the day and night, but they are 
 one thousand and five hundred in the scale 
 of actions, reckoning ten for one. And the 
 second is this: when he goes to his bed¬ 
 chamber. let him say. ■ God is holy.' and 
 *' God be praised.' and ■ God is great.* then 
 that is one hundred on the tongue and a 
 thousand in the scales. Then which of you 
 is it that commits two thousand five hundred 
 vices in the day and night, so that these 
 words may cover them ? " The Companions 
 said. If when we repeat these words we have 
 so many rewards, why should we not say 
 them ? ” The Prophet said. " The Devil 
 comes to one of you when at prayers and 
 says to him. • Remember so-and-so." till you 
 have finished your prayers: and the Devil 
 comes to you in your bed-chamber, and is 
 always making you sleep." 
 
 az-ZILIX T-AUWAL (JA\ ja\). 
 
 •• The first shade.” A Sun term for al- : Aqlu 
 'l- A' teal, [sun." 
 
 Z TT.T. r ! LLaH X Jfe). “ The 
 
 Shade of God.” A Sufi term for the Insanu 
 'I-Kamil, or the perfect man.” [sun.] 
 
 Az-ZlLZlli (JVA5\). “ The Earth¬ 
 
 quake.” The title of the xeixth Surah of the 
 Qur'an, beginning with the words *■ When the 
 earth shall quake with its quaking." 
 
 7 T\ HI ATT (A.J), pi. ziniam, from 
 
 the root zamm. - to blame. " A compact., cove¬ 
 nant. or contract, a league or treaty, any en¬ 
 gagement or obligation, because the breaking 
 thereof necessitates blame: and a right or due. 
 for the neglect of which one is to be blamed. 
 The word is also svnonvmous with ctuidn. in 
 the sense of security of life and property, 
 protection or safeguard, and promise of such: 
 hence ahlu " z-zimmah. or. with suppression of 
 the noun ahla. simply az-zimmah. the people 
 with whom a compact or covenant has been 
 made, and particularly the Kitabis. or the 
 people of the book. i.e. Jews and Chris ti a n s, 
 and the dla'usi :r Sat ears. ~zo pay the poll- 
 tax called jazyah. jaztah._ An individual 
 cf this class—namely, a free non-Muslim sub- 
 iect of a Muslim Government, who pays a 
 poll- or capitation-tax. for mhien the Mus¬ 
 lims are responsible for Ms security, personal 
 freedom, and nil git us toleration—is called 
 zinurd (see the following article}. 
 
 In the Qur'an, the word zimmah occurs 
 cnc-e. in the sense of elientship, or good faith, 
 as opt?posed to ties or blood. Surah ix. 
 7-10:— 
 
 " Mow can they who add gods to God be in 
 leaaue with God and witn His Apostle, save 
 these with whom ye made a leagne at the 
 sat-red temple ? r i long as tney are true to 
 vou. be ve true to them: verily. God loveth 
 those who fear Him. 
 
 ■•How can they? since if they prevail 
 against you. they win not regard, in their 
 dealing with you. either ties of blood or good 
 faith : With their mouths they content you. 
 
 but their hearts are averse,, and most of them 
 are perverse doers. 
 
 “ They sell the signs of God for a mean 
 price, and turn others aside from his way : of 
 a truth, evil is it that they do! 
 
 " They respect not with a believer either 
 ties of blood or good faith : and these are the 
 transgressors." 
 
 In modem language, the word zimmah has 
 frequently the meaning of conscience. (Com¬ 
 pare Lane's Arabic Dictionary, in locoi) 
 
 ZIAIAII (^J), a member of tbe 
 
 An In 'z-Zimmah. a non-Muslim subject of a 
 Muslim Government, belonging to the Jewish, 
 Christian, or Sabean creed, who. for the pay¬ 
 ment of a poll- or capitation-tax, enjoys secu¬ 
 rity of his person and property in a Muham¬ 
 madan country. 
 
 One of the most urgent duties enjoined by 
 Muhammad upon the Muslim or true believer, 
 was the .Jihad n SabUi TIahi, or exertion in 
 the road of God, i.e. warfare for the spread 
 of Islam, amongst the infidels within and 
 without Arabia [jihad] : thus the whole 
 world came to be regarded as divided into 
 two great portions, the Darn ’1-Harb and 
 Dam 1-Islam [darc 'l-haeb, daeu ~t.-ts t.aw ] 
 —the territories of War and the territories 
 of Peace. These two divisions, one of wMeh 
 represented the land of infidelity and dark¬ 
 ness. the other that of light and faith, were 
 supposed to be in a continual state of open 
 or latent belligerency, until the Dam T-Islam 
 should have absorbed the Dam 1-Harb and 
 faith conquered unbelief. Infidelity, how¬ 
 ever. admits of degrees. Its worst shape is 
 idolatry, that is, the worship of idols instead 
 of or besides the one true God; and this, again, 
 is a crime most abominable on the part of 
 Arabs, - since the Prophet was sent amongst 
 them, and manifested himself in the midst of 
 them, and the Qur'an was delivered down in 
 their language." Of an eqnallv atrocious 
 character is the infidelity of apostates, “ be¬ 
 cause they have become infidels, after having 
 been led into the way of faith, and made 
 acquainted with its excellence.” In the case 
 of neither, therefore, is a compromise admis¬ 
 sible : they must accept cr re-embrace the 
 faith, or pay with their lives the mil penalty 
 of their crime. 
 
 With regard to the idolaters of a non- 
 Arabic or ; Aiam country, which latter expres¬ 
 sion in the times of early Islam particularly 
 aptliel to the Persian Empire, ash-Shafri 
 maintains that destruction is incurred by 
 them also: hut the other learned doctors 
 agree that it is lawful to reduce them to 
 slavery, thus allowing them, as it were, a 
 respite during which it may please God to 
 direct them into the right path, but making, 
 at the same time, their persons and substance 
 subservient to the cause of Islam. 
 
 The least objectionable form of infidelity 
 in the eyes of Muhammad and his followers, 
 is that of the Kitabis or people of the Book 
 'ahlu ' l-hiidb). i.e. the Jews, as possesssors of 
 the Old Testament, or Taurat, and the Chris¬ 
 tians, to whom, moreover, the Injil (Gospel, 
 
ZIMMI 
 
 ZIMMI 
 
 711 
 
 was revealed. As they are not guilty of an 
 absolute denial, but only of a partial perver¬ 
 sion of the truth, only part of the punishment 
 for disbelief is their due, and it is imposed 
 upon them in the shape of a tribute, called 
 poll- or capitation- tax [jazyah], by means of 
 which they secure protection for their pro¬ 
 perty, personal freedom, and religious tolera¬ 
 tion from the Muslim Government. The same 
 privilege is extended to the Majusi or 
 Sabeans, whose particular form of w r orship 
 was more leniently judged by Muhammad 
 and the Traditionists than that of the idolaters 
 of Persia. 
 
 This is the state of things if a country 
 inhabited by such infidels be conquered by a 
 Muslim army: theoretically, the inhabitants, 
 together with their wives and children, are 
 considered as plunder and property of the 
 State, and it would be lawful to reduce them 
 to slavery. In practice, however, the milder 
 course prevails, and by paying the stipulated 
 capitation-tax, the subdued people become, 
 in the quality of Zimmis, free subjects of the 
 conquering power, whose condition is but 
 little inferioi to that of their Muslim fellow- 
 subjects. 
 
 The relations of an alien or Harbi—that is, 
 one who belongs to the people of the Darn ’1- 
 harb—to a Muslim community which he 
 visits, in time of peace, for the sake of traffic 
 or any other legitimate purpose, are regulated 
 by that high conception of the duties of hos¬ 
 pitality, which was innate with the ancient 
 Arab, and which prompted him to defend and 
 honour even a mortal enemy, as soon as he 
 might have crossed as a chance guest the 
 threshold of his tent. 
 
 On entering the territory, an alien can 
 claim a guest’s protection from the first met 
 Muslim, be it even the lowest peasant, and 
 having obtained this protection, he is entitled 
 to remain in the country unmolested for the 
 term of a whole year. The authorities, how¬ 
 ever, must within the year give him notice 
 that, if he should remain until its completion, 
 capitation-tax will be imposed upon him, and 
 in such notice the permission for his stay may 
 be limited to some months only, if for some 
 reason or other it should appear advisable 
 or necessary to do so. If the alien continue 
 in the country beyond the full or limited time 
 prescribed, he becomes ipso facto liable to 
 the capitation-tax, and if, after thus becom¬ 
 ing a Zimmi; he be desirous of returning to 
 his own country, he may be prevented, as now 
 being bound to the Muslim Government by a 
 contract of fealty. In similar manner an 
 alien becomes a Zimmi upon purchasing tri¬ 
 bute land and paying the impost on it, and is 
 then liable to captitation-tax for the ensuing 
 year. An alien woman turns Zimmiyah by 
 marrying a Zimmi, because thereby she 
 undertakes to reside in the Muhammadan 
 state. (See Hamilton’s Hiddyah. vol. ii. p. 
 196.) 
 
 Zimmis do not subject themselves to the 
 laws of Islam, either with respect to things 
 which are merely of a religious nature, such 
 as fasting and prayer, or with respect to those 
 
 temporal acts which, though contrary to the 
 Muhammadan religion, may be legal by their 
 own, such as the sale of wine or swine’s 
 flesh. The construction of places of worship 
 in the Muslim territory is unlawful for them, 
 [ unless within their own houses, but if 
 churches and synagogues originally belonging 
 to Christians and Jews be destroyed or fall 
 j to decay, they are at liberty to rebuild and 
 repair them. This is the rule with regard to 
 cities, because, as the tokens of Islam, such 
 as public prayer, festivals, &c., appear there, 
 Zimmis should not be permitted to exhibit 
 | the tokens of infidelity in the face of them; 
 
 I in villages and hamlets, on the other hand, 
 where the tokens of Islam do not appear, 
 
 ' there is no occasion to prevent the construc- 
 I tion of Christian and Jewish places of wor- 
 ! ship. (See Hamilton’s Hiddyah, vol. ii. p. 
 
 ; 219.) 
 
 Save some slight restrictions with regal’d to 
 , dress and equipage, Zimmis are held in all 
 ; transactions of daily life pretty much on a 
 footing of equality with Muslims. Like chil¬ 
 dren, women and slaves, a Zimmi has no legal 
 share in the booty, but only a discretionary 
 allowance out of it, if he has taken part in 
 the fight. If he has acted as a guide, and 
 his services as such have been attended with 
 any eminent advantage, he may, however, 
 receive even a larger share than a Muham- 
 I madan combatant. (Hamilton's Hiddyah, 
 j vol. ii., p. 178.) 
 
 Every marriage that is lawful between two 
 | Muslims, is lawful between two Zimmis. 
 j Marriages that are not lawful between two 
 Muslims are of several kinds. Of these there 
 is the marriage without witnesses. When a 
 Zimmi marries a Zimmiyah without witnesses, 
 and such marriages are sanctioned by their 
 j religion, the marriage is lawful. So that, if 
 they should afterwards embrace the Muslim 
 faith, the marriage would still be established. 
 And in like manner, if they should not em¬ 
 brace that faith, but should both claim from 
 the judge the application of the rules of 
 Islam, or one of them should make such a 
 claim, the judge is not to separate them. 
 There is also the marriage of a woman during 
 ' her ‘iddah on account of another man 
 | [‘iddah]. When a Zimmi marries a woman 
 in her ‘iddah for another man, that man being 
 a Muslim, the marriage is invalid, and may 
 be objected to before their adoption of the 
 Muhammadan religion, even though their 
 own religion should recognise the legality of 
 marriage in the state of ‘iddah ; but if the 
 ! ‘iddah were rendered incumbent on the 
 i woman on account of an infidel, and mar- 
 : riages in a state of ‘iddah are accounted law- 
 ] ful in the religion of the parties, it cannot be 
 ■ objected to while they remain in a state of 
 infidelity, according to general agreement. If 
 under these circumstances they afterwards 
 adopt the Muslim faith, the marriage remains 
 fixed and established, according to Abu 
 Hanifah, whose decision is considered valid 
 in spite of the different opinions of Abu 
 | Yusuf and Muhammad, and the judge is not 
 to separate them, though both of them or 
 
712 
 
 ZIMMI 
 
 ZIMMI 
 
 only one of them should adopt the faith, or 
 both or only one of them should bring the 
 matter before the judge. In the Mabsiit it 
 is stated that the difference between the 
 masters was only when the reference to the 
 judge, or the adoption of the faith, takes 
 place during the subsistence of the ‘icldnh ; but 
 where it does not take place till after the 
 ‘iddah has expired, the parties are not to be 
 separated, according to all their opinions. 
 (Baillie’s Digest of Moohummudan Law, Hani- 
 feea, p. 178.) 
 
 If a Zimmi marry a Zimmlyah, making the 
 dower consist of wine or pork, and one or 
 both should afterwards embrace the faith 
 before the wife has obtained seisin, according 
 to Abu Hanifah, the woman is entitled to 
 receive the actual article, if it has been 
 “ identically specified,” but if not, the esti¬ 
 mated value of the wine, or her proper dower 
 in lieu of the pork, as the case may be. Abu 
 Yusuf maintains that she is to have her proper 
 dower, and Muhammad the estimated value 
 in all cases. If a Christian Zimmi marry a 
 Christian Zimmlyah, without specifying any 
 dower, or on a specified dower consisting of 
 carrion (flesh of an animal not lawfully slain), 
 such as may be deemed lawful by members 
 of their profession, and have sexual inter¬ 
 course with her, or divorce her without con¬ 
 summation, or die withorrt consummation, 
 according to Abu Hanifah, she is not entitled 
 to any dower, although both parties may 
 have embraced the faith in the interim ; but 
 according to Abu Yusuf and Muhammad, she 
 will take her proper dower if the husband 
 consummate the marriage, or die without con¬ 
 summation, and will be entitled to a present 
 if she be divorced without consummation. 
 (A. Kumsey, Moohummudan Law of Inherit¬ 
 ance, p. 373.) 
 
 When one of an infidel married couple em¬ 
 braces the Muhammadan faith, Islam is to be 
 presented to the other, and if the other adopt 
 it, good and well; if not, they are to be sepa¬ 
 rated. If the party is silent and says nothing, 
 the judge is to present Islam to him time 
 after time, till the completion of three, by 
 way of caution. And there is no difference 
 between a discerning youth and one who is 
 adult; so that a separation is to be made 
 equally on the refusal of the former as of the 
 latter, according to Abu Hanifah and the 
 Imam Muhammad. But if one of the parties 
 be young and without sufficient discernment, 
 it is necessai'y to wait till he has understand¬ 
 ing ; and when he has understanding, Islam 
 is then to be presented to him; and if he 
 adopt it, well ; if not, a separation is to be 
 made without waiting for his arriving at pu¬ 
 berty. And if he be mad, Islam is to be pre 
 sented to his parents ; and if they, or one of 
 them, should embrace it, good and well ; if 
 not, a separation is to be made between the 
 married parties. If the husband should em¬ 
 brace the faith and the wife refuse, the sepa¬ 
 ration is not accounted repudiation ; but if the 
 wife should embrace the faith and the husband 
 decline, the separation in consequence is con¬ 
 sidered a repudiation, since the cause of 
 
 separation proceeds from him. When a sepa¬ 
 ration takes place between them by reason of 
 refusal, and it is after consummation, she is 
 entitled to the whole dower ; and if it is be¬ 
 fore consummation and through his refusal, 
 she is entitled to half the dower; hut if 
 through her own refusal, she has no dower at 
 all. If, however, the husband of a Kitablyah 
 adopt the faith, their marriage remains un¬ 
 affected in accordance with the general prin¬ 
 ciple, that the marriage between a Muslim 
 and a Kitablyah is originally lawful. (Bailley, 
 Hanifeea Code, p. 180.) 
 
 When a Zimmi has repudiated his Zimmlyah 
 wife three times, and then behaves to her as 
 he had done before the repudiation, without 
 j marrying her again, or saying the words of 
 the contract over her ; or when his wife has 
 obtained a kind- or release [khdl 1 ], and he 
 then acts to her as before without renewing 
 the contact—they are to be separated, even 
 though they should not bring the matter to 
 the judge. But if he repudiates her three 
 times, and then renews the contract of mar¬ 
 riage with her without her being married to 
 another, they are not to he separated. (Ib.) 
 
 The child follows the religion of the better of 
 its parents. Hence, if one of them be a Muslim, 
 the child is of the Muslim religion. The mother 
 could not be so ab initio, but only in conse¬ 
 quence of conversion to the Muhammadan 
 faith, for a Muslim woman cannot lawfully be 
 the wife of any other than a man of her own 
 religion. So also, if one of them should sub¬ 
 sequently embrace Islam, having an infant 
 child, the infant would become Muslim by 
 virtue of the parent’s conversion, that is, 
 when there is no difference of ddr, by both 
 of the parents being either within the Daru ’1- 
 Islam or the Daru ’l-Harb, or by the child 
 being in the former at the time that its parent 
 embraces the Muslim faith in the foreign 
 country, for he then becomes constructively 
 one of the Muslim people; but when the 
 child is in the foreign country, and the parent 
 within the Muslim territory, and he adopt 
 the faith there, the child does not follow him, 
 and is not a Muslim. A MajusI is worse 
 than a Kitabi; and if one of the parents be 
 a MajusI and the other Kitabi, the child is a 
 Kitabi, and may be lawfully married by a 
 Muslim, to whom also things slaughtered by 
 the child would be lawful. 
 
 Generally, an infidel cannot inherit from a 
 believer, nor, on the other hand, can a be¬ 
 liever inherit from an infidel; but infidel sub¬ 
 jects of a Muslim state can inherit from one 
 another. And it is immaterial, for such a 
 purpose, whether they be of the same reli¬ 
 gion or not; all unbelievers being, in this 
 respect, considered as of one class. A Muslim 
 may, however, make a bequest to a Zimmi 1 ] 
 and a Zimmi to a Muslim, as well as to an¬ 
 other infidel, whether of the same or of a 
 different religion, not being a hostile alien. 
 The testamentary power of a Zimmi is subject 
 to the same limitations as that of a Muslim, 
 so that bequests to a person entitled by 
 inheritance are invalid, and bequests to any 
 other person are invalid so far as they exceed 
 
ZIMMI 
 
 ZIYARAT 
 
 713 
 
 one-third of the testator’s property. This 
 for the reason that, on entering into the com¬ 
 pact of Zimmah, he has agreed to conform 
 to the laws of Islam in all temporal concerns. 
 See A. Rumsey, Moohummudan Law of In- 
 eritance, p. 222.) 
 
 The will of a Zimmi for secular purposes 
 is valid, according to all opinions. Other 
 than secular purposes are of four different 
 kinds. First, there are purposes which are 
 qurbah, or a means of approach to Almighty 
 God, both with Zimmis and Muslims ; and be¬ 
 quests for these purposes are valid, whether 
 they be to a set of particular persons or not. 
 Thus, when a Kitabi has directed, by his will, 
 that slaves be purchased and emancipated on 
 his account, whether with or without a speci¬ 
 fication of individuals, or that a third of his 
 property be bestowed in charity on beggars 
 and the indigent, or expended in lighting a 
 lamp in the Baitu ’1-Muqaddas or Holy 
 Temple of Jerusalem, or in making war 
 against the infidel Tartars, the bequest is 
 valid. 
 
 Second, there are purposes which are sinful, 
 both with the Zimmis and the Muslims ; and 
 bequests for these purposes are valid, if they 
 are to a set of particular persons, and the be¬ 
 quest is a gift without regard to the pur¬ 
 poses ; but if the persons are not particu¬ 
 larised, the bequest is void. If, therefore, a 
 Zimmi should bequeath, for instance, a third 
 of his property for the support of dissolute 
 women, singers, and the like, the bequest is 
 valid, if such persons are particularised and it 
 is a gift to them; but if they are not parti¬ 
 cularised, it is void. 
 
 Third, there are purposes which are qurbah 
 with the Muslims, but sinful with the Zimmis. 
 In this, as in the previous case, the bequest 
 is a gift and valid if in favour of a set of 
 particular persons ; but it is void, if the per¬ 
 sons are not particularised. Hence, if the 
 third of a man’s property is to be expended in 
 sending a set of Muslims on pilgrimage, or 
 building a masjid, and the persons are parti¬ 
 cularised, the bequest or gift is valid, and 
 considered to be coupled with a counsel to 
 accomplish the stated purpose, leaving them 
 at liberty to perform the pilgrimage, or erect 
 the mosque, or not, as they please. 
 
 Fourth and last, there are purposes which 
 are sinful with a Muslim, but qurbah or meri¬ 
 torious with a Zimmi; and bequests for these 
 are valid, according to Abu Hanifah, whether 
 the persons be particularised or not; but 
 void, according to Abu Yusuf and the Imam 
 Muhammad, when they are not specified. If, 
 for instance, a Kitabi bequeath a third of his 
 property for the erection of a church or syna¬ 
 gogue ; or bequeath his mansion to be con¬ 
 verted into a place of worship of his religion, 
 the bequest, according to the two disciples, 
 is void, as sinful in the eyes of a Muslim, un¬ 
 less it is for a particular class of persons, 
 when it is a gift to them; but, according to 
 Abu Hanifah, it is valid under all circum¬ 
 stances. This, however, subject to the con¬ 
 dition stated above, that the erection of such 
 buildings takes place in villages and not in 
 
 towns, the bequest in the latter case being 
 inoperative. (See Bailley, Hanifeea Code, 
 p. 673.) 
 
 If a Jew or a Christian, being in sound 
 health, build a church or a synagogue, and 
 then die, such building is an inheritance, ac¬ 
 cording to all the doctors, and therefore 
 descends to the heirs in the same manner as 
 any other of the founder’s property. From 
 the point of view taken by the two disciples 
 this is evident enough. But with regard to 
 Abu Hanifah’s doctrine, the question may be 
 raised: What is the difference between the 
 building of a church or synagogue in the time 
 of health, and the bequeathing it by will, that 
 Abu Hanifah should hold it inheritable in 
 the former instance, and not in the latter. 
 This “objection” is met in the Hidayali 
 with the “ reply ” : “ that it is not the mere 
 erecting (of the church, &c.) which extin¬ 
 guishes the builder’s property, but the ex¬ 
 clusive dedication of the building to the ser¬ 
 vice of God, as in the case of mosques erected 
 by Mussulmans; and as an infidel place of 
 worship is not dedicated to God indisputably, 
 it therefore still remains the property of the 
 founder, and is consequently inheritable (in 
 common with his other effects); whereas a 
 bequest, on the contrary, is used for the very 
 purpose of destroying a right of property.” 
 (Hidayah , Grady’s Translation, p. 696.) 
 
 ZINA’ [adultery.] 
 
 ZINDlQ (,jjA>j). A term now 
 
 used to express a person in a hopeless state 
 of infidelity. Some say the word is derived 
 from the Persian Zan-din, i.e. a woman’s reli¬ 
 gion. Others assert that it is a term of rela¬ 
 tion to the word Zand or Zend, which means 
 “ explanation,” i.e. the explanation of the 
 book of Zardusht or Zoroaster. (See Lane’s 
 Arabic Dictionary, in loco.) 
 
 ZIPPOKAH. [safura’.] 
 ZITARAH , from the root 
 
 zaur, “to visit,” visitation, particularly of the 
 tomb of the Prophet, and of the grave of any 
 martyr or saint of the Muhammadan faith. 
 In India and Central Asia, the word, always 
 pronounced ziyarat, is, by way of abbrevia¬ 
 tion, used for ziyarat-gah, i.e. for the place 
 of such visitation, or the shrine connected 
 with it. 
 
 Although it is held by Wahhabis and other 
 Muslim puritans that the Prophet forbade 
 the visitation of graves for the purposes of 
 devotion, the custom has become so common, 
 that it may be considered part of the Muham¬ 
 madan religion. And, indeed, it is difficult to 
 believe that a religious teacher of Muham¬ 
 mad’s cast of mind should have in principle 
 opposed a practice which is so natural to the 
 human heart. However much he may have 
 objected to the clamorous wailings and lamen¬ 
 tations over the dead, in which the pagan 
 Arabs of the ignorance, especially the women, 
 indulged, he was not likely to be insensible 
 to the solemn lesson which the resting- 
 I place of the departed teaches the living, 
 
 90 
 
7L4 
 
 ZIYARAT 
 
 ZIYARAT 
 
 or to stifle iu Iris followers the pious remem¬ 
 brance of beloved friends and kindred who 
 have gone before. We see, therefore, no rea¬ 
 son to doubt the genuineness of the following 
 traditions, which we translate from a manu¬ 
 script of the Mislikdt, belonging to the Library 
 of the India Office (Arabic MSS., No. 2143, 
 New Catalogue, 154), and which the compiler 
 of that work has taken from such authorities 
 as Muslim, Ibn Majak, at-Tirmizi, &e. 
 
 Buraidah related, the Apostle of God said : 
 “ (Formerly) I forbade you to visit the graves, 
 but you may visit them now. . . .” (Muslim.) 
 Abu Hurairah related: the Prophet visited 
 the grave of his mother-, and he wept and 
 caused those who were around him to weep 
 also. Then he said : “ I begged leave from 
 my Lord to ask forgiveness for her, but it 
 was not granted me ; then I begged leave to 
 visit her grave, and it was granted me ; visit 
 therefore the graves, for they remind you of 
 death.” (Muslim.) 
 
 Buraidah related : The Apostle of God used 
 to instruct them, when they issued forth to 
 the burial-places, to pronounce the words: 
 “Peace be upon you, 0 ye people of these 
 abodes from amongst the Believers and the 
 Resigned; and we, if God please, are surely 
 overtaking you to ask salvation from God for 
 us and you.” (Muslim.) 
 
 Ibn ‘Abbas related: The Prophet passed by 
 some graves in al-Madinah, and he turned 
 his face towards them and said : “ Peace be 
 upon you, 0 ye people of the graves ; may 
 God forgive us and you ; ye are the van of us 
 and_we (following) in your steps.” 
 
 ‘Ayishah related that when the turn of her 
 night had come on the Prophet’s part, he used 
 to step out towards the end of the night into 
 al-BaqI‘ (the burial-ground of al-Madinah) and 
 to say : “ Peace be with the abode of a be¬ 
 lieving people; and the time that has been 
 promised you as your appointed term may 
 come to you on the morrow (speedily) ; and 
 we, if please God, are overtaking you. 0 God, 
 grant forgiveness to the people of Baqku T- 
 Garqad.” She asked : “ What shall I say, 0 
 Apostle of God, to wit, on visiting the 
 graves ? ” He replied : “ Say, Peace be upon 
 the people of these abodes from amongst the 
 Believers and the Resigned, and God have 
 compassion on those of us that go before and 
 those that follow; and we, if please God, are 
 overtaking you.” (Muslim.) 
 
 Muhammad ibn Nu‘am related, the Prophet 
 said: “ He who visits the grave of his father 
 and mother, or of either of them, on every 
 Friday, his sins are forgiven, and he is 
 written down as one pious.” (Baihaql). 
 
 Ibn Mas‘ud related, the Apostle of God said: 
 “ I had forbidden you to visit the graves, but 
 now ye may visit them, for they detach from 
 this world and remind of the world to come.” 
 (Ibn Majah.) 
 
 Abu Hurairah related: “ The Apostle of 
 God cursed women visiting thegraves.” To this 
 the compiler of the Mishkat adds : At-Tirmizi 
 calls this tradition a well-supported and 
 genuine one, and says: “ Some of the learned 
 are of opinion that this happened before the 
 
 Prophet permitted the visitation of the graves, 
 but that when he did so, both men and women 
 were included in the permission; and some 
 again allege, that he only disapproved of 
 women visiting the graves, because they are 
 but little given to patience and much to 
 fear.” 
 
 In the face of these texts we cannot wonder 
 that the practice of visiting the graves forms 
 a marked feature in the religious life of the 
 Muhammadans, and that the tomb of the 
 founder of Islam and the burial-places of its 
 chief confessors have become the objects of 
 great devotional reverence. Pilgrims to Mak- 
 kah (except the Wahhabis) always proceed to 
 al-Madinah to visit the Proiohet’s shrine and 
 to claim an interest in his intercessions, and 
 in all Muhammadan countries there are ziya¬ 
 rats or “ shrines,” which are visited by de¬ 
 votees in order to obtain the intercessions of 
 the departed saint. Such a ziyarat is the 
 grave of Khwajah ‘Abdu ’llah Ansarl, who 
 flourished about the time of our King John, 
 a.d. 1200, and who established such a repu¬ 
 tation for sanctity that even to this day his 
 tomb, at Gazarghaiah near Herat, is visited 
 by pilgrims from all parts of the province. 
 This tomb is an exceedingly fine piece of 
 Oriental sculpture. Upon its marble slabs are 
 inscribed, in the finest sulus writing, verses 
 from the Qur’an. But the chief historic inte¬ 
 rest in the shrine of this saint is found in the 
 fact that Dost Muhammad Khan, the great 
 Afghan Ameer of Cabul (a.d. 1863), requested 
 that his bones should be interred at the feet 
 of Khwajah ‘Abdu ’llah, in order that his 
 dark deeds of blood may obtain forgiveness 
 through the potent intercession of this ancient 
 saint. Such is one of the many instances of 
 the great importance which Eastern rulers 
 have attached to the sanctity of the very 
 ground in which have been buried the remains 
 of some great teacher or ascetic. 
 
