Xo Is 0 b PROPERTY OF Poland Spring Library. MAINE STATE BUILDING, SOUTH POLAND, = = MAINE. Books in this Library can be taken out for a period, NOT LONGER THAN SEVEN DAYS, by filling out au Application Card. It is requested of guests that all books be returned to the Library promptly, that others may have early opportunity to read them. Reference books are not to be removed from the Rooms. Reasonable care is requested of all readers. Hiram Ricker & Sons. (incorporated ) PROPERTY OR Pojjrjmd Spring Maine State Building. PRESENTED BY . > Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2018 with funding from Getty Research Institute https ://arch i ve. o rg/detai Is/reportsofco m m iss04u n it REPORTS OK THE Commissioners of the United States TO THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION HELD AT VIENNA, 1873. PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE BY AUTHORITY OF CONGRESS. EDITED BY ROBERT H. THURSTON, A. M., C. E., PROFESSOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AT THE STEVENS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY; MEMBER OF THE SCIENTIFIC COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES VOLUME IV. ARCHITECTURE; METALLURGY; GENERAL INDEX. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1 8 7 6 . \\V- TABLE OF CONTENTS. A«.—BUILDINGS OF THE EXHIBITION.—L. BRIDGES. Art. The exhibition. 1 Buildings of the exhibition. 10 Pavilions. 20 Buildings in Vienna. 26 Construction of buildings. 31 Railroad structures. 44 A.—CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLINGS IN VIENNA.—J. R. NIERNSEE. Historical sketch. 1 Construction and embellishment. 16 Architectural features. 20 B.—ARCHITECTURE AND MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. -N. L. DERBY. Terra-cotta; tiles; cements. 1 Metals used in construction. 23 Stone and wood. 28 Architectural arrangements. 40 Sanitary precautions. 40 C.—WOOD INDUSTRIES.—N. M. LOWE. American exhibits and methods. 1 Exhibit at Vienna. 10 Building. 11 Wood-carving. 15 Furniture. 16 Musical instruments. 20 D.—WORKING OF STONE—ARTIFICIAL STONE.—L. J. HINTON. Stone-cutting machines. 1 Cut and carved stone-work. 17 Paving sidewalks and halls. 28 Cement, stucco, terra-cotta. 39 Artificial stone. 49 E.—METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL.—W. P. BLAKE. Statistics of production of iron. 1 Austrian exhibits of iron and steel. 4 Austrian iron and steel manufacture. 7 Iron mining in Austro-Hungary. 17 Mills and furnaces. 20 Rotary puddler. 32 Hydraulic forging..•. 34 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. Wire-rope traces. 35 German exhibit. 36 Growth of German iron and steel industry. 39 Statistics. 43 Mills and furnaces. 45 Care of work-people. 65 French iron and steel-making. 90 Mines; mills; furnaces. 91 Engines and machinery. 113 Swedish iron industry. 120 Ackerman on Swedish iron-making..,. 128 Spanish and Russian iron-making. 148 British iron and steel industries. 152 Mines, mills, and furnaces in the United States. 158 Eothwell’s map. 163 Sellers’s machine for puddling ; rolls. 164 Statistics. 166 Iron industries of Asia. 167 Hydraulic forging ; llaswell’s method. 174 Iron as an artist’s material. 185 Marks of Swedish iron. 191 F.—METALLURGY OF LEAD, SILVER, CORPER, AND ZINC—H. PAINTER. Exhibits from the United States. 1 Zinc desilverization at the Germania Works. 10 Spanish exhibits. 12 Age and progress of mining and metallurgy in Spain. 17 French exhibits. 19 Progress and condition of French industries. 23 Lead refining. 24 Italian exhibits. 30 Sketch of the growth of Italian metal industries. 35 Cost of ruiuing and shipping oros. 40 Belgian exhibits. 41 History of Zinc Mining Company; works. 46 Swedish ores. 47 Lundin’s furnace. 49 Copper extraction. 56 Silver-zinc ores. 61 Norwegian ores. 62 Statistics of mining in Norway. 63 German exhibits. 68 Growth of German metal and mining industry. . 69 Freiberg ores, works, and furnaces. 74 Roasting ores. 82 Sulphuric acid manufacture. 108 Arsenical products. 121 Smelting processes. 136 Refining of silver-lead. 153 Antimonial lead. 157 Pattiusoniziug. 160 Copper vitriol. 208 Separating gold from silver. 220 Harz processes. 238 TABLE OF CONTENTS. V Art. Silesian ore-reduction. 321 Work in the Rhine provinces. 333 Austro-Hungarian metal-industry. 369 Exhibits of Austro Hungary. 370 Production of Austro-Hungary. 370 Hungarian mint. 459 Russian metal-industries. 486 Ores ; furnaces ; fuel. 488 Turkish industries. 498 Greek exhibits; prospects. 501. Statistics. 508 Saxon purchases of ores. 509 G.—GENERAL INDEX. R C—IT VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPORT ON THE BUILDINGS OF THE EXHIBITION AND ON o \ v RAILROAD STRUCTURES. LYMAN BRIDGES, MEMBER OF THE ARTISAN COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1876. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Art. Page - . 1. Location and extent of buildings and grounds. .. 5 2. The city of Vienna. 5 3. The Industrial Palace, . .„ 5 4. Arrangementof exhibits. 6 5. Location of smaller buildings. 6 6. The grounds. 6 7. The American school-house.^.. 6 8. The United States section.— Location of space and of exhibits_ .... 7 9. Number of exhibitors and their success. .. 7 CHAPTER II. BUILDINGS of thf. exhibition. 10. Style oi architecture. 8 11. Foundation; walls; general dimensions. 8 12. Details of construction. 8 13. The dome and rotunda.—D esigner; dimensions. 9 14. Elevating the great circular girder. 9 15. Framing of the roof of the dome. 9 16. The lantern. 10 17. Other details. 11 18. The art-building.,. II 19. The machinery-hall... 11 THE PAVILIONS. 20. The jury-pavilion ; imperial pavilion... 1L 21. Schwarzeuberg pavilion.... 12 22. Pavilion of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.. ..1. 12 23. The school-houses and other annexes. 12 24. Japanese pavilions. 12 25. Building of the Noue Freie Presse. 13 CHAPTER III. BUILDINGS IN THE CITY OF VIENNA. 26. The Strauss Music-Hall. 14 27. The arsenal...... 14 28. Its construction and arrangement. 14 29. Apartment-buildings.—E xhibits of models.. 15 30. The Heiurichshof; construction and arrangement. 15 CHAPTER IV. THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 31. Methods of superintendence. 16 32. General construction.16 33. Special services. 16 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. Page. 34. Building-materials. —Artificial stoue. IT 35. Plastering. 17 36. Lumber. 17 37. Cements. 18 38. Composition of Austrian cement; method of use.. 18 39. Preservation of timber. 18 40. Brick-making. 19 41. Apartment-kilns. 19 42. Advantages of continual kilns.:.. 21 43. Bricks made. 21 CHAPTER V. RAILROADS AND THEIR STRUCTURES. 44. Exhibits by railroads. 22 45. Subsidies ; character of construction. 22 46. Continuous ties ; details. 23 47. Saxby & Farmer’s switch. 23 48. Austrian railroad-signals. 24 49. Conclusion . . 25 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. The Ringstrasse, Vienna. 5 2. South portal of the Industrial Palace. 8 3. Circular girder of the dome. 9 4. The girder partly raised. 10 5. Great girder iu position. 11 6. Stagings under the dome. 12 7. Vertical section of the rotuuda. 10 8. Swiss restaurant. 13 9. Russian restaurant. 14 10. Strauss Music-Hall . 15 11. Imperial Austrian Arsenal. 16 12. The Heinrichshof. 17 13. Imperial hotel ..i. 18 14-18. Apartment-kiln. 20 19. Northwestern Railroad-station. 20 20. Engine-house and turn-table. 21 21. Northern Railroad-station, Vienna. 22 22. Imperial apartmeut in station. 23 23-29. Lantern-signals, &c. 27-29 30-43. Basket and other signals. 29-31 Fig. F—The Kingstrasse, Vienna, . THE BUILDINGS OF THE EXHIBITION. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS; TtlE CITY OF VIENNA; THE Industrial Palace ; Arrangement of exhibits ; Location of smaller build¬ ings; The grounds ; Erection of the American school-house ; The American department; Location of space and of exhibits; Number of exhibitors AND THEIR SUCCESS. 1. The plan of the International Exhibition at Vienna wasconceived and executed under the most favorable circumstances. The government of Austria appropriated 22,000,000 of florins, or about $11,000,000. The lo¬ cation was all that could have been desired, in the Prater, which is a park of 4,000 acres, consisting of lawns, gardens, and forests. It is five times larger than the Champs de Mars, the site of the Paris Exposition of 1867, twelve times larger than that of London in 1862, twenty-two times larger than the Crystal Palace grounds in New York in 1852, and twen¬ ty-nine times those of the exhibition-grounds in Hyde Park, London, in 1851. It was directly connected with all parts of the city by steam or horse railways, excellent paved streets, or by steamers on the Dan¬ ube. Eivers bound it on the north and east. The suburbs, Wieden and Leopoldstadt, which would be called wards in this country, bound the Prater on the south and west. 2. It is entirely within the city of Vienna, the capital of Austria, which is composed of nine towns which have been consolidated into one grand city of 1,100,000 inhabitants. The old town, covering but one- twentieth of the area of the present city, was formerly surrounded by an immense ditch and parapet which the present Emperor caused to be levelled, and a magnificent boulevard now beautifies its former site. Taxes are remitted for twenty years to any person building on this avenue. The American embassy was located on this boulevard, the Danube and Prater being in the foreground, and the exhibition occupying the best portions of the latter. The site of the main build¬ ing is the imperial garden, surrounded by long-preserved forest-trees, lawns, fountains,'and beautiful pavilions, built and occupied by enterpris¬ ing people from all parts of the world. The city of Vienna is seen on a background, beyond which are the Soemmering Mountains. 3. The main exhibition-buildings extend from east to west 2,800 feet, and are 78 feet in width. The main central trausept, extending through the rotunda, is 625 feet in length and 80 feet in width. There are also sixteen minor transepts, 540 feet in length, including the crossing of the east and west transept, and 47 feet in width. Between these transepts 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 187a are open courts, 100 feet wide, all of which were, either wholly or iu part, covered with wooden pavilions by nations occupying the adjoining transepts. 4. The nations represented in the exhibition were placed in the same relative position iu the building as they occupv on the globe, from east to west. Thus Japan, China, Turkey, Egypt, Russia, Greece, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Italy, Switzerland, France, Spain, Portugal, Great Britain, Brazil, South America, and the United States were assigned space in the order named, Japan and the United States occupying the extreme eastern and western ends of the main buildings, and Russia and the United States occupying the extreme ends of the Machinery-Hall, with the other countries inter¬ vening, in the order of their geographical location. 5. The pavilions were located as nearly as practicable, in accordance with the same general idea, so that it was easy to locate the position of the exhibits of any nationality. The Machinery-Hall was located parallel with and north of the main buildings. The kunst- or art- hall was placed upon the eastern extension of the main buildings, its western, or nearest, line being 350 feet from the east portal. The build¬ ings lor the floral and horticultural exhibitions were about 500 feet south of the art-hall. The exhibition of cattle, stock, and swine was held about one mile east of the main exhibition, in a portion of the Prater where ample provision had been provided for all applications for space. All the space allowed by the General Direction to be used for buildings was taken up and occupied. 6. The Deneral Direction transplanted all of the most valuable trees that it was necessary to move, and constructed streets, lawns, fountains, and sanitary arrangements, bringing city water and gas into the grounds. When it seemed impossible to complete the buildings and grounds by the 1st day of May, 4,005 soldiers were detailed, and they were finally completed and opened on the day appointed. The great prosperity of, and enterprise exhibited in, manufactures and in architectural and building improvements, as well as in the beauti¬ fying of its numerous parks, gave sure promise of a result which should bear favorable comparison with the great Paris Universal Exposition. 7. In accordance with orders received from the United States Execu¬ tive Commissioner, the writer shipped all the finished work of the Ameri¬ can school-house, including sash and doors, from Chicago to \ ienna, purchased the timber iu Austria, and erected the building in the most eligible location to be found adjoining the United States department. The size of this building was 34 by 50 feet: 16 feet high. There were two principal rooms, oue on either end, the school-room being 27 by 33 feet, and the recitation-room 15 by 33 feet. Each was lighted from three sides. This last room was used tor a reception, reading, and writing room for Americans, and for the business-meetings of the Gen¬ eral Commission. There were also two vestibules and cloak-rooms THE UNITED STATES SECTION. 7 between the principal rooms. There was a ventilating-cupola on the top of the building. Complete ventilation was secured throughout. The build¬ ing was built of balloon-frame, sided outside, and neatly sheathed, and was papered inside. Blackboards were on the walls. The National School- furniture Company furnished forty-eight seats, which were placed in posi¬ tion for scholars, a teacher’s desk, globes, books, charts, maps, and com¬ plete apparatus for illustrating everything taught in any district-school in America. The recitation-room had a carpet, tables, chairs, and desk. This was a rendezvous for Americans. The entire cost of this building was $4,813, which was within the amount specified in the order of Gen¬ eral Van Buren; it was pronounced by all visitors the most complete school-room at the exposition. 8. The United States section. —The American department, or the United States section, occupied the extreme western end of the main building, all of the western cross-transept, except about 100 feet of the north end, (which was assigned to South America and Brazil,) and the open court which was between the two southwestern transepts. This the United States covered. In the foregoing space Groups I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, and XXIII were exhibited. The educational exhibit was made partly in the American school-house and partly in the main building. It was an honor to the country. The machinery exhibit was located in the western end of the machin- erv-hall, and contained many ingenious and valuable exhibits. The exhibit of agricultural machines was made in a separate building adjoin¬ ing the machinery department, aud both here and in the field the exhibits of the United States were unsurpassed. The sewing-machine exhibit from the United States was located in a covered court between two transepts. It surpassed that of any other country. In the fine-art exhibit, G. P. A. Healy, of Chicago,' and A. Bierstadt, of New York, were honored with medals, justly-earned laurels. The former exhibited a portrait of Pope.Pius IX and the Romanian princes ; the latter presented his matchless views of American scenery. 9. While the representation from the Uuited States included nearly twice as many exhibitors as were represented at the Paris exhibition in 1867, the magnitude of this exhibition was not understood, and the dis¬ tance from America was so great that our countrymen did not compre¬ hend its importance and the benefits to be expected to accrue to exhib¬ itors. Notwithstanding the lateness of the appropriation by Congress, the great distance to be travelled, and the fact that the articles for exhibi¬ tion were transported by sailing-vessels, the Uuited States department was opened by the middle of May, 1873. Our exhibitors obtained more than their share of the awards in proportion to the number of exhibitors. CHAPTER II. BUILDINGS OF THE EXHIBITION. Style ok architecture ; Foundations; Walls; General dimensions; Details OF CONSTRUCTION ; TlIE ROTUNDA ; DESIGNER ; DIMENSIONS; ELEVATING THE GREAT CIRCULAR GIRDER; FRAMING OF THE DOME; LANTERN; TlIE ART-BUILDING; Ma- chinery-hall; The pavilions; The jury; The imperial, The Schwarzenberg AND THE SaXE-COBURG-GOTHA PAVILIONS ; SCHOOL-HOUSES AND OTHER ANNEXES ; The Japanese pavilion and the pavilion of the Neue Freie Pricsse. 10. The principal buildings erected by the Austrian government were in the renaissance style of architecture. 11. The site selected for these buildings has a peculiar alluvial bot¬ tom, a water-bed from the Danube, having a depth of 6 feet, which gives no stability to foundations, so that it was necessary to drive piles wher¬ ever buildings were erected. Upon these, grout was placed, and upon the grout, masonry was laid in cement well bedded in the grout, and carried up to the top of the ground, where the brick walls were started. The walls of all the main buildings were of brick, strengthened by pilas¬ ters. The main buildings were 2,800 feet in length, crossed by principal and minor transepts from 540 to G25 feet in length, and from 47 to SO feet in width. Between these cross-transepts extended open courts, 100 feet wide on the north and south of the main east and west transept. 12. The outside walls were covered with cement-stucco, and the prin¬ cipal portion of the lower story was liued iu imitation of stone. The roofs were arched and covered with zinc, having standing grooves. The inside walls of the transepts had columns 2 feet in front of the pilasters, these columns furnishing a finish to and division of exhibits; the walls being furred and covered with tinted canvas, stretched from the clerestory windows to the floor. The principal portal was the south central entrance, opposite the grand entrance to the park. The north, the east, and the western portals were principal entrances. The transepts assigned to the different na¬ tions had each an entrance, over which their names and national seals were placed. In the frieze and panels of the pilasters were inscribed names of noted artists, mechanics, engineers, and other celebrated men. Between the projections of the main center and the last, or end, double cross-trau septs on both north and south fronts, there were in all twelve colonnades. 12 feet wide, flagged below and roofed above. These colonnades covered Fig. 2.—Thk South portal. >IHlin-MlVOCl MV'IODMIO MH.f, —'}; ’OI.J THE ROTUNDA. 9 the galleries connecting the two end and the two center transepts. These galleries were used for the sanitary, the clerical, and the police arrange¬ ments below, and for the officers of the commissions of the countries con¬ nected with them or whose exhibits were adjacent. Fig. 2 shows the main entrance, with the coat of arms of the Aus¬ trian Empire, the colounades, and the dome with the crown and lantern. 13. The dome. —Notwithstanding the many miles of courts and tran¬ septs through which we passed and admired for the symmetry and fore¬ thought of its arrangement, the great feature of the exhibition was the grand central dome, located at the center of the main buildings, and which constitutes a portion of the rotunda, a structure which has never been equalled in modern architecture. The dome was built from the designs of J. Scott Russell, the celebrated English engineer. It is built of iron, and weighs 4,000 tons. It is supported upon thirty-two pairs of double iron columns, 80 feetin height, each bearinga vertical pressure of 109 tons. They were incased in sheet-iron, giving the appearance of solid columns, 4 by 10 feet each. Inside of this ring of columns the dome has no sup¬ port. The diameter of the dome is 354 feet, its circumference 1,080 feet, and its altitude 257 feet to the crown, or lantern, including which its total height is 28-i feet. This is the largest rotunda in the world, being 3.17 times larger than the dome of St. Paul's Cathedral, London ; 2.26 times larger than the dome of St. Peter’s at Rome; 2.22 times larger than the dome of the International Exhibition Buildings at Loudon. Upon this ring of columns rests an immense iron circular girder, or ring, which was riveted and bolted together on the ground, and raised by hydraulic pressure. The columns were placed in position as the ring, or girder, was raised. Fig. 3 shows the position of the girder as it was being raised. ' 14. The foundations of the columns were carried upon pieces of stone, supported on piles, and well laid in cement. They projected 4 feet above the surface of the ground. A railway-track was laid in a circle on the inside of the ring, upon which track cars were brought with the iron ring-girder completed in sections. The latter were placed upon the stone piers, or foundations, connected, and then hydraulic pressure was applied, and the ring began to ascend. As fast as the sections of the column could be inserted it was so placed. Fig. 4 shows the iron .ring-girder raised to one half its full height. Fig. 5 shows the iron ring-girder after it has arrived at its destination, when the stagings are being finally replaced by sections of the columns. L5. It will be seen that the upper side of this ring-girder slopes at an angle of thirty degrees, which is also the slope of the cone ; upon this circular rested the radial girders, which were each 200 feet long, and were riveted and bolted to the ring at the bottom and at each circular ring above. The columns on the east and west sides of the dome con¬ tained iron stairways and hydraulic lifts by which visitors ascended to the dome. 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The design of the engineer was to build the cone from the lower ring- girder, thus avoiding the necessity of using staging ; but. the Austrian architect and engineer built a staging, as shown in Fig. G, and placed the upper ring-girder upon this staging in the place designed for it. They then connected the radial girders from the lower ring-girder to the upper ring-girder, and the columns around the upper dome. The roof, between the radial girders, is composed of 3Gb iron plates, tapering uniformly upward from the circumference to the apex of the cone, and riveted together like the plates of a ship. 1G. The upper dome, or lantern, is 10b feet in diameter, and is sup¬ ported by thirty iron columns 5b feet in height. It is lighted by win¬ dows 40 feet high and lb feet wide between the columns. It is sur¬ mounted by an imperial crown GO feet in height, making the total height of the dome above foundations, (main columns, 80 feet; cone, 10b feet; windows, 40 feet; crown, GO feet,) 280 feet. The foundations meas¬ ure 20 feet additional. The inside of the iron dome was lined with canvas in sections, laced together through rings under each radial girder. The canvas was painted to imitate fresco, the figures being 21 feet in length, or about four times the size of life, their great height making them appear but of natural size when seen from the Hoor of the rotunda. Forming a part of the rotunda is an outer ring, or arcade, 40 feet wide and 8b feet high, Opening into four charming gardens, or open courts, thus making the ground floor of the rotunda 440 feet in diameter. l io. 7. CROSS-SECTION - OK THE ROTUNDA OF THE VIENNA EXHIBITION. Fig. 4.—The Dome-girder partly raised. ART-BUILDING-MACHINERY-HALL. 11 The sketch, Fig. 7, shows the lower or main columns supporting the outward or lower ring-girder, upon which the frustum of the cone rested. There is also placed a second ring-girder to receive the press¬ ure of the inner edge and to distribute the pressure around the cone. The columns become part of the cone itself, being connected both to the radial and the ring-girders, thus adding strength to each and to all parts by an ingenious system of iron chain-cables, or parabolic cate¬ naries, ending in the summits of the columns supporting this dome The weight of the cone anchors the columns on the other side, aud it is claimed that should an earthquake or any other power be sufficient to move this 4,000 tons of iron the whole structure would move bodily, including the columns. It is certainly the most grand, practical, and imposing dome the world has ever seen, and it is no less a triumph of skill and art in engineering. It is an illustration of the practical use of iron in one of the most difficult and scientific problems of archi¬ tectural construction. The dimensions on Figure 7 are in metres. 18. The art-building.— The kunst, or art-hall, was east of the main building, standing in a uorth and south Hue, or at right angles to the main building, its nearest side being 350 feet east of the east portal. It was 100 feet wide by 600 feet long, with a large corridor at the ceuter of sides and ends for the exhibition of statuary. The building was of brick, with the universal stucco-finish outside. The inside was divided into suitable galleries and studios, and was well lighted from the roof. In addition to the paintings, some of the choicest statues and statuettes were here exhibited. In addition to the art-building proper, there were open wooden pavil¬ ions, connecting either end of the art-hall, extending 406 feet, with circu¬ lar returns of 700 feet in length, and to the triumphal arch which completed the eastern end of the series of principal buildings. This last series of pavilions was almost wholly devoted to the exhibition of statuary, fountains, terra cotta, plaster, artificial stone, and similar materials. 19. The Machinery-Hall. —The Machinery-Hall was 125 feet wide and 2,060 feet long, all in one room, 60 feet in height, having brick walls, the outside covered with stucco, colored so as to give it the appearance of bluestone; the roof was of iron, built light but strong. Two rail¬ way-tracks ran through the entire length of the inside, and with a par¬ allel track on the outside gave excellent facilities for shipment of heavy machinery either to or from the exposition. The designs for the shaft¬ ing were made by the Austrian engineer, and were all uniform. Each nation was giveu as much power as was desired. 20. Pavilions.— Among the pavilions surrounding the principal ex¬ hibition buildings were the imperial and jury pavilions, located on the east and west of the grand entrance. They were both of brick, finished in imitation of stone outside. The former, for the use of the imperial fam¬ ily, consisted of a reception-room, Emperor’s room, Empress’s room, arch- 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. duke’s room, aiul ample ante rooms, all oil one floor. The interior dec¬ oration was replete with the products of artistic skill, botli in design and in execution. Tlie jury pavilion contained the assembly and com¬ mittee rooms for each group. A portion of its structure was enlarged to two stories in height. The general direction and imperial commission pavilions were on either side of the grand, or main, entrance, and con¬ nected with a semicircular corridor connecting the main buildings. Ample provisions for telegraphing, reading, and writing were here afforded, and an nterpreter for every nation was furnished by the Gen¬ eral Direction. 21. The Schwarzenberg estate erected an extensive and symmetrical wooden pavilion, in the Swiss style of architecture, and filled this, besides covering all the ground adjoining and assigned to them, with the most complete exhibition of everything useful, either to eat, to wear, or for manufactures, that could be crowded into so small a space. The most noticeable articles were sugar, sirups, honey, beet-sugar, cereals, alco* hoi, spirits, fish, game, wool, flax, iron, steel, wood, lumber, every kind of wooden ware, and illustrations of the ceramic arts. This pavilion was designed and executed with great skill, and would repay many days of study. This estate is located in several parts of Austria and Ger¬ many, though mostly in Austria, and includes a greater number of acres than some of the states of this union. It is owned by Prince -T. Adolphus Schwarzenberg of Vienna. 22. The pavilion of the Duke of Saxe Coburg-Goth a was next in size and in importance as a complete exhibition. It was also constructed in the Swiss style of architecture, built of wood, and with much skill and good judgment. Similar articles were exhibited to those shown as just described by the Schwarzenberg estate. 23. The United States, or American, school-house was adjacent to the Portuguese, Swiss, and Swedish school-houses, which were all built of wood, and smaller than that of the United States; that of the Swedish nation was in the form of a cottage. The largest room was used for the exhibition of samples of their text-books, desks, and articles made by girls. The German school-rooms were tilled with drawings, models, and contained a few desks. The Persian, Turkish, Russian, French, English, and Egyptian pavilions, the light house of the maritime board, the Swiss music-hall, a house of artificial stone, Wagner’s stable, Wag¬ ner's green (iron) house, a water-tower (of iron,) the military barracks lvrupp’s pavilion, the Russiau peasants’ house, and the American, Itus sian, Swiss, Swedish, Tyrolese, Austrian, English, and German restau. rants were also erected in the Swiss style of architecture; and many others were objects of interest. Permits for the erection of about three hundred withiu the iuclosure were granted by the General Direction, and as many more were erected without the inclosure and within the Prater. 24. The Japanese pavilious were made in their own peculiar style, Fig. 6.—The Stagings under the dome. Fig. 8.— Swiss kestauiulnt. THE PAVILIONS. 13 with one story, and the universal veranda in trout. The woods used were brought from Japan, and tbe buildiugs were erected by mechanics from Japan, who put them up in a masterly and skilful manner. It was almost impossible to discover a joint. One of their workmen, while drawing his plane toward himself, as is their custom wheu planing a piece of wood, made a shaving 28 feet long. One peculiar feature of these Japanese houses was that, while they were built strongly, their sides were entirely of paper except where strength was especially re¬ quired. Their windows were of paper, also; their shingles were of palin- leaves, and were nailed on with wooden nails, or pegs, similar to those used in pegging a boot. 25. The Neue Preie Presse building was of brick, and had the form of a cross; the inside was fiuished with stucco, or cement, and lined in imi¬ tation of stone; a portion of the center had the appearance of being two stories in height. The newspaper to be published here, and for which this building was erected, was the earliest and most ardent supporter of the exhibition in the empire, and was the recoguized organ of the General Direction, publishing daily in this building accounts of the latest current events. Oue of the most useful and most scientifically- constructed structures witfiin the exhibition grounds, was that of the '.Vaguer iron green-house, erected near the floral and horticultural ex¬ hibition halls. The system of heating by hot water was excellent, the ventilation good, and light perfectly under control. The design’ was symmetrical and complete. CHAPTER III. BUILDINGS IN THE CITY OF VIENNA. Thk Strauss Music-Hall; Arsenal: Its construction and arrangement: Apart¬ ment buildings; Models; Heinrichshoe. 20. Fig. 10 represents the Strauss music pavilion, or hall, iu the Yolks Garten. One of the features of this pavilion is that the covered stand for the orchestra is octagonal, and is half without and half within the buildings, so that the music can be heard within or without, as the weather may permit the audience to sit outside or may drive them with¬ in doors. The Strauss band, of from seventy-five to one hundred per¬ formers, gave two concerts each day within the exhibition grounds. 27. The adjutant-general's department, the quartermaster’s depart¬ ment, and ordnance department, of the empire, have all of their execu¬ tive offices located at the arsenal, which is some two miles from the center of the city and immediately on the outer circle of the improved or newly built-up portions of the city. This arsenal has been pronounced by Gen. William T. Sherman to be the finest and most complete in the world. The grounds, both within and without the inclosure, were beauti¬ fied by parks and fountains. 2S. The imperial arsenal is built of brick, the outside being in the form of a rectangle, with projecting corners and centers, in the Tudor- Gothic, or castellated style of architecture, with battlements all around. It has thick walls, for defense against musketry. This building varies from 50 to 100 feet in width and from three to four stories high. The intermediate, or cross, buildings within the inclosure are quite as exten¬ sive as the outer buildings. One building is used as an art and military museum, with all the war relics and articles captured from the enemy during hundreds of years past. On the walls and ceilings are painted the successful battles of the Austrian empire. At the main entrance of this military museum a hall, or corridor, is devoted to the exhibi¬ tion of full-sized statues of the great generals and of the Emperors and Empresses of the empire. Great care is takeu to exhibit the keys of captured cities—in former generations the symbols of possession. The foundery and machine-shops for the manufacture of large guns and of small-arms and of gun-carriages, an immense carpenters’and wheelwrights’ shop, a harness and saddlery shop, aud, in fact, the man¬ ufacture of all war-materials, are provided for in buildings within the arsenal. The government has established a chapel at the center of one end of the iuclosure. Fig. 9.—Russian kjsstaukant. Fig. 10.—Strauss music-hali,. APARTMENT-BUILDINGS. 15 29. Apartment-buildings. —Models aud plans of apartment-build¬ ings were exhibited from G-reat Britain, France, Germany, aud Austria. Those from London, Berlin, Paris, Pesth, aud Vienna claimed the most attention. Perhaps the most notable models were from Pesth, Hun¬ gary, where blocks and buildings on both sides of whole streets were shown, nearly all apartment-houses, of from four to six stories in height, and all masonry fire-proof buildings. 30. Fig. 12 shows a representative apartment-building fronting on the grand boulevard, or Ringstrasse, in the city of Vienna, and known as . the Heinrichshof, (Henry House.) It covers an area of 150 by 310 feet, is six stories high at the centers and corners, aud elsewhere five stories high. A cellar extends under the entire bnildiug. The lower story is occupied by cafes , or shops, and all above first story are used for apart¬ ments, usually suites of rooms. The best suites have bath-rooms and all sanitary accommodations, all arranged complete on the floor occupied. This building has a capacity for one thousand persons above the stores, or first floor. The buildings are built of brick and are fire-proof, the floor-girders being of iron, with brick floors, and the roof of tiles. There are sixteen flights of stone steps with iron railings, all distinct, from bot¬ tom to top. There are three open courts, say 60 by 200 feet inside, running across the building aud between the outside walls. These courts give light and ventilation, and are connected with the streets by large arches of sufficient dimensions to admit a large carriage. Twenty carriages could enter the courts without inconvenience. Over one of these courts, above the second-story windows, a glass room has been erected, aud an extensive restaurant fitted up in connec¬ tion with the cafes at either side of it. The other courts are paved and kept open, aud the janitor is compelled to keep them clean. The en¬ trances to the apartments are through the arched passages. A janitor lives in rooms at the foot of the stairs at the entrance, whose duty it is to attend, day or night, and to receive messages when the occupants are absent, and to keep the keys when not occupying the rooms. Any number of rooms are leased as desired. Meals are served iu the apart¬ ment a la carte , or occupants may come down to the restaurant in the first story or to the cafe, as preferred. Families left in their apartments can always call upon the porter for anything required or for protection. In mauy similar buildings the hydraulic lift, or elevator, is now placed, the city water-works pressure being sufficient to operate it without steam. The operation is so simple that a child can manage it, and the upper stories of apartment-buildings are thus made as available as the lower and more expensive stories. Adjoining this main building, an apartment-building has a chapel with a hall iu the second story. The American embassies in Vienna, Paris, and Berlin are iu apartment-buildings. These buildings com¬ bine all requisites both for business aud for residence, and in thickly- settled cities must come into general use. CHAPTER IV. THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. Superintendence; General construction; Special devices; Building-mate¬ rials; Artificial stone; Plastering; Lumber; Cements; Preservation of timber; Brick-making; Apartment kilns. 31. When a building is to be erected that is of sufficient importance to justify the employment of an architect, the plans and specifications are completed by him, and a competent superintendent is employed, who proceeds to erect an ollice upon the grounds immediately adjacent to the place whore the building is to be erected. This superintendent makes plans of all the details, and remains upon the ground until the building is completed, the architect, or engineer, giving his instructions to the contractors through this superintendent. 32. Iron girders, extending from the walls or partitions, are almost universally used to support brick arches, upon which the floors are laid. Brick partitions are usually built upon these girders and arches. The stagings erected around the buildings are much m *re extensive than those used in this country. They usually build them six feet or more in width for each story, and have incliues from one story to another, allowing them to remain until the completion of the building. The stagings contain almost as much lumber as many American buildings. The foundations receive careful attention, and for a heavy masonry building are always placed upon piles and grout. All buildings are intended to be fire-proof from the ground to, and including, the roof. The walls are either brick, stone, or iron. The stair-ways are of sto.ie, artificial stone, or iron, or brick, with cement covering and faciugs. Roofs, whether of slate or tile, are laid in cement. The flues, for venti¬ lation, smoke, and ashes, are often made of hollow tile; in fact, many walls and ceilings are made of hollow brick, the ceilings being laid in stucco or plaster. 33. In oue instauce, in Vienna, we saw a building being erected where the joists were logs split in the middle, having a diameter of from 10 to 10 inches. This face was laid downward on the walls and brick par¬ titions; cement was laid on top until there was a surface sufficiently level to permit the tile-floor to be laid above. The under side was covered with a net-work of rushes, aud secured by wire well nailed to the face of the logs above. Upon this lathing of rushes the plastering was finished. The mortar is mixed in wooden boxes, and that, as well as the brick and tile used on the building, is usually carried to the place Fig. 11.—Imperial Austrian arsenal. Fig. 12.—Heinrichshof. BUILDING-MATERIALS. 17 where used by women. Thebuildngs, which are built of brick and faced with stucco outside, are sometimes painted when completed, and are usually renewed and painted once in from three to five years, so that a freshly-finished appearance is given to buildings erected many years siuce. 34. Building-materials.— Buildiug materials of all kinds were ex¬ hibited by every European country. Even Japan sent some excellent samples of wood, stone, iron, and pottery. The stone used in the ex¬ position buildings and grounds by the Austrian government is a mag¬ nesian limestone, of a durable nature, obtained from inexhaustible quar¬ ries on the banks of the Danube, above the city of Vienna. The exhibition of artificial stone and of terra cotta was probably super¬ ior both in quality and quantity to any similar collection ever before brought together. Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, aud Austria vied each with the other in the endeavor to produce the most substan¬ tial, elegant, aud artistic specimens of this art. Great Britain and Germany excelled in the production of stone possessing the first-named quality. The Ohailly artificial-stone house from Germany, 16. by 20 feet inside, had a roof of only 6 inches thickness in the center and 12 inches thick at the sides, with the arch of 6 inches rise, aud no support in the center. We saw twenty men standing on the flat top, making no perceptible impression upon it. This building, of which the walls, floor, and roof were entirely of artificial stone, had another noticeable feature in the steps outside. Twelve steps were made in one piece, and the entire twenty steps were made in only two pieces. A report upon the artificial stone and terra cotta exhibited, alone would profitably oc¬ cupy the entire space allotted to this report; but as the duty of describ¬ ing these articles was assigned to another commissioner, a more extended notice need not be given here. 35. Plastering. —Plastering is used very extensively on walls aud ceiliugs. Walls are very seldom painted inside. As the walls are usu¬ ally of brick inside, much of the plastering is given a stucco or plaster-of- Paris finish in a larger number of coats than is usual in this country. Many buildings have one or more coats of brown mortar before the hard finish is put on. Many columns and pilasters are finished with plaster of Paris, then painted in imitation of stone or of marble; and it is so well done that it is sometimes difficult to determine whether it is an imitation or the real article. In some cases, when the flat side of timbers, as previously described, were used to support floors, rushes were secured to their under side by having wires nailed to the timbers overhead, then the ceilings were plastered. 36. Lumber. —A large proportion of the lumber used in Vienna is brought from the country in the vicinity of the Salzburg Alps and down the Danube. It consists of fir and of a species of pine, similar to our Norway pine, having a harder grain than our Michigan white pine, The Schwarzenberg estate and that of Saxe-Ooburg-Gotha, and some 2 B 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Hungarian exhibitors showed some choice specimens of hardwood, the latter especially; and the French department also exhibited some beau¬ tiful specimens of walnut and ash veneering. 37. Cements.— A very tine representation of water-lime and hydraulic cements was shown from Austria, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, and Spain, and several specimens came from the United States. The Roman aud Portland cements were best represented in the British section. 38. The Austrian cement most used, and the standard in Vienna, was manufactured about fifteen miles above Vieuua, on the Danube. It has the following composition : Water. 0.50 Lime. 58.50 Magnesia..... 3.55 Silicate of magnesia... 0.30 Iron. G. 60 Clay. 4. 75 Carbonic acid. 0.50 Sulphuric acid.1. 2. 10 Potash'. 0. 95 Flint-dust . 18. GO Clay and sand. 3. G5 100. 00 This hardens under water in about thirty minutes, and in less time above water. Buildings faced with it two hundred years ago are now standing in the city of Vienna. The majority of buildings built in that city are constructed with large, coarse brick, and with thick joints outside, so as to give a good boud to bind the cement or stucco fac¬ ings. They are almost universally faced with cement in imitation of stone. The window sills, caps, corbels, and cornices are in many in¬ stances built of burnt clay and cemented over, the corners aud moldings formed in molds like the inside stucco or hard-finish work in this coun¬ try. The aim seemed to be to have all outside cement-work done as early in the season as possible, that it may become hard before the frosts occur. , 39. Preservation of timber. —In the exhibit of timber and railway- ties, by several processes of preservation, it was demonstrated that the life of timber was exteuded four or five times. Over fifty patents have been obtained in England alone for processes intended to prevent the decay of wood. France and Germany have also granted patents for the same purpose. Some have aimed to prevent wet-rot and some dry- rot ; and, from the year 1737, when the first attempt was made, up to the present time, boiled oil, corrosive sublimate or chloride of mercury, (kyauizing,) sulphate of copper, sulphate of iron, chloride of zinc, and the sulphate of iron with a succeeding application of carbonate of soda, which is said to form oxide of iron in the pores of the wood, have all Fig. 13.—Imperial hotel. PRESERVATION OF TIMBER-BRICK. 1 9 been tried. These methods were fully examined, and after inspecting specimens illustrating the use of several processes, and particularly a railroad-tie rom Germany which had been in use for over fifteen years, which seemed just as good as the day it was cut, and which was war¬ ranted to last ten years more, it was concluded that the process of creosoting, by which this tie was preserved, was the best of all those observed. The process consists in placing the timber in an iron boiler, similar to a steam-boiler, from 25 to 75 feet long and 6 feet in diameter, and closing the boiler, extracting the air by an air pump. When the vacuum-gauge indicates a vacuum of 20 inches of mercury, the creosote, which is stored in tanks adjacent to the boiler, is admitted at a temper¬ ature of 120° F., and tills the cylinder to within about 2 inches of the top. . A pressure of from 100 to 150 pounds per square inch is then applied, the pressure being determined by the nature of the timber and the quantity of the creosote required to be introduced. One cubic foot of timber will absorb a gallon of creosote, weighing ten pounds. From four to eight hours is considered a sufficient time for creosoting ordi¬ nary timber. We found railways in Austria, Germany, Italy, France, Belgium, and Great Britain using creosoted ties altogether; and after collating all the information obtained from engineers and master-mechanics, we found the cost to be from 12 to 20 cents (gold) for creosoting each tie. The average length of use was twenty-one to twenty-five years. In some instances, creosoting was advised for ties and piling, and burnet- izing for bridge and building timber. 40. Brick-making. —The process of brick-manufacture and all kinds of clay-burning for building purposes, as exhibited by Austria aud Ger¬ many, is a great improvement over the methods usually adopted in the United States. The brick are made either by hand or by machinery, then dried or baked until they can be handled easily, and until there is room in some of the compartments of the kiln for a charge. 41. The principal yards have permanent kilns built of brick, either circular or in the form of an ellipse, and made in compartments, each of which has a separate entrance and independent connection with the chimney. A down draught is secured from the top, where the fuel is placed, to the chimney,, which is either built within the kilns or entirely outside, but which has its draught invariably connected with the bot¬ tom of the kilns. The fuel used is generally fine coal, which falls around all the bricks, and the flame and heated gases surround and pass through all portions of the materials being burned. While some of the compartments are being burned, others are being filled and still others being discharged. The proprietors of a large brick and tile works at Vienna informed us that their kilns had not been without fire in some portion for fourteen years. At one side of these kilns an approach, or incline, was constructed, so that wagons could deliver coal on the top of the kilns, precisely where it would be required in feeding. 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1ST:?. Fig. 19. —Northwestern railway station, Vienna, Austria, BRICK-MAKING. 21 42. Engravings showing the plan and sections of these kilns are here given. (Figs. 14-18.) It is claimed that great economy is attained in the use of fuel, and that time is saved in burning clay for building purposes : 1st. By the diminished amount of fuel required. 2d. By the correct regulation of the draught, by draught-rods aud dampers connected with the chimney. 3d. That all heat not required for the burning of any number of kilns, or compartments, can, by the system of the circular ovens and draughts, be used in other compartments. The ring oven is a continuous annular canal, with brick arched roofs, having an outer wall aud a covered space to protect the ovens from the weather without. The doors of the compartments are made air¬ tight when the compartment is tilled and its contents beiug burned* The compartments have connecting doors made in a similar mauuer, so that two or more compartments can be worked together if desired. The theory is also advanced that the coal is converted largely into gas¬ eous combustible compounds to a certain degree, and thus a flame is obtained which more thoroughly permeates the mass of brick to be burned. 43. The size of the bricks exhibited aud burned at Vienna was from four to seven times the size of those usually manufactured in the United States. They were thoroughly burned, and cost about one-half as much as an equal number of cubic feet made in the United States. The same construction of kilns answers for the burning of lime and cement, with the single exception that for lime and cement the kilns are lined inside with tire-brick on account of the greater heat required, although some of the manufacturers in Austria recommend a fire-brick lining in all these kilns. About two thousand of their large bricks are placed in 320 cubic feet, which has been found practically to be the most economical proportion. CHAPTER V. RAILROADS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTIONS. Exhibits by railroads; Subsidies; Character of construction; Details; Saxby & Farmer’s switch; Austrian railroad-signals; Conclusion. 44. The principal railway companies of Austria and Germany were represented at theexhibition. The Northern, Western, State, and South¬ ern railways of Austria made the best display, having each a pavilion devoted to the exhibition of their superstructures and railway-plant, as well as their management. The Northwestern Railway Company erected a model station, having full-sized tracks and rolling-stock. Elevations of their principal depots and other buildings were exhibited, showing excellent plans for con¬ struction. One especially noteworthy detail was their simple and ap¬ parently perfect system of tickets. 45. The government of Austria, in order to secure for military pur¬ poses the completion of the trunk railway-lines centering in Vienna, has guaranteed 5 per cent, upon their cost of construction. This indorsement has not been abused, and but a single railway has ever received anything from the government on this account. This assistance has had the effect of increasing the total length of road during the past ten years from 8,500 miles to 2S,155 miles of first-class railway in operation at the pres¬ ent time. Double tracks are laid down, with rare exceptions, with ma¬ sonry viaducts and masonry or iron bridges. The grades are kept within a low maximum by constructing numerous tunnels and viaducts. The roadways are kept in good condition by trenches 5 feet wide and at least 2 feet deep ou both sides of the road-beds, with cross culverts, built of stone where practicable. The foundations of the road-beds consist of large paving-stones or rubble-stone about a foot in thickness. Upon this foundation, which serves as a medium of drainage also, broken stone is placed up to and levelled to receive the ties. The spaces between the ties are then filled with the same material. After the iron is laid down, the center of the track is ballasted with small stone, making the center of the track level with the top of the rails, and a space is left under the center of each rail for water to escape through. When broken stone cannot be obtained, gravel is used for ballasting in the same manner above the bottom of the tie. The road-bed is extended at least 2 feet outside of the ties, and great care is taken that the slopes are uniform and continuous. The ties are Fig. 21.- Northern railway station, Vienna. .Oft Fig. 22.—Imperial apartments at the station. RAILROAD-STRUCTURES. 23 usually 9 feet feet long by 5 or 6 inches thick and at least 10 inches wide. Baltic fir is generally used. The cuts through which the Austrian railways pass are sloped evenly and turfed, and the embankments are also turfed or paved. When turfed, the employes keep the grass cut to prevent fires. When the cuts are of quicksand or of a treacherous nature and danger of land-slides exist, cross-hedges are planted so that the roots shall take hold of the soil and keep the surface from sliding down and filling the trenches. Sometimes the cuts have paved gutters, at intervals of 50 to 100 feet, to conduct the water coming down the face of the cut to the trenches. At considerable altitudes, when obstructions by snow are anticipated, rows of trees are planted at the top on either side of the cuts. 46. In exhibit 152 of group 18, in the German department, was shown a continuous cast-iron railway-tie, to be laid lengthwise the track, with the rail placed upon the tie, and four iron bolts extending through from one rail to the other. The tie was 12 inches wide and of iron three- eighths of an inch thick, and bolted to the rail every 2 feet. Great dura¬ bility and economy was claimed for this device. The Southern Railway, extending between Vienna and Trieste, has larger viaducts and a greater proportion of embankments paved with stone than any other that we found. The railways of Austria have swing or lift gates at all road-crossings where viaducts are not practicable. The North Railway Station at Vienna, as illustrated in Fig. 21, is one of the large stations at that city. It is, perhaps, as complete as any, and is located at the Prater-Stern, at the main entrance of the Prater. It has six tracks, under an iron and glass roof, between the main build¬ ings. The buildings on either side of the main tracks are built in the Norman style of .architecture, varying from three to five stories in height, are of brick, and look like a castle, as seen from the outside. The department for baggage, the waiting-rooms, and the restauration arrangements are well arranged within the buildings next the street. The corresponding building, across the tracks, is occupied by the general offices of the company, and behind it is the freight department. This railway, as well as several other of the main lines, have, as one of its principal features, an Emperor’s suite of rooms, consisting of a re¬ ception-room, (Fig. 22,) ante-room, and cabinet or closet arrangements. It is decorated and furnished beautifully, and has handsome carpets. When the imperial family arrive or depart, a carpet is stretched from the cars to this suite of rooms, and from the rooms to the carriages. 47. One of the most interesting modifications of railway switches was exhibited in the British section by Messrs. Saxby & Farmer, who showed a very elaborate model of their safety-switches and signals. An operator is located iu the upper story of a building, which is usually about 8 feet wide and as long as required for the number of switches to be controlled. The building has windows on all sides. Upright levers, 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. resembling locomotive reversiug-levers, are liere placed along the center line of the room. Beneath the floor are weights and counter weights, and the heavy rods and wire cords that connect with the various signals and switches which are operated from this point, and which extend frequently a half mile on either side of the signal-station. The levers are all numbered, and each one bears the numbers of all other levers which must be moved before it can be itself moved. The lever moves the signal for the switch before the switch is changed. The operator has a chart of all the switches, signals, and tracks on the wall before him, and in addition he has a telegraphic chart immediately before him which shows the present location of all approaching trains. A black lever moves the switch-points by a line of positive connection of bell (franks and rods connecting with a bar between the two points ; a blue lever governs the locking-mechanism which holds the latter in place. A similar line of connections leads to a long pivoted plate, lying beside one rail which, when the lever is changed, rises up like one side of a parallel ruler, above and to one side of the rail, and then swings over to its new position. The plate connects with a three-way crank, and the latter with bolts which shoot into the cross-piece between the points. The car-wheels prevent the possibility of the plate swinging over during the passage of a train. Red and green levers manage the home and green signals, and, by suitable wire cords, either turn the lights by night or lower the semaphore arms by day. We had witnessed the operation of this ingenious mechanism in Man. Chester and in London, England, where one man controlled, in the former place, about fifty signals and switches, and in the latter place over a hundred. The manipulations were at the rate of thirty signals and switches (with all their points) per minute. It was all done with such perfect precision that it seemed almost impossible that an acci¬ dent should occur. This subject is well worth the consideration of the railway managers of America. 48. The Austrian signal-service was adopted by a congress of railway officials iu October, 1872, and is most complete in its operations both by day and night. Observatiou-houses, iu which sentinels are stationed, are built on every mile, and ofteuer when many curves occur, and no train is allowed to pass one of these stations unless the track is clear for one mile ahead, the information being commuuicated by tele¬ graph. Very complete books of explanation aud instruction are pub¬ lished by each company for the guidance of all employes. There are two kinds of signals iu general use, one called the visible, or optical, and one called the audible, signals. During the day-time the hand sig¬ nal-flag (Fig. 23) is usually used; sometimes, however, the hand signal- disk (Fig. 24) is used. The lantern is used iu the evening. Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26, and 27 are used to stop trains. In addition to the above, the disks in the day-time and red lanterns iu the night are sometimes placed iu the center of the track, the disk standing at right angles with RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 25 the track. To slacken speed, the signal-man holds out a red flag hori¬ zontally, facing the train, as in Fig. 28; or he holds out the hand signal- disk, turning its surface toward the train but outside of the track, as shown in Fig. 29; or he plants the disk in the ground, at the same place and in the same position as held above. He uses the green lantern in the night in the same manner as in Fig. 31. In the absence of any flag the arms are extended facing the approaching train, as shown in Fig. 30. Sound-boxes, or torpedoes, are placed on the track in the night when no lantern is at hand. When the road is free and clear, the sig¬ nal-man faces the track with the red flag wound on the pole or staff, (Fig. 32,) or the red signal-disk is held facing the track, (Fig. 33.) In the night, the white lantern is held against the train, as in Fig. 34. Fig. 35 represents the signal-post with its arm extended upward at an angle of 45°, which signifies that the road is clear. When the sig¬ nal-post, (Fig. 36,) is used for signaling trains to stop, the arm is placed in a horizontal position at.right angles to the track. For slackening- speed, the arm of the signal-post is depressed at an angle of 45° and at right angles with the track. In Fig. 36 is shown the changing illuminated signal which is attached to switches. The same colors and movements of the signals answer for the day-time. A similar system of train-signals for the movement of all trains, and the disks and other signals, are placed before or on the locomotive and on the rear end of the rear car of each train. Another kind of visible signals is called the optical telegraph, consisting of signal-posts with movable baskets with cross and flat disks and arms. The baskets are placed in position as required by the rules of the company. Figs. 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43 are the principal positions of the baskets. In the night, lanterns are placed in the baskets and a similar system is used. The audible signals are : Sound-boxes; steam-whistle of the locomo¬ tive; signal-whistle; signal-trumpet; station-lock; electric clock-work; electric signals. The electric signals are perfectly arranged, and under the control of one person at headquarters, and are connected with every signal-station on the line. Each signal-man has a key, and, even when not a telegraph- operator, he reports to headquarters by taps the position or passage of trains at his station, and receives orders in the same way. The pos¬ sibility of two trains trying to pass each other on the same track, as is attempted sometimes in this couutry, cannot occur. 49. Conclusion. —In conclusion, the International Exhibition at Vien¬ na, in 1873, was a grand success. In its great advancement of art and science, and in the benefits accruing from it to each nation taking part, it has met all reasonable expectations. To none were the benefits so great as to the Austrian nation. Many claimed it to be a failure be¬ cause the receipts at the gates were not equal, by about $4,000,000, to 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, IS73. the cost of construction and management. This was not the case. Several times that amount was left in the empire by foreigners during that year, and business connections were consummated which insured that, even as a matter of dollars, no loss was sustained. The education of the people of the empire, who literally poured into Vienna by excur¬ sion-trains, was worth all that the exhibition cost the Austrian govern¬ ment. The Austrian officials, it is a pleasure as well as a duty to add, were untiring in their courteous attentions to foreign representatives, and no request was made to them that was not granted. RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 27 RAILROAD-SIGNALS, 29 30 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1-L.i. Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 35. Fig. 34. RAILROAD-SIGNALS. 31 INDEX. Art. Page. American school-house. 7 6 Annexes, (see Pavilions). 23 12 Apartment-buildings at Vienna; exhibit of models. 29 15 Heinrichshoff. 30 15 Architecture, style of.. 10 8 Arsenal at Vienna. 27 14 construction and arrangement. 28 14 Art-Building. 18 11 Bricks.•.. 43 21 making of. 40 19 Brick-kilns, apartment . 41 19 continual, advantages of. 42 21 Building, Art. 18 11 Buildings, (see Construction.) exhibition, location and extent. 1 5 location of smaller. 5 6 machinery-hall. 19 11 materials for, (see Materials). Neue Freie Presse, (see Pavilions and Vienna).. 25 13 Cements... 37 18 Austrian; methods of use. 38 18 Construction of buildings, general construction. 32 16 methods of superintendence. 31 16 . special services. 33 16 Exhibition-buildings, details. 12 8 Dome and rotunda. 13 9 details. 17 11 framing of roof of dome. 15 9 girder, circular, elevating of. 14 9 lantern. 16 10 Exhibits, arrangement of. 4 6 in United States section. 8 7 Exhibitors, number of, and their success. 9 7 Foundations of Exhibition-buildings. 11 8 Grounds of the Exhibition. 6 6 location and extent. 1 5 Heinriehschof; construction and arrangement. 30 15 Imperial pavilion. 20 11 Industrial palace. 3 5 Japanese pavilion. 24 12 Jury pavilion. 20 11 Lumber.i. 36 17 preservation of. 39 18 Materials for buildings, artificial stone. 34 17 bricks. 43 21 making of. 40 19 brick-kilns, apartment.. 41 19 continual. 42 21 34 INDEX. Materials for buildings, cements. Austrian.,. lumber. preservation of. Machinery-hall... Music-hall, Strauss. Neue Freie Presse. Palace, industrial. Pavilion, imperial. Japanese. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. school-house and other annexes.^. Schwarzenburg. Plastering. Railroad, construction, character of. exhibits. signals, Austrian. subsidies. switches, Saxby and Farmer’s. ties, continuous, details. Rotunda and dome. details. great circular girder. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha pavilion. School-house, American. buildings. Schwarzenburg pavilion. Stone, artificial.. Strauss music-hall at Vienna. Superintendence of buildings, methods of. United States section, location of space and exhibits Vienna, buildings in.. apartment-buildings. arsenal. Heinrichshof.. Strauss music-hall. city of. Walls of exhibitiou-buildings. Art. Page 37 18 38 18 36 17 39 18 19 11 26 14 25 13 3 5 20 11 24 12 22 12 23 12 21 12 35 17 45 22 44 22 48 25 45 22 47 23 46 23 13 9 17 11 14 9 22 12 7 6 23 12 21 12 34 17 26 14 31 16 8 7 26 14 29 15 27 14 30 15 26 14 2 5 11 8 c A. CONSTRUCTION OF DWELLINGS IN VIENNA. -T. R. NIERNSEE. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPORT ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND EMBELLISHMENT PRIVATE DWELLINGS IN VIENNA. JOHN r;. NIEENSEE, F. _A_. X. MEMBER OF THE ARTISAN COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1875. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ORIGIN OF THE SYSTEM OF DWELLINGS ADOPTED IN VIENNA. Art. Page. 1. Size and situation of the city of Vienna. 5 2. Origin of “apartment-houses”. 5 3. Great size of the ancient apartment-houses. 5 4. Extension of the city in 1858, and previous slow growth. 5 5. Origin of the Zins-House or house for rent. 6 6. Description of its arrangement. r . 6 7. Details of kitchen. 7 8. New impulse to building in 1858. 7 9. Present system developed. 7 10. Influence of the configuration of the city on plans for building. 8 11. Usual disposition and uses of the stories. 8 12. Distinction between “ apartment” and “ tenement ” house. 8 13. Description of a “Palais,” or first-class dwelling. 9 14. Building-groups. 10 15. Description of an example. 10 CHAPTER II. CONSTRUCTION AND EMBELLISHMENT OF DWELLINGS. 16. Nature and varieties of building-materials abounding near Vienna. 11 17. Complete stone and marble buildings rare ; brick generally used, with stucco or cement finish.... 11 18. Peculiar and ingenious mode of plastering ceilings. 12 19. Excellent quality of sands and cements; use of iron. 12 20. Peculiar mode of mixiug lime and mortar.13 21. Consequent durability of the walls. 13 22. Stringent building-laws ; great thickness of walls. 14 23. Description of floors and ceilings., 14 24. Precautions against fires and accidents. 15 25. Laws relating to flues, roofs, and windows. 15 26. Construction of doors, windows, and floors. 16 27. Description of the porcelain stove of Germany. 16 28. Rigid enforcement of building-regulations. 17 29. Description of the “ self-centering” arched floors, known as the “ Welsh” and “ Bohemian ” arches. 17 CHAPTER III. ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES OF DWELLINGS IN VIENNA. 30. Architectural development dates from thirteenth century ; few examples of that date remaining. 20 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. Page. 31. Architecture flourishes under Joseph I and Charles VI, and is depressed dur¬ ing the French wars. 20 32. Great impulses to building-arts in 1845 and 1857; improvements projected by imperial decree of 1857. 21 33. Influence of that decree on architecture. 21 34. Great benefit of popular instruction. 23 35. Remarkable skill of Viennese artisans in general. 23 36. Great beauty of the new theaters and railway-stations. 21 LIST OF PLATES. Plate I .Plan of principal floor of small^apartment-house.' Plate II, (A-II)_Elevation, section, and floor-plans of an apartment-house in Vienna. Plate III, (A-D)_Floor-plans of an apartment-house'in Vienna. Plate IV, A and B..Floor-plans of an apartment-house in Vienna. Plate V, (A-H)...*..Elevation, sections, and plans of an apartment-house in Vicuna. Plate VI.Plans of first-class apartment-house in Vienna. Plate VII.“ Palais ” of L. Epstein ; principal floor. Plate VIII.Principal floor of apartment-house called “ Henry VCourt,” Opera Ring, Vienna. Plate IX.Principal floor of apartment-house, by the Union' Building Asso¬ ciation, Vienna. Plate X.Facade of a dwelling in Vienna. Plate XI.Details of the self-sustaining “platzel” or flat-crown arches, as constructed at Vienna. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE VIENNA SYSTEM OF DWELLINGS. Vienna, its size and location; Origin of apartment-houses ; Size ; Extension of the city in 1858; Its previous slow growth; Origin of the zins or rented house; Arrangement; Development of present system ; Apartment-houses, their arrangement; Examples. 1. To fully elucidate the subject of this report on “ private dwellings,” we give a brief historical sketch, showing the origin of this class of dwellings, and the causes which gave them the peculiar and distinctive features of their present form, as habitations for the large majority of the people of this city—Vienna. The capital of the Austrian Empire is situated in the vast valley called the March-field, on the banks of the Danube. It was known already as a Roman city in the second century, and was adopted by the Hapsburg family as their residence A. D. 1276. The city has remained in their possession to the present day. It now contains, in round num¬ bers, 1,000,000 inhabitants, and is over twelve English miles in circum¬ ference. Up to the year 1859, the city proper was small, and was sur rounded by high and formidable walls, encircled by a deep moat, over which twelve bridges gave access to the inner or old town, around which grew up gradually thirty-four new districts or suburbs. 2. The inner city was mostly occupied by the palaces of the nobility, and by large ancient buildings, subdivided aud used for lodgings or so- called “ apartment-houses.” They were not generally (or were only im¬ perfectly) suited to that purpose. The same plan was used, but in a more humble and cheaper way, aud on a smaller scale, iu the suburbs of later date. 3. Some conception of the magnitude of those old structures used as u apartment-houses” may be formed from the fact that several of them, which are still existing, and used for the same purpose, contain each from ten to twelve different large interior court-yards, and a much larger number of staircases. Such are the so-called “Burger Hospital,” in the inner city, near the new opera-house, the Drahtner Court, aud the Count von Stahremberg mansion, in one of the suburbs, said to contain each from 1,500 to 2,000 inhabitants. Many of these old buildings are from six to seven stories in height above, and generally two cellars in depth under ground. 4. Since the demolition of the old fortifications iu 185S, the filling up 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. of the large trench and leveling of the glacis,.large building-space has been gained, which has been extensively built upon already, and which is now adorned with numerous magnificent edifices and splendid palaces. The central part of the old town, or city proper, which is of almost circular form, is surrounded by a wide street, called the Biugstrasse, a superb avenue, with wide sidewalks, rides and carriage drives, and trav¬ ersed by street-railways. It is crossed at the north end by the Danube Canal, and on the west by a smaller stream, called the Biver Wien. Thus the demolition of the old wall and improvements connected therewith have incorporated the formerly outlying thirty-four suburbs, with the old town, into one city, the extreme outlines of which are still surrounded by a barrier and ditch, called the Lines. The new “ Danube Eegulations,” begun in 1S70, will furthermore add a very extensive tract in expansion of the city. 5. Prior to the enlargement of the city in 1838, the old dwelling-house or “/.ins-house” (house for rent) was only an aggregation of living- rooms, which were to be more or less separated or united, according to the wants or wishes of the tenant, and which had to be occupied whether right or wrong, suitable or otherwise, on account of the scarcity of dwellings in the old metropolis. For, while the population in the fifty years between 1800 and 1830 had more than doubled, the number of houses increased only by 2,000 in the same period. Before the great political changes of 1848, and the subsequent enlargement of the city in 1838, the want of space, great cost of building-sites, and particularly the old oppressive building-laws, requiring heavy arched cellar and ground floors, (before the rolled-iron beams and light arches were in¬ vented,) and, consequently, walls three and four feet in thickness, and compelling many other expensive constructions, it was almost impos¬ sible, even for business-men of good means, to rent, in any eligible neigh¬ borhood in the city, a house embracing more than three or four apart¬ ments, inclusive of kitchen. 0. For this reason, many badly-planned and ill-ventilated apartment- houses were erected, consisting of very small suits of rooms, arranged to sublet rooms to secondary tenants, to the great inconvenience of all. Thus were developed those rows of apartment-houses, (or dwellings for rent,) called “ zius-houses,” in the former suburbs of Vienna, of which Plate I shows the type, four, five, and even six stories iu height, con¬ taining several separate tenements on each floor, each consisting of only three or four apartments, viz. a kitchen, cue or sometimes two rooms, and a cabinet, (hammer,) which latter is always understood to be a small room with only one window. Even the latter room was so arranged, with a separate entrance from the kitchen, so as to be able to sublet it. A stair and corridor, always of fire-proof construction, give access to all the rooms. Better and larger buildings were subsequently arranged, with more rooms and conveniences, such as the addition of a servant’s room iu connection with the kitchen, an extra chamber, and sometimes an THE ZINS-HOUSE. 7 “ ante-room ” and j>antry, better arranged and more completely detached water-closets, &c. (See Plates II, (A-H,) and III, (A-D.) 7. The construction and contrivance of the generally contracted kitchen, particularly where a cook has also to find her sleeping-place in it, are really ingenious. A large portion, generally the back half of the kitchen, is devoted to the cooking, and often the stand-up or covered bedstead is divided off by a beam or girder lying across from wall to wall (for all the partitions are of brick) about the height of the head, say five and a half to six feet at most, above the floor, from which beam the brick arching is turned up toward the ceiling, and the large open mouth of the chimney in the back, or so-called middle, wall of the house; by forming thus, as it were, a mantle or large hood over the range, and the space within the cross or hearth beam is in the shape of the large kitchen- chimney of ancient castles and monasteries, an excellent draught is created both for the fire and for carrying off effectually all the odor of cooking. Their compact brick and plastered kitchen-ranges, with brass- bound curbs, and with no iron but the top plates, glazed earthen ves¬ sels for cooking, small stew-holes and ovens, all wonderfully neat, com¬ pact, and effective, are well contrived and worthy of study and imita¬ tion. When the cooking is done, the fire is never kept up a minute longer than absolutely necessary. A curtain, sliding on rings on a rod fastened to the hearth beam, is drawn close. No sign or smell indicate the presence of the cooking-apparatus. The floor is generally laid with hard stone or encaustic tiles. 8. After 1858, the enlargement of the city space, and the altered politi¬ cal and social conditions of the citizens, brought about by the changes of 1848, gave building matters a new impulse and direction. The desire of the inhabitants for a better system in the arrangements of their dwell¬ ings, more compatible with their new views and wants, was ably seconded by several of their most eminent architects and master- builders, who devised and perfected such plans as made, finally, the living in rented apartments not only bearable, but pleasant and con¬ venient, nay, made it absolutely comfortable aud even luxurious, more economical, and devoid of much care and responsibility, as compared with living in entire and separate houses after our American fashion. 9. From this time dates the present complete system of apartment- houses of the various classes, and of more or less pretension, which constitute virtually the “ private dwellings’ 7 of at least nine-tenths of the citizens of Vienna. Only the highest and wealthiest of the nobility, perhaps a score of millionaires, and the members of the imperial family, some wealthy bankers, and a few merchants occupy entire houses (here called palaces) by themselves. The eminent architects, Vanderniill and Siccardsburg, are said to have been the promoters, if not virtually the founders, of the present perfected system of apartment-houses. The requirements of an average-sized tenement under this system are an isolation from the common stair and corridor of the house by means of 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. an inclosed vestibule, or ante-room, giving access to the kitchen, and to at least one living-room. This should also afford access to the water- closet and pantry, all well-lighted and ventilated. In connection with the kitchen should be a servants’ room, which ought to communicate with a chamber and nursery. Plate IV represents the details of the ground and first floor of such an apartment-house, which, at the same time, forms a group building be¬ longing to four different owners, fronting on three streets, and facing on the main street 132 feet, with a depth of 174 feet on the side streets, with four separate entrances or carriage-ways, each 84 feet in width, and leading to a very ornate grand common court-yard of 04 feet in length, and 38 feet in width. There are, besides, several smaller courts one for the use of each building, with a large fire-proof stair-case of G feet width of steps for each. The general arrangement and uses of each set of apartments will be seen in Plate V, (A-H.) The ground-floor is occupied by otlices and reception-rooms, the first floor by the living-rooms of the owners, and the third floor only by one separate tenant. 10. Before proceeding further with the description of the development of the dwelling, from its simplest to its most expanded and ornate form, we must take note of a peculiar local feature in the configuration of the main business streets of the city, in regard to their influence on the ar¬ rangements and construction of these buildings. Where broad main, streets lead from the circumference of the outer districts to the inner, or old city, the ground-floor of a dwelling on such a street is generally devoted to business purposes, while in the less frequented side streets that floor is used for inferior lodgings, work-rooms, or shops. 11. The first floor above the ground (ebencr erde —even with the ground) is called the ground-floor, or parterre, and what with us in Amer. ica is called the second floor is with them the first floor, also called “belle etage,” or “best floor.” In many of the buildings of greater pre¬ tensions, a lower or intermediate story interposes between the ground and principal floors, and is hero called a “ mezzanine ,” an Italian term, corresponding in meaning to the French “entresol? This is generally used for domestics’ lodgings and other purposes. The section immedi¬ ately below the ground-floor is called “ souterrain ,” or sub-cellar, and in it are generally the stables of the larger and more pretentious town-houses when devised as apartment-houses. It is accessible by convenient in¬ clined planes, called “ ratnpe ,” for the descent of the horses. Below this sub-cellar is frequently the cellar proper, for fuel, wines, &c. The place directly under the roof, with us called garret , is never allowed to be inhabited, iu accordance with the existing building-laws. 12. The reader of this description of the “apartment-house,” as the principal dwelling-place of the population of Vienna, must not confound it with what is familiarly known to us under the name of tenement-houses. The so-called apartment-house in Vienna is the house of the majority of APARTMENT AND TENEMENT HOUSES. 9 every class auci condition, from the poor student or clerk to the trades¬ man and merchant, or to the highest nobility of talent, industry, wealth, or title. As an enthusiastic admirer of the system expressed himself, perhaps sarcastically, “No city in the world is better calculated for life in lodgings than Vienna, as all the necessaries are abundantly provided out of doors.” 13. A fine example of a first-class apartment-house is represented by Plate VI, in which A represents the first floor and B the plan for the sec¬ ond and third floors. This building has street-lights only from two sides; the remainder is lighted from the courts. It shows an example of a dwelling in which the ground-floor is occupied by offices, stables, car¬ riage-houses. The first or principal floor is wholly occupied by the owner of the building. It has a semicircular private stairway and a large main stairway which leads to the upper stories. The accommodations in the owner’s dwelling, on the first floor, are very extensive, consisting of culinary and domestics’ apartments, pantries, and store-houses, four water-closets, bath and dressing rooms, ante-room, teachers’ and govern¬ ess’s rooms, nursery, library, boudoir, reception and card rooms, parlors, dining-room, and billiard-room. The second and third floors are each arranged in three convenient sets of apartments, containing, respectively, four, twelve, and eight rooms per set. This building is sometimes called a “palais,” the word, nevertheless, not meaning strictly palace ; it is a sort of diminutive of the latter term, which they only apply to such buildings (whatever may be their size) as are not strictly “apartment- houses,” but are occupied only by the owner, his servants, and imme¬ diate dependents and employes. Another example of these first-class apartment-houses is the so-called “palais” of the banker Epstein, Plate VII, showing the first floor. This splendid dwelling, builton theCourt Bing in 1871,contains in souter- rain (sub-cellar) the stables of the owner, accommodating eight horses, and also for the tenant on the second floor, with room for six horses, with the necessary feed and harness rooms, an ice-cellar and ample cellarage for fuel for all, and heating-apparatus for the larger rooms of the owner. On the parterre, or ground-floor, are located the offices and counting-rooms of the owner, carriage-house and concierges lodging, and a spacious decorated entrance-drive to the court-yard. On the first, or principal, floor are arranged the artistically-decorated living-rooms of the proprietor, with renaissance ceilings in stucco, fresco-painting, and gilding by skilled artists, walls with scagliola marbles, costly and taste¬ ful walnut wainscotings and tapestries. The walls of the card-room are decorated with fine landscapes. In the lettering of the plan, A desig¬ nates the court-yard ; B, small open courts for light and ventilation of private stairs, corridors, and water-closets; C, the rectangular grand stairway, which leads also to the second floor, and is highly decorated with variegated marble, scagliolas, and statuary ; D, a second semicir- cidar fire-proof stair, which leads to the second and third floors, oc- 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. cupietl by oue tenant on the second, and arranged for three sets of apartments on the third floor. A small oval private staircase, E, leads to the upper stories, and is principally used by the servants. The owner’s lodging contains, Xo. 1, ante-room; Xo. 2, teachers’ room; Xo. 3, sous’ room ; Xo. 4, library; Xo. 5, work-room or study of the owner; Xo. 0, card-room; Xo. 7, dining-room; Xo.S, music or ball room; Xo. 9, reception- room; Xo. 10, boudoir; Xo. 11, family chamber; Xo. 12, nursery; Xo. 13, daughters’ room ; Xo. 14, governess’s room ; Xo. 15, baths; Xo. 10, ward¬ robe; Xo. 17, waiting-maid’s room; Xo. 18, kitchen; Xo. 19, pantry; Xo. 20, waiting-room ; Xos. 21 and 22, closets; Xo. 23, winter-garden or con¬ servatory ; and besides, three water-closets. The servants’ rooms are located in the entresol, or mezzanine. 14. Building-group .—It is often the case that quite a number of other¬ wise distinct dwellings, owned by different parties, are grouped together in their external architectural features, under one general design and style, for the sake of producing a grand effect by a combination of masses, which could not be as well accomplished otherwise. This is an effectual, and also an economical, means of attaining this effect, as well as of combining the otherwise small courts of each into one or more larger court-yards. It is better for light and ventilation, for, as a rule, only the inferior rooms, corridors, kitchens, &c., are located on those courts, unless the latter are very large and ornamental. 15. One of the grandest examples of this kind is presented by the building, Plate VIII, called “Henry’s Court,” on the Opera Ring. It consists virtually of three separate apartment-houses, combined under one design and facade. The buildings occupy a whole square of 310 feet length, and 150 feet in depth, bounded by four streets. The cen¬ tral building forms a projection on the plan, and is one story higher than the side or end buildings, and rises like a tower above the rest. The facade of the parterre and mezzanine are treated as a grand rustic sub¬ base or dado. The windows of the first and second floors are coupled in connecting groups, and the third story is treated with pilastered win¬ dows and intermediate connecting panels, painted in rich frescos on gold ground. Architectural decorations and statues are executed in terra¬ cotta with excellent taste. The whole forms a magnificent apartment¬ dwelling. Plate IX represents the plan of the principal or first floor of another such group of buildings, on a very irregularly-shaped piece of ground, two sides and a corner facing ou streets. It was built by the Uniou Building Association. The effective facade is treated in the French renaissance style. The ground-floor contains stores and restaurants; the four upper stories are each divided into four large and convenient apartment-lodgings. This building has just been finished. CHAPTER II. CONSTRUCTION AND EMBELLISHMENT OF DWELLINGS. Viennese building-materials ; Stone buildings rare, brick buildings common : Method of plastering ceilings ; Quality of limes and cements ; Building- laws ; Floors, ceilings, and details ; Precautions against fire ; Self-center¬ ing arches. 16. Having thus fully illustrated the origin and development of the present system of dwellings in Vienna, both in its simplest and most expanded and ornate design, we will next examine the methods of con¬ struction and embellishment. The materials used in construction first deserve consideration; Vienna is extraordinarily well favored in regard to the abundance in the vicinity of a variety, and of superior qualities, and also by extensive land and water communications with the neighboring provinces. Of ordinary hard quarry-stones for foundations there is an excellent and abundant supply in the vicinity. Of superior sandstones, soft and of middling and of hardest qualities, generally of a light-yel¬ low or pale-buff color, much resembling the French Caen stone, there are sixteen different varieties used here. The Vienna and Emperor's sandstone, the Magarieth and Loretto are favorites, and are extensively used for external window and door dressings, ashlar facings of walls, and ornamental cut-stone work in general. The harder kinds are gen¬ erally used for steps and platforms of interior stairs, corridors, and bases of the buildings. For monumental works, columns, &c., granite as well as marbles from Karst, Untersberg, Salzburg, and Silesia, and variegated Hungarian and Bohemian marbles are used. 17. Solid sandstone constructions, except for Gothic churches, are, however, rarely used. Only facings of stone for public buildings, and the more costly palaces and dwellings, are employed. Of entire marble fagades there are very few in Vienna. The favorite and almost univer¬ sal building-material is brick of superior quality and hardness, which is produced in immense quantities in the immediate surroundings of the city. Externally the walls are covered with a superior quality of mor¬ tar, made of the celebrated Kuffstein or other hydraulic cement mixed with sharp river-sand. This mor tar acquires fully the hardness of the sandstones, and is not only used in plain surfaces, but all their cornices, window, door, and other architectural decorations and features, are worked out with surprising accuracy, strength, and beauty by their skilled masons in that material. To illustrate this use of cement a view, taken from a photograph, is annexed of the front of a new dwelling 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. on the King street, (Plate X,) the whole of which is done in this hydraulic mortar. *The more florid ornaments, capitals of columns and pilasters, &c., are cast in cement and terra-cotta, and the whole is colored a pleas¬ ant and uniform light-buff color, resembling stone. The masons build both the stone and brick walls, turn all the arches, and do all this exter¬ nal plastering or cement stucco and coloring. IS. The interior stucco work, or plastering of walls and ceiling, is done by the regular plasterer. In this connection, one peculiarity in the mode of plastering their ceilings deserves special notice. Their ceilings, and also the floor-joists of their solid timber floors, where the beams lie close to each other, side by side, do not admit of lathing for plastering as in our dwellings. They adopt the following method: Stout lathing-nails with rather large flat heads are driven first partially (say half way) into the ceiling- joists at distances of seven, eight, or nine inches apart, as first, second, or third quality work may be desired, forming regular squares. The uniform spacing of the nails is quickly and accurately done by marks or notches cut on the handles of the small hatchets witli which they drive them, and they range them by the eye. On these nails, just above the heads, stout copper wire (also of a size according to the quality of the work) is loosely stretched by giving the wire one turn around each, and in a direction crosswise of the ceiling-beams, thus forming a loose wire netting hanging down from the ceiling from three-fourths of an inch to one inch. Instead of laths they use reeds or small canes. These reeds come in bundles of about twelve to fifteen inches in diameter, and six to seven feet in length ; none of the reeds must exceed three-quarters of an inch in diameter at the thickest end. The extremely thin ends are cut off, so as to have none less than one-quarter inch in thickness at the smallest end. They are introduced between the wires, at such distances from each other as to afford a proper key between them for mortar. They are also reversed between alternate squares, so as to have the ends of one pushed in and overlapped between the thicker ends of the other square, thus equalizing the thickness. After this the nails are driven moderately well home , without forciug the wires into the reeds, so as to injuriously bruise or cut them. Xext, rich tenacious plastering mortar is flung on them with a scoop-trowel and then finished in two or three coat work, as with us, or as the nature or finish of the work required. The interstices between the faces of the reeds and their round shape form a frequent and excellent key or holdfast for the mortar. The reeds are also seasoned before being used. 19. The sand used for building, both pit and river sand, is of supe¬ rior quality, as also are their common aud hydraulic limes and cements. The bricks of all manufacturers are of the standard size of 11 iuches in length, 5J iuches in width, and iuches in thickness. Of woods, both for building anti ornameural purposes, they have an abundant supply from the forests of the various provinces. They are generally MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 13 transported by water. The hard woods of Hungary, such as oak, ash, and walnut, are particularly rich and valuable. Iron has been brought into use in the construction of buildings of late years, and is employed principally for girders and beams. Some roofs and stairs of public buildings, conservatories, and many bridges, both on the arch and sus¬ pension principles, are built in iron, but buildings entirely of iron have not been introduced here as yet, although they have an abundance of superior quality throughout the empire. 20. Besides the excellent quality of the limes and sand they employ for their mortars, their treatment in mixing and using them is worthy of notice and of imitation. Their first proceeding toward the erection of a new building is the digging of large pits, say eight to ten feet square, and of about the same depth. If the ground should be too loose or porous, they surround or case them with light brick walls. The lime is carefully slaked in a large trough supplied with a small gate and a tolerably fine-meshed wire screen at one end, immediately above the lime-pit, and as each trough-full is thoroughly slaked and agitated, aud brought to a uniform degree of fluidity, it is drawn off into the lime-pit. The operation is repeated until, one after the other, these pits are filled. The number of lime-pits thus filled, and the quan¬ tity prepared, is generally such as to furnish from four to six months’ supply for the building ; and as one is emptied it is freshly filled until its turn, at the proper interval of time, conies again for use. This fluid slaked lime, originally of the consistency of thick cream or molasses, will cool off, settle, and consolidate, in the course of several weeks, to about the consistency of soft butter or paste, and the water separating from it during its partial consolidation, and standing to the depth of several inches on top, will keep it good for months, or even a year or more, in the proper pasty consistency, ready to be mixed with the sand when required to be used for making into mortar. If the lime remains an unusually loug time in the pit, aud absorbs all its own water, more is poured on to keep it in its pasty condition ; for when it once hardens, it is no more fit for use thau plaster of Paris after it has set. When the lime is wanted for mixing into mortar, it is lifted out of the pit by a long-handled broad hoe and put into the mortar-mixing trough with the proper measured proportion of sand and of water to thoroughly reduce it to a semi-fluid condition. It is carried in round flat tubs or buckets to the workmen, who are supplied with small deep troughs holding about the quantity of a good-sized barrel. The mortar is used in so fluid a state (almost what we here technically call u grout”) that it could not be taken up on our ordinary trowel. There the masons use large concave trowels, shaped somewhat like sugar-scoops. A superior and skilled laborer, called a mortar-mixer, is employed in the preparation of the mortar. 21. This system of slaking and cleaning the lime by running it through a wire sieve, and mixing it thoroughly with a proper proportion of sharp 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. clean sand, and then applying- it in this semi-fluid state, has much to do with the superior quality of their mortar, and consequently with the strength of their walls and the durability of their exterior coating. Their bricks being rough, well bedded, and rubbed or hammered down into this soft mortar, filling up all the vertical interior joints of the brick-work, it gives all the strength and solidity of “ grouted” walls, while at the same time the mason is not allowed to bring the mortar either on the bed or the vertical joint, nearer than within half an inch of the face of the wall. This is required to give a proper hold or ley to the mortar when both the exterior and interior rough-cast plaster coat¬ ing- is put on in the finishing of the building. Some buildings, as the new arsenal, some railway-stations, and a few churches, are finished with face brick. Sometimes they are of various colors, such as pale red, gray, or buff; or they are dark, and dressed off with terra-cotta panels and other embellishments, as sandstone window-trimmings, bauds, and bases. 22. The construction of dwellings is in many respects so guarded, and regulated by numerous regulations and strict building-laws, that the latter give a certain uniformity to the former, and in describing their construction we almost quote the law. Thus they require that the main walls, front and rear, should not be less than 18 inches for the last or topmost story of the building, and as now no building is permitted to be more than four stories in height above the ground floor, or thirteen fath¬ oms, 78 feet, from the top of the cornice to the sidewalk, they permit the walls for two stories down to be made the same thickness, while they are to increase in thickness by the width of one brick, six inches, and below that as follows: From the top down, IS inches for fourth and third stories; 2 feet for second and first floors; 24 feet for the ground floor, and at least 3 feet thickness, as prescribed by law, for the cellar. They always have also what is called a middle wall, in which the chim¬ ney-flues are located, and as the floor-joists are to lie six inches on the wall on each side of this wall, and as the law prescribes that not less than one foot of brick-work shall intervene between the ends of these joists, we have two feet in thickness, except the upper story, which may be eighteen inches. All party-walls must be at least one foot in thick¬ ness for each party. All division-walls between different apart ment lodgings in the same house must be one brick, or twelve inches; interior partitions one-half brick, or six inches thick. While building, the front must be temporarily fenced in for six feet in width outside the buildiug- line for safety of passers-by. 23. Cellars under ground, containing stables and feed-rooms or work¬ shops, must have a brick arched ceiling. Others may have solid timber joists or beams, but always 4 inches depth of pugging or earth-filling (geuerally of old plastering; old mortar-rubbish, screened, is used for that purpose) between the ceiling-joists and flooring. Their wooden floors or ceilings between the stories are generally of two kinds, either LEGAL REQUIREMENTS IN CONSTRUCTION. 15 of floor-joists standing on edge, like ours, but only 12 inches apart be¬ tween centers, or for wide spans solid timber laid close together and connected by tree-nails, all with 4 inches depth of pugging between them and the flooring. The latter kind (solid timber) are always used in the story immediately under the roof, as that floor must be made fire¬ proof by being paved with brick laid in cement. 24. The stair-walls, when of brick, must run up to the roof-timbers, and the entrance from the stair to the roof-space must be secured by an iron door, set closely into stone jambs. The roof-space is only divided into what we call “ lumber-rooms ’ 7 for the various occupants of a house. No chamber or living-room is ever permitted there under any circumstances. Each chimney-flue must have a well-secured double iron door, opening under the roof 3 feet above the floor, for cleaning. Each roof over 45 feet in length must have a G-incli fire partition-wall, with an iron door for access from one space to another; and the fire-walls must run at least G inches above the roof-timber. The latter are not permitted to connect with each other or rest upon this fire division-wall. Each house must be supplied with water, either by means of a well in the court-yard or by public water-works. No sub-cellar or sunk basement can be inhab¬ ited unless its ceiling is at least 4^ feet above the sidewalk. No ground or parterre floor shall be less than 6 inches above the pavement. All stairs and connecting corridors and halls giving access to the various tenements must be fire-proof, either of stone, brick, or iron. Main stairs areuot to be less than 34 to 4 feet in width, and the steps must not be less than 11 inches in width or more than G inches in height. Stairs opening on a well-hole must have a guard-railing of at least 3 feet in height, and the top rail must be guarded against accidents from children sliding do ten on them by ornamental knobs or projections placed every 3 feet apart. This is a simple and very effective safeguard against some of those dreadful accidents which so frequently happen. The height of any story shall not be less than 9 feet in the clear. 25. The division-wall between chimney-flues and any wood-work shall not be less than half a brick, or six inches ; and, in addition, a brick tile on edge shall be laid between the chimney-wall and the wood-work, so as to cover the joints between the brick. The flues must be well plas¬ tered, both inside and outside. Chimney-flues are of two kinds: either the wide flue for the passage of chimney-sweeps, 18 inches square, or the narrow or Russian flue, of not less than six inches square for one fire, or six by nine inches for two fires. Flues should be as nearly as possible perpendicular, but should in no case be drawn more than at an an¬ gle of sixty degrees with the horizon. No wooden cornices are allowed. They must be either of stone or brick, or of cast or galvanized iron. Roofs must be covered with tiles, slate, or metal, and snow-boards must be provided. Wooden subpartitions of rooms may be used, if well plastered on both sides, but they are only used in very inferior build¬ ings, and are generally half a brick or six inches in thickness, resting 16 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. on a rolled-iron beam where there is no corresponding support below. There should be one water-closet for each tenement, of not less than two feet nine inches in width, with good light and ventilation, and having' a large ventilating-pipe carried up through the roof. Where public sew¬ ers pass through the streets, a private sewer of brick, oval in shape, of at least two feet in width and three and a half feet in height, must be laid in cement-mortar and connect with the former. It should also be ventilated by a large pipe passing up above the roof. 2G. Xo outside steps should project beyond the building-line ; and no projections of bases or of the fronts for architectural features or shop, windows of stores should exceed nine inches. Balconies and bay or oriel windows should never project more than four feet, nor exceed tbe length of one pier and a window’s width, nor be less than nine feet above ground, and nine feet in distance from a neighbor’s house. They should not be placed in a street of less than forty-eight feet in width. A special permit is required for them. The kitchen-hearth should be of brick or stone for at least 2 feet in width outside the fire-place. Corridors should be not less than 4 feet in width, and made of stone or arched in brick. The windows are always furnished with double sashes, and are generally made in the Trench-casement style, opening like folding doors at the center. The outer ones in tbe old style open out¬ ward, but in consequence of the occurrence of many accidents, the new law obliges them to be made to open inward, like the inner pair; and this occasioning some inconvenience in the fastening back and in their use, the American sash or hoisting window has lately come into use. Still they are used double, saving a large amount of fuel in winter and dust and heat in summer.* The doors are generally double or folding doors, opening at tbe center, oue half generally fastened and the other free for ordinary use. They are very convenient, and project thus much less into the room. In large houses with very thick walls, the half wing of such a door is generally covered by the thickness of the wall. The kitchen floors are often completely tiled with stone, marble, or encaustic tiles. The floors of the best rooms in most houses, both old and new, are laid with parquetry square tablets of hard variegated wood, such as oak, ash, walnut, or mahogany. They are sometimes still further enriched by inlaying with other costly woods. They are tougued and grooved together, and laid on a soft pine or blind floor. They are waxed and polished frequently and quickly by regular polishers, who keep these floors iu order, receiving pay by the year. 27. Earthenware or porcelain stoves are invariably used for heating apartments. The fire-door or heating-place for the best rooms generally opens upon some outside corridor, passage, kitchen, or inferior room. The stoves are frequently set diagonally across a corner of the room, and thus do not take up much space, large as they are. They are fre- quentlv of the size of a book-case, and much higher than the modern ones. They are generally ornate, and are sometimes of very rich and * Iu summer, tlie outer windows are frequently unshipped and stored. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS IN CONSTRUCTION. 17 artistically-decorated patterns. They certainly give out a very pleasant and uniform warmth, and when once the fire is made it lasts through the day and late into the night, having all the uniformity of a bake- oven. Indeed these stoves somewhat resemble the oven, as inside the outer or ornamental shell there is a heavy lining of brick aud clay. This is protected by a grating against injury from careless handling of the fuel. Through this structure the flues wind around with many turns until the smoke, before reaching the chimney, has parted with all its available heat. The heat is retained for a great length of time by the brick and earthenware of the structure. Thus there is neither the scorching heat of an iron stove nor the sudden fluctuations aud extrava¬ gant waste of an open fire-place; and, where fuel is as costly as in Vienna, these stoves are valuable for their economy. 28. Before commencing a building, a permit must be obtained by placing a copy of the plans, sections, and elevations in the hands of the municipal building-commissioner, to be approved and signed by him. After these plans are examined and approved as in conformity with the existing building-laws, no deviations are allowed without special notice to the proper authorities. The building and the materials used are con¬ stantly and strictly inspected by the inspector of buildings, aud an in¬ junction is quickly served if bad material is employed, the plan altered, or any building-law infringed. Ho newl,yfinished building can be occu¬ pied until inspected and approved by the proper authorities as of safe and proper construction, as well as perfectly dry aud as complying with all sanitary regulations. In matters of taste in the external decoration or design of a front or fa£ade of a new building the government retains supervising power. Elevations are to accompany the plans, and, al¬ though in regard to architectural style there are no positive regulations, yet the proper authorities suppress or modify a positively ugly exterior, at least in so far as it would offend public taste. 29. This report on the construction of the dwellings of Vienna cannot be more appropriately closed than by a brief description of two kinds of what may be termed self-supporting brick arches, which are constructed in Vienna by the skilled masons without the use of centering or any tempo¬ rary supports during their construction. They are only used in Austria, and they show not only the great skill and dexterity of these ma¬ sons, but such a mechanical knowledge applied to construction as is nowhere else applied to the same purpose. This construction of arch¬ ing self-sustained during construction no doubt had its origin years ago under the old building-laws, which required all of the apartments of a ground-floor or parterre to be arched. As that floor contains generally not only lodging-rooms, but offices and fine stores, the desire naturally arose to produce as light-looking, flat, and pleasing an arch as could be safely constructed before iron beams and girders came into use, avoid¬ ing the heavy and clumsy-looking barrel and gothic arches for low- pitched ceiliugs, as well as the great expense of centering during their 2 p D 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. construction. There are two kinds of these so-called “ Platzel-gewolbe ”— flat self-sustaining crown-arches. The self-sustaining feature consists in its power of supporting itself during construction without centering. One of these arches is called the “ Welsh,” and the other the “ Bohe¬ mian.” Why Welsh we have not been able to ascertain, but the “Bo¬ hemian” arch, we have been informed, originated in the kingdom, now the province, of Bohemia, and was originally designed and introduced by the very skillful masons of that country, who still preserve their peculiarities of practice, both in Prague and in Vienna. Front and rear walls being constructed, and the building in the rough entirely put up and roofed in, cross-girder arches, (called gurten ,) really brick girders in the place of the present iron ones, are thrown across the rooms to be arched. These cross-girder arches are generally two bricks in width, and one and a half to two bricks in height at the cen¬ ter. The footings or abutments are always carried up with the con¬ struction of the regular walls until they project one and a half bricks beyond the inside face of the walls. These cross-gider-arches are after¬ ward completed on a regular centering of wood with a groove of about li inches in depth on their sides for the support between three of these flat- crown-arches. The same depth of curved groove is also cut in the front and rear walls (following the shape of the curve of the arch) while con¬ structing. For the “ Welsh arclifl the girder-arches are generally placed at the center of each pier between two windows, being from 10 to 12 feet apart. The Welsh arch is never used over that width, but may be of the full length required by the depth of the room, although not usually over IS to 22 feet in length. It is a favorite arch for halls and en¬ trance-passages not •exceeding that width. For the “ Bohemian” arch the girder-arches are generally placed at every second pier of a room, say 10 or IS to 20 feet apart, corresponding to the width, or rather to the depth, of the room. In all cases these arches are used in square apartments, or as nearly square as they can be ar¬ ranged. Through the girder-arches run strong lock or anchor irons, to guard against the pressure on the sustaining-walls. The “ Welsh” arch is segmental in all directions; the “ Bohemian ” is a spandrel arch, or dome, growing out of a square apartment. The courses are laid in the form of circular arcs, commenced in the corners, and curved and declin¬ ing toward them. In either of the two methods, every course of the arch laid in this way without a centering is really complete and self-sus¬ taining, very nearly as much so as if the whole of the vault were flu¬ shed and finally closed. The spandrels, particularly at the commence¬ ment of the Bohemian arch, are filled up solid for about one-third or one-fourth of the size of the vault. Both kinds are closed with half a brick or six inches thickness at the crown or center. The sole guide for the mason is the curve and nosiug-liue on the wall and girders, and a center-pole or other mark for height set up for the closing-point at the crown. The rest is all guided by the practiced eye of the workman. WELSH AND BOHEMIAN ARCHES. 19 The rise of the “Welsh arch’ 7 is generally one twenty-fourth the span. The “Bohemian arch” is also very flat at the crown as compared with a full center hemispherical dome. The Welsh arch is generally com¬ menced by one mason at each end; the “Bohemian arch” by four masons, one in each corner, until the corners meet, aud they are then completed by two, of whom one finally goes on top the yet incomplete arch and hands in the materials, while the other one, in the central hole below, attends to the setting and the eye-line of the courses. These men are so skilled and practiced in their trade that they hit by the mere use of the eye the true lines of the proper curves, as perfectly as if they were guided by a pattern or centering, aud attain the closing-point at the crown with the utmost precision. Very rich mortar is used for these arches. Each brick of a whole course has to support itself, and skill in the mechanical manipulation consists in keeping every course to its proper and unbroken curve in every direction, aud the courses at the proper dip to the plan, as well as in applying aud bedding the brick in its proper place at once, by merely rubbing it as it were into its bed and into position, never knocking it up or down, or back and forth, by the use of a hammer, aud thus breaking and disturbing its bond or adhesion to the mortar. As surely as this is done, or the curve-lines crippled, the whole will come down after six or eight courses more have been applied at the very point at which those disturbances occurred. These arches are often finished with different-colored bricks aud with pointed joints without plastering, to show the beauty of their mechanical construction This is seen in many old buildings and in the corridors and entrances to the new arsenal and other “ rolibau ” (“unplastered or raw brick.”) The plans aud sections, Plate XI, will show the general principle of these ingeniously-constructed arches. CHAPTER III. ARCHITECT UR A.L FEATURES OF DWELLINGS. Architectural development dating from tiie thirteenth century ; Few ex¬ amples remaining ; Reigns of Joseph I and Charles VI; Effect of French wars ; Impulses given in 1845 and 1857 ; Influence of the decree of 1857; Benefit of popular instruction ; Skill of Viennese artisans ; Beauty of new PUBLIC BUILDINGS. 30. We cannot but admire the architecture and the embellishment of the new dwellings in Vienna, and give due credit to the architects of that city for the great advance which has been made during the past twenty- five or thirty years, particularly after the political changes of 1848, and since the new impulse was given to building after the demolition of the old fortifications and the enlargement of the city by the incorporation of the formerly outlying thirty-four suburbs with the central or old city. The history of the development of architecture in Vienna can only be traced back through its remaining monumental buildings as far as the thirteenth century. Of the Roman period there remain only two exam¬ ples, and these are of the time in which the Gothic style had already obtained the preference. They are the western fagade and turret of the Cathedral of St. Stephen’s, and the nave and transepts of the Court Church of St. Michael’s. More abundant are the remaining evidences of the building activity and architectural development of the Gothic style in the fourteenth ceutury. The fine chapel of the Knights Templars of the Teutonic Order, the St. Augustine and Minorite churches, the nave and choir of St. Maria ou the Stairs, the tower and choir of St. Michael’s, and the apsidal choir and the incompara¬ bly beautiful tower of St. Stephen’s are illustrations of styles which left their impress also on the private dwellings of that and the follow¬ ing period in the many steep roofs and gables, projecting oriels and turrets. Vienna is under small architectural obligation to the renais¬ sance period, as, after the first siege of the city by the Turks, the whole energy of its people was expended in the improvement of its fortifications, and in more peaceful times taste in art was principally directed by the leading fraternities of religious orders, who, in their numerous new church buildings, restorations, and remodelings, often produced depressing combinations of styles, either too plain and sober or too showy and pretentious. 31. During the reigns of the Emperors Joseph I and Charles VI. an¬ other impulse to the building-arts was given by the examples of their luxury and splendor-loving nobles and the princes of the empire, led HISTORICAL SKETCH, 21 by that great patron and admirer of the fine arts, the celebrated Prince Eugene of Savoy, who, by the erection and embellishment of palaces and public buildings, ably seconded by the talent of their celebrated architect, Fisher of Erbach, produced such fine works as the Charles and St. Peters churches, the imperial summer palace at Sohbubrun, the imperial winter riding-school, the court library, and many public offices. The palaces of Prince Engien, Trautson, Mannsfield, Auers- berg, Lichtenstein, Schwarzenberg, Dauuish, and Kinsky, the celebrated “Belvidere,” and numerous other equally splendid buildings of the times. But the disastrous and long-continued French wars, from the very beginning of the nineteenth century to the fall of Napoleon, and the Hungarian, Italian, and other provincial troubles during the re¬ mainder of the first half of that century, and up to the final political changes in 1848, had retarded, nay paralyzed, all the industrial and fine arts in Austria, as well as in the rest of Continental Europe. The little of what was done during that period in domestic architecture was made up of bad imitations of debased Italian and servile copies of poor examples of French and Belgian style, derisively, but uot not inaptly, designated by the fun-loving art critics of the times as “the curly wig and queue style,” on account of the many unmeaning twists and turns of design, meant for ornaments, or introduced as so-called architectural features. The development of native talent and taste in arts were also much retarded during that period by the old system of bureaucracy, in which councillors, superannuated and incompetent directors, assumed the control of the public taste, affording no opportunity for the exercise of individual talents. 32. But after the displacement of this old depressing system, and after the call of the talented and eminent architects Vanderuiill and Sicardsburg to the head of the Vienna Academy of Fine Arts in 1845, and with the enlargement of the city, and the establishment of schools of design and industrial and technical institutes, museums, art schools, and by the energetic and praiseworthy exertion of the Engineers and Architects’ Association, a new and well-directed impulse was given to the industrial arts, and that of architecture in particular. It was greatly aided by the imperial decree promulgated in October, 1857, directing the erection of great public works and improvements on a grand scale. The adoption of a wide Bing street around the inner city and improve¬ ments after the example of those of Paris were contemplated, the erec¬ tion of two new museums for art and natural history collections, an ex¬ change, new parliament houses, and a grand university building, a new “ Bath-house,” (city hall or hotel de ville,) an imperial theater, exten¬ sive improvements and additions to the imperial palace, a palace of jus¬ tice, the new opera-house, and many others were projected, for which either select, local, or general competition among architects was invited and the designs of native artists received the principal premiums. 33. These were enterprises of such importance and magnitude, that 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. their execution, under favorable circumstances, within the next ten or twenty years, will mark this as a grand epoch in architecture. These works, which are put into the hands of the most worthy masters of their arts, will add a luster to the times, and magnificence and dignity to the great imperial city of Vienna. Several of these works have already been commenced ; the designs and models for all of them are prepared and approved. The fondness for the Gothic style for ecclesiastical structures, which has been kept alive by grand old examples, and nourished by the continual repairs, and the finally thorough restoration of that splendid example, the southern tower, and western facade, and gable of the church of St. Stephens, was in later years followed by the erection of the rich Imperial Votive or Memorial Church, the new Lazarite, Elizabeth, and several other conspicuous church-structures in that style. The new Hotel de Ville is also now building in tastefully enriched Italian Gothic. In many of the proposed new public buildings above mentioned, the Italian renaissance style is predominant, while the French renaissance, or louvre style, is only shown in more isolated examples. Although for private dwellings a so-called general eclecticism exists here as elsewhere, there is an acknowledged predilection toward the vigorous and massive forms of the Italian renaissance in preference to the elaborate and lighter, but therefore probably more effete, French school of architecture. All of the afore-mentioned causes of building impulse, seconded by these projected designs for the erection of public works, had also an invigorating and salutary influence on the architecture aud embellish¬ ment of private dwellings, and one of the first and best examples of the successful reconciliation of tasteful architectural embellishments with the demands of practical wants and domestic usefulness is perhaps the new group of buildings called “ Henry’s Court,” the apartment houses already alluded to under the head of plans and constructions. It has since that time become almost a point of honor with owners and architects to give the facades of new private dwellings more or less rich architectural embellishment. Although they may appear some¬ times overdone, or in want of harmony with their frequently very economical and consequently meager internal finish and arrangements, yet we find many tasteful improvements among the lately erected dwellings. Since the renewed vigor of the many powerful aud energetic building associations, who avail themselves of the best constructive and architectural talent of the country, a large number of palatial group or block buildings have been erected in that impressive Italian renais¬ sance style, which gives to the new Eiug street more the appearance of a street of palaces than of dwellings or apartment-houses. It is worthy of this great city, aud its equal can rarely be found elsewhere. The great Italian cities, in their most flourishing periods of architectural grandeur, did not excel it. It is true that there may be, in some portions of the new King-street, a little too much uniformity, but this is well compensated by the large number of independent prominent private INSTRUCTION IN ARCHITECTURE. 23 dwellings and real palaces, sncli as those of Grand Dnkes William and Ludwig Victor; of the Duke of Wiirttemberg, now the Hotel Imperial; the palaces of Todesco, of Epstein, and of others; the Grand Hotel, the Hotel de France, Hotel Austria, Hotel Britannia, Hotel Metropole, Hotel Donan, and many more. 34. This gratifying advance, not only in the higher or so-called fine arts, such as architecture, painting, and sculpture, but in the industrial, technical, and mechanical arts and the trades connected therewith, within the last twenty-five or thirty years, is evidently mainly due to the establishment of many schools and educational institutions on a pop¬ ular and economical scale, which are accessible to the humblest and poorest in the laud for a small compensation, and often entirely free of charge, where all the elements of industrial knowledge, up to the high¬ est branches of art-culture, are taught, and where the students are guided by the ablest professors, and their equally well qualified and competent assistants, and senior pupils—the latter of whom thus are not only teachers, but are executors of both public and private works. Thus the professors of the academy of fine arts furnish architectural designs. Professors of painting and sculpture, with their advanced pupils, execute work on public and private buildings of the empire, in addition to that done by regular practitioners of those arts. But the artisans also, the masses engaged in mechanical occupations, have derived great benefit from being taught the art of drawing, not in its msthetic sense only, as relating to forms of beauty, but in its tech¬ nical sense, as enabling them to understand a drawing and to execute the work by the aid of the graphic plan alone; and they are taught in a practical manner so that they can execute these drawings themselves. They are thus able to dispense with the aid of models, which previously could be furnished only by a few cultivated experts. Now, every in¬ structed and skilled artisau being competent to work from designs furnished him, or to furnish and execute them himself, with only occa¬ sional finishing-touches by the professors of the arts, these economical and tasteful architectural embellishments of dwellings have become the rule instead of the exception. We thus find the skilled mason and stucco-worker of the present day executing any design laid before him. And so with the house-painter, the carpenter, the cabinet-maker, the stone-cutter, the smith, the worker in any wood, mineral, or metal. 35. The Viennese thus get their architectural details well and eco¬ nomically executed by artisans, their designs furnished by competent architects, their sculpture done iu any material in an artistic manuer, and their house-painting either in plain and tasteful style by the skilled workman or in the highest style of art by numerous professional artists. Every one of their better class of dwellings is now designed and ex¬ ecuted with a tasteful fagade, and they are often enriched with consid¬ erable architectural embellishment, and sometimes with sculpture ex¬ ecuted in stone, cements, or terra-cotta; entrance-halls, public or grand 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. stairways are furnished in the same manner, and often further enriched by scagliola or real and variegated marbles on the walls and frescoes ou the ceiliugs. The walls and ceilings of the living and social rooms iu their dwellings are always painted, at least in plain and tasteful water or encaustic colors, and are often embellished by works of artists in fresco and oil painting. They are thus enabled to produce their pres¬ ent and their best style of buildings by the combination of the three sister arts of architecture, painting, and sculpture, giving these build¬ ings a harmonious and finished appearance, totally unattainable with the mere meager architectural composition and execution such as is seen in less favored countries. Drawing has been incorporated, for at least forty years past, as a useful and necessary branch of common ed¬ ucation in the ordinary and high schools. It has been considered as indispensable in the school system as grammar, reading, and writing, and the masses have reaped as much benefit from the former as from the latter. The public taste lias been vastly improved. 30. 1 cannot close this paper on the construction and embellishment of dwellings without expressing my admiration of that splendid pro¬ duct of architectural skill and artistic embellishment, the new opera- house, and of several of the lately erected new theaters, as well as of the grandeur aud palatial magnificence of the new railway-stations. The “ Staats-bahu 7 ’ and 2sew Southern stations especially are structures which, in their tasteful designs and richness of embellishment have not thus far been equaled iu any part of the world. INDEX. Art. Page. Accidents, precaution against. 24 15 “Apartment Louses,” origin of. 2 5 great size of ancient .. 3 5 and tenement, distinction between. 12 8 Arched floors, self-centering. 29 17 Welsh... 29 17 Bohemian. . 29 17 Architecture, development dates from thirteenth century. 30 20 flourish under Joseph I and Charles VI. 31 20 influence of the decree of 1857 . 33 21 Art, great impulse to building, in 1845 and 1857. 32 21 Artisans, remarkable shill of Viennese. 35 23 Bohemian arches, description of. 29 17 Brick building generally used in Vienna. 17 11 Building, new impulse in 1858. 8 7 present system of.. 9 7 influence of the configuration of the city in plans for. 10 8 groups. 14 10 description of an example of. 15 10 materials, nature, and variety of, near Vienna. 16 11 marble and stone, rare, brick generally used, with stucco finish. 17 11 laws, stringent. 22 14 regulations, rigid enforcement of. 28 17 Ceilings, peculiar and ingenious mode of plastering. 18 12 description of_-. 23 14 Cement, excellent quality used.19 12 with stucco finish, generally used. 17 11 Charles VI, architecture flourishes under. 31 20 Decree, improvements in architecture projected by imperial, in 1857 . 32 21 influence of. 33 21 Doors, construction of. 26 16 Dwelling, description of first-class.:... 13 9 Fire, precaution against.-... 24 15 Floors, description of. 23 14 construction of. 26 16 self-centerrng arched. 29 17 Flues, laws relating to. 25 15 French wars, architecture depressed during the. 31 20 Germany, description of the porcelain stove of. 27 16 Groups, building. 14 10 description of an example. 15 10 House, zins, or house for rent. 5 6 description of. 6 6 details of kitchen. 7 7 Improvements projected by imperial decree of 1857. 32 21 Instruction, great benefit of popular. 34 23 Iron, use of, in building. 19 12 3 P D 26 INDEX. a i t. rage. Joseph I, architecture flourishes under. 31 20 Kitchen, details of, of zins-house. 7 7 Lime and mortar, peculiar mode of mixing. 20 13 Marble building complete rare. 17 11 Materials, nature and variety of building, near Vienna. 16 11 Mortar and lime, peculiar mode of mixing. 20 13 Palais, first-class dwelling. 13 9 Plastering, peculiar aud ingenious mode, ceilings. 18 12 Porcelain stoves of Germany, description of. 27 16 Railway stations, great beauty of. 36 ' 24 Regulations, rigid enforcement of building. 28 17 Roofs, laws relating to. 25 15 Sands, excellent quality used. 19 12 Stations, great beauty of the railway. 36 24 Stono building complete rare. 17 11 Stove, description of German porcelain. 27 16 Stucco or cement finish generally used. 17 11 Tenement houses, distinction between apartment and. 12 8 Theaters, great beauty of the new. 36 24 Vienna, size and situation of. I 5 extension of, in 1858. 4 5 influence of configuration of, on plans for building. 10 8 nature and variety of building material near. 16 11 Walls, durability of. 21 13 great thickness of. 22 14 Welsh arch, description of. 29 17 Windows, laws relating to. 25 15 construction of. 26 16 Zins-house, or house for rent. 5 6 description of. .6 6 details of kitchen. 7 7 Vienna Ex hi bi tion 1 873 A rc h i tec t u re. PL I. Plan of Principal Floor of small Apartment House, Vienna, (ft.t*>'Jyt/ivfo,./(&■/(?<.'/ /(.'.it Vienna Exhi bi tion 1 873 Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. (A.) H-h Vienna Exhi b ition 1 873. Architecture. Vienna Exhibition 1 873 A rc h i tec t ure. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. (C.) Vienna Exhibiticsn 1 873 Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. (D.) ro ‘—■<* '—* ' r»t/ IfiAe&r »_/'rf & 'fljf’euu/J&Kca. u.> Vienna Exhi b i tion 1 873. Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. IE.) t/n Hi cam- c(hSot*i*'sJ?4ccrA ,.; Vienna Ex hi b i tion 1 873 Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. (E) Vienna Exhib-ition 1 873. A rch i tec t u re. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. It. (G.) (*/. tiL deM* J-SZteCCAX) Vienna Exhibition 1 873 A rchitecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. II. (H & rettA***#*™*.) o,z o zi Vienna Exhibition 1873. Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. III. (A.) g I H —-i— ■x‘> II % | - y'/itr/O'-Jtt/uy 6r ■&**f Vienna Exhi b ition 1 873. A rchitecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. V (A.) ■— 1 - Vienna Exhibition 1873. Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. V (B.) Section Vienna Exhi bition 1 873. A rc h i tec t u re. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. V (C.) Vienna Ex hi b ition 1 873. Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PI. V (D.) Ground Floor., ? ° O (^ttieueu-n/ _/ d&toi cmo. I Vienna Exhibition 1873. Architecture Apartment House in Vienna. PI. V (E.) Vienna Exhi bition 1 873. A re h i tect u re. Vienna Exhibition 1873. Architecture. Apartment House in Vienna. PL V (G.) - *r: Vienna Exhibition 1873- Architect u re. Apartment House in Vienna. PL V. (H.) Vienna Exhibition 1 873. Arch i tectu re. Plan of a First Class Apartment House Vienna. PI VI. A. Prirvcipa.1 Floor. Ji. 2'\‘ l cLn.rl 3 r .‘ l Floor. 'AwMiu-JWJ 11 . •». -V.. Palais' of L. Epstein — Principal Floor. Principal Floor of Apartment House, called "Henry’s Court" Opera King, Vienna. C'ourt. A rch i tec t u re PI. IX. Vienna Exhibition 1873. Principal Floor of Apartment House by tHe "Union Building Association" of Vienna. • /&'■&>./f •&. •/ ’cs.\ i> I Plate X Facade of a Dwelling in Vienna Vienna Exhi b ition 1 873. Architecture. PI. XI. Details of the self-sustaining "Platz ep or Flat-crown Arches, as constructed at Vienna. Plan of the ’’Bohemian "Arch. > •: ■■. Section (S' the Bohemian Arch Section of the Welsh Arch. (if ftfoSo&ulJ&tcOCX'.i ARCHITECTURE AND MATERIALS. N. L. DERBY. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPORT ON ARCHITECTURE AND THE MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. NELSON L. DERBY. B. A.. HONORARY COMMISSIONER OF THE UNITED STATES. WASH IN G TON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1875. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. TERRA COTTA, TILES, AND CEMENTS. Art. Page. 1. Terra cotta. 5 2. Austrian terra cotta; quality. 5 3. Extravagant use of granite in the United States. 5 4. European economy in the use of stone. 5 5. Defects of design; their remedy .. 6 6. Viennese molded brick. 6 7. Austrian brick-manufacture v. 6 8. English tiles. § ... 7 9. Roman tiles ; their uses. 7 10. Bonding walls. 7 11. Brick-work in the United States. 8 12. Peculiar kinds of bricks. 8 13. Lathing and furring. 8 14. Cements. 9 15. Red cement for carved brick-work. 9 16. Foundations laid in cement. 9 17. Constrnction of basins. 9 18. Castings in cement.. . ... 10 19. Cement structures. 10 20. Viennese building. 10 21. Mastic. 11 22. Cement breakwaters. 11 CHAPTER II. METALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION. 23. Wrought and cast iron. 13 24. Castings and forgings. 13 25. Training needed in the United States... 13 26. Galvanized iron and roofing-metal. 14 27. Corrugated iron..•. 14 CHAPTER III. STONE AND WOOD. 28. Stone; Carrara marble. 16 29. American and foreign stone. 17 30. Bedding-stone. 17 31. Stairways. 17 32. Woods used in Vienna. 17 33. Parquetry. 18 34. Work of the Duke of Northumberland. 18 35. Carpentery. 18 36. Framed buildings. 18 37. Floors. 19 38. Scaffolding. 19 39. Partition-walls; wood in interiors. 19 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. ARCHITECTURAL ARRANGEMENTS ; SANITARY PRECAUTIONS. Art. Page. 40. Peculiar types. 21 41. Railway-stations. 21 42. Plans and models exhibited. 21 43. Buildings in progress. 21 44. Styles adopted.,.... 21 45. Opera-House at Vienna. 22 46. Governmental work. 22 47. Defects of American practice. 22 48. Drawings. 22 49. Milanese arcade. 23 50. Exchange at Brussels. 23 51. Locating public buildings. 23 52. Variety and uniformity in design. 23 53. American and European designs compared. 24 54. Exhibition-buildings. 24 55. Landscape-gardening. 24 56. Defects of American church-architecture. 24 57. Direction of improvement. 25 58< Perfected plans precede work. 25 59. Cultivation of taste; training. 26 i TERRA COTTA, TILES, AND CEMENTS. Terracotta; Molded brick; Austrian manufactures ; Tiles; Bonding walls ; Peculiar kinds of bricks; Lathing and furring; Cements ; Foundations ; Ba¬ sins ; Castings ; Mastic ; Cement breakwaters. 1. Terra cotta. —Among the building-materials which met the eye in the greatest abundance at Yienna were terra cotta and molded brick. Some American companies are now commencing the manufac¬ ture of these articles, as well as of tiles, for paving purposes, although we still import largely. 2. The most beautifully designed and most richly colored terra cotta was exhibited by the Austrians themselves. It is of a darker color than the English, something between cream and chocolate, and not so hard as that of the latter country. It stands frost, however, very fairly, and is produced at a moderate figure in money. Brackets, columns, balus¬ ters, and also fountains and statues, were exhibited by the Austrians and the North Germans. The English themselves were excessively as¬ tonished at the perfection which this manufacture had reached in Aus¬ tria and the beauty of the designs. It is well known that this material is more durable than stone, as is now apparent in the British Houses of Parliament in London. It also does away with the great expense at¬ tending the reproduction of the same pattern in stone. The architectural forms above cited are, in many cases, used merely for ornament, and sustain no weight; they are therefore made in this case to the greatest advantage of terra cotta, and sometimes of cast cement, which will be referred to later. 3. As a contrast to this, we may call attention to the enormous quan¬ tity of cut granite employed in this country, at which foreigners stand aghast. This most intractable of stones is never used on the continent for any other portion of a building than the basement and foundations. Our own experience shows that it has far less value than brick in resisting fire, while che process of cutting it is most laborious aud expensive. 4. The tendency of modern improvement is certainly to the production of effect with economy of money and material. The French will pre¬ pare a better meal than any other people with less matter and at half the expense. The Germans will get solid enjoyment out of small sums of money, but with us extravagance and lack of result are too apt to go hand in hand. The stone used for building purposes in Paris can be 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. cut with a knife when first quarried, and becomes quite hard on expo¬ sure to the air. The utmost richness of design is tlins rendered possi¬ ble at small expense. 5. Where cast iron is used, as in this country, some money is saved by using few patterns and making the ornaments of every story of a building alike. The result is not beautiful, but it is cheap. But why should this peculiarity of iron be copied in the New York post-officef Differences of design for the different stories were possible without ad¬ ditional expense, but now every door and every window on the exterior is alike, and the eye, wandering over its vast expanse, turns sickened and wearied away to gaze at some more congenial object. The neglect of some simple matter like this has been the cause of the failure of many of our most prominent buildings. The new cathedral-building on Fifth avenue, New York, is an imposing and striking building, but in the traceries of the windows and above the main portal, which in the old types of Europe are treated with the delicacy and lightness of lace-work, there is here a heaviness, a clumsiness, and a rigidity excessively dis¬ appointing to the lover of art. The New York Evening Post not long singe, in an editorial, said that our people are not sufficiently educated in art-matters, or in building, to form independent opinions on these subjects. They are too apt to believe implicitly in the dictum of pro¬ fessional men, especially if they possess the reputation of having stud¬ ied in foreign schools. We are, however, improving, and it seems the duty of the Government to foster in every way the growth of art-muse¬ ums and schools, for which the South Kensington Museum, in London, forms the best existing model. 0. Bricks.— The molded brick exhibited at Vieuna are made with little additional apparatus and form a very effective material for pro¬ ducing architectural effects. Similar varieties have been used for cen¬ turies in Northern Italy, and are now being taken up quite extensively in England. Hollow cellular bricks were to be seen in large numbers; these are pierced with longitudinal holes, reducing the weight about one-third, and are quite useful in springing arches and vaults between iron beams in the construction of fire-proof floors. They are made also in the skew-back pattern and are much superior to the compositions lately introduced among us for similar purposes. A few are manufac¬ tured at present in New York. The ordinary building-brick of Vienna is larger than ours, being at least a foot long and is excessively porous. They are laid with the exterior half of the joint open and an inch wide, for the purpose of keying ou a coating of cement, which is there used as a substitute for mastic, and is durable, cheap, and capable of adapta¬ tion to all architectural forms. 7. The most important terra cotta and brick works in Austria are the Wienerberger, iu the environs of Vienna, and much of the beauty of the modern portion of this city is to be attributed to the use of their mate¬ rials by Austrian architects; they are always pleasing in desigu and in color. BRICK AND TILES 7 8. The best exhibition of tiles was made by England. We all know i the Minton and Maw tiles, and we import such a quantity of them that little need here be said in regard to them. The delicate patterns, how¬ ever, which these firms produce render it impossible to bake them to a sufficient degree of flintiness, and the result is that they do not stand much wear when used for pavements. They lose their colors and chip around the edges, as may be seen iu the Parliament Houses in London, and in some buildings in this country. Other more expensive and more durable tiles are made by cutting out the pattern to a depth of an eighth of an inch and filling it up with colored paste. The whole is then baked together. The use of tiles for dadoes and wainscoting is becoming prevalent abroad, and plain glazed tiles are used in England to cover the entire walls of water-closets, bath-rooms, and kitchens, as they can be readily washed, and retain no malaria nor odor. Tiles of clay or earthenware—those above referred to having a kaolin or China-ware basis—used for roofing purposes, were exhibited. Some of these were flat and were used exactly like slates; others had various curved shapes for rendering the joints tight, and still others were glazed to enable them better to shed the rain. Their weight renders them less liable than slate to removal by the wind, and their red color gives a very picturesque effect to the roofs. They are also more durable than slate, but, being heavier, they require heavier timber in the roof for their support. One eccentricity in this line were tiles of glass; these, as well as the earthenware, are better non-conductors than slate. 9. It may not be out of place, in this connection, to refer to the old Roman tiles, seen still in many parts of Europe, iu a good state of pres¬ ervation, especially in the remains of aqueducts and in such structures as the great arched openings in Rome. They are some 3 inches in thickness, and often 2 feet long by 7 inches in width. They are used to bind together walls constructed mainly of rubble or small stones. Once every two feet, or thereabouts, in a vertical direction, the stone-work is carefully leveled off and two or three courses of these tiles are laid in bond. The resulting structure is of great strength, as its duration until the present time sufficiently proves. The regular recurrence of the brick or tile work also gives a good effect, breaking the masses quite pleasingly. 10. There is no reason why this form of masonry should not be adapted to modern wants iu the construction of piers, and even in buildings, lessening, as it would, the great expense to which our fondness for cut stone leads us. The structure would be as fire-proof as any form of masonry. I will advert, in this connection, to the custom in Vienna, made a necessity by the very good building-act there in force, of tying all brick walls, especially those containing arched windows, by rods of wrought iron, imbedded in the masonry and passing horizontally above the openings from end to end, where they are anchored fast. 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Another clause of the Viennese building-act renders it necessary to construct the attic-floors of brick to prevent the timbers of the roof from falling through into the lower stories in case of fire. This was the reason for vaulting the foreign cathedrals beneath the wooden roofs, the roofs themselves again preserving the vaulting from the disinte¬ grating effects of rain. The best brick bond for ordinary walls is acknowledged to be the Flemish or the English. Headers and stretchers are placed alternately in each row, the headers being over the stretchers alternately in a ver¬ tical direction. 11. The objection to the use of these bonds in America is the fact that they require more face-brick than our own, and workmen, when com¬ pelled by architects to use them, have been known to putin half-bricks, which look on the completion of the wall exactly like headers, but nat¬ urally serve no good purpose. The writer has nowhere seen better bricks or better brick layers than in America. Our joints are by far the thinnest of any in the world, but with all our regularity and exactness there has been, until lately, but little art displayed in brick-work with us.' The architrave of a window can be readily formed of brick, all molded to one pattern, and the same is true of continuous string-courses and cornices; brackets of terra cotta can be built in under the latter, and keystones of the same material inserted iuto the arches. Many of the most pleasing effects in Italian architecture have thus been pro¬ duced at no great expense. The method is as feasible here as the con¬ struction of cast-iron buildings, which are regarded by critics as mon¬ strosities, especially where the attempt is made to give them the appearance of white marble or of other stone. 12. Other bricks were formed so as to dovetail into one another; and they are useful in the construction of circular towers or of “swell fronts*’ in brick. Their additional strength renders a reduction in the thickness of the wall possible. The use of black bricks for ornamental purposes has become quite common of late iu America. The color is given them by insertion iuto coal-tar. In France black bricks are also constantly met with, but they are there colored by more intense baking. They are of the nature of clinkers, and, as used iu France for headers iu the Euglish or Flemish bond, give a neat appearance to the wall. The coal- tar process is iu all probability not productive of a permanent color. The other forms of brick which were noticed were several large varie¬ ties, measuring IS by 9 by 4£ inches, used for building cornices. They are manufactured by the Wienerberg works. Wedge-shaped, solid bricks were to be seen, for arches, and face-brick, glazed in different colors. There were no machines exhibited for turning out pressed brick which would compare with American machines in neatness or in rapidity of working. 13. Iu Austria the use of furring and lathing is infrequent, it being customary to build brick walls hollow, to secure warmth and dryness, and CEMENT FOUNDATIONS AND BASINS. 9 hen to plaster directly upon them. The use of inflammable material s thus avoided and no space is lost. Iron lathing cannot be considered i substitute unless the furring is also iron. In another part of this paper the excellent provisions in the Vienna building-act to secure fire¬ proof buildings will be referred to. Before leaving this subject we will call attention to the fact that hollow bricks, both square and skewbacks, are manufactured in this country by the firm of Beckwith & Co., of New York. They also import a very hard German tile, which leaves some¬ thing to be desired in its design and color. 14. Cement. —There were a great many specimens of this material exhibited, the strongest being the English varieties, though many of the Austrian were excellent. The basis of cement, as is well known, is a limestone containing clay. Clay mixed artificially with lime, and thus burned, will also yield a good cement. The Romans, when con¬ structing works in foreign parts, and when pressed for time, often mingled pulverized brick with common mortar, and produced in this manner a very good substitute for cement. In view of the favor into which red mortar for brick-laving is growing in this country, this is a hint which might be utilized. A brick wall laid in cement is stronger and much dryer than one laid in ordinary mortar, and certainly, if pul¬ verized brick is to be cheaply procured, its addition to mortar can do no harm. 15. A curious process has of late come in vogue in Englaud, in con¬ nection with the so-called Queen Anne architecture, of carving brick masonry. With the use of red mortars pleasing effects can be produced in this way, though porous bricks are better adapted to it than face- bricks, as the latter show a color when cut different from that on the surface. Inasmuch as many prominent architects of England are using this form of decoration, it may be inferred that there is something in it. 16. It is common abroad to lay all foundation-walls in cement; and foundations consisting entirely of cement are coming by degrees into general use. Thus were founded the piers of the great rotunda at Vienna, and these have shown no signs of settling or of other weakness. Here again is an economy on the use of hewn stone, as we see it used, for instance, in New York, where a half-acre has been covered with enormous granite blocks to form an anchorage for the cables of the great Brooklyn suspension-bridge. 17. In a quarter of Vienna, some two and a half miles from the Exhibition, fifty workmen were employed during the progress of the latter in constructing an enormous basin to receive the water from one of the highest-playing fountains of the world. It is, perhaps, 200 feet in diameter, and the foundations commence 15 feet below the surface of the soil. Trenches were first dug and lined with boards, then a mixture of one part cement to three parts clean sharp gravel was shoveled in and rammed. On reaching the surface, a mixture of one part cement and one part sand was used to form the bed and the coping, and the 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. whole was neatly turned, rubbed down, and finally polished. It pre¬ sents much the appearance of marble and stands very well. 18. In a previous part of this paper castings iu cement were referred to. Many of these are made without adding sand, and are useful where the same ornamental form is repeated iu a building, whether in brackets, balusters, dentils, egg-moldings, or any other ornaments which would require much repetition in stone-cutting. It is not as strong as granite, nor is glass as serviceable as a diamond for many purposes, but they both answer very well in their way. The cement is vastly less expen¬ sive, and for these purposes is sufficiently durable. 19. A building was erected on the grounds, by one of the Austrian cement-companies, entirely of this material. The roof was internally nearly flat, externally sloping to the eaves, and formed of one mass of cement, varying from the edges to the center from a foot and a half to 10 inches in thickness. The building was about 18 feet square and had an external stairway curiously made of a block of cement for each step, supported only at one end, which was imbedded 10 inches in the wall. This led to the roof, which was surrounded by a parapet of cement and was seemingly capable of supporting the weight of many people. The only improvement that the writer could have suggested was a covering of tin or zinc for the roof, not to keep out the rain, but to prevent the wearing effects of the weather on the large mass of cement exposed. Thus we have learned the possibility of shipping an entire building to any point desired, in barrels, needing nothing additional on the ground but water. Large slabs of cement were also exhibited, to be used for paving-pur¬ poses, measuring sometimes, superficially, G by 10 feet, with a thickness of 4 to G inches. The writer has seen these built into a corner of a stair¬ way, supported only by two adjacent walls, and standing very well as landing-places. By the processes above referred to very cheap and strong fire proof stairs ;?re constructed in Vienna. Tiles of molded cement are also used for interior paving, and the New York firm mentioned above imports some of these from France, which are very pleasingly molded in cements with which various coloring ingredients have been mixed and formed into tasteful patterns. These do not wear as well as baked tiles, as they are liable to chip at the joints; but they are, of course, better in quality as the proportion of sand is diminished. Another form of flooring consists of cement, laid iu mass, into which small bits of col¬ ored marble are inserted in regular patterns. The whole, when once set, is rubbed down with sand and holystone and polished. It is thoroughly impervious to water aud vermin, and seems quite suitable for kitchens and bath-rooms. 20. A traveler arriving at Yienua is much struck by the imposiug buildings which line the principal streets, their fronts stretching un¬ broken from 100 to 200 feet, their cornices heavy aud projecting from 24 to 4 feet, throwing rich shadows, and well lightened by beautiful VIENNESE BUILDINGS. 11 arubinations of ornament. The lower story is, in general, massive; tuple piers support the masonry above, and perhaps only half of the utire width is sacrificed to show-windows. The Viennese rely upon interior courts for light, and do not reduce he strips of wall between the windows .until, as with us, the building eems to have hardly a leg left to stand upon. These structures appear o be built of a light, cream-colored stone, in no case darkened by smoke r time. They are, in reality, however, constructed by a combination >f the processes above described. The cream-colored stone is only a mating of cement mixed with a golden-hued sand and well keyed into ;he open joints of the large porous bricks; while the.ornamentation is made up of terra cotta or cast cement. The whole soon attains the ! consistency of marble and wears as well, while it is far cheaper. The study of one of these buildings during erection is very interesting. The cornices, string-courses, and pediments of windows are built out roughly in brick; square holes are left for the insertion of brackets. Arches are sprung wherever necessary, without affecting the architec¬ tural appearance of the structure; and, finally, after the whole has been thoroughly moistened, the cement is thrown on and quickly planed into shape. It is then played on with a hose at intervals for several days. The front of a building is thus in a few hours transformed frbm a shapeless mass of rough brick-work to a beautiful architectural com¬ position. This must not be confounded with our process of stuccoing and mastic . work. The differences are very essential. First, wide-jointed porous brick are used, which hold the superposed matter with the greatest firm¬ ness; then the basis of the coating is cement, and not, as with us, mortar. Buildings thus constructed in Vienna never peel, though heavy frosts and long-continued rains are common. 21. Mastic has with us a very bad name; it is the symbol of cheap¬ ness and tawdry imitation; and so much is this the case that, often when, in talking with professional men, the subject of Vienna mastic has been introduced, it has been found impossible to get a hearing at all. There is considerable skill and experience required iu working it; but we now have in our country a large number of Italians who under¬ stand the matter very well. A friend practicing architecture iu New York states that he has for several years past been observing a build¬ ing near that city which is covered with a similar cement-mastic. It is exposed on all sides to the winds and rain, yet it stands the weather remarkably well, and does not flake off nor crack. 22. One of the most remarkable purposes for which cement is employed abroad is the construction of the great breakwaters used to form arti¬ ficial harbors at the mouths of canals upon the seacoast. These are to be seen at the Suez Canal in Egypt and in some parts of Holland. Blocks measuring 18 by 9 and by 5 feet are cast iu concrete, and by 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. their enormous size serve to resist the force of the waves and tides. An opportunity offered itself of inspecting a new ship-canal in Holland a year and a half ago, and the writer there walked out for nearly a mile on such a breakwater. Here, perhaps from the impurity of the sand used or from its too great quantity in proportion to the cement, the upper blocks were much rounded and woru, but the wall was firm. Such devasta¬ tions are easily repaired by additional coatings of concrete, and the whole can thus be rendered as solid as in the beginning, a work which would be difficult in the case of stone without rebuilding the wall. The failure of cement and concrete in this country is doubtless to a great extent due to the use of impure materials and of too great a quantity of sand. I CHAPTER II. METALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION. Wrought and cast iron; Castings and forgings ; Galvanized iron ; Corrugated iron. 23. Wrought and cast iron. —Another material of great import¬ ance in its connection with building is iron, both cast and wrought. The expense of these two varieties is very different, so much so that very little ornamental wrought iron has as yet come iuto use in our country. Girders and beams, it is universally acknowledged, should be made of wrought iron. Oast iron employed for these purposes is liable to yield to sudden shocks, and in case of fire, when it has become heated, the application of water snaps it. Wrought iron, when heated intensely, bends, and also gives way; but from its greater elasticity it is the only safe material under ordinary circumstances. Columns and pillars are better made of cast iron, while roof-frames should be wrought. 24. Some of the castings made abroad are of ^reat delicacy, and it cer¬ tainly is a pity that our street-lanterns and much of our architectural ornamentation are not more carefully molded. Sharp outlines add won¬ derfully to the effect of all architectural work, and these we rarely see in this country in cast iron. Some of the most beautiful specimens of art which the Middle Ages have handed down to us are of wrought iron. These include railings? gates, finials, window-bars, ornamental hinges, as seen on the old cathe¬ drals, lock-work, fire-irons, &c. Many of the rails are cunningly bound together like coats of mail, and can be shaken like a woven fabric. The attempts to reproduce these in cast iron are always failures* What clumsy and hideous shapes iu this material meet the eye in any American city and at every step. First. The process is unsuitable to the end. Secondly. It seems as though the few art-loving architects whom we have iu America had renounced in despair the attempts to produce good results in such a stubborn material. 25. We, as a nation, are still far from the point where we would be will¬ ing to take great pains without seeing a return in money. Where our pride is not directly affected, we are still too apt to prefer the cheap and the inferior to the expensive and durable and the excellent. The refin¬ ing and inspiriting effects of the presence of beautiful forms around us 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. are as yet unknown to the masses of our population. If some of us do think of these thiugs, we are but tempted to work the harder, that we may some day go to Europe and enjoy them there. And yet there seems to be no reason why we should not have this opportunity at home. We have wealth and talent, but we still lack several very important preliminaries: First of all, art-museums, the greatest of all sti muli, perhaps, to im¬ provement in design. Then we have none of the rich antiquarian re¬ mains from which foreign artists dralv their inspiration. A good many of our young men every year go abroad and bring back much that is useful as the result of their art-studies in France and in Italy ; but art, and especially architecture, does not as yet receive from us that thorough study that we devote to the business-affairs of life. These young archi¬ tects generally lack the long office-training and apprenticeship which go to render the designs of the French and the English so varied and so rich. The exhibition of the drawings of the art-students of Germany alone fdled large buildings at Vienna ; and their beauty and the care devoted to their execution attracted the admiration of all nations. Our own dis¬ play was meager in the extreme and was in the worst of taste. May the Government foster the growth of art among us and aid.us to rival these people. A great deal could be effected by giving the erection of our public buildings to the most competent architects and sculptors that the coun¬ try affords. These would then serve as a school for the people and would keep conspicuously before their eyes a high model of excellence. If the plans of our post-offices and other Government buildings had emanated from the brain of a Hunt or an Upjohn how different might have been the result. The modern revival in art in England can almost be said to have taken its commencement from the erection of the Parliament-houses in Lon¬ don. Hot only did architects there find a model, but schools of joiners and stone-carvers were formed, whose skill is conspicuous in the great buildings of Manchester, the new law-courts of London, and the numer¬ ous town-halls arising in all parts of i he country. This matter, how¬ ever, is leading us away from the immediate discussion of iron, and we will come back to it at a later period in this report. 26. Galvauized iron as used by us for roofiug-purposes is unknown abroad, and would be considered too coarse a material for flue buildings. Zinc and lead are used for this purpose there in modern structures, while the traveler in Austria is struck by the numerous copper-covered roofs of the old churches, which, after one or more centuries of wear, remain in good condition. Tin I have never seen used for roofiug-purposes in Europe. 27. There were several buildings of corrugated iron on the exhibition- grounds. This substance is nailed, as with us, upon a wooden frame, and is one of the most daugerous materials for spreading conflagration IRON IN CONSTRUCTION. 15 known. It easily becomes heated red-rot, and sets off the wood in con¬ tact with it like tinder. These buildings are also very poor non-conduc¬ tors of heat aud cold, and consequently are almost uuiuhabitable in summer or winter. The advantage of setting up a wooden frame and cov¬ ering it with iron, when wood can also be obtained for the exterior, is not easily seen. The only advantage claimed for these buildings is their portability. STONE AND WOOD. Carrara marble ; American and foreign stone ; Bedding-stone ; Stone stair¬ ways ; Viennese woods ; Parquetry; Carpentry; Framing; Floor-scaffold¬ ing ; Partition-walls ; Wood in interiors. 2S. Stone. —In treating of this material, the field is so extended and the different qualities vary so greatly, even when taken from the same quarry, that these remarks must necessarily be very general. In fact, the object in speaking of building-materials has been, not to describe each sort with minuteness, but to call attention to a few important facts which do not as yet seem to be appreciated in America. Some things we know almost nothing about, and a report dealing with particulars would be out of place. In England, terra cotta and ornamental wrought iron have been used in various forms for many years, and the manufacturers are naturally anxious to know of every development and advance. We have not yet reached this point, and such elaborate compilations as the English re¬ ports would excite but little interest among us. In passing through the north of Italy a day was devoted to the inspec¬ tion of the marble-quarries of Carrara. The sight is a wonderful one. As far as the eye can reach, in all directions, the hill sides and the stretches of level ground are white with fragments of marble. Every instant the explosion of a mine is heard in one direction or another, and a constant succession of heavy wagous, drawn each by several yoke of oxen, passes along a deeply-rutted road, dragging huge blocks of marble to the workshops. Passing through the town itself, one fiuds, in almost every building, workmen occupied in cutting and carviug these blocks. The writer visited many of these buildings, and entered iuto conversa¬ tion with the men. Some were working upon capitals of columus, others upon monumental work for cemeteries. On inquiry, it appeared that a very large percentage of the work was being prepared for shipment to America. After leaving Carrara, iu a railway-compartment with a very communicative Italian, much information was obtained about the quar¬ ries. He stated that there were several varieties of marble: one for building-purposes; a second used for ordinary sculpture; and, finally, an exquisitely fine-grained stone, that was unsurpassed for statuary. “ But,’ 7 said he, “ you are certainly au American,” and he at once re¬ commenced conversation in Euglish, and stated that he had lived some STONE IN CONSTRUCTION. 17 ten years at Brattleborough, Yt., where he had worked as an assistant in Mr. Meade’s studio. There, by a strange coincidence, we had met years before, and he soon recalled the occasion. The most important fact gathered from him was that our Vermont marble is superior to the Italian for building-purposes. 29. The point which we wish to make is that we should do well to profit by European experience, and should turn our attention from flinty granite to softer stone. The finest public buildings in Italy are of mar¬ ble. In Prance, geueral use is made of the yellow Caen stone, which is also a limestone, while the peculiarities of the geological formation call for a more extended use of brick in Prussia, Holland, andEugland. Nowhere, except in America, is cut granite used in mass for building- purposes. Our climate is such that marble stands very well without discoloration if one may judge from the specimens in New York. 30. A point which we are too apt to neglect in the use of stone is the necessity of placing it on its bed-surface, or with its strata horizontal. The brown free-stone so common in our cities has a well-defined strati¬ fication, and, as surely as the layers are placed vertically, the rain and frost enter the stone and split it. Thus a heavy cornice was gradually sliced off and finally entirely disappeared, in New York, and careful inspection of almost any brown-stone front will discover indications of the neglect of this precaution. This matter is so important for the safety of pedestrians that it would be well to notice it in our buildiug- acts. 31. Stone-stairways are found in all Vienna buildings, a stringent law requiring fire-proof communication between attics and cellars. The steps are made of single blocks of stone, built in generally at one end only in the masonry. The use of cement-blocks for this purpose has already been referred to, but the favorite material is limestone or mar¬ ble. These stairways are furnished with iron or stone balusters; stone- passages communicate with them, and the whole is built in a masonry- well. The sky-lights opening into them are iron-framed, and, in fact, this is, as it should be, the most substantial and fire-proof portion of every building. In theaters, where large throngs of people are upon a stairway at the same moment, a somewhat different plan is followed. An ascending vault is sprung between two stout masonry-walls and the stone-steps are supported by this. It is hardly conceivable that a fire could prevent the safe exit of an audience when these precautions and various others connected with the illumination and stage-machinery are taken. It would be desirable to introduce such stairways into our large hotels and factories as well. Nor could, in this case, iron be sub¬ stituted. If cast iron were used, it is subject to the disadvantages described under that head above, and wrought iron, while less substan¬ tial, is probably fully as expensive as masonry. 32. Woods. —The woods used in Vienna for internal finish are marked by a finer grain than our black walnut and ash. Some of the former 2 A 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873 . wood was exhibited ; but it was declared by the native joiners to be too coarse for neat work. To an eye accustomed to the delicate gradations of color of much of the foreign decorations, the contrast of black waluut with white plastering is very harsh, nor does it harmonize with ash or oak alone. Paneling of ash in a black-walnut frame with cherry-wood moldings forms a much pleasanter combination. Our butternut is as pleasing as any of the ordinary foreign varieties. 33. Very elaborate exhibitions of parquet inlaid floorings were made by Hungarian and Austrian firms. These do not consist, as with us, of a quarter-inch of veneering, but are an inch and a half of solid wood. Some of the combinations were very pleasing. For a traveler wishing to study what can be done iu the way of wains¬ coting, paneled ceilings, and inlaid woods, the writer would recom¬ mend a visit to Alnwick castle, the seat of the Duke of Northumber¬ land, between York, England, and Edinburgh, whence Lord Percy went out to the battle of Chevy Chase. 34. The late duke imported some thirty Italian wood-carvers from Borne and Sienna, and employed them for nine years, in connection with a host of native workmen, in refitting the interior of the castle. View¬ ing it externally, one would not dream of what the building contains ; but, once inside, the eye is enchanted. The work here done was the means of educating the entire neighborhood in wood-carving and join¬ ery. Schools were formed taught by the Italian sculptors, and to-day the people of Alnwick number among them many of the most skillful wood-carvers of Europe. Our Government, or some of our rich private citizens, might undertake the same thing. We are too far advanced to day to look upon these matters provincially. Much has been effected in England by the liberality of the rich in throwing open their picture- galleries and private collections to the public. The attempt to improve them in their handicrafts would be a step further. Iu these dull times, anything that can set idle hands at work cannot but be beneficial to the country. It seems incredible that strong men willing to labor should go hungry while capital lies staguaut. By all meaus let us study the result of foreign experience and profit by it. 35. Carpentry iu Austria and iu France is by no meaus as far ad¬ vanced as with us. The vast quantity of wood growing upon our couti- uent has given a great development to this branch of industry ; and in our wooden bridges and other constructions we are quite the equals, if not the superiors, of foreign nations. 30. Framed buildings are uot so common abroad as with us ; they are to be found almost uowhere except iu Sweden aud Switzerland. A common form of construction is a frame-work filled in with brick, show¬ ing the timbers between the latter. This is called iu England half- timbered work. There were several very tasteful structures of this sort ou the exhibition-grounds. Amoug them was one built by the Prince of Schwarzenberg to cotitaiu specimens of the products of his vast domains. EUROPEAN CARPENTRY. 19 The timbers were in this case champfered, arranged in regular truss- work patterns, and painted a burned sienna color, which contrasts very neatly with brick. These buildings are so common abroad that I am surprised not to have seen more of them in this country. , 37. Floors are built with heavier timber than with us. In Yienna, the ordinary depth of the principal rooms in dwellings is 22 feet; and, for this span, beams of 8 inches by 6 are used; these support joists, upon which the flooring is nailed. The distance apart of the main timbers is 2J feet. Very often boarding is nailed to their lower side and the spaces between them then filled with old mortar, plaster, brick-dust, or some simi¬ lar incombustible substance, to a couple of inches above their upper surface. In this mass the joists are imbedded. Sometimes a second series of timbers 3 by 4 inches in size are placed below this flooring and built in separately from it. These receive the laths and plastering and the stucco-work. Such ceilings cannot be sub¬ ject to any shock given the floor above, and the plaster does not crack upon them. They are also nearly sound-proof and fire-proof. Heavier timbers still are used for the attic flooring, half trees being often pinned together side by side over the whole extent, and above all is laid a brick pavement. The law further requires that the masonry walls shall extend G inches at least above this pavement before receiving the plate for the roof- timbers. 38. The scaffoldings are much more substantial than with us; per¬ haps we might think unnecessarily so. Foreign carpenters depend very little upon nails in any of their work, but prefer to substitute pins of oak and heavy iron clamps. Nor is one or two inch stuff at all common. Theoretically, a joist measuring 12 inches by 2 is much better to support flooring than one measuring 9 by 3, but the former has a tendency to yield laterally which the latter has to a less extent, even where bridging is used at frequent intervals. We reach excessive height when we attempt to construct a truss 50 feet in span entirely of plank, except the collar-pieces, which are of board. Something of this sort, of equal span, having a rise of only 2 or 3 feet and united only with ten-penny nails, was noticed in the Paine memorial building in Boston. This truss is said to have so unpleas¬ antly affected the inspector of public buildings in that city that he ordered its removal. This is certainly a step in the right direction. 39. An important provision in Yienna against the spread of fire is the substitution of brick for wooden partition walls. It is astonishing to glance at the iuterior of some of our great buildings—in which cast- iron columns and fronts are used—during their erection. The inside seems literally full of wood; ceilings, floors, and walls, before plaster¬ ing, present an enormous expanse of this material, here used in the worst possible combination. In the great fire at Boston, the destruction of such buildings was the 20 VIENNA INTEKNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873- work of only a few instants. The iron columns became red hot, bent and gave way, and the roof and upper stories came toppling down in a blazing mass, endangering the lives of firemen and all in the vicinity. Such places are tinder-boxes and deserve the attention of legislators. It is to be hoped that the history of Chicago and Boston will not have to be repeated before we learn wisdom.. However, several firms in our country are manufacturing blocks of cheap material well calculated to serve for fire-proof partition-walls; and the frequent occurrence of brick-vaulted ceilings is very inspiriting. Still better would be the introduction of thicker walls, capable of sus¬ taining vaults built of masonry and without the use of iron. In Vienna, passages are frequently covered in this way, and in the music-hall of that city all the rooms of the lower story are covered by vaults sprung from wall to wall. Some of these are cylindrical; others are segments of spheres or domes, and are made of hollow brick. Our building acts are certainly improving, but they are still far from perfect. CHAPTER IV. ARCHITECTURAL ARRANGEMENTS; SANITARY PRECAUTIONS. Peculiar types ; Railway-stations ; Vienna Opera-House ; Defects of American practice ; Drainage ; Milanese Arcade ; Exchange at Brussels ; Location ; Exhibition-buildings ; Landscape-gardening ; Defects of American church- architecture ; Cultivation ; Training. 40. Many foreign cities present forms of building which are un¬ known here. Such are the great glazed galleries or passages of Milan and Brussels. Hotels and public buildings are also constructed around large interior glass-covered courts, reached generally by a carriage-way. 41. We have as yet done little in the way of railway-stations that will bear any comparison with those of any of the foreign capitals. Proba¬ bly the finest thing of this sort in America, in comfort, convenience, and taste, is the new Providence R. R. depot in Boston. It is closely modeled after some of the best French and English stations. As a nation, we hope some day to do a great deal that is original and good in the way of archi¬ tecture, but at present our only hope is to study and utilize the patterns given us by European experience. Experience alone can demonstrate what is useful, and generally what is pleasing. And this being the thing which we especially lack, the most rational course for us to pursue is to study it where its effects and results are stored up for us. 42. Many elaborate models in plaster of paris of the most important buildings either erecting, projected, or recently completed in different parts of Europe were conspicuous objects in different portions of the Vienna Exhibition. One large department was filled with Austrian plans and models. 43. Building activity in Vienna, as well as iu Pesth and the capitals of the other Austrian provinces, has of late years been intense. Carried to too great an excess, it was the cause of the recent money-panic in Vieuna. There are, at present, in course of erection in that city an academy of the fine arts, a town-hall of 400 feet front, two large mu¬ seums, a parliament house, and a building of vast extent to contain all the faculties of the university. The general plan of all of these, with one exception, is similar. One or more large central courts afford light to the interior rooms, and are admirably fitted for' the location of court¬ rooms and for lecture-halls, where quiet is a desideratum. When these courts are of large size, say 60 feet square, the sunlight finds direct ac¬ cess to many portions of the building from which it is excluded with us. 44. The styles of these buildings are all different. The renaissance, Gothic, Greek, and Roman architectures are all to be represented in their 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. purity, and each building is intrusted to a master who has made one of these schools his specialty. Some S-0,000,000, at the lowest estimate, will be required for their completion. 45. Of the buildings already erected in Vienna, the Opera-House above all others deserves especial notice. After the new Paris Opera- House, this is the first structure of the kind in the world. The taste and magnificence of the interior are admirable, and the most ample precautions are taken to guard againt fire. Numerous stone stairways lead to all portions of the house, and vaulted passages give access to these. The stage is surrounded by masonry, with tiers of stone and brick galleries from which numerous streams of water can be directed at a moment’s notice upon the scenery and scaffoldings. An ample foyer offers an agreeable promenade to the audience during the intermissions, while the comfort and roominess of the seats deserve all praise. Here, something has been done to please the eye and to elevate and refine the taste of the public, who are not merely treated as individuals from whom money is to be extracted. The arrangements for ventilation and the preservation of an equable temperature are also excellent; and at the close of a performance the auditorium is not sensibly warmer than at the commencement. For this purpose, steam-engines are employed pumping in fresh air and drawing off that which is vitiated as fast as its vitality is exhausted- 46. Where the government undertakes the erection of these buildings for public purposes, the best results can be much more readily attained than where, as with us, they are left to private enterprise. Yet even in our couutry restrictions and wise laws can be productive of much good. Precautions against the spread of fire, regard for the safety of the public in the condemnation of improper forms of construction, and the introduction of sanitary measures to insure cleanliness and the proper access of sun light and air are all desirable. 47. We are very careless iu America about the location of water- closets in buildings. These are to be seen iu many hotels and theaters far in the interior, removed from all possibility of ventilation. The building-laws of Vienna may teach us a lesson in this respect. All rooms devoted to this purpose must have a sufficient number of win¬ dows opeuiug, uot iuto other apartments, but directly into the outer air. 48. We have also much to learn iu the matter of drainage. Our cess¬ pools, loosely built without mortar, allow all liquids to filter directly iuto the surrounding soil, where, after this excellent disinfectant has become saturated, they distribute their emauations and pollute all springs and wells for many yards around, causing typhoid fever and epidemics. The proper substitute for this is a closely-cemeuted recep¬ tacle which should be frequently emptied. As yet we have found this latter expedient too expensive aud trouble¬ some, and it looks as if a plague might be necessary to bring us to our senses. ARCHITECTURAL MODELS. 23 The waste of useful fertilizing matter it is li a felly within my province to treat; but a great (leal in this respect cau be learned of the Chinese, whose older civilization has taught them economy in this important matter. English firms are already bidding for the sewage of St. Petersburg, and other cities, which they will deodorize and probably find as profitable as guano. 49. But returning to the architectural models: First was noticeable in the rotunda the glass-covered passage of Milan. This is the largest and finest in the world, and cau be easily described as a broad, hand¬ some street of fine buildings, of equal height, from whose cornices iron girders, stretching across the way, carry a glass roof. The lower stories are shops and coffee-houses, and the whole forms an agreeable retreat in rainy weather for proruenaders and for ladies intent on shopping. It is not accessible to carriages, and the great expanse of its tessellated pavement affords room for a large number of pedestriaus. It abounds in pleasing architectural decoration, a rich play of color, sculpture, and painting. 50. Another model in the rotunda was of the new Exchauge at Brus¬ sels, one of the finest modern buildings of Europe, and the first of its class in existence. The building itself was visited at a later period, and the writer can attest the magnificence of its inner fittings and its com¬ modiousness and accessibility by various entrauces, standing, as it does, disengaged in the center of a square. 51. This position is certainly the proper one for all important build¬ ings. Much of the imposing appearance of Paris is owing to the skillful location of its finest structures, at the junction of several streets. A view is thus gained of their proportions from various points, and they are easily-discoverable and conspicuous landmarks. The custom of laying out our American cities like the squares of a checker board, as in New York and Philadelphia, renders this impossible, at present, with us. To view our churches and finest structures it is necessary to cross the street and raise the head painfully, while in the narrower streets their architectural effect is entirely lost. How imposing is the approach to the Madeleine, to the Gare du Nord, or to the new Opera-House in Paris ; and the Arc de Triomphe arrests the eye on entering any one of the numerous avenues which radiate, star-like, from it as a center. 52. The Viennese models included the buildings before referred to, and must have been prepared at great expense. The new Town-Hall by the German leader of gothic architecture, Mr. Schmidt, is in mauy respects an originally-conceived structure, and is familiar to the readers of the London Architect and Building News. It is supposed that ten years will be occupied in building it. One of the most pleasing effects of the architecture of Vienna arises from the uniformity in height of the build¬ ings on the principal streets, and their wide fronts, presenting, some¬ times for 200 feet, the same unbroken lines of cornices and windows. Adjoining buildings vary sufficiently in architectural detail to avoid 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. monotony, but an attempt is generally made to carry certain important liues across an entire block. There are thus a majesty and repose in her great thoroughfares that are entirely lacking in such districts as, for in¬ stance, the rebuilt portion of burned Boston. There a thousand varie¬ ties of taste have been allowed to run riot, and in general our tendency is to attract attention by giving to our particular building a greater height than its surroundings or by varying its architecture and its ma¬ terial as much as possible from the ordinary style. Thus have arisen those strange productions of wild fancy, the Tribune and the Western Union Telegraph building, New York. 53. A little farther down, on the east side of Broadway, the Equitable Insurance Company, formerly possessing one of the most dignified and imposing fronts of New York, is now emulating these rivals by the addi¬ tion of an abnormal roof, containing a ninth and a tenth story, while the harmony of the design is impaired by a change of the architect in the midst of the work. This latter building, however, is a fine instance of what American enterprise can achieve when it is for its interest to put forth its powers. Six elevators mount to the height of 150 feet, making the upper stories as accessible as the ground-floor, while the fine ranges of otlices, though commanding very large rents, are all occupied, and pay a handsome return on-the capital expended. No business-building in Eu¬ rope can compare with this in convenience and comfort, nor so admira¬ bly fulfils its design. It is also satisfactory to know that it is as nearly fire-proof as it can be, having an iron roof, stone stairways, and masonry elevator-wells built on the exterior, as the law requires. 54. The buildings upon the Exhibition-grounds will be so fully de¬ scribed in special reports that nothing need be said of them here, except that the plan was not as well adapted as that iu Paris, in 1867, for viewing the products of the different countries in groups. Some of the entrances were very imposing; but, from the great height to which they were carried, they completely overtowered the buildings them¬ selves, and did not seem to be organic parts of them. The rotunda, de¬ signed by J. Scott Russell, of Loudou, was a grand achievement of en¬ gineering, and will doubtless be fully described iu the proper place. 55. One of the most pleasing features of the whole exhibition was the landscape-gardening and general laying out of the grounds. Avenues lined with shade-trees led to the main entrances, and frequent fountains cooled the air and pleased the eye. Great stretches of lawn and flower¬ beds added to the park-like effect of the whole. 56. The writer has probably shown, thus far in this report, that we have a great deal to learn from the other side of the water. We doubt¬ less teach the world much that is valuable by rnauy of our productions. Our suspension-bridges and many of our engineering achievements are warmly praised abroad, but there is no doubt that iu artistic effect we are yet far iu the rear. Before closing this paper the writer wishes to refer to a few other points iu buildiug-mattersiu this country, and to com- CHURCH ARCHITECTURE. 25 pare our efforts with similar foreign ones. The point to be made is that neither the public nor our professional men are as yet sufficiently trained to creditably meet the problems before us. Of late years a large number of churches have been erected in our rapidly-growing cities. The new region upon the Back Bay district in Boston contains many of these structures, and in New York the upper parts of Fifth and Madison avenues have offered locations for a corre¬ sponding number. It is extraordinary how few of these will bear criti¬ cism. In some the architects have been so engrossed in their studies of frescoing aud colored glass that they have forgotten utility. The cler¬ gyman’s voice is often inaudible even in the front pews, and either almost total darkness or a dazzling flood of light interferes with the comfort of the congregation. The matter of acoustics is one that of late years has made but little advance, but certainly such great defects in hearing-properties as are present in some of our new edifices could have been avoided. M. Gar- nier, the architect of the new Opera House in Paris, has written a very interesting pamphlet on the subject of theaters. He maintains that it is always possible to predict before the erection of a building whether it will be acoustically good or bad. As regards the architectural appear¬ ance of these churches, a tendency is noticeable, as in the secular struc¬ tures I have spoken of above, to strive after novelty of form aud effect. Now all critics agree that what is new has always been of slow growth, and that whenever an attempt is made to strike out abruptly into a new path the result is a failure. 57. A great deal that is old in Europe is new to us; and if novelty is our object, we should do better to study this than to attempt to create. In design there is no doubt that whatever is produced owes its origin, in great part, to the remembrance of something seen before. Let us then look at what is good in training our hand and eye, rather than at¬ tempt to rake up from the store houses of our memory what we have imbibed we know not how or where. 58. Again, we are much inclined, as a people, to set at work with all energy, before the matter in hand has received the proper considera¬ tion. Then, wheu all is completed, we often wish that we had gone to work in an entirely different manner. Thus, the Back Bay district of Boston has been rapidly covered with palatial residences, at the expense of many millions of dollars, until, to-day, no similar tract can be found in the entire world which can exhibit an equal number of people living in luxury, with all their surroundings rich and in keeping. But sud¬ denly—only fifteen years since the whole was a tract of water—the owners of these residences regret that the bay was not filled in to a height of several additional feet. Drainage will probably have to be assisted by steam-pumps; while some predict that, from the unhealthy condition of the district, the whole must be raised or ultimately aban¬ doned as a dwelling-place. 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Again, after the fire in the same city, many of the streets were widened, but only to a slight extent. Washington street, the principal thoroughfare, was increased in width at certain poiuts by 3 or I inches. The day will soon come when we shall wish that it'had been widened by a great many more feet. In all these matters some more efficient supervision of the Govern¬ ment is called for. We have inspectors of buildings; but their number appears insufficient or they are not properly trained for their positions. A case illustrating in a marked manner this truth is that of Dr. Hall’s church, on Fifth avenue, New York. This building had nearly reached completion when the parish was informed that the main front projected beyond the sidewalk-line by a short distance and that the whole must be pulled down. This could only have occurred through the negligence of the surveyor, of the inspector, or of the architect. The inspector was, in any case, evidently to blame. In a similar case in Vienna, where a company engaged in building a new theater had transgressed in the same way, the matter was settled for a small fine, the government tacitly acknowledging that it was itself to blame for not arresting the work at an earlier'Stage. 59. We have before referred to the part played by the rich, in England and elsewhere, in improving the taste of the people. Foreign govern¬ ments have considered it as necessary to establish academies of the tine arts and art-museums as military and naval schools. In the former institutions the young are taught painting, sculpture, architecture, and engraving; and from the study of the museums they receive the inspira¬ tion necessary for the production of works of merit. Libraries contain¬ ing standard works on art, and the numerous art-periodicals published in London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Stuttgardt, are connected with them. Here, also, photographs of buildings, paintings, and engravings are to be found, and are open to the inspection of the student and of the public. Lectures are delivered at frequent intervals, and prizes are * offered to the students, many of them being in the form of scholarships, enabling them to travel for several years in Italy and Greece. The most prominent graduates of these institutions are intrusted with gov¬ ernmental works, and no worker, whatever be his position, is expected to undertake any labor without having previously received the proper training. Still more, in the advancement of art, England and Germany have sent workmen to Italy to model in plaster the entire fronts of the most famous buildings of antiquity, in order to still further enrich their museums. In the South Iveusingtou Museum, at London, the results of such work upon the front of the famous Certosa, near Pavia, are to be seen reproduced in terra cotta. We have no antique remains in America; but we can certainly supply their place in this manner. Thus artists are educated abroad and are qualified to produce monuments which will command the admiration of posterity. How iuterestiug is a visit to Bouen or Chartres, in France, or to any EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE. 27 of the old capitals of Italy. The eye is enchanted by beauty and rich¬ ness of form aiid color on every side; but who is charmed or inspired by a stay in our Washington, after the novelty of the impression pro¬ duced by the great size and cost of our Government structures has passed away ? It is hard for those of us who have passed all our lives in America to picture what might be done in these matters; and yet few of us fail to be delighted on viewing the great works of the Old World. There the whole atmosphere changes. Money-getting is low¬ ered to a less prominent position in every-day life. The intense hurry which wears us out and leads us constantly to overstep our mark is no longer to be noticed. Mature deliberation precedes every important movement. In art, the attempt is made to have a reason and an object for every step taken. Meaningless ornamentation is avoided and every¬ thing fulfills some end. Our school lies open to us. Let us first take in all that our masters can teach us; and then, and not till then, let us attempt to improve upon them. INDEX Article. Page. American church architecture, defects of. 56 24 and European designs compared. 53 24 and foreign stone. 29 17 practice, defects of. 47 22 Arcade, Milanese. 49 23 Architecture of American churches, defects of. 56 24 direction of improvement. 57-59 25 Austrian brick-manufacture. 7 6 terracotta; quality. 2 5 Basins, construction of. 17 9 Bedding-stone. 30 17 Bonding walls. 10 7 Breakwaters, cement. 22 11 Brick, peculiar kinds of. 12 8 Viennese molded. 6 6 manufacture, Austrian. 7 6 Brick-work, carved, red cement for. 15 9 in the United States. 11 8 Brussels Exchange. 50 23 Buildings, Exhibition.•. 54 24 framed. 36 18 in progress. 43 21 public, locating. 51 23 Viennese. 20 10 Carpentry. 35 18 Carrara marble. 28 16 Carved brick-work, red cement for. 15 9 Cast and. wrought iron. 23 13 Castings in cement.. 18 10 and forgings. 24 13 Cement. 14 9 breakwaters. 22 11 castings. 18 10 foundations laid in. 16 9 red, for carved brick-work. 15 9 structures..*. 19 10 Church architecture, American, defects of.. 56 24 Construction, metals used in. 23 13 Corrugated iron. 27 14 Designs, American and European, compared. 53 24 defects in, remedy. 5 6 variety and uniformity in. 52 23 Drawings. 48 22 Duke of Northumberland, work of. 34 18 30 INDEX. Article. Page. Euglish tiles. 8 7 European aud American designs compared. 53 24 economy in tlie use of stone. 4 5 Exchange at Brussels.. 50 23 Exhibition buildings. 54 24 Floors. 37 19 Foreign aud American stone. 29 17 Forgings and castings. 24 13 Foundations laid in cement. 16 9 Framed buildings. 36 18 Furring and lathing. 13 8 Galvanized iron and roofing-metal. 26 14 Gardening, landscape... 55 24 Governmental work. 46 22 Granite, its extravagant use in the United States. 3 5 Interiors, wood in ; partition-walls. 39 19 Iron, corrugated. 27 14 galvanized, and roofing-metal. 26 14 wrought and cast. 23 13 Landscape gardening. 55 24 Lathing and furring... 13 8 Locating public buildings. 51 23 Marble, Carrara. 28 16 Mastic. 21 11 Metals, roofing, and galvanized iron. 26 14 used in construction. 23 13 Milan, arcade at. 49 23 Models and plans exhibited. 42 21 Molded brick, Viennese. 6 6 Northumberland, Duke of, work of. 34 18 Opera-House at Vienna. 45 22 Parquetry. 33 18 Partition-walls; wood in interiors. 39 19 Plans perfected, to precede work. 58 25 and models exhibited. 42 21 Public buildings, locating. 51 23 Railway-stations. 41 21 Red cement for carved brick-work. 15 9 Roman tiles; their use. 9 7 Roofing-metal and galvanized iron. 26 14 Scaffolding. 38 19 Stairways. 31 17 Stone, American and foreign. 29 17 bedding. 30 1/ Carrara marble. 28 16 European economy iu the use of...,. 4 5 Styles adopted. 44 21 Taste, cultivation of; training. 59 26 Terra cotta. 1 5 Austrian; quality. 2 5 Tiles, English. 8 7 Roman; their use. 9 7 Training; cultivation of taste. 59 26 Types, peculiar. 10 7 United States, brick-work in. 11 INDEX. 31 Article. Page. United States, extravagant use of granite in. 3 5 training needed in. 25 13 Vienna, Opera-House in. 45 22 woods used iu. 32 17 Viennese building. 20 10 molded brick.,. 6 6 Walls, bonding. 10 7 partitions ; wood in interiors. 30 19 Wood in interiors ; partition-walls. 39 19 used in Vienna.. 32 17 Wrought and cast iron. 23 13 o c. WOOD-INDUSTRIES. N. M. LOWE. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPORT ON WOOD-INDUSTRIES N. M. LOWE, MEMBER OF THE ARTISAN COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1875. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. * AMERICAN EXHIBITS AND METHODS. Art. Page. 1. The American exhibit ; Awards.,. 5 2. American carriage-wheels .. 6 3. Furniture; Wood-working machinery; Carriages; Mosaic. 6 4. Effects of hygroscopic changes... 7 5. Necessity of double windows in cold climates. 8 6. Advantages of a knowledge-of iiygrometry. 8 7. Philosophy of shrinkage and drying. 9 8. Method of seasoning adopted by Mr. George Woods. 10 9. Method of (jetting out stock. 10 CHAPTER II. DETAILED REPORT ON EXHIBITS. 10. Classification. 11 11. Building. 11 12. Veneers. 13 13. Parquetry and marquetry. 13 14. Cooperage. 14 15. Wood-carving. 15 1G. Furniture. 16 17. Fancy goods... 23 18. Machine-made articles. 24 19. Willow-ware. 24 20. Wood for musical instruments. 25 21. Conclusion. 25 WOOD-INDUSTRIES. CHAPTER I. AMERICAN EXHIBITS AND METHODS. The American exhibit; Awards; Carriage-wheels; Furniture; Wood-work¬ ing MACHINERY; CARRIAGES; MOSAICS; EFFECTS OF HYGROSCOPIC CHANGES Double windows in cold climates; Seasoning. 1. The American exhibit in Group VIII was extremely deficient. Onr people work wood with as great, if not greater, facility than those of any other country, if we leave out of consideration the finer artistic carving, inlaying, and mosaics. It should, however, be remembered that we had several large and excellent exhibits of wood-work that were ruled out of this group, under the regulation that no article could be entered for a premium in two groups. There was the school-house with its furni¬ ture, and school-furniture, in considerable variety, in the educational department. They were excellent of their kind. In the exhibits of other countries, these were classed in Group VIII. Then, there were musical instruments, consisting of two very large exhibits of cabinet- organs, the cabinet-work of one of which, at least—that of Messrs. Mason & Hamlin, of Boston—would have taken an award for its good work¬ manship and fine designs, as well as its solidity of construction—which latter was abundantly shown by the manner in which it had withstood changes of climate—if it were not for the other reasons given. Both houses having exhibits in this line benefited by the exhibition in the receipt of orders. Some good work was shown in the piano-forte cases from New York, contributed by Steck, which fully sustained the repu¬ tation of fine American wood-work. Premiums were awarded to the following American exhibitors: George W. Howe, of Cleveland, Ohio, vent and bung, diploma; Pope Brothers & Krugman,of Cincinnati, Ohio, lacquered gilt and black-walnut moldings, medal of progress; John G. Davis, of Philadelphia, Pa., carriage-wheels and stock, medal for good taste; Wheeler and Wilson Cabinet Com¬ pany, of Indianapolis, Ind., veneers, medal of progress ; Charles Weeks & Co., of New York City, wheels, medal of progress; United States gun- stocks, Springfield Armory, medal of progress; Woodburn Savern Wheel Company, of Indianapolis, Ind., wheels, medal of progress ; A. S. Parks, of Winchendon, Mass., pails, medal of progress; B. F. Sturtevant, of Boston, Mass., machine peg-wood, medal for good taste. It will be seen, on examination, that America received more medals 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. iii this group than were awarded to England; the latter being only ahead in having one diploma of honor. 2. The large preponderance in exhibits of wheels is explained by the fact that wheels were shipped largely from the United States to all parts of Europe, even to Vienna. We do not know to what extent the trade in American wheels was increased by the exhibition; but they were greatly admired by the jury, and our beautiful hickory wheels’’ were frequently alluded to by them. The American carriage-wheel is a production which we can justly pride ourselves upon. It is so con¬ structed as to combine a maximum of strength with a minimum of weight. This result is obtained, in a measure, by the wood employed, and by the manner of using it, the bent rim, and the setting of the spokes in the hub in such a way as to present a plane disk instead of a concave wheel, as in the case of all European wheels. Our spokes are either set so as to present a large base of support at the hub, or they are supported by irou flanges upon their sides. To illustrate the superi¬ ority of the American over the European wheel, it may be shown that, while the American wheel can be fixed upon an axle which will allow it to run free in a vertical position, the dishing European wheel must be set under, or “ struck," 1 in order to bring its rim in contact with the earth vertically under the center of the hub, in which position it can never run so free as if made to run on a perfectly horizontal axis. This may be a small matter in light wheels with narrow rims ; but with wide rims, like those exhibited in the English Agricultural Hall, where wide- rimmed wheels were shown that were made quite conical, the result would be, in draught, a tendency in each wheel to roll off outward iu a circle, and considerable power would have to be constantly exerted to keep them in a straight line. A remarkable instance was shown in an English steam-roller and road-engine, where the forward roller consisted of two conical sectiousjplaced upou an axle, the large euds abutting, so as to make a straight line at the bottom aud open at the top iu the center, to receive the transom-bolt or vertical shaft used to steer by. It can readily be conceived that it would take a considerable force to make these two conical cylinders, each feet long, roll iu a straight line. Just imagine the success of any effort to make one of these conic sec¬ tions roll otherwise than in a circle, without a dragging force arising somewhere. 3. It is to be regretted that some of our best furniture-makers were not represented. Some, it is true, made entries, but their goods were uever shipped, it seeming to require but little to discourage them when there was no hope of gaining trade. The wood-working machinery and tools iu the United States section were excellent, if not numerous. Mr. Park, of Wincheudou, Mass., exhibited a full set of pail-making machinery (made by B. D. Whitney, of the same place) iu full operation at first; but from some misunder¬ standing their operation was afterward suspended, much to our regret. WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 7 The articles here produced were eagerly sought after for the museums in different parts of Europe. The water-pail of the continent is flat and high, and is carried upon the back with shoulder-straps, and has a cover to keep it from slopping over. Bailey’s planes and other tools were also eagerly sought after for the technological schools. Two English firms, as agents for American manufacturers, exhibited in the department of the United States a large collection of American axes, scythes, and other tools, showing that the direction of trade in this line has been reversed. Mr. Whitney, of Winchendon, Mass., made the principal dis¬ play of wood-working machinery ; it was declared by a large Austrian manufacturer u fit to kiss,” so great was his admiration of it. Many requests were made to be allowed to make drawings of the different machines, which were all met in a commendable spirit by Mr. Whitney, who gave all perfect liberty to make such drawings as they pleased; feeling, no doubt, that in any event he could compete with their best skill in manufacturing. A light open buggy, from California, was shown, which was beauti- tifully finished in the natural wood, and ornamented with inlay, in lines of mosaic, on the black-walnut body. Two other attempts were made at inlaid work: one was in cabinet-organs, with only moderate success, and at a cost entirely disproportionate to the results obtained; the other was a lady’s dressing and sewing case in fine marquetry, with fair suc¬ cess, but in such bad taste as to gain no award. The designs on the latter were of a patriotic character, mingled with the emblems of war, which would have been more appropriate for a shooting-case. We may expect to make little progress in the production of articles of taste and fancy in wood until we learn to produce the real French polish; for in no other way can such articles be finished with sufficient neatness to compete with the’European makers. We are aware that the opinion prevails that this polish will not stand our climate; but the same opinion once prevailed in England. This prejudice must have been removed in that country, if we may judge by the samples of French polish exhibited in Vienna by English makers. These were really better than those pro¬ duced in France. 4. We will state here some of the conclusions derived from experience and observation in the manufacture of woods. The hygroscopic char¬ acter of wood is such that any change in the relative humidity of the atmosphere must act upon the manufactured article to shrink or to swell it. This is a law as fixed as that of gravitation. The question, then, is, Under what condition, as to relative humidity, should such articles be made? In Europe, the necessity of economy of heat is such that the people use the least possible amount of fuel, as may be seen by examining their porcelain stoves; and they accustom themselves to live in a temperature that is much lower than the people of our country like in their houses; the air is therefore much drier. From Bussia, south¬ ward, until we reach a line where little or no artificial heat is needed for 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. comfort, every appliance is used to reduce the amount of fuel consumed to a minimum quantity; thick, heavy walls are made for houses; double windows are adopted, aud apartments are close. The temperature of European houses and workshops being - much lower than ours, the air is consequently more heavily charged with moisture. When, therefore, we import the furniture of Europe and place it in our American furnace-heated houses, where the air is exceedingly dry, there must of necessity be a change in its condition—a shrinkage must occur. From personal observation, we should say that Boston houses in the winter- season average as low as 25 per cent, of saturation, and in the coldest weather it is often as low as 15 per cent. We have seeu a parlor in Boston at a temperature of 85°, with but 15 per cent, moisture in its air, and young and healthy persons therein complaining of the cold and calling for more heat. 5. This brings up a very important subject, which we very much regret we cannot here make more than a passing allusion to, and that is the necessity in our northern country of adopting a system of double windows for our dwelling-houses. We should be astonished if our inquiries in this direction led us to the discovery that 75 per cent, of the heat of our rooms, which is lost by our single windows in the winter- season, could be saved if these windows were provided with double sashes. During the cold weather, there will always be found, no matter how tightly or closely the sashes are fitted aud protected with weather¬ strips, a draught of cold air falling downward. This arises from the contact of the heated air with the cold glass, which renders the air cooler and heavier, and causes it to fall. The air, at the same time, parts with a considerable proportion of its moisture by condensation upon the glass. The cold air thus formed falls to the floor, forming a layer of cold air, which surrounds the feet and legs, while the upper • part of the body is enveloped in overheated air. The layers of cold aud warm air in an apartment will riot mix. The warm air will not descend, and the cold air cannot go upward, except the oue'is deprived of its heat by radiation, aud the other receives its heat by actual con¬ tact with a heated surface. This radical difference iu the upper and lower strata of atmosphere of the rooms, in which our people live during the cold season, is the prolific cause of most of the throat and lung dis¬ eases with which they are afflicted. Double windows to our houses, therefore, would uot only be a great economy as to fuel, but highly con¬ ducive to huinau longevity. 0. We have seen the cabinet-maker in Vienna working iu a damp cellar making articles of furniture. We have seeu, in Florence, men making fine carvings aud the finest of wood-work in damp, vaulted rooms, under au old cathedral. Xow, the question naturally occurs, why should not both the makers aud consumers of wood-work know a little more of the laws of nature, aud of the relative conditions of the air they work in aud that iu which their customers live, so that such WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 9 stupid mistakes as have been made shall not be again made in the future ? And, again, should not our common schools teach a little more of hygrometry, and, if necessary, a little less of sidereal astronomy ? The principle here noted could be seen illustrated in the Palace of Industry at Vienna, where the products of all countries were collected and where were plainly visible the effects of difference in the condition of the air from that of the atmosphere of the places in which they were made. An elegant inlaid table was shown, the foundation of which had become warped, showing through the veneering that the boards of which it was made were sawed from small trees without reference to the grain. As a consequence, the outline of every board employed was visible through the flue marquetry. 7. There is still much to be learned in the treatment of timber, and its conversion into shapes for use iu the finer and more costly work of cabinet-making. The old-fashioned way of sawing for such purposes has been proved to be entirely wrong. Trees are made up of a number of alternate layers of growth, forming rings around the center; each ring representing a year’s growth. Besides these rings, there are radial lines running from the center outward, like the spokes of a wheel, which are known as medullary rays. Boards sawed from a green log contain a large amount of moisture, which, on exposure to the air, they readily part with, losing bulk by shrinking. While this fact is well known, the direction of the line of such shrinkage is not quite so familiar. It may be thus explained : Wood being a fibrous substance, with bundles of such fibers placed lengthwise, in shrinking these fold and crowd iu upon each other, and the whole board visibly contracts. The important point to be noted here is that the direction of shrinkage is invariably at right angles with the radial medullary rays. The best way, therefore, to saw a log for lumber for furniture, or other nice work, is from the circumfer¬ ence to the center, in the way, to use a familar illustration, that clap - boards are now sawed out. Boards sawed in this way cannot warp. The shrinkage is from the surface inward, and evenly along the surface. A knowledge of this fact may enable wood-workers generally to make articles that will staud any climate different from their own, and no other method will serve in its stead. Iu our own country, there is still a great deal of ignorance in regard to the proper means of drying lumber by artificial heat. It is so com¬ mon as to have become a usage to put in wet lumber at one end of the dry-house and take out seasoned lumber at the other end, that we can¬ not wonder at the general want of confidence in this system, or rather want of system, in drying lumber. There are those who, in addition to the absurd practice mentioned, utterly ignore the necessity of ventilation in their dry-houses, while others have their ventilators in the rooff This is all wrong. The dry-house, in the first place, should be divided into compartments and ventilated at the bottom, so as to utilize the heat and equalize the process of drying. The progress of this work of 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873 drying could be easily measured by a hygrometer, and the process con¬ cluded -when the degree reached was equal to its probable exposure, which, as we have seen, iu a furnace-heated house may be equal to 20 per cent, of saturation. 8. In connection with this, it may be stated that a new method of seasoning has been perfected, which is so simple and effective that it must become universal where the requisite conditions can be obtained. This new method is the invention of Mr. George Woods, of Cambridge, Mass., and may be thus described: The room to be used is made tight, and is heated best by steam, though it can be otherwise heated. One side of the room is made into a condenser by coils of pipes through which a stream of cold water circulates continuously, cooling their surface, and keeping it so much below the temperature of the room that the moist¬ ure, which is rapidly drawn from the wet lumber by heat, is as quickly condensed. Underneath is a gutter, into which the vapor thus con¬ densed falls and is carried off in the shape of water. If the tempera¬ ture of these condensing pipes can be kept at say 40° Fahrenheit, and that'of the atmosphere be raised to 90°, it will not require a long time to reach a degree of 20 per cent, of saturation, when the work of drying is thoroughly completed. As the process described is the very best yet known, and as it leaves literally no room for improvement in the process of lumber-drying, it has only to become known to be generally adopted. !). Messrs. Jackson & Graham, of London, Euglaud, show the best attention to matters pertaining to the proper treatment of wood. Their works are very extensive, and will be referred to again. For the foun¬ dation of such work as is veneered, they use only San Domingo mahog¬ any, and only such as will work with the surface in the direction of the medullary rays. At the exhibition, they showed several pieces of oak- work, in every part of which this rule was adhered to. They make dado- work, selecting their stock with the same care that a cooper would ex¬ hibit in selection for a specimen of his art. An American merchant, with more enterprise than knowledge of the rules to be observed in cutting lumber, had sent to a Vienna maker a quantity of piano-sounding-boards stuff, which the latter declined to use, or pay for, or to tell why. The writer was called in as an expert, and saw at ouce that the stock was badly manufactured, especially iu regard to the direction of the grain. European sounding-boards are gotten out with great care ; they are always split so as to insure straight graiD, and surfaces exactly correct as to the direction of the medullary ray. The mortification of the American piano-maker at Vienna would have been saved by adhering to this rule. We need to be educated to the fact that this is the most beautiful grain of wood, because most durable. There were many interesting examples of this iu the wood-work of the exhibition. Proper attention to this matter would aid very much in making parquetry that would be satisfactory in our climate. WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 11 CHAPTEE II. DETAILED REPORT ON EXHIBITS. Classification; Building; Vf.neers; Parquetry and marquetry; Cooperage ; Wood-carving; Furniture ; Fancy goods; Machine-made articles; Willow- ware ; Wood for musical instruments ; Conclusion. 10. Having disposed of preliminary and general matters wliicli it has been deemed necessary to treat of in this report, we will now proceed to give a detailed account of the wood-industries of the various countries as exhibited in Group VIII, together with such statistics of their extent and general character, and matters of interest as were observed or learned with reference to them, and which were of sufficient interest to be noted. The group in question was classified as follows : 1. For building purposes. 2. Veneers. 3. Parquetry and marquetry. 4. Cooperage. 5. "VVood-carving. 6. Furniture. 7. Fancy goods. 8. Machine-cut articles. 9. Willow-ware. 10. Woods for musical instruments. It would extend this report to voluminous dimensions were we to attempt to enumerate all the firms in this group and their exhibits. We will therefore only mention some of those to whom diplomas of honor and medals of progress were awarded, and some of those whose position on the jury debarred them from competition. We will take up each of the ten classes in its order. Class 1.—For building purposes. 11. The objects belonging to this class were to be seen in and around the many buildings, pavilions, and huts which surrounded the larger exhibition-buildings. Bark & Warburg, of Goteborg, Sweden, exhibited a hunting-pa¬ vilion of peculiar construction, for which they held letters patent in their own country. They were reputed to be doing an extensive domestic and export business in sashes, doors, blinds, and shingles. Their capacity for making doors was stated to be 1,000 per week. Their foreign markets are in North Germany, Belgium, France, and England. The pavilion used as a Swedish restaurant was constructed by A. O. Haneborg, of Christiania, Norway. This was a very pretty frame-build¬ ing, with elaborate machine-carving in its interior. The Parquet and Chalet Factory of Interlaken, Switzerland, con¬ tributed a Swiss frame-cottage of their own make, which was used as a school-house and as the commissioners’ quarters. This was one of the best Swiss buildings exhibited. Of shingles, there was no great variety shown; but most of the coun- 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. tries of Europe exhibited them, showing that, though seldom met with iu the large cities, they are still in use in the country districts. In size, they are 75 centimeters (30 inches) long, 1 thick, (-A- inch,) and 10 (1 inches) wide, and cost about 35 cents per hundred. The average price in Austria ranges from 5 to 7 florins per thousand. European shiugles are usually grooved on one side and tongued on the other to fit closely. They are also split so that their surface is in the direction of the me¬ dullary ray. The Austrians have a method of preserving shingle-roofs, which should be known in this counti'y, where so many roofs of this kind are in use, rotting away from year to year for the want of some cheap and effective method of preserving them. In Austria, after the shingles aro laid, a composition of coal-tar, powdered quicklime, and line sand is spread evenly over them like paint, and forms an excellent protection against decay. Where tar has been applied iu this country, it has been found that the pyroligneous acid which it contains injures the wood ; but the Austrian plan remedies this, the quicklime mixed with the tar neutralizing the acid by its alkaline properties. Tlje Schwarzenberg domains in Austria produce 1150,000 shiugles a year, and Hungary 750,000. These totals, however, will seem small beside the products of some of our American sliingle-makers. Iu Aus¬ tria, Norway, Sweden, and ltussia, Gangloff's shingle-machine is in extensive use. It is used to a very limited exteut in other countries. In Norway, there were said to be 045 saw-mills, employing about 10,000 men, and usually driven by water-power. Germany produces very little wood for building purposes. The oak-forests of that country are very largely drawn upon for railway-ties ; it is estimated that about one and a half millions of oak-trees were used in the construction of their railways, which require for repairs the additional sacrifice of some 150,000 of these trees annually. This drain has so euchauccd the value of oak-wood as to force the authorities to look for substitutes for it iu the softer woods; these are prepared to resist decay by impregnation with bichloride of mercury, and are said to answer quite well. In the finer descriptions of house-work, the French no doubt excel. This fact was well exhibited iu a door contributed by Bertrand, of Paris, which was placed iu the pavilion occupied by the French commissioners. This door was elaborately carved and ornamented with wrought-iron angles and fastenings in the style of Louis XIII. Spain and Italy, it would appear, rely mostly ou other countries for their styles and matters connected with the wood-work of houses. The flat-boats ou the river Danube are made tight iu their joints with¬ out the use of tar, pitch, or oakum. The joints of the planking are bev¬ eled so as to receive between them a kind of reed, which is pressed into the seam, and held there by clasp-like, double-pronged nails, which not ouly press the caulking-material into the seams, but keep the planks together, making them almost as strong at the joints as they are else¬ where. Such a system of securing joints iu planking would reduce the necessity of excessive strength in frames of river-boats. WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 13 Class 2.—Veneers. 12. Nearly all countries were represented in this department of wood¬ work, but only one firm was fortunate enough to secure a medal of prog¬ ress—G. C. Bartels & Sons, of Hamburg. It may be proper here to remark that, while veneers are manufactured in all the great centers of wood-furniture industry in Germany, they yet lack our system of quick¬ working planing-machines, which give to the work so fine an appear¬ ance. In behalf of Austria, the Pi’inces Scliwarzenberg exhibited a fine as¬ sortment of veneers, cut to one-third inch in thickness, from all classes of Austrian forest-wood. In addition to this, the Austrian department exhibited a large number of veneers. In Vienna, there are some six or seven veneer-factories, of which that of C. Dosz is the most notable. There is also a large manufactory of veneers in Pesth, Hungary. Switzerland must be credited with the contribution of some very fine specimens; the firm of J. Pays & Son, of Luzern, sent superior exhibits of walnut veneers. Sweden exhibited only oak and beech veneers, which were cut in the technical factory of Kulla. Russia produces veneers, but exhibited none. Spain and Portugal exhibited nothing in this class. These countries look to foreign markets altogether for their veneers. Sweden was credited with importing yearly from Germany about 150,000 pounds of veneers of the finer woods, such as mahogany and rosewood, and 80,000 pounds of oak and elm. There is a factory in Stockholm, (Ekmann’s,) which is said to produce annually some 60,000 pounds of veneers in different kinds of wood. Class 3.—Parquetry and marquetry. 13. To commence with parquetry. If the proper wood is selected and laid with due regard to the running of the grain, that is, in the direction of the medullary ray of the wood, it may overcome the difficulties ex¬ perienced in our climate with this and other kinds of fine wood-work. Tasson & Washer, of Brussels, Belgium, are undoubtedly the manu¬ facturers of the best parquetry, and next in rank stood the Parquet and Chalet Factory of Interlaken, Switzerland. In Austria and Hungary, there are large numbers of these factories, and there is hardly a house of recent construction that has not parquet- floors. These floors, with few exceptions, are pretty nearly all alike in design and construction. This work is very expensive if executed in rich patterns with rare woods, but oak parquetry, which is most common, costs from 10 to 14 florins, or $5 to $7, per square of 8 square feet. Germany, as yet, produces very little parquetry, except in the southern portion of the empire. In the north, it is as yet considered an article of luxury. In France, Italy, and Belgium the same is as true as of North 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Germany; only the wealthier classes availing themselves of it. The article in these countries is still very costly. Marquetry is occasionally introduced in parquetry. In the Royal Palace of Pesth, the floor, which had been laid many years before in parquetry of the Moorish style, in bent wood, by the Thonet Brothers, had to be repaired, owing - to enlargement of some of the apartments ; but the pattern was of so difficult a nature that no one would undertake the work except the Thonets, (who had discontinued this branch of their busine'ss,) who soon successfully completed it under great difficulties, having to draw upon the resources of all their factories for fragments of bent wood required. In Austria, an industry exists which is entirely new to Americans. Two firms in Vienna manufacture inlaid-wood mosaic veneers, to be used for inlaying furniture of all descriptions, more especially for use on small tables with round or square tops. Ladies’ fans are also made out of this material. In England, the firm of John R. Clarke has factories in London and Tunbridge Wells, making elegant mosaic fancy articles. England, France, Italy, Spain, and Portugal use a great deal of marquetry in their furniture. Class 4.—Cooperage. 14. In Switzerland, we find an industry entirely peculiar to that coun¬ try. The firm of Berger Brothers, in Thai, Bern, exhibited pails, milk- vessels, churns, and apparatus for cheese-making, which were really meritorious. Austria produces a peculiar vessel, a kind of pail, to carry water in, which is also used very considerably by women of the laboring class for carrying coal, fruit, and liueu. It is intended to be carried on the back by shoulder-straps. There were three immense butts, or vats, on exhibition, one of which held 3,000 eirner, equal to 30,000 gallons, another 25,000 gallons, and the third 20,000 gallons. They had all been sold to proprietors of large vineyards. They were perfect masterpieces of cooperage, and showed that their makers must have had extensive works. Some very fine specimens of wine and beer barrels were also shown. One exhibitor showed wine-barrels of a novel shape, being in some respects the reverse in shape of those in ordinary use, that is, concave in the center and widening toward the ends, somewhat like an hour-glass. The inveutor claimed that by this shape he could save space in stowage. Karl Drex- ler, of Vienna, exhibited some very well finished and well constructed oval and octagon shaped barrels. There was also shown a barrel, of excellent workmanship, in which to keep wine cool. It was an expen¬ sive affair. There were also to be seen, quite a novelty in their way, Hungarian drinking-flasks and cauteeus, made of wood and bound with hoops. WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 15 The Germans manufacture their own beer and smaller wine barrels, in some cases, by machinery. They make in this way, however, large numbers of barrels for packing purposes—the machines used being American. Much of this class of work, however, is still done by hand. Wooden clogs, or shoes, except in Italy and Holland, have mostly gone out of fashion, as has also wooden kitchen-ware—such as dishes, salt-boxes, and ladles—which latter are now altogether replaced by tin¬ ware. There is an article of wooden ware in general use throughout Austria and Southern Germany, which may be properly mentioned here— wooden boxes, made of thin strips of machine-cut and planed wood, about one-third of an iuch in thickness, bent in circular or oblong form, with rounded edges, and with bottoms and covers of the same material, well adapted for collar-boxes. Moritz Saxl, of Boskawitz, Austria, was the maker of those exhibited. The strips of wood from which these boxes were made are sold in the forest-mills of Austria and Bohemia at very low prices. The strips are often used for hoops of sieves and for drums. Sweden exported, in the year 1871, two million pieces of oak, and seventeen million beech and other staves, of which latter class England took thirteen million, and Norway, Denmark, and Russia the remainder. Italy, France, and Belgium showed no articles of cooperage. Class 5.—Wood-carving. 15. Italy excelled in this, as in many other departments of art. Luigi Frullini, of Florence, and Cav. Gio. Bat. Gatti, of Rome, received the highest award for their exhibited works. The exhibits of these manu¬ facturers were the most" beautiful of their kind; the scenes and figures represented were of the highest style of art. Au Italian pear-wood tablet, representing “ Spring,” was bought for the Museum of Edinburgh, Scotland, for 5,000 francs. Switzerland and Austria ranked next in art-carving on wood. In Switzerland, however, wood-carving is more of a trade than an art. Small carved Swiss cottages, and articles carved in pear-wood, were the most notable. The Austrian (Tyrol) productions were better and more pretentious • they were representations of festive scenes, Tyrolese pictures, and cop¬ ies in wood of historical and other paintings. China and Japan excel in carving, in their peculiar style, iu ivory and bamboo. The art of carving is also largely practiced in France, Belgium, and Germany. The house of Heinr. Ad. Meyer, of Hamburg, is the most extensive dealer in ivory and its substitutes on the continent of Europe. Theirs is also the most extensive manufactory of piano-keys, billiard-balls, and knife-handles in the world. 16 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Class G.—Furniture. 10. The exhibit of articles in this class was probably more extensive than in any other in the exhibition; it was almost boundless in quan¬ tity and variety. The manufacture of furniture is very extensively pursued, both in Germany and Austria, and has beeu brought to great perfection in design as well as workmanship. The work in these coun¬ tries is usually done by machinery, and they can, not only compete with other nations at home, but are enabled to export very largely. One of the most notable, and to the American most interesting, kinds- of furniture is that which is called bent-wood ware. It is to be met with all over Germany and Austria, principally in the form of chairs, lounges, and lighter furniture. It is remarkable for its neatness, clean finish, light lines, great strength, and its very few joints. This reduc¬ tion in number of joints is accomplished mainly by bending the wood used, so as to require as few pieces as possible. An ordinary chair contains only six pieces besides the cane seat, and is an article which has no superior in its way. The construction of this furniture became an object of great interest to the writer, and he was, therefore, glad to accept an invitation to join an expedition, provided by the liberality of the vice-president of the grand jury, Mr. Joseph Thonet, to some of the factories of his firm—situated in Koritschau, JBistritz, Hallenkau, (all in Moravia,) and Great Ugroez, (in Hungary)—which, together with their twenty auxiliary establishments, employ 5,200 work-people, male and female, and require motive power to the extent of 440 horse-power. Our visit extended to Great Ugroez and Bistritz. At the former place, there are thirty thousand acres of mountain beech-forest. Beech is the only kind of wood used in the furniture iu question, for which use it seemed to be excellently adapted. The trees being felled, the tops are removed and made into charcoal for use iu the glass-works of Bohemia, The trunks are hauled to the mills, and sawed into planks of suitable thickness by gang-saws. The planks are iu turn ripped up, with circu¬ lar saws, into square pieces for turniug. If iuteuded for the back and hind legs of a common chair, which are composed of only one piece, the square piece of proper length is put into a kind of gauge-lathe, which does its work very rapidly, and varies the size where needed. The ordinary dowel-lathe is used for pieces of uniform size, such as the hoops, which are placed inside of the legs to stay them, instead of straight pieces or rungs. These hoops iu the bent-wood chairs are so placed as to make it impossible to put the feet on them at any time. After being rouuded as required, the wood is steamed in the green state for twenty-four hours in boilers adapted to the purpose. It is theu takeu out and bent to the shape desired, on a cast-iron frame, by baud. If intended for the seat, the piece is first strapped with iron ou its outside, so that the bending shall be a process of compression lengthwise rather thau an expansion. It is then attached WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 17 by one end to a pattern fastened to a turn-table, the other end being- held by a chain wound upon a drum, to which is applied a brake so as to regulate the tension with which the piece is delivered to the pat¬ tern. The turn-table is then set in motion, and winds the wood upon its own form. If designed for a scroll, the pattern may be complicated and in several pieces, which are put in place at the proper time in the progress of the rotation. If for a double scroll, two of the tension- bands are employed. Much ingenuity is shown in devising these pat¬ terns and the mode of working them. The pattern is of cast iron, and the article bent to its shape is fastened to it, and so remains until the drying process has so far progressed that the wood will remain fixed in the shape thus given it. Steam-heat is used for drying. “When thor¬ oughly dry, the parts are forwarded to the filing or rasping shop, where they are clamped to a bench and filed all over with great care, and sand, papered. This work is largely done by females. The work is now ready to be stained and French-polished, each piece being done sepa¬ rately. This process, in my opinion, is the most important one in the Austrian bent-wood art, and no imitation will be a success without it. This work of staining and polishing is also done by females for the most part. The pieces are clamped to a bench, and each person has as many pieces in progress at a time as will dry, as she rapidly passes over them, in time for the next round. The process of polishing is one in which the sense of touch is an important element in the skill employed; and this can only be acquired by considerable experience. The next thing is the setting up. This is done by having a frame whicli will hold the several parts in their proper places at the points of con¬ tact, and where a firm connection is to be made a saw of the proper thickness is passed between the pieces, making even surfaces for a joint. At such joints, glue is applied, and the parts are secured firmly with ordi¬ nary wood-screws or small bolts. The common chair is made to be taken apart for packing—the front legs and seat in one piece, the back in another, the hoops for legs, &c., the third. Three dozen of these chairs are packed in a medium-sized box; they are sent to all parts of the world. The operations described are those used in producing only the sim¬ plest aud commonest chair of this class of manufacture, and are given only to show the process of making, which can be extended to the most elaborately ornamented and complicated work of this kind. To show how wonderfully this system of bending wood into shape can be utilized, it may be stated that the Thonets exhibited at Vienna a chair made from a single piece of wood 36 feet long, including seat as well as frame; the bending and combination into the shape required was a work of extreme ingenuity, and it was calculated most admirably to give an idea of the ductility of wood when properly treated. About fifty varieties of chairs are made by the firm in question, ranging in price from 3 to 25 florins, (a florin is equal to 50 cents of American 2 w i 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. money;) thirteen kinds of sofas, from 14 to 38 florins; eight styles of tables, from 2G to 48 florins; piano-stools, foot-stools, &c., were also shown in great variety. They also exhibited quite a variety of fancy work, twisted pillars, and cornices, indicating the great range of appli¬ cation of this industrial process. The common furniture of Austria is extremely monotonous in appear¬ ance; and, although neat and well made, the diagonally-veneered mar¬ gins of the panels arc uniformly surrounded with a kind of flute or thumb- molding, which makes it appear that the general style is subordinated to the tiuish. French polish is universally used for finishing, and it makes even the commonest work look very neat. In the better grades of furniture, however, much variety and invention is shown. What seemed very commendable in the exhibition was that the upholsterer and furniture-manufacturer had been allowed to exhibit together. By this arrangement, room after room was shown completely furnished, the articles being all in harmony one with the other, and the general effect heightened by the arrangement of a thin screen of cotton spread over the top of the inclosure fitted as a room, to tone the light without dimming it materially. Some of tliese inclosures, or rooms, were quite unique in their arrange¬ ment. In one of them, a smoking-room, the carpet, wall paper, and curtains had the tobacco-leaf worked into the design. The renaissance style was prominent in the best work, showing how intimate are its relations to modern art. It may here be remarked that the question of good taste in style and make-up was held paramount in deciding awards of premiums in this group. It was extremely difficult at first to decide in what good taste really consisted, after having so long heard the French styles and makes extolled as models of good taste. Xow, however, we are inclined to think that this standard is not the correct oue; it is too elaborate and ornate to satisfy American taste. Indeed, it may be said that the French exhaust art in their efforts after the new, the strange, the gro¬ tesque, and the beautiful. Some pieces of salon furniture exhibited by M. Chistofle, the great Parisian manufacturer of fine bronzes, were so heavily aud elaborately covered with silver, gold, ivory, and bronze ornamentation as to afford a remarkable instance of the excesses referred to. The French fashions of furniture have long been regarded by the nations of Europe, excepting perhaps Great Britain, as the perfection of art. AVith Americans, the tendency is very much in the same direction, and good taste is sacrificed to circumstances connected with a certain branch of our industry. In other words, it would appear, that our styles of ornamentation in furniture are now adopted more with reference to the capacity and peculiarities of our universal wood- molding machines, than to real beauty and to the other attributes of good taste. Before concluding this digression, it may be stated that the furniture of WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 19 all countries exhibited was generally made for actual use, and, with the- exception of some Italian, French, and German work, could be seen in counterpart everywhere on the continent, at the houses of well-to-do citizens. Yo. Fratelli Panciera-Besarel, of Venice, exhibited a French walnut mantelpiece, with a beautifully-carved representation, in relief, of a mythological subject. The Prince of Wales had ordered from this manufacturer some ornaments in wood-carving for his palace; these were exhibited, attracting much attention. They consisted of a pair of pedestals for candelabra or vases, each composed of five Cupids climbing one upon the other; the lower ones showed by their facial expression how heavy was the burden which they bore; the upper ones expressed similarly their satisfaction at being uppermost. Cav. Gio. Bat. Gatti, of Borne, showed a splendid jewel-case of ebony, inlaid with ivory and different light-colored woods, with a little bronze statuette. It was of the old Byzantine style, and was reputed to have been sold in London for £1,200. Gueret Brothers, of Paris, showed tasteful wood-carving, on a side¬ board cabinet. Henri Fourdinir, of Paris, exhibited a splendid set of drawing-room furniture in marquetry and wood-carving; also a fine set of ebony and ivory-inlaid tea-poys. This firm claims to hold a patent on a specialty of carved marquetry, but the fact that the Japanese have long practiced this art invalidates this claim. A cabinet of this style was sent in 1807 to London, and realized 75,000 francs. At the exhibition, they had two album-covers, maguificently carved and finished, one of which was sold to the Museum of Pesth for 1,500 francs. Jackson & Graham, of London, exhibited the most elegant and best executed work in furniture in the entire exhibition. The furniture thus contributed consisted of cabinets, tables, jewel-cases, library and glass cases, and numerous other articles, all of which were worked in rose¬ wood, inlaid and marqueted with most, if not all, of the finest known woods. One of the articles shown was an ebony cabinet, 7 feet 1 inch wide by 7 feet 7£ inches high, which was inlaid with box, purple, orange, and gray maple, and holly woods; it was Italian in design, with Greek ornamentation. This article was worth £2,500. Another ebony cabinet, inlaid with ivory, and engraved and relieved with precious stones— lapis lazuli and jasjier—and of Italian design, was sold for £5,000. We may here state that while in London we visited the factory of Jackson & Graham, where we were courteously received and afforded every facility for studying the various processes of inlaying. The art of inlajing has been practiced for many years among the Italians, but it is only recently that it has been brought to comparative perfection. The inferiority of the old style of Italian work was due to the circum¬ stance that the artisans of that country were in the habit of cutting the ornament and the ground wood together, thus leaving the work open,and thus they were never able to cut a sharp pattern on the leaves . 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. this marred the grace of the design. The work of inlaying is now done as follows: a drawing of the design is first made for the workman to copy after. This is either made on metal and printed, or lithographed in fine, clear, black lines—the fiuer the better. The veneers of the colors needed are then selected, and the various portions of the design are fixed on them, cut out, and fitted together. When the ornament is formed, the drawing of the work is taken, and a piece of thiu tissue- paper spread over it and well secured at the corners to prevent slipping. Through this tissue-paper, the lines of the drawing are visible; the cut ornament is then taken piece by piece and fixed with gum on the tissue- paper, according to the colored drawing furnished with the outlines- Care is taken that the gum does not get on the edges of the pieces, as it would prevent perfect tracery when completed. A piece of paper is next covered on one side with lampblack mixed with turpentine, and left to dry. This blackened paper and a sheet of white are then placed between the drawing and the tissue-paper. A thin pointed instrument is used to mark around the ornament, the blackened paper yielding to the white a black line at th e point of pressure, thus producing a correct copy of the ornament made. This impression is then fixed on the ground-veneer by compression; great care being taken not to stretch the paper or tear it. T lie ground-wood is then cut with great care to receive the ornament. By this means, the work can be done with great precision, and the workman is enabled to use woods in his design as light as those in the ground , without fear that the joint will be seen. The cutting is done with a very fine buhl-saw, the upper part of the frame of which is guided on a horizontal rod, the frame being operated in a horizontal position with the blade of the saw placed at right angles to it. The veneer is held in a vise operated by the foot, and made to move the wood to the angle o r line cut instead of moving the saw to the line ; the work requires a steady hand and much practice. Jos. Ilassa & Son, of Vienna, exhibited a remarkable black-walnut carved bedstead with canopy, in the style of Louis XIV. It was so completely covered with carvings, representing Cupids, flowers, fruits, and arabesques, that scarcely a piece of plain wood was visible, and yet, in spite of this, the general effect was very pleasing. Bernhard Ludwig, of Vienna, exhibited dining-room furniture, with marquetry in rose, ebony, and maple. The chairs were upholstered with green embossed leather. He also exhibited bedroom furniture, with somewhat more elaborate ornamentation. Even in these elegant dis¬ plays, the old Austrian fashion of diagonal margins for panels was seen to prevail. Ileinr. Diibell & Son, of Vienna, had a notable sideboard renaissance, in French walnut, with carved inlaid ebony marquetry. Xames, which have been mentioned in these cases, are those of exhib¬ itors who gained the highest prizes. A wardrobe of real ebony, from Danzig, was a masterpiece of joiners’ WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 21 work. A pier-style cabinet from Copenhagen, paneled with foiled tor¬ toise, giving it a dark-green and dark-red veined tortoise effect, was also a very fine piece of workmanship, and in good taste. From Ger¬ many, a jewel cabinet, and a set of dining-room furniture in renaissance, were very beautiful. Dresden contributed showy cabinets in renais¬ sance style, and a section of dining-room wall with sideboard, panels, and doors, all in harmony, of the same style, and carved in French walnut. Nicholas Strange, of St. Petersburg, Russia, showed a set of dining¬ room furniture of Russian style, carved in oak, which was really very line. It was sold to the Archduke Charles Louis of Austria for 6,000 rubles, ($5,000.) The pavilion of the Emperor of Russia was furnished by this artist. That portion of it in the Emperor’s sleeping-apartment was valued at $8,500. Yenice showed very good examples of Italian furniture, among them a round table, with inlaid and mosaic work representing five scenes in the life of Christopher Columbus. Rome and Milan exhibited jewel-cases, Pescia cabinets in free relief, and fine drawing-room furniture, but these were deficient in style and taste. Paris contributed spring-beds in a French house, finely-carved dining¬ room furniture in antique styles, furniture of various styles, including an ebony carved chair, which was particularly worthy of notice, and a novel kind of folding-chair. Johann Podstata, of Vienna, exhibited a great variety of childrens’ beds and cribs. These Austrian cribs are peculiar, and have some points of merit. Their sides are quite high, and made of a network of stout cording, depending from a top railing running around and secured below. On one side, however, the railing is composed of an iron rod looped at each end into upright iron rods terminating at the top in a kind of sharp bend, over which the looped rod is carried when the side is to be closed* When it is desired to open the crib to put in or to take out the child, the rail, or looped rod, is lifted up and then pulled down ; the network folding upon itself like a piece of cloth. Among the noteworthy Vienna furniture were wardrobes by J. Mann- stein, one of which, upon being unfolded, made a bedroom 8 by 10 feet, with 8 feet ceiling, and containing a bed, table, wash-stand, looking- glass, and seats. The Tyrol showed some fine furniture finished in marquetry. Pesth had some good furniture on exhibition, including sideboards, extension-tables, library-desk, table, and other things. Judging from specimens exhibited, it would seem that Japanese lacquered ware of the better grade is very superior. It was distin¬ guished from the other articles of its class by raised figures in gold upon a black surface. It is distinct from the Chinese makes in this and •other respects, the latter never producing such good work. While on the subject of Japan wares, it may be remarked that the 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. lacquer of the Japanese is so much superior to our best methods of pol¬ ishing, that it seemed a duty to take special pains to learn as much as possible about it. Through the kindness of Dr. G. Wagener, an attache of the Japanese commission, the attempt was partially successful. The Japanese exhibition was quite well represented in this lacquered ware, and it attracted much attention. It is well known that their wooden ware finished with this lacquer is not injured by hot water. Their cups in which tea is steeped are of wood, covered with lacquer. We are using gum copal to finish the best work on our pianos, which, when fin¬ ished, are quite satisfactory in appearance, but are easily ruined by atmospheric and other influences. One firm in Boston has lost $8,000 a year by the failure of the very fragile surface given by this gum. The following is the process as given by Dr. Wagener: “NOTE UPON THAT KIND OF JAPANESE LACQUER CALLED ‘ SHIUNKEI.’ - “ If the wood to be varnished be very porous, and the pores large enough to be visible to the naked eye, they are filled with a mixture of stofie-powder and the lacquer called ‘ seshime,’ which is merely the sap of the branches of the varnisli-tree, without any mixture. This paste of stone-powder and lacquer is put on with a wooden spatula, the work¬ man taking good care to press hard on the spatula, so as to fill up all the pores, and tomb the varnish off the surface of the wood, which is to be kept as clean as possible. After the varnish is well hardened, the whole surface is polished with a soft stone—a kind of wedge-stone—so that the veins of the wood come out again. This filling process can be repeated, if necessary. ISText, in order to give it a color, the wood is painted over with a thin water-color, or it is stained. When thus prepared, the ob¬ ject is then varnished with the lacquer shiunkei, of which a thin coat¬ ing is put on with a brush ; otherwise it would look too dark. On ac¬ count of this lacquer taking its gloss in hardening, it requires a skillful person with a light hand to obtain a good result. Only one coating is given. “ In case the wood is close-grained and of even surface, the prelimi¬ nary work will be unnecessary. The sheshiue lacquer is aloue used. It is rubbed into the wood with a ball of cotton, which is saturated with it. After it has been rubbed iu, that which remains on the surface is taken off' by rubbing with Japanese soft paper, so that in fact only a very thin layer remains. “It sometimes happens that a Japauese lacquer is too thick, and will not spread evenly with a spatula, as occasionally happens when it is mixed with stone-powder. When this occurs, the Japauese workmen add to the varnish they are about to use powdered camphor. By this means it becomes more liquified and flows much better. “ There is another thing about the Japanese method of using this varnish that is worth knowing. The atmosphere iu which it is to harden, after it has been applied, should be moist, and the room darkened. The WOOD-INDUSTRIES. 23 Japanese lacquerers have in their work-rooms large boxes fixed against the walls. These are furnished with sliding-doors. The inside of these boxes are wetted with towels dipped in water ; the lacquered ware is introduced, and the doors are closed. It generally requires forty-eight hours to harden the lacquer.” Keturning to the description of the goods exhibited. Persian mosaics were represented by a small table, which was covered with beautiful designs in eight or nine different colored woods. The billiard-tables of Austria and Germany—the only countries exhibiting—were neat, and might answer well enough for amateurs ; but skilled players would condemn them, and they would suffer by compar¬ ison with American and French tables. The principal manufacture of these tables has its seat in Vienna. Two firms, of Mayence, repre¬ sented Germany. The Austrian style of furniture held a third rank—not, however, be¬ cause it was inferior to other makes, but from its monotonous uniformity iu style; it all presented the same general features and similar patterns, and exhibited a persistent adherence to diagonals and margins of pauel- work. France, on the other hand, showed a talent for design and ornamenta¬ tion in furniture which was marvelous and oppressive. But the French are continually overdoing the work which they can do so well. They hide the real merits of their designs beneath effects which are too rich and gorgeous. The English show a kindred taste to ours in their furniture. It is generally well conceived in design and tasteful in ornamentation. Here, perhaps, may be most properly mentioned the exhibit of the firm of Battany, Heywood & Hancock, whose pavilion in the rotunda contained ebony and scarlet silk-upholstered drawing-room furniture, having a most novel and unique effect; they claimed it as original and of their own invention. It probably was ; but it was too new and strange and odd for the jury to criticise, and it received no award. Whether its design was really meritorious or not would, we are convinced, be as difficult to decide as an abstruse question in metaphysics. Class 7.—Fancy goods. 17. This class embraces all kinds of small notions—boxes, cigar-cases, watch-stands, and toys of wood and of other materials. Switzerland has a regular and large trade in this line with all parts of the world, notwithstanding that they are produced principally by hand. But Germany, more than any other nation, excels in this line of in¬ dustry, having whole towns, cities, and communities almost entirely devoted to this business. The Black Forest toys are known all over the world ; and from Baden, in that district, and from Nuremberg, in Bavaria, the entire continents of Europe and America are supplied 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. with their wares and products to make the exhibition a success. TLie exhibition itself was a mammoth one, and more truly a “ world’s fair ’’ than probably any other ever held in Europe. But its very magnitude showed that the amount of patient labor and attention to detail in getting it up must have been something quite enormous. But the com¬ mittees, heartily seconded by the people, were untiring in their efforts* and there was probably no considerable manufacturer in Europe that did not have a special invitation to exhibit. The exhibition, too, was carried out in the face of an opposition, which endeavored to frighten people away from Vienna by rumors of high charges and of the prev¬ alence of contagious diseases. Though not a financial success, it was a success in every other respect. It is to be hoped that our people will accept a lesson in this respect from Austria, and, sinking all sectional littleness of feeling, unite in the work of hearty co-operation to make our Industrial Exhibition on the occasion of our first Centennial Celebration in ISTfi an affair worthy of a people, enterprising, ingenious, and successful in the mechanic and all other arts. INDEX Art. Page. American carriage-wheels. 2 6 exhibit. 1 5 Awards. 1 5 Buildings. 11 11 Carriages .. 3 6 Classification of exhibits. 10 11 Conclusions. 21 25 Cooperage. 14 14 Exhibits of the United States. 1 5 Fancy goods... 17 23 Furniture, American. .3 6 exhibited. 16 16 Hygroscopic changes, effects of. 4 7 Hygrometry, value of knowledge of. 6 8 Machine-made articles. 18 24 Machinery, wood-working. 3 6 Marquetry. 13 13 Method of getting out stock. 9 10 seasoning, by George Woods. 8 10 Mosaic. 3 6 Musical instruments. 20 25 Parquetry. 13' 13 Philosophy of shrinkage. 7 9 Seasoning, Woods’s method. 8 10 Stock, method of getting out .. 9 10 Willow-ware.. 19 24 Windows in cold climates, necessity of. 5 8 Wood-carving. 15 15 for musical instruments. 20 25 Wood-working machinery. 3 6 o I). WORKING OF STONE. L. J. HINTON. * VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. REPORT ON THE WORKING OF STONE; AND ON ARTIFICIAL STONES. LOUIS J. HINTON, MEMBER OF THE ARTISAN COMMISSION OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1876. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. STONE-CUTTING MACHINES. Page. 1. Tilghman’s sand-blast; Tyndall’s description. 5 2. The inventor’s claims; the process. 6 3. Holmes & Payton’s stone-dressing machine. 7 4. Description of the machine. 8 5. Feed-motion. 9 6. Operation of the machine. 9 7. Annani’s stone-dresser; description. 10 8. Stone molded for cornices. 10 9. Machine stone dressing works. 10 10. History of stone-dressing in Great Britain. 11 11. Description of machinery at the stone-dressing works. 14 12. Portland stone. 15 13. Adaptability of British machinery to use in the United States. 16 14. Young’s diamond saw; description. 16 15. The saw quarrying-machine. 17 16. Concluding remarks on stone-working machinery. 18 CHAPTER II. CUT AND CARVED STONE-WORK. 17. Extent and character of exhibits... 19 18. Wasserburger’s mausoleum. 19 19. Method of business in Europe. 20 20. Other exhibits... 20 21. Working stone in America... 21 22. Methods of working in Vienna... 21 23. Condition of Viennese workmen.. 22 24. Education of workmen... 22 25. Methods of doing fine work. 22 26. Application of stone and stucco. 23 27. Construction of stair-ways. 23 CHAPTER III. PAVING SIDEWALKS AND HALLS. 28. Encaustic tiles.-...-.-. 24 29. Mosaic floors.... 25 30. Advantages of mosaic... 25 31. Wages; methods of work.. 25 32. Yorkshire flagging..... 26 33. London sidewalks... 26 34. Asphalt pavements... 27 35. Asphalt mosaics. 28 36. Asphalt in colors. 29 37. Cement-flooring. 30 38. Other flooring-materials. 31 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. CEMENT, STUCCO, AND TERRA-COTTA. Page. 39. Stucco, its applicability; use in Vienna. 32 40. Use of stucco in London, .. 33 41. Use of Portland cement. 34' 42. Austrian cements. 36 43. Saullick cement. 36 44. Style of Viennese buildings. 38 45. Use of stucco in Vienna. 39 46. Terra-cotta; history ; value. 39 47. Improvements in manufacture. 39 48. Result of the work of the art-schools. 39 CHAPTER V. ARTIFICIAL STONE. 49. Ransome’s stone; extent of manufacture. 41 50. History of the invention. 41 51. Process of manufacture. 42 52. "the later process; history. 43 53. Chemistry of the process. 43 54. Durability of the product. 44 55. Belgian artificial stone. 45 56. Increase of the business. 46 CHAPTER I. STONE-CUTTING MACHINES. Tilghman’s sand-blast ; Holmes & Payton’s stone-dkessing machine ; An- nani’s stone-dresser; Machine stone-dressing works; History of machine STONE-DRESSING IN GREAT BRITAIN; YOUNG’S DIAMOND SAW J YOUNG’S SAW QUAR- RYING-MACHINE ; CONCLUSION. 1. Tilghman’s sand-blast —In the American section of the Ma¬ chinery Hall, there was but one piece of machinery that could be applied to stone-work—Tilghman’s sand-blast. This, however, was so excellent a device, and so simple, that it attracted a large share of attention both from the general public and the practical men of all countries. In a paper read at one of the meetings of the British Boyal Institu¬ tion, Professor Tyndall gives a very interesting account of the sand¬ blast. Speaking of that large statue, the Sphynx of Egypt, he says: “It is nearly covered up by the sand of the desert. The neck of the Sphynx is partly cut across, not, as I am assured by Mr. Huxley, by ordinary weathering, but by the eroding action of the fine sand blown against it. In these cases nature furnishes us with hints which may be taken advantage of in art; and this action of sand has been recently turned to extraordinary account in the Uqited States. “ When in Boston, I was taken by Mr. Josiah Quincy to see the ac¬ tion of the sand-blast. A kind of hopper, containing fine silicious sand, was connected with a reservoir of compressed air, the pressure being variable at pleasure. The hopper ended in a long slit, from which the sand was blown. A plate of glass was placed beneath the slit, and caused to pass slowly under it; it came out perfectly depolished, with a bright opalescent glimmer, such as could only be produced by the most careful grinding. Every little particle of sand urged against the glass, having all its energy concentrated on the point of impact, formed there a little pit, the depolished surface consisting of innumerable hol¬ lows of this description. But this was not all. By protecting certain portions of the surface, and exposing others, figures and tracery of any required form could be etched upon the glass. “ The figures of any open iron-work could thus be copied, while wire- gauze placed over the glass produced a reticulated pattern. But it re¬ quired no such resisting substance as iron to shelter the glass. The patterns of the finest lace could be thus reproduced, the delicate fila¬ ments of the lace itself offering a sufficient protection. All these effects 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 187a have been obtained with a simple model of the sand-blast, devised for me by my assistant. A fraction of a minute suffices to etch upon glass a rich and beautiful lace-pattern. Any yielding substance may be em¬ ployed to protect the glass. By immediately diffusing the shock of the particle, such substances practically destroy the local erosive power. The hand can bear without inconvenience a sand-shower which would pulverize glass. Etchings executed on glass with suitable kinds of iuk are accurately worked out by the sand-blast. In fact, within certain limits, the harder the surface the greater is the concentration of the shock, and the more effectual is the erosion. It is not necessary that the sand should be the harder substance of the two ; corundum, for ex¬ ample, is much harder than quartz; still, quartz-sand can not only de¬ polish, but actually blow a hole through a plate of corundum. Nay, glass may be depolished by the impact of hue shot, the grains in this case bruising the glass before they have time to flatten and turn their energy into heat. ****** “But we can go far beyond the mere depolishiug of glass; indeed, I have already said that quartz-sand can wear a hole through corundum. This leads me to express my acknowledgments to General Tilghman, who is the inventor of the sand-blast. To his spontaneous kindness I am indebted for some beautiful illustrations of his process. In one thick plate of glass a figure has been worked out to a depth of three- eighths of an inch. A second plate, seven-eighths of au inch thick, is entirely perforated. Through a circular plate of marble nearly half au inch thick, open-work of the most intricate aud elaborate description has been executed. It would probably take many days to perform this work by any ordinary process ; with the sand-blast it was accomplished in an hour. So much for the strength of the blast. Its delicacy is illus¬ trated by a beautiful example of line-eugraviug. etched ou by means of the blast.” The reputation of Professor Tyndall gives weight to this testimony. No higher indorsement of the value of Tilghman’s invention could be obtained iu Europe, even should it be desired. 2. The iuventor says of his sand-blast that it can be applied to glass, stone, wood, or metal. The efficacy of the blast depends upon its force. The sand may be either propelled by steam, water, or air; but steam is generally to be preferred where high velocities are required. When a large quantity of material is to be removed, as in the orna¬ menting of stone, a steam-jet of from 60 to 80 pounds pressure is used. In this case, the stencil is made of iron or rubber; but when a small quantity of material is to be worn away, or the surface is merely to be depolished, as in ornamenting glass, a jet of air, from one-tenth of a pound to one pound pressure is preferred. With a low pressure, soft aud deli¬ cate substances, such as paper-designs, lace, aud leaves, cemented on glass, may be used. With a steam-jet, using steam sufficient for two horse-power, at 70 pounds pressure, and one pint of sand, 2 cubic inches tilghman’s sand-blast. of granite, 4 cubic inches of marble, or 10 cubic inches of sandstone may be cut away per miuute. It will be obvious that flat or curved surfaces may be alike acted on by this process, the blast being in all cases directed at right angles to the exposed surface. Besides executing ornaments in relief or intaglio, the process can be used for cutting grooves in quarries and in tunnels, for stone-dressing, or for cutting stone in lathes. Mr. Tilghmau, among other specimens of work executed by his sand¬ blast, showed at the exhibition a thin slab of Vermont marble perfo¬ rated in the most beautiful way. It probably could not be executed ah all by hand. Some letters were shown, cut into a lithographic stone' in ten minutes. The shortest time in which an expert stone cutter could execute the same work would be at least ten hours. General Tilghman’s invention stood without a rival, and it will proba¬ bly soon be imitated and used in Europe, where its value is already acknowledged by all who have seen it. 3. Holmes and Payton’s stone-dressing machine. —This machine was exhibited in the British section, as constructed by the Patent Machine Stone-Dressing Company, 21 Great George street, London. Although appearing in the British section, its inventor is an American. It consists of a massive cast-iron frame, with two vertical standards, one on each side of the bed-plates. Upon the cast-iron bed-block is placed a strong, sliding bed-plate, upon which the stones to be dressed are secured. The upper surface of this bed-plate is divided into a number of grooves, parallel to each other, but formed with re¬ cesses at- short intervals, as ' ft shown in the accompanying sketch, Fig. 1. These broader portions are necessary,in order to lift out the dogs by which the brackets fastening the stone upon the Fig- 2. bed-plates are secured. In section the '///// //V/ ///.//// ///V/ZZ/Z grooves of the bed-plates are as shown in xZ/ZZ/~\ y////7\ the next sketch, Fig. 2, and the dogs are of a form to correspond, so that they are held down by the recesses under the T-shaped projection. The length of the dogs is rather less than that of each of the broader portions of the grooves, so that by slipping the former back they are easily lifted out of place. ^ 4. The tops of the two vertical side-frames are connected by a cross- head or tie-beam, and vertical openings are left in them for the whole length, to form the guide in which the blocks carrying the cutting-mech¬ anism slide. In the upper part of these blocks is jnounted a shaft, passing over the bed-plate of the machine, and about 6 feet above it when the blocks are in their highest position. The shaft has keyed upon it outside the frame a large pulley, driven from the motor by a horizontal strap. On the other end, also outside the frame, is a short Fig. 1. ~I 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. crank and connecting-rod, the normal angle of which is about 45°. Be¬ low this crank-shaft is another, also running in the same sliding-block, and carrying the cutters. One end of this shaft projects beyond the outside of the frame, on the same side as the connecting-rod upon the upper shaft, and has placed loosely upon it a large disk, about 2 feet 3 inches in diameter. Near the periphery of the disk are drilled four¬ teen holes equidistant from each other, and some 2 inches in diameter. Projecting from one side of the periphery of the disk is a quadrant cast upon it, and with an outside attachment for the eud of the connecting- rod attached to the upper shaft. It will be seen at once that when the upper shaft is caused to revolve, the conuectitig-rod imparts a recipro¬ cating motion to the loose disk, but, of course, without affecting the cutter-shaft. Ou each side of the loose disk, however, and in rubbing- coutact with it, are two similar disks, which are keyed upon the cutter- shaft. In the outer of these disks are drilled fifteen holes near the periphery, and exactly corresponding to those in the loose disk, except¬ ing that they exceed the latter in number by one. When the fast disk§ are turned in such a position that one of the holes in the sur¬ face corresponds with one of those in the loose disk, a pin is used to couple both together, and then the motion of the connecting-rod at once imparts a reciprocating action to the cutter-shaft. Handles are fastened to the outer or fast disk, for convenience in turniug it and and the cutter-shaft, to bring one or other of the cuttiug-faces upon the stone. It will be seen that by the simple expedient of having one less hole in the loose than in the fast disk, a very fine gradatiou of angle for the cutter can be obtained; in fact, the utmost range that is necessary is that within the limits of the quadrant cast on the loose disk, and to which two studs are attached, which, however, are free to slide in a curved slot cut upon the quadrant. The object of these studs will be seen presently. The cutter-block mounted on the lower shaft consists of a heavy piece of cast iron, with suitable recesses for holding the cutter. These are of two kinds: one pair ou one side of the block, and extending for its whole length are steel teeth, with spaces 3 between them, and of the form shown in Fig. 3. The width of the space is equal to that of the teeth. A row of these cutters is placed in the recess in the cutter-block, and keyed iu at the eud. The corresponding row iu the other recess are - arranged so that a tooth occurs in one row opposite a space in the other. The rows are placed each at an angle converging toward each other. Ou the opposite side of the cutter-block are placed, in suit¬ able recesses, plain steel blades, with sharpened edges, merely kept iu place by paper packing. These blades also converge toward one another. It will now be seen that when it is necessary to cut the stone with the teeth, if the steel blades are iu contact with the stone, a half¬ turn must be given to the cutter-block, which is doue by means of the handles on the fast disk, and, as the normal position of one of the two holmes & payton’s stone-dressing machine. 9 handles always lies between the studs on the quadrant, it follows that when the cutter-block is thrown over, the opposite handle then falls be¬ tween the studs. Again, if one set of cutters, either teeth or blades, is in contact with the stone, the handle comes home upon the lower stud, whereas, when the other row of cutters is brought into contact, the handle is thrown against the upper stud. Between these two extremes, any desired inclination is imparted to the cutting-tool by means of the holes in the disk. 5. We now come to the feed-motion of the machine. This is of three kinds: first, the rising and falling motion, given to the sliding-blocks in the frame, as the cutter follows up the stone in dressing it; second, th« backward and forward motion of the bed; and, third, a hand-motion, for producing a fine cut, or relieving the pressure of the tool upon the stone. To produce the first of these motions a vertical screw passes through each sliding block, and, by turning them in either direction, a rising and falling motion is obtained. They extend for the whole length of the guides in the frames, and pass below the bed-plate of the machine, where each terminates in a strong worm, gearing into a worm-wheel. This wheel is driven either to the right or left by bevel-gearing, a lever being under the hand of the operator to reverse the action at will. Similarly the strong pinion, driving the broad rack upon the under side of the bed-plate, is driven by bevel-gearing from the motor-shaft, and is also reversed at will by a clutch and lever. The hand-motion is merely a wheel gearing into the worms of the vertical screw-shaft. It is only needed to relieve the machine when taking a finer cut. 6. The action of the machine is as follows : When the cutter-block is set in motion by the oscillation of the disk, the stones gradually feed along on the bed-plates, and one row of teeth takes a biting cut, leaving a se¬ ries of ridges, corresponding to the space between the teeth. The mo¬ tion is then reversed, and the cutter turned over far enough to bring the other series of teeth to act upon the stone. These of course attack the ridges, and reduce the surface of the block to a level. The cutter-block may then be thrown half over, so as to bring the knife-blades in contact with the stone. The action of these, which take a much more delicate cut, leaves a smooth, true surface, with scarcely perceptible ridges. The teeth leave longitudinal dressing-marks upon the stone, and the blades transverse marks. The angle given to the tool varies with the uature of the work, being greater for hard and less for soft stone. The machine in the Vienna Exhibition would take a block 2 feet 4 inches high, and 7 feet long, and surfaced granite at the rate of about 2 feet a minute. The power required to drive it on such work was said to be two-horse power. The writer is not able to state from his own knowledge whether simi¬ lar machines are in use with, us, but he has seen marks on machine- manufactured stone-work, wrought by the Bigelow Bluestone Company, 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. near Bondout, X. Y., and at Chicago, such as are left by the Holmes & Payton machine. 7. Signor Guiseppi Annani’s stone-dresser. —The only other stone-dressing machine which we could discover among all the machines on exhibition in the vast machinery-hall adjacent to the exposition build¬ ing,was that of Guiseppi Annaui, of Yeroua, Italy. Little can be said of it, and that scarcely favorable. It was a clumsy, ill-made wooden frame, with a bed for the stone high above the ground. The feed was au - tomatic, or would be if it could work, and'consisted of a rack and pinion, driven through a ratchet and gear from a pulley belted from the motor. The so-called stone-dressing arrangement was formed of a set of six hammers, hung from a shaft; beneath them was a second shaft with six cams mounted upon it. The cams revolve, lifting the hammers consecutively, and then dropping them suddenly, each upon one of a row of chisels fixed in an inclined frame, and working loose in guides, with their cutting-edges resting on the surface of the stone. Spring- stops are placed above the hammers to prevent their rising too high when lifted by the cams. This idea is very old, and even if the pres¬ ent machine were perfectly made, it could never work with the slightest regularity or economy. Each chisel, operating on its own account, would penetrate more or less, according to the varying deusity of the stone; and this irregularity once having commenced, it would never be corrected. The machine of Signor Annaui may be regarded as some¬ what of a curiosity. S. Powis, James & Co.’s stone-dressing machinery. —Bear Holmes & Payton’s machine, Messrs. Powis, James & Co., of London, exhibited a large stock of wood cutting and molding machines. Atten¬ tion was attracted to their exhibit by two large pieces of stone molded into cornice lengths. Upon making inquiries, it was ascertained that this firm manufacture stone-cutting machinery, in addition to their other work. They did not exhibit it, but merely showed the two pieces of dressed stone just mentioned, to attract attention to the scope of the work done by their firm. The address of a company in London was given, with the assurance that visitors to their works would “ see some of the best stone-dressing machinery ever invented.” Accordingly, on the way home, a point was made of finding them. 9. The machine stone-dressing works. —These works are located at York Road Station, Battersea Park, London. The firm is a “limited liability” company, which has purchased the patented invention of Mr* G. Hunter and Sir William Fothergill-Cooke. The writer found a friend employed at the company’s works, as fore¬ man of the forty or fifty stone-cutters employed there, who kiudly intro¬ duced him to Mr. G. Hunter, the principal inventor. This geutleman could spare very little time to give the details of construction of his machines, but gave references to different journals that had printed, at BRITISH STONE-DRESSING MACHINERY. 11 various times, more or less full accouuts of his and his copatentee’s in¬ vention. In a letter from him, written at the request of the writer, a brief history is given of the introduction of stone-dressing machinery in Great Britain, so far as his knowledge extends. 10. This account is as follows : History of stone-dressing by machinery in Great Britain.— “I may say that 1832 was the year the first machine was made, but the Forfarshire machines were patented in 1834. To the best of my knowledge, these machines are chiefly used for dressing flags. Six of these were erected at Legsmill quarries, Forfarshire, Scotland. They were only partially successful, owing to the opposition of the journeyman stone-cutters. I may say that these six machines dressed all the planed flags shipped from Arbroath, up to the year 1846, wheu the proprietors erected two at the quarries belonging to Lord Panmure, b#t they only ‘ saked 7 the stone per superficial foot, which at this time was equal to £3 6s. 8 d. per thousand superficial feet. The contract was generally let for £2 2s. Od. This upheld coals and steel, and exe¬ cuted the work, taking an inch or an inch and a half off. In 1852, three more machines were erected for different parties. Since then, the gradual development of these machines took place, and now, I believe, there are nearly one hundred in Forfarshire ; and while the export of machine-dressed flagging from 1836 to 1840 remained about 200,000 feet per annum, it is now about 2,000,000. “In the year 1837, the railway block boring and facing machine was brought out and patented, by the same inventor, James Hunter, (my father,) of Legsmill, Forfarshire; but owing to the sudden disuse of stone blocks, this machine, although a success, became of comparatively little use. “ In the year 1852, I went to the Forest of Dean, to erect the Forfar¬ shire machinery there, and having heavy, rough stuff to deal with, I went back to Forfarshire, and brought out a saw with tubular trumpet- mouth tools. This was of cast iron, and was 11 feet diameter. Another was made of 6 feet diameter. These machines were put to work in 1855, and are still at work. They cut the sandstone at 5 inches for¬ ward per minute,’ 7 [the stone from the Forest of Dean quarries is stiff and hard, but of a fine grit,] “ and the man attending used to have one penny per foot, superficial, for his labor, and sharpening tools. “In the year 1862, I brought out the saws for cutting hard Welsh slate. These mounted several saws on a spindle above the table, and cross-cut a large slab into several pieces, the speed of cross-cutting be¬ ing 4 inches per minute, through a depth of 12 inches. The tool in this case was of the solid trumpet-shape mentioned. “ I have also erected these saws 12 feet diameter, for squaring mag¬ nesian limestone blocks, for the Lyne pier commissioners. A fast¬ cutting machine was also brought out for cutting out slate-work from the bed. This machine cut into the rock two-thirds of its diameter, and 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. would cut 2 feet at a speed of from 4 to 5 feet per hour. A tuuneling- machiue was next patented. It cut a chase or groove around the rock, 2 inches wide and about 3 feet deep, doing the work, as a rule, in about three hours. We walled many yards with this machine. The price, as shown by the time-keeper’s book, came to about £2 2s. per yard, for a 7 feet 4 inches tunnel. The rate, through solid slate, was from 9 to 10 yards, uight and day. The solid core was removed at times, without Fig. i>.—Hunter and l’othergill’s stone-sawing machine— end view. 0 "*' - HR breaking it. The tunneling-machine weighs about ten tons. It has a revolving ring in front, in whicli pieces of steel securing the tools are fixed. It revolves at a speed of about 20 feet per minute for slate. It moves forward when at full speed at about three-eighths of an inch per revolution, and when working iu pure slate makes several cuts without derangiug the tools; but as spar very often occurs iu slate, we, as a rule, had to change tools generally two or three times, for a cut of 2 feet 9 inches. “ The power required to drive the machine was double-cylinder, high pressure, four and a half cylinder, at about 35 pounds per square inch steam. This machiue was invented for the purpose of proving slate- veins, and as it relieves a block, full diameter of the tunnel, slates or slabs can be made from it, to prove the general outturn of the rock. “The next machine brought out by me was the molding machine, as worked at York Road, Battersea, the chief feature of which is the em- Fig. 6.—Hunter & Fothergill’s stone-molding machine—front view. STONE-MOLDING MACHINERY. Fig. 7.—Hunter & Fothergill’s stone-molding machine—end view. 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ploymeut of plates of different lengths, all lettered, so as to be easily picked out and set, like types, to mold. These being built on a shaft, revolve, aud take out the rough or waste, comparatively near the mold, when a tool to profile passes several times over and finishes the work. The stone is laid on a cant-table to cant to the proper angle. “ I also invented what is known in Scotland as Hunter’s patent ridge stone-cutting machine, which cuts ridge rocks, one out of the other, at about 100 to 140 feet per day, according to the nature of the stone, as shown in Fig. S. These ridges can Fig. 8. be cut out even as thin as five- eighths of an inch. However, as there is such a great difference in stone, it is extremely difficult to know how to construct a machine that shall be applicable to all.” 11. We were not able to see and examine the machinery at rest, but were permitted to see it in full operation. The following description* w r as carefully compared with the machine while inspecting the com¬ pany’s works, and was found accurate: “Of the process of working, both in sawing blocks aud rough-hew- 7 FIC 12 FIC 9 FIC 11 ing moldings, it may be said in limine that one form of cutter is used, a steel face of five-eighths inch diameter, the metal tapering away from the face to give it a cutting-edge. For the saws, the teeth or cutters are cylindrical, tapering bolts, with flat heads, which do the cutting. The most powerful machine ou the premises is an arrangement of a pair of saws, each 5 feet 4 inches in diameter, that work horizontally London Engineer STONE-SAWING MACHINERY. 15 upon upright shafts, and in work meet each other within about an inch. The sawn slab separates readily and uniformly at the middle of the piece left uncut. Each of these saws has forty-four cutting-tools round its periphery. These are carried by holders that are wedged into the outer edge of the saw-plates, and have holes forged in them for the reception of the tools, as in Figs. 9,10, aud 11. Fig. 12 shows the form of the edge by which the tool-holder is kept flush with the blade of the saw. A block of Portland stone, 5 feet 9 inches by 4 feet wide, had a slab of 2£ inches thick taken off by the machine in rather less than twenty-five minutes in our presence. “The rippiug-machine has tools of the same character as the slabber. The saws that work vertically are 2 feet 6 inches in diameter, and have each eighteen cutters. It is equal to taking three saws and cuts of about 8J inches deep. “Of the remaining machines, one operates by cutters arranged upon a vertical shaft; the others are fixed on horizontal shafts, that are raised and lowered, according to their work, with the greatest facility and nicety. The tools in these machines are of the same diameter as the saw-teeth—five-eighths inch—but are of punched disks of steel, about one-eighth inch thick. The form of their cutting-edge aud the mode of fastening will be understood from the subjoined sketch, Fig. 13. “The tools in the planing and molding ma¬ chines are fastened to holders (Fig. 5) that are bolted to the shafts. There is a pair of tools at each end of the holder. Although the hold¬ ers, when fixed upon the shafts, act obliquely, as appears upon the stone passingunder the cutters, and in such manner as seems incompatible with the production of any definite form, they are nevertheless so arranged, and so act, as to turn out moldings of a large size, with many members? rough-cut with great accuracy. The work is finished by being passed two or three times under cutting or scraping tools of the precise form of the molding to be produced. For a molding of many members, some of them deeply cut, more than one of these finishing-tools is sometimes employed. The moldings, as completed, are equal to the best hand-work ever produced. Mitred work is also executed by the machines with perfect accuracy, as we saw from the return-moldings on the ends of the stair-steps in process of being dressed.” 12. The stone mentioned in the above quotation, i. e., Portland, is that quarried from the island of Portland. It is a limestone. In former years a much harder and more durable material was obtained than is quarried at present. The specimens which the machines were operat¬ ing upon on the occasion of our visit were very soft and white, little 16 * VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. likely to stand the wearing effect ot' the weather. The great majority of the public buildings of London are built of this stone. The machinery of this company is peculiarly adapted to its manipulation, and for work¬ ing of the many oolites found in England. We would also venture to use it on sandstone, not harder than Ohio sandstone. We have a large number of soft sandstones in our Western States, and in some of our Southern States, that this molding-machine would work well. 13. The sawing-machines are uot, apparently, so well adapted to our needs as those already patented by some of our own citizens. As a general rule, European manufacturers build more solidly than is customary with us. When we use sandstoue or marble, in con¬ sequence of its great cost as a raw material, and the expense of working, we usually veneer our fronts with thin slabs, backing them up with bricks, and anchoring the stone to the walls. We make our material go further than any other people in the world. This veneering process is, of course, not always followed, as, for example, in the beautiful and solid buildings now erected or being erected under the superintendence of the Architect of the Treasury, Mr. A. B. Mullett. Buildings erected in our cities of granite or limestone are generally quite solidly built. The point to be observed is this: the English sawing-machine, in mak¬ ing a cut, does not make a clean one or a narrow cleft. Indeed, by the time the faces have been on the rubbing-bed to be smoothed down, an inch of material has beeu wasted away. This would never answer with us where the kind of stone which this saw operates upon is so ex¬ pensive. 14. Youngs’ diamond saw. —Messrs. Young, of New York, have in¬ vented and patented a vastly superior saw. It is called “Youngs’ re¬ ciprocating saw-machine for sawing stone.” When exhibited at the fair of the American Institute last autumn, it attracted a great deal of attention, besides gaining the great Medal of Honor, which is ouly given to such inventions as are deemed of such importance as to be likely to work a revolution in industries to which they are applied. The main feature of Young’s patent is that of cutting the stoue by means of diamonds, securely fastened into the saw-blades. They are held in steel cutter-blocks, and are fastened in by calking the steel, any little interstices that remain being filled with small pieces of iron and spelter solder. The art of setting them is so simple that any one can do it with ease, after once having seen it done. There is no neces¬ sity to describe it in greater detail. Suffice it to say that this machine seems superior to anything hitherto designed to perform the same work. On the score of ecouomy it surpasses the machine at Loudon, as it makes but a very narrow cleft, and leaves the face of the stone so smooth that little or no polishing is needed after it comes from the saw-bed. The diamonds are very seldom lost, and do not wear out. They are ot au inexpensive kind, adapted to such work. Steel saws require a great deal of sharpening and replacing. Diamond saws will do more than DIAMOND-SAW MACHINERY. 17 three times as much work with the same power as the old sand and iron saws, and the work is done from ten to thirty times as rapidly. 15. The diamond saw quarrying-machine.— Willard, Whittier & Fig. 14. —Cornice for new London post-office, (one-eighth full size.) Co., of Boston, are the proprietors of a diamond-saw quarrying-ma¬ chine, adapted to all kinds of rock-channeling and dressing, which sur¬ passes the Hunter & Fothergill-Cooke machine, extensively used in Fig. 15. —String course, new St. Thomas Hospital, (one-half full size.) Great Britain, and already described. The Willard & Co. machine consists of a straight saw, armed with black-diamond cutting-points, 2 ST 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. which vibrates between and works in combination with revolving diamond pointed drills for the purpose of freeing the ends of the saw- kerf when operated in a quarry. The whole is carried on a frame with a six horse-power engine and boiler, mounted upon trucks and placed upon a track to facilitate change of its position. It cuts a channel 11 feet in length, one-half inch in width, and 4 feet 10 inches in depth ; it can be handled and worked by two men, is simple in its construction, and is easily kept in order. It is said to effect a saving of 50 per cent, over the cost of hand-labor. 16. Although not so successful with their saws, the English molding- machines are very clever inventions, doing their work better than any¬ thing the writer has ever seen or heard of, and they would doubtless prove of value if introduced on this side of the Atlantic. They are not likely to reduce the demand for stone-cutter’s labor auy more than the introduction of wood-molding machines diminished the demand for the labor of carpeuters and joiners; still some opposition ina\ T be ex¬ pected from the least intelligent workmen. A continuous stretch for a considerable length of one kind of molding would pay well, as, for in¬ stance, in the example shown in Figs. 14 and 15. In concluding this portion of this report, it is well to call attention to the fact that it is only here and in England that any strong efforts have been made to master the art of manipulating stone by machinery, as we work wood and those materials which are even harder than almost any kind of stone—steel and iron. CHAPTER II. CUT AND CARVED STONE-WORK. Extent and character of exhibits; Wasserburger’s mausoleum; Methods of business; Working stone in America; Working stone in Vienna; Condition of Viennese workmen; Education; Methods of doing fine work; Use of STONE AND STUCCO; S'TAIR-WAYS. 17. There were not many specimens of this industry shown at the ex¬ position, either within the building or on the grounds; certainly not nearly as many as were shown at former European world’s fairs. There was, however, an immense number of specimens of different kinds of stone and marble on exhibition. In some sections small blocks about 6 inches square were shown. Italy made a splendid display. Over a thousand different kinds were counted, all grouped with taste and harmonizing in color. Each kind is used by the Italians in some one or other of their many industries. The exhibit in the United States section was but a small collection of 4 pieces of about the right size. It was unfortunate that, after deciding to send the products of our quarries, the collection was not made more complete. A full exhibit of the immense variety of the fine marbles, gran¬ ites, and other building-stones of the United States would not only as¬ tonish the people of Europe, but many of our own architects, who scarcely dream of the immense variety from which they might choose, if trans¬ portation were cheaper than it now is. Some exhibitors made the mistake of sending huge blocks of rough- hewed marble, stone, and granite, which were brought hundreds of miles, to be dumped off the cars, and left where they fell, behind the exhibition building, no word of explanation being given. Small blocks would have done quite as well for exhibition, while the fact that large blocks could be quarried to order might have been stated in a printed form, if it was of sufficient importance to do so. The members of the jury, when viewing these solid blocks, walked around them, felt them, tapped them with their pencils, inquired where this or that specimen came from, and passed on to something that had work in it. As already remarked, there was not a very great amount of the latter kind of work exhibited, except, of course, marble statuary, of which there was a splendid show; Italy alone sending so much, and that of such a quality, as to make its remembrance pleasant to all lovers of the fine arts. 18. With the exception of one or two pedestals of granite, not worth noticing, the only good piece of stone-work to be seen on the grounds was a mausoleum, erected near the jury pavilion, and exhibited by Paul 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Wasserburger, “surveyor of buildings, architect to the community, aud stone-cutter to the court.” The style of the mausoleum was Gothic; the design was by Frederick Schmidt, the detail drawings being furnished by his pupil, Charles Schoden. The sculptured figures at each corner, representing the cardinal virtues, came from the studio of the sculptor Louis Le Grain ; the carving was executed by another academician, J. Pokorny. The following kinds of stone aud granite were used in its construction: for the steps, grayish-blue granite; the columns, red Saxon granite; the body of the edifice was of a light-yellow freestone quarried on the estates of Count Auersperg and Baron v. Gagern, Mok- ritz, in Lower Caruiola. The design was very neat and chaste, but it contained nothing orig¬ inal. It was simply a reproduction of the ideas of the old Gothic architects, with some variation of the details. The manipulation was perfect. In this particular modern workers in stone can equal, if not surpass, the workmen of earlier times; and when this is written, all is written. If). It may be well to note the fact that in Europe this business of stone-cutting seems to be in the hands of wealthy men, like Paul Was- serburger, whose business was founded by an ancestor in 1734, and handed down from father to son until it came into the hands of the present possessor. Small employers seem to be almost unknown in the large - cities. Not so with us; we have many such, struggling to rise. - Foremanships are the greatest prizes offered the best journeymen in Europe. 20. Within the palace, under the dome, was another specimen of the same class of work designed by the same architect—a stone pulpit and stair case. The decorative part was executed by the royal sculptor, Franz Schontholer. The stone used was also from the quarries of Count Auersperg and Baron v. Gagern. It was very fine, but there was nothing in it that the decorative stone-cutters in any of our large cities would not duplicate, if called upon to do so, without having “royal” or “sculptor to the court” attached to their names. Frauce displayed several marble mantels, aud a fountain, all exhibi¬ ted by Parisian firms. The fountain was nicely gotten up; dark-red . marble built into the wall; above the water-bowl was a sculptured panel in white marble, which was executed in Italy, and represented an eagle swooping down upon a duck, surrounded with reeds aud water- plants. Fountains abound in the streets of Europe, a feature worthy of our consideration. Many are very beautiful, some are quaint, and all are useful aud ornamental. Nothing is a more common sight to the traveler, nor does anything that he sees live so long in his memory as the public fountains in open plazas and market-places; time—evening, when the day-sky is changing into that of the night, the crimson flush in the west dying away into blue, aud the stars just beginning to appear. EUROPEAN STONE-CARVING. 21 The cool splash of the fountain sounds pleasantly on the ear. Around it stand, picturesquely grouped, the girls and women who have come to fill their water-jars and to gossip with their neighbors. The gabled and many-storied houses around cast their shadows over them, making the background of a scene which, once seen, is rarely forgotten. In London, there is a u drinking-fountain association ’’—everything is done in England by an association of some kind—which has procured the erection of three hundred and sixty drinking-fountains, besides many troughs for horses, cattle, and dogs. These fountains are nearly all of finely cut and polished marble or granite, or of elaborately carved and cut sandstone. Upon each is engraved the name of the donor, gen¬ erally some wealthy citizen. This association has performed an excellent temperance work. Before those fountains were erected it was extremely difficult to get a drink of water outside one’s own home, while beer and gin shops were open on every side. With a few exceptions, this is the case in our own cities. Some of our many rich philanthropists, by erecting fountains like that at Cincinnati, works beautiful as well as useful, may be sure of winning the grateful thanks of thousands who would be thus benefited. 21. This kind of work in stone would be well adapted to exercise the skill and ability of the school of fine-art workmen which the last decade has raised within our midst. Some of the artisans, who are now Amer¬ ican citizens, have cut and carved some of the best work in Europe. Indeed, we have workmen capable of executing the most elaborate aud delicate work in stone, if the public will but give them a chance, instead of sending to Europe for anything of this character which they m*ay want, and which many deem the American stone-cutter incapable of ex¬ ecuting. But it is a fact that no better workmen can be found than our own. They work much faster than workmen in any other country. In¬ deed, they must of necessity do so. It is quite the exception to see work¬ men in Europe exert themselves. It is their quiet, careful working that produces the finely-finished work seen in Europe; it is not the superior men or better tools. Here, it is only occasionally that work is required to be cut so finely that the workmen are allowed all the time that they desire. When this occurs, a superb result is obtained, as at the Dutch Reformed church, on the corner of Forty-eighth street aud Fifth ave¬ nue, New York City. This building is a perfect gem, fully equalling, in manipulative skill, anything to be found in Europe. 22. It is surprising that work should be done so well in Vienna, with such tools as are used by the workmen. The principal stone used for building purposes is a limestone of a light-yellow color, much like the stone first quarried at Joliet, Ill., but of coarser texture. It cuts freely from the chisels and points. When rubbed down it looks very coarse, but the faces are seldom “ drawed” or rubbed, the practice being to chis.el a margin, generally an inch wide, then bush-hammer all the sur¬ face within the margin. This treatment is probably the best and most economical for this kind of stone. Its coarseness does not come out so 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. glaringly as it would if it were polished or drawed from the tool. The tools used are such as are commonly used all over the world, but of a very inferior quality of steel, and clumsy in shape. Their “mash” or hand hammers would be laughed at by our workmen. They are made of soft iron, sometimes with lead. After working with one of these a few weeks the workman wears a hole in the faces, while our hammers will sometimes last a life-time. Their wooden mallets are of very bad quality as compared with our hickory staves. The Viennese stone-cut¬ ter gets his mallets and handles turned out of one piece ; the handle is twice as long as the mallet. He does not depend on either the hand- hammer or mallet, and appears rather uncomfortable when using either ; he prefers the diamond-faced bush-hammer held in both hands. The employers find all tools. This is a very serious item of expense to our own mechanics, who are compelled to pay for good tools and to meet heavy charges whenever they are required to move their tool-chests, as they aie so often compelled to do. 23. The stone-cutters in Vienna are divided into two classes, those who-’do the rough work and cut plain moldings, and those who do a better grade of stone cutting and carving. The first class generally work by the piece, working eleven hours per day, except in winter, when they work nine hours. Their wages average 2| gulden per day— $1.25. They have no trade societies, but have sick and provident associations which take charge of the burial of deceased members, &c. The more highly skilled workmen earn from 20 to 35 gulden per week, a gulden being worth 50 cents of our money. The men commence w6rk at G a. m. and stop at G p. m. Formerly one hour at noon was all that they were allowed for meals, though they could sit down about 8 a. m. and swallow a hasty meal. This rule still prevails with some em¬ ployers, though most of them allow their workmen a half-hour in the morning for breakfast and another in the afternoon about 3 o’clock for a supper of bread and beer. 24. The stone-cutters, assisted by their employers, have founded even¬ ing schools for the instruction of those among their number who may want to learn the technical part of their business, architectural details, draughting, free-hand drawing, and mensuration. The apprentices are all invited to avail themselves of the privileges to be enjoyed in these schools. This is also common in Germany, and it is a capital idea, well worth imitating. The workmen who wish to study the best models illustrating their craft have the art and industry museums to visit, in which splendid collections of models of ancient and modern art are found. 25. We were impressed with the careful method pursued in the fine art of the stone-cutters’ craft. The new merchants’ exchange, now building on the Ringstrasse , will illustrate the system. On the grounds are a large studio and an artist’s workshop. Here models are made of every piece of sculpture and carving applicable to the adornment of a building. A leading Vieuuese sculptor is the head and master spirit ARCHITECTURAL STONE-CARVING. 23 here; under him are a number of skilful artists, who work, guided by his directions or their own taste, in stone, wood, plaster of Paris, or clay. On the occasion of our visit, all of these materials were used. The models, when complete, are sent on to the quarry or to the stone¬ cutters’ yard, to be copied into the stone used for the building in pro¬ cess of erection. Finally, the sculptor puts on such finishing-touches as he may deem requisite. This care insures the carrying out of the architect’s ideas, and furnishes good, artistic work, that will stand criticism. It is also very much the practice in Europe for the archi¬ tects to retain the carving they design, for thefagades of their buildings, as a separate contract, employing their own men to execute it, generally by the day. In fact, all those who are rich and celebrated enough insist on this privilege, knowing well that if let to an ordinary stone¬ cutter, unless in an exceptional case, the work will be done as poorly and as cheaply as it can be to pass inspection ; that there will be no effort made to put individuality or thought into the work, without which it is soulless and valueless. 26. There is much poor work of this class done in Vienna as else¬ where ; but it is only in cheap houses. With the exception of a few public edifices, the buildings of the new Vienna which has grown up since the levelling of the old walls have stuccoed fronts. This, how¬ ever, has not made the stone-cutters’ craft the less busy or prosperous. Even in a stuccoed building, wherever strength is required, stone is used in the prevailing Renaissance style. There are many caryatids under the balconies and window-cornices. These are nearly all of stone. 27. Within the buildings, the stair-cases are almost invariably built of cut stone, as are the landings. This is done as a precaution against fire. Although a great improvement over wood, this is not the best kind of stair-way that can be erected. The following extract from a report of the superintendent of the Lou. don fire-engine establishment will be interesting as bearing on this point: “ No stair-case can be considered really fire proof unless constructed either of fire-bricks, laid in fire-cement, which would be both costly and cumbersome, or of wrought iron, which, for appearance, comfort, or con¬ venience, might be covered with slabs of slate, stone, or wood. In this atter case the real strength would consist not in the stone or covering, but in the wrought-iron framing, and such stairs, particularly if pro¬ tected by plaster, which could easily be done, might safely be relied on in all ordinary fires, as the heat near a stair-case, being tempered with the cold draught from the outside, is rarely sufficient to weaken wrought iron, which only fuses at about 3,000°, and retains a consider¬ able portion of its strength almost to the melting point.’’ Stone is used as a rule in Vienna. The hall-ways and passages are all laid with cement, tiles, marble, or mosaics, all of which are fire-proof. CHAPTER III. PAVING SIDEWALKS AND HALLS. Encaustic tiles; Mosaic floors ; Wages ; Methods of work; Yorkshire flag¬ ging; London Sidewalks; Asphalt; Cement; Other flooring materials. 28. Encaustic tiles. —One of the most beautiful, as it is also one of the most costly, modes of paving interiors is that of laying down Min¬ ton’s encaustic tiles. These are so well known that a detailed descrip¬ tion is not needed, especially as no new improvement or novelty was shown. Indeed, the firm did not exhibit a great quantity of this kind of ware. The writer saw a better display at their agent’s place at Brus¬ sels than at the exhibition. Minton & Hollis, another English firm, showed some very highly finished wall-tiles, and a chimney-piece, designed for a hunting lodge, enriched with appropriate and most beautifully painted tiles. The English makers are acknowledged to be at the head of this manu¬ facture, but there are several German firms closely competing with them. Yilleray & Bach, of Luneburg, and Ernst, March & Son, near Ber¬ lin, are very large makers of encaustic tiles, together with many other kinds of earth-ware, such as garden-statues and terra-cotta. Their tiles lacked the clearness and accuracy of line characteristic of the En¬ glish ware, but as a whole they presented a good appearance. The Germans aim to produce cheap ware, while with the Staffordshire firms that is a secondary consideration. A practical artisan, thoroughly posted in this kind of work, stated that the main difference between the German and English tiles arises from the fact that the tiles made in the first-named country lack the backing or extra layer of strong, close-bodied clay, which, to a great extent, keeps them from cracking or distorting through unequal contraction. This statement we are inclined to be¬ lieve, after very carefully inspecting the wares in both the German and English sections. It is unfortunate that our own manufacturers of eartheuware do not try to make this kiud of tile instead of buying them from the European makers. That the demand for them is large iu the United States is fully shown by the large sales made here by English firms of late years. Doubtless, it will take time and capital, and artistic skill must be acquired before we can take rank with the best manufac¬ turers of other countries who have worked long and spent much money before attaining to the present great success. But should we try we should succeed, for what has been done ouce can be done again. It is simply a question of money, study, aud labor. MOSAIC STONE-WORK. 25 29. Mosaic floors.— The real mosaic floors which we saw at the exhibition, and in the buildings lately erected or being - erected in the city of Vienna, must rank next in point of beauty and first for simplicity. There is no detail in the whole process that cannot be readily grasped in a few moments, although, as a matter of course, rapidity of work comes from practice. This work is all executed by Italian workmen, of whom about one hundred and twenty-five are employed by a country¬ man of theirs, D’Odorrico, who, with his cousins, are the only employers engaged in this industry in Vienna and its vicinity. It is only during the last six years that there has existed any demand for this work at the Austrian capital; now he has all the business he can possibly do. The best specimen of the skill of these people was shown within the exhibition, at the Emperor’s pavilion. The vestibules of that building were laid with very elaborate designs in marble mosaic. The side-walls and the columns at the entrance were artistically adorned with ferns and bright-green plants. These heightened the effect of the mosaic floors, which, when viewed from a little distance, seemed almost to resemble some rich Brussels or Axminster carpet. 30. The principal advantages of this process are: 1. The extreme simplicity required in manipulation; 2. Its artistic value, as pictures can be made in the floor which will not very easily wear out; 3. Its cleanliness and coolness; 4. The facility of utilization of waste material, it being the refuse of marble quarries that is used iu this work; all small pieces that are not available for any other purpose can be used in mosaic flooring; 5. And last, but not least, it can be used where wood is often laid down, with this great advantage over that material, that it will not conduct the flames, but acts as a preventive to their spread if a fire occurs in its vicinity. Its cost is determined by the design. A simple pattern in black and white can be laid down very cheaply ; but when it is desired to introduce marbles of many colors in an intricate design, there is hardly a limit to the cost, or to its value wheu finished. Security against fire is the principal motive leading to the general use of marble floors and of imitations of marble and stone, in Vienna, and iu other large European cities. Modern buildings are erected with as little inflammable material in their construction as is possible. 31. Wages and methods of work. —Signor D’Odorrico has brought all his workmen from Italy. He pays them from $1 to $2 per day. His contract with them also includes paying thek fare home once every two years. Workmen of exceptional skill and taste often command more than $2 per day. This employer gave every facility for inspecting his method of work¬ ing, but stated that there was very little to see, the whole process being principally an exercise of skill and experience ou the part of the work¬ men. The first operation is the preparation of the design. This is gen¬ erally composed of geometrical combinations in several colors, and is made to a scale. The foundation is sometimes made of concrete, and sometimes the stone platform or landing has a panel cut into it about 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. an inch in depth; in either case a mixture of Portland cement and fine sand iu equal parts is floated down. This can be colored if desired; for instance, red brick pounded up and mixed with the cement will make it red. The cement must be gauged, so as not to set too quickly. The pattern is marked off on the cement with thin strips of wood, or by merely drawing a sharp line in the cement with a knife or other edge- tool. The pieces of marble, broken to a uniform size, about half an inch square, are placed beside the operators iu boxes, assorted as to color. Th^se are bedded into the cement, one against another, until the pattern grows into shape under the hands of the workmen. When enough of the floor is laid, it is rammed down to make it compact and level. The concluding process is that of rubbing it all over with a stone-rubber and sand and water. This smooths and polishes it. The process of breaking the marble into small pieces, fit for mosaic, is quite a task, demanding some skill, and one that would probably be performed by machinery in this country. It is very simple, and while some men would never learn it, others would acquire the knack at the first attempt. The workman sits down in front of a wooden block having an iron top fashioned as shown in Fig. 1G. It is 6inches wide, and about 15 inches in length. The only other tool is a chipping-hammer of two pounds weight, having one square face and one square edge. The marble is first broken into pieces 2 inches square with a sledge-hammer. These pieces are placed on the sharp edge of the iron plate and broken with the chipping-hammer, used in making When the plate is full of pieces, the work¬ man scoops them out with his hammer upon the heap beside him. These pieces are from one-half to three- fourths of an inch square. 32. Yorkshire flagging. —Near the South Kensington Museum, London, we saw several workmen laying down a sidewalk composed of asphaltum and cubes of gray granite. These latter were worked into the asphaltum iu simple geometrical patterns, interwoven circles. The granite was broken iuto small pieces, each about 2 inches square. When complete, the effect was very pleasing, if ouly iu contrast with the ordinary dreary look of the sandstone flagging so extensively used iu that city. This Yorkshire flagging makes good and cheap sidewalks. The stone used is generally softer than the North River bluestone, so well known iu New York, although some of it greatly resembles our flagging. 33. London sidewalks. —The care with which the sidewalks are laid iu Loudou is very noticeable, contrasting strongly with the care¬ less rnauuer iu which ours are laid, except iu the prominent business streets aud fashionable thoroughfares of our large cities, than which Fig. 16.—Tools stone mosaics. CONSTRUCTION OF SIDEWALKS. 27 there are no better made sidewalks in the world. The London method is, first, to carefully grade the ground, sometimes using concrete to secure a firm foundation, where the soil is too soft; generally, sand spread over the levelled ground is considered good enough. The curbing is made of roughly “ pene-hammered” gray granite, 12 inches wide on the fop, and 6 inches high. Beside this run the gutters draining the road¬ way. The flagging is generally from 3 to 4£ inches in thickness. The edges are all squared, not being just pitched under, as is the practice with us. The edges are chiseled, not very elaborately, but sufficiently for the purpose, so that when the flagging begins to wear away, under the continuous traffic, the joiuts will continue good until it is thread¬ bare, if ever it is allowed to remain long enough to get iuto that condi¬ tion. A liberal allowance of mortar is thrown down on the sand in which to bed the stones. The stones are placed close together, the inspector of sidewalks generally demanding that the joints should not be more than a quarter of an inch apart, and well filled with binding and hardening cement. The surfaces of the flags are machine-dressed, or rubbed, so that they always meet evenly at the joints. The rough stones are brought to the streets to be paved and are stacked in pdes The pavers take them,, preparing the edges with wonderful rapidity. It was astonishing to see the defc way in which workmen handled them. The strength with which they all seemed to be well endowed was not so remarkable as their clever knack of working them, jerking them from side to side, and, by a sudden movemeut, turning them over, so as to bring the edge to be squared uppermost, and placing it where anything put be¬ hind the stone will serve to keep it steady until turned again. They have a good way of splitting the flags: anything under 6 inches thick is broken in the same way that our marble-workers use to break up their slabs. Our flaggers can break a stone very quickly, but no quicker thau the English workmen, who also do it more neatly, and with less waste of material. A line is drawn on the face where a break is required; this is “strummed” in with a “ pitching-tool” or “ nicker;” the edges are also strummed in. Then the stone is smartly struck on the back with a round-faced hammer, three blows generally breaking it neatly down the line. The writer is fully convinced that this method can be used by our own flaggers, as he has seen it successfully done with North River bluestone and with all kinds of sandstone in the brownstone-cutters’ yards, when cutting up sawn slabs for ashlar. Al¬ most any kind of thin stoue can be broken iu this way, without the use of either wedges or plugs. 34. Asphalt pavements. —The pavements between the gutters are generally macadamized, although, as with us, stone and wooden blocks are used quite extensively. In the city proper most of the leading thorough¬ fares have recently been laid with a new patented preparation of asphalt. Asphalt-covered roads are a great improvement. The noise of heavy traffic is greatly diminished, and it becomes possible for pedestrians to hear each other speak without effort. At first this new system met with 28 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, ]o73. the unqualified approval of owners and drivers of horses; but com¬ plaints have recently been made that “ the least drop of rain renders the road so slippery that it is as bad as driving on ice, and the horses continually stumble and lame themselves.” This could probably be obviated by sprinkling sand over the asphaltum. It will require very * strong remonstrance to induce the authorities to cease using the new material. Its two great qualities, cleanliness and quietness under heavy traffic, will outweigh a host of minor objections. 35. Near the opera-house at Vienna a small piece of the road is laid in the same way as that just mentioned. It is the best piece of road in the whole city. Asphalt pavements for interiors are also much used in Vienna, and specimens of this work were shown at the exhibition. The finest example is seen in the fine hall of the Vienna Museum of Art and Industry. This is laid in different colors. The gentleman who did the work, M. Suppantschitcb, who exhibited the certificate of merit the museum authorities had given him, kindly prepared a statement of the modus operandi of his business. The following is a translation of his communication, which will prove interesting as coming from a man who,thoroughly understands the subject: Instruction for workmen on asphalt-mosaic.—“1. Bring your caldron as near as possible to the place where you intend to lay your floor, in order that you may lay it down as hot as j'ou can get it. “2. Put into the caldron from 10 to 15 pounds of pitch ; into the pitch, put your asphalt. This latter must be placed in the caldron when the pitch is red-hot. “3. The asphalt must be pounded into small fragments before mix¬ ing with the pitch. “4. After the asphalt lias been in the pitch an hour or an hour and a half, stir it up well with an iron bar, broad at the end, until the as¬ phalt is perfectly dissolved. Once this is done, fill the caldron with fine sharp sand ; allow this sand to get warm for a half-hour by a good fire before mixing, so that it may of itself combine with the asphalt. “5. Next stir up the contents of the caldron at short intervals. If the composition become stiff and difficult to stir, add a few pounds of pitch, using judgment as to how much. “6. In laying it on bridges, thoroughfares, or viaducts, it is advisable to use more pitch, as the composition will then become more elastic. The asphalt will set without cracking. “ 7. If, in stirring it, yellow vapors arise, that is an indication that the composition is ready for use. In order to prove the fact, make the fol- owiug trial : dip a chip of wood into the composition, and observe if a greasy substance adheres to it; if such is the case, boil it more, until you are able to take the chip of wood out perfectly clean.” “The modus operandi in laying asphalt is as follows: The foreman is to see that the ground to be covered is well swept, and clear of mud, damp clay, or any such substance. He then lays dowu iron rails, 3 or 4 feet apart. Those rails serve as a rest for the float used to make a level WORK IN ASPHALT. 29 surface. One man attends to the caldron, another carries the prepared composition, in irop. or wooden pails, to the operator. The workman who empties the caldron must not neglect to stir the contents of the cal. dron during this time, as the sand, being heavier than the pitch or as¬ phalt, is liable to sink to the bottom, causing an uneven surface. 36. Asphalt in colors.— “ In order to produce this, it is necessary to observe the following rules: “ 1. A foundation of concrete 1 to 1J inches thick. “ 2. Float upon this a covering of black asphalt, half an inch thick, as silicates will combine easiest with this. “ 3. Put down your thin wooden strips according to the pattern you desire to produce. These rails of wood should be cemented to the floor with hot asphalt. “ 4. Then commence laying out the black part of the design. This should always be done first, as the black composition would be apt to soil the light colors if not laid down first. “ 5. In order to make the edges straight and even, it is necessary to smooth them with the curling-iron, Fig. 17. The wooden forms can be taken away when the composition becomes hard enough to stand without support. “ 6. Once the design is all laid, you commence polishing it with a piece of smooth sandstone attached to a handle, as shown in Fig. 18. Fig. 18. “ PRODUCTION OF ARTIFICIAL BLACK. 40 per cent, chalk ; 40 per cent, fine soft sand; 20 per cent, evaporated coal-tar. “WHITE SILICATE. 35 per cent, chalk ; 35 per cent, pure white sand, (silver-sand;) 22 per cent, pure white rosin; 8 per cent, tallow. “ First put the rosin into the caldron—it must be well melted; then put in your chalk; a half-hour afterwards mix in the sand; stir well and add the tallow*. “ Asphalt in colors, red, blue, yellow, and brown, is to be boiled like the white composition, only adding the respective mineral colors.” 30 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. 37. Cement-floors.— Portland cement, and compositions that resem¬ ble that material, are used for a variety of purposes in Vienna; among others, for making artificial-stone sidewalks. We also have done a little in this way in the United States, but so little that the business may be regarded as a novelty. M. Chailly is tbe principal manufacturer engaged in this business in Vienna. We visited bis exhibit at tbe Exhibition, and also the public buildings in Vienna where he had laid floors of his pavement. The rail¬ road-depots contain his best work, the large halls and covered entrances being nearly all laid with Portland-cement pavements. The work was well done and looked likely to be durable. M. Chailly’s method is about as follows : He, like all Viennese manu¬ facturers ot patent floors, lays great stress upon the necessity of taking great pains with the foundations under his preparation. We in the United States are somewhat careless in this particular, and are apt to slight the part which will not be seen, forgetting that any defect here will affect the whole after a very short time. A dry soil is to be pre¬ ferred, but if it should be moist, marshy, or a clayey soil, great care must be taken to make the foundation as firm as possible. This will be a matter in which the workman must exercise his own judgment and experience. The first layer of concrete should be composed of one part cement and three of coarse gravel. This is laid upon the soil which is already smoothed and graded. The thickness of this layer will vary according to the nature of the soil. The second layer should be mixed in equal parts, two of cement, and two of fine sand. Then a third layer, equal parts cement and sand, completes the work. The workman finishes a piece about 3 feet wide, from the wall to the curb, before he attempts to touch another length. The first layer is to be well rammed down to make it compact; the other two layers are to be floated on as quickly as possible. It requires about four days for the sidewalk to harden. During this time it should be frequently sprinkled with water. Spring or autumn is the best season in which to lay the cement. Summer is too dry, and winter weather is too severe. A sidewalk thus prepared will last about fifteen years. The curbing is also made of cement. This is generally formed in a mold. The joints are made to fit into each other to prevent shifting after they are set, as shown in Fig. 19. The body of this curb is composed of three and a half parts broken stone or gravel to one-half part of ceuieut; it is coated with a surface of equal Fig. 19.—Cement-curbing. parts fine sand and cement. Steps are made in the same way. These would serve for door-steps if they had no weight to carry. The makers of such concrete-work claim that, when properly hai deued, it is stronger than stone. This is doubtful, especially as in all USE OF CEMENT FOR FLOORS. 31 the buildings we have seen, stone is preferred by the architects, who are the most competent judges of the relative values of building-materials. 38. It is impossible, without filling a volume, to notice all the devices shown at Vienna by various nations, chiefly, however, by Austria and Germany, for covering the floors of hall-ways and corridors, or for mak¬ ing sidewalks. There were tiles made of gypsum, with inlays of various colors, which could be scratched out with one’s finger-nails; tiles made of cement, with fragments of marble mixed in them; tiles of slate ; tiles of common red clay ; but there.was not a single exhibit of a real marble floor, that we could discover. Here we have an advantage; we can quarry, saw in slabs, and fix into their places real marble tiles, native material, cheaper than the imitations can be manufactured and laid. Bricks are very often used for sidewalks in Europe, and make admi¬ rable sidewalks. Common red brick does well, but the glazed brick, also made by our manufacturers, does better. The principal precaution to be taken by those who wish to try bricks is to look well to the founda¬ tion of the proposed sidewalk before laying dowu the pavement. CHAPTER IV. CEMENT, STUCCO, AND TERRA-COTTA. Stucco, its use in Vienna and London ; Use of Portland cement ; Austrian cement; Style of Viennese buildings; Terra-cotta, its history and value ; Improvements in manufacture; Work of the art-schools. 39. The most noticeable contrast betweeu our methods of building- construction and those in vogue in Europe arises from the fact that we use stone, bricks, iron, and wood for our fronts, while there they use, in addition, other materials which we do not generally use, such as concrete, cement, stucco, and terra-cotta. A traveller who for the first time visits Europe, can scarcely believe that the magnificent fronts seen in some cities, as in Vienna, are not constructed of stone. The stucco with which they are plastered is made to imitate stone so perfectly that it is no wonder that he is at first misled, and that he should, when undeceived, think it a method of building well worthy of introduction into his own country, forgetting that it is still a novelty, and a deception quite as much as is brass jewelry made in imitation of gold. No one should say dogmatically that we should not use stucco, or that it is not a good building-material when used under proper condi¬ tions. The Exhibition-building was an excellent illustration of its judi¬ cious application. Built for a temporary purpose, it was desirable that it should be made sightly and ornamental, and at as little expense as possible. Stucco was the very thing in this case, cheap, capable of being rapidly put up and readily pulled down. For this purpose it was better than stone. The use of stone was out of the question; it would have cost too much, and would have taken too long in preparation. This is a specially good illustration of the case in which a cheap imita¬ tion could not be deemed an attempt at imposition. But we cannot say as much for all the stucco which the Viennese have put upon other buildings. To adopt all their cunning methods of making imitations appear better than the real, would demoralize both our workmen and their employers. This we too often do, and it is done in every country in the world in which modern civilization has tended toward the produc¬ tion of shoddy, that rank weed which chokes real and honest progress. The beautiful part of the city of Vieuua is of recent construction, dating from the levelling of the old ramparts and the laying out on their site of the fine boulevard kuowu as the Biugstrasse. In this fact may perhaps be found the key to the motive for the extensive use of USE OF STUCCO. 