 In towns and in great centres of population, 
 the tombs which are visited as ziyarats are 
 usually substantial structures ; but in villages 
 they are often the most simple graves, marked 
 by a few flags, and surrounded by a low wall 
 to keep the sacred spot free from defilement. 
 Oftentimes the Eastern traveller will find a 
 ziyarat on the road-side of some desert high¬ 
 way. Probably it is the resting-place of some 
 pilgrim who, returning from Makkah, died of 
 disease or was slain by highway robbers, in 
 either case, according to the doctrines of 
 Islam, suffering a martyr’s death, [martyr.] 
 Such a ziyarat will be taken charge of by 
 some poor darwesh or faqlr, who will erect a 
 shed near the sacred spot, and supply the 
 weary traveller with a cup of cold water, as 
 he stops and raises his hands in supplication 
 at the shrine of the martyred saint. 
 
 The ernes performed at ziyarats are diver¬ 
 sified. Some will be celebrated as the place 
 where rheumatism can be cured, others are 
 suitable for small-pox patients, whilst some 
 have even gained a reputation as places of 
 healing for those who are bitten by mad dogs. 
 The grave of Khushhal Kh an Khatak the 
 warrior poet of the Afghans, in the Peshawar 
 
ZIYARAT 
 
 ZODIAC 
 
 715 
 
 A ZIYARAT IN CENTRAL ASIA (A. E. So/e.) 
 
 valley, is visited by thousands of childless 
 women. 
 
 The ziyarats are always visited with the 
 feet uncovered, and when the grave is covered 
 with stones or pebbles, these are used to rub 
 upon the afflicted limbs. Some more sub¬ 
 stantial monuments are supplied with brushes, 
 which are used for the double purpose of 
 cleaning up the court-yard and for rubbing 
 upon the diseased body of the devotee. 
 
 These ziyarats are always lighted up with 
 small lamps on Thursday evening, which is 
 the beginning of the Eastern Friday. But 
 Sunday is held to be a propitious day for 
 visiting shrines. 
 
 Adjoining many ziyarats of eminence, there 
 
 will be mosques supported by large endow¬ 
 ments, in which will be found a large number 
 of students. Such is the renowned ziyarat of 
 Kaka Sahib in the Khatak hills on the 
 Afghan frontier. Many ziyarats are very 
 largely endowed by princes and nobles, who 
 have believed that they have obtained assist¬ 
 ance from the intercessions of the departed 
 saint. There is, however, no proof that Mu¬ 
 hammad ever encouraged the belief that the 
 prayers of departed saints were of any avail 
 in the presence of the Almighty. Indeed, it 
 is a distinctive teaching of Islam that even 
 the Prophet himself cannot intercede for his 
 own people until the Day of Judgment, [in¬ 
 tercession.] 
 
 A ROAD-SIDE ZIYARAT IN CENTRAL ASIA. (E. S. Jukes.) 
 
 ZODIAC, The signs of. Arabic 
 mintaqatu ’l-buruj 
 The girdle or zone of towers.” Greek 
 TrvpyoL. Mentioned three times in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Surah Ixxxv. 1: 
 
 “ By the heaven with its Towers ! ” 
 ( Buruj .) 
 
 Surah xxv. 62: 
 
 “ Blessed be He who hath placed in the 
 Heaven the sign of the Zodiac! who hath 
 j placed in it the Lamp of the Sun, and the 
 light-giving Moon! ” 
 
 Surah xv. 16: 
 
 “ We have set the signs of the zodiac in 
 the Heavens, and adorned and decked them 
 forth for the beholders. 
 
716 ZOROASTRIANISM 
 
 “And We guard them from every stoned 
 Satan, 
 
 “ Save such as steal a hearing : and him 
 doth a visible flame pursue.” 
 
 In explanation of the last verses, commen¬ 
 tators tell us that the devils listen at the 
 gate of heaven for scraps of the knowledge of 
 futurity, and when detected by the angels, 
 are pelted with shooting stars (see Surah iii. 
 31: “the pelted devil" ; also Surah xxxvii. 8 : 
 “ hurled at from every side ”). 
 
 So in the Talmud, in Chagiya xvi. 1, the 
 shadeem, or “ demons,” are said to learn the 
 secrets of the future by listening behind 
 the pargod or “ veil.” 
 
 The names of the signs are : 
 
 1. Hama/. Ram. 
 
 2. Saur, Bull. 
 
 3. Jauza’, Twins. 
 
 4. Sartan, Crab. 
 
 5. Asad , Lion. 
 
 6. Sumbalak, lit. an “ ear of corn,” Virgin. 
 
 7. Mizan, Scales. 
 
 8. ‘Aqrab, Scorpion. 
 
 9. Qaus, Archer. 
 
 10. Jadi, He-goat. 
 
 11. Dalw, Watering-pot. 
 
 12. Hut, Fish. 
 
 ZOEOASTEIAOTSM. The ancient 
 
 religion of Persia is only referred to once in 
 the Qur’an, Surah xxii. 17, as the religion of 
 the Majus (y^^+jj), the Magians. Most 
 Muhammadan writers, especially amongst 
 the ShPahs, believe them to have formerly 
 possessed a revelation from God which they 
 have since lost, [xl-majus.] 
 
 ZTJBAIE IEE al-‘AITWAM Oj 
 (At). Cousin german to Mu¬ 
 hammad, and one of the first who embraced 
 his religion. He is one of the ten, called al- 
 ‘Asharah al-Mubashsharah, to whom the Pro¬ 
 phet gave certain assurances of Paradise. 
 He was slain by ‘Amr ibn Jurmiiz on the day 
 of the battle of the Camel (waq‘atu ’ l-Jamal ), 
 a.h. 6. 
 
 ZTJHA . (1) That part of 
 
 the day about half-way between sunrise and 
 noon. 
 
 (2) A period of voluntary prayer. 
 [prayer.] 
 
 (3) Az-Zuha, the title of the xcmrd Surah 
 of the Qur’an, which begins with the words, 
 “ By the noon-day brightness ” ( zuh.5 .). 
 
 ZUHD (Jd&j). Abstinence ; a reli¬ 
 gious life. Exercising oneself in the service 
 of God; especially being abstinent in respect 
 of eating; subduing the passions. 
 
 az-ZUKHEIJF “ Gilding.” 
 
 The name of the xxmrd Surah of the Qur'an, 
 in the 34th verse of which the word occurs : 
 “ And but that men would then have been 
 one nation, we would have made for those 
 who misbelieve in the Merciful, one roof of 
 silver for their houses, and steps up thereto 
 which they might mount: and to their houses 
 
 zdlaikha’ 
 
 doors, and bedsteads on which they might 
 recline; and gilding .” 
 
 ZULAIKT T A’, more correctly ZA- 
 LIK HA The wife of Poti- 
 
 phar ( Qitfir ). Al-Baizawi says she was 
 also called Ra‘il. An account of her tempting 
 Joseph is found in the xnth Surah of the 
 Qur’an, 23-25:— 
 
 “ And she in whose house he was, con¬ 
 ceived a passion for him, and she shut the 
 doors and said, ‘ Come hither.’ He said, 
 ‘ God keep me ! Verily my lord hath given me 
 a good home: verily the injurious shall not 
 prosper.’ 
 
 “ But she longed for him ; and he had 
 longed for her had he not seen a token from 
 his Lord (the apparition of his father, who 
 said, 1 Hereafter shall the names of thy 
 brethren, engraven on precious stones, shine 
 on the breast of the High Priest. Shall thine 
 be blotted out ? ’) Thus we averted evil and 
 defilement from him; verily he was one of 
 our sincere servants. 
 
 “ And they both made for the door, and she 
 rent his shirt from behind; and at the door 
 they met her lord. ‘ What,’ said she,‘ shall 
 be the recompense of him who intended evil 
 to my family, but a prison or a sore punish¬ 
 ment ? ’ 
 
 “ He said, 1 She solicited me to evil.’ And 
 a witness in her own family (an infant in the 
 cradle) witnessed: 1 If his shirt be rent in 
 front, then hath she spoken truth, and he is a 
 liar: 
 
 “ ‘ But if his shirt be rent from behind, then 
 she hath lied and he is a man of truth.’ 
 
 “ And when his lord saw his shirt -torn 
 from behind, he said, ‘ This verily is one of 
 your devices ! verily your devices are great! 
 
 “ 1 Joseph! tarn away from this ; ana thou 
 0 wife, ask pardon for thy crime : verily thou 
 hast sinned.’ 
 
 “ And in the city the women said, ‘ The 
 wife of the Prince hath solicited her servant: 
 he hath fired her with love: verily we per¬ 
 ceive her to be in a manifest error.’ 
 
 “ And when she heard of their cabal, she 
 sent to them and got ready a banquet for 
 them, and gave each one of them a knife, and 
 said, ‘ Joseph, come forth to them.’ And 
 when they saw him they extolled him, and 
 cut their hands (instead of their food, through 
 surprise at his beauty), and said, ! God keep 
 us ! This is no man! This is none other 
 than a noble angel! ’ 
 
 “ She said, ‘ This, then, is he about whom 
 ye blamed me. And I wished him indeed to 
 yield to my desires, but he stood firm. But 
 if he obey not my command, he shall surely 
 be cast into prison, and become one of the 
 contemptible.’ 
 
 “ He said, ‘ 0 my Lord ! I prefer the prison 
 to compliance with her bidding: but unless 
 Thou turn away their snares from me, I shall 
 play the youth with them, and become one of 
 the unwise ’ : 
 
 “So his Lord heard him and turned aside 
 their snares from him: verily He is the 
 Hearer, the Knower. 
 
ZU ’l-EIQAR 
 
 “ Then resolved they, even after they had 
 seen the signs of his innocence, to imprison 
 him for a time.” 
 
 The explanations put into parentheses are 
 notes of Mr. Rodwell’s, in whose translation 
 the passage is given, and who quotes the 
 corresponding Talmudic legends. 
 
 This story of Yusuf wa Zulaikha’ has been 
 celebrated in a well-known Persian poem by 
 ‘Abdu ’r-Rahman Jam!, and hence Joseph 
 has become the Adonis of the East. 
 
 ZU ’L-FIQAE (j\ad) } S). Lit. 
 
 “ The Lord of the Vertebrae of the Back.” 
 The name of the celebrated sword which Mu¬ 
 hammad gave to his son-in-law ‘All. 
 
 ZU ’L-HIJJAH yi). Lit. 
 
 “ The Lord of the Pilgrimage.” The twelfth 
 month of the Muhammadan year; so called 
 because it is the month appointed for the 
 Makkan pilgrimage. 
 
 ZU ’L-JALAL ^A). “ Lord 
 
 of Majesty.” One of the ninety-nine attri¬ 
 butes of God. See Qur’an, Surah lv. 78: 
 “ Blessed be the name of thy Lord possessed 
 of majesty and glory.” 
 
 ZU ’L-KIFL (JASJ1 jj). Lit. “ Lord 
 
 of a portion.” A worthy mentioned in the 
 Qur’an, Surah xxi. 85 : “ And Ishmael, and 
 Idris, and Zu ’1-Kifl, all of these were patient, 
 and we made them enter into our mercy ; 
 verily they were among the righteous.” Al- 
 Baizawi says he was so called because he had . 
 a portion with God the Most High, and gua¬ 
 ranteed his people, or because he had double 
 the work of the prophets of his time, and 
 their reward. According to some writers, he 
 was either Elias, or Joshua, or Zacliariah. 
 
 The root kajl, having also the meaning of 
 “ care,” “ support,” other interpreters iden¬ 
 tify him with the Obadiah of 1 Kings xviii. 4, 
 who supported one hundred prophets in the 
 cave ; or Ezekiel, who is called K.afi.1 by the 
 Arabs. See Niebuhr, Travels, vol. ii. p. 265. 
 
 ZULM (,*&). Lit. “Patting a 
 
 thing not in its proper place.” ( Ar-Raghib, in 
 loco.) Wrong-doing; acting tyranically. Mu¬ 
 hammad ibn at-Taiyib, the author of Annota¬ 
 tions on the Qamus, says zulm is of three kinds : 
 (1) between man and God, (2) between man and 
 man, (3) between man and himself. In the 
 Qur’an— 
 
 Surah iii. 50 : “ God loves not the tyrants 
 ( az-zalimina ).” 
 
 Surah iii. 104 : “ God desires not tyranny 
 ( z,ulman ) unto the worlds.” 
 
 Surah xxxi. 12 : “ Associating (with God) 
 is a mighty wrong (zubnun ‘azimuri).” 
 
 Surah ii. 54 : “ It was themselves they were 
 wronging (k&nu anfusa-hum yazlimuna).” 
 
 ZULM AH p]. zulamat. 
 
 “ Darkness.” A term used in theology for 
 (1) Ignorance, (2) Belief in a plurality of 
 gods, (3) Transgressions, (4) Afflictions. 
 
 Qur’an, Surah xxiv. 40: “ Or like darkness 
 
 ZU ’l-QARNAIN 717 
 
 I ( ka-zulumatin) on a deep sea, there covers it 
 1 a wave above which is a wave, above which 
 is a cloud,—darkness one above another,— 
 when one puts out his hand he can scarcely 
 see it; for he to whom God has given no 
 light, he has no light.” 
 
 ZU ’L-QA‘DAH (SjudMjj). Lit. 
 
 The “ Master of Truce.” The eleventh month 
 of the Muhammadan year, so called because 
 it was the month in which the ancient Arabs 
 abstained from warfare, [months.] 
 
 ZU ’L-QAKNAIN (^yB^A). Lit. 
 
 “ He of the two horns.” A celebrated per¬ 
 sonage mentioned in the 18th chapter of the 
 Qu’ran, who is generally considered to be 
 Alexander the Great, although Muslim 
 writers hold him to have been contemporary 
 with Abraham. 
 
 Al-Qastalani, the commentator on al- 
 Bukhari. says : “ Zu ’1-qarnain was a king 
 named Sakandar, whose wazir, or chancellor, 
 was Khizr [khizr], and was contemporary 
 with Abraham, the Friend of God, with whom 
 he visited the Ka‘bah at Makkah. There is 
 some difference of opinion as to his being a 
 prophet, but all learned men are agreed that 
 he was a man of faith and piety.” 
 
 Al-Baizawl says : “ He was Sakandar ar- 
 Rumi, King of Persia and Greece.” 
 
 Al-Kamalain say : “ He was Sakandar ar- 
 Ruml, but was contemporary with Abraham, 
 and not the Sakandar who lived about three 
 hundred years before Christ, who was an 
 infidel.” 
 
 Muhammad, in his Qur’an, whilst professing 
 to give an inspired account of Zu’l-qarnain, 
 supplies us with but a confused descrip¬ 
 tion, as follows:— 
 
 “ They will ask thee of Zu’l-qarnain. Say: 
 I will recite to you an account of him. 
 Verily We (God) established his power upon 
 the earth, and We gave him a means to ac¬ 
 complish every end ; so he followed his way, 
 until when he reached the setting of the sun, 
 he found it to set in a miry fount; and hard 
 by he found a people. We (God) said, ‘0 
 Zu’l-qarnain ! whether thou chastise or whe¬ 
 ther thou treat them generously ’—* As for 
 him who is impious,’ he said, ‘ we will chas¬ 
 tise him; ’ then shall he be taken back to his 
 Lord, and He will chastise him with a 
 grievous chastisement. But as to him who 
 believeth, and doeth that which is right, he 
 shall have a generous recompense, and We 
 will lay on them our easy behests. Then 
 followed he a route, until when he reached 
 the rising of the sun, he found it to rise on a 
 people to whom We had given no shelter 
 from it. Thus it was. And We had a full 
 knowledge of the forces that were with him. 
 Then followed he a route, until he came be¬ 
 tween the two mountains, beneath which he 
 found a people w’ho scarce understood a lan¬ 
 guage. They said, ‘ 0 Zu’l-qarnain I Verily 
 Gog and Magog {i.e. the barbarous people of 
 Eastern Asia) waste this land; shall we then 
 pay thee tribute, so thou build a rampart 
 between us and them ? ’ He said, ‘ Better 
 
718 
 
 AZ-ZUMAR 
 
 than your tribute is the might wherewith my 
 Lord hath strengthened me ; but help me stre¬ 
 nuously, and I will set a barrier between you 
 and them. Bring me blocks of iron ’—until 
 when it filled the space between the moun¬ 
 tain sides ; ‘ Blow,’ said he, ‘ upon it ’—until 
 when he had set it on fire, he said,’ ‘ Bring 
 me molten brass that I may pour upon it.’ 
 And Gog and Magog were not able to scale 
 it, neither were they able to dig through it. 
 ‘ This,’ said he, 1 is a mercy from my Lord.’ ” 
 (Qur’an, Surah xviii. 82-96.) 
 
 There are different opinions as to the rea¬ 
 son of the surname, “ two-horned.” Some 
 think it was given him because he was King 
 of the East and of the West, or because he 
 had made expeditions to both those extreme 
 parts of the earth; or else because he had 
 two horns on his diadem, or two curls of hair, 
 like horns, on his forehead. Perhaps there 
 is some allusion to the he-goat of Daniel, al¬ 
 though he is represented with hut one horn. 
 (Dan. viii. 5.) 
 
 az-ZTJMAE “Troops.” 
 
 The title of the xxxixth Surah of the Qur’an, 
 in the 73rd verse of which the word occurs : 
 “ But those who fear God shall be driven to 
 Paradise in troops." 
 
 ZUNNAR In Persia, the 
 
 belt worn by Christians and Jews. In India, 
 the Brahmanical thread. A term used amongst 
 the Sufis for sincerity in the path of reli¬ 
 gion. ( Kashfu ’ l-Isti.lah.dt , in loco.') 
 
 ZU ’r-rahim 
 
 Ztr ’N-NUN (oyR Lit. “ Man 
 
 of the fish.” A title given to the Prophet 
 Jonah, in Qur’an, Surah xxi. 87. [jonah.] 
 
 ZTJRAH (eVO- A?£. “ That which 
 
 is very distant.” A term used by al-Baizawi 
 the commentator for the Baitu 'l-Ma ir mur, or 
 the model of the Ka‘bah, which is said to be 
 in the fourth heaven, and is referred to in the 
 Qur’an, Surah hi. 4: “By the visited home 
 (i.e. Baitu ’l-Ma‘niur)." (See al-Baizawi, in 
 loco.) 
 
 ZU ’R-RAHIM (^ ji), pi. zavm 
 
 ’ l-arham , or ulu 'l-arham. Lit. “ A possessor 
 of the womb.” A uterine relation. The 
 plural form ulu ’l-arham occurs twice in the 
 Qur’an. 
 
 Surah viii. 76: “ And they who have be¬ 
 lieved and have since fled their country, and 
 fought at your side, these also are of you. 
 Those who are united by ties of blood (ulu ’l- 
 arham), are the nearest of kin to each other 
 according to the Book of God. Verily God 
 knoweth all things.” 
 
 Surah xxxiii. 6: “Nearer of kin to the 
 faithful is the Prophet, than they are to their 
 own selves. His wives are their mothers. 
 According to the Book of God, they who are 
 related by blood (ulu 'l-arham) are nearer the 
 one to the other than other believers, and 
 than those who have fled their country for 
 the cause of God : but whatever kindness ye 
 show to your kindred, shall be noted down in 
 the Book.” 
 
719 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 1 
 
 Abdast, 3, i. 
 
 
 Abiq, 3, i.; 7. i.; 132, i. 
 
 
 Ajir, 176, i. 
 
 
 Akbiru ’1-maujudat, ^ 
 
 616, i. 
 
 Akbir-i-cbabar-i-shambab, 
 
 
 12, ii. 
 
 Abb find- 12, ii. 
 
 
 Akbundzadab, 12, ii. 
 
 
 Adab, 285, ii. 
 
 obi 
 
 Adam, 9, i.; 440, i. ; 475, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Azad, 116, i. 
 
 
 Azar, 440, i. 
 
 
 Asiyab, 25, ii. 
 
 <L_\ 
 
 Asaf, 23, ii. 
 
 
 Al, 12, ii. 
 
 J* 
 
 Aminab, 2, i. 
 
 
 Ammab, 128, ii.; 680, ii. 
 
 L*\ 
 
 Amin, 14, ii. 
 
 
 Ayatu ’1-bifz, 15, i. ; 27, i. 
 
 
 Ayab, 26, ii. ; 350, i.; 489. 
 
 , ii. 
 
 Ayatu ’1-fath, 26, ii. 
 
 Ayatu ’1-kursi, 27, i. 
 
 -_Sa5\ 
 
 
 Avatu ’1-mawaris, 27, i. ; 
 
 i3o\ 
 
 207, i. 
 
 Ab, 646, ii. 
 
 s J\ 
 
 Ibabiyab, 188, i. 
 
 
 Ibaziyab, 188, i. 
 
 o\ 
 
 Ibaq, 7, i.; 188, i. 
 
 jwl 
 
 Abjad, 3, i.; 681, i. 
 
 
 Abad, 1, ii. 
 
 
 Abdal, 1, ii. 
 
 
 Abadi, 101, i. 
 
 
 Ibrabim, 440, i.; 475, ii. 
 
 
 Abkam, 101, ii. 
 
 
 Ibil, 49, i. 
 
 J*' 
 
 Ibbs, 84, i.; 188, i. 
 
 u-stf 
 
 Ibn, 604, ii.; 646, ii. 
 
 
 Ibnu ’1-baram, 163, i. 
 
 
 Ittibad, 222, ii. 
 
 
 Ittibadlyab, 609, i. 
 
 
 Ittifaq sukiiti, 197, ii. 
 Ittifaq fi‘li, 197, i. 
 Ittifaq qauli, 197, i. 
 Isbat, 261, i. 
 
 Asar, 23, ii. 
 
 Asaru ’sb-sbarif, 23, ii. 
 Ism, 220, ii.; 594, ii. 
 IsDa-‘isbariyab, 220, ii.; 
 
 " > 
 U4 
 
 572, ii. 
 
 Ijarah, 175, ii.; 233, ii.; 292, ii. 
 Ijtibad, 197, ii. 
 
 Ijtibad fi ’sb-sbar‘, ^ 
 
 198, ii. 
 
 Ijtibad fi ’1-mazbab, >— 
 
 198, ii. ; 199, ii. 
 
 Ijtibad fi ’1-masa’il, J5\—*J1 ^ 
 
 198, ii.; 199, ii. 
 
 Ajrab (Ajrat>, 613, i. 
 
 
 Ajal, 12, ii. 
 
 vK' 
 
 Ijma ! , 60, i.; 197, i. ; 286, 
 
 n.; 
 
 400, ii.; 548, i.; 656, i.; 
 
 661. ii. 
 
 Ajnabi, 12, ii. 
 
 
 Ajir, 12, ii. 
 
 
 Abadis. 106, ii. ; 400. ii. 
 
 
 Ihtikar, 197, i. ; 354, ii. 
 
 
 Ibtilam, 140, i.; 197, i. 
 
 
 Abad, 12, i. 
 
 
 Ubud, 377, i.: 649, i. 
 
 
 Ibdad, 196, ii. ; 366, i. 
 
 
 Abadivab, 12, i.; 568, ii. 
 
 
 Ibram. 156, i. ; 196, ii. ; 317, ii. ; i4}=4 
 
 338, i. 
 
 
 Abzab, 12, ii. 
 
 
 Ibsan, 196, ii.; 632, ii. 
 
 —=4 
 
 Ibsaru ’l-bajj, 197, i. 
 
 
 Ibzar, 197, i. 
 
 jU4 
 
 Ahmad. 12, i. 
 
 
 TTbnukb. 649, i. 
 
 Cr=4 
 
 Ibva’u ’1-mawat, 197, i. 
 
 
 Ikblas, 199, ii.; 286, i. 
 
 
 Akblaq. 12, ii. 
 
 j2*4 
 
 Akbnasivab, 568, i. 
 
 L. _i~4 
 
 Ada’, 9, i. 
 
 4o\ 
 
 Adab, 10, i. 
 
 W> 
 
 Idrak, 214, i. 
 
 
720 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Idris, 192, i. ; 440, i. ; 475, ii. 
 Ad'iyatu ’1-Ma’surah, Acj\ 
 
 10, ii. 
 
 Azan, 465, i.; 664, ii. 
 
 Izn, 222, ii. ; 661, ii. 
 
 Iradah, 146, ii. ; 215, ii. 
 
 Arazi, 21, ii. 
 
 Arba‘ah ‘anasir, 77, i. 
 
 Irtidad, 16, i.; 477, i. 
 
 Ardan, Urdunn, 250, i. 
 
 Arsh, 23, ii. 
 
 Arz, 102, i. ; 288, i. 
 
 Arkanu ’1-iman, 596, i. 
 
 Iram, 215, ii. 
 
 Armalah, 666, ii. 
 
 Irmiya, 227, i.; 440, i. 
 
 Arnab, 163, ii. 
 
 Irhas, 215, ii. ; 350, ii. 
 
 U=*A 
 
 iA>' 
 
 &L*j\ 
 
 V^\ 
 
 J® 
 
 Izar, 81, i. ; 581, i. 
 
 As' 
 
 Azraqiyah, 568, i. 
 
 
 Usara, 49, i. 
 
 cS;'—' 
 
 Usbu‘, 666, ii. 
 
 £r-' 
 
 Istibra’, 221, i. 
 
 
 Istibsar, 221, i.; 643, i. 
 
 
 Istisna’, 222, ii. 
 
 pi * . . . \ 
 
 Istihazah, 221, i. ; 221, ii. 
 
 
 Istihsan, 221, ii. 
 
 
 Istikharah, 221, ii. ; 580, ii. 
 
 ij Ici^A 
 
 Istidraj, 221, i.; 269, ii. ; 
 
 
 350, ii. 
 
 
 Istidlal, 221, i. ; 519, i. 
 
 
 Istirja 1 , 222, ii. 
 
 
 Istisqa’, 222, ii. 
 
 plfj.i...^' 
 
 Istishab, 222, ii. 
 
 
 Isti'anab, 221, i. 
 
 
 Isti‘ma.1, 519, i. 
 
 
 Istigbfar, 221, ii.; 318, ii.; 
 
 
 451, i. 
 
 
 Istiqamah, 222, i. 
 
 
 Istiqbal, 222, ii. 
 
 
 Istinja’, 222, i. ; 477, ii. 
 
 
 Istinshaq, 222, i. 
 
 
 Istihlal, 111, i. 
 
 
 Istiwa’, 662, i. 
 
 
 Isti’zan, 181, i. 
 
 SZJ*. .I 
 
 Istilad, 222, i.; 598, i. 
 
 
 Ishaq, 216, i. ; 440, i.; 475, 
 
 ii. jWd 
 
 Isbaqiyab, 216, ii. ; 567, ii. 
 
 
 Asad, 74, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 ■U 
 
 Asadu ’Hah, 13, ii. 
 
 <5iS\ A_\ 
 
 Usara’, 49. i. 
 
 
 Israf, 113, ii.; 221, i. 
 
 
 Israfll, 15, ii. ; 221, i. 
 
 
 Isra’il, 221, i. 
 
 
 Isra, 351, ii. 
 
 
 Isqat, 4, i.; 221, i. 
 
 
 Islam, 220, i.; 536, i. ; 564, i. 
 
 Ism, 429, i. 
 
 I*-*' 
 
 Ismu ’1-a‘zam, 220, ii.; 
 
 
 226, ii.303, ii.; 547, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Ismu ’z-zat, 220, ii. ; 
 
 
 702, ii. 
 
 Ism jalali, 220, ii. 
 
 
 Ism jamali, 220, ii. 
 
 
 Ism sifah, 220, ii. : 531, 
 
 i. ; ^ a—' 
 
 582, ii. 
 
 Asma’u ’r-rijal, 42, ii. 
 
 jUJ\ pU_! 
 
 Ismail, 216, ii.; 440, i.; 
 
 
 475, ii. ; 220, ii. 
 
 Ismallivah, 220, ii.; 574, i. 
 
 Asman, 170, i. 
 
 
 Uswah, Iswab, 657, i. 
 
 
 Asir, 49, ii. 
 
 
 Isharatu ’s-sa‘ah, 539, ii. 
 
 
 Isharatu ’1-malak, 213, ii 
 
 
 216, ii. 
 
 Isharah, 519, ii. 
 
 
 Ashribah, 99, ii. 
 
 Ash ! ariyah, 24, ii. ; 473, 
 
 i. ; diJt&d 
 
 569, i. 
 
 Isbmawil, 564, i. 
 
 
 Asbbadu, 111, ii. 
 
 
 Isabatu ’l-‘ain, 112, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ashab, 23, ii.; 650, i. 
 
 
 Asbabu ’1-ahzab, 46, ii. 
 
 
 Asbab a ’1-Aikah, 151, i. 
 
 
 Asbabu ’s-suffab, 24, ii. 
 
 6Ju a)\ ^>1^-0 \ 
 
 Asbabu ’1-fil, 24, i. 
 
 
 Asbabu ’1-kabf, 24, ii. ; 
 
 
 50, i.; 266, ii. 
 
 Asbabu ’n-nar, 171, ii. 
 
 
 Asr, 25, ii. 
 
 r°] 
 
 Israr, 221, i. 
 
 jV' 
 
 Istilab, 222, i. 
 
 c %~\ 
 
 Asl, 25, ii. 
 
 
 Usui, 122, ii. : 401, i.; 656, i. 
 
 Izafah, 530, i. 
 
 i»Ui\ 
 
 Uzbiyab, 551, ii. 
 
 
 Itfir, 464, ii. 
 
 
 I‘adah, 613, i. 
 
 iolcl 
 
 I‘taq, 598, i. ; 109, i.; 222, ii. 
 
 1‘tiqadat, 285, ii. 
 