33 cement in building. The moneyed men began to pull down and to re¬ build too freely, as perhaps recent financial panics have proven. This work became a means of speculation. Although stone is very cheap in Austria, in comparison with the prices paid here, it was too expen¬ sive for the stock-companies and speculators who were anxious to get rich quickly. They are compelled by the fire-laws to build solid and heavy walls. This could be done with the huge, cheap bricks manufac¬ tured outside the city, but the fronts needed covering up ; cement- stucco was precisely the thing needed to make elegant edifices of very rough and common-looking brick-work. Owners could demand high rents while their buildings continued to wear well. This they did not fail to do. The buildings had not been erected long enough to prove that they would last well ; they have already been mended, scraped and repainted. This fact is sometimes used as an argument in favor of stucco: “ It can always be made to look new and bright, at small expense, with a little scraping and a coat or two of wash.” 40. Ten years ago, stucco had reached the zenith of its popularity in London, whole districts being covered with stucco-fronted houses. Sud¬ denly public opinion veered around completely. Now, it is very seldom used, where formerly thousands of houses had been fronted with it. The reason for this sudden change in public sentiment is easily learned. The immediate cause of the disuse of stucco in London was the attempt of some of its advocates to induce the House of Commons to vote a large sum of money to be used in building some of the public buildings at South Kensington, where it was proposed to use stucco very exten¬ sively. This proposition brought down a storm upon the heads of its advocates. The truth came out. Instance after instance was adduced to show that, after a few years, it fell to pieces unless continually mended and painted. The money was not granted to build in stucco. The cap¬ italists who had first used it began to tire of it. Their turn was served. They had run up fine-looking houses at the West End to meet a grow¬ ing want felt seriously in London a quarter of a century ago when the wealthy people of that great metropolis began to move westward. The capitalists had charged high rent on short leases, as the Viennese are now doing. They began to be ashamed of the shoddy-looking places they had formerly advertised as “elegant aud desirable mansions.’’ Time had quickly made havoc with their shams. Now, whole rows of these buildings are pulled down, as the leases expire, and good brick and stone houses are erected in their places. Still, stucco had paid, and paid magnificently, as is indicated by the immense increase of the income of the Marquis of Westminster, the principal owner of these buildings. There was another effect produced by this rush into specu¬ lative building. The builders, foremen, and workmen became so demor¬ alized by their continual employment in the building of shams that they grew reckless, and, to make a larger profit for themselves, put less cement and more sand into the composition, so that, at last, it would 3 ST 34 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. hardly hold together long enough to permit them to take away the scaf¬ folding. The Viennese may not have reached this stage yet, under the eye of their police, the power of these officials being greater and more freely exercised among the Austrian and German peoples than it is in Anglo-Saxon communities; but there is little doubt that they “scamp” their work in the many corners, and run moldings carelessly. Some¬ times a member will be a half-inch wider at one end than at the other, and cracks appear all over the fronts, looking as if a sharp frost would opeu them, dropping huge flakes upon the heads of those beneath. But it is at the back of the houses that bad work can be most readily found. We have, from our window, seen the occupants of the room opposite, on the other side of the court-yard, dislodge a yard or two of stucco cornice, fearing that, if left, it might fall upon the head of some un¬ lucky person beneath. This is a bad material to use in parts of the United States where the mercury sometimes falls as low as 15° or 20° below zero. In the course of our inquiries, it became necessary to visit the cement manufacturers and dealers. They, one and all, as was quite natural, said, “ This is a most excellent, indeed, the very best material to use.” They w'ere in harmony on this point; but each claimed to make the very best cement in the market; his neighbor’s being invariably defective in some important particular. 41. Use of cement.— The directions for using cement, and other particulars gleaned from them, may prove useful as a means of compari¬ son of our own cements with theirs. The only efficient test, however, is to apply it experimentally, and await the effects of time and weather. Testing by weights and pressure is by no means reliable, as specimens of the same material, prepared under, apparently, precisely similar con¬ ditions, will often show most astonishing dissimilarity of results, when thus tested. It is to be observed that the Euglish Portland cement is generally taken as the standard of comparison, and of the numerous kinds manu¬ factured there, that of I. C. Johnson & Co. is generally considered to rank among the best. This firm exhibited cement at the exposition, having sent it previously to but one exhibition—that held in Havre in 1SG5, where they were awarded a gold medal. Accompanying their exhibit at Vienna were printed statements of its properties, and direc¬ tions for using it. Extracts from these directions are here given : “ This article is of a gray stone-color, and does not require any color¬ ing more than it possesses in itself: this quality renders it particularly suitable for stuccoing the outside of public buildings, as well for orna¬ mental as for plain surfaces. “ The French and Dutch government engineers, as well as the English, have subjected the English Portland cement to very severe tests, and have established the fact that, on account of its great binding power, durability, and hardness, it is indispensable in all maritime works. APPLICATION OF CEMENT. 35 During the last five years, 20,000 tons of I. 0. Johnson & Co.’s Portland cement were used for the harbor at Havre. “In analysis, the chemical composition of I. C. Johnson & Co.’s Port¬ land cement may be stated as follows : Lime. 49. 80 Alumina. 11. 30 Silica .. . 18. 60 Iron...,. 17. 90 Magnesia....70 Water. 1. 70 100. 00 In mixing— “ Use clean water, and mix to the consistence of common mortar. “ The sand to be used with Portland cement should be quite clean, free from all earthy substance, and sharp. “ The bricks, or the work ou which Portland cement is used, should be first well wetted, and when the cement has commenced setting, it should never be disturbed, as it cannot be renewed. “ For ordinary stuccoing, the walls should be well cleaned and wetted; for the first coat, three to four parts of coarse river-sand to one of cement may be used; and after this is well hardened, for the second coat, to finish off, finer sand may be employed, three parts to one of cement. Such work, if neatly jointed, bears an exact resemblance to Portland stone, but it is better calculated to resist the weather than the stone.” [ ? ] “ For moldings, equal parts of cement and sharp sand should be used. “ It is admirably adapted for flooring in any situation where a stone floor is desirable. The ground must be first well rammed and levelled with broken stone; then the paving can be filled up to the required thickness with one part of cement to three or four of shingle or crushed bricks; it piust then be finished off with a steel float; or, if the pave¬ ment is out of doors, a wooden float should be used. Another mixture for paving is to put two layers, first one of four or five parts of coarse gravel to one of cement, which should be overlaid with one-inch cover¬ ing of equal parts of cement and sand. “ For reservoirs, gas-tanks, &c., use two parts of sharp sand to one part of cement for the brick-work, and coat the inside with a mixture of two parts of cement to one of sand, about an inch in thickness ; or, take pure cement. “ For coal-pits or other places where the water is to be dammed back, the cement should be used with less sand than in other cases, and some¬ times it may be better to use it without any sand. “For breakwater and harbor works, as at Dover and other places, blocks may be formed in frames by mixing six parts of coarse gravel with one of cement, into which mass may be inserted about one-fourth 36 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. of the whole bulk of rubble-stone ; the mixture will then be about eight to nine parts of gravel and rubble-stone to one part of cement. These blocks become hard and durable, and will resist all decomposing influ¬ ences of the sea or of the atmosphere. “ If a tine surface is required for the blocks, to make them appear like stone, for facing breakwaters, &c., the sides of the mold should first be plastered about one inch in thickness with a mixture of half cement and half saud; the interior of the block, of course, is filled up as before. “For castings, pure cement should first be put into the mold, and then filled up with one part of cement and two or three parts of broken stone, or clean, sharp sand ; it must not then be disturbed until quite hard.” 42. Saullick and Curti are the two principal manufacturers and dealers in the cements used in Vienna. Alexander Curti has the contract to sup¬ ply the Vienna water-works with 2,000,000 barrels of cement and hy¬ draulic lime. This gentleman intended to exhibit at the Exhibition a tower built of his cement, but owing to a defective foundation his tower had to come down. The cement of this firm is a good article, notwith¬ standing their bad luck in this instance. Tall & Co., an English firm, whose specialty is the construction of houses of concrete, used Curti’s cement in building the house erected behind the machinery-hall. This was the only instance in which the cement was used at the exhibi. tion. Saullick’s Perlmoor cement is very much used in Austria. It is very fine, almost if not quite as good as the best-Portland cement. It has ; been subjected to severe tests, and to analysis, as the following trans¬ lation of the report of an eminent German chemist indicates: REPORT ON CEMENT MANUFACTURED BY SAULLICK, AT PERLMOOR, NEAR WORGEL, TYROL. 43. “Mr. Saullick handed me, several mouths ago, a few samples of his cement. “My assistant, Mr. Wagner, tested these samples thoroughly in my | laboratory. As there have been executed in my laboratory two other analyses of English Portland cement, oue by Dr. Hopfgarten, the other by Dr. Feichtinger, I am able to compare the ingredients of Mr. Saul- lick's cement- with them, and the result is as follows : SAULLICK CEMENT. 37 English Portland cement. Saullick’s ce¬ ment. Tested by Hopfgarten. Tested by Feichtinger. Tested by Wagner. f Water. 1. 00 0. 96 0. 50 o Lime..... 54. 01 54. 40 58. 50 ■s Magnesia..... 0.75 0. 86 2. 55 o SH Oxide of manganese... Trace. 0.30 Oxide of iron..... 5. 03 5. 05 5. 60 J2 O A es a o ^ Alumina.._.. 7. 75 7. 36 4. 75 Carbonic acid.. 2.15 2.80 0. 50 © U Sulphuric acid.... 1. 00 1.12 2.10 3 Phosphoric acid. 0. 75 Trifling:. ■3 Potash.... 1 10 0. 86 0. 95 w. ^Soda ....... 1.66 1.76 0. 75 a (Oxide of iron_ X — 1 S'S'O ! Olav__ 0. 37 S 2 1 Flinl-dnst, . _ . 22.23 2. 30 23. 72 18. 60 i-h'- 2 —* o 1 Olav and sand__ 2. 35 “ From this comparison it will be seen that Saullick’s cement contains a little more lime and less flint-dust than the English Portland cements, but, on the whole, it shows a great similarity to them in composition. As we are well aware of the fact that two cements of the same chemical com¬ position may, nevertheless, possess quite different adhesive powers, i. e., whether they are united closely or loosely, a mere analysis of the cement does not satisfy the mind regarding its quality. “Former trials have proved that the physical condition and the chemi¬ cal composition of the clayey substances exercise the greatest influence on the quality of the product which is obtained by the 11 glowing” of the natural and artificial mixtures of clay and carbonic acids, and which are called hydraulic limes or cements. The clay of the Medway Biver, which is used for the manufacture of Portland cement, contains, in 100 parts flint-dust— Clay.17.00 Alkali.......2. 08 Soda....3.00 Oxide of iron.21. 06 While the common hydraulic lime, in 100 parts flint-dust, contains less than one-half these quantities of clay and iron. “ For this reason I had sent to my laboratory, by Mr. Saullick, some unburnt cement stones, in order to investigate thoroughly the contents of the contained clays. The stone is very uniform in its formation, and, during the process of analysis, emits a bituminous smell, and yields am- moniacal vapors. “ In hydrochloric acid, 78.03 per cent, dissolves, consisting of— Carbonate lime.... „.72.15 Carbonate magnesia. 3.25 38 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Oxide of iron Clay. Water. 1.00 0.50 1.40 arid 20.4 per cent, remains as an insoluble precipitate in the acid; this is, therefore, the clayey substance of the stone. Xow, this clay con¬ tains, in one hundred parts flint-dust— Clay. 17.03 Potash. 4.08 Soda. 3.08 Oxide of iron.9.06 “If we compare the composition of the clay of SaulliclCs cement- stone with that of the river Medway, the result is reached that these clays, in their proportion of flint-dust and clay, are equal, and that they only differ in proportions of alkalies and oxide of iron. “ There is yet an important feature for the Portland cement, namely, its adhesiveness—the force by which the particles adhere to each other, and which is indicated by its density. While some of our common light cements in the ground condition weigh 45 to 50 pounds per cubic foof, a cubic foot of Portland cement weighs S3 pounds. The Saullick cement weighs S3.47 pounds per cubic foot, and is therefore similar to Portland cement in this important particular. “Dr. Mat. Peltenkafer.” It must bo borne in mind that, in Vienna, there is an abundance of good sand from the valley of the Danube. This is an important point, as cement is A’ery seldom used without mixture; hence, the cemeut that will mix well with sand, without losing its adhesive power, is commer¬ cially the best. The process of mixiug and using is the same, or nearly the same, as that given above, in the “ directions for using,” by Johnson & Co. If, at the Centennial Exhibition to be held at Philadelphia, a collection of the native cements and hydraulic limes of the United States could be shown, with a carefully-prepared statement of the qualities possessed by each, and of the points of difference between them and the best European cements, the exhibit aud statement would be of great prac¬ tical value. 44. The Yienuese have been most fortunate in the architects who- have designed their modern buildings. The favorite style—the Renais¬ sance—allows a wide scope for the introduction of sculptured ornament aud rich molding. These adjuncts have been freely used, but with good taste. 27ot a little of the admiration elicited from visitors to the Aus¬ trian capital is largely due to the beauty of the street facades. The buildings have a general uuiformity, but vary in their details. Though leaning to the French school, the Viennese have given to the Renais¬ sance a tone all their own. Their interiors are, to the writers taste, much more beautiful than their exteriors. VIENNESE ARCHITECTURE. 39 All their modern public buildings, such as the opera-house, the new museums, Votive church, the palace of the archduke, the new exchange, the barracks, &c., are built either of stone or brick. This would in¬ dicate that the authorities have but little faith in stucco. 45. In all stuccoed buildings where strength is required, stone or some other strong material is used. The chief points urged in favor of stucco are, first, its cheapness as compared with stone or pressed-brick work, and consequently the facil¬ ity it gives for applying at small cost what would be enormously expen¬ sive if wrought in the costlier materials; secondly, the ease with which, it can be cleaned and repainted when it is weather-stained. Garden-houses, statues, ornamental curbing, brackets, fountains, &c., are made of cement. Very much of the so-called patent stone is noth¬ ing more than cement, sand, and a little coloring-matter. There was a large exhibit of the above-mentioned articles, made chiefly in Austria and Germany. 46. There was also exhibited a large collection of a much finer and more durable material, one that is no imitation, but which may, of right, be considered as a building-material and as an artists’ material as much as stone, wood, or iron—terra-cotta. This is a product that it would pay well to manufacture in the United States. A market much greater than at present exists would readily be found for really good work among our own people. It seems strange, when it is remembered that we make some of the most beautiful bricks manufactured in the world, that we have not developed an American terra-cotta. Terra-cotta to brick-work is what the flower is to the plant—its natural outgrowth. It has been used since the earliest times. In the British Museum, specimens of ancient terra-cotta are shown, at least two thousand years old. In Europe the last fifteen years have witnessed a great revival of this manufacture, especially in Austria, Germany, and England. In the latter country has been built the largest building ever constructed with this material—the Eoyal Albert Hall. 47. The chief points of improvement made during the last decade consist not so much in the improved designs as in the system of manu¬ facturing. The old systems of kilns are superseded by new circular ovens, based for the most part on Hoffman’s plan. Coal is used instead of wood, producing a great saving in cost of fuel, the coal used being the siftings and refuse of the coal-pits. The powerful draught of Hoff man’s system causes almost anythiDg to burn sti-ongly and evenly, while there is little if any waste of heat. Much attention has also been paid to the correction of the contraction and distortion caused by the shrink - age of the clay during the period of firing. The manufacturers have learned to allow for this, having set down for reference and guidance a scale of probable shrinkage for all kinds of ware. 48. The many art-schools and museums established by the European governments have produced a very efficient class of artist-workmen 40 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. . who do the modelling and designing necessary in this manufacture, and add greatly to the value of the modern work. It is noticeable that modern art-work: is tending more to a level. There are not so many leviathans of art, but there are more average artists who might, cen¬ turies ago, have been considered masters,.but who to-day have so many equally talented competitors that they ra’te but as men of average standing. Any one interested iu the production of terra-cotta will find much val¬ uable information in a paper read by its author, Mr. Charles Barry, architect, before the Royal Institute of British Architects. (No. II Ses¬ sional Papers, 1S67-68.) Mr. Barry has had great experience iu the use of this material for architectural purposes. CHAPTER Y. ARTIFICIAL STONE. Ransome’s stone ; History of the invention; Chemistry of manufacture ; The later process; History; Chemistry; Belgian artificial stone; Increase of business. 49. The manufacturers of this article iu America know more of the . method of production than could be gleaned by any one at the exhibi¬ tion; the only illustration of this work being a solitary specimen, ex¬ hibited in the Danish section—a medallion executed by a Copenhagen firm. Still, the manufacturing of this stone has made such rapid strides that this report would be incomplete without some reference to it. Mr. Eansome, the inventor, makes no secret of his method, and has fully explained it in a paper communicated by him to the mechanical section of the British Association at Brighton, August 20, 1872, from which the following statement is an extract: 50. “ His [the inventor’s] investigation into the nature and properties of stone commenced nearly thirty years since, and he found that, with few exceptions, the hardest and most durable stones were those which contained the largest proportion of silica. After numerous attempts of combining crystals of sand with powdered glass, under hydraulic pres¬ sure, and uniting the mass by partial fusion, and after having exhausted the combinations of these substances with the various cements, it oc¬ curred to the author to substitute a concentrated solution of silicate of soda or potash for the other cementing materials he had previously em¬ ployed. “ This solution of silicate of soda or potash being mixed with sand and pressed into a mold formed when dried a very hard stone, having a close and uniform texture, but which, however, disintegrated upon being ex¬ posed to moisture. The next step was to submit the compound to the action of heat, when the free alkali of the cementing silicate combined with an additional quantity of the silexof the sand, and produced an in¬ soluble silicate, unaffected by moisture. In the course of time, however, the efflorescence of a salt was observed to form on the surface of the stone in buildings where it had been used. This for the most part proved to be sulphate of soda, which existed originally in the soda-ash used in the manufacture of the silicate. This objection was removed by treating the solution of soda with caustic baryta before using it in the preparation of the silicate. 42 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 13. . “ Such, iu general, were the results the author had obtained by the year 1859. * * * . * * * 51. “ The process of the manufacture of the solution of silicate of soda has been so fully and frequently described iu various scientific journals, that the author considers it unnecessary to do more than simply allude to it here. Ordinary flint-stones are subjected to the action of a strong solution of caustic soda in cylindrical boilers or digesters, under steam- pressure of from GO pounds to 80 pounds to the square inch. Under these conditions the flint is rapidly dissolved by the solution of caustic soda, and silicate of soda iu solution is produced, which, after being discharged from the boiler, is concentrated by evaporation to a specific gravity of 17000, and contains about GG per cent, of silicate, 33 percent, of soda. “ In manufacturing the stone, the silicate is thoroughly incorporated with clean, dry sand, and other suitable siliceous or earthy ingredi¬ ents, iu a mixing-mill specially constructed for the purpose, when the compound assumes a stiff, pasty consistency, is readily pressed into molds of any required form or pattern, and is capable of receiving and retaining the most delicate impressions. If, now, the mass be al¬ lowed to dry gradually, at an ordinary temperature, it will become hard and to all appearance a perfect sandstone; but inasmuch as the several particles of sand, &c., are combined together by a soluble silicate, if exposed to the action of water the silicate will soon become redis¬ solved, the sand and other ingredients will be set free, and the mass en¬ tirely disintegrated. “ The next problem was to determine-how to convert the soluble sili¬ cate of soda into some insoluble silicate, which should possess the prop¬ erties requisite for the formation of a good, hard, compact, and durable stone, without the action of fire-heat, which had been found so inconven¬ ient and expensive in its application iu former methods. “In the year 1S61, in consequence of the premature decay of the stone of the houses of Parliament, a committee was appointed by the government to examine and report on the causes of such decay, and the best means of preserving the stone from further injury. The author, iu common with others, was summoned to give evidence on the subject, having for some years previously been engaged in working a process, pateuted by himself, for preserving stone, by first saturating it with a solution of silicate of soda, and afterwards applying a solution of chloride of cal¬ cium, which immediately decomposed the former and produced an in¬ soluble silicate of lime in the stone so operated upou. In order to demon¬ strate conclusively the efficiency of such application, he proposed to re¬ duce a piece of stone to powder, and then by the aid of those two solu¬ tions to reconvert the powder back into a solid stone. “The experiment was tried, and the result was so completely success¬ ful, that a patent for the manufacture of artificial stoue by the employ¬ ment of these ingredients was at once obtaiued,aud arrangements were ransome’s artificial stone. 43 made for carrying out the same upon an extended and practical scale. In doing so the mixture of sand, silicate, &c., when molded as pre¬ viously described, was immediately removed to benches placed over open tanks, or immersed therein, and completely saturated with a solu¬ tion of chloride of calcium. This operation, in cases of large masses, is materially assisted and accelerated by aid of air-pumps, &c. Double decomposition of the two solutions of silicate of soda and chloride of cal¬ cium immediately takes place, resulting in the production of an insolu¬ ble silicate of lime, firmly uniting and enveloping all the particles of which the object under treatment is composed, and a solution of chloride of sodium or common salt, which is subsequently removed by the free application of water. 52. u The foregoing is a brief history of the material manufactured by the author down to the year 1S70, when he developed another pro¬ cess, as distinct from the last described as that is from the process ex¬ plained to this association in 1859. “ It was found in practice that the process of washing so as completely to remove all trace of the chloride of sodium from large masses of the stone was open to objection. It was both tedious and expensive, espe¬ cially in localities where there was a difficulty in obtaining a good sup¬ ply of tolerably pure water at a reasonable cost. “ The author then conceived the idea of obviating this washing pro¬ cess by producing the insoluble silicate of lime without the formation of the chloride of sodium or other soluble salt, which would require subse¬ quent removal. Step by step this result has at length been arrived at, and the process of manufacture thereby materially simplified, the cost of production reduced, and the application of the material considerably extended. Many gentlemen present will doubtless recollect that some years since a siliceous mineral was discovered at the base of the chalk- hills in Surrey, especially in the neighborhood of Farnham, possessing some very peculiar properties, among others that of being readily sol¬ uble in a solution of caustic soda, at a moderately low temperature. Taking advantage of this peculiarity, the author commenced a series of experiments in order to determine if it were not possible, without the use of chloride of calcium, to produce a stone in all respects equal in quality to what had hitherto been done, and in this he has now suc¬ ceeded. 53. “ By this latter process he combines a portion of the Farnham stone, or soluble silica, with a solution of silicate of soda or potash, lime, (or substances containing lime,) sand, alumina, chalk, or other conven¬ ient and suitable materials, which, when intimately mixed, are molded into the required form as heretofore, and allowed to harden gradually, as silicate of lime is formed by the combination of the ingredients pres¬ ent. The mass then becomes thoroughly indurated and converted into a compact stone, capable of sustaining extraordinary pressure, and increasing in hardness with age. 44 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. “The chemical actions which effect these results appear to be as follows: When the materials are mixed together the silicate of soda is decom¬ posed, the silicic acid, being liberated, combines with the lime, and forms a compound silicate of lime and alumina, while a portion of soda in a caustic condition is set free. This caustic soda immediately seizes upon the soluble silica (from Farnham) which constitutes one of the ingredients, and thus forms a fresh supply of silicate of soda, which is, in its turn, decomposed by a further quantity of lime, and so on. “If each decomposition of silicate of soda resulted in the setting free of the whole of the caustic soda, these decomposing processes would go on as long as there was any soluble silica present, with which the caus¬ tic soda could combine, or until there ceased to be any uncombined lime to decompose the silicate of soda produced, the termination of the ac¬ tion being marked by the presence in the pores of the stone of the excess of caustic soda in the one case or of silicate of soda in the other. In reality, however, the whole of the caustic soda does not appear to be set free each time the silicate of soda is decomposed by the lime, there ap¬ pearing to be formed a compound silicate of lime and soda, whereby a small portion of the latter is fixed at each decomposition. The result is that the caustic soda is gradually fixed, and none remaius to be re¬ moved by washing or other process.” “ By means of the last-mentioned process, the field has been widely extended for the application of the stone produced thereby, and which for convenience, as distinguishing it from all others, has been termed ‘apcenite.’ It is now no difficult task to produce blocks of this material, of any form and of any size, the only limit being the means available for handling them upon the spot where they are to be employed. More¬ over, the materials which form the bulk of apcenite are, as a rule, gener¬ ally to be found in abundance where hydraulic or other important works are being carried on, and for which purpose the new stone is eminently suited. “Besides possessing the several properties which have been described, the apcenite, wheu prepared with suitable materials, is capable of receiving the most delicate impressions, and, by the incorporation of various metallic oxides, any variety of color can be imparted to it.” 54. A considerable quautity of Rausome’s patent stone has been used in the rebuilding of Chicago, where it has stood the test of an Ameri¬ can winter, having been exposed to a temperature 27° below zero with¬ out being in any way affected. We saw a shop-front, in Xew Bond street, London, built of patent stone. It was pointed out to us as being Ransome's patent. Black, like all its neighbors, with London soot, it looked quite as good as any of the stone buildings around it. This front has stood ten years, and, if we had not been led to examine it closely, it would, at a cursory view, have passed with ns for sandstone. There are other specimens of patent stone built up in the pat- ransome’s artificial stone. 45 entee’s own country that cannot be said to have stood as well as in the instance first quoted; but former errors and defects are frankly acknowledged, while it is claimed that they have now been overcome. This is undoubtedly a good thing in a country where natural stone is scarce or very expensive; but one difficulty presents itself strongly to our mind. How is it to be mended when broken, as must necessarily happen often, just as stone will get chipped or damaged? The latter is capable of being easily restored. Can as much be said for the patent stone ? Mr. Eansome states that, “ by the use of the native red oxide of iron, manganese, and other mineral substances, artificial marbles or granite of almost every description can be produced. These artificial stones, like their originals, are capable of taking an excellent polish, are extremely hard, and can be readily molded into the most elaborate forms at a very small cost.” 55. This may resemble the method practiced by the Universal Marble Company, (temporary address, 9 quai de Guenart, Brussels, Belgium,) who exhibited in the Belgian section of the exposition a fine collection of mantels, table-tops, vases, &c., made by their process, and very closely imitating natural marble. But, unlike Mr. Bansome, the manager of this company’s works retains the secret, as he expects to introduce his business into America himself. He therefore declined to tell any one before that event should happen anything more than he communicates to the public in advertising his work. So much of this information as is worth recording is given below. We may add that, in the writer’s judgment, they do not overstate the good points of their “universal marble.” Some specimens of their imitations of costly marble were very fine, difficult to distinguish from the original, unless by the fact that the imitation was made in much larger pieces than are usually supplied in natural marble. This was done to show one of the advantages of the artificial material. ' The cost was not greater in proportion for 20 feet run than for a single square foot, while in the naturab material every inch of increased size helps vastly to increase its value, almost doubling at every foot. This stone is used for interiors, for lining the sides of corridors, hall-ways, &c., and, in the buildings where we saw it, it produced a very rich and cool effect. It can be used, if desired, in lieu of expensive trimmings in wood. The circular of the company, left on one of their “marble” tables in the exhibition, says: “A thorough investigation and analysis of real mar¬ ble has placed us in a position to produce ‘ours,’, as we have endeav¬ ored to imitate the formation of natural marble, and to apply a pri¬ mary substance which, by crystallization, becomes as durable and hard as the very best of marble, and even in some respects surpasses it. We warrant our articles to be free from flaws or cracks, and we imitate all the innumerable different kinds of marble to perfection. “ We wish to remark here that there is a vast difference between the 46 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. imitations of marble in stucco and our article. Stucco -will always crack, aud is a bad imitation of marble. The advantages offered by our article, even above real marble, are the following: “ 1. Cheapness, only one-third of the cost of real marble. “ 2. Greater endurance under atmospheric influence. “ 3. More variety in application, as we can supply surfaces straight, angled, bent, or round. #*####* “We are always ready to furnish builders or architects, who may write to us, with prices for articles, from plan or design, with dimensions, and we can also provide buyers with the different patterns we produce, and cau bring testimony from those houses, public buildings, and churches we have supplied with our work.” 50. The manufacture of this article was commenced about eight years ago in Germany. Beginning with only a few workmen, they now em¬ ploy three hundred at the original works, while in Brussels they em¬ ployed the same number last summer in executing orders on hand for public and private buildings. This would indicate that they have a very excellent article. It certainly pleased the writer better than any¬ thing of a similar character either within or without the exhibition. The only source of dissatisfaction consisted in the fact that it was quite impossible with the means at command to learn any details of the pro¬ cess of manufacture, as the managers of the company declined to give any information. INDEX America, adaptability of British machinery to... stone-working in.. Annani’s stone-dresser. Art schools, results of their work. Asphalt, colored. mosaics.-. Austrian cements. Belgian artificial stones. British machinery, adaptability to use in the United States Business in Europe in artificial stones. methods in Europe. Cement, Austrian. flooring. Portlaud. Saullick. Cornices of molded ston».. Description of Annani’s stone-dresser.. Holmes & Payton’s stone-dresser. machine stone-dressing works .. saw quarrying-machine. Young’s diamond saw. Diamond saw, Young’s. Durability of Ransome’s stone. Education of Viennese workmen... Encaustic tiles. Exhibits, extent and character of. various. Flagging, Yorkshire. Flooring-cement .... Flooring-materials.. History of Ransome’s stone. stone-dressing in Great Britain. Holmes & Payton’s stone-dressing machine .. London sidewalks. use of stucco in... Machine stone-dressing works. Manufacture of Ransome’s stone. stucco... M aterials for flooring. Mausoleum, Wasserburger’s. -Methods of business in Europe. doing fine work in Vienna.. making mosaic in Vienna.. Art. Page. 13 16 21 21 7 10 48 39 35 28 36 29 42 36 55 45 13 16 19 20 56 46 42 36 37 30 41 34 43 36 8 10 7 10 3 * 7 9 10 15 17 14 16 14 16 54 44 24 22 28 24 17 19 20 20 32 26 37 30 38 31 50 41 10 11 9 10 33 26 41 34 9 10 51 42 39 32 38 31 18 19 19 20 25 22 31 25 48 INDEX. Methods of working stone in Vienna. Mosaic floors, advantages of. Portland cement. stone. Process of manufacture of Eansoine stone.... Quarrying-mackine. Eansome’s stone. chemistry of manufacture of durability of. history of invention of __ processes of manufacture of . Saullick cement. Saw quarrying-machine. Sidewalks of London. Stair-ways, methods of construction of. Stone, molded, for cornices. Portland. Eansome’9 artificial. Stone-dressing machine, Annani’s. application of.. history of, in Great Britain ... Stone-working in America. Vienna.. Stucco, application and uses of. use of, in London... Vienna. Terra-cotta. Tilglnnan’s sand-blast. Value of terra-cotta. Viennese application of stucco. buildings, style of. methods of working stone. Wages of workmen. Wasserburger’s mausoleum. Work, methods of doing fine. in stone in America. Workmen, education of Viennese. wages of... Yorkshire flagging. Young’s diamond saw. Art. Page. 22 21 29 25 41 34 12 12 51 42 15 17 49 41 53 43 54 44 50 41 53 43 45 39 15 17 33 26 27 23 8 10 12 12 49 41 7 10 2G 23 1G 18 21 21 22 21 39 32 40 33 45 39 46 39 1 5 46 39 39 32 44 38 22 21 31 28 18 19 25 22 21 21 24 22 31 2S 32 26 14 16 t E. METALLURGY OF IRON AND STEEL. W. P. BLAKE. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. R E V 0 R T ON IRON AND STEEL WILLIAM P. BLAKE, DELEGATE TO THE INTERNATIONAL JURY, GROUP I. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1876. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Page. ? 1. Scope of report; sources of information. 1 2. Production of iron in the world. 2 3. Acknowledgments. 2 CHAPTER I. THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 4. Extent of Austrian display of iron and steel. 5 5. Statistics of mining.■. 6 G. Neatness and elegance of arrangement of exhibits. 7 7. Austrian production of iron and steel. 8 8. Austrian production in the Alpine region. 8 9. Production of pig-iron in the Alpine region. 10 10. Puddling-works in the Alpine region. 11 11. Rod and bar iron produced. 13 12. Steel made in the Alpine country. 13 13. Cast steel.-... 14 14. Bessemer steel. 15 15. Martin steel. 16 16. Iron-industries of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 16 17. Mining of iron-ore in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 17 18. Production of pig-iron in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 18 19. Fouuderies in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 19 20. RolliDg-mills of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 19 21. Bloomaries and puddling-mills. 19 22. Development of iron-industries in Carinthia. 20 23. Sections of Carinthian furnaces. 21 24. Dimensions of European blast-furnaces. 41 25. Forms assumed after long working. 41 26. Exhibit of the Resicza State Railway. 46 27. Ferro-mauganese of Resicza. 46 28. Ore and furnace charges. . 47 29. Ferro-manganese of Laibach. 48 30. Exhibit of the Rositzer Mining Company. 48 31. Exhibit of the Judenberger Iron-Works. 49 32. Rotary puddling-furnaces. 50 33. Ehrenwerth’s puddler. 50 34. Hydraulic forging. 53 35. Wire-rope traces. 54 CHAPTER II. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 36. Extent and arrangement of German exhibits.. 55 37. German production of iron and steel.. 55 38. Chief seat of the industry..... 55 39. Growth of the production of iron and steel. 56 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IV Page. 40. Growth of steel-making. 56 41. Prussian iron-making and ore-extraction. 56 4.2. Graphic illustration of the growth of the industry. 57 43. Statistics of commerce in metals. 59 44. Number of exhibitors. 59 45. Borsig’s exhibit. 59 46. Exhibit of the Dillinger Company .. 60 47. Exhibit of the Styruin Company. 60 48. Iron shoes for railway-brakes. 60 49. Exhibit of the United Konigs and Laurahiitto. 60 50. Iron-wire from Westphalia. 66 51. Causes of high quality of Westphalia wire. 61 52. Hamm wire-works. 62 53. Naehrodt wire-works. 62 54. Lippstadt wire-works.... 63 55. Werdohl wire-works. 64 56. Iron girders and columns. 64 57. Burbach Works; railway-ties. 65 58. Schaltenbrnnd's iron cross-ties. 66 59. Works of Friedrich Krupp. 69 60. Exhibits of machinery by Krupp. 72 61. Exhibits-of artillery by Krupp... 76 62. Buttgenbaeb’s blast-furnaces. 82 63. Osnabriick Iron and Steel Works.„. 92 64. Georgs-Marien-lliitto Company. 94 65. Care of work-people. 98 66. Houses for work-people. 98 67. Schools. 101 68. Churches. 101 69. Industrial schools. 101 70. Libraries. 102 71. Courts of justice. 102 72. Workingmen's associations. 102 75. Hospitals. 103 7 1. Store-union. 104 75. Lodging-houses.. 105 76. Club-houses. 106 77. The Tuvu-Hallo. 106 7~. Official statements regarding schools, hospitals and dwelling-houses. 107 79. Bochum Mining and Steel Works. 110 80. Bochum cast-steel works. Ill 81. Bochum coal-mines. Ill 82. Bochum iron-mines. Ill 85. Bochum coke blast-furnaces. Ill 84. Bochum coke-furnaces. Ill 85. Bochum steel castings. 112 86. Boelnuu cast-steel bells. 112 87. Extent of the Bochum Works. 114 88. Assistance of working-people. 114 89. Exhibit of the Gleiwitz furnace.. 114 CHAPTER III. FRENCH IRON AND STEEL MAKING. 90. French exhibits; production of iron and steel. 116 91 Creusot: Schneider & Co. 118 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Y 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100 . 101 . 102 . 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110 . 111 . 112 . 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120 . 121 . 122 . 123. 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 131. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. Page. Arrangement of exhibit. 118 Details of display. 118 Statistics of production .. 120 Awards in 1867 . 121 Classification of iron and steel. 121 Commercial steel. 122 Elongation as a test of quality. 115 Resilience; effect of shock. 125 Scientific investigations. 125 Deductions. 122 Varieties of steel; applications. 122 Hardness; value. 127 Iron linings for shafts of mines. 127 Various other exhibits. 127 Algerian ores and mines... 128 CHAPTER IV. BELGIAN IKON AND STEEL INDUSTRY. Belgiau exhibits and production of iron and steel. 129 Soci6te Anonyme des Hants Fourneaux. 130 Rolled tires from the Ougree Company. 130 The Cockerill Company of Seraing ; history. 131 Mining-property and iron-works. 132 Miscellaneous statistics. 134 Marine steam-engines and machinery. 135 Blowing-engines. 136 Locomotive-engiues. 137 Rock-drills. 137 Iron and steel forgings. 138 Production of the steel-works. 139 Naval architecture at Antwerp. 140 CHAPTER V. THE SWEDISH IRON INDUSTRY. Character of the Swedish exhibit. 141 Fagersta Steel Works exhibit. 141 Iron-ores and limestone. 142 Steel gun-barrels. 144 Experiments by Kirkaldy. 147 Steel-plate; tests of. 150 Wykmannshytta cast-steel; Uckatius process. 151 Iron manufactures in Sweden. 152 Akermau on Swedish iron-making.-•. 152 Distribution of ores in Sweden. 153 Sources of fuel. 154 Transportation. 155 Use of English coke. 156 Water-power in Sweden. 157 Geology of Swedish iron-ores. 158 Production of iron-ore. 162 Methods and cost of mining. 165 Bog-ores and limonite. 167 Production of pig-iron. 168 Means and methods of transportation. 181 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. 140. Wrought-iron and steel. 172 141. The puddling process. 175 142. The Bessemer process. 175 143. Martin steel; cemeut steel. 177 144. Rolling-mills. 177 145. Statistics ot'the industry. 178 140. Locality of greatest production. 182 147. Composition of Swedish ores. 182 CHAPTER VI. SPANISH, RUSSIAN, AND SIBERIAN IRON-MAKING. 148. Spanish iron-mines .. 207 140. Statistics of Russian iron and steel making. 208 150. Russian iron-works ; production. 210 151. Production of coal. 217 CHAPTER VII. TIIK BRITISH IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY. 152. Character of exhibit; production. 223 153. British exports. 223 154. Principal British exhibitors. 224 155. Whitwell’s hot-blast stoves. ! . 125 15t>. Siemens’s direct process. 232 157. Decorated tin-plato. 222 CHAPTER VIII. THE UNITED STATES. 158. Character of the exhibit.-. 234 159. Lake Superior ores. 234 160. Park, Brother & Co.’s cast steel. 235 161. Essex County (New York) iron-ores. 236 162. Pennsylvania and Alabama ores. 238 163. Rothwell’s Wyoming map. 338 164. Sellers’s puddling-machine. 139 165. Sellers’s higli-rolls. 241 166. Iron production of the L'uited States. 241 CHAPTER IX. IRON INDUSTRIES OF ASIA. 167. Iron-ores aud steel of Japan. . 252 168. Chinese iron-making. 252 169. Central Asia; Turkestan. 253 170. Iron and steel of British India. 253 171. Wootz, or Indian steel. 254 172. Indian iron-ores and coal. 255 173. New Zealand. 256 CHAPTER X. HYDRAULIC FORGING. 174. Haswell’s exhibit of locomotive hydraulic forgings. 257 175. Method of hydraulic forging. 257 176. Apparatus, material, products. 258 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII Page. 177. Haswell’s account of the process. 25b 178. The hydraulic press. 250 179. Wrought-iron cross-heads. 259 180. Journal-boxes. 262 181. Link-motion blocks. 262 182. Cylinder-heads. 266 183. Solid locomotive wheels .. 267 184. Forged cranks. 270 CHAPTER XI. IKON AS AN ARTIST’S MATERIAL. 185. Illustrations at Vieuua of art-work in iron. 275 186. Wrought-iron gates and railings. 276 187. Ilsenbjirg cast-iron art-work, the foundery. 276 188. Molding sand . 279 189. Iron for art castings; its quality. 283 190. Temperature of fusion. 292 APPENDIX. TABLE OK MARKS AND MONOGRAMS OF SEVERAL BRANDS OF SWEDISH IRON. ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. Art. Page. 1. Section of Carinthian furnace, Kremsbrucken, 1808-1833. 23 21 2. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Eisentratten, 1808 . 23 22 3. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Eisentratten, 1872 . 23 22 4. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Radentheiu, 1808; last campaign, 1863. 23 23 5. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Deutsch Pontafel, 1808-1849. 23 23 6. Section of Carinthiau furnace, St. Salvator, 1808 . 23 24 7. Section of Carinthiau furnace, St. Salvator, 1872. 23 24 8. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Hirt, 1808 . 23 25 9. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Ilirt, 1872 . 23 25 10. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Olsa, 1808 . 23 26 11. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Olsa, 1862 . 23 26 12. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Fei-Stritz, 1808; last campaign, 1834.. 23 27 13. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Freibach, 1808. 23 28 14. Section of Carinthian furnace, Freibach, 1872 . 23 28 15. Section of Carinthian furnace. Freibach, 1872 . 23 29 16. Section of Carinthian furnace, Freibach, 1872. 23 29 17. Section of Carinthian furnace, Urtl; last campaign, 1834. 23 30 18. Section of Carinthian furnace, Kompagnie Hiitte ; 1834 . 23 30 19. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Heft, 1808. 23 31 20. Section of Carinthian furnace. Heft, 1872. 23 31 21. Section of Carinthian furnace, Heft, 1872.. 23 31 22. Section of Carinthiau furnace, Mosinz, 1808. 23 32 23. Section of Carinthian furnace, Mosinz, 1872. 23 32 24. Section of Carinthian furnace, Eberstein, 1808. 23 33 25. Section of Carinthian furnace, Eberstein, 1872. 23 33 26. Section of Carinthian furnace, Lolling, 1808 . 23 34 VIII TABLE OF CONTEXTS. Fig. 27. Section of Carinthian furnace, Lolling, 1872. 28. Section of Carinthian furnace, Lolling, 1372 . 29. Section of Carinthian furnace, Lolling, 1872 . 30. Section of Carinthian furnace, Windisch Kappel, 1808-1825 . 31. Section of Carinthian furnace, Waidisch, 1872. 32. Section of Carinthian furnace, Waldeustein, 1803. 33. Section of Carinthian furnace, Waldeustein, 1S72. 34. Section of Carinthian furnace, St. Gertraud, 1308. 35. Section of Carinthian furnace, St. Gertraud, 1872. . 30. Section of Carinthian furnace, St. Leonard, 1808. 37. Section of Carinthian furnace, St. Leonard, 1872. 38. Section of Carinthian furnace, Prevali. 39. Vertical section of Mariazell furuaco. 40. Vertical section of Mariazell furnace. 41. Horizontal section of the Mariazell furnace. 42. Vertical section of Styrian furnace. 43. Vertical section of blast-furnace at Mariazell, Styria . 44. Vertical section of blast-furnace at Mariazell, Styria. 45. Ehronwerth’s rotary puddling-furnacc. 40. Ehrenworth’s rotary puddling-furnace. 47. Production of pig-iron, Prussia, 1837-1871, (diagram). 48. /Production of steel, Prussia, 1837-1871, (diagram). 49. Production of bar-iron, Prussia, 1837-1871, (diagram). 50. Iron railway-tie. 51. Iron railway-tio. 53. Section of iron railway-tie.. v 54. Cross-section of the foot of rail and the damps. 55. Buttgenbach’s blast-furnace, elevation and section. 56. Biittgeubach’s blast furnace, elevation and section. 57. Biittgenbach’s blast furnace, front view of opening. 58. Plan of Creusot exhibition, general arrangement. 59. Diagram of steel plate, 1927. . 60. Diagram of steel plate, 1924. til. Whitwoll’s hot-blast stoves. 62. Vertical section and elevation. 63. Arrangement of Whitwell’s stoves. 64. Sellers’s rotary piuldler.. 65. Button of wootz, or Indian steel... . 66-106. Hydraulic forgings. 107. Etched surface of locomotive axle-box frame. 108. Section of a pressed locomotive cross-head. 109. Section of a pressed link-bar. 110. Section of a pressed frame. 111. Haswell’s press. 112. Has well’s press. . 113. Sliding-block and link. 114. Front of sliding-block. 114a. Double sliding-blocks. 115. Mold for sliding-block. 116a. Upper part of mold. 11C6. Section on b c without/, Fig. 118.. 116c. Side view of /. Il6d. Plan of f . Art. Pago. 23 34 23 35 23 35 23 36 23 36 23 37 23 37 23 38 23 38 23 39 23 39 23 40 25 43 25 43 25 44 25 45 25 46 25 46 33 51 33 51 42 57 42 57 42 58 57 66 57 66 58 67 58 67 62 87 62 88 62 88 93 119 124 148 124 149 155 225 155 226 155 236 164 239 171 254 174 257 180 262 180 262 181 262 181 262 179 260 179 261 181 263 181 263 181 263 181 264 1S1 264 181 264 181 265 181 265 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Pig. Art. Page. 116e. Stamp or die. 181 265 116/. Plan of the die. 181 265 116y. Side view of the punch. 181 265 117. Top view of the punch. 181 265 118. Side view of the punch. 181 266 119. Stamp... 181 266 120. Cylinder-head and mold. 182 266 121. Punching through cylinder-head. 182 267 122. Wheel-segment, first stage. 183 267 123. Vertical section through mold. 183 268 124. Lower mold.. 183 268 125. Mold A. 183 268 126. Wheel-segments in the press. 183 269 127. Vertical section through press and mold. 183 269 128. Section through mold. 183 270 129. Section through dies and plan of lower die. 183 271 130. View of die from beneath... 183 271 131. Locomotive-crank, first stage. 184 272 132. Vertical section through mold. 184 272 133. Locomotive-crank. 184 272 134. Double sliding-blocks, plan. 181 273 135. Plan of lower part of mold. 181 273 136. Section through mold. 183 273 137. Section of mold and die. 184 274 138. Plan showing part of mold. 184 274 I—II / IRON AND STEEL. INTRODUCTION. 1. This report on the iron and steel at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873 was undertaken at the request of the scientific commission of the United States to Vienna, and of the chief commissioner. The materials were gathered and the outline of the.report was drawn before leaving Vienna at the close of the exhibition. It was designed to present a review of the iron and steel industry of the globe, but on the author’s return to the United States the pressure of other occupation prevented giving that attention to the elaboration of the subject which its importance demands. The data are necessarily presented to a great extent in the form in which they were procured, and without attempts at generalization. Two or more excellent reports upon the iron and steel at Vienna have been published abroad$ one, by Messrs. Maw & Dredge, appears in the reports of the British commission; another, by Anton Kerpely, appears in a separate and private publication, in two parts, at Schemnitz—“ Das JEisen aufder Wiener WeltausstellungP 2. According to the figures given by Messrs. Maw & Dredge, the total production of all countries in pig and malleable iron is about 15,322,500 tons annually, divided approximately as follows: , Tods. England...... 6,733,000 United States... 2,800,000 Germany. . 2, 664, 000 France...... 1,182, 000 Belgium. ...... 565, 000 Austria-Hungary. 425,000 Bussia.... 360,000 Sweden and Norway. 306,000 Italy. 74,000 Spain. 72, 000 Switzerland . 7, 500 British and South America... 50, 000 Japan.. 9,000 Asia. 40, 000 Africa. 25, 000 Australia. 10,000 1 I 2 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Mr. David Forbes,* in his report upon the progress of iron and steel industry in the year 1S73, gives a total of 14,885,488 tons as a close approximation to the total production of cast iron on the globe. Pro¬ fessor Gruener has since published the following estimate of the total production of cast and wrought iron and steel for the year 1S72. He estimates the total produce of steel in the year 1873 as about 1,250,000 tons. Cast iron. Wrought iron. Steel. Tons. 6, 723, 387 2. 250, 000 1,000,000 1, 160,000 655, 565 250, 000 too, 000 300, 000 300, 000 34, 500 25, 000 100, 000 Tons. 3,500, 000 1,602, 000 1, 150,000 883, 000 502,577 Tons. 500, 006 143, 000 200, 000 138, 0C0 15, 284 United States. Germany. Austria-Hunjtarv.... 300, 000 191, 800 245, 000 35, COO 24, 000 70. 000 49,250 12, 000 7, 204 250 Total. 13, 678, 452 8.503, 977 1, 064, 968 The secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, Mr. Swank, adopts the following for the world's production of cast or pig iron: , Countries. V ear. 1873 1873 1872 1873 1872 1871 1871 1872 1872 1872 1670 Gross tons. 6, 566, 451 2. 560, 962 1,664, 802 1, 361, 000 052, 565 424, 606 354, 000 322,000 300, 000 73, 709 54, 007 20, 000 15, 000 10, 000 9. 370 7,500 40. 000 20. 000 10, 000 Germany. tr . p . Italy... 1871 1672 14, 485, 972 3. The author’s acknowledgments are due to the Messrs. Haswell, of the Austrian State Kailway Works, for information regarding the oper¬ ations of forginguuder the hydraulic press, aud for opportunities of in¬ specting the process: to Commissioner Daufeldt and Professor Acker¬ man, of Sweden, and to Dr. Serlo, of Breslau. They are also due, in general, to several of the miuing engineers at Vienna, and to the represent¬ atives of most of the exhibitors of iron and steel for their courtesy in re¬ plying to inquiries, and in furnishing information. The brochures de- * Bul'fitin de la Societe d’Eneouragement, September, 1874, cited by David Forbes. INTRODUCTION. 3 scriptive of the principal works, which were generally illustrated by maps and drawings, were of great service, and have been freely used in the report. Such publications are important in conveying information to the visitor at the exhibition, but particularly to jurors and reporters. They greatly facilitate the labor of reporting, and save time and trouble to both visitors and exhibitors. Several of the official catalogues were enriched by statistical and descriptive statements, notably those of Sweden and Prussia, by which the value and significance of the exhibition from those countries were greatly enhanced. The utility and educating power of an exhibition is vastly increased by the publication in connec¬ tion with the catalogues of judiciously-prepared statistical and descrip¬ tive summaries of the various industries. Mill Bock, New Raven , Conn. W. P. B. IRON AND STEEL AT THE VIENNA EXPOSITION, 1873. CHAPTER I. AUSTRIA-H UNGARY. General view of the extent of the manufactures and display of iron and steel from Austria and other countries of Middle Europe ; Tasteful arrangement of objects ; Production of iron and coal in Austria ; Devel¬ opment of iron-industry in Carinthia ; Sections of furnaces, siiowin g INCREASING DIMENSIONS AND INCREASE OF PRODUCT; DIMENSIONS OF BLAST-FUR¬ NACES in Europe ; Interior forms assumed by furnaces after long working ; Sections of Mariazell furnaces ; Resicza States Railway exhibition ; Large Bessemer ingot; Steel samples and rails; Etched iron; Ferro-manganese ; Rositzer Mining Company; Rotary puddler, Dane’s system; Ehrenwerth’s rotating-iiearth puddler; Hydraulic forging; Wire-rope traces. 4. Austria-Hungary.— Tlie iron-industry of Austria has advanced rapidly in the last decade. It is prominent at the exhibition, and has never before been so well illustrated by ores and their products, by models, maps, and statistics. The iron and steel production of the empire is referable to three principal groups: (1) The Austrian Alps— Styria, Carinthia, Krain, Tyrol, and Salzburg; (2.) Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia ; and (3) Hungary. The importation of iron from England and Germany has been greatly lessened, and the exportation of iron and steel has greatly increased. There has of late been a tendency to a consolidation of small and scat¬ tered private establishments into large joint-stock associations, with in¬ creased capital. The spirit of enterprise and speculation has been aroused and stimulated by the great demand for iron and steel, and by the opening of communication between the mines and coal-fields by rail and between the furnaces and a market for their products. The exhibition happens to be at about the culminating point of many speculative enterprises, and no doubt many are desirous of making the best display possible of the properties upon which these enterprises are based. The general aspect of the ores is earthy and calcareous, in strong con¬ trast with the ores of Sweden and America. Spathic ore is the rule, and other ores the exception. They are remarkably pure, and very favor¬ able for the manufacture of steel. But it is not sufficient to have this abundance of ores ; the fuel is equally necessary, and, unfortunately for the iron-industry of the empire, is not abundant or cheap. Char¬ coal can no longer be relied upon. The forests are giving out, or are required for other jjurposes than to be converted into charcoal. The 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. iron-industry is consequently being revolutionized. As in other coun¬ tries, steel is rapidly taking the place of iron, and the iron-production undergoes great modification from this cause, independently of others. 5. The visitors to the exhibition interested in metallurgical industry are greatly iudebted to the forethought of the Acherbauministerium in preparing for distribution a very instructive resume of the mining indus¬ tries of the empire, and particularly for the historical view of the industries of coal and of iron and of steel in the several provinces.* This volume contains a series of descriptive memoirs from such able authorities as Baron v. Beust, the imperial and royal general mining inspector; from Bitter v. Tunuer, and from Dusauek, Ilofmauu, and Bittler. These exhaustive memoirs are really a part of the exhibition, and they justify their liberal use in reporting upon the departments of Avhich they treat. A free and greatly condensed translation of portions of these memoirs has, therefore, been made for the following pages, descriptive of the extent and condition of the iron and steel industry of Austria Hungary. A few of the preliminary and later statistics are added from the recent report of Prof. David Forbes, received about the time of sending these pages to press. There were 184 iron-mines worked in Austria in 1S72, and 223 in 1S73. The number of iron blast-furnaces in operation in 1S71 was 115, employ¬ ing 12,278 workmen; but in 1S72, 112 furnaces, with 10,0G9 workmen. There were 120 works in operation in 1873, and the production is stated as follows: Vienna tons. Value. Iron ore. 928,982 £40S,3G6 Pig-iron, (foundery). 45,048 459,725 Pig-iron, (forge). 280,236 2,590,133 The production of the mines and works of the Austrian Government Bailway, (Staatsbahn,) including the collieries at Kladno, in Bohemia, and the machine-works at Vicuna, has increased in the eighteen years since the properties came into the possession of the Slaatsbahn , from (annu¬ ally) 80,000 to 7,000,000 tons of coal raised; 15,000 .to 70,000 tons of iron- ores raised; 7,500 to 35,000 tons pig-iron produced ; 0,000 to 27,500 tons wrought iron produced; 25 to 100 locomotives. The coal-mines of Beschitza yielded 57,S00 tons iu 1872, a part of which was made into coke. The three blast-furnaces are supplied with charcoal-fuel, and yield gray Bessemer pig-iron from magnetic iron-ore. The yield of these furnaces is about 34 tons of this Bessemer pig in twenty-four hours. A fourth blast-furnace at Bogsan produces about 5,000 tons of pig-iron annually. The iron at Beschitza is run directly from the blast-furnaces into the Bessemer converters, which are nine * Denkbucb des Osterreicbiscben Berg- und Hiittenwesens. Aus Anlass der Wiener Weltausstelluug berausgegeben vom K. K. Ackerbaumiuisterinm, unter der Redaction des Ministerialratbes Anton Scbaueustein. Wien, Verlag des K. K. Ackerbaunnuisteri- nius, 1S73. 8vo. pp. 370. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 7 tons’ capacity and three in number. The annual production is about 9,000 tons. There are 17 puddling-furnaces and 30 furnaces for reheating and welding. There are 10 trains of rolls. The production in 1872 amounted to 12,550 tons of finished products, 7,810 tons being plates and rails* and 4,6691 tons Bessemer steel, in the form of axles, tires, rails, plates, &c. 6. As might be expected, Austria-Hungary takes the lead in this ex¬ hibition in the extent and variety of the display of iron and steel. It is at first bewildering to tbe visitor. He roams from one pavilion to another, seeing in each a museum of metallurgy, a mine of instruction. It is more than can be grasped in several visits, and requires repeated examinations and time for review and comparisons. This exhibition of iron and steel from Austria and Middle Europe, being by far too extensive and bulky to be received in the main industry palace or in the courts of the building, was placed for the most part in a series of separate buildings between the machine hall and the palace. Belgium alone makes most of its display in tbe main building. Austria and Prussia each have separate and special buildings for displaying the products of mining industry. For Austria there are three or four build¬ ings, of which Carinthia alone fills one, and Styria another. The State Railway Company and other wealthy corporations have exhibitions of their own. The Prussian miuers and manufacturers of iron fill the greater portion of two large buildings, one on each side of Krupp’s central pavilion, erected exclusively for his remarkable collection. On entering one of these buildings, devoted to mining and quarrying, the miner feels more than ever a just pride in his vocation. He sees the miner’s arms, the crossed hammers, conspicuously emblazoned in gold over the doors, and underneath the familiar motto, “ Gliick auf ,” u Good luck to you,” and within, inscribed upon the walls, such sentiments as, “ Gott schiitze das Vaterland und segue den Bergbau .” Here, truly, the typical honest miners are to be found. The government honors their calling, and ranks it with agriculture, as at the foundation of national prosperity. But for the organized mining-systems of Europe, such a magnificent exhibition in the group of mining and quarrying could hardly have been made. As it stands to day, it is an honor to the art, a fair child of science and industry. The attention of every visitor is at once arrested not only by the wealth of the display in every branch of the industry of iron and of steel, but by the skill and taste shown in the arrangement of the objects. Railway wheels and axles jiroduce little effect when tumbled loosely upon the floor ; but if .they are grouped in monumental masses, or are supported high in the air by light but strong steel bands, they provoke interest and admiration, even in those who know nothing of their ex¬ cellencies or defects. In all of these buildings devoted to mining and 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. metallurgy, a liberal aud generous spirit, worthy of the true miner, is shown in the provision of chairs and tables for the use of visitors, so that they may consult books of reference, or take notes at their ease. Maps and diagrams on the walls explain the position of the mines, the geology, and the method of working them. The more important of the Austrian mines are illustrated by models, showing the topography, the surface-construction, and the geological structure of the deposits, while by means of machinery part after part can be lifted off, aud the whole interior of the mine displayed. The ores are sent in quantity enough to form pyramids outside of the buildings, in addition to the systematic collections within. Iron is shown in all its stages of manufacture, and the more direct manufactured products, such as rails, tires, girders, boiler¬ plates, &c., are exhibited in profusion. It is impossible to describe such collections, or to give an adequate idea of their value. They are complete museums of the industry, such as any mining institution in the world would be glad to take aud preserve intact. Austria-Hungary has of late years made great strides in the extent of production of iron and steel, and in the quality of the product. The importations from England aud Germany are considerably lessened, and the exportations are increasing. 7. Iron and steel production.— The iron-ores of Austria are princi¬ pally spathic (the carbonate of iron) aud the deposits are very exten¬ sive and easily worked. The celebrated ore-mountain has beds from 20 to -10 feet thick, containing from 20 to 50 per cent, of iron, and has been worked for a thousand years without any signs of exhaustion. With such ores, aud charcoal for fuel, there is no difficulty in producing a very fine quality of iron and of steel. Brown coal or lignite is largely used, and a coke made from turf is the fuel in some places. In the display made by the State Railway Compauy there is a complete section of a coal-seam 1-1 feet thick ; so that, in some districts at least, there seems to be no scarcity of mineral fuel. Iu the charcoal-districts the great care of the forests by the government prevents their complete extinc¬ tion, and with them the dependent iron-furnaces, as would be the case under the reckless policy pursued iu the United States. The production of iron-ore in the Austrian Empire has steadily in¬ creased from a total of 655,970 tons iu 1SG7 to 1,067,753 tons in 1871. To this may be added 132,700 tons for Hungary, giving a grand total of 1,1S2,000 tons. The total product of pig-iron for the same year was 8,200,000 centners. The production of Bessemer steel is also rapidly increasing. 8. The iron and steel industry of the Austrian Altine re¬ gion.— The irou and steel industries of this part of Austria are found iu the provinces below the river Enus, Styria, Carinthia, Krain, Tyrol, and Salzburg. Xiueteen-twentieths of the ore mined is spathic ore, which, when roasted, yields 50 per cent, or more of pig-iron. The production has increased iu some of the provinces and decreased in others, as will THE ALPINE REGION. 9 be seen by the following tabular statement of the product at three decennial periods, with the cost per hundred-weight at the mouths of the mines: Location of mines. Production of iron-ores during tbe year— Average cost-price of one hundred weight at the mouths of the pits. 1851. 1861. 1871. Austria, below river Enns. Centners . 175,150 3, 221, 240 1,712, 490 251, 930 248, 550 308, 040 Centners . 195, 560 3, 876, 000 2, 135, 600 350, 000 271, 560 220, 270 Centners . 141,380 7, 537, 330 3, 252, 700 203,160 176, 860 120, 710 Kreutzer . 32. 5 15.0 20.0 37.5 36.0 18.0 5, 917, 400 7, 048, 990 11, 432,140 18.4 The above table shows that in 1871 the joint produce of the sis prov¬ inces was nearly double the amount produced in 1851. During the last few years especially this increase has been marked. The reason of this lies not only in the increased demand for iron and in the enormous rise in its price, but the principal cause is the adoption of mineral fuel in the furnaces. The exclusive use of vegetable fuel in the Alpine region is the only reason for the non-increase of iron produce in several of the provinces and the failure to satisfy the home demand. All regious that have adhered to the vegetable fuel labor under the same difficulties. It is, therefore, Styria and Carinthia only which show an increased product and which supply the increased demand for iron in the above-mentioned provinces. Styria and Carinthia possess two most important iron-mines—Eisen- berg and Hiittenberg.* These two localities, in quality and quantity of ores, are equaled by few and surpassed by none of the other European mines. They have already been worked, according to the most au¬ thentic researches, almost two thousand years; and there is every reason to believe that the increased demand for iron will not exhaust their capacity in a thousand years to come. The raw material of the Erzberg is mostly quite accessible, and the quantity is estimated at 2,500,000,000 to 3,000,000,000 hundred-weight; that of the Hiittenberg a little less. The celebrated Eisenberg, or ore-mountain, is well represented by a model, upon a scale of one-twentieth, made by Professor Allgayer in Leoben, and exhibited in the building of the Inneberger Company. The ore crops upon the side and summit of the mountain, and forms the greater portion of its mass upon one side. The beds of ore are inter- stratified with limestone and grauwacke overlying black slate, and are from 20 to 40 feet thick in the aggregate. A portion, mixed with lime- For the statistics and history of these mines, see Muchan’s History of Styria. 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. stone, contains only 20 per cent, of iron, but the best averages 50 per ceut. The old systems of transporting the ore from mine to smelting- works by means of “ slides,” wagons, &c., have been replaced by tram¬ ways and steam-railways. The cost of transportation on the railroads is li to 3 kreutzers per hundred-weight per mile. The mines of Mariazell and Xeuburg have been worked a long time, and are now rapidly growing in importance. They are upon the northern vein of spathic iron. All the other iron-mines of the Alps are of minor importance, producing tolerably good ores, but in small quantities. The cost of the ores is higher, mainly on account of inconvenient methods of transpor¬ tation. 0 .—Production of pig iron. The production of pig-iron in the Alpine provinces is of much more recent date than in the rest of the Austrian dominions. Pig-iron was produced in Carinthia in the year 1050, and in Styria it dates from 17GG. xVccordiug to an official report of the year 1745, Yordernberg produced in a common furnace 9,000 hundred-weight of half-refined iron yearly, with a consumption of about 40 cubic feet of charcoal per hundred-weight. In 1850, with furnaces 25 to 30 feet high, and using a hot blast of 150° centigrade, the produce per furnace rose to 30,000 to 40,000 centners, and the consumption of fuel diminished to 12 or 15 cubic feet. The 42 foot furnaces now adopted throughout the provinces have increased the product to 150,000 to 200,000 centners per annum, and GO to 70 of coal per 100 pounds, or 9 to 10 cubic feet of char¬ coal. The air used in the blast is heated to 30tP to 500° centigrade. The following tableshows (a) the produceof pig-iron ; (b) the fouudery- iron from furnaces in hundred-weight; (c) the price per centner iu Austrian bank-notes ; (d) the number of furnaces working: Production of pig-iron, the price and number of furnaces. During the year. Austria below the Enns. Styria. Carinthia. Krain. Tyrol. Salzburg. Total. fa 43,350 145, 570 633, 860 67, 770 49, 460 50.240 1, 799,250 1851. \ b 1. 460 34, no 17. 600 6, 630 12. 240 4.670 76, 7*0 1 c $3. 75 $2. 86 $2. 35 85 83.03 $2.64 82. 70 trf o 32 22 11 5 5 “ f a 40,220 1, 439, 380 831, 810 121,020 56, 900 59, 290 2, 548, 620 1861. 1 b 940 30, 850 15,110 6. 380 9. 650 5. 390 68. 320 .V $3.29 $3. 25 $2. 85 $3. 10 83.89 S3 74 S3. 9 l(i o 32 21 11 4 4 72 fa 39, 0-20 2, 437, 160 1, 263, 820 71,010 55, 900 40, 760 3, 907, 670 •1871. 14,070 165.350 38. 290 6, 314 24, 195 2, 850 191, 069 ) c $3. 50 $3. 60 S3. 50 S3. 84 S3. 30 $4. 00 S3. 56 l d 2 31 17 7 3 2 62 The small produce of fouudery cast iron shown iu the above table is caused by the quality of the ores, which are more adapted for white and half-refiued iron, which serves only for refiueries, mills, aud furnaces, but is less adapted for casting purposes. The smelting of the spathic and brown iron-ores requires from 15 to 20 per ceut. more fuel to pro¬ duce fouudery-iron than ordinary pig-iron. In 1851 the produce per fur- PRODUCTION OF PIG-IRON. 11 aace amounted to 134,000 hundred weight; iu 1S61 to 30,000 hundred¬ weight ; in 1871 to 66,000 hundred-weight. The exhaust-gas of the fur¬ naces is employed for heating the blast. The introduction of this system dates from 1835, and was tried for the first time in Jenbach, in the Tyrol. Only those works erected or altered since 1872 have blasts able to work up to a temperature of 500° ceutigrade. The greatest difficulty under which the production of iron labors in the Alpine countries is the small amount of pig-iron turned out, and the reason is the exclusive use of charcoal-fuel. This not only makes an increase in the quantity of iron manufactured impossible, but the immense decrease of timber, and the high prices paid for it for building purposes, have created a remark¬ able diminution. Eo changes in the fuel were made until 1870, but the scarcity of suit¬ able coal for smelting purposes proved an obstacle. The efforts to utilize the large amount of brown coal (lignite) existing there for smelt¬ ing purposes have always been unsuccessful. The first coke-furnace was erected at Pravali iu 1870. One centner of coke costs in Pravali, at the mouth of the pit, one Austrian guilder. The consumption of fuel for 100 pounds of iron is 150 to 160 pounds of coke. A trial with English coke, which cost 1 florin 40 kreutzer at the works iu Pravali, required 114 pounds coke for 100 pounds of iron. The produce of this first coke- furnace amounted in 1870 to 88,300 hundred-weight of iron. In 1872 the building of coke-furnaces was commenced at Eiklasdorf, near Leo- ben, and at Zeltweg. The fact that in 1871 the manufacture of pig-iron in the whole of Aus¬ tria-Hungary amounted to 8,000,000 hundred-weight, and that the import of foreign pig-iron was 8,236,000, shows the immense deficiency iu the home-produce, and that a radical change in the working system is necessary. The annexed table, taken from “Munichsdorfer,” gives the price per meiler (equal to 10 Vienna centners) of iron, and per cubic foot of char¬ coal, in Carinthia, from (at different successive periods) 1600 to 1872. Price of pig-iron, and of charcoal per cubic foot. During the year— Price of pig-iron in florins. Price of charcoal in kreutzer. During the year— Price of pig-iron in florins. Price of charcoal in kreutzer. lfiOO. 15 1840 .... 33. 1 4. 2 1650 .. 17 30. 5 5. 0 1700 . 18 18(50 ..... 34. 5 6. 8 1750 . 26 1866 ... 27. 9 8. 0 1800 . 33. 5 3.1 1870 . 42. 5 12. 0 1810. 22. 1 3. 4 1871... 45. 5 13. 0 1820 .. 30. 4 3.3 S 48.2 14. 0 1830 . 25.8 3. 0 l 53.8 14. 0 10. Puddling-worJcs .—The first puddling-furnace using coal-fuel was erected in 1826, at Witkowitz, in Moravia, on English principles and by English workmen. The first gas-puddling furnace using brown coal as 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. fuel was erected by C. von Scheuchenstuel, iu St. Stefan, near Leoben. From year to year the statistics show an increase in the nnmbers, so that in Austria, excepting Hungary, there existed 23 puddling-works, having G3 puddling and 3G welding furnaces. In 1831, there were 41 puddling- works, with 114 puddling and 7G welding furnaces, and 122 rolling-mills. The total produce of these 41 puddling-works amounted, in 1837, to only three-quarters of a million centners raw material, making about 130 to 1G0 centners per furnace per week. Influenced by the great variety and ex¬ pense of the fuels, the puddling aud welding processes in the Austrian Alpine regions have attained a great variety of forms, many improve - ments having been introduced to secure the greatest possible economy in fuel. In 1842, gas-welding furnaces using brown-coal slack as fuel were in¬ troduced. The erection of wood-gas puddling-furnaces iu 1844-’45, at Lippitzbach, in Cariuthia, created quite a seusation by the favorable results attained, (3 to 4 cubic feet of wood to 100 pounds puddled iron.) Turf-puddling commenced in 1S12, at Buchscheiden, iu Freudenberg, aud at Rottenmanu, and was imitated by several minor works in Tyrol, Salzburg, and Carinthia. The step-grate for using the poor brown coal of the Alps was introduced ih Pravali iu 1S30. The Swedish gas-pud¬ dling furnaces were introduced in Eibiswalde in 185S-’59, the fuel being a mixture of brown coal and wood. Siemens furnaces have been introduced with great advantage. They are in general use for welding, but are only occasionally met in pud¬ dling-works, for the reason that the exhaust heat of the waste gas is used for raising steam. The double furnaces are largely in use in Cariuthia, but iu Styria the single oues are preferred on account of less expenditure in wages, and the better quality of the product. Hydrau¬ lic motors have been replaced by steam-power in most of the puddling- works. Upright and horizontal boilers are used, ranging from 23 to 30 horse power. The first large steam-hammer was erected at Feuberg in 1832j it was of the Condies design, and gave a 100 hundred-weight blow. Then followed the introduction of several Xasmyth hammers with from 83 to 200 hundred-weight blows. The largest steam-hammer of the region was erected iu 18G3 at Xeuberg, the weight of the blow being 330 hundred-weight. Iu 1839 the first hydraulic forge-press was erected at the Donawitz works. It has a maximum pressure of 15,000 hundred-weight. In the wire-manufacture, which is ver\ - extensive on account of the excellence of the raw material, the factories of St. Egydi, in Upper Austria, of Feistritz, iu Carinthia, aud of Therl, iu Styria, should be mentioned on acouut of the quality and quantity of material turned out. The tin-plate manufacture has attained considerable promiueuce iu Wollersdorf, iu Austria, below the Enns, and especially in Passhammer, in Styria. The produce of these two factories amouuted iu 1S70 to 42,280 centners, being 23,190 centners of tin-plate, 1G,140 centners of ROD AND BAR IRON AND STEEL. 13 olack plate, and 2,9d0 centners of zinked iron. Other factories of the same description have been erected since then in Ludenberg and Trie- ben. A number of puddling and rolling works exist in Styria and Carinthia, producing annually more than 200,000 hundred weight of iron. Most of these works are well fitted up and in the hands of companies and associa¬ tions. A pleasing fact relative to these works is that all the operatives, from the managers and engineers down to the lowest workmen, are natives of the provinces, showing thereby that the industry has taken firm root, and that a successful opposition to foreign trade could be carried on if pig iron can be produced in sufficient quantities and at a price low enough to compete with the imported. 11. Rod and bar iron .—The direct method of producing bar-iron from the ores has, till within a short period, been adhered to by several of the minor smelting-works in the Alpine countries; but now they first pro¬ duce the pig-iron, and from this make bar-iron by puddling. Bloomaries or forges were formerly numerous throughout the Alps, but the increased price of charcoal and the almost exclusive use of it in blast-furnaces have considerably reduced the proportion of bar-iron produced in this way. The first puddling-furnace in Carinthia was erected in 1828, and in 1851 the ratio of puddling furnaces to blooma¬ ries was as 2 to 1. In 1861 the bloomaries were reduced to one-lialf, and in Styria in 1871, out of the formerly legally-licensed 271 bloomaries only 100 to 110 remained, producing about 33 per cent, of the bar-iron of Styria. A great number are now totally extinct, and only those fur¬ naces working the Lancashire method, and producing wire and fine tin¬ plate, are still existing. A limited number of bloomaries favored by local fuel will, of course, continue to exist. Such works are generally far removed from other furnaces, and are confined to one or two specialties. 12. Steel in the Alpine regions of Austria .—The spathic ores of Austria are so favorable for steel-manufacture that they are often named “steel- ores.” This adaptation of the ores is the reason that as long as open- hearth steel predominated in the steel-market, the Alpine provinces^ Styria, Carinthia, Erain, and Tyrol, ranked first in the steel-production. Thirty or forty years ago the production of steel in the Alpine provinces of Austria amounted to 300,000 centners, of which a great part was ex. ported to the East and America via Trieste, and some to Germany, France, and Switzerland, leaving to the exporters a handsome profit. The produce of these provinces at present hardly amounts to 30,000 centners, and is steadily decreasing, owing to the scarcity and cost of charcoal. The first puddled steel was made in Frantschack, in 1835, by Messrs. Schlegel and Muller, who took out a patent for their method. But the real production of puddled steel in Austria dates from 1852, at the foundation of the Eibiswald and Eeuberg works. This method is largely in use at the present time, and, by its cheapness, has driven the 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. open-hearth steel almost entirely from the market. Puddled steel is at present refined to all the different kinds of steel (Brescian, Gerb, scythe, and damask steel) formerly produced from open hearth steel. The pro- i duction of tires and railroad-iron increased the make of puddled steel, I but the Bessemer and Martin processes have now superseded it. The largest steel-puddling works are those of Streitben. The introduction of puddled steel has largely increased the steel-production of Austria, ) but not in the same ratio as in other countries, especially in Germany. The immense advantage possessed by Austria in the excellence of her • raw material, so well suited for steel-production, is more than balanced j by the cheapness of labor and fuel of her German competitors, especi¬ ally the Westphalian manufacturers. It is only the decided superiority ; of the steel which gives the Carinthian product a hold upon the market against the much cheaper Westphalian puddled steel. Cement-steel .—The demand for a suitable steel for springs of rail¬ road carriages, for which the cement-steel is best adapted and cheapest, stimulated the erection of works of this description in Eibiswald, and soon after in Donawitz, near Leoben. The results were satisfactory. The annual production of Donawitz amounts to 25,000 centners spring and saw blades. But in proportion to the use of puddled steel, that of cement steel is very limited. The gliihstahl (welded steel) is a similar product, which is now made at Donawitz. This steel was exhibited in Loudon in 1851, and again in Munich in 1S54,* by F. Lohmann, of Witten, Westphalia. Since 1S54 there has been an annual produce of 5,000 to 0,000 centners of this variety in Donawitz. A cement-furnace for the manufacture of | welded steel was erected in 1S71 in Beichramiug. 13. Cast steel .—The manufacture of crucible cast steel has long been established in the Alpine provinces; but as the old Euglish method of manufacture, by draught-furnaces, required an immense quantity of char, coal, often as much as 50 cubic feet per centner of steel, the production has naturally been kept down. In 1851 the total production of cast steel in Austria amounted to a little more than S,000 centners. Im¬ mense progress was effected in 185S by introducing the Siemens fur¬ naces in Kapfeuberg. These works commenced with furnaces of 8 cruci¬ bles, each holding a charge of 45 pounds, and using 400 pounds Leoben brown-coal slack per 100 pounds steel. At present (1873) there are 10 Siemens furnaces of IS to20 crucibles in use. The charge is still 45 pounds to each crucible, but the consumption of fuel is reduced to 250 pounds brown-coal slack. The annual production of these works is 30,000 centners. This steel, mostly soft-tempered, is used for guu-bar- rels, and is partly exported to Germany. It is no loiger a secret that the raw material used to produce crucible steel is regulated according * Described by Peter v. Tunoer in bis book “Her TVohhmterrichtete Hammer meistir, Graz, 1846, p. 424. CAST AND BESSEMER STEEL. 15 to the degree of hardness of the steel required. It consists in mixing bar and spiegel iron, (ferro-manganese.) The inventor of this method is Alvis Obersteiner of Murau.* He lias used this mixture in Austria as far back as the year 1S25, and re¬ ceived a patent for it. From the small, unimportant iron-works ofMu- rau it was transported to Westphalia, and from thence to Essen, form- ' ing the basis of Mr. Krupp’s immense success and giant works. A specialty of the Austrian cast steel is the “silver-steel” of Mr. Muller’s works in St. Egydy, widely known, likewise, for the production of steel strings for piano fortes. The manufacture of Wolfram steel has been everywhere abandoned, on account of the easy oxidation of the Wolfram. The whole production of crucible cast steel in 1871, in Austria, amounted to 85,000 centners, from 18 different smelting-works, and has, therefore, been augmented tenfold in the last twenty years. This increase would have been still greater but for the Bessemer-steel liroduction. 14. Bessemer steel .—The first Bessemer-steel in Austria, and (except a few unimportant trials made in several places) the first of the continent, was produced in 1862, at Turrack, in Styria. Other works soon followed in Heft, in Carinthia, in 1864. In 1865 the works of Neuberg were opened. The production of the existing Bessemer works in the south¬ ern portion of the Alpine provinces is shown by the annexed table : Production of Bessemer steel in Austria. Same of Bessemer work. Number of converters. Annual production. Estimated amount of present produce. Percentage of net produce. 1869. 1870. 1871. Total. Clean ingots. Styria: Cwt. Cwt Cwt. Cwt. Turrack. 3 9, 270 12, 153 22, 800 50, 000 90. 1 83.5 Neuberg. 2 62, 250 79, 598 105, 230 120, 000 89. 0 87.0 2 63, 3*25 77, 563 91, 538 85. 5 84. 5 2 1 30j 000 250, 000 Carinthia: 2 24, 551 15, 276 62, 051 100, 000 84. 0 Austria below the Enns : ( Since July 1 . 2 ) Ternitz.3 Middle of 1871 ... 4 > 106, 284 178, 985 386, 896 720, 000 89.7 88. 4 t Middle of 1872 ... 6 3 Total. 365, 680 303, 575 698, 515 1, 240, 000 To be added to this is the production of Reschitza, in Hungary, in 1871, 125,000 centners, and Witkowitz, in Moravia, 65,566 centners, which gives for the total produce of 1871, 889,231 centners. It is much in favor of the Bessemer method that the production of puddled steel in Austria and Hungary from 1826 to 1S51 (twenty-five years) amounted annually only to about three-quarters of a million centners, while the pro¬ duct of Bessemer steel in eight years attained the annual figure of SS9,231 centners. This is still more strikingly shown by the statistics of Styria, * See Vordernberger Jahrbueh. 2 baud. Graz, 1843. 16 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. which show that the produce of puddled steel in 1851 amounted to about 200,000 centners, while the Bessemer product in 1871 reached 250,000 centners, and may be calculated for 1872 at 400,000 centners. The charge in the different Bessemer works varies between 100 and 50 centners, and the average charge may be put down at 70 centners. 15. Martin steel .—The manufacture of Martin steel was commenced in 1S07, in Kapfenberg, under the direct superintendence of Mr. Martin, who made the drawings for the furnaces, and supplied the workmen. This trial showed that the resulting steel was better in quality than the crucible cast steel, and that it cost less. In 1SG9 immense works were erected in Florisdorf, near Vienna, by Messrs. Barber & Klusemann, the patentees for Austria. These works contained 5 smelting and 3 welding furnaces, with 32 distant and 4 close gas-generators, and likewise with 11 Siemens furnaces. Martin’s process is also used in Gratz and Neu- berg. The charges average about GO centners, consisting of 25 per cent, gray pig-iron, 70 per cent, bar-iron aud steel scraps, and 5 per cent, spiegel iron and waste. The consumption of fuel is SO to 100 pounds coal, or 140 to 1G0 pounds of brown coal, per centner of steel. The pro¬ duce of the Martin’s works of Gratz, in 1871, was as follows: Charges of iron, 3,205,285 centners, which produced 3,019,774 centners of steel, with a waste of 52,515 centners. The pure steel produced amounted, therefore, to 94.21 per cent., the waste to 5.79 per cent. The Martin works, in Neuberg, produced iu 1S71 14,3G8 centners of steel ingots, with a loss in raw material of 9.S per cent., and a waste of 1.7 per cent. 1G. Extent of the tron-industry in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. —Iron-mining in Bohemia dates back in the remote past beyond the records of history. It is mentioned in lays and traditions as early as G77 years before Christ, and the historian Hajeck locates these early works in the vicinity of Caslaw. Many of the names of Bohemian towns are derived from the ancient mining localities. Iron-smelting was for¬ merly carried on by Bohemian proprietors to utilize the otherwise value¬ less tracts of timber covering the country ; but the far-spreading exten¬ sions of railroads have recently given so high a value to building-tim¬ ber that iron-smelting works are forced to employ a cheaper fuel. Moravia was in advance of Bohemia in changing from charcoal to a mixture of wood aud coke. Although the veins of brown coal in Bohe¬ mia are almost inexhaustible, there is still an acknowledged want of suit¬ able coals for smelting purposes. There soon (1S72-73) will be thirteen •furnaces using coke in full working order iu Bohemia. They will con¬ sume at the minimum calculation 5,000,090 centners of coke to produce the same effect as 12,500,000 centners of coal. The coals of Schadowitz are the most suitable for smeltiug purposes. The Miroschan coals, on account of their brittleuess, are neither suitable nor profitable for use in furnaces. Under these circumstances, the iron-works iu Bohemia using coke will always have to rely upon a foreign supply of fuel. The Mora¬ vian iron-works are differently situated. The coal-fields of Ostran insure IRON-ORE IN BOHEMIA. 17 an ample supply of coke-proclucing coal; but rich iron-ore veins are scarce. The difficulties' in the rapid development of smelting-works using coke in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia are very formidable, but the iron-masters are determined to overcome them and to maintain the success of the iron-industry. 17. Iron-ore Mining .—In the year 1807 there existed in Bohemia 46 furnaces in full working order, producing 1,040 hundred weight of iron in twenty-four hours. The following table shows the amount of iron-ores produced during 1870: Production of iron-ores during ihe year 1870 . Country. Production. Number of mines. Number of work¬ men employed. Average price at the works. Total value. Bohemia. Cwt. 4, 581, 582 49 1, 877 Florins. 15.3 Florins. 563, 703 Moravia. 1, 788, 075 18 1,464 630 13. 0 234, 406 Silesia. 296, 318 6 26.3 45, 926 6, 665, 975 73 3, 971 844, 035 Out of these 73 iron-works, 2 did not yield any profits and 15 sus¬ pended operations. Their joint production of iron-ores amounted to 40 per cent, of the entire produce of Austria. About the year 1865, the product increased in Bohemia 2,184,486 centners, and in Moravia to 381,379 centners, but diminished in Silesia 66,977 centners, showing a total increase of 2,49S,888 centners in the three countries. Sixty per cent, of the iron-ore comes from the Silurian districts, and the amount carried out of Bohemia forms 90 per cent, of the entire produce of that country. The principal proprietors of the iron-mines are the “ Prseger Eisenindustrie Gesellschaft,” the Lebrow estate, the elector of Hesse-Cassel, the Prince Colloredo Metteruich, and Prince Furstenberg and the State of Pilsen. The greatest mines are those of Nucier. The Chamoisit mines are worked by the aforesaid company, and the product is taken through horizontal tunnels to the Rucier Railroad. Below the level of the tunnels the transportation of the ore is difficult and expensive. The red-ironstone mines are com¬ prised in two divisions. The eastern one embraces the Karabina Mount¬ ains, and the veins of Swarover on the left bank of the Racier brook. The western division is formed by the mines of Jezovcin Chrbina, on the right bank of the little river Raciba. The eastern division is known under the name of Suarow works, the western as Chrbina mines. In Suarow the veins are perpendicular, in Chrbina they are horizontal. The average cost-price in the two principal works is as follows : Chrus- tenic, 1 hundred-weight of iron-ore, 15 £ to 17 kreutzer ; Krahulov, 1 hun¬ dred-weight of iron-ore. 22£ to 23J kreutzer. The total produce of iron- ore from the mines of the Elector of Hesse-Cassel, in the year 1870, 2 i 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. amounted to 371,190 hundred-weight, and the average cost per hun¬ dred-weight amounted to 10.9 kreutzer. All 'the iron-mines of Bohe¬ mia are worked on the most approved scientific principles. In minor works the water is taken out either by windlass or by bucket, but in the more important ones pumps are employed, moved either by steam or water power. In Moravia, in most cases, the mines are a long dis¬ tance from the smelting-works, and often the transportation is difficult and insufficient. The cost-price of the product therefore varies con¬ siderably. In a total production of 9,173,374 hundred-weight the price, at the mouth of the pit, ranges from 71 to 10 kreutzer (minimum) to IS to 19 kreutzer, (maximum.) The transportation to the smelting- works increases these prices from a minimum of 19 up to 65 kreutzer. The ores of Silesia are mostly magnetic, red, brown, and spathic iron¬ stones, and specular iron, yielding 23 to 27 per cent. The large iron¬ works of the Archduke Albrecht of Austria cover a surface of 1,229,312 , square klafters, and their produce in the year 1S71 amounted to 18S,730 centners. The average cost-price amounted to 37 kreutzer per centner. Some of the ores were very poor, containing only IS to 24 per cent, of iron. IS. Production of pig-iron .—The following table gives the quantity of pig-iron produced in the three countries during the year 1S70 : Country. Raw iron. Number of furnaces. Bloom. Cast. Not work¬ ing. Working. Total. Working weeks. Bohemia. Centners.' 953, 433 Centners. 320, 47fi Centners. 1, 273, 920 12 40 52 Number. 1,727 410, fill 05, 910 18(3, 221 511(3, 832 21 21 874 Silesia. 5l| 974 117' 885 1 o 293 Total. 1, 429, 954 558, 67 L 1, 988, 637 13 67 80 2, 894 * Or one hundred-weight. The production of pig-iron was, until the year 1S3S, effected through¬ out the whole of Bohemia by ineaus of charcoal-furnaces. From this period the use of coal-fuel commenced, and a constant changing of old furnaces and adding of new ones has been going on ever since. The cost of producing 100 pounds of pig-iron in the Silurian districts may be stated as follows : Fl. Kr. j| 330 pounds of ore, at 20 kreutzer . 0 66 < 45 pounds of limestone. 0 2 I 16 cubic feet of charcoal, at 15 kreutzer. 2 40 ) Wages. 0 20 General working-expenses.. 0 25 I Total. 3 53 The steady advance in the prices of charcoal will, in the future, in¬ crease the cost of the raw material. BOHEMIAN IRON-WORKS. 19 19. Founderies .—In Bohemia, casting is generally done directly from the furnaces, and the largest portion is common commercial castings. The most important foundery of Bohemia is that of Kladno, which pro¬ duces the most complicated and heaviest machinery-castings. The founderies of Moravia are almost entirely employed in machinery-cast¬ ing. Several works use cupolas with hot-blast. The most important foundery, that of Blansko, turns out annually 150,000 centners of cast¬ ings. The Silesian founderies are on the same principle as the Moravian, and their annual produce is about 60,000 hundred-weight of castings. The founderies of Adamsthal work up annually 46,000 hundred-weight of raw material, consuming fuel as follows: Coke, 18,000 hundred-weight coal, (Ostrau,) 12,000 hundred-weight; charcoal, 24,000 cubic feet. 20. Bolling-icorTcs. —(1.) The works of the Prceger Eisenindustrie Gesellschaft. These works are iu Kladno, Niirschau, Wilkischen, and Josephihiitte. The annual production is 700,000 centners. (2.) Baron von Bothschilds’s works at Witkowitz. The produce, mostly railroad-iron, tires and axles, sheet-iron and commercial iron, is 400,000 centners per annum. (3.) The works of Archduke Albrecht at Karlshiitte and Ustron produce 320,000 centners per annum. (4.) Boiling-works of Prince Fiirstenberg in Althiitten, near Beraun and Bras, Rostok, in Silesia, and Purgletz, in Bohemia, with a joint pro¬ duce of 290,000 centners per annum. (5.) Iron-works of the Klein Brothers in Top tan and Stefanau, produc¬ ing 200,000 centners annually of beams, girders, boiler-iron, and steel. (6.) The white-iron works of Keudeck produce 80,000 centners per annum. (7.) Mr. Bondy’s works at Bubna, near Prague', produce 70,000 hun¬ dred-weight per aunura. (8.) Count Harrach’s establishments. The production amounts to 28,000 centners of tin-plate, 18,000 centners of drawn wire and light bar- iron. (9.) Two works of an unimportant character are iu process of erection at Komotan and Leibnitz. Besides these large establishments, there are several smaller ones. 21. Bloomaries and puddling-ivorlcs .—The manufacture of wrought iron was, up to the year 1865, au important branch of the Bohemian iron- industry, and there were then in operation 110 bloomaries and 28 blast-furnaces, producing more than 250,000 hundred-weight per au- uum. The production of Moravia failed to come up to this stand¬ ard, and in 1865 it amounted to 120,000 hundred-weight. Silesia, with 28 bloomaries and 10 blast-furnaces, produced about 50,000 hun¬ dred-weight, so that the total production of the three countries dur¬ ing the year 1865 amounted to 420,000 hundred-weight. But since this period most of the Bohemian bloomaries ceased to work, and in 1870 only a few were in active operation, and these worked only 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. to utilize the remnants aud scrap-iron of their founderies and roll¬ ing-mills. Most of the charcoal-furnaces possessed two to four bloorn- aries, which partly refined the pig-iron but never converted it into wrought iron. At the present time only those bloomaries are of any importance which produce raw material for rolling-mills, especially if the object is to produce a good quality of iron from scraps and remnants. In the year 1S71 there were 116 puddling-furnaces in Bohemia, and 70 in Moravia and Silesia, making a total of 186 puddling-furnaces. The pig- iron produced in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, aud the remnants and scraps of rolling-mills, do not satisfy the demand of the puddling-works for raw material, so that over 2,500,000 hundred-weight of pig-iron is annually imported. In all the new works each furnace is supplied with a separate chimney. Double furnaces are only employed for the manu¬ facture of inferior kinds of iron. The “loupes” are compressed by steam-hammers on the Nasmith principle. The works are fitted up with two pairs of rollers, but those erected during the last five years have generally three rollers placed one above the other. The producing capacity and the consumption of material differ vastly on account of the different kinds of coal employed. The annexed table shows the results, employing Ostran coals, in the manufacture of an average quality of iron per UK) pounds rails : Consumption of pig-iron: single furnace, 114 pounds; double furnace, 114 pounds. .Consumption of coal: single furnace, 135 pounds; double furnace, 95 pounds. Weekly capacity of production : single furnace, 270 hundred-weight; double furnace, 400 hundred-weight. 22. Development of iron-industry in Carinthia.— Among the many interesting special publications to accompauy the exhibits at Vienna, the memoir of Friedrich Miinichsdorfer upon the production of iron in Carinthia* is deserving of special mention. Besides a gen¬ eral history of the development of the iron-industry since the time of King Otto in the year 953, it gives an account of the prices of iron dur¬ ing the century, a tabular statement of the production for the last fifty years, and a comparison of existing furnaces with those of the begin¬ ning of this century, as respects form, capacity, extent, and economy of production. This comparison is Teudered striking and instructive by a series of vertical sections of the furnaces at different periods, drawn to the same scale, presenting a complete view of the gradual development of furnaces, from the simplest form in early times to the modern furnace, with its comparatively enormous product. During the construction of a railway a few years since, some aucient smelting-hearths, dating back to the time of the Romans, were un¬ covered. They consist of holes or ditches depressed below the sur¬ face of the ground and lined with fire-clay and quartz to a thickness of some IS inches. * Gescliichtliche Eutwicklung der Roheiseu-Produktiou in K;irnTen, zusainmeu- gestellt von Friedrich Miinichsdorfer, Oberbergverwaiter in Hiitteuberg. Klagenfnrt, 1'73. Pp. 36, aud 14 plates. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 21 Blast-furnaces from 5 to 6 feet high were introduced in the eighth century. They were so placed as to have a natural draught or blast. The li wolf” furnaces had a rectangular base of 4 or 5 feet, and a height of from 6 to 8 feet. A furnace of this kind at Soiling, in 1775, was elliptical in section and 12 feet high. The iron bloom was removed from the front. 23. Sections of Carinthian furnaces.— The sections which fol¬ low show the constantly-increasing dimensions of the furnaces and the economy of production. In the following descriptions of the Carinthian furnaces the numbers of the notes at the foot refer as below: 1. Kind and mixture of ore. 2. Blast. 3. Tuyeres. 4. Average production in twenty-four hours. 5. Consumption of coal per Vienna centner of pig-iron in cubic feet. 6. Per cent, of production. The name of the furnace and the date are placed at the head. kremsbrucken. Last campaign, 1833. Fig. 1. 1. Brown iron-ore and ocher. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One tuyere. 4. 62 Vienna centners. 5. 20.6 cubic feet. 6. 36 per cent. 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873 EISENTRATTEN. ISOS. 2 8 " Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 1. Brown iron-ore and ocber. 2. Four box-bellows. 3. Two tuyeres. 4. 95 Vienna centners. 5. 23.2 cubic feet. 6. 38 per cent. 1. Brown iron-ore and ocber. 2. Three cylinders. 3. „Three tuyeres. 4. 118 Vienna centners. 5. 16 cubic feet. 6. 37 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 23 RADENTHEIN. DETITSCH-PONTAFEL. Last campaign, 1863. Last campaign, 1847. JSC8 Fig. 4. 1. Magnetic iron-ore. 2. Two box-bellows. . One, 4. 25 Vienna centners. 5. 20.3 cubic feet. 6. 30 per cent. rm So! 9o Fig. 5. 1. Red and brown iron-ore. 2. Three water-strommels. 3. One. 4. 45 Vienna centners. 5. 25.3 cubic feet. 6. 46 per cent. 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ST. SALVATOR. 1872 4-0" . Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 1. Brown iron-ore and spathic ore. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One. 4. 71 Vienna centners. 5. 18.6 cubic feet. 6. 40 per cent. 1. Brown iron-ore. 2. Three box-bellows. 3. Two. 4. 120 Vienna centners. 5. 16 cubic feet. 6. 40 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES, 25 HIRT. 1803 Fig. 8. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One. 4. 59 Vienna centners. 5. 16.7 cubic feet. 6. 36 per cent. 1872 40" Fig. 9. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. Cylinders. 3. Two. 4. 130 Vienna centners. 5. 12 cubic feet. 6. ' 46 per cent. 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. raaBSjs* «* Fig. 10. 1. 4-5 brown iron-ore, 1-5 spatbic. 2. Two bos-bellows. 3. One. 4. 75 Vienna centners. 5. 15.9 cubic feet. 6. 36 per cent. OLSA. 1872 Fig. 11. 1. Brown iron-ore. 2. Three cylinders. 3. Four. 4. 275 Vienna centners. 5. 11 cubic feet. 6. 36 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. FEISTRITZ. Last campaign, 1834. 1. Brown and spathic ore. 2. Two “ spitzbalge.” 3. One. Fig. 12. 4. 80 Vienna centners. 5. 10.3 cubic feet. 6. 45 per cent. 27 28 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. TRE1BACH. 1808 Fig. 13. 1. Brown ore and spathic. 2. Four box-bellows. 3. Three. 4. 160 Vienna centners. 5. 12.2 cubic feet. 6. 46 per cent. Fig. 14. 1. 91 per cent, of brown ore and 9 per cent, of spathic ore. 2. Four cylinders. 3. Three. 4. 278 Vienna centners. 5. 10.48 cubic feet. 6. 46 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 29 Fig. 15. 81 pci cent, of brown ore and 9 per cent, spathic ore. 2. Eight cylinders. 3. Five tuyeres. 4. 447 Vienna centners. 5. 7.85 cubic feet. 6. 47 per cent. Fig. 16. 1. 91 per cent, of brown ore and 9 per cent, spathic ore. 2. Eight cylinders. 3. Five. 4. 422 Vienna centners. 5. 839 cubic feet. 6. 46 per cent. 30 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. URTL. Last campaign, 1834. 1808 2 /" li — ! % Fig. 17. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. Two box-beilows. 3. One. 4. 71 Vienna centners. 5. 21.7 cubic feet. 6. 38 per cent. KOMPAGNIE HDTTE. Last campaign, 1812. /8C8 24 -"' 7V 15 Fig. 18. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. “ Schnbalge.” 3. One. 4. 61 Vienna centners. 5. 21.1 cubic feet. 6. 48 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 31 HEFT. /872 _ 3'107 1872 ^ 3 ' 10 “ 7808 Abhl ~Z5^ AH j w>! Fig. 19. 1. Browu ore and spathic ore. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One. 4. 99 Vienna centners. 5. 12.J7 cubic feet. 6. 50 per cent. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. 1 Brown ore and spathic ore. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. Four oscillating, four fixed, and 2. Four oscillating, four fixed, and two horizontal cylinders. two horizontal cylinders. 3. Five. 3. Five. 4. 225 Vienna centners. 4. 264 Vienna centners. 5. 9.87 cubic feet. 5. 9.5 f cubic teet. 6. 50 per cent. 6. 51 per cent. 32 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. MOSINZ. /872 32 " <---> Fig. 22. Fig. 23. 1. Brown ore and spathic iron-ore. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One. 4. 90 Vienna centners. 5. 14.1 cubic feet. 6. 52 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. f 33 EBERSTEIN. 1808 _/a" Fig. 24. -• Brown iron-ore and spathic ore f. !. Two “spitzbalge.” !. One. 1. G3 Vienna centners. >. 16.8 cubic feet. i. 30 per cent. * o ' Fig. 25. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore 2. Two oscillating and two fixed cylinders 3. Three. 4. 286 Vienna centners, 5. 9.88 cubic feet, 6. 47 per cent. 34 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. LOLLING. / 1808 6 ' 6 " Fig. 26. Fig. 27. 1. Brown ore and spathic ore. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One. 4. 88 Vienna centners. 5. 11.8 cubic feet. 6. 50 per cent. 1. Brown ore 85 per cent., and 15 per cent spathic ore. 2. Two fixed, two oscillating, and two Lor- f izontal cylinders. 3. Three. 4. 293 Vienna centners. 5. 9.13 cubic feet. 6. SOper’cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 35 LOLLING. 1872. 46 " 42 '^ o Fig. 28. 1. Brown iron-ore 85 per cent., spathic iron- ore 15 per cent. 2. Two fixed, four oscillating, and two hor¬ izontal cylinders. 3. Three tuyeres. 4. 296 Vienna centners. 5. 8.35 cubic feet. 6. 50 per cent. Fig. 29. 1. Brown iron-ore 85 per cent., spathic iron- ore 15 per cent. 2. Two fixed, four oscillating, and two hor¬ izontal cylinders. 3. Three tuyeres. 4. 325 Vienna centners. 5. 9.39 cubic feet. C. 50 per cent. 36 VIENNA. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. MINDISCH-KAPPEL. Last campaign, 1823. 1808 pn 24" --= rw~ I I ! I I Fig. 30. 1. Red iron-ore,.(hematite.) 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One tuyere. 4. 35 VienDa centners. 5. 25 cubic feet. 6. 38 per cent. WAIDISCH. o Fig. 31. 1. Trischsclilacke. 2. One oscillating, one fixed cylinder. 3. One tuyere. 4. 50 Vieuua centners. 5. 12 cubic feet. 6. 5S per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 37 1808 Fig. 32. 1. Brown ore £, spathic ore A. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One tuyere. 4. 38 Vienna centners. 5. 26.2 cubic feet. C. 30 per cent. W ALDEN STEIN. Fig. 33. 1. Specular ore, brown ore, and spathic ore. 2. Three “ wackier.” 3. Three. 4. 115 Vienna centners. 5. 11 cubic feet. 6. 45 per cent. 38 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ST. GERTRAND. 1672 Fig. 34. 1. Brown iron-ore §> aud spathic iron-ore §-. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One tuyere. 4. 57 Vienna centners. 5. 174 cubic feet. 6. 39 per cent. Fig. 35. 1. Brown iron-ore and spathic iron-ore. 2. Three cylinders. 3. Three tuyeres. 4. 120 Vienna centners. 5. 12.5 cubic feet. 6. 41.6 per cent. CARINTHIAN FURNACES. 39 /B08 ST. LEONARD. Fig 36. 1. Brown iron-ore f, and spathic iron-ore J-. 2. Two box-bellows. 3. One tuyere. 4. 53 Vienna centners. 5. 18 cubic feet. 6. 45 per cent. Fig. 37. 1. Brown iron-ore f, and spathic iron-ore 2. Two cylinders. 3. Three tuyeres. 4. 132 Vienna centners. 5. 10.4 cubic feet. 6. 42 per cent. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. PREVALI. / 5. 150 pounds coke. / 6. 84 per cent. DIMENSIONS AND FORMS OF FURNACES. 41 24. Dimensions of blast-furnAces.— From data obtained at the exhibition, a writer in Engineering gives a very interesting tabular ex¬ hibit of the sizes and yield of some of the principal blast-furnaces in Europe. Principal dimensions of blast-furnaces in various parts of Europe.* Description of furnace. Year of erection. Gleiwitz, 1854, coke-fur nace. Gleiwitz, 1872, coke-fur uace. Konigsbiitte, 1855, coke furnace. Kduigshiitte, 1865, coke furnace. Kbnigshiitte, 1872, coke furnace. Creusot, coke-furnace ... Heinrichskiitte, 1861, coke-furnace. Bessiige, coke-furnace ... Wittkowitz, Moravia, i coke-furnace. < Pravali, Carintbia, 1872 . Gleiwitz, charcoal, 1799 . Gleiwitz, charcoal, 1829 . Kbuigshiifcte, charcoal, 1826. Bogshau, Hungary, char¬ coal. St. Gotraud, Carintbia 1872. Waldenstein, Carinthia, 1872. Combiers, charcoal, France. Friedau, charcoal, Styria Trummelsberg, Sweden. Bjornhittan, Sweden .... Finubo, Sweden. Straczena, Hungary. o . © Diameter between. « f ® B s ft 43 +3 © .£f E © 3 Tuy¬ eres. Boshes. Top. Meters. Meters. Meters. Meters. 3 15.58 .94 4. 7 1. 88 8 13. 7 2. 56 5. 34 4 3 14.4 1.07 4. 7 2.2 7 14.8 2.5 4.7 3. 14 8 13. 5 2. 67 5. 65 3. 77 3 16. 8 1. 4 5 3 3 15 1. 1 4.1 2.51 3 14. 1 1 3. 96 2 7 18. 72 2. 24 5.44 5 3.2 i 4.8 6 16. 96 1.93 4. 68 2. c8 11.18 . 90 3. 45 . 96 2 13. 14 . 63 3. 14 1.36 2 12. 11 .76 3.22 1.25 4 13.3 1 2. 85 2. 02 3 11.2 1. 16 2. 56 1. 11 3 9. 98 . 85 2.56 . 95 2 8. 79 . 63 2. 05 . 62 13. 27 1. 89 2. 26 . 79 o 13. 06 1.36 2. 82 1. 78 2 12. 76 1. 17 2. 67 1. 45 2 11. 87 9.28 .94 .72 2. 37 2. 56 1.39 . 85 ' Capacity of furnace. © © rz © *© ^ P Remarks. Cubic meters. Tons. 117. 58 56. 25 Open breast. 220.7 250 Closed hearth and top. 138.1 204 Open hearth. 231.6 Closed hearth. 158. 7 175 l . 112 5 240 40.31 13. 7 Open hearth. 48. 14 25 Do. 46.9 Do. 56. 5 100 46 Charcoal-furnace. 39 Do. 17.5 Open hearth. 161 67.5 Charcoal-furnace. 31 Do. . 24 Do. Charcoal. * Engineering, Augusts, 1873, from the Vienna Exhibition. 25. Forms assumed by furnaces after long working.— In con¬ nection with this table of the principal dimensions of blast-furnaces, it is very instructive to compare the dimensions which furnaces assume after working for a long time. Engineering justly observes: “ This table gives good evidence that no general rules have, up to the present time, been deduced for the best form of blast-furnaces under certain conditions, as not even those furnaces which are in close vicinity to each other, and which are worked under similar conditions, have been built with corresponding dimensions. “This fact will be understood easily enough when we say that only the original designs for the construction of a blast-furnace to be erected at a certain place happen to be brought to the knowledge of metallurgi¬ cal engineers ; but never, or very seldom only, are the results and expe¬ rience gained in working this furnace brought before the public. This want of general rules becomes the more striking when we find that ua- 42 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ture itself has made the best engineer and draughtsman in this case, and that we only want to keep onr eyes open to its teachings. Ambi¬ tion and selfishness alone can have kept us so loug from acknowledging these facts. “ It is clear that the best form of blast furnaces will be that which, all other circumstances being equal, will work with the greatest economy of fuel and with the least deterioration of the furnace-lining. Xow, in¬ stead of engaging ourselves with extended speculation about the mode !| of finding out the best form of furnaces, it would prove to be much wiser to look at the iuside of such furnaces after they have worked ef¬ fectively for some time. It is by uo means a rare fact that blast¬ furnaces give the best working results a very short time before they are obliged to be put out of use on account of the general wear and tear of the lining. “In all such cases the furnace itself, at the end of a campaign, will give valuable hints as to the form best adapted for the particular cir¬ cumstances. But instead of learning, by close inspection, the wants of nature, in most cases we rebuild the furnace according to the original type, quite irrespective of the conclusions which may be drawn from the excessive deterioration of some parts of the interior. “ It is more than probable that the comparison of a series of such self-formed sections of blast-furnaces at the end of their campaigns will afford us means of deducing certain formulae for the determination of the most effective form of coke or charcoal blast-furnaces, with due ref¬ erence to the different circumstances under which they may work. But to arrive at such a desirable result, it is necessary before all that the different iron-masters and metallurgical engiueers should aid the under¬ taking, by publishing the results obtained with furnaces of certain con¬ struction, and at the end of each campaign give a complete section showing the wear and tear of the lining. \Ye believe it to be of the highest interest to all connected with the iron-trade that such knowl¬ edge should be largely diffused among the iron-works proprietors and metallurgical engineers.” Accordingly, Engineering presents sections obtained from drawiugs at Vienna of a charcoal blast-furnace, exhibiting in a striking manner the modification of the form of the interior after a campaign of five years’ duration. These drawings are here reproduced. They represeut one of a set of three furnaces at Mariazell, in Stvria, working calcined spathic ores containing 42 per cent, of iron. It was lined with brick, and the crucible was built of sandstone. The broken lines in the verti¬ cal and horizontal sections show the ultimate shape assumed. The furnace was working well when stopped on accouut only of the falling of part of the brick lining. There is a striking similarity between these sections, the result of wear, and the form considered in some parts of Styria as the best for smelting spathic ores. Take, for example, a section of a charcoal blast- DIMENSIONS AND FORMS OF FURNACES. 43 Vertical sections of Mariazell furnace. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. 44 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Fig. 41.—Horizontal sections of the Mariazell furnace. DIMENSIONS AND FORMS OF FURNACES. 45 Fig. 4 V—Vertical section of Styrian furnace. 46 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. furnace at Hieftau, near Eisenerz. It is nearly the same as the ultimate section of the Mariazell furnace. In further illustration and confirmation of this tendency to assume a form corresponding- closely to the shape and proportions believed to be the best in Styria, sections of another of the three Mariazell charcoal- furnaces are shown. These are contributed by J. Stummer-Traunfels, of Vienna, to Engineering, in corroboration of the views expressed, and are also very instructive. This furnace was also working in a sat- ^factory manner up to the time of the stoppage of the blast for the purpose of putting in a new lining. It had been in blast continuously for three years, and produced good iron with economy of fuel. RESCHITZA STATE RAILWAY. 20. This company makes one of the most complete of the exhibitions of iron and steel, including the fuel used and models of the mines and ap¬ paratus for extraction of the ore. We here find a complete section of a bed of coal, showing the roof and floor, with a clay parting in the midst of the bed. This specimen is 14 feet 4 inches long, and stands about 0 feet high, the seam being inclined to the horizon. Here, also, is the largest Bessemer-steel ingot in the exhibition, 7 feet 1 inch long, and 33 inches in diameter, weighing 8,925 kilograms. There are, besides, a series of steel ingots, test-objects, showing the character of the fracture; a series of sections of rails with hard crystalline heads, and fibrous bottom, some with steel head andiron base. A series of sections of shape-iron of various forms is shown to illustrate their internal struc¬ ture, one beiug polished, and the other etched in acid, bringing out in this way the folding of the layers in the birrs or the “fibrous” structure. A large tire for railway driving-wheels, 8 feet 9i inches in diameter, at¬ tracts attention on account not only of its size, but its lightness and perfection of form. In a fish-plate joint for rails a method of preventing the nuts from turning is shown. A small square plate of steel or iron, about oue- eighth of an inch thick, is placed under the nut, and one side is raised up by a stroke of a chisel applied under the edge. 27. Ferromanganese.--A notice of the splendid exhibition in the Res. chitza pavilion would be incomplete without more than a passing reference I to the samples of ferro manganese, or mangan iron, of three grades, con¬ taining from 25 per cent, to 35 per cent, of manganese. This alloy is very important in the manufacture of steel, and with the growth of the in- I d us try of steel in all parts of the world it assumes a constautly-increas- I iug importance. The home-production of ferro-mauganese is greatly j needed in the United States, where it certainly might be made with our ; mauganiferous ores and abundant fuel at a moderate cost. The process of manufacture, it will presently be shown, is very simple, attention how- • ever, being requisite to some important points, which might be over¬ looked and prevent success. At present the foreign metal is thrown into ; Vertical sections of blast-furnace at Mariazell, Styria. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. 22 '23ylusfaian Feel / RESCHITZA STATE RAILWAY. 47 the market at constantly decreasing prices. This, and in general the comparatively small quantity required by our steel-establishments sep- j arately, appear to have discouraged the investment of capital in a special undertaking for the manufacture of ferro-maugauese upon a large scale ( for the supply of the home demand. 28. At Eeschitza, and probably at Laibach also, (the Krctinische Indus¬ trie-Oesellschaft,) ferro-manganese is made in a blast-furnace, with char¬ coal as fuel and limestone as the flux. The ore is a ferruginous mixture, containing about 37 per cent, of sesquioxide of manganese. It is sili¬ ceous, and somewhat resembles in appearance the hard manganese ore from Red Island, in the Bay of San Francisco, California. It contains about 29 per cent, of silica and some alumina, as shown by the sub¬ joined analysis: Analysis of ore used at Eeschitza for ferro-manganese Silica.Si 0 3 . . Alumina.Al 2 0 3 .. T ( Protoxide..Fe O. (Sesquioxide.. .. .. . .F 2 0 3 . Sesquioxide of manganese.Mn 2 0 3 . Lime.Ca O. Magnesia ..... .Mg u. 0. 261 Water.HO. 3.361 28.613 8. 073 0. 367 19.031 37. 224 This ore in the furnace requires a large amount of limestone to be added as flux. The larger the quantity of limestone used, or the more highly basic the charge is made, the larger is the percentage of man- ganese in the product. Thus, by using 15 per cent, of limestone and 85 per ceut. of ore, the product contains about 25 per cent of manganese. Doubling the amount of limestone, about 5 percent, additional of man¬ ganese is gained, giving, say, 30 per cent, of manganese; trebling the quantity of limestone, the metal containing 35 per cent, of manganese. Thus, to recapitulate results which have been obtained, we have: 15 limestone. 85 manganese-ore .. 100 28. 6 limestone .... 71. 4 manganese-ore 100 42 limestone.. 58 manganese-ore.. = 25 per cent, manganese. | =29 per cent, manganese. | = 35 per cent, manganese. 100 In a trial with the ore of which the analysis is given, 43 per ceut. of limestone was added, so that the oxygen ratio of the bases to that of 48 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the acid was as 15.88 to 10.6S = 1.48 to 1, or nearly as 14 to 1. This for charcoal is a highly basic charge, but it is a most important condition in the manufacture of maugan iron. To prevent the slagging-up of the furnace, it is necessary to have a high pressure of blast, much greater than is generally used in charcoal- furnaces, and as high as 90 to 100 millimeters of quicksilver. The blast, moreover, must be highly heated. In this instance it was carried to 250° Celsius = 482° Fahrenheit, the highest point attainable with the heating- apparatus of the Reschitza works at that time. With a higher temper¬ ature of blast and still more limestone, an alloy containing at least 50 per cent, of manganese could be produced. The furnace must be kept very hot, and the limestone always in excess. The quantity of materials used and the costs of production can only be stated approximately. At Reschitza it was approximately as follows : Fl. kr. 1,400 kilograms of ore.. 2 94 5 hectoliters charcoal..•. 2 00 GOO kilograms limestone. 21 Lalior, &c.... 1 00 Total in Austrian florins... 6 15 Tiie product being 50 kilograms of ferro-manganese, containing 35 per cent, of manganese. This sum is equivalent to, say, $3.10 for 100 pounds of ferro manganese, being at this rate over $60 per ton. Mixtures of iron and Bessemer steel. —There were some very interesting specimens illustrative of the effects produced upon soft gray pig-iron by adding Bessemer steel in increasing quantities. The speci¬ mens present a regular gradation in fracture from soft gray pig to hard white metal. Some large rolls for rolling iron were shown to which 12 per cent, of Bessemer steel had been added. 29. The Krainische Industrie-Gesellschaft of Laibach, Tyrol, exhibit an interesting series of specimens of spiegel iron and ferromanganese, rang¬ ing from 8 to 35 percent, of manganese. The alloy containing the high percentage of manganese is in blocks 9 inches thick, and breaks with a finely-bladed or columnar fracture, not exhibiting brilliant crystalline plates, but rather a fibrous structure. The ores are also shown, together with manganese and bauxite. 30. Rositzer Mining- Company.— The Rositzer Bergbau- Gesellscha ft make a very attractive installation illustrating their works and products. The whole does not occupy more than ten feet square at the base, but is in the form of a pyramid, rising about ten feet high, and formed of sections of rolled girders of different sizes, the largest at the base, and upon them samples of the pig-iron and of steel proof-ingots broken asunder, of bars and shafts broken across, and sections of rails and angle-iron. The ores (slags, fluxes’, &c.) are also shown in an attractive JUDENBURGER IRON-WORKS. 49 way. We also find castings, hoop and rod iron, model of workmen’s ihouses, model «f the machinery at the shaft; the hoisting-gear; a large cage, for two wagons side by side, fitted with a hood, eccentric safety- clutches, and a spiral spring. The fire-brick used are also shown. Some of them are of great size, a yard or more in length and 9 inches thick, remarkable for their sharp¬ ness and excellence. Specimens of coal-fossils, photographs, and blocks of coal on the top of the pyramid, complete this compact and well-made exhibit. 31. JUDENBURGrER Iron-Works.— The joint-stock company “ Juden- burger Eisenwerke,” of Vienna, exhibited a number of boiler-plates of large size, a plan of the works at Judenburg, and a graphic chart of production and prices for the last eight years. The dimensions of some of the plates were— Locomotive frame-plate, 8,015 x 765 x 9 millimeters, weighing 426 kilograms. Annual production, 1,600 to 2,000 pieces. Tender frame-plate, 5,070 x 770 x 9 millimeters, weighing 264 kilo¬ grams. Annual production, 1,600 to 2,000 pieces. Boiler-plate, 2,180 x 1,505 x 15 millimeters, weighing 393 kilograms. Annual production, 3,000 to 3,500 pieces. Plate, 2,000 x 290 x 28 millimeters, weighing 126 kilograms. Plate, 2,709 x 1,500 x 2 millimeters, weighing 71.5 kilograms. Annual production, 7,000 to 8,000 pieces. Plate, 12,008 x 1,290 x 9.35 millimeters, weighing 1,071.23 kilo¬ grams. Plate, 4,346 x 1,948 x 8.80 millimeters, weighing 546.10 kilograms. Plate, 3,265 x 1,580 x 0.616 millimeters, weighing 24.5 kilograms. Plate, 2,249 x 1,602 x 0.244 millimeters, weighing 6.47 kilograms. Plate, 2,344 x 1,356 x 0.183 millimeters, weighing 4.5 kilograms. The principal market for these plates is in Vienna, for the manufac¬ ture of locomotive-boilers, for steamboat-boilers, on the Danube, and at Prague, Briinn, and Pesth. Plate was supplied last year for over 400 locomotive boilers. The following is a tabular statement of the production aud price per zoll-centner for the last eight years : Year. Boiler-plate in zoll-centners. Average price. Total value. 1864 . 1865 ......... 22, 232. 03 25, 075. 69 48, 275. 24 70, 922. 63 90, 603. 42 Fl. for. 8 79. 4 7 94. 7 Fl. kr. 195, 525 78 199, 290 31 342, 923 80 515, 161 00 753, 098 53 811.646 29 932, 144 73 1, 073, 311 20 1, 296, 777 16 1866 ........ 7 10. 3 1867 ...................... 7 25. 6 1868 . 8 31. 2 1869 . 90,' 451. 94 103, 057.11 8 97. 3 1870 . 9 04. 5 1871. lie; 465. 91 125, 321. 81 9 21. 6 1872 . 10 34. 8 The property of the Judenburger Company consists of puddling aud rolling mills at Judenburg; coal-mines at Zeltweg, Styria; iron- 4 i 50 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. mine and blast-furnace at Olsa, Oarinthia; rolling-mills in Hetzendorf, I Styria. • At the rolling-mills of Judenburg there are 3 turbine wheels’of 20 horse-power, one of 90 horse-power, and a water-wheel of 100 effective horse-power for a line of plate-rolls; three trip-hammers, one of which has a falling-weight of 24 and the other two of 20 centners; a large steam-engine of 200 horse-power for a line of plate-rolls. There are, in addition, one large steam-hammer, with a falling-weight equal to 300 centners through one inch, and a five-foot stroke; 2 large steam-shears, with seven feet cutting-length, to cut 18 lines thick, cold; 10 puddling-furnaces; 2 Siemens heating-ovens; 10 heating-ovens of other construction; and a variety of other accessories to the rnanu- facture. This is the largest establishment for the manufacture of boiler-plate in Austria. The first Siemens welding-furnace was set up in 1869. The product of one furnace in twelve hours is usually over 3,000 kilo¬ grams, and sometimes rises to 5,000 kilograms. Over 300 workmen are employed. The pig-iron is obtained partly from the company’s fur¬ nace at Olsa and partly from the blast-furnace at Treibach, from Vor- dernberg, and from Eisenerz. The coal comes chiefly from the com- jj pany’s mines at Zeltweg. The works at Hetzendorf are intended chiefly for the manufacture of loqg sheets of plate-iron and plate of superior quality. The power 1 is derived from a turbine wheel of 120 horse-power for a set of universal S rolls; one turbine, of 60 horse-power, for a set of bloom-rolls; one turbine, of 20 horse-power, for the accessory work. There is one steam- hammer with a falling-weight of 100 centners, 6 feet stroke ; one of 60 centners, 5 feet stroke; two Siemens weldiug-furnaces; seven puddling- furnaces; four heating-ovens for plate; and the corresponding shears and accessory machinery. 32. Rotary puddler. —A model of a rotary puddling-furnace plant, with regenerative furnaces, according to Dr. Siemens’s plan, is shown by J Joh. Willroider, of Villach, in the Carinthia building. The gearing is applied below; it is sustained upon plane-faced wheels. The opening j at the back is closed by a square sliding door, and the puddled ball is I to be withdrawn through this opening and to drop through a chute below into a car in the pit under the rotating vessel. The flame enters and returns on opposite sides of a vertical wall, while iu the Sellers i puddler in the United States section the division is horizontal. 33. Ehrenwekth’s puddler. —We have in the same building a model of a new form of rotary puddler, designed by Joseph v. Ehren- werth, of the E. K. Bergakademie zu Pribram, Bohemia. The two ver¬ tical sections annexed will serve to show its construction and method of working. The horizontal pan-shaped hearth A (Figs. 45 and 46) is supported upon a pivot, W, to which motion is imparted by bevel-gearing. An ehrenwerth’s rotary puddling-furnace. 51 Fig. 45.—Longitudinal section. Fig. 46.—Transverse section. EHRENWERTH’S ROTARY PUDDLING-FURNACE. 52 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. annular trough filled with water below the rim of the hearth serves to form an air-tight joint, keeping the flame from the gearing and supports below. The rabble is fixed at one side. The cost is stated at about $2,000. Its value for the intended object remains to be shown by use. The annexed additional description is translated from the inventor’s circular stating the advantages of this form of puddler. The puddling-furnace with rotating hearth differs from the ordinary puddling-furnace only in the fact that the hearth, which is fastened to a vertical shaft, can be set in rotation. Any method of heating desired can be used. The model represents a furnace with gas-heating apparatus with Siemens regenerators, and the drawing such a furnace with inclined grate. In the drawing, F is the foot-journal and L the neck-journal, W the vertical shaft, A the hearth, which is fastened to the rosette r. The hearth consists of the bed plate and the hearth-wall. Both are formed of many pieces of cast iron, as indicated in the model. The hearth-wall can be coated on the inside with any suitable refractory material. In order to exclude the air from the interior of the furnace, a cylinder of plate is fastened to the bottom of the hearth, or to the wall of the same, which dips in water contained in the annular basin B, having constant inflow and exit. The annular basin is attached, air-tight, to the furnace-wall. In order to cool the bottom, jets, with roses attached, are introduced, which sprinkle water against it. The cooling of the side-walls is ef¬ fected in different ways according as the cylinder of plate, necessary for the exclusion of the air, is attached to the bottom or to the rim of the hearth. In the first case the parts of the wall are hollow, as shown in the model, and the cooling-water is conducted through pipes r under pressure into the hollows. The escaping water falls over the lower edge into the basiu, (model.) In the latter case, which is to be more recom¬ mended, the cooling-water is conducted against the hearth-wall through jets fixed in a circle, and then drops into the basiu. In this case the hearth-walls may be made solid. The motion of the hearth is imparted to it by means of toothed gear¬ ing, from the driving-shaft W 2 , which is set in motion by means of a belt from a main shaft. For large works it is advantageous to have one subterranean main-shaft common to all the furnaces. The operation of the hearth is as follows: After the charging is fin¬ ished the hearth is set in rotation. If it is intended to stir the bath after complete melting, then rabbles provided with broad blades placed obliquely are introduced through the balls A- inserted in the furnace- doors, and the puddling is performed either by hand or machine, from the edge of the hearth toward the ceuter. If the rabbles are placed obliquely from opposite sides, and one worked toward the center and the other toward the outside, the best possible puddling is obtained by means of this double motion of the hearth and rabbles. HYDRAULIC FORGING-WIRE-ROPE TRACES. 53 The blooming is done by hand as ordinarily in the furnace with fixed hearth, and during this time the hearth is intermittently in motion, in order, after completion of a bloom, to bring another mass of iron again before the door. After the blooming the hearth is again set in rotation, in order to ex¬ pose the blooms to as uniform a heat as possible. The blooms are after¬ ward taken out and drawn in the usual way. The excess of slag, formed by each new charge, is taken out at the end of the process by means of a ladle. (It can, however, be allowed to flow off, during the working, over two places in the hearth-wall, which are lower than the rest.) The charge for a furnace with two working-doors is 15 to 20 centners. To work such a furnace, when the puddling is not done by machinery, four men are generally necessary, two or three workmen, and a fireman. The power required is about \ to f horse-power. The most advanta¬ geous number of revolutions during the puddling is about 20 to 24 per minute. The advantages which the puddling-furnace with rotating hearth offers are based upon the facts that the working is done either partially or wholly by machinery, and in consequence of the rotation of the hearth all parts of the iron pass through the same phases of heat, and are also entirely and uniformly heated. The advantages over the ordinary puddling-furnace are especially the following: 1. Cheaper production, in consequence of the saving of fuel and hand- labor. 2. Increased production'with an equal outlay of capital. 3. Independence of the ordinary puddler. Even with the fixed rabble the work is accomplished. 4. Uniformity of product, in consequence of thorough puddling and uniform heating. 5. Easy regulation and control of the running. 6. Saving in health and comfort to puddlers. This rotating-hearth puddler is claimed also to be especially well suited to steel-puddling, and to offer greater advantages to this than for iron-puddling. 34. Hydraulic forging. —A suit of parts of railway running-gear and of parts of locomotives is shown by Mr. Haswell, of the Imperial State Railway Works, near the depot of the Southern Railroad, Vienna. These objects are extremely interesting, not only to manufacturers of locomotives, car-wheels, &c., but to industry in general, as illustrations of what may be accomplished by Haswell’s method of forging iron or steel by direct pressure, slowly applied to the metal while hot. The description of this method forms a separate chapter of this report. 35. Wire-rope traces. —The St. Egydy and Kindberger Iron and Steel Industry Company, formerly Anton Fischer, of Vienna, exhibited a large number of wire-rope traces adapted to farming purposes, wagons, and wherever leather traces or chains are used for draught. 54 VIENNA INTEKNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. These traces have the advantages of great strength, lightness, pliability, and durability, and, besides, are cheap, as will be seen from the annexed table of sizes and prices. The lengths are stated in Austrian feet, and the price in florins and kreutzer.* Sizes and prices of iron traces. [Length in Austrian feet.] S a} g o 5 i © 5 d Hit! * — © 6 5 f£ o Over 0J to 7. Over 7 to 7J. Over 7J to 8. Ft. kr. Fi. kr. Ft. kr. FI. kr. Ft. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. FI. kr. 2* 1 >J0 1 95 2 00 2 05 2 10 2 15 2 20 2 25 2 25 3 2 05 2 10 2 15 2 20 2 25 2 30 2 35 2 10 2 55 34 2 25 2 30 2 35 2 15 2 50 2 00 2 65 2 75 2 90 The form of these traces and the arrangement of loops and links at the end are shown in the figure. Galvanized iron-wire traces. The loops at the ends are fitted with metal guards to receive the wear. The rings are made of wrought iron. The lengths stated are from a to b. The rings add from four and a half to six inches. The whole sur¬ face is galvanized or zinked to prevent rusting. * The Austrian foot = 1.0371 feet; Austrian Uoriu=50 cents, approximately ; and the kreutzer half a cent. CHAPTER II. GERMAN EMPIRE. Extent and arrangement of the iron and steel display ; Extent of the production ; Chief localities ; Rapid growth of the industry ; Develop¬ ment of steel-manufacture; Cast steel; Graphic illustrations of produc¬ tion ; Imports and exports ; Number of exhibitors ; Borsig’s display of LARGE BOILER-PLATE ; DlLLINGER SHEET-IRON ; STYRUM COMPANY ; IRON SHOES FOR RAILWAY-BRAKES ; KONIGS AND LAURAHUTTE ; IRON GIRDERS AND COLUMNS, BUR- bach Works and Phcenix Iron-Works ; Iron railway-ties, Burbach, Schalten- BRAND, AND OTHERS ; KltUPP’S DISPLAY ; DESCRIPTION OF THE WORKS AND PRODUCTS shown ; The fifty-two-ton ingot of crucible steel ; Artillery material of CRUCIBLE STEEL;. BUTTGENBACH’S BLAST-FURNACE ; OSNABRUCK IRON AND STEEL Works ; Gleinitz furnace ; Dimensions of furnaces at different periods. 36. The exhibition of the iron and steel industry of the German Em¬ pire is magnificent and highly instructive. It is arranged with the other mining and metallurgical products chiefly in a special building, between the Industry Palace and the Machinery Hall, while Krupp’s unrivaled display occupies another structure alongside. 37. The total values of the ores raised in the empire, exclusive of Elsace and Lothringen, in the year 1870, amounted to 7,116,828 thalers, as shown by the statistics presented at the exhibition, from which the annexed statement of the number of establishments, men employed, and the aggregate production in the year 1871, is compiled : Number of works. Number of men. Production. V alue. 1,258 631 354 216 24, 973 39, 525 43, 849 12, 892 Gwt. 58, 550, 539 29, 942,264 17, 437, 766 3, 399, 027 Thaler. 7,116, 828 49, 251, 650 57, 4d0, 264 22, 747, 626 Cast iror». Steel. “ . 38. The chief seats of the German iron-industry are the Silesian provinces, Westphalia, and the Rhenish provinces of the kingdom of Prussia. The great increase of the development of this industry of late is shown by the fact that the production of pig-iron, which in the year 1825 did not exceed 1,004,162 centners, amounted to nearly 30,000,000 centners in tbe year 1871. According to the returns of the united German customs, there were in 1861 469 cupola-furnaces, (Prussia, 310;) 207 iron-wire works,'(Prussia, 166, of which 146 were in the province of Westphalia;) 296 steel-works, including stebl-rolling and steel-wire works, (Prussia, 275;) 982 iron and tin ware works, in¬ cluding scythe, chain, anchor, nail, and other works, with 13,336 workmen, (Prussia, 794; Bavaria, 66; Wtirtemberg, 42;) 548 steel- ware and edge-tool works, with 3,081 workmen, (Prussia, 460, of which 427 were in the Rhine provinces;) 421 iron-railing works, heating and cooking apparatus works, witb 12,077 workmen, (Prussia, 242; Sax- 56 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873 . ony, 43;) 50 manufactories of arms, with. 4,188 workmen, (Prussia, 35 ;) 65 uail-works, with 3,729 workmen, (Prussia, 34; Bavaria, 30.) 39. In the year 1871, Prussia alone produced 5,689,944 centners of cast-iron ware in 492 works, with 24,600 workmen; 1,840,159 centners of sheet-iron in 59 works, with 4,536 workmen ; 157,443 centners of tin¬ plate in 6 establishments, with 826 workmen ; 1,091,042 centners of iron wire in 43 works, with 3,185 workmen ; 3,664,064 centners of steel in 78 establishments, with 15,290 workmen, of which 2,963,313 were cast steel in 34 works, with 13,656 workmen. 40. The development of the Prussian steel-industry is extremely inter¬ esting. In the year 1825, the production did not exceed 62,065 centners. In 1832, a small quantity, 94 centners, of cast steel was made, but the quantity of steel increased rapidly to 723,297 centners in 1862, including 274,662 centners of cast steel. Upon the general introduction of the Bessemer process in 1863,579,508 centners of cast steel were made, while the total steel-product rose to 952,767 centners. The percentage of cast steel in the total manufacture amounted in the year 1832 to less than 6 percent., in 1850 14 per cent., in 1855 to about 29 per cent., 1S62, about 38 per cent., in 1863, nearly 60 per cent., and in 1871 to about 71 per cent. Prussian ores. 1873. 1372. To tit. Tan*. Bog iron-ore. Brown hematite. Spathic carbonate..'. Clay ironstone. Black band.. Hematite. Magnetic iron-ore ... Limonite, (bohnerj!) Specular iron-ore_ 25,685 1. 574, 657 742, 900 55,396 223,467 698. 148 10. 415 223, 986 353 29,012 1,651,550 771, 465 26, 767 275, 420 657, isl 9,277 240, 692 Total 3, 555, 005 3, 671, 264 Increase. Tons. 28, 629 40, 967 1, 138 353 Decrease. Tons. 3, 327 86, 893 28,565 51,953 16, 706 » 116,359 41. The above table shows the nature of the ores and the quantity raised in Prussia, during the years 1872 and 1873, with theiucrease and decrease. The total product of iron-ores during the year 1874 is given at 2,090,133 metrical tons, valued at about £893,461, a diminution of no less than 1,464,872 tons iu quantity, (£776,384 in value,) as compared with the production iu 1S73. The following data show the production, estimated value, aud number of hands employed iu the different government iron-works iu Prussia in 1874: Production in centners. Value in thaler. Workmen. 1874. 1373. 1874. 1873. 1874. 1873. 1, 203, 324 368. 276 2, 286, 315 324. 974 187, 049 410,152 531 818 573, 213 70-3, 330 760, 651 1,128. 745 420,169 15, 789 273 267 173,086 29,523 1. 174 226, 994 41, 250 890 796 937 348! 935 19, 244 366 303 16 17 PRUSSIAN IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTION. 57 42. The rapid increase in the production of iron and steel for the last forty years is well illustrated by a series of graphic charts on a large scale hung upon the walls of the entrance to the German building for mining industry. These charts show in colors the relative product of each year from 1837 to 1871 in millions of kilograms. Fig. 47.—Production of pig-iron, Prussia, 1837 to 1871. The chart for pig-iron shows a gradual increase through each decade, but tho chart of steel-production shows a very rapid augmentation of product since 1860. Fig. 48.—Production of steel, Prussia, 1837 to 1871. 58 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Each of these diagrams shows a very considerable fluctuation of pro Auction from year to year, but, on the average, a constant increase highly encouraging to the industry of iron. Fig. 49.—Production of bar-iron, Prussia, 1837 to 1871. borsig’s exhibit. 59 43. The German trade in iron and steel, and manufactures from them, s very considerable, as shown by the customs returns for the year 1871, giving, as below, the imports and the exports: Imported. Exported. Owt. 11, 849, 410 1, 418, 809 2,017,511 93, 731 36, 360 765, 981 138,011 437, 505 597, 840 70.105 12, 160 76, 134 Gwt. 4, 137, 844 1, 212, 885 2, 553, 908 161, 349 161,127 1, 225,188 119, 432 496, 231 323, 557 58, 289 22, 558 22, 477 Sheet-iron and steel-plate. Tin-plate.„.„.•. Fine iron ware... Nails, needles, steel pens, &e.*.. Total. 5,664,747 6, 357, 001 44 The number of exhibitors in Group 1 alone is not less than one hundred and seventy-two, most of them being iron and steel works of considerable magnitude, but this number includes also exhibits of coal, copper, lead, zinc, &c. There are, besides, in the section of Group YII (Metal Industry) devoted to manufactures of iron and steel no less than two hundred and fifty exhibitors, but these include many manufactures not ordinarily classed with iron and steel products. Only a few of the more prominent exhibits, in regard to which notes were made, can here be noticed. 45. A. Borsig, Upper Silesia. —This firm, with large establish¬ ments in Silesia, and also near Berlin, makes a fine display of cast-steel ingots, sections of girders, piston-lieads, boxes, and various parts of machinery. There are some large and well-forged cranks and connect¬ ing-rods, large boiler heads and plates, in cast steel, one weighiug 480 kilograms; another 5,300 by 1^500 by 13 millimeters, weighing 950 kilo¬ grams. Among the large boiler-plates, (presumably of iron,) two may be cited for their great size and perfection. The first, 6,400 by 2,200 by 5 millimeters, weight 550 kilograms; the second, 8,000 by 2,100 by 13 millimeters, weighing 1,700 kilograms. Two sheets of locomotive-boiler plate, respectively, 7,400 by 1,010 by 30 millimeters, weight 967.5 kilo¬ grams, 7,500 by 1,170 by 40 millimeters, weight 2,730 kilograms, received the Progress Medal. The central portion of this fine display consists of a glass case containing the smaller objects surmounted by a stack of ore. There is a monumental pyramid of coal, with a bust of Borsig (?) at the top. Progress Medal. These works were established in 1863. There are now (1873) 4 blast-furnaces, 40 puddling-ovens, 21 heating-ovens, 3 annealing-ovens, 3 steel melting-ovens, and 2 heating-ovens. They produced in 1872, with 1.542 workmen, 400,000 hundred-weight of pig-iron, 26,000 hundred¬ weight castings for the use of the works, 300,000 hundred-weight of rolled iron, 26,600 hundred-weight steel for the German market. Open- hearth steel by Martin’s process is a specialty of these works. 60 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873 . 46. Dillinger Company. —The Dillinger Stock Company makes a fine display of rolled plates, of large size and of all thicknesses, manufac¬ tured of superior charcoal-iron. These sheets of iron comprise reservoir- iron, bridge-sheets, locomotive-boiler plate, and ordinary sheet-iron and tin-plate. One sheet of reservoir-iron weighs 2,130 pounds, and measures 6,500 by 1,900 by 11 millimeters; a bridge-plate measures 150,000 by 1,000 by 9 millimeters, and weighs 2,100 pounds. A locomotive-plate 4,100 by 1,900by 19 millimeters. Button-iron is shown in sheets 456 by305 by 0-26 millimeters. Some of the sheet-iron is so thin that 3S4 sheets are re¬ quired to make a thickness equal to one millimeter. Buckled plates and corrugated iron are shown in great variety, and apparently of un¬ usually good quality. This establishment was founded iu 1763. In 1872 the production was about 400,000 hundred-weight of sheet-iron, including the tinned and zinked iron. About 2,000 men are employed. 47. Styrum Company, Oberhausen.— The stock company at Sty- rum, in Oberhausen, Rhenish Prussia, seud some very large rectangular and circular boiler-plates, with bar and augle iron of all forms. One boiler-plate measures 3,770 by 2,305 by 13 millimeters, and weighs 1,025 kilograms. The circular boiler-head is 2,550 millimeters in diameter and 15 millimeters thick, and weighs 625 kilograms. These works were established in 1857. In 1872 the production, with 650 workmen, was about 300,000 hundred-weight. There are 40 pud¬ dling-ovens, 20 heating-ovens, and 11 rolls. 4S. Iron snoES for railway-brakes.— The brothers Glockuer, of Tschirndorf, near Halban, in Silesia, send a variety of forms and sizes of brake-irons for the use of railways. They have agents in England, Russia, Bavaria, Austria, and Hungary. This concern makes a specialty of steel castings, and produced iu 1S72 7,000 hundred-weight with 95 workmen and two cupola-furuaces. 49. United Konigs and Laurahutte. —The furnaces and rolling- mills of this company were represented by a conspicuous stack of bar- iron, rails, rods, and sheet-irou tastefully arranged upon a pedestal sur¬ mounted with an irou crown, and bouud around with a sheet-iron baud, tied iu a bow-knot. This was placed in the rotunda. The bars and rods were variously twisted and tied into knots to show their toughness and strength. There are 7 blast-furnaces at Konigshiitte, and a rolling-mill, be¬ sides works for Bessemer steel. At Laurakiitte there are eight furnaces, six of which produced 35,000 tons of pig-iron in 1872. IRON-WIRE INDUSTRY in WESTPHALIA. 50. The Westphalian Union Joint-Stock Company in Hamm, on the Lippe, ( Westfalische Union Action-Gesellschaft fur Bergbau , Eisen, und Draht-Industrie,) is a recent incorporation representing several distinct establishments, which, as united, is claimed to be the largest uudertak- IRON WIRE FROM WESTPHALIA. 61 ing in the world for the manufacture of iron and steel wire. Over 2,800 men are employed, and the total annual production of manufactured ware, exclusive of pig-iron, is about 84,000,000 pounds, and is in¬ creasing. Until recently this great industry was in the hands of a few private firms. The chief market for their production was in the cities of Iser- iohn and Altena, and their vicinity, for the manufacture of needles. A number of small mountain-streams supplied the power for grinding and polishing the needles. But the rapid spread of the electric telegraph and the substitution of iron for copper wire in its construction com¬ pletely changed the market and revolutionized the wire-industry of this region. Another very considerable demand for iron and steel wire grew out of the use of wire-ropes in mining-operations and the greatly extended consumption of wire-nails. Wire-nails for many years were of small size, not much larger than carpet tacks or brads, but now they are made of almost all dimensions, up to one-quarter of a meter in length and three-quarters of a centimeter in diameter. They are largely used in building, are made by machinery, and are very cheap. They have driven wrought nails, excepting only horseshoe-nails, from the market. Another important consumption of the wire made in the works of the Westphalia Union is in the manufacture of rivets, screws, springs, and of wire-cloth and lattice-work. It is largely used also for wire-cordage for ships’ rigging, for teledynamic cables, and for suspension-bridges. These are some of the many uses of wire cited by the company in the brochure which they print in German descriptive of their works and production. They draw attention to the fact that the quality of wire is not of so much importance iu their estimation in the manufacture of nails and screws as in the manufacture of needles, rivets, and wire- rope, and sometimes, also, of telegraph-wire. These latter require con¬ siderable hardness and tensile strength in the wire. For the produc¬ tion of wire-rope, and also telegraph-wire, it is important that the wire be in as long pieces as possible. The company claims for its products a world-wide reputation, and gives a statement iu some detail of their distribution and uses in several countries, from which the following is condensed. 51. The high reputation which the Westphalia wire-industry has ob¬ tained comes from the fact that the different works have made the manufacture of wire a specialty, and by long experience have been able to satisfy the demands of the needle-trade as regards quality. The Westphalia wire industry had also better opportunity for the selection of suitable raw material than other localities, and the works could produce blooms directly from the pig, which could be rolled into wire in a second manipulation without the manufacture of a costly in¬ termediate product. The importance of these advantages over other localities, and the care exercised iu the manufacture, enabled the West- 62 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. pkalia wire-industry to overcome the competition of the English and French. Westphalia telegraph-wire is used in various submarine cables; stretches over the great Bussian Empire; withstood competition with the English wire used by the English government in the East Indies, for which tests were required which other manufacturers considered unattainable. It is used by the Brazilian government; it was well known in the Parisian market before the French war, and obtained this market afterward, and is used by the Prussian and German govern- i ment telegraphs. In the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, the great demand for field-telegraph wife was supplied by the firm of Cosack & Co., now the Hamm division of the Union. It is not strange, there¬ fore, that this wire-industry, which was previously in the hands of a few firms, drew the attention of capitalists, and a joint-stock company was formed, in order to secure more capital and a consolidation of in- I terests against competition. Four of the most important works of the Westphalia wire-industry now united under this firm will be noticed in succession. 52. Hamm Division, (formerly Cosack & Co.)—Annual production, about 28,000,000 pounds of rolled wares. The works are situated on and connected with three principal railways, with an area of about thirty acres. The manufactures consist of the following chief products: l Bar-iron and rolled wire, drawn wire, especially telegraph-wire, wire for wire-ropes, &c.; wire-tacks, springs, boiler and bridge rivets, and car- j riage-axles. The plant of these works consists of 30 puddling-furnaces, including 2 u Schrott ovens,” 9 heating-ovens with blast, 38 steam- | boilers, 3 steam-hammers, 1 lift-hammer, and 6 lines of rolls, 2 of which I are for bloom-iron, 2 for bar-iron, and 2 for rolled wire, besides the ordi- [ nary shears and saws. There are II driving-engines, besides the neces- I sary accessory engines, giving altogether about 450 horse-power, with water-pumps, steam-pumps, &c. The rolled wire produced is for the I most part further worked in 2 drawing-mills and a tack-shop. In a rivet-shop, boiler and bridge rivets are made in 7 machines ; 6 hammers ! and 20 lathes and drills serve for the manufacture of axles. The estab- I lishment possesses 1 iron-foundery with 3 cupola-furnaces and 1 rever¬ beratory furnace, 1 machine shop, 1 apparatus for zinking fourteen wires . at the same time, 1 factory for green vitriol, (sulphate of iron,) 1 factory for fire-brick, and 4 limekilns. 53. Nachrodt division, (formerly Ed. Schmidt.) —This has an area of about 150 acres and railway connection with the “ Bergisch-Markisch” Railroad, with a solid bridge over the Linne. Annual production, about 24,000,000 pounds of finished goods. These works have the advantage j of a very important water-power of the Linne at their disposal, and, in- ( deed, the works are run by the following: 1 water-wheel of 100 horse- I power, 1 water-wheel of 60 horse power, 1 Kochlin turbine of 135 i horse-power, 1 second turbine of 100 horse-power, 1 third turbine, for running the drawing-shop, of 10 horse-power, making a total of 405 IRON-WIRE PRODUCTION-WESTPHALIA. 63 horse-power. Such an available water-power represents a considerable capital in comparison with the cost of steam-engines and boilers, with expenses for repairs, and the consumption of coal. These works were, therefore, in a situation, being alongside the rolling-mill, which, by the waste heat, afforded enough steam for the finishing of the product, to take up some manufacture which required greater power than the heat from the gas-furnaces produced, as is the case with the manufacture of thin plate. Although the manufacture of rolled wire is the most impor¬ tant, these works also produce a considerable quantity of tin-plate as well as sheet-iron, button-plate, and brass-plate. The plant consists of 21 puddling-furnaces, 7 heating-ovens, 22 steam-boilers, 3 steam-ham¬ mers, 6 steam-engines, 3 bar and bloom rolls, 2 refined iron lines of rolls, 1 wire line of rolls, 4 pairs of plate-rolls for tinned plate, sheet-iron, and button-plate, and also 2 pairs of rolls for brass-plate. The manufacture of rivets, nuts, and screws is considerable, and during the last working year reached about two and one-third million pounds, which yielded a very good profit. The works possess a foundery, draw-shop, blacksmith- shop, repair-shop, and all the necessary accessories. There are also in process of building, 4 puddling-furnaces for utilizing fine wire and plate- waste, 1 bloom-roll, and 1 steam-hammer. 54. Lippstadt Division, (formerly A. &Th. Linhoff.) —Annual pro¬ duction, about 13,000,000 pounds of finished goods. The puddling and rolling mill at Lippstadt produces chiefly wire and wire fabrics, and also merchant iron. The works are connected with the Westphalia Railway, and possess about twenty-eight acres of territory in the immediate neigh¬ borhood of the station. The puddling and rolling mill contains 12 pud¬ dling-furnaces and 3 heating-ovens, each oven being provided with a boiler. The works have 3 sets of rolls and 1 bloom-roll, 1 bar-roll, and 1 quick roll for wire; 2 steam-hammers, and 2 small lift-hammers for the manufacture of beaten iron; finally, 1 drawing-mill, with 12 large-sized and 68 medium and fine sized rolls. The drawing-mill and tack-factory at Belecke, belonging to Messrs. Linhoff’, have also been added to the prop¬ erty of the company. This has an area of about forty acres, besides water and steam power. The factory contains 46 wire-tack machines, 16 large- size rolls, 8 fine size, and 8 medium size in process of erection. All the shops possess the necessary repair-shops, with lathes, drills, planing machines, &c. The charcoal-furnace at Bericherhiitte, in Fiirstenthurm, Waldeck, also belongs to the Linhoff Works. This furnace has a daily production of about 40 centners of the best charcoal-iron, of unusual strength, which is especially suited for piano-wire and scraper-wire, but is employed mostly for hard castings, parts of rolling-machines, square and corrugated rolls, puddling-furnace canals, crucibles, &c. This fur¬ nace has the right of pre-emption for charcoal in the Fiirstenthurm, Waldeck, and possesses 57 shares (out of 128) in a mining concession of 521,750 square “lachter” (fathoms) of a very valuable iron-ore. A rail¬ way now built is intended to bring the mine into communication with 64 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the station Bredlar. This railway is conducted by the mine-owners, and was to begin operation in July, 1873. 55. Werdohl Division, (formerly Friedrich Thorn£e.)— Annual production, about 19,000,000 pounds of manufactured products, such as rolled wire, drawu wire, and springs. To this division belong: a. The puddling and rolling mill in Werdohl , with 14,000,000 pounds’ production, situated immediately by the statiou, and connected by a side-track with the “Bergisch-Markisch” Railway. These works have 16 puddling-furnaces, 3 heating-ovens, 16 steam-boilers, 2 bloom-ham¬ mers, 1 bloom-roll, 2 wire-rolls, and a repair-shop with roll-drawing apparatus. h. The works in Uetterlingsen , (wire-drawing mill.)—These are situated on the Liune, a quarter of a mile from the statiou Werdohl, and have a water-privilege of about 250 horse power and 1 steam-engine, driving 48 large-size, 22 medium-size, and 130 band and scraper rolls. There are also machines for drawing spring-wire. There are about 2,500,000 pounds of products. c. The puddling and rolling mill at Einsal , with about 5,000,000 pounds’ production, situated half a mile from the station Alteua. These works have about the same water-power as those at Uetterliug- sen, with 5 puddling-furnaces, 1 heating-oven, 1 lift-hammer, 1 bloom- roll, and 1 wire-roll. IRON GIRDERS AND COLUMNS. 56.—The finest display of rolled girders and augle-iron of large sizes is made by the Burbach Furnace Company, ( Luxemburger Bergwerks und Saarhriicker Msenhiitten-Actien-Qesellschaft zu Burbach ,) which sends a variety of girders of full length, and elegantly supported upon a pyra¬ midal iron frame, sustained by a special stone foundation independent of the floor of the building. The girders rest upon ornamental brack¬ ets, in the form of lions’ heads. The following sizes of girders are noted : 18,000x355x142x13 millimeters. 1S,000x262x 96x 9 millimeters. 18,000x200x 100x 9 millimeters. 18,000xl25x 75x 6 millimeters. I 16,500x400x140x10 millimeters. I 16,500x250x140x10 millimeters. j_ 16,500x200 120x 8 millimeters. j 16,500xl53x 5Sx 7 millimeters. The same establishmeut sends several hollow wrought-iron columns, composite, made by riveting together flanged plates of the proper form ; in short, the well-known Americau Phoenix wrought-iron column, in¬ vented and patented by Samuel J. Reeves, president of the Phoenix Iron Company, June 17, 1862.* The specimens here shown are highly * Works at Phcenixville, Pa., John Griffen, superintendent. BURBACH WORKS. 65 ( creditable to the works, being of large size and well made. The largest (a) is square in section, and 12 inches iuterual diameter ; another (b) is the same in form, but smaller and longer; and a third (c) is simply a flanged girder X- The exact dimensions are below : a. 19,200x280 x§6xl8 millimeters. b. 20,000x1631x^0x13 millimeters. c. 26,000x157 x96x!2 millimeters. A long round column of similar construction, and very perfect, and remarkable also, as all such columns are, for rigidity, lightness, and strength, is shown in the Belgian section. Columns of this construction and of greater dimensions than these are no novelty in the United States, for the Phoenix Iron-Works make a great variety of sizes and forms, and can fill orders on demand for columns 100 feet long, and from 3 inches to 3 feet in diameter, composed of segmental pieces, varying from £ of an inch to 2 inches in thickness. For more than ten years this description of column, or post, has been largely manufactured at the Phoenix Iron-Works, and many thousand tons of them have gone into the construction of wrought-irou bridges, viaducts, depots, warehouses, and other structures in various parts of the United States, Canada, Nova Scotia, and in South and Central America. All the top chords and posts of the trusses in the interna¬ tional bridge over the Niagara River, near Buffalo, are made of Phoenix columns. The same can be said of the intercolonial and all the new bridges on the Grand Trunk Railway in Canada, the Augusta bridge, in Maine, the Girard Avenue bridge, over the Schuylkill, the New River and Greenbrier bridges, in Virginia, the three wrought-iron bridges at Rock Island, Ill., and scores of others. Many important viaducts are composed almost entirely of those columns, as the Lyman and Rapallo viaducts in Connecticut; the Lyon Brook, Deep Gorge, and Block¬ house, in New York; Bullock Run and Bank Lick, in Kentucky; the Agua Venagas, in Peru. Many of these structures are of great length and depth, the last-mentioned being 580 feet long, and crossing a gorge 252 feet deep, over which the Lima and Arroya Railroad is carried. The over¬ head Greenwich Street Railway, in New York City, rests on a continu¬ ous line of these columns, though not by any means a good type, owing to their flaring tops and bottoms, made to suit the peculiar notions of the contractor of the railway. 57. The Burbach Works were established in 1816, with four high furnaces. In 1872 there were about 1,550 workmen, and the produc¬ tion was over 1,000,000 hundred-weight of pig-iron, 418,000 hundred¬ weight rails, and 422,000 hundred-weight of shape-iron. Since 1867 the daily product of the furnaces has increased from 100 to 350 hun¬ dred-weight. Double-T girders are the specialty of the works. They also manufacture and exhibit wrought hoops, flanged inward, for lining circular mining-shafts. Some of these are from 10 to 12 feet in diam¬ eter, and 5 feet high. One hoop or ring is desigued to set upon another, and in this way a high column may be built up. 66 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. IRON RAILWAY-TIES. The Burbacli Company also make an interesting exhibition of the different forms of iron they are manufacturing for “ permanent way ” for railroads by substituting iron for wooden ties. As this method, if | extensively adopted, will lead to a greatly-increased demand for iron, it is specially interesting to iron-manufactures, as well as to railroad men, j and merits a special notice. The simplest form is a cross-tie, rolled j with a raised ceuter and broad flanges, so as to have a firm bearing on the ground. Fig. 50.—Iron railway-tie. They are about a foot in width and half an inch thick, and appear to I be intended to be firmly bedded in the earth without any special kind of filling. The rails with a suitable chair are bolted to the top. Another form of “ permanent way ” consists in placing the iron sleep- > ers on ties longitudinally under the rails, not across the track, but I with it, in lengths of about twenty feet each, the parallelism and the uniform distance of the rails being maintained by tie-rods at intervals. The form of this iron bed-plate differs from the simple cross-tie above I mentioned. It is wider, and is provided with sharp llanges projecting 9o * oo downward so as to penetrate the ground and hold it securely against ] side-thrusts. The breadth is 300 millimeters; depth, GO millimeters | from the top to the edge of the flange, equivalent to about 12 inches | wide and 4 iuches deep. 5S. Schaltenbrand’s iron cross-tie. —O. Schaltenbrand, of Ber- I lin, exhibits his proposed iron railway-tie, a hollow sleeper, filled in with sand or concrete, and to which the rail is attached by bolts. As i| early as 1870 Schaltenbrand described his method of making a railway entirely of iron, in a lecture at Cologne, and endeavored to prove that j the wooden ties so universally used in railway-construction can be re¬ placed by iron ties with profit. He stated eleveu conditions essential ! to first-class construction which are realized in sleepers made wholly of > wrought iron. He theu thought, and still thinks, that iron ties are des¬ tined to replace wooden ones at no distant day, particularly where wood is growing scarce and dear and iron more abuudaut and cheaper. The relative economy can be easily^ascertaiued by trial of the iron ties along¬ side of the ordinary woodeu ones. RAILWAY TIES. 67 The ties, as exhibited, consist of plate-iron rolled or bent into the form indicated by the cross-section annexed, with a bottom-plate bent upward at the edges so as to catch and hold the edges of the upper plate. A flat piece of iron is rolled or welded upon the top, and the rail rests upon this. The method of attaching the rail is in this instance by clamps pressed firmly upon the foot of the rail on each side by bolts, as shown in the cross-section of the rail appended, but this is unimportant, as other methods of securing the rail to the tie may be adopted. Fig. 54.—Cross-section of the foot of rail and the clamps. The total breadth of the tie is about 10 inches; the height to the bottom of the rail 5 inches, and the thickness of the iron plate three- sixteenths of an inch at the sides and a triflo thicker at the top. The dimensions in millimeters are: breadth, 140 millimeters; height, 120 millimeters + 10 millimeters; thickness, 4 millimeters and 5 millime¬ ter. The extreme length of the tie is 2,500 millimeters and the width of track 1,435 millimeters. The tie is laid down before being filled in. The inventor proposes for filling either sand, loam, or sand into which small stones are crowded to make the filling firmer, or beton. These materials are to be rammed in from the ends, and the openings are closed finally by a tile of the proper form. It is also suggested that tiles or “ shape-bricks” may be made to answer for the filling. 68 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The bearing-surface or foundation of this tie is 25 x .25 = .625 square meter. Timber ties, it is observed by Schaltenbrand, iu making the comparison between iron and wood, often measure only 2.5 x .2 =.5 square meter; so that the iron tie of the dimensions given maybe assumed to have as broad a bearing upon the ground as the average wooden tie of Europe. Before being laid, these ties are plunged into a bath of purified coal- tar, in order to fill the pores and prevent oxidation. The strength of the tie is increased by shrinking on the lower plate, by which the two parts become as one. The inventor states the strength of the tie at the weakest part, where pierced by the holes for the rail-bolts, at 50,400 centimeter-kilograms, and of the upper portion by itself at 32.200 cen¬ timeter-kilograms, while wooden ties, after five years 1 use, have only 15,000 centimeter-kilograms, and that half of the upper part of an iron tie may be rusted away and yet it will be as strong as such a wooden tie. He affirms that the sleeper itself is stronger than timber, and that, being uniform in size, the spaces are more even, and that the rail is more securely and conveniently attached than it can be upon wood, lie claims that the iron ties, being heavier, and having greater bear¬ ing-surfaces, are not as easily displaced by moving trains as timbers, aud that rails may be taken up and reset quicker and cheaper than when attached to timber ties. When the bed of the road is once packed, the sleeper can remain in its place as long as it lasts, as no jarring takes place. Irregularities in the level of the rails are easily corrected by putting little iron wedges under the rail upon the sleeper. After a short time there will not be any expense iu packing the sand around the ties, and then their great durability will make all amends for the dif¬ ference iu cost over timber. The rusting iron with the surrounding bed-material and the inner filling-material will finally form a compact ferruginous mass, so that it will lie very firmly as long as it lasts. The weight of the materials is as follows: Kilograms. a. The upper part, cross section, 16,116 square centimeters, weight. 31.30 b. The lower part, cross-section, S,400 square centimeters, weight. 16.34 c. 2 bed plates, per piece, .63 kilogram .. 1 .26 d. 4 clamp-plates, per piece, .IS kilogram. .72 e. 4 screws, per piece, .17 kilogram. .68 f. 1 connecting-link, .03 kilogram. .03 50.33 Or about 50 kilograms, say 100 pouuds. The cost of one tie now is about 74 thaler, but when iron is lower the same weight of tie would not exceed 5 thaler. Iu comparison, oak ties, with four spikes, are reck¬ oned at 3 thaler. KRUPP’S WORKS—-ESSEN. 6 iT KRUPP’S DISPLAY. 59. The celebrated establishment of Krupp at Essen, Rhenish Prussia, fully sustains the prestige it has earned by its liberal participation in former exhibitions. In the magnitude, completeness, and excellence of the exhibition here made it shows that the spirit of enterprise which has characterized it in the past has kept pace with the rapidly-expand¬ ing proportions of the industry of iron and steel, and that the magni¬ tude of its operations has been correspondingly increased. He makes a princely exhibition in a large building constructed at his own expense, in which the various costly objects are tastefully grouped, and so ar¬ ranged that the visitor can have a general view of them from a raised platform at the entrance. The following statistical data concerning the works, and the mines and smelting-works appertaining to them, and the notices of the objects exhibited are translated from the brochure printed at the printing-office of the works at Essen in 1S73. The cast-steel manufactory near Essen was established in the year 1S10. It was conducted by Alfred Krupp from the year 1826, and taken by him on his own account in 1848. The works have been gradually developed. At this present moment (January, 1873) the works cover a continuous area of more than 4,784,- 000 square yards, of which about 900,000 square yards are covered in, and employ more than 12,000 workmen, independently of about 2,000 who are supplied by building-contractors. In the mines and smelting-works belonging to the Arm, there are ern ployed a further number of about 5,000 workmen. Therefore, the total number amounts to about 17,000 men. The number of officers and fixed employes is at present 739. The quantity of cast steel produced in the year 1872 exceeded 125,000 tons. ./ The articles manufactured from this cast steel were axles, tires, wheels and crossings for railways ; rails and springs for railways and mines; shafts for steamers; different pieces of machinery, boiler-plates, rolls, spring-steel, tool-steel, guns, gun-carriages, shot, &c. There are now in operation 250 smelting-furnaces; 390 annealing- furnaces; 161 heating-furnaces; 115 welding and puddling furnaces; 14 cupola and reverberatory furnaces ; 160 furnaces of other kinds ; 275 cokp-ovens; 264smiths’ forges; 240 steam-boilers, (besides 70 more now in course of construction.) 71 steam-hammers, viz: Number 2 1 (each) cwt. 2, 3, 4, 7, S, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60, 65, 70, 75, Number 3 4 1111 1 (each) cwt, 100, 110, 140, 150, 200, 400, 1000. 70 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 2SC steam-engines, viz: Number 57 40 10 17 0 1 4 38 4 21 10 3 22 5 (each) H.P. 2, 4, 0, 8, 10, 12^ 13, 14, Ifl, 18, 20, 23, 25, 30, 35, Number 24423 1 5 1 13 1 (each)B.r. 40, 45, 00, 80, 100, 120, 150, 200, 500, 8Mb 100 . 4. 1 pair of adjusting-rolls, 95 by 148 ram . 5. 1 pair of rolls for mint purposes, 210 by 2L0 mm . 6. 1 roll for manufacturing percussion-caps, 61 by 72 ram . 7. 1 pair of rolls, polished, 420 by 462 mm . 8. 1 pair of rolls, to be engraved for rolling spoons. 9. 1 pair lace-rolls, polished. 10. 1 rolling-machine, A, with rolls 65 by 40 mm . 11. 1 rolling-machine, B, with rolls 78 by 52 mm . 12. 1 rolling-machine, O, with rolls 157 by 105 ram . For goldsmiths: 13. 1 tinsel-rolling machine, 157 by 52 mm . 14. 1 lace-rolling machine, 40 by 210 to 58 by 126 m,n . All rolls being hardened, excepting those for rolling spoons. (26.) A collection of fractures of hardened tool-steel, as well as various other fractures of manufactured articles, such as axles, tires, crossings, and disk-wheels; mint-dies with polished surface. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 7fi (27.) A series of various classes of ore, pig-iron, and pig-steel iron, from the mines and smelting-works of the firm, used iu the manufacture of steel. Cl. Artillery material .—The guns are manufactured from crucible cast steel, of a quality especial^ adapted for the purpose, and are, those of the smallest calibers excepted, constructed according to the built-up system. All guns have Krupp’s round wedge. The naval and coast-gun carriages are generally manufactured from wrought irou ; only particular parts, such as the axles, axle-trees, cylin¬ ders, and piston-rods of the hydraulic butfer, and the slide-rollers of the coast-gun carriages, being made of cast steel. Cast irou is only used for small truck-wheels. (2S.) 30j em gun on coast carriage.—Caliber, 305 mm ; length of gun, 0.7"’; length of bore, 5.77 ,n ; weight of gun with wedge, 3G,G00 k ; pre¬ ponderance, 0. The gun has 72 parallel grooves, with 4.5 mm width of lands, and a uni¬ form twist of 21.79'" in length. Weight of charged steel shell, 29G> i ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) G0 k ; initial velocity, 4G5 m . Weight of charged common shell, 257 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) 50 k ; initial velocity, 4G0"'. The carriage is intended for earth-parapets of 1.9 m height, and has a height of 2.3S0 1 ". To check the recoil, an hydraulic buffer is used. The running-out of the gun after discharge is self-acting. The projectile is lifted by means of a movable crane with windlass, which is arranged on the right-hand side of the slide, and brought on to the bottom of the gun. The elevation (+ 17°, — 7°) is taken by means of a toothed elevating- arc on the upper part of the carriage. For training, the end of the slide is provided with a chain-gear. By this apparatus the gun can be very easily and quickly served. To run-in the gun, a rope-windlass may be placed, if necessary, on each side of the slide behind. Kilograms. Weight of carriage. 5, 650 Weight of slide.- - . .. 15, 350 Total weight.. 21,000 A 30.i cm gun of the foregoing description was tried in the month of February, 1S73, iu the presence of a commission of Prussian and Austrian artillery officers, with 5 rounds of 20 k , 7 rounds of 40 k , 6 rounds of 50 k , 207 rounds of 60 k , 5 rounds of G5 k ; charges of prismatic powder, and with solid shot weighing from 300 to 303 k . The gun was after this trial, with exception of slight gutterings (Ausbrennungen) in the chamber, perfectly uninjured and ready for further trials, which are to take place on the lately-acquired practice ground of the establishment, 7,000 m iu length, as soon as it can be properly prepared for the purpose. KRUPP’s WORKS-ESSEN. 77 The carriage was, at the eud of the trial, also uninjured, excepting a very trifling crashing of the points of the wedge-rails on the girders of the slide. (29.) 2S cm howitzer on coast-carriage.—The gun is constructed for be¬ ing placed in coast-batteries. Caliber, 280 mm ; length of gun, 3,200 m ; length of bore, 2,520 m ; weight with wedge, 10,000 k ; preponderance, 0. The gun has 72 parallel grooves, with 4.5 mm width of lands, and a uniform twist of 11.2 m . Weight of charged common shell, 199 k ; maximum weight of charge, i!0 k . The carriage of the gun admits of an elevation of 75°. The carriage differs from the coast-gun carriages principally in that the whole of the under face of the slide lies in the platform on firing, so as to extend the impact of recoil over a larger surface. For training, the slide is placed upon rollers, for which reason the rear slide-trucks are put on eccentric axles. The projectile-crane, training-gear, hydraulic buffer, and self-acting running-out apparatus are the same as in the other coast-gun carriages. The elevating-gear is also similarly constructed. Weight of the whole carriage, 9,220 k ; height, l,675 ra . (30.) Short 26 cm ship-gun on battery‘carriage.—Caliber, 260 mm ; length, o.2 m ; length of bore, 4.420 m ; weight of gun with wedge, 18,000 k . Pre¬ ponderance, 0. The gun has 64 parallel grooves, with 4.25 mm width of lands, and a uniform twist of 18.2 m . Weight of charged steel shell, lS4 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) 37.5 k ; initial velocity, 450 m . Weight of charged common shell, 159 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder), 30 k ; initial velocity, 450 m . This gun has a carriage for use in a broadside-battery of iron-clads. The carriage differs from tbe former ship-carriages for similar purposes, principally in that the hydraulic buffer and apparatus for self-acting running-out are contrived similarly to those of coast-gun carriages* The hydraulic buffer is so arranged that the gun, with the upper part of the carriage, can be retained at once on any part of the slide. The training is effected by a cog-wheel, which works into a cog-racer in the deck, and is moved by a worm-wheel, so as to dispense with an especial brake to retain the gun in the required direction. For eleva¬ tion, there is arranged on both sides of the gun a cogged elevating-arc ; both are, however, moved simultaneously from the left side of the car¬ riage by a hand-wheel. In order to relieve the ship’s side in firing, the recoil is partially received from the grooved rollers by ribs on the upper face of the deck-racers, and from a strong hook, which ties the fore part of the slide down to the strong projecting lip of the front racer. Total weight of carriage, 8,756 k ; height, l,220 m . (31.) Long 24 cm gun on battery-carriage for casemate-ships.—Caliber, 235.4 mm ; length of gun, 5.23 m ; length of bore, 4.54 m ; weight of gun, with wedge, 15,500 k ; preponderance, 0. 78 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The gun has 32 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech, with a width of lands of 3.9 mm at breech and 7.85 mm at mouth. The twist is uniform, of 16.4S" 1 length. Weight of charged steel shell, 135 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic pow¬ der) 24 k ; initial velocity, 430 m . Weight of charged common shell, 118.5 k ; weight of charge, 20 k ; ini¬ tial velocity, 424 U1 . The gun is mounted on a battery-carriage for casemate-ships. Owing to its position in one of the obtuse angles of the casemate, so as to be capable of firing through a broadside and a bow or stern port, it was necessary to make arrangements for a change of ports. This is done by means of a turn-table, on which the gun rests with the middle slide- supports and the rear slide-rollers, after the fore slide-rollers have been lifted correspondingly by an hydraulic lifting-jack, fixed under the slide for this purpose. To facilitate the unshackling of the pivot-bar on the change of ports, it is divided, and at the joint an easily removable bolt is put on. To check the recoil, the carriage is provided with an adjustable plate- conypressor. A chain running-in-and-out gear is applied on both sides of the slide-end. For training, the pinion of the cog-racer is moved by the same crauks which are used for the above-mentioned chain-gear. The elevation is taken by means of a cogged elevating-arc. Height, 1,195'". Kilograms. Weight of carriage. 2,344 Weight of slide.. 5, 466 Total weight. . 7,810 (32.) Long 21 cra gun on coast-carriage.—Caliber, 209.3 mm ; leugth of gun, 4.708'" ; leugth of bore, 4.106'" ; weight of gun, with wedge, 10,000 k ; preponderance, 0. The gun has 30 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech, with 3.4""" widtli of lands at breech and 7.3""" at mouth. The twist is uniform, of 14.23'" length. Weight of charged steel shell, 95 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic pow¬ der,) 17 k ; initial velocity, 430"'. Weight of charged comtnou shell, 79 k ; weight of charge, 14 k ; initial velocity, 430 m . The gun is mounted on a coast-carriage of a description similar to that of the 304 cm gun. Height, 2,015'". Kilograms. Weight of carriage.-. 2, 090 Weight of slide. 5,110 Total weight. 7, 200 79 KRUPP’s WORKS—-ESSEN. (33.) 21 em siege-gun, with slide-carriage.—Caliber, 209.3 mm ; length of gun, 3.400™; length of bore, 2,910 m ; weight of gun, with wedge, 3,900 k ; preponderance, 0. The gun has 30 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech, with 3.7 mm width of lands at breech and 7.5 mm at mouth. The length of twist is 12.36 m . Weight of charged common shell, 79 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) 6.5 k ; initial velocity, 300 m . The carriage for this gun is a short slide-carriage, in all essential points similar to the coast-carriages. The slide, when in battery, rests in front on the pivot-block, behind on two rollers which can be moved, for the purpose of training, by means of handspikes. The cogged ele¬ vating-arc admits of 27° elevation and 0° inclination. The project¬ ile-crane, hydraulic buffer, &c., are similar to the coast-carriages. This gun can be made available for transport. For this purpose a strong axle with large wheels is placed in the axle-supports, after the gun and carriage have been run in on the slide; then the fore end of the slide is raised by means of a lifting-apparatus, which is permanently fixed on the slide, consisting of a screw with worm-wheel gearing; and finally the rear end of the platform is limbered up. The transport rear wheels have a diameter of 2.046™ and a breadth of 0.180 1U in the rim. The dis¬ tribution of the weight resting on hind and fore wheels is in proportion of 4 to 1. To lighten the transport-wagon, the slide-rollers may be car¬ ried separately; the projectile-crane may be turned over. For transport by rail, the limbered-up carriage can be easily placed on a 10-ton luggage- wagon. The bed, made of oak beams and provided with pivot-block and racer, can be carried on an ordinary luggage-wagon. As soon as the gnu has been carried to its proper place over the bed in the battery, it is unlimbered, and then the rear slide-rollers are lowered down on the racer by means of a windlass; the slide is afterward let down in front upon the pivot-block, and the transport axle and wheels are removed. Height in battery, 1.9 m . Kilograms. Weight of carriage. 922 Weight of slide. 1,728 Total weight.. 2, 650 The limbered-up gun with side-arms weighs. 8,160 The bed complete weighs. 2,0S0 (34.) Long 17 cm gun on upper-deck carriage.—Caliber, 172.6 mm ; length of gun, 4,250™; length of bore, 3,780™; weight of gun with wedge, 5,600 k ; preponderance, 0. The gun has 48 parallel grooves, with 3.5 mm width of lands, and a uni¬ form twist of 11.2™. Weightof chargedsteel shell,55 k ; weight of charge, (prismaticpowder,) 10 k ; initial velocity, 460™. 80 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Weight of charged common shell, 45 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) 10 k ; initial velocity, 465 m . The upper-deck carriage for this gnu is to be placed in the bow or stern of iron clads, and provided with contrivances so as to be moved easily and quickly into a rear position. To check the recoil, a plate- coiupressor is used. For training, the slide, which usually rests on the supports, is placed on the rollers, for which purpose the rear slide-rollers are mounted eccentrically. Height, 1,020"'. Kilograms. Weight of carriage.. ..., 1,255 Weight of slide. 2,235 Total weight.. 3,490 (35.) 15 cm siege-gun on wheel-carriage.—Caliber, 149.l mm ; length of gun, 3.44 m ; length of bore, 3,040 ra ; weight of gun with wedge, 3,000 k ; preponderance, l m from the trunnion, 25 k . The gun has 30 grooves, with 3 mm width of lands at breech and 5.5 mm at mouth. The length of twist is 9.7 m . Weight of charged common shell, 2S k ^ weight of charge, (prismatic powder,) G k ; initial velocity, 470 m . The carriage for this gun is constructed as a wheel-carriage. The brackets are made of plates and angle-iron. The elevating-screw admits of 35° elevation and 5° inclination. As a peculiarity in this carriage may be named the hydraulic buffer, which, on discharge, checks the recoil to about 1™ or less. The buffer-cylinder can be moved vertic¬ ally, being fastened to the brackets at one-third of their length from behind. The piston-rod can be moved vertically and horizontally, by means of a pivot-bolt connected with an anchor, partly imbedded in the parapet. Height, l,S30 m ; weight of carriage, l,S45 k . (30.) Long 15 cl " gun ou ship-carriage.—Caliber, 149.1'" m ; length of gun, 3.83"’; length of bore, 3.43 m ; weight of gun with wedge, 4.000 k ; prepon¬ derance at the commencement of the rounding of the wedge, 75 k . The gun has 48 parallel grooves, with 3 ,nm width of lauds and 9.7 m length of twist. Weight of charged steel shell, 35 k ; weight of charge, (prismatic pow¬ der,) S k ; initial velocity 400 . Weight of charged common shell, 2S k ; weight of charge, G.5 k ; initial velocity, 405 m . The carriage of this gun is made for broadside use ou sloops of war and similar vessels. It is a slide-carriage. To check the recoil, a plate- compressor is used, and a breeching as reserve. The elevation is effected by a cogged elevating-arc, and the training by means of tackles, for which side-eyes are provided ou the rear end of the slide. The slide rests usu¬ ally by supports on the racers; for training, it is lifted upon the rollers. Heieht, 0.9G0 m . KRUPP'S WORKS-ESSEN. 81 Kilograms Weight of carriage.:. 1,505 Weight of slide. 935 Total weight.. 2,440 (37.) 12 cm gun on ship-carriage.—Caliber, 120.3 mm ; length of gun, 2.925 m ; length of bore, 2.602 m ; weight of gun, with wedge, l,400 k ; preponder¬ ance, 100 k . The gun has 18 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech, with 2.5 m,n width of lands at breech and 6.5 mm at mouth. The length of twist is S.42 m . Weight of charged steel shell, 15.5 k ; weight of charge, (large-grained powder,) 3.5 k ; initial velocity, 450 m . Weight of charged common shell, 15.5 k ; weight of charge, (large¬ grained powder,) 3 k ; initial velocity, 450 m . The carriage for this gun is a wheel carriage constructed for the main or upper deck of small vessels. To check the recoil, an hydraulic buffer is applied, similar to that of the 15 cm siege-carriage. The buffer-cyl¬ inder, movable vertically and horizontally, hangs on the ifivot-bolt; the piston-rod is fastened to the carriage. A strong breeching is provided as reserve. The carriage rests usually on four rollers; for training, the rear rollers, which are mounted eccentrically, are lifted, whereby the weight is transferred to a training-roller. The elevation is taken by means of a cogged elevating-arc, which ad¬ mits of+15° and—10°. Height, 0.900™; weight of carriage, S95 k . (38.) 9 cm field-gun with carriage.—Caliber, 91.5 m ™; length of gun, 2.040™ • length of bore, 1.819™; weight of gun, with wedge, 425 k ; preponder¬ ance, 50 k . The gun has 16 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech- with 2.5 ,nm width of lands at breech and 6.5 mm at mouth. The twist is 4.53™. Weight of charged shell, 6.9 k ; weight of charge, (cannon-powder,) 0.6 k ; initial velocity, 322 m . The gun carriage has riveted wrought-iron brackets. Weight of car¬ riage, (without accessories,) 546 k . The elevating-screw admits of an ele¬ vation of + 15 T 3 g° and 8°. (39.) S c ™ field-gun, with carriage.—-Caliber, 78.5™™ ; length of gun, 1.935™; length of bore, 1.728™ ; weight of gun, 295 k ; preponderance, 70 k . This gun has 12 grooves, whose breadth increases toward the breech, with 2.5™™ width of lands at breech, and 6.5 m ™ at-month. The twist is 3.62™ long. Weight of charged shell, 4.3 k ; weight of charge, (cannon-powder,) 0.5 k ; initial velocity, 357™. The carriage for this gun has also riveted brackets. Weight of car¬ riage, (without accessories,) 460 k . The elevating-screw admits of 13}f° elevation, and S° inclination. 6 1 82 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. (40.) 6 cm mountain-gun on carriage.—Caliber, G0 mm ; length of gun, 1.250"'; length of bore, 1.130 m j weight of gnu with wedge, 107 k ; prepon¬ derance, 14 k . This gun has IS parallel grooves, with 3 mm width of lands and 2.10“ length of twist. Weight of charged shell, 2.3 k ; weight of charge, 0.2 k ; initial velocity, 300 m . The carriage has wrought-irou brackets, cast-steel axle, and wooden wheels. On the naves of the axle there are conical friction-brakes. Weight of carriage, 109 k ; height, 0.0G0 1 ". The elevating-screw admits of 21° elevation and 10° inclination. (41.) Ammunition: (a.) Shells. Forged of crucible cast steel for every one of the exhib¬ ited guns; both whole ones and cross-sections. (5.) Common shells of cast iron for all exhibited guns ; some in cross- sections, all with complete percussion-fuses. (c.) Models of cartridges and of prismatic powder. The specific weight of the prismatic powder is, for the 2G cm , 2S cm , anjd 30i cm guns, from 1.72 to 1.7G ; for those of smaller calibers, from 1.G2 to l.GG. 62. Buttgenbacii’s blast-furnaces. —The brothers Conrad and Franz Buttgenbach, of Reuss, in Bheuish Prussia, exhibited a model and drawings of their new method of constructing blast-furnaces, pat¬ ented in Austria, France, Belgium, England, and America. The model, about 4 feet high, is very perfect, and is sold to the Imperial Mining Museum at St. Petersburg. Inasmuch as Mr. Buttgenbach presented with the model a full description of his furnace in print, and reported specially upon it to the Iron and Steel Institute, I prefer to present it in full in his own words : “’ll! 1S59,1 undertook the management of the Xeuss Smelting-Works, situate ou the Lower Rhine, Rhenish Province, and there I found a high blast-furnace, then just recently erected, which had not yet been in active operation. “An engineer, late of the Liegen district, who had seen all the blast¬ furnaces of that part of the country set up agaiust steep hills, supplied with raw materials brought up to the required level by means of carts and wheelbarrows, and having steam-boilers and air-heating apparatus mostly on a level with the furnace-mouth, when charged with the duty of sketching out a plan for the work above mentioned, iu his inability to free himself from the influence of this (old-fashioned) notion, actually projected and caused to be built on a level plane a stack of masonry measuring 40 feet square at its base, by 40 feet iu height, rising perpen¬ dicularly. “ At the center of this stack was placed the blast-furnace, its hearth being accessible ouly by means of very narrow embrasures; upon the 83 BUTTGENBACH’s BLAST-FURNACES. platform of tlie furnace-mouth two steam-boilers have been erected, as well as a draught-flue, the idea being, probably, that the descent was to take place contrary to the natural tendency of the gases. “ This stack being altogether too bulky for me to attempt to remove it bodily, I simply contented myself with clearing away as much of it as possible round about the hearth, and in such condition as I then brought it to, our blast-furnace has been continuously at work ever since 1SG0, under my management. The difficulty of working with a furnace simi¬ larly blocked in, but more especially the fact resulting from the experi¬ ences of two or three years’ operations that the fire-proof facings had completely worn away, impelled me to attempt the construction of a blast-furnace, the heart of which should he readily accessible on all sides, and following up this idea, I built up at our works a blast-furnace 50 feet high and 17 feet in diameter at the boshes. “In justice to my brother, a metallurgical engineer, I must not here omit to state that, in elaborating and finally determining upon my plans, I had the advantage of his suggestions and valuable advice. “ In 18C7, a model of the above-named blast-furnace was exhibited in Paris, and I had the satisfaction, not only of being complimented upon my. idea by a great number of engineers of every nationality, qualified to express an opinion on the subject, but of having conferred upon me, likewise, the distinction of an honorable mention on the part of the jury of the exhibition. The articles contributed to the Revue Industrielle of the exhibition of 1867 by Professor Jordan, who occupied the chair of metallurgy at the Rcole centrale in Paris, have brought my system into notice in France. Since 1867, six French iron-masters have adopted my system, and have constructed 9 blast-furnaces from my plans and in accordance with my suggestions. Both in Germany and Austria my system has likewise been introduced with success at several iron-works. “ The fundamental idea of this mode of construction and the advan¬ tages of the system may be summed up as follows, viz: “ 1st. The mason-work of the stack is quite independent of the blast¬ furnace proper. Each ring or course of bricks constituting the hearth, boshes, and inside wall is readily accessible and free from any casing, except as regards a small portion, measuring from 3 to 4 feet in height, at the widest section of the blast-furnace. “ Consequently, the whole of the above several parts are completely bare and easily reached for any purpose required, even while the fur¬ nace is in active operation. This feature conduces to the duration of the furnace, for in case of need any injured part can be repaired, even when the furnace is at work. “ 2d. The inside wall and the upper part of the boshes being cooled by the atmosphere having access thereto, they remain in their normal con¬ dition without wear, and do not become unduly heated at’ any time, being, therefore, indefinitely kept in a state of preservation, since there never occurs a fusion of materials at this height. 84 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. “3d. The hearth, and the lower portions of the boshes, being apt to suffer after a certain time, from the destructive action of the materials in a melting state, may be replaced without any difficulty whatever while the work is going on, so that there is no occasion to apprehend any extinction of the fires so long as the in-wall is not destroyed. If putting out the fires should at any time become necessary, the hearth and the boshes could be renewed without affecting the in-wall in¬ juriously. “ 4th. Each particular brick being accessible during the working of the furnace, and the progress of the fire easily ascertained, corrosions can be obviated by cooling down with water thrown on the several parts, or by means of water-vessels or tuyeres wherein the water circu¬ lates placed within these parts as far as the inside of the furnace, whereby the wear and tear can be checked. “oth. The utilization of the gas at the furnace-mouth can be so man¬ aged as to make it yield the best results. The pillars supporting the platform of the furnace-top are gas-pipes, and drop into sheet-iron vessels fixed to the summit of the base of the stack, where it slopes awpy. These vessels are open on one side, so that when filled with water up to a certain height, they can be shut down by means of a valve, measuring-a few centimeters square. The gas issuing forth out of the furnace-mouth finds its way into these receptacles, and in its passage through them travels over a large surface of water. Here it deposits the dust, while a great part of the water suspended in the gas, in a state of vapor, is condensed. Consequently, the gas reaches its destination in a highly-purified condition, and may yield the very best results in those parts where it is desired to make use of it. “ The arrangement of the said water-receptacles allows of the with¬ drawal of the dust or grit deposited while in full working, and in the event of an explosion, the area of from five to six millimeters of the water column paralyzes, as though it were a gigantic valve, any inju¬ rious effects. In point of fact, instead of dreading we rather wish for explosions from time to tinic^ since they serve the purpose of clearing off the dust and grit that may still be clinging to the inner walls of the pipes. Moreover, there is the advantage of confining these subsidiary appliances to a spot on the works which does not in any way interfere with the general progress of the manufacture. “ Gth. The gas-pipes being supporters also of the platform surround¬ ing the furnace-mouth or top, render the said platform independent of the blast-furnace proper, and that without involving any special outlay. “ In the first days of this erection, critics expressed a fear that the chilling of the parts thus exposed in this blast-furnace would be achieved only at the cost of a greater consumption of fuel. But, contrary to such apprehensions, experience has amply shown that blast-furnaces, the brick-work of which at the core is in direct contact with the outer air, use less fuel than do those that are protected by strong mason work, or BUTTGENBACH S BLAST-FURNACES. 85 sliut in by means of a second inner casing with a lining of sheet-iron ; and the opinion expressed by me from the very beginning explains this result. For, in point of fact, a blast-furnace should form at its lower part a smelting-crucible, and it is generally known that every expedient available is brought into use for the purpose of cooling the walls of this portion of the structure. The boshes are a kind of retort, wherein the ore is reduced by means of its contact with the fuel, aud the in-wall is like unto the neck of a retort, and in which the ore is prepared by the action of a moderate heat and contact with the reducing gases. “If the ore sinking into the in-wall section requires a spongy condi¬ tion, and continues in this condition without undergoing semifusion, it is quite obvious that the effect produced by the gas must be infinitely greater, and that the ore must descend into the zones of the boshes and of the hearth in a much better state of preparation than if the heat of the in-wall had partially converted it into cinder, so that the reducing gas must pass on, incapable of action upon such ore, except superfi¬ cially. The ore, thus brought into a better state of preparation, must of necessity require less fuel in order to its perfect fusion. “Moreover, in the event of cinder being formed at the in-wall zone, it will adhere to the walls and produce concretions, which always impede the proper working of a blast-furnace. When the ore sinks with regu¬ larity the smelting-process is facilitated, whereby a further saving of fuel is effected. “ The truth of the foregoing assertions has been fully established by the experience of eight years’ working at our works. Concretions have never been noticed, and the proportion of fuel required for the furnace, constructed upon the new principle, has always been from 10 to 15 per cent, smaller, cceteris paribus. “ When good coke has been used, excellent No. 1 foundery-pigs have been produced from ores yielding 35 per cent., the consumption of coke being in the ratio of 11 parts to 10 part of pig, at a temperature of 350° centigrade, under blast, while in the case of white pig it is one part less of good coke to every part of pig. Touching the fears entertained of undue chilling in severe seasons, the following facts have served to dispel them in toto : “Theblast-furnace attheNeuss Works has more than once been sud¬ denly blown out for several weeks, owing to causes quite foreign to its working capabilities. Three of these suspensions occurred during the war in the year 1S70-’71, owing to the want of fuel, and no prepara¬ tory arrangements were madebeforeany of the said suspensions of work. They lasted during a space ranging between three and ten weeks re¬ spectively. “ I did not touch the blast-furnace during any of the periods of stop¬ page referred to, the most prolonged of them occurring at a time when the thermometer registered 10° to 17° 0., and yet when work was re¬ sumed the furnace did its work again with surprising regularity. On 86 Vienna international exhibition, 1873. tlie last occasion, however, I was obliged to raise up the tuyeres, in con¬ sequence of the thickening of the bottom stone. “For the last two years, the furnace has been blown from one meter and fifty centimeters above the original level. It behaves admirably, producing as much as 50,000 kilograms in twenty-four hours. I cannot conceive of any blast-furnace constructed upon a different principle be¬ ing capable of withstanding the effect of events such as those detailed above, and yet remaining fit for work. The blast-furnace I am describ¬ ing has entered upon the eighth year of its existence, and the condition of its core is such, as yet, that one will readily admit the almost cer¬ tainty of its lasting out double or three times the said number of years, consideriug that the bricks of the in-wall and of the boshes have, up to the present, lost nothing of their thickness. This may be easily verified, for all the bricks coming to the outer air may be examiued at any mo¬ ment. Their thickness may be unerringly ascertained by piercing the walls with a small pin-drill. The walls, be it borne iu mind, are but weak, measuring 110 more than 2 feet thickness at the base, and 18 iuches at the summit of the in-wall. ✓ “ This thickness they have not lost during an existence of eight years. Experience has shown, moreover, that, the core of the furnace being exposed to the air, the internal heat produces hardly any effect upou the bricks, either by dilation or contraction. Hearth, boshes, and in-wall were originally fastened together in the Neuss blast-furnace by means of flat iron binders occurring at the third course alternately. “This precautionary measure appears superfluous. It is over four years ago since I have had the binders removed at the hearth and boshes, as well as at the in-wall, iu part; for I perceived that they served no useful purpose, since the cooling down of the bricks prevents expansion altogether. Indeed, the furnace iu the parts referred to is just the same as on the day of its erection. “ At Vienna, I have exhibited at the Veutscher Pavilion fur Bergbau , Iliittemcesen , (No. 8635,) a model of this blast-furuace, in which I have shown the deductions made from an experience of the working, during a period of eight years, of the first blast furnace of its kind. “ The chief alterations introduced by way of improvement consist in a diminution of the stack to a very great extent, at that part of it which supports the in-wall; this diminution being accompanied, however, by so considerable a sloping away from the center toward the rise of the boshes, that the space around the hearth and the boshes has been still further enlarged, so that it may be considered as perfectly isolated. “ 1 have also introduced a peculiar description of closed hearth, which admits of ordinary working, as well as working with a closed hearth. I have been using this method for the last six years with the very best results. Its application is very simple indeed, and free from the objectionable features of other known methods, since the work of the bottom of the furnace can be performed, iu case of need, without de¬ pending upou the mouth of a tuyere for running off the slag. buttgenbach’s blast-furnaces. • 87 “The hearth is closed in by a cast-iron tymp placed in the usual posi¬ tion. This tymp arch is cooled by a current of water passing’ through a coiled iron fixed in 'the cast iron. Fig. 55.— Buttgenbacli’s blast-furnace.—Elevation and section. “In the center of this plate there is an aperture or orifice, measuring three-quarters of an inch, running almost over the entire height, and the cooling-pipes are situate as near this kind of slit as may be. This slit is closed up by means of ordinary clay. A, the upper portion of the slit, 88 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. is placed two or three inches higher than the center of the line of the tuyeres. Front view. “ b, level center of the tuyeres; c, columns of the breast; d, dam; e, tap- hole; p, space between dam-stoue; tymp closed in with clay; T, cast- iron tymp. “The slag of the blast-furnace ascending above the dam-stone and reaching the level of the tuyeres runs off easily through a hole driven by means of a light steel bar into the said slit; and, since the level of i this hole may be altered at will, a means is thus afforded for changing | the level at which the slag is run off over a range of 2-1 inches, which is a very great advantage in itself; but, in addition to that, there is this i further facility, namely, that nothing hinders one from tapping the melted ore at this same slit. “I shall not dwell at length upon the advantages of such an arrange¬ ment, but will simply state that during the six years, since I have been ' making use of it, I have been unable to find any fault with it, and that | in my practice it has always possessed all the advantages of the closed breast.. “ In the said model, I have also applied three rows of tuyeres, made of gun-metal, overlying one auother so that the upper row is two and one-half meters above the first. These tuyeres reach into the interior as deeply as the blast-tuyeres. By this arraugmeut the walls of the hearth are kept in perfect preservation, and in case of accident the blast may be introduced through the said tuyeres, affording advantages that iron¬ masters will bo able to appreciate without further explanations. “Practice has showu that this kind of blast-furnace, being readily ac¬ cessible on all sides and at any moment, is far more easily managed than any other system ; which fact practical men will readily admit. “Over and above the advautages above enumerated, there is auother, namely, that the construction of such a blast-furnace must evidently be, and is, in point of tact, much less costly than that of any furnace j built upon another principle. It takes much less time to build, to dry, i and to fire; in fact, it is a practical elucidation of your English proverb, ‘time is money.’ 89 buttgenbach’s blast-fuenaces. “Let me add, too, that there is nothing to prevent the application of my system to blast-furnaces of all shapes and sizes, and that the largest section would just be the one best adapted for illustrating its great ad¬ vantages, no less, speaking relatively, than its saving qualities. “In conclusion, I must say that, to my mind, this system is the most advanced in simplicity of blast-furnace construction. - ' 7 In reply to criticisms and objections made at the meeting and in the journals, Mr. Buttgenbach addressed a communication to Engineer¬ ing, as follows : “At the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute I had the pleasure of reading a paper about my system of blast-furnaces—a system which was illustrated and described in your number of August 15 last; and I see with satisfaction that this paper is reproduced in your number of August 29, together with a report of the discussion. Your contemporary, the Engineer , has also published communications respecting my fur¬ nace, and in particular I notice an article in the number of that journal for September 12, expressing opinions adverse to my system. Allow me to say that I shall always be glad to find adversaries to my ideas, as their opposition only gives me occasion to explain these ideas more fully, and, I trust, in a more convincing manner. “ On the occasion of the discussion of my paper at Liege, it was impos¬ sible for me to answer thoroughly to the objectious made by the mem¬ bers of the institute—first, for want of time, and, secondly, for want of sufficient knowledge of the English language. But having now the re¬ ports before me, and encouraged by the interest taken by the English press in my system, I think it due to those who have been present at the meeting, and to the readers of the papers, that I should reply to the various objections raised. “1. To the objection offered by one speaker, that he did not consider the brick-work of the base practical, and that the use of cast-iron columns is to be preferred, I have to answer that this cannot be an objection to the system as such. I exhibited my model with a base of cast-iron pil¬ lars, and with a base of brick-work. My experience shows, however, that a base of red bricks is entirely sufficient, and leaves room enough round the blast-furnace to allow of even the most difficult repairs with¬ out opposing the slightest obstacle. I, for my part, would never allow a base to be made of cast-iron pillars, the cost of the latter being four or five times that of a brick-work or masonry base, and the last entirely fulfilling the desired purpose. The adoption of brick-work or cast iron for the base is therefore only a question of economy. The base of brick¬ work contains 100 cubic meters, while it costs at the Neusser Works only 1,300 francs, and could be constructed in fifteen days. “ 2. A second objection raised was that a blast-furnace of the thick¬ ness of only one brick would not resist the pressure of the materials in large furnaces like those of Cleveland. 1 think that quite a false idea exists of this pressure. This pressure is not at all a great one, being 90 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. partly paralyzed by the state of the minerals, which, by the heat, are caused to adhere more or less together with the coke, without, however, being in a state of semi-fusion or vitrified. “ I have taken away a good part of the bricks of the stack, several meters above the largest section of a blast-furnace, but the mixture remained in the furnace and allowed me to replace the bricks I had taken away without the slightest difficulty. On this occasion I remarked that the bricks had not even lost 3 centimeters after a campaign of seven years. “ For the rest, as supporting what I have said above, I must state 1 that an establishment which adopted my system made, contrary to my advice, the first blast-furnace with a base of cast-iron pillars, and after a few years’ experience a second blast-furnace at the same works was constructed with a base of brick-work. “3. Next, it has been asserted that there are in Cleveland and the North of England blast-furnaces with free-standing shafts. “I have been over that part of England, and I have not seen one blast-furnace where the shaft had a thickness of only one brick ; they have all inside a circle of large special bricks,- surrounded by a mantle of brick-work, often thicker than the lining. In my furnace the single thickness of bricks is freely exposed to the air, and dilatation by heat being prevented, I am enabled to have a furnace without hoops. “ 4. One opponent admits that my arrangement preserves the boshes against the attacks of the fire, but it is said that one could as well repair blast-furnaces such as those in Middlesbrough, which have a lining and a mantle round this of 3 feet or 4 feet thickness. I do not deny that repairs are possible in the latter case, but certainly they are expensive, very difficult, and require much time; evei’y practical man knows that,as soon as one must go below, say 30 feet from the mouth, this becomes diffi¬ cult work, the more so as the mantle hides the defects of the lining, and one does not know the state of the latter. With an entirely free shaft, on the other hand, one can perfectly well ascertain at any time the state of the bricks, and can easily make repairs, keeping the blast-furnace filled. I think this is a great advantage. ****** “ 7. It was stated that scaffolding does not occur, or ought not to occur, with very hot blast, and especially not where Whitwell’s apparatus is employed. I am an advocate of high-blast temperatures, and especially of Whitwell’s excellent stoves, but it is not the great heat of the blast which prevents these scaffoldings; these depend upon the quality of the mineral and the coke of the district. “ I could name works in Luxembourg where the blast is heated by Whitwell’s stoves, but where, with the small mineral to which I have referred, such dangerous scaffoldings have occurred in a new blast-fur¬ nace they feared they should be forced to blow it out. If at the crisis they had had tuyeres available 3 meters higher up, they could easi'y have got over the difficulty, the more as they had very hot blast. 91 buttgenbach’s blast-furnaces. “S. As to the way of conducting the gas, one must not forget that with mineral containing 20 per cent, of water, and of which two-thirds are small, (fine,) one has to take precautions quite different to those taken in Cleveland, where, though the ore is in lump, I have seen gas pipes of 3 feet in diameter full of top dust, aud which were cleaned with the ut¬ most difficulty. All these difficulties disappear by my arrangement, and especially all explosions are without any effect—a very important matter when one has to do with wet minerals. “ En resume, all the objections made concern the Middlesbrough dis¬ trict only, but out of this there exist others too; we, and many other works, work with mineral of which two-thirds pass into a sieve of 10 holes per square inch, containing 20 per cent, of water, and which can¬ not support any calcining, as getting too easily to powder. Under such circumstances, the Cleveland iron-masters would not have constructed blast-furnaces 85 to 90 feet in height, aud would have had to take other precautions than they have to avoid stoppings every week, to manage the difficult cleaning of their gas-pipes, which would soon have been filled with dust. “ With materials as used in our district, where we use twenty different minerals always varying, and where coke contains as much as 18 per cent, of cinder, a blast-furnace cannot be so regular, or be so easily managed as a Middlesbrough, and there very often happen disturbances in the smelting process. “ The corrosive nature of the mineral containing manganese rapidly attacks the bricks of the blast-furnace, in consequence of which one makes everywhere preparations to prevent that, and I believe that the three series of tuyeres is the best preservative; for the rest, experience proves it. “The Middlesboro blast-furnaces endure, it is said, ten to thirteen years, but certainly they would not do so under the conditions we have to meet here. My blast-furnace was erected in 1865, and its condition is still such that one will readily admit the almost certainty of its last¬ ing out double or three times its present age. “Altogether, I find that the observations made by the English iron¬ masters who condemn my system are too partial, the statements made reading as if the Cleveland district was the only district to be provided with furnaces, and as if the conditions which exist also existed every¬ where. This, however, as I have shown, is very far from being the case. “ Even for the Cleveland district I think there are some advantages in my system which would be valuable; at least an eight years’ experi¬ ence of my furnace suggests this view to me. I may add, too, that seventeen of my furnaces have been constructed on the continent, and are all at work under almost entirely different conditions. I think this letter is a sufficient reply to the sharp criticism of the ’Engineer to which I do not want to reply in detail, not being disposed to enter into 92 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, IS73. polemics with a writer wlio makes inaccurate statements, and then founds arguments on them. “I did not put up my system as a new invention in every particular of its arrangements, but as a total arrangement it is new. As such it has been acknowledged by authorities, including the owners of the sev¬ enteen blast-furnaces built on my system. * * * * # * # Meusser Iron-works, (near Dusseldorf,) “ September 1G, 1373.” OSNABRUCK IKON AND STEEL WORKS. G3. The Joint-Stock Company of Osnabrtick, province of Hanover, founded in 1SG9, made for the first time au exhibition of its products for comparison with all others in the International Exhibition at Vienna in 1S73. Of the original grand plan of these works, only that part is now fin¬ ished and this year in full operation which is iuteuded for the produc¬ tion of Bessemer steel and its applications for steel rails, wheel-rims, axles, forgings, &c., and therefore the collection of objects on exhibition is naturally quite limited ; but, on account of the origin and method of manufacture of these products, they are none the less worthy of exam¬ ination. The group of objects outside of the glass cases consists of— 1st. Bessemer-steel axles, of which three are rough-forged, and serve as a base for a group of wheel-tires; one is a finished forged, and one a finished turned, car-axle, and there is, moreover, one which was bent double in the cold. 2d. Bessemer-steel tires, of which one is finished; one is the rough forging for a tire, and is without a hole ; the next one is rough but with a hole; six are rolled and finished, and of diameter from 430 mm to 2,420' nm ; and one was bent into the form of a figure 8 in the cold. 3d. Bessemer-steel rails, of which four pieces were bent into a spiral form, and one piece was twisted in the cold. 4th. Bessemer-steel forgings, among which are a piece showing the fracture, a large cylinder, two broken pieces of axles, five different proof-pieces from the ends of rails, and two forged ties. Under the glass cover are— 5th. Various proof-pieces of Bessemer steel, among which is a hat with a tassel, made from the end of a tire. Gth. A collection showing the fractures of blocks of rough steel, foig ings, tires, and rails. 7th. A rail-end and a number of sections. Sth. Breaking proofs of the products obtained by the use of different kinds of iron and coke. 9th. Samples of infusible clays and various infusible substances used OSNABRIICK IRON AND STEEL. 93 in the processes of manufacture of Bessemer steel, such as tuyeres, stop¬ pers, funnels, &c. The production, in tons, of the Osnabriick Iron and Steel Works has been as follows: First half 1872. of 1873. Bessemer rough steel, in blocks. 217.42 152.00 Finished rails.. 128.91 125,00 Tires, axles, and forgings. 240. 60 100. 00 Average laboring force, in 1872, 850 men ; first half of 1S73, 1,000 men. There have been employed a Bessemer plant, with two converters and five cupola-furnaces; 4 steam-hammers; a rolling-mill for rolling rails ; a rolliug-mill for tires; a machine-shop for turning axles; a foundery, with two cupola-furnaces and one flame-furnace; a forge, a carpenter- sliop, a place for the manufacture of fire-brick, &c. The thirteen heating-furnaces were heated with gas, which was gene¬ rated in eight Siemens gas-furnaces. Ten engines, together having 1,200 horse-power, were used as motors. The steam was furnished by 24 boilers. A large and a small locomotive were used for transportation. For some years previous Bessemer steel had been made almost exclu¬ sively from English hematite pig-iron, and although the German manu¬ facturers had sometimes mixed with it a portion of German pig-iron, it was reserved for the Osnabriick Iron and Steel Works to make the finest Bessemer-steel products entirely from German materials, of which the neighboring Georgs-Marien furnace, with its iron rich in manganese, furnishes the larger part; and though from economical considerations the use of English pig-iron is not wholly dispensed with, it has been demonstrated that when the production of Bessemer pig-iron equals the demand, the continental manufacturers of Bessemer steel can dispense with foreign products. The prejudice which has long existed against the employment of Ger¬ man materials for steel-manufacture, as well as the hesitation of the managers of railroads to employ Bessemer steel in the construction of roads, cars, &c., have both been overcome, and if Bessemer steel cannot be used in the manufacture of all other steel articles, its present im¬ proved quality allows it not only to be used for rails, but also to com¬ pete most successfully with crucible steel in the general manufacture of tires, axles, and other forgings, on account of its greater cheapness. Axles made entirely of German pig-iron have been tested by the royal directors of the Bergisch-Markische Bailroad, and have grandly with¬ stood the very severe tests of falling weights. The problem of making such a product from material the behavior of which in the different processes was uncertain was certainly a difficult one, but the managing engineer, Mr. Schemman, has by perseverance succeeded in overcoming all the obstacles and difficulties, after many unsuccessful experiments, and has solved the problem. 94 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. The converter linings, the blast-pipes, and all other requisites made of • fire-clay which are elsewhere used for the casting of steel, as well as the best of the imported furnace-linings, especially proved themselves to be of inferior quality, and only after all those and other requisites in improved quality were manufactured at the home works could the steel produced reach a perfection which will with difficulty be surpassed. The converter-linings which are made here have sometimes withstood 75 charges, and on an average 50 charges. Tires of 2,420 mm diameter are made from a massive block of steel by punching a hole and rolling. Kails, which are usually rolled GO feet long, cau, if necessary, be made j 100 feet long. The piece of a heavy shaft exhibited represents some which have been lately made for Westphalia, and which were forged with a fifteen-ton ■ trip-hammer. The adoption of new and improved machinery at the Osnabriick Steel Works, the fortunate location of the different departments of the works |! in relation to one another, the increased facilities for production on h account of the additional buildings now in process of erection, the li nlaking of new products, such as rolling steel, spring-steel, sheet-steel, I &c., in connection with the central location at the junction of three if railroads, the proximity of furnacesand coal-mines, with property around the works already purchased for further enlargements, ^ecure to these I works a very successful future, and especially as local conditions allow j cheaper living than is possible elsewhere, and therefore allow steel to j| be more economically produced. GEORGS-3IAEIEN-HUTTE COMPANY. 64. The Georgs-Marien Mining and Smelting Company, in addition to 1 its very interesting exhibition of ores, iron, mining-maps, and sections I of furnaces, published a very full description of the property of the com- I pany, and especially of the benevolent institutions founded for the benefit j| of the workmen. This brochure, in German,* has been freely drawn j upon for the following information, translated from its pages. The origin and development of the works .—The Georgs-Marien Mining I and Metallurgical Compauy was organized in the year 1850, as a joint- I stock company for mining iron-ore, coal, and other minerals, and also 1 for the production of iron and other materials from them. The capital stock is 2,500,000 thalers, of which 1,500,000 thalers were || immediately expended, aud G50,000 thalers more, making a total outlay || of 2,150,000 thalers. Besides this, a loan of 700,000 thalers was con-I tracted, but which is now being rapidly paid. The company bought, in 1856, the mining-privileges of their present property, “Heiigel I,” a bed * Besclireibwng der Verhaltnisse und Einrichtuvgen der Georgs-Marien-Hiitte bei Osnabriick, || AussgesteUt unter Gruppc I, A fro, 8642. auf der In ter nation alen Ausstellung inTTien irn Jab re jl 1873. Osnabriick, Dntck von J. G. Eislirg , 1873. 4to. Pp. 21. Plates. GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE COMPANY. • 95 of iron-ore, containing 4,815,500 square meters, at Beckerode, near Os. nabriick, with the furnaces and machine-works that were upon it. The company also bought various other beds of clay and bog-iron ore in the county of Osnabriick, and received, in 1856, a grant of the coal and iron fields of Gluckauf; in 1857, of those in Dorenberg, and in 1858, of those in Hilterberg. These fields together have an area of 48,220,000 square meters. Moreover, in 1865, the company received a grant of the iron- beds of Hiigel II, with an area of 3,721,000 square meters. The iron-ore beds Hiigel I and Hiigel II lie on the so-called Hiigel, which is a mountain-ridge (one of the spurs of the Teutoburger forest) one and a half miles southwest from the city of Osnabriick. Brown and spathic iron-ores are chiefly obtained from them. The coal-fields of Gluckauf, Dorenberg, and Hilterberg he in the forest clay-formation of the Osning Mountains, or the Burger Mountains, one and a half to two miles southeast of the city of Osnabriick. It was the intention of the company to connect all their mines of coal and iron by a railroad running east and west, and then to establish at some suitable point extensive smelting-works, which should be inde¬ pendent of the precarious production of charcoal, and be supplied with coke. The location of these works was especially dependent upon a suf¬ ficient supply of running water, which was found in the valley of the Diite. The space for the location of the works was purchased from the government of Hanover. The building of the works was rapidly carried forward, and in 1858 a coke-furnace was in operation. The transportation of the materials from the iron-ore fields at Hiigel, and the coal-fields at Oesede and Borgloh, was done at that time by horse-power on roads constructed by the com¬ pany. The great amount of water in the Diite Yalley, and the insufficiency of the machinery for its control, made the working of the coal-mines peculiarly difficult and expensive. Coal could be obtained cheaper from Dortmund, and in 1866 the working of the coal-mines of the Diite was provisionally stopped. The same combination of circumstances worked against the other coal-mines, so that after due deliberation the plan of building a railroad between the works and the coal-mines was aban¬ doned, and the construction of a railroad between the works and the mines at Hiigel and the Westphalian collieries was taken up with vigor, and in 1870 railroad communication was established with the great thor¬ oughfare of the Coln-Mindener Railroad. The construction of the Hamm-Osnabriick Railroad, which is now pro¬ gressing, will connect the coal-mines of the company directly with all other points, and will enable the company to work them to advantage. The company has now the sole management of the railroad between Oesede and Hasbergen, and also that from Domprobst and Sundern to Rothenberg, and uses upon these railroads five locomotives and hun¬ dreds of freight-cars, besides passenger-cars; and they use the same not 96 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. only for their own business, but do a steadily-growing general carrying- business. The working of the little charcoal-furnace and rolling-mill at Becke- rode has been suspended and superseded by coke-burning furnaces. The price of charcoal is constantly rising, while the quality of coke is rapidly improving, and therefore the company is able to produce a better quality of pig-iron at a much less cost than formerly. The products of the Georgs-Marien Works have been principally sold to the steel, puddling, and rolling works of Westphalia for the manu¬ facture of articles of the best quality. The iron competes favorably with the better kinds of pig-iron from Seigerland. The rolling-mill and machine-works at Beckerode were too small aud their sales too insignificant to justify their continuance. These works were therefore incorporated with the Georgs-Marien Works, which were then approaching completion; aud the Beckerode shops were used for the construction of steam-boilers, mostly for home use, aud in repairing machinery, using a small water-power as motor, while some of their workmen with their families lived iu the house of the company at Beck- ; erpde or in the neighboring villages. Although the Georgs-Marien Works have not yet reached their full development, either in their menus or their production, iu consequence of the imperfection of communication, yet the size and technical arrangements, the quality and quantity of their productions, and, not the least consideration, the number of workmen employed and the ex- I celleut accommodations for their welfare aud happiness, give the works ! a right to claim a conspicuous place among their competitors. The company owns, besides the already-mentioned railroads and equip- ments, G finished blast-furnaces, of which 5 are iu blast, each having 3 hot blasts, each oue of which has a heating-surface of 140 square ( meters, the apparatus being of a peculiar qonstruction, made with hang- ;i iug pipes. There are 14 crushing-machines and 5 horizontal blast- engines. There are, besides these, various other stationary engiues for different purposes, with 54 boilers of different construction, having together 3,700 j square meters of heating-surface aud 2.500 horse power. The requisite j; coke is produced by 300 coke-furnaces, and the gas thus obtained is : used as fuel for the boilers. A machine-shop aud fouudery are employed , as an auxiliary to the works and the mines, for the manufacture of the tubes, ore-breakers, machines, &c., that are needed. The machine-shop has an engine aud about 40 working machines, aud all the apparatus | necessary for the construction and repairing of engiues aud maehiues. Its annual production is estimated to be worth 130,000 thalers. The : fouudery has a blast-cylinder, 2 Irish cupola-furnaces capable of melting from 3,500 to 5,000 kilograms per hour, derricks, and all the acces- t sory apparatus, aud is capable of producing two million kilograms of castings per annum. GEORGS-MARIEN WORKS. 97 The blast-furnaces produced in 1872 53,118,100 kilograms of pig- iron, valued at 1,882,000 thaler; while in 1SG7 tbe production was but 32,473,890 kilograms, valued at 920,000 thaler. It should be noted that of this production, in 1872, 70 per cent, was Bessemer pig, and 30 per cent, was a good quality for puddling, while, in 1867, 28 per cent, was Bessemer pig, and 72 per cent, was good pud¬ dling-iron. By means of a peculiar contrivance connected with the blast-furnaces the greater part of the slag from them is granulated, and thus it is capa¬ ble of being used for a variety of purposes, for example, as a packing around railroad-sleepers, in the manufacture of mortar, good bricks, &c. A new contrivance, the invention of the director, Mr. Liivmann, is of great value. The front hearth of the coking furnaces is done away with, and the furnaces are tightly closed by a form made of slag and cooled with water. The company is erecting gas-works, to make sufficient for 1,009 burn¬ ers. It will be used in the works and the colony of laborers. The raising and transportation of the ore is done by 7 stationary engines and 5 locomotives, run by 18 steam-boilers, having a heating- surface of 501 square meters, not counting 8 horse-power above and 4 horse-power under ground, in addition to that mentioned. The quantity and value of ore raised at Hiigel in 1867 and in 1872 were: Year. Ore, kilo- Value, grams. thalers. 1867 . 160,722, 000 222,769,385 69, 964 183,590 1872 . The whole works of the Georgs-Marien Company employ 1 general director, 1 metallurgical director, 1 mining director, 1 director of the machine-works, 35 men for overseers and office-service, and 1,600 work¬ men, distributed as follows: At the blast-furnaces. 450 At the foundery. 80 At the machine-shop. 140 On the railroad. 80 Carpenters, builders, masons.. . 110 Miners at Hiigel 1. 650 Day laborers..... 90 1,600 The company was awarded a medal at the International Exhibition at London in 1862, and in 1867 it received a silver medal at the exhibi¬ tion in Paris, for the good quality of the pig-iron produced. 7 i 98 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The prosperity of the works is shown by the dividends paid to the stockholders in the past four years, as follows : 1S68-’G9, 10 per cent.; 1SG9-70, 10 per cent.; 1870-71, 8 per cent.; 1871-72, 1G per cent. 65. Institutions and associations for the physical and men¬ tal WELFARE OF THE WORKMEN AT GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE. —The Georgs-Marien Joint-Stock Company differs very materially from most manufacturing companies in that it not only aims to give the share¬ holders the largest dividends possible, but besides its industrial purposes it seeks to promote the welfare of the working classes, by forming a community of them, and establishing and supporting for them churches, schools, clubs, associations, and other beneficial institutions. Deeming this the surest way of accomplishing its purposes, the company has made this work one of its first and chief efforts. The company was obliged to create a new industry in a part of the country where the prospects for the future were good enough to justify considerable preparations and the attempt to benefit the poor laboring classes of the surrounding villages. This was a great undertaking, for at the time of the founding of the woiks they were at the distance of a half au hour’s ride from the larger country roads, and could only be reached by primitive lanes and by¬ ways, as was also the case with the small villages. Therefore roads had to be constructed to the newly-acquired coal-fields and iron-mines, while all the old roads had to be improved. The inhabitants of the district were for the most part farmers, and for . i the few such as had spare time there were always chances enough for employment at the neighboring coal-fields. This had its advantages for them, since the laborers at the works would be obliged to devote all their time to it, while at the coal-mines the miuing being done by shifts, working eight hours each, they had sufficient time to work their fields also. Under the existing circumstances most of the inhabitants of the district could not take steady employment at the new works, and even those who might have done so could only be prevailed upon by the offer I of higher wages, and even then they were very slow to come and begin work for the “strangers.” It was, therefore, an unavoidable necessity to engage laborers from remote parts of the country, and for whom in : this very thinly-settled district habitations and boarding-facilities could , not be found. 6G. Houses .—Thus the company was forced at the outset, and before j any technical work could be begun, to provide houses for their work¬ men, on a plan which of course could not satisfy all demands for com¬ fortable living, but which would permit of the speediest completion and give shelter to as many as possible. These houses were built with a frame-work as general lodging-houses, but so that they might afterward be converted into dwellings by the erection of partitions. Nineteen of these houses were so built, and are known as “ lodging-houses.” Afterward, as the number of steady and settled employes increased, GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE—DWELLING. 99 and there was more opportunity for deliberation, and forethought in building, more regard could be given to the lasting comfort of the workingmen. Houses were built upon the same plan, for but two fam¬ ilies, and so that each family had a separate entrance, shed, and yard. The disadvantages of these houses were the same as with the lodging- houses: slight frames, low ceilings, small windows, and insufficient ventilation. Then the sheds for stabling, &c., were so closely connected with the houses that they were unhealthy and not durable. After finishing the above-described dwellings in 1859, the company decided not to enlarge the colony on this plan, believing that the work¬ men could be induced to take the matter into their own hands, and secure for themselves an independent homestead, and that the company would thereby secure a set of steady, interested laborers. To this end a building-plot of thirty square rods, at a standard price, and an ad¬ vance of cash to aid in the erection of the proposed building, was offered to each workman. The workman had to pay 4 per cent, interest on this sum, and, moreover, allow the company to retain and apply such a proportion of his monthly earnings that the property would be un¬ incumbered in the course of fifteen years. The conditions for the granting of the loan were— 1st. That the plan of the proposed house should have the approval of the architect appointed by the company. 2d. That the building of the house should be under the supervision and control of the company’s architect, in order to protect the builder against fraud, and in order that the company’s money should be ex¬ pended for this stated purpose only. 3d. That the laborer should himself furnish a part of the neces¬ sary capital. This last clause was never fully enforced, and this was the first cause which led to the failure of this plan. Yery soon after the adoption of this plan a number of workmen made application to obtain the offered privilege and to build their own houses. In the course of building it would often be the case that enlargements would be made, and alterations of the original plan, which would de¬ mand a greater outlay than at first contemplated. Then the furnishing of the new house would cost much more than was expected. In almost every case the capital needed from the company exceeded the original demand. It resulted that the payment of the interest and the monthly deductions from the wages were too burdensome for many of the men, and, as a natural consequence, some of the houses were sold to third parties who were not interested in the success of the company, and thereby the good intentions of the latter were more or less frustrated. To avoid these evils, the third clause was amended so as to read that the applicant for a lot and loan should possess at least a half of the needed capital. Under this condition it was thought that the builder would at least be more considerate in the use of his means; but the re- 100 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. salt of this experiment was the total suspension of building by the workmen, and the company was again forced to erect houses for their men, although much against its inclination. After due consideration, a new aud well-approved plan was adopted, and upon it sixteen new dwellings were built as an experiment, and these having given entire satisfaction, the number will be increased in the course of this year by the addition of forty-four more. The dwellings are judiciously separated from one another, as they also are from the sheds, yards, &c. The entrances to the houses are opposite each other; the rooms are high and airy. On the first floor are a sitting-room, bed-roorn, and kitchen; on the upper floor either one large chamber or two small ones. The cellar is large enough to hold the winter-stores, and is entered fiom the kitchen. The shed has two compartments—one for a pig and one for a goat, aud room above for winter-fodder. A garden of from 15 to 20 square rods is connected with each dwelling. The walls of the houses are made of the bricks made of slag, and a space of 2i inches is left between the walls, rendering the dwellings per¬ fectly dry. The best evidence of the adaptation and desirableness of these dwell¬ ings to the workmen is furnished by the fact that it is looked upon as a reward and a special privilege to obtain one from the company. The officers of the company, who originally had to live either in lodg¬ ing-houses or other public places, are now also better provided for. Special buildings have been erected for them. These houses contain on the first floor five rooms and two chambers, and on the upper floor six more rooms. In the basement are the kitchen, pantry, and cellar room. In the rear are sheds similar to those of the laborers, with a garden- plot of about thirty square rods, for the cultivation of vegetables. The company owns now six houses for officers, aud one so-called director’s house. Differing a little from the above-described family double dwellings are the houses for the foremen and lower officers of the works. They contain two sitting-rooms, two chambers, and basement. There are now four of these houses built, and four more in the course of erection, which will be finished this year. The possession by the company of so much fertile land euables them to lease to their workmen who desire it a plot of ground for farming, and this has proved to be a great advan¬ tage to them. It is a fact worthy of note that in this way eighty acres of rough land have been cleared and made suitable for cultivation, or converted into building-lots. The land is leased at a fixed price, aud the different lots distributed by ballot among the workmen. As has been already mentioned, the works are too distant from other communities to receive from them any of the benefits of social life. It was therefore necessary to organize au independent community, and to provide means for the solemnizatiou of marriage, baptism, and death. 101 GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE SCHOOLS—CHURCHES. The now existing’ community was organized in I860 under the name of “ Georgs-Marien-Hiitte.” It is evident that a united community can only exist as such when properly provided with all the requisite arrangements and necessary institutions for the bodily, mental, and moral welfare of its members, such as churches, schools, hospitals, and other associations. 67. Schools at Georgs-Marien-Hiitte .—In January, 1857, the first evangelical private school was opened with 22 children, and at Easter, in 1862, the same was re-opened as a public school with two classes and 180 children. For this purpose an evangelical school society was formed, in which the inhabitants of the surrounding villages were received, whose children had, till that time, received their education in the existiug Roman Catholic schools and their religious institutions in the city of Osnabriick, some five miles distant. There are, at present, some 280 children in the community schools, divided into four classes, under four good teachers. Another school, situated near the iron-mines at Rotheuberg, has been established by the company. The school-house building contains four large school-rooms, one con¬ firmatory, three dwellings for married teachers, and one dwelling for an unmarried one, which can, when needed, be easily converted into another large school-room for a fifth class by^takiug down the partition. The southern part of the building was erected in 1861, and consisted of two large school-rooms, which, when the large double folding-doors were opened, were converted into one, aud used for prayer-meetings. In 1868 the third class-room, and in 1839 the fourth class-room, were added. The rapid growth of the school soon made the room too small, and provision had to be made for the increase of pupils by obtaining rooms in private houses, and it was only possible in 1872 to finish the northern part of the building and unite all classes under a single roof. For the accommodation of the Catholic members of the community, represented by about 60 children* the company established a temporary school in 1871. This house contains a large school-room, which is also used for divine worship, aud also apartments for the teacher. The directors of the company are the patrons of the evangelical school, and this gives them the privilege of nominating three teachers, the other being chosen by the state. 68. Churches .—As already stated, the rooms of the evangelical school- house, as well as of the Catholic, were constructed with the intention of using them provisionally for divine service. Although the need of a minister of the gospel was keenly felt by the members of the community, since the nearest place of worship was about five miles distant, it was not until 1867 that an evangelical, and until 1872 that a Roman, priest could be engaged, and the building of churches is now taken in hand by the respective congregations. 69. Industrial schools .—Near the elementary school there is a high or 102 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. advanced school for the older boys and the younger workmen. Instruc¬ tion is given by the regular teachers, aud by the engineers of the com¬ pany, on every Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday evening ; also, on Sun¬ day mornings before church-time. Instruction is given in the following branches: German and English, languages, technical and ornamental drawing, arithmetic, writing, physics, and cosmogony. The younger workmen during their apprenticeship are obliged to attend this school, which numbers, at present, about 30 pupils. A girls’ industrial school has also been established, where, under the guidance of a female teacher and some of the able housewives of the officials, the girls are instructed in knitting, sewing, and all other neces¬ sary handiwork. Similar schools have been established also at the colony Kothenberg for young miners and girls, and they are well patronized. 70. Libraries .—Close by the schools stand the public libraries. They were founded in 1SG2, and contain now about S00 volumes, some of which are very valuable. The first aud second teachers of the evangel¬ ical schools act as librarians. The books are in great demand by the workmen, especially during the long winter evenings. 71. Court of justice .—We cannot close this account of the institutions of the community without mentioning the peculiar court of justice which is one of the greatest blessings in the place. The court of justice, or the peace society, strives for an adjustment of all controversies, without the intervention of the courts and the pro¬ cesses of the law. Members of this society are— 1st. All the employes of the company. 2d. All others who dwell on the company’s grounds, and who have pledged themselves by signing the constitution aud by-laws of the society. For the settlement of all differences between the members, nine jus¬ tices of the peace are choseu from among the members of the society, to serve for the term of one year. The meeting'of this court is not held at definite, stated times, but whenever required, aud the time of meeting is made known by public proclamation. The members of the society are bound, in all differences between themselves, to call on this court before entering suit in any other court of law, or before denouncing one another. The parties must appear personally, and all counselors, except memoers of the family, are ex¬ cluded. This court of public peace was founded in lSGo, and had m the be¬ ginning its hands full of minor cases of every kind and description, but the fact that its decisions were impartial aud plain, and that the guilty parties had to submit generally to a severe rebuke in the presence of a great number of their friends and comrades, caused it to be feared even more than the courts of the state. 72. The icorhingmen's association .—This society is based upon the mu¬ tual-benefit plan. It secures to its members— GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE—WOKKINGMEN’S ASSOCIATION. 105. edical aid and care, free of expense in case of sickness. 2d. Compensation for wages lost during sickness, at the rate of one- i half the regular wages, at the maximum of 12£ silbergroschen per day. 3d. A life-long pension to invalid members of from 20 to 50 per cent, of their ordinary wages, and even the whole amount of wages in ex¬ ceptional cases ; 25 thaler per month is the highest. 4th. One-third of the pension of a deceased member to his widow. 5th. Support and education for the children of deceased or invalid members until confirmation, (generally at the age of 14.) In exceptional cases support is given even till they have reached the age of 20 years. 6th. Assistance at burials; sometimes payment of the whole expense The funds of the society are divided into three classes—1st. Sickness- fund ; 2d. Pension-fund; and, 3d. Capital-fund. Every workman has to contribute to the first class. They can con¬ tribute to the second class under certain conditions. All those who con¬ tribute to the first fund only are designated as “unsettled” workmen, while those who contribute to both funds are classified as “settled” workmen. In 1872 the association numbered 1,535 members; “ settled ” mem¬ bers, 412 ; invalids, 2; widows, 13; children to be supported, 46. There were spent in 1872 : Thaler. In cases of sickness.-. 11,115 Pensions. 770 Exceptional support. 112 Burial expenses. 92 Society expenses and sundries. 443 12,572 Income.. 20,217 Surplus..... 7,645 Tbe cash capital of the association, exclusive of furniture, amounted to 39,063 thaler at the end of the year 1872. 73. Hospital .—For the care and treatment of the sick, a well-fur¬ nished hospital is provided. It is under the care of an excellent resident physician and nurses, and has a drug-store attached. The hospital was at first located in one of the lodging-houses, but now is in an inde¬ pendent building erected for the purpose by the company, and placed at the disposal of the “ Workingmen’s Association,” free of charge. For all technical establishments of this magnitude a hospital is indispensable, and especially is it important here ; for the workmen are scattered over a large area, so that it would be very difficult, if not impossible, for the physician to pay the necessary attention to his patients in case of accident or severe sickness. In the year 1872 there were 3,345 cases of sickness, making an aggregate of 17,396 days of sickness, to which the physician would never have been able to attend w ere it not for the hospital. 104 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. The hospital steward is the assistant to the physician, and he pro¬ vides for the inmates at certain fixed rates of compensation. There are two nurses. Charges are made to the workmen according to their earning’s, the company paying - at the least one-half of all that paid by the workmen. The administration of the affairs of the Workingmen’s Association is under the control of— 1st. A board, consisting of four members, two of whom are choseu by the workmen, anti the other two by the superintendent of the works. 2d. A certain number 'at present four) of the older regular or settled workmen. It may be regarded as strange that so small an amount has been paid from the relief-fund of the association for the aid of its members ; but, besides this fund, there are several other funds from which, under the able administration of the board, large sums are given for the wel¬ fare and benefit of the workmen. The principal of these funds is the “ workingmen’s deposit-fund,” which was established by a donation of 4,000 thaler in 1SG6, and dona¬ tions have been made most liberally by the stockholders, and were 2,827 thaler in amount in 18G7 ; G,.j 02 in 1868; G,775 in I860; 5,S30 in 1870; 10,079 in 1871; G,S23 in 1872. The accounts of the board which con¬ trols these funds are examined by a supervising co mmittee appointed by the stockholders. The other five funds are mostly for special purposes; one, for instance, for the education of the sons of workmen who prove able and worthy; one to give Christmas presents to poor children ; o ne for extra support of orphans. All these funds are under the controlling supervision of the directors of the works. Besides those organizations which, like the workingmen's association, are supported by fixed dues from the workmen who belong to them, and by donations-from other interested parties, there are other very benefi¬ cial organizations which have been established by the administration of the works. One of these is the— 74. Store-union .—This is established for the pu rpose of enabling its members to obtain the necessaries of life of good quality and at reason¬ able prices, and thereby to enable them to lessen t heir daily expenses, and effect a saving. To this end contracts were made with different trading-houses and store-keepers, binding them to sell good articles at fixed prices, and at a certain percentage on the cost. The association has also opened stores itself, such as grocery, hardware, shoe, crockery- stores, &c. A bakery was established in 1872, and a butcher’s stand is being started. Every workman who will comply with the'rules and regulations can become a member. All the goods bought at the stores of the associa tion or of the traders under its control are paid for on delivery with tokeus, which are afterward exchanged at the treasury of the company 105 GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE-LODGING-HOUSES. for cash, and entered on the account of the buyer. The profits made by the stores in trade are divided among the members according to the amount of goods entered upon their pass-books. When this dividend is due they can draw the sum to their credit above three thaler at the treasury, or it can remain there bearing 5 per cent, interest, but the amount must not exceed 300 thaler, as this is the limit of capital of one individual in the store-union, allowed by the constitution. This union is managed by a board of seven directors, four at least of whom are chosen from among the workingmen. As the store-buildings belong at present to the company, it supervises the affairs of the union, but the control will pass into the hands of the association as soon as the reserve-funds have accumulated to make a capital sufficiently large to warrant the independent maintenance of the association. The following statement shows the amount of business done by the union : Capital deposited at the end of 1872, 15,549 thalers. Sales in this year, 17,768 thalers. Clear profits, 1,906 thalers, which, being di¬ vided among the members, after deducting the three thaler for the re¬ serve fund, gave to each man a profit of silbergroschen to every thaler paid out in tokens. 75. Lodging-houses .—As beneficial to the bodily welfare of the work¬ men, the lodging-house is noticeable. It has been often necessary to engage large numbers of temporary workmen for the creation of exten¬ sive improvements, and at such times the want of places for lodging was strongly felt. The erection of barracks helped somewhat, but it was soon decided to furnish for this purpose permanent substantial buildings. The first buildings for this purpose were erected in 1870, one at the colony near Rotheuberg iron-mines, and the other at the Georgs-Marien Works. The first-mentioned will soon be replaced by a larger one, but the latter has proved sufficient. Small rooms are provided for the ac¬ commodation of the young men, where they may occupy their leisure hours in study or literary pursuits without disturbance. 76. Club-house .—Quite recently it was thought possible to do some¬ thing for the social needs of the workmen by building a club-house. This building is for the accommodation of the different societies and clubs ; also for the meetings of the board of directors and other bodies. The building will also contain some apartments where the young, un¬ married officers of the company can lodge. The smaller hall will ac¬ commodate the singing and orchestral societies, where their rehearsals can take place. The billiard and reading rooms are free to members of any society. A small hall is reserved for the meetings of different societies for culture or education, and is closed against all but members during the time of their meetings. About the building are grounds under cultivation for a park, free to all visitors. A walk of about fifteen minutes through this park leads to the shooting-gallery. A bowling-alley is near by the club-house, and is free to all visitors, save when any society is holding a sociable. 106 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. 77. The turn hall .—This hall is nearly completed. It has a hall 13 meters long and 7 meters wide, used as a gymnasium. It has two rooms for the storage of turn apparatus, and a room for a lire-engiue, hose, &c. The hall and the surrounding grounds are for the beueflt of the scholars of the public schools and the Turners’ Society. The progress in the development of social life and habits has been very rapid. Already, in 1801, the first orchestral society was started by teachers, officers, and workmen. The society grew rapidly, and was well supported, though at one time it nearly succumbed. Rehearsals take place once a week, and every six or eight weeks a concert is given which is free to all members, and to their families and friends. The entertainment consists of orchestral music, solos, and singing. The directors of the company have recently engaged a musical director or leader, whose duties are to give instruction to the different musical societies free of charge. Encouraged by this, a brass baud has been organized, which will eventually be the band of the colony. Especially worthy of note is the “ Liedertafel der Georgs-Marien-Hiitte” a singing- society which has, not only by its numbers, but by its very beneficial influence upon the morality of the community, a just claim to superi¬ ority. This society was founded in 1SGU, and has among its members almost the whole corps of officers and the majority of the members of the colony. One evening in the week is devoted to rehearsals, and every six or eight weeks a social gathering, enlivened by music, song, declamation, &c., is held. The society owns a large collection of written music, and a grand piano. A branch of this society formed exclusively of workmen devote their leisure hours to the cultivation of dramatic and oratorical talent, and by their successful representations they have materially assisted in the entertainments given by the other societies. A rifle-club was established at the same time. It gathered about forty members, whopractice weekly, aud once in each year they have a prize-shooting ; and this custom is becoming very popular. It was the opinion of the better-educated classes among the different societies that there was a lack of literary and scientific culture, and that something should be done for this object. Accordingly, a new society was formed in 1870, under the name “ Yereinigungf' (union,) with the understanding that all the members of the other societies could also join this without subjecting themselves to much expense. This “ union” soon received such material aid from the directors of the works that they could offer free membership to all members of the other societies, and only outsiders are obliged to pa}’ for admission. In their weekly meetings, the political and socfal questions of the day, matters of interest to the works or colony, are discussed. A selection of periodicals is furnished for the free use of the members. It is pro¬ posed to connect with the union an improvement school for the older workmen, and to erect a building for the purpose, and also a savings- bank. GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE—TURN HALL-HOSPITAL. 107 The union arranges for three or four so-called musical evenings in ie course of the winter, in which the different musical societies partici- ate, and in exceptional cases outside musicians of distinction. The “ Turnverein' 1 ' has about forty members, mostly young workmen, ho meet once or twice a week. By building a new hall for this society, t is thought that the additional facilities thus afforded will increase the itumber of members of this most useful society. Among the societies of the officers of the works, there is a choir or jsinging-club. Upon the establishment of the different societies, the board of direct- >rs granted certain amounts either as gifts or as temporary loans. Now lie board appropriates a certain sum annually, granted unconditionally or the benefit of the societies, reserving for themselves only the right if placing a veto upon the appropriation of any money in cases where there is doubt of good intention in the appropriation. This fund is controlled by the entire board of directors, which is com¬ posed of the directors of all the different societies, by which the re¬ quirements and wants of every society are duly considered and the money divided accordingly. 78. The following official statements are made regarding the hospital, the school, and dwelling-houses. Hospital .—The hospital is arranged for 32 beds placed in four large halls, and four single rooms with one bed each. In addition, there is an isolated house with two rooms and a morgue. The ceilings of the hos¬ pital are 13 feet high throughout; the basement, built of freestone, with an arched brick ceiling, contains the kitchen-rooms, furnaces for heat¬ ing, pantries, and cellar-rooms. Besides these, there are rooms for con¬ tagious diseases, and a vapor-bath. From the first floor upward, the walls of the hospital are constructed of porous brick made of slag, with- air-chambers 2£ inches wide. The slag-bricks are made of the granulated slags from the blast-fur¬ naces, mixed with caustic lime, and the hardening of the bricks depends upon the presence of soluble silica in the slag, which, combining with the lime, gives the bricks great firmness. These slag-bricks have proved very useful at this settlement as building-material, and deserve the attention of the public in general, as being the best material for the construction of hospitals and sanitary buildings on account of their porosity. Though as yet the examination of the physical qualities of these bricks has not been made, there is no doubt but that they have a great advantage over ordinary building-stones on account of their porosity, but they must not be mistaken for the glassy slag-bricks which are produced at other furnaces. The location of this hospital is excellent. It is free upon all sides to the sun and air; built upon dry ground, southwest in direction from the works, and thus protected from the smoke by the predominating western and southwestern winds. Near by is a small grove of beech- 108 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. woods and a small lake, through which a clear mountain-stream run very rapidly. The halls of the hospital are airy and light. There are' no dark, clos< rooms. It is provided with pure water for washing and bathing from a high reservoir, into which the water is pumped by steam. The drink ing-water is drawn from a well. The principal corridor is 80 feet long, 7 feet wide, and 13 feet high and has five wiudows. This hall opens into five rooms, containing ii all twenty-two beds. Apartments of the same dimensions are upon tin second floor. The hospital has, in addition, rooms for the physician, steward, and nurses. The system of ventilation is that proposed by the architect, Schar rath. The principle is not to drive a large volume of heated air into the room through one or two openings, as is usual, but to distribute the heated air over the whole exteut inside the walls, and admit it through small crevices in the walls, which at the same time have openings for the escape of the same quantity of foul air. The foul air is conducted away through a pipe, which is kept hot by the furnace or kitchen fires, and in summer by a special stove placed in the basement. It is the intention of the directors to increase the efficiency of this chimney by the use of steam-power, by directing a current of steam into the pipe in the summer-seasou. Extending lengthwise under the ceilings of the sick-room are square wooden boxes, which, after going through the whole length of the sick-room, enter the chimney. There are slits from 1 to li inches wide along the box, which can be opened or shut. The advantages in this mode of ventilation are seen in the uniform distri¬ bution of heated air over a large area, thus avoiding all draughts, even when the apparatus is in its fullest activity. The heating-apparatus is in the basement, and cousists of five stoves for heating the lower floor and two for heating the upper. The stoves are so constructed as to have a very large heating-surface. Thus the iron never becomes red-hot, the air is always pure and kept free from the disagreeable and unhealthy odors arising from the burning of particles of dust and other organic matters. The air in the three sick-rooms, where almost every bed is occupied, is always found to be odorless, sufficiently moist, uniform in its temperature, and entirely free from draughts, no draughts being ob¬ servable either at the slits for the admission of heated air or for the exit of the foul. In room No. 1—which had eight beds and seven patients with fractured bones, very severe burns, and one who had both his legs amputated at the thighs—the healthful state of the patients and the condition of their wounds demonstrated that their treatment had been good, and that their favorable condition was in a great measure due to the good state of the atmosphere produced by tbe grand system of heating and ventilating of Dr. Scharrath. School-houses. —Thescbool-houseshavein generalbeeu before described. Onlv a few additional remarks will be made. The two rooms for the GEORGS-MARIEN-HUTTE-BOARDING-HOUSE. 109 irst and second classes are divided by folding doors, which are opened >n Sundays to allow a of divine worship. An organ with twelve stops ias been presented^by’one of the former directors of the works. The milding is built partly of sandstone and partly of slag-bricks. It is mated with stoves in the school-rooms, and the ventilation is produced jy a stand-pipe, as in the hospital, but the ventilating-boxes, which in he hospital extend along under the ceiling, are here arranged around the walls at the height of the foot-boards, and thus they immediately 3arry away the cloud of dust raised by the many moving feet of the 1 children. There are also large ventilators to serve to bring about a speedy ventilation'at the intermissions. The corridors are used as play¬ rooms in rainy weather, while in fair weather the open space protected against cold winds by the structure of the building serves for the pur¬ pose. The Oatholic'scliool, which is used at the same time as a church, is, though temporary, very suitable for the purpose, and includes a dwell¬ ing for the vicar and the teacher. The seats are benches with cross- backs ; the desks have movable tops, but these are to be replaced by stools and good stationary desks. At the visit to the school-rooms, which took place directly after the dismission of the pupils, the air was found perfectly clear and free from dust, and at a temperature of 15° R., which shows the ventilation and heating to be perfect. On a visit to one of the older class-rooms, the air, though not found to be perfectly odorless, was yet not disagreeable, though 70 children had occupied the room without intermission for two hours. Lodging and boarding house .—This is established with the view of affording the unmarried workmen the means of dwelling in healthy localities, and receiving good and wholesome food at a moderate price. The building is constructed on the same plan as the hospital, and of the same materials, has a very high basement for the culinary depart¬ ment. The cooking, for about 300 boarders, is done by steam. There are rooms for about 150 lodgers. The house contains two dining¬ rooms, each with 600 square feet of floor, and 24 feet high. They are heated by steam-pipes in the floor, and are ventilated like the hospital and school-house. The sleeping-rooms are in the two wings of the main building. In the rooms are iron bedsteads, one placed on top of the other, two by two, with mattresses and pillows stuffed with sea-weed; they are provided with linen sheets, and one woolen blanket in summer and two in winter. Between the beds are wardrobes, one for each lodger, and numbered to correspond with the numbers upon the bed¬ steads. They are 5 feet high, and are fitted with locks. The common wash-room contains 20 china wash-basins, and connected with this are the water-closets, which are closed during the day-time. In the eastern wing are smaller rooms, for from one to six lodgers each, who, of course, pay more according to accommodation. There are lodgings for from 40 to 50 men in this wing, while the western wing accommodates from 90 to 100 men. 110 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The discipline of the house is in the hands of the steward, who is re¬ sponsible for the observance of certain fixed rules and regulations es¬ tablished by the board of directors, who also at certain times inspect the victuals. The steward pays a yearly rent, for the use of the house and furniture, of 112 thaler. Board and lodging is paid for on the fol¬ lowing scale of prices: Coffee and milk,6 pfennig; dinner, with a quarter of a pound of meat or bacon, for a whole portion, 3 groschen; forahalf-por tion,l£ groschen; supper, without meat, 2 groscheu. A boarder can pro¬ cure boiling water for coffee or tea at anytime free of charge, and everyone procures his own bread and butter. Connected with this department, but in detached buildings, are a laundry, store-house, and bath-rooms with warm water, aud for the use of which the steward collects a small fee. Near the steam-boiler is a disinfection-apparatus, into which steam can be admitted to free clothing, beds, &c., from vermin. All these rooms are well ventilated, and are always found unexceptionably clean and in perfect order. The preceding statements show with what foresight and interest the managers of the Georgs-Marien Works care for the mental and physica welfare of their employes, and the success which they have achieved. Their action is worthy of all praise and imitation. BOCHUM MINING AND STEEL WORKS. 79. The following list comprises the objects sent by this celebrated establishment, the Bochumer Verein fur Bergbau und Gusstahl-Fabrica- tion, Bochum in Westfalen: (1.) Cast-steel propeller-screw in one piece, weighing 9,000 kilo¬ grams, about 9 tons. It is the first of its kind, and has not been forged in any part. (2.) A cannon for a fort, of cast steel, with a bore of 21 centimeters, and about 10,000 kilograms in weight. The carriage upon which it is placed is from the manufactory of Gruson, in Buckbau, near Magde¬ burg. (3.) A fort-canuon, of cast steel, of 15 centimeters bore, weighiug 3,000 kilograms. (4.) Two field-pieces, of cast steel, one 0-pounder and a 4-pouuder. (5.) A steam-cylinder for a hammer of 300 centners falling-weight, with the valve-box and base plate all iu one piece, made of crucible steel, weighing 7,000 kilograms. Near by it the piston aud piston-rod, made of forged steel. (0.) Press-cylinders of cast steel, the largest weighing 3,000 kilo¬ grams. (7.) Cog-wheels of cast steel. (8.) Steel pump-rod, 32 meters long and 105 milimeters in diameter, for a pump-rod, forged out of a block of cast steel. Weight, 5,500 kilo¬ grams. BOCHUM MINING AND STEEL WORKS. Ill (9.) A beat east-steel cylinder for aa elevator, 6,009 kilograms in weight. (10.) A cast-steel bell of 1.83 meters diameter, weighing 2,850 kilo¬ grams. (11.) A group, consisting of the different wheels for a locomotive, tender, and cars, part with cast-steel disk wheels, part wrought-iron spoke-wheels. Near by the last is the inner part of a wheel made of cast steel, three more made of wrought iron, and one of cast iron. (12.) Different wheel-rims, bands, links, &c., of crucible and Bessemer steel, the greatest wheel-rim having an inner diameter of 3 meters. (13.) Eerzstiicke of crucible steel of various construction. (14.) A collection of springs, of various construction, made of crucible steel. , . (15.) A collection of broken rails and wheel-rims, to show fracture, the samples taken at different stages of the manufacture, and the products made from different iron and iron-ore. 80. The cast-steel works .—The Bochum Company has been in exist¬ ence for thirty years. For the first eighteen years it had but small capacity of production, and from that period to the present it has developed its great importance. The company’s works and its miues cover an area of 140 hectares. The number of superintendents and minor officers employed is 250, and of workmen, nearly 6,000. The pro¬ duction of cast steel at the present time is about 11,000,000 pounds monthly. This product is worth nearly $700,000. In 1872 the pro¬ duction was 96,000,000 pounds, worth $6,000,000, gold value. The raw material for the manufacture of cast steel is mainly obtained from the workings of the company, and the sources will be briefly noticed. 81. The coal-mines .—These mines, called the “ Maria Anna” and “ Steinbank,” are situated at a distance of a half-mile from the steel¬ works. They are connected by railroad with the works, and at present are furnishing a part of the fuel required for the works from a single shaft. Two new shafts are being dug, and they will furnish 25,000 bushels daily to the steel-works and blast-furnaces next year. The mining-property embraces seven square fields, and possesses an uncom¬ mon richness of coal-beds. The coal is all of the best quality. 82. The iron-mines , in the Siegen and Nassau districts, are numer¬ ous and of great size, and furnish an important part of the ore used in the blast-furnaces of the company. Of particular value are the spathic ores mined near Kirchen. It is a superior ore for the manufacture of spiegel and Bessemer iron. 83. Coke blast-furnaces .—Two of ordinary' size are in operation near Miihlheim, while two more of larger size are being built at Bochum, and two more are going to be built next year, and two more in 1875. 84. The coke-furnaces in Miilheim furnish coke for both of the blast¬ furnaces. Near the steel-works in Bochum are a large number of 1 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. coke-furnaces, part in operation, ancl a part in process of manufacture. Both the establishments at Bochum and at MiilLieim economize the gas that is produced. 85. The steel-works at Bochum manufacture crucible and Bessemer steel. Thirty-six steam-hammers, from the smallest to the largest size, are used iu forging the steel. The Bessemer plant runs 7 converters, principally producing ma¬ terial for rails and blooms to be forged into tires and axles. The Bes¬ semer steel and crucible steel for the manufacture of tires is made into blooms of sufficient size to make from ten to twelve tires, and then is cut up into pieces of proper weight, forged, punched, and rolled out, without being reheated in a heating-furnace. One of the special operations in the works is tjie casting of steel in molds, after the invention of the technical director of the works, Mr. Jacob Mayer. The importance of the invention was acknowledged by the bestowal of the great gold medal of honor at Paris in 1855. Al¬ though the process was not patented in the country, it remained for ten years the exclusive property of the company and of those works in Prance and England which had obtained the patent-right. The great screw for a steamship, which was made for one of the ocean-steamers, having a diameter of 5J meters, (17J English feet,) as well as other heavy pieces, such as the press-cylinder and the cast-steel bell, with their sharply-defined coats of arms and inscriptions, show the significant progi'ess of the Bochum cast-steel works. The cannons exhibited show the favorable condition of this depart¬ ment. The first one, with a bore of -1 centimeters, was tested with five hundred shots to prove its durability, and fifty shots to prove its strength, by the imperial commission. The testimony of the commission and in¬ spection of the piece both show that the piece has undergone no notice¬ able change in diameter or shape of the bore. The range of the piece with ordinary charge is 8,000 meters, which is more than a German mile. The other pieces were also subjected to the most trying proofs, and show no change, either iu the bore or the straightness of the piece. With these pieces are seen some missiles, some of which are new and some of which have been fired. The crucible steel for cauuons is made according to a rule peculiar to the Bochum works, and patented by them. The steel is not brittle, and is characterized by its toughness and homo¬ geneous nature. 86. Auother specialty of these works is the manufacture of cast-steel bells. We have not space to detail all the advantages and virtues of cast-steel bells. The manufacture of these bells dates from the year 1851. As early as 1855, at the Paris Exposition, the bells of the company attracted general attention. The surprise of the inspectors at this new cast-steel product, indeed, the doubt as to the possibility of working steel in this way, was so great that they desired an inquiry to be made, to ascertain whether these bells were really steel, as was represented, or whether they were made of cast iron. BOCHUM MINING AND STEEL WORKS-BELLS. 113 The result of this inquiry was the bestowal of the great gold medal by the jury of the exposition, upon the following grounds : “The exhibited bells are characterized by perfection of performance, and a very clear, unmixed tone, which is as clear as that of the best or¬ dinary bronze bells.” As a consequence, the jury came to the conclusion— “That the Bochum Company, by its method of melting and pouring steel, have not only superseded bronze as the material for bells, but have given a new direction to the manufacture of large forged and rolled pieces for machinery.” The far-seeing decision of the French jury has received a brilliant confirmation by this year’s exhibition. It was not only a great advance in theoretical knowledge, with but little development by practice, which awakened the surprise of the jury, for that which they characterize as “perfection of performance” is not only “ progress ” but a “great pro¬ gress realized. v These bells are cheap, costing only half as much as bronze bells; they are heavy, and, since 1855, their manufacture has very greatly and rap¬ idly increased. In the year 185S, a test proved “that it is impossible with human power to crack one of these steel bells with heavy sledge-hammers.” In the practical use which has been made of them since the beginning of their manufacture, they seem to far outlast the bronze bells. During the first seventeen years, the number of church-bells that were made was about 1,000, and about 1,500 of smaller kinds. In the last four years about 600 church-bells and 1,500 smaller bells have been made of cast steel. The Bochum bells are widely distributed over the whole of Europe, though the distribution is somewhat limited by the fact that they are manufactured both in Englaud and in France under patent-rights granted by the Bochum works. Besides the great number that are sus¬ pended in Europe, six have been sent to Asia, ten to Africa, forty-five to North America, and five to South America. Most of those to whom they have been sent have written, showing their perfect satisfaction. The following is a price-list of the works: A bell weighing 100 kilograms, 20 silbergrosclien per kilogram. A bell weighing from 100 to 150 kilograms, 18 silbergrosclien per kilogram. A bell weighing from 150 to 15,000 kilograms, 16 silbergrosclien per kilogram. In the good service that their bells have rendered, the company has sufficient guarantee that their cast-steel bells will not crack, and they moreover offer to buy back any bells that shall crack in the future, at half the price of the new ware. However, up to the present time, the cracking of one of the church-bells is unknown. The smaller kinds (such as are used for locomotives, for example) are the only ones which have ever been known to break. 8 1 • 114 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 87. Extent of the Boelium works. —For transportation within the cast- steel works, 0 locomotives, 100 cars, anil 60 horses are used. Steam- engines, together of 7,500 horse-power, with 150 steam-boilers and a very large hydraulic power, are employed for driving the works. The steel-works have in and near Bochum, 16 puddling-furnaces, 8 heating-furnaces, 92 annealing anil warming furnaces, 27 cupola anil reverberatory furnaces, 121 steel-melting furnaces, 135 forging aud welding fires, 44 furnaces for heating air, 24 crucible, tube, and brick burning-furnaces. There are 2 blast-furnaces now building, aud 4 projected, which will soon be completed. Each of these sis is capable of producing from 120,000 to 130,000 pounds of pig-iron daily. In addition, there are SO cranes, with and without steam-power; 4 crucible and brick presses, 5 clay-mixing machines, 21 grindstones, aud 300 working machines of various kinds. Also, 36 steam-hammers, the heaviest 600 centners falling-weight; and one of 1,200 centners is being set up. The monthly production of railroad-stock is as follows : 1,000 combi¬ nations (2 wheels aud 1 axle) of car-wheels; 40 full sets of wheels for a locomotive and tender, with the appurtenances; 2,000 car and 350 locomotive axles; 6,000 springs for locomotives and cars; 10,000 spiral springs for locomotives aud cars; 16,000 to 18,000 rails; 200 to 300 Herzstxicke; 150 to 200 Gchohelte Weichenzungen. 88. Aid for the workmen. —An institution, in the form of a joint- stock company, has been established which has for its object the build¬ ing of cheaper and better dwellings for the workmen and employes of the company, the obtaining aud the production of the necessaries of life, the care of the old workmen and the support of their families. The capital of the institution amounts to 1,500,000 thalers, of which 300,000 were received from the Bochum Company, 200,000 from the workmen and the former employes of the company, and 1,000,000 thalers is a loan. After deducting the large interest, (at 2 per cent.,) the remaining sum is devoted to the above-designated objects. GLEIVTTZ FURNACE, UPPER SILESIA. S9. The Hochofenzu Gleiwitz in Ohcvschlesin Company makes a most instructive exhibition of the progressive chauges in the form, size, aud production of their furnaces at different periods since 1799. There are four large drawings of equal scale, 1 to 10, giving sections of the fur¬ naces in 1799, 1829, 1S54, and 1872, showing in a vivid anil impressive manner the gradually-increasing size and production. The data taken from these drawings are herewith tabulated. GLEIWITZ FURNACE, UPPER SILESIA. 115 Table showing dimensions and production of Gleiwitz blast-furnaces at four different periods. Dimensions, number of tuyeres, and production. Tear. 1799. 1829. 1854. 1872. Dimensions of furnace: Height.meters.. Diameter at top...meters.. Diameter at boshes.meters.. Diameter at or above tuyeres.meters.. 11.18 0. 96 3.45 0. 94 13.14 1.36 3.14 0. 63 48.14 2 25, 000 15. 04 1.88 4. 79 0. 94 117. 58 3 56, 250 13. 04 3. 92 5. 34 2. 56 220. 70 8 250, 000 Tuyeres..number.. Weekly production.kilograms.. 2 13, 700 CHAPTER III. FRANCE. Exhibition by the Schneiders, Creuzot; Attractive installation; Tiie ores AND METALS USED; M.VXGAN-IRON; EXTENT OF TIIE WORKS; CLASSIFICATION OF IKON AND STEEL; TABLE OF THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SEVEN TYPES OF IKON MADE AT CRKUZOT ; COMMERCIAL STEEL AND ITS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, AS CLAIMED at Creuzot; Quality of rails; Prices according to quality and hardness; Large castings for lining mining-shafts; Hevollier Bietrix & Co. and OTHER EXHIBITORS ; ALGERIAN ORES. 90. The exhibitors of the iron and steel products of France did not enjoy the advantages of a separate building for the reception of objects pertaining to the mining and metallurgical groups, and consequently their exhibits were distributed in the Machinery Hall and parts of the main building, and were not so readily found as those of Germany and Austria. The iron and steel production of France is shown by the annexed tabular statement from the years !Sd9 to 1S74, inclusive:* Years. Cast iron. Wrought iron. Steel. Total. 1359. Tons. 753. 032 Tons. 531, 769 Tons. 16,922 Tons. I', 307, 373 i860. 737, 932 503, 229 21, 211 1, 321, 605 1661. 329.131 591,772 26,169 1, 117, 422 1362. 923, 571 618, 395 30, 490 1,507,159 1863.. 933, 907 707, 735 25, 372 1,667,061 1364. 1,034.161 750, 331 28, 189 1,813,231 1565.. 939, 972 676, 775 31,816 1,698,563 1866. 992,710 759, 112 28. 286 1,780, 138 1367. 931,906 701, 160 36, 855 1,672, 921 1363... 931, 363 713, 272 66, 320 1, 719,160 1,917. 364 1363. 1,013.699 601,201 97, 281 1370. 923, 312 617, 331 83, 788 1, 625, 464 1371. 859,611 635, 376 79, 811 1,575,328 1372. 1, 217, 833 881, 203 130, 083 2, 232, 129 1373. 1,366,715 839, 891 155,563 2, 412. 174 1571. 1,123, 307 862, 251 217,072 2, 502, 633 * From the Bulletin du Comitt des Forges de France , cited by David Forbes. FRANCE—PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL, 117 Production of cast iron in France during the gear 1874 .* Districts. Ardennes. Paris Basin. Brittany.. Centre. Champagne... Comte. Escaut. Garde, Bouches du Rhone, and Corsica... Loire et Savoie.. Longtvy.. Menrthe and Moselle... Sambre. Sud-Ouest.. TJsines d’Aubin et de la marine nationals Total. Total in 1873 . Increase in 1871.... Decrease in 1874... Fo undery iron. Forge iron. Total Metrical tons. Metrical tons. Metrical tons. 4, 211 15, 549 19,761 12, 073 2, 260 14, 334 52, 167 76, 232 233, 082 345, 249 84, 976 161,209 5, 967 45, 296 51, 284 28, 676 73, 707 102, 383 21,094 85, 896 106, 991 29, 534 262, 882 292,416 37, 119 39, 919 77, 039 24, 908 124, 977 149, 885 9, 198 59, 874 69, 072 2, 968 13,811 16, 780 16, 900 16, 900 304,172 1, 119,135 1, 423, 307 252, 840 1,129,117 1,381, 970 51, 332 9, 992 41, 349 Production of wrought iron in France during the year 1874 *. Districts. Bars, &c. Rails. Plates. Total. Metrical tons. 34, 999 40, 529 7, 482 116, 043 93, 695 33, 001 50, 493 18, 639 101,563 6, 279 16, 990 59, 336 8, 386 1,598 Metrical tons. Metrical tons. 13, 944 12, 077 2, 869 30, 439 5, 111 10, 766 7, 069 Jlhtrical tons. 48, 874 52, 607 10, 351 186, 621 98, 806 52, 839 66, 654 25, 387 131, 809 6, 297 16, 990 125, 563 8, 3S6 31, 073 40,139 4, 070 9, 092 6, 739 16, 676 Loire y Scale 1 to 5,000 or 1mm for 5 metres. THE CREUZOT IRON-WORKS-STATISTICS. 121 Statistics of Le Creuzot, 1873-74. Statistical elements. Creuzot. Appendages. Total. The works consist of— Surface of the works and of the industrial appendages.. 435 336 771 acres. Surface of the buildings. 51 17 68 acres. Length of railways, broad gauge. 35 14 49 miles. narrow gauge .. 18 62 80 miles. Number of workmen. 9, 800 5, 700 15,500 workmen. Number of steam-engines. 234 74 306 engines. Horse-power of the same. 15, 700 3, 300 19,000 horse-power. PRODUCTION. Weight of coals. 190, 000 525, 000 715,000 tons. 180, 000 180,000 tons. 90, 000 60, 000 280,000 240, 000 90,000 tons. 60,000 tons. Value of locomotive-engines, (100 a year). Value of other machinery and bridges. 100, 000 280,000 pounds. 340,000 pounds. Note.—T he extensions of the works at present in progress, and which are to be completed in 1873-'74 are taken into account in these statistics. 95. Awards in 1867.—At the Paris Exposition in 1S67 a grand prize was given for the raw and finished products of mineral industry, (Group Y, class 40,) and another grand prize for mining-tools and processes of working the mines, (Group YI, class 47.) A gold medal for railway-ma¬ terial; a gold medal for civil engineering; a gold medal for materials for naval architecture and saving of life; a gold medal for methods of teaching children and apparatus for the same, and also a bronze medal to M. Nolet, as co-operator, for apparatus for the instruction of adults. 96. Classification of iron and steel, Creuzot. —The classifica¬ tion before mentioned is based upon the needs of the consumer, the en¬ deavor being made to meet iu a uniform and reliable way the demand already existing for iron and steel of certain qualities. In the notes and descriptions which follow upon this subject free use has been made of the valuable notes, in French, furnished by the firm. When Messrs. Schneider & Co. decided to greatly extend their metallurgical works, they necessarily became solicitous that the outlets for their products should also be extended. To attain this end, the surest means was to seek to satisfy all the wants of the consumer in re¬ spect of quality as well as of form, or, in brief, to put into the market the equivalents of the principal varieties of iron in common demand. Their first step was to procure a certain number of bars of the same specimen of the brands best known iu France, England, Belgium, and in all producing countries. These bars were submitted to mechanical tests when cold and when hot. From the data obtained from thousands of experiments in this way, the coefficients of strength were deduced, representing the relative value of each variety. It was found that the almost infinite varieties of quality produced by metallurgy could be grouped in seven chief divisions, and that these seven groups or types would satisfy all the needs of trade and the consumer. It then re¬ mained to find the means of realizing in practice the manufacture in the large way of these seven types of iron with uniformity and regularity. 122 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Chemical analysis of both the irons and the ores was resorted to, and the mixture of ores was based upon the analysis. The result, after long efforts, has been that the Creuzot Works produce seven distinct types or qualities of iron, denominated by the numbers 1 to 7, which can be re. lied upon, and which have been well received in commerce. The physi¬ cal properties of each of these qualities of iron are shown in the sue- ; ceeding table. IKON. Numerical table of the physical properties of the seven types of iron made at Creusot .* Pullin, ^•stress. 1. 2. 3. 4. Iron in bars. Bars turned to 200— 2 of section, and to 100— iong. t Sheet-iron. Specimens cut 1,000— wide, 2,500'"- long, and 10""'" to 12""» thick. CD s Sheets. CO Sheets. CO s~ a M Sheets. Bars. CO © Permanent elongation at the moment of breaking.. 10 15 6.5 18 10 21.5 14. 6 Charge of breaking per square millimeter of prirni- 11 37.8 33.2 38 33.7 38. 5 34. 4 tive section. Charge of breaking per square millimeter of the 51.3 55. 5 35.6 60.3 37.6 67 40.5 section as broken. “Striction,” (or relation ot the primitive section 0. soo 0. 680 0. 940 0. 030 0. 895 0. 575 0. 847 tp the broken section.) Coefficient of quality, hot 1. to 50 60 70 5. 0. 7. ec 00 CD g CD © 33 © cz 5 & p; IT. « c n « tfl Permanent elongation at the moment of breaking.. 25 18.2 29 oo 34 26.5 Charge of breaking per square millimeter of primi- 36.6 34.8 38. 75 35. 6 39.2 36.7 tive section. Charge of breaking per square millimeter of the 73.6 43 83.5 48 112 55 section as broken. “ Striction,” (or relation of the primitive section 0.524 0. 808 0. 462 0. 740 0.350 0. 6C5 to the broken section.) Coefficient of quality, hot t. 80 99 100 * The figures given in this table are the result of numerous trials; nevertheless they are only com l>arative and approximate. t The bars used were all carefully and exactly brought to the same dimensions, and were tested in the same apparatus and manner, and by the same persons. 1 By an empirical process, justified by experience, the comparative value hot is expressed by coeffi¬ cients of which the maximum, 100, corresponds to the best charcoal-irons. 97. Commercial steel .—A similar method of investigation was adopt¬ ed in respect of the various grades of commercial steel, and resulted in grouping these varieties iu three grand divisions, designated respect¬ ively by the letters A, B, and 0. The first division. A, includes the great bulk of production of steel; the greater portion of Bessemer aud of Martin steel, and some crucible steel made in England, Belgium, and iu France. This grade of steel is used generally iu rails and other objects of general manufacture. The third division, C, includes steel of exceptional purity, which, ac- CEEUZOT IRON-WORKS-GRADES OF STEEL. 123 cording to numerous analyses, is only to be found in the best products of the crucible from charcoal-iron of the best Dannemora brand. The second division, B, comprehends the steels of intermediate quality between A and 0. The Schneiders have undertaken to realize in their manufacture in the large way each of these three standard types of quality to a degree at least equal or superior to the mean of each, and they have adopted the three marks A, B, and C to designate three grades of steel which they claim to be able to produce with uniformity. They observe, however, that the physical properties of the same metal are so greatly modified by its degree of hardness that it is necessary to take this hardness into consideration. The elongation of bars of steel under strain varies more with the degrees of hardness than from any small differences of chemical com¬ position. The elongation is an essential quality, which for the same bar varies greatly with the different degrees of hardness. The classification adopted by the Oreusot Works is based upon the hardness rather than the composition. Other metallurgists have taken the degree of carbura- tion as the basis of classification. This basis of elongation being taken for the classification, it became necessary to fix the extremes. For the hardest they have selected a steel which is susceptible of an elongation of 12 to 14 per cent., or an average of 13 per cent., and for the softest, which permits of 34 to 36 per cent., or a mean of 35 per cent., of elongation. They are able to pro¬ duce at will such steel, and to maintain the production, as regards this quality of hardness and elongation, within the limits of variation of 1 per cent., more or less. They have also been able to subdivide each of these three groups A, B, and C into grades of hardness differing by 2 per cent, of elongation, commencing at 13 per cent, as the basis, only as the extreme limit of elongation recedes, as the purity of the steel increases, they have 9 numbers for quality A, 10 for quality B, and 11 numbers for quality C. The classification so adopted, with ttye numbers for each division, and their comparative resistance to pulling-strain, are shown upon the annexed table. The bars used in these experiments were all carefully turned to a diameter giving 200 square millimeters of section, and were 100 millimeters long. They were hardened in oil. 124 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1672. STEEL. Numerical table of the physical properties of standard steels made at Creuzot, by quality of metal and degree of hardness. Degrees of hardness. Pulling-strain turned bars, 200mm2 of section and 100 aim in length. Permanent elongation at the moment of breaking. Brea king-charge per square millimeter of primitive section. Breaking-charge per square millimeter ol the section as broken. “ Striction,” (or relation of the broken section to the primitive section.) Charge corresponding to the limit of elasticity. Coefficient of quality, hot.. Permanent elongation at the moment of breaking. Breaking-charge per square millimeter of primitive section. Break i ng-ch arge per square millimeter of the section as broken. “ Striction,” (or relation of the broken section to the primitive section.) Charge corresponding to the limit of elasticity. Coefficient of quality, hot.. 1 2 3 4 % © c2 U o a © © & © t- © © * Not tempered. © © © H I S-4 a & - | © © © © ft © z © H 'A B C A B A b B C A B C 13 13 13 71 i. 2 77. 7 79 95.2 93 100.2 0. 800 0.793 0.788 39 ■11.1 •13.2 o 3.3 5 117 119.3 123 119 125.2 132. 2 0. 980 0.950 0.930 72 78.5 35 15 73.0 74.9 70.2 98.5 101 101 0. 749 0.740 0. 732 37.8 40 42.2 4.8 5.7 0.6 110.5 115 118.3 120 123 136.5 0. 930 0.900 0. 867' 68.3 75. 5 82 17 n 17 70.3 71.8 73.2 101 104.2 108 0. G97 0. 687 0. 678 36. 4 38.8 41 7. 2 7! 8 8.6 105. 6 108 112 122 130.8 141 0. 865 0. 827 0. 794 05. 8 71 73 19 19 19 60.8 68.2 69. 8 103. 2 107 113 0. G46 0. 636 0. 617 34.9 37. 3 39.3 9.4 10.2 10.3 9G. 8 99 104.8 123. 5 133. 5 146. 3 0.790 0. 745 0. 720 CO. 6 65. 4 72.5 A 1*20 120 120 120 B 125 125 125 1 25 C 130 130 130 130 Degrees of hardness. 5 G 7 8 *6 © © © © © © r6 © rs © © © © © 1 © © © © © ©4 © e< © © g © © H A H A H H A 21 n. i 23 13.2 25 14.6 27 13 B 21 12.6 23 14.8 25 17 27 19.5 C 21 13.3 23 16 25 18.2 27 20.6 A 02.3 |88. 6 53 78.7 53.2 68.6 49.2 61.2 B 64.1 91 59.7 82 DO 73. 8 50.5 65. 8 c 65.9 99 61.5 89.8 56.8 81.2 52.2 72.6 A 105. 6 125 106.8 126. 5 108 128.1 110 129. 7 B 110.3 136.2 113 138. 7 115.2 142 119 145. 1 C 115.5 151.2 119.6 156 123.2 160.5 127. 5 165. 4 A 0. 505 0.710 0. 544 0. 625 0. 493 0. 535 0. 441 0. 473 B 0.582 0. 670 0. 529 0. 590 0. 477 0. 520 0.425 0. 453 c 0. 570 0. 655 0.514 0. 575 0.460 0. 508 0.409 0. 44) A 33. 2 56.2 31 50.3 28.8 43.8 26.6 37.8 B 35.3 62.1 33.3 DO 31.8 49.3 29.6 44. 7 C 38.3 68.8 36.5 62.2 34.8 56.9 32. 7 51.2 A 120 120 120 115 B 125 125 125 120 c 130 130 130 125 CREUZOT IRON-WORKS-PROPERTIES OF STEEL. 125 Numerical table of the physical properties of standard steels, <$ c. —Continued. Pulling-strain turned bars, 200 mm 2 0 f section and lOOram in length. Mark of quality. Degrees of hardness. 9 10 11 © © Pi B © © Tempered. Not tempered. Tempered. Not tempered. Tempered. Permanent elongation at ( A < B 29 29 21 22 32 24. 2 the moment of breaking. l 0 29 23. 4 32 27.6 35 33 Breaking-charge per sq n are ( A 45 56.2 < B 46. 7 58. 8 41. 3 51. 2 section. ( c 48.2 63.8 43.5 53.2 39.3 46 Breaking-charge per square ( A 114 131.3 < B 123 147. 5 127 152 as broken. ( C 132. 6 170 140 175.2 146.6 180.5 C A 0. 395 0. 428 \ B 0. 379 0. 398 0. 325 0. 337 primitive section.) l c 0. 363 0. 375 0.310 0. 305 0 . 268 0. 255 Charge corresponding to ( A < B 22.5 27. 5 33.6 40 23. 6 33 the limit of elasticity. ( c 30.7 45.3 27.8 37.2 24.4 32.8 C A 110 Coefficient of quality, hot.. B 115 110 l C 120 115 110 98. Notwithstanding the great number of the experiments and the care with which they were made, the figures are not given as absolutely and mathematically accurate, but as approximations and comparative- They vary of course somewhat according to the operator, the instruments, the form, and the preparation of the specimen, and, further, according to the intrinsic qualities of the metal. The bars, however, were all formed, as nearly as could be, in the same manner and turned to the same dimensions, and the experiments were confided to the same person, and were all conducted alike. 99. Resilience .—The results published by the Creuzot Works -at Vienna comprise, it will be noted, only elongation and “ striction,” (the relation between the area of the fracture and the original section.) Other experiments upon pressure and blows have been made in great numbers; but owing to the extreme difficulty of breaking the bars, es. pecially among the higher numbers, it has not yet been possible to tabu¬ late all these results. The conclusion, however, is that in a general way, for steel of equal quality, the resistance to shocks has a constant relation to the softness of the metal; therefore, for most uses, and particularly for machinery, preference should be given to soft steel. 100. The experiments have not only been laborious but delicate,* and have occupied years of time. The tabular statements represent only the first part of a series which the Schneiders contemplate publishing, * For ascertaining the charge corresponding to. the limit of elasticity, the experi¬ menter used the cathetoineter of Fromeut, with two lenses. 126 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. and these were presented in advance simply on account of the exhibi- 1 ! tion. Chemical investigations of all the steels and the materials used l are also in progress. Each pouring of steel at the works is submitted to physical tests, and these are combined from time to time with chemical analyses, and these 1 r investigations are conducted in such a manner that the production of < steel is under the closest surveillance and control, aud can always be! 1 kept within the prescribed limits as to quality. 101. Deductions .—The examination of the tabulated results here pre¬ sented suggests some general conclusions. In regard to the hardness, | it is seen that it is less affected by the tempering in proportion to the softness of the metal. At the extreme of the grouping and for the i purest metal the hardening does not greatly affect the elongation, but increases the other properties. This metal is a kind of homogeneous > iron, or melted iron, the chemical composition of which is the same as , that of the best charcoal-irons. We pass by insensible degrees, in a chemical point of view, from the hardest steel to the softest iron, with this great difference always, that the irou is produced by the agglutina- j tipn of elements more or less thoroughly welded, while steel is the re-1 suit of fusion, which assures its homogeneity, and gives it special qualities. 102. The second observation is that, under the generic name of steel, some thirty different qualities are recognized and differentiated by their ! physical properties and by their chemical constitution, giving distinct | metals, so to speak. There is no resemblance between quality A, No. 1, and quality C, No. 11. The name is the same, but the substances are different. This apparently very simple matter is of great importance in practice. A failure in au application of steel proves nothing against it, |i but rather against the choice made of the quality, which may not have r had any adaptation to the purpose in view. It is impossible to define u good steel” iu an absolute manner. Tool- steel is not adapted to the construction of machines. It is the same with ; iron. A quality which is excellent for sheets, gives miserable rails, and \ reciprocally. In the varieties of iron aud of steel made at Creuzot, each purpose or application of these substances may find its appropriate quality. The product best adapted to the end iu view may be selected with confidence. The tables which are published are intended as a guide to the consumer, who will select the number of iron or steel which has the physical qualities best suited to his purpose. The following general statement is also to be considered : Bails are always made of quality A, of which the numbers of hard¬ ness range from 1 to 5, according to the preferences of railway com¬ panies, the conditions of track, climate, traffic, &c. French railways generally use hard rails; American, soft rails; and Russian railways prefer rails of intermediate quality. For tires, parts of machines, axles, sheets, &c., the higher numbers of quality A are most used, but it is IRON LININGS FOR MINING-SHAFTS. 127 better to use quality B. The quality C is used for special purposes, : such as certain plates, axles, ordnance, and other exceptional objects which require the greatest possible strength of metal. 103. For commercial purposes, use is made of the annexed tables of price and of hardness. Increase of price according to quality, hardness, works, plate-glass manufactories, paper-mills, spinning-mills, trellis and suspension bridges, iron-clad turrets, &c. The ship-yardsof Antwerp and St. Petersburg (the latter discontinued) ! have supplied navigation with 282 sea and river steamers, yachts, mail- steamships, steam-tugs, pilot-boats, light-ships, dredging-machines, trans- port-ships for travelers and merchandise, transatlantic packets, floating docks for iron-clad frigates of the first class and monitors. The Cockerill Company has facilities and implements sufficient to sup¬ ply annually 100 locomotives; 70 steam-engines, from 4 to 1,000 horse¬ power and above, for maritime navigation; 1,500 sets of mechanical constructions, complete works, special apparatus, repairs, &c.; 6,000 tons various bridges, turn-tables, &c.; sea and river steamers of 5,000 tons burden altogether; besides the surplus not consumed in its works of fuel, oi'es, cast and wrought irou, rails, and steel above mentioned. At Liege, by the initiative of Cockerill, senior, the first factory for spinning-machines was established on the continent, and at Seraing, by John Cockerill, the first coke blast-furnace and the first puddling-fur- JOHN COCKERILL CO.-MARINE-ENGINES. 135 nace was put into operation, and afterward the first coke-kilns were erected for the making of iron after the Englisli method. The first steam-engine, and afterward the first locomotive-engine, on the continent were constructed at Seraing. From 1824, besides the large steam-engines for maritime navigation, the Cockerill establishment constructed very powerful steam-engines for the drainage of the collieries of the Li6ge Valley, where they are still working. The establishment has been constantly improving, and has from its foundation maintained the first rank for its various productions, as shown by its uninterrupted growth, the steady increase of its business, and its success in all the exhibitions in which it has taken part. It exhibits at present at Vienna the following constructions and products: 113. Paclcet-boat engine .—Marine engine of 220 nominal horse-power for the mail-service of the Belgian government between Ostend and Dover. The steamers carrying the mail between Belgium and England are remarkable for their great and regular speed, their accommodations, and, above all, they are appreciated for their nautical qualities in stormy weather. Their speed in calm weather reaches 17 knots an hour, and is not exceeded by that of any other Channel steamer. The average pas¬ sage during six months, between Ostend and Dover, has been 4 hours 4 minutes. This result is not inferior to that of the steam-packets between Holy- head and Dublin, of 2,000 tons, with engines of 750 horse-power. This speed is owing to the perfect forms of the ships, to the relative power, to the combination and excellent make of the engines. The latter have given at the official trials a power stated at nearly 1,600 horses. The brilliant success obtained by the first of these ships, supplied in 1866 to the Belgian government, the Louise Marie, and the require¬ ments of the mail-service, induced the government to cause seven of these steamers to be built without the least change of model. Six are running regularly, The engine destined for the seventh is at the exhibition. All the principal forged pieces are Bessemer steel, coming from the steel-works of the Cockerill Company, such as the shafts, the connecting- rods, and the columns. The ships have been built in the ship-yard of the company at Antwerp; the engines in the works at Seraing. Length at water-line, 200 English feet; breadth, extreme, 20 English feet; depth, 13 feet 3 inches; register, gross, 568 tons; draught with 40 tons of coal, 7 feet; register, net, 505 tons. The dimensions of the engines are as follows: Diameter of the cylinders, 58 inches; stroke of pistons, 4 ft. 6 in.; ex treme diameter of the wheels, 21 feet; breadth of the paddles, 7 ft. 10 in.; pressure per square foot of the boilers, 30 pounds. The magnificent steamer Alexandre II, built by the company for the 136 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Volga, is provided witli engines similar to those exhibited. That ship is the first “ People’s Line” steamer navigating the European rivers.* 114. Blowing-machines for blastfurnaces .—The style of vertical blow¬ ing-machine used is peculiar to the Cockerill Company, and has received the name of “Seraing system.” The first machine of that system, witli higli pressure, without expan¬ sion or condensing, was built in 1853. It has been working twenty years without requiring any other than ordinary repairs. Since that epoch this style of engine has constantly been improved. The condensing and expansion in two Woolf-system cylinders has been added. The results obtained have been such that the machine exhibited is the one hundred and third of that style constructed by the Cockerill Company, besides twenty-four more now in construction in the Seraing works. The number would be much greater had the company been able to fulfill all the orders received. The advantages of the system come from the direct action between the impelling aud resisting power, from the great length of the strokes with moderate swiftness of the pistons, from the strong expansion ac¬ complished in two cylinders, and from the condensation. The blowing-machines constructed by the Cockerill Company vary much in size. The machine exhibited is of the largest model hitherto built; but there are some still more powerful now in construction. The wind-cylinder of the machine exhibited is 3 meters in diameter, and the length of the piston stroke is 2.44. In usual working, the machine makes 124 revolutions per minute, and ’The following report from M. Delconrt, chief engineer of the naval department, gives an idea of the working of these engines: “Antwerp, February 6, 1875. “ Sir : You request me by your letter of the 4th instant to address you a report on the working of the oscillating engiues of ‘220 horse-power of the mail-boats between Ostend and Dover. “I am happy in beiug able to state that those engines, some of which have been working nearly six years, have highly satisfied us, and answer peculiarly well our special service. “As you are aware, that service requires a perfect regularity aud a speed maintained in foul weather. Never having but a limited number of boats, considering the rapid increase of our intercourse with England, we have been particularly favored, insomuch that, except a few contingencies, the keeping in repair and repairing of our engines have never required longer than the time allotted for the usual stoppage of our steam¬ ers, which is never considerable. To give you an idea of it, the Leopold steamer has performed no fewer than 896 passages between Ostend and Dover, and vice versa, from March 4,1869, until the 1st of January, 1873, which gives a distance gone over of about 55,000 miles of 1,355 meters. “In short, the engines of our mail-boats, by their simplicity and their excellent mouuting, have required but very few repairs, and have allowed us to perform an ex¬ cellent uninterrupted service, notwithstanding the very small number of our boats considering the great quantity of passages we had to make. “I am, sir, your obedient servant, “ To the Director-General.” “G. DELCOUR, “Chief Engineer of the Xaval Department. JOHN COCKERILL CO.-LOCOMOTIVES. 137 with an effective pressure to the boilers of 4 atmospheres, it gives, per minute, 250 cubic meters of wind with a pressure of 20 centimeters. The Cockerill Company builds also powerful vertical blowing-engines for Bessemer-steel-works, compressing the wind at 1£ effective atmos¬ pheres. The productions of the Seraing founderies being altogether remarkable for the beauty of the workmanship and of the molding, and the absence of defects, a rough column of blowing-machine, such as it comes out of the mold, is also exhibited, and is truly a fine piece of casting. 115. Locomotive-engines for the railway company of Upper Italy. —Di¬ mensions of the engine : number of wheels, all moving, 6 ; diameter of wheels, 1.31 meters; space between wheels, 3.37; diameter of cylinders, 0.45 meter; stroke of pistons, 0.G5. Furnaces: interior height, 1.60 meters ; depth, 1.265 ; breadth, 1.086. Brass tubes : number, 195; length between plates, 2.25 meters; exterior diameter, 0.05 meter. In¬ terior diameter of the boiler, 1.33 meters; weight of the empty engine, 30,674 kilograms; weight of the loaded engine, 34,376 kilograms. Ex¬ treme dimensions: length, 8.542 meters; breadth, 2.900; height, 4.260. The locomotive-engine is exhibited as a specimen of good construction and of perfection of workmanship. The company has supplied the railway company of High-Italy with forty-seven engines of this style, and is now constructing twenty-four for the same railways. Small locomotive-engines for stations and service of the worlcs. —The Cock¬ erill Company has constructed within three years small locomotive-en¬ gines with vertical boilers for the interior traffic of its works. The excellent results obtained, as well for the service as for economy, have been so successful that sixty-three of these engines have been sup¬ plied to manufacturers, and a dozen are in construction. Ten engines of that style, besides more powerful ones previously con¬ structed, are employed for the traffic in the Seraing Works. The company constructs three types of these engines. The first can draw, horizontally, a load (engine not included) of 60 tons ; the second draws, under the same conditions, 90 tons; and the third, 160 tons. The engine exhibited is of type No. II. The dimensions are as follows: Number of wheels all coupled, 4; diameter of wheels, 0.605 meter; space between the axle-trees, 1.400 meters; diameter of pistons, 0.200; stroke of pistons, 0.250 ; total fire- surface, 8 square meters; contents of the water-tanks, 0.675 meters; contents of the coal-bunkers, 0.195; rough weight, when used, 7,500 kilograms ; length, 2.220 meters; breadth, 2.110 meters ; height on rails, 3.150 meters. 116. Perforators for mining or rocli-drills. —From the beginning of the boring of Mount Cenis, the Cockerill Company participated in that great work. The first air-compressed engines used at the Coscia, at Genoa, as trial, were constructed at Seraing. 138 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The excellent results obtained, the great productive means of the company, and the active concourse that the illustrious author of the bor¬ ing of the Alps, Mr. G. Sommeiller, met atSeraing, induced the Italian government to intrust the Cockerill Company with the construction of all the mechanical working-stock, without exception, necessary for the boring of the great tunnel. The company has supplied for the boring of the Alps more than four million francs’ worth in engines of all kinds ; wheels, water-wheels, wa¬ ter-column engines, compression-machines, perforators, air and water conveyers, &e. The construction of air-compressed engines and perforation by ma¬ chinery has since become a special branch, carried to a high degree of perfection. Fifty compressing-engines have been constructed in its works, more » than five hundred perforators have been sold to manufactories, and nu- j merous machines of that kind are now in construction. Mechanical drill¬ ing has greatly increased of late. The Cockerill Company uses it in its I collieries, and it has supplied the Belgian and French collieries, &c., with i many complete sets, and is continually receiving orders for machines of I that kind. Appreciating the experience acquired by the Cockerill Company, and acknowledging the superiority of the system, the St. Gothard Tunnel Company made an agreement for the supply of a part of the compress¬ ing and perforating machines it requires. Two drilling-machines are exhibited. The first has a certain historical interest. It is one of the machines I employed by Sommeiller at Mount Cenis, where it has been for a long while in use. The second is a simplification and modification, made from that of Mount Cenis, by MM. Dubois and Francois, engineers at Seraiug. This 1 perforating-machine is constructed by the Cockerill Company for mines, aud has been chosen for the boriug of the St. Gothard. 117. Steel and iron forgings .—The production of large forgings (the crank-axles for locomotives, the crank-shafts for sea and river steam¬ boats, the locomotive and wagon wheels, &c., iu short, the mechanical forgings of all sizes aud shapes) has always been one of the branches for which the Seraiug works have enjoyed merited reputation. The fabrication of locomotive aud wagon-wheels principally, forms a special branch of the large forges of Seraing, by a peculiar process for which the company has patents. As specimens of its usual manufacture, the Cockerill Company exhib¬ its a moviug-wheel of 1.30 meters diameter, weighing 7S3 kilograms ; a wheel of locomotive-engine 2.20 meters diameter at the revolving circle, weighing 731 kilograms: a locomotive-wheel, wrought-irou plate, 1 me- er diameter, gross weight 520 kilograms; a box for locomotive-engine, weighing 79 kilograms; a head of locomotive-piston, weighing 75 kilo¬ grams; a support for locomotive-slide, weighing 95 kilograms. JOHN COCKERILL WORKS—STEEL PRODUCTION. 139 118. Production of the steel-ioorJcs. —The Cockerill Company lias long had in its establishments of Seraing a considerable steel-work ; vast buildings for its enlargement will soon be finished. That part of the works supplies the other parts of the establishment for the construction of machines and manufactures with special produc¬ tions of varied forms. Eails, tires, machinery of every kind and size, gun-barrels, guns, and hoops for large-caliber guns are manufactured there. As specimens of finished mechanical pieces, the Cockerill Company exhibits the x>istou-rods, connecting-rods, cranks, crank shafts, levers, pivots, &c., of the marine engine which it exhibits, and also, as special productions of usual workmanship, rails, tires, springs, straight and crank axles, steel plates ; a steel hoop with trunnions for cast-iron gun of large size, (an80-pounder, diameter, 0.2T meter); a steel hoop without trunnion for the same gun. These hoops are destined for the govern¬ ment of the Netherlands. A field-piece ;* an assortment of gun-barrels ; a collection of various patterns. * Summing up of the experiments made by the Belgian government with a Bessemer-steel gun of the John Cockerill Company. —The experiments have been divided into two series ; the object of the first series was to ascertain the liarduess of the steel, the second series the resistance to the corrosive action of the gases and powder, audthe absolute resist¬ ance of the steel, (cohesiveness, resistance to bursting.) The gun was at first bored caliber 4, so as to be able to take off the impressions pro¬ duced by the first firing. Ten shots with IX kilograms powder, 1 waddiDg, with box for ball, weighing 3.3 kilograms. Five shots with the same load and some debris of projectiles inclosed in linen bags. After this firing, the piece was brought back to the royal gun-foundery to be exam¬ ined and bored caliber 6, (95.5 millimeters.) No apparent damage could be discovered. Second series. —Five shots with 1 kilogram powder, 1 wadding, 1 ball; 5 shots with IX kilograms powder, 1 wadding, 1 ball; 5 shots with IX kilograms powder, 2 waddings, 2 balls; 5 shots with IX kilograms powder, 3 waddings, 3 balls ; 5 shots with IX kilo¬ grams powder, 4 waddings, 4 balls; 5 shots with IX kilograms powder, 5 waddings, 5 balls; 5 shots with IX kilograms powder, 6 waddings, 6 balls; 5 shots with 2 kilo¬ grams powder, 6 waddings, 6 balls; 10 shots with 3 kilograms powder, 5 waddings, 5 balls. The experiments determined by the war-minister being terminated, the gun was brought back to the foundery to be examined. No apparent injury was ascertained by this examination. The officers of artillery composing the board asked the war-minister for his consent to continue the experiments. The firing was renewed in the following manner: 5 shots with 3 kilograms powder, 6 waddings, 6 balls; 5 shots with 3.5 kilograms powder, 6 waddings,6 balls; 5 shots with 3.5 kilograms powder, 7 waddings, 7 balls; 5 shots with 4 kilogram# powder, 7 waddings, 7 balls; 10 shots with 4 kilograms pow'dor, 8 waddings, 8 halls. With the load of 4 kilograms, 8 wmddiugs, and 8 balls, the gun w * 2 * * * 6 7 as filled to the muzzle. The gun was again brought back to the foundery and examined. It was ascertained that the bore was very nearly intact. The board, struck by the extraordinary resistance of that gun, declared that Besse¬ mer steel was every way proper for the fabrication of field-pieces. 140 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 119. Models of boats and floating lock-gate. —The works have from their beginning been engaged in constructions for river aud maritime naviga¬ tion. The ship-yards of Antwerp aud St. Petersburg (the latter discon¬ tinued) have supplied navigation, as previously stated, with 282 sea and river steamers, which have generally fulfilled, as to solidity, ele- \ gance of form, complete internal arrangements, means of propulsion and accommodations, all the conditions stipulated in the agreements, i The two iron-clad monitors with turrets, propellers, and machine for turrets, air-exhausters, gun-carriages, centrifugal pumps aud accesso- I ries supplied to Russia in 1S01, had been ordered on the ISth of June, | 1803. They were forwarded to be mounted to St. Petersburg at the , end of October, 1803, and were delivered to the imperial Russian gov¬ ernment completely remounted and armed, after trial, on June 13, 18G4> (in less than one year.) The company can build annually fourteen sea and river steamers of any burden. The models exhibited belong to some of its most remarkable con¬ structions. The company exhibits a floating lock-gate and some models of steam¬ ers. The floating lock-gate is intended for the canal of the Danube at Vienna. It is to prevent the pieces of ice coming from the breaking up of the main river entering the arm called the “canal,” from collecting there, and thus causing the low parts of the town to be overflowed. The lock-gate is 133.1 Vienna feet in length, 30 in breadth, and 18 feet in height. The iron used for its construction weighs 300 tons of 1,000 kilograms. It has been constructed from the draughts of G. de Engerth, C. E.. an aulic councilor and member of the board for the improvement of the Danube. The statement which this board makes of its labors gives all the de¬ tails concerning it. What principally characterizes the specialty of the works, work¬ shops, and ship-building yards of the Cockerill Company is the supply of all the working-stock necessary to railways; of all the implements for metallurgical works, snch as blast-furnaces, iron and steel factories, or for mechanical works, steam-engines, stocks of tools, in short, of all steamers, dredging-machines, lighters, machines necessary for the exe¬ cution of a work such as that of the Suez Canal, or of engines of any kind, with or without steam, propellers, machines and working-stock for the boring of Mount Cenis tunnel. The company also’ send for such undertakings persons peculiarly suited for mounting, putting in work¬ ing-order, or the supervision of the various machines which they supply. CHAPTER V. THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY OF SWEDEN. The completeness and extent of the display ; General view of the production ; The Fagersta Steel-Works; List of objects shown; Analyses of the ores_ used: Composition of the steel of various grades; Fagersta steel gun-bar¬ rels; Notice of Kirkaldy’s experiments and memoir ; Examples of pulling- stress UPON PLATES ANNEALED AND UNANNEALED; BULGED PLATES; WlKMAN- shytta steel; Condition of the iron-manufacture in Sweden; Professor Ackerman’s memoir; The distribution of iron-ore; Sources of fuel; Trans¬ portation; English coke; Water-power; Geological association of the ores; Production of iron-ores and localities; Methods and costs of min¬ ing ; Bog-ore and limonite ; Pig-iron ; Transportation ; Bar iron and steel ; Bessemer steel ; Martin’s steel, cement steel, etc. ; Rolling-mills ; Statistics of production ; Chemical composition of Swedish ores. 120. The Swedish iron industry. —The Swedish contribution is characterized by the number aud excellence of the specimens of ores, in large square blocks, which form a very appropriate foundation for taste¬ fully-arranged pyramids of bar iron and steel. It is the best collection of magnetic and specular ores in the exhibition, and was made, at the cost of the Swedish Iron Association, by Professor Ackerman, author of an interesting brochure upon the production of iron in that country. Bessemer steel and Martin’s steel, in ingots and bars, are also prominent objects in the collection. Here, too, is found a very complete series of samples of the celebrated Dannemora steel, and specimens illustrating each stage in the manufacture of steel from granulated pig-iron, pow¬ dered ore, and powdered coal. There is an extensive display also of spiegel iron from Schisshyttan, containing from 16 to 20 per cent, of manganese. The production of iron-ores in Sweden in the year 1871 reached 662,888 tons; of bar-iron, 187,000 tons; of Bessemer steel, 8,000 tons. The production has been steadily increasing, and will be much greater for the year 1873. 121. Fagersta Steel-Works. —This well-known establishment was well represented by the materials used and the products, as will be seen by the following list, which includes the remarkable series of test-speci¬ mens shown from the testing-works of Mr. David Kirkaldy: Bessemer steel from the Fagersta Steel- Works, manufactured without alloy of u Spiegeleisenf or of other cast iron. —(1.) Iron-ores, not roasted; iron- 142 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ores, roasted; lime; pig-iron, with the blast-furnace slag appertaining thereto.* (2.) Steel ingot, IS “ turn” (21 inches) square, planed; series of S ■‘tum’ (9£ inch) ingots, fractured, of various degrees of hardness, with the steel slag appertaining thereto;* series of forged blooms, frac¬ tured ; plate blooms, fractured. (3.) Pyramid : Side A, saw-blades; side 13, steel for machinery, square and round, from J to 5 ‘‘turn” ( T V to 5^ inches) in diameter; side C, rails for tramways and angle-irons; side D, steel for springs, from 1£ to 5 “ tum’’ (1^ to 5-fr inches) in breadth. (4.) For mechanical and engineering works, heavy axles, crank-shafts, other forgings for machinery. (3.) Kailway material: Axles, springs, buffers, (American patent.) (0.) a. Steel for tools and implements; b. Mining implements, (bores and sledges;) c. Gun-barrels; d. Five gun-barrels, subjected to severe testing experiments at Carl Gustafs Stad Gun-Manufactory, as de¬ scribed in the annexed statement; e. Gun-barrel, proved at the Husq- varna Gun-Manufactory, as described in the annexed statement; /. A series showing the different stages in the process of manufacturing gun- barrels; (j. A series of fractures made on steel bars of 1 “ tum"(l t f in¬ ches) square, of various degrees of hardness; h. A series of Bessemer products, taken at different periods during the blow; i. Plates for heliography: (a.) Polished plates; (b.) Samples of heliographed plates, together with impressions. (7.) Steel ot different forms, and of various degrees of hardness, proved, as regards its strength, at Mr. D. Kirkaldy’s testing establish¬ ment, London, by experiments in tension, beuding, compression, torsion, &c. A statement of the results is contained in special tables, which are distributed on application to the secretary of the Swedish exhibition. 122. The iron-ores and limestone employed at the cliarcoal-blast fur¬ naces at Westaufors and Fagersta consist of the following component parts: Iron-ore from the mines of— Limestone from Hedkarra. Ostra Stor- tiigten. Gran rot. GrOudal. 27. 40 3.10 6 .35 10.82 J. 30 2. 05 1. 15 7.15 2.16 1 . 20 2. 65 36. 61 1. 76 1. 05 3. 85 6 . 86 0 . 81 10. 40 5. 50 1.25 20. 74 23. 56 22 . 82 46.14 52. 44 50. 78 6 . 10 5. 95 37.18 0.016 0.009 0.014 0. 007 100.416 99.909 99. 064 99. 877 ‘ For analysis, see Annex No. 1. FAGERSTA STEEL-WORKS. 143 The average chemical composition formed by the mixture of these iron-ores with the limestone, employed as flux, is as follows : Per cent. Oxygen. Oxygen. Silica.... ... 11.93 6.37 Alumina. .... 2.50 1.16 Lime. ... 7.51 7.53 2.14 Magnesia .. ... 2.76 1.10 Protoxide of manganese. ... 5. 63 1.27 Protoxide of iron. ... 19.76 4.51 Sesquioxide of iron.. .... 43.89 Carbonic acid.. .... 6. 02 Phosphoric acid.. 0.013 Such a charge yields, upon smelting, from 48 to 50 per ceut. of pig- iron, which is tapped direct from the blast-furnace into the Bessemer converters, and consists on the average of the foliowing'component parts: Per cent. Carbon, combined.... 3.460 Carbon, graphitic. 1.289 Silicon. 0.771 Manganese .. 4.491 Phosphorus... 0.027 Sulphur. trace. The blast-furnace slag contains : Oxygen. Oxygen. Silica. . 41.96 22. 83 Alumina .... ... 7. 02 3.27 Lime.. . 25.04 25. 65 7.16 Magnesia .... .. 17.75 7.09 25. 65 Protoxide of manganese_ 6. 57 1.48 15. 78 Protoxide of iron. 0.23 0. 05 Alkalies_. .not determined. 15. 78 98.57 = 1.62 As no alloy of specular iron ( Spiegeleisen) or of ordinary cast iron is employed, the “blow” must be stopped when the proportion of carbon in the steel is reduced to the proper degree. Notwithstanding this, the steel is entirely free from red-shortness. The following analyses show the chemical compositions of the various classes of steel employed for the purposes specified: Carbon. Silicon. Manganese. Phosphorus. J Sulphur. (a) Steel for soft plates, railway-axles, &c. 1 ercent 0. 085 Per cent 0 . 008 Per cent Trace. Per cent 0. 025 Trace. (5) Steel for gun-barrels, shafts, &o. 0.25 0. 036 0. 234 0 . 022 Trace. (c) Soft steel for tools—saws, &c. 0 . 70 0.032 0. 256 0. 023 Trace. (alls were discharged from barrel No. 2. i> 4 7 o 5 The powder-gas escaped from the touch-hole of barrel No. 2. 8 3 5 The powder-gas escaped from the touch-hole of barrel No. 1. 9 4 5 A protuberance was produced in barrel No. 3 at the seat of the ball. 10 5 5 A protuberance was produced in barrel No. 1 at the scat of the ball. 11 6 5 A protuberance was produced in barrel No. 2 at the seat of the ball. Carl Gustafs Stad, 25th May, 1872. F. G. TREFFENBERG, Lieutenant in the Royal Gbta Artillery, Working Officer at the Carl Gustafs Stad's Gun-Manufactory. ■ “On the 27th of March, 1SG9, a steel gau-barrel manufactured at the Fagersta Steel-Works was subjected to testing-experiments at the Hus- qvana Gun-Manufactory, in the presence of the undersigned, and during the progress of the experiments the following observations were noted : “1st proof: A charge of guupower 14 ‘lod,’ (5 drams 1 scruple 16 grains avoirdupois,) 1 testing-ball. “2d proof: A charge of gunpowder 3 ‘lod,’ (1 ounce 3 drams 12 grains,) 2 testing-balls. “3d proof: A charge of gunpowder 3 Mod,’ (1 ounce 3 drams 12: grains,) 3 testing-balls. “ The above three proofs were discharged without any remarkable result. “4th proof: 3Mod’(l ouuce 3 drams 12 grains) of gunpowder, 4 testing-balls. Kesult: The powder-gas escaped through the touch-hole,, the balls remaiued in the barrel, and had to be removed by melting. “5th proof: 44 Mod,’ (2 ounces 2 scruples S grains) 4 testing-balls. I7o effect on the barrel. “ Gth proof: 1J Mod’(5 drains 1 scruple 16 grains) of gunpowder. FAGERSTA STEEL-—KIRKALDY’s EXPERIMENTS. 147 One ball was forced into a position of ‘verktum’ (7£ inches) from the muzzle. Result: A protuberance in the form of an egg was pro¬ duced in the barrel, at the seat of the ball. “7th proof: 3 ‘lod’ (1 ounce 3 drams 12 grains) of gunpowder. A ball was driven into a position of 1 1 verktum’ (1 inch) from the muzzle. Result: The same as in the previous proof, viz, the barrel was enlarged at the seat of the ball. “8th proof: 3‘lod’(1 ounce 3 drams 12 grains) of gunpowder. The ball at the muzzle. Result: The enlargement above described, pro¬ duced by the seventh proof, was extended by the eighth proof almost to the muzzle. “ Notwithstanding the barrel, after the discharge of each of the above proofs, was carefully examined, no other results could be discovered than those above described. “Lastly, it should be observed that the balls employed weighed originally G.65 £ ort,’ (7 drams 2 scruples 18 grains,) but after they had been forced into their positions, and, consequently, part of their sub¬ stance had fallen off, they only weighed 5.50 ‘ort,’ (G drams 1 scruple 15 grains.) “ Husqvarna, dated as above, and signed by B. Munck, colonel, re¬ tired; Emil Ankarcrona, managing director of the Husqvarna Gun- Manufactory ; 0. E. Norstrom, lieutenant-colonel; A. J. Gustafsson, in¬ specting armorer; J. Holmberg, gunsmith ; Anders Herrlin, inspecting officer.” 