 
 1‘tikaf, 195, i.; 222, ii.; 
 
 534, i. 
 
 1‘jarn, 683, ii. seqq. 
 
 f»UsC\ 
 
 I‘rab, 682, ii. 
 
 Jxl 
 
 A‘raf, 20, ii.; 41, i. 
 
 
 I‘lan, 200, ii. 
 
 
 A‘la, 13, i. 
 
 
 A‘ma, 43, ii. 
 
 
 A6izu bi-llab, 26, ii. 
 
 dlSli 
 
 A‘yan, 114, i. 
 
 
 A'yanu ’s-sabitah, 26, ii, 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 721 
 
 A‘yun, 114, i. 
 
 Uff, 452, i. 
 
 Afsun, 11, ii. 
 
 If tar, 196, ii. 
 
 Iqalah, 215, i. 
 
 Iqamah, 50, ii.; 215, i.; 465, ii. 
 Iqtisad, 354, i. 
 
 Iqtiza’, 215, ii. ; 519, ii. 
 
 Iqrar, 215, ii. 
 
 Iqraru ’1-asarn, 215, ii. jVjil 
 
 Iqrar ‘amm, 215, ii. ,*Vc } \j\ 
 
 Iqrar namak, 215, ii. 
 
 Uqnum, 213, i. ; 655, ii. 
 
 \ 
 
 _ 
 
 rr 5 ' 
 
 Sr— 
 
 Qy*+ 
 
 t',S\ 
 yiJM 
 
 ,2u31 
 
 Akasirah, 279, i. 
 
 Ikrah, 59, i.; 200, i. 
 
 Al-Ahad, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Akhir, 142, i. 
 
 Al-‘Arba‘un, 122, ii. 
 
 Al-Azwaju ’1-mutah- 
 harat, 399, i. 
 
 Al-Islam, 400, i. 
 
 Al-Ismu ’1-A'zam, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Asma’u ’1-jalalivali, cU—3^ 
 
 142, ii. 
 
 Al-Asma’u ’1-Jamaliyah, ®U— 
 
 142, ii. 
 
 Al-TJfuqu ’1-A‘la, 649, i. 
 
 Al-Imamu’1-a‘zam, 263, ii. ,»u3\ 
 
 Al-Imamu ’1-mahdi, 
 
 204, ii. 
 
 Al-Amin, 369, i. 
 
 Al-Insan, 213, i. 
 
 Al-Insanu ’1-Kamil, yV— 
 
 213, i.; 710, i. 
 
 Al-Inshirah, 213, ii. 
 
 Al-Anfal, 606, ii. 1 
 
 Al-Infitar, 207, i. 
 
 Al-Auwal, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Aiyamu ’1-Biz, 124, ii. H |*k^ 
 
 Al-Iman, 596, i. 
 
 Al-Bari, 141, ii. < 
 
 Al-Basit, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Batin, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Ba‘is, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-BaqI, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Bahr, 366, ii. 
 
 Al-Bahru ’1-abyaz, 367, i. 
 
 Al-Bahru ’1-ahmar, 536, i. ; 
 
 567,'i. 
 
 Al-Bahru ’1-akhzar. 567, i. r i=A\ 
 
 Al-Bahru ’1-azraq, 567, i. 
 
 ts; 
 
 Al-Bahru ’1-aswad, 567, i. 
 
 t^ 
 j~Ls\ 
 <jW ^ 
 
 Al-Barr, 142, i. 
 Al-Barzakh, 605, ii. 
 Al-Basir, 141, ii. 
 Al-Bayan, 108, ii. 
 
 Al-Baitu ’1-haram, 156, i. H 
 
 Al-Baitu ’1-nxa‘mur, 
 
 352, ii. 
 
 Al-Baitu ’1-muqaddas, 
 
 229, i.; 333, i.; 557, 
 
 '. seqq. 
 
 At-Taslis, 213, i. 
 
 At-Tahrim, 625, ii. 
 
 At-Tatfif, 629, i. 
 
 At-Taghabun, 624, ii. 
 
 At-Taghtis, 213, i.; 625, i. 
 At-Takasur, 626, i. 
 
 At-Takwir, 626, i. 
 
 At-Tanasukh. 616, i. 
 
 At-Tauwab, 142, i.; 630, i. 
 At-Taubatu ’n-nasuh, 
 
 629, ii. 
 
 At-Tin, 128, i.; 634, ii. 
 
 As-Salus al-aqdas, 646, ii. j-a i K 2\ 
 Ai-Jasiyak, 226, i. dAta,]! 
 
 Al-Jami‘, 142, i. 
 
 Ai-Jahiliyun, 460, i. 
 
 ,U1 
 
 A1 
 
 r-rij 
 
 ^ .*A' 
 
 - •—* "d 
 
 *** 
 
 CyoA3 d;*A3 
 
 
 ^jIra-33 
 dd^Jl 
 AS Vasil 
 
 ^hasajl 
 
 j^ajl 
 
 Al-Jabbar, 141, ii.; 223, ii 
 
 Al-Jibt, 191, ii. J 
 
 Al-Jabr wa’1-muqabalah, dLl&*33. —, 
 106, ii. 
 
 Al-Jabariyah, 223, i. 
 
 Al-Jahim, 171, i. 
 
 Al-Jalil, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Jannah, 440, i. 
 
 Al-Judi, 255, ii.; 435, ii 
 
 Al-Haqqah, 162, ii. 
 
 Al-Hakim, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Hijr, 257, ii. 
 
 Al-Hujurat, 183, ii. 
 
 Al-Hajaru ’1-aswad, 154, 
 ii.; 333, ii. 
 
 Al-Hudaibiyah, 182, ii. a—*.^1 
 
 Al-Hadid, 215, ii. joa-JI 
 
 Al-Hasib, 141, ii.; 168, ii. 
 
 Al-Hazaratu ’1-khams, 
 
 169,‘ii. 
 
 Al-Hutamah, 171, i.; 187, i. 
 
 Al-Hatim, 257, i. 
 
 Al-Hafiz, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Haqq, 141, ii. ; 162 
 
 Al-Haqiqatu ’s-sama- 
 wiyah, 547, i. 
 
 Al-Haqiqatu ’1-Mu- 
 hammadiyah, 547, i. 
 
 Al-Hukmu ’sh-sharh, 
 
 184, i. 
 
 Al-Hikmatu ’l-jami ! ah, 
 
 175, i. 
 
 Al-Hikmatu ’l-majhu- 
 lah, 175, i. 
 
 ii. 
 
 M^s\ 
 
 djUr...da-agjjl 
 da ? a Ja J\ 
 
 91 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 722 
 
 Al-Hikmatu ’1-masku- k-A—<iU£«&S3 
 tali, 175, i. 
 
 Al-Hikmatu ’1-mantu- i*jLi*33 I*AaJ3 
 qab, 175, i. 
 
 Al-Hakim, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Hulqum, 697, ii. 
 
 Al-Haliin, 141, ii.; 160, ii. 
 
 Al-Hamd, 160, ii. 
 
 Al-Hamdu li ’llab, 104, i. 
 
 Al-Hamid, 141, ii.; 161, i. 
 Al-Hambaliyab, 567, ii. 
 
 Al-Hanafiyab, 567, ii. 
 
 Al-Hawasu ’1-EliimsaTi. 4— 
 
 129, ii. ; 169, i. 
 
 Al-Haiy, 142, i.; 154, ii. 
 
 Al-TThafiz. 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Kbaliq, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Xbabir, 141, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 Al-Ehizr, 227, i.; 272, ii. 
 
 0^3 
 
 364, ii. 
 
 Al-Ivhulafa’u ’r-rasbi- E U)isjJ\ 
 
 dun, 264, i.; 274, i. 
 
 Al-Kliannas. 269, ii. ^3^3 
 
 Ad-Daulatu ’1-Umawivab, 
 
 448, i. 
 
 Ad-Daulatu ’1-Fatimiyab, to-A3sS3 
 125, ii. 
 
 Az-Zariyat, 702, i. ^k)3.iS3 
 
 Ar-Eafi‘, 141, ii.; 531. ii. <*i3_j33 
 
 Ar-Eabb, 531, i. w>J3 
 
 Ar-Eabman, 141, ii. : 347, ii. ; 
 
 532, ii. 
 
 Ar-Eahim, 141. ii.; 347, ii.; 
 
 532, i. 
 
 Ar-Eadd, 531, ii. J ;3S 
 
 Ar-Eazzaq, 141, ii.; 535, ii. «j3jy3 
 
 Ar-Eass, 535, ii. y»jS3 
 
 Ar-Eusul, 596, i. J-yS 
 
 Ar-Easbid, 142, i.; 535, i. o~yS3 
 
 Ar-Eiza’, 319, i. Ao ; 53 
 
 Ar-Ea‘d, 531, ii. oyli 
 
 Ar-Eaqib, 141, ii.; 535, i. 
 
 Ar-Eaqim, 535, i. ,*A;SS 
 
 Ar-Euknu ’1-Yamani, ^33 
 
 548, i. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-a‘zam, 133, ii.; ,*1^33 £j ; S 3 
 547, i. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-ilabi, 547, i. ^33 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-amiu, 133, i.; (^w»33 y.J3 
 
 484, ii.; 547, i. ; 605, i. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-insani, 547, i. ^3-^33 £^23 
 Ar-Eubu ’i-jari, 547, i. os;W3 t^ 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-baiwani, ' C;33 
 
 547, i. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’s-sufli, 547, i. ^—33 
 Ar-Eubu ’t-tab‘i, 547, i. £^33 
 
 A' 
 
 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’l-‘ulwi, 547, i. 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-mubkam, 
 
 547, i. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’1-Mukarram, 
 
 133, ii. 
 
 Ar-Eubu ’n-nabati, 547, i. 
 Ar-Eauzab, 535, ii. 
 
 Ar-Ea’uf, 142, i.; 535, ii. 
 Ar-Eum, 150, i. ; 549, ii. 
 Az-Zabaniyali, 697, ii. 
 Az-Zilzal, 710, i. 
 
 Az-Zalzalab, 485, i. 
 
 As-S;i‘ab, 177, ii.; 537, i. 
 As-Sauii‘, 141, ii.; 564, i. 
 As-Samiri, 362, i.; 564, i. 
 As-Salam, 141, ii.; 561, i. ; 
 563, i. 
 
 As-Suuauu ’s-sugbra, 
 
 431, i. 
 
 As-Sunanu ’1-kubra, 
 
 431, i. 
 
 As-Sunnatu ’z-Za’idab, 
 
 622, ii. 
 
 As-Sunnatu ’1-mu’akka 
 dab, 622, ii. 
 
 As-Sawadu ’1-a‘zam, 
 
 566, i. 
 
 As-Saiyarab, 459, ii. 
 Asb-Sbafi‘iyab, 567, ii. 
 Asb-Sbam, 571, ii. 
 
 Asb-Skar ! , 285, ii. 
 Asb-Sbari‘ab, 285, ii. 
 Asli-Sbu‘ara’, 581, ii. 
 Asb-Sbi‘ra, 596, i. 
 Asb-Sbakur, 141, ii. ; 571, ii. 
 Asb-Sbams, 459, ii. ; 571, ii. 
 Asb-Sbabid, 141, ii. ; 571, i. 
 Asb-Sbabidu ’1-kamil, 
 
 327, ii. 
 
 Asb-Skura, 582, i. 
 
 As-Saffat, 554, ii. 
 
 As-Salibat, 149, i. 
 
 As-Sabur, 142, i. 
 
 As-Sibabu ’s-sittab, 
 
 582j ii. 
 
 As-Sakbrab, 227, ii; 333, i. ; 
 
 480, i. ; 541, i.; 557, i. seqq. 
 As-Sirat, 544, i. 
 
 As-Saff, 554, ii. 
 
 As-Safa, 554, ii. 
 
 As-Salat, 561, i. 
 
 As-Samad, 142, i.; 564, i. 
 Az-Zarr, 142, i.; 702, i. 
 At-Tariq, 628, i. 
 
 At-Tagbut, 191, ii. 
 
 At-Ta’if, 381, ii. ; 625, ii. 
 
 ^33 
 
 to.JS 
 
 - 
 
 toSUJ3 
 
 W 
 
 toLJS 
 
 gA.~J3 
 
 
 \_S3 
 
 r 'A~33 
 
 eH—33 
 
 Sj^S^JS to~-33 
 
 S jo 3 -m 3 3 
 
 ^*3=c33 a3y—~-33 
 
 s ; L—33 
 
 " r U33 
 
 jjt$*-j-33 
 
 ^A*33 
 ; AD3 
 i ,~»,. v - 3 3 
 
 tsjy^3 
 
 cyliU3 
 
 U3 
 
 
 ^33 
 
 .3 3 cW=33 
 
 ija«aS3 
 
 3,3^3 
 
 t—fl«=J3 
 AaS3 
 sy-33 
 -u~=J3 
 jU33 
 oj3323 
 ^ybU=33 
 <-flfU43 
 
INDEX. 
 
 723 
 
 At-Tibbu 'r-ruhani, s-h33 
 
 634, ii. 
 
 Az-Zakir, 142, i. ; 698, ii. j*3k33 
 
 Az-Zillu ’1-auwal, 710, i. Jj333 Jh!3 
 Az-Zannu ’1-ghalib, 702, i. s-di*33 0-3=33 
 Ai-‘Adiyat, 485, i. uyb J 3*33 
 
 Al-‘Azar, 292, ii. ;ji*33 
 
 Al-‘Alim, 141, ii. ,*33*33 
 
 Al-‘Alamu ’s-sufli, 531, i. ^a-^ JUJ3 
 Al-‘Alamu ’l-‘ulwi, 531, i. <^3*33 /*3t*J3 
 Al-‘Adl, 141, ii. Ja*33 
 
 Al-‘Iraq, 215, ii. ,j3.*J3 
 
 *33 
 
 C5> 
 
 ^3 
 ,*A*!3 
 
 ^3 
 
 t - \ 
 
 Al-‘TJzza, 191, ii.; 540, i.; 
 
 658, ii. 
 
 Al-‘Aziz, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-‘Asr, 485, i. 
 
 Al-‘Azba, 360, i. 
 
 Al-‘Azim, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-‘Afu, 142, i. yj*33 
 
 Al-‘Aqlu ’1-auwal, 547, i.; Jj33 Ja*33 
 710, i. 
 
 Al-‘TJqulu ’l-‘ashrah, &y*>*33 Jya*33 
 655, ii. 
 
 Al-‘Ilmu ’1-allabi, 634, i. _ 
 Al-‘Ilmu ’t-tabi‘i, 202, ii. ,^***1=33 ,*3*33 
 Al-‘Ali, 141, ii. J-*33 
 
 Al-'Anasir al-arba‘ah, &*>jS3 ^3^*33 
 
 108, i. 
 
 Al-‘Ankabut, 605, i. 
 
 Al-‘Ahd al-jadid, 433, i. *^^*33 ^3*33 
 Al-‘Ahdu ’l-‘atiq, 439, ii. <3*^3 ^3*13 
 Al-‘Idu ’s-sa gh ir, 192, ii.; ^**-=33 a**33 
 194, ii. 
 
 Al-‘Idu ’i-kabir, 192, ii. ;**£33 A **33 
 Al-Ghabab, 138, i. _ **3*J3 
 
 Al-Grhashiyab, 139, i. &*a»U33 
 
 Al-Gbaffar, 141, ii. j^3 
 
 Al-Grhafiir, 141, ii. jy**33 
 
 Al-Grhani, 138, ii.; 142, i. ^y*33 
 
 Al-Gbaib al-mutlaq, 33k*S3 <—*:>*33 
 
 138, i. 
 
 Al-Fatihah, 125, i. ; 485, i. **?^3 
 
 Al-Fattah, 127, i.; 141, ii. C^3 
 
 Al-Fath, 125, i. £^3 
 
 Al-Firdaus, 449, i- 
 Al-Furqau, 132, ii. 
 
 Al-Fil, 128, i. J^3 
 
 Al-Qabiz, 477, i. ; 141, ii. (3^3 
 
 Al-Qadir, 142, i. ; 478, i. j^3 
 
 Al-Qari‘ab, 479, i. ACjla33 
 
 Al-Qubbatain, 339, ii. ^■^33 
 
 Al-Qadar, 478, i.; 596, i. ;-ia33 
 
 Al-Qudratu ’1-halwa’, b3^1&33 4^5-33 
 
 482, ii. 
 
 Al-Quddiis, 141, ii.; 482, ii. ^^3 
 
 Al-Qadim, 478, i. ^as33 
 
 ^*A*S3 y3jfi33 
 
 i3\ 
 
 ^33 
 j +&33 
 ji$a33 
 
 ^x^33 
 
 v»b^33 
 
 v»b^33 
 
 v*3^J3 
 
 ,b^33 
 
 Al-Qurra’u ’s-sab‘ah, <i*~~33 s>3yi33 
 478, ii. 
 
 Al-Quran, 656, i. 
 
 Al-Qurauu ’l-‘azim, 
 
 530, ii. 
 
 Al-Qasas, 479, i. 
 
 Al-Qaswii, 390, i.; 479, ii. 
 
 Al-Qaiam, 478, ii. 
 
 Al-Qamar, 459, ii.; 478, ii. 
 Al-Qahhar, 141, ii.; 478, i. 
 
 Al-Qawi, 141, ii. ; 479, ii. 
 
 Al-Qiyamah, 482, i. 
 
 Al-Qaiyum, 142, i; 478 ii. 
 
 Al-Kafi, 259, ii. 
 
 Al-Kablr, 141, ii.; 259, ii. 
 
 Al-Kitab, 280, ii. ; 484, i. 
 
 Al-Kitabu ’1-hukini, 
 
 280, ii. 
 
 Al-Kitabu ’1-mubin, (Jtw*33 
 
 280, ii. 
 
 Al-Kitabu ’1-muqaddas, y-aiUJl 
 566, ii. 
 
 Al-Kutub, 596, i. s-^^33 
 
 Al-Kutubu ’s-sittah, a^~33 s-^ 33 
 555, i.; 582, ii. 
 
 Al-Karim, 141, ii.; 261, ii. 33 
 
 Al-Ka‘bah, 256, i. <L*£33 
 
 Al-Kanzu ’l-makhfi, yi33 
 
 261, ii. 
 
 Al-Kalif, 260, ii. ^33 
 
 Al-Kausar, 262, i. »>y33 
 
 Al-Kufah, 281, ii. %S33 
 
 Al-Kimiya’, 277, ii. oU^-sS33 
 
 Al-Kimiya’u ’1-Akbar, 
 
 278, i. 
 
 Al-Lat, 191, ii.; 285, i.; 540, i. «J»3 
 Al-Latif, 141, ii. ; 285, i. ‘-M=b3 
 Allah," 141, i. ; 596, i. <sl33 
 
 Allahu akbar, 14, i. j£\ ^133 
 
 Al-Lauhu ’1-mahfiiz, 280, kya*..*J3 pji33 
 ii. ; 285, ii. ; 474, ii.; 
 
 698, i. 
 
 Al-Lailatu ’1-mubarakah, &)W*J3 ilA33 
 282, ii.; 534, ii. ; 662, i. 
 
 Al-Ma‘un, 347, i. 
 
 Al-Malik, 312, i. <^U33 
 
 Al-Ma’idah, 307, ii. 6afU3 
 
 Al-Mani‘, 142, i.; 313, i. £>U33 
 
 Al-Mubdi, 141, ii. ; 367, i. 
 Al-Muta‘akhirun, 460, i. 0j,ys.U*J3 
 Al-Muta‘ali, 142, i.; 424, i. tp3«*J3 
 Al-Mutaqaddimun, 460, i. 0y*A&x*!3 
 Al-Mutakabbir, 141, ii.; 424, ii. ^3^33 
 Al-Matin, 141, ii.; 346, ii. 0*^*33 
 Al-Masanl, 328, ii. 
 
 Al-Mujadilak, 418, ii. a3jt^-«J3 
 
724 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Al-Majus, 310, i. 
 
 Al-Mujib, 141, ii.; 418, ii. s-~***^ 
 Al-Majid, 141, ii.; 310, i. 
 Al-Muhdisun, 460, i. 
 
 Al-Mikrabu ’n-nabawi, 
 
 344,‘ii. 
 
 Al-Muhsi, 141, ii.; 418, i. 
 
 Al-Muhyi, 141, ii.; 418, i. 
 
 Al-Mukhazramun, 460, 
 Al-Muddasir, 367, i. 
 Al-Madinab, 303, i. 
 Al-Muzill, 426, i. 
 Al-Mursalat, 422, i. 
 Al-Mursbidu ’1-kamil, 
 
 616, ii. 
 
 Al-Mari’, 697, ii. 
 Al-Mirrikh, 459, ii. 
 Al-Muzzammil, 426, i. 
 Al-Muzil, 141, ii. 
 Al-Musabbihat, 422, i. 
 Al-Mustajab, 548, i. 
 Al-Masjidu ’1-aqsa, 
 
 333, i. 
 
 Al-Masjidu ’l-jami, 
 
 343, ii. 
 
 Al-Masjidu ’1-haram, 
 
 155, ii. 
 
 Al-Masih, 229, ii; 328 
 Al-Masihu ’d-dajjal, 
 
 328, ii!; 539, ii'. 
 Al-Musbtari, 459, ii. 
 Al-Musauwir, 141, ii. ; 
 Al-Ma‘arij, 302, i. 
 Al-Mi‘jan, 257, i. 
 Al-Mu‘izz, 141, ii. ; 418, ii. 
 Al-Mu‘ti, 142, i. ; 425, ii. 
 Al-Mu‘aqqibat, 366, ii. 
 Al-Mu‘auwizat, 366, ii. 
 Al-Mu‘id, 141, ii.; 418, ii. 
 Al-Mugliui, 142, i.; 367, ii. 
 
 w\^s «- ,+J ^ 
 
 
 
 11 . 
 
 423, i. 
 
 
 \**i\ 
 
 Al-Muqtadir, 142, i. ; 420, ii. j 
 
 Al-Muqaddim, 142, i 
 Al-Maqsudu ’1-aqsa, 
 
 609, ii. 
 
 Al-Muqsit, 142, i. ; 420, ii. 
 Al-Muqit, 141, ii. ; 420, ii. 
 Al-Mala’ikali, 311, ii. ; 596, i. 
 Al-Mulk, 419, ii. 
 
 Al-Malik, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Maliku ’1-wadud, 
 
 659, i. 
 
 Al-Malalriyah, 567, ii. 
 Al-Mumtahinah, 419, ii. 
 Al-Mumit, 142, i.; 419, ii. 
 Al-Munafiqur., 420, ii. 
 Al-Muntaqim, 142, i.; 420 i 
 
 Sj 
 
 t 
 
 AXs*J\ 
 
 420, i. 
 
 ttSSuH 
 olUtt 
 
 <u;u\ 
 
 Al-Mahdi, 305, i. ; 540, ii. 
 Al-Mubaimiu, 141, ii. ; 367, ii. (^-*>9-*^ 
 Al-Mautu ’1-abyaz, 347, i. oj*!' 
 
 Al-Mautu ’1-aswad, 347, i. 
 Al-Mu’a khkk ir. 142, i. ; 366, ii. 
 Al-Muwalladun, 460, i. 
 
 Al-Mu’min, 141, ii.; 419, ii. 
 Al-Mu’minun, 419, ii.; 572, ii- ot 
 Al-Maisir, 309, ii. j ..i. ^ 
 
 An-Najiyah, 428, i.; 567, ii. 
 
 An-Nar, 170, ii.; 430, i. 
 
 
 .UJI 
 
 iiUh 
 
 
 An-Nazi‘at, 431, ii. 
 
 An-Nas, 430, i. 
 
 An-Nafi 1 , 142, i.; 427, i. 
 
 An-Naba’, 427, i. MN 
 
 An-Nabiyu ’1-umrni, 654, ii. ^31 
 An-Najjaiiyak, 428, i. 
 
 An-Nujaba’, 436, i. 
 
 An-Najm, 428, i. 
 
 An-Nujumu ’s-sawabit, 
 
 459, ii. 
 
 An-JSIujumu ’s-saiyarah 
 201, ii.; 459, ii. 
 
 An-Nahl, 427, ii. 
 
 An-Nisa’, 434, ii. 
 
 An-Nasr, 431, i. 
 
 An-Nazlr, 431, ii. 
 
 An-JXafsu ’1-wahidah, 
 
 547, i. 
 
 Au-Nuqaba’, 436, ii. 
 Au-Naqshbandiyah, 430, ii 
 An-Naml, 429, ii. 
 
 An-Nawah, 440, i. 
 
 Au-Nur, 142, i.; 436, ii. 
 
 Al-Badi, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Humazab, 184, i. 
 
 Al-Wajid. 142, i.; 663, i. 
 
 Al-Wahid, 142, i.; 662, ii. 
 
 Al-Waris, 142, i. ; 664, ii. 
 
 Al-Wasi‘, 141, ii. ; 664, ii. 
 Al-Waqi‘ah, 664, i. 
 
 Al-WaJi, 142, i. 
 
 Al-Wujiidu ’1-inutlaq, 
 
 213, i.; 646, ii. 
 
 Al-Wadajan, 697, ii. 
 
 Al-Wadud, 141, ii.; 659, i. 
 Al-Waridan, 697, ii. 
 
 Al-Waqtu ’d-da’im,664,ii. 
 
 Al-Wakil, 141, ii.; 663, i. 
 
 Al-Wali, 141, ii. 
 
 Al-Wahhab, 141, ii.; 659, i. 
 
 Al-Yasa‘, 108, ii. ; 440, i.; £-4^ 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 Al-Yaqin, 694, i. 
 
 S UA\ 
 
 ycA\ 
 
 cU£A\ 
 
 ij+£\ 
 
 aAJ\ 
 
 ^)V; 
 
 c-V' 
 
 Al-Yaminu ’1-ghamus, 
 437, i. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 725 
 
 Al-Yaminu ’1-mun‘aqid, amuA! 
 
 437, i. 
 
 AI-Yaumu ’1-akhir. 537, i.; 
 
 596, i. ; 694, ii. 
 
 Al-Yaumu ’1-muhit, 537, i. pydl 
 
 ALE, 517, ii. jR 
 
 Alfaz, 518, i. 
 
 Ilqa’, 202, ii.; 486, i. »lsJ\ 
 
 ALM, 517, ii. 
 
 ALME, 517, ii. 
 
 ALMS, 517, ii. 
 
 Ilah, 200, i. 
 
 Ilham, 200, ii.; 213, ii. ; 470, ii. 
 
 «j0» 
 
 J»U\ 
 
 ^U\ 
 
 fd 
 
 ^ r' 
 
 Ilhamiyah, 609, i. 
 
 Ilahi, 200, ii. 
 
 Alwah, 14, i.; 624, i. 
 
 Uluhiyah, 650, i. 
 
 Ilyas, 108, ii.; 440, i.; 475, ii 
 Ilyasin, 108, ii. 
 
 IJmm, 654, i. 
 
 Ummu ’l-‘ulum, 654, i. 
 
 Ummu ’1-Qur’an, 125, i. 
 
 Ummu ’1-qura, 654, i., ii. ; 
 
 655, i. 
 
 Ummu ’1-kitab, 213, i. ; 
 
 647, i.; 654, ii. 
 
 Ummu ’1-mu’minin, 654, ii. |d 
 
 Ummu ’1-walad, 576, i.; 1*1 
 
 632, ii. ; 655, i. 
 
 Imam, 58, i.; 203, i. ; 278, ii.; fAd 
 475, i. 
 
 Imam barah, 204, i. j*0d 
 
 Imam mubin, 475, i. cy**" fbd 
 
 Imamiyah, 204, i.; 568, i.; ^-*0d 
 
 572, ii.; 574, ii. 
 
 Aman, 14, i.; 69, ii. ; 109, i. 
 
 Amanat, 286, i. 
 
 Amsal, 440, i. 
 
 Imsak, 206, i. 
 
 Umana’, 650, i. 
 
 Amah, 596, ii. 
 
 Unimak, 654, ii. 
 
 Ummatu Ibrahim, 654, ii. &d 
 
 Ummahatu ’1-masakif, «yW*d 
 
 686, i. 
 
 Umm Walad, 152, i. 
 
 Umumxyah, 655, i. 
 
 Ummi, 138, i. ; 654, ii. 
 
 Amir, 14, ii.; 278, ii.; 548, ii 
 Amiru ’1-umara’, 14, ii. 
 
 Amiru ’l-hajj, 14, ii. 
 
 Amiru ’1-mu’minin, 14, ii 
 59, i. 
 
 Amin, 14, ii. 
 
 Amin ’1-bait, 14, ii. 
 
 Ananiyali, 15, i. 
 
 <ykd 
 
 J^d 
 
 eAd 
 
 dd 
 
 (d 
 
 d~>»yd 
 
 dLol$\ 
 
 Ambiya’, 14, ii. 
 
 
 Injizab, 612, i. 
 
 
 Injil, 62, i.; 149, ii. ; 211, 
 
 i. ; 
 
 439, i. 
 
 
 Inzi'aj, 215, i. 
 
 glcyl 
 
 Insan, 40, i. 
 
 <yh~d 
 
 Insha’, 213, i. 
 
 
 Insha ’llahu ta‘ala, .Jl** Aid 
 
 213, ii. 
 
 
 An‘am, 15, i. ; 49, ii. 
 
 pbtd 
 
 In'am, 206, i. 
 
 l*\*d 
 
 Ansab, 566, ii. 
 
 
 Ansar, 16, i. 
 
 
 inzar, 215, i. 
 