124. Kirkaldy’s experiments upon Fagersta steel.-— Four large glass cases in the rotunda are filled with the specimens of Fagersta steel in different forms, just as they came from the test¬ ing-machines of Mr. David Kirkaldy in London. They exhibit the effects of pulling, shearing, and twisting stress, and are described and illustrated in an elaborate memoir by Mr. Kirkaldy, entitled “Results of an experimental inquiry into the mechanical properties of steel of different degrees of hardness and under various conditions; manufac¬ tured by Christian Aspelin, Esq., Westanfors and Fagersta Works, Sweden.”* This memoir is elegantly printed and illustrated, and is not only im¬ portant to engineers and those using steel in construction, but is extremely interesting to the physicist. As an example of the nature of the investigation and of the results obtained, diagrams (Figs. 59 and GO) of two of the steel plates are here given. These plates, before being subjected to strain, were 10 inches wide at the reduced part, and both edges were accurately parallel for 10 inches of length, and accordingly equal to the breadth or width at the reduced part. The seven holes at each end for connecting the plate to * By David Kirkaldy. Illustrated by plates and wood-cuts. London, Testing and Experimental Works, Southwark street, S. E. 1873. 4°. Pp. 29, with tables and illustrations. 148 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the massive steel links of the testing-machine were carefully and ac¬ curately made in line, and to fit the steel pins exactly. In order to develop or make manifest the change of form of the plates when under stress, some of the plates had circles and others diagonal lines drawn on the surface. The distortion of these lines shows the extent of the yield¬ ing of the plate in its different parts. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Fig. 59.—H. 1927.—Diagrams of steel plates broken by pulliug stress. FAGERSTA STEEL- KIRKALDY’s EXPERIMENTS, 149 Fig. 59, with the diagonal lining, represents the annealed plate, (EF 1927 of the series,) and the plate (Fig. CO) upon which the circles were drawn (EL 1924) was not annealed. Both plates were half an inch thick. The results are tabulated with others in the annexed table. 150 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. T25. Deportment of rolled Fagersta steel plutes under pulling-stress. LARGE SPECIMENS—TEX INCHES WIDE. LENGTH^ BREADTH. Description. | ^ "5 S r« ! C z X • x ~ x 3! — X E * •2 E 'Z ^ Extensions, sets at— Appearance o f fracture. X — — i’S X — Xo.in. H. Inches. Sq. in. Lbs. Lbs. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. Pr. ct. f 1. 4 1906 9. 95 x. 129 1.203 53,300 74,915 71. 1 43.1 0. 00 10. 6 100 percent.silkv. 1. j 1912' 9.95 x. 250 2.4S7 37,900 60 1-0 62. 7 48.5 0. 22 28. 2 Do. U 11 annealed ^ 1. 5 1918 9. 95 x.360 3.781 29,500 51,456 57.3 59.3 7. 33 36. 1 Do. 1. J 1924 9. 95 x. 495 4.925 31.100 55,e03 55.7 50.0 5. 62 36. 4 Do. 1 1. i 1930 9. 95x.625 6.210 2*. 000 52,924 52.9 55. 1 6. 66 37. 2 Do. r 2. J 1909 9.95 x. 124 1.233 35,500 57,405 61.8 57.1 1. 11 22.9 Do. 2. i 1915 9.95x.255 2.537 33.000 54,543 62.0 60.9 3.90 1 33.8 Do. Annealed .. 1 2. H 1921 9.95 x.360 3.761 2* M0 51,076 56. 6 63.4 7. 39 35. 8 Do. 2. 4 1927 9.95 x. 490 4.875 27,830 51,330 54. 2 61.0 8. 70 38. 5 Do. 1 2. | 1933 9.95 x. 628 6.240 25,5 JO 50,432 50.6 02.0 9.98 34.4 Do. There were several very interesting examples of the effects upon steel I plates by pushing them through apertures of less tliau their own diarn- ( eter, giving cup or bell shaped objects, highly sonorous, and suitable for gong-bells. This lot of specimens formed Series G of Kirkaldy's me¬ moir, and he describes them as follows : u On the effect of bulging-stress on rolled steel plates of various thick* i nesses .—The specimens for the above test were disks, twelve inches di¬ ameter, cut out in a lathe, and pressed through an aperture ten inches | diameter in my testing-machine, the end of bulger being turned to a | radius of five inches. The two wood-cuts which accompany the tabulated j report of the results Series G, show the form of the specimen previous I to and after experiment. Ten pieces were tested as rolled unanuealed, i and ten after being heated and annealed. “ The following table exhibits the stress required to force the sped- I mens of the various thickuesses through the aperture : Thickness. J i i g i | i TXnannealed.pounds-.. 215,605 162.735 104,045 71,800 35,3.97 I Annealed.do_ 198,005 154,230 95,605 59,425 25,435 I •'All the specimeus stood the ordeal without the slightest sign of any , crack or defect in the manufacture. The clear tone giveu out, on being struck, by all the specimens after being bulged, excepting those that buckled owing to their thinuess, proves the soundness of the material, and consequently its special suitability for some engineering purposes, as well as for bells and gongs. It is only superior ductile materials that will stand this test without cracking or showing signs of laminations or blisters. Circles were drawn on one of the flat disks, H. 1904, and it is curious to observe the change in their form according to their position, WIKMANSHYTTA CAST STEEL. 151 some parts being distended, while tjie portion toward the circum¬ ference is compressed ; the original circumference of the specimen being 37.68 inches, and that of the aperture 31.40; difference, 6.28 inches, or 16.6 per cent., which is the amount of compression at the oute edge of the bowl. The material at the inner edge is still more com¬ pressed, the amount varying with the thickness. Thus we find in the five-eighth-inch plate the inner diameter is 8.9 inches; circumference, 27.94; difference, 9.74 inches, or 25.8 per cent.; and the depth 3.44 inches at the center of the bowl.” 126. Wikmanshytta steel.— The Wikmanshytta cast steel is claimed to be especially valuable for mint-dies and for tools, as attested by sev¬ eral certificates, two of which, from Joach. Ackerman, the chief director of the royal mint, containing interesting details regarding the temper¬ ing and wear of dies, are translated: “ Upon application made to me to that effect, I do hereby certify that cast steel, made at the iron-work Wikmanshytta, has been almost ex¬ clusively employed for coin-stamps in the royal mint of this place for upward of two years, and was found quite as proper to that purpose as the several kinds of foreign cast steel, both English and German, which, during the ten preceding years, have been imported for the use of the mint, as being the then best known steel for the same purpose. In the last five months of the year 1S64, when copper coin only, of three different sizes, was manufactured, the stamps or dies of Wikmanshytta cast steel sustained upon an average 30,048 strokes each, and it should here be observed that such copper coin is somewhat harder than the Swedish silver coin of six ounces. As something extraordinary, I beg to state that one pair of stamps —for pieces of 4 riksdaler—have respectively sustained the following number of strokes by the mint-press, viz, that for the reverse side of the coin 90,000, and that for the obverse side more than 130,000 strokes, without either showing the slightest sinking or crack ; and both of them were at last rejected owing merely to the fact of the flatter places in the engraving having become worn and in¬ distinct by being repeatedly polished. Of the eight different degrees of hardness, wherein the Wikmanshytta cast steel is assorted, that marked with No. 1 has been found to be the most proper for coiners’ stamps. “ Stockholm the 18th of March, 1865.” “I, the undersigned, do hereby certify that during the last fixe years no other cast steel than that of Wikmanshytta, marked O. R. U. I., has been employed for coin-stamps in the royal Swedish mint at this place, and that the said cast steel, as to strength and durability of the stamps, is found to be superior to the English cast steel of the best known kiuds and marks, which were previously employed at the mint for the same purpose ; and that it is quite as good as the famous Krupp’s cast steel, which, especially manufactured for coin-stamps, was employed for more than one year, whereupon it was again given up on account of its high price. In the course of a coining, commenced some days ago, of 152 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. brass pieces of 5 ore, with the same alloyage as that of the imperia French brass coin, a pair of stamps have already sustained 75,000 strokes without showing' the slightest defect. Many years ago some large, hardened pieces, belonging to our coining-presses, were made of the same kind of cast steel from Wikmanshytta, and were fitted into the presses, instead of like pieces of other steel which were worn out or split, and the same have proved to be durable and are still perfectly faultless. The individual actually intrusted with the process of tem¬ pering the coin-stamps, and who is a clever and intelligent smith, oper¬ ates as follows: The stamps (one or two to three stamps together) are packed up into a hardening-box of irou plate, in a fine charcoal powder, and are surrounded with clay uppermost at the mouth of the box, still so that their bottoms or lower surfaces, which are turned up, rest free and uncovered. They are then heated by a coal-fire in a small draught- furnace, and when they have the proper temperature, which is ascer¬ tained by their color, they are taken up and are refrigerated with pure water in a liardening-tub, from the bottom whereof a feeble dash of water rises against the piece to be hardened through the water standing in the tub, to the height of about 0.75 foot. The stamp is plunged into thd water only little by little, in the first place almost nothing but the neck, and then the other part gradually, but the bottom itself is cooled more slowly, without being plunged down into the water. After being fully refrigerated, the stamp is annealed in the following way; that is to say, a suitable thick iron ring, heated to a slight degree of redness, is slowly drawn over the stamp and is kept there until the engraved surface has assumed a yellow straw-color, whereupon the ring is taken off, the tempering having then been finished. “Stockholm, the 19th November, 1SG7. 1 ’ This cast steel is produced by the Uchatius method. Granulated pig- iron is mixed with charcoal aud powdered iron-ore of great purity and richness. It is melted in graphite crucibles. CONDITION OF THE IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 127. The condition of the iron-manufacture iu Sweden at the begin¬ ning of the year 1873 is the subject of an important memoir by Prof. Richard Ackerman, assistant in the Mining Academy at Stockholm, prepared to accompany and elucidate the exhibition of Swedish ores, iron, and steel. The memoir may, therefore, be considered as a part of the exhibition, and this, together with its general value to the industry of iron, justifies the presentation of a translation in this place. 128. Ackerman’s memoir—translation.— Although the Swedish iron-manufacture has been developing steadily, both as to the quality and as to the quantity of the iron produced, still, it cannot be denied that at present Sweden no longer holds the prominent place among irou-producing countries as formerly. This, as will be shown, has been brought about chiefly by natural conditions, which have hindered the IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 153 iron-industry; still, Sweden keeps pace with many other countries more densely populated and richer in coal. Sweden, however, is just now in a state of transition to a new period of development, during which, it is reasonable to hope, the iron-manufacture will be brought to as high a degree as is possible in a country which has no mineral fuel in the neighborhood of its deposits of ore. Far from the quality of the Swedish iron having deteriorated, it has become, in consequence of improved methods of production, not only purer and more uniform and dense, but also has been produced in greater quantity than formerly; for example, the production in 1870 was more than one and one-half times greater than in I860. In compar¬ ison with many other countries it is still very small, in addition to which is the fact that, with a few exceptions, the iron destined for exportation has hitherto been produced only in the form of pig, bloom, bar, or re¬ fined iron. The Swedish iron is therefore only occasionally brought to market in manufactured forms, and the manufacture of iron-ware, with the exception of nails, has never been great enough to supply the neces¬ sities of the country itself. 129. Distribution of iron-ores in Sweden .—The cause of Sweden’s pro¬ ducing so little iron does not lie in the lack of ores, for the country, on the contrary, is rich in iron-ore, although its profitable occurrence is lim¬ ited to certain districts. The greatest and most extensive deposit of ore is found in a belt run¬ ning from northeast to southwest, which comprises the southern part of the provinces of Gefleborgaud Kopparberg, the northwestern part of Westmanland, the northern part of the province of Orebro, and the eastern of Wermland. Including in this belt Winkaru, in the province of Kopparberg, no other deposit of importance is met with to the north, till as far as Korrhotten, where, indeed, at Gelliwara, and in other places, a great abundance of ore is found. In consequence, however, of injurious compounds, and the scanty population of these regions, up to this time the mines have been worked to only a very slight extent. South of this belt there are very important mines, as Dannemora, in the province of Upsala, and several others in the provinces of Stockholm, Soderman- land, and Ostergotland. Further still, near the southern end of the Wetter-see, in the province of Jdukoping, occurs a great deposit, that of the Taberg. This province borders on that of Kronoberg, rich in bog- iron ores, which are also met with in several other provinces, though in smaller quantity. Although the richness in ore is thus very considerable, most of the mines at present are not in a condition to yield greater quantities of ore annually, this condition being in turn dependent upon the fact that the demand for ore has been hitherto so limited that the necessary quantity could easily be furnished with the old apparatus. These relations are about to undergo an essential alteration, and the continually increasing consumption of ore will surely demonstrate soon the necessity for a more rational mining-system. 154 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. The first condition of sensible mining is that each mine shall belong to not more than one company, while it now happens that one mine is often divided into several parcels, each one of which is worked rather independently, and without proper connection with the other parts, by the different proprietors. Indeed, within the last few years many such pits opened on one mine have come into the possession of one company; but there is much to be done in this direction before the mining-system can reach such a point as to guarantee for the future a sure production of ore, both extensive and cheap. 130. The sources of fuel .—In order to bring about a greater pro¬ duction of iron, it is not enough to possess rich sources of ore; the amount of fuel necessary for the smelting aud further working of the iron must also be present. It is precisely the small supply of this im¬ portant element in iron-making which limits the iron-production of Sweden, for mineral coal occurs only in the most southerly part of the country, at Selioneu, and possibly also in Southern Halland. The de¬ posits of coal occurring there belong, apparently, to the Liassic, or per¬ haps to the upper and most recent part of theTriassic formation ; which of the two cannot be determined with certainty from the petrifactions hitherto found. It is not impossible in Schonen that coal may be present under, or perhaps in, the calcareous formation; how it is related to it is not yet fully made out. At Iloganiis, aud in a few other places in the north¬ western part of Schoueu, coal was found as early as the seventeenth century, in small quantity to be sure; so in the earliest times extensive and thorough explorations of the coal-formation of these regions were begun. In the remaining part of Sweden, unfortunately, one cannot hope to meet with coal, since, with the exception of the regions named, the rocks which form the body of the country belong partly to the Laurentian or primitive formation, and partly to the Silurian system, while the later deposits, except a few metamorphic areas, belong exclu¬ sively to the latest geological age. The iron-ores (magnetite and hematite or specular ore) which are usu. ally met with elsewhere in Sweden, do not occur in Schonen; though it is by no means impossible that in searching for coal an argillaceous iron-ore* may be found, and in that case, if the coal of Schonen should prove suitable for the blast-furnace, this province would enter upon a flourishing iron-industry. If, on the other hand, no important deposit of argillaceous iron-ore be found, still the coal of Schonen, if on better ac¬ quaintance it justifies the hopes now placed in it, would be of essential value to the irou-mauufacture of Sweden, although the considerable distance (about 530 kilometers) of that province from the great iron ore belt would essentially lessen its value. * An inconsiderable deposit of such ore has been already discovered at Hbgauas, which gave by the crucible-assay 39.5 per cent, of pig-irou with 0.13 per cent, of phos¬ phorus. IRON-ORES IN SWEDEN-TRANSPORTATION. 155 In the future, be it as it may, Sweden is still pre-eminent in the work¬ ing of her ores, both with the fuel which the forests and peat-bogs afford and that imported from other countries, for the refining of the iron pro¬ duced. 131. Transportation .—The deposits of ore are by no means, as has been shown, uniformly distributed over the wholecountry; the densely wooded Norrland, for example, is wholly lacking, as far as is now known, in abundance of ore, with the exception of the province of Gefleborg, and the deposits at Gellivara, Lousavara, aud a few other places in the north¬ ern part of the country. The same holds good also in a greater or less degree for many other forest-regions of the country. It is, moreover, an undeniable truth that an important iron-industry cannot come into existence without convenient and ready means of in¬ tercourse, even in a country rich in coal. This must be the case to a much greater degree when the fuel necessary for the working of the ore must be brought from great distances, as here, where it consists entirely of forest-products. It is also a simple thing commonly to unite large deposits of coal with neighboring, or at least uot very far distant, depos¬ its of ore by means of railroads; b it scattered forest-regions lying far from the mines are not so easily traversed by railways in order to bring the products of the former to those of the latter, and this is especially diffi¬ cult in a thinly-populated country like Sweden. In this country, with an area of 415,001) square kilometers, or S,079 square miles, of which 37,380 square kilometers, or 679 square miles, are water, according to the census of 1871 there were only 4,204,177 inhabitants, by far the greatest part of whom dwelt in the southern half of the country. Taking away the pro¬ vince of Gefleborg,the remaining part of JSTorrland, withau areaof 243,700 square kilometers, or 4,425 square miles, has no more than 378,754 inhab¬ itants. The southern and smaller part of Sweden, in 1871, had less than 3,820,000 inhabitants, and it is not surprising, therefore, that it was long feared that uq railroad would be profitable here. Experience has shown that this fear was groundless, and very important railways have been finished during the last year. At the end of 1871 there were 1,885 kilometers of railroad in opera¬ tion ; of these, however, 1,187 kilometers were main-trunk railways, and only occasionally touched the ore-districts, but, as main routes, aimed to unite certain important places as directly as possible. On the other hand, during the last year so many new railway-works were finished that at the end of the year 1872 about 2,100 kilometers of new railroads were in jirocess of building, of which a very considerable part were min¬ ing railways. Considering Sweden in a measure well provided with railways, still the iron-production, as regards quantity, cannot iucrease greatly in com¬ parison with other countries, unless a hitherto unknown greater deposit of ore be discovered near the coal in Schoneu ; for only on this supposi¬ tion can the expense of a production of ordinary iron in great quanti 156 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, ie73. ties for the market of the world be possible iu Swedeu. Without such a discovery of ore iu Schoneu, Swedeu must limit herself henceforth to the production of the so-called ‘‘quality-iron.” The impossibility of found¬ ing an iron-manufacture which shall be important in the present time is much greater for Sweden, since there the second growth of the forest takes place much more slowly than in various other countries. Since the forest-products, by greatly increased facilities of communi¬ cation, obtain a higher value, the forests will be better cared for iu the future, and the revenue obtained from them will be greater than now. In the more remote forest-districts the peasant has done nothing at all for the second growth of the wood ; but even under the supposition of the fulfillment of what has just been said, it still remains impossible to build up a great iron industry with charcoal alone. Each kilometer of forest in the neighborhood of our works, when it receives the best care, yields annually only 275 cubic meters of hard wood, while a square kil¬ ometer of forest, as ordinarily cared for by the Swedish peasant, if it has not been wasted, yields often not more than 105 cubic meters of hard wood annually, and from a solid mass of wood is obtained, accord¬ ing^ the care in burning, 00 to 100, often only GO to 70, per cent, in volume of coal. If 7.S cubic meters of charcoal (coal-dust, &c., included) are reckoned to the ton of pig-iron, aqd if in the future as good care is bestowed upon the forests in general.as is now given to a few forest- properties, a wood-area of 2.S hectares will be required to supply the fuel necessary for the production of the quantity of iron mentioned. 132. Use of English coke .—There is a possibility of the amount of iron produced increasing considerably by the use of English coke for the blast-furnace, and then refining the pig-iron thus obtained by the Bessemer process. An important advantage over the English cannot be claimed for such a Bessemer product; it would be equal to it, how¬ ever, and quite good enough for rails, &c. Such a production of pig- iron, based on English coke, has been seriously considered in Sweden, and could be accomplished much more easily than the project of export¬ ing Swedish ore to Englaud, for the production of pig-iron. This is partly because the freight to England is much higher than the return freight, and partly because fully one and a half times as great a weight of ore is necessary for the production of pig-iron as of good coke. Although the old iron works, with the help of coke from England, or possibly from Schoneu, could compete with the English Bessemer pro¬ duct in a wider range than formerly, still it is not possible to produce in this way an article equal to the ordinary English in price, and it will remain noue the less impossible, therefore, for the old manufacturing regions to develop an iron-production actually great as regards quantity. Iu this there is no obstacle to preveut the amount produced hitherto increasing considerably, after the completion of railroads now building, and also others: and it will first become possible through these railroads to leave the beaten way, that of producing bar-iron almost exclusively, IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN—WATER-POWER. 157 iu order at the same time to make railroad-material, skeet-irou, &c., iu greater quantity. From what has been said already, the important advancement of the iron-production through railways must be evident; but the further proof of this matter is the fact that the forest-districts lying near the larger mines, which have been worked for a long time, through excess¬ ive cutting, have become iu the lapse of time very much cut away, and the consequence is that the charcoal needed for the smelting of the ore must be brought from ever-increasing distances. With the aid of good communication, however, the amount of charcoal, which in the immedi¬ ate neighborhood is beginning to fail, can not only be restored, but, by moderate cutting of the forest, far more coal than formerly can be made, since in many distant forest-regions the forest, until lately, has been wholly valueless,* and therefore has been very badly cared for, so that it has not yielded nearly the income which it might have done b} r judi¬ cious economy. Iu addition to this, it has been customary at distant saw-mills, with strange wastefulness, to burn, as useless, not only all the sawdust, but also all other rubbish, like bark, slabs, ends, &c. It has been intimated above, and is shown more clearly by the follow¬ ing statistics, that the Swedish iron-works have, with few exceptions, produced till now almost exclusively bar-iron, or, in other words, mer¬ chant-iron. This circumstance may appear strange to a foreigner who is accustomed to seeing a ready ware, or at least partially-refined iron, produced at the works; but the chief cause of this, also, is to be sought for in the insufficient means of communication of the mining-districts. Pig-iron and bar-iron can be manufactured with profit in very small quantity, while this is not so much the case with railroad-material, since larger and more costly mills are necessary for that work, and they must have a considerable production in order to defray the first cost. For this it is indispensably necessary that considerable quantities of raw material can be brought to one point at a moderate price, which cannot be accomplished without good means of communication; in addition to which is the fact that a railway-connection is more necessary for iron¬ works which produce ready wares than for those which manufacture only merchant-iron, since the time of delivery is not usually so strongly limited for the latter as for the finished goods. 133. Waterpower .—It is fortunate for the iron-manufacture of Sweden that the country is rich in water-power, small streams occurring in numberless quantity, on account of which all iron-works are located at water-falls. In the mining-districts also quantities of water occur which afford thousands of horse-power, and when these are connected by railroads with the mines and forest-regions they will afford the most suitable situations for greater iron-works, especially when great saw- * Iu some regions, even in the last year, charcoal has sold for 1.75 fraucs per cubic meter, while at certain mines it brought 7 fraucs per cubic meter; and under the pres¬ ent favoring circumstances it costs in some places 14 to 17 francs per cubic meter. 158 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. mills, as is now aud then tbe case, are already situated on tlie same fall, for the iron-works can then use the refuse of the saw-mills without extra cost for transportation. Many iron-works intended for the production of railroad-material aud sheet iron have been located in such places within the last two years, and it is the intention to have them completed at the same time with the railroads leading - to them. The demand of the world's market for Swedish bar-iron is in fact very limited, for it is much too good for most purposes, and its value can therefore be properly estimated only for certain uses, as for making the best steel and a few manufactured wares like wire, horse-nails, &c. A cheaper and poorer iron, on the other hand, answers for most purposes, and as inconsiderable as the amount of production of the Swedish iron has hitherto been, it has still been able to satisfy all demands under or¬ dinary circumstances; therefore an increased production of so expen¬ sive a merchant-iron as the Swedish for many years would only bring about a lowering of the price of iron. If an essential iucrease of the Swedish iron-production is to bring an actual advantage, it is indispen¬ sably necessary that new works for the production of other kinds of iron than bar-iron be built; aud this has, as has been remarked, actually happened, and also many of the old bar-iron works are beginning to change to the manufacture of Bessemer and railroad-iron. The other works, which remain as formerly, will, in consequence of this, be able to depend upon so much the more certain sale of their product in the future. After these more general considerations we will now pass to a more definite statement of the condition in which the Swedish iron-manufac- ture is at present. 134. Geological association of the iron-ores of Sweden .—The iron-ores of Sweden are chiefly magnetite and hematite, which are classed together as mine-ores, to distinguish them from the bog-ores and limonite which also occur, but are worked only iu the province of Smaland. The magnetic ores by no means always correspond to the formula Fe 3 0^, but with one molecule of sesquioxide can contain more or less than one of protoxide. Sometimes more or less hematite is intermingled, as in the ore from Stora-Bispberg.” Sometimes the maguetite is so mixed with hematite that it is hard to say to which class it belongs. In some mines, also, these two kinds of ore occur iu beds side by side, as at Griingesberg and Dalkarlsberg; usually, however, they are separate, so that the same mine only affords one of the two ores. The mine-ores, or the magnetite and hematite, belong to the Lauren- tian or primary formation, and never occur in with gaugue or veinstone, but as actual beds or strata, which have the same strike and dip as the surrounding rocks. Many deposits of ore possess no great extent, but soon thin out; if, however, the strike of the rock is followed, sooner or later a new deposit is met with, aud in this way the same bed of ore can often be followed for a myriameter. Other beds of ore, on the other IRON-ORES OF SWEDEN. 159 hand, often have a continuous extension in the direction of the strike, of many hundred meters, with a varying breadth. The beds are sometimes sharply cut off and more or less displaced by transverse beds, so-called u skblar,” of chlorite-slate, trap, or granite. Also, the thickness of the bed is very irregular, varying from an incon¬ siderable thickness to 30 or 40 meters. It is also very common to find the bed accompanied by several parallel strata of ore, which are sepa¬ rated by more or less barren rock. The main mass of the solid rock of Sweden consists of granite and gneiss; considerable quantities of mica-slate are met with, and, in addi¬ tion, hornblende-slate, “helleflinta” diorite, and granular limestone very often occur. The iron-ores lie sometimes immediately in gneiss, as at Grangesberg, in the province of Kopparberg, and Norberg, in Westmanland; the gneiss itself is so poor in feldspar that it has been takeu by some for mica- slate. When the ore lies in gneiss, the transition from barren rock to that containing ore is often very indistinct, and the ore then consists of a gneiss whose other constituents besides quartz are made up more or less of iron-ore. This is often the case with blood-stone, which consists usually of alternate layers of tolerably pure hematite and gneiss rich in quartz, and having iron-ore intersprinkled in it. These occur alternately, and the whole then consists of often many hundred parallel streaks of ore? between which stripes of quartz or gneiss lie. The smaller the latter are in proportion, to the former, the richer the ore is. Often these ore-deposits do not lie immediately in gneiss, but are sur¬ rounded by other rocks which themselves lie in gneiss. The envelope of the most considerable ore-beds consists of helleflinta, as at Danne- mora, in the province of IJpsala, or of a helleflinta-like gneiss, “eurite,” as at Persberg, in Wermland. The ores are sometimes surrounded by mica-slate, as at Dalkarlsberg, in Orebro, and finally they are occasion¬ ally imbedded in granular limestone, as at Klackberge in Norbergs, in Westmanland, and at Langvik, in the province of Kopparberg. For the rest, the occurrence of lime in the ore-beds is very irregular. Finally, it is to be remarked that the ore-beds are often limited by peculiar min¬ eral masses, so-called “ skolar,” in the hanging wall and in the foot- wall, which consist usually of chlorite and talc. The dip of the Swedish ore-beds, like that of the surrounding rock, is, in consequence of the many flexures of the strata, very various; usu¬ ally, however, it approaches more nearly the vertical than the horizontal plane. In addition to this side-dip, the ore-beds have very often a dip in the direction of the strike. As in the direction of the strike, so also sometimes downward, the beds thin out, but if the dip is followed down, a new mass of ore is usually met with sooner or later. The blood-stone sometimes contains almost no other strata than quartz. Commonly, however, it is more or less mixed with other min¬ erals, as pyroxene, hornblende, chlorite, epidote, garnet, and calx-spar. 160 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. This is still more the case with the magnetic ores, which are usually less acid, “dry,” or rich in silica than hematite. Among the last named there are many which must be mixed with 30 per cent, or more of lime¬ stone in order to produce a bisilicate slag in the blast-furnace, to accom¬ plish which, the magnetic ores seldom require more than 10 to 20 per cent. Often they need only a very small addition of limestone; and there are many ores which are self-fluxing, that is, they are associated with the above-named and other minerals in such proportions that they need no mixing with other ore, or with flux, for the blast furnace. To these, i among others, belong the Dannemora ore. Some ores are, finally, rich in lime, and are therefore mixed with the quartz-bearing “dry’’ores; on account of which they are called “ Gattiruugssteine.” These lime- bearing ores are, with few exceptions, magnetic, and often very inanga- niferous, like the ore from Langvik, which contains about 8 per cent. : protoxide of manganese, and the maguetite from Klackberge, in Nor- berg, of which the Granrot ore contains 7 to 10 per cent. Mu O. The iron richest in manganese, among those hitherto worked in Sweden, is the magnetic ore of the neighboring Svartberg, used at ' Scbisshyttan, in the province of Kopparberg, for the production of spie- gef iron. This ore contains 13 to 20 per cent, of protoxide of manganese, which is caused by the bed consisting for the most part of knebelite.* Among the very manganiferous iron-ores belongs the magnetite of the Penning-Grube, in the province of Gefleborg, containing 12 to 14 per cent. Mil O, and, likewise, an ore lately discovered in the Southern Hag. Grube, in Norberg, with over 30 per cent. Mu O. The amount of iron in the Swedish ores varies between 30 and 70 per cent.; it is, however, usually about 43 or 30 per cent. Since lime-bearing ores are rarer than those with quartz, sometimes ores occurring in lime¬ stone, and having only 20 per cent, or less of iron, are worked ; they are, however, always mixed with richer ores containing quartz before smelt¬ ing. Occasionally the ores are so rich in talc that not only limestone must be added before smelting, but also silica. Quartz alone is seldom used for this purpose, but ores containing quartz are added, of which there is seldom any lack. The “mine-ores” contain usually very little phosphorus, and among those most free from phosphorus are the ores from Danueinora, in Upsala- with 0.003 per cent, of phosphorus, and from Persberg, in Wermlaud, with 0.004 to 0.005 per cent, phosphorus. Usually the amount of phos¬ phorus varies between 0.003 and 0.03 per cent.; although there are some with a tenth of 1 per ceut., as is the case with some of the richest iron- ores in the parish of Grangardes aud the neighborhood, and also with some of the peculiarly rich iron-ores high up iu Xorrbotteu, as the Kerunawara and Gelliwara ores. Iu some of these ores as much as 1.5 * Kuebelite, a silicate of iron and manganese, containing about 35 per cent, of oxide of manganese.—W. P. B. IRON-ORES OF SWEDEN. 161 per cent, of phosphorus is found. Ores which contain more than 0.15 per cent, of phosphorus have been heretofore only occasionally worked, and then only when mixed with those free from phosphorus. In most cases the phosphorus seems to come from intermixed apatite, and with i reference to some of the Griingesberg ores, rich in this mineral, it has been proposed to treat them in the wet way, in order to change the apatite into superphosphate. The ores most free from phosphorus are usually employed for the pro¬ duction of iron for steel-manufacture, and, since the most of the Swed¬ ish iron used in England is destined to serve as material for steel-man¬ ufacture, its value has hitherto depended mainly on the absence of phos¬ phorus. As the Swedish iron has become more uniform and dense since the introduction of the Lancashire method, it has obtained a more ex¬ tended use for the finer kinds of manufacture, and the iron produced with the greatest carefulness has latterly brought almost as high a price as the better kinds of cement-iron. The value of the iron intended for manufacturing purposes is not nearly so dependent on the absence of phosphorus as is the case with cement iron, but if there is only a few hundredths, or, at most, only 0.10 per cent, of phosphorus, then only the compactness and uniformity of the iron are considered, which prop¬ erties are of most value for manufacturing purposes, and for this reason ores which contain only a few hundredths of a per cent, of phosphorus are most advantageously used for the production of this kind of iron. Besides the ores most free from phosphorus, the manganiferous ores are advantageously employed for the production of cement-iron, and it is the main point to choose the most suitable ores for steel-production, while less care can be used in the refining process since compactness and uniformity are less necessary properties of the cement-iron. The contrary is the case in the production of manufacturing iron, since here these properties play the most important part, and the perfection of the same is dependent on the care which is employed in the refining; still it can by no means be said that an ore having still less phosphorus would not be of value for certain manufacturing purposes, and, in fact, ores much more nearly free from phosphorus are used in Sweden for the production of merchant-iron. The mine-ores are almost always intermixed with more or less pyrite, and sometimes with other metallic sulphides, yet in most cases any con¬ siderable amount of sulphur in the ore can be removed by careful roasting. For this purpose shaft-furnaces, heated by the gas from the blast-furnace, are almost exclusively employed, and among the best of these are those constructed by E. Westman, in which so high a tempera¬ ture may be obtained that the most difficultly fusible ores sinter to¬ gether. These roasting-furnaces, which are shown in drawings and described in “ Ausfiihrliches Hcindbuch der Uisenhiittenlcunde von J. Percy, bearbeitet von H. Wedding, 2 Abtheilung , p. 485,” have, on account of their great superiority, supplanted the old gas-roasting furnaces, and now many ores which were before wholly useless can be employed. 111 162 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Some iron-ores contain much titanium; yet the titanium is usually considered an unwelcome constituent of the ore, since it makes it so difficult of reduction, and the consumption of fuel in smelting titan- iferous ores is so great. Amoug these ores the magnetite from Taberg, i in the province Jonkbping, deserves special mention, since it is different from the other Swedish ores in mauy respects, ft is not, like most | other iron-ores, collected together by itself, but the grains of ore occur so finely iutersprinkled in a dark serpentine that it is impossible to sep¬ arate them from it. This ore forms a whole mountain of 120 meters height and about 2,000 meters length, yet the amount of iron is not | greater than about 30 per cent. Besides, this ore coutaius fully 0 per < cent, of titanic acid and some vanadium, which was first discovered by Sefstrom in iron which was made directly from this ore. More accurate information in regard to the composition of mauy I Swedish iron-ores may be obtained from the tables of analyses: 135. Production of iron-ore .—In the year 1871 the yield of mine-ores J was 647,119,000 4 kilograms, as follows: Iu the province of Norrbotteu, (Gelliwara,) 21,205 kilograms. I 4 the province of Wester-Xorrland, (Ulfb,) 928,855 kilograms. Iu the province of Jemtland, 15,736 kilograms. In the province of Gefleborg, 22,414,697 kilograms, viz, 13,235,200 kilograms from Nyiing, iu the parish Thorsaker. 989,600 kilograms from the Erik-Ers-Grube, in the parish Thorsaker. 1.980.700 kilograms from Penning Grube, in the parish Thor- | saker. 1.177.700 kilograms from the Sjbhag-Grube, in the parish Arsuuda. 1,745,400 kilograms from the Rodaug-Grube, in the parish Ostra Fernebo. In the province of Upsala, 33,132,273 kilograms, viz, 21,405,500 kilograms from Danuemora, iu the parishes Films and Uannetnora. 1,003,700 kilograms from Eaguhild, in the parishes Films and Danuemora. 1,173,300 kilograms from Steering, in the parish Morkarla. 3,991,200 kilograms from Ramhall, (Hammariu,) iu the parish Aluuda. 3,143,S00 kilograms from Sahlsta, iu the parish Lena. 1,798,000 kilograms from Bruuna, iu the parish Lena. In the province of Stockholm, 29,3G7,6SS kilograms, viz, 3,474,700 kilograms from Vigelsbo, in the parish Yahlb. 2.934.600 kilograms from the Sandgrube, in the parish Bbrstil- 5,146,100 kilograms from Skedika and Grind, iu the parish Bor- stil. 1.385.600 kilograms from Bjorsta, in the parish Harg. IRON-ORES OF SWEDEN-PRODUCTION. 163 2,S07,000 kilograms from the Slottsgrube, in the parish Sbderby. Carl. 4.995.700 kilograms from Herrang, in the parish Hiifvero. 7.842.200 kilograms from Uto, m the parish Osterlianninge. In the province Kopparberg, 178,046,656 kilograms, viz, 1,020,200 kilograms from the Dvarnbacks-Gruben, in the parish Leksaml. 21.142.200 kilograms from Yinkiirn, in the parish Svardsjo. 1,053,400 kilograms from the Sjb-Grube, in the parish Svardsjo. 1.839.700 kilograms from Skinnariing, in the parish Yika. 859,100 kilograms from Harmsarf, in the parish Kopparberg 3.100.400 kilograms from Hastberg, in the parish Stora Tuna. 9,055,200 kilograms from Eomme, in the parish Stora Tuna. 2.674.400 kilograms from Brafall, in the parish Stora Tuna. 12,870,800 kilograms from Stora-Bispberg, in the parish Siiter. 1,080,400 kilograms from Yestra-Bispberg, in the parish Siiter. 1.531.600 kilograms from the Tiigt-Grube, in the parish Siiter. 3.469.400 kilograms from Knappkiirn, in the parish JSedemora. 1.359.900 kilograms from the Oster-Grube, in the parish Gustaf. 12.554.500 kilograms from Rellingsberg, in the parish Husby. 2.505.900 kilograms from Rullshyttan, in the parish Garpenberg" 1.324.400 kilograms from Liingvik, in the parish Garpenberg. 2,683,000 kilograms from Svartfjiill, in the parish Garpenberg. 24.859.200 kilograms from Ormberg, in the parish Grangiirde. 5,086,600 kilograms from Griingesberg, in the parish Grangiirde. 4,629,000 kilograms from Risberg, in the parish Grangiirde. 1.605.100 kilograms from Fiibobacken, in the parish Grangiirde. 7.820.600 kilograms from Fionas, in the parish Ludvika. 2.129.200 kilograms from Fredmundberg, in the parish Ludvika. 7,598,000 kilograms from Griisberg, in the parish Ludvika. 9.318.500 kilograms from Haksberg, in the parish Ludvika. 4.338.100 kilograms from Ostanberg, in the parish Norrbiirke. 7.360.400 kilograms from Nyberg, in the parish Norrbiirke. 3,282,300 kilograms from Gesberg, in the parish Norrbiirke. 4.999.600 kilograms from Svartberg,Marniis,in the parish Nor r- barke. 7.481.900 kilograms from the Svartberg, Svart-Grube, in the parish Norrbiirke. 884,800 kilograms from Siksjoberg, in the parish Norrbiirke. 1.275.900 kilograms from the Sliit-Grube, in the parish Norr- biirke. 2.344.500 kilograms from Hillang, in the parish Norrbiirke. In the province of Westmanland, 92,225,667 kilograms, viz, 27,716,600 kilograms from Risberg, in the parish Norberg. 16.112.500 kilograms from Morberg, in the parish Norberg. 20.138.500 kilograms from Klackberg, in the parish Norberg. 164 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 6,044,000 kilograms from Uddevalla, in the parish Norberg. 1,457,800 kilograms from the Badstagn-Grube, in the parish Norberg. 94S,400 kilograms from the Norr-Grube, in the parish Nor- berg. 4.191.300 kilograms from the Ny-Grube, in the parish Norberg. 2,750,800 kilograms from the Finn-Grube, in the parish Skinn- skatteberg. 3.585.300 kilograms from Bastnas, in tho parish Skinuskatte- berg. 1,003,500 kilograms from the Knlle-Grube, in the parish Skiun- skatteberg. 2,21G,700 kilograms from the Backe-Grube, in the parish Skinn- skatteberg. 3.431.500 kilograms from Lugndal and Springan, in the parish Sala. 1.264.400 kilograms from Aby, in the parish Sala. Jn the province of Unbro, 135,GOO,051 kilograms, viz, 4,014,000 kilograms from Lomberg, in the parish Nya Koppar-j i berg. 7.431.900 kilograms from Svartvik, in the parish Nya Koppar- berg. 995,200 kilograms from the Limbergs, Moss-Grube, in the parish Nya Kopparberg. 7,005,900 kilograms from Strossa, in the parish Ramsberg. 2.479.700 kilograms from Blanka and the Karr-Gube, in the parish Ramsberg. 14,290,100 kilograms from Stripa, in the parish Linde. 2.505.400 kilograms from Gronvold, in the parish Linde. 2.595.400 kilograms from Bredsjo, in the parish Hjulsjb. 2.114.300 kilograms from Anueniis in the parish Hjulsjo. 1.410.500 kilograms from the Stora Bjbrnhbjde-Grube, in the11 parish Ujulsjo. 3.408.400 kilograms from Hiigborn, in the parish Grythytte. 14,057,400 kilograms from Dalkarlsberg, in the parish Nora. 3.522.300 kilograms from Vikers, in the parish Nora. 8.467.700 kilograms from Pershyttan, in the parish Nora. 27,676,000 kilograms from Striberg, in the parish Nora. 6.592.100 kilograms from Ryngshyttan, in the parish Nora. 8.141.100 kilograms from Klacka, in the parish Nora. 2.792.500 kilograms from Fogdehyttan, in the parish Nora. 2.576.900 kilograms from Hvilare, in the parish-Nora. 2.926.100 kilograms from Slotterberg, in the parish Jernboas 3.423.700 kilograms from Finushyttan, in the parish Jernboas In the province Werinland, 121,252,392 kilograms, viz, 13,487,100 kilograms from Nordmark, in the parish Nordmark. IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 165 11,560,100 kilograms from Taberg, in the parish ISTordmark. 5.382.200 kilograms from Finnmossan, in the parish Nordmark. 8,327,800 kilograms from the Eug-Grube, in the parish Fermbo. 52,972,000 kilograms from Persberg and Yngshyttan, in the parish Fermbo. 5.886.200 kilograms from L&ugban, in the parish Fermbo. 3,330,300 kilograms from Kroppa, in the parish Kroppa. In the province Sodermanland, 19,231,386 kilograms, viz, 4,529,400 kilograms from Hogsjo and Staf, in the parish Floda. 3,412,600 kilograms from Sofia, Wilhelmina, and Mosstorp, in the parish Skoldinge. 2,564,700 kilograms from Kantorp, in the parish Skoldinge. 1.275.900 kilograms from Porthfil, in the parish G&singe. 3.621.900 kilograms from Forola, in the parish Svartuna. 1,833,000 kilograms from Gilliuge, in the parish Svartuna. In the province Ostgothland, (Yatorp, in the parish Skallsvik,) 4,450,169 kilograms. In the province Galrnar, 382,770 kilograms. In the province Jonkoping, 9,910,128 kilograms, of which 9,457,300 kilo¬ grams were from Taberg, in the parish M&usarp. In the province Kronsberg, 19,266 kilograms. In the iron-mines, there were employed in the year 1871 4,191 steady workmen, 436 periodical workmen, 312 women and children—total, 4,939 persons. 136. Methods and costs of mining .—The miners work by contract, and in a few places are paid according to the amount of ore obtained, but usually according to the length of drift excavated. Sometimes these two methods are combined in such a way that the owners of the mine pay according to the amount of ore obtained, and the money is divided among the workmen according to the length of each drift. Usually the miners earn from 2 to 4 francs a day; sometimes, under favorable circumstances, still more. Usually it is very difficult to fix the income of the miners accurately, for most of them enjoy certain advantages in addition to their mere wages, like free lodgings and firing, land for potatoes, fodder for a cow, &c.; only the workmen which at present have about 4 francs are without these advantages. Usually the same workman manages the drill as well as the hammer, only in a few places does he make use of a special striker. The drifts are usually only 24 millimeters wide, and cost for drilling downward 1 to 2.5 francs per meter, according as the workman, in addition to his mere wages, enjoys other advantages or not; for drilling upward—“dry- boring”—it costs twice as much. Drill and hammer are now always steel. For blasting, either gunpowder, dynamite, or “ ammonia-gunpowder,” which latter consists of a mixture of about 20 per cent, nitro-glycerine with nitrate or picrate of ammonia and charcoal-powder, is used. Pur- nitro-glycerine has been used, and at some mines is considered the best 166 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. blasting agent; the many accidents, however, which the latter has occasioned have had such an influence on its use that it is almost pro¬ hibited. The amount of work done by each miner is naturally very various, i since it depends partly on the degree of hardness of the ore, or more properly the bed, partly on the kind of work and wages, and, finally, on the blasting agents used, which must be determined by the character of the mine. The following numbers may be taken as the average: Usually 1.5 to 2 meters, sometimes 3 meters, are excavated, per day and man ; in drilling upward, however, only about 1 meter, and 0.5 to l.G cubic meters, or about 1,300 to 3,S00 kilograms of loose ore are obtained. Per kilogram of dynamite and ammonia-powder, 10 to 1G tons of loose i ore are obtained, and per kilogram of gunpowder, 5 to G tons. The cost | for the ore brought up and separated amounts to from 2.9 to 10 francs | per ton. Concerning the method of mining, that of mining by levels is most I common. A shaft is sunk through the loose layers of earth possibly ] present, and dee]) enough into the ore-bed that the part of it passed through will form a sale roof, if side-galleries are to be established, i The main shaft is continued downward, if the ore is to be taken out by I levels, (Strosscnhaus,) leaving, however, the necessary supports or piers I to retain the walls of the mine. The space excavated is usually left open and empty; but in a few 1 mines, whose walls cannot be held by supports or piers, but must be | strongly timbered on account of cracks and brittle places, they have I begun to fill up the space with dead rock, and then take out the ore N from the top of the level, ( Firstenbau .) The last-named method is unnecessary in most of the Swedish mines I on account of the solidity and strength of the rock, but it will probably come into use iu the future more than at present, since many mines have become unsafe through lapse of time. A circumstance that con¬ siderably hinders the use of this method in Sweden lies iu the fact that the amount of dead-rock necessary for filling up is almost never found . in the mine, since about half of the whole mass of rock taken out i s I requisite. When the ore is raised from the mine vertically, either wooden buckets bound with iron, or those made of Bessemer steel, are employed, which hold 0.1G5 cubic meter, or about 425 kilograms, of ore, and which are provided with wire-ropes for hoisting. When the ore is brought out at an angle, on the other hand, usually tramways or railways with little cars are used, which likewise are attached to wire-ropes. The water is raised by means of suction and lifting pumps, arranged under each other, each of which is niue meters long; in deeper mines, however, the more suitable force-pumps are found iu use, with a forcing-power of about 180 meters. The greatest vertical depth of any of the Swedish iron-mines at present is 230 meters. IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 167 In the smaller mines one engine sometimes raises both the ore and the water; commonly, however, different motors are used for these pur- ; poses. Since Sweden, as has been remarked, abounds in rivers, at most of the mines water-power occurs, and in order to transmit the power from the water-fall to the mine, sometimes wooden shafts, sometimes ropes, are used. Such shafts, w'hich sometimes have a length of nearly 3,000 meters, are very common for the transmission of power to the pumps, but are seldom used for raising the ore; when the distance to the nearest water-fall is too great for the employment of ropes, for the latter purpose steam-power is used. Also for pumping water the latter power must sometimes be employed, and there were in the year 1871, among all the mines of Sweden, fifty-six steam-engines in use, most of which, however, had only ten to sixteen horse power. That both the number and the power of the engines must be in¬ creased is a natural consequence of the increasing depth of the mines, and also of the increasing demand for ore ; for a water-power which is sufficient to raise ore from an inconsiderable depth will be inadequate for greater quantities of ore and greater depths. Owing to the above-mentioned causes, the auuual consumption of ore has been so small in proportion to the richness of Sweden in ore, that enough could be obtained without difficulty, usually, and the price of ore at most of the mines has been so small (6.50 to 9.80 francs per ton) that, with few exceptions, the aim of the proprietors of the mines has been to supply the small amount annually required with the least possible expense. Such a method of procedure is in most cases irrecon¬ cilable with a rational system of mining, and it is doubtful if such a system can ever be possible so long as the same ore-bed, standing nearly vertical, is not worked by one single company, but belongs to several different owners, each of whom works his own shaft, and who may easily come into collision with each other down below the surface. Besides, the available water-power in many great mining-districts is not suffi¬ cient for raising immense quantities of ore; it stands to reason, how¬ ever, that a much greater effect could be produced with it if the mines stood in connection with each other, so that the raising of the ore and the water could be concentrated in a few single shafts, instead of every separate shaft having its own hoisting and pumping apparatus, as is now often the case. It is not strange, therefore, that the prospects of a better future for the iron-industry, opened by the high price of iron at present, and still more by the railroads in process of construction, have caused a consid¬ erable rise in the price of iron-ores, which are now sold for 24 to 30 lraucs and more per ton ; in addition to this, it is to be hoped that in¬ creased value of the mines will lead to a more rational mining-system than that hitherto in use, and many signs indicate that this hope will soon be fulfilled. 137. Bog-iron ore and limonite.—T he bog-ores, which consist of 168 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. hydrated sesquioxide, are formations of the latest time, and are con¬ tinually forming now. They occur in many provinces, and formerly were used for the direct production of wrought iron. They occur iu the greatest quantity iu the province of S mid and, and are worked almost alone in this province; since they usually contain several tenths of a per cent, of phosphorus, cast iron only is made from them. The bog-ores, which, according to their appearance, are called “ Pul- ver-,” “Perlen-,” “Pfenning-,” or “Kuchen-ore,” form beds 0.75 meter thick, and occur usually iu marshy places a short distance from the shores of tha lakes. After the lakes are covered with ice they are taken out with long-handled shovels and steel sieves. The deposit gradually forms again, so that in about twenty years a new bed has formed iu the same place. Owing to the necessity of obtaining the ore iu the winter, this can never be of very great importance. In the year 1S71 15,709,444 kilograms of bog-ores were obtained, as follows: 127,590 kilograms in the province of Skaraborg; 555,527 kilo¬ grams in the province of Calmar; 8,911,SG4 kilograms iu the province of Jonkoping; and 0,174,403 in the province of Kronoberg. 138. Production of pig-iron. —As early as 1S30 there was a “ stiick- ofen” or high bloomary furnace in operation in the province of Jemtlaud, but since this time, a few experiments excepted, wrought iron lias not been produced directly from the ore ; but the iron-ores are first reduced to pig-iron in a cupola-furnace. Formerly the cupola-furnaces had but 1 tuyere and were 9 meters high; latterly, most of them are increased in height, and are provided with 2 to 4 tuyeres, anil the newly-built furnaces have a height of from 12 to 10 meters. The height of the cupola-furnaces at preseut, therefore, varies between 9 and 10 meters, and their internal diameter between 1.5 and 1.9 meters at the top ; 2 and 2.9 meters at the belly ; 0.S and 1.4 between the tuyeres. The internal capacity of the furnace-shafts varies betweeu 23 and 90 cubic meters. Usually two, sometimes three or four, tuyeres are used; iu a few furnaces there is still only one tuyere. The diameter of the tuyeres is usually, in two-tuyere furnaces, betweeu 47 and 00 mil¬ limeters. The pressure of the blast varies betweeu 24 and 90 millime¬ ters of mercury; it is generally 30 to 00 millimeters. Blasts ranging from cold air up to air at 400° C. are used; iu general, however, it is scarcely 200° C. Charcoal is used almost exclusively as fuel in the cupola-furnaces. It is mixed with wood iu a few furnaces, especially in Smalaud, 0.21 cubic meter of oak wood corresponding to about 1 Swedish tou, or 0.105 cubic meter of pine charcoal; at most, every third ton of coal is replaced by wood in this way. At Schisshyttau, where speigel iron is produced, Mr. Keiller has lately begun to employ wood iu greater quantities, and the furnace has been built up to 17.S meters for the purpose, the upper 3.5 meters of which form an apparatus for converting wood into char¬ coal, which is heated by a part of the gases, which are very rich under IKON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 169 such proportions. Besides wood, coke and some charcoal are used, and the blast is intended to have a pressure of 1.18 millimeters of mercury, and a temperature of about 500° 0. In a few spiegel-iron furnaces char¬ coal mixed with English coke is used, without the addition of wood. The coal is made almost entirely from pine and fir, and every ton (0.165 cubic meterl contains about 21.3 kilograms of actual carbon. The consumption of coal varies between 5 and 8 cubic meters per ton of pig-iron. In the furnaces, however, which work the very poor and titaniferous ore from Taberg in Sm&land, it rises to 15.5 cubic meters. The ordinary consumption of coal is 5.8 to 6.6 cubic meters per ton of pig-iron, or, when reckoned by weight, 75 to 85 kilograms clear carbon to 100 kilograms pig-iron. The ore is roasted in pieces the size of one’s fist, or twice as large, and then crushed between rollers or in a Blake stone-crusher to the size of a walnut. The charges of ore are made, according to the size of the furnace, of 6 to 10 tons, or 0.99 to 1.65 cubic meters coal, and great care is used in charging, so that most of the ore lies where the most gas comes up, which is usually along the walls. In proportion to a cubic meter of coal, more of a poor ore can be charged than of a similar but richer ore ; yet not enough of the poor ore can be added so that the consumption of fuel per kilogram of pig-iron produced will not be greater than for the rich ore. If the unusual proportions which the ore from Taberg requires are excepted, the charges give commonly 40 to 50 per cent, of pig-iron, and per cubic meter of coal 260 to 450 kilo¬ grams of ore and limestone are charged. These differences are by no means occasioned by the amount of iron in the charge, but also by the ease or difficulty of reducing the ore, so that usually considerably more of the hematite (blood-stone) can be charged than of the magnetite, which is not so easily reduced. In addition to this, the charge of ore per cubic meter of coal can be greater, and therefore the consumption of fuel per ton of iron less, in the larger furnaces than in the small ones; and naturally in a furnace in which a higher temperature of blast is employed more ore can be added. Finalty, it is to be noticed that the carbonization in different places is conducted with very different care¬ fulness, and good coal can naturally bear more ore than loose and brittle coal. According to the capacity of the furnace, the descent of the charge is more rapid in the smaller furnaces than in the more capacious ones. In the largest furnaces, only a small change in the state of the contents of the shaft takes place in twenty-four hours, while iu the smaller ones they- are renewed from two to two and a half times. The absolute change of the charge, or the number of cubic meters of coal consumed in the uuit of time, is in each'case greater in the more spacious than in the smaller furnaces. In the smallest furnaces, weekly, 30 to 64 tons, in the medium¬ sized, 64 to 85, and in the largest, 85 to 130 English tons of pig-iron are produced. 170 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The furnace-gas is generally employed for roasting the ore and heat¬ ing the blast, and in such iron works as have a lack of water-power, it serves also for heating the steam-boiler. If a Westman roasting-fur- nace is used, and a moderately high temperature of blast is required, then the' gas is only sufficient for the two first-mentioned purposes. The whole of the gas is not available, but a part escapes through the top of the furnace, which is usually open. The gas which is used is taken out either by cylinders reaching 2.3 to 3 meters below the top, or through three or four gas-conductors, opening about a third of the height of the furnace, or 3.3 to 5 meters below the top. A few furnaces are provided with covers, but from the way in which the charg¬ ing is managed, they remain open a third of the time. Only at Scliiss- hyttan is a mouth closed according to the bell-and hopper principle employed. Most of the pig is destined for the “ hearth-finery ” according to the .so-called Lancashire method, and for this purpose an iron, poor in silicon and without adhering sand, is desired ; so the ordinary pig-iron is not cast in sand-molds, but in forms in which it receives the shape, of broader and flatter pigs. Such iron is usually desired mottled, and for that purpose the charges are so mixed as to give about a bisilicate slag. For the production of iron destined for the manufacture of bar- iron, more basic mixtures are desired, and therefore greater quantities of limestone and manganiferous ores are employed than in the charging for merchant-iron, which can often be somewhat acid. The pig-iron destined for the Bessemer fiuing is usually blown gray, nevertheless, however, with more basic charges than the above-men¬ tioned or Lancashire pig-iron. In the district of Dannemora an almost white iron, with small gray spots like hail-stones, which is cast in sand in the form of pigs of 4 to 0 meters in length, is desired for theWallon fining process. The charges used in the production of this iron are the most basic of any in Sweden, with the exception of those required for spiegel iron. They approach much more nearly the singulo-silicate than the bisilicate, but no lime, stone is added to them, because the Dannemora ores are so rich in lime and magnesia that it happens that with the low temperature of the blast employed at Dannemora, (from unwarmed to 100° C.,) the smelting cannot be accomplished without the addition of silica. Ordinary mottled Swedish pig for hearth-fining contains, generally, about 4 per cent, carbon, 0.1 to 0.4 per cent, silica, and 0.0L to 0.03 percent, sulphur, and also 0.01 to 0.03 per cent., sometimes even 0.13 per cent., phosphorus. The amount of silicon in the Bessemer pig is usually about 1 per cent. ; in a few places, however, it is only 0.7 per cent. At a few furnaces, as at Schisshyttan and Finusbo, manganiferous spiegel iron is produced. These two furnaces lie in the province of Kopparberg, and work the Svartberg ores containing knebelite. The charges are made as basic as possible, and for the production of a high IRON-MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN-TRANSPORTATION. 171 temperature the charcoal is mixed with some coke. The spiegel from Schisshyttan contains occasionally 17 per cent, of manganese. Pig-iron for ordinary castings is generally made from trisilicate charges, but this is not very important, for cast iron is imported from England and Scotland. On the other hand, at a few furnaces, a cast iron is produced superior on account of its great hardness, as at Finspong, where the cast iron is used for cannons, projectiles, car-wheels, &c., and at Aukarsrum, where the cast iron is used for projectiles and car-axles. Finally pig-iron is also produced for malleable castings; for example at Aker and at Kihlafors. The blast-furnace slag serves quite often as a building-material, for which purpose it is cast in iron molds, and it is very common to employ slag-bricks for the outer wall both of the cupola-furnace and the roast- ing-furnace; sometimes, indeed, the whole furnace-shaft is built of this material. 139. Means and methods of transportation. —In consequence of the difficulty of bringing together to one place great quantities of char¬ coal and ore, there have been at one place only, namely, Finspong, two furnaces till within the last year; and at most of the iron-works the material has not been sufficient to maintain the single furnaces in unin¬ terrupted activity for the whole year. All the material must be brought to the majority of the Swedish furnaces on sleds, and, therefore, the blowing does not begin till sleighing comes. The duration of the cam¬ paign depends in great measure upon the character of the winter; for the better and longer the sleighing is, the more material can be brought. However, it has been possible at only a few places to obtain during the winter enough coal and ore to continue the campaign till sleighing begins again the next year, but it ceases usually about the beginning or middle of the following summer, and then the furnace-hands are employed about the harvest, &c. There are examples, however, of the campaign continuing uninterruptedly for six years, as at Borgvik, iu Wermland. At a few of the old iron-works, which have better communication, during the last year new furnaces have been erected beside the old ones, so that now not only at Finspong are there two furnaces, but also at Westanfors, Sandviken, Hofors, Dalkarlshyttan, and Forsbacka. Besides, at a few others of the older works a second furnace is being built, and at some of the greater Bessemer plants, determined upon during the last year, though not yet completed, it is the plan to erect three or four blast-furnaces. Through improved means of communication the manufacture of pig- iron is continually becoming more independent of the character of the winter; yet good and not too short sleighing will always be the chief requisite for a considerable iron-production, for the charcoal-heaps in the interior of the forest are usually attainable only when the rivers and lakes are covered with ice and the snow has made the trackless wilder- 172 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ness passable. Therefore, in most cases the coal can be brought to the railroads or other ways of communication only during this time. For man, horse, and cart, the price is 3.5 to 7 francs a day; under the present favorable conjunction, however, 12 francs and even more. For further transport, it costs per kilometer for 1 ton 20 to GO centimes, while the freight for ore, coal, and iron on the government railways is for 1 Swedish mile = 1.411 geographical miles, or 10.GSG kilometers, 1.30 francs per ton;* 10 Swedish miles, G.53 francs per ton; 20 Swedish miles, 10.45 francs per ton ; 30 Swedish miles, 14.37 francs per ton; 40 Swedish miles, 1G.98 francs per tou ; 50 Swedish miles, 20.58 francs per ton; GO Swedish miles, 24.17 francs per ton ; 70 Swedish miles, 27.76 francs per ton; but when the distance is more than twenty miles, often a discount of 20 per cent, is allowed. The furnace-hands, like the miners, often have lodgings and other advantages, and their rnei'e wages are less, therefore, the greater the for¬ mer are; they are paid by contract, usually 2 to 5 francs for the furnace- master and 1.75 to 2.75 francs for the other hands. The cost of workiug is from 4.90 to G.50 francs per ton of pig-iron, including the roasting and breaking of the ore. Dumber of furnaces and production. —During the year 1871, there were 207 blast-furnaces, which together were in operation 37,471 days : 293,116,971 kilograms of iron in pigs, 5,810,489 kilograms of cast ware, or in all 29S,917,4G0 kilograms of iron were produced, and at the works themselves 3,812 hands were employed. 140. Wrought iron and steel. —The lining method most gener¬ ally used in Sweden is that kind of hearth-fining commonly called the Lancashire method. It is a process which is carried on in small covered hearths, and the bloom-iron obtained from the same is afterward welded in separate furnaces. The hearths have usually two tuyeres, soine- imes, however, only one, which stand opposite each other, and each opening in the two-tuyered hearth is about 3.5 square centimeters in size. The pressure of blast is about SO millimeters of mercury, and the temperature of the same is between 100 and 200° C. For each bloom 90 kilograms of pig-iron are usually added, but this number varies iu different places between GS and 12S kilograms. Two to three men, who alternate with others, are constantly employed iu the working, which is continued day and night for sis days iu the week, in which same iu each hearth G,800 to 12,S00 kilograms of bloom-iron are pro¬ duced, with a loss of about 13 per cent, of pig-iron, and a consumption of fuel of 4.G to G.G cubic meters of coal, that is, after reception iu the coal-shed, per tou of bloom-iron. The blooms in the larger iron-works are compressed under trip-ham¬ mers of 3,400 to 4,300 kilograms' weight, which are entirely of cast iron; iu the smaller works, on the other hand, they are drawn under wooden-haudled breast-hammers -of only 850 kilograms’ weight, or sometimes under steam-hammers of 650 to 1,300 kilograms’ weight, * 1 ton here, as elsewhere in this memoir, generally is equal to 1,000 kilograms. WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL OF SWEDEN. 173 In many places lately rolls have been set up, with the aid of which the compressed bloom is rolled out, without reheating, into bars, partly for refined-iron manufacture and partly for the production of cast steel. Usually, however, the blooms compressed under the hammer are al¬ lowed to get completely cold before they are heated to welding-heat in separate ovens, in order to draw them finally under the hammer or through the rolls. A piling-up does not take place except with the cut¬ off ends and waste iron, but each bloom is welded by itself, and this welding occurs in the smallest works, sometimes in forging-fires, but usually in gas furnaces. It is to be noticed here that the working of the forges is generally continuous, so to speak, for it does not happen, as in other countries, that the furnace is for once filled up with blooms and then left to itself till all the blooms together have reached a weld¬ ing-heat, but the furnace is very long, and the blooms are introduced cold into the end farthest from the fire-hearth, and are pushed forward by degrees toward the warmer part of the furnace, as other blooms are taken out at a welding-heat, till they are brought near the fire-bridge, where they obtain a full welding-heat and are finally taken out. When a welding-hot bloom, therefore, is taken out, all the others are pushed forward, aud the space at the cooler end of the furnace is filled with a new cold bloom, and so it goes on uninterruptedly. As fuel in the gas-furnaces, in a few places, charcoal alone is used; usually, however, it is mixed with mineral coal, peat, or wood ; some¬ times, also, one of these three last-named fuels is used. The furnaces are different in their construction, according to the fuel for which they are intended ; most of them are variations of the old Ekman furnace; lately they have given place somewhat to the Lundin welding-furnaces. They are Siemens regenerating-furnaces in combination with condensers to remove the water present in the fuel, which in these furnaces consists exclusively of air-dried saw dust, wood, or peat. The action of the welding-furnace is very different, according as the bloom is drawn by means of the hammer or rolls, for in the latter case the whole bloom is heated and drawn at once, while in the former first one end is drawn and then, after reheating, the other. A welding-furnace, with apparatus for drawing by means of hammers, turns out weekly 25,500 to 55,300 kilograms, while one with rolls in the same time will produce 51,000 to 85,000 kilograms. The consumption of fuel in a welding-furnace per ton of bar-iron is essentially less in the rolling than in the hammering process, aud generally varies between 1.9 and 3.7 cubic meters charcoal, or 0.25 to 0.G cubic meters hard coal. In the Lundin welding-furnace, on the other hand, it is usually 1.8 to 2.5 cubic meters wood, or 3 to 4.3 cubic meters of air-dried peat, or about 6.8 cubic meters of saw-dust, per ton of bar-iron. Finally, the loss of iron through the welding is less in rolling than in hammering; in the former it is about9 per cent., and in the latter 12 per cent, of the weight of the blooms. 174 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Rolling-mills are naturally unsuitable for small iron-works, which, however, can derive advantage from them by discontinuing their old hammering-process, and instead, producing only blooms which can be worked by one rolling-mill common to several such fining-mills. In this way the rolling-mill of Smidjebackeu up to the year 1S71 had roiled the most, but in that year, however, Rofors had the greatest production, namely, 0,128,150 kilograms of bar and refined iron. Besides the Lancashire method, the so-called Franche-Comte finery- process is employed, especially iu small iron-works in whose neighbor¬ hood there is no rolling-mill. In the mauuer in which it is here con¬ ducted it is similar to the first, only the welding of the blooms occurs in the same hearth. In this process the loss is somewhat less than in the Lancashire method, in which the welding takes place in separate furnaces; on the other hand, the production is not so great, being only 3,S00 to 4,300 kilograms of bar-iron weekly for each hearth. The great fault is that the consumption of coal is so great, it being about 9.7 cubic meters of charcoal per ton of bar-iron, sometimes even rising to 11.6 cubic meters or more, which will soon cause the discontinuance of this method, when improved communication shall have increased the value of charcoal in the remote districts. In the Dannemora district the old Wallou process is employed, iu which two hearths are usually worked together in such a way that the bloom produced in one is welded in the other, and then drawn under the hammer. The two hearths afford 8,500 to 10,700, sometimes even 12,700, kilograms of bar-iron weekly, with a consumption of charcoal of from 19 to 23, sometimes, however, only 15, cubic meters per ton. In a few places, finally, other fining methods are employed, but those named are the only ones which now have any importance for Sweden. Among them all, the Lancashire method affords the most uuiform and densest iron, which again depends upou the control which a well-regu¬ lated furnace has over the hands. If the welding is done iu a hearth- furnace, it is much easier for the smith to draw a bar free from flaws on the outside from a bloom which is not uniform, than when the weld¬ ing-furnace is used, for there the different parts of the bloom are ex¬ posed to a more uniform heating. Since uniformity and compactness are chief requisites of a good merchant-iron, naturally the Lancashire method is the most suitable fining-process for the production of such iron. Of the Wallou iron it may be said that it is characterized by its not being uniform, or by a mixture of weak and hard, almost steel-like, iron. It is used exclusively for steel-production, and then the non- uniformity is not very injurious, while the value is really determined by the “ body ” caused by the properties of the ore used for the production of the iron. Indeed, it appears as if the non-uniformity of the Wallou iron was a good property iu the eyes of the English steel-manufacturers, since they are opposed to changing this method. If the real cause of WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL OF SWEDEN. 175 this is sought for, it must be found in the fact that the hard, steely parts shorten somewhat the time required to burn this iron to steel. The mere wages of the forgers are governed by the amount produced, and the contract is so drawn up that only one, (the master,) or more often two, (the master and his helper,each of whom oversees his work,) are responsible for the result, and must pay fines when the loss of iron or consumption of coal exceeds certain limits; on the other hand, how¬ ever, they obtain special pay for coal saved and higher wages for the so- ; called “ overiron ” than for the iron which they must produce from a certain amouut of pig-iron, according to contract. In addition to vari¬ ous advantages, the master and his helper have usually 2,100 francs annually, but they must pay their own help. In the Lanschire method, the cost of working amounts to 10 to 13 francs per ton of bloom-iron, and for the welding and drawing, to about 10 to 16 francs per ton of bar-iron, less for rolling, and more for hammer¬ ing. During the year 1871, in the whole country, with 827 active hearths, 1S7,791,612 kilograms of bar and refined iron were produced, and 6,073 workmen were employed. 111. The pudding-process is employed at only a few iron-works which manufacture their own iron, namely: At Motala, Surahammar, Nyby, Gunnebo, and Kallinge. The fuel used in the pudding-furnace is usually English mineral coal, only at Surahammar and Nybv wood is employed. At Motala, in a few puddling-furnaces a weak blast is used under the grate, and before it is brought into the ash-pit its temperature is raised by being conducted around the furnace-walls and under the bottom. By measure the furnaces use about 0.95 cubic meters, or 730 kilo¬ grams, of mineral coal per ton of puddled-iron ; on the average, the con¬ sumption of coal, after receiving into the coal-shed, is fully 1.2 cubic meters, or 960 kilograms, per ton of bloom-iron, about 17 tons of which are produced weekly from each furnace. Surahammar uses about 6 cubic meters of air-dried pine wood per ton of puddled iron. At Motala experiments are being tried with Dank’s self-acting pud¬ dling-furnace. As the puddling has hitherto been conducted, the cost of working has been about 11 francs per ton of bloom-iron. The welding-furnaces at Motala are exclusively heated with mineral coal, and most of them are provided with blast according to Whitten- Strom’s construction. The Wittenstrom welding-furnace, which is used elsewhere in some other iron-works, is in fact only a modification of the Ekman furnace, but not the above mentioned with the so-called “ coal- tower,” but that for wood. The main difference is that the fire-hearth of the last-named furnace has no grate, like the Wittenstrom, and that the blast, which in the Ekman furnace is introduced through the end- wall of the fire-hearth, in the other enters under the grate. 112. Bessemer process .—The Bessemer process has been used in Sweden since its beginning, but in the year 1871 not more than 8,038,- 176 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 254 kilograms of Bessemer metal were produced, and, although this pro¬ cess seems very suitable for Sweden, since, on the one hand, most of the Swedish ores are well adapted for it, and, on the other, the consumption of fuel for the metal produced by this process is only about half as great as for the Lancashire iron, still the Bessemer process has not, till of late years, received a general recognition. The main cause of this lies, doubtless, in the fact that this method requires such costly ap¬ paratus, and on this account is not suitable for iron-works with a small production; in addition, the Bessemer process is not well adapted for the production of bar-iron, but requires the manufacturing or improv¬ ing of the ingots produced for ready wares. The last-named circum¬ stance should be no hinderance to the spread of the Bessemer process, for a considerable increase of the Swedish iron-industry can only be ob¬ tained by producing some other kinds of irou than bar iron, for the de¬ mand for this in the world’s market is usually very limited. In the last year Sweden has sold to foreign countries almost no other kinds of iron than bar-iron and refined steel, and it is therefore necessary, for the in¬ troduction of the Bessemer process, to create a new market, which naturally hinders the spread of this process. All the large iron works completed lately, lying on the projected railways, are intended for the Bessemer manufacture, and, in addition, in the year 1S72, four Besse¬ mer works, Forsbacka, Abackshyttan, Langshyttan, and Iggesund, have been completed, and two others, Liingbanshyttan and Ulfshyttau, nearly so, and, finally, many iron works which have hitherto used the Lancashire method are erecting Bessemer works. In the year 1S71 there were seven Bessemer works in operation, but the production at three of them, which have small upright furnaces, was very slight, from all of them not amounting to more than 397,740 kilo¬ grams. The rest, or 7,G49,5L4 kilograms, was produced at Sandviken, Westanfors, Svartniis, and Biieka, where the English movable furnaces are used. All the Bessemer works erected during the previous year have movable furnaces, and it is very improbable that hereafter any stationary Bessemer furnaces will be built. In all the Swedish Bessemer works, as hitherto conducted, the pig-iron is taken directly from the blast-furnace without remelting. In the mova¬ ble furnaces (converters) charges of 2,300 to 3,900 kilograms are em¬ ployed. The converters have six to seven brick tuyeres, each of which has six to seven holes, with a diameter of 11 to 18 millimeters. The pressure of blast is usually between GOO and 900 millimeters of mercury, and the whole process is finished generally in 4 to 10 minutes. With the exception of Sandvicken, where steam is partly used, all the larger Bessemer works use water-power entirely. The blowing-engines, both at the above-named works and those lately erected, are from 350 to over 500 horse power. At some Bessemer works 1 or 2 per cent, of spiegel iron is added toward the close of the process; in others, however, which work more manganiferous ores, no addition of spiegel is necessary, since as soft au STEEL-WORKS AND ROLLING-MILLS OF SWEDEN. 177 iron as desired may be produced in them without danger of redshort- uess. Of the weight of pig-iron used, 85 to 89 per cent. Bessemer ingots is generally obtained, and only a few per cent, of waste. 143. Martin steel , cement-steel , &c .—Since the year 1868, at Munk- fors, cast steel has been produced in a Siemens regeuerating-fur- nace with a Lundin condenser, according to the method of Martin. | Also, at Lesjofors, such steel has begun to be produced, and experiments on a smaller scale have been commenced at some other works. The furnaces are small, holding only 800 to 1,300 kilograms. For fuel air-dried wood is used; 6 to 7.4 cubic meters per ton of melted steel or iron. The most noticeable fact is that in this way uniformly-soft iron can be produced successfully, which is rolled into nail-iron or wire. At Wiksnanshyttan cast steel is produced by the Uchatius method, from granulated pig-iron mixed with powder of rich ore and a little charcoal. The fusing takes place iu graphite crucibles in ordinary English furnaces heated with coke. The steel produced in this way is suitable for such purposes as require great compactness with considera- I ble hardness, as for dies, hammers, &c. Hitherto cement-steel has been pretty generally produced, which is drawn before it goes into the market under various names. At Sura- I hammar and Motala puddled steel is also produced, and at Graningo some raw steel is made on the hearth. In addition, cast-steel works have been erected at Osterby for melting in crucibles in a Siemens- Lundin furnace, using wood as fuel. The iron and steel manufacture is not yet great enough to satisfy the demands of the country itself; it is hoped, however, that in a few years quite different relations in this respect will come about, for all the greater Bessemer works mentioned below are intended for the manufac¬ ture of rails and other railroad material, together with sheet-iron. 144. Rolling-mills.— The foremost of the rolliug-mills, hitherto in operation, for sheet-iron is Motala, and next Surahammar and Kloster are the greatest, although at the last mentioned only thin plate,like wire-plate, &c., is made. At Surahammar puddled iron is used exclu¬ sively for the manufacture of plate: at Motala the Bessemer irou from this and other iron-works is used. At Kloster the Lancashire iron was formerly employed, but they have in view now the plan of using the Bessemer iron from Langshyttau, which belongs to the same company. Irpn rails of the ordinary dimensions at present can be produced at only two works, namely, Motala and Smedjebacken. At the first-named works, during the year 1871 there were rolled out— Kilograms. Bessemer-steel rails.... 1,190, 200 Puddled-iron rails.... 76, 400 Puddled-iron rails with heads of Bessemer steel. 870, 900 Total. 2,137,500 12 i 178 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. At Smedjebacken, iu the same year, 1,083,792 kilograms of rails were rolled, 119,084 kilograms of which were from the Bessemer steel from from Backa, and the rest from Lancashire iron. Car-wheels of wrought iron are manufactured only at Surahainmar, where tires of puddled steel are also made; Sandviken is the only place, however, where tires have been made in large quantity, and from Besse¬ mer steel hitherto. At Surahainmar car-axles of puddled steel are made, and at a few machine-shops machine-axles from iron-waste are made; but the chief places for the production of large axles at present are Motala, where they can be obtained either of Bessemer or puddled steel as desired ; and also Fagersta and Sandviken, which make them only of Bessemer steel. Nails are manufactured at many works and iu very different ways, but this manufacture is carried on to the greatest extent in the prov¬ inces of Blekinge and Ostgothland, where they are made mostly by cut¬ ting out of plate, and next in Wermland, where they are produced mainly by machines from wire. Besides this, many nails are manufac¬ tured by hand. A part of the Bessemer metal of YVestanfors is worked at Fagersta, which belongs to the same proprietor, to gun-barrels, saws, and springs; but Eskilstuna is the chief place for the manufacture of small articles of iron and steel, like locks, tools, knives, arms, &c. Wire is drawn at many works, as Kolsva, Bofors, Degerfors, Gunnebo, Eesjbfors, and Munkfors; but Lesjofors is the main place for wire-draw¬ ing, and part of the wire is employed on the spot for the manufacture of rope and nails. 145. Table showing the amount of ore obtained and llic manufacture of pig and wrought iron, steel and manufactured wares, in the gears 1860, 1865, 1870, and 1871, as far as it has been announced by the Iiogal Commercial College. 18110. 1865. 1870. 1871. Kiloqs. 395,115.000 22. 2-28, 000 Kilogs. 496, 821, 000 20, 312,000 Kilogs. 617, 037, 000 13, 756, 000 Kiloqs. 617,119, 000 15, 769, 000 Total iron-ores. Pi Of . 117,373, 000 517,136, 000 630, 793, 000 602, 888, 000 179. 912, 000 5, 237, 000 221, 389, 000 5, 350, 000 293, 278, 000 7, 218, 000 293,118,000 5, 800,000 Cast-iron waios produced directly at the blast¬ furnace. Total cast iron. 185,149, 000 226. 739, 000 300, 496, 000 298. 918, 000 130, 932, 000 21, 239, 000 148, 512, 000 f 4, 425, 000 2, 988, 000 \ 5, 986, 000 5, 957, 000 [ 7, 852, 000 193, 908, 000 6, 637, 000 5, 550, 000 5, 735, 000 4, 787, 000 10, 304, 000 187. 792, 000 *8, 038, 000 4, 013, 000 6, 504, 000 6, 138,000 14, 362, 000 Bessemer ruetal. ) 0 htr steel. Plate.! Nails.| Implements and sundries.J * This number does not correspond witli that of the Commercial College, for the production of Wes- tanfors Svavtuas, and Btieha, for 1871, is not included in the latter. Table showing the export and import of ore, pig, cast, and wrought iron, steel, and manufactured wares in the gears 1860, 1865, 1870, and 1871. IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 179 Table showing the ore obtained and the iron manufactured, as well as the number of hands, in the different provinces during the gear 1871, as published bg the . liogal Commercial College. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 180 1 5 •aojigid [B)oX 1 lllsIlsillilS mmmm* £ilil SsW «c“ ad" ’r o' cf 1 r-’ Cl i O JZ .= Ij, = 3 M r •aoaj ^sbo 1 IS p ipwii-r . cf |£P|§ ? 1’ ui • 1 '< SWl'PslllS e *'” s««s’as'"!? Islll ssfgsT? i- ra — o t- o'aoVo'r-T s o i jo 3tu;i sapuji 1 nmUm, P P5 ^ Of -J* O Sifts *h't-T r-T ui eooua -JIIJJHB|<1 jo *ox sc -r SO Cl -r § •JBB[q JO jno 80OBH -anj-jBBiq jo * 0 £ ■j ao r. ci o c . o Cl • L-. Cl «r g ' a o l! 1.2 •snosjod jo aoquiiui pijox n sssss i ! V •uoap -pip puu IIOUIOAV - : :S :2 Cl O ! •spauii p:uoisnoDO n ’>• :2S£i3o2 : i = :S§ 2 SO i u •spncix .Cpwis ""SisPsi jS g-srs” Cl V l a 1 I i ? 1 i £ ! i i ii i i ii i ::::::: :g : ; ;§i§ I Igs? • • aTo* i .1 f" Uj igigiiSs ii §-'iWli§ :£ gfggggg is sags* slsjr 1 1 S’ 1 g Table showing the ore obtained and the iron manufactured, as well as the number of hands, in the different provinces, IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE IN SWEDEN. 181 These numbers do not correspond with those of the Commercial Colb-ge, for the production of Westanfors, Svartniis, and Biicka is omitted in the latter. 182 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 14G. Locality of greatest production .—It is evident from the foregoing table that the greatest production of ore is in th e province of Ivoppar- berg, and then follow Orebro, Wermland, and Westmanland. The largest production of pig-iron is in Orebro. Among the provinces rich in ore, Westmanland has the smallest production of pig-iron, uot only absolutely but relatively to its production of ore. This is owing to the fact that a considerable part of the ore obtained from its largest mine, Norberg, is taken to other provinces, as Gefleborg, Kopparberg, Ostgoth- land, Calmar, West-Norrland, and Westerbotten, while the inhabitants of Westmanland use a great part of their abundance of coal for hearth- firing the pig-iron obtained from the provinces Kopparberg and Orebro. Also, in the provinces of Wermland and Kop] aiberg, the manufac¬ ture of pig-iron is small in proportion to the amount of ore obtained, since, as has been mentioned, a part of the ore of these provinces is taken to the blast-furnaces in the provinces of Orebro and of Kop¬ parberg, and many other furnaces. By far the greatest part of the ore obtained in the piovinces of Upsala and Stockholm is taken to other provinces, as Norrland, and to Ostgothland and Calmar. The last' named provinces, which aic poor in ore, fetch their ore both from the Norberg, in the province of Westmanland, which has been already men¬ tioned, and also from the region of Nora, in the province Orebro, from Griingesberg, and many other places in the province of Kopparberg. Although the manufacture of bar-iron is grea test in the province of Orebro, yet it does not correspond to the product ion of pig-iron; for a great part of the pig-iron is sold as such partly to other provinces, partly to foreign countries. The same holds good, though in a less degree, of the province of Kopparberg, whence pig-iron, for the purpose of con¬ version into wrought iron, is imported into the provinces of Ostgoth- laud, Westmanland, West-Norrland, Calmar, &c. The production of bar-iron is greatest in the provinces of Wermland and Orebro, and next following them Gefleborg, Westmanland, and Kopparberg. As has been shown above, considerable interchange of ore and pig. iron takes place between the different provinces. This is partially ac¬ counted for by the fact that many works, in consequence of lack of fuel and other circumstances, can be carried on more a dvantageously in other places than in the neighborhood of the mine; part ly also because some mines lie so near the boundary of the prov ince that the transportation of the ore from one province to another is a small matter. On the other hand, the transportation would he wholly unnecessary if many works had not been in the beginning located disadvantageous^', and, there¬ fore, many alterations for the better may be expected when those uow building, and possibly also other means of communication, shall have beeu completed. 147. Chemical composition of Swedish ores.— The following tables contain the results of analyses of the principal iron-ores of « Sweden; the locality, name of the chemist, and a reference to the origi¬ nal publication: Analyses of Swedish iron-ores. ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 183 •jnqding ® ! !'.!!! O ' ..iii * •apixo jo piOB oinujix •siuoqdsoqx •o^> ‘outz ‘i^iuqoo MaddoQ •asansS -nura jo apixojo.ix hOlOO © © © o' o © © ©‘ no — Cl © © © rt ° H OO o : % fa i K +3 43 : ® a p > © ® © i - - - © © . - - - ^ ^ ^ Q. © © i* ^ P< o* ‘ O D CO lO «© ci n o irj 6. %%ob - fafan ^ 6 OO © © o © fa © © % f=< fa fa *© i? •sisA’i^a'P aqj apinu oqAi auo aqj jo amej^ P5 op c o c o o o •epBOI SBAi SIS -£p3ire jo Aessu eqq aoqAA f Cl Cl Cl Cl Cl mmsj jo paiS'Boy; £ £ a o3 MM £ £ & E= £ « rt ce sj a ca si SASKPi M MM •9qo.ida9jn}S jo xswnag 73 0 OOOO O OC5 g I a "E s g Jst c §3 ° 0 Wfe grd Otg N a H N 0> &J»® M s 5? i- G :c3 -P ®: 0 -h o S C PiHH« p fa eg" cC c3 cC of cif 2 f- f- H s-i *-< ^ es <3 c3 <3 e3 c3 d ^ _> > > > .5 . 5-1 a O M M S MM W ” Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 184 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. •apixo jo l>pe aiue^ix •jnqdpig ■siuoqdsoq j ■oy ‘arm ‘ 4 [« q o a ‘jaddoQ «s3iJi ooo=|o O w o o o o o 0*000000 *080 aBS •UBU1 JO 0pIX0J04,X Sdg ,l 0 is a O o o o o 0*0 0 - O O O c £* = =£ ‘ g° o* ci d its ri H - H H s. - - :::::::: o*rrt»f5oo«--J-'T^’j'COCi •i r- S' § s' § s s i s' S S S' ?; s * 8 i 9 A'|vav oqj opnin oqAi OUO oqi jo 9iuv& l| = s > = Sis sis Jl H . It® if -'id : :ddd : oj o © O O G G 0 O bo O 0 O 00 O c o *© < © © *© © % ~ ■® © % Ph Ph Ph Ph -id 43 4 ^ +3 4 d a a a © © a a a a a © © a ocoooo. . r® r® ^ *© % £ ^ ^ pt, fij pH a © © 0 a a ® u cj O O © u ^ © © o - (-> © © u t- C-i 2a&o©o M ^ ^ a 05 . . co t- o co . CM CO . CO lO (M 05 OOqq®OQ % ©w c* ^ ® I •p * « a S O © :s“ ® 2 ^ H ■§!*«, t'd^ll ^ i l o |d rs^V.® .9 o c a a“ = rf ^ E •§ ®d ^ £ .3 d C«W W be be bio be Ui f-> t-> ;u © © © © d^dD rO ,© 03 03 03 03 :cc£ :c3 :c3 :?3 q Ps od d d Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Coutiuued. 188 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 189 00 Ol oo^n O O o o o o O O O O C '-j* *o co • co- o o • o o o o o o o o c-o o o o do’2, d o • oooooooo^oooo i- r— o o o o i- CD d CLi ^ f- 'a o ® H -I o t-l o ooooo ctoo © o' ocdncd ; : : : : : _:: ::::::::::: • in i— t— m d rfiooooooooo m 4-5 43 Scflfl 0 ana ® © c-i t-i ; ~ t-t u u Q. o, © © © ©©© Q &P.P. 0 d r* . .WO OWOMOCDOOOOOfaiO . . . o o. 00 X O lO W’t -1 OOW-iaDMTrO(CW(JJCJ CD CO t-- ^ CO 05 X O •}< CO t- 1- X O f- i" Tf i- lO 00 cn © i~ T}< -r ic : O O O CM CO ’ o_. *© ft p. 1C 05 CO < © f © ft ft oo co m go JJMWOMOXO c3 O a t !<* ftft i-4 ^ bfl bfi bC Q 73 si Wd ^3 .a S3 .a, -m „ _ _ © o'o ©<© «8 2 o 2 MpMa22i^w^» OMdMddddd :«pho a^ © © w § OH GO 00 00 CO 00 00 © I- t“ (N W W • CO CD "■a* CO CO CO CD CO CD • m CO CO CO CO ajxioooooooo .ouoogogooo i" o in r- QO 00 t— d d in m cd co m 00 00 00 GO D « W in W (N O IO CD CO CD CD CD CO t~- CO OOOOGOOOOOGOGOCO [S fc 3 £ If £ aJ cj o -S c3 cS ^ eS HKH w MH PCM eScSiSeSeicSaJcSaSce >s 6 = e3 c3 MM cS c3 d t> O © O c3 M KKH & £ £ Ei £ e3 c3 c3 c$ aJ ddd aid dd dodddddd dd d ddd ddddd bfl £ .3 d © is u a © u 50 p- sA c3 M t> © © © pp dd = 3 25 t/iH to 'S £ o s g ■3fi.a “ J s s S « M *© T3 .© [© 73 73 1 b£b« M '— 55 S o © 2 S S| 'select MM 73 73 Si F P r o a rt cJ U , wwo g> © © M © ro a Sp 73 -r-> —• & g«=:c! mSK^ ^ ©3 "© ^© 2 ^ bt © © © © :© :© :© _* q ^ op 3cC oi3 rA P3WP5M b)C 3 'a. 2 •gg 5 ;t?d " , ©r © .© Cm Cm 73 93 bl be u <-> © © go ^ ^!z 03 ©M 0 £ 3 ®:s 3 C > a-S-jj - 2 . ® 235 PC © . © © . ,0 /«. ^ JD m © © n p J °a S Bm o bJD ns M> © bo pp :cj ^ 73 p c3 be .2 p c- d Q*b D m a p's © a, f>73 © a rO O :rt > 'A 2 . r© c© :c3 ©^ rP C3 s-S ) s ©O a CC 1 *50 2 m© 5 ©^ 3|s c?!d II2 pj/}^ '© •© tS cw r" r* D5 ti f- *-< ^ © © © — “a a a^sj a o © © if ; ■Si-Mi-iiS ®a3 ^3 3 i- rK d O'M Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 190 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. •aj.ixo 40 1>P B oiaBjix •jui[i!|u(j '6iuo[|deot[j llslis o' d d o o d §S;=22£! o o o © © © © o’ o’ o' o' o* Sr. 2° H Is d d ss o' d •o?p ‘oaiz ‘ \ \ xs ((u .» ‘.ioddof) 'osaaBd •HBHl j»> opixojojj •StSA'prilK 0111 OpBtU orjAV. ouo oqi jo ouibx © o' dodo I=* ~ w ~ Si = li 2 3 2 ° H 1 s © © a — f§2 | ” H H !SS ss , 1, S.S.S. c n x h f* c. Ssssss I 1.0 I*- Si ooco6 V a »*n ; i : — 5=, ^S, *5 *s *5 mu. nm C t- H CI c t- £-34-3-=;: b : : : :d rN = > s = IjP I S££ 2 bb^; 2 iisslls d d o — -i d d §11 llll dod dd o o d d d --dd : : : : : : : - z i — o d ci «'• o ao SSi ssliS «•§•§ £■§■§■§ d : : b : •OpbMU 8BM SIS - Ajunir .io A ns si; oqi uoi{ av l|li|| 11 Hill III Ills •avcj .io pojsuoft j j;; s; IS -5 Is Ss! |S Is & S & S & is £ BBB £ £ •oqo4dn9jn}S .io jejonoo dddddd dd odd d d OOO -JiJ.A-A I s ■3 fi •si _ : =4=-SJ will! iiiisi i 2 J E I ill Jl« £: ' S 1 2 Is £> •/.h ;ii in >-.z a Ilf t ||| | -J I I 5 O 3 ! A :0:C' — o := = B'z S C :_ j ~ - 7 ^ 5fp?5a ft I if illi ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 191 © © © o si oo 3 sllsss © ©<©©©©© § © 11 od sllslsllsglllsllilsillslllllpi ©©'©©©©©’©©©©©©©© ©”©©©©©©©© ©’ © © © js ■ . .. • • • : : : : 53 li II Is • • .:.: ; : 2 ; ; ; © © : : ^ : as od :3SS3SSS'5S1§§?§S§22S§SS§ hSSSSSS •’ ©©©©©©©©©^©lori co © © © © © © © ©©©©©© 6. 009. o, C © f © e S ? % % % P=H PH ■43 43 43 -*3 6 o 606. V % ' ’ %%%' Ph P^ PhPhPh 43 4^ 43 4= -W ll| III I II III jo eure^C o. So V •*,*!> f. I II H 01 05 CJ SPSS o . - a* s 8 ■ ' s .j I UO 00 C5 CO l** !*• 00 f=i2 g g ? g SS ■*3 C 2 8S- II -r Cl — CJ -r -r r- c* a : U It ds; id 5-= d : i 3 5 .9 . .S P3 W P3 4 5 4 II ig|p £4 ^4 :4dt4i4o •apctn 8 cav sts -£psa« .io A'ussu oqi UDipAy II s I s I s •AVIM JO p9^9B0>£ £ £ 2 3333 fe *S fc St fc &: 33 3 « 3 3 3 £jisa3s«333 ■oqo.tditnfU)s jo (TUOdOQ Cv;43 CO C O O C C CCCCOCOC m § ■S3 ■H| : =l SS? 11 ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 193 o H 4 A SglSsSSiSS s ISs :2S 1 § §3 I s 12 Si dddooooooo © OS© • © o o d © © © e. O o © o ooooocjoooo © iljjsi d d § § d d HH 11 § oo 1 I si if OOOOOOOOOC) d © o d © © © o o © ° 3 13 i Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 194 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. •opixo JO ppu OlQBlfX g I •jnqd[ns *8UJoqd6oqj •oy ‘ourz ‘)[BquO joddoo 5 l 1 ■4* © u © ;•; e» e • : o' •asDQBS •ubui jo apixojojj *6i8.f[uae oqi opvmi I oqji oao oqj jo oaiux •OpiIUI 8B.VL 819 • A[unu jo ittssuoqi aaqAV. o t- is ~ ac x •AXBJ JO pD}SB0>I •oqojdnojnjs jo puanoo Hi yL z g 6 o B : < B j z 2 Z o e g« O K «© j fa O B s | fa O e c e fa O •o 5? O fa o B o > c z z £ £ o B c fa £ > o £ - ~ H B B © g © j£ Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 195 Tho analysis is given in — Anal. - Buchd. Bergsclmlo No. 2, 118. ( Anualen desEisen-Compt. i 1861, p.250. A. d. E. 1862, p. 363. 1)0. Do. Do. Do. Do. A. d. E. 1862, p. 361. A.-B. d. B. No. 2121. * A.-B. d. B. No. 1079. A. d. E. 1860, p. 476. Oxygon content of the slag-forming constituents. •BIS "9uSbiii puB 9 tutx O CO rr 1 O O Ci 06 . 3 05 ri *9S9UB§ -nBcn jo opixojojj ..... .1 1 '0 8 '0 Trace 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 ■Bntoni§ puB ranijoo jo 9pix0 i-t ! : cs • : oi : I CO : ® •Baram[Y o m csc5fHMX r- -- o ci © r-' -j r-' o ci •gpixo jo pxoB oiaBjix : ^ » : : : : © : : : 11.5 Cl d j •coins 13.7 26.7 20. 0 29. 4 23. 6 26.7 33.4 30.7 6.7 24.0 34.4 44.5 The amount of slag-fonning constituents of the ore. •S90IIBjsqns J9qjQ : co : i : i 1 j° ; ^ ; ;s 'i II i is : 22 : : g. ■ : C.Z ! l&o IPs lists III ■ CO isr o : h ; is : t-t < & ; a • « H •9S9UBS -iibuijo opixojojx 3.4 0.4 Traco. 1,9 0.4 1.3 0.7 •cisanScjn o co wvcoco n cj n cc “ ” 3 § s ” ’9031X 03.2 1.0 37. 5 7. 8 33.5 20. 2 28.0 11.5 5. 4 11.1 5.3 7.9 1.1 lG.'O 12.5 14.6 12.2 8. 8 2.7 8.1 25.2 15.2 12.5 4.6 •BnicanxY 'VOT[!S 25.8 50.0 37.5 55.2 44. 3 50. 0 62.7 57. 5 12.4 45.1 45.7 83.5 '9jo eqj. | ut noil jo junotnB 9r[x -■64. 0 *71.3 6G. 7 68. 1 65.7 63.6 63.9 68.2 54.2 47.7 34.2 *35.0 £• . IN THE PROVINCE OF NORIIBOTTEN. o Tornea Lappmarkm , Parish Juc.kasjervi. Kumnavara... Luo.sa vara. o Lulea Lappmarlcen, Parish Qelhvara. Geliivara, Herzog von Upland. Geliivara, Torefora uud Gyljen. Geliivara, Tingvalls Hiigel. I) u I \ °i ’rz • n il 11 i'sg ; e II ; | Hi l •rH -t-W TZ s 50 S ? IN THE PROVINCE OF WEST-NORULAND. Parish Natra. Ulfo. IN THE PROVINCE OF GEFLE 110 RG. Parish Voxm. Gyrnfis, Konst-Grubo. Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 196 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. =1 if = g & 3 > 1 SS S 1 1 s .2 d. d-d. d. d. p. •3 ri i 11 1 | 1 1 1 1 w ke 4 « f4 H K 5 O ri ri ri ri ri ri ri r= H ; :i -j c c i- o s ci cc « -< ^7 tv Cl O rC O CD 1 * "A- j I 70 Cl Cl X O Cl C C MT. (» CO r. O I- ‘O —■ ri ci cJ ci jj “ d gj x ri c r i^V cc c c o r f - r. r n c x c» ci x d r~ © d d ri —* d —’ — c! f- ri ad — o ri r: o - O cc ci »r. *? cua 'T Hi Ilf *s lllli! |||!|f 11 Z z z z z £ “ ” z S -A~<< o g . ? J 2 O ~ Cl 00 2 s 2 S o -f n ci d o o' d 3 § S fi f- Cl -r O S 2 S' S 00 — ® © ri o' ri ci n h ci - A ri ri ri ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 197 rs r 6 cc O Cl JO CC CO o © pqpp rg'd P3 5 ? © © c© © 00 00 dd d ci m co © ci d co ci d d m -o' d d ci d d co co rr d r-‘ ci CO t- co d © 00 d 00 f- O 0 cot’© CO Cl ^ Cl co CO CO m © r-i d t- t- co 00 CO l> CO 00 Cl tH ©5 O d '-r (JO co • CO 00 d CO CO co 00 co CO H CO o cd d d d © © d cd 40 CO i-‘ d lO id in cd "S' T-H d cd d cd id © co d d m © © © d co r-‘ cd i- in © O' co oo d id ci co o' d co ci id ci Q P tsj be c! O c3 -+j _o o * a ©I C 3 ce © t4 w © p gb GO ^ c" o' -O -2 03 CO t>P> C © ci -14 Ullfl *S tq i-CS I £ (5 A : o £ « Blackberj Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued; 198 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. "BIB -auifcia puB 00117 •09dub3 | -uBia jo opixojojj ■mi ton [if pae anijjdo ju opixQ ? a 5 ? •BUI IUUIV •opjxo jo p i o u ojctbijx •Bows *903HUJfiiqn9 J3T[10 •QSOUU# -nuui jo op;xo)oj ( | •uiBoni»uj^ •00117 *Bniiiiu| v •*>nis •OJO OT|X ni uoji jo jniiotnir oqx ci r s d s‘ 2 o Cl ~ ri K ^ T H « Cl "S PC PC O —04 P 4 “ 6 °* © d. — fesgf o" gffcgf g'fc vv -•XX X ad-* x « X — ac X ^ S £4 &4 d SH M-r'-C d dPd P ’= s ? dd < < r- 0 30 r-' ci -r t- o ci ci a o ad ci 2 O ® O O* O Cl LC O — o — o O O "P cl ci 3 r- r- o ec ® X' X c; ci o' d ci Cl X o —' - Cl o o Ci -r — o SlSi t* t* t* X ci C» -P o c, -‘ : s X c c SSii ri t-‘ Ci¬ te o o' ci -r fl CIS¬ C’ d x X X -P I— o c o c — 01 id o" ^ r S *?! c 23 es a - > ~ 73 ttCO o ci -J -r o o fcT=> fiQ :0 *5? >>> u 2 ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 199 1 i 1 S 1 1 81 sHUff! 8- sslli is A A A A A A A"^ A' A A A A A iA o6o A A I _r 1 .1 1 | 1 mini § oAP P .i*aad || P S p S P W p-Appppp P P p P A A A PP A A d 03 d 03 A P A A A A A 03 pq qq pq d d 4 4 4 l^ifi»-<'f*CO Cf'COQO co to cd co co ci ci co'i’ ci -o< ~-j cdr^cicddodr-icdt'-cocd cd«ci ci ci 10 co G '0 3.4 ! o ! d d \ d c TJ< -< TF 1C TF -4 d d d d d d TFddd'^'i-HO^H odddddc'd 0. 4 12.2 11.9 l. 9 co T-i 1.1 CO d irt 10. 3 4.8 10.7 4. 4 7.2 1. 3 4.4 d ci 5. 1 t'-GOClt'"’—lOOdOOCt 1 GO CO Irt CO *H ci ci d d driwod I ci d ci ci co 3. 4 1. 1 1. 3 4. 1 ci co >o ci o ^cj o o th i- ci cidiOdd-'rooiniOGOco'^ocoK ci © © d ? £ 3 •§ d gjg £5 5? S § S'S3 S3 00 CO CO to Ci -o* CO HOHCim'd 8 I t— 00 t— GO 00 CO >—i Hoo'd-iodo % ci co cd d 00 lO OC^t-lOt^OrH'-ClrHCO^C-CCOO od ci ori —J d -’' © oo t- d ci cd cd "fXh - -T f-‘ ^ ci r- d ci co lo r-’io io ci r- ciHcioMxccooor-Hifjioo d oo cit- ^ rf rf 3 •* rfri *=“ ?; ^ 3 (AoAriAAAPAjjci.ririAA ^oal® 1 s 5 Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 200 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. ] S w fx .2 2 c g £i — Cl mini ji.” § 5 c. 2. =. iii c. c. 1 § | 111 llliSlS 1 1 s s. H H H r T rz rz 'Z -z -z 'T ^ ^ ~ 'T "9 rz •r < < < <<< <3 < ANALYSES OF SWEDISH IRON-ORES. 201 1 5 III § IISI §1 il| I m i a ft p.ia & ftftad, p. a ft&^ PH ft 6 Ph -r g 1 111 1 iii¥ II 18 1 1? 1 w H pass s paHHfa Hap Haii « tii. M d d d -c »© d 'c d d d ■rf-d Ctfl d d 2? d Ht0H3lOO’l , !5'fh'O WIO ©CO i-4cd©i©t'»ni-4d©i i-4-4 i-4 in ©i d cd incdddcd©iood©i©r4©ic©io cd t- ho CO t*- ^ © CO ©J —'I-* CO f- TT T—• 1 —i ^ -4 r4 © © oi © r4 r-i cd d © © ©i cd Trace 36.0 T- C5 d © d © cd in © in i 3.2 41.1 2.2 2.7 1 ©©©coor-oo©© sjsdss 0 '®^ t— *3< 05 cd CO d 20.6 11. 7 26.9 65. 1 anoonn^HHinoTjMjjooo 00 © i-4 d © 00 cd ©< i—i t" © co • in co m h d cd © © • i-4 cd oo cd 2.7 3.9 4.1 © ©i © r- ©j in cd co-*©©oo©©tt«co©©©)©© oiod©cdt^dr4cdd©cdincdoj 1-H © i4 cd © © d ©' 17. 5 35. 1 32. 6 62.1 21. 6 17.4 86.7 56.5 91.3 53.0 82.0 87.1 GO. 2 77.0 57. 1 17.2 t'-c©aococoi-t©©©j©»t-©ooTj« ssssgssBssPSSi 85.9 30.6 90.8 47.9 50.3 *56. 4 53.3 61. 5 50. 7 55. 0 50.6 *31. 1 *50.7 53.2 48.4 4C.0 50.2 *38.7 *38.2 *41.0 co©{'-co©o*©aooO'-Ht-©t©© ssss's'ss 48.8 48.3 55.7 20.1 202 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ■s 3 3 g i 1 -•= If •— C w If a s I 3 .2 ; 80 D(iBjstin 8 aoqio •oeannS -ticin jo opixojoaj •BtsonSsj^ •otni'j •cmraniY •Boms :-|l —. rc x ci ci ci n «Ofd OT-rJ Cl 7_j d ““'TO 'tooc nm-r. rl2 H CDQOO 00 ©id UC “ O n-QDO “ d d -r ci d csrif- oocih •a .2 •I ! I s's m -■ £ is, SS . 11, ^«P KKP *9 d d *3 << << s £ i s •5 <1 §1!§ llll spptjp d d d d •BI 9 ci n 7t o x -h o o o x ir; c is is c x •au3Bcn [inB ami'i d d ci - qo d x x ri r* ci- £ d _• ci O •oaonoS —• ! c- 'T o ci -r o ?c -r “ 1 © — ci •UliCU JO OpiXOJOJJ d • c dod - odd c do* os !co •BQjOniS PUB j j ranuoD jo opix'O ■ • — rc c -r x *r ** r. rt-? c o r~ C C X C PC •Bairaiqy d ci r-* d — — — -T ci d dsi^rd — •opjxo JO P! OB OIOBIJX O — “ -®h PC Cl C Cl c ci re PC Cl X 1- — •B3!I!S 53 r - S2« Siiei?S § g'4 TifiSZS d o t ci del is x do is pc cf do d “ “ pc o 'TOO *-“• C « «© St d x 2 d " 5 ^oavoo ci d d — ci OlfiOTO ggiflSSS? g £§ SS3S25S *o.io oqi ut no.n jo janoin* oqx CO® O “ O Cl t'l'OOO 2gs SSS gssii . Si S'K §£S? ; 3 I I I 4 i 5 H i I 2 g C5 : ill I 2 © a i ! 's-s • = is’:© 5 H - ^ — ill SIS I s i :5 C a I ! 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A. ◄ «H«i OCO^^COTj-f-CJOW^Ot-OMLOOTh © o in o w co © d d d © 18.7 ir IT COOHffl t** GO CO GO i—i d cd cd ci ©* ©$ ©i cd HH!N(NOHO^ib(N©©HW(N(NirtiCO dddododnrivtNcidoddddd ■<* ©* ’fcoi'Si o o h o o d 5.0 1- ©OOC( CO i—< CO lO '"t 1 HHrtd ddddd ; • i i i \ ; i i i j j ■ j M i ■ CC3O!£)^OHHQWO(MC0hffiinTl'5}00 ddddddddcdcocdcd©i©?cdddd co (NiOf’MCOH i-H d i—’ ^ d d cd o oc OOO© i? © © J- d ©j ©* CO ©1 ,H ©* rH '■ • ■ ■ • ■ ■ • ■ • • > ■ ■ • • • ■ • i ■ • ■ ■ i i i • i • •• i ■ • • > i i > • ■ ■ < • ■ > • • • i • • • OMOlOOaCOWlOOlOMtO^OJOOf-O if5f-COHt^r}< = SlSSSSS 12. 4 23.5 24.2 23.5 26.0 37.4 30.6 31.7 32.6 30.0 28.6 «©O^•H©(J}M©C0©aD©^•O©HClT^- © go co io © t- CO © CO TJ« © ©I © ©< ©i 00 ddriddo6jn®«o6HdcieiH HOtHrtO 1 rlOHti S ©©©©©*U«l-©?©jT-lt'-©aO©lO©e©lOt'- © ro y# ©J GO ©J © ©JfflHO t- i-H © © GO issllss § cd sssssS GO—*CO©IC©GO^t—<© t'-COQC©©©©J©©IlO (N m x © © CO 00 If Tf t- lO ©I -O’ ©I ©l dudud©icdT-H©idd©Gdd©idcd©j>©i:d L- cd d ©i 1 - t-‘ § $*&* sdddl WOt-OOODCOHift^f^COHt^^t-XOOr-l tH ©J lO TJ* LO CO CO © t- © CO ©* ©J © ©I GO © THr-icxJdddodcoGdi^i'-’ddidGdcid^cd ciddon'is rHrlHrl o d ad d d © r- m ©i o cd i'-^ , ©CO'f^«©C©©lt^T}i©m©.— ©©COCO © irt CO h ©I ©l ©* o «HX©1 Tji lO ©1 ©I © S3 d sdss KS 3 SS 3 o©t-HOj(NTj. r ,a3X©©ciu'xin(NHH ^ © © ©* ©j co CO i© © — GO CO r? CO ©J H sstgs^'ssgiddddssssssss? Swiss's S' S 3 SSSSSS SS 33 S 33 -HfflHCl odd© “Id illll lllllflillii ISIMifiis 52ok^ “rilliiifiijui; lls s sill! Ill liaigi m f| f3 k«ll 11 I! Analyses of Swedish iron-ores —Continued. 204 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. S > u .5 I 1 M P.C. If KH rz rz << cL d. i ;£. i d. d. d, d II IIII11111 1 i c. c. iddiddii __ J J Jlllllll rz rz rz ~z rz rz rz rz rz rz d rz rz rz rz d d rzrzrzrz <:<; <<<<<<<<< < < <; — co CO CO — ~T O O LO — LO lO o r- Cl «— t'- CO QD to CO CO CO ^ * $ «ii 3 3 3 5 ifi ?i ?i ” “ * “' t 2 S S3 2 5 S ?i S •oraix t- co ccinooftWTHCt-r-'rcinociifthCi'fOT-f-j' sis' "s^'s's's'sss'ds^^sssgississ'ssiss® •uinranpY 'rOCt'OClOClHrjH-L'JOCOCDCCOC'TKOOOOI'^ d ci o co* d — co d co d co ci d co' d d ao a? d d —‘ d d d d •UDipS © co oo — coco©^©coac-«rt'-cir-t-e>aoaoao'3«uoc*co©t- r-' 05 rH 00 tO fcJO S fi § ►as Ps o © a Ores ex¬ tracted. Ore and Cast iron. O o Establishments. slag smelted. Pig-iron. Various objects. 12 4, 216, 593 142, 300 27, 094, 488 8 381 938 5, 055, 954 161, 720 25, 287, 043 7, 147, 711 69, 862 1, 373, 587 538 903 2,120,121 50, 661 11 181 017 150, 370 11, 051 1, 807, 436 855, 238 10, 803 22, 348 30 888 2 55 2G 2, 309, 725 8 180 1 53, 671 1, 370, 512 538, 903 8 2 Private -works, western and southern provinces. 323, 729 274, 581 177, 863 1,178, 576 1, 230,181 3 1, 058, 115 5, 444, 397 2, 522, 751 593', 470 5, 261, 453 3, 077, 449 26, 630 31 235, 111 15 50, 823, 668 48, 567, 152 18, 854, 634 3,149,875 22, 004, 509 Table of production of iron and steel in the Russian Empire in 1871, (in pouds .) [One Russian poud = 16. 3808 kilograms.] Establishments. 13 2 98 19 1 2 13 4 36 25 Crown works. Cabinet of His Imperial Majesty. Private works, TJra 1. Private works about Moscow. Private works, Caucasus.. Private works, Siberia.. Works not under the mining administration Crown works, Poland. Private works, Poland. Private works, Finland. Ear-iron. Sheet-iron. Steel. 585, 385 17,108 5, 254, 076 1, 650, 864 1 217 139, 529 1,220 2, 456,192 106,011 112,070 251 70, 975 123, 381 2, 648, 818 129 960 16, 932 228, 198 1, 055 48, 278 1,560 616 193, 704 890, 524 658, 289 64, 625 11, 959, 622 2, 998, 975 442, 241 Total 210 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The Russian Mining Journal, 1S72, presents a statement of the pro- | duction of cast and wrought iron in the Ural district for each successive • ten years, commencing from 1797, as follows : * Cast iron. Wrought iron. Period. 1707-1807. 1807-1817. 1817-1827. 1827-18:17 1837-1847 1817-1857 1857-1807 Pouds. 6,135, 312 6, 307, 108 0, 830, 560 7, 510,167 6,113, 758 0, 923,167 12,180, a27 Tons. Pouds. Tons. 103, 791 3, 820, 067 61, 613 101, 713 3, 993, 111 61,405 1 110, 268 1, 566. 263 73,681 | 121. 760 1, 987, 351 60, 111 136, 028 5, 830, 761 91, 011 ICO, 055 7, 016, 205 113,648 1 201, 303 8, 021, 561 129,380 I 15U. Iron works in the Russian Empire. —The following is a list of the imperial, royal, and private iron-works in the Russian Empire, with their production of iron and steel in the year 1S7I: t Production of iron-ore and of cant iron. Works. A.— Crown works. 1. Kamensky. 2. Zlatooiistofsky. 3. Satkinsky. 4. Koucinsky. 5. Koucbvinsky. <>. Barantchinsfcy.. 7. VerkhniO-Touriusky. 8. Peskovsky. 9. Licitcliausky. 10. Kontckosersky... 11. Soudiarvsky. 12. Valazmiusky.. Total. B.— T forks pertaining to the cabinet of the Emperor. 13. GonriOvsky. 14. Petrovsky. Total. C.— Private work, Ural. 13. Xigouie Saldinsky. 16. Nigenic-Taghilsky. 17. Yerkhni6-Saldinsfcy. 18. Vicitno-Cbaitansky. 19. Verkh-Isetsky. ■20. Rejevskoi. 21. Vorkhniene'ivinsky. 22. Netvinskorondiansky... 23. Verkbnid-Tagbilsky. 21. Ontkinsky, (Jakovlev). 25. Neivo Alapaievsky.. 26. Xeivo Chnitansky. 27. Verkhnie-Smiatchikbinsky. 28. Neviansky. 29. Petrokamensky. 30. Nigenid-Serghinsky. 31. Verkhnie-Sergliiusky. 32. Kychtymsky. 33. Kaslinsky. 31. Kiasepetrovsky. 33. Syoertsky. 36. Sieversky. 37. Molebsky. 38. Outkinsliy, (Souksounsky). Iron-oro mined. Iron nro ami slag smelted. Production of cast iron. Pig-iron. Various objects. Pouds. Pouds. Pouds. Pouds. 562, 500 512, 598 162,335 19, 811 259. 865 252, 268 109, 798 6,655 400, 000 648. 002 305, 959 5, 763 350, 0U0 420,011 151, 259 21,218 ) ( 1,012,235 5.31, 106 19, 933 > 2, 039, 313 < 585,891 325, 312 17,712 ( 291,295 158, 787 1, 705 480, 521 669, 8.50 210,278 23. 528 23, 313 91, 371 30, 972 75. 297 21, 386 66 100,819 161, 775 42, 905 3,816 . 129, 358 39, 894 169 4. 216, 593 5, 055, 954 2. 120,121 150, 379 12, 300 47,770 19, 117 1.724 100, 000 113, 950 31, 544 9,317 112, 300 161, 720 50, 661 11,051 1 r 27,633 13, 428 3,253 I 1. 471, 628 806, 064 1G3, 601 S 4, 5G5, 327 1 1, 256, 023 691,076 117,142 [ 521,826 321, 536 22,281 1S1. 850 318, 629 173, 968 31, 548 180. 972 489, 352 261,108 27, 550 10. 000 131,389 65, 571 8, 874 205, 000 404, 809 215,190 31,891 128, 215 518, 811 260, 878 46. 866 110, 000 321, 791 119, 756 66,614 1,053, 458 1, 055,458 477, 333 37, 917 378,262 378. 262 186, 323 23, 947 558, 764 558, 764 248, 739 13, 492 799. 981 575. 934 265, 086 43, 699 260, 941 244, 566 104, 916 24, 997 475. 894 382, 760 118,231 22, 480 526, 250 297, 683 116, 521 8, 843 821, 503 597, 449 261, 237 52, 000 462, 224 338, 270 167, 750 15, 091 514. 970 303,386 120,011 40, 252 1, 436, 570 1. 087, 201 522, 005 40, 599 517, 000 193, 851 200, 654 59, 473 279, 722 245, 277 105, 370 15, 818 410, 160 463, 906 208, 257 23, 712 “Cited in Jour. Iron and Steel Institute, by David Forbes, F. R. S., &c. 1,1873, p. 221. t From Skalkovsky’s Tableaux statistiques, at the Vienna Exhibition. PRODUCTION OF IRON-ORE AND CAST IRON IN RUSSIA. 211 Production of iron-ore and of cast iron —Continued. Works. C .—Private tvork, Ural —Continued. 39. Revdinsky. ■ 40. Chaitansky. 41. Kigenie-Irghinsky. 42. Ycievolodovilvensky. 43. Alexandrovsky. | 44. Toherraosky. 45. Kiselovsky. 46. Arghangelo-Paekyisky, (1870) . 47. KoiiciO-Alexaudrovsky, (1870). 48. Ivynovskoi.!. 49. Bilimbaievsky. 50. Kouvinsky, (i870). 51. Lysvensky. 52. Bieersky. 53. VerkbniO-Onfaleisky. 54. Nigeni6-Oufal6i'sky!. 55. Jourusanaky. 56. Katav-Ivanovsky. 57. Sirnsky.1. 58. KicolaOvsky. 59. Bieloretsky. 60. Tirlansky. 61. Verkhnie-Avsianopetrovsky. 62. Omoutninsky... 63. Verkknie-Zalazninsky. 64. Zalazninsko-Bieloretsky. 65. Klimkovsko-Boi'ovsko'i. 66. Tehernokholounitsky. 67. Ckourmonikolsky. 68. Nioutchpasky.. 69. Niouvcbimsliy. • Total. D .—Private works around Moscow. 70. Vyksounsky. 71. Snovedsky ’.. 72. Ouugensky..... 73. GonciOvsk'y. 74. VerkhniO-Oungensky. 75. Ilevskoi. 76. Tacbinsky. 77. Karatcbarovsky. 78. Merdouebinsky. 79. Dongnensky. 80. Edcetinsky'.. 81. Senetsko-iranovsky. 82. Lioudinovsky. 83. Soukremensky. 84. Ivano-Serghievsky. 85. Pessotcliinsky, (de Maltzof). 86. Pessotcbinsky, (de Krivorotof). 87. Tcberepetsky. 88. Bogdano-Petrovsky...,. 89. Mychegsky.'. 90. Cyntoulsky. 91. Istinsko-Zalipiagesky. 92. Bytocbevsky... 93. Avgarsky. 94. Iloubensky. 95. Sentoursky. Total.. E .—Private works , Caucasus. 96. Tcbatakbsky. E .—Private works , western and central provinces. 97. SociOt. de la Nouvelle Russie. 98. Kletisbtckensky.. 99. Eoudnia.. 100. DOnOcbovsky.. 101. Alexandra. 102. Vysokaia Petcbe. 103. Goutka. 104. Dans de pet. usiues. Iron-ore mined. Iron ere and slag smelted. Production of cast iron. Pig-iron. Various objects. Pouds. . 676, 036 320, 227 186, 937 251, 115 263, 400 | 735,268 668, 998 443, 303 229, 735 804, 554 495, 960 359, 902 292, 986 713, 008 661, 615 523, 000 1, 026, 490 | 747,324 | 499,110 560, 000 1, 195, 097 350, 382 Pouds. 676, 036 320, 227 150. 891 226, 776 208, 303 f 250,993 \ 609,949 616, 797 490, 735 425, 609 934, 242 744, 856 276, 956 226, 994 544, 533 574, 522 478, 404 847, 622 C 460,535 X 209. 568 ( 280,725 X 186,673 546, 624 1, 072, 116 136, 342 160, 954 557, 452 443, 689 Pouds. 349,403 120,138 40, 616 70, 568 62, 646 108, 280 290, 960 211, 705 178,121 152, 733 381,163 291,319 98, 401 93, 927 269, C97 233, 249 253, 207 427, 530 204, 730 69, 318 146, 607 105, 649 226, 373 325, 997 37, 681 30, 633 175, 144 142, 573 Pouds. 22,10! 29, 612 13, 463 7, 277 21, 210 22, 010 69, 214 28, 036 44. 057 88, 256 24, 372 14, 975 7, 327 23, 825 55, 143 38, 749 83,163 56, 322 43, 420 34, 705 10,167 33, 774 29, 786 6, 279 624, 100 405, 772 21,163 72, 448 26, 490 34, 379 13, 790 50, 515 27, 642 12, 944 5, 935 1,060 3, 021 27, 094, 488 25, 287, 043 11,181,017 1, 807, 436 | 1,145, 765 51,100 229, 852 140, 000 862, 800 312, 019 390, 0110 295, 000 212, 315 190, 819 268, 294 1,425,000 350, 000 432, 128 232, 035 145, 956 107, 900 378, 000 350, 000 125, 000 172, 383 10, 500 155, 072 100, 000 C 790,718 X 669,652 65, 676 272, 990 136, 085 809, 085 324, 811 387, 936 235, 032 195, 812 105,819 177, 296 736, 693 247,169 403,175 193, 998 144,313 105, 708 336, 268 251, 178 109,162 161,331 328, 842 265, 713 23, 543 92, 719 54, 172 382, 816 153, 506 178,106 88, 030 56, 942 21, 929 37, 493 160, 705 80, 826 77, 380 28,161 44, 573 27, 942 47, 025 46, 915 32, 966 26, 472 13, 999 13, 074 3, 485 24,155 4, 048 6, 662 7, 245 51, 820 13, 402 32, 057 172, 229 12,173 96, 434 62, 375 40, 486 22, 332 108, 935 46, 765 14, 478 32, 927 240, 675 21, 129 42, 686 10, 263 75, 547 700 8, 381, 938 7, 147, 711 2, 309, 725 855, 238 53, 671 69, 862 8,180 10, 803 163, 289 £ 619,700 12, 000 450, 673 5, 600 111, 200 8, 050 163, 289 C 494,100 ( 125,600 (?) 14, 000 450, 673 6, 675 111,200 8, 050 34, 472 128, 099 35, 280 10, 000 88, 298 3, 600 20, 200 3, 780 4, 080 5, 975 2, 553 8, 000 1,740 1, 370, 512 1, 373, 587 323, 729 22, 348 Total 212 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Production of iron-ore and of cast-iron —Continued. G. "Works. Iron-ore mined. Production of cast iron. Iron-ore I- j aud slag smelted. Pi^-iron Various objects. —Private works, Siberia. 105. Abakansky.j IOC. Xikolai'evoky. Total. II.— Works of the crown, kingdom of Poland. \ 107. Bankovsky. 108. Pankovsky. 109. Ileicfsky.-. Total. J .—Private works, kingdom of Poland. 110. Ostrovetzky.I 111. Strakovitzky. 112. Falkovsky. 113. IChmelovsky. 111. Bodsekovsky. 115. Drzovitzky. 11C. ^Przisonksky. 117. Bialatchevsky.| 118. ICoritkovsky.; 119. Malenctzky.[ 120. Maklioraksky.I 121. llzouzovsky. 122. Blizinsky. 123. Ninkovsky. 121. Khlevissky. 125. Neclnnsky. 12G. Borkovitzky. 127. Kousky. 128. Krasniensky. 129. Chtckezinskv.! 130. Pidor. 131. Okrad z6nov.! 132. Poremba Mziglozka. 133. Maslonsk. 131. Miatcbev. 135. Bliakhovnia. 136. Staraia ICousnitza. 137. Tnovlodz. 133. Przistan. 139. Goustek. . j 110. Mines of VOlune and Bcndine, (1870)- Pouds. 338,571 200, 332 Pouds. 333, 571 260, 332 Pouds. 167,132 107, 449 Pouds. 22,693 8,195 538, 903 538, 903 271, 581 30, 888 281. 220 291,217 97, 369 5,105 112,885 99, 397 32, 638 11,351 661,010 202, 800 47, 850 10,174 1. 058,115 593, 470 177, 861 26,630 450, 000 153, 631 120, 000 5,000 800.000 500, 000 llii, ill 9, 963 111,250 111,250 20, 300 2, 825 200, 000 150, 000 30, 000 15, 000 160,000 155, 000 40, 000 3,500 308, 900 302, 810 25, 605 30,125 106, 375 153, 125 37. 125 45, 087 136, 662 22, 075 10, 517 140. 000 116,000 29, 200 202, 718 229,101 11, 615 1,870 152, 657 152, 521 35, 590 175, 600 162, 700 38, 520 '.'in 82,208 7, 002 13, 550 133. 5011 133, 500 23, 000 502, 280 700, 936 158, 111 5,697 177, 862 231,962 00, 747 3, 131 £03, 550 196, 800 12, 165 362,935 316, 850 95, 712 2,104 10, 600 90, 600 11, 751 6, 070 98, 550 72. 750 11,250 8,562 53, 000 53, 000 ? 21, 750 45, 000 38, 551 11,400 i 9, 000 (?)2I, 000 20, 000 151,810 213, 393 330 53, 822 201, 070 201, 979 5, 000 35, 000’ 80, 000 76. 000 21. 000 70, 250 70. 050 102, 732 6, 000 20, 000 25, 375 212. 317 Total 5. Ill, 397 K.—Private works, Finland. 111 . 112 . 113. 111 . 115. 116, 117. 118. 119. 150. 151. 152. 153. 151. 155. Tike. Koskis. Dais. Hegfors. Skegbi. Sonmbonla.... Vertsile. Mekhktj. Stremsdal.. Lonpikko. Kartula . Irkakoski . EkatOrinensky Eaapakosky... Oravi. 2, 522, 751 5,261,153 1,178, 576 235,111 2. 522, 751 225, 565 | 114, 592 130,332 49. 920 357, 565 181, 627 63, 099 19, 050 70,167 27. 483 20, 901 7, 150 131, 960 162, 605 382. 236 146, 006 167,762 375,928 53, 206 137, 355 215,238 66, 613 51. 095 21, 247 146,241 50, 669 218, 452 87, 450 238,692 105,178 3,077,419 1, 230,'181 50,823,668 | 48,567,152 i 18, 854, 634 3,149, 884 22, 004,518 Total. Grand total. Grand total of cast iron PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL IN RUSSIA. 213 Production of iron, and of steel. Works. A.—Crown works. Nigenie-Icetsky. Zlatooust Kniase-Mikbailovsky. Koucinsky. Satkinsky. Artinskv. Nigenid-Tourinsky. Sdrdbriansky. Permsky stalepoucbetcbny. Votkinsky. Kamsk.v. Kirsinsky. Lougansky . Alexandrovsky. Total... B.— Works pertaining to the cabinet of the Emperor. 15. Gourievsky. 16. Pdtrovsky .. Total . C .—Private works, Ural. 3 ^ Pouds. 67, 703 11, 423 13, 567 m £ 2.2 m Pouds. 12, 852 41, 328 51, 479 79, 324 157, 946 111,393 134, 705 14, 469 2,048 585, 385 8, 643 8, 465 17, 108 33, 835 4, 763 71, 560 5, 402 XI, 117 139, 529 1,220 1,220 Sa -TfS Pouds. 44, 778 1, 417 459 64, 440 976 112, 070 251 251 17. Nigenid-Tagbilsky. 18. Laisky. 19. Nigenid-Saldinsky. 20. Verkknid-Saldinsky. 21. Vioimooutkinsky. 22. Visimochaitansky. i 23. Tschernoistotchiusky.. 24. Vorkbnid-Isetsky. 1 25. Rdjevskoi.. j 26. Verkhnid-Neivinsky. .. 27. Nigeny-Verkhnid-Ndivinsky. j 28. Ndivinsko-Rondiansky. i 29. Nigeuy-Roudiansky. . 30. Molebskoi...'.. 31. Chouralinsky. 32. Yerkhnid-Taghilsky. 33. Yogoulsky. 34. Outkinsky. | 35. Schaitansky.. 36. Sylvensky'.. 37. Sarghinsky. 38. N6ivo-Alapaievsky. 39. Verkbnid-Siniatcbikbmsky. 40. Ndi'vo-Obaitansky. 41. Irbitsky. 42. Ndviausky. 43. Pdtrokamensky. 44. Nigenid-Serghinsky.. 45. Verkhmd-Sergkinsky. 46. Kosinsky. 47. Atigsky'... 48. Mikhailovsky. 49. Kycht.ymsky. 50. Kaslinsky. 51. Niasdpdti'ovsky. 52. Ckemakhinsky. 53. Sycertsky. 54. Iliinsky. 55. Polevskoy. 56. Verkh-Sycertsky. 57. Sidversky. 58. Souksouosky.. 59. Tissovskv. 60. Kambarsky. 61. Outkinsky. 62. Molebsky. 63. Revdinsky. 64. Bissertsky. 65. Rojestvensky. I 1 l s 448, 292 218, 427 34, 282 2, 930 16, 485 291 201 337 3,501 1,696 232, 503 824 18 126, 447 134, 927 48, 625 116, 244 395 268 195,182 219, 485 15, 622 10, 426 12, 826 271, 744 57, 425 166, 462 39, 288 28, 566 23, 104 18, 093 41,043 3, 749 177, 386 125, 457 47, 337 254, 934 915 15, 552 11, 956 262, 855 102, 034 219, 367 131, 618 5,601 2, 350 156, 678 226, 441 45, 213 112, 207 42, 790 17 214 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, I67& Production of iron, and of steel— Continued. Works. Iron in bars and rods. i i ■S _ p “ 1 , §•$ it 1 13 C._ Private works, Ural —Continued. Ponds. 58, 583 Ponds. 7,340 .. Puuds. 40,013 . 19, 401 5,942 . 1,625 .i'm . 71,150 . 56,800 . 70. pojevskoi. 71 Elisavfito-PoJevskoY. 4, ^31 ; 45,745 107,409 38, 761 28, 077 4, 496 > 71. Xikitinsky. ' 118,541 . 70. .. iU, 183,749 15, 461 195*738* 33,391 2,136 43, 809 67,138 10,225 215,705 110, 440 1,173 250, 771 108,017 40, 303 100,262 141,020 58, 645 81, 983 81,281 136 701 5, 37)7 117,137 2,018 25,258 23, 317 | 128,875 St. Otcliorsky, (1870)... s5. Pavlovsky, ... 212,278 J . Rrf, kousw'AlexftiuirovsKyi o ■ .. . 5 !:.i so. Arolinn"olo-l’nelu.\skj, . . 90. Jongokamsky. (1870)... 91. VerklniiO-OnfaWisky. . 1 10, 019 1,21)2 1 11.986 1 4,239 3,808 | 91. Minsky. . 95. Kataf-Ivanovsky. 23, 206 97. Siinsky.” ,. 93. Miniarskv. 2,249 11)1. Yerkhnu*Avsianopitro\ . 102. Nigenii*-Aviiianopetio\ . 101. .. 28,111 33,935 108. Zalazninsky .... 100. . .. 99,134 166 3,396 16,156 35, 492 . 5, 254, 076 2. 456,192 70,975 D.—Private works around Moscow'. 11 5. ... 116. Vyksounsky... 117. Suovedsky. ; . . .' 69, 56' 302,421 21, 00; 109, 30' ♦ "I 8, 799 118. Verkbnii“£relie/.nitSK\. .... 140, £l( 38,28C 30, 29 1*20. JJosciiato-ijeiiezuuotkj. .. 123. Karatchavovsky... 124. Tlevsky..--... 133,85 • • l | 253,55 0 . . 126. ... 127. Lioudinovsky. . - • ^ 279, 58 I: 71,78 1 57,59 6 1,33 5 . 7 . 1 1*20. Ivano-Sersliie\ sky...^. . 130. Pessotehinsky, (of il. Maltzoi). . 131. S6rensky...... 132. .. . 133. Petrovsky... 134. .. 10,9- 8, Ot 24, 5C 8 . "|. .. 1,650,81 14 106,01 , v:: PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL IN RUSSIA. 215 Production of iron, and of steel— Continued. “Works. Iron in bars and rods. Sheet-iron of all kinds. a • ■ d T3 ■£ *■» 52 « S 3 •3 | rjj E .—Private works, Caucasus. Ponds. 1, 217 Ponds. Pouds E .—Private ivorks, Siberia. 72, 945 50, 436 12, 234 4, 698 380 236 Total. 123, 381 16, 932 616 ,r.— 7 Yorks not under the jurisdiction of the administration of mines. 18, 481 32,508 142, 369 5, 735 41,508 131,015 11, 399, 019 696, 873 127, 731 39, 055 160, 500 7, 793 27, 397 20, 500- 25, 100 117, 987 71,715 5, 434 Total... 2, 648, 818 228,198 193, 704 H.— Works of the crown, kingdom of Poland. 1,740 74, 509 53, 223 488 1, 055 Total. 129, 960 1, 055 1.—Private works, kingdom of Poland. 3, 000 175, 056 32, 957 35, 000 700 83, 200 13,122 33, 322 2, 000 28, 240 , 5,069 144, 774 7, 381 2, 350 10, 570 6, 250 52, 820 5, 405 3, 000 16, 000 2, 500 5,014 7, 000 1, 762 5, 000 1, 300 3,130 8, 000 136, 000 30, 000 5, 750 5, 700 10, 550 950 3, 750 159. Bodzekkovskv . . 30 15, 500 13, 560 2, 366 1, 552 175. Vinek. ... 176. Miatekef . . . 189. Selnitza. 216 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Production of iron, and of steel —Continued. W orks. £ if §1 c =4 P r* in It 11 if T J1 I .—Private works, kingdom of Poland —Continued. Pouds. 1,586 6,010 Pouds. 12,120 Pouds. Total. 890, 524 48, 278 J .—Private works , Finland. 39, 232 94, 409 14,503 87, 464 39,187 109, 849 73,283 17, 035 14, 551 7, 177 8,533 12, 756 9. 407 13, 078 10,951 14, 705 20, 466 7, 023 10, 439 6, 767 1, 132 7, 273 3, 544 733 34, 727 195. Fiskars... 1,560 64, 625 200. Kiriakkala. 201. Jokkis. 203. Kim 6. 204. Orisberg. 203. IlilnOa. 203. S vert 6. 211. Norrmark. 212. Xls6. 213. Irkekoski. 215. Oravi. Total. 658, 289 1,560 64, 625 Grand total. 11,959, 622 2, 998, 975 442,241 14, 953, 597 There is a large consumption of iron and copper in the manufactures of Kussia, notably in the manufacture of artillery-arms, machiuery, and iron vessels, but the statistics of these manufactures are acknowl¬ edged to be very imperfect, inasmuch as some one hundred and fifty establishments for working iron do not report to the government mining department. And the working of iron to a great extent is uot confined wholly to large establishments; there are entire districts where the peasants are exclusively occupied in working iron during the win¬ ter. For these reasons the following figures represent only a small part of the extent of metal-work in Eussia in the year 1S71: Pouds. Steel cannon. . 15, 6SU Apparatus... 20, 493 4G,175 Cast-iron cannon. 51, 4S5 Munitions of artillery. 405, 831 Iron boats. 7, 868 PRODUCTION OF COAL IN RUSSIA. 217 Cast-iron work : Pouds. In cupolas... . 1, 306,110 In reverberatory furnaces. 684,169 1, 890, 279 Locomotives .. 3, 596 Iron-work . .. - 850,831 Copper and steel work. 36, 813 Pieces. Copper and steel work... 287, 440 Side-arms..... 40, 708 Arm-apparatus... 30, 326 Scythes..... 33,750 51. Production of coal in Russia.— The production and distribu¬ tion of mineral coal, petroleum, and salt in Russia are shown by the an¬ nexed tabular list of collieries, &c., which lists are important in connec¬ tion with the foregoing lists of iron-works: Collieries in Russia. 1. Malevsky. 2. Tovarkovsky . 3. Novoselebny . 4. Jacenetsky_ 5. Slaviansky_ 6. Zelenensky ... 7. Mouraevinsky S. Tchoulkovsky 9. Paveletzky . i. Total... Name and location. Coal. Anthracite. Bituminous, shale, and lignite. A .—Moscow coal-basin. Pouds. Poucls. Pouds. B .—Elisabctgrad basin. 1, 316, 839 760, 560 1, 300, 000 200, 000 5, 000 150, 000 1, 145, 000 2, 000, 000 1,800, 000 8, 677, 399 10. Ekat6rinopolsky 11. Iljourovsky. Total. 300, 000 700, 000 1 , 000 , 000 C.—Donetz coal-basin. (a) Territory of the Cossacks of the Dou. 12. Grouchevsky. 13. Bolche-Nesvitai'sky. 14. Vlassovsky..) 15. Eyghinsky.[ 16. BambOtof..I 17. BOrestovsky.) 18. Territories of Tcherkask, Donetz, and of the Don. 19. Private collieries. Arrondissement de Miouss. 10, 603, 467 35, 757 47$, 371 876, 239 2,115, 621 ( b) In the government of Ekaterinoslaf. MINES OF THE CROWN. 20. Licitchansky . PRIVATE MINES. First district. 500, 761 265. 000 7,217 530,181 21. Nikitovsky, (M. Poliakoff) 22. Volyntzevsky. 23. Alexandrovsky. 218 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Collieries in Russia —Continued. Name ami location. Coal. Anthracite. Bituminous, shale, ami lignite. Private mines, first district —Continued. Ponds. 1,170,318 70.000 200,000 200,000 100,000 ! 100, #00 100, 000 43,000 ] 20,000 10.000 1 50, 000 1 180,000 30,000 i 58,000 20,000 255,000 [ 70,000 1,282,250 '50,000 e5, 000 5,000 ' 25,000 50,000 200,000 100,0"0 (XI, 000 30,000 200,000 80, 000 30,000 25, IN Ml 3.000 40, OOO Ponds. Ponds. 27. W. Itoutcbenko. 34. Koub*>jauaky, (M. Bngilanovitcli). Second district, 36. Techkovaky. 38. PetromariovHky, (ties pavnan»). 10,000 8, 000 5,00(1 10,000 10.000 5, 000 9, 000 25,000 . j t> . » i. Total. 0, 270, 727 14.1D0, 455 D.—Urat coal-basin. 42 a , 410 30.075 373, 020 Total . 832, 405 E—Kingdom of Poland. (a) Alines of the crown. 2. 584.060 69. Tscchkovsky. 1, 252. 010 352, 405 1, 506, 862 108, 486 Total. 5. 805, 749 • [b) Private mines. 607, 207 3,339.272 1. 460,103 2. 727. 476 2,059, 500 360, 000 42. 000 200, 315 51.125 1. 750. 548 12. 202. 546 402,000 — -:-= PRODUCTION OF COAL AND PETROLEUM IN RUSSIA. 219 Collieries in Russia —Continued. .Name and location. Coal. Anthracite. Bituminous, shale, and lignite. E. —Basin of Kouznetzk, government of Tomsk. Fouds. 228, 000 Fouds. Fouds. G.— Territory of the Kirghises of Siberia. 404, 521 41, 529 35, 386 Total. 481, 436 H —Eastern Siberia. 295, 894 I.—Caucasus. 140, 000 89. Karadaksky. 52, 941 140, 000 52, 941 J.— Turkistan. 75, 000 35, 009,156 14,190, 455 50, 654, 552 1,454,941 Grand total of production. Production of petroleum. Sources. Number of wells. Quantit 3 T . A. —Territory of Terek. 74 90 8 Fouds. 22, 647 6, 75(1 405 Total. 172 29, 802 B.— Territory of Dagestan. » 20 37 42 17 3 8 2, 700 1, 013 4, 264 1, 978 1, 350 1, 485 8. Ghik-Salgane-Koutansky.. Total. 127 12, 790 * C.— Territory of Kouban. 4 10 675 97, 449 Total. 14 98,124 D. —Government of Tiflis. 12. Mirsansky, Chiraksky and Eldarsky.. 99 69, 522 E.— Government of Bakou. 285 1,165,285 Grand total. 697 1, 375, 523 220 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Production of chrome-iron ore. Sources. Number of mines. Pouds. Private mines in the Ural. 1. Verkh-Icetsky. 2. Kychtiinsky. 3. Cfiaitansky. -I. Oiitalei.sky. Total. 2 1 1 2 237,085 54, 897 109,264 49,127 6 450,973 Production of salt. Sources. Pouds. A.— Hock-tall. MINES. 1. llrtskaia Zachtchita. 2. Mont Tchiptchatclil. :i. Knulpinsky. I. XakhitcliL-vausky. Total. 15 .—Salt obtained bij evaporation. Dddinukhiusky. I.envensky. Onssolsky. Solikaiusky. Lodenjrsky. Toterusky. Serogovsky. Nonoksky . Konloisky. Onnskv. Loudsky. Siuiill works on tho borders of the White Sea . Balakhninsky... Slavinnsky . Troftaky.... Oustekoutsky.. Irkoutsky.. Total. C .—Salt from salt lakes. 1,048,567 802, 038 1,012,212 203,025 3, 007, 042 2, 477, 743 3. 699, 373 3 390, 090 935, 005 170,204 0, 805 233, 532 09, 965 429 8,17.3 3,836 5, 569 26, 828 151, C24 100, 801 42. 744 330, 555 11.654,596 SALT LAKES. 22. Elton. 23. I) Astrakhan. 24. Gaiilonksky. 25. Mojarsky... 20. lie Criineo. 27. Kouyalnitsky. 28. Tcludghiusky. 29. Du Transcnucase. 30. Manytchsky ties Cnsaqnes on Don, (1870). 31. Des Cosaques du Ivouban, (1870). . 32. Indersky des Cosaques de l'Oural, (1870). 33. Bnrovya et Aleouskya. 31. Borsinsky..*. 35. Jakoutsky._. Total. Grand total. 370,000 4, 379, 086 235, 618 497, 763 6,257, 015 715, 287 201, 095 345, 265 124, 680 82, 776 192, 200 30, 420 90. 581 11.100 13, 532, 892 28, 254,530 In the concluding tables a general view is presented of the total pro¬ duction of tlie mines and metallurgical works of the Russian Empire in the years 1S70 and 1871. MINING AND METALLURGICAL PRODUCTS OF RUSSIA. 221 General iable of the production of the mines and metallurgical works of Russia, 1870 and 1871. 1871. Washings. Auriferous saud ... Platiniferous sand . Extracted by washing. I Washed gold ... Crude platinum. Extracted from mines. (Argentiferous lead-ore. Jopper-ore. (jlron-ore. [Zinc-ore.. !lin-ore. [Cobalt-ore.. For vitriol, (pyrites excepted). Coal Graphite. Petroleum ... IChromie iron Salt. Smelted. Argentiferous lead-ore. Copper-ore... Iron-ore. Zinc-ore. Tin-ore. Pouds. 1, 081, 518, 424 10, 440, 650 Poud. liv. zol. gr. 2,399 38 2 8 125 6 56 0 Pouds. 2,177, 540 6, 222, 759 50, 823, 668 2, 629, 477 22, 909 649 50, 000 50, 654, 552 1870. 1, 375, 523 450, 973 28,254, 530 1, 892, 636 6, 384,154 48, 567,152 1, 665, 495 Products obtained. Silver from the ores Lead.. Copper. Tin.. Pig-iron. Cast iron in different forms Total of cast iron . Zinc, crude . Cast iron from cupolas... Cast iron from reverberatory furnaces . Total of cast iron. Poud. 828 107, 963 260, 006 475 liv.. 30 26 31 0 Pouds. 18, 854, 634 3,149, 884 zol. 27 0 0 0 22, 004, 518 166, 581 1, 306,110 452, 239 Iron in bars, rods, rails, Sc c Iron in sheets. Total of iron . Steel. Copper, in sheets. Zinc, in sheets. Cobalt matte. Iron-work. Work in other metals. Vitriol, &c. Total of different mints . Noio working. Gold-mines. Platina-mines.. Argentiferous lead.... Mines of copper.. Mines of iron. Mines of zinc. Mines of cobalt. Mines of tin. Mines of coal. Mines of graphite.. Mines of pyrites. Mines of chromic iron Mines of rock-salt. Sources of netroleum.. 1, 890, 279 11, 959, 622 2, 998, 975 14, 958, 597 442, 241 21, 277 30, 000 850, 831 36, 813 4, 605 Roubles. 11,254, 744 Number. 979 6 21 76 1,174 6 1 1 327 1 6 4 697 Pouds. 983, 475, 095 9, 609, 156 Poud. liv. zol. gr. 2, 156 23 16 19 118 38 33 0 Pouds. 2,116, 404 6, 392, 622 48, 763,156 2, 666, 754 66, 292 1, 249 95, 000 43, 230, 589 1, 704, 455 600, 024 29, 013, 458 2, 066, 792 7, 190, 213 48,464,114 2,117, 318 Poud. 867 100, 653 308, 440 1, 032 liv. zol. 30 68 20 0 0 0 0 9 Pouds. 18, 557, 412 3, 401,914 21, 959, 326 221, 328 1, 343, 891 620, 851 1, 964, 742 11, 971, 459 3, 246, 449 15, 217. 908 536, 086 29, 642 26, 844 3054 958, 634 53, 885 9, 910 Roubles. 33, 545, 643 Number. 1,208 6 26 71 1, 283 6 1 1 193 2 9 4 77 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. 222 General table of the production of the mines and metallurgical works of Russia, 1870 and 1871—Continued. 1871. 1870. Number. 0 Number . 2 O 0 9 10 35 39 153 164 5 4 1 1 1 214 214 ooo 245 431 445 667 692 818 924 372 495 150 161 93 93 247 262 130 130 141 128 515 482 14, 477 o 004 30] 938 13, 730 2, 223 5k 209 158, 440 07, 854 40, 000 150,197 09,180 N umber of workmen employed in the salines, (approximated). 40, 000 Total of workmen employed. 200, 300 203, 383 CHAPTER VII. GEEAT BRITAIN.' Principal exhibitors; Cammell & Co.; John Brown & Co.; Bowling Iron Company ; Thomas Firth & Son’s steel ingots ; Landore Siemens Steel Com¬ pany; Whitwell’s hot-blast stoves; Siemens’s direct process; Decorated TIN-PLATE. 152. The exhibition of iron and steel by Great Britain is meager com¬ pared with its rank as first on the list of iron-producing countries. There are but few exhibitors, and no effort appears to have been made to present a general or statistical view of the extent and value of British iron-industry, as was done at the Paris Exposition in 1867. 153. The annexed tables exhibit the exports of iron and steel from Great Britain for the years 1873 and 1874, and during the first half of the year 1875. These figures are compiled and published by the Board of Trade authorities, and are cited by Mr. Forbes in the report of the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain. Exports of iron from Great Britain in the years 1873, 1874, and the first half of 1875. Whither exported. 1873. 1874. 1875. Pig: Tons. 146, 743 189, 868 81 317 Tons. 61, 820 84, 546 Tons. 106, 911 95, 771 58, 074 42 184 40| 578 26, 983 26, 760 14, 958 64, 253 52, 353 63, 183 To United States. 26, 580 22, 502 80, 577 18, 847 82, 434 Total... 634, 745 319, 898 432, 599 Bar, angle, bolt, and rod: 6, 533 19, 203 8, 303 2, 142 8, 395 3, 240 6, 031 3, 697 7, 395 3,618 3, 689 2, 765 369 To France. 286 To Italy... 8, 871 5, 853 10, 551 5,150 1,380 10,143 25, 082 To Turkey. To United States. 20| 535 19, 205 7, 892 3^ 193 12, 771 18, 224 9, 003 44, 708 To British India. To Australia. l\ 624 47,153 15,* 678 45, 416 Total... 150, 225 115,485 128, 388 Railroad, of all sorts: To Russia. 47, 780 15, 876 2, 808 24, 375 8 214 74, 460 39, 968 30, 927 25,293 2, 063 737 To Denmark.J .. 5, 897 3, 297 9, 004 12, 306 To Germany. To Holland". 3 388 To Belgium........ 16, 843 2, 139 6, 548 13, 084 552 423 To France. 1, 613 10, 985 10, 254 8 889 To Spain and Canaries. 6,168 5, 338 28 To Italy. To Turkey. To Egypt. 1, 667 120, 468 10, 930 64, 969 1. 474 To United States. 15. 734 224 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Exports of iron from Great Britain, 7 8,135 1 2,004 9.533 14. 528 30. 938 7, 405 6,245 1, 120 1. 813 5. 452 12, 006 1.463 4,268 13, 031 2, eC9 10, 402 10,708 43,808 8, 000 8, 950 4. 029 2, 353 3, 320 4, 703 758 3, 902 *, 098 3, 005 14,018 21,095 34, 034 140,664 . 129,652 118,251 1.478 10. 879 6,295 1,2 S 4 0, 520 6, 443 1, 355 5, 566 7, 929 20,652 14,247 14,850 1 O VI VI ® 3, 580 10, 967 3,783 5, 0G2 41,355 14,553 8, 845 5.314 4,561 5,349 1,532,662 1,172, 720 1,156,180 154. Principal exhibitors.— The heaviest exhibition in the British section is made by the firm of Cammell & Co., of Sheffield, which sends cast-steel propeller-blades, rails, wheels, axles, and armor-plates. The firm of John Brown & Co., which sent such massive iron plates to the Fig. 61.—Whitwell’s liot-blast stove, vertical section. whitwell’s hot-blast stove. 225 hrris Exposition in 1867, is content this year with making a very full iisplay of railway-material, and two small armor-plates showing the ! fleets of round shot and of pointed shot. The large plate sent by Oain- oell & Oo. is 20 feet long by 7 feet wide and 10 inches thick, and is ntended for the German turret-ship Borussia. The Bowling Iron Company exhibits iron and steel boiler-plates, steel listings, and railway-material. Steel tires for railway-wheels are shown oent while cold into various forms without breaking. Thomas Firth & 3on exhibit steel ingots; a homogeneous steel core for a 35-ton gnu, ind forgings of the same metal for artillery and rifle barrels. The Lan- lore Siemens Steel Company send samples of their steel rail and tires, and of the steel barrels for the Martini-Henry rifle. In the exhibition made by Johnson & Nephew, Manchester, there is a weldless wire 1,770 yards long. 1 There are several other contributions of considerable interest, but the most important in a metallurgical point of view are the exhibitions made by Thomas Whitwell of his hot-blast stoves, and by C. William ^Siemens of a new process for the production of iron or steel. 155. Whitwell’s hot-blast stoves. —The patent fire-brick stoves iof Mr. Whitwell are intended to heat the blast of iron-furnaces. The invention is represented by a very perfect model, accompanied by a full series of drawings, and, what is better, by an intelligent agent to explain them. The stoves are designed to replace the ordinary iron pipes used for heating the blast, substituting for them a series of fire-brick chambers and passages which are heated by the direct coutact of the flames of the burning gases taken from the furnace in the usual way. When the mass of brick is sufficiently heated the gas is shut off and the blast is admitted. This in passing through the same heated chambers acquires the temperature of the bricks. The brick-work, of course, gradually cools down, but by the time the last chamber begins to be too cool another t stove has been heated up, and the blast is made to pass through that. The stoves are thus alternately heated by the burning gas and cooled by the blast. The advantages of this system are numerous. One of the greatest is uniformity of temperature of blast, which cannot be counted upon with iron pipes. The bricks are a great store-house of heat, and cool gradually. Iron pipes cool suddenly when from any cause the sup¬ ply of burning gas is stopped. The air being brought into direct contact with the surfaces previously heated by the gas, absorbs the heat quickly and with little loss. The apparatus is simple, is easily erected, and is being extensively introduced. For cupola-furnaces, making 600 tons a week, two stoves, 12 feet square by 21 feet high, and with 2,270 super¬ ficial square feet of heating-surface in each, are necessary. The construction of these stoves is shown by the annexed figures, giv¬ ing vertical and horizontal sections and plans. Fig. 61 .—Heating the stove—vertical section .—The hot-blast valve A and the cold-blast valve C being closed, the gas-valve B is opened, through 15 I 226 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. which the gas enters the stove, traverses up and down the spaces be¬ tween the upright walls, and enters the chimney-flue by the valve D. Heated air is supplied to the gas by means of the air-valves a and caud passages b and d, by which a most intense combustion is gained. The internal heat of the stove, as well as the combustion of the gas, is ob¬ served by the eye pieces ee. Figs. Cl, G2 .—Heating the blast. — The chimney-valve D and gas-valve B being closed, and the hot-blast valve A being opened, the cold blast is admitted through the cold-blast valve C and issues from the stove by the valve A red hot, all other valves being closed perfectly tight. Figs. Cl, G3, Cl.— Cleaning the store .— When it is required to clean a stove the top cleaning-doors E are opened and the walls scraped with the “ cleaning tools,” when the dust deposited on the heating-surfaces falls to the bottom of the stove, and is removed by the bottom cleaning- doors F. The upper plan, page 230, shows the arrangement of the stoves to four furnaces in full blast at the Consett Iron-Works; but this plan may be varied to suit all circumstances. The following distinguishing advantages are claimed by the inventor for these stoves: 1 -ff. That they will stand a temperature of 2,000° without damage. 2d. There is no wear and tear of cast-iron pipes or material. 1. They are sooner cleaned than any others, the time required between ayingotf and starting again being six hours. Tuey are not cooled down, but are cleaned from the outside while red-hot. This takes place at in¬ tervals at from three to six mouths, according to the amount of dust in the gas. 4th. The principle on which the stoves are constructed insures the greatest economy of gas or fuel, whilst the heat that is obtained in the blast is nearly the whole of that given oil' by such gas or fuel. oth. The cost of the stoves is not proportionately more per furnace than that of ordinary cast-iron plant, equal to modern requirements. Gth. These fire-brick stoves effect a saving of several*cwts. of fuel per tou of iron made. 7th. The stoves being riveted and calked air tight, there is no loss by bad joints, and hence a large amount of wear and tear is saved to the blowing engines. Sth. The areas throughout are so regulated that there is no loss of pressure by friction, but a pressure of four pounds in the engine-house gives an equal pressure at the tuyere , where the plans of the patentee are properly carried out. Oth. The immense reservoir of caloric stored up in these stoves, each red-hot wall actiug as a tly-wheel so to speak, and giving out its power when most required, produces the best effect on the working of a fur¬ nace. 10th. These stoves form a perfect regulator to the blast, acting in this l Fig. 63.—Whitwell’s hot-blast stove, horizontal section. Fig. 64.—Whitwell’s hot-blast stove, plan. WHIT WELLS IIOT-BLAST STOVE. 227 respect as the air-vessel in a force-pump, and dispensing altogether with the large air-regulators that are found necessary in many works, the blast being perfectly steady at the tuyere. I The use of hot blast, of the temperature obtainable from these fire¬ brick stoves, enables iron-masters to effect a saving in fuel, much beyond what can be obtained by any amount of cast metal pipes; and, if a heat from 1,500 to 2,000 degrees and upwards be desired, these stoves stand it without damage, whilst metal ones at once give way. It is now generally known that high furnaces do not work well with many kinds of fuel and ores, where those of moderate dimensions have i no difficulty, but the hot blast produced by Whitwell’s fire-brick stoves never fails to effect the desired saving in fuel, whilst at the same time proviug a corrective to nearly all those evils that lower the make and quality of pig-iron. In France, Alsace, Lorraine, the hematite districts, &c., high furnaces have been already tried, but have failed chiefly on | account of their scaffolding; the approved height of furnace is now from 55 to 60 feet, except in Cleveland, whether for smelting hematite, mag¬ netic, oolitic, or carbonaceous ores. The original patents of Messrs. Siemens & Cowper have now expired, and therefore the extra royalties hitherto imposed are saved. Patents have been granted to these stoves in Great Britain, France, Belgium, the United States, Luxembourg, Russia, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Swe¬ den, Norway, Italy, the East Indies, New Zealand, and Canada. The celebrated firm of Messrs. Schneider cfi Cie , Le Creusot, France, have during the past year blown in their first furnace on this system. They make, with four stoves, 400 tons per week of Bessemer pig. The Dowlais Iron Co., Merthyr Tydvil, have also adopted the stoves for the same purpose, not only on account of the heat of the blast, but the fect regularity with which they work. In general terms one stove will make 100 tons of pig per week ; at the Consett Works, one stove makes above 125 tons gray iron per week ; and for some time past, the furnaces on a mixture with 46 per cent, metallic iron have made, with four stoves, 500 tons per week ; the average tem¬ perature of the blast is 1,400° by Siemens’ pyrometer. In Luxembourg, with oolitic ores of 32 per cent, metallic iron, and coke with 18 per cent, of ash, the consumption is 20 cwt. coke per ton of gray pig; production 525 tons per week per furnace. At Weilerbach, in a charcoal furnace 29 feet high, with oolitic ores of 32 per cent, metallic iron, the consumption is 20 cwt. charcoal per ton of gray pig; the adoption of fire-brick stoves in this case to an old furnace enabled the proprietors to use a mineral of less value producing the same quality of pig as ivas formerly made with more expensive ores ; the economy in fuel attained by the fire-brick stoves is 6 cwt. charcoal per ton of pig, and castings of the finest description are run direct from the blast fur¬ nace, the iron being now exceedingly soft. II eating surf ace .—In these stoves every square inch is effective as heat- 228 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ing surface, as the burning gases are compelled between entering and leav¬ ing tUe stove to traverse the ichole surface of the bricks exposed; the blast in its turn also passes over the identical surfaces previously heated by the gas, and absorbs from them the heat required. In no other stoves where brick-work is used as heating-surface is this the case; hence in Whitwell’s fire-brick stoves a much smaller quantity of heating surface is necessary for heating the blast, inasmuch as every part of it is effective. At this date, the stoves are adopted by 33 firms, including some of the largest in Europe, Consett , Doiclais , Le Creusot, De'Wendel if Cie., Krupp , Bochum , Dupont if Dreyfuss , it c. These hot blast fire-brick stoves have been adopted by the following firms: Stoves. 5 GKKAT BRITAIN. Cornett Iron Company, limited, Durham. 5 North of Enjland Industrial Iron Company, limited, Carlton Iron Works, Stockton- 3 on-Toea. The Sol way Hematite Iron Company, limited. Maryport, (Bessemer pig). 2 The Moms Hay Hematite, Iron Company, Workington. (Bessemer pig). 3 The West Cumberland Hematite Iron Company, Workington. 1 The Hutterley Iron Company, Alfreton, Derby.. I The Tees Bridqe Iron Company, limited, Stockton-on-Tees.. 2 Win. Whitwell if Co., Thornnov Iron Works, Stockton-on-Tees. 2 Hell Brothers, Walker Iron \Vorks, Newcostle-ouTyno.. 2 SOUTH WALKS. Tii,- patriots Iron Company. Merthyr Tvdvil.. 1 The of' the production of all forms of rolled iron in the country during the year 1S74, the production of rails and of Bessemer steel. In the table of rolled iron all forgings, suc^i as anchors, anvils, hammered axles, cranks, ships’ knees, &c., are carefully excluded, owing to the difficulty of getting exact returns. Production of rolled iron, 1874. Maine. New Hampshire Vermont. Massachusetts .. Khodo Island.... Connecticut. New Verb. New Jersey. Pennsylvania ... Delaware. Maryland. Virginia . Georgia. Alabama. West Virginia... Kentucky. Tennessee. Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. Michigan.. Wisconsin. Missouri. California. Kansas. Total. States. 3, 994 300 ■10. 324 T. 170 11,021 76, 500 24,045 313. 632 6, 800 8,455 11.08(1 1. 406 1,000 1.600 18, 239 1,573 105,413 7, 376 2. 500 4,207 275 1,500 9,205 689, 280 a Jz 6, 502 4,000 2, 256 120. 008 4.058 12, 428 5,120 5, ii.i 2,240 1,553 10,870 175,258 _ CD 28,810 3, 446 5, 949 27, 643 75,151 5, 602 54. 201 5,121 660 27, 253 7.514 4, 250 215, 609 14, 650 10, 400 24, 765 46,979 3,537 259,288 48,008 8,061 522 6,068 13, 693 82, 561 20,617 125, 103 2, 448 29, 680 24, 017 7,016 2,000 18, 644 300 10, 400 100, 500 10, 616 11.921 133,518 58, 081 798, 169 11,818 68. 891 16,688 9, 467 1,000 56. 332 34, 548 15, 926 220. 370 35, .507 134. 093 8, 208 29. 955 36, 387 16, 221 2,000 729,413 1,839,560 "Vide report of the secretary of the American Iron and Steel Association, January 1, 1S75. PRODUCTION OF RAILS IN THE UNITED STATES. 243 Secretary Swank states: “ The total production of all rolled iron in 1874, Bessemer steel rails included, was 1,839,560 net tons, against 1,966,445 tons in 1873, a decrease of only 126,885 tons. This decrease was all in rails. Of the total product of the rolling-mills in 1874, 1,110,147 tons were rolled iron other than rails, against 1,076,368 tons in 1873, an increase of 33,779 tons. The number of tons of nail-plate con¬ sumed in 1874 was 245,609 net tons, against 201,235 tons in 1873, an increase of 44,374 tons. The increase of 33,779 tons in the aggregate production of rolled iron other than rails in 1874 was, therefore, wholly in the department of cut-nails and spikes. The total number of cut- nails and spikes produced in 1874 was 4,912,180, against 4,024,704 kegs in 1873.” In the production of rails the State of Pennsylvania takes the lead, but in a rapidly diminishing degree from year to year since 1871. Production of rails by States, in tons. Pennsylvania.. Illinois..:. Ohio... New York. Maryland. Wisconsin. Massachusetts. Indiana. Maine. Missouri. Tennessee. New Jersey.... Kentucky.. Georgia. Michigan. West Virginia. Vermont.. California. Kansas. Street, mine, and light rails Total... States. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 335, 604 419, 529 91, 178 106, 916 75, 782 121, 923 87, 022 82, 457 44,941 26, 472 28, 774 37, 284 28, 864 29, 242 12, 778 23, 893 13, 383 14, 058 8, 200 15, 500 9, 667 14, 620 6, 700 9,185 6, 000 4,000 7, 840 6,930 14, 000 9, 883 5, 000 20, 100 328, 522 136, 102 130, 326 59, 764 42, 356 39, 495 34, 034 26, 579 16, 500 14, 020 13, 973 13, 749 11, 386 8, 275 4,433 4, 000 6, 088 475 259, 288 125,103 82, 561 46, 970 48, 008 29, 680 24, 765 20, 617 14, 650 24, 017 13, 693 3,537 6, 068 8,061 2, 448 5QO 10, 400 7,016 2,000 775, 733 941, 992 58, 008 890, 077 729, 413 775, 733 1, 000, 000 890, 077 729, 413 In 1874 there were eight completed Bessemer steel establishments, and the combined product of steel rails exceeded that of 1873, being 144,944 net tons in 1874 against 129,015 net tons in 1873. Product of Besseyner steel rails, 1867 to 1874.1 1867. 2,550 7, 225 9, 650 34, 000 1871.„.«... 38, 250 94, 070 129, 015 144, 944 1868. 1872 .. 1869. 1873. 1870. 1874. The annual production of merchantable Bessemer steel, for all pur¬ poses, is as follows: 1867. 3, 000 8, 500 12, 000 40, 000 1871. 45, 000 no. 500 157 000 1868. 1872. 1869. 1873. 1870.. 1874. 176, 579 244 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. There were forty-two establishments in the year 1874 producing other kinds of steel than Bessemer, including cast, puddled, blister, and open- hearth steel. Tlie production of the latter is steadily increasing, amount¬ ing in 1S74 to 7,000 tons, against 3,500 tons in 1S73, and 3,000 tons in 1872. The total production of crucible-steel in the United States in 1874 is stated approximately as 34,128 tons, and of-puddled, open- hearth, and blister steel as 13,353 tons. Production of pig-iron in 1872, 1873, and 1874, lg States. W - e- L- JL 2 . t£ G > — r- G oo 3'; t* I-- ” r- Js od ,2 «JO tii x £» 9 G . C ® U G a - c x t- a c t l - States. - TO A ”. x r -r s x — ^ 23 4 38 35 3 3 o o o 21,445 1, 073 26,475 1, 432 29. 4"»l o G 8 8 1 o 21 1, 340 8 8 8 10 8 .... 4 G o o 3 .. 2 2, 945 12, 512 7, 501 9, 786 C 8 i 14 11 3 3 2 3 22,283 280 23, 050 69, 889 43,134 406, 029 32, 486 32, 863 1 012 1 1 1 1 .... ’ fi*29 r> 4 9 6 3 1 1 o 20, 790 67, 396 42, 454 399, 743 39, 221 78, 627 30[ 134 G 1,227 11 13 16 or] or, 2. 0 6 221 20 o 1 1 i 6 16! 770 Ohio. 50 34 17 93 88 G p 6 6 8 425. i 01 3 3 5 8 8 O .... 1 1 13, 732 Illinois. io in o 2 55! 796 37, 946 111 18 H o 34 33 i G 4 G 100. 222 G5, 03G 123,506 74, 148 136, 662 50, 792 Wisconsin. 5 14 13 i 3 i i i .... i 11 19 18 o 4 1 1 5 101,158 85, 552 75, 817 2, 500 200 1 1 1 1 ... 1 XJ tali . i 1 1 _ 365 336 62 ‘701 665 38 50 41 46 63 2. 854. 558 2, 868,278 2, 669, 413 *■ Two furnaces, not included here, were abandoned in 1874 one in Ohio, and one in Missouri. PEAT AND CHARCOAL. 1 1 1 1 224 500 ANTHRACITE. 1 1 1 4 5 432 10,214 298, 428 90,150 OQ 13 3 41 3Gl 5 2 1 2 2 2 271, 343 103, 858 267, 489 102, 341 10 17 If 1 1 2 3 Pennsylvania: 29 18 47 47 43 4C 3 3 6 449, 663 232, 225 389,969 236, 409 129, 304 157, 403 .316. 789 30 13 4 3 3 3 5 3 232, 420 88, 243 137, 556 8 17 3 25 25 3 1 3 127. 2G0 20 17 i 37 37 4 i 4 4 159,304 Total of Pennsylvania.... 87 65 8 152 149 3 10 10 16 10 968, 453 913, 085 775, 008 3 2 5 4| 1 l 1 21, 908 20. 407 22, 344 i 4,000 6,000 Total. 130 87 11 217 207 10 13 13 21 14 1,369, 812 1, 312, 754 1, 202, 144 IRON-PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 245 CHARCOAL AND BITUMINOUS COAL. States. j No. ot stacks in blast | Dec. 31,1874. [ No. of stacks out ot blast Dec. 31,1874. No. of stacks blown out in Jau., 1875. | Whole No. completed | stacks Dec. 31,1874. Whole No. completed stacks Dec. 31,1873. a o V . cC ^ o r; l.s © CD a "5 ''H'S O P< d I No. of new stacks com¬ pleted in 1873. No. of new stacks com¬ pleted in 1872. J No. of stacks building in 1875. No. of stacks project¬ ed in 1875. Make of pig-iron in 1872, net tons. Make of pig-iron in 1873, net tons. Make of pig-iron in 1874, not tons. 1 o 3 o 1 1 2, 400- 1, 340 2 •2 2 2,400 1 4 5 4 1 1 2, 400 3,740 BITUMINOUS COAL AND COKE. Pennsylvania : Shenango Valiev .-. 16 16 .... 32 31 1 5 .... 1 160,188 160, 831 156, 419 5 6 1 11 11 4 1 2 110, 599 158, 789 143, 666 Miscellaneous. 13 19 32 32 1 2 4 117, 224 111, 014 97, 968 Total of Pennsylvania. -.. 34 41 1 75 74 1 3 9 3 7 388,011 430, 634 397, 147 4 4 4 2 12, 079 5, 264 7, 209 1 1 1 1 1 1 5, 516 West Virginia.. 3 2 .... to 2 o 1 1 .... 19, 846 21,106 26, 734 3 1 1 4 3 1 27, 697 27, 670 24, 583 Tennessee... 2 2 4 3 1 1 1 1 3 8 , 300 8 , 602 11, 543 Ohio : Hanging Rock... 3 7 10 7 3 1 1 5 3 23,169 28, 601 26,015 17 11 8 28 28 1 2 200. 785 157, 888 154, 287 Miscellaneous. n 7 1 18 16 o 3 3 1 5 80,167 119, 042 151, 864 Total of Ohio. 31 25 9 56 51 5 5 6 6 8 304,121 305, 531 332,166 3 4 7 7 2 1 39, 221 32, 486 11,632 Illinois.. 3 7 10 10 2 2 1 78, 627 55, 7y6 37, 946 1 2 3 3 13, 382 795 3, 672 Missouri. 8 .... 8 to 2 1 1 2 55, 509 46, 016 26, 724 Total. 81 96 11 177 167 10 14 20 16 24 946, 913 933, 900 884, 872 f One stack altered from charcoal. One stack torn down. 246 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. CHARCOAL. States. 43 CB O £ l+i-T ~ = C „ jr © 22 -L 2C —' CC _ CO l-j|| *2 o j X P © 1 w js 6 6 »p * h — 1- oc 50 - o £ ® a 3 rS ® -r |£ O ” « o © 2 — ^ £ ri — 1 £ s ^ p," 5 (7 " g *.2 p«Iii *o gl c P. 5 To > © 0 . SS "5 e — 'x .3 OP. © O © . r -V- g® X > rz e ® © *E. £ C£ 2 3 -O 1 X rr i To d £ No. of stacks project. ed in 1875. Make of pig-iron in 1872, net tons. Make of pig-iron in 1873, net tons. .2 §g •7 0 ‘5.® 3 <*- « ©2 es 3 i_ i i.... 780 1,60*1 o' o 2 .... 2 000 3,100 3, 450 4 1 1 5 5;.... 12 820 15 704 17. 777 3 7 10 10 .... 22, 700 2G, 977 14 5l| 0, 8 4 17 17_ 0 1 19[ 812 29| 329 28,293 21 18 G 3!) 39_ 1 45, 033 45, 854 40i 978 10 4 a 14 14 .... 29, 044 30, 315 25i 003 Virginia. 13 21 4 34 32 2 0 0 1 2 2l| 445 20| 075 25, 111 North Carolina. 2 0 8 8!.... I 1 2 1,073 1. 432 1, 340 ... i 8 8 8 .... Georgia. 3 6 0 7 2 1 3 O 2,945 7, 501 4,270 Alabama. G G i 12 o ii 3 0 3 12,512 22, 283 30, 463 .... 1 1 1 .... 1 G19 230 1, 012 West Virginia. o_o 4 41 1 1 1 950 1, 950 3; 400 8 13 G 23 OO 1 O 39, G99 42,219 36, 044 11 7 G Is 17 1 3 34, 094 34; 532 37; 227 Ohio: 28 C 8 34 33 1 87, 440 92,3G5 85, 873 ... .1 3 3 §4.... 182 8| 133 6, 962 / 28 9 8 37 37 1 95,622 100, 498 92, 835 .... 1 1 1_ 2, 100 Michigan. 15 14 o 20 28: 1 G 0 6 86, GIG 113, 475 128', 969 4 7 11 10. 1 O 1 27, 790 38, 880 28, 973 .... 1 1 .... 1 8 3 11 9 2 O 3 45,589 39, 536 49, 093 1 .... 1 1_ 1 2, 500 1 .... 1 .... 1 1 200 Total. 132 143 40 207 232 17 1 21 G 9 25 500, 363 574, 720 572, 817 $ Ono stack abandoned in 1874. ANTHRACITE COAL AND COKE. l| 2 3 | 3].... 1........ 37, 24G 35,268 8,736 _ 1 4 1_ ... 1 1... 1 3 4 4 .... i| ii.. 37,246 44, 004 1 | 1 1 RECAPITULATION. Charcoal. 152 145 40 297 282 17 21 6 9 25 500, 363 574,720 572, 817 Bituminous coal and coke .... 81 96 11 177 167 10 14 20 16 24 916,913 933, 900 884, 872 Anthracite. 130 87 11 217 207 10 13 13 21 14 1, 369, 812 1, 312, 754 1.202. 144 1 3 .... 4 4 . . . . 1 1 37, 246 44, 004 25,840 1 li 1 _I_| 1 224 500 Charcoal and bitnminons coal. 1 4 .... 5 , 4 1 1 ...... -. 2,400 3,740 Total. 365 336 62 ||701 665 38: 50 41 46 63 2, 854, 558,2, 868,278 2, 689, 413 II Two furnaces, not included here, were abandoned in 1374. IRON-PRODUCTION IN THE UNITED STATES, 247 Stock of pig-iron unsold December 31,1874. States and districts. Anthracite, net tons. Bituminous coal and coke, net tons. Bituminous coal and charcoal, net tons. Charcoal, (low grade,) net tons. Charcoal, (car-wheel,) net tons. Total, net tons. # 101, 096 37, 959 10, 680 26, 448 138, 224 37, 959 Pennsylvania: 11,225 10, 308 21, 533 28, 791 40, 787 12, 868 22, 990 87, 650 12,230 15, 591 28, 791 40, 787 12, 868 22, 990 Schuylkill , 87, 650 12 230 15,591 105, 436 115, 471 11,225 10, 308 242, 440 4, 497 3, 853 1,008 5, 601 8, 080 2, 781 1, 221 17, 235 870 20, 657 23, 765 6, 387 17, 818 2, 500 4, 255 1, 220 15, 958 39, 042 8, 971 32, 992 27, 766 2, 981 Ohio : 11,450 25, 777 11, 952 50, 717 7, 580 69, 747 25, 777 22, 560 10, 608 49,179 61, 325 7, 580 118, 084 8, 796 7, 229 53,558 4, 333 66, 687 7, 229 9,138 51, 294 8, 699 38, 764 439 1,030 11, 500 Grand total.:. 248, 988 213, 498 2,981 247, 999 82,318 795, 784 IJNew England has but one anthracite furnace. **Indiana has but one charcoal furnace. Imports of iron and steel and manufactures thereof into the United States from all countries during the fiscal years 1871 to 1875 .—Gold values. 248 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. 1875. Values. ummmmuumn g rr-wtewilip §' ^ r-T Cl of f-T V § s GO~ 1 -s A 8 af is Mj • cf • • • o 1 £ ! > slgESISsHsIpIssil i co oo cT »-<" ci r-T o“ ! i i? I © £ 822PSS2gg O Cl O O M T - O 1 S? :i • ' ’ ' • ' : •CO . 1 1 i 1 ■3 §=5i£lls^ P¥ g Ws§i'i S> ^ ® r " ”” 0 ~ ISasSBis I immm s F-f -T cf t-~ 1 s' 00 § © ft sIIaSISSS i * -Wi iSiiilii i i j s r.j 00 s s *3 o o" o' O r-T o' *3333333 1 miam § - Vef O’ $ 1 i * 1 fc PgtsgSpS s a :i i i : i i : ; § i r I _r £ 1 a > mm iiii i^l'i !fg: s' s* j " mum g :sll2§15 1 ri~- -■ o £ §f 5 I s A mm in | 8, 's S3' jS'g Kill : E o i ts I 5 Pig-iron. Castings. Bar-iron. Boiler-iron. Band, hoop, and scroll iron. Railroad bars or mils ol' iron. Railroad bars or rails ol' steel*. Sheet-iron. Old and scrap iron. 1-Tn.rflwfirA : :g ; 1 is : — ; u : 1 ill ill 1 iff iililg 111!* f-cois< —T-Ht'-aot-r-i CO!00^-i«CD1>C'jOMC CO TJ» O© WO'TOOC t- es co oo © 35 so so c ■'T t-- t- Cl ti-otcon t- ©5 ^ •*3* c© r CD H (, 5MOMOO h j- cc Tf o -< io x - o m a ^ cj fMOOOOCOCOTO^QO^OOO^lflfM int-oooindoaocoot- so ^ oo“ r-T co i -4 co i -4 r 4 1 CO ^ lO —ICOOOOO JiOtOTOt-H^O i ©i ©i ©i m t- oo g> ©'^ , dCO< 35 ©lCO©lCOOOCOCO©lt'-t--> 3 'r'-CO W©M©0-tH«tOOCHl-CD50H5lCO CDiOOQiOOOHiJ'QCU-CDO'^aOO.H (35GOt'-C5aoaor-cot'-©iioco-”ico©icococo tonmr. (M 00 t^'T(MOJ®©COHQCi-iO<'3'Vl- *4 rjT t 4 00* r41-4 r4 -»4 of ccT t-t-©Tj”-§ a§-^!!.§i=l !!!!?>= g C3 -G T3 >G 7J § c5 c3 s S-g^ 2 5 S ’V -3 ■ r T* ^ ’*-* f~, bfi ® ^ -r-i § *CJ - j •H c 3 0 ! o eS 5! cS PnOpq^cqp^W £ P -t-J O oj II ^ C3 ° a Si 02O 250 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. CHAPTER IX. JAPAN, CHINA, TUEKESTAN, INDIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND AUSTRALIA. The iron-ores and the steel of Japan ; Japanese furnace ; Chinese exhibit OF IRON-ORES AND IRON FROM THE MARINE ARSENAL AT FOUCHOW; NATIVE CAST¬ INGS from Turkestan ; Iron and steel of British India ; Indian coals ; Native furnace and methods of producing iron ; Wootz or Indian steel ; Buttons and forged ingots of ; Deposits of iron-ore ; New Zealand ; Ilfra¬ combe Iron Company’s steel bell. 167. The iron-ores and the steel of Japan.— The Japanese, who have entered most intelligently into the true spirit of the exhibition, have brought with them the best collection of their minerals yet seen abroad. In this collection we hud their iron-ores chiefly in the form of iron-sand from the beaches of the volcanic shores of Uipon and Yesso. Magnetic and limonite ores are not wanting, but the disintegrated sandy ore is most used, being better suited than the massive ores to their primitive methods of manufacture. Their fuel is charcoal, and it is piled, together with the ore, in small quadrangular furnaces about 20 feet high. The blast is thrown in at the side from double bellows, worked by hand, aud when sufficient ore has been reduced to form a bloom an opening is made in the front of the furnace, and the mass is pulled out and forged by hand. After several reheatiugs and forgings, rough disks of iron are obtained, which are cut up by chisels into short strips or bars ready for sale. A series of such bars, ranging from one to two feet in length, are in the collection. There is also a model of the furnace commonly used. It has a square base and a pyramidal shaft, with an opening in front and two tuyere- holes on opposite sides. The model is one-twentieth of the size of the furnace, and from this the dimensions which follow are taken: Base, 10 feet square; height, 5 feet 10 inches; stack, 25 feet high. It appears to be like the old German oven or “stuhl” furnace, in which blooms only were made and pig-iron was an accidental product. The bottom or hearth is filled with charcoal and ashes, then the stack is similarly lined. A square opening is left in the back for charging the ore and fuel. About the year 1860 an attempt was made to work the sand-ore of Yesso in a high blast-furnace, built after a European model, by Takeda,. a talented Japanese engineer, but it was abandoned after an inspection and report to the government by the writer and Mr. Pumpelly. Since 252 VIENNA. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. then, near Yarauksbinai, on Volcano Bay, small furnaces have been erected for making blooms. The furnace is torn down in front upon the completion of the process for each charge. The bloom generally weighs about one-third as much as the charge.* Magnetic iron-ore of good quality exists in Xambu, at the northern end of isipon, and has been successfully worked by Mr. Ohosima. In addition to the bar-iron a great many samples of steel were shown. The steel is peculiar, and the precise method of its manufacture is not known. It is in irregular, spongy, or cellular masses, looking like slag or some meteorites. Although sufficiently brittle to be broken up into fragments, as desired by purchasers, it is malleable, and may be wrought into bars. The quality is excellent. Some of these specimens of steel were from the north part of Choisiu, or near it, and are called i; mother of bar-steelothers are from Bakoni, near Fusi-no-yama and from Oisiu. IBS. China.— The short and roughly-forged blooms and bars of iron sent from the interior of China show that methods of production simi¬ lar to those of Japan prevail there. The work of developing the vast deposits, both of ore and of coal, which that country is known to pos¬ sess has not yet commenced on a large scale under the direction of for- eign'ers, but there is a large government establishment at the Fouchow marine arsenal, province of Foukien, which was represented in an inter¬ esting manner in the Chinese section. At this establishment the native iron product of Foukien and the surrounding country is worked up into merchantable bars and rods. The works are superintended by foreign¬ ers employed by the government, under a commission from Pekin, Pros¬ per Gujal director, assisted by a committee of four mandarins of high rank. Some 2,500 Chinese are employed, and there are 130 offi¬ cers and superintendents. The list includes 000 carpenters and marines, S00 workmen and apprentices, 500 laborers, 500 soldiers, 130 officers and superintendents. This establishment sends a very interesting series of its products, consisting chiefly of forged bars and rods bent and broken in various ways to exhibit the quality, and all of which show a high degree of ex¬ cellence. The greater part of the native iron is delivered to the works in the shape of small blooms weighing only four or five pounds. The ore, a fine black sand, like old-fashioned desk-sand, is a mixture of ordi¬ nary quartz river-sand with magnetic iron-sand, and is obtained by washing the river-sand, which sometimes does not yield over li to 2 per cent, of ore. Five hundred pounds of ore yield, in their rude furnaces, about one hundred and fifty pounds of impure iron, which, by reheating aud forging, is finally reduced to only eighty-three pouuds. When these rough blooms aud bars are combined aud forged into commercial bars there is a further loss, but a very tough aud fibrous irou is obtained. A very considerable quantity of old iron from condemned vessels, wrecks, and other sources is obtained at the sea ports, and this is also worked *Blakiston, Journey in l'esso, Jour. Geog. Soc., 1S72, 136. IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTS OF BRITISH INDIA. 253 up at the arsenal. This establishment has been in successful operation since October, 1867, and appears to be giving not only important com¬ mercial results but to be educating a great number of the Chinese in western industrial methods. 169. Central Asia—Turkestan. —There are interesting specimens of native castings from Turkestan, made, in part at least, according to the catalogue published by the imperial Bussian commission, by melt¬ ing up the broken and disused imported iron castings. The furnaces are very rude. They line the interior of a cast-iron pot with a layer of clay 1J inches thick and fill it with charcoal, lighted at the bot¬ tom. A blast is thrown in from a tuyere just above the edge of the vessel and is directed downward toward the bottom. The charge of cast iron is piled upon the charcoal in pieces weighing from twenty to sixty pounds. Charcoal and more iron are added, as needed, until the pot is filled with molten iron. The slags and scoriae being skimmed off, the iron is dipped out and the castings are made in moist sand. The blast is obtained from two leather sacks fitted with valves and worked by hand, so as to give a nearly continuous blast. BRITISH INDIA. 170. The iron and steel products of British India are shown in the Indian collection, where we find a great variety of iron-ores and coals, one variety of the latter giving a very superior coke well adapted to the production of iron. Large blocks of magnetic, specular, and hematite ores bear witness to the wealth of India in the raw material, while the diminutive bars and hand-made blooms show that the industry of iron has not made progress generally beyond the primitive methods. Through the labors of Dr. Oldham and his assistants of the geological survey of India, the great resources of that country in ores of iron have been made known. Superior magnetic ore exists in mountain masses near Salem and other places. Three separate attempts have been made to establish the manufacture of iron in India on a large scale, and con¬ siderable British capital, aided by the government, has been invested there, but up to this time without adequate success. Nothing has been done in this direction for several years, but renewed attention is being- given to the subject, and Mr. Bauerman, a mining engineer, has been sent out from England to examine and report upon the mines, with a view to the erection of iron works on a large scale. One of the great difficulties want of proper fuel—has been removed by the discovery of a bed of good coking coal. The India coals belong not to the Carbonif¬ erous but to the Triassic series, and are allied, in their nature and age, to those of China. The native production of iron is confined to the poorer classes. They make plow-points, spades, &c., but for wagon-tires they prefer foreign bars. The method of working was clearly shown by a very interesting model of a native iron furnace and its surroundings, showing the whole operation of smelting, forging, and reheating. The ore is broken up by 254 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. hand into small grains, and is charged into a low, box-like furnace, about four feet high and three feet and a half broad, with a large opening at the base in front. On each end there is a box four feet by two to hold ore and fuel. The blast is supplied by bellows made of sheep or goat skin, worked by two women, and the bloom, when pulled out of the furnace, is chopped up by men with heavy hatchet shaped hammers. The pieces are re¬ heated and forged out. About twelve hours are required to each charge and the product is about one-third in weight of the ore charged. The ore is added at the top in layers with charcoal. The reheating furnace is also very simple and primitive in its con¬ struction, being a box or oven about 0 feet long and 4 feet high, built over the blooms upon the ground. The blast is thrown in at the side. According to Dr. Oldham, in the memoirs, * also on exhibition, the native furnaces range in height 3 to 5 feet, with an interior diameter of from 9 inches to 1 foot. They stand about 2 feet wide upon the ground, and taper upward, the back part more than the front. They are made of red clay, mixed with sand. The linings of clay last only three or four days. An excavation about a foot in depth is made for a hearth for the bloom. The opening in front is from 12 to 14 inches high, and is closed up during the operation. The blast is obtained by hand-power from skin-bellows, and the tuyeres are made of bamboo or sheet-iron covered with clay. A strong heat, varying in duration from two and one-lialf to four hours, is sufficient to give a bloom. An opening is then made in front, the bloom is drawn out, and while hot is cut into two parts by ax like sledges. The usual charge is about eighteen pounds of ore, and the average product, with four men at each furnace, is three blooms in twelve hours. Such blooms are reheated several times, and hammered and worked into rude bars about one foot long and two inches wide. Wootz or Indian steel is prepared from such bars.t lu I860, a tax amounting to Rs. 1210-12-7 was raised on 775 such furnaces, while in 1859, 928 furnaces yielded Rs. 1451-1-7. 171. Wootz or Indian steel.— Of equal, if not greater, interest, is a Fig. 65. series of specimens of the famous “ wootz” or Indian steel. It is cruci¬ ble steel, made in small quantities, and from carefully-selected materials. * Memoirs Geological Survey of India, iv, 155. t See an account by Mr. Heath, Jour. Roy. Asiatic Soc., v. IRON-ORES OF INDIA. 255 The small clay crucibles, or pots, not over 4 inches high, are shown, to¬ gether with the “button” as it remains in the crucible after cooling. The contents, after the fusion, are not poured out into a mold, but re¬ main undisturbed in the bottom of the vessel. These buttons weigh only a few ounces, and are interesting from the peculiar crystallization which forms in the mass, and shows distinctly by fine raised radial lines on the surface. Button of wootz. —These buttons are malleable, and some are shown forged out into small square bars ready for market. Care is taken to leave traces of the crystalline markings at one end of the bar. They have every appearance of homogeneity, but a sample submitted to tests gives evidence of a different condition. The bar presented to me by the commissioners (No. 131 of Indian catalogue) has, at my request, been forged or drawn out at the Griswold Bessemer Steel Works, in Troy, and under the supervision of Mr. A. L. Holley, who reports it drew well at a low Bessemer heat, and wjien annealed broke off short, when cold, and would not bend at all on three trials. Fracture fine. “ The ingot is apparently full of cinder, and is hence shaky and seamy.” A piece drawn to a cold chisel, and tempered as usual, did not stand well. The experiments were carefully made, and the steel was not overheated. Evidently the ordinary treatment does not answer for this steel. The radial crystallization of the button is evidence of a differ¬ ence of composition within the mass, one portion being apparently more fusible than the other. When drawn out this gives the effect of in¬ cluded “ cinder.” 172. Iron-ores of India. —There are vast deposits of iron-ore in Northern India, near Kuraarm and on Nerbudda Kiver, and they are generally distributed over Northern India, but usually far from suitable fuel, even from forests. These ores are the magnetic and hematite, (specular.) Of the Salem iron region, “ Kunjamullay ” Oldham (iv, 157,) says they are close to railway lines, in gneissic rocks, forming a mountain. There are three principal beds of magnetic iron-ore, besides, two others that crop to a limited extent. The two lower beds form con¬ spicuous outcrops, and average say 50 feet in thickness, each. There are vast quantities of debris all about the mountain extending for one or two miles. The yield of the Porto Novo Company’s furnace, at Bey- poor, was about 55 per ceut. of pig-iron, requiring 13J tons of coal for each ton of pig-iron obtained. India coal. —There is only one good coking coal known in India at present. It is from Sanktoria colliery, Ranigunj coal-field, Lower Ben¬ gal, and gives from 74 to 76 per cent, of good coke, a large specimen of which, nearly two feet long, is shown with the other minerals of India. This field is considered to be the chief coal-field of India, and is prob¬ ably Lower Oolite or Triassic in age. There are many different beds, aud it is singular that some of them do not give a coking coal. The production (1873) is now nearly 484,642 tons annually, and it is increas- 256 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ing. The mines are all worked with uncovered lamps. No Carbonifer¬ ous coal is known in India, but it is supposed that there may be some in Burmah. New Zealand. —The New Zealand court of the Exhibition contained a variety of specimens of magnetic, specular, and limouite ores, sent by the Colonial Museum. Among these the following may be noted: Magnetic iron-ore from Dun Mountain, Nelson, forming a vein 16 inches thick in serpentinous strata, also from Otago in mica schists. Specular ore (hematite) from the same localities, in regular veins in greenstone, (at Dun Mountain,) and in a G-foot vein at Shotover, Otago. The black- iron sand from the beach at Taranaki was also represented, together with blooms and ingots, and bars of titanic steel and of workable steel. The ingot is a spongy, porous mass internally, but is compact at the surface and edges. The bar of crude titanic steel is 16 by 1J by £ inches. The Ilfracombe Iron Company exhibited a bell of fine tone, cast from the steel made L>y the company. CHAPTER X. HYDRAULIC FORGING. The parts of locomotives shows by Haswell, at Vienna; Etched'surfaces, EXHIBITING THE “FLOW” OR STRUCTURE; THE PROCESS AT THE STATE RAILWAY Works; Forging ingots, car-wheels, and boiler-heads; Translation of Haswell’s memoir; The press; Wrought-iron cross-heads; Journal-boxes; Link motion sliding-blocks ; Cylinder-heads; Locomotive wheels and cranks; Illustrations of the manufacture of car-wheels under the press. 174. The Austrian section contains examples of successful forging of intricate objects of large size in iron and steel, by Mr. Haswell, engineer of the Imperial State Railway Works, at Vienna. The objects shown are chiefly axle-box frames, cross-heads for locomotive pistons, link-bars, &c., and have been sliced longitudinally and then etched with acid so as to develop the grain or fiber and show its flow in the mold and gen¬ eral conformity to the shape of the object. 175. This method of forging, known as “ Hasweli’s system,” has been carried by him to a great degree of perfection, and is used in Vienna with great economy, while it gives results superior to those obtained by the ordinary methods. It consists essentially in forcing or pressing iron or steel, while at a welding heat, into suitable molds by means of the hydraulic press, carrying a follower or u stamp” upon the end of the piston. Both the mold and the stamp are used cold. Ingots or bars may be similarly forged or di'awn down without a mold upon an anvil, without giving any blow or shock, as there is of necessity when heavy steam-hammers are used. By the courtesy of Mr. Haswell 1 was admitted to the works, and shown the operation of the two powerful hydraulic presses upon both ingots and parts of locomotives. The small press with an 18-inch piston gives 600 tons pressure, and the large press with a piston 24 inches in diameter gives 1,200 tons pressure. The pressure in the pumps is 600 atmospheres. A soft Bessemer-steel ingot, weighing 2,030 pounds, was forged under the large press, and yielded noiselessly to the pressure as if it had been putty or soft cheese. As the piston-liead descends, the metal is forced each way, and the pressure visibly extends to the very center of the mass, as shown by the movements of the lines of scale at the sides. The ends of the ingot are bulged out at the center, and not drawn over at the surface, as is often the case with hammer-forging, which, com¬ pared with hydraulic-press forging, seems very superficial. Under the 17 I 258 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. press, the whole mass of the ingot is affected. One great advantage’of this method is the avoidance of great shocks, attendant upon the use of ponderous steam-hammers. 170. In forging intricate pieces, the molds are so made that they can be taken apart, and are held during the forging by strong bands. The follower, or stamp, is made of cast iron. The inside of the mold is oiled with old grease from railway-boxes. A lump of white-hot steel of the proper weight is thrown in; the stamp descends upon it and forces the metal into every recess and angle of the mold. Any excess of metal rises at the sides of the stamp, and is cut off when cold. Such torgings are alike in size and weight, and, of course, require much less trimming and fitting to bring them into shape for finishing. Care is required, of course, to get the right quantity of metal, to avoid a defi¬ ciency or an excess. The method is successfully applied to the manufacture of car-wheels, the spokes and parts of the hub being forged in o ne piece, together with the crank-pin. Boiler-heads are made und er the press in two heats. They are forced through a ring, and come out very true and per¬ fect in form. 177. The importance of this method of manufacture to the industries of the United States justifies more than this brief notice, and as Mr. Haswell favored me with an illustrated copy of his descriptive brochure published iu German in Vienna, I have had it translated and abridged for this report, and append it.* MANUFACTURE OF PARTS OF LOCOMOTIVES BY PRESSURE. By Robert Lane Haswell. [Translation.] Forging by the action of Ilaswell’s patent hydraulic-press, which was for the first time attempted iu the machine-shops of the Austrian States Railroad Company, in 1861, has since been so materially improved, that at the present time there are but few parts of a locomotive which can¬ not bo made by this method. It may be said that this process is essentially identical with the com¬ mon process of swaging with the steam-hammer, but to the close observer it is evident that Haswell’s system greatly excels, since the pieces made by it are much more perfectly shaped, and by it it is pos¬ sible to press out such pieces or parts which could not be hammered out with the swage-hammer; and further, this process is much more econom¬ ical ; renders it possible to produce those parts of a locomotive which hitherto have been made of two or more pieces iu one piece ; and lastly, there is a great saving of time and therefore of money. * Fabrication vou Locomotiv-Bestandtheilen durch Pressen system Haswell. Von Robert Lane Haswell. Mit 5 Tafeln. Wien, 1873. (Separat-Abdruck aus der Zeit- schrift des dsterreicbiscben Ingenieur- und Architekten-Vereines, XII. u. XV. Heft. 1872.) haswell’s hydraulic forgings. 259 Some pieces which were made by this process at the works of the States Railroad Company, and which were exhibited at Paris in 1867, were so complete that they were taken for cast iron by French and English engineers, and it is a thing of great importance that a great many complicated pieces can be made by this process at the same cost as castings. The quality of the work produced by this process, we may say, is of the very best, in consequence of the immense pressure brought to bear upon the material, and the process is particularly valuable for making articles out of Bessemer steel, siuce a steady pressure is much better adapted to this material than hammering. The many experiments which have been made have been so successful that we are justified in making the assertion that very soon no other process of forging will be employed. The most profitable application of this process is, without doubt, found in the manufacture of the more complicated forms. Borsig and Schwartzkopff, at Berlin, have two patent Haswell presses, one of 24,000 cwt., and another of 60,000 cwt. At Niederbrouu, a press of 24,000 cwt. is building, and in England two are now in operation. Every one who has anything to do with the building of locomotives knows how difficult it is, how long it takes, and what great expense is involved; therefore,convinced of the immense advantage of this method, I have decided to describe in detail the exact processes which are em¬ ployed in the Imperial States Railway Locomotive shops, under the special direction of the patentee, Mr. John Haswell, hoping thereby to show to others the advantage, aud to hasten the introduction of a sys¬ tem of forging which is not so commonly understood as it deserves to be. 178. The Hydraulic Press. —The press used in the manufacture of the pieces here treated of has a power of 15,000 cwt., and a stroke of 20 inches. It is easy to see that such an apparatus is cheaper than a steam-hammer, since no such heavy foundations are required; and it is therefore more suitable for small establishments. 179. Wrought-iron cross-heads.— In the manufacture, under the press, of locomotive cross-heads, the masses of iron to be pressed out are made in the usual manner by forging together refuse pieces of scrap and sheet iron. The weight of a bloom to make‘six cross-heads is 13 cwt. These blooms are hammered out, under a steam-hammer of 80 cwt., to a length of about 7 feet, a breadth of 11 inches, and a thickness of 7 inches. The bloom is then cut into six equal parts, aud the pieces cut down till they weigh about 190 or 195 pounds each, aud will easily go into the mold. The pieces are placed in a common heating-furnace while still warm. The pressing is done at a single stroke, in the cast-iron mold placed upon the bed of the press. See Fig. 111. The mold, as shown in the figure, consists of two parts, the upper and lower, a and &, which are inclosed iu the wrought-iron blocks d. The 260 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. form of the cross-head is impressed into the upper part, and in the lower'part, b, the form of the rest of the cross head is made by the coni¬ cal side pieces c c. These pieces are so made as to permit of their re¬ moval from the mold with the cross-head. The disk f determines the height of the shoulder for the piston-rod, and can be made thicker or thinner as desired. The disk/, also the side pieces c c , are put into the lower mold from above before the parts a and b are put together. G is the die which is fastened to the head of the press, and which closes up the mold at h h as far as the canals p p, (which must be kept open for the exit of the air,) where it meets the prolonged side of the cross-head. The die G’cousists of two parts, g g , of which the upper part is made of cast iron, but the lower part must be made of cast steel, on account of its rapid destruction by burning oft’. The two bed plates, q q , limit the stroke of the press, aud consequently the thickness and height of the cross-head. The mold rests upon a bed plate, o o, (upon the height of which depends the length of stroke of the press,) aud this bed-plate is placed upon a slide to permit of its beiug moved to the right or to the left from under the press. After the mold has been placed in the right position beneath the die, the props are adjusted to keep it in its proper iiaswell’s hydraulic forgings. 261 place (luring the operation of pressing and the inside is greased to facili¬ tate the removal of the pressed piece. 1 The iron to be pressed must be at a strong welding heat when placed in the mold, and one single pressure then produces the cross-head. To take the finished cross-head from the mold, there are on the outside of the upper part two strong iron hooks, u u , by which it is fastened to the head of the press at m m with chains after the removal of the props. The side pieces c c, as shown in Fig. 112, start from the lower mold when the upper mold is drawn up, and are separated from the cross¬ head by a gentle stroke of the hammer. The lower mold is then re¬ moved from beneath the press by means of the fore-mentioned slide, (see Fig. Ill,) and the upper mold put upon the foundation frame b b, which comes to stand in place of the former mold. The chains are now re¬ moved, the die G raised out of the mold as shown in figure 112; the pieces g (/, which fit in the mold on the side of the die at Z, are placed in position against the top of the cross-head, and then, by a gentle pres¬ sure, the finished cross-head is forced out of the mold. General remarks .—In the manufacture of cross-heads, bed-plates, jour¬ nal-boxes, and all such parts as must be made in a closed space, the 262 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. weight of the piece which is to be pressed must be exact, as this is the most certain way to insure the right dimensions. The piece must more¬ over have but little play-room in the mold, as the process of pressing is very rapid, and the product might be uneven if permitted to move dur¬ ing the pressing. Immediately before pressing it is a good rule to throw iu a few handfulls of hard coal-dust upon the white hot piece in the mold. This produces gas, which explodes on raising the die, and there¬ by tends to loosen the pressed piece iu the mold. Two furnaces, one for the hammer and one for the press, will produce from 25 to 30 cross-heads in ten hours. The cost of cross-heads made by this process is about ten florins per hundred-weight. ISO. Wroughtiron journal-boxes. —In the manufacture of jour¬ nal boxes of wrought iron, the forging of the blooms, made iu the same manner as in the previous case, is done under the steam hammer. A bloom of the weight requisite for four journal-boxes (450 pounds) is hammered out to a length of 3 feet 4 inches, a width of 94 inches, and thickness of 5 inches. The bloom is cut into four pieces, and each piece planed down to a weight of 107 pounds, and, while still warm, are put into the heating-furnace. Commonly two furnaces are employed, one for the hammer and one for the press. The mold is of the same general character as the one for cross-heads; the side pieces c c in this case being made so as to make the grease-boxes, and other changes being made to suit the case. The manipulation is also the same. The journals are taken out by raising the upper mold, removing the lower, and pressing them out as before, with the same precautions. The great advantage of this process is that, under the great pressure which is produced, the iron enters all the parts of the mold, and a grain is made which follows the contour of the pieces, which are therefore much stronger. In Figs. 107 and 103 is shown the grain of the iron in a journal-box and cross-head made in this manner. This grain is brought out so as to be easily seen by treating the sections of the pieces with acid for twenty- four hours, and shows how compact the irou of the pieces must be. 181. L ink-motion sliding-blocks. — The manufacture of objects with annular openings is well illustrated in the production by pressure out of wrought irou of the sliding block which is attached to the link in locomotive engines. Fig. 113 shows a sliding-block and the manner in which it is connected with the link. Fig. 114 is a front view of the same without the liuk. It is customary, for the sake of economy and convenience, to make two at once, and then to cut them iu two. In Figs. 114 and 135, page 273, these complete double sliding-blocks are seen as they come from the press. The bearing points get in this way the theoretically correct grain, as is seen in Fig. 109. The piece is, moreover, so correctly fash¬ ioned as to leave little to do after the pressing. Origmal-Abdruclc ernes Locomotiv Lagers u 24 stiindiger Aetzung in Komgs-Wasser Eeduoed from drawiog, printed direct from the etched surface of a section of a Locomotive axle box frame. Schnitt eines gepresstenKreuzkopfes nach 2d stundiger Aetzung m Komgs-Wasser FIG.108. Section of a pressed Locomotive Crosshead, reduced from a plate printed direct from the etched surface, after 24 hours immersion in aqua regia. SCHNITT EINES GEPRESSTEN BALANCIER-FEDER BUGELS ill Konigs -Wasser gealzt 264 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITON, 1873. Fir.. lir>.—Mold for sliding-block. Fig. llfk.—Stamp or die. , 5” n"' u > Ill n 5 9- C Fig. 116 ( 7 .—Side view of the punch. 266 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. after being heated, as before mentioned. At a single stroke the piece is pressed. The die C is then raised, the side-piece / is removed by sim¬ ply knocking away the prop n. The punch P (Figs. 117 and US) is now placed in the impression already made by the die C, and pressed through. The wedges and props are then removed, the upper part ele¬ vated away from the lower, and then let down upon it again after lay¬ ing some blocks between the two. The stamp Q (Fig. 119) is then placed upon the piece, and a gentle pressure frees it from the mold. The piece is then sawn in two and finished. By employing two fur- l'ig. 119.—Stamp. naces, from twenty to thirty of these sliding-blocks can be made in ten hours. Figures 134 to 138, page 273, further illustrate the process. 182. Cylinder heads. —Tbemannfactureofcylinder-headsof wrought iron by pressing is very similar to the forging of the same with steam- hammers, by swaging, but the difference in the expense of manufacture is very considerable. Fig. 120. The bloom is made as before described, 260 pounds being required for one head. This piece is hammered under a steam-hammer of 80 hundred- HAS WELL’S HYDRAULIC FORGINGS. 267 weight until it has a thickness of 4^ inches and a diameter of 17 inches. Four pieces are placed in the heating-furnace at a time. The cast-iron mold in which it is pressed is represented in Fig. 120. It consists of two parts, A and B, and the stamp C. Fig. 120 shows the mold as it appears when the cylinder-head is pressed, but not yet punched. E E represents the piece as placed in the mold before press¬ ing. A A is a block of cast steel, which is put in the bottom of the mold so as to give a harder edge, which will better resist when the hole is subsequently punched. After the cylinder-end is shaped, the die C is raised and the ring nn, Fig. 121, is laid on the surface of the*.piece to prevent it from splitting; then the punch, of 2 inches in diameter, is placed in the impression made by the die and then pressed through. The piece is separated from the mold as in the case last described. From 20 to 25 of these pieces can be made in ten hours, with two fur¬ naces, one for the hammer and one for the press. Another mold would, of course, double the production. 183. Locomotive-wheels in solid segments by pressure.— The manufacture of the parts of wheels by the process of pressure enables the manufacturer to make segments with two or three spokes; and this process, in point of economy, strength, and beauty of product, has great advantages over the ordinary methods. A wheel with ten spokes, when made by the common methods, consists of twelve pieces; but when made by this process it is composed of but four pieces. We will give here only a description of the manufacture of the most complicated part of the wheel; that is the part with the crank-pin, as the other parts are made by a simpler repetition of the same process. The manufacture of the segment of a wheel from wrought iron .—The bloom is made iu the ordinary way, from scrap-iron, and has a weight of 250 pounds. 268 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The bloom is forced under a steam-hammer (GO cwt.) into a parallelo- pipedon 10 inches long, 1L inches high, and 7 inches wide. W hile still warm it is put into the heating-furnace, and when very hot. is forged with the steam-hammer into the form shown in Fig. 122. The piece is then replaced in the heating-furnace preparatory to pressing. Fig. 12-1.—Lower mold B. The piece is pressed in the cast iron mold, (Figs. 123-12o.) This con¬ sists of the upper mold A, the lower mold C, and the die C. IIASWELL’s HYDRAULIC FORGINGS. 269 Fig. 127.—Vertical section through press and mold. The punch <7, which is seen in the lower mold, is kept in position by a brace. The outline of the die C is like that of the bottom of the mold, but with the addition of the shoulder /, which makes an impres- Fig. 126.—Wheel-segment in press. 270 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. sion to guide the subsequent perforation. The mold stands on a bed¬ plate, O, (Fig. 126,) on which it can slide either to the right or left as desired. When the mold is fixed in the proper position, and the braces U are fixed so as to hold it there, and the mold thoroughly greased to facilitate the removal of the form, the piece (Fig. 122) is placed in the mold, being from the heating furnace at a strong welding-heat. Now follows quickly the action of the press, by which the piece is shaped as shown in Fig. 123. The die c is now raised, and a punch corresponding in shape to the piece cl in the lower mold is placed upon the impression made at /. The piece d is then removed by knocking away the brace, and the piece is perforated, thus forming the spokes. By a similar process the hub is formed. The piece is removed from the mold by the same gen¬ eral process before described, by raising the upper part of the mold and gently forcing the piece out. With two furnaces twenty-four pieces are produced in ten hours. The expense is from 30 to 33 per cent, of the cost of forging the same under a steam-hammer. The making of smaller wheels in one solid piece is, of course, only a repetition of the process of making segments. The whole wheel is lirst pressed and the spokes indented, and the interspaces afterward punched out. It may appear that there is a great waste of material in the process of pressing; but it will not be forgotten that every scrap is again used, and therefore no objection of this kind can be urged against this very important process. Figs. 128-130, inclusive, further illustrate this pro. cess. 184. Locomotive-cranks of wrought iron. —The bloom made in the same manner is forged into the shape represented in Fig. 131. It is then reheated in a furnace that will hold three such pieces of from 340 to 450 pounds each. The mold is shown in Fig. 132. The pressing is quite simple. After the mold is braced, the shaped and heated piece is put in and receives the pressure. It will be easy to see that the iron is forced to tlow into the die for the formation of the pin, as also the other parts of the mold. This flow necessarily creates a fiber which will run parallel with the pin, and will therefore be theoreti¬ cally correct. The same will be the case with the body of the crank and the shoulder for the axle, since the crank is made considerably shorter than the mold. After pressing the crank a punch is placed on HAS WELL’S HYDRAULIC FORGINGS. 271 the iudentatiou at (j and pressed through after removing the piece /from under the mold. Twenty cranks can be produced in ten hours, at from 13^ to '14 per cent, of the cost of cranks forged under the steam-hammer. Fig. 130.—View of die from beneath. 272 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Fig. 131.—Locomotive-crank, first stage. Fig. 132.—Vertical section through mold. Fig. 133-Crank. haswell’s hydraulic forging. 273 1JT Se- -2 9—Sir Sf—2 a VTlS - (r-Z -ZG- Fig. 134.—Mold for sliding-block plan. d b- M K ^2"6— '1 'j u -2 6.^ A i i L L 8 " 6 " io 6 f 8 " 6 '" —^ (_2 M B- K u, <—^ SL) K -c Fig. 135.—Plan of lower part of mold. ]q Fig. 136.—Section through mold. 18 I 274 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Fig. 137.—Section of mold and die. Fig. 138.—Plan showing part of mold. Hiy CHAPTER XI. IRON AS A MATERIAL FOR ART-WORK. Numerous examples in the exhibition of the use of iron in artistic manufac¬ tures ; Iron castings ; Forged railings and gates ; Damascened work of Spain ; REPOussfs work, Elcho Shield ; English-made gates and railings ; Cast-iron reproductions of art-objects ; Ilsendburg foundery ; Molding- sand ; Quality of the iron used ; Proper selections and mixtures. 185. This report would be deficient to a greater degree without at least a passing notice of the wealth of examples throughout the Exhibi¬ tion of the use of iron iu artistic manufactures. We find it in almost every .section, either cast or wrought, iu wire or in burnished steel. In the form of castings, we have the groups of life-size figures of men and animals, the exquisite bas-reliefs and reproductions of mediaeval armor, and of the patiently executed repousse work of gifted sculptors, sent by the Ilsenburg foundery, in the Harz. For forgings we have only to turn to the splendid gilded gratings fill¬ ing the spaces between the columns of the rotunda; to the entrance- gates of the jury pavilion ; to the gates and railings inclosing the house and grounds of the British commission; to the examples of mediaeval gates in the British section ; to gates and floriated ornaments in the Bel¬ gian and Italian sections ; and, finally, the railings of the Russian court. The damascened work of Spain also challenges our admiration, par¬ ticularly the objects shown by Placide Zuloaga, of Eibar, consisting of inlaid and carved iron, damascened caskets 6 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 4 inches high, for $250; buttons, shawl-pins, match-boxes, mirror- frames, platters, &c. The largest object is a shield of damascened iron, valued at $1,200. This industry appears to be reviving, and the artist has established agencies in London. For repousse work, the most notable example is found in the brilliant display made by the Elkingtons, of England. Here we find the famous Elcho volunteer challenge shield, presented by Lord Elcho to the volun¬ teers of Great Britain, to be given over annually to the successful com¬ petitors at the great Wimbledon tournament. The shield is held in trust for this purpose, and was loaned to the Messrs. Elkington to ex¬ hibit by the trustees. This is the largest work in repousse iron ever manufactured in England. It is 6 feet high, aud in the mediaeval style of art, from a design by F. Watts, R. A. Iron was selected as the ma¬ terial, because it does not tempt the cupidity of any one, and thus en¬ danger its destruction. The workmanship, and not the material, con- 276 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. stitntes the value. The shield, which in general has the Norman form, has a hexagonal center-piece in the upper portion, bordered with a girdle, at and upon which is the inscription, “ The Elcho Challenge Shield, A. D. 1802.” A medallion portrait of Her Majesty the Queen is sus¬ pended from this, and occupies a central position. Above and within the space inclosed by the baud there is a group representing Britannia. The crown and royal arms occupy the projecting points above and at the side. Upon the dexter side there is a representation of Queen Eliza¬ beth reviewing her troops at Tilbury, and opposite to it Queen Victoria opening the volunteer competition at Wimbledon by firing the first shot. There are also representations of the battles of Bannockburn, 1314, and of Floddeu Field, 1513, whilst at the foot two large-sized figures typify the close union now existing between the Euglish and Scotch. A bor¬ der of thistles and roses in high relief completes the idea. 18G. Wrought gates and railings.— In the Italian section we mention particularly the wrought-irou gates and railings sent by Pas- quale Fraud, Pome, decorated with bunches of grapes, grape-vines, and leaves, even the tendrils all wrought with singular fidelity and beauty. In the British section, aside from the Elkingtons’ work, the principal exhibitor of art iron-work is the Coalbrook Dale Company, Shropshire, which makes a specialty of entrance-gates, fencing, verandas, balco¬ nies, railings, fountains, vases, &c. They exhibit two lengths of railing on either side of the north entrances to the British section, and a grand entrance in mediaeval style, consisting of a pair of wrought-irou en¬ trance-gates, two hand-gates, four pillars, and short lengths of railing to match, executed by the company from designs by B. J. Talbert, esq. The enrichments are of cast iron applied, and the twisted bars are pro¬ duced by Tuddeuham's patent process. The gates, railings, gas, pillars, &c., inclosing the house of the royal British Commission, namely, the principal entrance of cast-sheet fence and gates, terminated by two gas-pillars; the two lengths improved cast palisade fence on either side; a length cast-sheet balcony-railing on east side; the west entrance to the building, of patent twisted angle- bar fence and gates; a length of the same fence, of various designs, on west and north sides; a length of bracket-railing on east side, within the grounds. Various coats of arms and trophies in and about the house of the royal British Commission. Various garden-chairs in grounds and park, namely, “ Osmunda Ke- galis,” “Water-Plant,” “Mediaeval,” “Midsummer Night’s Dream,” “Nasturtium,” “Horse Chestnut,” “ Medallion.” Various vases, &c., in grounds and park, namely, “ Milton,” “ Night and Morning,” “ Classic,” “ Jardiniere,” various flower-stands in grounds and park. CAST-IRON REPRODUCTIONS OF ART-OBJECTS. 187. Ilsenberg Foundery. —The castings from the celebrated H- senberg Foundery are shown in great variety in a special installation IRON-FOUNDERY AT ILSENBERG. 277 made of iron in one of the large buildings erected by Germany. Here are to be found reproductions of ancient armor, such as breast-plates? helmets, shields, sword-handles, &c., besides bas-reliefs, caskets, tazzas, and small objects for ornamental purposes. All of these objects are characterized by great sliarpuess of detail, smooth surfaces, and a higher degree of finish than is usually found in iron castings. The prices, also, are very moderate. An interesting history of the establishment and a technical discussion of the quality of the materials used, appears in u En¬ gineering,” and is appended. Count Stalberg WErnigerode’s iron-foundery at Ilsenberg, Harz.* —The Ilsenberg Iron-Works are amoug the oldest in Germany, and the iron-foundery there is mostprobablyoneoftheearliestin the world. In ancient documents written in the fifteenth century pots, plates, balls, &c., cast at Ilsenburg, are mentioned; while cast iron plates, which have been collected on the spot for some time past, afford additional evidence on this point. The director of the Ilsenberg Fouudery, Ober- hiitten, Inspector Schott, has collected and arranged these plates in his official residence, and the collection possesses much interest, not only from an historical, but also from au artistic point of view. All these plates have served as stove-plates, and almost all are marked with a date, the earliest being that of the year 1509. The subjects on the plates are chiefly taken from the history of the Bible, and the ornaments con¬ sist of busts, tournaments, and allegorical pictures. The latter begin with the commencement of the seventeenth century. Some of the older plates are very beautiful, and the whole collection proves in the best pos¬ sible manner the great perfection and the high position German art must have occupied in the sixteenth century, how it declined gradually during the thirty years’ war, and how it finally died out utterly during the eighteenth century. If the earlier time shows', however, the most originality—for iustance, Judith in the tent of Holoferues, surrounded by guns and gabions—the design of the figures, dresses, &c., is, nevertheless, so satisfactory from an artistic point of view, that the pattern-makers of that time who had carved the models, some of which are still at the stores of the fouudery, must have been men well skilled in their art, and must have attained a degree of perfection which has never been since reached. But the suc¬ cess did not rest with the skill shown in the pattern, the molder using the pattern evidently participated in it, otherwise such fine castings could not have been produced. With the decline of skill in making the patterns the taste naturally became corrupted, and the molding less and less perfect, until eventually it lost all artistic value; even in the beginning of the present century the art of molding was still in a very primitive state. When the taste for artistic design began to revive, the hands, still rough and unskillful, were led to better and higher-class productions, which elevated the taste. From “ Engineering,” 1873. 278 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. When the appreciation of elegant forms shall have become general, then, and only then, we shall have in all branches of industry products equal to those of the sixteenth century, and the debased taste, now too com¬ mon, will gradually disappear. The necessity of extending art to all departments of industry occurred, nearly forty years ago, to Mr. Schott, who was at that time engaged on the Brunswick Works, the Carlshiitte, and the Wilhelmshiitte, both works being still famed for the excellency of their foundery produc¬ tions. lie is now, and has been for thirty-five years, the managing director of the Ilsenberg Foundery, and from the first he sought to cul¬ tivate art in the productions of the works. The results of his exertions in this direction are shown by the exhibits of castings of works of art in the German annexe for art and industry at the Vienna Exhibition. The Ilsenberg Foundery exhibits at the Vienna Exhibition art-cast¬ ings, which represent chiefly objects of the Roman period, of the Middle Ages, of the Renaissance period, and generally of such well-known works produced by master-hands as are most suitable for reproduction in iron. They are worthy of all praise for the clearness of the castings, and ^specially for beauty of form. They are not only suitable tor deco¬ rative purposes, but they are very instructive. It is unfortunately but too true that the want of appreciation has caused numerous works of art to be destroyed. Even in the first half of this century it has happened that ancient church-vessels have been sold by the authorities for the value of the metal for remelting. Such vandalism, however, is now no longer possible, and objects of art are sought for and carefully preserved. How much art-education has pro¬ gressed in this direction has been fully proved by the many collections which have been made during the last few years. With refinement of taste increasing demands are made on precision and correctness of exe¬ cution, and public taste has become greatly refined. Imitations and reproductions of antique works of art are no longer accepted as the simple copy of the outer forms, but an execution is demanded which should exactly represent the original in the smallest detail. In consequence of the scrupulous exactness with which the old mas¬ ters executed their work, and which did uot admit of neglect even in the smallest and least important detail, great difficulties are met with in the reproduction of such works of art—difficulties which are espe¬ cially great in iron castings on account of the impossibility of the parts being united by soldering. But notwithstanding these disadvantages the problem lias beeu solved, and that in such a manner that iron cast¬ ings may be substituted for electrotype productions, combining, as they do, greater strength with equal fineness, and, being cheaper, they should certainly be preferred. These are results which have been achieved through continued exertions with the view of cultivating pure art iu the production of iron castings, and it is very desirable that these exer¬ tions should be continued by future iron-founders. IRON-FOUNDERY AT ILSENBERG. 279 With regard to the process of production, it may be observed that the two main points upon which the casting of iron depends are the molding- saud and the metal. About three or four hundred years ago the condi¬ tions for preparing the sand required for casting upon the open hearth must have been known. It must even then have been recognized that the molding-sand should allow the penetration of the expanding gases, which are produced by the high temperature when the fluid metal is poured into the molds. Otherwise the fine castings already referred to could not have been produced. This condition of the molding-sand was far better understood in this remote period than at a later time, when an empiric preparation of the sand was considered to be sufficient, and by which means progress in the art of casting was necessarily hin¬ dered. When the question had to be decided as to what was to be done to improve the sand, especially for the production of sharp and fine castings, it is probable that a greater degree of fineness was tried. Unfortunately this condition of great fineness, which is decidedly neces¬ sary for sharpness in the castings, was accompanied by the disadvan¬ tage that the fluid metal, when poured into the mold, did not remain undisturbed, but destroyed the work of the molder. The problem was to find an explanation for these occurrences, and an acquaintance with the principles of the open hearth doubtless led to the conclusion that the want of penetrability, produced by the great fineness of the sand, caused this disadvantage. Nature rarely supplies a molding-sand which possesses both fineness and penetrability, and the general scar¬ city of such a sand, which induced many important iron-founderies to obtain it at great expense from distant places, naturally led to artificial productions being tried. We shall explain next the experiments made for producing an artificial molding-sand, and the results obtained. 188. Molding-sand. —Of the various kinds of molding-sand at the disposal of the Usenberg Foundery, one is found in the neighborhood, in the diluvial formation, this saud consisting of a mixture of fat loam with coarse grains of quartz. It is used only for the molding of large pieces, and the molds made of it can be employed only after having been dried at a high temperature. A rather fiuer variety of this sand serves, when mixed with other sand, for larger class castings ; but in this case, also, it is necessary that the prepared parts of the molds should be dried or heated in order that by the evaporation of the water there may be pro¬ duced a contraction of the proportion of clay which the sand contains, and that thus there may be formed the minute channels which are nec¬ essary for the escape of the gases and steam generated at the high tem¬ perature of the fluid iron. In the chalk formation, which fills the large and, in some places, deep basin adjoining the mountains of the Harzer district, there are found in the neighborhood of Usenberg, upon the chalky marl, strata of loam mixed more or less with grains of quartz of different degrees of fineness; the penetrability, and thus the utility of the molding-sand depending 280 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. upon this admixture. Iu a few exceptional places there is found a mold iug-sand that could almost be used in its natural state; the quantities thus obtained, however, are very small, and are not iu proportion with the increasing demand of Ilsenberg Foundery. If, therefore, the artifi¬ cial preparation of the molding-sand had not been successfully intro¬ duced, the necessary supply could only have been obtained from distant sources at great expense. After having recognized the penetrability of the sand for steam and gas as the chief characteristic necessary, it became next an important matter to determine the signs of this required peuetrability existing, and for this purpose the following process has been adopted: A known peculiarity of a sand which allows of a casting being made in it without the mold being artificially dried, is, that if the molder moistens the mold with water, the sand possesses the surprising quality of absorbing the water without altering the mold. The molder can thus, when working with the so-called green sand, employ water according to his requir- rnents, in order to strengthen the sharp corners, edges, and ribs of the molds, for which purpose water may be dropped upon the latter by means of a brush. The water disappears, and is absorbed without doing any damage to the mold. This quality of the sand has been used at Ilsenberg in the following manner for determining the penetrability of the material. After various mixtures of sand have been prepared, and after it has been ascertained that sharp and distinct impressions can be taken with the materials, equal-sized balls or cubes are formed by com¬ pressing the sand in the hand, and that to such an extent that a slight further compression is just possible; this is easily done with a little practice, as this manipulation forms an important factor in ascertaining the quality of the sand for all molders, and determines the degree of moisture to be given to the molding-sand for casting in a green state. The balls of sand thus prepared, and made of uniform size, are then weighed, and water is next poured upon them as long as it is absorbed. When absorption no longer takes place, and the water appears to remain on the surface of the sand, the balls are weighed again. Supposing the different samples to be equally good, as far as the power of producing sharp impressions (as previously ascertained) is concerned, then that sample which is capable of absorbing the largest amount of water will offer the greatest facility for the escape of the gases and steam.* It was in 1844 when, by the kind recommendation of the director of the Ecole des Mines at Paris, M. Le Play, the Professor Gaultie de Chaubri obtained for several professional uieu admissiou to some of the *It should be mentioned here, that, in examining the sorts of sand, care has to be taken that the latter does not contain lime, which is often the case when the sand is found to lie on marl, and the greatest care should be taken in obtaining it. The burn¬ ing of the lime, which takes place at the high temperature of the iron, forces the car¬ bonic acid to escape, disturbs the fluid iron, and prevents the exactness and clearness of the casting. It is well to examine the amount of carbonic acid contained in the sand before using it, by pouring acid upon it. IRON-FOUNDERY AT ILSENBERG. 281 founderies of Paris. Excellent molding-sand was to be found there, and the qualities which it possessed, necessary for the production of good castings, could be studied. The experience gained from the continued casting of bronze works, which could be applied to iron castings,- and the great advantage possessed by these founderies of having to work only for specialties, and of not having, like other founderies, to change the class of work to be done every day, exercised a great influence upon the gradually improved preparation of the suitable sorts of molding- sand. Even in Paris it was impossible to get from natural sources a sand that would fulfill all requirements, although remarkably good sand is easily obtained there. Only a few districts of England and Germany participate in this advantage, and the neighborhood of Halle-on-the- Saale and of Walkenrind, in the Harzer Mountains, should especially be mentioned in this respect. It thus became necessary, even in Paris, to prepare good and useful sand by artificial mixture. Four different sorts of sand,'two of a reddish and two of a grayish-yellow color, were found to be applicable for casting in green sand. A variety of sand similar to the latter was found in exceptional instances in the neighbor¬ hood of Ilsenberg, but, as mentioned already, it could only be obtained in an insufficient quantity, and not of quite as good quality as that found at Paris. Comparing the Ilsenburg sand with the samples obtained from Paris, it was found that the former was deficient in the contents of fine grains of quartz, whence its penetrability was not the same as that of the Paris material. The treatment above referred to of the sand consisting of a mixture of fat loam and coarse graius of quartz, the insufficient penetrability of which had to be increased by continued drying or roastiug, had to be applied also to the fine sand, and it had to be ascertained whether the deficiency in the contents of grains of quartz could not be replaced by the roasting of a part of the denser sand, which was consequently exposed to such a high temperature that the yellowish-gray color was changed into red. The mixture of this roasted sand with the original yellow-grayish sand in its natural state, gave the desired result, and the roasted sand was found to be a perfect substitute for the graius of quartz in which the natural sand was deficient. In order to make, however, this artificial mixture equal to the natural sand, a careful treatment was necessary, and for this pur¬ pose stamping-mills and revolving drums of oval section, containing loose balls, were adopted for the powdering and mixing of the sand. These drums have a diameter of about 3^ feet and a length of not more than about four inches, while the speed of rotation is arranged in such a manner that the balls are not so acted upon by centrifugal force as to prevent them from remaining at the bottom of the drum, or they would not exercise the necessary pressure upou the sand, which is put into the drum through an opening at the side. In order to obtain the required 282 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. fineness of the sand, the passing of it through fine-meshed sieves be¬ comes necessary, and for this purpose bolting-cloth made of sheep’s wool, and known in Germany under the number 16, has been found best. A fine molding-sand applicable for most castings in green sand was thus successfully produced, but the finer and better sorts of a reddish color, seen and found at Paris, which possess an extraordinarily high amount of penetrability, and which, moreover, allow of the cleanest and sharpest castings being made, were still wanted. It had been especially observed that the castings in this sand, which was even moistened to a great extent, remained unusually undisturbed, and it became, of course, a natural necessity to possess a molding-sand of equal quality. At first an endeavor was made to discover such a sand in a naturally loose state, and it was thought that it might be found in the intermedi¬ ate layers of the colored sandstone formation met with ou the outskirts of the Harzer Mountains. All the sand, however, that could be found in a loose state in these strata contained too much clay for the required penetrability. Even after roasting it was found to be useless, because it had lost all its binding power, and attention was then directed to the solid sandstone, which, when ground, was expected to supply material of the necessary quality. The experiments made with these solid stoues showed such a great penetrability that the best results could be obtained. The experiments with water pointed, fortunately, to a certain class of stones which had to be rejected for building purposes on account of their extraordinary hygroscopic qualities; these latter, however, justified great expectations for the molder—expectations which have now for many years been fulfilled. The mixture of the sand obtained from the stone, with the yellowish-gray sorts of sand mentioned above, has pro¬ duced an exceedingly suitable molding-sand, the molder having it in his power, by adding more or less of this ground stone, to vary the quality of the material in accordance with the requirements of the work he has in hand. The knowledge of the proper molding-sand required for a given pat¬ tern is the best proof of the ability of a molder, and such a knowledge can only be acquired by extended practice and correct advice, which latter, however, is uufortunately very often wantiug in founderies pro¬ ducing inferior work. The importance of the correct preparation of the sand is in general little appreciated, and so long as no proper attention is paid to the requirements of a good molding-sand, and as long as there is wanting a correct understanding of the required penetrability in con¬ nection with a consistence of the material sufficient for the finest impres¬ sions, iron founderies will turn out works of art which could not be appreciated by eyes which have had opportunities of getting acquainted with more perfect productions. From what has been said above, it will be found that the excellence of the molding-sand to be used does not depend so much upon the chemical composition, but rather upon the mechanical and correct mix- QUALITY OF IRON FOR ART-CASTINGS. 283 ture of the argillaceous and siliceous components. If the chemical investigations made in Paris and London with the small parts of mold¬ ing-sand that remained at those places on the castings exhibited by Ilsenberg had been ever so carefully performed, they could scarcely have led to the preparation of a suitable molding-sand, which depends simply upon the shape and size of the added grains of quartz, and the plastic qualities of clay. In the course of years a special custom has often taken root in foun- deries, in consequence of which most extraordinary results are often pro¬ duced. The practice acquired in the manipulations can go so far, for in¬ stance, that a sand possessing a very small amouut of binding power, but a high degree of penetrability, as often found in nature, is used with the best results. The ability acquired to produce fine castings in a loose sand, which gives way to the smallest shaking, which possesses only so much consistency as is required to withstand the pouring in of the fluid metal, and which combines the advantage that the larger quantity of grains of quartz prevents a burning of the iron, and produces better castings, requiring only little cleaning, is a great gain, which saves many expenses incurred by the employment of a molding-sand of greater binding power. 189. Quality of the iron.— Art-castings in iron require for their successful production a carefully chosen metal, one which must not only possess greater strength than is required for ordinary castings, but one which, by its density and fluidity in a molten state, is capable of repro¬ ducing minute forms with sharpness and exactness. In order to obtain definite information as to the conditions under which suitable iron is produced by the smelting process, the material has, at Ilsenberg, been subjected to careful examination, both when in the fluid state and dur¬ ing the progress of setting and cooling; and these investigations, which have been carried on for more than thirty years, have resulted in the discovery of the facts of which we propose now to speak—facts which are of high interest in themselves, and which appear to us worthy of the most careful attention of metallurgists. Some time ago the writer of the present article called attention to the appearances which cast iron assumes during the fluid state, these appearances varying according to the proportion of carbon which the material contains, and even as long ago as 1867 we spoke in this journal (in an article entitled “ The Berlin Castings,” a name formerly generally used for art-castings in iron, but now almost abandoned) respecting these appearances. The matter did not, however, at the time receive from scientific men the attention it undoubtedly deserves, and we therefore propose to return to the sub¬ ject, and discuss it more fully. According to the appearance of the new fracture when broken, pig- iron is, and has been for many years, both in this country and abroad, designated by certain numbers, the particular value attached to each number varying, however, in different localities. Speaking broadly, 284 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. No. 1 signifies a coarse-grained dark-gray iron; Nos. 2 and 3 are finer- grained and lighter grays; while beyond these come the “ mottled ” and “white” pigs. In many fouuderies in German y the following scale is adopted: No. 1, largest-grained, highly graphitic, gray pig ( Gaares Eisen ;) No. 2, gray pig ( gaarflussiges Eisen-) No. 3, mottled pig ( halbirtes Eisen-,) No. 4, strongly mottled pig (stark halbirtes Eisen’,) No. 5, lam¬ ellar pig ( cliinngrelles Eisen-,) No. G, dead-white iron ( lioclidunnes Eisen-,) and No. 7, white pig ( grelles Eisen.) In this classification—which we shall adopt hereafter in speaking of the appearances of different classes of molten iron—Nos. 1 and 2 are varieties of gray iron, Nos. 3 and 4 of mottled iron, and Nos. 5, G, and 7 of white iron. If, now, an alteration in the working of the blast furnace or of the cu¬ pola shows that a change has taken place in the quality of the iron, or if it is desired to secure the success of a particular casting, the follow¬ ing observations may advantageously be made: Let a sample be taken from the iron available, and let it be cast in a semi-spherical mold, prepared as for an open-sand ousting, but lined with finely-prepared sand, care being taken that the sand is neither too tightly nor too loosely pressed down. For making this simple casting, a small ladle and a straight-edge are carefully warmed, and the necessary quan¬ tity of iron is then tapped from the furnace or cupola into the ladle, the slag being removed with the heated straight-edge. When this has been done the iron is poured as quickly as possible into the mold, when the heated straight-edge is again passed over the iron. Experience has shown that when a furnace is working irregularly the various classes of iron above spoken of are sometimes to be found arranged one over the other, according to their specific gravities, and in procuring a sample, therefore, care should be taken to procure au average of the whole. The metol having been poured as above directed, the following observations should be made : 1. The color of the iron during the casting. 2. The movements which take place upon the surface of the metal immediately after pouring. 3. The state of the iron during and after its setting. For the various classes of iron above enumerated these appearances will be as follows: No. 1 iron. —This iron has during the casting a reddish-white color, and after running it remains uuagitated, and has the appearance of a crystallized fat, while it presents a frothy surface covered with “kish.”* Its fracture when cold is dark-gray, coarse-grained, glossy, and very soft, but when remelted it gets a finer structure, and becomes suitable for being recast in crucibles for the production of art-castings. Another variety of this iron, during the pouring, has a lighter color thau the variet 5 ' of No. 1 previously mentioned, while, when cast, its surface is * For the difference between graphite and “ kish,” see a paper contributed by M. Ledebur to the Berg-and Iliittenmanischen Zeitung. GRADES 6f CAST IRON. 285 covered with a thick, dim skin, which during the experiment slowly sepa¬ rates in one direction in straight lines, showing at the fissures the bright metallic surface. After these movements have lasted some time, the dim skim again entirely unites, while the iron is seen to be still agitated, and commences to, show small projections at those points where the division of the skin last occurred. After setting, the iron shows a slightly con¬ vex surface, which has a smooth glossy appearance, with here and there a sparkle of graphite. This iron, when cold, has a dark-grey*glossy, fracture, the grains in the latter being the more strongly marked the greater the volume and strength of the casting. This class of material is well suited for the casting of fine works of art, as, when quickly poured, it fills the molds well and perfectly, possessing at the same time a great amount of soft¬ ness. When less quickly poured, the separation of 11 kish ” gives to the casting an objectionable appearance, similar to that of the first-men¬ tioned variety after setting. Wo. 2 iron .—This iron has, during the pouring, a dazzling-white color, while the dim skin which forms on the surface does not appear to be so thick as in the case of the class of iron last spoken of. As the iron runs from the ladle, a tearing-asunder of this skin and a display of a metal¬ lic glare below is observed, the surface at first splitting ouly in one di¬ rection, but fissures subsequently opening up in various directions, the following sketches, Tc and Z, showing the chief figures formed. The fig¬ ure 1c refers to a charcoal, and figure l to a coke, iron. These figures may often be traced even after the setting of the iron, they being then formed by projection on the surface. After the fissures on the surface have been drawn together again, the iron, which is still agitated be¬ neath, evolves small bubbles of gas, which force their way to the sur¬ face, this being especially the case toward the middle of the mass. Crystallization of iron. With the exception of the points where projections mark the last fissures in the skin, the surface of this iron, when set, is dim, glossy, and smooth, and its appearance is similar to that of refined metal, this being the case even in the fracture, with the exception of a little lighter color and slightly denser structure. This iron is the best for art- castings, as the largest as well as the smallest articles may be safely cast from it, it giving clean and sharply-marked productions, which can be well worked on account of their but slight degree of hardness. If also the blast-furnace charges are good, and the varieties used in the cupola well chosen, iron of this class shows great flexibility and elas¬ ticity. 286 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, No. 3, or slightly-mottled iron .—This irou has, when poured, a light or white color, the skin being similar to that of the No. 1 iron, but thinner, while at the point where the flowing commences a stronger metallic luster appears on the broken surface. After the pouring has taken place, the iron at first, like that last mentioned, shows fissures in the skin extending in one direction only; but this merely lasts for a short time, a dividing of the lines then taking place, and cruciform fissures being formed for charcoal, and star-like fissures for coke irou. This splitting up of the surface into fissures goes on very rapidly, new figures continually appearing only to disappear again and make room for others, the appearance being altogether a very interesting one, while the backward and forward movement in the material is remark¬ able. After this state of affairs has lasted some time the evolution of bubbles of gas commences, the bubbles being more numerous and being evolved with greater activity than in the cases formerly noted. During this period a great agitation of the metal occurs, this decreasing gradu¬ ally until the irou is ‘‘dead,” when it begins to set. The surface in this case is no longer rounded, but straight, and is covered with a number of small spheres, which show empty hollow spaces, and adhere very strongly to the surface, so that they cannot readily be removed. The fracture of this iron shows a light color and slightly glossy sur¬ face, and is no longer strongly grained. The material is still suitable for art-castings, but the objects cast from it should not have thin places, as they could not be worked upon, and would require previous anneal¬ ing. On account of its great density, however, this iron is well suited for castings which have to be bored or turned, and particularly for those on which polished surfaces have to be got up. The problem is to produce an iron of this kind with the peculiarity of not being inclined to chill; but this can be done by care in charging the furnaces. No. 4, strongly-mottled iron .—If the irou is strongly mottled—approach¬ ing in character to No. 5—it shows, when poured, a brighter appear¬ ance and higher metallic luster than that last described. The fissures formed in the surface-skin are similar to those of No. 3, but the figures formed are smaller, and the changes take place more rapidly, so that a certain amount of practice is required to euable appearances to be fixed by the eye. The formation of the gas-bubbles also is more distinct, and their evolution commences at an earlier stage. The setting of the iron takes place under conditions similar to those last described, but the surface becomes covered with numerous leaves covering larger or smaller concavities in the surface of the iron, accord¬ ing to whether the leaves have been formed by the combinatiou of several bubbles, or by the adhesion of single ones. The surface is straight, and the fracture has a light, fine-grained appearance. This irou cannot be used for fine-art objects, but it may be employed for larger articles, which posses a certain degree of strength. No. 5, or lamellar iron .—When poured, this irou (which is scarcely to A CHARACTERISTICS OF IRON. 287 be regarded as a white pig) shows a light brilliant color, while the luster which accompanies the breaking of the skin is greater than in the varieties previously noted. After pouring, a to-and-fro movement of the fluid metal takes place, but this only lasts a short time, being- followed by the formation of stellated figures, which change rapidly, and which are like those sketched above. In this metal the figures are smaller in size than those produced by the classes of iron already spoken of, while the bubbles of gas are more frequent, and of larger diameter. These bubbles unite to form the large leaves which, being hollow, cool more quickly than the mass of metal below, thus giving the surface the peculiar appearance of a red-hot mass of iron covered with dark spots, this being especially the case around the circumference, where the cooliug takes place earlier. This appearance is not much liked in fouuderies for fine work, as it signifies an iron suitable for heavy castings only, but especially applicable to some parts of machinery. The fracture of this iron is lighter than that of the earlier numbers, and it shows fine white patches, and a very dense grain. No. 6, or u dead-white ” iron .—The conditions just described are to be found, also, to a great extent, in the case of “ dead-white” iron; but the formation of the figures is in this case still more rapid, and the fluidity of the iron is of less duration. The size and quantity of the gas-bub¬ bles are also considerably increased, as is also the appearance of the dark spots already referred to. The surface, too, when set, is no longer straight, but slightly concave, while, after the opening of the leaves produced by the bubbles of gas, deep holes are seen. The difference in the two classes of iron consists in the latter having not only deep, but also flat holes, the existence of these proving the iron to be of a harder class than the other. The fracture of this metal shows a mixture of white and gray iron, this variety marking the transition to white iron properly so called. If the proportion of grey and white is about equal, the metal is known on the Continent as “Forellen” iron. Such iron is no longer suitable for fine castings, but if produced by a well- selected charging of the furnace, it possesses a very close structure and great strength. This iron is especially suitable for casting large rolls, which gain in strength through their cooling very slowly, and which can be subsequently turned. It is also suitable for the production of chilled castings, of which samples are exhibited at Vienna by the Innerberger Gewerkschaft, of Styria. No. 7, white iron .—The form of this iron in section when cold is con¬ cave. When poured, this iron has a white color, but this very soon changes to red, while the metallic luster is very strong. The splitting or opening up of the skin does not last long, but soon makes room for the formation of large gas-bubbles, which may be observed violently agitating the mass. These bubbles burst, and the discharge of gas takes place with such force that fine particles of burning iron are thrown out in all directions. The surface next begins to sink, and soon after a dark skin begins to spread like a shadow over the surface 288 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. of the still red-hot mass, from the circumference toward the ceuter. Finally this skin becomes lighter and peels off, showing a number of the shallow cavities described above. The fracture of this iron is white, and the metal is too hard to allow of its being worked. The characteristic appearances of the various sorts of iron depend upon and are intimately connected with the proportions of silicium, manga¬ nese, phosphorus, sulphur, &c., which the iron contains. If, for instance, in an otherwise normal state of the iron, the contents of sulphur in the latter is proportionately large, the so-called “Braunen,” with the leaving behind of flat holes, may be observed. The shape of the figures due to the fissures in the skin is also altered if an addition of zinc, copper, &c., is made, and, for instance, the addition of tin causes these figures to alter their shape entirely, and gives rise to beautiful formations. It is ofteu surprising how, for similar reasons, the irou, which, at the beginning of the observations described in our former article, showed a distinct char¬ acteristic, alters in its appearance suddenly and unexpectedly. The formation of distinct figures by the division of the surface skill was formerly attributed chiefly to the inclination of the iron towards crystallization, but a closer knowledge of the composition of the irou has shown that the generation of gas dependent on this composition,' and accelerated and acting through the presence of the oxygen of the air mixed with the metal by the act of pouring out, must exercise an influence upon the formation; this generation of gas being proved by the bubbles that riso and escape. The question now is, whether conclusions cannot be drawn beforehand from these observations respecting the composition of the iron, and whether a preliminary determination of the contents of sulphur, phos¬ phorus, carbon, manganese, &c., cannot approximately be made. IIow important these observations would be for the industry of irou if, as has not so far been the case, they could be connected with chemical analy¬ sis, and how much more instructive would they be if microscopic inves¬ tigations of the crystalline formation could be added. The latter inves¬ tigations certainly deserve more thorough study than they have hitherto received, a neglect which can only be explained by the difficulty of the observations, the leus necessarily having to be placed close to the surface of the iron that is under examination, and it thus being impossible to obtain a large field of view, a few particles only being in the right focus. Long and continued study and practical observation have made the present writer acquainted with the treatment of iron in the foundery, and he is thus in the positiou to state briefly a few rules which may be use¬ ful for determining the suitable sort of iron for special classes of art- castings. The following statements are therefore laid before the public, with the request of an indulgent and unprejudiced judgment. In iron bars, which show after the settiug hollow iuternal spaces, (such as must necessarily be produced in consequence of the setting growing from out to inside, if nothiug is done for their prevention,) CHARACTERISTICS OP CAST IRON. 289 there are to be found in these hollow spaces octahedral crystals more or less beautifully formed according to the degree of fluidity of the iron. Now, notwithstanding the exact resemblance of the fundamental shape of the crystal, it will be found, if the various samples of iron are com¬ pared with each other in this respect, that one difference may be ob¬ served, namely, the different proportions between longitudinal and cross axes of the crystals. The more beautifully the crystals are shaped, the more clearly is this difference of proportion observable. Very large formations of crystals are often to be seen in the more capacious cavities of large castings, but these are seldom of such pure and delicate forms as those to be found in smaller cavities. If they are completely formed they resemble small fir-trees, as octahedral needles at certain distances, forming also an octahedral-like space, and will be found to have arranged themselves around a central axis. By the aid of a powerful lens a similar appearance is to be found in the surfaces of fractures of iron which are more minutely examined, whilst even a smaller magnifying power shows the triangular surfaces of the crystals and their proportionately different longitudinal axes. The same class of crystals is to be found in all kinds of iron and steel, | and the similarity is often so great that the assertion might almost be made that cast iron is nothing else but a compound of bar-iron crystals and graphite, and that the quality of the cast iron depends upon the proportion and character of the mixture of these components. Such an opportunity as is at present given at the Vienna Exhibition for the study and comparison of various sorts of iron is very seldom offered, and never again perhaps will such a perfect series of samples of iron and steel from all parts of the world be found collected to¬ gether as at present at Vienna. Examining now these various sorts of iron, it will be acknowledged that to produce a certain class of cast¬ ings, the pig iron forming the charges of the cupola or melting-furnace should be selected and examined with the same care as the ores for the charges of a blast-furnace; but while in the latter case the nature and quality of the ores to be used are thoroughly investigated before being fed into the furnace, the iron for the cupola is but too generally exam¬ ined only slightly and superficially, and a microscopic examination, which would offer some reliable data, is seldom resorted to. Instead of this, however, the quality of the iron is estimated from the place of its production, and if the nature of a certain brand of iron, supplied by known iron-works, has once been ascertained, it is generally taken for granted that all further supplies from the same works will have the same qualities. Where, however, (as is generally the case,) the charges of the blast-furnace are not always the same, the iron produced should be chemically, or at least microscopically, examined before being used in the cupola for the production of castings of a given quality. This matter, which is of such great importance, has hitherto been so little or so seldom cared for, that the present writer desires to direct especial attention to his own experimental observations, in the hope that 19 i 290 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. other professional men will also take some interest in the development of this important subject. The importance of this matter for the whole of the iron and steel industry will be distinctly seen in the diversity of the conditions of the various sorts of Bessemer pig after the changes in the different stages of the Bessemer process, and a comparison of the processes brought, at the Vienna Exhibition, before the public is highly interesting. While, for instance, the gray Swedish Bessemer pig changes under the slightest treatment quickly at first into spiegeleisen, the Bessemer metal exhibited in the various stages of treatment by Ockhowo, Gov¬ ernment Ekateiiuoshan, (Russia,) shows, even in the higher stages of the Bessemer process, still some graphite. With respect to the foundery, the iron containing carbon in a fixed state cannot be cast well, (the ap¬ pearance of the malleable cast iron should be considered,) nor does it allow of any working treatment, and is thus not so good as that (accord¬ ing to thi‘ opinion expressed above) consisting of a mixture of wrought- iron crystals and graphite; it is therefore of great importance for the foundery that a pig-iron should be used which has not the qualities of the Swedish iron, but that of the iron exhibited by Ockhowo. ft has to be considered that the iron, having become fluid in the higher temperatures of the ordinary cupola, has to pass in its descent through the current of air still saturated with oxygen, that it is subjected to an alteration similar to the lining process, and that it will become white and hard if the formation of graphite has not been reconstituted by the abundance of carbon. In connection with this matter we may mention the cupola-furnace invented by Herr Krigar, of Hanover, this furnace being constructed so that the molten iron is withdrawn from contact with the coke and blast, the hearth for receiving the iron being to one side of the furnace and not directly below the crucible as usual. When this furnace has been correctly put up, its use has always been attended with an economy of coke; but this is not its only advantage. A leading feature is the decrease of the danger of producing white and hard iron. Hence in a furnace on Krigar's system, a larger percentage of coke iron may be added to charcoal-iron without producing a white metal than is po'Sihle under ordinary circumstances. In fact in Krigar’s furnace a suitable metal for art-castings may be obtained by the use of coke-iron, although, of course, charcoal iron is always to be preferred. In support of the opinion that no iron having ad inclination to get white should be applied for art-castiugs, we may refer to the fine iron castings exhibited by RastorgoniefF, of the Usines de Kisehtim, near Perm, iu the Ural, (Russia,) which have been produced by previously submitting the iron used for them to a trial in open sand molds, when it was first determined that the iron would uot get white, but would remain gray; if this was not the case it was not used. It is further certainly erroueous to suppose that a large percentage of phosphorus, which tends to make iron become white, is especially advantageous for art-castings, and this opinion is only correct in so far CHARACTERISTICS OF CAST IRON. 29 L that the normal working of a blast-furnace using limonite ores produces an iron free from u kisli” or iron froth, and which is of a very fluid nature, penetrating sharply into every form, although it is hard aud possesses the necessary strength. This quality and that of other sorts of iron corresponds exactly with their point of fusion, and many occurrences, often of considerable disad¬ vantage, depend upon it; among the most disadvantageous is, how¬ ever, that of the so-called burning ( Anbrandes) which shows itself by rough or file-like surfaces, which take away from the castings all fineness and exactness, and make them look imperfect and almost useless. A closer examination shows that these rough surfaces have been produced by the accumulation of small projection's, which partly cover the casting, and with a certain thickness. This appearance is entirely independent of the molder’s work, and if the latter has been executed as carefully as possible, and the best casting might have been expected, the surfaces are, nevertheless, covered with projections and grains. The reason for this can, therefore, only be in the quality of the iron. It has been en¬ deavored to ascertain the reason for this chemically, and it is said to have been discovered that the projections forming the rough surfaces were special compounds of iron aud other bodies. This, as will be seen hereafter, is correct; but it alone does not explain the mechanical pro¬ cesses that take place in connection with it. Our own opinion on this matter is as follows: The iron in a fluid state will be no homogeneous body, but a compo¬ sition of various compounds between iron and phosphorus, iron and sulphur, iron- and manganese, iron and carbon, iron and siliciura, &c. Each compound has, however, a certain point of fusion, the one lower than the other. How if mixtures which differ much with respect to their point of fusion form the iron, one portion of the latter will set while the other portion remains in a fluid state, this latter part being forced by the contraction of the former portion through the pores, which are still open during the red-hot state of this portion of the iron, and in this manner the so called burning or “ Anbrand ” is produced. After having recognized this cause, it became possible to produce another sort of iron by other charges. The writer is able to show ex¬ amples of iron upon which are to be seen small balls of the size of peas, in consequence of the great difference between the points of fusion of different parts of the metal. Many other similar occurrences might be explained in the same manner.* * Professor Griiuer, in his article on steel, Auuales des Mines, xii, vi serie, 4 liv. 1867, says, “From these results (various analyses of pig-iron) it will be seen that in the varieties of gray pig-iron rich in manganese the silicium is mostly combined with the manganese.” Further: “The analyses show that the varieties of gray pig-iron must often contain more than 10 per cent, of foreign bodies, and that their number must be very considerable, &c.; even the white sorts of iron produced from spiegelei- sen, which are acknowledged as being very pure, have, in reality, a very complicated composition.” 292 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 190. A consideration of the facts above stated showing that it is de¬ sirable to possess some simple mode of determining the relative points of fusion of different classes of iron, Mr. Schott, the director of the celebrated llsenberg Foundery, some years ago devised the following method, which, although of course only capable of affording approxi¬ mate results, he has found answer well in practice. An iron vessel, weighing about 25 kilograms, is tilled to a certain height with water, so that it contains exactly IS kilograms. When fluid iron is poured in, the temperature of the water will increase in proportion to the temperature and the volume of the iron ; and this in¬ crease of temperature is then applied for determining the relative points of fusion of the various sorts of iron in the following manner: After having measured the temperature of the water, a portion of fluid iron, as taken from the blast-furnace or the cupola, is poured into it as quickly as possible. The water is then stirred, when the tempera¬ ture is again observed. The water is now carefully tapped off, and the iron is taken out, dried, and weighed. The weight is thus obtained which at a certaiu temperature produced the observed increase of the temperature of the 48 kilograms of water. Various degrees of heat will produce various differences of temperature, but as it is not always possible to use equally large quantities of iron, while the results are in proportion to these quantities, the following formula has been found to give tin 1 relative weight for a certain degree of heat of the iron: Let the quantities of water used in two experiments, carried out in the way above described, be represented by W and to respectively, and let also 1 and i be the corresponding quantities of iron used; T and t the differences of temperature produced in the water, and H and li the quantities of heat imparted to the latter per unit of weight of the iron. Then evidently I l But the quantity of water is constant, or W = /r, therefore H: h = : *, or H : 7t=T i: t I, whence it. follows that, if we give the result, H, obtained, in any one instauce a certain standard value, the corresponding value of h, derived from another experiment, will be given by the simple formula: , Hxtxl ' “ Txi ' It is evident that H and h, instead of being expressed in pound-de¬ grees of heat given out per unit of weight of iron, may, for practical purposes, be more conveniently expressed by the degrees of tempera¬ ture representing the respective meltiug points, and this is really what isdone at llsenberg, the temperature of 1,200 degrees Reaumur (2,732 deg. Fahr.) being taken as the standard value, while differences of tempera¬ ture of 370 degrees Reaumur (S64£ deg. Fahr.) have been found. It is FUSING POINTS OF IRON. 293 to be noted that this mode of estimating relative melting points takes no account of the latent beat set free during the solidifying of the iron, but regards all the heat imparted to the water as if it were merely due to the sensible heat abstracted from the iron during its cooling down from the melting point. No doubt this fact introduces an error, while other errors may be induced by the want of care in pouring the iron into the water just before setting; but these errors do not affect the value of the system as a rough-and-ready practical method of ascer¬ taining the relative fusion points of different samples, and, as we have said, it has been found effective and useful at the Ilsenberg foundery. &PPENDIX TABLE SHOWING SEVERAL MARKS OF SWEDISH IRONS.* * Reprinted from the Report on Iron and Steel at Paris, 1667, by A. S. Hewitt. 296 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Mark. Xame of works. Post-office. Annual production | in tons. Principal ores. PROVINCE OF CEFLEBOltG. Andersfors § !i o ;• Arms a ••'■eT | A /A. IV ..>£<•, it ;; b :: e © /3jA- | N Woxna. -*r ^ I Hudiksvall.. 150 Gcfle. 1,100 From Uto, Enkiirn, etc. Gelle. 650 From Tuna, Hartberg, etc. Thors&kcr... 130 Fiom Bispberg, Norberg, and Thort&ker. Gysingo .... -110 Fiom Norberg, etc. Id. 910 From Daunemora. • ThorsAker... 2,300 From Bispberg, Norberg, and Tbors&ker. Oofle. From Bispberg and Thors&kcr. Soderliamn . 1,100 From Hammarim and Norberg. Id. 130 From Norberg, Uto, Stri- burg, Daunemora, etc. Id. csff From Wigelsbo, Uto, and Herrang. Gcfle. 370 Id. 1,500 From Vintjern. Id. 600 From Bispberg, etc. Hudikswall. 720 From Ostanberg, etc. 550 From Vintjern. Gcfle. 260 From Bispberg. Bollnas. 630 From Gym As and SSrs- bog. MARKS OF SWEDISH IRON. 297 Annual Mark. Name of works. Post-office. production in tons. Principal ores. 298 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. MARKS OF SWEDISH IRON. 299 300 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Mark. Name of works. Degerfors 0 Degerfors X. Elfstorp.. Frotuua.. r I Gammelbo ... | - | Finn&ker_ : j S Griiiibo. U Ramsbytta .. (OB) HII AH IE s*l| (0) HSU © PV K- Garpbyttan.. Gryn. Haddobo 0... nad.lcbo X .. namniarby .. Ilassolfors_ i tlellofors .... i Hogfors. Lass&na. Laxft. Petersfors ... Ramsberg.... Ramshytta .. Rockesbolm . Rockhammar CWS Mn Sikfors .... Skogabolm Skyllberg. Post-office. Annual production in tons. Atorp.| 150 Degerfors N.'W. 850 S. B. Xora. 720 Arboga. 390 c f 'Z Ramsberg .. 270 _ ■ Arboga . 1,050 1,1 . 2*20 Nora. 120 0 Orobro. 200 Palsboilu W. S. B. 1,020 id. 210 Id. 290 Xora. 1,000 ITasselfors X. AV. S. B. COO Grytbyttokcd.. 2,810 Nya Kopparbcrg 120 Lax&AV. S.B... 430 Id. 850 Xora. 150 Ramsberg. 150 Id. 140 Xora. 260 Arboga. 1,050 Grytbyttehed.. 150 Palsboda AV. S. B. 510 Hallsberg AV.S. B. 800 Principal ores. From Dalkarlsberg and Striberg. From Persberg, Dalkarls¬ berg, Striberg &. Viker. From Hogborn. Prom Ramsberg and Persbytta. From Persbytta and Mo- graft's, etc. From Nora. Id. Id. From Ilagby, Lerberg, etc. From Dalkarlsberg, Stri¬ berg, and Viker. From Lomberg and Svar- vik, etc. Id. From Xora. From Dalkarlsberg, Stri¬ berg, and Viker. From Jernbo&s. From Str&ssaand Blanka. Id. From Skarhytta and Hog¬ born. From Strips, Mossgnefva, etc. From Finnberg, etc. From Xora. From Xora. MARKS OF SWEDISH IRON. 301 Mark. (K) (e) (sft (bc) (c) DB yV r cVf B H V iW) BS 'K'- ■AXY IK BGG Q K / /Sn\ OPS i BPS -sac-. \G:GJ E N ’ a; ft @) AJ *C Name of works. Post-office. Annual production in tODS. Principal ores. Stjernfors. Nya Kopparberg. 470 From Lomberg and Svart- vik, etc. Svart&. SvartS. N.W. S.B. 700 From Dalkarlsberg, Stri- berg,Yiker,& Persberg. 360 Id. Willingsberg .... Orebro. 500 Id. Wrethammar.... Ramsberg. 130 From Str&ssa and Blanka. Abyhammar_ Arboga. 170 PROVINCE OF SKARABORG. 300 Fredriksfors. "Wassbaoken. 270 Id. Lagerfors. MobolmW. S. B.. 300 Id. Ribbingsfors. Mariestad. 350 Id. 1 ^ Skagersholra. Finnorodja W. 430 Id. ) S. B. PROVINCE OF CARLSTAD. ^ Ackharn. Christinekamn... 550 From Filipstad. 150 Id. c Bjorneborg and > Christineharun... 1,000 From Persberg, Dalkarls- i Jonsbol. 5 berg, Streberg.&Viker. | Borgvik and > Carlstad. 2, 000 From Persberg. j Brunsberg. 1 1 j Brattfor9, etc_ j Id. 850 Id. Cbarlottenberg .. Arvika. 400 From Persberg and Nora. Dornle. Carlstad. 470 From Filipstad. Id.. 940 Id. 1,280 From Nordmark and Finshytta. 425 340 Gnstafstrom. Grytbytteked.... 550 From Persberg. Bjorn bbjde, Fagerberg, and 1 Helybodafors ... Arvika. 160 Langvan. 302 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Mark. k: Cffl KB 1^1 BE D.S. KF,f«F, 1E,UF. ibPj [nm] K; * K; :S:H; •Jir OAS @ (Jch VOij/ PG OL LNS NM UvA (Lps c W Ctf SB m CU UG Name of works. Post-office. Annual production in tons. Principal ores. Hbkanbol. Atorp. 230 From Dalkarlsberg. 1 .. 630 i > 210 Krontorp. Cbristienbamn 370 600 Leejofora. Filipstad. 1,200 From L&ngban and Pers- berg. R&da. 220 Li(lefora 0. Atorp . 150 From Dalkarlsberg and Striberg. Id. ICO Id. 850 From Persberg. 260 Mitandersfnrs ... Id. 200 850 From Persberg. Niclasdam . Cbristincbaniu. 260 Noreborg. Arvika. 1-10 150 Qvarntorp. Id. 170 1(1. 160 Id. 180 Id. 160 640 Raraen orLijendal 1 Filipstad. 680 From Langban, Persberg, and Filipstad. | Storfors. Christinebamn. 1,530 From Persberg and Ny- kroppa. StomnedJ. Carlstad. 260 Sraneholm. Amll. 460 From Filipstad. MARKS OF SWEDISH IRON. SOB _ Mark. @@ A KB) i Name of works. Post-office. Annual production in tons. Principal ores. Salboda. Arvika. 1,230 From Persberg. Thorsbv .. 630 4, 300 Persburg, and L&ngban. 230 Wagsjofors. Sunne . 170 PROVINCE OF ELF8BORG. Backefors. Im&l. 1,520 From Persburg. Id. 460 Id. 390 700 Upperad. Wenersborg_... 320 PROVINCE OF NYKOPING. Forssa... KatrineholraW. S. B 260 Id. 310 From Skalunda, etc. Id. 230 Nj-by. Thorskalla. 340 Nykbping. Nykoping. G30 Skepsta, (steel). Bjornluuda W. S. B 350 Smedstorp. Malmkoping. 170 From Staf. vii-a . NorikopiDg. 260 PROVINCE OF OSTERGOTLAND. Borgg&rd. Tjellmo. 260 Borkbult . Soderkoping . 190 From Uto, etc. I 304 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Mark. B b TGE N:G ykr C: F: (i£) CDB H E Name of works. Post-office. Annual production in tons. Principal ores. 6*10 Borggjol. 1G0 i i Id. 2, 200 From TJpsala. Stiibf-rg, Ulo, etc. 510 Godog&rd. Ilallaberg W. S. B.. 270 From Nora and Sarnia. ISO 1 Unit. 2.70 Il&fla. Id. CflO From Nora. Ililttorp. Tjollmo. 170 Pjung. Linkoping:. 550 310 1 Motala Werkstad' Motala. 2,100 380 Sonstorp. Xorrkoping. 550 PROVINCE OF CALMAH. Ankararum. 1 Westervik. 830 From Stenbo, Narlorp, Sjosa, Herraug, ami Norberg. Ed Soderkoping. 280 From Stenbo, Heriang, Uto, and Nartorp. 260 From Skramstad.Obabu, and Tjto. 310 From Striberg and Sabi- sta. Tofvernm. PTimmesby. 170 350 From Sjosa, TTto, Stens- nas, Olofsrum, etc. MARKS OF SWEDISH IRONS. 305 Mark. Name of works. Post-office. Annual production in tons. Principal ores. PROVINCE OF JONKOPING. 140 Prom Taberg. Id. 180 Id. 390 Id. •290 Id. Nissafors. Jonkoping. 370 From Taberg and Nora. PROVINCE OF KRONOBERG. 160 Id. 150 Id. 240 Orrefors . Id . 240 Id. 210 Siifsjostrom. Id .. 190 ¥i \2S\ ST: :7tT': FN [KB) IS /Ss'.\ •kb; (o f) @) /.8> . i S ; ■ex*-' For information as to the prices and] qualities of the irons, one can ■write directly to the forges them¬ selves. For example : “ Brukskontoren a Safsjostrom, j "Wexid, Sweden ; or ” Brukskontoren & Nissa- fors, Jonkoping, Sweden,” &c. But as all the marks are not indicated here, and since all the forges have agents, it will he better to ■ask the name of their agent, who will be able to give all the necessary information. 20 I INDEX. ; o Art Pa « e - Akerman’s memoir on the iron and steel of Sweden. 127 152 on Bessemer process. 142 175 bog-ores and limonite. 137 167 cement-steel. 143 177 composition of Swedish ores. 147 182 distribution of ores in Sweden. 129 153 geology of Swedish iron-ores. 134 158 locality of greatest production. 146 182 Martin steel. 143 177 means and methods of transportation. 139 171 methods and cost of mining. 136 165 production of iron-ore. 135 162 pig-iron. 138 168 puddling process. 141 175 rolling-mills. 144 177 sources of fuel. 130 154 _ statistics of iron and steel industry in Sweden. 145 178 Swedish iron-making. 128 152 transportation. 131 155 use of English coke. 132 156 water-power in Sweden. 133 157 wrought-iron and steel. 140 172 Algerian ores and mines. 106 128 Arrangement of French exhibits. 92 118 Art castings. Artillery, exhibits by Krupp. 61 76 Austrian display of iron and steel, extent of. 4 5 Empire, iron and steel industry. 4 5 Awards in 1867. 95 121 Bessemer process, Akerman on.. 142 175 steel in the Alpine country, Austria. 14 15 Blast-furnaces, Buttgenbach’s. 62 82 European, dimensions of. 24 41 Bloomaries in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 21 19 Blowing-engines.... 114 136 Bochum cast-steel bells. 86 112 works . 80 111 coal-mines.. 81 111 coke blast-furnaces. 83 111 furnaces . 84 111 iron mines. 82 111 miniug and steel works. 79 110 steel castings . 85 112 Bog-ores and limonite, Akerman on. 137 167 Borsig’s exhibit. 45 59 308 INDEX. Art. Page. British exhibitors, principal. 154 224 exhibit, character of. 152 223 exports. . I 53 2 23 iron and steel industry. 152 003 Burbach Works. 57 55 Buttgenbach’s blast-furnaces. 62 82 Carintliian furnaces, seel ions of. 23 21 Cast-steel bells, Bochum. 86 122 in the Alpine country. 13 14 works, Bochum. 80 111 Chinese iron-making. 168 252 Churches for work-people of Goorgs-Marieu-IILitte Company. 68 101 Club-houses of Georgs-Marieu-Hutte Company. 76 106 Coal-mines, Bochum. 61 111 Coal, Russian production of. 151 217 Cockerill Company of Soraing, history of the. 110 131 Coke blast-furnaces, Bochum. 83 111 furnaces at Bochum. 84 111 Courts of justice of Georgs-Maricn-lIiitte Company. 71 102, Creusot; Schneider A Co. 91 118 Dillinger Company, exhibit of. 46 60 Ehrenwerth’s puddler. 33 50 ✓ Essox County (Now York) iron-ore. 161 236 Exhibits, artillery, by Krupp. 61 76 Austrian, neatness of arrangement of. 6 7 Belgian, and production of iron and steel. 107 12!) British, character of, production. 152 223 Dillinger Company. 46 60 French, production of iron'and steel. 90 116 German, extent and arrangement of. 36 55 Gleiwitz furnace.— 89 114 Judenberger Iron-Works. 31 49 machinery, by Krupp. 60 72 Resicza State Railway. 26 46 Rositzer Mining Company. 30 48 Styrum Company. 47 60 Swedish, character of the. 120 141 United Kdnigs and Laurahiitte. 49 60 United States, character of. 158 . 234 various. 105 127 Exhibitors, German, number of. 44 59 Fagersta iron-ores and limestone'.. 122 142 steel, experiments by Kirkaldy. 124 147 gun-barrels. 123 144 plate, tests of. 125 150 works, exhibit. 121 141 Ferro-manganese of Resicza. 27 46 Laibach. 29 48 Forging, hydraulic. 34 53 Forged cranks, Haswell's. 184 270 Forms assumed by furnaces after loug working. 25 41 Fouuderies in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 10 10 Furnace, Gleiwitz, exhibit of the. ®0 114 Geology of Swedish iron-ores. 134 138 Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. G4 04 INDEX. 309 Art. Page. German Empire, display of iron and steel. 36 55 exhibits, extent aud arrangement of. 36 55 production of iron and steel. 37 55 Girders and columns, iron . 56 64 Gleiwitz furnace, exhibit of. 89 114 Growth of the German iron and steel industry, graphic illustration of.... 42 57 production of iron and steel.•. 39 56 steel-making. 40 56 Hamm wire-works. 52 62 Haswell’s apparatus for forging. 176 258 cylinder-heads. 182 267 exhibit of locomotive hydraulic forgiug. 174 257 forged cranks. 184 270 hydraulic forging, the process of. 177 258 press. 178 259 I link-motion blocks. 181 262 method of hydraulic forging. 175 257 solid locomotive wheels. 183 267 wrought-iron cross-heads. 179 259 journal-boxes. 180 262 ( Houses for work-people of Georgs-Marien-IIiitte Company. 66 98 Hospitals of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 73 104 Hot blast-stores, Wliitwell. 155 225 Hydraulic forging. 34 53 Industrial schools of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 69 101 Investigations, scientific, of the quality of iron and steel. 100 125 Ilsenburg cast-iron art-work. 187 276 iron, its quality. 189 283 molding-sand. 188 279 temperature of fusion. 190 292 Iron and steel forgiugs. 117 138 making, Russian, statistics of. 149 208 of British India. 170 253 works, Osnabriick. 63 92 girders and columns. 56 64 industries of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 16 16 linings for shafts of mines. 104 127 making aud ore extracting, Prussian. 41 56 Chinese. 168 252 manufactures in Sweden. 127 152 mines, Spanish. 148 207 ores aud limestone, Fagersta. 122 142 ores aud steel of Japan. 167 251 Indian. 172 255 production of the United States, statistics. 166 241 shoes for railway-brakes. 48 60 wire from Westphalia. 50 60 works and mining property of the Cockerill Company. 110 131 Russian... 150 210 Judeuberger iron-works, exhibit of. 31 49 Krupp, Friedrich, exhibits of artillery by. 61 76 machinery by. 60 72 works of. 59 69 Laibach, ferro-manganese of. 29 48 Lake Superior ores. 159 224 310 INDEX. Art. Page. Libraries of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 70 102 Link-motion blocks, Haswell’s. 181 262 Lippstadt wire-works. 54 63 Locomotive engines. 115 137 Lodging-houses of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 75 105 Marine steam-engines and machinery. 113 135 Martin steel. 143 177 in the Alpine country. 15 16 Mining and steel-works, Bochum. 79 110 of iron-ore in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 17 17 methods and cost of, Akermau on. 136 165 property and iron-works. Ill 132 Nachrodt wire-works. 53 62 Ore and furnace-charges. 28 47 Swedish, composition of. 147 182 Ores and mines, Algerian. 106 128 Osnabriick iron and steel works. 63 92 Park, Brother & Company’s cast steel. 160 235 Pennsylvania aud Alabama ores. 162 238 Plate, tests of, Fagersta. 125 150 Production of coal, Russian. 157 232 iron and steel, Austrian. 7 8" in the Alpine region. 8 8 world. 2 2 ore in Sweden, Akerman on. 135 162 pig-iron in the Alpine region. 9 10 Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 18 18 steel-works, Belgian. 118 139 Prussian iron-making and ore-extraction. 41 56 Puddlev, Ehrenwerth’s. 33 50 Puddling process, Akerman on. 141 175 works in the Alpine region. 10 11 Resilience of steels made at Creusot. 99 125 Rock-drills. 116 137 Rod and bar-iron produced. 11 13 Rolled tyres. 109 130 Rolling-mills. 144 177 of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. 20 19 Rotary puddling-furnaces. 32 50 Russian iron-works, production. 150 210 Sellers' high rolls. 165 241 puddling-machine. 164 239 Schaltenbrand's irou cross-ties. 58 66 Schools of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 67 101 Siemens’ direct process. 156 232 Society Anonyme des Hants-Fourneanx. 108 130 Statistics of commerce in metals.-. 43 69 mining.-. 5 6 production of iron and steel at Creusot. 94 12o Russian iron and steel making. 149 208 the iron-making industry, Akerman on. 145 178 Steel castings, Bochum. 85 122 gun-barrels. 123 144 made in the Alpine country. 12 13 making, growth in the German Empire. 40 56 INDEX. 3 11 Art. Page. Store uuiou, of Georgs-Marien-HutteCompany. 74 104 < Styrum Company, exhibit of. 47 60 Transportation, Akerman on. 131 155 : Tnrn-halle of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 77 106 Water-power in Sweden, Akerman on. 133 157 Whitwell’s hot-blast stoves. 155 225 Wire-rope traces. 35 54 Wire-works, Hamm. 52 67 Lippstadt . 54 63 Nachrodt. 53 62 Berdohl. 55 64 Wootz, or Indian steel. 171 254 Workingmen’s association of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 72 102 Work-people, care of, by Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company. 65 98 Wrought iron and steel, Akerman on. 140 172 cross-heads. 179 259 journal-boxes.... 180 262 gates and railways. 186 276 F. METALLURGY OF LEAD, SILVER, ETC. H. PAINTER. VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. REPORT OX THE METALLURGY LEAD, SILVER, COPPER, AND ZINC, HOWARD PAINTER, HONORARY COMMISSIONER OF THE UNITED STATES. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. METALLURGY. ERRATA. The author, who has been professionally engaged in the mining-districts of the West, did not receive proofs of this report, and desires to make the following corrections and alterations: Page xiii, line 30, read “Tajova.” Page xiii, line 38, read “Tajova.” Page xiii, line 46, read “ Reichverbleiuug.”. Page xv, line 9, read “ Nagy Banya.” Page 2, line 10, read “ the policy.” Page 3,'line 2 , omit Page 4, line 6, read “ tetrahedrite.” Page 4, line 13, for “ 1.45” read “ 145.” Page 4, line 37, for “ 3.5” read “.35.” Page 5, line 9, for “silverized ” read “desilverized.” Page 5, line 23, add, at end of line, “ silver.” Page 5, line 25, read “ Flachs.” Page 6, line 8, insert a comma after “'zinc.” Page 7, line 24, read “ that country.” Page 12,line 7 from bottom,omit all after “cent.” Page 13, line 23, omit comma after “ iron.” Page 14, line l,omit “a.” Page 14, line 10, read “Arabians.” Page 14,line 27,for “Russia” read “Prussia.” Page 15, line 13, for 0.06” read “ 0.6; ” for “0.11 ” read “ 1.1.” Page 22, lines 24-26, read “ 10,740,000; ” 14,955,000 ; ” “ 25,695,000.” Page 25,line 12,insert “cwt.” between “ 127-|” and “copper.” Page 27, line 29, read “ for” after “ smelting.” Page 30, line 8, read “OKER SAIGER.” Page 32, line 9 from bottom, semicolon after “ silver.” Page 33,line l,omit dash, and insert comma after “pipe.” Page 34, line 18, read “Erbstolln.” Page 34, lines 24-27, read “47,505.64;” “13,070.44 ;” “34,433.20.” Page 35,line 44,for “sulphuric” read “sulphurous.” Page 36, line 10, omit “two of.” Page 37, line 3 from bottom, read “ smelting.” Page 38, line 6, omit “, and ” and insert “; as it.” Page 38, line 46, for “ 0.782 ” read “ 0.0782.” Page 39, line 34, omit comma after “ ore.” Page 39, line 35, omit “ and.” Page 43,lines 19-20,transpose the words “upper” and “lower.” Page 44, line 10, for “ 9,400 cwt.” read “ 6,000 kilograms.” Page 44, line 13, for “ 9,600 ” read “ 10,000.” Page 49, line 28, omit “ 1-5 ” and insert “ 1, 5.” Page 5.1, line 22, for “ 20,000 and 12,500 ” read. “ 4,000 and 125.” Page 58, line 3, for “ millimeters ” read “ meters.” Page 58, line 47, for “0.003 ” read “ 0.03.” Page 65, line 7 from the bottom, for “ 1,000 ” read “ 7,000.” Page 76, line 21, for “3,500 to 4,000 ” read “35,000 to 40,000.” Page 76, line 31, for “ strong ” read “ light.” Page 81, line 26, read “ 100 cwt.” Page 83, line 43, omit “ as.” Page 84, line 9, for “oxide ” read “ sulphide.” Page 84, line 18, omit comma after “ siliceous.” Page 89, line 32, for “ upper ” read “ uuder.” Page 94, line 22, read “ sulphate of copper.” Page 94, line 23, read “ sulphate of copper.” Page 94, line 43, for “ hurried ” read “ humid.” Page 100, line 12, for “ slimo ” read “ slime.” Page 101, line 40, for “ meters ” read “ per cent.” Page 106, line 32, for “ to ” read “ from.” Page 108, line 4, insert “ ; it” between “ copper ” and “ is.” Page 119,line 28,for “smelting” read “melting.” Page 122, line 12, for “ millimeter ” read “ meter.” Page 124, line 44, for “ break ” read “ treat.” Page 125, line 2, after “ zinc ” insert a semicolon. Page 127, line 26, omit “ natron ” and insert “ soda.” METALLURGY. Page 127, line 28, after “ acid ” insert a semicolon. Page 128, line 1, omit comma after “ Herzog.” Page 134, line 11, for 1830 ” read “ 1843.” Page 134, line 15, for “ view” read “review.” Page 135, line 11, omit “ iron ” and insert “ copper.” Page 135, line 28, for “ blast ” read “ roasting.” Page 140, line 24, for “ abstract ” read “ abstrich.” Page 141, line 2, after “ combine ” insert “ a.” Page 141, lino 19, for “cast” read “ wrought.” Page 142, line 20, for “estimated ” read “eliminated.” Page 143, line 23, for “ running,” read “ mining.” Page 144, line 11, for “ pisquisilicate ” read “bisilicate.” Page 145, line 4, insert a comma after “ by zinc.” Page 145,line 17,add,after “zinc,” “chloride of potassium, and chloride of magne¬ sium.” Page 147, line 34, for “ Fig. I,” read “ Fig. III.” Pago 148, line 41, for “ purer ” read “ impurer.” Page 150, lino 19, for “ a ” read “ attached.” Page 150, line 35, read “ Binsfeldliammer.” Page 153, line 14, for “ 45 ” read “4.5.” Page 153, lino 29, for “20 ” read “ 2.” Page 154, line 24, omit “ to 0 ” after “ 2." Page 154, line 29, for “70” read “7.” l’age 156, line 14, for “quicksilver” read “ water.” Page 156, line 22, for “ desilverization” read “desilverized.” Page 157, line 9, read “Zsarnowitz” and “Tajova.” Page 157, line 10, for “ Barya” read “ Banya.” Page 158, line 13 from bottom, insert brackets before and after “ English.” Page 159, line 24, for “ washing” read “roasting.” Pago 163, lino 6 from bottom,omit “ these” and insert “the following.” Page 163, line 35, for “ 1,822,688 ” read “ 1,822.688.” Page 164, line 12, for “ crystallizing ” read “cupellation.” Page 167, line 25, insert “ a ” after “ lirst.” Page 167, lines 25-26, omit “0.5 to 1 per cent, iron." Pago 169, line 39, for “ sulphate ” read “ sulphide.” Pago 172,lino 41, make the words “for about an hour” follow the word “decreased.” Page 173, line 21, read “ Kuschel zinc.” Page 175, line 28, for “ ton ” read “ cwt.” Page 177, lino 6, for “ smelting ” read “ meltings.” Page 177, line 7, for “ crucible furnaces ” read “ crucibles.” Page 179, line 2, read “ Zsarnowitz." Pago 180, lines 38-39, transfer comma to follow the word “ furnace ” instead of after “ combined.” Pago 183, lino 28. for “ wasting-dump " read “ roasting-dump .” Page 184, line 5, for “ gadens ” read “ Wardein.” Page 213, line 32, Siebruglmrger read “ Siobenbiirger.” Page 215, line 34, for “50 ” read “0.5.” Page 216, line 1, for “30 ” read “0.3.” Page 216, line 4, for “Atridaberg ” read “Atvidalmrg.” Pago 221, line 33, insert. “ west of north ” after “80°.” Page 223, line 1, for “ 1870 ” read “ 1872;” for “7,568,942” read “ 62,000,000.” Insert foot-note after table as follows: “ The value of the metals produced in the United States is estimated; the produc¬ tion of other countries is from official sources. The production of the six mining districts of Germauy and of the eight of Austro-Hungary is first given separately, and then the total of all under the headings of Germany and Austro-Hungary. The production of these districts should, therefore, be subtracted from the total production, which would theu read : “Lead, 264,832,398 kilograms; silver, 266,262 kilograms; copper, 45,037,102 kilo¬ grams ; zinc, 131,204,392 kilograms. “ With the exception of the United States, of which country the production is giveu in dollars, the figures given show approximately the total production of lead, silver, copper, and zinc for the world.” TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art Pa ge- introduction. 1 CHAPTER I.—UNITED STATES, (pp. 3-7.) 1. Character of exhibits. 3 Products exhibited by— 2. H. T. Blow. 3 3. Santee and Wagner...,. 3 4. Grand Pier Mining and Manufacturing Company. 3 5. Mineral City Mining and Smelting Company. 3 6. E. B. Ward. 3 7. Joseph Wharton. 3 ! 8. P. P. Peck. 3 9. Guido Kustel.-. 3 10. Method of zinc desilverization practiced at Germania Smelting and Re¬ fining Works...... 4 1 11. Exhibits by Sutro Tunnel Company. 6 CHAPTER II.—SPAIN, (pp. 7-9.) 12. Small display. 7 Products exhibited- 13. From Granada, Almeria, and Henlon. 7 14. From Santander. 7 15. By Madrid Mining Academy. 7 16. From the Almaden mines. 7 17. Age and progress of mining and metallurgy. 7 18. Growth of production. CHAPTER III.—FRANCE, (pp. 9-13.) Exhibits— 19. By M. Laveissiere et Fils. 9 20. By Manhes Pere et Fils. 9 21. By Henry Merle et Cie. 9 22. From Algiers. 9 .23. Progress and condition of metal industry. 9 Lead-refining— 24. Corduri6’s method. 9 25. Payen’s method. 9 26. Rozan’s improvements. 10 27. Manipulations of Rozan’s method. 11 28. Gain by its use at Saint Louis, Les Marseilles. 12 29. Objections to Rozan’s method. 12 CHAPTER IV.—ITALY, pp. 13-17.) 30. Condition of metal industry.... 13 Products exhibited— 31. From the works of. 13 32. By the Campagnia del Boltino. 13 33. By Domingikus Ing Santelli. 13 34. By Simonis, Cornelissen & Company. 13 IV TABLE OF CONTENTS. The Inland of Sardinia. Art. Page. 35. History, growth, and condition of metal industry. 13 36. Products exhibited by the Societa*.. 14 37. Miscellaneous exhibits. 14 38. Smelting processes. 14 39. Production. 15 40. Cost of mining and shipping ores. 15 CHAPTER V.—BELGIUM, (pp. 17-21.) 41. Exhibits from Bleyberg. 17 42. Bleyberg smelting-process. 17 43. Comparison of Belgian and English reverberatory smelting-furnaces. 18 Products exhibited— 44. By A. B. Lovegree.. 19 45. By the Zinc Mining and Smelting Company de la Vieilie Montague.. 19 46. History of the Zinc Mining Company and description of the works. 19 CHAPTER VI.—SWEDEN, (pp. 21-26.) 47. Character of ores; principal reducing-works. 21 48. Treatment of ores. 21 49. Experiments on M. Lundin’s furnace._.... 21 The Stora-Kopparlberg Copper-Works. 50. Exhibits. 22 51. Production in 1871. 22 The Kafreltrops Stock Company. 52. Ores exhibited. 23 53. Description of the works. 23 54. Newly-discovered minerals exhibited. 23 55. Miscellaneous exhibits. 23 Copper extraction— 56. Process lately introduced. 23 57. Process ordinarily employed. 23 58. Preparation of sulphuric acid used in the process.. 24 59. Manipulations of the process. 24 60. Statistics of cost and production. 25 61. Production of silver-zinc ores. 25 CHAPTER VII.—NORWAY, (pp. 26-30.) 62. Most important ores... 26 63. Statistics of mines and works for 1870 . 26 Exhibits— 64. Ores and intermediate products, by the Altener Copper-Works. 26 65. Copper minerals, zinc and lead ores. 28 The Konsberg Silver-Works. 66. Statistics. 28 67. Exhibits. 28 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Y CHAPTER VIII.—GERMANY, (pp. 30-156.) Art. I 38. Display made at Exhibition... G9. Growth of mining and metallurgical industries.. .. 70. Aid rendered by science... 71. Germany’s metallurgical rank. 72. Arrangement of the exhibits . 73. Exhibits by “ combined lead, silver, aud copper works”. Freiberg. j 74. Products exhibited .. J 75. Principal ores treated. 76. Classification of veins in Freiberg mining-district. 77. Water-power and drainage of the mines. Growth of metallurgical works— 78. Advantages of centralization. 79. Introduction of slag-hearths. 80. Introduction of sbaft-roastiug furnaces. 81. Latest improvements. I Shaft-roasting furnaces— 82. Classification.:.. 83. Description of Gerstenhofer furnace. 84. Ores roasted in this furnace.. 85. Roasting results. .. 86. Advantages and disadvantages.. 87. Principal improvements.. 88. Development of shaft-furnaces.. 89. Conclusions on shape of shafts.. 90. Use of iron water-tuyeres. 91. First use of furnace with widening top.. 92. Alger’s elliptical furnace. 93. Raschette furnace. 94. Pilz furnace.... 95. Latest form of Pilz furnace.. 96. Distinctive features.. 97. Smelting campaigns at the Muldener and Halsbriickner Works The Freiberg metallurgical process— 98. Character. Ores. 99. 100 . 101 . 102 . 102 . 102 . 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. Classification as payable and non-payable Classification according to composition .. Boasting. Methods employed.. Description of furnaces. Fuel.... . Modus operandi, (roasting). Cost of roasting .. Comparison of furnaces with. Single and double hearths. Roasting in heaps.. Roasting in double Wellner stalls__ The manufacture of sulphuric acid. 108. Ores and products used.. 109. Treatment .. 110. “ Stockel ” roasting.. Page. 30 30 31 31 32 32 32 33 33 33 34 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 37 37 37 38 38 38 38 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 41 42 43 43 43 43 44 45 45 45 46 47 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. The Freiberg metallurgical process—Continued. 111. Canals and condensing-chambers. 112. Lead-chambers. 113. Production of nitric acid. 114. Gay-Lussac apparatus. 115. Regulating the strength of the acid_ 116. Daily production. 117. Systems at the Muldener Works. 118. Purifying the chamber-acid. 119. Evaporation of the purified acid. 120. Concentration of the acid. Page. 48 48 48 49 49 49 49 50 51 51 The manufacture of arsenical products. 121. List of products and ores treated. 122. Production of arseuious acid. 123. Products of arsenical ores. 124. Pots for melting arseuious acid.. 125. Manipulations, (melting arseuious acid). 126. Production of orpemint. 127. Products treated for realgar. 128. Production of realgar. 129. Clarifying the realgar. 130. Treatment of sulphide of arsenic for the production of realgar_ 131. Production of metallic arsenic. 132. Preparation of the blcmlic pyntous ores in reverberatory furnaces. 133. Products of the operation.. 134. Advantage of the process. 135. Production of metallic zinc.. 51 52 52 52 53 53 54 54 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 Smelt i ng-processcs. 136. General requirement. 58 137. Composition of charge for blast-furnace smelting. 58 138. Treatment. 59 139. Ore-smelting in Stolberg furnaces. 59 140. Method of producing blast... 60 141. Manipulations iu Stolberg furnace. 61 142. Products. 62 143. Statistics of operation of Stolberg furnace. 62 144. Gases and fumes from smelting-furnace. 62 145. Round and octagonal furnaces at Muldener and Halsbriickner Works. 62 146. Blowing in the octagonal furnace. 64 147. Charge and products of octagonal furnace. 64 143. Charge for round furnace. 64 149. Composition of charges at Muldener and Halsbriickner Works- 65 150. Statistics of production at these works.. 65 151. Liquation of silver-lead. 66 152. Products of the process. 66 Eefining of the silver-lead. 153. Furnace employed. 66 154. Fuel. 67 155. Manipulation. 67 156. Products. 67 TABLE OF CONTENTS. VII Production of antimonial lead. Art. Page. The Freiberg metallurgical process—Continued. 157. Materials employed. 68 158. Products. 68 159. Manipulation. 68 The Pattinson process. 160. Kettles. 69 161. Manipulation without the removal of intermediate crystals. 69 162. Manipulation with the removal of intermediate crystals. 70 163. Composition of poor and rich lead... 70 164. Composition for each kettle. 70 165. Men required. 70 165. Products. 70 Cupellalion of the silver-lead. 166. Description of furnace. 71 167. Construction of the hearth. 71 168. Charging the furnace. 72 169. Manipulation... 72 170. Products. 72 171. Removing the products from the furnace... 73 172. Stopping the process. 73 173. Reasons for stopping before the silver brightens. 74 174. Treatment of hearth after completion of cupellation. 74 Silver refining. 175. Furnace. 74 176. Manipulation. 75 177. Granulation of the silver. 75 178. Length of refining operations. 75 179. Products_-. 75 180. Liquation of Pattinson dross. 75 181. Products of the process. 76 Reduction of litharge. 182. Operation. 76 183. Men and fuel required. 76 184. Products. 76 185. Manipulation of speiss. 76 186. Products of the manipulation. 77 Smelting of the roasted matte. 187. Smelting-charge. 77 188. Products. 77 189. Effect of process in removing accretions from furnace. Resmelting of the lead-slags. 190. Object of the operation. 78 191. Smelting-charge. 78 192. Composition of slag produced. 79 193. Products. 79 Second smelting of matte. 194. Effect of the operation. 79 195. Smelting-charge. 80 196. Products. 80 197. Changes in matte by operations of concentration. 80 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS. Boasting of the concentrated copper-matte. Art. Tagc. The Freiberg metallurgical process—Continued. 198. Character of operation. 81 199. Manipulation. 81 5200. Composition of roasted matte. 81 Concentration of the concentrated matte in reverberatory furnace. 201. Description of furnace. 81 202. Melting on the hearth . 83 203. Reactions iu treating the roasted matte. 83 204. Composition of charge. 84 205. Manipulations. 84 206. Attendance and fuel. 86 207. Products. 86 ' Manufacture of copper-vitriol. 208. Chemical composition of concentrated copper-uiatte. 86 209. Crushing and roasting the concentrated matte. 86 210. Attendance and fuel required for roasting. 87 211. Composition of the roasted matte. 87 212. Reactions of matte when treated with sulphuric acid. 88 213. Products after treatment. 88 214. Method of dissolving the matte by treatment with sulphuric acid.. 88 215. Crystallizing the vitriol. 89 216. Annual production of copper-vitriol. 90 217. Treatment of mother-liquid and residues. 90 218. Statistics of production of copper-vitriol iu 1869. 90 219. Estimate of the amount of metal extracted from matte in 1869. 91 Separation of gold from silver. 220. Dissolving refiued silver. 93 221. Precipitation of silver from the solution.... 93 222. Treatment of gold-residue. 94 223. Extraction of bismuth. 94 224. Products of the operation. 95 225. Machines, furnaces, and apparatus at the Freiberg smelting-works '.*6 226. Production of the Saxon mines in 1871. 97 227. Products of the Freiberg metallurgical works in 1871. 98 The Jlarz. 228. Products exhibited. 93 The Harz metallurgical process— 229. Development of improvement in smelting processes. 99 230. Smelting with slags from pyritons ore. 100 231. Substitution of roasted lead-matte for a portion of the copper-slag. 100 232. Experiments on construction of shaft-furnaces. 101 233. Results and conclusions. 101 234. Experiments on round furnace with eight tuyeres. 102 235. Experiments to determine size of blast-nozzles. 103 236. Experiments with heated blast. 103 237. Distribution of metallurgical operations. 103 Lead-smelting at Clausthal. 238. Ores treated. 104 239. SmeltiDg-furnaces. 104 240. Charge. 104 241. Products. 105 242. Capacity of works. 106 TABLE OF CONTENTS. IX Processes at Altenau. Art. Page. The Harz metallurgical process—Continued. 243. Ores treated. 106 244. Treatment of lead-ore. 107 245. Products of ore-smelting. 107 246. Treatment of lead-matte. . 107 247. Products of the operation. 108 248. Second treatment of lead-matte. 108 249. Former treatment of lead-matte. 108 250. Composition after second treatment. 108 251. Roasting the copper-matte. 109 252. Smelting the roasted matte. 109 253. Further treatment of the copper-matte. 109 254. Analysis of slags from the smelting of copper-products. 110 255. Analysis of copper-matte from the various smeltings. 110 256. Furnace for refining black copper. 110 257. Manipulation, refining black copper. Ill 258. Analysis of the refined copper. Ill 259. Composition of resulting slags. Ill 260. Dissolving vessels for the desilverization of copper. 112 261. Dissolving the copper and manufacturing copper-vitriol. 112 262. Crystallization from the solution . 113 263. Analysis of copper-vitriol and argentiferous slime. 114 264. Treatment of argentiferous slime. 114 265. Treatment of products resulting from the operation. 114 266. Annual production of copper-vitriol. 115 Andreaslerg. 267. Ores treated. 115 268. Smelting processes. 115 269. Amount of gold contained in the silver extracted from ores. 116 270. Treatment of silver-ores. 117 271. Treatment of the matte. 117 272. Production in 1871. 118 Lautenthal. 273. Roasting and smelting processes. 118 274. Products treated.,.. 118 275. Methods of desilverization of lead. 118 276. Composition of silver-lead from different works. 118 277. Plant for the desilverization of silver-lead by means of zinc.. 119 278. Melting the charge and removing the scum. 119 279. First addition of zinc for the extraction of gold and copper. 120 ■ 280. Theories in regard to action of zinc. 120 281. Second addition of zinc for the extraction of silver.. 121 282. Third addition of zinc. 121 283. Treatment of the silver-zinc alloy. 121 284. Oxidizing the zinc. 121 285. Oxidizing the antimony. 122 286. Testing the lead for zinc and other impurities. 122 287. Assay of the lead before casting. 122 288. Regulation of temperature in oxidizing zinc and antimony. 122 289. Liquation of the zinc-scum. 123 290. Dezinckifying the zinc-dust. 123 291. Cupellation of the enriched silver-lead. 124 X TABLE OF CONTEXTS. Art. Page. The Harz metallurgical process—Continued. 292. Liquation of skimmings. 124 293. Treatment of skimmings. 124 294. Manufacture of yellow paint. 125 295. Time required for desilverizing 12,500 kilograms silver-lead, and products of the operation. 125 29G. Results of the silver-lead treatment for 1869. 126 297. Genealogical tree of zinc-desilverization process. 126 298. Advantages of the process. 127 The Lower Harz. Exhibits— 299. By the “ Oker Saiger Hiitte”.. 127 299. By tbe Julius Hiitte. 127 Copper-melting. Process at the “ Oker Saiger Hutte”— 300. Ores from Rammelsberg mines. 127 301. Treatment of ores. 127 302. Former furnaces for smelting copper. 128 303. Experiments on shaft-furnaces. 129 304. Present furnaces. 129 / 305. Manipulations. 130 Manufacture of sulphuric acid and coppcr-cilriot. 306. Methods employed. 130 307. Experiments iu concentrating sulphuric acid. 131 308. Production in 1872. 131 Process at the “Herzog Julius Hiitte”— 309. Treatment of roasted ores from Oker. 131 310. Manufacture of zinc-vitriol. 131 Lead-smeltimj. 311. Furnace employed, and charge. 132 312. Products of the operation . 132 313. Production in 1870. 133 The Mansfeld Copper-Works— 314. Exhibits. 133 315. Description of copper-smelting furnace. 133 316. Ores treated. 134 317. Augustin process for the extraction of silver. 134 318. The Zieroogel process. 134 319. Plant for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. 135 320. Present copper-extraction process. 135 Upper Silesia. 321. Products exhibited. 135 322. Ores. 136 The Tarnowitz lead and smelting works— 323. Description of furnaces. 136 324. Smelting processes. 137 325. Results of smelting operations, (1863 to 1865). 139 325. Comparison of the new furnace with other reverberatory smelting- furnaces . 139 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI The zinc-desilverization process. A rt. Page. Tlie Tarnowitz lead and smelting works—Continued. 326. Experiments by Karsten. 139 327. Development of the present process. 140 328. Manipulations of the process.. 141 329. Gerhardt’s lining for clay zinc- muffles. 141 330. Products of the distillation of zinc... 142 331. Advantages of the process. 142 332. Exhibits and statistics of the. 142 The Rhine provinces. 333. Progress and condition of lead mining and smelting.. 143 334. Ores. 143 Herbst & Co.— 335. Exhibits and statistics. 143 Zinc-desilverization. 336. Manipulations. 144 337. Products. 144 338. Treatment of poor lead. 144 339. Dezinckifying the zinc-scum. 145 340. Liquation of copper-scum. 145 341. Products of the liquation. 145 342. Treatment of matte. 145 343. Analysis of the products of the process. 146 The Stolberg Stock Company for mining, and the production of lead and zinc— 344. Exhibits—Ores treated. 146 345. Hasenclever and Helbig’s roasting-furnace. 147 346. Roasting and smelting lead-ores.. 148 Desilverization of silver-lead. 347. Treatment of pure grades by zinc process. 148 348. Treatment of poor lead. 149 349. Mechanical pattinsonizing of silver; lead free from impurities_ 149 350. Annual production. 150 The Rhine Nassau Smelting Company— 351. Exhibits, classification of works. 150 352. Roasting and smelting furnaces at Binsfeldhammer.... 150 353. Advantages of the regenerative furnaces. 151 354. Roasting and smelting process at Holzappel... 151 355. Production in 1872. 151 The Mechernicher Smelting-Works— 356. Exhibits and statistics.. 151 357. Ore from the Mechernicher Bleiberg mine. 152 358. Roasting and smelting process. 152 Zinc-desilverization process. 359. Charge. 153 360. Treatment of poor lead. 154 361. Production in 1872. 154 The Ems Smelting-Works— 362. Products exhibited. 154 363. Processes emp’oyed. 155 XII TABLE OF CONTENTS. Art. Tage. The Ems Smelting-Works—Continued. 364. Roasting the ore. 155 365. Smelting-furnaces. 155 366. Treatment of lead-matte. 155 367. Zinc-desilverizatiou process. 155 368. Production in 1872. 156 CHAPTER IX.—AUSTRIAN! I UN GAR I AN EMPIRE, (pp. 157-214.) 369. Condition of metal industry. 157 370. Display made. 157 Bohemia exhibit’s. The Pribram Smelting-Works— 371. Products. 157 372. Arrangement of products. 156 373. Rittinger’s continually-acting percussion-table. 158 374. Cupellation-furnaco. 156 375. Latest improvements in the metallurgical process. 159 376. Results of 6meltiug process in 1871. 162 377. Plant in use at present. 162 378. Production in 1871. 163 379. Products exhibited by Kscheutzischcr, Zeche, and Mies. 163 Tyrol. Brixlegg Smelting-Works— 380. Products exhibited. 164 381. Model of furnace exhibited. 164 382. Plan of works. 164 383. Composition of ores treated. 164 384. Processes employed. 165 385. The copper-smelting process. 165 386. The lead-smelting process. 165 387. Annual production. 165 • -388. Exhibits and description of the Jochberg Smelting-Works. 166 Miiklbach Smelting-Works- 389. Exhibits—composition of ore. 166 390. Smeltiug process. 166 391. New blast-furnace. 166 392. Capacity of new furnace. 167 Cari lit hia. Bleiberg Smeltiug-Compauy— 393. Products exhibited. 166 394. Plan of works. 168 395. Analysis of Villach lead. 168 396. Smelting-furnace. 169 397. Carinthian smelting inocess. 169 398. Production. 170 399. Exhibits and production of Egger Smelting-Works. 170 400. Exliibits by J. Raiuer. 170 401. Production of smaller Carinthian Smeltiug-Works... 171 Raible Smelting-Works— 402. 171 403. Product'on-analysis of Raible lead. 171 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xiir Art. Page. Puntschard White-Lead Works- 404. White lead exhibited. 171 405. Former process of manufacture. 171'. 406. Introduction of lead-chambers.... 172 407. Improvements by Herr Puntschard. 172 408. White lead exhibited by F. P. Herbst. 172 Styria. — Ludwig's Kursch Smelting-Works. 409. Products exhibited. 172 410. Smelting process. 172 411. Zinc-desilverization process. 172 412. Annual production. 173 Krain Ludwig's Kursch Zinc-Works. 413. Products exhibited... 173 414. Kuschel and Hinterhuber’s roasting-furnace. 173 415. Comparison of this furnace with the Mansfield double-hearth reverberatory furnace. 175 416. Annual production... 176* Bulgaria. 417. Products exhibited. 176- 418. Production in 1871. 176 Hungary. Royal Hungarian Mint— 419. Articles exhibited. 176 New method of separating silver from copper. 420. Description and exhibits illustrating the process. 177 421. Advantages of the process. 178 422. Exhibits from smelting-works at Schemnitz, Ivremnitz, Zsarnowitz, and Neusohl. 179 423. Exhibits from smelting-works at Tajora. 179 Metallurgical process in the Lower Hungarian mining-districts— 424. Growth of metal-industry. 179 425. Classification of processes. 179 Description of works. 426. Schemnitz. 179 427. Zsarnowitz. 180 428. Neusohl..'. 180 429. Kremnitz. 180 430. Tajora. 180 431. Dillner. 180 432. Principal steps of lead and silver smelting. 181 433. Ore-smelting for matte. 181 Beichverhleiung. 434. Ores and products treated...-. 182 435. Classification of manipulations. 183 436. Roasting. 183 437. Reichverblei. 184 438. Matte-smelting. 188 439. Second matte-smelting. 188 440. Production at silver-smelting works, 1868, 1869. 189 XIV TABLE OF CONTEXTS. Cupellaiion. Art. Page. Metallurgical process in Lower Hungarian mining-districts—Continued. 441. Products of the operation. 190 442. Production 1868 to 1870 .,. 190 443. Liquation. 191 444. Cost and statistics of production of lead and silver, 1868 to 1870 .. 191 Copper-smelting. 445. Ores and products treated. 194 446. Classification of manipulations. 194 447. Smeltiug for argentiferous matte. 195 448. Smelting of the roasted argentiferous matte. 195 449. Smelting of the roasted-lead products. 196 450. Extraction of black copper. 196 451. Reduction of residues. 197 452. Smelting of non-argeutiferous dross . 197 453. Refining the copper. 198 454. Cost of each manipulation. 193 Jte-imbursement of ores anil slimes from the mines hg the government smelting-works. 4 455. Manner of arranging regulation-tariffs. 198 456. Tariff-tables. 200 Metallic deduction. 457. Gold and silver. 201 458. Lead-contents. 201 Smelting expenses. 459. Table of cost for 1873 . 201 460. Superintendence. 202 461. Administration. 202 462. Interest on the purchasing capital. 202 463. Duty for gold-extraction. 203 464. Mint-charges. 203 465. Illustrated example. 203 466. Purchase-regulations for copper-ore and products. 203 467. Growth of improvements in metallurgical operations. 204 468. Comparison of tariff with that iu vogue in Freiberg and the Upper Harz. 205 469. Changes in the metallurgical processes. 207 470. Genealogical tree of the metallurgical process. 209 Upper Hungary. Wald Burgher Schaft Smeltiug-Works— 471. Exhibits. 211 472. Ores treated. 211 473. Quicksilver distillation. 211 474. Treatment of residue from quicksilver. 212 475. Treatment of non-argeutiferous ore. 212 476. Production in 1871. 212 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV Zalatlma. Art. Page. Transylvania— 477. Exhibits... 213 478. Plan of works. 213 479. New process for reducing ores... 213 480. Annual production.<. 213 481. Exhibits and statistics of the Siebenbiirgen copper-works. 213 Nagy Barya— 482. Exhibits and statistics. 213 483. Extraction of gold and silver. 214 484. Annual production. 214 485. Exhibits of zinc-metal industry of Galicia. 214 CHAPTER X.—RUSSIA, (pp. 215-216.) 486. Character of display. 215 Smelting-works at Wijni Tagnil. 487. Exhibits .. 215 488. Ores treated. 215 489. Furnaces employed. 215 490. Consumption of fuel..„. 215 491. Refining the black copper. 216 492. Production in 1872. 216 Exhibits and production of other works. 493. Bogolorsk. 216 494. Jongor. 216 495. Verkh-Issetsk.„.. 216 496. Kedaberg. 216 497. Paulina zinc-works. 216 CHAPTER XI.—TURKEY, (pp. 217-218.) 498. Exhibits... 217 499. Condition of metal industry. 217 500. Smelting process... 217 CHAPTER XII.—GREECE, (pp. 219-221.) Exhibits. 501. By the “Greek Commission Central ”. 219 502. From Attica. 219 503. Results of ancient metallurgical operations. 219 504. Operations of the French-Italian Company. 220 505. “Lead-earth”. 220 506. Theories on undeveloped metallic resources. 221 507. Results of recent prospecting. 221 APPENDIX, (pp. 223-232.) A. The production of lead, silver, copper, and zinc, in the principal countries of the world. 223 XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. B. Regulations for the purchase of Saxon ores at the Royal Saxon Fiscal Smelting-Works ■ Art. Page. $ 1. General remarks. 224 $ 2. Condition of the ores in general. 224 $ 3. Uniformity and fineness of the ores to be delivered. 224 $ 4. Disposition of tbe ores at tbe smelting-works. 224 • $ 5. Presonce of tbe deliverer at tbe weighing of the ore. 225 $ (>. Time of delivery. 225 $ 7. Commencement of tbe general smelting administration’s right of possession to delivered ore. 225 $ 8. Unit of weight in weighing ores. 226 $ 9. Limits of weight. 226 $ 10. Statement of weight. 226 $11. Assay samples retained by laboratory. 228 $ 12. Ores containing native silver and silver-glance. 228 $ 13. Method of assaying. 228 $ 14. Unit of weight in assaying ores. 228 $ 15. Metallic contents of ores. 228 $ 16. The delivery assay. 229 $ 17. Purchase assay. 229 $ 18. Presentation of assay statement. 230 $ 19. Determinative assay. 230 $ 20/ Repetition of the method of delivery. 231 $21. Deputyship of the judge-assayer. 232 $ 22. Computation of the ore-prices. 232 LIST OF DRAWINGS. Mansfeld copper-furnace, Figs. I, II. Hasenclever and Helbig's roasting-furnace, Figs. Ill to VI. Battery for mechanical pattinssouizing, Figs. VII, VIII. New cnpellation-furnace at Pribram, Figs. IX to XVI. METALLURGY. LEAD, SILVER, COPPER, AND ZINC. INTRODUCTION. Mining and metallurgy were justly placed in the first group in the general classification of the Vienna Exhibition. Mining and smelting i are not only a principal source of raw material, but their products have taken in the past an important part in the history of the human race. They are, and will always be, an indispensable necessity of the never- ceasing demands of the manufacturing interests, and the further prog- I ress of every branch of industry, and therefore necessary to the advance¬ ment of civilization and the welfare of mankind. The art of metallurgy was not as well illustrated by most of the coun¬ tries represented as that of mining. The larger exhibit of rocks, vein- pieces, minerals, ores, &c., was more intended to show to the world the mineral resources and their connection with the geological formation of the several countries than the condition of the methods employed in the extraction of the various metals at the present day. Iron, lead, and copper ores, and metallurgical products, constituted the principal metallic display of all countries rich in minerals. Norway, whose characteristic metal is copper made an exception to the above. Silver and zinc ores were but poorly represented. The British display, in Group I, was confined to iron-ores and their products, and machinery. There were several collections of gold and silver ore from the English colonies. The method of exhibition, considered from a professional point of view, was a very unfortunate one. The articles belonging to Group I were scattered throughout the entire Exhibition, thus making it exceedingly difficult for those seeking information on this particular subject to gain a thorough oversight of the products exhibited. The great importance of this branch of industry demanded that it should have had a separate and distinct building, (as the machinery building,) where the products from all countries could be exhibited, and a com¬ prehensive and connected view of the whole offered to the visitor. The quality of the exhibited products was not to be ascertained by a superficia examination, such as even the International Jury was com¬ pelled to make. More reliable, though not entirely so, was the information offered to the public by several metallurgical establishments. This was generally in the form of a survey of the process practiced and the extent of their 1 m 9 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. operations. It should be here remarked, and the remark is applicable to all cases where interested persons describe the methods of extrac¬ tion and the economical practical results obtained, whether orally or in writing, that only the most favorable cases and results are given; or, if an unfavorable result should be mentioned, it would be explained away as though it were an unavoidable consequence of something con¬ nected with the manipulation. This is the general rule. It is not sel¬ dom the case that falsehoods are intentionally and foolishly told concern¬ ing the process. The several inducements for this are apparent, but policy is short-sighted and weak. For this reason, such articles emanat¬ ing from interested persons should be received with due caution and consideration. There have been but few important metallurgical processes or appara¬ tus discovered since 1803. These consist in the Gerstenhdfer, Hassen- clever and Helhig, Stetefeldt, and Kuschel and FT interim be r’s roasting, furnaces ; the 1'ilz round smelting furnace, with widened top, iron water¬ cooling boxes, and tuyeres, and Cordurie’s method of eliminating zinc, and other elements, from lead. The constant increase in wages, fuel, and material, without a corre¬ sponding increase in the price of the products, have made rapid and great improvements necessary for successful metallurgical operations. The immense strides that have been made in this branch of industry have been principally made toward increasing the production, viz, by 7 increasing the size of the furnace and the pressure of blast; but of greatest importance is the production of poorer waste-products, as slag, and by extracting small quantities of silver and gold, (improved zine- desilverization,) and the construction of extensive condensation-cham¬ bers. In preparing this report, the products, exhibited at the Vienna Ex¬ hibition have first been enumerated and described, with the methods and the latest improvements employed in their production, together with statistics illustrating the scale on which the above operations are conducted. As the data obtained at the Exhibition was in most cases deficient and seldom of a uniform nature, I have had recourse to private notes, made when visiting the several metallurgical works in the years 1869 to 1874, and to the communications of several gentlemen, which are duly credited in the proper places. I avail myself of this opportunity to acknowledge my thanks and indebtedness for courtesies and valua¬ ble information to my associates on the jury, the Austrian minister of agriculture, Vilmos Ocsovszky, mayor of Schemnitz; W. Wiesner, director of mines in Schemnitz; Vilibald Kachelmanu, director, and Joseph Wagner, assayer, of the government smelting-works at the same place; Franz Markus, director of the Xeusohlsmelting-works; I. Lan- ger, superintendent of the Pribram smelting-works ; Mr. Kast, director of the Clausthal smelting-works; E. J. Strauch, director, and W. Schmidt, assessor, at the Lautenthal smelting-works. CHAPTER I, EXHIBITS OF THE UNITED STATES. Exhibits of H. T. Blow, Santee & Wagner, Grand Pier Mining and Manufact¬ uring Company, Mineral City Mining and Smelting Company, E. B. Ward, Joseph Wharton, P. P. Peck, Guido Kustel; Method of zinc-desilverization PRACTICED AT THE GERMANIA SMELTING AND REFINING WORKS ; EXHIBITS OF THE Sutro Tunnel Company. 1. The display of metallurgical products from the United States was very small; only two lead and smelting works being represented. The mineralogical specimens exhibited were more numerous, and of great interest to those seeking information relating to our extensive mineral resources. The following are the ores and products exhibited : 2. By Mr. H. T. Blow, of Saint Louis, Mo.: Calamine and galena, from Granby; both the minerals were in remarkably large crystals. The cubes of galena were about 12 centimeters in diameter. 3. By Messrs. Santee & Wagner, Rolla, Mo.: Galena, blende, and cop¬ per-pyrites. 4. By the “ Grand Pier Mining and Manufacturing Company,” of Shawneetown, Ill.: Galena, blende,’ copper-pyrites, fluor-spar, and baryte. 5. By the u Mineral City Mining and Smelting Company,” of Mineral City, Ill.: Fluor-spar, which is used extensively in the manufacture of glass; galena with about 0.00 per cent. = 17 oz. 9 dwt. 19 gr. silver, and lead-ore with 68 to 79 per cent. lead. These mines have not yet been developed, but it is proposed to commence operations on a large scale as soon as the necessary capital can be obtained. The ore-deposits are said to be extensive,. 6. By Mr.E. B. Ward, Detroit, Mich.: Copper-pyrites and native silver. 7. By Mr. Joseph Wharton, Philadelphia, Pa.: Magnetic pyrites from the Gap mine, in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, containing 1 per cent, copper, 1.75 per cent, nickel, and 0.1 per cent, cobalt; millerite ; metal¬ lic nickel, cobalt, and chemically-pure zinc; alloys of nickel-cobalt, nickel-copper, cobalt-copper, and various salts of nickel, cobalt, copper, and irou. The smelting-works are in Lancaster County, but the nickel and cobalt refining-works are in Camden, 1ST. J, The annual production is 95,000 kilograms nickel, 4,500 kilograms cobalt, and 200 to 500 kilo¬ grams copper. 8. By Mr. P. P. Peck, of Denver, Colo.: A collection of gold and sil¬ ver minerals. 9. By Prof. Guido Kustel, of San Fraucisco, Cal.: A small but well- 4 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. selected collection of gold, silver, and lead minerals and ores from Utali and California. All the specimens displayed were designed to give strangers a comprehensive idea of the minerals occurring in the mining localities in the two sections of the country where they occurred. Of especial interest to the mineralogists, were a series of minerals illustra¬ ting the transition of tetrabedrite into stetefeldite. These received much attention from professional men, their value being increased by the accompanying analysis of each specimen. Several beautiful specimens of wolframite also deserve mention. They were unusually large (1.5 to 2.5 centimeters in diameter) crystals of mod¬ ified tetragonal tables. The same gentleman also exhibited silver-lead and silver from the “ Germania Smelting and Refining Works.” The sample of silver-lead exhibited assayed 0.5 per cent.=1.45 oz. 10 dwt. silver, and the silver from the cupellatiou furnace was fine. 10. In the year 1372 this company erected smelting-works with ap¬ paratus for the desilverization of argentiferous lead by means of zinc. The following description of the zinc-desilverization process practiced at the Germania Works (which is the only available one) was written by Mr. IJentham Fabian, and appeared in the Salt Lake Tribune of Janu¬ ary 4, 1S73 : As the original description abounds in impossibilities and improba¬ bilities, only the manipulations of the process are here reproduced. The battery consists of live Pattinson kettles, twoof which have a capacity of about 25,000 kilograms ; the other three are smaller. The kettles are arranged in the shape of the letter V ; the broad part being formed by the two large or fusing kettles, and the smallest kettle forming the apex. The zinc used is of two qualities, viz, commercial or good zinc, which is brought from Illinois, at ;r cost of 0 cents per pound ; and dross.zinc (refuse from galvanic Batteries, which contains about 30-per cent, of iron) from New York, at a cost of 5 cents per pound. When the silver- lead is tolerably free from impurities, and contains from 0.5 to0.7 percent. 145 oz. 10 dwt. to 204 oz. 2 dwt.silver, about2.25 to2.75 percent, zinc or 3 to 3.5 per cent, zinc-dross is consumed in the desilverization. The manipulations are as follows: The silver-lead is fused in one of the large kettles,* aud the first addition of zinc made, which is 3.5 to 1 per cent, of zinc, or 0.75 to 1.5 of zinc-dross. This is well stirred for half rtn hour, aud then allowed to cool, (the fire being withdrawn,) and remain undisturbed for three hours, when the zinc-scum is removed aud ladled into the adjoining smaller kettle. The fire is then raised, and a second addition of zinc is made ; this is 0.5 to 0.75 per cent, of zinc, or 1.0 to 1.5 per cent, of zinc- dross, which is stirred, and the metallic liquid is allowed to cool. * The author of this article has (evidently omitted to state that the abzug, composed of a portion of the copper, iron. &c., contained in the silver-lead, is removed before the zinc is added. ZINC-DESILVEKIZATION. 5 The zinc-scum which is in the second kettle is now melted, stirred, and allowed to cool; the skimmiugs, or zinc-dust, are transferred to the third or smallest kettle of the series, and the liquated lead is ladled back into No. 1, or the fusing-kettle; a similar operation is repeated in the third kettle, the scum being set aside for treatment in a shaft-fur¬ nace, and the liquated metal ladled back into No. 2. The remainder of the zinc having been added to the metal in the first or fusing-kettle, and the first process repeated, the third zinc-scum is set aside for further treatment. The silverized lead is tapped from the fusing-kettle by means of an iron pipe attached to the bottom of the same, and con¬ necting by means of an iron trough with a reverberatory furnace. It is there subjected to a bright-red heat for several hours, whereby the impurities are eliminated by oxidation. There are two refining-furnaces, one for each fusing-kettle. The heartb is 15 feet 6 inches long and 9 feet 4 inches wide, with a sufficient depth to contain the contents of the fusing-kettle. The refined lead is tapped from the furnace into a market kettle, aud then cast iu molds. Each bar of lead weighs about 140 pouuds. The whole operation, from the charging of the silver-lead in the fusing-kettle to the tapping of the refined lead, occupies twenty-four hours ; the capacity of the works was, iu January, 1873, about 40 tons per day. The refined lead is said to be free from all impurities, and to contain only 0.0003 per cent. = l dwt. 17.95 gr. (?) The rich alloy or liquated zinc-scum from the first and second addi¬ tions of zinc are smelted in a shaft-furnace according to the Flaclis pro¬ cess. The back wall of the furnace is inclined toward the front, and at a short distance above the tuyeres the front wall recedes more abruptly from the back. The furnace is 2 feet 7 inches from breast to back, and 2 feet G inches wide. It has three tuyeres, with a diameter of 1J inches and a pressure of blast equal to about 21 inches water-column. Coke serves as fuel; it is obtained from Pittsburgh, and costs, delivered at the works, about $28 per ton. The hematite used as a flux is brought from Rawlins, and costs about $15 per ton. It contains about G2 per cent, of iron, sesquioxide, aud 15 to 20 per cent, of silicic acid. The lead- slag is to be had in the neighborhood. The charge is, rich alloy, 250 pouuds; hematite, 180 pounds; coke, 55 pounds, and a small quantity of lead slag. It will have been observed that the first aud second zinc- scum are treated together according to one process, and the third zinc- scum undergoes another treatment. If this is not an incorrect state¬ ment, the reason for so singular a method should have been explained. As zinc has a greater affinity for copper and gold thau for silver, (and none for antimony,) the two first metals, when contained in the silver- lead, (and they are contained in the silver-lead treated at the Germania Works,) are concentrated in the first zinc-scum. This is at other works set aside and treated by itself. The different constitution of the alloy requires a separate process. The second and third zinc-scums are of a 6 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. uniform composition ; the third merely containing a smaller amount of silver than the second. Therefore, I think it highly probable that the first zinc-scum is treated in the liquating (“ roasting”) furnace, aud the second aud third are liquated together in the smaller kettles. The charge given above is most likely that used in smelting the enriched scum from the second and third additions of zinc, and which is nou- cupriferons. In smelting, the enriched scum from the first addition of ziuc unroasted matte, or some other substance rich in sulphur, is proba¬ bly added to the charge, which would be the means of concentrating the copper iu the matte. The matte would also contain small quantities of lead and silver, but these could be extracted with a small loss by roast¬ ing the matte and adding it to the ore charge, or desilverizing it by smelting with lead lluxes which are free from silver. Another error here reproduced is, that the pressure of blast is equal to 24 iuclies=0.G2 meter water-column. The maximum pressure of blast is stated by Kerl to be 0.157 meter water-column. The pressure at the Mechernich Works is (>.131 meter; at Ems, 0.13 meter water-column. It is true that when the pressure is too small the amount of zinc volatilized is de¬ creased, but when the pressure is too great, lead (and silver) is volatil¬ ized in large quantities, and the formation of salamanders, containing silver and lead, is increased. 11. By the Sutro Tunnel Company, ofSutro, Nevada: Topographical charts and a model of the celebrated Comstock lode. It was of cast iron, and in two sections, so made as to represent the Sutro Tunnel. Informa¬ tion concerning the latter was circulated by means of pamphlets. As the history of and progress made by this gigantic undertaking has long since attracted the attention of the engineering world, this model was regarded with great interest by a multitude of scientific visitors who saw in it professional enterprise which bears the impression of Ameri- CHAPTER II. SPANISH EXHIBITS. From Granada, Almeria, Henlon, Santander, the Madrid Mining Academy, and the Almaden Mines ; Age and Progress of Mining and Metallurgy : Growth of Production. 12. The metallurgical exhibit of Spain was small, and it was only in I exceptional cases that the products displayed were accompanied by the name of the locality whence they were. This imperfect representation i of Spain’s immense metallic treasures is, probably with justice, to be ascribed to the very unsettled condition of the country. 13. Granada and Almeria were represented by specimens of black and refined copper. Hueloa, by pure refined copper. 14. From Santander there were specimens of argentiferous galena, calamine, blende, copper-ores, copper and silver lead. 15. The Madrid Mining Academy exhibited a uiineralogical collection, among which were specimens of lead, silver, and quicksilver ores. 1G. A very interesting display of cinnabar, native mercury, slag from quicksilver-ores, and mercury, from the celebrated mines of Almaden, was made by Davilla, Madrid. 17. A great amount of galena and argentiferous lead (chiefly extracted by English companies) is Sent to foreign countries, principally to England. The extraction of the metals iu Spain was commenced in ancient times. The Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Romans imported large quanti¬ ties of silver from Spain ; and this country for a long time was consid¬ ered the richest country in the world iu silver. Strabo, who gives us the first accounts of the mining and the extrac¬ tion of silver from its ores, describes the largest and oldest works in Spain, situated at hTew Carthage. The extraction of copper from its ores has also been carried on for a long time iu Spain. The production of copper has never been great, but the product possessed an excellent reputation with the Romans. 18. A large increase in the production of lead took place in the latter part of the last century. Karsten was of the opinion that Spain probably possessed greater riches in lead than any other country in the world, and was also of the opinion that if the Spanish mines were worked with the same energy as the British, she would easily excel the extraordinarily large production of England. This latter proved in time to be correct, for the same author computed the production of lead 8 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. in Spain in the year 182S, or thereabouts, at 25,000,000 kilograms, and this was merely the quantity produced in a few districts. He remarked, at the same time, that full statistics were wanting, and this produc¬ tion took place without any increase of labor or energy; at the same time in England (182S) 40,150,000 kilograms were produced. In the year 1868, forty years later, during which time England had made gigantic strides, tbe production amounted to 72,200,000 kilograms. In the year 1808, at which time the art of mining and metallurgy in Spain was still at a low point, the production of lead increased to 72,S00,000 kilograms, and the difference becomes much greater when it is consid¬ ered that not a small proportion of the lead produced in England is extracted from foreign, and even from Spanish ores. CHAPTER III. FRENCH EXHIBITS. Exhibits of M. Laveissi4be et Fils, Manhes Pere et Fils, Henry Merle & Co., from Algiers ; Progress and condition of Metal Industry ; Cordurie’s METHOD OF LEAD EEFINING; P A YEN’S METHOD ; ROZAN’S IMPROVEMENTS ; MANIP¬ ULATIONS of Eozan’s method; Objections to Rozan’s method. 19. The exhibit of metallurgical products from France was very small. An elaborate display was made by M. Laveissiere et Fils, Paris, of copper ingots, kettles, also copper and brass pipes of various sizes. The manufactured articles were tastefully and artistically arranged in the dome of the Exposition, so as to represent a feudal castle. The walls and pillars were formed by copper and brass pipes alternating; on the parapet, pipes were made to represent cannons; inverted copper ket¬ tles served as arches for the portals. 20. Manhes Pere et Fils, of Lyons, exhibited a large number of wrought-copper kettles and rolled sheet-copper. 2L Henry Merle et Cie.,of Alais, exhibited several bricks of fine silver- 22. Algiers was represented by several small exhibits of argentiferous galena, silver, and copper ores. 23. The metal industry in France has of late assumed immense pro¬ portions. This is partly to be attributed to the increasing commercial facilities of that country and the inventive spirit of the French. Frauce’s metallic mineral— i. e., copper, lead, silver, and zinc—resources are far from being extensive, yet owing to the enterprise of her citizens in this great branch of industry, both at home and abroad, it has advanced, until France at present stands at the head of the copper-producing countries, and fourth iu lead and silver. Copper-ores are chiefly im¬ ported from Chili, lead-ores and silver-lead from Sardinia and Greece. 24. The lead metallurgist is indebted to the French for valuable im¬ provements, the most important of which is, perhaps, the method of refining lead by means of steam, (Cordurie’s method,) which, now that the advantages of zinc-desilverization are in Europe and America so universally acknowledged, has become of especial interest. 25. In connection with this subject, it is to be regretted the “ new im¬ provement in refining lead and products therefrom,” by Thomas Payen, E. & H. Eoux, of Marseilles, France, which appeared in the catalogue, (No. 31,) and which was awarded a prize by the International Jury, (Group I,) was, as the writer ascertained by a careful and thorough inquiry, not placed on exhibition. This u improvement” is to be intro- 10 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. duced at the lead smelting-works at Marseilles, and it is intended by the use of soda and a small proportion of saltpeter to remove antimony, but especially arsenic, from the silver-lead in the reverberatory refining- furnace. The process is to precede the crystallization desilverization process. 20. An important improvement in pattinsonizingand refining silver- lead by means of steam has been made by M. Rozan, and introduced in Marseilles. This will be of interest not only to those metallurgists who practice the crystallization process, but also to those who may intend erecting separating-works. The description is from the Ann. do Mines, Sept, ser., tom. iii, livr. 2, 1S73, p. ICO. The first results of thus applying steam to desilverization were made public in 1871, but the following are the manipulations attending the working of silver-lead containing 0.123 per cent.=35 oz. 16 dwt. silver, as carried out in 1872, together with the exposition of the prac¬ ticability of the same. The principle of this process is. that by conduct¬ ing steam into the molten metal contained in a Tattinson pot, the thick, heavy liquid is thrown into a violent commotion, thus dispensing with maqual or mechanical stirring. According to M. Kazan, practice has proven that this violently continued action is very favorable to the separation of silver and lead in poor crystals and enriched liquid lead; only very hard lead requires a previous softening. The action of the steam is principally mechanical, but the lead undergoes a partial refining, which is a consequence of different particles of the hot lead constantly coming in contact with the air. Asa chemical reaction is not believed to occur, the purity of the commercial lead is partly to be ascribed to the various partial refinings which the silver-lead undergoes by being repeatedly remelted in a red heat. M. Rozan has, however, observed that the steam takes an active part; that the oxides which are formed at the beginning of the crystallization are yellow and dirty; but as the operation approaches the end, they grow, dark and contain considerable copper; a circumstance that by the most lively stirring does not occur. At the end of the crystallization, while the steam is bubbling in the liquid lead, in which the silver, copper, antimony, and arsenic have been concentrated, the poor lead is freed from the copper. The action of antimony is not similar, but it is gradually oxidized by the action of the heat and air in the successive re-smeltings. It has also been observed that soft lead, under equal circumstances, produces a greater quantity of oxide than hard lead, especially autimonal lead, (in Tarno- witz,) which proves that antimony oxidizes first, and then prevents the lead from oxidizing. The action of the steam is undoubtedly decisive and strong. It is said that the commercial lead falling from this process is per¬ fectly soft, and contains from 0.0012 to 0.002 per ceut. = ll dwt. 15 gr., to 6 dwt. 22 gr.silver. The enriched cupellation-lead contains, according to the nature and contents of the original silver-lead, from 1.6 to 2.0 per cent., =465 oz. IS dwt., to 5S2 oz. silver, while the steam-process universally produces rozan’s method of refining silver-lead. 11 lead enriched to the above extent, and thus, as we shall presently see, materially reduces the cost of desilverization; it is ouly accomplished after a great number of operations with the usually conducted Pattinson process. This process possesses not ouly the advantage of not requiring a special refining of lead, which is not very hard, but is said to be accom - panied by a smaller oxidization of lead, and consequently the loss and expenses of resilverization are diminished. There is also a great saving of time and labor. The lead is crystallized in much shorter time than is the case by pattinsonizing, viz, 13 to 16 tons, while with the latter ouly 9 to 10 tons are treated in the same time. A serious disadvantage in this method is the concentration of autimouy and some copper in the rich lead, which causes such objectionable features, by cupellatiou and undesirable processes, necessary to a subsequent treatment of the prod¬ ucts therefrom. 27. The manipulations are as follows: The battery consists of two Pattinson kettles; one kettle is placed so that its bottom is on a level with the top of the second. The upper, or fusing-kettle, is intended for a charge of 9,000 to 10,000 kilograms silver-lead ; the lower, or crystal- lizing-kettle, will contain 15,000 to 16,000 kilograms. After the silver- lead has been fused and the dross removed, it is tapped into the lower kettle by means of an iron pipe attached to the bottom of the upper. At the same time that the silver-lead is tapped from the upper a small amount of steam is conducted into the lower kettle, in order that the crystals from the former operation may be easily mixed with the silver - : lead. A small stream of water is now thrown on the surface of the me¬ tallic bath, which hastens the cooling and assists the crystallization. Steam is conducted into the- metallic bath, under a pressure of three atmospheres, through an iron pipe, wdiich terminates at the bottom of the kettle. The steam upon entering strikes against an iron plate, and is diffused through the bath. The lead is prevented from entering the steam-pipe by means of a hinge-valve. The kettle is covered with a hood, which is connected with the condensation-chambers. The oxides which form are first removed and the operation then commences. The hood is raised every five or ten minutes, and the lead adhering to it is scraped off. The operation is finished when two-tliirds of the lead is crj’Stallized. The mother-liquid is then tapped off by means of iron pipes attached to the bottom of the kettles. The crystals are prevented from escaping with the mother-liquid by means of an iron sieve, which is fastened over the pipe. The lead is run into large cakes of 2,500 kilograms each. These are arranged according to their silver contents around the battery; they are added to succeeding operations. The lead-cakes having a larger percentage of silver than the original silver-lead are set aside until a sufficiently large quantity has accumulated for a new series of operations, whose starting-point is based on the silver con¬ tained in these cakes. After the enriched lead has been tapped off, a new quantity of lead, which has in the mean time been melted in the 12 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. upper kettle, is added to tlie crystals iu the louver. The operations are repeated until commercial lead, or complementary lead, in the form of crystals, is obtained. When the lower kettle is heated the crystals are fused and tapped off. By “an operation” all the manipulations are under¬ stood which occur from the tapping of the lead from the upper kettle to the casting of the enriched lead into cakes. One operation lasts one and a half to two hours. The casting of commercial and complementary lead occupies the time of two operations, as the time consumed in melt¬ ing the crystals is twice as great as that employed in crystallizing the silver-lead. The number of operations represented by the casting of the commercial and complementary lead is, for silver-lead assaying 0.123 per cent. =35 oz. 10 dwt. 1 gr. silver, 25 to 30 per cent, of the whole number of operations. From sixteen to seventeen operations are made in twenty-four hours. This is dependent upon the temperature used. The number of operations necessary for the treatment of a certain amount of silver-lead varies with the silver contents of the same. One battery, which treats silver-lead with 0.123 percent, of silver, produces 0,000 to 7,000 kilograms commercial lead in twenty-four hours. After the latter has been cast, the kettle is refilled with silver-lead of the orig¬ inal percentage of silver and the operations are continued until all of the complementary lead has been treated with 0.003 per eent. = 17 dwt. 11.5 gr. silver. The crystals are then fused and cast into cakes to be used as complementary lead in a new series of operations. Several series of operations arc thus repeated, commencing with the original silver-lead, or lead with a greater percentage of silver, and producing enriched silver-lead and commercial lead. 28. A comparison between this process and the mechanical pattinsou- izing, as formerly practiced at the works at St. Louis Les Marseille, shows that as pattinsonizing costs 46.51 francs, and this process 25.32 francs, this process effects a saving of 20.72 francs per 1,000 kilograms in silver-lead. The lead-loss is 2.1 per cent, in pattinsonizing, and 3 per cent, in the steam process. The silver-loss in each is 1.5 per cent, of the amount of silver paid for according to the assay. The saving is owing to a less number of workmen being employed, by avoiding a prelimi¬ nary refining, the decreased amount of products which have to be reduced, and. as the concentration is carried farther, (1.7 percent. = 495 oz. 2 dwt. silver, instead of as in pattinsonizing, 1.15 per cent. = 331 oz. 16 dwt. 14 gr. silver,) so is the decreased cost of cupellatiou. 