 
 Infaq, 207, i. 
 
 jiad 
 
 Anfal, 15, i. 
 
 JOiil 
 
 Ihauah, 350, ii. 
 
 ditfel 
 
 Ihtimam, 197, i. 
 
 
 Iklal, 196, ii. 
 
 
 Ahlu ’1-bait, 12, i. 
 
 
 Ahlu ’1-haqiqah, 617, ii. 
 
 
 Ahlu ’z-zimmah, 710, i. 
 
 JjfcV 
 
 Ahlu ’s-sunnah, 623, i. 
 
 
 Ahlu ’1-kaba’ir, 215, i. 
 
 /L*SZ\ Jjb\ 
 
 Ahlu ’1-kitab, 12, i. ; 
 
 
 220, i. ; 423, ii. ; 575, ii. 
 
 Ahlu ’1-hawa’, 12, i. 
 
 
 Ahlu sunnah wa ~ Jjd 
 
 . jarn'ah, 60, i. 
 
 
 Ahlu Kimiya, 278, i. 
 
 
 Autad, 26, i. 
 
 
 Aurashalim, 227, i. 
 
 
 Aulad, 50, ii. 
 
 
 Ulu ’l-‘azm, 475, ii. ; 650, 
 
 i. f,y&\ 
 
 Auliya’, 26, ii. 
 
 e\J } \ 
 
 Aiyamu (Ayyamu) ’1-biz, 
 
 
 27, i. 
 
 
 Aiyamu ’t-tashrlq, 27, ii.; 
 
 jd»\ 
 
 157, ii. 
 
 
 Aiyamu ’1-qarr, 27, ii. 
 
 /l p\i\ 
 
 Aiyamu ’n-nahr, 27. ii. 
 
 jisld i*h\ 
 
 Tsar, 216, ii. 
 
 
 Ijab, 197, i.; 314, ii. 
 
 
 Aikak, 151, i. 
 
 •iisd 
 
 Ua’, 88, ii.; 200, i. 
 
 
 Iliya’, 227, i. 
 
 Add 
 
 Aiyim (Ayyim), 27, ii. 
 
 
 Iman, 198, i.; 204, ii.; 400, ii. : /jUd 
 
 564, i. ; 615, i. 
 
 
 Tman-i-tahqiqi, 615, i. 
 
 
 Iman-i-taqlidi, 615, i. 
 
 
 Iman muimal, 204, ii. 
 
 
 Iman mufassal, 204, ii. 
 
 
 A’immatu ’1-asrna’, 27, i. 
 
 sX*_iS\ 
 
 A’immatu ’1-hadis, 641, i. 
 
 (i-oAasJl d+?\ 
 
 Aiyub, 440, i.; 475, ii. 
 
 
726 
 
 Babu Ibrahim, 342, i. 
 Babu ’1-abwab, 29, i. 
 Babu ’r-rahmah, 344, ii. 
 Babu ’z-ziyadah, 342, i. 
 Babu ’s-salam, 29, i.; 
 
 338, ii. 
 
 Babu ’l-‘ashrah, 342, i. 
 Babu ’s-Safa, 342, i. 
 
 Babu ’i-‘umrah, 342, i. 
 Babu ’n-nabi, 342, i. 
 Babu ’n-nisa’, 29, ii. 
 
 Babu ’1-Wada‘, 342, ii. 
 Babu ban! shaibah, 
 
 29, ii. 
 
 Babu ‘Usman, 344, ii. 
 Babu ‘All, 342, i. 
 
 Babil, 29, i. 
 
 Babu Muhammad, 228, i. 
 Babuj (baboog), 95, i. 
 Padshah, 278, ii. 
 
 Barih, 305, i. 
 
 Bariqah, 36, ii. 
 Barah-i-wafat, 36, i. 
 Bari’, 36, ii. 
 
 Ba’z, 169, ii. 
 
 Bazaq, baziq, 39, ii. 
 Bazi‘ah, 128, ii.; 680, ii. 
 Batil, 39, ii. 
 
 Batin, 39, ii. 
 
 Ba‘is, 34, ii. 
 
 Ba‘us, 39, ii. 
 
 Baghi, 536, i. 
 
 Baqi, 36, i. ; 73, ii. 
 
 Bala khanah, 180, i. 
 Baligh, 35, ii. 
 
 Ba’in, 88, i. 
 
 Pak nawishtah, 566, ii. 
 Batul, 39, ii. 
 
 Bahr, 546, i. ; 566, ii. 
 Bahru ’1-khizr, 567, i. 
 Bahru ’z-zulmat, 102, ii. 
 Bahru ’1-qulzum, 536, i. ; 
 566, ii. 
 
 Bahru ’1-muhit, 102, ii. 
 Bahru But, 567, i. 
 Bahira, 30, i. 
 
 Bahirah, 30, ii. 
 Bakhtiyah, 568, ii. 
 Bakhur, 206, ii. 
 
 Badr, 373, i. seqq. 
 
 Bid‘ah, 42, i. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 w'Vs 
 >—>Vs 
 
 iy-SSJt] \ wVs 
 
 Sj4.*h *—>Vs 
 y.>Vs 
 
 £\AyJl yjVs 
 CT* 
 
 Sy?^ 
 
 SV&As 
 
 AijVs 
 
 ij b 
 
 3^ 
 
 j3)W 
 
 AitiVs 
 
 J 3 ) 3 - 
 
 i_s ^ 3 
 A>^S c3 Vs 
 
 Jr* 
 
 r- 
 
 y-=«y\ 
 
 uyVMkh 
 
 rP® r . 
 
 ^csr; 
 
 Wf*- 
 
 \<*s=: 
 
 r; 
 
 jr"- 
 
 Ac as 
 
 Biddy ah, 569, i. 
 
 A*cAs 
 
 Badu, 702, ii. 
 
 
 Badawi, 30, i. 
 
 ygJ'AS 
 
 Badl‘, 30, i. 
 
 s* 
 
 Bazl, 79, i. 
 
 
 Barr, 38, ii. 
 
 ?■ 
 
 Buraq, 44, ii.; 351, ii. 
 
 S? 
 
 Bara’ak, 36, i. 
 
 
 Burj, 76, i. 
 
 Burdah, 46, ii. 
 
 El* 
 
 6J f. 
 
 Birzaun, 177, i. 
 
 uS? 
 
 Barzakh. 38, ii. 
 
 i)? 
 
 Burqa‘, 48, i. ; 96, i. ; 280, 
 
 i- e*j* 
 
 Buruj, 48, i.; 76, i. 
 
 C}? 
 
 Buzurg, 48, ii.; 556, i. 
 
 ^y?. 
 
 Bazl, 73, i. 
 
 J ?■ 
 
 Bismillah, 43, i. ; 51, i. ; 
 
 a!5\ > 
 
 104, i. 
 
 Bushra, 48, ii. 
 
 
 Basarah, 39, i. 
 
 
 Basar, 39, i. ; 147, i. 
 
 r 3 * 
 
 Basil 1 , 39, i. 
 
 
 Basirah, 39, i. ; 130, i. 
 
 k-s/Oi 
 
 Basit, 39, i. 
 
 Biza‘ah, 43, i. 
 
 &£ Ld> 
 
 Bu‘as, 44, i. 
 
 
 Ba‘s, 39, i. 
 
 
 Ba‘l, 35, ii. 
 
 J** 
 
 Baghi. 419, i. 
 
 J** 
 
 Baghi. 129, ii. 
 
 
 Baqar ‘Id, 192, ii. 
 
 JyC jOi 
 
 Baqarah, 36, i. 
 
 Baqi‘u ’1-gharqad, 36, i.; 
 
 bjoi 
 
 
 714, i. 
 
 Buka’, 44, i.; 366, i. 
 
 Bukm (pi. of abkam), 101, 
 Biladu ’1-Islam, 42, i. 
 
 olib 
 
 ii. 
 
 
 Biladu ’l-‘Arab, 17, i. 
 
 
 Bilal, 42, i. 
 
 J^ 
 
 Balad, 35, ii. ; 283, i. 
 
 As 
 
 Baldah, 13, i. 
 
 SJvk 
 
 Bilqis, 42, i.; 604, ii. 
 
 
 Buliigh. 476, i. 
 
 
 Bulughiyah, 476, i. 
 
 
 Banat, 70, ii. 
 
 
 Bint, 70, ii. 
 
 
 Bint labun, 42, i. ; 700, i. 
 
 c^as 
 
 Bint mikhaz, 42, i. ; 700, i 
 
 
 Banu Isra’Il, 35, i. ; 36, i. 
 
 yAS 
 
 Banu ’1-Mustaliq, 378, ii.; 
 
 yjihsAl yAS 
 
 423, ii. 
 
 Banu Umaiyah, 448, i. 
 
 
 Binyamin, 41, ii. 
 
 
 Banish (beneesh), 93, i. 
 
 
 Buhtan, 29, ii.; 44, i.; 49, 
 
 i. 
 
 Bihisht, 42, i.; 449, i.; 586, i. e^gs 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Bulas, 44, i. 
 
 
 Bibanu ’sh-sharlf, 342, i. 
 
 U. ^ QJ V-y-O 
 
 Bait, 178, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’l-haram, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-hikmah, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-hamd, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’s-sa‘d, 280, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-quds, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’llah, 35, i.; 333, ii 
 
 
 Baitu T-mal, 35, i. ; 655, 
 
 ii. JUJ\ o-a.? 
 
 Baitu T-midras, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-ma‘mur, 35, i.; 
 
 
 257, ii. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-muqaddas, 35, i. 
 
 
 Baitu ’1-maqdis, 227, i. 
 
 
 Bi’r, 666, ii. 
 
 
 Bi’ru ’n-bTabi, 701, ii. 
 
 ft 
 
 Bi’r zamzam, 42, ii.; 
 Bi’r ma'unah, 42, ii. 
 BI-shar‘, 43, i. 
 
 Bai‘, 30, ii. 
 
 Bai‘u T-wafa’, 34, i.; 
 Bi‘ah, 42, i.; 56, ii. 
 Baiyinah, 35, ii. 
 
 PIr, 458, ii.; 556, i. 
 Paighambar, 449, i. 
 
 337, Hi 
 
 35, 
 
 Sr’o? 
 
 ciiji) 
 
 Tabi'un, 624, i. 
 
 
 Tabut, 410, ii. seqq. ; 560, 
 624, i. 
 
 ii. ; 
 
 Tabut khanah, 411, ii. 
 
 
 Taj, 120, i.; 282, ii.; 626, 
 
 i i. 5^' 
 
 Ta’rikk, 440, i. 
 
 
 Ta’anni, 82, ii. 
 
 
 Tabarruk, 624, i. 
 
 
 Tubba 1 , 647, ii. 
 
 
 Taba‘u ’t-tabihn, 624, i. 
 
 
 Tabagh, 634, ii. 
 
 
 Tabl, 300, ii. 
 
 
 Tabannl, 10, ii. 
 
 IS*** 
 
 Tabiik, 624, i. 
 
 
 Tab!‘ah, 700, i. 
 
 Aiu.) 
 
 Tatayum, 300, ii. 
 
 
 Tutun, 634, ii. 
 
 
 Tasawub, 695, ii. 
 
 vqbb 
 
 Taslis, 646, ii. 
 
 
 Taswib, 629, i. 
 
 
 Tijarah, 59, i. 
 
 iijits? 
 
 Tahaluf, 625, i. 
 
 <_ji5k~.'' 
 
 Tahrif, 61, ii.; 625, ii. 
 
 4_ft>j=r“ 
 
 Tahrif-i-lafzi, 61, ii. 
 
 
 Tahrif-i-uia‘nawl, 61, ii. 
 
 
 727 
 
 Tahrimu’n-uaaab, 317, i. *>,=^ 
 
 Tahliq, 572, i. 
 
 Tahmid, 13, ii.; 625, ii.; 704, ii 
 
 
 
 Tahannus, 625, i. 
 
 
 Talhyah, 26, i.; 468, i. 
 
 dks? 
 
 Takharuj, 626, i. 
 
 
 Tadbir, 598, i. ; 624, ii. 
 
 
 Tarawik, 628, i. 
 
 C'-^V 
 
 Tarbush, 93, i. 
 
 
 Turk, 648, i. 
 
 csJ.> 
 
 Tark, 704, ii. 
 
 
 Tarikah, 628, i. 
 
 
 Tarwiyah, 628, ii. 
 
 
 Tazkiyah, 634, i. 
 
 
 Tazwij, 575, ii. ; 634, i. 
 
 w 
 
 Tazyirah (tezyeereh), 95, i. 
 
 Tasbih, 546, ii.; 628, ii.; 
 
 >AA«v) 
 
 704, ii. 
 
 Tasblh-i-sijdah, 467, i. 
 
 
 Tasllm, 537, i. ; 628, ii. 
 
 l*4-J 
 
 Tasmi‘, 467, i.; 629, i. 
 
 
 Tasmiyak, 466, ii.; 482, i.; 
 
 
 629, i. 
 
 Tasnim, 629, i. 
 
 
 Tashdid, 686, i. 
 
 
 Tashriq, 628, ii. 
 
 
 Tashahbud, 468, i.; 628, ii. 
 
 
 Tasarrufat skarhyah, 
 
 
 315, i. 
 
 Tasauwuf, 608, ii.; 628, ii. 
 
 
 Tatauwu 1 , 629, i. 
 
 
 Tatkir, 477, ii.; 629, ii. 
 
 
 Ta'zlb, 476, ii. 
 
 v —SxS 
 
 Ta'zir, 632, i. seqq. 
 
 
 Ta‘ziyak, 366, i.; 409, ii. ; 
 
 
 631, ii. 
 
 Ta'alluq, 623, i. 
 
 
 Ta‘awwuz, 466, ii. ; 482, i.; 
 
 
 624, i. 
 
 Ta‘wlz, 14, ii. ; 630, ii. 
 
 Xiyu 
 
 Taghrib, 35, ii. 
 
 Oj*ji 
 
 Taglilib, 624, ii. 
 
 
 Tafsir, 106, ii. ; 572, i. ; 
 
 
 624, ii. 
 
 Tafakkur, 624, ii. 
 
 
 Tafauwul, 305, i. 
 
 jy* 
 
 Tafwiz, 286, i. 
 
 
 Taqdlr, 82, i. ; 472, i. ; 628, i. 
 
 yX sS 
 
 Taqarrub, 628, i. 
 
 
 Taqlid, 628, i. 
 
 •Xj.fi> 
 
 Taqwa, 7, ii.; 628, i. 
 
 fcSJ» 
 
 Taqwiyatu T-iman, 661, ii. yUslM <W>i' 
 
 Taqiyak (takeeyek), 94, ii. ; 
 
 d^SS 
 
 575, ii.; 628, i. 
 
 Takbir, 14, i.; 45, i.; 546, ii.; 
 
 w»^5o 
 
 626, i. ; 704, ii. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 728 
 
 Takbir-i-tahrlmah, 466, i.; 
 
 626, i. 
 
 
 Takbir-i-jalsak, 467, ii. 
 
 
 Takbir-i-ruku‘, 466, ii. 
 
 
 Takbir-i-sijdak, 467, i. 
 
 ■i ' ^ 
 
 Takmilu ’s-Suluk, 120, ii. 
 
 
 Takyak, 118, i. ; 407, i. 
 
 626, ii. 
 
 Tilawak, 517, i.; 634, ii. 
 
 SjK 
 
 Talbiyak, 157, ii.; 261, i. 
 
 ; 
 
 626, ii. 
 
 
 Talqln, 120, ii.; 616, ii.; 
 
 
 627, ii. 
 
 
 Tamattu‘, 627, ii. 
 
 
 Tamjld, 627, ii. 
 
 
 Tamkid, 546, ii. 
 
 
 Timsah, 63, ii. 
 
 fA-vA 
 
 Tamim, 627, ii 
 
 
 Tanasukk. 627, ii. 
 
 
 Tanasukkivak, 568, i. 
 
 
 Tambaku, 634, ii. 
 
 "/M 
 
 Tana“um, 302, ii. 
 
 
 Tanfil, 627, ii. 
 
 
 Tanwin, 683, ii. 
 
 
 Takzlb, 625, ii.; 643, i. 
 
 
 Talilll, 625, i. 
 
 
 Tauwab (tawwab), 75, ii. 
 
 ■—>\y 
 
 Tawabi‘, 530, i. 
 
 
 Tawazu 1 , 286, i. 
 
 a-V 
 
 Taubak, 451, i.; 536, ii; 
 
 629, ii. hf 
 
 Taujik, 629, ii. 
 
 
 Taukid, 629, ii.; 704, i. 
 
 tji 
 
 Taurat, 53, ii. ; 62, i.; 114, ii. ; Sb»> 
 
 356, i.; 439, i. ; 440, i. 
 
 560, 
 
 ii. ; 629, ii. ; 698, i. 
 
 
 Tawakkul, 286, i. 
 
 
 Tayammum, 3, ii. ; 477, ii 
 
 •; 
 
 l—l 
 
 CO 
 
 
 C£J> 
 
 
 Sab it, 75, ii. 
 
 enj b‘ 
 
 Sakkaz, 681, i. 
 
 Ais'' 
 
 Su‘bau, 569, ii. 
 
 
 SaTabiyak, 568, i. 
 
 
 Siqak, 595, ii. 
 
 Alii' 
 
 Suls, 489, ii.; 492, i.~; 622, ii. 
 
 Sulus, 691, i. 
 
 
 Samud, 17, i.; 563, i. 
 
 *3*3. 
 
 Sanawiyak, 568, ii. 
 
 
 Sawab, 566, i. 
 
 
 Saur, 73, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 Jf 
 
 Saiyibak, 315, ii.; 556, i. 
 
 dw-jj' 
 
 Jasuliq, 226, i. 
 
 Jasi, 281, i. 
 
 Jar, 432, ii. 
 
 Jar mulasiq, 226, i. 
 Jasus, 429, ii. 
 
 Jagir, 224, i. 
 
 Jalut, 440, i. 
 
 Jami‘, 73, ii. 
 
 Jann, 134, i. ; 225, ii. ; 
 Ja’i-namaz, 224, ii. 
 Jubb, 88, i. 
 
 Jabbarun, 35, ii. 
 
 Jubbu T-huzn, 255, i. 
 Jabra’il, 15, ii. 
 
 Jabarut, Jabrut, 223, i. 
 Jabarlyan, 473, i. 
 Jibril, 15, ii. ; 440, i. 
 Jabarlyak, 568, i. 
 
 Jabal Zubail, 647, ii. 
 Jabal Musa, 223, i. 
 Jubbah (gibbali), 93, i. 
 Jabil, 223, ii. 
 
 Juhfak, 350, i. 
 
 Jacid, 149, ii. ; 223, ii. 
 Jaddah, 150, i. 
 
 Jiddak, 226, ii. 
 
 Jady, 74, ii.; 201, ii. 
 Jazbak, 226, ii. 
 
 Jaz‘ak, 226, i.; 700, i. 
 Jarr, 226, i.; 632, i, 
 Jarad, 298, ii. 
 
 Jurf, 225, ii. 
 
 Jari, 691, ii. 
 
 Jarib, 631, i. 
 
 Jarid, 178, i. 
 
 Juz’, 256, ii.; 489, ii. ; 
 517, i. 
 
 Jazmak, 686, i. 
 
 Jaziratu ’l-‘Arab, 17, i. 
 Jizyak, 14, ii. ; 109, i. ; 
 
 653, i. ; 710, i. 
 
 Ju‘l, 255, ii. 
 
 Ja‘lu ’1-jauf, 225, i. 
 Jallad, il2, ii. 
 
 Jalal, 225, i. 
 
 Jaldak, 85, ii. 
 
 Julus, 596, i. 
 
 Jamadat, 531, i. 
 Jumada ’1-ukkra, 255, ii 
 355, i. 
 
 jh 
 «A: 
 
 \ 
 
 
 547, i. 
 
 jU.» 
 
 (ayjf* 
 
 ; 609, ii. 
 
 fcJVlyW- 
 
 (J *?) jw 
 
 492, i. ; 
 
 630, ii.; 
 
INDEX. 
 
 729 
 
 
 Jumada ’l-iilii, 255, ii 
 355, i. 
 
 Jima‘, 140, i. 
 
 Jamrab, 225, i. 
 
 Jamratu ’l-‘aqibah, 225, i. <MU5! 
 Jam‘u ’l-jam‘, 225, ii. £♦.=?■ 
 
 Jum‘ab, 60, i.; 131, ii. <£*•*•=> 
 
 Jumiah, 530, i. Du.*. 
 
 Jinn, 40, ii.; 133, ii.; 225, ii. 
 
 Janab, 225, ii. 
 
 Janabak, 225, ii. <s>Up- 
 
 Jannatu ’1-Firdaus, 
 
 226, i. ; 449, i. 
 
 Jannatu ’1-Mawa, 226, i.; oU=. 
 
 449, i. 
 
 Jannatu ’n-na‘im, 226, i.; oW 
 
 449, i. 
 
 Jannatu £ Adn, 105, ii.; 
 
 226, i.; 449, i. 
 
 Janiizab, jinazah, 42, i.; 44, i 
 
 132, ii. ; 225, ii. 
 
 Junub, 140, i.; 255, ii. 
 
 Jannab, 133, ii. ; 225, ii. ; 613, i. 
 Jannatu ’1-kbuld, 226, i. ; AlcjJf 
 
 449, i. 
 
 Jannatu ‘Adn, 105, ii. ; ^ 
 
 133, ii. 
 
 Jihad, 70, i. ; 82, i.; 286, i.; 
 
 520, ii.; 664, ii.; 710, ii. 
 
 Jahl, 224, ii. 
 
 Jahimijah, 568, ii. 
 
 Jabannam, 170, ii. ; 171, i. f+t&s- 
 
 Jawami'u ’1-kalim, 226, i. gMya. 
 
 Jauza’, 73, ii. ; 201, ii. 
 
 Jaiyid, 225, i. 
 
 Jaihun, 224, ii. 
 
 
 Hajj, 155, i. 
 
 Hajiz, 39, i. 
 
 Haji, 155, i. ; 699, i. 
 Hadis, 153, ii. 
 Harisiyab, 167, ii. 
 Harisbab, 680, ii. 
 Hasbiyab, 572, i. 
 Hiizir zamini, 170, i. ; 
 ' 312,'ii. 
 
 Hazir zamani, 34, ii. 
 Hafiz, 154, i. 
 
 Hafizu ’1-bait, 154, i. 
 Hakim, 160, i. 
 
 Hal, 160, i.; 530, i. 
 Halif, 175, ii. 
 
 5^- 
 
 V5-U. 
 
 ojW 
 
 ELojW 
 
 dAjj I—» 
 
 w. 
 
 f 
 
 kiW 
 \ kiW 
 
 JU. 
 
 Halah, 707, i. 
 
 Ha mim, 161, i. 
 
 Ha’iz, 347, ii. 
 
 Ha’izah, 154, ii. 
 
 Hubb, 50, i.; 286, i.; 300, i. 
 Habarak, 95, ii. 
 
 Habs, 205, ii. 
 
 Hubs, 181, ii. 
 
 Habwak, 153, ii. 
 
 Habibiyab, 568, ii. 
 
 Hajj, 129, ii. ; 155, i. ; 401, i. 
 
 <£JU, 
 f*?'* f=» 
 
 
 
 481, 
 
 545, ii. 
 
 > 
 
 jLsa 
 
 337, i. 
 
 
 
 458, ii 
 655, i. 
 
 Hijab, 14, i. ; 174, i. 
 
 Hijaz, 17, i.; 174, ii. 
 
 Hijamab, 43, i. 
 
 Hajb, 155, i. 
 
 Hujattiyah, 568, ii. 
 
 Hijr, 174, ii. ; 211, i 
 Hijru Isma'il, 337, i. 
 
 Hujrak, 183, i. ; 345, ii 
 Hajj mabrur, 160, i. 
 
 Hujjab, 182, ii. 
 
 Huj jatu ’1-baqqi ijha-H <3^51 Aa 
 ‘ala ’1-kbalq, 183, i. 
 
 Hajjatu ’l-wada‘, 160, i. 
 
 ' 382, i. 
 
 Hadd, 153, ii. ; 476, ii.; 
 
 679, i. 
 
 Hidad, 174, i. ; 671, ii. 
 
 Haddu ’r-riddab, 286, i. 
 
 Haddu ’z-zina’, 286, i. 
 
 Haddu ’s-sariqab, 286, i. 
 
 Haddu ’s-sburb, 286, i. 
 
 Haddu ’1-qazf, 286, i. 
 
 Hududu ’1-baram, 163, i., ii. A.AkP. 
 Hadis, 62, ii.; 153, ii. ; 548, i.; • ■ ■ 
 639, ii. ; 656, i. 
 
 Hadis hasan, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis sahih, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis za‘if, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis ‘aziz, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis gharib, 640, ii. 
 
 Hadis qudsi, 153, ii. 
 
 Hadis muttasil, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis mutawatir, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis mursal, 640, ii. 
 
 Hadis mai’fu‘, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis mashhur, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis maqtu‘, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis munqati‘, 640, i. 
 
 Hadis mauzu‘, 640, ii. 
 
 Hadis mauquf, 640, i. 
 
 Hadid, 153, ii. ; 430, i. 
 
 Hazar (bizr), 58, ii.; 169, ii. 
 
 Hira’, 175, ii.; 484, ii. 
 
 ; ^ 
 632, i.; *a=- 
 
 nf Jks. 
 
 An- 
 
 aa \ jk— >. 
 k*iAiiJ\ A r. 
 
 
 k—cAo A- - 
 l-i-A Jkp. 
 k—ki-jJkp. 
 
 t 
 
 ooJe:. 
 
 ^tyoy* Ci-O 
 OO 
 
 
 92 
 
730 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Haram, 57, ii.; 163, i.; 286, i. ; 
 655, i. 
 
 Harbu bu‘as, 44, i. 
 llarabi, 576, i. 
 
 Hirs, 176, ii. 
 
 Harf, 163, ii.; 489, ii 
 Harqiyah, 569, i. 
 
 Haram, 163, i. 
 
 - s-q— 
 
 
 Haramu ’1-Madinah, 163, i. aa>a*51 ^ 
 
 Ais • 
 
 ..(V 6 - 
 rTb*- 
 
 Aijz. 
 
 J^> 
 
 ■m 3 
 
 
 Haramu Makkah, 163, i. 
 
 Hurmah, 11 , i. 
 
 Harlm, 163, ii.; 180, i. 
 
 Hurriyah, 315, i. ; 704, ii. 
 
 Hizqil, 114, i.; 440, i. 
 
 Huzn, 11, ii. 
 
 Hiss, 176, ii. 
 
 Hisab, 106, ii. 
 
 Hisbu ’1-bahar, 621, i. 
 
 Hiss batin, 176, ii. 
 
 Hasabiyah, 568, ii. 
 
 Hasad, 109, ii. ; 168, i. 
 
 Hiss zakir, 176, ii. 
 
 Hiss musbtarak, 130, i. 
 
 Husnu ’1-khulq, 187, i. 
 
 Haskr, 168, ii. 
 
 Hashriyah, 46, i. 
 
 Hizana'k, 151, i. ; 176, ii. 
 
 Hazrah, 170, i. 
 
 Hazratu ’1-jami‘ah, 169, ii. A*^Wn jy**. 
 Hazratu ’sh-shahadati ijlg-iJl 
 ’1-mutlaqah, 169, ii. Ash^Sl 
 
 Hazratu ’1-gaibi ’1- 3 IAJI Sy=. 
 
 mutlaq, 169, ii. 
 
 Hazratu‘alami’1-arwak, AiejLa^ 
 
 ‘ 169, ii. 
 
 osJ 
 
 
 Albac- 
 Aye* 
 
 A> 
 
 Hazratu ‘alami ’1-misal, JbUll Jic Sy&. 
 ' 169, ii. 
 
 HuttI, 681, i. 
 
 Hatim, 337, l. 
 
 
 Hifzu ’l-‘abd, 174, i. 
 
 Ag*b !ifl^ 
 
 Haqq, 74, ii.; 162, ii. 
 
 1 3^ 
 
 Haqqu ’l-‘abd, 162, ii. 
 
 
 Haqqu ’llak, 163, i. 
 
 a!3\ 3 *- 
 
 Haqqu ’n-nas, 163, i. 
 Haqqu ’1-yaqin, 163, i. ; 
 
 3 =*. 
 
 3==- 
 
 694, i. 
 
 Hiqqab, 175, ii. ; 700, i. 
 
 
 Huqqab, 167, ii. 
 
 
 Haqiqab, 162, i.; 519, i. 
 
 
 609, ii. seqq. ; 704, ii. 
 
 Haqiqatu ’1-mubamma- 
 
 AjA4.as^l\ AiUjic. 
 
 diyab, 162, i.; 436, ii. 
 
 Haqiqi, 162, ii.; 662, i. 
 
 
 Hakam, 160, i. 
 
 
 Idukm, 183, ii. 
 
 J+^- 
 
 Hikmah, 175, i. ; 440, i. 
 
 
 Hakim, 160, i. 
 
 
 Halal, 58, i.; 160, i. 
 
 
 Hulaliyah, 96, ii. 
 
 AJib. 
 
 Hilf, 175, ii. 
 
 
 Hilfu ’1-fuzul, 175, ii. 
 
 JyiflSl I_ak. 
 
 Hilf namab, 175, ii. 
 
 A>»b 
 
 Hilm, 175, ii. 
 
 
 Hulm, 92, i. 
 
 & 
 
 Ab. 
 
 Hullah, 581, i. 
 
 Hulul, 184, i. 
 