29. The objections to this process are the small capacity, large amount of intermediate products, loss of silver (1.5 per cent. = 436 oz. 16 dwt.) and lead, and its complicated nature. Although the communication and calculation made by the inventor shown decided improvement on the mechanical Pattinson process, the method described will scarcely be introduced in works where the virtues of tlie improved process of zinc desilverization are known, and the silver-lead is of a qualify to permit it to be treated by the latter process. CHAPTER XV. ITALIAN EXHIBITS. Condition op Metal Industry ; Exhibits of “ Compagnia del Bottixo,” Do- mingikus Ing Santelli, Simonis Cornelissen & Co. ; History, Growth, and ( Condition of Metal Industry on the Island of Sardinia ; Exhibits by the Societa ; Miscellaneous Exhibits ; Smelting Process ; Production ; Cost of Mining and Shipping Ores. 30. The metal industry of Italy has been so greatly depressed from a lack of fuel suitable for smelting purposes, that it is necessary to ex¬ port the richest ores for reduction ; the poorer ones, that will scarcely pay the transportation expenses, are worked in the vicinity of the mines with a small profit. The copper-ores of Tuscany and Liguria are of the first class, carrying 12 to 25 per cent, of copper, and are ex¬ ported to England, while those occurring at St. Marcel in the valley of the Aosta, and at Agordo in Yenice, belong to the second class, con¬ taining about 2 per cent, of copper. The production of copper in Italy is 300,000 kilograms. The con¬ sumption is estimated at over 1,200,000 kilograms. This large difference is obtained from foreign countries. 31. There were exhibited from the works of Agordo, “ Stabulimento Mantanistico Governativo di Agordo, Yall Imperiua Belluno,” samples of refined copper, which is renowned for its superior quality, and is used in the manufacture of articles requiring very pure copper. In addition to this, there were iron, vitriol, and native silver. 32. The “Compagnia del Bottiuo” of Stazzema Lucca, Tuscany, ex¬ hibited silver-lead, litharge, and refined silver. Lead-matte, and also galena containing 27 per cent, of lead, are roasted in Schaft furnaces. It is charged in alternate layers of wood and charcoal and ore. The roasting period is fifteen to twenty days. The lead-matte is lixiviated in the furnace. The solution containing the copper runs out of the furnace into the precipitation-vessel. The sulphurous-acid fumes are allowed to escape into the atmosphere. They are believed to be a pre¬ ventive against cholera. 33. Domingikus Ing Santelli, of Yinadio Cuneo, exhibited specimens of artificially produced argentiferous galena. 34. Simonis Cornelissen & Co. exhibited artificially produced iron aud copper pyrites. 35. Sardinia. —The greater proportion of the argentiferous-lead and zinc ores, considered as the production of Italy, are obtained from 14 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Sardinia. The lead and silver mines on this island* are a very ancient. They are said to have first been worked principally for silver by the Phoenicians. They were followed by the Carthaginians and Romans. Among the many mining and metallurgical relics discovered in and near the mines is a pig of lead found near the Porto di S. Xicolo which weighed 34 kilograms and bore Hadrian’s name. After being successively under the reign of the Vandals, Goths, and the Byzantine empire, the island became free, and a national gov¬ ernment was formed. This had not been long in existence before it was j overthrown by the Aribans, who in turn were driven from the island by the Genoese and Pisians. In the thirteenth century, after the island came under the Pisian rule, the first book on mining-law was written, i It was in this period that the large lead-slag dumps near Villa-Massar- gia, Domus Novas, and Flumiui Maggiore were formed. The shafts were about this time sunk through the hard rock by means of fire to depths of SO to 100 and even 200 meters. In the year 1323 the island fell under the Spanish crown. The mineral industry thereupon sank and became almost inactive. This was partly caused by the negligence of'the Spanish government, and partly by the discovery of America j with its large treasures of gold and silver. The House of Savoy ob- ; tained possession of Sardinia in 1720, but it was in 1S50 that the mines I were successfully worked with renewed vigor, and since that time the production of lead and silver has been steadily increasing. Since 1SG5 calamine has been mined to a large extent. The richer lead-ores are shipped to Pertusola, in the Gulf of Spezia, France, Belgium, and Eng- S land; the silver-lead to Genoa and France, and the calcined calamine to England, Belgium, and Russia. 30. The Societa Anonima de Monte-Santo of Cagliaza, in Sardinia, ex¬ hibited lead which was designated as soft lead, but could hardly be j scratched with the finger-nail. 37. There were several small collections of minerals exhibited of dif¬ ferent mining companies; these were composed of a few specimens of ; argentiferous galena, or calamine, or both. 3S. Italian smelting process. —There have lately been several works erected with the intention of reducing oxidized ores, poor ores, and the old slags. The reduction-works of 5fasua and Foutanamore are, of the six on this island, the most important. The former was built in 1862, and treats oxidized ores carrying 32 per cent, lead and 10 to 12 per cent. zinc. The latter smelts poor ores from Nebida. These ores are smelted in round shaft-furnaces, whose smelting zone is of cast-iron water-cooling boxes. The charge is 50 per ceut. slag and 14 per cent. English coke. The blast is produced by a steam-fan. The campaigu lasts from Decern- * Free use is here made of the report “Sulle Condizioni dell’ industria Minevaria nett isola di Sardegna,” submitted to the Italian chambers of deputies iu 1871, by M. Quiu- tino Sella. ITALIAN LEAD-SMELTING PROCESS, 15 ber until July. The workmen, who are from Piedmont, cannot, on account of fever, remain ou the island during the other five months, or the cam¬ paign might be still longer. Two furnaces smelt in twenty-four hours 18,000 kilograms of ore, producing in three tappings 375 kilograms lead, carrying 0.9 per cent, to 1.1 per cent.—2G2 to 320 oz. 8 dwt. stiver. The zinc-oxide fumes from the condensation chambers, containing 33 per cent, lead, are agglomerated in a reverberatory furnace and then smelted in a shaft-furnace, producing lead carrying 0.35 to 0.55 per cent.=102 to 1G0 oz. 8 dwt. silver. The silver-lead is sent to Genoa and France for desilverization. The old slags, containing 10 to 11 per cent, lead, are smelted together with poor ores at the Dumas Novas, Flumini, and Villacidro works. The resulting silver-lead assays 0.06 to 0.11 per cent. =171 to 320 oz. 8 dwt. silver. Ore aud slag have been smelted since 1858 in shaft furnaces with coke or charcoal. In Masua, poor ores from Montefroni were added to the lead-slag, and the mass first agglomerated in a reverberatory furnace, and then smelted in shaft-furnaces. The lead-slags have been all smelt¬ ed, and, on account of contracts having been made with metallurgical companies in Marseilles, England, Belgium, and Prussia, for large quan¬ tities of the rich ore, for a long period, the Sardinia smelting-works will have to confine their operations to poor ores ; were they not thus bound by their contracts, they might obtain a sufficient supply of coal at rea¬ sonable rates, brought to Sardinia as ballast by the vessels which carry a portion of the ores to England and Belgium, as the works at Pertu- sola, in the gulf of Spezia, have obtained their fuel for several years. 39. Sardinia produced in 1868-69— Kilograms. Lead-ore exported, 11,706,000 kilograms, valued at 7,515,- 699 lira*, contains 70 per cent, lead = 10,241,200 kilo¬ grams ; deduct 8 per cent, loss in reduction = 62per cent, lead extracted from ore =. 9,117, 820 Lead-ore and blende reduced in Sardinia, 990,900 kilo¬ grams, valued at 120,265 lira, con tains 20 per cent. lead= 198, 650 9,316, 470 Calamine, 39,113,950, valued at 5,601,812 lira, contains 47 per cent. ziuc= .. 18, 383, 556. 5 40. The statistics of cost of mining and transportation of ore to the vessels will, doubtless, be very interesting to American miners. In the calculation of the value of ore, the price of lead in Marseilles is taken as the basis. The buyer estimates the cost of smelting at 60 to 70 lira; of desilverization at GO lira per ton, and a lead loss of 7 to 9 per cent. The silver is paid for at the rate of 21 ceutisimi per gram. The price of zinc in London is taken as the basis, and ore containing 45 per cent, zinc is, accordingly, worth on board tbe vessel from 43 to 69 lira. « * The lira is equivalent to 19 cents in the coin of the United States. 16 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. One ton of lead-ore: Lira. Mining. 55.95 Hoisting out of mine. 10.19 Separating and dressing. 11.40 Transportation on board ship. 22. 76 Superintendence, &c. 20. 00 Various items. 6.03 132. 33 The company, Malfidino, engaged in mining calamine near the coast, presents the following calculation of mining expenses, &c.: Lira per ton. Mining... 9.33 Calcining. 9.05 Transporting from the mine to the coast. 4.05 Transporting from coast on board vessel . 10.01 General expenses. 4.00 36. 44 CHAPTER V. BELGIAN EXHIBITS. Exhibits from Bleyberg; Bleyberg smelting process; Comparison or Belgian and English reverberatory smelting-furnace ; Exhibit of the Zinc Mining and Smelting Company of la Vieille; History of the Zinc Mining Com¬ pany and description of the works. 41. The Society Anonyme du Bleyberg Rsmontzess exhibited a very in¬ teresting collection of minerals, ores, and metallurgical products, which was composed of dressed and undressed lead and zinc ores, silver-lead, a large cake of silver from the cupellation-furnace, refined commercial lead, guaranteed not to contain 0.00488 per cent, of impurities, (copper, antimony, silver, &c.,) homogeneous antimonial lead, commercial zinc, and various other metallurgical products, viz: mengite, red and yellow litharge, cadmium sulphide, fumes from the condensation-chambers, and lead-matte. 42. Belgian smelting process. —The Bleyberg lead-ores carry about 80 per cent, lead, 0.0145 per cent. =4 oz. 4 dwt. 10 gr. silver, 0.70 per cent, antimony, 0.00G per cent, copper, also blende, iron-pyrites, and a small amount of quartz. The ores are carefully dressed, and are easily smelted. The furnaces used for ore-smelting greatly resemble the Flint¬ shire furnaces. The principal difference is, the Belgian has two fire¬ places, one at each end, instead of one, as at Flintshire ; and the hearth, instead of being concave, as at Flintshire, slightly inclines at an angle of 0°.2 per meter from both fire-places toward the center. The object of the two fire-places is to economize fuel and afford a greater uniformity of temperature. The molten lead is tapped into a pot in front of one of the middle doors. The charge, 1,000 kilograms, remains in the furnace sixteen hours, whereby 400 kilograms bituminous coal are consumed in its treatment, and two workmen employed. From the above charge there results 524 kilograms silver-lead, with 0.0258 per cent. = 7 oz. 10 gr. silver, and 331 kilograms dross, with 66.3G per cent, lead, 2.0 per cent, antimony^ and 0.0024 per cent.^1 dwt. silver. When the furnace is first charged the temperature is kept for about half an hour at a red heat; at the end of this time the charge is worked, with short intermissions, for six hours, the temperature being raised toward the last to a cherry-red heat. Molten lead now appears; the doors are closed, and the temperature is raised. In about four hours, 2 M 18 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. during which the ore is turned every half hour, lead ceases to flow; when powdered charcoal and lime are mixed with the charge to make it pasty, and to reduce the oxides and sulphates which have formed, the charge is heated (being repeatedly worked) for about four hours longer, great care being taken that tlie temperature does not rise above a cer¬ tain limit, lest other metals should also be reduced. The dross is now subjected to an increased temperature for one-half to three-fourths of an hour, whereby it is agglomerated. It is then withdrawn from the fur¬ nace and smelted in a low-blast furnace, with slag from the smelting of the impure ores, dross from the lead-retining furnace, and agglomerated fumes from the condensation chambers. It is from the latter smelting that the exhibited homogeneous hard lead is produced. The object in thus slowly roasting the ore and conducting the reaction process by a low temperature is manifold. It has already been stated that the ore contains considerable copper and antimony. The reduction of these in the comparatively low temperature is avoided, and in the first reaction period the lead is not only purer, but holds the greater portion of the silver contained in the ore, and, as the operation ceases when the lead in the dross reaches (10 per cent., the volatilization of lead is diminished, which accompanies such high temperature as the production of dross containing only 10 per cent, of lead would necessitate. The loss of lead amounts, according to the assay, to only 5 per cent. The amount of dross is great, but the combined losses, occurring both in the reverbera¬ tory and the following smelting in a low-blast furnace, is much smaller than it would lx* were the reduction originally carried on to a greater extent in the reverberatory furnace. In July, 1872, when the writer visited these works,* the silver was separated from the silver-lead by the zinc desilverization process. Steam was used to oxidize the zinc and antimony. The silver-zinc dross was smelted in a shaft-furnace with iron tap-cinder. There were no products of desilverization exhib¬ ited by this company. 43. Comparative trials between the Bleyberg and English (Flintshire) furnaces have been reported by M. Cahen, and commented upon.by Percy, whose comments, together with the result collected by M. Cahen, 1 here give. The furnace employed differed considerably in its relative dimensions, form, and in a few other particulars. The ores treated assayed 79 per cent. lead. The length of the furnace-bed was 2.7 milli¬ meters, (S' 10".3,) and its mean width 2.9 millimeters, (9' G".17;) the grate was 2.0 millimeters (O' G".74) long and 0.5 millimeters (1' 7".G9) wide; the width of the fire-bridge was 0.6 millimeters, (1' 11".62;) its height from the bed 0.3 millimeters, (11".81;) the height of the roof from the tire-bridge was 0.3 millimeters, (11".81.) * The writer was neither able to obtain admittance into the desilverization-works, nor was information concerning the process to be had from the officials, therefore he is not able to give an accurate description of the process here. FURNACE TRIALS. 19 RESULTS OF FURNACE TRIALS. I. n. m. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. Charge, kilograms. 1,000 1, 000 800 1,000 1, 000 1,600 2,000 2, 000 Duration of a charge, hours. 9 9 9 9 12 16 16 12 Lead obtained, kilograms. 627. 7 560 468 477 030 1, 096 1, 304. 4 1,036 Gray slag obtained, kilograms. 153 290 225* 354 223 158 310 744 Lead in gray slag, per cent. 39 50 44 74 35 22 30 62 Lead in gray slag, kilograms. 59. 8 145 99 262 78 34. 76 93 463 Direct yield of lead, per cent. 62. 77 56.0 58. 5 47. 7 63.0 68. 5 65.3 51. 8 Yield inclusive of lead in eray slag, per cent- 68. 75 70. 50 70. 87 73. 9 70. 8 70. 67 69. 97 74. 86 Loss of lead on 100 kilograms of ore. 10. 25 8.5 8. 13 5. 1 8.2 8. 33 903 4. 14 Loss of lead on 100 kilograms of lead. 12. 97 10. 7 10. 3 6. 45 10. 4 10.5 11. 4 5.2 Coal per 100 kilograms, kilograms. 712 562 633 506 700 917 734 375 Labor per 1,000 kilograms of galena, francs.. Smithery costs per 1,000 kilograms of galena, 3. 75 3. 75 4. 70 3. 75 5. 00 7. 91 6.33 4. 75 fcancs . 4.80 2. 00 2. 40 2. 00 3.20 3. 20 2. 40 0.80 The most favorable result recorded in the table is declared to be that in column VIII, in which the direct yield of lead from ore containing 79 per cent, is 51.8 per cent., with the production of 37.7 per cent, of gray slag, containing 02 per cent, of lead ; the loss being 5.2 per cent, lead, inclusive of what is estimated to be recovered from the gray slag. The results obtained in smelting galeua in the Flintshire furnace, yield¬ ing about 81 per cent, of lead by assay in the iron dish, are as follows : The direct yield was 60.9 percent., witli the production of 11.9 per cent, of gray slag, containing about 55 per cent, of lead; the loss, inclusive of what occurs in smelting the slag, is 5 per cent. The consumption of coal, however, was much less in the trial reported in column VIII than in the English trials, but then it must be borne in mind that the direct yield of lead was much smaller, and the production of gray slag much greater in the former than in the latter. From the preceding consider¬ ations it will be perceived that the Belgian trials in the so-called Eng¬ lish furnace could not have been satisfactorily conducted, owing to de¬ ficient skill, to faulty construction of the furnace, or, as is possible, to both causes. The difference between the Belgian and English results cannot be ascribed to difference in the quality of the galena treated in the two cases, as it was similar, both being easily reducible. 44. Alphonse Bodart a Lovegree exhibited several specimens of ga¬ lena, blende, and iron pyrites. 45. The “ Societe Anonyme des Mines et Fouderies de Zinc de la Vieille Montague a Liege’ 7 exhibited, in a separate pavillion, an exten¬ sive collection of articles manufactured from zinc and galvanized iron. The latter was shown in various patterns for buildings, viz, for roofiug, sides of houses and moldings for ornamental purposes. 46. This large Belgian corporation was founded in 1837, and has estab¬ lished an immense trade throughout the world, having branch estab¬ lishments in Prussia, Sweden, France, Italy, Spain, and Algiers. The value of the ore extracted from the mines near Altenberg, in 1872, was $720,000 in gold. In the mining of this, 1,000 laborers were employed. Its headquarters is in Liege, but it possesses metallurgical works near 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Moresnet, (Altenberg,) Miilheim on the Ruhr, Borbeck and Oberhausen, These works employed, in 1872, 900 workmen, and produced raw ziuc valued at $1,200,000, and sheet zinc valued at $S00,000. The archi- medean screw is now used to remove lead from the remeltiug-furnace. In Moresnet, the heat emanating from the distilling-furnaces is utilized by conducting it directly in a single-hearth, reverberatory, calamine- calcining furnace. By means of this economized heat, from 3,GOO to 4,000 pounds of ore are calcined in twenty-four hours. The cooling of the walls of the distilling furnace, and the irregulari¬ ties of the draught, are mostly avoided by building the calcining-fur¬ nace between two distilling-furnaces, and above the topmost row of dis- f tilling-tubes; the gases escape through a chimney about 7 meters high, whose draught is regulated by means of dampers. The calcining-furnace of these works, in which fuel is used, has two hearths and a much greater capacity than those connected with the distilling-furnaces. The upper hearth is 7.2 meters long, and the lower, 5 meters long. Its capacity is 4,000 pounds in six hours=10,000 pounds in twenty-four hours, accompanied by a calcining loss of 27 to 30 per cent anjl a consumption of 824 to 880 hectoliters of coal. It is, according to the above, advantageous to combine every two distilling-furnaces with one calcining-furnace in which the escaping heat may be used. But as the quantity of ore thus calcined would not be sullicieut to supply the distilling-tubes or muffles, other furnaces must be built to prepare a sufficient amount of ore. The zinc oxide is reduced in Moresnet, Miilheim, and in Borbeck, by | means of the Boetius generator gas-furnace. It is simpler and cheaper than Siemens’s regenerative gas-furnace. Its economical results are excellent, (30 per cent, of fuel being saved,) and it is easily regulated. CHAPTER VI. SWEDISH EXHIBITS. Character of ores; Principal reducing-works; Treatment of ores; Experi¬ ments on M. Lundin’s furnace ; Exhibit of the Stora Kopparberg Copper- Works ; The Kafreltrops Stock Company ; Description of the works ; Ex¬ hibit OF NEWLY-DISCOVERED MINERALS ; COPPER EXTRACTIONS, NEW PROCESS ; Process ordinarily employed; Preparation of sulphuric acid used in the process ; Manipulations of the process ; Production of silver-zinc ores. 47. A large proportion of Sweden's ores is yearly exported to foreign i countries for reduction (chiefly to England) on account of an insufficient home supply of fuel. Among the metals, copper, after iron, is of the most importance. The principal copper-mines and reducing-works are at Falun and Atvidaberg; these have been worked since the thirteenth century. 48. As the price of fuel was yearly increasing, it was proposed to dress the ore thoroughly and combine a smelting with a wet process, viz, the poor ore, consisting of the greater part of the product from I the dressing-works, is roasted with salt and then lixiviated, while the ; concentrated ore only is smelted. With this object in view, the “Berg- werk Gesellschaft Stora-Kopparberg ” at Falun, erected in 1870-’72 an immense ore-dressing establishment. The quartzose ores are crushed and assorted by means of machinery. The copper is refined in gas ' reverberatory furnaces, according to M. Lundin’s* construction, with Siemens’s regenerator, in which wood and sawdust are burned. 49. This sawdust gas-furnace, with Lundin’s condenser and Siemens’s regenerator, has been introduced in iron-works in Prevali, in Carinthia, and a series of experiments, conducted by M. J. Dagmer, has led to the following conclusions, taken from the “ Karntner Zeitschrift,” 1871, Nos. 4, 6, and 7. From this comparison it was conceded that Lundin’s method undoubtedly is of great practical value, or, at least, applicable even under unfavorable circumstances. 49. The fluctuations in the production of gas, caused by the periodical addition of cold fuel, the varying amounts of water and ash contained in it, as well as the unequal sizes of the material used and fluctua tious in the force of the blast, &c., are principally regulated by means of the heat-regulator, and the thick walls of the generator; the adop¬ tion of a common regulator for two furnaces guarantees a uniformity iu the amounts of the products of distillation and a minimum in the con- * Eor explanations and drawings of this furnace, see Mr. A. S. Hewitt’s Report upon Iron and Steel at the Paris Exposition, p. 104. 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, l»7a. sumption of fuel. The condensation of the carburetted hydrogen, which compound is lost in the condensation, is richly compensated by the larger production of metal, the removal of the water-vapors, the separation of alkaline compounds and of particles of coal. The only decrease of tem¬ perature, which can be looked upon as an actual loss, is that which the gases suffer by their condensation. This loss, however, is a small price to pay for the many important advantages which the work allows with purified gases, free from moisture. Peat and all kind of forest-wood can be used to advaut ige. By the gasification of these substitutes for fuel, a higher pyrometrical tempera¬ ture can be produced than by the direct use of a grate fire-place with good fuel, (which is of especial importance in the manufacture of steel.) The purified gases may be conducted for a great length : in Sweden, for example, fora distance of 280 feet. The gasification process allows of further improvement. * 50. The Stora-Kopparberg Copper-Works exhibited the following: ores, principally copper-pyrites, slag, unroasted and roasted matter black copper, produced from the smelting of matte which had under¬ gone five roastings, and refined copper, which is extensively used in the manufacture of brass. In addition to copper, which forms the principal product, there were also exhibited samples of gold, silver, lead, red ocher, copper and iron vitriol, sulphur, and sulphuric acid. 51. This company treated in 1S71— Kilograms. Quartzose ...... . 10, 740. 00 l’yritous ores. . . 14, 955. 00 Total. 25,695.00 In the working of this there was consumed— Charcoal. Coke. Wood. Kilograms. 8,083. 80 3, 322. 35 6, 8S0. SO Total 18, 286. 95 The production was— Befiued copper. Copper vitriol. Irou vitriol. Sulphur .. Gold. Silver. Kilograms. I o4,13o. o 113,600 23, 982. 5 380,000 6. 52 92. 365 Total.- 1,271,810.885 About 607 men and 39 women are employed in the mines and dress¬ ing and smoltiug works. They receive from $1 to $2.50 f gold) per day SWEDISH SMELTING-WORKS. 23 52. The Kafveltorps Stock Company, Goteborg, exhibited samples of copper, zinc, and lead ores. The copper-ore, viz, copper-pyrites, assayed 4J to 5 per cent, of copper. The lead-ore, galena, assayed 25 per cent, lead, carrying 15 to 30 ounces of silver. The silver contained to 3 per cent. gold. The zinc-ore, blende, carried 30 to 40 per cent, zinc- and 10 to 16 per cent, argentiferous lead. 53. The Kafveltorps copper, zinc, and argentiferous mines and smelt- iug-works are situated in the county of Orebro and mining-district of Nya Kopparberget, and have direct communication with Gottenborg and other ports by rail. The mines have been worked only since 1864, ! and have never been fully developed. It has been calculated that these mines and works would produce, being conducted rationally and worked on an enlarged scale, as a minimum, 600 tons lead and 300 tons copper, besides preparing 1,800 tons blende to about 40 per cent, zinc for ex¬ portation to Belgium. At present there are three furnaces used in cal¬ cining and smelting copper, and one for lead. These are now fully occupied, but the erection of more furnaces will follow the extension of the mining operations. 54. The following newly-discovered minerals were exhibited by this company: Walleriitt, occurs in serpentine, in the Kafveltorps copper mine. It is of the color of copper-pyrites, very ductile, and having a conchoidal fracture. Its chemical composition is 2 Cu. S, Fe 2 S 3 -f-2 Mg O (Fe Al) 0 3 + 4 H 2 O. Chalkopyrthotiu occurs, in contact with garnet, in the Kafveltorps copper mine. It has a light, brass color, brittle, hardness, 3. Its chemical composition is, 2 (Fe S. On S.) Fe 2 S 3 . 55. There were also exhibited silver and zinc ores from Nasaberg in jSTorrbotteu Lan, Auriferous sand from Lundorren in Jemtlaud, copper-ore from Johannesberg in Kerike, and from the Sagmyre mines in Dalarne, copper ore carrying 8 to 9 per cent, copper, none of which has up to the present time been worked; from Gladhamer mines in Kalmar Liin, also specimens of copper-pyrites. 56. In the last few years wet processes have been introduced in two different works. These have proved, considering the local disadvantages, very profitable. These are the works at Wirum in Kalmar Liin and Saltviken. 57. All other Swedish copper-works (with the exception of Falun, and that only partly) practice the old method, viz, smelting for copper matte? when, after repeated roasting and smelting for black copper, refined copper is produced. The process at these two works* is materially the same, and consists in crushing the copper-ore (at Saltviken, with a Blake’s crusher) carrying about 3 per ceut. copper; the ore is then mixed with 13 per cent, salt, and further crushed until it is not larger than 5 millime¬ ters in diameter. After it has been dried on the top of the muffle furnace used for roasting, it is roasted twenty-four hours, when 4 per cent, salt is added, and the roasting continued for two to three hours longer ; at From the Berg and Hilttemanische Zeitung, 1873, p. 153. 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. the end of this period the almost complete formation of copper chloride has taken place. 58. The sulphuric acid used in lixiviating; copper chloride is obtained by passing the gases, consisting of sulphurous hydrochloric and small Quantities of sulphuric acid and copper chloride, lirst through canals, in order that all particles, mechanically carried off, may be condensed, and then through a coke-tower, into which a small stream of water is pumped. This falls through a sieve, and in descending absorbs the ascending gases. This acid need not, for the purpose for which it is used, be stronger than 14° to 15° Twaddle’s hydrometer, but is generally more concentrated than this. 59. The calcining hearth is 8.313 by 3.563 inches and 0.3 meter high. The coke-tower is built of wood, and is 23.75 meters high; at the bot¬ tom it is 3.266 by 3.266 meters; at the top, 3.12 by 3.12 meters wide. The bottom of the tower is composed of two perforated stone arches; upon the upper the coke is piled about 18 meters high ; the pieces of coke are- about 3.5 by 3 centimeters large. Above the tower there is a Hat roof with a small chimney ; under this roof is a false floor containing numerous small holes through which the water drops upon the coke. Thfere is obtained from this tower about 1,626 liters of acid of 16° or 1.080 specific weight. As the ascending power of the gases is in proportion to the differences between their temperature and the temperature of the external air, it occurs sometimes, in summer, that the furnace draught is decreased to so great an extent that the gases return and escape through the working doors. This great objection to the process is increased by the coke being crushed by its own weight, and becoming choked by small particles carried off by the furnace draught. These latter obstacles are greatly removed by washing the coke weekly with cleau water. The warm chloridized ore, after being placed in the lixiv- iating-tub, is first treated with lmt water and then with weak acid. This solution is repeatedly poured over the mass until it ceases dissolving; then stronger acid is used, and finally acid direct from the coke-tower The residue is then washed with warm water, and, if it does not contain more than 0.1 per cent, copper, the operation is finished. One tub con¬ taining 1834 centner ore, can be perfectly lixiviated in twenty-four hours, but as the supply of tubs is greater than the demand, the ore is allowed to remain in them for four days, and the solutions passed through from 10 to 30 times. The solution containing the copper chloride is warmed, to increase its volume, by conducting steam into it. The copper is precipitated by means of iron, wrought iron being pre¬ ferred : of the latter 100 pounds is consumed to precipitate 80 pounds of copper. The quality of the irou used determines the length of time necessary in precipitation, which is from three to five days. The iron and precipitated copper are placed in a metallic sieve having holes 12 millimeters in diameter. Water is poured into the sieve and the copper falls through : the iron remaining in the sieve. SWEDISH SMELTING-WORKS. 25 60. The expenses and production of working two furnaces for one month were: Thaler.* 183,720 kilograms ore cost. 1,166.40 31,250 kilograms salt... 198.18 617.5 kilograms wrought iron....-. 135.00 91,800 kilograms bituminous coal for furnace.. ^ 979 00 61,200 kilograms coal for engine, . vu ' w Wood for drying the precipitate.. ... 1-60 Wages. . . 237.75 2,710.93 The production was 127^ copper precipitate, containing 80 per cent, copper, valued at 2,812.5 thaler. To produce 1 centner copper precipitate, containing 80 per cent, cop¬ per and 20 per cent, iron and basic salts costs : 9.15 thaler for ore. 10.44 thaler for cost of reduction. 19.59 thaler. The gain per 1 centner of precipitate is 2.47 thaler. This precipitate is exported to England. 61. Argentiferous lead is found in several places. The silver-works near Sala are the oldest and most important. Sweden does not produce : metallic zinc, but it is found in large quantities at the mines near Amine- berg, which are owned by the company of La Veille Montague. * 1 thaler = $1.03 gold. CHAPTER VII. -*— NORWEGIAN EXHIBITS. Important ores; Exhibits of the Altener Copper Works, copper minerals, /INC AND LEAD ORES; EXHIBITS AND STATISTICS OF THE KOXSBERG SILVER Works. 02 . The mineral-metallic wealth of Norway, although considerable, is not at present sufficient to supply the internal demand. It is, therefore, necessary to supply the deficiency by importation. Its most important metallic products are copper, iron, nickel, silver, and cobalt. 03. In the year 1S7(J the seventy-six mines then worked employed 2,GOO workmen. They produced a total of 123,S00,000 kilograms of ore. Of these, twenty-seven were copper mines, employing 1,270 workmen, and producing 47,200,000 kilograms of copper-ore. The seven silver mines produced 2,200,000 kilograms of ore, and employed 3G3 workmen. The production of copper and silver has undergone no material change since 1803. At present there are eleven copper-works, employing 255 workmen, and producing 520,000 kilograms refined copper. Of these copper metallurgical works, those at Koras, founded in 1044, and work¬ ing ore carrying 7 to 8 per cent, of copper, are the most important. The next in importance are the Altener Copper-Works, in Finland, founded in 1830, and the copper-works on the Vigsnas, in Stavanger district. In 1871 Norway exported unrefined copper valued at 250,000 spec.,* and imported copper valued at 23,000 spec. 0 4. The Altener Copper-Works exhibited interesting specimens of their ores and intermediate products. These consisted of samples of refined copper, which was ofa light-red color, line, granular, and contained the following amounts of foreigu substances: Per cent. c u... 99. 05 Fo. 0. 06 Ni. 0. 085 Tb.. 0.20 Mn. 0. 015 Ag. 0. 03 O. 0. 545 Bi.-. trace. “ Spec., or speciesthaler=$1.03 gold. 99.985 THE ALTENER COPPER-WORKS. 27 Black copper, having the following composition: Cu.-. Fe .. Co and Ni. Pb.. Zn. S.. Baw matte, of the following chemical composition : Cu... Fe.. Co. Ni. . Pb. Zn..... S.... Per cent. 91. 480 5. 039 1.507 0. 454 1. 040 0. 854 100. 380 Per cent. 19. 24 49. 83 2. 50 trace. 0.39 2.15 24. 02 98. 79 Slag, from black copper smelting, having the following composition : Per cent. Si 0 2 . 20. 00 Al 2 0 3 . 2. 69 Ca O. 0. 57 Mg O. 2.40 FeO... 07.57 CuO .. 0.44 99. 67 Slag, from ore-smelting from matte : Per cent. Si 0 2 ... 31. 00 Al 2 0 3 . 9. 9 Ca O. 1.0 Mg O.;. 3. 70 Fe O.... 53. 66 Cu 2 O. 0.42 99. OS In addition to these, there were samples of matte which had been roasted from one to seven times. No. 1.—From the first roastiug ; of a bluish-black color, non lustrous, and on the surface hard. 28 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. No. 2.—From the second roasting; black, with spots of red (from iron sesquioxide) and green, hard and nou-lustrous. The samples from third and fourth roastings presented a similar ap¬ pearance to No. 2. 1, 2, 3, and 4 were porous, on account of many large air bubbles. The products from the fifth, sixth, and seventh roastings were black, soft, easily pulverized, full of pores, and presented a nou- lustrous appearance. Go. Specimens of copper minerals were also exhibited by M. Brue- nech, 31. Braun, 31. Krohn, and u 31. Fasmer & Son.” The “ Jarlsberg icerk, Grubeninteressentemchaft ” exhibited zinc and lead ores. GO. The Konsberg Silver-Works are the principal works in Norway, and have a very ancient origin. They were louuded in 1G23, and have been, since that time, with the exception of from 1S05 to 181G, contin¬ ually worked. Although the production has often varied, the works have, as a rule, always proved profitable. Since 1820 they have been conducted on a limited scale, in order to secure their longevity. Iu 184G-18G0, the yearly surplus rose to 130,000 speciethaler. They employ 24 workmen, and their average production is 3,700 kilograms of silver; the total production up to 1874 being 842,200 kilograms of fine silver. G7. The large and interesting collection of vein and mineral samples were almost the same as exhibited at tbe Paris Exhibition. They were here displayed on a large pyramid, on the summit of which was a large piece of (a gypsum cast) argent-sulphide, surrounded with native silver, (secondary formation,) which was taken from the Koenig mine, from a depth of 500 meters, weighed 100 kilograms, and was valued at 7,000 florins. This valuable and remakable collection consisted of— 1. Piece of later vein-formation, carrying no silver, (laminated calcite and quartz,) cellular, and containing a plain impression of silver crystals. 2 . Pieces of later vein-formation, with pyrites and calcite crystals. 3. Older vein formation, richly impregnated with silver and argent- sulphide. 0 . Older vein-formation, containing silver, also anthracite iu the form of shot, imbedded iu calcite. 7-11. Fallbander ; older formation, containing silver, and the various gangue, viz: Quartz, garnets fluorite, adular, calcite, magnetic-pyrites, pyrites, copper-pyrites, blende. 12 . Cube of native silver, 2.5 centimeters iu diameter, having three edges sharply crystallized, and modified by small octahedral plaues, co 8 co.0. 13. A group of beautiful cubical crystals of native silver, (about 1-0 by G centimeters large,) between which were small calcite crystals, co 0 cc.0. 14. A group (about 10 by 3 centimeters large) of cubical native sil¬ ver crystals, co 0 oo.O., rising in the form of stairs ; between the silver were crystals of arsenical pyrites and calcite. 15. Large mass, weighing about eight pounds, of crystallized native THE KONSBERG SILVER-WORKS. 29 silver. These distorted cubes are about 1 centimeter in diameter and 4 centimeters long, both ends being curved and tapering to a point. All of these crystals were silver white. 16. A reddish-white mass of native silver on argent-sulphide and cal- cite, ranging from capillary silver to 2 by 7 centimeters. 19. A remarkably beautiful crystal of stephanite, forming a sharply- crystallized rhombic table 1 centimeter high and 2 centimeters broad. 20. Reddish-white silver of secondary formation, forming a triangular mass 20 by 14 centimeters and silver glance. 21. A piece of red, white, and yellow silver, of secondary formation, containing plain impression of calcite crystals. 22. Native silver, increasing from capillary silver to 5 centimeters in diameter to 13 centimeters long. This mass is on and arouud calcite crystals. 23. Was a remarkable calcite crystal, 3 centimeters in diameter, in the interior of which is a piece of native silver. In addition to these there were exhibited granulated silver fine, (for jewelers, photographers, &c.,) and silver bricks fine. CHAPTER VIII. GERMAN EXHIBITS. Growth of mining and metallurgical industries; Germany’s metallurgical hank; Exhibits by combined lead, silver, and copper works ; Exhibits from Freiberg ; Principal ores treated ; Classification of veins in Freiberg min¬ ing district; Water-power and drainage of the mines; Growth of metal¬ lurgical works; Shaft boasting-furnaces; The Freiberg metallurgical process; Exhibits from tiie Harz; Tiie Harz metallurgical process; Ex¬ hibits of Oker Sager HOtte, Julius HOtte; Process at the Oker Sager HOtte, the Herzog Julius HOtte; Tiie Mansfield Copper-Works; Exhibits AND ORES FROM UPPER SiI.ESIA; TlIE TaRNOWIIZ LEAD AND SMELTING WORKS; Progress and condition of lead mining and smelting of the Rhine prov¬ inces; Exhibits of Herbst X Co.; The Stolberg Stock Company for Mining and the Production of Lead and Zinc; The Rhine Nassau Smelt¬ ing Company; The Mkciigrniuikr Smelting-Works; The Ems Smelting- Works. GS. The illustration of Germany’s extensive mineral treasures and products of her metal extraction was, on account of its completeness and judicious arrangement, unanimously conceded to be the model ex¬ hibit in Group I of the entire Exhibition. From all the principal mining districts there were collections made by private parties, and in some instances by the government, (where the property belonged to it,) comprising geological charts, specimens of the country’s rocks and minerals: from the reduction-works, ores, inter¬ mediate and final products. These exhibits, especially those of the Saxon and Prussian metallurgical works, consisted in thorough and systematic collections, admirably arranged, and accompanied by models of furnaces, statistics of production, and diagrams of the processes; tints presenting to the professional visitor an immediate and compre¬ hensive oversight of the character, size, and progress made by the works thus represented. It was here made appareut, even to those not well informed, that Germany, the cradle of mining and metallurgical skill and science, by reason of her immense progressive strides, retains her prominence, and is to-day the home of that science needed in the advance¬ ment of this branch of industry. G9. If we study closely the causeof the successof German metallurgists, we will learn that it is owing to several advantages they possess ; these are the result of many years’ experience, associated with science and natural advantages. Although Karsten says “that the date of the commencement of mining in Saxony is not to be ascertained, nor is it to be determined where it first began ; that we only know with certainty GERMAN MINING INDUSTRIES. 31 that silver-ore was mined in Saxony (in the Erzgebirge) in the second half of the twelfth century, and reached a prosperous height through ; the immigration of Harz miners, toward the end of that century.’’ He says, also, “ that the people who overturned the Roman Empire wan¬ dered to and settled in Bohemia, Moravia, and Saxony in the seventh century, taking with them the art of prospecting for ore and the ex¬ traction of metals.” As mining in the Harz (Rammelsberg mine) dates from the ninth century, it is in all probability not so old as it is in Sax¬ ony. There is little or nothing extant from which we can discover the exact manner in which the mining and reducing operations were then conducted. But Sella informs us, “ that in the first book on mining- laws, which was written in Italy in the thirteenth century, there ap¬ peared numerous German technical phrases,” which indicates that min¬ ing had then its principal seat in Germany. Agricola (1546) describes lead, silver, and copper extraction processes, which were conducted in j a rude manner. We see that mining here has not so ancient an origin as m some other countries, but has been prosecuted with an almost un¬ tiring zeal and an energy well worthy of imitation. This industry has been, and is, fostered and protected by the different governments, not only through laws, subsidies, and loans, but also by establishing and supporting educational institutes which are directly under govern¬ mental control. Thus have science and industry been encouraged. By means of these well-regulated mining schools and academies a constant supply is maintained of educated men, who have been directly the cause of Germany retaining her position and leading other nations with her many valuable improvements. 70. It is a noteworthy fact that those localities in Germany which are in mining-districts, and in which government technical educational in¬ stitutes are established, have grown to be great mining and metallurgi¬ cal centers, and the progress made, and the completeness of their oper¬ ations, is in proportion to the thoroughness and advancement made at those institutes of learning. There are other places in Germany where ore is very abundant, and where the commercial facilities are extensive, but here the processes are not so perfect, although the amount of bul¬ lion produced is somewhat greater. Thus experience and science going hand in hand and assisting each other to surmount the many difficulties, which constantly occur to obstruct their progress and even their move¬ ments, the natural result—success—is attained. The natural advan¬ tage of cheap labor and material, together with a good market for the products, are of very great importance and are necessary for a large business; but these without the former advantages would be insignifi¬ cant, as the value of the former, without the latter, would be greatly diminished. The technical superiority and financial success of the Ger¬ man miner and metallurgist are to be attributed to the above facts. 71. Germany is at present in the front rank in the production of zinc; in the production of silver, second; iu lead, third; England and Spain only producing a small amount more; in copper, it ranks fourth. 32 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 72. Tbe exhibit of Group I, representing all the countries of the Ger¬ man Empire, was displayed in three special buildings, one of which was devoted entirely to iron. The empire was divided into several large districts. From each district the products of the mines were arranged in the center, and around these the different metallurgical products belonging to the same district were displayed. Immediately upon en¬ tering the main annex by the middle door, the visitor saw the exhibit of the five following works: The Royal Saxon Smelting-Works, at Frei¬ berg, the Royal Prussian Smelting-Works in the Upper Harz, the Royal Prussian and Ducal Bruuswick Smelting-Works in the Lower Ilarz, the Incorporated Mansfield Smelting-Works near Eisleben, and the Royal Prussian Friedrichshtttte near Tarnowitz. 73. The four first named constitute the “combiued lead, silver, and copper works” of Germany, which, induced by the mutual desire to treat foreign ores, have united, in order to be better able to conduct their operations with greater advantages to all concerned. This idea was here expressed in a mutual display, consisting in a large and sys tematically arranged collection of geological maps, statistics of the growth of production, charts of processes, minerals, ores, and the vari¬ ous metallurgical products. The center of this exhibit was formed by a four-sided pyramid. One side of this pyramid was devoted to each of the following works: 1, Freiberg; 2, Ilarz; 3,Mansfield; 4, Tarnowitz. On the sides of the pyramid were hollow glass cubes. These cubes illustrated the different metallurgical processes, as conducted at the various smelting-works, the cubes being in proportion to the weight of the various intermediate and final products represented. Thus, the size of the cube containing a product, by being in proportion to the cube holding the ore and intervening products, was made to illustrate the amount of ore treated and the quantity of each product therefrom. Samples of the products from these works were arranged in glass cases on the sides of this apartment. 74. First in order are the Freiberg works. At no other metallurgical establishment in the world are to be found so many various and numer¬ ous ores for treatment as at the Royal Saxon Metallurgical Works in Freiberg, viz, the Muldner and llalsbriickner Hiitten. Almost all known metals are to be found in the ores there treated, as the following ex¬ hibited products will show: Gold, from auriferous silver; platinum sponge, from the refining of gold ; silver, bismuth, extracted from the litharge and test bottom of the silver-refining furnace by dissolving in hydrochloric acid and precipitation with water; soft and antimonial lead, litharge, zinc: indium, extracted from zinc-blende, containing a small percentage of this seldom occurring metal: arsenic, white arsenical glass, (ratsbane,) red and yellow arsenic sulphides, alloy of zinc and lead, lead-speiss, lead-matte, concentrated copper-matte, slags, zinc-gray, zinc-powder, lead-fumes, sulphuric acid, soda sulphate, copper-vitriol, iron vitriol, arsenic-sulphide, from purifying the sulphuric acid ; further FREIBERG ORES. 33 on, sheet-lead, pipe-wire, and shot. There was also a model of the newly- erected round blast-furnace, with small fore-hearth. These works pro¬ duce from the ores treated seventeen different articles of commerce. 75. The principal ores treated are argentiferous galena and silver ores, accompanied by copper aud iron pyrites and blende; they occur in gray gneiss, in the Erzgebirge. The mines are most extensively developed under and in the neighborhood of Freiberg, where over eight hundred veins, forming groups in four different zones, extend over twenty-five miles (English) in length. 76. The whole number of veins known in the Freiberg district amounts to more than nine hundred. They have been divided by von Cotta into the following four classes: I. The noble quartz group, so called because its valuable ores con¬ sist principally of silver minerals. The vein-mass is quartz. The min¬ erals are ruby-silver, silver-glance, native silver, fahlerz, miargyrite, poly- basiate, brittle silver-ore. Associated with these, in small quantities, are iron and copper pyrites, antimony-glance, galena, blende, fluor-spar, calc-spar, iron-spar, and heavy-spar. This group contains about one hundred and fifty veins, varying from 3 inches to 4 feet in width. II. The pyritiferous lead and zinc group ; the gangue is principally quartz. The ores are argentiferous galena, blende, iron, copper, and arsenical pyrites. Associated with these in small quantities are fluor¬ spar, iron-spar, heavy-spar, and calc-spar. This group contains about three hundred veins, varying from 2 inches to 3 feet in width. III. The noble lead group, so called on account of silver-ores occur¬ ring with the lead-ores. It occurs in gray gneiss. The gangue is man¬ ganese-spar, brown-spar, and quartz. The ores are rich argentiferous galena and blende; and, as rare occurrences, the following minerals are to be named: Iron aud copper pyrites aud a few proper silver min¬ erals. This group contains about three hundred and forty veins. IV. The barytic lead group, so called from the predominance of heavy- spar and fluor-spar with silver and lead ores. The gangue is heavy- spar, fluor-spar, and quartz. The ores are argentiferous galena and blende. The following minerals occur in smaller quantities: Iron aud copper pyrites, fahlerz, and proper silver-ores. This group contains about one hundred and thirty veins, varying from 6 inches to 8 feet in width. 77. The mining machinery in this district is mostly driven by water, furnished by several systems of complicated cauals, which are many miles in length. The water is conducted on the surface, as well as great distances through aqueducts and subterranean canals. This is the result of three centuries of labor. By means of ingeniously conducting the water from one mine to another, it is thoroughly utilized. The mines are drained by fifteen tunnels. The govern¬ ment own and control both the water sources and main draining adits. The mines are furnished with water free of expense. Each 3 M 34 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. water-wheel receives 100 cubic feet per minute, or l,00S,O00 cubic feet per week, which is iu many cases not sufficient to drive the large and heavily laden wheels. The mining dams contain 20S,000,000 cubic feet of water. As the mines are gradually becoming deeper and the water-power is, therefore, every day becoming more and more con¬ sumed iu raising the mine water from the deepest parts of the mines to the adits, the demand for still lower adits has long been a rapidly growing necessity. This was foreseen by Freiberrn von Herder, who originated the idea of constructing a tunnel from the lowest surface in Saxony, situated on the Elbe, near Bothschonberg, to the Freiberg mining-district. His estimation of 3,01)0,000 thalers and forty-seven years to construct it, was revised by the government authorities, and a plan made by which—first, an adit 13,070.44 meters from the same point selected by von Herder, viz, liothschdnberg on the Triebishbach (a brook flowing into the Elbe) to llalsbriieke; finally to Freiberg and Brand, costing 1,300,000 thalers, and was to be finished iu twenty-two years. At the completion of this main tunnel, it was proposed to ex* tend still farther an Arb.stolln 23,720 meters, at a cost of 1,456,000 thglers. The workings of this celebrated engineering project is so well know n that a detailed description w ill here be dispensed with. Suffice to say, that it is calculated to strike, iu the year 1876, the Bothegrube mine, (situated iu the city of Freiberg,) which is also a pumping and hoisting shaft, at a depth of 122.86 meters under the present deepest adit. The whole length of this tunnel will be 4,750,564 meters; of this, 1,307,044 meters, the main adit from Botschbnberg to llalsbriieke, is being constructed by and at the expense of the government, and 3,443,320 meters of branch tunneling inside of the Freiberg district, and draining the llimmelfahrt, Junge Hohe Birke, Freidrich Erbstolln, Heizog August, Besebert Gluck, Veieingt Feld, Eiuigkeit, and Hiin- melstiirst, is to be paid for by the above-named mines, together with the “District Water-Conducting Association.” The expectations of the successful working of these mines in the future are chiefly founded on the Bothsebbuberger tunnel, which is about four times as long as the Mont Cenis Tunnel. 78. The metallurgical works at Freiberg have attained their present state of perfection only after many years of experience, assisted by the progress of science. These works date from the year 1710; before that time, nearly every mining company smelted its own ores as often as they had accumulated in sufficient quantity. The advantages for both parties of thus centralizing the reduction-works are apparent. The smelting- woiks make larger profits than when there weie several smaller ones, but they also pay larger prices for the ore, and make considerable loans to mines that require them. This is, in most cases, equal to presenting them with money, in order to keep them in operation. The history of these works is extremely interesting ; it forms several important epochs in the history of metallurgy. SHAFT ROASTING-FURNACES. 35 79. The smelting process was greatly improved, about the middle of the sixteenth century, by the introduction of slag-hearths, ( Krummofen .) These were succeeded by low-blast furnaces, (Halbhochofen,) in 1588. 80. In 1790, an insufficient supply of lead caused the introduction of amalgamation. This was a modification of the American amalgama¬ tion, and called the European, or barrel amalgamation. This was par¬ tially superseded by the Augustin method, (1843,) and finally by smelt¬ ing the poorest silver-ores for matte, (Eoharbeit.) The latter was im¬ proved by conducting the process in reverberatory furnaces. These were first introduced in 1845. In order to thoroughly utilize the sulphur in the matte by the manufacture of sulphuric acid, shaft roasting-fur- naces were built in 1854, which were a modification of the English kilns, now well known as the Freiberg kilns. 81. In 1860 the present method of extracting the silver from the roasted copper-matte, accompanied by the production of copper-vitriol, was introduced. This was followed, in 1862, by the separation of silver from gold by means of sulphuric acid. In the same year the arsenic- furnaces were built. 82. Shaft roasting furnaces .—In 1863 Gerstenhofer’s terrace-furnaces were erected. A few remarks will be sufficient to demonstrate the value and principles involved in this important improvement. In general they have the advantage of good utilization of the heat, saving of fuel, rapid and continual work, and satisfactory roasting. The most important furnaces of this class that have lately been invented and improved are those of Gerstenhofer, Stetefeldt, Hasen- clever, and Helbig. We can distinguish here two classes: the first, in“which the necessary temperature for roasting is supported by the combustion of the sulphur in the ores; this permits of the use of the gas for the manufacture of sulphuric acid In the second class, the roasting temperature is effected by the combustion of fuel, and the gases produced cannot be employed for the production of sulphuric acid; but by the use of fuel a more complete roasting of the charge is effected. 83. The Gerstenhofer furnace, also called terrace-furnace, belongs to the first class, and is based upon the principle of the meeting of the finely-crushed ore, which is to be roasted in its descent with the heated gaseous products of combustion streaming up through the shaft of the furnace. The atmospheric air necessary for combustion enters the fur¬ nace partly from underneath the furnace, and partly through numerous holes in the front of the furnace. These are used also to oversee the process. They can be closed by means of clay-plugs, and the access of atmospheric air is regulated by opening or closing the holes. As they are situated near each bar or bridge in the furnace, they permit the re¬ moval of any agglomerated substance that forms on the bridge. With the exception of these holes, the furnaces are closed on all sides, and it is therefore possible to produce gases that are very rich in sulphuric acid 36 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The roasting temperature is produced by the combustion of the sulphur contained in the roasting charge; and the gases, principally composed of sulphurous acid, after having passed through the purifying canals, wherein most of the arsenious acid is deposited, are conducted into the lead-chambers for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The shafts of these furnaces are rectangular in horizontal section. They are about 5.043 meters high, 1.412 meters wide, and 0.7S5 meter deep. The wall is 0,028 meter thick on the long or front side, and 0.47 meter thick ou the short side; they are built in a row, so that several adjoin each other. From side to side of the shaft there pass three-sided bars of tire-clay, two of which are so placed in the sides of the shaft that one of the three edges points upward, the others downward. There is a slit in the top of the furnace, through which the ore is charged, by means of a revolving- feeder, in a fine stream. Immediately under this slit there is a three- sided bar, upon which the finely-crushed ore falls and then slides down on either side of its inclined surfaces. Thus falling, iu this man¬ ner, from one bar to the other, its descent is retarded, and it is kept for a longer period at the roasting temperature. When the ore reaches tin; bottom of the furnace in a roasted state, it is free from sulphur to within 5 to 12 per cent. It was attempted to roast the ores better by building a fire-place in the side of the furnace, but this was soon abandoned. An important objection to this is, that it renders the roast- ing-gases valueless for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The roasted ore at Freiberg, with 12 per cent, sulphur, is mixed with unroasted ore, so that a charge will contain about 20 per cent, sulphur, and then roasted in reverberatory furnaces. Before the ore is charged, the furnace and fire-clay bars must be strongly heated and the ore well dried; later, the ore burns of itself and keeps the furnace at the required temperature. S4. Pyritous ores, concentrated and raw copper matte, (at Mausf’eld,) and zinc-blende, for the fabrication of sulphuric acid, are the principal ores and products roasted iu this furnace. Ores rich in lead cannot be roasted iu this furnace, on account of their agglomeration on the bars when passing through the furnace. 85. The results of roasting vary. In Lukawitz,* Bohemia, iron-pyrites, containing 35 per cent, sulphur, is roasted so that it only coutains 2£ per cent, sulphur after leaving the furuaci; at the Augusten Iliitte, n Beni,* 5 per cent. Sulphur; in Freiberg,! bleudic pyritous slimes are roasted until they carry but 12 to 13 per cent, sulphur. According to Bode, blende can be so roasted as to contain ouly 6 per cent, sulphur. The advantages which this furnace possesses are numerous and valuable, particularly so where the manufacture of sulphuric acid is desired. The capacity of this furnace is 2,500 kilograms pyritous slimes, (Freiberg.) In Mausfeld, about 14.00(1 kilograms of granulated or ground matte * Bode. “ Schwefehaurefabrikation” 1872. tKast and Brauuing. “ Freiberger Pi ozesse.” SHAFT ROASTING-FURNACES. 37 containing 27 per cent, sulphur, is roasted in twenty-four hours; 50 per cent, of the sulphur is utilized. 86. It has already been mentioned that the consumption of fuel is insignificant. The principal requisite is that the ore must be in a finely- powdered state, and, further, the powder should be as uniform in the size of its grains as possible. The cost of crushing the ore should there¬ fore be compared with the advantages which this furnace possesses. With kilns there is the disadvantage, that the ore roasting remains in the same position throughout the operation, and with some other fur¬ naces (Hasenclever and Helbig) the air only passes over a limited surface of the ore ; but in the Gastenhofer, the ore particles are contin¬ ually changing their position, and offering new surfaces to the hot stream of air ascending the shaft of the furnace. The economical and practi¬ cal results are good. They have, however, been disputed at Freiberg, where ores carrying lea 1 are roasted, but as they are believed to be the most desirable furnaces known, new ones are being constructed. Com¬ pressed air is not now used, the natural draught being sufficient. 87. The principal improvements have been made: First, in decreasing the metallic volatilization, by charging the ore through one opening only, and by allowing the gases to escape through four flues in the sides or corners of the furnace. In Mausfeld, the fumes are equal to about 5 per cent, of the material treated. Second, in the arrangement for emptying the furnace of its roasted charge; the best of this kind is, perhaps, a box under the receiving-chamber, in which there is an archi- medean screw, which, upon being revolved, carries the roasted ore out of the furnace, the roasting-charge preventing the air from entering or escaping. This arrangement has given excellent satisfaction in Frei¬ berg, and has been attached to all the Gerstenliofer roastiug-furnaces at that place. The first furnace built according to this system was erected in Freiberg in 1863. The first Filz, or round-shaft furnace with widened top, was erected in Freiberg, according to a plan of Herrn Pilz. The success of these principles caused a complete revolution in the construction of furnaces in almost all metallurgical works where the shaft-furnace is employed. 88. The history of shaft-furnaces is extended and complicated. They have been at times of very simple construction, and then again were very complex. The principal variation has been in the shape and proportions of the shaft. At first the shaft was made to decrease in size toward the top in order to effect a better utilization of the heat by the more perfect penetration of the ascending gases throughout the charge; second, diminution of loss by volatilization, by condensing, as it were, the fumes in the narrow throat of the furnace ; third, a loos¬ ening up of the finely-crushed ore during its descent ; fourth and lastly, by means of a larger melting-zone to spare the walls of the furnace, and make a larger production possible. The extreme of this style of furnace is to be seen in Yogel’s method of construction. 38 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 89. The following are the latest conclusions as regards the shape of the furnace-shaft: By widening the shaft at the top, the heat of the furnace is not so well utilized ; but by the lessening of the velocity of the ascending gases and descending charge, thereby effected, the reactions taking place between them are more perfect, and, as the ascending gas-stream moves slower, aud spreads throughout the widen¬ ing shaft, it cools oft', and, consequently, a much smaller amount of fur¬ nace-fumes are produced. The loosening up of the finely-crushed ore is hereby lost, (which is at the present day not thought to be of great con¬ sequence,) but, on the other hand, the tilting of the charge and fuel- layers is ^voided, as well as the arrival of ore in the smelting-zone be¬ fore its due preparation. 90. In a small smelting-zone the charge is more perfectly smelted, aud, by the increase of temperature hereby effected, the slag produced is much poorer in the metals; hence, the iron water-tuyeres have, in consequence of their many important advantages, almost universally supplanted the old method of smelting with “noses.” The sides of the smelting-zone are prevented from wearing away by making use of iron water-boxes to keep them cool; but it is said that the cooled smelted matter forms accretions on them which destroys the boxes, and they are such excellent conductors of heat that it is very warm for the work¬ men when near the furnace. 91. A furnace with widening top was first designed by Truran in 185(1, for the smelting of iron-ore. 92. Alger erected, in 1859, a furnace, elliptical in shape on the inside, and having a row of tuyeres on the opposite sides; the shaft, however, was not wider at the top than below. Both had in view the better utilization of the heat and increased production. 93. In 18(12, Kaehette made known his method of construction. The shaft is quadrilateral in form, and widens toward the top ; in each of the longer sides there is a row of tuyeres, not exactly opposite to each other, however, but alternating; and, in order that the furnace may be easily blown in during the winter time, there is a fire-place under the bed¬ stone, which counects with flues in the mantel-walls of the furnace. This plan of construction was intended at first for the treatment of all kinds of ore, and was, accordingly, called the “Universal furnace.” This furnace was a great improvement, but it did not completely answer to all the wants of metallurgical methods of treatment. 91. The most natural and, at the same time, now most often employed construction is that of Bilz's desigu. They are round or octagonal, (the latter soon become round on the inside by the accretions formed,) and widen from below upward. The tuyeres were arranged about the fur¬ nace according to Sefstrom’s principle. At first the shaft was made octagonal. From the level of the tuyeres up to the charging-hole, it measured 0.270 meters diameter; at the tuyeres, 1.412 meters; and at the charging hole, 2.354 meters. It had eight water tuyeres 0.782 meter SHAFT ROASTING-FURNACES. 39 in diameter, and was furnished with a funnel-shaped charging appa¬ ratus. The furnace smoke and fumes were conducted away by means of a canal, and, in order to avoid explosions, this was made sufficiently large for their free escape. The shaft was enveloped within a sheet-iron mantle, which rested upon four or eight hollow cast-iron pillars. The hearth stood free; the furnace-crucible was composed of brasque. There were two cast-iron slag-spouts, three cast-iron tap-hearths, and also several slag-pots, for conveying the slag away. 95. Lately, these furnaces have been made perfectly cylindrical, 3.84 meters high and 1.726 wide. The hearth is of fire-brick, and the charg¬ ing arrangement done away with. They are constructed either as cru¬ cible or hearth furnaces, with eight, and sometimes uine, tuyeres, and some are furnished with wronght-iron water-boxes. 96. These furnaces are distinguishable from all others in the following particulars, viz : they are supported by iron pillars, and stand quite alone, requiring very little space; irregularities in the smelting can be easily discovered, and access to the smelting-zone is not difficult. In consequence of these advantages, the cost of putting the furnace in readiuess for smelting is small, and the smelting is conducted with little trouble. They have the form, (round,) in which the least amount of accretions form on the sides, and therefore allow of long-continued and regular smelting campaigns. The amount of fuel consumed is small, and the production of fumes not large. Slag may be produced, which carries but a small percentage of the metals. The reduction is complete, and the temperature can be increased to the point at which the melted masses react well upon each other. Covered hearths have been built immediately in front of the furnace, in order to effect an increased production. It was intended that the smelted mass should settle and separate in this fore-hearth, but, after repeated experiments, they were declared not to be effective. Heated blast, experimented upon in Clausthal in 1870, showed no advantages, as regards increased produc¬ tion and the formiug of a slag carrying less metal, as the saving of fuel thereby effected was canceled by the consumption of bituminous coal necessary for heating the blast. In lead-ore, smelting, &c., charging- hoppers have generally been done away with, and the furnace-top is about a foot above the charging-floor, and the fumes are led off from the side. 97. At the Muldener Works, near Freiberg, about 30,000 kilograms ore, equal to 60,000 kilograms smelting-charge, are put through in twenty-four hours, with 6,000 to 7,000 kilograms of coke. At the Halsbriickner Works, about 35,000 kilograms ore, equal to about 50,000 kilograms smelting- charge, are put through in twenty-four hours, with 5,000 to 5,500 kilograms of coke. Atthe first-named works, the ores contain more zinc than those of the latter, so that in the treatment of blendic smelting-charges, at least 100 per cent, of slag from the same manipulation is charged with it; at the latter works, however, 50 per cent, is sufficient. The smelting-charge 40 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. is so made up that quite a large amount of matte is formed, relatively speaking, which serves at the same time as a solvent for the zinc-sul¬ phide. The smelting campaigns at the Muldener Works last from ten to twenty weeks, and at the Halsbriickner Hiitte much longer. The pressure of the blast at both works is equal to T centimeters quicksilver- column. The very complicated process of former years has of late become much more simplified. The ores undergo preliminary treat¬ ments, which are conducted as thoroughly as possible, and accompanied by the production of such ingredients as are of disadvantage in the smelting operations. Ores carrying such substances are treated sep¬ arately, and then pass through a common smelting process. The aux¬ iliary operations have thereby become of greater importance, especially the operation of roasting. The processes at these works are almost con¬ stantly changing, and as all the communications thereupon have been more or less imperfect, a full and detailed description of the several processes practiced at these model metallurgical works will be given. The processes at both the Halsbriickner and Muldener works are of a similar nature. The methods here described are practiced at the latter, with the exception of the copper-vitriol process and gold separation, which is conducted at the Halsbriickner Works. In addition to notes, use has been made of Herru Kast and Briiuning’s communications to the “ Preussische Zeitsehrift.” The description of the silver extraction from roasted copper-matte is almost a reproduction of a portion of Herrn ixuhleman’s communication to the same paper. 9S. Tiie Freiberg metallurgical processes.— The metallurgical processes of Freiberg have for their main object the production of silver, gold, lead, bismuth, zinc, copper, vitriol, &c. In addition to the ores delivered by the Saxon mines in and about Freiberg,foreign and domestic ores are purchased and treated ; also sweepings, or dross containing silver, lead, copper, or gold. The sulphur, present in large quantities I in the greater part of the ores, is made use of as much as possible for the manufacture of sulphuric acid ; some of the ores also carry a large I percentage of arsenic. This is also treated to advantage in the manu¬ facture of various arsenical products, such as arsenious acid, (ratsbane,) oripiment, realgar, and metallic arsenic. The silver contained in the Freiberg ores is more or less finely distributed throughout the ore in the form of silver-glance, stephauite, tctrahedrite, polybasite, and native silver. The lead occurs almost exclusively as galena. The copper occurs as copper-pyrites, tctrahedrite, variegated copper-ore and copper glauce. The greater part of the Freiberg ores contain, besides the metals already mentioned, unpayable quantities of gold, bismuth, cobalt, and nickel. The gangue is principally composed of calcite, bitter-spar, fluorite, baryte, and quartz. 99. Ores .—All ores delivered at the smelting-works are divided into two classes, viz, payable and non-payable. To the first class belong all ores that contain over a specified amount of metal, and, to the second j FREIBERG METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. 41 class, all those that do not reach this amount. For a full and official account of what ores are purchasable and what are not; the amounts paid for ores containing various amounts of the different metals, as well as the rules and regulations followed in the weighing and assaying of the same, see the translation of the “ Regulativ fur deu Einlcauf sachsischer Erze bei deu WerJceu der koniglichen Generalschmelzadmini- stration vom Quartal Crucis 1868,” (regulations for the purchase of Saxon ores at the works of the Royal General Smelting Administration, from the Quarterly Crucis , 1868.) This will be found in the appendix of this report, and, for this reason, much pertaining to the manner of weighiug the ore when delivered at the works, the rules followed in selecting the assay samples, and carrying out the assays made from them, can be here omitted. To the non-paying ores belong, 1. Dry silver-ores ( durrerze ) containing from 0.01 to 0.04 per cent. = 2 oz., 18 dwt. 4.80 gr. to 11 oz. 13 dwt. 4.80 gr. silver; 2. Copper-ores, not containing 4.5 per cent, of silver and copper together; 3. Lead-ores, not carrying more than 15 per cent, of lead ; and, 4. Nickel and cobalt ores. 100. The ores are classified, according to their composition, into the following nine classes : 1. Lead-ores, a. Plumbiferous ores, b. Galenas ; 2. Copper-ores; 3. Arsenical ores; 4. Zinc-ores; 5. Sulphur-ores; 6. Pyritous silver ores; 7. Quartzose pyritous ores; 8. Quartzose dry silver-ores; and 9. Spathic dry silver-ores. The lead-ores are all argentiferous, and compose about the half of the ores delivered at the works. They are classified into plumbiferous ores and galenas. Those containing between 15 and 29 per cent, lead belong to the first class, and those that contain over 30 per cent, lead are reckoned in the second class, (galenas.) The average percentage of lead contained in all the plumbiferous and galena ores scarcely amounts to 40 per cent., and the silver to 0.15 per cent. — 43 oz. 33 dwt. 14.40 gr. The copper-ores are also always argentiferous; they contain, from 1 to 10 per cent, copper, and the general average is 3 per cent, at the highest. The delivery of copper-ores from the Freiberg mines is, comparatively speaking, very small, but at times rich foreign ores are bought. The arsenical ores contain from 10 to 40 per cent, arsenic, viz: a. arsenical ores, averaging- 35 per cent, arsenic; b. arsenical pyrites, averaging 15 per cent, arsenic and 25 per cent, sulphur; c. arsenical lead-ores, averaging 13 per cent, arsenic and 18 to 20 per cent. lead. They are delivered over to the arsenic works. The zinc-ores, principally composed of zinc-blende, contain from 30 to 40 per cent. zinc. Lead-ores carrying less than 30 per cent, zinc are classed with the plumbiferous ores. They are delivered over to the ziuc-works for treatment. All the zinc-ores carry more or less silver. All Freiberg ores that contain 20 per cent, and more of sulphur are classed with the sulphur-ores. Pyritous silver- ores are all such as are rich in silver and sulphur, and when they con- 42 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. tain 0.20 per cent. = 58 oz. 0 dwt. silver, and more, the sulphur is not paid for. They do not contain more than 1 per cent, copper, or 15 per cent. zinc. The quartzose silver-ores are poor in silver, and carry a very large percentage of silicic acid. By dry ores, ( diirrerze ,) in general, is understood all such argentiferous ores as do not contain lead and copper in payable amounts. By quartzose dry-silver ores, is to be understood all such as are principally composed of quartz, and contain only so much pyrites that they are not capable of producing 20 per cent, of raw matte by smelting. The spathic dry-silver ores are only distinguishable from the quartzose therein by the associated gangue being of a spathic, instead of silicious, nature. The classification of the ores may be simplified as follows : 1. Lead ores : a. Plumbiferous ores, with 15 to 29 per cent. lead. b. Galena, with more than 30 per cent. lead. 2. Pyrites, chiefly iron pyrites, containing not more than 15 per cent, zinc, and very little arsenic. 3. Pyritiferous ores, with 15 to 30 per cent. zinc. 1. Blende, with more than 30 per cent. zinc. 5. Arsenical ores, averaging 35 per cent, of arsenic. 0. Arsenical pyrites, with 15 per cent, arsenic and 20 to 28 per cent, sulphur. 7. Arsenical lead-ores, with 12 per cent, arsenic, and IS to 20 per cent, lead. The ores are also divided into stamped, jigged, and washed ores, cor¬ responding to the manner in which they were dressed at the mines. Taken as a whole, they are called slime ores. The distinction of lump ore is also made ; it is ore in pieces of about the size of a walnut. H)l. Roasting .—Roasting has for its object the oxidation of the metallic sulphides and arsenides; and volatilization of the sulphur and arsenic to within a certain degree. The amount of sulphur contained in an unroasted charge varies from 20 to 25 per cent., and that of one having passed through this manipulation 2 to 5 per cent. The pyrites, when in lump size, are roasted in kilns, but when in a powdered condition (slimes) are roasted in Gerstenhbfer furnaces. Matte is roasted in Wellnersstalls and reverberatory furnaces, but oftener in kilns. Pyri tiferous ores are roasted iu the Gerstenhbfer furnaces to 12 per cent, sulphur, then in reverberatory furnaces; and finally with residue from the zinc and coke iu reverberatory furnaces. Arsenical pyrites are treated for realgar, er hearth, the ore parts with its moisture. The charge let on to the upper hearth is allowed to remain, just as it falls, without being spread out; the doors are kept closed, and it remains thereuntil the commence¬ ment of the second period, which takes place one and a half hours later. During the desulphurization period, sulphur and arsenic are disengaged, and the ore becomes dark red. It is now necessary to stir the charge constantly, in order that every part of the same may come in contact with the atmospheric air. Sulphurous acid and arsenious acid are now disengaged in voluminous clouds. This period continues from four to five hours. During the last three hours, the dead-roasting is effected and the charge gradually ceases to evolve any more gases. The temper¬ ature must now be increased and the charge well raked, in order to free it from its last traces of sulphur and arsenic. Each furnace is attended by five men, working twelve-hour shifts. The large single-hearth fur¬ nace, however, is attended by eight men. The roasted lead-ore mixture is principally composed of the metallic oxide and basic sulphates of the metals contained iu the charge, and contains per 50 kilograms 0.15 to 0.20 per cent. = 43 oz. 13 dwt. 14.40 gr. to 58 oz. 6 dwt. of silver, 30 to 25 per cent, lead, 0.5 per cent, copper, S to 9 per cent, zinc, 15 to 20 per cent silicic acid, and 2 to G per cent, sulphur. 104. The cost of roasting 1 cwt. of ore amounts to 3 silbergroscheu 3 pfeunige* ; the items are as follows : Sgr. Pf. Coal. 1 3 Wages. 1 G Repair of tools. .. .. 0 6 3 3 * A silbergroscheu is equal to about 2^ cents, and there are Vi pfeunige iu a groschen. FREIBERG METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. 45 105. If a comparison be now made between the furnace with double hearth and that with one only, the latter has the advantage of greater sim¬ plicity and has less need of repairs, and, furthermore, is not inferior to the former, as far as can be judged at the present time, in the consump¬ tion of coal, labor of manipulation, and degree of roasting. The offi¬ cials at the Muldener Works have expressed the above opinion, but they also, in opposition to this view, commenced anew double-hearth furnace in the spring of 1873, which was finished in the following fall. I think, were reliable data to be had, that a considerable saving of fuel would be proven. 106. It is only the American ores that are roasted in heaps or stalls. By roasting in heaps, the lump ore or product is mixed with coke and piled upon a thin layer of wood and shavings in the form of a truncated pyr¬ amid. In the center of this heap there is a chimney 8 feet high and 1 foot 6 inches wide, inside measurement. This chimney is perforated on all sides, up as high as the roastiug-lieap is piled around it, and is built of brick. In order that the heap may take fire more easily, there are four canals left at the base, branching out at right angles from the four sides of the chimney, and the whole heap is covered with fine coke, thus causing all the gases to find their way out through the chimney. Such a heap generally receives three fires, or, in other words, it is roasted three times. During the first fire, it burns for about four weeks; during the second, three; and during the third, two w^eeks. For the first fii'e If klafter (1 klafter = 108 cubic feet) wood and 8 scheffel (1 scheffel = li- cubic feet) coke are necessary, and, after this, f klafter wood and 16 scheffel coke are consumed in the roasting of 5,000 kilograms of ore or product. This operation is, at the present time, only carried out during the winter months, during which time the gases do not affect the surrounding fields so injuriously. 107. The roasting in double Wellner stalls is cheaper, but consumes more time than roasting in kilns where coal takes the place of wood for fuel. This style of roasting-stall is 32 feet long and 16 feet wide, inside measurement, and is surrounded by walls of slag-stone 7 to 8 feet high. In one of the longer sides (front) there are eight fire-places, four to each stall, standing 6 inches apart and all furnished with iron grates. The floor of the stalls rises 3 feet in its total length, rests upon crushed slag, and is built of slag-stone. Residues from the arsenical wmrks and lead-matte are roasted in the double stalls. Both of these products have been previously roasted in kilns for the purpose of utilizing the greater amount of their sulphur for the manufacture of sulphuric acid; they consequently only require one fire in the stalls to reduce their per¬ centage of sulphur down to 4 or 6 per cent. Lately these products have been delivered over to the operation of ore-smelting, just as they came from the kiln, without further treatment in the stalls. Lead- matte containing over 20 per cent, lead cannot be roasted to advantage in kilns for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, and is, therefore, roasted 46 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. directly iu the stalls, where it is roasted in from two to three tires. The roasting-heaps in this case are never made to contain over 25,000 kilo¬ grams iu order to avoid their agglomerating. In charging a stall, a thin layer of shavings is strewn on the floor, and on top of this is given another thin layer of tine coke. The product to be roasted is heaped on the fire in the form of a pyramid and the surface covered with tine coke. A stall holds from about 45,< 00 to 60,000 kilograms. The grate-bars are now placed within the fire-places, a fire is made, with bituminous coal, and kept up until the heap burns of its own accord. This takes from six to eight hours, and one scheffel of coal is thereby consumed. After the completion of the roasting, the heap is torn down, and the properly-roasted lumps are separated from that which is not thoroughly roasted. That which is properly roasted is distinguished by its porosity, blackish, and earthy appearance. The imperfectly roasted is generally melted together in lumps, and these lumps are broken up and roasted over again. After having received from two to three fires, this product generally contains from 4 to 6 per ceut. sulphur, which is present principally in the form of sulphuric acid, in combina¬ tion/ with the metallic oxides of iron, zinc, copper, and lead. The roast- ing gases escape, through the perforated back wall of the stalls, into a canal, where they are partially condensed, and from here the remainder pass oil into a chimney. About 15 cwt. of coke and 20 scheffel* of bitu¬ minous coal are consumed in roasting 1,000 cwt. of lead-matte, which has already been roasted once in the kiln ; 2 scheffel of coke and 20 scheffel of bituminous coal are consumed in roasting 1,000 cwt. of roasted resi¬ dues; 2 scheffel coke and 1 scheffel bituminous coal are required for roasting 500 cwt. of copper and rich lead-matte, but in the second fire 10 scheffel of coke and 2 scheffel of coal are consumed in roasting the same product. 108. The manufacture qf sulphuric acid. —The ores and metal¬ lurgical products treated for the manufacture of sulphuric acid are the following: Lead-matte, not containing over 20 percent, lead and 20 per cent, copper; blendic pyritous, dry silver-ores poor iu silver, and uon-payable ores when containing 20 per ceut. of sulphur or more; plumbiferous ores, containing 20 per ceut. of sulphur and over, but with less than 25 per cent, lead ; residues from the arsenical works that contain from 20 to 30 per cent, sulphur. 109. The ores and products are roasted iu kilns and in Gersteuhbfer furnaces. All residues from the arsenical works, lump pyrites, and broken lead-matte are roasted in an English shaft roasting furnace or kiln. The general shape of the shaft is similar to the shaft of an iron blast-furnace. There are two kinds, the one larger than the other. The larger kilns, 3.14 meters high, 3.14 by 1.5 meters wide, are used for roasting substances comparatively poor iu sulphur, viz, lead-matte and residues from the arsenical works; the smaller, 3.14 meters high *1 sebeftel=L90 pounds or 85 kilograms. SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE. 47 aud 2.20 by l.o7 meters wide, for lump pyrites. On the front side, there are a number of working-doors, which are used for getting at the charge, with iron bars, in order to free the sides of the furnace from any accretions of melted matter which may have formed thereon. On the top of the kilns are charging-holes. When a kiln is to be set in work, the shaft is filled, for about two-thirds of the way up to the top, with lump-pyrites that have been roasted ; a strong fire is then made an top of this, and when the furnace has become red-hot, the roasting-charge is added. This soon begins to burn of itself, and keeps the furnace at the desired temperature without further addition of fuel. After several hours the roasted ore is hauled out of the furnace, through the lower working-door, aud a new quantity added. About 1,000 kilograms of matte or 750 kilograms of ore compose a charge, and about twelve hours are necessary in roasting it. In charging the kilns, the ore, or matte, is equally distributed over the whole section of the shaft. The Gersten¬ hofer furnaces have already been considered. Their capacity is about 2,500 kilograms of pyritous slimes in twenty-four hours. The gases pass from the furnaces into the condensation-chamber, and from there directly into the lead-chambers for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The sys¬ tem of condensation-chambers is very extensive. This is necessary, as all the pyrites, without exception, contain arsenic. There are two sepa¬ rate systems of condensation-chambers for the kilns and Gerstenhofer furnaces, as the ores roasted in them are not exactly alike, and also for the reason of the large number of furnaces employed. The amount of sulphurous acid contained in the gases from the Gerstenhofer furnaces is equal to 6 or 7 per cent, of their volume 5 the remainder is arsenious acid aud unaltered atmospheric air. 110. Before the Gerstenhofer roasting-furnaces came into use, the so- called “ Stockel” roasting was employed at the Freiberg smelting-works for the roasting of pyritous slimes; that is to say, the pyritous slimes were mixed with clay, and out of this mixture balls were made, and then charged into the kilns and roasted. This has been done away with altogether at the Muldener Works, and is only conducted on a limited scale at the Halsbriickuer Works. By the employment of this method, pyritous slimes can be treated, which contain so much lead that it would be impossible to roast them in Gerstenhofer furnaces, as they would agglomerate. The slimes are mixed with 5 per cent, of clay, and made into balls. This small quantity, however, would not be sufficient, if the clay were not given more consistency, by the addition of the acidu¬ lated mother-liquid from the copper-extraction process. In dissolving the argentiferous copper-matte, the mother-liquid seemed to contain a considerable quantity of iron, so that the operation cannot be repeated so often, as is possible in dissolving the argentiferous copper. The em¬ ployment of this solution for the forming of roasting-balls (Stockel) met a want greatly felt, and also made the solution of some value. The solution must be made still more acid with the addition of sulphuric 48 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. acid, so that the clay will be partially dissolved, in order to make the roasting balls durable. The balls are well dried by the waste heat of several apparatuses; and they then roast very well in kilns to within 7 or 8 per cent, sulphur, aud are roasted further in stalls only in ex¬ ceptional cases. Although at the Halsbriickner Works there is plenty of boy labor to be had for carrying out the work of making the roast- ing-balls, still it costs 21 silbergroschen to make a hundredweight or 50 kilograms. The condensation canals, in which the gases from the kilus and Gerstenhofer furnaces circulate, are of considerable length, as it is of importance to free the gases, as far as possible, from the arseuious acid before entering the sulphuric acid chambers. 111 . The canals are constructed of bricks dipped in tar; these with¬ stand the effects of the sulphurous acid better than common bricks. The condensing-chambers are covered on top with iron plates, because they help to cool the gases off; also because an arch of masonry would not last long under the influence of the acid gases. Subterranean canal connections are avoided as far as possible, the draught being effected thereby; also because the moisture absorbs the sulphurous acid and destroys the masonry. 112. Lead-chambers are used for the condensation of the roasting- gases. The gases, however, do not enter these chambers until they have circulated through the ordinary canals. The lead-chambers are very serviceable in cooling off the gases. The gases enter the sulphuric- acid chambers perfectly cool by means of the arrangements above de¬ scribed. The lead-chambers, in which the sulphuric acid is made, are large parallelo-pipedorical compartments, surrounded on all sides with sheet-lead, which is supported by a strong frame-work of timber. A system consists of a fore-chamber and a roof-chamber. All the cham¬ bers are connected with each other by large pipes. The formation of the acid takes place in the main chamber, and the sole object of the roof chamber is to condense the sulphuric-acid vapors. According to the now system, the fore chamber is connected with the first main cham¬ ber thereby, and this is furnished with a partition-wall on one of the shorter sides, where the gases enter. This partition reaches nearly to the floor. Formerly the nitric acid was conducted into the fore cham¬ ber. At present, however, it is led into the main chamber, where it flows over a number of large earthen dishes, so placed inside of each other as to form a sort of terrace. Steam is led into each of the main chambers from the roof, and condenses on entering the chambers, fall¬ ing to the bottom as fine rain. 113. The nitric acid is produced from soda saltpeter by treating it with sulphuric acid. The nitric acid set free is collected iu a row of flasks. The decomposition of the saltpeter is conducted iu a cast- iron cylinder, or, better, iu a kettle of the same material, under which a low fire is kept up on the grate iu the fire-place. A charge con¬ sists of one hundred aud fifteen kilograms of sulphuric acid, and one SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE. 49 hundred and twenty-five kilograms of saltpeter. After two days the bisulphate of soda formed is removed from the kettle and the process commenced over again. The sulphuric acid is poured into the kettle through a lead funnel. In the first flasks, which are emptied by means of siphons, there is 45° to 50° acid. In the last, however, nitric acid of only 15° is generated. By mixing, an acid of 36° is obtained. Sixty- two kilograms of nitric acid are obtained from fifty kilograms of salt¬ peter, and forty-seven kilograms of sulphate of soda as a by-product. 114. A Gay-Lussac apparatus is used for saving the nitrous and nitric acids, which pass out from the chambers. This apparatus consists of a lead tower filled with coke, in which the nitrous acid is absorbed by sul¬ phuric acid. The distribution of 60° sulphuric acid over the coke-tower is effected partly by a small turbine and partly by numerous stop-cocks. The former seems to do its work more effectually when it is given a little attention. Thirty kilograms of acid of 00° B. is consumed in sup¬ plying the Gay-Lussac apparatus per fifty kilograms of acid of G0° B. produced. The acid necessary for feeding this apparatus is concen¬ trated, without previous precipitation, in a compartment underneath the lead-chambers. The sulphuric acid, with its absorbed nitrous acid, flows out of the Gay-Lussac apparatus into a boiling-apparatus. It is reduced to 50° with water and then heated; the nitrous acid is thereby expelled aud conducted back to the-lead-chamber. The sulphuric acid is then allowed to flow through pipes into the precipitation house, where it is freed from its impurities. In consequence of this arrangement the production of acid can be effected with a great saving in nitric acid. 115. The acid which condenses in the lead-chamber and collects on the bottom, should not be stronger than 48° to 50° B. (Specific gravity 1-5.) It is tapped off from time to time into tanks. There are drop¬ ping arrangements on the sides of the chambers by which the process of the formation of the acid in the chambers can be watched and the quantity of nitric acid and steam entering the chambers regulated. If, for example, the acid is stronger than 50° B., more steam is allowed to enter the chambers; if it is less, more nitric acid. The level of the acid in the chambers is determined by floats. 116. A chamber-system of 9,400 cubic feet capacity, can produce daily from 3,500 to 4,000 kilograms of sulphuric acid of 66° B., with a con¬ sumption of 75 kilograms of nitric acid. A system of 160,000 cubic feet can produce daily 5,000 kilograms acid with 100 kilograms of nitric acid. 117. There are three systems at the “ Muldener Hiitte,” one of 9,400 cubic feet capacity, one of 134,000, and one of 160,000. The first system is provided with sulphurous acid by the kilns, the others by Gersten- hofer furnaces. The normal working of the process is known by the warmth of the chamber-walls, by dropping of the acid in the drop- apparatus, and by the brown color of the escaping nitric and nitrous acids. There are two windows in the roof-chamber at its end, for the 4 M 50 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. purpose of observing the color of these gases. If the gases appear pale yellow, there is a lack of nitric acid in the chambers. 118. Purifying the chamber-acid .—This is accomplished by precipitating | the arsenic with sulphuretted hydrogen. The sulphuretted hydrogen is ' produced from a raw matte, free from zinc, which is obtained by smelting raw lump-pyrites, free from all blende, with a flux of slag. This matte, principally composed of protosulphide of iron, is broken up into small pieces, and treated with diluted sulphuric acid in a box-shaped gen¬ erating apparatus. The apparatus cousists of two wooden boxes, lined with sheet-lead, which communicate with each other by means of a lead pipe. There is a lead sieve, supported by bricks, several inches above the bottom of one of the boxes, which serves as a canal for the iron vitriol solution formed. The iron-matte is placed upon the lead sieve in quan- | tities of 3,500 to 4,000 kilograms. The sulphuretted liydrogeu is dis¬ engaged by sulphuric acid dripping on the matte through a W-shaped pipe, leading from the other box. It' sulphuretted liydrogeu should be | evolved in too great quantities, the pressure produced by the same 1 would force the sulphuric acid and iron vitriol solution into the neigh¬ boring box. The gas passes fro in the generating-apparatus into a wash- | ing-apparatus, which is provided with two small windows, for the pur¬ pose of observing the generation of the gas. The residue from the 'i iron-matte is removed from the generating-apparatus after four or six weeks, and is delivered over to the ore-smelting operations, as it con- I tains 0.10 per cent. = 29 oz. 2 dwt. silver and 3 per cent, copper. The j iron vitriol solution is 2S° strong. It is evaporated in lead pans until it reaches 40°, and is then brought into crystallizing-vessels, wherein ! the iron vitriol crystallizes on lead strips hung in the solution. The ! crystals are broken from the lead strips, dried, and are then ready for market. The sulphuretted hydrogen gas, after passing through the washing- i apparatus, enters the precipitation-tower. This is a chamber having the I shape of a shaft, with a rectangular horizontal section, the walls of I which are of sheet-lead. The whole compartment is filled with hori- ! zontal bars, having the shape of a pointed roof, the side edges of which are cut out like a saw. These beams are arranged in rows, alongside and over each other, and in such a manner that the alternating rows consist of eight and nine bars. The sulphuric acid, when led into this precipitation-tower from the top falls to the bottom in the form of fine rain ; it falls from one bar to the other, and drips from off the saw-like edges. The sulphuretted hydrogen gas is conducted into the tower from below. By means of this apparatus an almost complete precipitation of the arsenic contained in the sulphuric acid is effected. The tower is fed with the sulphuric acid by means of tilting troughs, from which it flows into the tower through a lead sieve. The acid, on leaving the tower, flows into settling-tanks, wherein the precipitate of sulphide of arsenic gradually sinks to the bottom. In case the acid should not be SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE. 51 pure enough, it is forced up again over the precipitation-tower by means of an air-condensing apparatus ; generally, however, this is not the case. The sulphide of arsenic is placed in filtering-boxes lined with sheet-lead; here the acid drains off. It is then placed in another box, which has a sand filterer in the bottom. It is then delivered over to the arsenical works for farther treatment. 119. The evaporation of the purified acid .—This operation is conducted in lead pans, of which there are generally four or six, so placed over one another as to form a kind of terrace. Each pan is provided with a spout, through which the acid can flow. The pans are very shallow, from 12 to 15 inches deep, in order that the evaporation may progress with rapidity. The acid is evaporated until it reaches 60° B.; stronger acid would affect the lead pans. The specific gravity of this acid is 1.7, and contains 79 per cent, of 66° B. sulphuric acid. The pan nearest the fire-place is placed upon an iron plate. The acid to be concentrated is allowed to flow into the pan farthest from the fire-place, which is least under the influence of the heat, and gradually flows into the one nearest the fire. The acid vapors from the pans escape into the atmosphere. The operation is continual. 120. The further concentration to 66° B. is conducted in platinum retorts, of which there are two at the Muldener Hiitte. One of these has a capacity of 20,000 kilograms, the other, of 12,500 kilograms. The 60° B. sulphuric acid is brought into the platinum-retort directly from the last pan, by means of a siphon. The retort stands over a fire-place with terrace-grate. Bituminous coal is employed as fuel. The acid- water vapors pass off from the retort through a platinum-pipe into a spiral pipe of lead, which is situated in a cooling-box, filled with water. The vapors are hereby condensed, and acid is obtained of 25° B., which is forced into the first evaporating pan by means offa small force-pump, worked by hand. The acid remaining in the platinum-retort is concen¬ trated to 66° B., and settles to the bottom by reason of its high specific gravity. It is continually withdrawn from the retort by means of a siphon of platinum, which passes through a Liebig cooling-apparatus. The concentrated acid flows into settling-vessels, from which it is filled into glass balloons. The concentrated sulphuric acid is oily, has a spe¬ cific gravity of 1.8, contains 81 per cent, of anhydrate sulphuric acid, and is of the color of water. In filling the balloons organic substances give it a brown color. 121. The manufacture of arsenical products.— These products are: 1. Arsenious acid. la. Arsenical glass. 2. Sulpho-arsenics. 2a. Oripiment. 2b. Realgar. I 3. Metallic arsenic. The ores treated for the manufacture of these products are, arsenical 52 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. pyrites, arsenical leail-ores, and pyritous ores containing arsenic. They contain between 10 and 40 per cent, arsenic. Besides these, the arsen¬ ical fumes, from the operations of roasting, collected in the condensa¬ tion-chambers, are treated. 122. Production of arsenious acid .—This is produed by the roasting of arsenical ores which contain but a small amount of iron pyrites. The prin¬ cipal ores treated are arsenical ores and arsenical lead-ores. The opera¬ tion is conducted in an arsenic sublimation furnace which has a gas-gener¬ ator attached. Each furnace stands in connection with a canal, built of brick, wherein the arsenious acid collects. The length of the canal is about SOD feet. The hearths of these reverberatory furnaces are 14 feet long and 10 feet wide; on either side are two working doors. The grate is situated about G feet below the fire-bridge, and is tilled with coke up to the top of the latter. The gases are ignited by means of atmospheric air, which enters the furnace through special canals. With this simple furnace an arsenious acid is produced, which is perfectly white and free from all particles of carbon or coal-ash. A charge consists, of 1,200 kilograms. As the escape of ore, iu the form of tine dust, cannot be avoided during the charging of the furnace and working the charge, the arse¬ nious acid canal is kept closed by means of a damper while these opera¬ tions are being carried out, and the tine particles of ore escape from the furnace into the atmosphere through a special chimney constructed for that purpose. A charge is roasted in eight hours, and G scheffel* of coke are consumed. The roasted ore, containing not more than from 1 to 2 per cent, arsenic, is subjected to the operation of ore-smelting, J as it contains silver and lead. The arsenious acid is sublimed in the same furnace. A charge consists of GOO kilograms, and it is sub¬ limed in six hours; whereby from So to 87 per cent, of the arsenic con¬ tained therein is obtained. It is sold in this state as arsenious acid. 123. Production of white arsenical glass .—The arsenical ores give but i a small amount of the material used for the manufacture of white arsen. > ical glass, and are neither fitted for the production of realgar nor metallic jj arsenic. They contain from IS to 20 per cent, lead and 12 per cent, arsenic. The greater part of the salable white arsenic is obtained from the fumes of the dust-roasting furnace, (Gersteuhofer's,) kilns, and long reverberatory |)j roastiug-furuaces, part of which contains 75 per cent, of arsenious acid. The fumes from the blast-furnaces, on the other hand, are too poor in arsenious acid to be used, and therefore are put through these furnaces < again. This is also done with the fumes which settle in the canals near the roasting-furnaces; they only coutaiu a small amount of arsenious acid, but a large amount of arseniate salts and arsenic acid. In that part of the canals farthest removed from the furnaces, the fumes are colored a light red by the easily volatilized selenium, and produce a yel¬ low glass, but after it has become hard and porcelain-like, by lying for some time, it loses its color. 124. White arsenical glass is arsenious acid which has been melted; Scheffel, a sack, a bushel. ARSENICAL PRODUCTS 53 it forms a homogeneous mass, has a vitreous luster, and is either trans¬ parent or milk-white. Its method of manufacture rests upon the fact that arsenious acid volatilizes before it fuses. The arsenious acid is heated in cast-iron pots, which are covered with sheet-iron hoods. The pots are 23 inches in diameter and 20 inches deep. The hoods are 6 feet 8 inches high ; the height of the cylindrical part is 3 feet 4 inches and 2 feet wide; the height of the conical-shaped part is 20 inches, and the upper width 6 inches. Connecting with the hood is a G-inch pipe, which passes into the condensation chambers. The pots stand from 60 to 70 charges.* Iron containing but little graphite has been found to be the most suitable, as that which contains much of this substance is not so durable, and also gives the arsenical glass a dark color. This is explained by the fact that the graphite reduces the arsenious acid to the suboxide. Five pots make a system, and there are two systems opposite each other There is one workman to each row of pots. 125. Manipulation.—At 6 o’clock in the morning the pots are charged with arsenious acid, the hoods placed in position and cemented air-tight on to the pots, and the fires are then started and kept up for six hours. Th e temperature must be so regulated that water sprinkled upon the lower part of the hood turns into vapor immediately, but should volatilize slowly when sprinkled on the upper part. In order to watch the progress of the operation the pipe connecting with the hood does not fit tightly, and the fumes can therefore be seen between it and the hood. The fumes ascend spirally when the process is progressing in the proper manner. After the operation is finished the hoods and pots are cleaned out. A charge con¬ sists of 150 kilograms of arsenious acid, seven-eighths of which is obtained as glass. The consumption of fuel amounts to ^ scheffel of bituminous coal per pot. The residues consist principally of the metals contained in the arsenical ores, from which the arsenious acid was obtained. They are sent to the blast-furnaces for reduction. 126. Production of oripiment .—The artificial sulphide of arsenic (oripi- meut) contains less sulphur than the natural. It is produced by the sub- limation of arsenious acid and sulphur. According to stoichiometrical proportions, to every 100 parts of arsenious acid there should be 73 parts of sulphur, but the artificial product receives a fine yellow color, when it contains much less sulphur than theory demands ; it is therefore pro¬ duced from 100 parts of arsenious acid and 1J parts of sulphur. Each pot is charged with 125 kilograms of arsenious acid and 2 kilograms of sulphur; seven-eighths of this amount is obtained as oripiment, one- eighth escaping into the condensatiou-chambers. The manipulation is the same as in the manufacture of the white glass. The sulphur is placed on the bottom of the pot, and over it the arsenious acid. Differ¬ ent shades of yellow are made as called for by the consumers; 2 per cent, sulphur produces the color generally desired. * Kast and Briiuning, in their paper entitled “ Mittlieilungen uber die Freiberg Hiittenpro- cesse,” say, ‘‘ that a pot will put through 150 charges before giving out.” The author- thinks that the numbers given in the text above are much nearer the truth. 54 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. 127. Production of realgar .—Pyritous slimes, consisting of' iron pyrites and arsenical pyrites, are operated upon for the manufacture of realgar. The different kinds of slimes are mixed with each other, so that the mix¬ ture contains about 15 per cent, arsenic and from 20 to 28 per cent, sul¬ phur. After the slimes have been perfectly dried, they are treated in sublimation-furnaces having twelve tubes. The color of the realgar must be of a certain shade. This can be produced by subliming arsenical pyrites and iron pyrites together, or with arsenic and sulphur,or arsenical pyrites and sulphur. When iron pyrites is heated without access of atmos¬ pheric air, it evolves from 15 to 18 per cent, sulphur; arsenical pyrites, 40 per cent, arsenic. In order, therefore, to produce 100 parts realgar, 170.4 parts of iron pyrites and 150.1 parts of arsenical pyrites must be brought together. In practice, however, equal parts of both are gener¬ ally taken. It has been experimented upou to manufacture this product from arsenious acid and sulphur, but it always turns out to be too rich in arsenious acid, which disqualifies it for many purposes. The method is also too expensive, as much of the sulphur becomes oxidized by the arsenious acid. 128. At the Muldener Iliitte pyritous ores are principally made use of; plumbiferous ores only when necessary. The latter destroy the clay tubes, as they agglomerate, and the lead oxidizes when they are opened, and combines with the silicic acid present. The sublimation is conducted in tubular sublimation-furnaces, of which there are eleven at the Muldener Works. Eight are employed for the production of realgar, and three are galley-furnaces, which are used for sublimating the realgar over again. Each of the former furnaces have twelve tubes. The tubes are 5 feet long, 9 inches wide, and three-fourths of an inch thick, and have an incline toward the condensers of 1.5 inch iu their length. They hold about 00 pounds of ore. The tubes must be capable of withstanding the effects of the fire and the weight of the charge. They are made of equal parts of clay aud a mixture of uu- burnt clay and dust of fire-brick. The material must be pulverized line to make the tubes dense. A piece of old tube is placed under each tube to protect them from the full effect of the Are. Each furnace is charged with 350 kilograms of ore and kept at a red heat for twelve hours. A furnace manipulates from GOO to 700 kilograms of ore per twenty-four hours, the consumption of fuel amounting from 450 to 5U0 kilograms of lignite. If the charge contains from 10 to 15 per cent, arsenic, from 38 to 05 kilograms of realgar are obtained. The glass¬ like realgar goes through a process of clarifying. That which has not formed glass is sublimed again in galley-furnaces. The galley-furnaces are also kept at a red heat, by which one scheffel of coal is consumed. After cooliug off, the condensers are removed aud the glass taken out. From a charge of 107 kilograms, 90 kilograms of realgar is produced, which is also clarified. The residues, which still contain a large per¬ centage of sulphur, are further treated for the manufacture of sul- ARSENICAL PRODUCTS. 55 phuric acid, after which they are delivered over to the ore-smelting operations. From the total amount of arsenic contained in the ores, about 86 or S7 per cent, is obtained as realgar. To every six furnaces there are four workmen, who make eight-hour shifts. j 129. Clarifying of the realgar .—The object of this manipulation is to give the glass a homogeneous texture, and to produce the exact shade of color by the addition of sulphur. A cast-iron pot is used for this purpose, which is 16 inches in diameter and 22 inches deep. About 125 kilograms of realgar compose a charge. From 6 to 9 kilograms of sulphur are added per 50 kilograms. From one to one and a half hours are necessary to clarify the above quantity. The amount produced is equal to 100 per cent., as the loss by volatilization is about equal to the amount of sul. phur afterward added. The realgar is melted in the pot, and any slag formed from the impurities of the glass is immediately removed. The workman distinguishes the color by taking out a sample. As soon as the operation is finished the molten mass is tapped off into sheet-iron A r essels, which are hermetically closed until the mass has cooled. The resulting realgar contains, on an average, 75 per cent, arsenic and 25 per cent, sulphur. 130. The sulphide of arsenic, produced by the purifyingof the sulphuric acid, is also treated for manufacturing realgar, but its treatment is accom¬ panied with considerable expense and labor. The precipitate must first be freed from acid, otherwise it would not be possible to dry it. To accom¬ plish this, the precipitate must be washed with water until it shows no acid reaction. The precipitate is then dried, and melted under pressure in closed iron retorts. This operation is necessary, because, if the finely divided sulphide of arsenic was charged into the tubes of the furnace and heated it would not produce a red glass. The mass taken from the retorts is partly treated in the galley-furnaces and partly in the tubular- furnaces, with arsenical ores and with the slag from the clarifying of the realgar. The galley-furnaces have thirteen tubes on each side. These are 24 inches long and 5 inches in diameter. With these small tubes it is possible to heat the charge gradually up to a higher temperature than can be done in the sublimation-furnaces. The resulting glass from the galley-furnaces is clarified in common with the raw glass from the sub¬ limation-furnaces. If the raw glass obtained from the precipitate of sulphide or arsenic were to be further manipulated by itself, the result¬ ing realgar would have a poor color. The sulphuric acid contains organic substances in solution, which are partially precipitated with the sulphide of arsenic. These substances give the glass a dark color, and would destroy the red color of the finished realgar if the latter were not principally obtained from the pure raw glass of the sublimated ore. It will be perceived from the foregoing that the treatment of the sul¬ phide of arsenic, obtained in purifying the sulphuric acid, is accompa¬ nied with many difficulties, and it seems to be doubtful whether this product can be treated to advantage for the manufacture of realgar. 56 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 131. Production of metallic arsenic .—This metal is produced from pure arsenical pyrites, or from ores that possess a large percentage of arsenic, (containing much native arsenic.) The average percentage of arsenic contained in the ores that are treated for this purpose amounts to about 35 per cent. They are delivered at the works in grape-size pieces, and charged into the tubes of the galley-furnaces for sublimation. The tubes are furnished with condensers of sheet- iron, in front of which there is a second of fire-clay, (remainder of old tubes.) The furnace is gradually heated, so that the easily volatil¬ ized sulphide of arsenic may sublimate over into the second condenser at a low temperature. After this has been effected, the temperature is increased until the more difficult volatilizable arsenic sublimes. This condenses in the first condenser, and is perfectly free from sulphide of arsenic and ready for market. The pipes are discharged after cool¬ ing off. A charge is composed of 300 kilograms of ore, and is subjected to a white heat for eight or twelve hours. The consumption of bituminous coal amounts to between 2 and 3 scheff'el, and about 25 kilograms of metallic arsenic are produced. The argentiferous residues are delivered ovef to the blast-furnaces for reduction. 132. Preparation of the blendic pyritous ores in reverbera¬ tory furnaces. —As has already been remarked, the zinc contained in the Freiberg ores is very troublesome to the smelting-operation in blast¬ furnaces. For that reason ores carrying from 15 to 30 per cent, zinc are paid less for than when they are free from this metal. Such ores as carry at least 30 per cent, zinc are designated as zinc-ores proper, and it is only these which receive payment for the blende. For this reason the mines are obliged to conduct the dressing of their ores in such a manner as to produce blendic ores payable for their zinc contents. The pyritous slimes, containing between 15 and 30 per cent, zinc, are pre¬ pared, previous to smelting in shaft-furnaces, in a peculiar manner, so that their arsenic and sulphur can be used to advantage, and zinc driven off as far as possible. These ores are first roasted in Gerstenhofer fur¬ naces, whereby arsenious acid is disengaged and collected in condeusa- tion-ehambers, and the sulphurous acid is conducted into the sulphuric- acid chambers. The ore, after roasting in these furnaces, still contains about 13 per cent, sulphur, and for this reason is further roasted in long reverberatory furnaces. As the further manipulation rests upon the fact that almost all the sulphide of zinc is converted into oxide of zinc, the operation of roasting must therefore be carefully conducted, and as the slimes do not agglomerate, they can be so roasted that they will only contain 1.5 per cent, sulphur. The ores thus prepared are mixed with muffle-residues from the zinc-works, and coke-dust, charged into a reverberatory furnace, and smelted down with a strong fire. The ma¬ nipulation is very similar to that of the concentration of the copper- matte. The reverberatory furnaces are in connection with extensive i I REDUCTION OF ZINC-ORES. 57 condensation-chambers. The oxide of zinc is reduced in the furnace by means of the coke-dust, the zinc volatilizes, and is again oxidized, and passes off with the other gases into the condensation-apparatus. In this manner zinc-fumes are obtained, which are sold as paint-—“zinc- gray.” The fumes which settle in the canal, near the furnace, contain a large quantity of sulphate of zinc. This is dissolved out, and the resi¬ dues are put back again into the furnace. The mass remaining in the furnace still contains about 10 per cent, zinc, but as its bulk has been much diminished by the separation of the sulphur and arsenic, it is probable that the greater part of the zinc formerly contained in the ore has been volatilized. Five charges per 1,720 kilograms of ore and resi¬ dues are put through one furnace daily with 2,000 kilograms of coke- dust. In the manipulation of this amount 4,000 kilograms of bitumin¬ ous coal are consumed. The flue of the furnace must be cleaned out at short intervals. All fumes which are not sold as zinc-gray are delivered over to the zinc-works for distillation. 133. The products of this operation are as follows : a. Dezinckified residues : They contain from 0.01 to 0.015 per ceut.= 2oz. lSdwt. 4.8gr.to4oz. 7 dwt.S.64gr. silver and about lOpercent. zinc; are equal in amount to about 50 per cent of the charge, and are further treated in the operation of slag-smelting. b. Speiss : It contains 0.2 per cent.=58 oz. 6dwt. silver, 2 per cent, lead, and 10 per cent, copper. It composes about 4 per cent, of the whole charge, and is further treated in the operation of ore-smelting. c. Silver-lead: Contains from 1.0 to 1.3 per cent. = 291 oz. to 378 oz. 8 dwt. 14 gr. silver, and .is equal to about 0.16 per cent, of the whole charge. d. Fumes: Assaying 0.005 per cent. = l oz. 9 dwt. 3.84 gr. silver, 10 per cent, lead, 24 per cent, zinc, and containing 13 per cent, sulphuric acid ; they amount to about 10 per ceut. of the dharge, and are generally de¬ livered to the zinc-works. 134. Without going into the details of the cost of this operation, one will very easily perceive that the preparation of the zinc-ores in this manner is a very complicated and expensive process, and that the value of the products thereby produced can scarcely cover the expenses. The advantages of this method cannot be computed in money; they are not unimportant, however, as it is the intention of the officers at the works to treat in future zinc-ores in this manner which only carry 12 per cent, of the metal. 135. Production of metallic zinc .—The average percentage of zinc in the zinc-ores treated amounts to about 31.79 percent. The ores are first roasted in kilns for the production of sulphuric acid, and then further roasted in long reverberatory furnaces, until they contain but from 0.3 to 0.5 per cent, sulphur. There are two Siemens regenerative furnaces for the reduction and distillation of the zinc contained in the roasted ores- There are also two gas-generators to each furnace, which supply them with the necessary combustible gases. The generators are simple shaft- 58 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Each of these diagrams shows a very considerable fluctuation of pro¬ duction from year to year, but, on the average, a constant increase, highly encouraging to the industry of iron. Fig. 49.—Production of bar-iton, Prussia, 1837 to 1871. 59 borsig’s exhibit. 43. The German trade in iron and steel, and manufactures from them, is very considerable, as shown by the customs returns for the year 1871, giving, as below, the imports and the exports: Imported. Exported. Owt. 11, 849, 410 1, 418, 809 2,017,511 93 731 Cwt. 4, 137, 844 1,212, 885 2, 553, 908 161 349 W rought iron..... Railroad-iron.. Steel........ Iron and steel wire..... 36, 360 765, 981 161 127 1, 225 188 Wrought-iron pipe..... 138, 011 119, 432 496, 231 323, 557 58 289 Heavy castings . 437| 505 597, 840 70, 105 12, 160 76,134 Sheet-iron and steel-plate. Tin-plate.........• _.. Fine iron ware. 22, 558 Nails, needles, steel pens, . Itich lead, containing from 1.50 to 1.S0 per cent. = 436 oz. 16 dwt. to 524 oz. 6 dwt. silver. It is cupelled. WORKING SILVER-LEAD. 71 c. Poor lead, (soft lead,) containing from 0.001 to 0.0018 =5 dwt. 19.08 gr. to 10 dwt. 11.66 gr. silver, 0.05 per cent, copper, 0.12 to 0.15 per cent, iron, and a trace of arsenic and antimony. 166. Cupellation of the silver-lead .—The foundation consists of gneiss, and projects 2 feet above the floor of the cupellation-house; it is provided with two canals that cross each other at right angles in the center, which serve to carry off any moisture that may collect in the foundation. The foundation supports the main crown of the furnace, which is built of sand¬ stone or bricks, and is well anchored. In this main crown there are num¬ erous small holes which lead in toward the center of the furnace ; they serve as escapes for moisture. Upon the main crown there is a second smaller one built of brick, and in it are the litharge passage and charging- door. The litharge flows out of the former as fast as it forms. It is near the fire-place, so that the higher temperature at that place may as¬ sist to keep the litharge in a fluid state. The litharge-passage is lined with iron plates, and underneath is the iron breast-plate of the hearth. The cupellation-hearth is composed of, first, a layer of finely-crushed slag; second, a layer of fire-bricks, or a composition of quartz and clay, scooped out so as to form a concave surface; and, third, the cupellation-hearth proper, consisting of infusible marl. The hearth is covered by a mov¬ able hood of iron. The lower surface of this hood is lined with a com¬ position consisting of two parts of quartz and one part of clay. This iron hood is hung on a revolvable crane, and can be swung away from over the hearth, so that the workmen can stamp on the hearth. In order to effect a good draught, there are sheet-iron chimneys over the litharge-passage and charging-door, which also serve to carry off the lead-fumes into the condensation-chambers. On the side opposite the litharge-passage there are two tuyeres which supply the furnace with the necessary blast for oxidation. The tuyeres are placed horizontal, but converge toward the center of the hearth. Opposite the charging* door is the fire-box, separated from the hearth by a fire-bridge, which is covered by an arch of fire-bricks. The blast escapes from nozzles in the tuyeres, which connect with the main blast-pipe by means of leather hose. These nozzles can be inclined so that the blast will strike the surface of the lead, which is not always on the same level, throughout the operation. 167. The hearth of this furnace is made of calcareous marl, which is principally composed of carbonate of lime and silicate of alumina. For the preparation of this marl, 8 cwt. of fresh and 1 cwt. of already - used marl is employed, and also ^ cwt. of clay. All this material is well mixed together until it possesses consistency; the marl and clay are finely pulverized, sieved, and moistened with water, so that the mass will ball in the hand without leaving moisture on thesame. This mixture must be infusible, should not act as a reducing agent on lead-oxide, and must possess acertain porosity. This mixture is stamped uponthe hearth in the following manner: The necessary amount of the composition is 72 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. placed in tbe furnace and stamped upon the hearth in such a manner as to form a concave surface. For the purpose of collecting' the re¬ maining amount of plumbiferous silver, which also contains bismuth, the deepest point of the hearth is made near the charging-door, so that it may be ladled out into cast-iron molds, when the operation is finished. 168. After the test has been properly stamped on the hearth of the furnace, the silver-lead to be cupelled is placed within the furnace, without any previous heating of the hearth; the lead is placed care¬ fully upon the hearth with the hand ; the hood is swung back from the furnace during this operation, also while the hearth is being stamped in; the hood is swung back again over the hearth when 8,750 kilograms of silver-lead have been charged, and all crevices between the same and the furnace are then stuffed with loam. 169. Manipulation.—Wood is now placed upon the lead and set on fire; a small wood-fire is also kept up in the fire-place until the lead has become melted. It takes from twenty to twenty-four hours to melt down the entire charge. The moisture in the test now escapes through the holes in the main crown of the furnace. If the fire should be too strong, there is danger of cracks forming in the hearth, in which case it would have to be renewed. During the melting-down of the lead charge a slight pressure of blast is allowed to enter the furnace, in order to support the combustion of the wood. Sheet-iron hoods are placed over the litharge-passage and charging-doors; these hoods connect with sheet-iron pipes which conduct the lead-fumes into the condensation- chambers. The lire and blast are now increased. The fuel used gen¬ erally consists of wood, bituminous coal, and lignite; the two latter can only be employed when blast is conducted through pipes into the ash¬ pit; otherwise there would not be sufficient draught to support com¬ bustion. The remainder of the silver lead is charged as fast as the quantity in the furnace is decreased by the withdrawal of litharge. The pigs of lead are laid in the charging-door and allowed to fuse slowly. From ninety to ninety-six hours are necessary in cupelling 25,000 kilograms of silver-lead, and the consumption of fuel amounts to 40 scheffel of lignite, 5 scheffel of small bituminous coal, and 1.25 klaf- ter of wood. 170. Products: a. A dross ( = 120 kilograms) called abzug , is that which first forms during the fusing, and is composed of the unmelted impurities of the lead. It is removed from the surface of the lead by means of a piece of wood fastened to an iron rod. Only a small quan¬ tity of abstrich is found. b. Yellow litharge: It is tolerably pure oxide of lead, and contains from 0.04 to 0.06 per cent. = 11 oz. 13 dwt. 4.8 gr. to 17 oz. 9 dwt. 19.2 gr. silver. It is delivered over to the Stolberg shaft-furnaces for reduction. c. Eed litharge : It contains less silver than the yellow variety, and is formed ou the interior of large masses after cooling off. It is separated WORKING SILVER-LEAD. 73 from the yellow litharge by sifting, and sold, as it contaius too small a quantity of silver to be reduced with profit. d. Litharge containing bismuth: It is formed toward the close of the operation, as the bismuth oxidizes later than the lead. This litharge is reduced separately. The resulting silver-lead is also separately cupelled. Ores and products containing bismuth, also the residues from the oper¬ ation of bismuth extraction, as well as a part of the cupellatiou-hearth, which is situated directly under the spot where the rich argentiferous lead collects toward the close of the process, are also reduced with the bismuth litharge. From 250 to 500 kilograms of bismuth litharge are produced in every cupellation. e. “Scheide” litharge : This is that which collects and congeals on the sides of the litharge-canal. It is removed from time to time. From 250 to 400 kilograms of this variety are produced during a cupellation, and it is reduced in conjunction with the yellow litharge, as its chemical composition is the same. 171. Manner in which the products are removed from the furnace .—The litharge flows off from the surface of the molten lead through a small canal made in the side of the marl hearth, in the litharge-passage near the fire-bridge. This canal is made with a saw, and at first on the side of the litharge-passage nearest the fire-place. Tbe litharge, after flowing through this canal, flows into a receptacle of sheet-iron and there forms pieces weighing from 750 toSOO kilograms. When this receptacle has be¬ come full, it is taken away from the furnace and the litharge dumped out. The canal must be constantly kept open by means of a hooked piece of iron, otherwise it would soon become stopped up with congealed lith¬ arge. If the iron receptacle for the litharge has been filled three times from the same canal, tbe canal is closed with a little moist marl, and lead is charged into the furnace through the charging-door, until the surface of the molten charge again reaches to the level of the breast- wall in the litharge-passage. The lead which is to be added to that already in the furnace, is placed upon the edge of the charging-door, where it gradually melts and flows down on the hearth. This second addition of lead allows of the cupellation of large quantities upon the same hearth, and is accompanied by a large saving of fuel, and other material. In this manner it is possible to cupel 20,000 kilograms of lead more, after the first 8,500 kilograms have been placed in the furnace. When the hearth has become full again, a new channel is made near the old one for the escape of the litharge; the receptacle for the litharge is filled three times from this channel and is then closed ; more lead is added to the charge and a new chaunel made with the saw. 172. In this manner each channel can be used at least three separate times. When the receptacle for the litharge has been filled about twen¬ ty-seven times the process is finished. As the surface of the lead sinks lower and lower, the blast-nozzles, of course, must be so directed that the blast will strike the surface of the charge. Formerly the process 74 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. was continued until the brightening- of the silver, but at present it is only driven until the lead contains about GO per cent, silver, and a greater portion of the bismuth contained in the silver-lead. The cupel- man must be able to distinguish when this period takes place by the height of the metallic bath in the furnace. The blast is turned off, the hood over the hearth swung back on its crane, and the plumbiferous silver is ladled out as completely as possible into iron molds. That remaining on the hearth is cooled off with water, and then pried out with crow-bars. 173. The reason for not cupelling the silver until it brightens is, that the bismuth, which is concentrated in the silver-lead alloy, can only be prevented from volatilizing when the oxide formed is immediately ab¬ sorbed by the hearth. This, however, is not possible, as the hearth is already saturated with litharge; consequently the cupellation is inter¬ rupted at the point stated, and the further cupellation is conducted upon a new test and in a smaller furnace. Fuel is also saved in not bright¬ ening in the large cupellation-furnace, as toward the end a very strong fire would have to be kept up, and as the furnace is large and the amount of alloy on the hearth would be very small in comparison, there would be a great waste of heat. The resulting silver-lead alloy amounts to about GOO to 700 kilograms, which is further manipulated in the silver¬ refining furnace. 171. The hearth, which is saturated with litharge for .3 to 4 inches deep, is easily broken off and removed from the underlying marl, as it breaks off in conchoidal pieces and easily falls to powder. That part of the rest which is saturated with litharge is delivered over to the matte-smelting operation for further treatment, and the remainder is used over again in making a new hearth. That part, however, which was immediately under the silver-lead alloy toward the close of the operation, and containing bismuth, is reduced by itself. 173. Silrcr rcfuiinp .—This operation is simply the continuation of the foregoing, whereby the silver is forced from the oxidizable metals with which it is alloyed as it comes from the cupellation-furnace. The operation is continued until the silver possesses a fineness of The furnace em¬ ployed for this operation is a small reverberatory furnace, similar to an English reverberatory furnace, only that it is of much smaller dimen¬ sions, has two small tuyeres, one on each side of the fire-bridge, and, instead of a stationary arch over the hearth, it has a movable hood. The hearth is composed of the same material as that of the cupellation- furnaees. It is stamped in on the bottom of the furnace. The bottom of the furnace is composed of pulverized fire-brick, tightly stamped. In the center of the hearth a small hollow is made for collecting the silver. As soon as the hearth has been stamped in, the hood is placed over the furnace and all crevices between it and the furnace are stuffed with loam. The hearth is now carefully heated by a fire built in the fire-place, which is gradually increased. This is necessary because there WORKING SILVER-LEAD. 75 are no canals in the foundation of the furnace for leading off the moisture. After three or four hours, when the hearth appears red-hot, the silver- lead alloy is charged into the furnace and the fire increased. 176. Manipulation.-—When the silver-lead alloy has become melted, (in about an hour,) a slight pressure of blast is turned on in order to oxidize the lead and bismuth. A small channel is now made on the edge of the working-door in the side of the hearth for the escape of the litharge. A large amount of the lead and bismuth oxides formed ‘ are now absorbed into the test. After several hours, the amount of litharge formed begins to decrease, the litharge-channel is closed, and marl is strewn over the surface of the metal to absorb the oxides. This is removed from time to time and fresh quantities added until the close of the operation. In order to judge when the operation has been carried far enough, a tool is held over and close to the surface of the molten metal;- if its image is distinctly reflected therein, the silver has reached the fineness wished. x\. sample taken out should also show but few yellow spots. Perhaps the best method of determining this point is to take a small sample in a ladle* and allow it to cool off. If, on cooling, it should sprout, the process of refining is finished. The molten silver is granulated and then delivered over to the gold-separating works. 177. Granulation of the silver .—The melted silver is ladled out of the silver-refining furnace into a copper vessel filled with water, the vessel being swung around at the same time by a workman. The silver is hereby separated into granules, which are dissolvable in sulphuric acid of 66° Baume. The W'ater in the copper vessel must be often renewed, as it soon becomes warm. The granulated silver is dried in a drying-furnace. 178. The length of the refining operation depends upon the quality and quantity of silver-lead alloy treated, also the amount of fuel consumed in the operation. In order to refine from 500 to 700 kilograms of silver- lead alloy, as it comes from the cupellation-furnaces, ten to twelve hours are necessary, and 8 to 9 scheffel of bituminous coal are consumed. Two workmen are employed, a refiner and his assistant. 179. Products : a. Befined auriferous silver, containing 0.3 per cent.= 87 oz. 8 dwt. 14 gr. gold per ton, 99 per cent, silver, and traces of copper, lead, and bismuth. b. Bich bismuth litharge. It is delivered over to the bismuth-extrac¬ tion works. Dross and test. They are both rich in bismuth, and are also delivered over to the bismuth-extraction works. 180. The liquation of Pattinson dross .—By this operation is to be under¬ stood the gradual melting-down of the dross in reverberatory furnaces, which is formed on the surface of the silver-lead in Pattinson kettles, so that the lead will settle down on the hearth of the furnace and the dross remain back unmelted. Manipulation.—The dross is charged into the furnace with the charg- 76 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. ing-spade, and flue bituminous coal is added as a reducing agent. The lead is then melted out at a very low temperature, so that none of the dross may be fused. The lead, carrying with it the greater part of the silver, flows down and collects at the lowest point of the hearth. Another portion of dross is now charged into the furnace with small broken coal, after the liquated dross has been removed from the furnace. The operation is conducted in this manner uutil the hearth is filled with liquated lead. The lead is tapped ofl' every twenty-four hours. From six to seven scheffel of hard slate-coal and four scheftel of small coal are consumed in twenty-four hours by this manipulation. 181. Product: a. Liquated lead, which is delivered over to the Pat- tinson works for desilverization. b. Dross: It is delivered over to the operation of ore smelting for the purpose of reduction. 182. Reduction of litharge .—This operation consists of a reducing smelting of the litharge in a Stolberg blast furnace, whereby metallic lead and slag are the resulting products. The litharge is broken up into pieces about as large as a man's fist, and delivered at the charging- hole of the furnace, where it is fluxed with fluor-spar, lead-slag, and coke; the latter serves as a reducing agent and fuel at the sarne.time. 18.'!. A Stolberg furnace puts through in twenty-four hours from 3,500 to 1,000 kilograms of litharge, with 350 to 400 kilograms of fluor-spar and 3,500 to 4,000 kilograms of lead-slag, with a consumption of 2,500 kilo¬ grams of coke. To every ten trays of litharge ten trays of slag and four baskets (one basket equal about four volumes of a tray) of coke are charged into the furnace and equally distributed throughout the shaft. The reduction of the litharge takes place very rapidly, and the lead must be tapped oil very often. Seven men are employed at the furnace, namely, one smelter, two chargers, one slag runner, two lead-ladlers, and one assistant. The operation is conducted with a dark charging-hole and a strong pressure of blast. 181. Products: a. Lead, which is delivered over to the Pattiusou works for desilverization, without being previously refined. b. Slag, containing up to 15 per cent. lead. It is principally used as a flux in the ore-smelting and various matte-smelting operations when the furnaces are smelting too rapidly. 185. Manipulation of speiss. —The object of thisoperation is the par¬ tial desilverization of the speiss and the concentration of the nickel and cobalt. Speiss from the lead-matte and matte-concentration operations, and that produced by the preparatory manipulation of the blendic ores for the lead-smelting, are treated by this operation. The speiss gener¬ ally adheres to the bottom of copper and lead matte, aud must be separated from it, after which it is crushed and then roasted. After the roasting the speiss is principally composed of sulphates of the metallic oxides and uncombiued oxides. The roasted speiss is smelted with baryte, copper-slags, copper-ores, lead-slags, litharge, and lead- WORKING SILVER-LEAD. 77 \ [ l' i l ?1 t|| ' ! I j I * ! scraps poor in silver. The iron is slagged off', and the other metallic oxides and metals form a rich matte, while the cobalt and nickel form a speiss; silver-lead is also produced, which contains most of the silver in the charge. The amount daily smelted is composed as follows: Kilograms. Eoasted speiss..... 5, 000 Baryte. 750 Lead-slag. 100 Quartz. 300 Litharge. 5,000 Total... ... .. 11,150 From five to six smeltings are necessary to desilverize the speiss. 1S6. Products: a. Speiss, with 0.25 per cent. = 7 oz. 5 dwt. 18.24 gr. silver, 17 per cent, copper, 2 per cent, cobalt, 20 per cent, nickel, and 4 per cent. lead. It is sold at Aberschlema. Copper-matte, which goes to the matte-smelting operations. 1). Silver-lead, which is delivered over to the refining-works. Poor slag, which goes to the slag-dump. 187. Smelting of the roasted matte .—The smelting of the roasted matte generally takes place at the end of a lead-ore-smelting campaign, or when large quantities of lead-matte have accumulated. This operation has for its object the diminishment of the lead and silver contents of the matte and the concentration of its copper. The matte to be treated is crushed and then thoroughly roasted in long reverberatory roasting-furnaces, or broken up into pieces of about the size of a walnut and roasted in kilns or roasting-stalls. In preparing the smelt¬ ing-charge no definite proportion is adhered to between the ore and the products to be smelted. As clean slags are produced in this operation, they are employed in smelting over slags that receive a second treat¬ ment; such slags are produced in smelting the roasted lead-ores, and the roasted lead-matte takes the place of the pyritous ores, which are charged into the blast-furnaces for the purpose of forming a matte in the slag-smelting. The roasted lead-matte is smelted with an equal amount of raw lead-matte and an addition of plumbiferous products, sweep¬ ings, and residues from the zinc and arsenic works. Such a smelting- charge is composed of— Cwt. Eaw lead-matte. 90 Eefiuing dross. 00 Zinc residues.. 8 Iron residues. -. 8 Eich lead-slag. 40 Such a charge, of course, smelts very rapidly, as it is composed of products which have already passed through smelting operations. 187. The following are the products of this manipulation : 78 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. a. Slag, which goes to the slag dump, as it only contains from 0.0015 to 0.002 per cent.—8 dwt. 10.00 gr. to 11 dwt. 15.84 gr. silver, and 1 to 2 per cent. lead. b. Lead-matte, which is crushed and roasted in furnaces or broken up into pieces and roasted in kilns, or stalls, and resmelted for the purpose of the further concentration of the copper, after which it is called cop¬ per-matte. c. Silver-lead, which, after undergoing a process of refining, is deliv¬ ered over to the Pattinson works for desilverization. 189. The manipulations in this operation are the same as those de¬ scribed under the head of u lead-ore smelting.” This operation is very effective in cleaning the furnaces of all accretions which may have been formed during previous operations, and thus makes the work of clean¬ ing out the furnaces much easier. Especially all accretions which may have formed in the bottom of the furnaces are effectually removed. For this reason, the operation is always carried out at the end of the lead- ore-smelting campaign, or when a furnace has become partially stopped ui>. 190. ItKSMELTING OF THE LEAD SLAGS IN BLAST-FURNACES.—The SO / • called Freiberg slag-smelting is in reality a combined slag and matte smelting. The object of this operation is the concentration of the small amounts of silver, lead, and copper contained in various metallurgical products in a matte resulting from the smelting of poor argentiferous pyritous ores, after a previous roasting. The operation is conducted in blast furnaces; formerly, however, only in reverberatory furnaces. In¬ stead of the roasted pyritous ores, roasted lead-matte is now principally made use of in fluxing. The operation is generally conducted in the Pilz furnaces. .V double purpose is effected by the operation of slag- smelting, namely, the extraction of lead and silver from the slag and the concentration of the matte. 391. The composition of the smelting charge is naturally change¬ able. It is customary to resmelt the lead-matte resulting from the ore- smelting (containing about 15 per cent, copper) as often with the opera¬ tion of slag-smelting as is necessary to increase its amount of copper to within 23 per cent. The following is the composition of a slag-smelting charge: Muldener Works. Kilograms. Slag from ore-smelting. 100.0 Copper-slag . 4. 0 Kaw copper matte. 2.3 Lead-matte roasted in kilns . 4.3 Lead-matte roasted in kilns and a second time iu stalls. 8.4 Lump pyrites, roasted in kilns. 9. 0 Speiss from the deziuckification process. 1-0 Dezinckiug residues. 1.9 WORKING LEAD-SLAGS. 79 Limestone. Fluor-spar.. Refiniug dross, test, abstrich, &c Kilograms. 2.0 2 . 0 Ralsbriiclcner Works. Slag from ore-smelting.... 100. 0 Copper-slag. 15.0 Raw copper-matte... 1. 8 Roasted lead-matte. 21.0 “ Stockeln ” . 4.0 Argentiferous copper... . 1.1 Refining dross, &c..„. 5. 8 As will be seen from the above, several products carrying a large per¬ centage of sulphur help to compose the charge; for instance, raw-matte and lead-matte. The reason of this is the same as by the ore-smelting— it is for the purpose of dissolving the zinc. 192. The manipulation of the furnaces with eight tuyeres is the same as described by the smelting of ore. The pressure of blast is also the same. About 50,000 kilograms are smelted per day. One kilogram coke smelts 10 kilograms of charge, less, therefore, than by the ore-smelting. The slag produced is quite basic. The author is unable to give com¬ plete analyses, but the following will show the principal ingredients. They are taken from the work of Kast & Briiuning: Slag from Muklener Works. Si 0 2 . . 29.7 Zn O. . 8.5 PbO _ . 2.5 Ag.. . 0.0025 Slag from Halsbriickeuer Works. Si o 2 .. . .34.01 Zn O. . 7.6 Pb O. . 1.0 Ag.. . 0. 0015 193. The products of this manipulation are : a. Slag, which goes to the dump, as it only contains 0.0025 to 0.002 per cent. = 8 dwt. 17.06 gr. to 11 dwt. 15.84 gr. silver, and from 1 to 2 per cent. lead. Copper-lead-matte, with 17 to 25 per cent, copper, which is again smelted. b. Silver-lead, containing from 0.6 per cent, to 0.7 per cent. = 174 oz. 19 dwt. to 204 oz., 2 dwt. silver, which, after being liquated and refined, goes to the Pattinson process. 194. Second smelting of matte .—The object of this operation is the resmelting of the lead-matte which has been roasted in kilns or stalls. Silver ores rich in copper are also often treated in this operation, after undergoing a previous roasting, when deemed necessary. The results aimed at by this manipulation are the concentration of the lead sulphide, iron protosulphide, &c., contained in the roasted matte and ores, with the copper sulphide, into a product called copper-matte, and at the same time to reduce the lead and silver and slag off the iron to within a cer- 80 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. tain degree. The roasted lead-matte is smelted with rich slag from the ore-smelting and with slag from the operations of litharge and lead-dross reduction. This produces a thick flowing slag. Cupellation test and copper scraps are also generally added to the charge. This operation effects the further concentration of the copper in the remaining concen¬ trated matte, and a partial extraction of its lead and silver, of which it contains but a small quantity. Special care must be taken in roasting the copper-matte, as it fuses much more easily even than the lead-matte, ft should be mentioned here that the copper-matte is repeatedly added to the matte-slag-smelting until the matte contains about 23 percent, copper. 193. The following will serve to show the composition of a charge for the second matte-smelting: Kilograms. Unroasted copper lead-matte. 100 Boasted pyritous silver-ores.. 400 Copper slimes, made into balls with solution containing copper- vitriol . 400 Slag from copper-matte concentration. 400 Sla£ from ore-smelting. 3, 333 196. The production, besides silver-lead, which is liquated, refined, and then desilverized by the Pattinson process, are, concentrated matte, con¬ taining 0.13 per cent. = 43 oz. 13 dwt. 14.40 grs. silver, 13 per cent, lead, and 30 to 42 per cent, copper. The slag is so poor that it under¬ goes no further treatment. Speiss is very often produced ; also, plumbif- erous black copper, carrying arsenic, lead, and antimony. The black copper is either smelted over with the slag-litharge reduction, raw copper-matte, raw copper-ore, and silver-lead, or is added to the matte- smelting charge. 197. The following will serve to show the changes which the matte- undergoes during its three operations of concentration : 1st. The matte contains 0.23 per cent. = 72 oz. 17 dwt. 14.4 grs. silver, 13 per cent, lead, and 6 to 12 per cent, copper. • 2d. The matte contains 0.23 per cent. = 69 oz. 0 dwt. 19.2 grs. silver, 21 per cent, lead, and 20 to 23 per cent, copper. 3d. The matte contains 0.17 per cent. = 49 oz. 10 dwt. 4.8 gr. silver, 13 per cent, lead, and 33 to 44 per cent, copper. An analysis of the 3d, or concentrated, copper-matte, made in Clausthal, of matte from the operation of May, 1870, shows the follow¬ ing composition : Per cent. Copper.-. 32. 9 Silver. 0. 25 Lead. 15-0 Iron. 19. 5 Sulphur.. 23. 8 ROASTING COPPER-MATTE. 81 198. Roasting of the concentrated copper-matte .—The copper-matte, con¬ taining on an average 40 per cent, of metallic copper, is finely crashed, and so roasted in long reverberatory furnaces that it only contains about 5 per cent, of sulphur. This is accurately observed, for the roasting must not be conducted too far, otherwise there would be a lack of sulphur in concentrating the matte in reverberatory furnaces, to form with the copper a disulphide; and also, on the other hand, it must be carried far enough, in order that the protosulphide of iron be converted into sesqui- oxide of iron as completely as possible, so that it may be slagged off. For the last-mentioned reason, the roasting 3 is carried a little too far, thus not leaving sufficient sulphur to form a disulphide with all the copper, but during the following concentration, substances containing sulphur are added in sufficient quantities to make up the deficiency. The material used for this purpose is raw-copper-matte. 199. As the concentrated matte fuses very easily, on account of its high percentage of copper, it cannot well be roasted in kilns or shaft- furnaces, and, consequently, cannot be employed for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. Formerly it was roasted in muffle-furnaces; but at present a small reverberatory furnace with double hearth is employed for this purpose. Any small reverberatory furnace could, however, be made to fulfill the same purpose. The furnace is continually charged every three hours with 10 to 14 cwt. of concentrated matte, and about 80 to 110 cwt. can be roasted daily. The temperature is always kept at a lower degree than in the roasting of ores or other metallurgical products. The consumption of fuel per 1 cwt. of copper-matte amounts to 30 or 36 cwt. of bituminous coal, of poor quality, which contains from 20 to 25 per cent. ash. The cost of roasting 100 cwt. of matte in 1869 was as follows: * Thaler. Sgr. Pf. Wages, including transportation,.. 5 25 10 Fuel.-.. 4 16 5 Repair of furnace and tools. 4 19 1 Total.. 15 1 4 The cost of crushing 100 cwt. of the matte amounted to 37 thaler. 200. After the matte has been roasted, its principal ingredients are oxide of copper, basic sulphate of copper, basic sulphate of the sesqui- oxide of iron, metallic silver, sulphate of silver, sulphate of lead, oxide of zinc, oxide of nickel, oxide of cobalt, and some arseniates and anti- moniates. 201. Concentration of the concentrated matte in reverberatory furnaces .— The construction of the reverberatory furnace is as follows: The foundation of the furnace is either composed of bricks or broken gneiss ; the surrounding walls, however, of bricks. It has two principal parts, namely, the fire-box and the smelting hearth. The former consists of a * A thaler = 30 silbergroschen ; one silbergroschen = 12 pfennige. A thaler = 71 cents gold. 6 M 82 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. wind-furnace and au ash-pit, separated from each other by the grate. The smelting-hearth is separated from the fire-place by the fire-bridge; opposite the fire-bridge, and in the arch over the hearth, is situated the flue opening, connecting with a chimney by means of au inclined flue. Iron plates form the lowest part of the hearth, these resting upon pillars below the floor of the furnace-house. These pillars are generally built of well-burnt brick. On top of the iron plates there is a layer of bricks, and on this comes the smelting-hearth, which is composed of five parts of finely-crushed quartz and one part of slag. The hearth is oval and concave, and has a slight incline toward the tap-hole. It is spanned by an arch, which at the same time covers the fire-place. In the center of this arch is a charging-hole. The fire-bridge is composed of a mixture of unburnt fire clay and dust of fire-bricks, (chamotte,) and rests upon an iron plate. Passing through it is au air-canal, which serves to keep it cool. On either of the longer sides of the furnace are two openings, (generally kept bricked up,) through which a man can pass into the fur¬ nace, in order to make repairs when necessary. The fire-place is fur¬ nished with a charging-door; opposite the fire-bridge is a working-door undpr the flue, which can be opened and closed by means of a fire-clay slab attached to a lover. In front of the working-door there is a hori¬ zontal bar, upon which the heavy furnace implements can rest when not in use. The tap-hole is on the side opposite to the fire-place door. All parts of the furnace which come in contact with the flames are con¬ structed of fire-clay bricks. The furnace and chimney are well anchored. Behind the anchor-rods are cast-iron plates. The flue connects with a flue-shaft, the gases passing through this flue into condensation-cham¬ bers or directly into the chimney. This grate is -1 feet square, and has thirteen wrought-iron bars 1 feet long and 2 inches square. The ash-pit is feet 6 inches high. The fire-door is Id inches wide on the outside and •1 inches on the inside; on the outside 18 inches high and 14 inches on the inside. It is lined with thin iron plates. The fire-bridge is 4 feet long, 2 feet 0 inches wide, and 12 inches high above the hearth; above the grate, 3 feet 2 inches high. The length of the hearth, from the fire¬ bridge up to the wall of the working-door opposite to it, is 13 feet; the greatest width is 8 feet; at the fire-bridge it is 4 feet wide, and under the tine-opening only 1 foot 2 inches. Its greatest depth near the tap- hole is Id inches. The flue-opening in the arch over the hearth has the shape of a trapezium, and is 12 inches wide, 2 feet 8 inches long at the back, and 2 feet 4 inches in front. The height of the flue at this point is 1 foot G inches, measured at right angles to its incline. The section of the flue-canal where it opens iuto the chimney measures 22 inches in width and 2 feet 6 inches high. The chimney is 60 feet high, and con¬ sists of an outside wall and lining, and is 2 feet 4 inches wide, inside measurement. The stone supporting pillars, generally ten in number, are in horizontal section 12 inches square, aud are 2 feet 6 inches high. The iron plates composing the lower part of the hearth are 2 inches MELTING ON THE HEARTH. 83 thick, 2 feet wide, and vary in length according to the shape of the hearth. The air-slit in the tire-bridge is 3 inches wide and 16 inches high. The tap-hole has a diameter of 8 inches in the interior of the furnace, and on the exterior of 3 inches. The arch over the hearth is 12 inches thick; the charging-hole in the arch measures 12 inches square. The layer of bricks resting on the hearth-plates is 6 inches thick, and the layer above, of melted quartz and slag, is 12 inches thick. 202. Melting on the hearth .—The proper conduction of this operation is I as important as it is difficult. The material used is a mixture of five parts of finely-crushed, burnt, and sieved quartz and one part of raw | slag, which has been treated similarly to the quartz. After these mate¬ rials have been carefully mixed, about 50 cwt.* of the mixture is charged upon the hearth of the furnace and evenly spread out. It is then brought to a red-heat and well raked until all moisture has been removed. Then begins the forming of the hearth with the u forming- ladle;” this accomplished, the furnace is closed on all sides, and all crevices between the doors and walls are luted with fire-clay; the fur¬ nace is then fired up as strongly as possible. After twelve hours of continual firing, during which time the hearth-material has become pasty, and appears glazed on the surface, the furnace is opened and the hearth examined, in order to discover if any cracks have formed in the layer. If such is the case, the hearth-material must be drawn out of the furnace and the operation performed over again. Twenty more hundred-weight of slag are now melted on the hearth, in order to give it greater durability, and after it has been drawn out through the work¬ ing-doors into the sand-beds, the actual operation of matte-concentra¬ tion begins. A hearth prepared in this manner will generally last from one and a quarter to one and a half years. The life of the arch over the hearth is about one and a half to two years. The slag-beds in front of the working-doors are composed of a layer of moistened sand and coal-ashes. In front of the tap-hole and along the entire length of the furnace are a number of cast-iron pans having the shapes of truncated pyramids. The matte is tapped off into these pans, which connect with each other by troughs. 203. We will now proceed with the matte-concentration in reverbera¬ tory furnaces. This operation has for its object the production of a bisulphide of copper, containing at least 70 per cent, of metallic copper; and, at the same time, to separate the oxide of irou and the other metal¬ lic oxides, by slagging them off. The iron, especially, must be separated from the matte to within at least 0.2 per cent., if the following operation of the production of copper-vitriol is to be conducted to advantage. The roasted concentrated copper-matte is smelted in reverberatory furnaces with baryte, quartzose, and dry silver-ores, ( diirrerze ,) carrying as much baryte as gangue. The roasted matte is principally composed of metal lie oxides, and contains such a small amount of sulphur that it is not * 1 centner, or cwt. = 110 pounds English. 84 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. “3d. The hearth, and the lower portions of the boslies, being apt to suffer after a certain time, from the destructive action of the materials in a melting state, may be replaced without any difficulty whatever while the work is going on, so that there is no occasion to apprehend any extinction of the fires so long as the in-wall is not destroyed. If putting out the fires should at any time become necessary, the hearth and the boshes could be renewed without affecting the in-wall in¬ juriously. “ 4th. Each particular brick being accessible during the working of the furnace, and the progress of the fire easily ascertained, corrosions can be obviated by cooling down with water thrown on the several parts, or by means of water-vessels or tuyeres wherein the water circu¬ lates placed within these parts as far as the inside of the furnace, whereby the wear and tear can be checked. “5th. The utilization of the gas at the furnace-mouth can be so man¬ aged as to make it yield the best results. The pillars supporting the platform of the furnace-top are gas-pipes, and drop into sheet-iron vessels fixed to the summit of the base of the stack, where it slopes away. These vessels are open on one side, so that when filled with water up to a certain height, they can be shut down by means of a valve, measuring-a few centimeters square. The gas issuing forth out of the furnace-mouth finds its way into these receptacles, and in its passage through them travels over a large surface of water. Here it deposits the dust, while a great part of the water suspended in the gas, in a state of vapor, is condensed. Consequently, the gas reaches its destination iu a highly-purified condition, and may yield the very best results in those parts where it is desired to make use of it. “ The arrangement of the said water-receptacles allows of the with¬ drawal of the dust or grit deposited while iu full working, and in the event of an explosion, the area of from five to six millimeters of the water column paralyzes, as though it were a gigantic valve, any inju¬ rious effects. In poiut of fact, instead of dreading we rather wish for explosions from time to timm since they serve the purpose of clearing off the dust and grit that may still be clinging to the inner walls of the pipes. Moreover, there is the advantage of confining these subsidiary appliances to a spot on the works which does not iu any way interfere with the general progress of the manufacture. “ Oth. The gas-pipes being supporters also of the platform surround¬ ing the furnace-mouth or top, render the said platform independent of the blast-furnace proper, and that without involving any special outlay. “ In the first days of this erection, critics expressed a fear that the chilling of the parts thus exposed in this blast-furnace would be achieved only at the cost of a greater consumptiou of fuel. But, contrary to such apprehensions, experience has amply shown that blast-furnaces, the brick-work of which at the core is iu direct contact with the outer air, use less fuel than do those that are protected by strong mason work, or BUTTGENBACHS BLAST-FURNACES. 