 
 HM, 518, i. 
 
 
 Hamalah, 160, ii. 
 
 
 Hama’il, 14, ii.; 160, ii. 
 
 
 Hamd, 13, ii. 
 
 
 Hamdu li-llab, 13, ii. 
 
 aU 
 
 Hamziyab, 161, ii. 
 
 A>)4.=- 
 
 HM‘SQ, 518, i. 
 
 
 Hamal, 73, i.; 201, ii. 
 
 
 Hamalatu ’l-‘arsb, 160, ii. 
 
 ; A .U^ 
 
 162, ii. 
 
 Hima, 175, ii. 
 
 
 Hinna’, 40, i.; 175, ii. 
 
 
 Hanbali, 286, ii. 
 
 
 Hantam, 99, ii. ; 658, i. 
 
 
 Hanafi, 286, ii. 
 
 
 Idanif, 161, ii. ; 402, ii. 
 
 
 Hunain, 184, i. 
 
 (J-s- s ®“ 
 
 Hauwa’, 110, ii. 
 
 cl ac. 
 
 Hawarl, 16, ii.; 169, i. 
 
 
 Hawalab, 169, i. 
 
 aH^ 
 
 Hawamim, 169, i. 
 
 
 Hut, 75, ii. ; 201, ii. 
 
 
 Hur, 184, ii. 
 
 j'r 
 
 Hauzu ’1-bayat, 616, i. 
 
 
 Hauzu ’1-kausar, 168, ii. 
 
 
 Haul, 696, i. 
 
 
 Haulu ’1-haul, 699, ii. 
 
 
 Hawalanu ’1-haul, 168, ii. 
 
 
 Haya, 169, ii. ; 354, i. 
 
 gLos. 
 
 Haiz, 140, i.; 169, ii. 
 
 
 Hayawan, 16, i. 
 
 
 Haiwau, 154, ii. 
 
 
 Haiwanat, 531, i. 
 
 »^\i\ 
 
 Hayawan-i-a‘jatu, 40, ii. 
 
 
 Haiwan sakit, 154, ii. 
 
 
 Haiwau natiq, 40, ii.; 
 
 3^0 mW 
 
 154, ii. 
 
 Haiyab, 569, ii. 
 
 
 Hayat, 146, ii.; 169, ii. ; 655, ii. £«■=- 
 
 Haiyatu ’d-dunya, 169, ii. 
 
 VjO A)' 
 
 c 
 
 Khatim, 545, i. 
 
 
 Kbatimu ’n-nabuwah, 
 
 
 270, i. ; 567, i, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 731 
 
 
 263, ii. 
 
 u°^ 
 
 0ja5U. 
 
 a^ 
 
 -\ - ^ 
 /Ir'* r^- 
 
 
 )p^ 
 
 J*i Jj~ 
 
 r^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 Kbatimu ’n-nabiyin, 
 
 270, i.; 567, i. 
 
 Kbarijiyab. 422, i.; 568, i. 
 
 Kbariqu ’l-‘adab, 350, i. 
 
 Kbiiss, 270, i.; 518, i. 
 
 Khatib, 330, ii. 
 
 Kbatibab, 322, i. 
 
 Kbatir, 270, i. 
 
 Kbalidnu. 109, ii. 
 
 Kbaliq, 75, ii. 
 
 Elian. 269, ii. 
 
 Kbabar, 530, i. 
 
 Kbabar mutawatir, 262, ii 
 Kbibrab, 270, ii. 
 
 Kbabar wabid, 262, ii. ; 
 
 640, ii. 
 
 Kbabis. 262, ii. 
 
 Kbitan, 57, i. 
 
 Kbitanab, 57, i. 
 
 Kbatrn, 73, i. ; 613, ii. 
 Kbatam-i-Manzil-i-FIl, 
 
 517, i. 
 
 Kbatmab, 196, i.; 270, i.; 
 
 323, ii. 
 
 Khatn. 270, i. 
 
 Kbatnab, 57, i. 
 
 Kbuda, 273, ii.; 585, ii. seqq. 
 Kbudawand, 274, i. 
 
 Kbizlan, 272, ii. 
 
 Kbarabat, 269, ii. 
 
 Kbaraj, 269, ii. ; 630, ii. 
 
 Kbarqu ’l-‘adab, 269, ii. 
 
 Kbirqab, 271, i. 
 
 Khusraw. 53, i. 
 
 Kbusuf, 105, i. 
 
 Kbasbyab, 269, ii. 
 
 Kbasbyatu ’llab, 269, ii. 
 
 Kbasr, 270, i. 
 
 Kbususu ’1-jins, 518, i. 
 
 Kbususu ’l-‘ain, 518, i. 
 
 Kbususu ’n-nau‘, 518, i. 
 
 Kbasi, 110, i. 
 
 Khatt. 271, i. 
 
 Kbitbab, 271, i. seqq. 
 
 Kbutbab, 274, ii.; 323, i.; 
 
 330, ii.; 569, i. ; 663, i. 
 
 Kbutbatu ’n-na‘t, 274, ii. <Lb=. 
 
 Kbutbatu ’1-wa‘z, 274, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 ®V" 
 
 SaWI 
 
 )r~^ 
 
 i- 
 
 L~. 
 
 d-bd. 
 
 Kbilafab, 264, i. 
 
 Kbultln. 274, i. 
 
 Kbul‘, 90, i. ; 274, i. ; 367, i.; 
 
 671, ii. ; 712, ii. 
 
 Kbil'ab, 270, ii. <5^. 
 
 Kbalflyab, 263, i. liLak. 
 
 Kbulq. 274, i. ijD- 
 
 Kbalqab, 62, ii. AaU. 
 
 Kbulud, 274, ii. a^U. 
 
 Kbalwab, Khilwab. 122, ii. ; idi- 
 
 271, i. 
 
 Kbalifab, 203, i.; 263, ii. seqq. ; 
 
 278, ii. ; 548, ii. 
 
 Kballlu ’llab, 4, i.; 269, i. ; J4 a. 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 Kbamr, 130, i. ; 269, i.; 670, i. 
 Kbums, 274, ii.; 700, ii. 
 
 Kbunsa, 173, ii. 
 
 KTianzab. 84, ii.; 269, ii. 
 
 Kbinzir, 623, ii. oya. 
 
 Kbwajab, 277, ii. <My- 
 
 Kbawarij, 270, ii. 
 
 Kbauf, 270, ii. 
 
 Kbaufiyab, 568, ii. 
 
 Kbiyar, 272, ii. 
 
 Kbiyaru ’t-ta‘yin, 272, ii. jLa- 
 
 Khiyaru ’r-ruyab, 272, ii. 
 
 Kbiyaru ’sb-sbart, 272, ii. Lyli 
 Kbiyaru ’l-‘aib, 272, ii. 
 
 Kbiyaru ’1-majlis, 272, ii. 
 
 Kbiyanab, 43, ii.; 272, ii. &Us- 
 
 Kbaibar, 263, i.; 379, ii. 
 
 Kbairat, 263, i.; 439, ii. 
 
 Khairu ’1-qurun, 263, i. r^- 
 
 Kb ail, 177, i. 
 
 
 
 Dabbatu ’1-arz, 64, i. ; 539, ii. a>\a 
 
 Dar, 69, i.; 178, i. .\a 
 
 Daru ’1-ibtila’, 69, ii. oibaSI jU 
 
 Daru ’1-akbirab, 132, ii. sy,^ j 
 Daru ’1-adab, 69, i. ; \a 
 
 Daru ’l-aman, 277, ii. j\a 
 
 Daru ’1-Islam, 42, i.; 
 
 Kbutbatu ’1-waqfab, 277, ii. 
 
 
 Daru ’1-baqa’, 69, i. ; 
 
 132, 
 
 ii. cUJ\ ; \a 
 
 Khatlb, 274, ii.; 330, ii.; 
 
 
 Daru ’1-bawar, 69, ii. 
 
 
 
 472, i.; 663, i. 
 
 Kbati’ab, 594, ii. 
 
 
 Daru ’s-sawab, 70, ii. 
 106, 'i." 
 
 J 
 
 Kbuff, 95, ii. 
 
 Kbaftan, 92, ii. 
 
 l_9£> 
 
 yUai. 
 
 Daru ’1-barb, 69, ii.; 
 277, ii.; 710, ii. 
 
 88 , ii 
 
 
 Kbafz, 530, i. 
 
 u^- 
 
 Daru ’1-buzn, 69, ii. 
 
 
 (jy&'l j\a 
 
 Khafi. 263, i.; 518, ii. 
 
 
 Daru ’1-bikmab, 296, 
 
 i. 
 
 jIa 
 
b'_ 
 
 esdzs. 
 
 Dam "-ZZL'.raZ. 60. 
 
 
 Daur. 73. i.; 705. ii. 
 
 Dam I-kJmld, 69. ii. 
 
 
 DZzaZZ. 101, ii.: 170, n. 
 
 Dam 's-snrar, 69. iL 
 
 
 Panlah, 544. iL 
 
 Dam 's-salam. 75. Z.: 
 
 
 Diiman 71. Z. 
 
 449, L 
 
 
 Daivan iavrani. 73, Z. 
 
 Dam 's-saZanan. 7 . iL 
 
 L4L-7 
 
 Da in (Davn), 31, iL ; 64. Z.: 
 
 1 'am 7 s ' 69. 6 . 
 
 
 81, Z. 
 
 Dim z-zarb. 69, Z. 
 
 
 D5n, 84. Z.: 198, L; 22 5. i.: 
 
 Dim. Z-zZZZ. h, 69. iL 
 
 
 348, iL : 455. iL : 536, L ; 
 
 Dam Z-Zhrmr. 69. iL 
 
 ,U 
 
 564, L ; 586, L 
 
 Dam. "I-fma'. 69. L 
 
 z 
 
 Dinar. 84. iL : 354, L 
 
 Z am Z-aarar. 70, ii 449, 
 
 L 5# "Z 
 
 DinL 655, iL 
 
 Dam Z-qazaL 69, iL 
 
 i-caZ ^ J 
 
 DiyaZ, 91, L : 114. L: 128, L 
 
 Dam i-ZrmZ. 69. iL 
 
 - .-<7 V Z 
 
 DZmn. 91, L: 180, L ; 650, iL < 
 
 Dam P-nairn, 69, iL 
 
 ^■t:Z ^ J 
 
 Dr^anl, 91, L : 691, iL 
 
 Daran, 65, L 
 
 
 
 PirZ'ar not PammaZ , 
 
 
 
 125. iL : 680. iL 
 
 
 
 Damrmh, lit. Z.: 650. Z. 
 
 
 3 
 
 Pari;. 85, i. 
 
 j:4j 
 
 
 Parmai 65. Z : 445, Z. 
 
 
 Zat. 7C>2, iL 
 
 Dam: a. 71. iZ 
 
 «3>b 
 
 Zara Z-fnzaL 356, i. J-^ 2 ' 
 
 Da^ui 71, Z. : 44.. i.: 47 
 
 *). LL J »•» 
 
 Zara ' Han. 702, iL <Z!' 
 
 Dal e a', 99 . iL : 658. L 
 
 SUJ 
 
 Zaidr. 76, L: 701, L: 704. iL 
 
 Die agha h. 84. iL 
 
 
 ZaZqah. 130, L 
 
 DalZr. 64,. L 
 
 
 Za':Z. 105, L : 184, iL : 551. L : 
 
 DaijaL 64. iL 
 
 J — - 
 
 697, L 
 
 Iz'ZLa 151. Z.: 654. Z. 
 
 
 Za":Z iZZZ~arL 130. L ; ^ ^ 
 
 1‘armZ. 69. Z. 
 
 
 697. L 
 
 i 3 
 
 a*-* 
 
 C5?-* 
 
 -r r> 
 
 I •. - ■ i i . 
 
 DirLaaa. 55. L: 3f4. L 
 PrmZ 45. L : 151, iL : 315.. L 
 
 1 astar. 647, n. 
 
 PasmmZ~-an. 1553. iL 
 Du'aL 45. iL : ill, L: 465. iL 
 Drra'u. 5-,:zV. 11L L -- 
 
 - 1 ' ' - - ---• - jg 
 
 Pr—ah, 71. iL : 806. iL 
 1 a _r ,72 
 
 — • •' : -- • 
 
 L'--'z. i — . iL : 519. L. 
 DulduL 101. iL 
 Pailm.137. iL 
 DaP. 7-5. iL : 1 IL iL 
 DLL. 14. iL 
 Z ZZ xe± ZZ. 64. iL 
 
 i : 
 
 d . 
 
 
 1>£_ 
 ZZmsi 
 P'-mm - 
 
 a£r. 64 _ 
 65L iL 
 656. L 
 
 DaZZa. 64. L 
 . . 64,1 
 
 Z ZITL. 64- L : Z 
 Dawa". 347. L 
 Dcii/atr, 462, L 
 
 _r Jr - 
 
 JZl- 
 
 j 
 
 ^43 
 /\3 
 df 3 
 
 er- 3 
 
 Zaia iztiram 130. L : 697. L 
 ZaZhaZ, 697. iL Zs—Z 
 
 ZaVfaa 7 — m_ 
 
 ZazZm, 601. L '*.33 
 
 ZsrraZ. 71*2, L :.3 
 
 ZaZaranZrh, 698, L Lj'uii 
 
 Za c an, 40. L ^33 
 
 ZiZr, 323, iL : 346, Z. : 418, L: /3 
 
 545, iL : 562, iL: 610, L seq£.: 
 
 608, L : 703. L seqq. 
 
 ZiZr jaE, 118, iL; 7 : 
 
 ZLz: mm. Ll 7, iL : 703, L 
 ZimmaZ, 576, L ; 710, L i-3 
 
 ZinnnL 56, L : 69, iL : 112, L : _y 2 
 
 635, L : 710, iL 
 
 Zamb, 115, L : .594, iL : 701, L — 
 ZaZab, 149, i. «--aj 
 
 Zi 1-jahia, 386. L c --sZ v .3 
 
 ZZ 1-jslaL, 225. L ,*7 Z 
 
 -7- ~ ■- V /v»t » >\ J . 
 
 . L : 655, L 
 
 
 ZZ Z-jalal *ra I- 7 72'. 
 
 iiram, 142. L 
 ZZ 1-MjjaZ, 355. L 
 ZZ i-imiafal 350, L 
 ZZ --rinar m ir nar, 25, iL 
 ZZ i-Hqar, 386, L -=L* 
 
 ZZ Z-q amain, 13, L ; ^1-7 
 
 4:/ O- Ii. 
 
 J ^ ; 
 
 j- 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ~o-3 
 
 Z xl l-;a iar. 355. i. 
 
 
 Bira'ar. 131. ii. 
 
 
 Zb Z-kLL 114. L : 475. iL 
 
 I 
 
 Ear-=dr. >46. i. 
 
 4 - 
 
 Zb r-rbr. 245. L. 
 
 .•4' 4 
 
 Ea : L 535. iL 
 
 
 la—b l-arrazr. 2 . a - 
 
 -Id — 
 
 Ea* 1. 34 . iL 
 
 
 657, iL; 702. iL 
 
 
 Bar. 'r-34. L 
 
 el 
 
 Zawu ’l-*r:bl. 4 . ii. 
 
 j 2*- ' 
 
 E- ;q. -545. a. 
 
 
 Za~b arb; . . " a 
 
 _i4‘ 
 
 K..a ar. 535. a 
 
 
 702,iL 
 
 
 Bar -1. 54 b. iL 
 
 
 Za-b aairi ‘l-*u bb 4. . r 
 
 2 at' -2 — - 
 
 Ea;s. 60. L 
 
 E::\ r.r I-: alb. 347. iL 
 
 -I' -J 
 
 
 
 Euryar. 353. a.: -545. a. 
 
 
 
 
 Brti» 545. L 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 Bikbr 466. L : 533 i 
 
 
 
 
 Buka*. 11. a . 435. a . 4. i.L 
 
 
 . 
 
 5 
 
 RajLiyah. 565. L 
 
 Bihil. 531. iL v r=-' 
 
 Ba's, 170. i. ‘ 
 
 Bafirah. 532. L; 
 
 RirzL 532. i.: 572 ii. ^=*‘; 
 
 Barziyah. 567. ii. 
 
 Ra'rah. 345. L — 
 
 Rihib. 532. L —-** 
 
 Ba bb, 75, iL w 
 
 Riba, riba’ (retra . 31. i.: 470. i. . - 
 
 544. ii.: 656, i. 
 
 Rii iu 544. ii. ■=•?: 
 
 Baiiu ‘s-saig. 561. i p —- w 
 
 Babb u Vr-sbbrs. 506. a 
 Bub*. 435. 2.: 45*2. L : 546. a. 
 
 Kabbu ran*. 531, i. 
 
 Rabi'u 1-iffir, 355. i.: ; 
 
 531. iL 
 
 Bair a '1-auwaL 355.L: w >7' 
 
 531, ii. 
 
 Batq, Si. L s> : ; 
 
 Bajab, 355, i.: 535. i.: 606. : yy 
 Baj 'ab. 533. L i *=" 
 
 Bain. 476. ii.: 533. i.: 6. 7. ii. 
 
 Ea;l*. S3, i. £y- 
 
 Eajim, 533. i. <»y- 
 
 Rukh. 547. ii. C- 
 
 Bids'. 106. ii. : 531. L 
 Baddu 's-salam, 531. ii. ' - 
 
 Rahmah. 347. ii.: 537. ii.: 
 
 532. i. 
 
 RahlL 532. i. y- 
 
 RisaLLh. 545. ii. 7- 
 
 Basra 5-35. i. -~ 
 
 Kasbl. 16. ii.: 440. i.: 475. *.*.. : ' — 
 
 54?, a 
 
 Eazir. 533. a. 
 
 Eanarir. 124. ii ; 355. i.. 
 533. iL 
 
 Rarayr l-;:nar. 535. i. 
 BaniTQ r-riLira 157. ii. 
 Rihia. 532. iL 
 RarbiniTaL. 354. L 
 Earn. 532. iL 
 Bahib. 354. L 
 Bawi. 266. i.: 535. iL 
 Kiwivab. 546. i. : 640. ii. 
 BibIL -544. ii. 
 
 Ebb. 54c. iL : 34. ii.; 355. 
 Biihu 1-24. 133. L. 
 
 - 
 
 177. i.: 355. i-; 646. iL 
 Ear.: 'Lab. 475. L. 
 
 Bohan rrir Allah. 
 
 Boi-:- .:L 4.-5. 
 
 Rozah, 124. L.; -546. ii. 
 Burs'. 0*2. L : 54b. a. 
 Eu^aidijar. 533. i:. 
 
 Ru'ah, 613. i. 
 
 Riy.V. 13". L.: 543. L 
 Riyah. 36b. ii. 
 
 RiylrlyaL. 56-3. : 
 
 Earrin, 5-3*2. i. 
 
 Baiyir ibr al-Walii. 
 
 252. a . 452. ii. . -533. i 
 JSiiuinL o^L : 
 
 
 w * 
 
 r- .. 
 
 -- ^ 
 
 w . * 
 
 r-: 
 
 oc. 
 
 ~ - a**' 2 
 
 Rasiilu 'ilah. 220. ii. : 
 
 .2 ' ^2—. 
 
 Zahid. 556. i : 313. : 603. *. 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 
 Z.Vai.'.-i-. - 7 - 33 . 
 
 Risirwrr. 43. a 
 
 
 Zd'ir. 600.1 
 
 Eas'aidar. ‘31-5. i: 
 
 Lya- 
 
 Zabaniyar. 15. L. : 607. 
 
 Eiza . 5 ; 37. a 
 
 
 Zabur. 71. a. ; 603. i 
 
 Eiia*. 546. i. 
 
 
 Zablr. 657. ii. 
 
 .ax 
 
 2-j 
 
734 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Zahf, 698, i. 
 
 Zuhal, 73, i. ; 201, ii.; 459, ii. 
 Zarariyah, 702, i. 
 
 Zaramiyah, 702, i. 
 
 Zagharit, 46, ii.; 325, i. 
 
 Zufar, 8, ii. 
 
 Zaffatu ’1-haminam, 
 
 323, ii. 
 
 Zaffatu ’l-‘arusah, 325, ii. 
 
 Zafir, 698, i. 
 
 Zaqqum, 702, i. 
 
 Zakat, 42, i.: 58, ii.; 73, i. 
 
 129, ii.; 283, i.; 286, i.; 
 
 401, i.; 419, i.; 434, ii.; 
 
 439, ii. ; 545, i. : 664, i. ; 
 
 699, ii. seqq. 
 
 Zakariya, 475, ii.; 699, i. k/j 
 
 ZaM, 74, i. 
 
 Zalzalah, ] 03, i. dK-'j 
 
 Zalam, 49, ii. yj 
 
 Zallatu Adam, 115, i. dSj 
 
 Zaruzam, 157, ii.: 571, ii. ; 701, i. py) 
 Zina’, 130, ii.: 476, ii. ; 575, ii. 
 Zanadiqiyah, 569, i. 
 
 Zananah, 163, ii. seqq. ; 180, i.; dfUj 
 
 701, ii. 
 
 ZanjabIL, 449, i. ; 701, ii. 
 
 Zandia, 207, i. 
 
 Zuhd, 610, i djfcj 
 
 Zubd fi ’d-dunya. 286, i. ._4 a&j 
 
 Zuhrah, 73, ii. : 201, ii. ; 459, ii. iy&j 
 Zaubamh, 1-36, i. 
 
 Zauj, 187, i.; 671, i. 
 
 Zaidiyah, 568, i.; 574, ii.; 
 
 698, ii. 
 
 Zaigh, 698, ii. 
 
 >3 
 
 -j j 
 (•UvSsJI dij 
 
 is: 
 
 jj j 
 
 M) 
 
 Cfj 
 
 (i/;) 
 
 'jj 
 
 
 Sarah, 565, i. 
 
 Sal, 696, i. 
 
 Salih, 116, i.; 556, i.: 563, i.: 
 
 610, i. seqq. 
 
 Salik-i-majzub, 612, ii 
 Sam, 572, ii. 
 
 Samiri, 49, i 
 Samrah, 130, i. 
 
 Sanih, 305, i 
 Sa’ibah, 555, ii 
 Saba’, 550, i. 
 
 Sabt, 550, ii. 
 
 Subban, 482, i. 
 
 Subbana ’llah, 608, ii. 
 
 Subhab, 546, i.: 608, ii. 
 
 SA 
 
 J 1 
 
 
 cry 
 
 Sab‘at abruf, 163, ii.; «_»yA 
 
 489, i.; 550, ii.; 569, ii. 
 
 Saba-u ’1-masani, 550, ii. £~- 
 
 dU\ 
 
 63 k 
 
 Sablab isebleb), 95, i 
 Subu £ , 666, ii. 
 
 Sabilu ’llah, 546, i. ; 551, i. 
 
 Satr, 565, i. 
 
 Sutrab, 623, ii. 
 
 Sattuqah, 565, i. 
 
 Sihr, 72, ii.; 303, ii. ^ 
 
 Sahur, 555, ii. ^ 
 
 Sajjadab, 224, ii. ; 556, ii. iijt*- 
 
 Sajdab, 556, ii. Ea*. 
 
 Sajdatu ’s-sahw, 556, ii. Ea*. 
 
 Sajdatu ’sh-shukr, 556, ii. AaA Ea*, 
 Sijill, 582, ii. 
 
 Sijn, 205, ii. 
 
 Sujud, 11, i. 
 
 Sakhawah, 286, i. ; 294, i. 
 
 Sidratu ’1-muntaha, 
 
 162, ii. ; 352, ii.; 582, i. 
 
 
 j. 
 
 j 
 
 i.\ 
 
 -r 
 
 
 
 Sadum, 601, i. 
 
 ft*- 
 
 Saratan, 73, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 Sariqab, 284, i.; 477, i.; 
 
 565, i. dij— 
 
 Sarandib, 50, i. 
 
 
 Sari‘u ’1-ijabah, 73, i. 
 
 
 Surriyab, 59, ii. 
 
 
 Saffas, 681, i. 
 
 *■> 
 
 a&x— 
 
 Si‘lat, 137, ii. 
 
 Sadr, 171, i.; 556, i. 
 
 
 Suftajab, 622, i. 
 
 
 Sifru ’1-hukkam, 440, i. 
 
 ju4 
 
 Sifru ’1-muluk, 440, i. 
 
 Saqqa’, 323, ii. 
 
 s\ 
 
 Saqar, 171, i.; 564, ii. 
 
 
 Sakb, 390, i. 
 
 
 Sukr, 100, i. 
 
 X- 
 
 Sukun, 686, i. 
 
 < 0'£~- 
 
 SaMnah, 560, ii. 
 
 AA 
 
 Salarn, 468, ii.: 570, i. 
 
 \\ 
 
 Salaman ira Absal, 
 
 
 618, i. seqq. 
 
 SalsabU, 563, i 
 
 
 Silsilab, 594, i. 
 
 
 Sultan, 278, ii. ; 622, ii. 
 
 
 Saltah, 94, ii. 
 
 6* sL- 
 
 Salaf, 561, i. 
 
 c-aL. 
 
 Salam, 33, ii.; 561, ii. 
 
 .z* 1 - 
 
 Sulaiman, 440, i.: 475, ii. 
 
 : (.lUA 
 
 601, i. 
 
 Sarna’, 170, i. 
 
 
 Samabah, 41, i. 
 
 
 Sama e , 707, ii. 
 
 
 Sama ! khanab. 707, ii. 
 
 
 Simhaq, 128, ii; 680, ii. 
 
 
 Simsar, 594, ii. 
 
 J 
 
INDEX. 
 
 73 5 
 
 Sam‘, 146, ii. 
 
 
 Saniak, 129, i. 
 
 
 Sami', 74, ii. 
 
 
 Sumbulah, 75, i. ; 201. ii. 
 
 
 Sauad, 564, ii. 
 
 JU- 
 
 Sunan ibn Alajak, 
 
 582, ii. 
 
 Sunanu ’n-Nasa’i, 431. i. 
 
 - J' C vi - 
 
 Sanak, 696, i. 
 
 &U. 
 
 Sunnak, 62, ii. ; 156. i.; 286, i.; 
 
 400, ii.; 434, ii. : 622, 
 
 ii. ; 
 
 639, ii. 
 
 Sunnatu ’t-taqnr, 622, ii. ; 
 
 
 639, ii. 
 
 Sunnatu d-fi‘l, 622, ii.; 
 
 
 639, ii. 
 
 Sunnatu d-qaul, 622, ii. ; 
 
 
 639, ii. 
 
 Sunnatu d-kuda, 622, ii. 
 
 
 Sunni, 623, i. 
 
 
 Sakrn, 555, ii. 
 
 
 Suwa', 191, ii.; 623, ii. 
 
 
 Sawayim, 566, i. 
 
 
 Surak, 439, ii.; 623, ii. 
 
 dr* 
 
 Suratu Ali ‘Imran, J' dr - 
 
 510, ii. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Akzab, 513, i. 
 
 S.*—* 
 
 Suratu d-Akqaf, 499, ii. 
 
 jVb» 2R S jr . 
 
 Suratu d-Ikklas. 466. ii.: 
 
 
 494, i. 
 
 Suratu d-A‘raf, 509, i. 
 
 5>»- 
 
 Suratu d-A'la, 494. ii. 
 
 . ^ s.~ 
 
 Suratu d-A'nam. 504, ii. 
 
 fUcld Sj^, 
 
 Suratu d-Ambiva’, 506. ii. 
 
 
 Suratu d-Inskirak, 194, i. 
 
 s."L 
 
 Suratu d-Inskiqaq, 494. ii. 
 
 hr- 
 
 Suratu d-Anfal, 510, ii. 
 
 dr- 
 
 Suratu d-Infitar, 493. ii. 
 
 
 Suratu d-Buruj, 495, i. 
 
 S*r>^ di— 
 
 Suratu d-Baqarak, 509. ii. 
 
 ; S,*. 
 
 703, ii. 
 
 Suratu d-Balad. 494. i. 
 
 
 Suratu d-Baivinak, 509, ii. 
 
 
 Suratu ’t-Takrim, 514, i. 
 
 ^ « *—> 
 
 Suratu d-Tatfif, 495. i. 
 
 
 Suratu ’t-Tagkabuu, 
 
 .obtdi SA~, 
 
 505, ii. 
 
 Suratu ’t-Takasur, 493. ii. 
 
 
 Suratu ’t-Takwir, 494, ii. 
 
 S x 
 
 Suratu ’t-Taubak, 514. i. 
 
 
 Suratu ’t-Tin, 493, ii. 
 
 ^ hr- 
 
 Suratu d-Jasivak, 497, ii. 
 
 «i»o 1^3 \ S x 
 
 Suratu d-Jum‘ak, 511, i. 
 
 
 Suratu d-Jinu, 133, ii.; 
 
 
 499, ii. 
 
 Suratu d-Haqqak, 497, i. 
 
 «.v3 \ S. 
 
 Suratu d-Hajj, 506, i. 
 
 S 5 * 5 ' by 
 
 Suratu d-Hijr, 499, i. 
 
 s ;r 
 
 Suratu d-Huiurat, 514. i. dr 
 
 Suratu d-Hadld, 513, ii.; 
 
 
 703, ii. 
 
 
 Suratu d-Haskr, 512. i. 
 
 dr 
 
 Suratu d-Hamd, 125, i. 
 
 S,». 
 
 Suratu ’d-Dukkan. 497, ii. 
 
 S.,. 
 
 Suratu ’d-Dakr, 495, i. 
 
 ,jSa5\ l,*. 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zarivat, 499, i. 
 
 
 Suratu ’r-Rakman, 343, i. 
 
 7 v J JJ 
 
 495, ii.; 704, i. 
 
 
 Suratu ’r-Ra‘d, 508, ii. 
 
 »xrJ\ 5xk< 
 
 j jj 
 
 7 ’ y » 
 
 Suratu ’r-Rum, 498, i. dr* 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zukhruf. 503, i. i._ 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zalzalak, 493, i. 
 
 Suratu ’z-Zumar, 496, i. i ; *~. 
 
 Suratu 's-Sajdak, 496, i. 
 
 Suratu 'sk-Sku‘ara'. 3 
 
 498, ii. 
 
 Suratu ’sk-Skams, 
 
 493, ii.; 521, ii. 
 Suratu ’sk-Shura, 501. i. 
 Suratu ’s-SafEat, 498. i. 
 Suratu 's-Saff, 513, ii. 
 Suratu 'z-Zulia, 494, i. 
 Suratu ’t-Tariq, 495, i. 
 Suratu ’t-Talaq, 512, ii. 
 Suratu ’t-Tur, 497, ii. 
 Suratu d-'Adivat, 493, i. 
 Suratu d-‘Asr. 493. i. 
 Suratu ’]-‘Alaq, 485, i.; 
 
 494, i. 
 
 Suratu d-‘Ankabut, 
 
 508, ii. 
 
 i.— 
 
 jbW 
 
 i._ 
 
 ^ > *— 
 ^ > *— 
 
 dr* 
 
 i 
 
 s,*_ 
 
 JJ 
 
 —S._ 
 
 j jj 
 
 Suratu d-G-haskirak, 
 
 494, ii. 
 
 Suratu d-Fatikak, 493, ii. 
 Suratu d-Fatir, 311. ii. 
 Suratu d-Fatk, 513, ii. 
 Suratu d-Fajr, 494. i. 
 Suratu d-Furqan, 502, i. 
 Suratu d-Falaq, 509, ii. 
 Suratu d-Fil, 494, i. 
 Suratu d-Qari'ah. 493. ii. 
 Suratu d-Qadr, 494, ii. 
 Suratu d-Quraisk, 493. ii. 
 Suratu d-Qasas, 505, ii. 
 Suratu d-Qalam, 497. i. 
 Suratu d-Qamar, 496. ii. 
 Suratu d-Qiramah. 495. i. 
 Suratu d-Kafirin, 495. ii. 
 Suratu d-Kakf, 500, ii. 
 Suratu d-Kausar, 494, i. 
 Suratu d-Lail, 493. ii. 
 Suratu d-Alarm, 495, ii. 
 
 
 
 r* 
 
 ,slaS\ 
 
 J*sS\ 
 
 £l. 
 
 JL& 
 
 1 dr* 
 
 *159 
 
 ' 5 ,—. 
 SjJ- 
 
 rV 3 ' dr* 
 JUJ\ s jr - 
 
 dr* 
 
 s,_ 
 
 
 : ;r* 
 
736 
 
 IXPEX. 
 
 Strata '1-Ma’idah, -511. i. 
 
 Suratu ’l-Mujadilah. 
 
 -512. ii. 
 
 Suratu 4-MuddassA, 494. ii. Al*J\ 
 Suratu 4-XIursalat, 49-5, i. 
 
 Sirajirah, -568, i. 
 Saifu ’llah. -5-5-5. ii. 
 Saina’, -59-5, i. 
 
 & _r4. 
 
 J: 
 
 Suratu 1-Muzzammil. 
 496, ii. 
 
 Suratu 4-Ma £ arij. 49-5, id 
 Strata ’l-Mibaj, 3-52, ii. 
 Strata 4-iTala : ibah. 
 
 499, ii. 
 
 Strata 4-tIulX 49-5. ii. 
 Sfiratu '1-XInm.tahiiLah, 
 -514, i. 
 
 Strata 4-XIimanqin, 
 
 •512, ii. 
 
 Suratu 4-iIu'miu. -501, ii. 
 Suratu ' -~W~i* min~ n_ 
 
 U-y*!\ d_ 
 
 Vault 
 
 E V'I 
 
 'w ^ 
 
 t-T 
 
 ;r* Shadi, 313, ii. ; 318, ii.; -570, ii. 
 
 ;r* Sharr, 459, ii. 
 
 Shaft'd 236, ii. _*j 
 
 Sham mail , 130, i. A a. 
 
 Siiali, 278, ii.; 571, i. la. 
 
 Shahid. 327, ii. afeus 
 
 Shahinshah. 571, ii, i-aaaas 
 
 Shab-i-Barat, 127, ii.; -—a 
 
 534, ii. : 570, d 
 
 3hab-i-qadr, 570. i. a* —a. 
 
 ; 
 
 1. 
 
 -/ 
 
 
 Shijaj. 128. d : 680, A 
 
 
 Suratu 
 
 T-Xazrat. 496, ii 
 
 dr - 
 
 Shadlda d-quwa, 133, i. : 
 
 y Jo Ac* 
 
 Suratu 
 
 "n-2s as. 5.9. id 
 
 
 
 4S4. i. ; 570, ii.; 649, i. 
 
 
 Suratu 
 
 : n-Xaba4 495, d 
 
 
 
 Sharab, 572, i. 
 
 w) wSa 
 
 Suratu 
 
 'n-Xaj m. 49-5. ii. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 Shirb, 546. i.: -579, A ; 665, A 
 
 
 Suratu 
 
 u-Xahi. 50 7. A 
 
 
 1. 
 
 i,X 
 
 Shurb. 100, d ; 477, i. : 582, i. 
 
 
 Suratu 
 
 ‘n-Xisa. 512. i. : 
 
 —A 
 
 dr* 
 
 Starh. 572, i. ; 627, i. 
 
 Zy* 
 
 /0O- 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Sharabva : , 114. i. 
 
 
 Suratu 
 
 A-Xasr. 495. 
 
 A' 
 
 
 Sbart, 572, d 
 
 
 Snrata 
 
 A-Xatni, 5 -1. i. 
 
 
 
 Sbar, 572, d 
 
 6* 
 
 j* 
 
 Suratu 
 
 'n-Xur. 512. ii. 
 
 
 
 Sauk. 157, A : 159, ii. ; 190, d : 
 
 Suratu 
 
 4-Hamazah, 493, 
 
 A A-X 
 
 dr- 
 
 579, ii. 
 
 
 Suratu 4- 'V aqrah. 4y-5, ii. 
 Suratu _ " 
 
 Suratu Baui Isra'IL JA4 
 507, d 
 
 Suratu Tabbat, 494. ii. 
 Suratu Saba'. 496, ii. 
 
 Suratu Sat, 501, ii. 
 
 Suratu Ta Ha, 5.2, it 
 Suratu -‘Abasa, 494, id 
 Suratu Btasilat. 497. i 
 Suratu hat. 497. ii.: 703, ii. 
 
 Suratu I’lnhammad, -511, d 
 Suratu Marram, 5'J'J, d 
 Suratu Xiih, 497. ii. 
 
 Suratu Hid 503, A 
 Suratu. Xa. Sin. 5C J, i. 
 suratu dusuT, 503, r. 
 
 Suratu Tutus. 249, A : 
 o’.Mu x. 
 at. 85. iL 
 
 SItaraA 492. d : 517. i. : 
 595, d , 666. d 
 
 S-aiAA 278. A : 556. d 
 SXar. 526. i. 
 
 *-*4- dr* Shirtu t-tas-arruf, 579, A 
 
 S-irkr ' ii. 
 
 _J J 
 
 £-> ^ A-A; 
 
 Shirku 4-uoaiab. 579,ii, 
 
 - - —A' u .a 
 
 Shirtu 579, A 
 
 
 Sairkah. 580. A 
 
 ?/■ . 
 u 
 
 StafraA 193. i.: 536, i.: 
 
 Us X2 JZa 
 
 572, d : 609. A 
 
 
 Staribi vah, 568, A 
 
 Aa 
 
 Sbatrauj. 50, d 
 
 S- ; ,-A 
 
 Shaban, 355. d : 570, d : 
 
 
 696. d 
 
 
 Star. 154. d 
 
 -xa 
 
 Stir. 459. A. 
 
 JUi 
 
 Sbi'ra, 91. d 
 
 
 Stauad 216, A : 440. i.: 
 
 - 
 
 572, : 
 
 
 Snu’-aib. 857. A : 47-5. ii. : 
 
 
 581. A 
 
 
 SauA -ivah. 567. A 
 
 --Xi 
 
 Shaghar. 570, d 
 
 JU: 
 
 S tartar. BOO, A 
 
 
 Stafa-at. 214. A : 570. ii. 
 
 
 Shaft 570. A 
 
 5=* 
 
 Shufah, 474. A : 577. A 
 
 
 5 taut 7-5, i. 
 
 
 Shiqq, 137. ii. 
 
 
IXPEX. 
 
 737 
 
 Shaqqu ’s-Sadr, 571, ii. 
 
 > ^ 
 
 Siddlq, 7, ii. ; 582, ii. 
 
 
 Shams, 73, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 
 Sirat, 173, i.; 422, i. : 595, ii. 
 
 
 Sham'un, 594, ii. 
 
 
 Siratu ’1-mustaqim, ^4^ — * 
 
 by 
 
 Shamu’Il, 440, i. 
 
 
 595, ii. ; 661. ii. 
 
 
 Shintivan, 94, i. 
 
 
 Sarf. 33, i.; 106. ii.; 565, i. 
 
 ijyo 
 
 Shahadah, 110, ii.; 129, 
 
 ii. ; 5^4* 
 
 Sarih, 87, ii.; 519, ii.; 565, i. ; 
 
 eb-° 
 
 571, i. 
 
 
 575, ii. 
 
 
 Shahr, 354, ii. 
 
 
 Sagbirah, 594, ii. 
 
 y*c, 
 
 Shahru ’1-haram, 163, i. 
 
 •—=» 
 
 Saif, 554, ii. 
 
 
 Shahid, 327, ii. ; 571, i. 
 
 ; 670. ii. •*—*» 
 
 Sifatu ’1-Iman, 596, i. 
 
 
 Shauwal, 355, i.; 572, i. 
 
 
 Sifatlvah, 569. i.; 582, ii. 
 
 
 Shushah, 170, i. 
 
 
 Safar, 355, i. ; 554, ii.; 696, i. 
 
 
 Shis, 569, ii. 
 
 d—i. 
 
 Sifah, 484, ii. ; 582, i. 
 
 SSLa 
 
 r 3L.3\ 
 O 
 
 Shaikh, 556, i. ; 571, ii. 
 Shaikhu ’1-Islam, 571, ii. 
 Shaitan, 84, i.; 134, i. 
 Shaitanu ’1-tabir, 157, ii.; 
 225, i. 
 
 Shaitanivah, 568, ii. 
 
 Shrah, 569, i. ; 572, i. seqq. 
 
 
 •Vft-uTa 
 
 ^Lc 
 
 jUc 
 
 S, 518, i. 
 
 Sabi’, 551, i. 
 
 Sahib, 585, ii. s 
 
 Sahibu ’1-hut, 249, ii. s 
 
 Sahibu ’z-zaman, 555, i. s 
 
 Sahibu ’n-nisab, 555, i. 
 
 Sad, 554, i. 
 
 Sa‘, 550, i. 
 
 Siilih, 475, ii. ; 562, ii. 
 
 Subh, 178, i.; 464, ii. 
 
 Subhan, 45, i. ; 466, i. y 
 
 Sabr, 286, i.; 452, i.; 537, i. 
 
 Sibghah, 2, ii. ; 36, i.; 54. i. ; 
 
 582, i. 
 
 Sibghatu Tlah, 313, i. -dH 
 
 Sahabi, 555, i. 
 
 Suhuf, 439, ii. ; 555, i. 
 
 Sahihu ’1-Bukhari. 
 
 423, ii.; 555, i. 
 
 Sahihu Muslim. 423, ii. 
 
 555, ii. 
 
 Sahlfah, 475, ii. ; 555, i. 
 
 Sahlfatu ’1-a‘mal, 14, i.: 
 
 555, i. 
 
 Sakhr. 556, ii. 
 
 Sadr, 554, ii. 
 
 Saclaqah, 14, i. ; 50, i.; 439, ii.; 
 
 554, i. 
 
 Sadaqatu ’l-fitr, 14, i.; 
 
 194, ii. ; 554, i. 
 
 Sudairah (sudeyree), 92. ii. s^jc 
 
 Safura’, 555, i. 
 
 Sifwatu ’1-Iman. 318, ii. 
 
 Sufwatu ’llah, 221. i. -dll 
 
 Safivu ’llah, 475, ii.; 554. ii. -dll 
 Saqr, 169, ii. f*> 
 
 Sulh, 622, i. (4o 
 
 Salat, 101. i., ii. ; 129, ii.; (sJ-<=) 
 
 464, ii. seqq. 
 
 Salatu ’1-istikharah, 
 
 470, ii.; 561, ii. 
 
 Salatu ’1-istisqa, 470, ii.; 
 
 'ii SjBc 
 4^ 
 
 S3u» 
 
 Sac 
 
 532, ii.; 561, ii. 
 
 Salatu ’1-ishraq, 561. i. 
 Salatu ’t-tarawih, 470, ii. ; 
 562, i. 
 
 Salatu 't-tasbih, 562. ii. 
 Salatu ’t-tahajjud, 433, ii. 
 Salatu ’1-jum‘ah. 470, i.; 
 561, ii. 
 
 Salatu ’1-janazah, 470. ii. : 
 561, ii. 
 
 Sac 
 
 ' SAc 
 
 C\> 
 
 sju, 
 
 Salatu 
 
 Salatu 
 
 561, 
 
 Salatu 
 
 561, 
 
 Salatu 
 
 Salatu 
 
 Salatu 
 
 Salatu 
 
 670, 
 
 Salatu 
 
 1-hajah, 561, ii. 
 1-khusuf, 470, ii. ; 
 
 Site 
 
 JetAis- ' SAC 
 
 S'. A*- Sac 
 
 Siw 
 
 Sic 
 
 J 
 
 s.c 
 
 1-fchauf, 470, ii. : 
 i. 
 
 r-ragha’ib, 562, i. 
 s-safar, 562, i. 
 z-Zukr, 561, i. 
 l-usha’, 561. i.: 
 i. 
 
 l-‘asr. 561. i. 
 
 Salatu ’1-udain, 561, i. 
 
 Salatu ’l-fajr, 469. i. : 561, i. sic 
 
 Sic 
 A—■ ' Sic 
 jekJl sic 
 
 = sic 
 
 -c*n sic 
 sic 
 
 Salatu ’1-tusuf, 470. ii.: 
 
 ' 562, i. 
 
 Salatu ’1-layl. 433, ii. 
 Salatu ’1-mariz, 562. i. 
 Salatu ’l-musafir, 470, ii. 
 Salatu ’1-maghrib, 561, i. 
 Salatu '1-witr, 562, i. 
 Sallb, 63, ii.; 562, ii. 
 Samad, 75. ii. 
 
 sic 
 
 93 
 
738 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sau‘a’, 564, ii. 
 
 Sauam, 191, ii.; 564, ii. ^ 
 
 Suwa', 550, i. 
 
 Saum, 124, ii.; 129, ii.; 236, i. ; 
 
 566, i. 
 
 Saumu ’t-tatauwu 4 , 566, i. ff* 
 
 Sur, 647, ii. ^ 
 
 Sufi, 603, ii. 
 
 Said, 134, i. 
 
 Talaqu T-absan, 87, ii. 
 Talaqu T-badi‘, 87, ii. 
 Talaqu T-basan, 87, ii. 
 Talaqu ’s-sunnah, 87, ii. 
 Talaqu T-Hddab, 576, ii. 
 Talaqu T-fednayah, 278, i. 
 Talabatu T-Tlm, 106, ii. 
 Tilsam, 626, ii. 
 
 Tulaibab, 647, ii. 
 
 T H, 517, ii.; 625, i. 
 Tabarab, 477, i.; 625, i. 
 Tubr, 87, ii. ; 647, ii. 
 
 A ^ 
 
 6A*tt jSfr 
 dAAl\ jA 
 . 04 
 
 <j f> 
 
 
 Tawaf, 156, i. 
 
 341, i.; 
 
 630, ii.; 01^4 
 
 
 
 661, ii. 
 
 
 
 Zarr, 76, ii. 
 
 Xs, 
 
 Tuba, 625, i. 
 
 
 
 Zall, 7, ii. 
 
 
 Tur, 647, ii. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Zabi, 697, ii. 
 
 
 Tufan, 82, ii. 
 
 
 oV 
 
 ZaKk, zibk, 235, ii. 
 
 
 TuAva, 358, i.; 
 
 648, ii. 
 
 c 
 
 Zarb, 702, i.; 703, ii. 
 
 
 Taiy, 625, ii. 
 
 
 
 Zarbu T-raml, 305, i. 
 
 U21 ^ 
 
 Tiyarab, 114, n. 
 
 5%UL 
 
 y ~ 
 
 Zarbu T-mandal, 304, ii. 
 
 w j • > 
 
 Taivibab, 303, 
 
 i. 
 
 A y j 
 
 Zazagb, 681, i. 
 
 Zalalab, 701, i. 
 
 diXi 
 
 Tairab, 62o, u. 
 finatu T-khabal. 634, ii. 
 
 
 Zamanab, 34, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zammab, 633, i. seqq. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ziyarab, 177, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Zaif, 152, ii. 
 
 <-M> 
 
 
 k> 
 
 
 Tabab. 303, i. 
 
 Ta‘ab, 623, i. 
 
 TaTm, 452, i. 
 
 Tagbut, 625, i. 
 
 Taqivab, taqivab (takeeveb), 
 " 94. ii.' " 
 
 
 Talib, 609, ii ; 626, ii. 
 
 Talibu T-‘ilm, 106, ii. ; 
 
 626, ii. 
 
 Talut, 440, i.; 565, ii. ^ 
 
 Tabir, 74, ii ; 625, i. — ~ 
 
 Ta'ifu T-tbival, 462, i. JW&3 ‘-*^= 
 Tabib, 624, i. s -^ 
 
 Tarbab (tarbab), 95, i. AA 
 
 Tariqab, 116, i.; 609, ii seqq .; 
 
 628, ii. 
 
 Tariqiyab. 568, i. 
 
 T S, 5i8, i. 
 
 TS1I, 518, i 
 Tasm, 17, i. 
 
 Ta‘am, 180, i 
 TVam-i-sabari, 555, ii. 
 Ta'liq, 690, ii. seqq. 
 Talaq, 86, i.; 576, ii.; 
 
 Zabir, 1, ii.; 76, ii.; 518, ii.; -£>4 
 
 698, ii. 
 
 Zabiru 1-mazbab, 698, ii. ■—j&U\ J&\± 
 Zabiru ’1-mumkinat, -aA 
 
 698, ii. 
 
 - 
 
 Zarf, 530, i. 
 
 
 Zillu ’llab, 710, i. 
 
 dL'\ Jfc 
 
 Zaun, 701, ii. 
 
 
 Zibar, 90, i. ; 702, ii. 
 
 
 Zubr, 177, ii. ; 464, ii. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ‘Abid, 556, i.; 613, ii. 
 
 Jo .£ 
 
 ‘Ad, 8, ii.: 17, i. ; 563, i. 
 
 
 ‘Adiyat, 10, i. 
 
 Ac 
 
 ‘Arif, 613, ii. 
 
 4-ijbs 
 
 ‘Ariyab, 23, i. 
 
 
 ‘Asbir, 58, ii.: 283, i.; 700, 
 
 ii. iU: 
 
 ‘Asbiq, 301, i. 
 
 
 ‘Asbura’, 25, ii.; 124, ii.; 
 
 
 534, ii.; 575, ii.: 662, i. 
 
 
 ‘Aqib, 16, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Aqilab, 16, ii. 
 
 dliVc 
 
 ‘Alain, 13, i. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 739 
 
 ‘Alim, 13, ii.; 14, i.; 106, ii.; ,*1^ 
 
 578, ii. 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-arwab, 13, i.; jA-A 
 215, i. 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-a‘zam, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’l-baqi, 13, i. 
 
 Ace 
 
 ‘Alamu '1-barzakb, 215, 
 
 i. Ej;~' (JtC 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-jabarut, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-khalq. 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’sb-sbabadab. 
 
 
 13, i. 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-ghaib, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-labut, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-ma‘qul, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamu ’1-malakut, 13, i. 
 
 V^*-.U3 {J. — 
 
 ‘Alamu ’n-nasut, 13, i. 
 
 ‘Amm, 518, i.; 696, i. 
 
 
 ‘Amu ’1-fil, 103, i. 
 
 l-a!' <*lc 
 
 ‘Amil mutasaddiq, 58, ii 
 
 • J- 4 ® 
 
 ‘Aba, 92, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ibadat, 285, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ibadab, 612, i. 
 
 aouc 
 
 ‘Ibadatu ’1-ausan, 190, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ibarab, 518, ii. ; 519, ii. 
 
 8.Ufi 
 
 J * 
 
 ‘Abbasiyab, 1, i. ; 568, i. 
 
 
 Aba’ab fAbaveb), 94, i. 
 
 Sc Uc 
 
 ‘Abd, 312, ii.; 596, ii. 
 
 Ju-C 
 
 ‘Ibariyab, 569, i. 
 
 do £ 
 
 * 
 
 ‘Abasa, 1, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ubudiyah, 596, i. ; 610, 
 
 i. do 
 
 ‘Ataq, 598, i. 
 
 ‘Atq, 598, ii. 
 
 ‘Itq, 222, i. 
 
 
 
 
 ‘Atirab, 26, i. 
 
 j ~ 
 
 ‘Atiq, 177, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ajbu ’z-zanab, 539, i. 
 ‘Ajalab, 82, ii. 
 
 
 
 ‘Iddab, 43, i.; 87, ii.; 190, i.; 
 
 308, ii.; 317, ii. ; 536, 
 
 ii. ; 
 
 673, i.; 711, ii. 
 
 Adi, 10, ii.; 463, i. 
 
 
 ‘Adn, 10, ii.; 105, ii. 
 
 ft}-*® 
 
 Azabu ’l-qabr, 27, ii. 
 
 J 
 
 ‘Uzr, 658, ii. 
 
 J 
 
 ‘Arabu ’l-ba’idab, 17, i. 
 
 ■ j 
 
 ‘Arabu ’l-‘aribab, 17, i. 
 
 
 ‘Arabu ! l-must‘aribab, 
 
 do ju; — ^ v 
 
 17, i. 
 
 ‘Irban, 215, ii. 
 
 
 Arabistan, 17, i. 
 
 
 TJrs, 313, ii.; 655, ii. 
 
 vf- 
 
 ‘Arsb, 23, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Arsbu ’1-Iblis, 102, ii. 
 
 U“=^ 3 ' J*f- 
 
 Arafat, 21, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Arafab, 21, i.; 658, i. 
 
 6iy& 
 
 J 
 
 ‘TTrtij, 612, i. 
 
 
 ‘Aruz, 17, i. u b )f 
 
 ‘TTrran, 338, i. 
 
 ‘Izra’il, 15, ii.; 29, ii.; 91, i. ; J-JAv® 
 222, ii. 
 
 ‘Uzlab, 658, ii. 
 
 ‘Uzubab, 50, i. **5'^ 
 
 ‘TJzair, 114, i.; 440, i.; 475, ii. ?.y* 
 ‘Aziz, 29, ii. 
 
 Azimah, 29, ii.; 303, ii. 
 
 ‘Asal, 177, i. 
 
 ‘isba’, 177, ii. ; 216, ii. 
 
 ‘TTsbr, 73, i. ; 283, i. ; 630, ii.; 
 
 653, i.; 655, ii. : 700, ii. 
 Asbaratu’l-mubasbsbarab, iyLs. 
 
 24, ii. 
 
 ‘Isbq, 220, i.; 300, ii.; 
 Ashi, 464, ii. 
 
 610, i. 
 
 cr**® 
 
 Asbiyab, 464, ii. 
 
 .i.f 
 
 Asabab, 23, ii.; 537, i. 
 
 LyCS. 
 
 Asr, 177, ii. 
 
 yC£ 
 
 ‘Utarid, 74, i. ; 201, ii.; 
 
 ; 459, ii. 
 
 ‘Utas, 600, ii. 
 
 y-Osc 
 
 Azim, 29, ii. 
 
 r** 
 
 ‘Ifrit, 134, i.; 196, ii. 
 
 1^0 jic 
 
 ‘Iffab, 196, ii. 
 
 6Jt£. 
 
 Afu, 11, ii.; 451, i. 
 
 f* 
 
 ‘Uqab, 655, i. 
 
 w> 
 
 ‘Aqar, 474, ii. 
 
 
 Aqa’id, 106, ii. ; 286, i 
 
 .; 401, i. 
 
 ‘Aqabab, 16, ii. 
 
 d.yaf* 
 
 ‘TTqba, 655, ii. 
 
 
 Aqdu ’n-nikab, 322, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Aqrab, 74, i.; 201, ii. 
 Aq‘aq, 305, i. 
 
 
 
 Aql, 214, i. 
 
 Aqlu ’l-auwal (awwal), 
 
 J 5 * 
 
 
 101, ii. 
 
 ‘Uqubat, 285, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Uqubab, 655, ii. 
 
 do kin 
 
 _ 
 
 ‘TTqubah sbadidab, 
 
 iJoA-s* do»ar 
 
 " V 
 
 655, ii. 
 
 Aqiqab, 17, i.; 51, i.; 
 ‘Aqim, 669, ii. 
 
 554, i <ia~a£ 
 
 
 ‘TJkaz, 649, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ukuf, 650, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ilaqab, 300, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Alamat, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamatu ’s-sa‘ab, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alamatu ’n-nabuwab, 
 
 £■ 
 
 13, i. 
 
 Alamab, 350, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Alaq, 13, i. 
 
 
 ‘Alam, 13, i.; 606, ii. 
 
 (J* 
 
 ‘Tim, 146, ii. ; 200, ii.; f 
 
 355, ii.; (Jc 
 
 ‘Ulama’, 13, ii. ; 58, i. ; 
 
 106, i.; oUic 
 
 265, i.; 650, i. 
 
740 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-akhlaq. 201, i. ; 
 298, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’i-adab, 200, i. ; 
 
 294, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-asma’, 201, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-usul, 106, ii. ; 
 
 202, i. ; 518, i.; 634, i.; 
 656, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-aktaf, 200, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-ilahiyat, 202, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-insha’, 202, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-batin, 201, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’t-tajwld, 202, ii.; 
 
 478, ii.; 517, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’t-tashrih, 202, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’t-tasawwuf, 202, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’t-tafsir, 198, i.; 
 634, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’t-tawarikh, 202, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-jabr, 202, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-hadis, 198, i. ; 
 
 201, ii.; 634, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-hisab, 202, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-haqiqab, 200, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-hikmab, 202, i.; 
 
 298, ii. ; 452, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-khatt, 680, ii. seqq. 
 ‘Ilmu ’r-rami, 202, ii. 
 ‘Hum ’r-riyazab, 202, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’r-riyaziyat, 298, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’s-sihr, 202, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’s-simiya’, 202, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’sb-shi‘r, 202, ii. 
 ‘Unra ’t-tibb, 202, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’f-aqa’id, 200, i.; 
 634, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-fara’iz, 201, ii. ; 
 207, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-fiqh, 201, ii.; 
 
 286, i.; 634, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-falsafah, 202, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-falak, 200, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-qira’ah, 202, ii. 
 Ilmu ’1-qiyafah, 478, i, 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-kaff, 202, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-kalam, 201, i.; 
 286, i. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-lughah. 201, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’llah, 298, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-mabadi, 200, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’l-masabah, 202, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-mu‘asharab, 83, i. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-maqasid, 200, ii. 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-mukashafab, 
 
 200, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’l-milahah, 202, i. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 IT,' ^ 
 
 pie 
 
 eoV 1 ] 
 
 liojkidl pi £ 
 
 r%le 
 \ ^e 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 daall pie 
 
 da _Ub +le 
 
 liUaD pie 
 
 AiUaJl pis:. 
 (_flS31 pis 
 p'iSZ] pie 
 
 pie 
 <slb pie 
 pie 
 pie 
 
 6^e>\jul\ 
 
 pie 
 
 pie 
 
 ‘Umu ’1-mantiq, 202, i. ; 
 
 
 298, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’l-muslqa, 202, i. 
 
 pie 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-mizan, 298, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’n-nabatat, 202, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Umu ’n-nujum, 25, ii. ; 
 
 
 202, n. ; 304, ii. 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-bandasab, 202, i. 
 
 (LaJuall pie 
 
 ‘Ilmu ’1-yaqin, 202, ii.; 
 
 
 694, i. 
 
 ‘Alawlyah, 567, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ali, 13, ii.; 75, i. 
 
 
 ‘Illiyun, 79, ii. ; 200, ii.; 
 
 449, i. 
 
 o y* 
 
 } v* 
 
 ‘Imran, 206, i. 
 
 ‘Umrab, 155, ii.; 259, ii. 
 
 458, ii. ; 481, i.; 655, 
 
 i. 
 
 ‘Umra, 655, i. 
 
 
 ‘Amal, 204, ii.; 400, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Amal-namab, 14, i. 
 
 
 ‘Amaliyab, 569, i. 
 
 A.l f o 
 
 ‘Umyan, 43, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ananah, 205, ii. 
 
 61 ee 
 
 ‘Ankabut, 16, i. 
 
 tea^See 
 
 ‘Unnah, 88, i. 
 
 dee 
 
 ! ‘Ininab, 205, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Ahd, 646, i. 
 
 d$e 
 
 ‘Awamil, 530, i. 
 
 j-y 
 
 ‘CJj, 649, i. 
 
 
 ‘Auzun bi ’liab, 624, i. 
 
 dJJb it£ 
 
 ‘Aul, 578, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Iyadab, 658, i. 
 
 Sjllc 
 
 ‘Ivafah, 305, i. 
 
 dide 
 
 ! ‘Id, 127, ii. 
 
 Ju* 
 
 ‘Idu ’1-Azha, 127, ii. ; 
 
 d*e 
 
 157, ii. ; 192, ii. ; 552, 
 
 i-. 
 
 ii. ; 658, i. ; 662, i. 
 
 ‘Idu ’s-sadaqah, 194, ii. 
 
 &Sju2\ e*e 
 
 ‘Idu ’i-Fitr, 124, ii. ; 127 
 
 , ii. ; d^e 
 
 _ 192, ii. ; 194, ii. ; 662, 
 
 i. 
 
 ‘Idan, 190, i. 
 
 
 j ‘Idu. ramazan, 194, ii. 
 
 d*e 
 
 ‘Idgab, 190, i. 
 
 l\£d*e 
 
 ‘Isawi, 53, i. ; 431, i. 
 
 r~^ 
 
 ‘Isa, 54,-ii. ; 229, ii. ; 475, ii. 
 
 ‘Isa ’1-Masib, 229, ii. 
 
 
 ‘Isa bnu Maryam, 
 
 f*r* & 
 
 229, n. 
 
 ‘Ain, 114, i. 
 
 
 ‘Ainu ’1-yaqin, 694, i. 
 
 
 ‘Uyun, 114, i. 
 
 yy*e 
 
 t 
 
 Gkazi, 139, i. 
 
 
 Grhasil, 139, i. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 741 
 
 138, i. 
 
 139, ii. 
 
 or—• 
 
 Ghabu, 138, i. 
 
 Gbaddar, 137, ii. 
 
 Ghadir. 138, i. 
 
 Ghurab, 139, ii.; 535, ii. 
 Gltaraq, 99, ii. 
 
 Ghurrab. 139, ii. 
 
 Ghazwah, 139, i. 
 
 Gbazwatu ’1-khandaq. 
 
 85, i.; 378, i. 
 
 Gbazwatu badr, 30, i. 
 Ghassan. 139, i. 
 
 Gbasl, Gbusl, 39, ii 
 329, i.; 477, ii. 
 
 Gbusl masnun, 140, i. ; 
 
 477, ii. 
 
 Gbislin. 139, ii. 
 
 Ghisbawab, 139, ii. 
 
 Ghasb. 138, ii. 
 
 Gbazab, 139, i. 
 
 Gbatafan, 139, i. 
 
 Gbifar, 139, ii. 
 
 Ghufran. 451, i. 
 
 Gbafur, 76, ii. 
 
 Gbularn, 139, ii. 
 
 Gbulat, 139, ii.; 574, ii 
 Gbulul, 139, ii. 
 
 Gbamarat, 138, ii. 
 
 Ghina’. 595, ii. 
 
 Ghanam. 700, i. 
 
 Gbanimab, 114, i.; 459, ii. 
 Gbaus, 139, i.; 556, i. 
 
 Gbul, 137, i.; 139, ii. 
 
 Gbaib, 138, i. 
 
 Gkaibu ’1-Huwiyab, 138, i. 
 Ghibab, 29, ii. ; 49, i. ; 139, i. 
 Gbairu makbluq, 4;84, ii. 
 Gbair mustabin, 82, i. 
 
 Ghair ruasbru', 286, i. 
 
 Gbair Mabdi, 138, ii. 
 
 Gbairab, 138, i. 
 
 Ghaiz. 437, ii. 
 
 y>Ac 
 
 5/ 
 
 & } yC. 
 
 Si) 
 
 * V s 
 
 q\-C 
 
 , 1_e 
 
 I_c 
 
 tr 1 — 6 
 
 SjLii; 
 
 O 
 
 J 
 
 take 
 
 l ,pr* 
 
 o'y* 
 
 f&B. 
 
 Site 
 
 Jy 
 
 Fatibab, 45, ii 
 
 l.; 50, 
 
 ii.; 
 
 318, i. ; 
 
 
 466, ii.; 482, i.; 
 
 706, 
 
 ii. 
 
 
 Faraqlit, 123, 
 
 ii. 
 
 
 
 kJS^U 
 
 Fasid, i24, i. 
 
 
 
 
 a_ti 
 
 Fasiq, 112, ii. 
 
 ; 124, 
 
 ii.; 
 
 617, ii. 
 
 
 Fa’il, 530, i. ; 
 
 684, i 
 
 
 
 Jcti 
 
 Fa’l, 114, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Faniyab, 569, 
 
 i. 
 
 
 
 iLj\£ 
 
 Fattab, 75, ii. 
 
 
 
 
 >*» 
 
 Fathaii, 683, i 
 
 . seqq. 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Sy:i 
 
 
 
 664, ii. 
 
 CT* 
 
 ; 650, i. 
 
 or-' 
 
 
 
 177, ii. 
 
 J • 
 
 
 ^ Ji 
 
 Fatrab, 127, i. 
 Fatq, 127, i. 
 Fitan, 129, i.; 
 Fatwa, 127, i. 
 Fijar, 128, i. 
 
 Fadak, 391, i. 
 
 Fidvab, 113, i. ; 127, ii. 
 Furat, 132, ii. 
 
 Firasab, 128, ii. 
 
 Firasb, 128, ii. 
 
 Fara’iz, 123, ii. ; 207, i. 
 Farajiyab (farageeyeb), 93, i. 
 Firdaus, 128, ii. 
 
 Faras, 177, i. 
 
 Farsakh. 124, i. 
 
 Firisbtab, 15, i. 
 
 Farz, 124, i. ; 156, i. 
 
 434, ii. 
 
 Farzu ’l-‘Ain, 124, i. 
 
 Farz Kifa’i, 124, i. 
 
 Far 1 , 25, ii. ; 123, ii. 
 
 Fir‘aun, 440, i. ; 452, i. 
 Fii^aun Zu ’1-autad, 
 
 452, ii. 
 
 Faraq, 123, ii. 
 
 Furqan, 484, i. 
 
 Firqab, 567, i. 
 
 520, ii. 
 
 <i-.\ j 
 
 u-y 
 <>y 
 
 286, i.; 
 
 
 ?vaf 
 
 
 
 tf 
 
 «yy 
 
 y' y oyy 
 
 «y 
 
 Farudiyab (faroodeeyeb), 94, ii. 
 
 ^ . TOO : ; 
 
 Funk, 656, i.; 123, i. 
 
 Farwah, 124, i. 
 
 Fussilat, 132, ii. 
 
 Fasibu ’1-kalam, 260, ii. 
 
 Fazl, 127, ii. 
 
 Fazlab, 530, i. 
 
 Fazuli, 127, ii. 
 
 Fitrab, 40, i. ; 129, ii.; 213, i. 
 Fi‘l, 530, i. 
 
 Faqr, 123, ii. 
 
 Fiqb, 106, ii.; 128, ii.; 401, i. 
 Faqlr, 115, ii.; 353, i.; 556, i.; 
 700, ii. 
 
 Faqib, 115, ii. ; 323, i. 
 
 Fikriyab, 568, ii. 
 
 Fuls, 132, ii. 
 
 Falsafab, 452, ii. 
 
 Falaq, 115, i. 
 
 Fana’, 115, ii. ; 609, ii.; 610, i. 
 Fabd, 184, i. 
 
 Fabrn, 214, i. 
 
 Fautu ’1-Hajj, 127, ii. 
 
 Faujdar, 127, ii. 
 
 Faujdari, 91, i. oj 
 
 Fai’, 114, i.; 459, ii. 
 
 Fi Sabili ’llab, 700, ii. J..~ 
 
 Faiz-i-aqdas, 114, i. 
 
 V 
 
 A l a . * 
 
 Jr* 
 
 6 Jsi 
 
 j*» 
 
 j® 
 dai 
 
 d-sg.1 
 -J 
 
 fjjj 
 
 A6- . r l i> 
 
 I 
 
 j) A >y 
 
 y 
 j 
 
 
742 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 
 
 Qiran, 481, i. 
 
 oV 
 
 
 
 
 Qur’an, 400, ii. ; 483, ii. 
 
 seqq. ©ty* 
 
 
 
 
 Quranu ’l-‘AzIm, 125, i. 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 Qira’ab, 481, i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Qurbu ’s-Sa‘ah, 530, ii. 
 
 
 Q, 518, i. 
 
 
 
 Qurban, 530, ii.; 551, ii 
 
 
 Qabil, 2, i.; 48, ii. ; 440, 
 
 i. 
 
 
 Qurban ‘id, 192, ii. 
 
 
 Qadir, 1, ii. ; 75, ii. 
 
 
 ^<3 Vi 
 
 Qarasbat, 681, i. 
 
 
 Qadiriyab, 478, i. 
 
 
 &jjV$ 
 
 Qurs (kurs), 94, ii. 
 
 u°y 
 
 Qarun, 281, i.; 863, ii. ; 
 
 440 
 
 , i. 
 
 Qarz, 33, ii.; 64, ii.; 81 
 
 ii. ; u®y 
 
 Qarl’, 478, ii. 
 
 
 
 479, i. 
 
 
 Qasitiyab, 568, ii. 
 
 
 V^ 
 
 Qur‘ak, 49, ii.; 300, i. 
 
 
 Qazi, 58, i. ; 255, i. 
 
 
 
 Qarn, 88, ii. 
 
 0/ 
 
 Qaf, 478, i. 
 
 
 ils 
 
 Qarnu ’1-manazil, 350, i. 
 
 ©y 
 
 Qafilab, 49, ii. 
 
 
 Ails 
 
 Quraisb, 483, i. 
 
 u^y 
 
 Qanit, 478, ii. 
 
 
 e^ls 
 
 Quraizab, 483, i. 
 
 dkiy 
 
 Qanun, 478, ii. 
 
 
 yyVi 
 
 Qarin, 479, i. 
 
 <yy 
 
 Qahir, 1, ii. 
 
 
 yls 
 
 Qarinah, 479, i. 
 
 
 Qa’if, 478, i. 
 
 
 i_a>ls 
 
 Qasamab, 479, i. 
 
 
 Qa’im, 1, ii. 
 
 
 f&i 
 
 Qustantiniyab, 530, ii. 
 
 
 Quba’, 482, ii. 
 
 
 Ay 
 
 Qasm, 479, ii. 
 
 f+~J> 
 
 Qaba Qausain, 477, i. 
 
 
 As 
 
 Qissis, 482, i. 
 
 
 Qabalah, 477, i. 
 
 
 AAs 
 
 Qisslsnu, 54, i. ; 58, i. 
 
 
 Qabr, 150, i. 
 
 
 A 
 
 Qisas, 125, i.; 286, i.; 476, ii.; 
 
 Qabr-i-Husain, 409, ii. 
 
 
 
 481, i.; 520, ii.; 679, 
 
 i. 
 
 Qabristan, 48, i. 
 
 
 
 Qasru ’1-amal, 286, i. 
 
 
 Qabr-gab, 48, i. 
 
 
 
 Qasidab, 649, ii. 
 
 fcjk-yoi 
 
 Qabriyab, 569, i. 
 
 
 
 Qaza’, 479, ii. 
 
 sA>o3 
 
 Qabz wa bast, 477, ii. 
 
 
 
 Qutb, 531, i.; 556, i. 
 
 Ci -la? 
 
 Qibti, 481, i. 
 
 
 
 Qutrub, 137, i. 
 
 C-AjLjb 
 
 Qiblah, 159, i.; 258, ii.; 
 
 480, i.; Ay 
 
 Qat‘u ’t-tariq, 174, i.; 
 
 
 520, ii. 
 
 
 
 477, i.; 479, ii. 
 
 
 Qubattu ’s-Sakhrah. 557 
 
 ’. L 
 
 
 Qitfir, 464, ii.; 482, i. 
 
 j 
 
 Qubbatu ’i-‘Abbas, 340, 
 
 i. 
 
 
 Qa‘dak, 477, ii. 
 
 
 Qabul, 314, ii.; 477, ii. 
 
 
 jyf 
 
 Qaftan, 93, i. 
 
 yAfli 
 
 Qattat, 479, ii. 
 
 
 
 Qufl, 73, i. 
 
 Jai 
 
 Qatl, 420, ii. 
 
 
 
 Qul, 318, ii. 
 
 y 
 
 Qatlu ’1-kbata’, 421, i. 
 
 
 
 Qiladab, 431, ii. 
 
 
 Qatlu ’l-‘amd, 421, i. 
 
 
 ,y.*b J..XS 
 
 Qalam, 478, ii. 
 
 r-y 
 
 Qatlun bi-sabab, 421, ii. 
 
 
 
 Qalandar, 478, ii. 
 
 ^ Jibs 
 
 Qatlun sbibhu ’]-‘amd, 
 
 
 Qimar, 133, ii. ; 481, i. 
 
 jUs 
 
 421, i. 
 
 
 
 Qainar, 74, ii. ; 201, ii.; 
 
 356, i. 
 
 Qatlun qa’imun b=sy\ J-i 
 
 Qamis, 81, i. ; 92, ii. 
 
 
 maqaina ’1-khata, 421, 
 
 i. 
 
 
 Qinn, 481, i. 
 
 . ©* 
 
 Qatlu nafsi-bi, 622, i. 
 
 
 
 Qana‘ab, 286, i. 
 
 As As 
 
 Qadar, 82, i. ; 472, i.; 478, 
 
 yi 
 
 Qananab, 478, ii. 
 
 ii As 
 
 Qudrab, 146, ii. ; 482, n. 
 
 
 iys 
 
 Qintar, 354, i.; 481, i. 
 
 
 Qadariyah, 478 i.; 568, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Ajis 
 
 Qunutu ’1-witr, 101, i. ; 
 
 yy\ ui^^is 
 
 Qadariyiin, 473, i. 
 
 
 
 482, ii. 
 
 
 Qadiniu ’1-aiyam, 478, i. 
 
 
 y.A> 
 
 Qawad, 479, ii. 
 
 ijS 
 
 Qazf, 476, ii.; 479, ii. ; 
 
 594 
 
 ii. (ji5 
 
 Qaus, 74, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 
 Qara’, 483, ii. 
 
 
 y 
 
 Qausu quzah, 532, i. 
 
 cy u-y 
 
 Qurra’, 478, ii. 
 
 
 v °y 
 
 Qaul, 479, ii. 
 
 
 Qira’at, 517, i. 
 
 
 
 Qaulu ’1-haqq, 229, ii.; 
 
 (j^n Jy 
 
 Qarabab, 11, i.; 478, ii. 
 
 
 Aly 
 
 479, ii. 
 
 
 Qirat, 85, i. 
 
 
 My 
 
 Quwat Hafizab, 130, i. 
 
 ilai A. iy 
 
INDEX. 
 
 748 
 
 Quwat jfchayal, 130, i. 
 
 vj 4'"“ 
 
 Quwat mutasarrifab, 130, i. Sy> 
 
 Quwat Wabimab, 130, i. 
 
 Qiyas, 400, ii.; 482, i.; 548, i. ; y-W* 
 656, i. 
 
 Qiyas jail, 482, i. 
 Qiyas khafi, 482, i. 
 
 
 Qiyam, 45, i.; 466, i. ; 482, i. 
 545, ii. 
 
 Qiyamah, 255, ii. 
 
 Qaisar, 48, i. 
 
 
 O'* 
 
 U 
 
 i 
 
 Katib, 261, ii. 
 
 
 Karawan, 261, ii. 
 
 oW* 
 
 Kafir, 207, i. ; 259, ii. ; 
 
 329, i. ; 
 
 401, i. ; 655, i. 
 
 
 Kafur, 260, i. 
 
 
 Kafi, 74, i. ; 643, i. 
 
 
 Kalab, 256, ii. 
 
 m 
 
 Kamil, 261, ii. 
 
 J-tf 
 
 Kamiliyab, 261, ii. 
 
 
 Kabin, 260, ii. 
 
 
 Kibr, 277, ii.; 475, i. 
 
 
 Gabr, 133, i. 
 
 
 Kabirab, 259, ii. ; 594, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Kitab, 475, ii. 
 
 
 Kitabu ’s-siyar, 596, i. 
 
 y*, wl 1 . ' 
 
 Kitabab, 598, i. 
 
 big 
 
 Kitabi, 280, ii.; 710, i. 
 
 
 Kitabiyab (kitabeeab), 89, ii.; -4?^ 
 
 280, ii. ; 712, ii. 
 
 
 Kutub, 439, ii. 
 
 
 Katbu ’1-kitab, 322, ii. 
 
 
 Kitman, 280, ii. 
 
 Kasratu ’1-mal, 544, ii. 
 Kacbkul, 259, ii. 
 
 Kuhl, 40, i. 
 
 Kizzab, 302, ii. 
 
 Kiramu ’1-katibin, 15, ii. 
 
 J&S" 
 
 s_>U<T 
 
 r \/ 
 
 555, i. 
 
 Kiramun- katibun, 279, i. 
 
 or’^ f*l/ 
 
 Karamah, 269, ii.; 278, ii. 
 
 ; A* 
 
 350, ii. 
 
 Kiramlyab, 279, i. 
 Karbala’, 261, ii. ; 408, ii. 
 
 
 seqq. 
 
 Karwan, 49, ii. 
 
 
 KarubI, 50, i. 
 
 o-;/ 
 
 Karubin, 50, i. ; 261, ii. 
 
 
 Karubivun, 15, ii. 
 
 or*)/ 
 
 Gurz, 152, ii. 
 
 3/ 
 
 Kasrab, 683, i. seqq. 
 
 
 Kaslaniyab, 568, ii. 
 
 
 hi 
 
 Kusuf, 105, i. 
 
 Kiswab, 279, ii.; 337, ii. 
 
 Kashf, 261, ii. 
 
 Kasbkul, 120, ii. 
 
 Ka‘bab, 333, ii, seqq. ; 480, i.; 
 
 540, i. 
 
 Ka‘biyab, 259, ii. 
 
 Kaffarab, 113, i.; 128, i.; 
 
 259, ii.; 437, ii. ; 598, ii. 
 
 Kafalab, 259, ii. 
 
 Kufr, 43, i. ; 281, ii. ; 594, ii. 
 
 Kafan, 259, ii.; 342, i.; 581, i. 
 
 Kafur, 260, i. 
 
 Kilab, 91, i. 
 
 Kalam, 147, i.; 260, ii. 
 
 Kalamu ’llab, 260, ii. ; 
 
 484, i. ; 548, i.; 566, ii 
 Kullali, 120, i.; 282, i. 
 
 Kalb, 91, i. 
 
 Kalaf, 300, ii. 
 
 Kalaman, 681, i. 
 
 Kalimak, 63, i.; 261, i.; 318, ii 
 401, i. ; 489, ii. ; 564, i. 
 
 Kalimatu ’1-hazrab, 261, i. -UK 
 
 Kalimatu ’sb-sbabadab, dUK 
 
 63, i.; 80, ii.; 102, ii.; 
 
 261, i. 
 
 Kalimatu ’llab, 229, ii. 
 
 Kalisab, 261, i. 
 
 Kallmu ’llab, 261, i.; 356 
 475, ii. 
 
 Kam’, 423, ii. 
 
 Kamau-i-Rustum, 533, i. 
 
 Kun, 261, i. 
 
 Kinayab, 87, ii. ; 278, i.; 
 
 £ 
 
 ))/ 
 
 m 
 
 v-R 
 
 i_2K 
 
 <L*K 
 
 dU\ dUK 
 
 i.; -dll ^ 
 
 O* 
 
 <L> 
 
 575, 
 
 519, ii. ; 565, i. 
 
 Kanz, 545, i. 
 
 Kanziyab, 568, i. 
 
 Kan'an, 261, ii. 
 
 Kanisab, 261, ii. 
 
 Kunyab, 429, i. 
 
 Kibanab (kahanab), 86 
 131, i.; 303, ii. 
 Kabruba, 260, ii. 
 
 KHY‘S, 517, ii. 
 
 Kawakib, 76, ii. 
 
 Kausar, 450, i. 
 
 Kiiziyab, 568, i. 
 
 Gosbab nisbln, 149, ii. 
 Kaifiyab, 260, ii. 
 
 Klmiya’, 13, i. 
 
 Kimiya’u ’1-khawass. 
 
 278, i. 
 
 Kimiya’u ’s-sa‘adab, 
 
 278, i. 
 
 Kimiya’u ’l-‘awam, 278, i. 
 
 .. y* 
 
 <Lj£ 
 
 s-S\/ 
 
 .M 
 .. ^ 
 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 744 
 
 J 
 
 La-adriyab, 282, i. 
 
 ajjAS 
 
 Lahid, 46, i. 
 
 
 La-lvhaiaj. 269, ii. 
 
 
 Latiniyab, 568, i. 
 
 A-^c'j 
 
 Labut, 282, i. 
 
 
 Lubb, 301, ii. 
 
 u 
 
 Libas, 92, i.; 294, i. 
 
 (jA-4 
 
 Luban, 206, ii. 
 
 
 Laban, 349, i. 
 
 
 Lubnan, 292, ii. 
 
 
 Labbah, 697, ii. 
 
 aA 
 
 Lahd, 46, i.; 282, i. 
 
 A 
 
 Lihyab, 40, i.; 294, i. 
 
 
 Ludd, 301, ii. 
 
 " jJ 
 
 Lisanu ’1-baqq, 294, i. 
 
 
 Lisanu ’l-‘Arab, 20, i. 
 
 
 Latifab, 285, i. 
 
 
 Laza, 171, i. ; 292, ii. 
 
 > 
 
 Li‘an, 293, i., ii. ; 317, ii. 
 
 ; rAA 
 
 575, ii. 
 
 La‘n, 88, i. 
 
 
 La‘nab, 283, i. 
 
 Aa»5 
 
 Lugbab, 20, i. 
 
 Ail 
 
 Lughatu ’l-‘Arab, 20, i. 
 
 Ail 
 
 Lifafab, 81, i.; 581, ii. 
 
 Aila! 
 
 Lafziyab, 569, i. 
 
 aAc! 
 
 Laqab, 284, i.; 429, i. 
 
 <=_.aJ 
 
 Luqtab, 302, ii.; 647, i. 
 
 Abfll 
 
 Luqman, 18, i.; 301, ii.; 
 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 Laqit, 131, ii. ; 284, i. 
 Liwa’, 298, ii. 
 
 
 A 
 
 Lawaqib, 669, ii. 
 
 e*V 
 
 Laub, 14, i. 
 
 ey 
 
 Liiz, 539, i. 
 
 
 Lut, 299, i. ; 440, i. ; 475, 
 
 ii. bJ 
 
 Laiiatn ’1-bara’ab, 282, ii. 
 
 &LJ 
 
 Lailatu ’1-binna’, 325, i. 
 
 
 Lailatu ’d-dakblab, 326, i. 
 
 
 Lailatu ’r-ragha’ib. 
 
 s 
 
 127, ii. ; 283, ii. 
 
 Lailatu ’1-qadi’, 282, ii. ; 
 
 <£LJi 
 
 422, i. ; 570, i. 
 
 r 
 
 Ma’, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’3-babr, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’1-barad, 665, i. 
 
 JjA oU 
 
 Ma’u ’1-bi’r, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’s-salj, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’i-‘ain, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’1-quds, 347, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’1-matar, 665, i. 
 
 
 Ma’u ’n-nabr, 665, i. 
 
 
 Majuj, 440, i. ; 540, i. 
 
 
 Ma’zun, 347, i. 
 
 
 Mai, 30, ii. ; 544, ii. 
 
 Jb» 
 
 Malu ’1-haram, 163, i. 
 
 ju 
 
 Mai zaminl, 312, ii. 
 
 JU» 
 
 Malik, 15, ii. ; 312, i. 
 
 AJU 
 
 Maliku ’1-mulk, 312, i. 
 
 cdUJ\ iASU 
 
 Mabiyatu ’1-haqa’iq, 
 
 
 213, i. ; 646, ii. 
 
 Ma’idab, 110, i. 
 
 
 Mubab, 58, i. ; 286, i. ; 367, i. gU. 
 
 Mubara’ah (Mubarat) 90, 
 
 1. ; 
 
 367, i. 
 
 Mubtada’, 530, i. 
 
 
 Mubtadi 1 , 367, i. 
 
 
 Mubazzir, 114, i. 
 
 
 Mubasbsbirat, 669, ii. 
 
 
 Mabna ’t-tasauwuf, 
 
 
 302, ii. 
 
 Mutabarriyab, 568, ii. 
 
 
 Mutaraqibiyab, 568, ii. 
 
 
 Mutasbabib, 199, i. ; 519, 
 
 i, ; A}Liw» 
 
 582, ii. 
 
 Mut‘ab, 424, i.; 575, ii. 
 
 
 Mutaqadim, 425, i. 
 
 
 Mutalahimab, 128, ii.; 
 
 
 680, ii. 
 
 Mutammaniyab, 568, ii. 
 
 
 Matn, 346, ii.; 627, i. 
 
 
 Mutawalli, 330, i.; 331, i. 
 
 ; Jr-* 
 
 425, i. 
 
 Misqal, 85, ii. ; 353, i. 
 
 
 Musallas, 423, i. 
 
 
 Muslab, 423, ii. 
 
 
 Misii, 31, i. 
 
 
 Mas n awl, 620, i. 
 
 
 Masna, 463, i. 
 
 
 Majaz, 519, ii. 
 
 
 Majazi, 662, i. 
 
 tS)bar'* 
 
 Mujabid, 418, ii. 
 
 
 Mujabir, 132, ii. 
 
 
 Majbiib, 310, i. 
 
 
 Mujtabid, 418, ii. 
 
 
 Mujtabidun, 548, i.; 574, i. 
 
 Maj zub, 116, i.; 301, i. ; 
 
 310, i. ; 612, i. 
 
 Maj ziib-i-salik, 612, ii. usWU *->^*8* 
 Mujmal, 519, i. J**-* 
 
 Maj nun, 190, i. ; 301, ii. 
 
 Majusi, 712, ii.; 575, ii. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 745 
 
 Muhadasah, 367, ii. 
 
 
 Muhazarah, 418, i. 
 
 
 Muhibbu ’1-fuqara’, 50, i. 
 
 
 Mahabbah, 50, i.; 300, i. 
 
 
 Muhtasib, 85, ii. ; 418, i. 
 
 
 Muhtakir, 418, i. 
 
 
 Mihjan, 348, i. 
 
 
 Mahjur, 305, ii. 
 
 
 Muhaddis, 367, ii. 
 
 
 Mihrab, 329, i.; 348, i. 
 
 
 Mahram, 307, ii. 
 
 &*** 
 
 Muharram, 355, i.; 407, i. 
 
 ; 
 
 696, i. 
 
 
 Muhrim, 418, i. 
 
 
 Muharramat, 417, ii. 
 
 
 Muhsinah, 318, i. 
 
 
 Mihkam, 342, ii. 
 
 
 Muhkam, 518, ii. 
 
 
 Muhkamiyah, 568, i. 
 
 
 Muhallil, 367, ii. 
 
 
 Muhammad, 399, i. 
 
 
 Muhammadi, 400, i. 
 
 
 Mahmal, Mahmil, 306, i. 
 
 
 Mahmud, 307, ii. 
 
 
 Mahmudiyah, 307, ii. 
 
 
 Mahiz, 347, ii. 
 
 
 Mukhasamiit, 286, i. 
 
 
 Mukhalatah, 419, i. 
 
 
 Mukhaddarah. 419, i. 
 
 
 Makhliiqiyah. 569, i. 
 
 
 Mudahanah, 187, ii. 
 
 
 Mudabbir, 367, i.; 624, ii. 
 
 
 Madrasah, 342, ii. ; 566, ii 
 
 . Jk/» 
 
 Mudda‘I, 367, i. 
 
 
 Mudda‘a ‘alaihi, 82, i. ; 
 
 
 367, i. 
 
 
 Maddah, 686, i. 
 
 
 Madyan, 303, ii. ; 357, ii. 
 
 
 Madlnatu ’n-nabi, 303, i. 
 
 
 Muzakkir, 472, i. 
 
 
 Mazhab, 220, i.; 348, ii.; 
 
 
 536, i. 
 
 
 Muzahhabat, 460, i. 
 
 
 Murabahah, 420, ii. 
 
 
 Muraqabah, 420, ii.; 705, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Murahiq, 420, ii. 
 
 
 Murahaqah, 420, ii. 
 
 
 Murtajis, 390, i. 
 
 {j^ry 
 
 Murtadd, 16, i.; 207, i.; 655, i. 
 
 Marsiyah, 327, ii. 
 
 &-K>y 
 
 Murjiyah, 421, ii. 
 
 s^y 
 
 Markh. 129, i. 
 
 tr 
 
 Mirzabah, 352, ii. 
 
 **)r 
 
 Mursal, 422, i.; 475, ii. 
 
 J~y 
 
 Murshid, 120, ii. ; 422, i.; 
 
 X&J/. 
 
 Aij<« 
 
 hr 
 
 6-r* 
 
 *X>y 
 
 j*-r 
 
 .<*r 
 
 cV 
 
 * c jV 
 
 r^V 
 
 *j>*by 
 
 rr 
 
 Marqad, 48, i. 
 
 Marwah, 828, i. 
 
 Mirrilgh, 73, ii.; 201, ii. 
 
 Marld, 134, i. 
 
 Murid, 120, ii. ; 421, ii.; 609, ii. 
 
 704, i. 
 
 Mariz, 668, i. 
 
 Maryam, 328, i.; 356, ii 
 Muzabanah, 426, i. 
 
 Mizah, 249, ii. 
 
 Muzara‘ah, 426, i. 
 
 Mazamir, 440, i. 
 
 Muzaffat, 99, ii.; 658, i. 
 
 Muzawwir, 699, i. 
 
 Masa’, 178, i.; 464, ii. 
 
 Masabihu ’s-sunuah, 
 
 353, i. 
 
 Musaqat, 423, i. 
 
 Musamarah, 423, i. 
 
 Musta’jir, 176, i. 
 
 Musta’min, 424, i. 
 
 Mustabin-i-ghair 
 marsurn, 81, i. 
 
 Mustabin-i-marsum, 
 
 82, i. 
 
 Mustasniyah, 569, i. 
 
 Mustahazah, 423, ii. H^^x*** 
 
 Mustahabb, 156, i. ; 286, i. 
 
 Masjid, 329, i.; 366, i. 
 
 Masjidu ’1-aqsa, 227, i.; 
 
 559, ii. 
 
 Masjidu ’t-taqwa, 
 
 346, i. 
 
 Masjidu ’l-jami‘, 330, ii. 
 
 Masjidu ’1-haram, rh^ 
 
 227, i.; 333, ii. 
 
 Masjidu ’1-khaif, 343, ii. 
 
 Masjidu ’n-nabi, 343, ii. ■* 
 
 Masah, 81, i.; 328, ii. ; 477, ii. 
 Musrif, 114, i. 
 
 Miskin, 353, i.; 700, ii. 
 
 Musallam, 586, i. 
 
 Muslim, 40, ii.; 400, i.; 423, ii. 
 
 rrr 
 
 458, ii.; 609, i. ; 655, ii. 
 
 Musallam ilai-ki, 561, l. 
 Musalman, 400, i. ; 423, i. 
 Musallam fi-hi, 561, i. 
 Muslimun, 40, ii. 
 
 Masnim, 346, ii. 
 
 Miswak, 353, i.; 470, ii.; 
 477, ii. 
 
 Masih, 37, i. ; 54, ii. 
 Masihu ’d-dajjiil, 64, ii. 
 Masihl, 431, i. 
 Musailamah, 422, ii. 
 Mushlihadah, 423, i. 
 Musbabbihah, 423, i. 
 
 
 
 94 
 
746 INDEX. 
 
 Musbabbiblyab, 569, i. 
 
 
 Musbtarak, 518, i. 
 
 
 Musbtarl, 73,ii. ; 201, ii. 
 
 
 Musbrik, 190, i.; 207, i.; 
 
 
 318, i. ; 423, i. ; 655, i. ; 
 
 661, ii. 
 
 Masbru 4 , 286, i. 
 
 
 Masb‘al, 326, i. 
 
 
 Masb‘uq, 301, i. 
 
 
 Misbkatu ’1-masabib, 
 
 353, i. 
 
 Musbkil, 519, i. 
 
 
 Musaharab, 3] 7, i. 
 
 
 Musafabab, 422, ii.; 571, ii. 
 
 
 Musaddiq, 422, ii. 
 
 
 Misr, 108, i. 
 
 yO* 
 
 Musalla, 224, ii.; 423, i. 
 
 
 Muzarabab, 308, ii.; 426, i. 
 
 
 Matar, 532, ii. 
 
 
 Mitraqab, 27, ii.; 152, ii. ; 
 
 
 353, i. 
 
 Mutauwif, 341, i. 
 
 
 Ma‘aqil, 302, i. 
 
 
 Mu‘amalat, 285, ii. 
 
 
 Mu'anaqab, 366, ii. 
 
 
 Mu'abid, 366, ii. 
 
 
 Mu‘taddab, 317, i.; 424, i. 
 
 
 Mu‘tazilab, 425, i.; 473, i.; 
 
 
 568, i. 
 
 Mu‘taq, 425, i. 
 
 
 Mu‘tiq, 426, i. 
 
 
 Mu'tamir, 425, i. 
 
 
 Mu'jizab, 269, ii.; 279, i. ; 
 
 
 350, i. 
 
 Mu'ajjal, 91, i. 
 
 
 Mi‘jan, 340, i. 
 
 0'*=* / * 
 
 Ma‘din, 545, i. ; 350, i. 
 
 
 Mi‘rai, 44, ii.; 351, ii.; 464, 
 
 ii.; sV" 
 
 485, ii. 
 
 Ma‘rifab, 609, ii.; 610, i. 
 
 6SjX** 
 
 Mu‘attaliyab, 568, ii. 
 Mu‘aqqibat, 279, i. 
 
 
 
 Mu 4 allaqat, 460, i. 
 
 
 Mu 4 allira, 366, ii. 
 
 
 Mu'allimu ’1-mala’ikab, 
 
 366, ii. 
 
 Ma‘mudiyab, 36, i. ; 312, ii. 
 
 do J» 
 
 Ma 4 na wa bayan, 106, ii. c 
 
 
 Ma‘unab, 350, ii. 
 
 
 Mabyab, 568, i. 
 
 
 Magbrib, 177, ii.; 464, ii. 
 
 
 Magbfirab, 451, i.; 564, i- 
 
 ijOSU* 
 
 Mufakbarab, 43, ii. 
 
 i>yL.\s>s* 
 
 Miftahu ’1-jannab, 348, i. 
 Mufti, 58, i. ; 367, i. 
 Mufarribu ’1-abzan, 367, i. 
 
 Mufsid, 286, i.; 367, i. 
 
 
 Mufassai - , 518, ii. 
 
 
 Maf‘u.1, 530, i. ; 684, i. 
 
 
 Mafqud, 303, ii. 
 
 yin* 
 
 Maqarnu Ibrabim, 156, i 
 
 
 313, ii. ; 337, ii. ; 340 
 
 i- 
 
 Maqarnu ’1-Hambali, 
 
 
 338, ii. 
 
 Maqarnu ’1-Hanafi, 338, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Maqarnu ’sb-Sbafi 4 !, 
 
 
 338, ii. 
 
 Maqam niabmud, 313, ii 
 
 . P'S** 
 
 Muqayazab, 33, i.; 420, 
 
 
 Maqbarab, 48, i. 
 
 
 Muqtada, 420, ii. 
 
 
 Muqtadi, 420, ii. 
 
 
 Maqsurab, 313, ii. 
 
 
 Muqauqis, 420, i. 
 
 l 
 
 Muka’, 666, ii. 
 
 
 Mukatib, 419, i. 
 
 
 Mukari, 419, i. 
 
 
 Maktab, 566, ii. 
 
 
 Makr, 187, ii. 
 
 ; S ~'* 
 
 Makrub, 58, i. ; 286, i.; 
 
 311, i. 
 
 Makkab, 310, i. seqq. 
 
 ASb. 
 
 Mulla, 419, ii. 
 
 U 
 
 Mula’ah (milayebl, 96, 
 
 [ m 
 
 Malabim, 664, ii. 
 
 
 Malamatiyab, 620, ii. 
 
 
 Mala’ikab, 40, ii. 
 
 kfiu 
 
 Muibid, 207, i. ; 419, ii. 
 
 5 
 
 655, i. 
 
 Mulhaq, 419, i. 
 
 
 Malak, 15, i.; 484, ii. 
 
 cdb» 
 
 Malik, 74, ii.; 278, ii.; 
 
 548, ii. 
 
 Mulk, 283, i. 
 
 cdU 
 
 Malaku ’i-maut, 79, ii. ; 
 
 liiL* 
 
 222, ii.; 311, ii. ; 541 
 
 i-; 
 
 605, ii. 
 
 Malakut, 609, ii. 
 
 
 Maliki, 286, ii. 
 
 
 Malang, 312, i. 
 
 
 Millab, 220, i. ; 348, ii 
 
 4. 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 Mamat, 312, ii. 
 
 
 Mumtani‘u ’i-wujud, 
 
 
 113, i.; 693, i. 
 
 Mumsik, 419, ii. 
 
 
 Mumkinu ’1-wuiud, 
 
 
 113, i. ; 693, i. 
 
 Mamluk, 312, ii.; 596, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Mann, 313, i. 
 
 
 Manat, 191, ii. ; 313, i. 
 
 
 Munajat, 195, ii.; 420, 
 
 i. ’ SWLx* 
 
 469, i. 
 
 Manai'ab, 313, i. 
 
 
 Manazil, 609, ii. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 747 
 
 Manasik, 313, i. 
 
 
 Munafiq, 207, i.; 419, ii. 
 
 Munafiqun, 187, ii. 
 
 
 Munaqilah, 128, ii. 
 
 dlSLv* 
 
 Munakahat, 286, i. 
 
 
 Manam, 92, i. 
 
 r u * 
 
 Mimbar, 274, ii. ; 329, i. 
 
 ; 
 
 340, ii.; 349, i-; 476, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Minhah, 350, i. 
 
 
 Manzil, 489, ii. ; 492, i. 
 
 Jy^ 
 
 Mansak, Mansik, 545, ii, 
 
 • > 
 
 551; ii. 
 
 Mansukh, 519, ii. 
 
 Cy* 
 
 Munassaf, 420, i. 
 
 (_ CLqXs* 
 
 Mantiq, 106, ii. 
 
 
 Mintaqatu ’1-buruj, 201, 
 
 ii. gjiyll AflSa.!/• 
 
 Munf, 357, i. ; 420, i. 
 
 
 Munfiq, 420, i. 
 
 
 Munaqqilah, 680, ii. 
 
 
 Manqusiyab, 569, i. 
 
 
 Munkar, 15, ii. ; 27, ii.; 
 
 46, i.; 
 
 79, ii.; 420, i. 
 
 Mankuhah, 428, ii. 
 
 
 Mania, 313, i. 
 
 
 Mina, 349, i. 
 
 <jr* 
 
 Manihab, 313, i. 
 
 4^ 
 
 Mubabiyab, 620, ii. 
 
 Mubajir, 367, ii. yW-* 
 
 Muba/jirun, 16, i.; 367, ii. 
 
 Mubayat, Mubaya’ab, 417, ii. 
 
 Mabr, 91, ii. ; 307, ii.; 318, ii.; y» 
 322, ii. 
 
 Mahru ’1-misl, 314, ii. 
 
 JiJl y 
 
 Maut, 79, i.; 347, i. 
 
 
 Mfitah, 380, ii. 
 
 &y 
 
 Mu’jir, 176, i. 
 
 yy 
 
 Mu’ajjal, 91, ii. 
 
 J-y* 
 
 Muwabbid, 426, i.; 661, ii. 
 
 
 Mudi‘, 83, ii. 
 
 £ J y* 
 
 Mawaddah, 300, i. 
 
 
 Mu’azzin, 42, i.; 329, ii- ; 
 
 o J r* 
 
 366, ii.; 465, ii. 
 
 Musa, 356, i. seqq .; 440, i; 
 
 o-y* 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 Musiqa, 423, ii. 
 
 
 Muwasbsbahab, 462, i. 
 
 <5s£^<6o y 
 
 Musi, 667, i. 
 
 
 Musa bi-bi, 667, i. 
 
 
 Musa la-bu, 667, i. 
 
 <2 yy 
 
 Muzihab, 128, ii.; 680, ii. 
 
 <ias-=y 
 
 Muwatta’, 426, i.; 570, ii. 
 
 
 Maulid, 346, ii. 
 
 •by 
 
 Maulidu ’n-nabi, 346, ii. 
 
 ^r 
 
 Maulud, 662, i. 
 
 
 Maulawl, 58, i.; 346, ii. 
 
 <^y* 
 
 Maula, 346, ii. 
 
 Jr 
 
 Mu’min, 40, ii. ; 400, i.; cyy 
 
 419, ii. ; 613, ii. 
 
 Mu’minun, 40, ii. <Jy*y* 
 
 Maubub, 140, ii. s-y^y* 
 
 Maubub labu, 140, ii. ■yyy 
 
 Ma’udab, 346, ii. 
 
 Mu’auwal, 518, ii. Jy* 
 
 Mivan, 353, i.; 556, i. 
 
 Maitab, 49, ii. 
 
 
 Misaq, 61, i. ; 353, i.; 647, ii. 
 
 Sx* 
 
 Mir, 350, i.; 556, i. 
 
 y* 
 
 Miras, 207, i. 
 
 
 Mirza, 352, ii. 
 
 by* 
 
 Mizab, 337, i. 
 
 
 Mizabu ’r-rabmab, 257, i. iydl 'rdy* 
 
 Mizan, 74, ii. ; 201, ii. ; 353, i. 
 
 <^y 
 
 Maisir, 50, ii.; 133, ii.; 300, i. 
 
 
 Miqat, 350, i.; 694, i. 
 
 
 Mikal, 15, ii. ; 348, i. 
 
 
 Mika’il, 15, ii.; 348, i.; 
 
 
 440, i. 
 
 e> 
 
 N, 518, i. 
 
 o 
 
 Nabaligb, 427, i. 
 
 gjbb 
 
 Kajiyab, 569, i. 
 
 <U£-U 
 
 Nad-i-‘Ali, 427, i. 
 
 J* 
 
 Nar, 109, ii.; 129, i. 
 
 
 Narawa, 286, i.; 430, i. 
 
 V» 
 
 Nasikb, 431, i. ; 519, ii. 
 
 
 Nasut, 431, i.; 609, ii. 
 
 
 Nasib, 472, i. 
 
 
 Naqus, 430, ii. 
 
 ^f\i 
 
 Nakib, 428, ii. 
 
 J\> 
 
 Namus, 429, ii.; 485, i. 
 
 jj-yli 
 
 Na’ib, 427, ii. 
 
 
 Na’ilab, 191, ii. 
 
 (jJoli 
 
 Nabatat, 531, i. 
 
 
 Nabbasb, 427, i. 
 
 
 Nabaz, 433, ii. 
 
 y 
 
 NTubuwab, 436, i. 
 
 4y 
 
 Nabi, 14, ii. ; 427, i.; 449, i.; 
 
 
 475, ii. ; 613, ii. 
 
 Nabiyu ’llab, 229, ii.; 475, ii. 
 
 
 Nablz, 427, i. 
 
 
 Najasab, 427, ii. 
 
 
 Najasbi, 427, ii. 
 
 
 Najat, 564, i. 
 
 
 Najd, 17, i.; 427, ii. 
 
 
 Najran, 53, i. ; 428, i. 
 
 o'y 
 
 Najis, 629, ii. 
 
 u~r 
 
 Najsb, 428, ii. 
 
 
 Nabr, 427, ii. ; 551, ii. 
 
 y 
 
748 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Nakb‘, 428, ii. 
 
 
 Naldilak, 428, ii. 
 
 && 
 
 Nadar, 633, ii. 
 
 
 Nazr, 439, ii. ; 658, ii. 
 
 ; 662, i. 
 
 Nazr wa niyaz, 431, ii. 
 
 jW •) 
 
 Nuzid, 436, ii. 
 
 
 Nisa’,430, ii.; 677, i. 
 
 
 Nasab, 430, ii.; 577, i. 
 
 
 Naskhi. 690, ii. seqq. 
 
 
 Nasr, 191, ii. ; 431, i. 
 
 
 Nasnas, 137, ii. 
 
 
 Nasi’, 214, i. 
 
 
 Nasba’id li-Sulaiman, 
 
 
 440, i. 
 
 Nass, 431, i.; 518, ii. 
 
 
 Nisab, 73, i.; 434, ii.; 
 
 552, ii.; 
 
 699, ii. 
 
 Nasara, 53, ii.; 431, i. 
 
 
 Nasb, 684, i. 
 
 
 Nasran, 53, i. 
 
 oV* 5 
 
 Nasraniyab, 53, i. 
 
 lLjj\yai 
 
 Nastur, 432, i. 
 
 JJT* 
 
 Nisf, 489, ii.; 492, i. 
 
 
 Nass-i-karim, 431, i. 
 
 
 Nasuh, 275, i.; 431, i. 
 
 
 Nasibab, 286, i. 
 
 
 Nitaq, 140, ii. 
 
 
 Nazamiyab, 568, ii. 
 
 .. 
 
 Nifas, 140, i.; 427, ii. ; 
 
 433, ii. 
 
 Nifaq, 187, ii. ; 433, ii 
 
 
 Nafs, 427, i. 
 
 <^%a5 
 
 Nafkb, 427, i. 
 
 
 Nafs, 427, ii.; 604, ii. : 
 
 ; 678, i. y~& 
 
 Nafsa’, 427, ii. 
 
 ctvJu 
 
 Nafs ammarah, 60, i. 
 
 
 Nafs lawwamah, 60, i. 
 
 <Le\^ 
 
 Nafs mutma’innab, 60 : 
 
 , i. 
 
 Nafs mulbamab, 60, i. 
 
 
 Nafaqali, 308, i.; 427, 
 
 i.; 672, i. 
 
 Nafl, 427, i.; 434, ii. 
 
 Ja> 
 
 Nafy, 261, i. 
 
 o* 
 
 Nafy wa isbat, 63, i .; 
 
 . ( Ja 
 
 142, ii. 
 
 Nuqat, 683, ii. seqq. 
 
 ka> 
 
 Nuqtab, 307, ii. 
 
 jsiaai 
 
 Naql sahih, 430, i. 
 
 
 Nuqut, 325, ii. 
 
 kyi 
 
 Nuqii'u ’z-zabib, 436, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Naqir, 99, i. ; 658, i. 
 
 
 Nikah, 88, ii. ; 313, ii. ; 433, ii.; 
 
 575, ii.; 655, ii. 
 
 Nikahu ’I-maqt, 677, i. jASb 
 
 Nakir, 15, ii.; 27, ii. ; 46, i.; ^ 
 
 79, ii.; 420, i.; 428, ii. 
 
 Namaz, 428, ii. ; 464, ii. jUs 
 
 Numrud, 433, ii. 
 
 Nahiir, 79, i. 
 
 Nihayah, 33, i. 
 
 Nabju ’1-balaghab. 427, 
 Nabr, 546, i. 
 
 Nawasikh, 530, ii. 
 Nawii’ib, 431, ii. 
 
 Nub, 434, ii. seqq .; 440, 
 475, ii. 
 
 Nauhab, 431, i. 
 
 Nur, 74, ii. 
 
 Nuru ’1-anwar, 436, ii. 
 Nuru ’1-quds, 301, ii. 
 Niir-i-Mubammadi, 436, 
 Nau Roz, 127, ii. ; 431, 
 696, i. 
 
 Naum, 600, ii. 
 
 Nun, 436, i. 
 
 Niyaz, 439, ii. 
 
 Niyazu ’llali, 434, ii. 
 Niyaz-i-rasul, 434, ii. 
 Nailu ’1-maram, 672, ii. 
 Ninawa, 434, ii. 
 
 Niyah, 45, i.; 434, ii. ; 
 
 ii. ggj 
 
 f. 
 
 er'y 
 i.; cy 
 
 * 
 
 11 . 
 ii. ; 
 
 ff 
 
 % 
 Jr*; 'M 
 
 465, ii. <iu> 
 
 & 
 
 Habil, 2, i. ; 440, i. 
 
 
 Hajar, 154, i. 
 
 
 Hadi, 1, ii; 73, ii. 
 
 
 Harifab, 128, ii. 
 
 Aij Ifis 
 
 Harut wa Marut, 167, ii. 
 
 
 Harun, 362, i.; 440, i.; 
 
 475, ii. 
 
 Hasbimab, 128, ii. ; 680, 
 
 ii. 
 
 Hainan, 360, i. 
 
 £> 
 
 Hawiyah, 169, i. ; 171, i 
 
 
 625, i. 
 
 Ha’il, 39, i. 
 
 
 Haba’, 152, i. 
 
 
 Hubal, 181, ii. 
 
 
 Hibab, 140, ii. ; 173, ii. 
 
 
 Hiirab, 174, ii.; 371, ii. 
 
 ; 
 
 373, i. 
 
 Hajin, 179, i. 
 
 
 Hidayab, ] 74, i. 
 
 &>\AJb 
 
 Hudbud, 283, ii. 
 
 a&aa 
 
 Hady, 154, i.; 551, ii. 
 
 
 Hadiyab, 154, i. 
 
 
 Hirrab, 49, ii. 
 
 byte 
 
 Haft Sifat, 146, ii. 
 
 
 Haft qira’at, 489, ii. 
 
 
 Hamzab, 685, i. 
 
 bj+J* 
 
 Hamzatu ’l-qat‘, 685, ii. 
 
 by* Jfc 
 
 Hamzatu ’1-wasl, 685, ii 
 
 
 Himmab, 175, ii. 
 
 
Index. 
 
 749 
 
 Huwa, Hu, 181, ii.; 705, ii. seqq. y* 
 Hawa’, 169, i.; 300, ii. 
 
 Hawajis, 169, i. <j~=dyk 
 
 Hawajim, 169, i. ^\yz> 
 
 Hud, 18, i. ; 181, ii. ^ys 
 
 Hauwaz, 681, i. jya> 
 
 Hilal, 175, ii. ; 433, i. jL 
 
 Haiyula, 169, ii. oV* 
 
 Wajib, 156, i. ; 286, i. ; 663, i. ; 
 
 670, ii. 
 
 Wajibu ’l-ittiba‘, 663, i. 
 
 Wajibu ’1-ada’, 663, i. °\^\ s->dj 
 Wajibu ’1-wujiid, 113, i. ; 
 
 663, i. ; 693, i. 
 
 Waris, 170, ii. 
 
 
 Waridlyah, 568, ii. 
 
 
 Wasitah, 664, ii. 
 
 
 Wa‘iz, 472, i.; 663, i. 
 
 
 Waqi'ah, 664, i. 
 
 
 Waqiflyah, 569, i. 
 
 
 Wall, 663, ii. 
 
 
 Wahib, 140, ii. 
 
 
 Waba’, 452, i. 
 
 
 Wabil, 430, ii. 
 
 
 Witr, 434, ii.; 670, ii. 
 
 h 
 
 Wasan, 191, ii. ; 664, ii. 
 
 
 Wasani, 190, i.; 207, i. ; 
 
 664, ii. 
 
 Wajd, 610, i. ; 663, i. 
 
 
 Wajhu ’llah, 663, i. 
 
 
 Wujud, 113, i. ; 655, ii. ; 
 
 ^5 
 
 693, i. 
 
 Wajihun fi ’d-dunya 
 
 
 wa ’1-akhirah, 229, ii. 
 
 
 Wahdaniyah, 659, i. 
 Wahdatu ’1-wujudiyah, 
 
 &-o 
 
 
 659, i. 
 
 Wahy, 213, ii. ; 485, i. 
 
 cf^ 
 
 Wahyu ’1-Qur’an, 213, ii. 
 
 oV 5 ' ofj 
 
 Wahyu ’1-qalb, 213, ii. 
 
 
 Wahy ghair matlu, 
 
 
 213, u.; 639, n. 
 
 Wadd, 191, ii. 
 
 
 Wudd, 300, i. 
 
 
 Wada’i*, 83, ii. 
 
 
 Wadi‘ah, 83, ii.; 659, i. 
 
 
 Wizr, 666, i. 
 
 Jj) 
 
 Wazlr, 666, i. 
 
 .. to 
 
 Waswasah, 665, i. 
 
 l 1 .—* *~) * 
 
 Wasilah, 664, ii. 
 
 &L~,. 
 
 Wasaya, 41, ii. ; 664, ii. 
 
 
 Wasl, 610, i.; 665, i. 
 
 
 Wasi, 112, ii.; 
 
 667, i. 
 
 
 Waslyah, 41, ii. ; 667, i. 
 
 
 Wazu’ (wuzu’) 
 
 , 3, i.; 4, i. ; 81, i. 
 
 ; 
 
 329, i. ; 353. 
 
 , i.; 477, ii.; 
 
 693, i. 
 
 
 
 Wazlfah, 666, 
 
 i. 
 
 
 Waklah, 61, i. 
 
 
 4AC, 
 
 Wa‘z, 569, ii.; 
 
 666, i. 
 
 s 
 
 Wafat, 79, i. 
 
 
 slij 
 
 Waqt, 664, i. 
 
 
 
 Waqs, 664, i. 
 
 
 uffj 
 
 Waqf, 330, ii. 
 
 ; 517, ii. ; 664, i. 
 
 <_& ij 
 
 Wuqiif, 693, i. 
 
 
 
 Wakalah, Wikalah, 663, i. 
 
 MU) 
 
 Wakil, 12, i.; 
 
 314, ii.; 322, ii. ; 
 
 J~^5 
 
 663, i. 
 
 
 Wakil ‘ala ’1-wasijab, 
 
 112, ii. 
 
 Wala’, 663, i. 
 
 Wala’u ’1-ataqah, 663, ii. 
 Wala’u ’1-muwalat, 663, ii. 
 Wilayah, 151, i. ; 316, i. 
 Walad, 604, ii. 
 
 Waladu ’1-halal, 293, i. 
 Waladu ’z-zina’, 39, ii. ; 
 
 200, ii. ; 293, i.; 577, i. 
 Waladu ’1-mula‘anah, 
 
 293, i. 
 
 Walah, 300, ii. 
 
 Walahan, 663, ii. 
 
 Walwalah, 338, i. 
 
 Wali, 74, i.; 278, ii.; 556, i. 
 
 613, ii. ; 663, ii. 
 
 Wali ba‘Id, 663, ii. 
 
 Wali jabir, 663, ii. 
 
 Wali ‘ahd, 663, ii. 
 
 Wali ni‘niah, 663, ii. 
 Walimah, 663, ii. 
 
 Wahhabi, 659, i. seqq. 
 Wahmiyah, 568, ii. 
 
 s>15. 
 
 m^\ 
 
 JM ^ 
 
 A) 
 
 ** J) 
 *+* J) 
 
 Yajuj, 440, i.; 540, i. gy=-b 
 
 Ya’juj wa Ma’jiij (Yajuj } 
 
 wa Majuj), l02, ii.; 
 
 148, ii. 
 
 Yasin, 74, ii.; 80, ii. ; 694, ii. 
 
 Yiiquti, 691, i. 
 
 Ya Hu, 693, ii. ; 705, ii. seqq. 
 
 Yatim, 448, ii.; 694, ii. 
 
 Yasrib, 694, ii. 
 
 Yahya, 249, i.; 475, ii.; 694, i 
 696, ii.; 699, ii. 
 
 
 s-^4 
 
750 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tad, 161, ii. 
 
 Yadu ’llab, 161, ii.; 662. i.; 
 
 693, i. 
 
 Y S, 518, i. 
 
 Ya'sub, 694, ii. 
 
 Ya'qub, 223, ii.; 440, i. ; 
 475, ii. 
 
 Ya‘uq, 191, ii. ; 695, ii. 
 Yagbus. 191. ii. ; 693, ii. 
 Yaqtin. 694, i. 
 
 Yalak (yelek), 94, i. 
 Yalamlam, 694, i. 
 
 Yaman, 17, i. 
 
 Yamaniyab, 46, i. 
 
 Yamin, 437, i. 
 
 Yarnlnu ’I-lagbw. 437, i. 
 Yabud, 235, i.; 694, i. 
 Yabuza. 544. i. 
 
 Yuhanna. 696. ii. 
 
 Yuz, 184, i. 
 
 Yusuf, 250, i. seqq .; 440, i. ; 
 4/0, li. 
 
 c -—- 
 
 
 VsisJ; 
 
 Yusuf wa Zulaikba. 
 
 250, i. ; 716, ii. 
 
 Yusba\ 255. i.; 440, i. 
 Yufannab (Yepbunneb), 48, ii. 
 Yaum, 79, i.; 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu 1-isnain, 79, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’1-abad, 49, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-arbra’, 79, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-inqita\ 695, i. 
 Yaumu ’1-ba‘s, 537, i. 
 
 a.; Yaumu ’t-tagbabmi, 695, ii. 
 
 ju Yaumu ’t-talaq, 695, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’t-tanad. 695, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’s-salasa’, 79, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 J 3 
 
 Yaumu ’l-jam £ , 695, i. £**2' 
 
 Yaumu ’l-jum/ab, 79, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu '1-bara, 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu 5 l-hisab, 537, i.; 
 
 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu : l-basbr, 168, ii.; 
 
 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-kburuj. 695, i. g«>aa^ 
 
 Yaumu ’1-kbulud, 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ; l-kbamis. 79, i.; L&Ji 
 
 274, ii. ; 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’d-din, 537, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’s-sabt, 79, i.; 
 
 694, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ’s-sabu\ 695, ii. 
 
 Yaumu ! l-‘'asbura’, 694, ii 
 Yaumu ’1-fasl, 537, i. ; 
 
 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-fitr, 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’1-qarr, 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’l-qiyam, 482, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’1-qiyamab, 537, i.; ^-*4=^ 
 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’n-nabr, 157, ii.; 
 
 192, ii.; 551, ii.; 695, i. 
 
 Yaumu ’1-wa‘Id, 695, i. 
 
 Yaumun malumun, 695. i. (••I** 
 Yunus, 249, ii.; 440, i.; 475, ii. <j 
 
 J" 
 
 ') 5 
 
 rr- 
 ** rf- 
 
 ** l* 
 
 c\jU,S\ A*S 
 J \J 
 
 _Si 
 
 JJ 
 
 •ua\ 
 
 n* 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 c?- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 r* 
 
 rf- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rr- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rf- 
 
 rr- 
 
 r/- 
 
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 London Printed by W. H. Allen d: Co. lo. Waterloo Place. S.W. 
 
GE V NS1 w~E