85 shut in by means of a second inner casing with a lining of sheet-iron ; and the opinion expressed by me from the very beginning explains this result. For, in point of fact, a blast-fnrnace should form at its lower part a smelting-crucible, and it is generally known that every expedient available is brought into use for the purpose of cooling the walls of this portion of the structure. The boshes are a kind of retort, wherein the ore is reduced by means of its contact with the fuel, and the in-wall is like unto the neck of a retort, and in which the ore is prepared by the action of a moderate heat and contact with the reducing gases. “If the ore sinking into the in-wall section requires a spongy condi¬ tion, and continues in this condition without undergoing semifusion, it is quite obvious that the effect produced by the gas must be infinitely greater, and that the ore must descend into the zones of the boshes and of the hearth in a much better state of preparation than if the heat of the in wall had partially converted it into cinder, so that the reducing gas must pass on, incapable of action upon such ore, except superfi¬ cially. The ore, thus brought into a better state of preparation, must of necessity require less fuel in order to its perfect fusion. “Moreover, in the event of cinder being formed at the in-w T all zone, it will adhere to the walls and produce concretions, which always impede the proper working of a blast-furnace. When the ore sinks with regu¬ larity the smelting-process is facilitated, whereby a further saving of fuel is effected. “The truth of the foregoing assertions has been fully established by the experience of eight years’ working at our works. Concretions have never been noticed, and the proportion of fuel required for the furnace, constructed upon the new principle, has always been from 10 to 15 per cent, smaller, cceteris paribus. “ When good coke has been used, excellent Ho. 1 foundery-pigs have been produced from ores yielding 35 per cent., the consumption of coke being in the ratio of 11 parts to 10 part of pig, at a temperature of 350° centigrade, under blast, while in the case of white pig it is one part less of good coke to every part of pig. Touching the fears entertained of undue chilliug in severe seasons, the following facts have served to dispel them in toto : “ The blast-furnace attheHeuss Works has more than once been sud¬ denly blown out for several weeks, owing to causes quite foreign to its working capabilities. Three of these suspensions occurred during the war in the year 1S70-’71, owing to the want of fuel, and no prepara¬ tory arrangements were madebeforeany of the said suspensions of work. They lasted during a space ranging between three and ten weeks re¬ spectively. “ I did not touch the blast-furuace during any of the periods of stop¬ page referred to, the most prolonged of them occurring at a time when the thermometer registered 10° to 17° 0., and yet when work was re¬ sumed the furnace did its work again with surprising regularity. On 86 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 206. Three men work at each furnace, viz, one smelter and two assist¬ ants ; they make twelve-hour shifts. The smelter is paid IS to 25 silber- groschen, and the two assistants receive 15 toll silbergroschen per shift. The consumption of fuel per twenty-four hours amounts to 7,600 pouuds= 3,800 kilograms of common coal, and a like amount of coal of a poorer quality. 207. The products of this operation are : a. Plumbiferous black copper, assaying from 0.50 to 0.60 per cent. == 145 oz. 16 dwt. to 174 oz. 19 dwt. 16 gr. silver, 20 to 25 per cent, lead, and from 50 to 60 per cent, copper. Part of it goes to the ore-smelting, and another part goes through the same concentration operation again. b. Concentrated copper-matte, assaying from 0.29 to 0.40 per cent. = 84 oz. 10 dwt. 19.2 gr. to 116 oz. 12 dwt. silver, 3 to 7 per cent, lead, and 70 to 73 per cent, copper. It also contains at the highest 0.3 per cent, iron, otherwise the matte would not be lit for treatment with sul¬ phuric acid, as the copper-vitriol produced must be free from this im¬ purity. c. Slag, carrying 0.005 per cent. = 1 oz. 9 dwt. 3.S4 gr. silver, 9 per cent, lead, and 6 per cent, copper. When it is richer in metals than here given it passes through the same operation again, but it generally goes to the ore-smelting, where it gives a flux of the desired quality. It is quite fusible, blackish-brown in color, and has a high specific gravity, in consequence of its high percentage of baryte; but notwithstanding this fact it separates well from the matte. 208. Manufacture of copper-vitriol .—The copper-vitriol is manufac¬ tured at the Halsbriicken Works, and for this purpose the concentrated roasted copper-matte is sent there from the Muldener Works. The prin¬ cipal product of the copper-matte concentration in reverberatory fur¬ naces is the concentrated copper-matte, and it is from this product that the copper-vitriol is manufactured. Its principal ingredient is disul¬ phide of copper, but it is also generally impregnated with metallic copper, which, by stamping, is flattened and separated from the matte by the following operation of sieving. The chemical composition of the concentrated matte is at the present time about as follows : Per cent. Copper. 69.00 to 74.00 Lead. 3.00 to 7.00 Silver. 0.30 to 0.40 Ircu. 0.20 to - Cobalt and nickel. 0.30 to - Arsenic and antimony.,. 0.50 to 1.00 Sulphur. 14.00 to 19.0° 209. Before the concentrated matte is treated with sulphuric acid, it undergoes an operation of crushing and roastiug, in order to convert the disulphide of copper and sulphide of silver into oxide of copper and MANUFACTURE OF COPPER-VITRIOL. 87 metallic silver. It is crushed under stamps and then thrown on to a sieve, which has five meshes per square centimeter. The roasting is conducted in Freiberg muffle roastiug-furnaces with double hearth. The muffle, however, is not made use of, the matte being charged only on the hearth. An arrangement has lately been adopted by which the entrance of the hot gases from the lower hearth iuto the upper may be regulated by means of a damper, but are, under the present circumstances, con¬ ducted directly away. The concentrated matte agglomerates very easily, and must at first be roasted with the greatest care, at a very low temperature, and accompanied by continual workings of the charge. The temperature must not be raised until a greater part of the sulphur has escaped. In consequence of the above reasons, only one charge can be roasted at a time. An average charge is about 500 kilograms, and it should not lie on the hearth more than 5 centimeters thick. The roasting lasts sixteen hours. During the first six hours the fur¬ nace is kept quite dark; during the next four hours a moderate temper¬ ature is employed ; and in the following three hours it is gradually increased to a white heat, the charge remaining under its influence for three hours longer, and constantly stirred. If the stirring of the charge should be discontinued, protoxide of cop¬ per would be formed in large quantities, which, on being treated with dilute sulphuric acid, would be decomposed and converted iuto peroxide and metallic copper, and this would cause the extraction-residues to contain large amounts of copper. The roasted matte should therefore appear bluish-black from perox¬ ide, and not red, as this latter color shows the presence of the protoxide of copper. It always contains from 0.5 to 1.5 per cent, sulphur, and on an average 1 per cent., iu consequence of the formation of small agglom¬ erated lumps during the first part of the roasting operation. This can¬ not be well avoided. The lead contained in the matte also helps to re¬ tain a portion of the sulphur, as the sulphate of lead formed is not decomposed in the highest of temperatures. 210. Two workmen are necessary to each furnace; they make ten- hour shifts, and are paid from 15 to 18 silbergroschen. Only from 13 to 11 hundredweight of matte can be roasted iu twenty-four hours in one furnace. The consumption of fuel per 5,000 kilograms of charge amounts to from 5,500 to 6,000 kilograms of bituminous coal of the best quality possible. 211. After having passed through the operation of roasting, the charge is sifted; the remaining lumps, consisting of agglomerated sul¬ phide of copper and lead, are again crushed and roasted; that which passes through the sieve, however, is ground still finer, until it is almost of the consistency of powder. It principally consists of the following substances: peroxide of copper, small amounts of sulphate of peroxide 88 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. of copper, protoxide of copper, metallic silver, also gold aud sulphate of lead; besides these, it coutaius small amounts of oxide of irou, oxide of cobalt, oxide of nickel, basic arseniate, aud autimoniate salts, among which there is perhaps a small amount of arseniate of silver. 212. Treatment of the roasted copper-matte with sulphuric acid .—If the roasted matte be treated with dilute sulphuric acid for some time, and boiled, the peroxide of copper and the other metallic oxides will dissolve, while metallic silver gold, and sulphate of lead remain undissolved. The presence of protoxide of copper causes the precipi¬ tation of the metallic copper, and although it precipitates any metallic silver which may have been dissolved, still it is not desirable that it should be present in large quantities, as it remains undissolved. Pe¬ roxide of irou, oxide of nickel, and oxide of cobalt are only dissolved in small quantities, and very slowly, while the solution is cold, but when the solution is boiled, they are completely dissolved, and enter into the vitriol solution. In the presence of metallic copper and the protoxide, the oxides are converted into protoxide salts. The arseniate and anti- moniate salts, especially the basic arseniate and autimoniate of silver, are only slowly decomposed in cold dilute sulphuric acid, but on heating they are rapidly decomposed, whereby sulphate salts and uncombiueil arsenic acid and hydrated antiinonic acid are formed, the latter of which partially remains umlissolved, while all the other substances remain in solution. The silver dissolved in this manner is, however, immediately precipitated when metallic copper or its peroxide is present. 213. It will be perceived from the foregoing, that there remains an umlissolved residue, when the roasted concentrated copper-matte is treated with dilute sulphuric acid, which consists of metallic silver, gold, copper, sulphate of lead, aud hydrated antimonic acid; the solution, on the other hand, contains the sulphate salts of peroxide of copper, nickel, cobalt, and iron peroxide; also a small amount of arsenic acid and anti¬ monic acid. Copper-vitriol is produced from the solution by crystalliza¬ tion, whereby the other sulphate salts remain in the mother-liquid. 214. The fine powdered state which the matte is in, and necessary to the "operation of dissolving, offers difficulty to the practical working of the process, as thick crusts are easily formed, which are impregnated with sulphate of copper. At present this disadvantage is overcome by passing steam through the solution during the process of dissolving. High cylindrical vessels of solid antimonial lead have been employed for several years in dissolving the matte. They have a capacity of 1.24 cubic meters; just above the bottom there is a short pipe, used for letting off the silver slimes. There are eight of these dissolving-vessels : four of them are employed for dissolving the roasted matte and the other four for the redissolving of the raw vitriol. They weigh from 1,250 to 1,500 kilograms, and cost from 200 to 240 thaler; they last, however, for a very long time. Above the dissolving-vessels there are reservoirs for sulphuric acid, water, and raw solution; the liquids are forced up TREATMENT OF ROASTED MATTE. 89 into these reservoirs by means of compressed air. The dissolving-ves¬ sels are filled 0.36 meter high with raw chamber-acid of 49° to 50° B.; it is then brought to the boiling-point by passing superheated steam through it for one and one half hours, it being at the same time thereby diluted. The steam is heated by means of a system of bent pipes, which pass over a fire-place. Three hundred weight of roasted matte are then gradually charged into the vessels, and the liquid contiuually stirred. Steam is still passed through, in order to raise the acid up to its boiling- point. The steam-pipe passes in at the top and down to within 0.07 meter of the bottom, so that the residues may be continually kept in motion by means of the steam. The length of this period is about one and one- half hours; mother-liquid is then added uutil the vessel is about full, and the whole solution is again raised to its boiling-point by steam. 215. The solution, now diluted to 32° B., is allowed to staud for two hours, and is theu drawn off into a settling-tank by means of a siphon. After remaining in the settling-tank for an hour, it is drawn off into a crystallizing-tauk. The whole operation of dissolving lasts five hours; 1,650 kilograms of matte are dissolved in four vessels within twenty-four hours. It takes nine days to crystallize the vitriol. The first fourth of the copper-vitriol crystals are ready for market as raw vitriol, the other three-fourths are dissolved again in hot water and re¬ crystallized. The crystals are dissolved in a half-cylindrical-shaped vessel of lead, perforated on all sides; this is hung within another ves¬ sel, of antimonial lead, by means of three hooks. The larger vessel is filled with water. The lead-sieve is made half cylindrical, in order that the steam-pipe can pass into the water. The good vitriol solution is filtered through copper granules before being discharged into the crys- tallizing-tank, in order to separate any silver or slimes that may have been contained therein. The copper used for this purpose is argentifer¬ ous, finely granulated. The copper-granules are placed in a half-cylin- drical-shaped vessel of antimouial-lead, which has a double bottom, the upper one being perforated, and covered with lineu, to avoid the falling through of the granules. This manipulation of filtering also serves to make the solution almost neutral, whereby beautiful large crystals can be obtained from it. Sheet-copper is also hung in the crystallizing tank for the purpose of keeping the solution neutral during the operation of crystallization. When a deposit of metallic copper forms on the sheet-lead lining of the tank, or even on the crystals, it is an indication that the solution is about neutral. A deposit of slimes on the bottom of the tank is not considered of disadvantage, though small crystals of vitriol form there, but they are again dissolved with the raw solution. It takes nine days to crys-' tallize the purified solution. When the operation is finished, the crys _ tals are broken from the lead-strips and washed with cold water in order to give them a better appearance and to remove the pulverized vitriol, made by knocking the crystals from off the lead-strips. The crystals 90 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. are dried upon wooden tables in a special drying-chauiber and are then ready for market. 210. The annual production of copper-vitriol a mounts to about 1,050,000 kilograms. (1,050 tons of 1,000 kilograms.) It is manufactured from 400,000 kilograms of concentrated copper-matte with the employment of eight dissolving-vessels and one hundred and four crystallizing-tanks. To this amount should be added about 50,000 kilograms more of cop¬ per-vitriol produced in the gold-separating establishment. 217. The mother-liquid is used again for dissolving the raw crystals; it is then concentrated and crystallized. The crystals hereby produced contain 0.035 per cent, iron, and are again dissolved, and then go through a second operation of crystallization with the main solution; the mother-liquid, which is rich in iron and contains 1 kilogram of cop¬ per to the 0.024 cubic meter, is removed and is used in making roasting- balls out of ore-slimes. The argentiferous residues remaining on the bottom of the dissolving-vessels after the treatment of the matte with sulphuric acid, are removed into large pointed boxes lined with sheet- lead; there they are boiled with steam; sulphuric acid is added when deemed necessary, and they are then allowed to settle. There are two of these pointed boxes, each connecting with a trough on the side by means of rubber-hose, which are furnished with Mohr’s spring-clamps. The trough has twelve openings in the bottom, under each of which there is a small pointed box. These latter are perforated on all sides, and on the inside have a Alter of ticking, which is fastened above to a lead frame. After the wash-water in the large pointed boxes has become clear, it is gradually allowed to flow out through the three pipes in the side, and is used in the next following operation of dissolv¬ ing. The argentiferous slime is allowed to flow otf into the trough and frtmi here it flows on to the filters in the small pointed boxes. It is scraped from the filters and dried upon an iron hearth. It amounts to about 17 per cent, of the original amount of matte. In I860 it con¬ tained on an average, besides other ingredients, the following: 1.94 per cent. = 5(55 oz. 1 dwt. 4.8 gr. silver, 41 per cent, lead, and 11 per cent, copper. Lately, however, the copper contents have decreased to 5 per cent. Since the solution from crystallization has been filtered through cop¬ per granules, stronger acid can be used for dissolving, without fear of making the vitriol rich in silver; and the amount of copper contained in the argentiferous slimes is also decreased. The argentiferous slimes, after having been dried, are delivered over to the operation of cre-smelting for further treatment, where it is added in small quantities to the ore-charge. The workmen are paid according to the amount produced, and receive 5.7 silbergroschen per 50 kilograms of raw vitriol, and 1£ silbergroscken per 50 kilograms of purified vitrol produced. 218. The results of the manufacture of copper-vitriol at the Halsbriick- ner Works, in 1SG0. may be seeu from the following figures: MANUFACTURE OF COPPER-VITRIOL. 91 Total. Per cwt. of matte. Concentrated copper-matte dissolved.. 7,943cwt. 30 lbs. > Other material dissolved. 21 cwt. 38 lbs. S CWt ' Sheet-copper for neutralizing dissolved. 17 cwt. 84 lbs. 0.22 Results. Total. Per cwt. of matte. Copper-vitriol, impure, (exclusive of 970 cwt. from the operation of gold separa¬ tion)... Copper vitriol, purified. Extraction residues, (argent, slimes)- Solution, (as increase to the intermediate * products with 3 lbs. copper per cub. ft.) ) Mother-liquid with 2 lbs. copper per cub. ) ft., (used for making roasting-balls) » ] 19,881 cwt. 11 lbs. j* 2yl - 38cwt - 140 cwt. 15 lbs. j 1,300 cwt. 96 lbs. 16.41 cwt. 68 cub. ft. 180 cub. ft. 3,009 cwt. 50 lbs., ) (or 5,420 cub. ft.) J 7,862 cwt. 25 lbs., ) (or 14,295cub.ft.) J Material consumed. Saw chamber acid. 15,668 cwt. 97 lbs. Or, reduced to 66° sulphuric acid. 10,028 cwt. 12 lbs. 190.7 cwt. Cwt. Cwt. Bituminous coal for roasting matte..... 9, 286 125. 9 Bituminous coal for heating the steam-boiler ... 9,912 116. 6 Bituminous coal for evaporating the solution. 8,058 Bituminous coal for drying the copper-vitriol. 1, 566 Bituminous coal for drying the argentiferous residues .. 505 Total. . 2, 041 251.15 Production. Number of working-days at the roasting-furnace.632 Number of working-days at the operation of dissolving, &c . 300 In twenty-four hours were— Cwt. Concentrated matte, roasted. 12. 6 Concentrated matte, dissolved, &c. 26. 6 Copper-'vitriol produced... 70. 0 219. Estimate of the amount of metal extracted from matte in 1869. A.— Treated. In 3,321 cwt. 70 lbs. copper-matte Cwt. lbs. P. c. Ag. P. c. Pb. P. c. ( , 110 a 0. 32 3 74 880 90 a 0. 34 2 74 676 90 0. 41 6 69 295 50 a 0. 43 4 73 360 40 a 0. 40 5 70 from the Muldener Works, as— Gold. Silver. Lead. Copper. Lbs. Lbs. Cwt. lbs. Cwt. lbs. 1,203. 45 121 36 2, 408 32 92 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. In 4,619 cwt. GO lbs. matte from the Halsbriickner Works, as— Cwt. lbs. P. c. Ag. P. c. Pb. P. c. Cu. 2,583 40 a 0.29 7 69 \ 2,036 20 a 0.29 7 73 S In 21 cwt. 38 lbs. other material In 17 cwt. 84 lbs. copper for neu¬ tralizing. ...... . In 5,373 cwt. solution from gold- separation . Gold. Lbs. Silver. Lbs. Lead. Copper. Cwt. lbs. Cwt. Its. 1,339. 68 323 37 3,268 97 0. 25S S. 25 18 S 0. 73 17 S4 248 91 0. 258 2, 552.11 444 73 5,962 12 Total B.— Production. A, as salable material, produced— Gold. Silver. Lend. Copper. Lbs. Lbs. Cwt. lbs. Cwt. lbs. 20, 991 cwt. 2G lbs. copper-vitriol a 25.4 per cent. Cu. 5,331 77 B, as intermediate products— 1,306 cwt. 96 lbs. extraction resi¬ due, it 1.94 per cent. Ag., 41 per cent. l*b., 11 per cent. Cu.. 0. 250 2,535.50 535 83 143 76 7,S62 cwt. 25 lbs. mother-liquid for making roasting-balls = 14,295 cu. ft. i\ 2 lbs. Cu. 2S5 90 C, as half-finished products, (after deduction of that taken from former year:) 3,009 cwt. 5 lbs. solution =5,420 cu. ft. a 3 lbs. Cu. Total production. Amount extracted in per cent. of metal contained in material Contained in the waste mother- liquid . Percentage of loss. Sulphur extracts. 162 60 0.250 2. 535. 50 535 83 5,924 3 Gold. Ter cent. Silver. Per cent. Lead. Copper. Per cent. Per cent. 96. 90 99. 35 120. 48 99. 36 4. 79 3.10 0. 65 0. 64 20. 48* * The surplus of lead extracted cau be accouuted for by the imperfect determination of the lead in the matte. The lead lining of the tanks is also affected by the acid ; sulphate of lead is formed, which settles to the bottom. SEPARATION OF GOLD FROM SILVER. 93 The following are the costs of treating 100 cwt. of concentrated matte for the year 1809: A .—Crushing and roasting. * Wages for stamping and grinding the concentrated matte.. -.. 3 10 Expenses in keeping stamps and mill in repair....... 1 17 5 Wages for roasting.... 21 9 Bituminous coal.. 21 5 8 Repair of roasting-furnace and tools. 11 16 10 Total... 61 20 8 B.— Dissolving , the. Thlr. Sgr. Pf. W ages..... 46 16 3 Bituminous coal for heating steam-boiler, evaporating the solutions, drying the vitriol and residues, &c... 32 13 10 Sulphuric acid. ... 116 24 2 Repair of furnaces, apparatus, and tools. 52 2 2 247 26 5 Grand total, (exclusive of general costs).. 309 17 1 220. Separation of gold from silver .—This operation consists in the treat¬ ment of the refined and granulated silver from the silver-refining furnace with concentrated sulphuric acid (66° B.,) whereby the silver is dissolved as sulphate of silver, accompanied by the disengagement of sulphurous acid, and the gold remains undissolved in the form of a fine powder. The manipulation is conducted in a cast-iron kettle, which stands over a fire¬ place. The kettle is about 40 inches in diameter and 50 inches deep, and is covered with a hood during the operation of dissolving; a pipe connects with the hood through which the sulphurous-acid vapors pass off into a small condensing-chamber of sheet-lead for the purpose of arresting any of the silver solution which may be carried over by the gas. There is also an opening in this hood, through which the silver adhering to the hot. tom and sides of the kettle during the operation, can be removed by stirring the solution. About 400 kilograms of granulate silver are treated at a time, whereby 800 kilograms of sulphuric acid are neces¬ sary. At first only 350 kilograms of sulphuric acid are added, and the remainder during the continuation of the manipulation. There is an energetic evolution of sulphurous acid during the first period of the operation; the fire, therefore, must be carefully regulated. 221. After the silver is completely dissolved, the solution is allowed to stand for ten hours in order to cool it off and clarify the liquid, the metallic gold settling to the bottom. The solution is then dipped out with copper ladles into copper vessels and carried to a tank, lined with 94 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1»73. sheet-lead, iuto which it is emptied. There is sufficient water in this tank to reduce the solution to 20° B. The whole is now stirred with wooden paddles and heated by passing steam through it; the silver is then precipitated, as metallic silver, by placing sheet-copper in the solu¬ tion. If, after testing the solution with salt, it has been proved to con¬ tain no silver, it is allowed to stand for ten hours, so that the solution may become clear. The copper-vitriol solution is then removed iuto a second settling-tank by means of a lead siphon; from here it goes to another tank, from which it is forced up iuto the evaporating-pans of the copper-vitriol establishment. The cement silver is sieved in a cop¬ per sieve, to free it from small pieces of uudissolved metallic copper, and is then well washed with hot water in a wooden vessel that has a perforated bottom, until the wash-water gives no precipitate with chloride of barium. The wash-water contains copper and is again used n precipitating the silver. The cement silver, after having been well washed, is pressed into cakes under a hydraulic press ; it is then heated in iron retorts and melted in graphite crucibles in quantities of 200 kilograms. The melted silver is poured into cast-iron molds, painted on the yiside with talc; after which it is sent to the mint in the city of Dresden. It is fine, and contains no trace of gold. 222. The gold residue is strongly impregnated with sulphate of silver, metallic silver, and copper. It is, therefore, boiled again with hot water, whereby the sulphate of silver and copper are dissolved. The wash- water is put into the silver-precipitation tank. The gold powder from every three operations is then boiled with concentrated sulphuric acid, in two cast-iron pots, which dissolves the remaining silver and leaves the gold as free from this metal as possible. The first operation of boil¬ ing lasts eight hours, the second only one. The resulting solution is used for granulating. The gold is then washed in a porcelain vessel, with hot water, in order to remove any silver solution adhering to the gold particles, until the wash-water gives no precipitate with salt. The gold is now of a brownish-yellow color, and is dried in graphite vessels and then heated twice in small iron crucibles with bisulphate of soda, and afterward boiled in sulphuric acid. After each heating and boil¬ ing with sulphuric acid, the gold is thoroughly washed, the gold-dust is then dried and finally melted in Hessian crucibles with saltpeter, in order to separate it from platinum. The platinum slag produced is sent to the laboratory, where the platinum is extracted. After the cruci¬ ble has cooled, it is broken open and the gold-button extracted ; this is melted again iu a graphite crucible with borax, and then poured into small molds. It possesses a fineness of 223. Extraction of bismuth .—The extraction of the bismuth is conducted according to the hurried method, whereby all ores, dross, litharge, and furnace-hearth, containing bismuth are treated. The litharge and fur¬ nace-hearth from the operation of silver-refining contain from 8 to 20 per cent, bismuth. They are all crushed and treated with hydrochlonc acid EXTRACTION OF BISMUTH. 95 and water, in clay jars of 10 cubic feet capacity. Each 50 kilograms of hearth is treated with its equal weight of hydrochloric acid and 10 kilo¬ grams of water. The whole is well stirred, and after several hours, water is added until the jar is full to the top. After the solution has been allowed to stand for twelve hours, the fluid is drawn over into a large wooden vessel, having a capacity of 50 cubic feet, by means of a siphon, This vessel is filled with water at the same time, and the bismuth in the solution is thereby precipitated as basic chloride of bismuth in the form of a white powder, (2 Bi 0 3 , Bi Cl 3 .) In sixteen to twenty-four hours the precipitate has completely settled down on the bottom of the vessel, and the clarified liquid is allowed to flow out of the vessel into a large j settling-basin, wherein any of the bismuth precipitate, which has been carried off by the liquid, may settle to the bottom. A fresh solution is now put into the emptied vessel, water added, and this operation repeated until it is necessary to remove the precipitate on the bottom by means of opening the lower cocks on the vessel. The bismuth precipitate is then brought upon a linen filter and is thus partially freed from the acid solu¬ tion. As the bismuth solution cannot be entirely drawn out of the dissolviqg-vessels without stirring up its contents, a single treatment with diluted hvdrochloric acid is not sufficient to extract the whole amount of bismuth contained in the products treated. The operation must therefore be repeated as long as any precipitate is formed by the 1 addition of water. After the first solution has been removed from the dissolving-vessel, 10 kilograms more of hydrochloric acid are added I and the vessel filled to the top with water, and, after the precipitate has settled to the bottom, the clarified liquid is again drawn off, &c. Gen¬ erally this must be repeated from four to six times before the vessel can be cleaned out for a new portion. The bismuth salt is again dissolved in hydrochloric acid, as it still contains too much lead, and is again precipitated with water. The richer the furnace-hearth is in lead, and the poorer in bismuth, the greater is the amount of lead contained in the first precipitate, and the oftener must the process of dissolving and precipitation be repeated, as bismuth containing more than 2 per cent, lead is difficult to sell. The bismuth salt is dried in a drying-oven heated with steam, and is then smelted in a cast-iron crucible with 50 per cent, calcinated soda, 7.5 per cent, charcoal-powder, 3 per cent, glass, and reduced hereby to metallic bismuth. 224. There are sixteen dissolving and sixteen precipitation vessels at the Muldener Works, also several filtering apparatuses. From 150 to 200 kilograms of raw products are daily treated. Products: a. Bismuth containing 0.06 to 0.10 per cent. = 17 oz. 0 dwt. 19.2 gr. to 29 oz. 2 dwt. silver, and 1.5 per cent. lead. b. Residues containing about 1 per cent, bismuth; they are reduced. The treatment of products that do not contain at mast 4 per cent, bismuth is not profitable. The annual production of metallic bismuth at the Freiberg smelting-works amounts to about 2,500 kilograms. 96 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 2 25. MACHINES, FURNACES, AND APPARATUS AT THE FREIBERG SMELT- ING-WORJCS. (1.) Muldener and IIalsbruckner works.— Machines: G vertical water-wheels, 4 turbines, and G steam-engines, of 140 horse power, for driving G cylinder blowers, 2 ventilators, 4 stamp-mills with 4G stamps, 2 ore-grinding machines, 2 sieve machines, 1 rolling-mill, 3 force-pumps, and 15 forges with various tool-machines. Iioasting-apparatus : 18 roasting-stalls connecting with large subter¬ ranean canals, 8 tluibble and 5 double agglomerating roasting-furnaces, 1 single hearth and G double hearth reverberatory roasting-furnaces, and 2 muffle furnaces. Smelting-apparatus : 5 blast-furnaces with 8 tuyeres, G blast-furnaces with 4 tuyeres, 7 smelting reverberatory furnaces, 4 cupellation-fur- naees, 2 silver and 5 lead refining furnaces, 3 lead-liquating turnaces, 2 silver-smelting furnaces, and 43 kettles in the Pattiusou establishments. Sublimation-apparatus: 1 arsenic-sublimation furnace at the Hals- briickner lliitte. Condensing apparatus : above and underground condensiug-chambers, with canal connections of: 203,404.7 cubic feet = 4,G20.SG cubic meters’ capacity for the roasting-furnaces; 143,772.8cubic feet = 3,205.21 cubic meters’capacity for the blast-furnaces; 34G,425.0 cubic feet = 7,807.01 cubic meters’ capacity for the reverberatory furnaces ; 30,487.0 cubic feet = 828.05 cubic meters’ capacity for the cupcllation-furnaces and lead and silver refining and liquation furnaces. The total capacity of all the condensiug-chambers, therefore, amounts to 730,149.5 cubic feet, or 16,582.33 cubic meters. Extraction-apparatus : a copper extraction apparatus, with 8 dissolv¬ ing vessels for copper-matte and vitriol, vitriol-crystallizing tanks hav¬ ing a capacity of 10,248 cubic feet, or 309 cubic meters, at the Hals- briickner lliitte, and a bismuth-apparatus of 12 dissolving-vessels, and several precipitating-vessels of 70S cubic feet, or 17.44 cubic meters’ capacity at the Muldener lliitte. Other arrangements : 1 self-acting inclined plane, and 8 hoisting-appa¬ ratuses, with 7,000 meters of tram-way connections at both works. (2.) G OLD-SEPARATION ESTABLISHMENTS AT H ALSBRpCKNER WORKS : 1 gold -separating-apparatus, with one cast-iron dissolving-kettle, having a capacity of 27 cubic feet, or 613 cubic decimeters, and three precipi¬ tating-vessels of 185 feet, or 4.2 cubic meters’ capacity. (3.) Muldener zinc-works: 3 long reverberatory roastiug-furnaces<3 distillation-furnaces, constructed according to Siemens’s regenerative system, and one zinc-refining furnace. (4.) At the Muldener arsenical works : 8 distillation tubular furnaces for realgar, and 3 galley furnaces, 2 clarifying-furuaces, 2 sublimation roasting-furnaces, and 20 white arsenical-glass furnaces. (5.) Sulphuric-acid manufactories of both works. — Machines: 1 turbine and 4 steam-engines, having a total of 26 horse-power; they FREIBERG SMELTING-WORKS. 97 charge the Gerstenhofer roasting-furnaces, and force the acid up over the precipitating-tower, &c. Boasting-apparatus : 21 kilns and 12 Gerstenhofer roasting-furnaces. Condensing-apparatus : 8 condensing-chambers, having a capacity of 118,087 cubic feet, or 2.681.86 cubic meters, and 6 lead-chamber systems, composed of 19 lead-chambers having a capacity of 710,013 cubic feet, or 16,125.69 cubic meters. (6.) Other apparatus : 3 precipitating-towers, with four sulphureted- liydrogen generators for purifying the acid, 8 lead-evaporating pans, 3 platinum-stills, 4 nitric-acid apparatuses, and 3 iron-vitriol-evaporating apparatuses with crystallizing-tanks, having a total capacity of 4,302 cubic feet, or 97.70 cubic meters. (7.) Metal-ware manufactory: 1 shot establishment, with a shaft 61.4 meters deep, 2 lead-pipe presses, 1 lead-rolling machine, and 1 lead- wire machine, driven by 2 vertical water-wheels of 11-horse power. (8.) Clay manufactory : one 10-horse power steam-engine for run¬ ning a 6-stamp crushing-mill, 1 grinding-mill, 1 kneading-machine, 2 hand brick-presses, and 1 clay-baking furnace. (9.) Brick manufactory : 2 brick-burning furnaces, with drying arrangements. 226. Production of the Saxon Mines and the Freiberg Me¬ tallurgical Works in 1871.— Ore mined iu Saxony and treated at Freiberg: Value. Mined in the Freiberg district. Mined in other Saxon districts. Kilograms. 27,357,025 58, 250 Thaler. Sgr. 1, 706, 392 26 4,393 29 Total. 27, 415, 275 1, 710, 786 25 Which contained: Gold. Silver .... Lead. Copper. Zinc. Cobalt and nickel.. Arsenic.. Sulphur.. ... And a small amount of bismuth. Kilograms. 0.116 26, 286. 907 . 4,320,046.250 44, 865. 300 267, 650. 500 129. 500 285,520. 000 . 2,915,876.000 Total .. . 7,860,374.573 The above value of the ores is calculated as follows: Thaler. Sgr. 1, 402, 436 24 paid according to the ore-tariff. Tfi 9 QT 19 f supplementary payment for lead, copper, zinc, and ar- ’ t senic, (vide ore-tariff in appendix.) 272, 056 19 supplementary payment of the half of clear gain. 1, 710, 786 25 7 M 98 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Tlie men employed iu the miuesof the Freiberg district are: mine officials, 279; clerks, .70; laborers in mines and dressing-works, 7,343; total, 7,072. This includes 203 boys, under eighteen years of age, em¬ ployed in the mines, and 401 boys employed iu the dressing-works, and also 575 irregular laborers. 227. products or THE FREIBERG Gold. Silver. Lead products, viz : Soft and hard lead, litharge, and fumes . Shot. ... Sheet-lead. Lead pipes, wire, &c. Copper-vitriol. Bismuth. Nickle-matte. Zinc and zinc oxide. Different grades of sulphuric acid.. Chemical products, viz: Iron-vitriol, soda-sulphate, nitric acid, &o. Arsenical products, viz: Metallic arsenic, arseuious acid, oripiment, &c. METALLURGICAL WORKS, 1S71. Value. Kilograms. Thaler. Sgr. 54. 83150 50,710 27 31, 071. 70400 1,S50,002 28 3, 711, 845 431,587 28 94, 011.5 13, »j3o 09 291, G38. 5 38, 28S 08 315, 010. 5 44, 980 00 1. 537, 200 227, 004 24 3,213 25, 2S1 03 9, 540 3, 135 01 237,214 20,771 07 10, 218, 013.5 224, 774 15 397, 709. 5 9, 028 00 1, 125, S34.5 92,829 21 17, 974, J5G. 53330 Total, 359,483.05 centner, valued at 3,037,935 thaler 22 silbergroscheu. The employed were: Muldener smelting-works with bismuth extraction. Muldener zinc-works.. Muldener arsenic-works. Muldener sulphuric-acid manufactory.. Muldener fire-clay material manufactory. Ilalsbriickner smelting works, with the copper-vitriol manufactory and gold-separation establishment.. Ilalsbriickner sulphuric-acid manufactory.... Halsbriickner lead-pipe. Sec., manufactory'.. Shot manufactory in .Freiberg..’. K Irregular z laborers. *2 1 X u s £ — u. s © S © 8 400 ne 02 628 19 5 1 25 2 36 5 1 44 3 77 6 86 9 4 13 9 319 81 2 411 2 36 7 3 50 8 15 1 2 i 4 25 927 287 37 1,276 Total HARZ SMELTING-WORKS. 99 . 228. The Harz. —The smelting-works of the Upper and Lower Harz were represented by statistical charts, plans of furnaces, and a complete and systematically arranged collection of ores, metallurgical, interme¬ diate, and final products. The latter were displayed in the following groups: I.—LEAD-SMELTING. a. Ore-smelting. —Products from Olausthal: slag, matte, and silver-lead b. Matte-smelting. —Products from Clausthal: raw matte from ore and matte smelting, matte roasted in shaft-furnaces and in heaps. II.—DESILYERIZATION OF SILTER-LEAD. a. Zinc-desilverization. — Products from Lautenthal: skimmiugs, (abzug,) zinc-scum, (silver-zinc alloy ;) the same from which the lead has been liquated, (zinc-dust;) poor and rich oxides; fumes from condensa¬ tion-chambers ; poor, autimouial, and enriched lead. b. Cupellation .—Products from Lautenthal: abzug, abstrich, red lith¬ arge, and silver. c. Silver-refining. —Products from Lautenthal: piece of cupellation - hearth impregnated with rich litharge and fine silver. III.—COPPER-SMELTING. Products fromAltenau: concentrated copper-matte and black copper. IV.—BLACK-COPPER DESILVERIZATION. Products from Altenau : copper-vitriol and cement-silver. V.—MANUFACTURE OF ARSENICAL PRODUCTS. Products from Andreasberg: White arsenical glass, realgar; also beautiful and perfect crystals of arsenious acid and arsen-sulphide. These were formed in roasting arsenical ores iu free heaps. This collec¬ tion was intended to illustrate the processes as conducted at the above works, and to show how the various operations are divided between the four works in the Upper Harz. As the lead-smelting is conducted at all the works in the Harz according to the same process, with only unim¬ portant variations, one description may serve the present purpose. The intermediate and secondary process will be considered as they are per¬ formed at each work. 229. The Harz processes. —The first smelting-process in the Harz was performed by roasting the ore in free heaps and then smelting in low furnaces. The large metallic loss through volatilization in roasting, smelting, and through the formation of slag containing 15 to 20 per cent, of lead, caused the introduction of the iron-precipitation process at about the commencement of the present century. This process has 100 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. been practiced ever since, but has, in the last few years, been greatly improved. As this process was conducted about fifteen years ago, the loss in lead was 8 to 9 per cent., and when the percentage of blende in the ore was large the loss increased to 12 per cent., in addition to 10 per cent, loss in cupellation. In order to avoid this and the large consump¬ tion of metallic iron, a series of experiments were made with reverbera¬ tory furnaces, but the large quautity of silica contained in the ore ren¬ dered the English, and even the French, processes inadvisable, if not impossible. The following experiments were then made, with intention to find a suitable substitute for metallic iron, which was found to greatly increase the melting expenses. 230. The ore (slimo) was roasted in reverberatory furnaces and smelted with iron-tap cinders, but gave poor results. High shaft-furnaces were next experimented with. Lime, iron, tap-cinder, iron-ore, and slag from the smelting of matte were each in turn used, but not found to be a desirable substitute. Lime, iron, tap-cinder, and iron-ore also gave poor results in low furnaces. It was next attempted to use the slags from the smelting of pyritous ores in the Lower Harz. These were rich in iron, and had been accumulating for many years. These experiments were conducted in a Ilachette furnace, which had already been erected at Altenau. The iron was therein reduced, and was found to act even more energetically than when charged in the form of a metal. It is now known that iron, when reduced from its seqnioxide, or protoxide, decom¬ poses lead-sulphide most energetically, as it then acts in a statu nascenti. The resulting matte is, in a well-conducted temperature, consequently poorer in sulphur than when metallic iron is used; and iron-protoxide, by taking the place of lead in the slag, prevents a greater loss of the latter. The iron protoxide contained in the copper-slag also serves to slag the silicic acid of the ore. The Lower Harz copper-slags have, according to Strong, the following composition : Per ceDt. Silica. Alumina. Iron protoxide . Copper protoxide. Lime. Magnesia. Manganese protoxide .. Zinc and cobalt oxides Sulphur. 17.00 3.21 70.05 = 54.5 per cent, ot iron- 1.84 3.32 1.00 0.30 1.20 1.05 97. 75 231. This highly important change was again improved in 1309, by substituting roasted lead-matte for a part of the copper-sla'g. Although the original intention was ouly to do away with the first HARZ SMELTING-PROCESSES. 101 matte-smelting, it has given such satisfactory results, that it has been continued for other reasons. By too large an addition of lead-matte, a continual process is maintained, and the copper contents of the silver- lead, as well as the matte, is increased. In order to diminish the per¬ centage of copper in the silver-lead, it was found necessary to decrease the amount of roasted lead-matte added to the charge to 28 per cent., and again raise the quantity of copper-slag in proportion. The smelting- expenses have been reduced, by the substitution of roasted lead-matte for a portion of the copper-slag, from 18 to 15 thaler per 1,000 kilo¬ grams ore. This saving is partially owing to the avoidance of the first matte-smelting. 232. The recent experiments made at Clausthal in the construction of shaft-furnaces, and the working of the same, are not only very interest¬ ing, but, as the results were obtained after carefully conducted trials, reliable both in a scientific and a practical economical point of view. The nature of the ores and character of the process must, however, be borne in mind. One Bachette furnace was first built in Altenau, and soon after three were built in Clausthal and two in Lautenthal. Al¬ most immediately after the Pilz furnace had been built in Freiberg, Herr Kast, of Clausthal, erected furnaces similar in principle, but smaller, with a fore-hearth (sumpf) and fewer tuyeres. The campaign in these furnaces has lasted over three years. The economical results have been so good, that they have, after comparative trials, entirely superseded the Bachette furnace at Clausthal. The old Bachette furnaces at Clausthal were all, except one, converted into rouud furnaces. This was accomplished by placing a dividing wall through the center of the furnace, connecting the two long sides, and then making circles of the squares formed by the walls. One Bachette furnace is retained unal¬ tered at Clausthal, for the purpose, as the author was informed by the director, of convincing unbelievers that it is far inferior to the round furnace. The first four round furnaces built at Clausthal* were 6.3 meters high and 0.94 meters diameter at the tuyeres, but were, respect¬ ively, 1.25,1.41, 1.49, and 1.57 meters diameter at the top. 233. A series of trials proved that in proportion as the furnace is widened toward the top, the metallic volatilization and consumption of fuel decrease, the charge also is better prepared upon entering the smelting-zone, and the campaigns are longer. The trials in the above- mentioned furnaces gave the following results : Width of top, meters... 1. 25 1. 41 1. 49 1. 57 Metallic volatilization, meters.-. 2. 8 2. 7 1. 7 1.1 Consumption of coke for 100 kilograms ore, kilograms. 42.39 41.85 41.74 41.62 Average length of time for smelting 100 kilo¬ grams ore, hours. 73.2 71.8 71.2 69.2 * The date of the experiments in the construction of shaft-furnaces is taken from Dr. Wedding’s communication in the Preussische Zeit-Schrift. 102 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The consumption of coke under the same circumstances in tbe Ra- cbette furnace was 44.3 kilograms; tbe length of time for smelting 100 kilograms ore was ninety-three hours. Tbe shaft of a furnace was widened still more than 0.94:1.57 meters at tbe top, but tbe maximum proportion was here exceeded, as was shown by tbe charge sliding only with difficulty down tbe plane, which approached the horizontal; and the layers of fuel and charge became from tbe same cause indiscriminately mixed before entering the smelting-zone. 234. A free standing furnace, with eight tuyeres, similar to tbe Pilz furnace, was built in 1309. It was 7.2 meters high, 1.41 meters diameter at tbe tuyeres, and 2.04 meters at tbe top. It was a crucible-furnace, aud bad three tapping-hearths and two cast-iron slag-spouts. Tbe tuyeres were 37 centimeters above tbe slag-spout, and 55 centimeters apart. The furnace-fumes were caught in an iron funnel suspended in the furnace, and after passing through a canal 48.3 meters long, escaped through a chimney 12.5 meters high. This furnace cost 5,900 thaler. When it was first put in operation, the charge was similar to that in the other round furnaces, with an addition of slag from matte-smelting, but the slag produced was so pasty,that it could not be tapped; nor was slag of the right character obtained by increasing tbe quantity of matte-slag and decreasing tbe ore in tbe charge. In tbe next trial, tbe slag from the copper-ore smelting was entirely omitted. The resulting silver lead and matte were of tbe same nature as that from the other furnaces, but tbe slag, owing to an imperfect fusing, was very rich in lead, containing it both chemically combined and mechanically mixed as undecomposed lead-sulphide. The next idea was to produce a small amount of slag; and with this object in view, only 30 kilograms of cop¬ per-slag was charged to 100 kilograms ore and 30 kilograms lead-matte. Tbe blast was made as strong as possible, 24 millimeters, quicksilver column, but even then the charge was not sufficiently fusible, and sala¬ manders were soon formed, obstructing tbe sin el ting-process. Tbe con¬ clusion was now reached that tbe diameter of tbe hearths, or smelting- zone, was too large for a process of this character, as tbe temperature herein produced was not high enough to cause a perfect reaction and separation of tbe different products. Tbe furnace-hearth was therefore decreased to 1.25 meters diameter, but a round ball solidified in tbe center of tbe hearth, which was not removed, by increasing the propor¬ tion of slag in the charge, narrowed tbe pressure of blast. Four of the eight tuyeres were then projected 16 centimeters in tbe hearth, leaving a circle about 1 meter iu diameter. Tbe furnace thereupon worked well, and gave equally good results with rhe other rouud furnace. According to tbe information derived from Herrn Kast, tbe director of tbe Claustbal (Frankenscbarn) Smelting-Works, aud after whom tbe round furnace with four tuyeres was named, two furnaces with four tuyeres perform oue-thinl more work with an equal number of work- TIARZ SMELTING-PROCESSES. 103 men and a like quantity of fuel than one round furnace with eight tuyeres. 235. In order to determine the effects of an equal quantity of wind under different pressure of blast, the diameter of the blast-nozzles was increased in one of the furnaces with four tuyeres from 43 millimeters to 61 millimeters, with the following results: Charge: Nozzle 61 millimeters 43 millimeters iu diameter. iu diameter. Ore, kilograms. . 1,000 1,000 Roasted matte, do .. . 510 510 Copper-slag, do. . 1,260 1,260 Ore-slag, do. . 330 330 Fuel: Cokes, do . .. 490 490 Products: Silver -lead, do .. . 580 580 Lead-matte, do- - . 750 800 Contents of silver-lead.... 0.15 per cent. = 43 oz. 13 dwt. 14 gr. silver. Contents of lead-matte_0.27 per cent. = 78 oz. 14 dwt. 4 gr. silver. Contents of lead-matte_8. 5...8. 4 per cent. lead. Contents of slag.. 0. 4 .0. 4 per cent. lead. Length of time in smelting 1,000 kilograms ore, 6.S to 7.6 hours. Pressure of blast, 16.24 millimeters mercury column. The consump¬ tion of fuel was the same in both cases. The quantity of slag in the furnace with wide was smaller than in the furnace with narrow nozzles, but the furnace worked much better ; the formation of furnace accre¬ tions was diminished, and the smelting-time was shorter, giving the furnace an increased capacity. Blast-nozzles with 61 millimeters diam¬ eter have since been adopted. 236. The known fact that heated blast serves in iron blast-furnaces to concentrate the heat, increase the capacity of the furnace, and saves fuel, induced the officials at the Clausthal works to try the effect of heated blast on lead-smelting. Two round furnaces with four tuyeres were employed in making the experiment. One was worked with cold blast, the other with blast heated to 140° to 180° O. These trials proved that heated blast is not advantageous for lead-smelting, for the products from two operations were similar, both in quantity and quality, while the value of the small quantity of cokes saved in the charge was surpassed by the value of the coal consumed in heating the blast. 237. In order that each process might be more perfectly and econom¬ ically carried out, the government authorities have been making, as far as practicable, a separation of the different metallurgical operations per¬ formed in the utilization of the ores extracted in the Harz Mountains. 104 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1872. This plan is now nearly completed. Claustkal was selected as the cen¬ tral works for smelting lead-ores, Lautentlial for desilverizing the silver- lead, and Altenau for the treatment of copper-ores and products. Ar¬ gentiferous lead-ores and foreign silver-ores are smelted at Andreas- berg; the rich silver-lead is cupelled ; the poor is sent to Lautentlial. 238. Lead-smelting at Clausthal.— The ores are composed of galena, copper (and iron) pyrites, blende, and small quantitiesof silver, ores. The gangue is calcit, quartz, siderit, argillaceous slate, and baryte. An average analysis presents the following composition : 71. 68 per cent, sulphide of lead. 0.91 per cent, sulphide of copper. 1.98 per cent, sulphide of zinc. 4.14 per cent, carbonate of protoxide of iron. o. ."34 per cent, tersulpliide of antimony. 1.41 per cent, protosulphide of iron. 0.113 per cent, sulphide of silver. 15. 24 per cent, silicic acid. 0.13 per cent, alumina. 2.38 per cent, carbonate of lime. 1.46 per cent, sulphate of baryte. 0.08 percent, magnesia. 100. 083 239. It has already been mentioned that the present iron-precipita¬ tion process is an important improvement on that method as formerly practiced,inasmuch as the first matte-smelting has been done away with, and while the quantity of basic copper-slag added to the charge is dimin¬ ished, a correspondingly large quantity of roasted lead-matte is charged in its place. The process is now called the “ combined ore (schlieg) and matte smelting.” The furnaces for ore-smelting are all round; one ltachette furnace making an exception. They all have a fore-hearth, (sumpf,) and the slag runs continually from the fore-hearth down an inclined bank made of brasque and sand. That portion of the slag which congeals on or near the fore-hearth, is rich in mechanically-mixed metals, and is resmelted; the rest is thrown away, as it contains only about 1.5 per cent. lead. 240. The charge and fuel (coke) are charged in alternate horizontal layers. This change has given excellent results, compared to the old method of charging iu vertical sections. Formerly the slag contained 2 to 3 per cent, and the matte 15 to 20 per cent, lead, but at present the slag produced coutaius only 1 to 2.5 per cent, and the matte 8 per cent, lead, and this matte coutaius so little lead that it can be roasted iu shaft-furnaces without sintering, as the pressure of blast is not allowed to exceed 22 millimeters mercury column. The metallic volatilization aud the formation of salamanders is favorably reduced. LEAD-SMELTING WORKS AT CLAUSTHAL. 105 Dr. Wedding gives the average charge for 1871 as— 1, 000 kilograms ore. 650 kilograms copper-slag from Lower Harz. 510 kilograms roasted matte. 12.1 kilograms sweepings. 10. 5 kilograms fumes. 5. 5 kilograms lead-flux. 20 kilograms copper-slag from black copper smelting. 430 kilograms rich slag from matte-smelting. 470 kilograms slag from same operation. 3,108.1 kilograms. 241. The consumption of fuel per 1,000 kilograms ore, including the powdered charcoal for brasque and charcoal used in blowiug in the fur¬ nace, was 451.7 kilograms coke and 25.5 kilograms charcoal. The re¬ sult per 1,000 kilograms ore is, a, 587.7 kilograms silver-lead, and b, 760.9 kilograms matte, 510 kilograms of which are roasted and added to the next charge. The charge in the autumn of 1S73 was composed of 100 kilograms ore ; 94 kilograms copper-slag ; 30 kilograms roasted matte ; 44 kilograms slag from same operation ; 25 kilograms slag from matte¬ smelting; 2 kilograms lead-flux; 89 kilograms coke. The following are the average analyses of the products from the above charge: Silver-lead. Matte. Slag. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Lead. . 98.970 Sulphur. 29. 55 Silicic acid .. . 43.60 Antimony ... . 0.618 Iron. 55. 72 Alumina .... •. 15.50 Copper . . 0.275 Lead.. . 7.98 Iron protoxide 31. 68 Silver. . 0.127 Copper. 4. 39 Lime. . 6.50 Zinc. . 0.008 Zinc. 1.12 Magnesia.... . 1.56 Iron. . 0.002 Silver. 0. 03 Lead oxide .. . 0.70 Antimony .... 0. 35 Silver. . 0.008 100 99.14 99.548 The slag is added to the charge of ore and matte smeltings. The sil¬ ver-lead is sent to Lautenthal for desilverization. The matte is broken and repeatedly roasted in free heaps until it contains about 5 to 7 per cent, sulphur. That small portion of the roasted matte which is not added to the charge of smelting is smelted in low shaft-furnaces, with slag from the ore-smelting and a small quantity of iron. The products are: a. Silver-lead. This is on account of a large percentage of copper, which disqualifies it for the zinc-desilverization process, cupelled at Clausthal. b. Copper-matte, containing 12 per cent, of copper and 0.02 106 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. to 0.03 per cent. = 5 oz. 1G dwt. 14.4 gr. to IS oz. 14 dwt. 19 gr. silver; this is equal in quantity to about one third of the lead-matte which was charged, c. Slag, having the following composition : Per cent. Silicic acid. 29.25 Alumina. 13. 95 Iron protoxide. ... 48. GO Lime. 5.85 Magnesia. 0. 71 Lead oxide.. 0.57 Copper oxide. 0.10 Silver. 0. OOOGG Total. 99.030GG The copper-matte is broken, roasted in free heaps, and smelted for black copper in a spectacle-furnace, with slag from the smelting of pyritous ores, whereby the greater part of the iron sesquioxide and oxides of other base metals are slagged, and a small portion of the cop¬ per oxide reduced to black copper. The larger part combines with sul¬ phur, which is reduced from sulphate salts and forms the matte. Lead actsdn a similar manner, a part taking up silver and forms silver-lead. The silver also enters the black copper and copper-matte. The black copper, containing small quantities of lead and silver, is sent to Altenau for desilverization. The copper-matte, containing from 24 to 40 per cent, copper, is repeatedly roasted, and smelted as above. The slag, contain¬ ing 0.5 to 1.0 copper, is added to the charge in the ore smelting. 242. There are at present employed in Clausthal: Tuyeres. Capacity in 24 hours. 1 round free-standing furnace. 8 13,500 kilograms'charge. 1 round free-standing furnace. . 4 9, 000 U a 8 round lvast furnaces . 4 7, 500 u U, 4 round lvast, being altered to lta- chette furnaces. 5 7,500 u It 1 Kaehette furnace. . 12 11,000 a U 2 low shaft-furnaces. . 3 3, 750 u iL 1 spectacle-furnace. 9 2,500 a it Total. 54,750 u it 243. Altenau. —The treatment of copper-ores and products form the basis of the process at Altenau. But a small quantity of lead-ore is smelted.* The former principally consists of copper pyrites, and are of secondary importance; they are ouly produced in small quantities, and eontaiu such a small amount of silver that they could not be treated with profit alone, according to the German metallurgical copper process. The resulting copper from this process contains from 0.005 to 0.017 percent, silver (1 oz. 9 dwt. 3.84 gr. to 4 oz. 19 dwt. 0.48 gr. per ton) when sent to ’ Herrn Kiihleman's communication in the Pr issisch' Zeitscrift is freely used in treat¬ ing of the Altenau process. LEAD-SMELTING AT ALTENAU. 107 market. The lead-ores principally consist of argentiferous galena, which is associated with small quantities of siderite, zinc-blende, copper pyrites, iron pyrites, and tetrahedrite. An average lead-ore mixture in 1809 contained— Per cent. Lead... 63.320 Silver. 0.096 Copper. 0. 750 241. The lead-ore is smelted according to the iron-reduction process. It is conducted entirely in Eachette furnaces since 1804, and in the same manner as at Clausthal; the charge is varied only on account of bases or acids in the ore, &c. 245. The products of the operation of ore-smelting are: u, silver-lead ; b, slag; and c, lead-matte. The silver-lead contains, on an average, 0.13 per cent. = 37 oz. 16 dwt. 19.2 gr. silver, and is sent to Lauteuthal for desilverization by means of zinc. The slag contains from f to 1 per cent.lead and 0.000S7 per cent, silver, (5 dwt.;) part of it is thrown away, and a part is used over again in the same operation as flux. The lead- matte contains, from the period 1S66 to 1869, when slag from ocher was used entirely as a precipitating medium, the following amount of— Per cent. Lead..-. 11.5 Copper.. 4.0 Silver. 0.034 Since the adoption of the combined ore and matte smelting, the per¬ centage of copper has increased and that of the lead decreased. a. Lead-matte from smelting with copper-slag from ocher toward the close of 1866, Dr. Streng analyst. b. Lead-matte from combined ore and matte smelting, Herr Hill- grist analyst. a. b. Per cent. Per cent. Lead. . 10.88 11.5 Copper. . 3.83 5.2 Silver. . 0.03 0. 033 Iron .. . 55.90 57.2 Zinc. . 1.13 Not determined. Antimony. . 0.27 Not determined. Sulphur. . 26.67 22.3 246. The lead-matte is roasted twice in shaft-roasting furnaces, 3 to 3.5 meters high and 1.17 by 1.46 meters wide, during which operation it. loses all its sulphur to within 7 per cent. The sulphurous acid is used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The roasted lead-matte is further treated in the older matte-smelt¬ ing blast-furnaces, which are 2£ meters high, also in the old ore-smelting* blast-furnace having one tuyere and which are 6 meters high. The 108 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873.. smelting is conducted with a nose, and ore-slag is used for dux. Coke is the fuel used. 247. The products of this operation are «, silver-lead; b , slag; and c, lead-matte. The silver-lead contains 0.19 per cent.=55 oz. G dwt. 19.2 gr. silver, and a considerable amount of copper is directly cupelled. The matte-slag, containing 2 per cent, lead and 0.002 per cent. = 11 dwt. 15.84 gr. silver, is used in other operations as a dux, especially in the operation of ore-smelting. The lead-matte, which, has become much poorer in lead and richer in copper is resmelted in the same furnace. 248. In this second treatment of the lead-matte the same products again result; the matte, however, is much richer in copper. As soon as it contains 20 per cent, of copper by further smelting, it is delivered over to the operation of the smelting of copper-products, ( Kriitz lup- /era r belt.) 249. Formerly from three to four smeltings were necessary to concen¬ trate the matte up to 20 per cent, copper, but since the ore-smelting has been conducted in ltachette furnaces, with slags rich in iron as fluxing material, only two smeltings of the matte were necessary; and since the adoption of the combined ore and matte smelting, only one sinhlting has been necessary. The average contents of lead-matte in 1SG9 from the first smelting was in— Per cent. Silver. 0.043 Lead. 10.000 Copper. 11.000 From second smelting: Silver. Lead.. Copper Per ceut. 0. 05G 10. 000 21.000 That produced in 1870 from first concentration contained— Per cent. Silver. 0. 057 Lead. 15. 000 Copper. 14.000 In smeltiug the matte a large amount of products resulting from other manipulations are always added to the charge, such as furnace- fumes, furnace dross, slimes, argentiferous and cupriferous dross, refining- dross, lead-scraps, aud slag containing lead oxide from the operation of litharge-reduction. 250. Treatment of copper-products .—The matte now containing about 20 per ceut. copper is subjected to this operation, which has for its sole TREATMENT OF COPPER-PRODUCTS. 109 object the extraction of the silver and copper from the matte. Formerly the matte contained on an average— Per cent. Copper. Silver. Lead. Iron, about.... Sulphur, about 20 to 22 0. 035 to 0. 055 9 to 10 40 20 The matte produced at present from one smelting contains— Per cent. Sulphur. 21.6 Iron. 39. 2 Copper.... 13. 7 Lead. 15.0 Silver. 0. 057 251. The copper-matte is roasted several times and then fused for black copper. Although it has been proved by experiment that this matte can be well roasted in furnaces, it is not desirable to do so, as the roasting-furnaces are all in use for roasting the lead-matte, and these supply the sulphuric-acid chambers with a sufficiency of sulphurous acid; so all copper-matte is at present roasted in heaps under cover. The heaps must be turned seven or eight times in order to effect a proper roasting of the matte. This requires from five to six weeks. The sulphur is reduced from 20 per cent, to 6 or 8 per cent. 252. The roasted copper-matte is fluxed with slag from the smelting of copper pyrites and smelted in blast-furnaces. The blast-furnaces are 3.22 meters high, have a width of 0.88 by 1.02 meters, and have one tuyere only. About 4,500 kilograms of copper-matte ore are smelted in twenty-four hours. The campaign lasts about one month. a, Silver-lead; b, black copper; c, copper-matte; and d, slag, are the resulting products of the first copper-matte smelting. The black copper resulting from the first smelting is a very impure product; it contains a large percentage of lead and also silver. It is mixed with the black copper produced from the next smelting and smelted with it, in the following manipulation. The copper-matte con¬ tains : Per cent. Copper....... 40. 00 Iron.....,. 30. 00 Sulphur..... 20.00 Silver... 0.08 253. The matte is again roasted several times and re-smelted in shaft- furnaces, whereby the same products are produced as before. The following third, fourth, and fifth mattes are heated in the same 110 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, Ifc73. maimer—black copper always being produced, while the copper-matte becomes richer in copper and poorer in iron. The copper-matte smelting from the fifth smelting is not further treated until the following year, as only a small quantity is produced. Five separate smeltings, accompanied with repeated roasting, are neces¬ sary to extract the copper from the copper-matte containing 20 per cent, of copper in the form of black copper. The average amount of flux employed in the five smeltings per 100 cwt. of copper-matte is 73 cwt. of slag from the operation of pyrites-smelting, and 20 cwt. of slag from the same operation. 23-4. Analyses of slags from the smelting of copper-products : a, slag from first smelting of the concentrated matte, or second smeltiug of copper-matte, by Hahn; b, slag from third smelting of copper-matte, Werlisch; c, slag from fourth smeltiug of copper-matte, by Hahn; d, slag from fifth smelting of copper-matte, by Werlisch. abed --J Per cent, Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Silicic acid . 87.365 33.201 29.099 30. 994 Antimony oxide. U. 977 o. 23.7 0.254 u. 196 Iron protoxide . . 54.277 55.915 CO. 513 56.605 Copper protoxide. 1.4O0 0.692 2.067 0.933 Lead oxide... 4.771 2.180 0.431 0.021 I.lme. 4.105 3.763 1.475 4.314 Majjneela. 0. 565 0.594 0.568 0.253 Alumina. 6.496 4.366 4.275 5.732 Such slag as contains entangled matte is only employed again as a (lux in the operation of copper-matte smelting; the remainder is used in the ore-smelting, where it performs the same service as the slags from Oker. 235. The following are analyses of the copper-matte resulting from the various smeltings: a, matte from first smelting, by TTillegeist; b. matte from second smeltiug, by Hahn : c, matte from third smelting, by Werlisch ; <1 , matte from fourth smelting, by Hahn : c, matte from fifth smelting, by Werlisch. a 6 c d e Per cent. Sulphur. 21.000 Antimony. 0.200 Copper. 37.000 Lead.*.. 13.000 Per cent 19.96? 0. 444 6. 122 63.916 7.266 Per cent. 17. 668 L 012 8. 63? 72. 743 0.641 . Per cent. 18.156 0: 464 0.993 60.774 Per cent 19. 667 0.211 1. 062 80. .322 230. Refining of the black copper .—Before the black copper obtained from the foregoing operation is desilverized, it undergoes a process of oxidiziug-smelting. in order to free it from its foreign elements. The black copper obtained from all five smeltings is so mixed, that the REFINING BLACK COPPER. Ill charge will contain about 0.16 to 0.20 per cent. = 46 oz. 12 dwt. to 58 oz. 6 dwt. silver, and 80 to 83 per cent, copper. The operation is con¬ ducted in a large retiningfur-nace. The hearth is round, and has a diameter of 2.92 meters; it is composed of brasque and pulverized argillaceous slate. 257. A charge consists of 45 to 48 cwt.; wood was formerly used as fuel, but at present, bituminous coal is also made use of, with the em¬ ployment of blast under the tire-grate. About five hours are necessary to melt the black copper, and after the slag has been removed, the blast is turned on. At first only a small pressure is used, but after about two hours it is increased, so that 7£ cubic meters pass into the furnace I per minute. The impurities contained in the black copper are elimi¬ nated by the oxidizing influence of the blast. The entire process lasts from sixteen to eighteen hours. The copper is immediately granulated when tapped from the furnace. It contains from 91 to 97 per cent, copper and 0.20 to 0.40 per cent. = 58 oz. 6 dwt. to 116 oz. 12 dwt. silver. 258. The following is an analysis of the refined copper: Per cent. Per cent. Iron. . 0.070 Silver. . 0.300 Lead. . 2.710 Copper. . 95.000 Nickel ^ Antimony. . 1.530 Col alt >. jZinc J . 0.048 Arsenic.... The resulting slags are of two kinds; that which is formed during ; the first part of the process is only a partially-melted mass; it is rich in iron, cobalt, and nickel-oxide; the other which forms during the lat¬ ter part of the process, is thin fluid, and rich in lead. As their further manipulation is different, they are kept separate. The small amount of slag obtained of the first sort, is smelted with arsenical pyrites and baryte for nickel speiss. It is sold in this state. The other slag is smelted with slag from the matte-smelting in blast-furnaces; black cop¬ per, rich in lead and silver, and slag rich in copper and lead, are the resulting products. Some silver-lead is obtained from the black copper i i by its liquation. This silver-lead contains on an average 0.0775 per I cent. =22 oz. 11 dwt. 22.46 gr. silver and many impurities. The liqua¬ ted copper still contains much lead, and is refined in the same manner { as the original copper. The resulting granulated copper is much I poorer and impurer than that obtained from the original copper, j and contains 43 oz. 14 dwt. silver and 90 to 93 per cent, copper. The resulting slags are much richer in nickel and cobalt than the other slag from the main operation ; they are smelted for nickel speiss. 259. The slags from the operation of slag-smelting in the litharge- reduction furnaces, containing about 5 per cent, copper, from 6 to 10 per [ cent, lead, and 0.00125 per cent. = 7 dwt. silver, are charged in with the lead-ore smelting charge for the extraction of their metallic con- 112 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. tents. The chemical composition of the last slags will be seen from the following analyses : a, slag from slag-smelting, by Hahn; Z/, slag formed during the first period of the operation of refining the copper resulting from slag-smelting, by Werliscb; c, slag from second period of same operation. a b e Silicic aciil. Per cent. 30.5^4 Per cent. 11. 767 Per cent 20.811 Autiiuonious acid. Irou protoxide... 0.092 33. 918 1.756 10. 971 1 1.671 1. 087 1.370 9.302 ...do .... ...do ... 11.811 37.693 f 28.872 i 1.556 0.123 0.130 1. 019 0.177 2.677 6. 222 60.930 J 1.216 0. 560 0. 356 6.068 0. 431 Lead oxide.. Xickel protoxide. Cobalt protoxide. Zinc oxide... Alauj'aneise protoxide. ... Alumina. 99. 751 99. 501 99.118 261). Extraction of a liter from copper, and manufacture of vitriol .— Aftt/r the black copper has been refined and granulated, it is treated with sulphuric acid for the purpose of its desilverization, whereby cop¬ per-vitriol is also produced. There are two establishments at Altenau for the manufacture of vitriol; one was built in 1864, the other in 1868. The older has three dissolving-vessels and one evaporating-pan; the new has six dissolving-vessels and two evaporating-pans. The dissolv¬ ing-vessels are of wood lined with sheet-lead. They are 1.02 meters square and 1.17 meters high. They have a double bottom. The upper or false bottom is perforated with holes 0.025 meter in diameter. 261. When the dissolving-boxes are charged with copper, about one- fourth of the charge, in large pieces, is laid on the false bottom, and on the top of this the small copper granules ; the charge is 1,000 kilograms, and is about 1 meter high: care being taken that the granules shall not be so densely packed that the air will not be able to circulate. As soon as the pile, through dissolving, has sunk 0.24 meter, fresh quantities of copper are added; which is done two or three times a week. The consumption of sulphuric acid is 150 to 175 kilograms in twenty-four hours. The boxes are cleaned every eight to thirteen weeks. The granules are heated by the dissolving solution, which mate¬ rially aids the oxidization. The temperature of the acid is important. If it is too high, silver is dissolved; if too low, the process is retarded. The solution from the dissolving-vessels should not be clear, which would show that the silver also is dissolved. Above the dissolving-vessels there is a sulphuric-acid reservoir. The raw sulphuric acid from the lead-chambers is conducted in the large reservoir, and superheated steam is led iuto the acid, whereby it is heated to 65° lb, and at the same time diluted to 26° B. It is afterward changed to 32° B., by add- VITRIOL MANUFACTURE. 113 ing the acid solution from the crystallization vessels. The sulphuric acid employed is 48° to 50° JB. strong’, and is manufactured at Altenau. Each dissolving-vessel communicates with the sulphuric-acid reservoir by means of a movable siphon. Every half hour the copper granules in the dissolving-vessel are washed with sulphuric acid from the reser¬ voir by means of the siphon. The acid flows off rapidly ; the oxide thereby formed on the surface of the granules are washed off by the next addition of acid with the argentiferous slime. The copper-vitriol solutiou escaping from the dissolving-vessels flows through troughs into a large basin and from this into a system of open troughs, which again lead to another large basin. The solutiou, which at first is warm, partially evaporates while circulating in the troughs, and most of the copper-vitriol crystallizes upon the sides and bottom. The crystals with the argentiferous slimes adhering to them are removed and placed upon boards as soon as the troughs become filled. The mother-solution running off is collected in a basin at the end of the system, and is again used for dissolving the copper-granules, as it is very acid. For this purpose it is forced up into the sulphuric-acid reservoir by means of a Giffard injector. The raw crystals are dissolved in pans. The pans are of lead, 3.12 by 3.51 meters wide and 0.61 meter deep. They are heated by means of a Fairbairn smoke-consuming fire-place. Bituminous coal serves as fuel. Pure water is only partially used for dissolving the raw vitriol, the mother-liquid from the latter crystallization being principally em¬ ployed. The pans are filled 0.25 meter high with mother-liquid, 0.10 meter high with water, and heated for 13 hours, whereby the fluid must reach a temperature of 75° or 80° B. Eaw crystals are then placed within the pans until the solution reaches 28° B. It takes about 10 per cent, vitriol to produce this effect. A small amount of copper-granules are placed upon the bottom of the pan; about 1| pounds of finely-pul¬ verized copper and ^ pound salt is strewn over the surface of the solu¬ tion in order to precipitate any silver which may have been dissolved by the sulphuric acid or nitric acid which may have been contained in the unrefined sulphuric acid. 262. The solution is then allowed to stand for eleven hours without further heating, after which it is drawn off into crystallizing-tanks by means of a siphon. Since 1869 it has been filtered through granulated lead, and since 1870 also through granulated copper, in order to free it from any floating argentiferous slime, and also to precipitate the last traces of silver. As soon as the granulated lead and copper contain about 1 per cent, silver, the filters are renewed. It takes about one and a half months before the granules become this rich in silver. From 3 to 4 per cent, more silver is obtained by the employment of these filters than before they came into use. The loss ot silver in this process has been by this improvement reduced to 2 per cent. The crystallizing-tanks are made of wood, lined on the inside .with 8 M 114 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673.. sheet-lead. They are 3 meters long, 1.37 meters wide, and 1.10 meters deep, and have a capacity of 4 cubic meters, which corresponds to that of an evaporptiug-pan. From 120 to 150 lead strips are hang in each crystallizing-tank, upon which the crystals form. The first crystals gen¬ erally form after about two days. In order to produce large crystals, the strips, which are already covered with crystals, are hung in the solution several times. Small crystals are always formed on the bottom of the tanks, but as they are always impure they are put back into the raw solution. 203. After the close of the crystallization process, the crystals are removed from oft’ the lead strips and then placed upon an inclined table, where they drain off; they are then packed and ready for market. The remaining mother-liquid is then tapped off into a basin, from which it is forced up into the evaporating-pans by a Giflard injection, and used again for dissolving the raw vitriol. The copper-vitriol of Altenau is distinguished for its purity, as may be perceived by the following analy¬ sis : Per cent. Iron. 0.0107 Antjmony. 0.0123 Arsenic.-. 0.0004 Zinc. Trace. Nickel. Trace. Silver. 0.0000 0.0300 The remaining argentiferous slime from the vitriol solution, after it has been drawn off into the evaporating-pans, is conducted to special boxes and well washed. The wash-water goes with the mother-liquids into the evaporating-pans. The following is an analysis of the argen¬ tiferous slime: Fer cent. Silver. . 3.100 Gold. 0.004 Copper, (partly as Cu O SO.i + 5 Fbo.). 7.150 Lead, (50.44 per cent. Fbo S0 3 ). 34. 4G0 Antimony, (17. 00 per cent. Sb 0 3 ). 14.330 Arsenic. 3.150 Sulphuric acid. 10. G70 2G4. The argentiferous slime while still moist is mixed with equal weight of litharge, formed into balls, dried and then subjected to a re- ducing-smelting in a litharge-reduction blast-furnace, with a flux of slag from ore and matte smelting. The resulting products are silver-lead, slag, rich in lead, aud a matter rich in silver. 2G5. The silver-lead contaiuiug 1.50 per cent, to 1.90 per cent. = 437 oz. to 554 oz. silver, is cupelled. The resulting silver, however, ANDREASBERG PROCESSES. 115 contains more copper than that from the lead-smelting. It is sent to Lautenthal for refining. The litharge is again used for mixing with the argentiferous slimes. The slag, containing 17 to 20 per cent, lead and 0.004 to 0.010 per cent. = 6 oz. 3 dwt. 7.GS gr. to 2 oz. 18 dwt. 4.8 gr. sil¬ ver, is added to the lead-matte smelting-charge. The matte rich in silver is formed, as the argentiferous slimes contain much copper ; a part of the sulphuric acid, which it also contains, is re¬ duced to sulphur and this combines with the copper, the result being a matte. It contains about 0.37 to 0.70 per cent. = 107 oz. 17 dwt. to 204 oz. 2 dwt. silver, 12 per cent, lead, 30 per cent, copper, and much anti¬ mony and arsenic. The formation of the product is not wished. Tor its further manipulation it is smelted with metallic iron, and tbe result ing products are silver lead, containing about 1.13 per cent. = 328 oz. 17 dwt. silver, slag carrying 5 to 6 per cent, lead, and 0.003 per cent. = 17 dwt. 11.52 gr. per ton, aud copper-matte with 38 per cent, copper, 0.3 per cent, silver, (87 oz. 8 dwt. 14 gr. per ton,) aud 12 per cent. lead. The silver-lead is cupelled, the slag is used as a flux by the reduction of the argentiferous slimes, and the copper-matte collected until there is a suf¬ ficient quantity for its further treatment. 260. The annual production of copper-vitriol at Alteuau is 450,000 kilograms. 267. Andreasberg.— Foreign silver-ores (Mexican) are the principal subjects of the Andreasberg metallurgical processes, as the silver aud lead ores from the neighboring mines, and the old slags, containing small quantities of lead and silver, form but a small proportion of the material treated. The ores have a very varied composition aud are mostly of a rebellious nature. The local ores are galena, with small quantities of silver mineral, copper aud iron pyrites, blende tetrahedrite aud bournonite, calcite, quartz, and argillaceous slate. The ores were formerly roasted in free heaps, but are now roasted in reverberatory furnaces which are connected with a system of condensation-chambers. 268. The smelting processes are divided into two classes : the first is for the ores which contain gold, the second is for ores which are free from gold. The composition of the charge is almost constantly changed, which is owing to the varying nature of the ores. The gangue, as a rule, is very difficult to fuse, and demands a large amount of flux. For this purpose slag from the ore-smelting is added. That portion is taken which is the richest in lead, silver, and gold. This slag has the follow¬ ing composition :* Iron protoxide Silicic acid... Alumina. Lime. Magnesia .... . 13.7 24. 7 . 42.5 40.9 . 19.5 15.3 . 12.6 8.8 . 7. 1 6. 6 * The data for Andreasberg are mostly from Dr. Wedding’s communication in the Preusaiache Zcitsthrift. 116 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 0.27 1.2 1.25 0. 0025 0. 003 00. 0025 97. S23 It lias been observed that a very small proportion of the gold in com¬ parison to the silver enters the slag and matte. The charge for the first and second classes of ores, respectively, averages— 1 . 2 . Kilograms. Kilograms. Ore. 100 100 Lead-tlux. 75 50 Slag from ore smelting. 287 211 Slag from the Lower Ilarz. 20 48 Roasted lead-matte. 29 31 1 kilogram coke carries. 7.4 7. The round furnace smelts in twenty-four hours.... 0, GOO G, G50 The Raclietto furnace is sometimes used for ore-smelting. Thequan. tity of lead-flux is dependent upon the percentage of silver in the ore. In this connection the following rule is observed: Lead flux is added to the charge, in which the ore contains from 0.2 per cent.=58.3 oz. to 0.5 per ceut.=145.S oz. silver; silver-lead produced contains 0.5 per cent. = 145.8 oz. silver; from 0.5 per cent. = 145.8 oz. to 1 per cent.=291 oz. silver, silver-lead produced contains 1 per cent.= 291 oz. silver; from 0.5 per cent.=145.8oz. to 1 per cent.=291oz. silver, silver-lead produced contains from 1 per cent.=291 oz. to 2 per cent.= 583 oz. silver. It is here apparent that the principle always kept in view is, the greater the quantity of lead in proportion to the silver put in the charge the less silver is slagged or absorbed by the intermediate products ; but the lead loses through volatilization, &c., and the consumption of fuel in smelting and desilverizing the silver-lead is increased. 269. The amount of gold contained in the silver extracted directly from the Mexican ore, and the by-products in treating the same, is as follows: Silver extracted directly from the ore contains 0.887 per cent. = 259 oz. 15 dwt. 8 gr., gold; silver extracted from lead-matte contains 0.140 per cent. = 40 oz. 15 dwt. 4.S gr. gold; silver produced from assaying slag from ore-smelting contains 0.277 per cent. = 80 oz. 14 dwt. 14.4 gr. gold; silver extracted from fumes contains 0.3 per cent. = 87 oz. 8 dwt. 14 gr. gold. The silver extracted from Andreasberg ores, and the by-products produced in treating the same, contain the gold in exactly an inverse ratio. This has been ascribed to the fact that the gold is very finely divided in the Andreasberg works when compared to the Mexican ores. The following are average assays : Silver extracted directly from ore contains 0.018 per cent. = 5 oz. 4 dwt. 20.G gr. to 0.01 per cent. = 2 oz. 18 dwt. 4.8 gr. gold; silver extracted from lead-matte con- Copper protoxides Lead oxide. Silver.... ANDREASBERG PROCESSES. 117 tains 0.07 per cent. = 20 oz. 8 dwt. 4.8 gr. to 0.024 per cent. = C oz. 19 dwt. 22 gr. gold; silver produced from assaying slag from ore-smelting contains 0.1 per cent. = 29 oz. 2 dwt. gold. The slag produced by this operation is added to the charge for the ore smelting. The silver-lead containing less than 0.5 per cent. = 145 oz. 10 dwt. silver, is sent to Lautenthal for desilverization. The silver-lead assaying over 0.5 per cent, silver is cupelled. 270. Silver-ores containing 10 per cent. = 2,910 oz. silver, or more, are added in quantities of 50 to 100 kilograms to about 5,000 kilograms silver-lead. The silver-lead is melted on the cupellation-heartb, the abstrich drawn off, and the rich silver-ore is thrown in the metallic bath by means of an iron spoon; whereupon the temperature is raised and kept at a high point for about one hour. At the end of this period the lead and lead-oxide will have absorbed the greater part of the silver. The slag formed by the gangueof the silver-ore and lead-oxide is drawn off by means of a piece of wood fastened at a right angle on au iron rod. The cupellation process is then conducted as usual. 271. The matte is roasted in shaft-furnaces, (kilns,) whereby the con¬ tents of sulphur are reduced from 23.4 per cent, to 5 per cent. These furnaces, and also the reverberatory roasting-furnaces, are connected with a condensation canal. The sides are built of slag-bricks, and are covered with iron plates; these are made air-tight by a coating of tar. The condensed fumes consist chiefly of arsenious and sulphurous acid, and contain 0.006 per cent. = 1 oz. 14 dwt. 1G.22 gr. silver, and from 4.2 to 6.6 per cent. lead. The charge for matte-smelting is as follows : Kilograms. Boasted matte... 100 Lead-flux.*.. 38 Slag. 170 One kilogram coke carries 7.7 kilograms charge; 6,050 kilograms charge are smelted in a Bacliette furnace in twenty-four hours. The slag produced has the following composition : Per cent. Iron protoxide... 38. 50 Silicic acid.... 30.15 Alumina.. 15. 90 Lime.-. 10.03 Magnesia... 1-05 Copper protoxide... 0. 05 Lead oxide ... .. 3. 55 Silver... 0. 003 99.233 The slag from the old slag-dumps is smelted with the slag produced from day to day. The slag produced by this operation is, on account of 118 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. a lack of bases in tbe charge, comparatively rich iu lead and silver, as the annexed analysis will show : Per cent. Silicic acid... 47. 75 Iron protoxide. IS. 90 Alumina. 21.20 Lime. 6.00 Magnesia. Lead oxide. Silver. Arsenic and antimony 2. 90 2. 25 0. 001 Trace. Total. 99.001 There are produced from the old slag 144,338 kilograms silver-lead, assaying 0.056 per cent. = 16 oz. 6 dwt. 13.9 gr. silver, and 134,600 kilo¬ grams matte. 272. For 1871 the works at Amlreasberg treated 518,000 kilograms ore; 137,000 kilograms of which was from the mines near that place. 273. L.yi'TEN'Tiial. —The ores treated at Lauteuthal have the same general composition as the Clansthal ores. The smelting processes are conducted on the same principle as that which has been described when treating of Clansthal; a modification, however, is caused in the ore- smelting by a larger percentage of silica and zinc contained in the ore ; an increased amount of basic copper-slag and matte is therefore added to the ore-charge. As the other operations have already been spoken of, it w ill suflice to remark that the ore-smelting is conducted entirely m Kachette furnaces with twelve tuyeres. The lead-matte has been roasted, since the lull of 1873, in shaft-furnaces. The fumes are utilized in the sulphuric-acid manufactory which was completed in the same year. The black copper is sent to Alteuau for further treatment. 271. The silver-lead produced at all the smelting-works is desilverized at Lauteuthal, with the exception of the rich silver-lead and that pro¬ duced by smelting the old slags, which contain a large amount of copper, (Amlreasberg,) and the silver-lead produced by the matte-smelting at Alteuau and Clansthal, which are either too rich, (Amlreasberg,) or con¬ tain so much copper that they are rendered unsuitable for the zinc- desilverization process, and are therefore cupelled without undergoing any concentration. 275. Pattiuson's process, which was introduced at Lauteuthal iu 1864, was superseded in 1868 by desilverization by means of zinc. This was materially improved in 1869 by the introduction of steam (Cordurie ? s system) as an oxidizing and poling agent. 276. The silver-lead produced at the different works iu the Upper Harz was formerly so pure that it could be desilverized by the crystallization process after having been melted in an iron kettle and poled. Its com¬ position has not materially changed since that process was practiced. LAUTENTHAL ORES AND PROCESSES. 119 Although it contains a large number of foreign substances, the quantity is so small as not to make it an impure article, as the analysis by Herrn Hampe, of Claustkal, will show : Silver-lead from— Lautenthal. Clansthal. Altenau. 98. 964 98. 929 98. 837 0. 283 0.186 0. 239 0. 574 0. 720 0. 768 0. 007 0. 006 0. 0009 0. 008 0. 004 0. 003 Silver. 0.143 0. 008 0.141 0. 006 0.140 0. 003 0. 002 0. 002 0. 002 0. 006 0. 002 0. 002 0. 0003 0. 0U0I 0. 0001 Traces. 99. 9953 99. 9961 99. 9950 Although the silver-lead from each work is desilverized separately, they are all treated in the same manner. The process, as now con¬ ducted, may be regarded as giving general satisfaction, with the excep¬ tion of the present method of extracting the silver from the rich oxide. Should the advantages of the method lately introduced at Tarnowitz be confirmed by a sufficiently long trial, it will be adopted at Lautenthal. 277. The desilverization of silver-lead by means of zinc. —Silver-lead is treated in fourteen Patfiuson kettles 1.GG5 meters in diameter, and 0.75 meter deep. Each kettle is provided with a fire-place and separate chimney 8 meters high. Every three kettles form a battery. The two outside kettles are used for smelting and desilverizing the silver-lead, and the middle kettle is used for liquating the zinc-scum and desilver¬ izing the lead therefrom. One kettle is employed to oxidize the zinc in the rich zinc-dust (zinclcstaub) and in the fourteenth the abstrich is fused and poled. This kettle lasts but a short time, as the iron is at¬ tacked by the antimony, &c. The steam is generated in an iron boiler, (a second boiler being held in reserve), and, before entering the desilveri- zation-kettles, passes through a steam-heating oven. A sheet-iron pipe, about 0.25 meter in diameter, runs from the condensation chambers through the building about 2.2 meters above the floor; from this seven iron joints (one to every two kettles) are projected at a right angle to the main pipe; each joint serves to connect the main pipe with the iron hood which is placed on the kettles while the steam is being conducted in the molten metal. 278. Melting the charge and removing the abzug. —The silver-lead con¬ tains 0.13 to 0.14 per cent. =37 oz. 16 dwt. 19 gr. to 40 oz. 15 dwt. 4.8 gr. silver. The charge is 12,500 kilograms, which is melted in seven hours. If the fire is carefully regulated the skimmings ( abzug-schlicker) composed partly of the copper, iron, &c., contained in the silver-lead, lie on the top of the metallic bath, forming a dark-colored crust from 2 to 4 centimeters thick. This is removed, and after having been liquated, is smelted with unroasted matte, ( vide abzug-smelting.) 120 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. with vertical cylinders on frames; high and low pressure, with con- densation ; 20 nominal horse-power ; patent governor. In the center space, marked 14, a highly-finished freight-engine for steep gradients, for the Midi Railway Company; eight wheels coupled ; outside cylinders. Weight of engine empty, 47 tons S hundred-weight. This locomotive is one of twenty made to order by the works in 1872. (15.) Upon this space railway-wheels and axles are shown in a highly- finished state. Both axles and tires are of Creuzot steel. Axles and tires of the same pattern and finish are shown folded up aud bent in opposite directions without exhibiting a flaw. (1G.) Upon space 10, opposite the steam-engine, they exhibit a steam- engine cylinder, rough from the fouudery, as cast for the paddle-engines, with high and low pressure, of 350 horse-power, of the steamer Petrel, of the French navy. This piece weighs seven tons. The diameter of the high-pressure cylinder is 3 feet l[-f inches, and of the low-pressure, 5 feet lg inches ; stroke of pistons, 3 feet 34 inches. (1/.) In the spaces marked 17 there are several models, plans, and drawings of public works, bridges, viaducts, aqueducts, &c., among them a drawing of the bridge of Friburg, on the railway from Lausanne to Friburg, 1S59, of which the iron-work weighs 3,000 tons; the swing- bridge of Brest, 1SG0, weight of iron-work 1,170 tons; the bridge on El Ciuca, Spain, 1SGG, weight of iron-work 247 tons. Drawing of the bridge on the Cliiffa, Algiers, 1SGS ; weight of iron¬ work 419 tons. Drawing of the bridge on the Danube, at Stadlau, near Vienna, con¬ structed at Creuzot in 1SG9 for the I. It. P. Company of State Railways, scale 7( J-y. Distance between abutments, 1,2G4 feet S inches; number of columns, 4; distance between centers of columns, 263 feet 2 inches • weight of iron-work, 2,140 tons. There is also a diagram showing the manner in which the bridge has been put into its place by hauling. Drawing of the bridge on the Danube, at Vienna, constructed at Creuzot in 1S73 for the administration of the public-works department, scale Distance between abutmeuts, 1,033 feet; liumber of columus, 3; distance betweeu ceuters of columns, 275 feet G inches; weight of iron-work, 2,400 tons. 94. Production. —The exact statistics of the works, as regards ex¬ tent and production for 1873-74, are as follows: Vienna International Exhibition. 1873 Iron and Steel tit-isl Mitt LEGBND The grouuds apd shops of the different departments, composing the Creusot works, are designated by the following plain tints : COLLERIES. HIGH-FURNACES _ STEEL-WORKS. MECHANICAL-WORKS_ IRON WORKS. HUM.DING is lead refined by means of lead-chloride and lime; c is lead refined with lead-sulphate and salt; d is a late analysis of the refined lead. These works employed in 1872, G2 workmen; they produced 550,000 kilograms lead. Bit. Dio Stolbergor Actien-Gesellschaft fiir Bergbau, Blei- und Zinkfabrication.—“The Stolberg Stock Company for Mining and the Production of Lead and Zinc,” exhibited specimens of ores and com¬ mercial soft lead.* This company has its headquarters in Aix-la-Chap- elle, owns bituminous-coal mines near Stolberg and Dortmund, and also lead, zinc, and iron-pyrites mines near Stolberg, Ehrenbreitenstein, Barmen, Ramsbeck, Brilon in the Harz, and in Spain. It also smelts ores from Sardinia. "The analysis accompanying the latter showed the following percentage of foreign substances in 1,000,000 kilograms : No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. 8b ... Kilograms. . 39.1 Sb ... Kilograms. . 40. 1 Sb ... Kilograms. . 31.7 Cu ... . 8.4 Cu... .20.6 Cu ... Zu ... . 7. S Zn ... . 22.1 Zn ... . 2.2 Fe ... . 6.8 Fe ... . 14.1 Fe.... 62.1 96.9 38.4 RHENISH LEAD-SMELTING. 147 The ores treated are of a varied composition ; a large proportion, however, carry a considerable amount of copper, antimony, and zinc. Four calcining-furnaces are used for calamine. 345. Twenty furnaces are employed to roast lead-ores and blende. The first are treated in double-hearthed reverberatory, and the latter in furnaces according to Hasenclever and Helbig’s system; models of the latter were exhibited. The construction of these furnaces is illustrated in Figures III and IY. It is asserted that it is easily manipulated, and that it roasts well— i. e., blendic ores with 33 per cent, of sulphur are roasted, so that, after the operation, they contain ouly 1.2 per cent. (?) sulphur, and permits the use of the sulphurous-acid fumes for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The disadvantages compared to the Gerstenhofer furnace are, the large cost of construction, consumption of fuel, its small capacity, and, as the ore is liable to adhere to the sliding-surface and partitions, a moderate amount of lead in a substance would dis¬ qualify it for treatment iu this furnace. The last objection applies also to a chloridizing roasting. The muffle roasting-furnace, standing in connection with a tower, as formerly constructed by Hasenclever and Helbig,* did not allow of the good roasting of blende in the tower, the temperature in the same not being sufficient for this purpose ; zinc only melting on tbe lower plate and lead scarcely on the upper. After the hot gases from the muffle were employed for heating the tower, and iron plates used instead of fire-clay, the roasting was better, and blende, containing 30 per cent, sulphur, only contained 19 per cent, sulphur on arriving at the foot of the tower, at the end of the muffle 8.75 per cent., and when taken from the furnace only 1.04 per cent. (?) The roasting gases containing 6 per cent, sulphurous acid, could also be used to advan¬ tage for the manufacture of sulphuric acid. The canals, however, proved to be inadequate for the gases of combustion; the cinders and dust coming from the fire-place could not be removed’during the operation of roasting, and they easily obstructed the passage between the iron and fire-clay slabs. This caused cracks, and sulphurous acid escaped with the gases from the fire-place. This disadvantage has been avoided by the newest method of construction, (Fig. I:)B, charging-funnel for hold¬ ing the ore, from which it glides through an inclined canal, which is 1.8 meters wide, 0.5 meter high, and 9 meters long. The incline of the canal is 43°. The ore is heated from below by the gases from the fire¬ place passing through the canal. The gases produce a temperature in the ore-canal sufficiently high to melt antimony in the upper part of same. H, 50 partition-walls which reach to within a few centimeters of the bottom wall of the canal. They cause the ore to pass through the canal in a thin layer, and also cause the sulphurous acid evolved to pass over the ore in a roundabout manner—that is,.through apertures alter¬ nating with each other on the sides of the partition-walls. The roasting * The description of Hasenclever and Helbig’s improved roasting-furnace is from the Zeitsehrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieur, 1872, p. 505. 148 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. I gases, rich in sulphurous acid, escape at S into a cooling-chamber cov¬ ered with iron plates, upon which the ore is dried before entering the furnace. Entrance can be obtained to the different compartments of the canal by means of boles on the sides, which are closed by slides. Entrance is also obtained in the same manner to the fire-canals. I, hol¬ low discharging-roller, kept cool by air passing through from side to side; it is revolved by a small water-wheel. The motiou is not con¬ tinual, but periodical. As soon as a bucket fills with water, the wheel revolves half the way round, and with it the discharging-roller, whereby the ore is discharged from the inclined canal into the muffle b; the rest of the ore in the inclined canal gliding down as fast as the roller dis¬ charges. The muffle b is 6.5 meters long, 1.8 meters wide, and 0.4 meter high, and has live working-doors. The ore is spread out in the muffle every two hours and gradually shoved to the rear, where it falls through an opening on the lower hearth, a, which is directly heated by the flames from the fire-place. The hearth a is 5.7 meters long and 0.4 meter high. The ore is here completely roasted and gradually shoved toward the fire-bridge. The sulphurous acid evolved on the lower hearth passes off with the gases of combustion through e, c, <7, and /«, into the chimney; /, Uoiituis gas-generator, hot air passing in over the generator; /, workiug-door; k, door for charging generator with fuel. Blende con¬ taining only 30 per cent, sulphur is said to contain 10 per cent, sulphur when reaching//, 6.4 per cent, at the rear of the muffle, and 1.2 per cent. (?) on reaching the fire-bridge. 346. The lead-ores treated at these works are prepared for the smelt¬ ing operation by roasting in reverberatory furnaces. These have one hearth and four working-doors on each side. They are 10.8 meters long and 1 meters wide. Their capacity is 3,330 kilogrjirasore in twenty-four hours, with a consumption of 25 to 20 per cent, bituminous coal. Twelve shaft-furnaces are used to smelt the roasted ore. Ten of these are of the construction known as the Stolberg furnace. Those used here are crucible-furnaces with four tuyeres in the back wall. Two are small llasehetfe furnaces, 1.26 meters wide and 1.57 meters deep. The charge is composed of 40 to 50 per cent, iron tap-cinder, S per cent, limestone, 20 per cent, lead-slag, 22 per cent, cokes. Cerussite is made into balls with powdered iron tap-cinder and lime, and is then smelted in the same manner as galena. The capacity of the Kachette furnace is 25,000 kilo¬ grams ore in twenty-four hours. The consumption of fuel is the same as in the Stolberg furnace. 847. Both the pattiusonizing and the zinc-desilverization methods are used. The purer grades of silver-lead are desilverized by means of zinc in iron kettles. The charge for the latter process is 12,000 kilograms. It is necessary with silver-lead containing a large quantity of antimony to eliminate the latter after the abzug, formed by melting, has been re¬ moved, and before the first addition of zinc, by conducting superheated steam through the molteu metallic mass, whereby the autimouial lead STOLBERG SMELTING-PROCESSES. 149 is stirred up and brought in contact with the air, and the antimony oxidized, together with a small quantity of lead. This dross is drawn off, and the lead is desilverized by three additions of zinc. The amount of zinc consumed with silver-lead containing copper averages 1.2 per cent. 348. The poor lead isdezinckified by means of superheated steam. The zinc-scum is liquated in iron kettles, and then treated with steam, (vide Lautenthal;) the rich lead is cupelled. The zinc-dust is treated, accord, iiig to Flach’s method, in a shaft-furnace with three tuyeres and a low pressure of blast. The charge is 100 zinc-dust, 50 iron tap-cinder, and a small quantity of the upper part of the cupellation-hearth. The result¬ ing silver-lead is cupelled. This process is said to possess several ad¬ vantages, such as small cost of construction, requires but few workmen to conduct it, and gives immediate results, 83 per cent, of lead being ex¬ tracted. But it has also important disadvantages, and it is a disputed point whether it is more desirable than the Lautenthal method. It is, in all probability, far inferior to the method practiced at Tarnowitz. In order to avoid a great volatilization of lead the pressure of the blast must be made small, but in this case the amount of zinc volatilized is also diminished ; only very little silver is volatilized, but large salaman¬ ders are formed, which are rich in silver but difficult to work. The zinc is partially slagged and partially volatilized. The slag and salamanders are both added in small quantities to the ore-smelting. 349. The silver-lead free from impurities, viz, antimony, copper- arsenic, &c., is pattinsonized in two batteries; each battery is com¬ posed of two kettles, viz, the melting and the crystallization kettles. The method is the so-called “ mechanical pattinsonizing.” The system used at Stolberg was invented by M. Boudehen. It is also applied at Hozappel and Bouin. The* stirrer in the crystallization-kettle is moved by a vertical hollow shaft, “ within which there is a hollow shaft. By a well-known arrangement of bevel-wheels, these shafts are made to revolve in opposite directions. On the lower part of the outer shaft, within the pot, is fixed a stirrup-like frame, from the sides of which pro¬ ject short flat-edged scrapers ; on the inner shaft are fixed flat arms of equal length, arranged spirally, and with their sides oblique. Engine- power of 5 or 6 horses is required to drive this machinery. It is asserted that the cost of manual labor is only half of that in Pattinson’s process, and the total saving is estimated at 20 francs —■ $4 per ton.” The considerable outlay for machinery and skilled manual labor appears to be the principal objection to this method. In Stolberg the charge is 12,000 to 125,000 kilograms silver-lead. The silver-lead is melted in the upper kettle, A,i and then tapped through the iron pipes into the lower kettle, B, which has previously been heated. In order to reduce the * The following description and drawing of apparatus are from Percy’s Metallurgy of Lead, page 143. The drawing given is Jordan’s system. Boudelien’s is the same in principle. t See Figures 7 and 8. 150 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. temperature of the metallic liquid an addition of silver-lead is made. The stirrer is then set in motion and small jets of water thrown upon the molten alloy. At the end of two hours the mass will have become pasty, when the stirrer and water-streams are stopped and the mother- liquid is tapped into a heated pot, c. An iron hook is set in the lead while molten, and when the lead has cooled it is lifted out by means of a tackle. A fresh quantity of silver-lead, about 3,000 kilograms, assay¬ ing about the same in silver as the remaining crystals, is added from the melting-kettle, A, to the crystalliziug-kettle, B; during this operation the motion of the stirrer is reversed. The molten alloy soon liquefies the crystals, when the already-described operation is again performed. After this operation has been repeated seven times, the poor lead con¬ tains but 0.00.50 per cent. = 1 oz. 23.47 grs. Ag. The crystals are melted, tapped off, taken to another kettle for remelting and casting in pigs. An obstruction to the process is thus avoided. The mother- liquid is enriched in eight operations. The mother-liquid resulting is then returned to the kettle and further enriched in live operations; it contains 2.4 per cent. = 009 oz. 12 dwt. Ag. Eighty mufile-furnaces are employed in reducing zinc-oxide. Regenerative furnaces are a to several of these, and are said to give very economical results. 350. These works produce a greater amount of lead than any other establishment in the world. Their production in the last few years has averaged: Lead, 10,550,000 kilograms; silver, 7,S50 kilograms; zinc, 7,(500,000 kilograms; 1,850,000 kilograms was manufactured into sheet-zinc. 351. The Rheinisch-Nassauisehe Berg-uml Iliitten-Actiengesellschaft was represented by a collection lead and zinc ores, and a few interme¬ diate products, viz. commercial lead and silver. This company was formed on January 1, 1873, by a consolidation of the Eschweiler Gesell- scliaft fiir Bergban uud Hiitten, located at Stolberg, and the Holzappeler Blei tind Silber-Bergwerksgesellschaft, located at Holzappel. It owns lead, zinc, and irou-pyrites mines near Stolberg, Bensberg, and Wieslocb. The ores from these mines, together with ores from Montevecchio in Sardinia, Gar Ron ban in Algiers, Utah, and Nevada, are treated at the Binsfelohammer Iliitte, near Stolberg, and the Wilhelms Zinkhiitte near Eschweiler. The Holzappeler Iliitte treats the ores from the lead- mines near Holzappel and Obernhof. The ores at Binsfeldhammer are worked by the combined roasting and reduction process. 352. The roasting-furnaces are 6.3 meters long and 2.3 meters wide; they are donble-hearthed, and each hearth has three working-doors, on one side only. The roasted ore is smelted in shaft-furnaces. These were all originally of the Stolberg pattern, but round shaft (Pilz) fur naces have recently been introduced. The silver-lead is desilverized by means of zinc. Superheated steam is used as the oxidizing medium. The zinc-dust from liquation of the zinc-scum (zinkscliaum) is smelted with iron tap-cinder in the reverberatory furnaces that were formerly used for the smelting of ore, according to the “ French process.” LEAD-SMELTING AT HOLZAPPEL. 151 Siemens’s regenerative gas-furnaces have been in operation at Wilhelms since 1862. 353. The gas generative and regenerative systems have proved to he very advantageous for zinc-furnaces in the past, and, as the price of coal will probably continue to grow larger without a corresponding in¬ crease in the value of zinc, the gas generative or regenerative system will, in the future, be necessary to an economically successful working of zinc-ores. 354. Holzappel. —The combined roasting and smelting process for lead-ores has taken the place of a modified Cariuthian smelting process in reverberatory furnaces at Holzappel. The ore is galena, with blende and copper pyrites. The gangue is quartz, siderite, and argillaceous slate. The ore is roasted and agglomerated in single-hearth reverbera¬ tory furnaces, having five working-doors on each side. The hearth is 9.41 meters long and 3.14 meters wide. Its capacity is 6,000 kilograms in twenty-four hours, with a consumption of 17 per cent, bituminous coal. The ore remains in the furnace thirty hours ; a charge of 750 kilo grams is drawn every six hours. The roasted agglomerated ore contains about 5 to 6 per cent, of sulphur. The roasted ore is smelted in Stolberg crucible shaft-furnaces. They have two tuyeres, and are 4.079 meters high ; front width, 0.785 meter ; back width, 0.941 to 1.25 meters. The charge is composed of 750 kilo¬ grams ore, 250 kilograms iron tap-cinder, 500 kilograms lead-slag, 125 kilograms limestone, 135 kilograms coke, and small variable quantities of cupellation, hearth, and furnace accretions. The silver-lead, containing 0.01 per cent.=2 oz. 18 dwt. 4.80 gr. silver, is pattinsonized. Mechanical pattinsonizing was first introduced at these works. The mechanical stirrer used was invented by M. Boudhen. The process is similar to that at Stolberg. 355. This company produced in 1872— Zinc. Lead. Silver. Binsfeldhammer Hiitte .. .. .kilos.. 1,200,000 Wilhelm’s Hiitte ... . ... kilos. 950. 000 Holzappel. .. .kilos.. 300,000 300 Making a total production of zinc, 950,000 kilograms ; lead, 1,500,000 kilograms; silver, 300 kilograms. 356. The Mechernicher Bergwerks Actien Yerein, of Mechernich in Commeru, was represented by maps, illustrating the size and character of their mines, ores, silver-lead, commercial lead and silver. This com¬ pany works the large lead-mine “Meinerzhagener Bleiberg,” and the smelting-works at Mechernich. The Meinerzhagener Bleiberg mine was originally divided into several smaller mines, dating from the seventeenth 152 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. century, which were consolidated into one in 1857. The mining consists in both surface and subterranean working. The sandstone stratum is over 20 meters thick, and is impregnated with small galena nodules, averaging from 2 to 4 millimeters in diameter. The size of the lev¬ els and the condition of the atmosphere in the mine permit the use of small steam-engines to draw the ore-cars. Rock-drilling machines are used, and the blasts are exploded by means of electric sparks. The levels, &c., are lighted with gas. There were 2,700 workmen employed in this mine in 1872, who extracted 4,700,000 kilograms ores assaying from 1.3 to 2.0 per cent. lead. In ten hours 950 centimeters of ore and gangue are mined. The same quantity of ore is dressed in eighteen hours. The concentration is carried to 57 to 00 per cent. lead. 357. The ore, which is composed chiefly of galena, silica, and alumina, is treated according to the combined roasting and smelting process. It contains but a very small quantity of copper; which removes the neces¬ sity of retaining a large amount of sulphur in the roasted ore, in order to concentrate the copper in a matte; and is free from those minerals, the component parts of which form combinations with silica, requiring a high fusing temperature, (blende, calcite, &c.,) and a large consilmp- tion of fuel, accompanied by an increased metallic volatilization. In consideration of this the ore undergoes a u slag-roasting.” 338. Double-hearthed reverberatory furnaces, (Fortschaufelungsoefen,) 10.1 meters long and 3.70 meters wide, were formerly exclusively used; but lately a furnace whose hearth is 22 meters long has been erected. It is superior to the short ones, inasmuch as the ore does not so easily agglomerate in the preliminary periods, whereby a siliceous crust would form and prevent a further oxidization. In this long furnace the ore is oxidized so gradually that the roasting progresses without interruption for six days; whereby the sulphide of lead is converted into sulphate, and a small amount of oxide of lead. As the charge is moved toward the fire-bridge the high temperature causes the silicic acid to unite with the lead-oxide, and to decompose the sulphate of lead, forming a homo¬ geneous basic lead-silicate, containing minute particles of undecom¬ posed galena, with the following composition: 8 to 9 per cent. Ah 0> 23 to 24 per cent. Si O.. 00 to 61 per cent. Pb. 1 to 1.5 per cent. S. = 11.2 to 7.5 sulphide of lead. The furnace contaius 40,000 kilograms ore. Oue thousand live hun¬ dred kilograms roasted ore is drawn, and 1,500 kilograms raw ore is charged, every six hours, making the capacity of the furnace 7,000 kilo¬ grams iu twenty-four hours, with a consumption of 13 to 13 per cent, bituminous coal. The last furnace erected is 24.5 meters long. It is desired to couduct the roasting slower, and, by carefully regulating the temperature, obtain a product containing still less sulphur. The reduc¬ tion of the ore occurs in Stolberg shaft-furnaces with four water-tuyeres LEAD-SMELTING AT HOLZAPPEL. 153 5.02 meters high, 1,590 meters wide, and 1,255 meters deep. One tuyere is placed on each side and the other two in the back corners; they are all directed toward the slag-spout. The blast is 0.25 meter water- column. The charge, in June, 1871, was a normal one and consisted of: Parts. Eoasted ore, (agglomerated,) with GO to 65 per cent. 100 Old slime, with about 20 per cent, lead.... 28. 5 By-products, from the zinc desilverization. 20 Iron slag, from puddling-furnace ....- 50 Furnace accretions.-..... 16 Limestone .. 18 Pig-iron, to decompose a small amount of galena remaining in slagged ore..... 15 • Coke..._... 20 The slag from this smelting was composed of— Per cent. Si 0 2 . 38. 2 Fe O. 28.71 CaO. 19.36 Mg O. 0.79 A1 2 0 3 . 11.44 Cu + Pb. 1.5 100. 00 The products are a small amount of lead-matte, contaiuing^lO per cent, lead, a very small quantity of copper, and 20 per cent, sulphur. The matte is roasted several times in stalls and then smelted. The compo¬ sition of the charge is : Roasted lead-matte. 100.00 Iron slag, from puddling-furnace.. . 17. 77 Limestone... 17.77 Coke... 11.11 The lead from the matte-smelting is used in the manufacture of shot. The matte is repeatedly roasted and smelted until the contents of lead is reduced to 20 per cent., and the copper is concentrated to 1 per cent., when it is laid aside. The silver-lead from the ore-smelting, containing 0.02 per cent. = 5 oz. 16 dwt. 14 gr. silver, is desilverized by means of zinc. 359. The process of desilverization is about the same as that practiced at Lautenthal. The charge is 30,000 kilograms; afterthis is melted in an iron kettle and the abzug removed, 225 kilograms of zinc are added; when the zinc has melted it is stirred for thirty minutes and then allowed to slowly cool for about eight hours. The solidified silver-zinc alloy is now removed. 154 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. The second addition of zinc is 75 kilograms, tlie third is 24 kilograms. The time allowed for cooling, after the second and third addition of zinc, is eight hours. This is a waste of time, as the separation of the differ¬ ent alloys occurs in a much shorter period when repeatedly stirred and the zinc-scum removed. A saving of labor is hardly the object sought for. 300. The poor lead is dezinckified by means of superheated steam, the desirability of using steam being increased by the lead containing a small quantity of antimony and nickel. The zinc-scum (zinkscliaum) is liquated in iron pipes, which are inclined at a small angle. The result¬ ing lead is desilverized with the silver-lead from the ore-smelting; the residue remaining in the iron pipes (enriched silver-zinc alloy) is smelted in a sliaft-furuace. , . The furnace is first charged with 100 per cent, iron tap-cinder and 20 per cent. coke. When the slag flows freely, the silver-zinc alloy is charged, commencing with 25 per cent. The normal charge consists in— Silver-zinc alloy . 100 Leap-matte, containing 9 to 10 per cent, lead. 40 Iron tap-cinder. 90 Coke. 1G-1S In order to avoid an unnecessary volatilization of lead, the pressure of the blast is not permitted to exceed 0.131 meter water-column. The lead assaying 2 to 0 per cent. = 583 oz. silver, is poled and cupelled. The copper lead matte, when a sufficiently large quantity has accumu¬ lated, is smelted in a shaft-furnace with the following products: # Copper lead matte. 150 Old lead-slag. 30 Iron tap-cinder. 70 Fumes from condensation-chambers. 50 Sweeping. 100 Coke .. .-. 10 The pressure of blast is 0.13 meter water-column. The silver-lead is cupelled. The matte, containing about 50 per cent, copper and a small quantity of silver, is sold. The loss iu lead in 1870 was estimated at 9.3 per cent. 301. The production of these works for lS72_is estimated at 1,400,000 kilograms lead, 000 kilograms silver. 302. Nassau.—T he “Emser Blei und Silber niitten” exhibited a sys¬ tematic collection of dressed ores and several metallurgical products, among which were the following: Fine silver; soft lead, 99.99 percent, being pure lead; pulverized litharge, with 92 per cent. Pb. and 8 per cent. O: prime red litharge, with 92 per ceut. Pb. and 8 percent. O; cuprif¬ erous litharge, with 91 per ceut. Pb., 1 per cent. Cu., and 8 per ceut. O; lump litharge, with 92 per cent. Pb., and 8 per cent. O; “zinc- NASSAU LEAD-SMELTING. 155 yellow,” (produced in the zinc-desilverization process by the dezinckifi- cation of the desilverized lead by means of steam,) containing 60 per cent, zinc oxide and 40 per cent, lead oxide. 363. The Emser Hlitte was founded in 1769, and the ore was smelted in reverberatory furnaces up to about the year 1835 : the iron reduction process of smelting was then introduced, and the smelting operations conducted in one-tuyered blast-furnaces of the old Harz pattern, which were succeeded by Vogel’s furnace with two tuyeres. The latter furnace was much more economical as regards the consumption of fuel than the former; the loss of lead was also diminished by their use. Within the last few years the iron reduction process has been done away with and the combined roasting and reduction process has taken its place. The ore assays 50 per cent, lead and 0.05 per cent. = 14 oz. 11 dwt. 14 gr. silver; it carries a considerable amount of blende, copper pyrites, tetra- hedrite, and siderite. 364. It is roasted in siugle-hearthed reverberatory furnaces, ( Fort- scliaufelungsoefen ,) 7.85 meters long and 4.08 meters wide. They have working-doors on both sides. Its capacity is 4,800 kilograms ore, with a consumption of 25 per cent, bituminous coal. The roasted ore contains 5 to 4.5 per cent, sulphur. The fumes from roasting were in 1871 per¬ mitted to escape into the air, whereby the loss of lead, &c., was greatly increased. 365. Two twelve-tuyered Rachette furnaces, 4.393 meters high—at the bottom, 2.823 meters long, 1.098 meters wide ; at the top, 2.994 me¬ ters long, 1.569 meters wide—are used for the reduction of the ore. The charge is composed of— 100 parts roasted ore. 133 parts slag from same operation. 50 parts reheating slag. ]0 parts lime. 8 parts lead-flux. 30 parts coke. The capacity of each furnace is 45,250 kilograms charge in twenty- four hours. The pressure of blast is 0.013 meter quicksilver-column. It was intended in 1873 to erect a Pilz furnace, with the hope of mate¬ rially diminishing the amount of zinc-accretions, &c. 366. The lead-matte, containing 4 per cent, copper and 8 per cent, lead, is roasted in stalls and smelted. The silver-lead from the matte¬ smelting, on account of its'containing a considerable amount of copper, is not desilverized with zinc, but is sent directly to the cupellation-fur- nace. The concentrated copper-matte is sold. 367. The silver-lead from the ore-smelting is desilverized by means of zinc. On account of the small quantity of silver-lead to be treated, the battery consists of only four desilverization-kettles, two for treating the silver-lead, one for liquating the lead in the zinc-scum, and one in which the zinc, &c., in the zinc-dust (zinkstaub) is oxidized. The kettles are 156 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 1.7 meters in diameter and 1.1 meters deep. The charge is 5,000 kilo¬ grams. The zinc is added to the molten silver-lead in three portions. The amount of zinc used is 200 kilograms = 1.3 per cent. The alloy (copper-scum) formed by the first addition of zinc holds the gold contained in the silver-lead. This is kept and treated by itself, but in a similar manner as the zinc-scum. The silver-zinc alloy from the second and third additions is first liquated in an iron kettle. The resulting lead is treated with a second and third portion of zinc. The zinc-dust is removed to the fourth, or rich, kettle, and, after having been brought to a cherry-red heat, is violently stirred with superheated steam. The zinc and a portion of lead are hereby oxidized. The lead containing 2 per cent. = 583 ounces silver is cupelled. The rich oxides are smelted in a two-tuyered furnace 4.SG meters high, 0.13-meter pres¬ sure of blast, quicksilver-column. 11 was formerly used for ore-smelting. The charge is composed of— 100 parts rich oxides. 100 parts iron tap-cinder. 100 parts lead-slag. 30 parts coke. It is assorted that the formation of salamanders is small, but an im¬ portant feature of this process is the volatilization of silver. The tumes assay 0.004 per cent. = l oz. 3 dwt. 7 gr. silver. The desilverizatiou-lead is treated with steam, whereby the zinc and antimony are oxidized. Rachotte furnaces with twelve tuyeres were tirst employed at Ems. 308. l*u 1872 these works produced— Kilograms. 1,080,000 1, 710,000 3,050 CHAPTER IX. AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE EXHIBITS. Condition of metal-industry; Display; Exhibits of tiie Pribram Smelting, Works, Kscheutzischer, Zeciie and Mies, Brixlegg Smelting-Works, Jochberg Smelting-Works, Muhlbach Smelting-Works, Bleiberg Smelting Company- Egger Smelting-Works, J. Rainer, Smaller Carinthian Smelting-Works, Raible Smelting-Works, Puntschard White-Lead Works, F. P. Herbst, Lud- „ wig Kursch Smelting-Works, Krain Ludwig’s Kursch Zinc-Works, Froue, Bulgaria, Royal Hungarian Mint; Smelting-works at Sciiemnitz, Kremnitz, Tarnowitz, and Newsohl, Tajora; Metallurgical process in the Lower Hun¬ garian mining-districts, Waldburgerschaft Smelting-Works, Transylvania, Nagy Barya. 369. Lead-metal industry in the Austrian-Hungariau Empire has a very ancient origin, hut, on account of a lack of large ore-deposits, it has never grown to extensive dimensions. It is chiefly owing to the many important improvements, made by Peter Ritter v. Rittinger, by means of which the ores are carefully dressed and the obnoxious minerals sepa¬ rated from the valuable elements, that they are enabled to conduct the smelting processes in an economical and profitable manner. The lead and silver mining and smelting centers in Bohemia and Hungary have, unfortunately, been without railroad communications, which have, in some respects, greatly retarded their development. A railroad was fiuished and opened to Schemnitz last summer, which will enable the reducing-works to operate on quite an enlarged scale. The government has already adopted measures to consolidate the reducing-works in and near Schemnitz into one. 370. The empire was well represented at the Exposition in Group I, and it was greatly regretted that the mining and metallurgical products were not exhibited so as to form a connected display, and thus present one large exhibit instead of the many lesser ones. The products of each separate district were scattered through the Austrian portion of the “ Industrial Palace,” presenting a striking contrast to Germany’s dis¬ play, and making it difficult for the visitor to obtain a comprehensive oversight of the whole by comparison. 371. Bohemia.— The Pribramer Silberhtitte was represented by plans of the smelting-works; statistical map of production, embracing the receipts and expenses, gain and loss, for each year from 1751 to 1871; charts illus¬ trating the different steps in dressing the ores, and each manipulation in their reduction, and systematically-arranged collections of vein-pieces, 158 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. (41;) dressed ores, (50;) intermediate and final metallurgical products, (52;) models of machinery for dressing ore; and model of the newly- erected large cupelling-furnace. 372. A large pyramid, placed opposite, and similar to that from Brixlcgg, attracted attention. The bod}* was composed of vein-pieces, ores, and products; a piece of silver from the German cupellation- furnace formed its apex. This exhibit was in itself a model of complete¬ ness, and showed a scientific treatment of the subject. The following have been selected from this display as being of especial interest: Commercial antimouial lead, noted for its large percentage of anti¬ mony, (18 to 20 per cent.;) silver-lead, soft lead, commercial lead, from pattinsonizing, produced by reducing and pattiusouiziug the rich litharge. Black, red, and green litharge; the former is reduced and produces auti- monial lead; the two latter are articles of commerce. Silver, from Ger¬ man cupellation-hearth, in the form of a large cake, about 3 feet G inches in diameter and 2 to 4 inches thick. It weighed 1,015 Zoll. pounds = 507.5 kilograms, and was valued at 4,570 gulden, (Austrian.) Near the edge of the silver-cake there were large pyramids, formed by sprouting while cooling. The pyramids were from 4 to S inches high. There were also bricks of refined silver exhibited. 373. In addition to the enumerated products, there was a model of Rittinger’s continual-acting percussion-table, in one-third of the natural dimensions. This table is intended to classify sorted slimes. The frame of the bed is of wrought-iron, and it is suspended by four hooks from four iron pillars. The floor of the bed was, in the model, of marble. Its capacity is 0.063 to 0.12G centimeter slime iu one hour. It concen¬ trates pure slime to GO to 70 per cent, of lead. 374. There was also exhibited a model of the cupellatiou-furnace, in one-sixteenth of its natural dimensions, erected in 1S72 by Herr Cermak. This furnace (see drawings) is rectangular, with a surface of hearth equal to 12 square meters. There are two movable hoods, each cover¬ ing one-half of the furnace. This furnace is intended for a charge of 25,000 kilometers = 24.G3 tons English lead. It has four fire-places; these are placed, two in each end; the doors are in the front and rear of the furnace. Either wood or bituminous coal can be used as fuel. The lead-fumes are caught iu small hoods, hung over the litharge-open¬ ing, and led iuto the main escape-pipe for the gases and fumes ; this is cast-iron, and is conducted through the blast-canal, thus warming the blast. It was intended to construct three similar furnaces in 1873-74, with gas-generating furnaces attached. The drawiug at the end of this report is a copy of the drawing by which the furnace was built. EXPLANATION OF THE DRAWINGS, FIGURES IX TO XVI, OF THE NEW OHPELLATION-FURNACE BUILT AT PRISBAM IN 1872. A, hearth made of marl. B, hearth made of slag. BOHEMIAN PROCESSES. 159 0, foundation, with holes,/, for escape of moisture. b , two doors for charging or watching the process. D, two movable hoods; d, sections of the same. E, four iron columns supporting an iron rail, upon which rest the pulleys that raise the hoods. g, small hood overhanging litharge-doors, F, and leading into G for escape of furnace-fumes. H, iron pipe containing blast; this is placed in the canal, G, by means of v/hich the blast is heated, h, tuyeres. K, door to fire-place. lc, fire-grate, with blast from l m, ash-pit. It is greatly to be regretted that the results obtained with this fur¬ nace at Pribram were not to be had. But it is highly probable that it would be very advantageous for works where large quantities of sil¬ ver-lead are cupelled, as at Pribarm. There must be a great saving of fuel and labor when cupelling large quantities of silver-lead, especially if it is poor in silver, when compared to the method often practiced of repeatedly adding fresh quantities of silver-lead, which has the effect of cooling the molten mass, and producing an impure litharge throughout the first part of the process. The concentration of the silver cannot be carried in this furnace beyond certain limits, owing to the increased temperature, and proportionate consumption of fuel necessary to heat the resulting small amount of silver in the large hearth. 375. Latest improvements in the metallurg-ical process.— Since the close of the year 1871, the combined washing and smelting process has taken the place of the iron-reduction process, in use up to that time. Long reverberatory roastiug-furnaces are used for roasting ores, and Rundofen (cylindrical blast-furnaces) with seven tuyeres, for the smelting and reduction of the roasted ore. In consequence of this change, less lead-matte had to be roasted and reduced by smelting, whereby the reduction was accompanied with a smaller amount of intermediate products, less loss, and, consequently, a decrease in the general cost, as the following figures will show: Cost of smelting per cwt.* of ore Loss in silver. Loss in lead .... 1871. 1 fl. 88.30 kr. 1.271 per cent. 21.61 per cent. 1872. 1 fl. 73.98 kr. 0.853 per cent. 17.50 per cent. The following communication upon the cost of smeltiug and the latest improvements made at Pribram appeared in The Berg-und Hiittenmannische Zeitung , 1873, p. 409. In making use of the iron-reduction process, the yield in lead-matte was 70 per cent, of the ore melted. In 1870, with the roasting and smelting process, combined with the iron-reduction process, the yield was still as high as 42.95 per cent.; in 1871, only 31.32 per cent, was produced; since 1872, with the combined roasting and smelting process * 1 Austrian cwt. = 56 kilograms 123 pounds English. 160 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. alone, and working an ore containing 53 percent, lead, the yield in lead- matte was only 10.S per cent, of the ore smelted. During the last three years the ores have continually increased, as regards metallurgical treatment, in rebelliousness, the percentage of zinc-sulphide, copper-sulphide, and silicic acid, being continually on the increase. The following three average analyses will show this increase in the ingredients above mentioned, a, is an average analysis of the lead ores in December of the year 1S70, after the same had been freed from all blendic ore, made by Patera; b, average analysis of the ores in the year 1871, made by Miizek; and c, average analysis , in the year 1872, made by the same: a. b. C. 71. 40 c 8. 11 25 C. 40 8. 01 3. 01 1. 30 1. 50 0.39 0.36 0. 37 0. 04 o. li Trace. Trace. 5. 44 2. 04 1. 07 • 0.51 0. G7 5.01 7.01 9.17 0. 57 0.23 Trace. 1. 43 o 1.50 0. 14 Trace. Trace. 7.60 k 40 11. 92 0. 37 0.67 99.57 99. 76 100.17 In 1 STD, instead of the four English roasting-furnaces, three long reverberatory roasting-furnaces were put in operation, and the fourth in the beginning of March, all of which worked well and with a large sav¬ ing in fuel, as compared with the English furnaces. These furnaces roasted ores containing 55 per cent, galena, so as to free them from all the sulphur contained therein within 2 to 3 per cent., thus causing the good results spoken of above as regards the production of lead-matte. By comparing the former roasting in English and double-roasting fur¬ naces of the year 1800, with that in the long revei'beratory roasting- furnaces in 1S71 and 1872, we have the following results : 1869. 1871. 1872. "Workingmen's wages per cwt. of ore.-.kreutzer.. Bituminous coal per cwt. of ore...-.pounds.. Cost of bituminous coal per ewt. of ore*.florins.. Cost of roasting per cwt. of ore.-.kreutzer.. a 27 35. 32 18. 90 27.17 9.18 25. 41 16.03 25.21 9.13 23. 48 15. 50 24. 63 * Tlie cost of 1 cwt. of bituminous coal in 1869,1871, and 1872 was 53.5, 63, and 66 kreutzer. In order, however, to rightly judge of the cost of roasting in both kinds of furnaces, the cost of roasting a cwt. of ore must be carried back i LATEST IMPROVEMENTS. 161 to the wages paid in 1809, and the saving in fuel should be made inde¬ pendent of the favorable price of coal in that year. We then have the following results for the roasting in the long reverberatory furnaces : • 1871. 1872. Kreutzer . 0. 64 6.22 Kreutzer . 1. 61 7. 81 6.86 9. 42 Since October, 1871, the lead-matte aud furnace-accretions have been roasted in stalls. The new cylindrical blast-furnace with seven tuyeres, ( rundofen ,) with bosh and closed top, finished in 1872, allows of from six to seven times greater production than the old blast-furnace with two tuyeres, aud saves almost one-third of the fuel necessary for the latter. The condensing-chambers have proved to be effective. They gave, at the end of the year 1871, 418 cwt.=20i§{}{} tons of furnace-fumes, haviug a value 2,293 fl. 12 kr. in metal, which is about equal to 6 per cent, interest on the cost of building the canal. The fluxing with lead-matte, lead-slag, and limestone was continued as usual; also the addition of the small percentage of pig-iron, 4 to 5 per cent., for reason of the poverty of the Pribram ores in this metal; but the addition of the iron-slag from puddling-furnace was diminished, by being partially replaced with the cheaper limestone. A mixture of charcoal and coke came into use as fuel, as the use of the latter alone was still too expensive, (1 cwt. coke costing 2 fl., and 1 cwt. charcoal 1 fl. 30 kr.) The pecuniary possibility of the exclusive use of coke will be decided by the seven-tuyered furnace. For the further manipulation of the silver-lead, a German cupellatiou- furnace, finished in 1S72, and of improved construction, was made use of. In 1871, the Pattinson apparatus was finished, consisting of a melt¬ ing-kettle and a crystallization-kettle, and in working, by allowing the mother-liquid to flow off, a normal decrease of the percentage of silver in the crystals was effected. In the manufactory for the manufacture of zinc oxide, finished in 1871, finely crushed blendic ores, containing 17 per cent, zinc, are treated until the residue contains only 20 per cent, of the metal originally con¬ tained in the ore. In order to perfect a systematic manipulation, the following arrange¬ ments are to be introduced: A fine brick factory, a refining-furnace for impure lead, zinc-desilverization, the extraction of bismuth from the test of the cupellation-furnace, the resmelting of old lead-slag in cylin¬ drical blast-furnaces, the production of minium, a blast heating-appa¬ ratus, and a steam blast-engine, to be used for the cupellation, or during any interruption of the other machinery, &c. The number of workmen employed in 1869 was 285, and in the last three years they averaged 306. 11 M 102 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION,. 1873. * f 37G. The results of extraction iu the years 1870 to 1872, as compared to those of 1869, are as follows : 1869. 1. BOASTING OF THE OKE IN REVERSEfiATORY FUR¬ NACES. Consumption of biturniuons coal per 100 cwt. or«.cwt.. 35.32 2. SMELTING ; A COMBINED ROASTING AND SMELTING PROCESS. Consumption of charcoal per 100 cwt. ore_tons.. 83. 52 Consumption of coke per luo cwt. ore.cwt.. 1. 31 Consumption of charcoal per 100 cwt. of total charge, including lead-slag...tons.. j 20. 03 Consumption of coke per 100 cwt. of total charge, including lead-slug.cwt.. 1.35 Consumption of pig-iron per 100 cwt. ore.cwt. 1. 62 Consumption of iron-slag from puddling-furnace per too cwt. ore.wheelbarrows. 19. 85 Limestone and lime consumption per 100 cwt. ore.cwt. 2.85 Coosuniptlonofapatblcirou-oreperlOOcwt.orc cwt. 3. IRON-REDUCTION PROCESS. Consumption of charcoal per its) cwt. ore....tons.. Consumption of coke per 100 cwt. ore.cwt. Consumption of charcoal per 100 cwt. of total eba/ge, inclusive of lead-slag.tons.. Consumption of coke per 100 cwt. of total charge, inclusive of lcad sldg.owt.. Consumption of pig-iron per 100 owt. ore ...cwt.. Consumption of iron slag from puddling fumnee per 100 cwt. ore. wheelbarrows.. Consumption of limestono per 100 owt. ore., cwt.. 3. CL’PELLATION. Thirty-inch solt split-wood per 100 owt. silver- lead.. kinder... •I. EXPENSES OF PRODUCTION. 51. 61 a 83 18. 73 236 16. 87 16.30 3.09 218 A miut ponnd of silver.. 6 tls. Without consideration of the special and genernl cost of extraction. 16.68 With consideration of the special nod genernl costs of extraction. 5. SUMMARY OF METALLIC LOSS. for 100 mint-pounds of the silver contained in the ore.mint-pounds.. Per 100 cwt. of lend contained in ore.cwt... Amount of lend-mntte remaining.cwt.. 1870. 31. 01 86.05 17.58 21. 25 1. 31 3.20 7.00 5.91 2 612 21.78 9(5. 15 62 01 2 96 18.05 0.86 17.73 2 11 6.60 2 76 6 tls. 75.12 tls., 80 kr. 3. 392 21. 86 83. 17f 1871. 1872. 25.11 99. 37 3.91 26.58 1.01 1. 18 7.92 9.33 1.73 255 23.18 71. 21 11.32 26.32 1. 16 3.97 10.30 13.(55 3.61 81.68 . 23. 99 . .. 17.18 . 12 63 . 9.70 . 2. 66 8 tls. 6 tls. . 20.09 ! . 11 kr. 7 tls., 96 kr. 1.271 21.61 56.00 0. 853 17. 50 511 It must be remembered here that the decrease in the loss of metal in 1872 is still more favorable, as the amount of lead-matte on hand is only r>41 cwt., whereas iu 1871 the same amounted to 5,GOO cwt.; the year 1S72, therefore, shows a decrease of 5.059 cwt. The charcoal, in com¬ parison with that of former years, was of poor quality, in consequence of the bad quality of wood used, it being that which had been broken down during the storms of 1808 and 1870, and consisting principally of the top branches of the trees; while, on the other baud, coke stood at an uncommon high price; and, further, because the rapid increase in the price of almost all material, as well as wages, produced an important difference in the cost of extraction. 377. There are at present employed at the Pribram Smelting-Works— Four stalls and two shaft-furnaces for roasting matte. PRIBRAM SMELTING-WORKS. 163 Four single-bearthed reverberatory roasting-furnaces, 14.5 meters long - and 2.35 wide, with seven working-doors on each side. Tbe ca¬ pacity is 4,032 kilograms in twenty-four boars. A charge of 1,000 kilo¬ grams is drawn every six hours. Tbe roasted ore contains 3 per cent, sulphur. The fumes and gases are conducted through a false hearth in the upper part of the furnace, and from thence through a condensing- canal, 300 meters long, which ends in a chimney 24.G4S meters high. Ore is dried by placing it on the top of the furnace before it is charged. One three-tuyered shaft-furnace, 7.0 meters high and 0.4 meter square at the tuyeres. Three two-tuyered shaft-furnaces, 7.6 meters high by the tuyeres, 0.3 meter wide, and 0.4 meter deep. One seveu-tuyered shaft-furnace, with cast-iron water-cooling boxes, (Pilz, built in 1871,) 8.2 meters high and 1.6 meters wide at the tuyeres. The shaft widens above the tuyeres and narrows at the top. It is 2 meters wide at the mouth. The ore is charged by means of a mechan¬ ical hopper. This furnace gave such good results, that a second one was commenced in 1872 on the same plan, with the addition of au air¬ heating apparatus and one oue-tuyered low shaft-furnace for reducing poor and rich litharge. Four German cupellation-furnaces; each will contain 6,720 kilograms lead. These furnaces are built in a square, and the silver-lead taken to them, and the products from cupelling are removed by hand-cars, which run on the rails surrounding the furnace. The silver lead is cupelled without previous concentration. It contains 0.5 per cent. =145 oz. 16 dwt. silver. One new rectangular cupellation-furnace, which has already been described. One small cupelliug-furnace, Avith movablejhood, for refining the silver from large cupellation-furnace. The silver charged is about y 8 ^ fine ; this is refined to T 9 o 9 0 V A Pattinson battery of two kettles, Avhich are used to desilverize the rich litharge. In addition to these, there are the necessary crushing- mills, engines, &c. 378. The Pribram Smelting-Works produced in 1871— Kilograms. Lead. 500,976 Litharge. 1,627,864 Silver. 1,822,688 379. The smelting-works at Kscheutzischer Zecheand Mies exhibited a few samples of ores and products. These were from the former. Bleudic galena-ores are roasted in a long reverberatory furnace; the exhibited specimens contained numerous pieces of undecomposed galena and blende, silver-lead, silver, and litharge. From the latter were lead- ores, roasted ores, and silver-lead. The richest ores from the mining-districts where Kscheutzischer- 164 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Zeche and the Mies smelting-works are situated are sent to Germany for redaction. 350. Tyrol.— The Copper and Zinc Smelting-Works of Brixlegg ex¬ hibited a plan of the partly erected reduction-works aud samples of their ores, among which the following were noteworthy : Copper pyrites, from Schwarz, carrying 13 per cent, copper; bouruonite, from Schwarz, with 10 per cent, copper aud 0.13 per cent. = 37 oz. 16 dwt. 19 gr. silver. Tetraliedrite, from Madersbacher Kopfel, with 0 per cent, copper aud 0.2 per cent. = 56 oz. 6 gr. silver. In addition to these there were raw matte, concentrated matte, rosette-copper, from Brixlegg and Jochberg, sheet-copper, copper-kettles, and tuyeres, aud a piece of impure silver, which crystallized upon being allowed to cool on the crystalliziug-hearth. The crystals were imperfect octahedrons. The half which was visible was about oue-tifth of an inch in diameter. In addition to these was a pyramid about 25 .cet high, 5 feet diameter at the bottom, and 2 feet at the top. It was made of wood, upon which were fastened, by means of paste, the different ores treated. On the apex was placed a piece of, rose-copper. 351. A model of the newly-erected round six-tuyered shaft-furnace was also exhibited. The smelting-zone is surrounded with iron water¬ cooling boxes. This is a crucible-furnace with a charging-hopper, cast- iron slag-spout and tap-pots. A system of condensation-chambers are constructed under the floor of the works. The dimensions of this fur¬ nace are, 6.3 meters high, 1.5 meters wide at top, 1.2 meters in smelting- zone. Its capacity is 300 centner=16,S00 kilograms in twenty-four hours. 382. These works were first erected in 1150, and were organized and entirely rebuilt in 1870 by the government as a central smelting-works for the copper, silver, and zinc ores extracted from the government mines in the Tyrol and Salzburg, and ores bought from private parties. With this object in view there have already been erected one single- hearthed reverberatory roasting-furuace, IS meters long aud 1 meters wide; one sliaft-furnace; one reverberatory furnace, for concentrating copper-matte; one large copper-refining furnace, with a Siemens gas- producer; one cupelling-furnace; one low-shaft furnace, for smelting matte for black copper; a small copper-reliuing hearth; two copper- hammers; and a copper-rolling mill. At present there are three zinc muffle-furnaces, but it is proposed to build two shaft roasting, four Gers- lenhofer, and eight muffle-furnaces, viz, three with eighty muffles and five with 136 muffles each, all to be heated with Boetims gas-geu- erators; also, a sheet-zinc-rolling mill and a sulphuric-acid manufactory. 3S3. The ores treated at these works have a varied composition; their conteuts of copper, silver, lead, aud zinc may be seen iu the following table, takeu from The Berg- mid nuttenmannischeZeitung, 1873, p. 94: TYROLESE PROCESSES. 165 Copper. Silver. Lead. Zinc. Schwarz ...... Percent. 5-10 2-25 5-16 1- 5 2- 20 1-14 0. 080 to 0.10 per cent. = 23 oz. 6 dwt. to 29 oz. Percent. Percent. 0.11 to 0. 26 per cent. = 31 oz. 20 dwt. to 84 oz. 10 dwt. 30-33 Copper-ores containing silver ... 0. 005 to 0. 07 per cent. = 1 oz. 9 dwt. to 20 oz. 8 dwt. 0. 005 to 0.13 per cent. = 1 oz. 9 dwt. to 37 oz. 16 dwt. 4-63 40-63 Ores from Madersbaclier Kopfel contain a small amount of nickel and cobalt. In addition to these, raw matte from Kitzhichel, containing 24 per cent, copper, is treated. 384. Processes .—Formerly the ores from the mines owned by the gov¬ ernment and metallurgical products from Klausen and Kitzhichel were treated according to the complicated Brixlegg-abdarr process, (a process of liquation.) In 1872 the smelting process was simplified, and consists at present of two separate treatments, the copper-process and the lead- process. 385. In the copper process roasted copper ores* are mixed with un¬ roasted ores (both being free from lead and silver) and necessary fluxes, and smelted in a shaft-furnace for raw matte. This is roasted and con¬ centrated in a reverberatory furnace. Tkeconcentrated matte is roasted, and then either refined in a copper-refining furnace, whereby block- copper results, or smelted in a low shaft-furnace for black copper, which is refined in a small refining-hearth, whereby rosette-copper is produced. 386. The lead-process consists in mixing the copper-ores containing silver with gold-ores and slimes from Lend and Bockstein, and roasted argentiferous galena. These are smelted in a shaft-furnace, the prod¬ ucts of which are speiss, matte, and silver-lead. The silver-lead, con¬ taining a small amount of gold, is cupelled. The raw speiss is partly roasted and then concentrated. The matte is roasted and smelted a second time in a shaft-furnace, with roasted lead-ores or oxidized lead- products. The silver-lead from this operation, containing all the gold which was in the matte, is cupelled; the concentrated matte is roasted and smelted in a shaft for argentiferous black copper. The silver is extracted from this by means of sulphuric acid. 387. The zinc and copper produced at these works are partly manu¬ factured into sheet-zinc, sheet-copper, copper-kettles, tuyeres, &c. The Brixlegg Smelting-Works produced annually, copper, 280,000 kilograms; copper articles, kettles, &c., 33,600 kilograms; sheet-copper, 67,200 kilo¬ grams; silver, 700 kilograms; gold, 10 kilograms; also, a small quautity of litharge and speiss. It is estimated that upon completion of the zinc- furnaces and the sulphuric-acid manufactory, the annual production of * Vide “Ausstellung des K E ackerbauministeriums,” Wien, 1873, p. 79. 166 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 16T3. these two articles will be, zinc and sheet-zinc, 2,SOO,000 kilograms ; sul¬ phuric acid, 1,120,000 kilograms; and the value of the total production will be 920,000 florins = $308,000 gold. 38S. The Smelting-Works of Jochberg exhibited a few samples of cop¬ per-matte, with 22 to 24 per cent, copper and slag. The copper-ores are copper pyrites; the gangue is chiefly slate and quartz. They average 18.5 per cent, copper. These works* produced formerly rosette-copper, but their operations are now confined to the production of raw matte, which is sent to Brixlegg for further treatment. The new round shaft- furnace at the Jochberg works has seven- tuyeres, and is (5.3 meters high and 1.3 meters wide in the crucible. The copper from the Jochberg ores is of a superior quality, comparing favorably with the best copper of Kussia and Sweden. 381). The Copper-Works of the Mitterberger Gewerkschaft of Miihl- bach, in Salzburg, were represented by a small display of ores, eopper- matte, and black and refined copper. The ore is composed! chiefly of copper pyrites; the gangue is of a quartzose and spathic nature. An analysis made from an average sample was as follows: Cu. = 11.5 per cenf.; S. — lfl.l ; Be. = 27.1: Si Cb = 22.2. Small quantities of alumina* calcite, and magnesia. 391). The smelting process is simple. The ore is roasted in heaps and smelted in shaft-furnaces, with about 1<> per cent, slag, from the black- copper smelting, 25 per cent, slag, from the matte-smelting, and 20 per cent, of roasted copper-matte. The resulting copper-matte contains about 25 per cent, copper, and is run from the furnace into water, whereby it is granulated. The granulated matte is roasted and smelted pi a low-shaft furnace (to avoid a reduction of iron) with quartz, and slag from the ore-smelting. The concentrated copper-matte contains about 50 per cent, copper. It is crushed, roasted in reverberatory fur¬ naces, and again smelted in a low-blast furnace with quartz and slag from the ore-smelting. The result of this smelting is black copper, which is refined in a copper-refining hearth. The product is rosette- copper. The sweepings are smelted, and form an inferior quality of copper. The nickel-sweepings are granulated and sold. 391. The increased production of ores caused the works to increase the facilities for their reduction. The improvements consist in a round shaft-furnace and a large refining-furnace, which have taken the place of low-blast furnaces and small refining-hearths. The description of the round furnace and the comparison of the new and old shaft fur¬ naces, are from the Oesterreichische Zeitschrift far Berg und Riitten- icesen, 1871. Xo. 22. The communication is by Herru Superintendent A. Ivhuen. The furnace is round, widened toward the top, has five wrought-irou water tuyeres, and has the following dimensions: height from bottom of furnace to gas canal. 14feet6inches; from bottom of fur- ' Vide “AvssteUnng des K K ackerbauministeriumg,” Wien, 1873, p. 89. t Vide ■‘ Berg- und Huttenmannische Zeiiung 1871, p. 285. TYROLESE PROCESSES. 167 nace to tuyeres, 3 feet 6 inches; from the tuyeres to the supporting-ring, 3 feet 9 inches; from the supporting-ring to gas-canal, 7 feet 3 inches; height of charging-hopper, 3 feet 10 inches; diameter at tuyeres, 3 feet; at the mouth, 4 feet; height of tuyeres above the slag-spout, 11 inches. The tuyeres have an opening of 2^ inches in diameter, and are inclined 1 inch. About 700 to 800 cubic feet of air is consumed per minute by the pres¬ sure of t 8 2 to t 9 2 inch quicksilver-column. The wall of the smelting-zone, about the tuyeres, is cooled by means of cast-iron pipes through which water is made to circulate. Underneath the tuyeres are cast-iron troughs, into which the water runs from the pipes placed above. The upper shaft is supported by an iron ring, which rests upon three iron pillars. This part of the shaft is formed of sheet-iron lined with fire¬ brick; it is narrow at the bottom, but widens at the top. A chimney is built over the furnace to catch the sulphureted and arseniureted hydrogen, which escapes from the ore in the charging-hopper. The furnace-gas escapes by a canal attached to the side of the furnace. In the bottom of the canal, near the furnace, is a funnel, which catches the small ore particles, which are carried off by the draught when finely- crushed ore is smelted. The gas-canal falls at an angle of 45°, and leads to condensing-chambers. The three tuyeres are directed toward the center of the furnace. The blasts from the two front tuyeres cross each other 3 inches in front of the center of the furnace. The object of this is to keep the slag-opening clear and to utilize all of the blast. A smelting of similar charges in the round and low shaft furnaces produced in the first matte was 1 to 1.5 per cent, poorer in copper, 0.5 to 1 per cent, in iron, and 2 to 3 per cent, richer in iron than in the lat¬ ter. The slag from the round furnace was 1 per cent, poorer in iron and 3 per cent, richer in silicic acid than in the low shaft-furnace. The slag from both contained 1 per cent, copper. In spite of the greater contents of the matte in iron, which is eliminated in the following concentration, the advantages of the new furnace are very great, as will be seen by the following comparison : The capacity of the round furnace is greater than that of three low-blast furnaces, with almost 32 per cent, saving in fuel. A large proportion of the ore (55 per cent.) is slime, which causes a large volatilization and irregularities in the working of the furnace. If the slimes are agglutinated with milk of lime, the costs and charge are increased, and the contents of the matte in iron is greater. This inconvenience, it is hoped, will be avoided by producing a smaller amount of slime in the dressing-works, and by smelting with coke in¬ stead of charcoal. 392. There is smelted in the round furnace in twenty-four hours a charge of 322 centner,* with a consumption of 42.2 sacks (one sack = 20 cubic feet) charcoal. The products are 120 centner matte and 61 centner fumes; or, calculating after deducting the fumes from 100 centner ore, which is smelted in 10.2 hours with 18.8 sacks charcoal, the products are 51.3 centner matte and 29.9 centner fumes. * One centner = 110 pounds. 168 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. One hundred centner ore are smelted in the low shaft-furnace in thirty-four hours with 27.5 sacks of charcoal, producing 50 centner matte and 2 of fumes. The saving is, therefore, in the round furnace per 100 centner 2S.8 hours’ time and 8.7 sacks of charcoal. 393. Carinthia. —The “Bleiberger Bergswerks-Union,” the most im¬ portant lead mining and smelting corporation iu Carinthia, is located at Klagenfurt. It was represented by an interesting display of statistical charts, maps of the mining-district, ores, and products. The products were “ riihr ” and “ press” lead, also the following articles from the man¬ ufactories owned by this company: A coil of lead wire and several samples of lead pipe. One piece of lead pipe was coiled so as to resemble a pyramid. It was 371.01 meters long, lb.97 millimeters thick, outside measurement, and weighed 358.96 kilograms. One piece was plated with tin, both inside and out. A collection of pipes ranging from 6.57 millimeters to 0.126 meter thick, outside measurement. Those under 32.5 millimeters thick were plated on the outside with tin. Samples of sheet-lead from 0.518 millimeter toS.770 millimeters thick. One large piece of sheet-lead, 24.65 meters long, 1.896 meters wide, 2.194 millimeters thick, weighed 1,372 kilograms. In addition to these there were several qualities of red lead, massicot, litharge, and lead-ashes. 394. The Bleiberger Bergwerks-llnion own lead-mines near Bleiberg and 5Iiss, iu Lower Carinthia; reduction-works in Bleiberg, near Vil- lach, in 5Iiss, and three factories in Villach, viz, one for shot, one for litharge and red lead, and one for pipes, sheet-lead, lead-foil, &c. Twenty-seven furnaces are in operation at their reduction-works, twenty-five of which are reverberatory furnaces used in the reduction of ore, and two “ Rossie's ” shaft-furnaces, in which the residue is treated. Wood serves as fuel in the first, and charcoal in the second. The loss amounts to 5.5 per cent, of the lead contained in the ore; part of this remains in the residue and is finally extracted. Real loss, 2.56 per cent. The galena is free from silver, and occurs in veins, beds, and irregular deposits in limestone. It is accompanied, chiefly, by blende, calamine, cernsite, calcite, and barytes. 395. The lead from Bleiberg is celebrated for its purity, and is known as “Villach lead.” Its purity is owing to the absence of large quanti¬ ties of injurious foreign substances in the ore, and to the peculiar reduc¬ tion process which it undergoes in small reverberatory furnaces. “Vil¬ lach lead" contains, according to Streng, the following amount of impurities : Antimony. 0.026 Zinc. 0. 004 Irou. 0. 004 Copper.Trace. CARINTHIAN PROCESSES. 169 The riihr lead is used in the manufacture of the different oxides of lead, the press lead in the manufacture of shot. 396. The main object in the Carinthian process is to obtain pure lead and to extract from the ore the greatest amount possible in the rever¬ beratory furnace. To do this the furnace is made small, in order that the temperature may be kept under good control; the charge is there¬ fore necessarily small; the roasting is conducted slowly at a low tem¬ perature, and, to avoid the reduction of copper and antimony, the reac¬ tion temperature is kept as low as possible. The disadvantages of this method, which are to be considered and compared to the advantages, are the attendant increased cost of fuel, (6.63 centimeters wood to 100 lead is consumed,) labor, and the small quantity of lead produced in a certain time. A Carinthian furnace costs about $120 gold. Double and triple hearth furnaces have been tried, but it was found that they were not suitable for this process. It was desired to roast in the upper and reduce in the lower, but this was impossible, on account of the different durations of these periods. Furthermore, the temperature was difficult to regulate, and the expenses of repairing were large. The furnace is 3.27 meters long and 1.53 meters wide. The hearth is inclined toward the front, at an angle of 9£°. The lead flows out of the furnace as fast as it is reduced. The hearth is contracted toward the front to a vertical section, presenting the appearance of a bottle. The fire-place is built in the side of the furnace, so that the flames enter the hearth at the back end of the right side; they are then drawn toward the front of the furnace and enter the chimney, which is 0.47 meter in diameter and 6.3 meters high. As wood is used as fuel,‘it is found desirable to allow the small amount of air necessary for oxidiza¬ tion to enter with the flames. 397. The following short description of the Carinthian process is prin¬ cipally from Percy, Eammelsberg, Metallurgie des Bides : p. 181, 1873: When the hearth has been heated to a dark-red heat, 168 to 196.5 kil¬ ograms ore, containing from 67 to 75 per cent, lead, is thrown in through the working-door and spread over the hearth. The roasting is con¬ ducted slowly and carefully, so that the charge neither grows pasty nor adheres to the working-implements. The ore is worked every twenty minutes for about three hours, when the desired quantity of oxide and sulphate of lead will have formed. The temperature is now raised, in order to cause the oxidized particles to react on the sulphate of lead. The mass is continually worked. Lead flows from the hearth into a cast-iron pot, which is placed in front of the working-door. This period lasts from three and a half to four hours, and is called U bleiruhren. v The lead produced in this period, which is the purest, was formerly termed u jungfernblei,” (virgin lead,) and was sold as it flowed from the furnace without undergoing any further treatment. It is now called riihrblei ,” and is freed from impurities by liquation before it is sold. The amount of riihrblei produced is 56 to 73 kilograms. 170 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The next, or third period, is called “ bleipressen The quantity of the residue, in proportion to the size of the hearth, is so small, that, in order to effect a saving of fuel, the residues from two charges are worked together. If a second residue is ready it is thrown in with the oue already in the furnace. Coal-dust is spread over the mass, and while the temperature is raised the coal-dust and residue are well stirred. This period lasts seven to eight hours, during which 07.3 to 101 kilo¬ grams lead is produced. From twenty-one to twenty-three hours are necessary to treat 336.8 kilograms ore. Tlje lead-product is 207.7 to 213.3 kilograms = 93 per cent, of the lead contained in the ore. The residue from the last opera¬ tion, or dross, is 50.5 to 50 kilograms. It contains 3 per cent., often 0 per cent. lead. This is crushed and dressed until the lead is concen¬ trated to 50 to 00 per cent., when it is either charged with the oi*e or submitted to the third operation, u pressen.” In the latter case kriitz (dross) lead is produced. As the lead llows slowly from the hearth it becomes mechanically impure; it is therefore returned to the furnace and freed from these impurities by liquation. 398. Production of the Bleiberger Bergwerks Union" averages— / Lead. Bleiberg Smelting-Works. 1, 0S0, 000 kilograms. Miss Smelting-Works . 190,000 kilograms. One-sixth of this is extracted from poor stamped ore. three-sixths from jigged ore, and two-sixths from lump ore. The zinc-ores are sent to the zinc-reduction works at Sagor, Ivenec, in Croatia, and Johaannistkal in Krai u. The red-lead and litharge manufactory employs eighteen workingmen and two superintendents. It treats yearly about 616,000 kilograms lead, and produces 617,200 kilograms red lead and litharge, valued at 200,000 florins. The shot manufactory employs four men and oue master. It produces yearly about 403,200 kilograms shot, valued at 130,000 florins. The sheet lead and pipe manufactory employs nineteen workmen. It treats yearly about 380,800 kilograms, and produces yearly about 352,800 kilograms of manufactured lead articles. 399. The following smaller Carinthiau smelting-works were repre¬ sented : Gustav v. Egger exhibited samples of commercial lead from his works near Pateruion in Upper Carinthia. The ore, galena, is associated with calcit and blende. The reduction-process is similar to the Bleiberg process. These works produce yearly from 7,616 to 30,464 kilograms lead. It is expected that the reduction will greatly increase iu the next few years. 400. J. Eaiuer, of Klagenfurt, exhibited geological charts, samples of ores, “ tropf” and u stab v lead from the smelting-works at Bleiberg and Schaffler. In addition to these there were samples of the following manufactured articles: shot, lead ashes, litharge, aud several kinds of CARINTHIAN PROCESSES. 171 wliite lead. Herr Eainer owns a fourteen twenty-fourth interest in the “Bleiberg und Schmelzwerk Bleiberg, 77 in Feistritz, near Bleiberg; a two-thirds interest in the “ Bleiberg und Schmelzwerk Schwarzenbach; ’’ a three-eighths interest in the “ Bleiberg werk Rechberg 77 and Petzen ; a one-eighth interest in the “ Bleiberg und Schmelzwerk, Miss.’ 7 The Bleiberg Union owns the other seven-eighths. He owns, in addition to the above, several smaller mines and reduction-works. 401. The smelting process at all these works is the Cariuthian process. The production of the smelting-works at Miss has already been given. The production of the Bleiberger Sell m el z werk e,. founded in 1851, averages 182,616 kilograms lead. The Bleiberg Schaffler und Grafen- steiuer Alpe, founded in 1809, averages 139,384 kilograms of lead. 402. “Ciprian Struggl’s heirs, 77 of Raibl, exhibited geolographical maps of the Baibl district, samples of ores, U rulir v and “press 77 lead. The ore occurs in beds, in limestone, associated with blende. It is the rule here that when the thickness of the galena-deposit decreases, that of the blende increases, and vice versa. 403. Four Cariuthian reverberatory furnaces are used for the reduc¬ tion of the ore; the metallic loss is 8.6 per cent, of the lead contained in the ore. The following analyses show the amount of foreign substances con¬ tained in the Baibl lead : Riihr lead. Press lead. Antimony... trace. 0.102 Copper.faint trace. trace. Sulphur...L. 0.118 0. 382 Iron . trace. trace. Lead... 99. 882 99. 516 The production of these works averages 25S,49G kilograms. The government works at Baibl have six Cariuthian furnaces in operation, and produce annually 338,520 kilograms lead. 404. Franz Puntschart & Sons, of Klagenfurt, exhibited several sam¬ ples of white lead. The purity of the Cariuthian lead, together with the peculiar process employed in the manufacturing of white lead, (which originates in the Dutch method,) has enabled the Cariuthian manufacturers to produce an excellent article, which is greatly sought for and exported to England, France, America, Belgium, Holland, Rus¬ sia, Germany, Italy, and the oriental countries. The yearly production averages 168,000 kilograms. 405. The white-lead manufactory of this firm was erected in the year 1800. According to the process* then in vogue, thin sheet-lead was rolled up, forming a spiral pyramid; this was placed in clay pots, the necessary amount of acetic acid added, and, in order to secure the heat for the reaction, the pots were buried in horse-manure. * The data concerning this firm were obtained from the “Special Katalog der Collec. tiv-Ausstellung ini Pavilion der Kanitner’schen Montan Indus Snellen.” Klagenfurt, 1873. 172 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 40G. This method was greatly improved, about the year 1S35, by the erection of lead-chambers. In these, thin sheet-lead was hung for oxidization. The door of the lead-chambers contained numerous holes; under each hole a pot containing acetic acid (produced from raisins) was placed, and the acetic-acid fumes were driven into the lead-chambers by a simple and ingenious contrivance. The acetic-acid pots under each chamber were brought into communication with two copper kettles, under which tire was maintained in such a manner that the cold acetic acid entered the copper kettles through pipes connecting the kettle with the lower part of the pots, and upon being heated escaped through pipes from the top of the kettle into the pots containing the cold acetic acid. The latter soon became heated, and, volatilizing, entered the lead-chambers. By this process it is possible to produce greater quan¬ tities of white lead, which are perfectly amorphous. 407. In the year 1S72 the manufactory was bought by Herr Franz Puutschart, who immediately made important improvements on the old method. These consisted in the introduction of purified pyroligneous acid, which is cheaper than acetic acid and produces better white lead, and in the discovery that white lead dried by air is better than that dried, by artificial heat. To effect this lie erected extensive air drying chambers. This firm produces annually (172,000 kilograms white lead. 408. Franz I’. Herbert exhibited also several samples of white lead, lie owns manufactories in Klagenfurt and Wolfsberg, Carinthia, and in Lavis, in the Southern Tyrol. The manufactory in Klagenfurt was founded in 1700. The process is the same as that of Herr Puntschart. 400. Styria.. —The Ludwigs Kuschelischen lliitte, near Peggan, was represented by lead ores, galena, silver-lead, enriched and commercial lead and silver. 410. The ores that are treated at the Ludwig Smelting-Works are argentiferous galena, associated with blende, iron pyrites, baryte, and quartz. The blende is so intimately mixed with the galena that it is only to be eliminated by dressing to S per cent. The smelting is con¬ ducted according to the former Harz iron-reduction process. The un¬ roasted ore (slime) is smelted with iron tap-cimler in a shaft-furnace 21 feet high. 111. The silver-lead contains 0.08 per cent. = 26 oz. 6 dwt. 12 gr. sil¬ ver. It is desilverized by means of zinc. For this purpose there is a battery of three kettles; the two outer ones for desilverizing the lead, and the middle one for liquating the lead from the zinc-scum and for the further treatment of the zinc-scum. The silver-lead is melted in the two outside kettles, and, after the removal of the dross, (abzug.) ziuc is added to the molten liquid for about an hour; the temperature is then de¬ creased till the ziuc-scum forms, which is ladled into the middle kettle. The bath is heated, stirred, and cooled, when the scum formed is also ladled into the middle kettle. Two more portions of ziuc are now added STYRIAN PROCESSES. 173 and the former manipulations repeated. The total consumption of zinc is 0.7 per cent, of the silver-lead treated. The silver-lead assays, after the removal of the first zinc-scum, 0.02 per cent. = 5 oz. 16 dwt. 14 gr. silver ; after the removal of the second, 0.003 per cent. = 17 dwt. 11 gr. silver; and after the removal of the third, 0.0005 per cent. = 2 dwt. 21 gr. silver. The poor lead is dezinckified by means of steam. The remain¬ ing lead is about 80 per cent, of the silver-lead charged, and is a superior quality. Analysis made for zinc and iron failed to discover a trace of the former, and the latter was only found in unweighable quantities. This report failed to state how the lead from liquated zinc-scum, as well as the latter, (zinkstaub,) was treated. But it is probable that the former is treated with a second and third zinc charge, and the latter is cupelled* This conclusion is drawn from the fact that the works have no distilling- apparatus or shaft-furnace for the treatment of rich oxides should such be produced. In addition to the desilverization-battery, there are also a shaft-furnace and one cupelliug-furnace in operation at these works. 412. The annual production is— Kilograms. Lead. 288, 000 Silver.'...... 2, 240 413. Krain. —The “ Ludwigs-Kuschelzink Hiitte,” of Johannisthal, exhibited zinc-ores (calamine and blende) and different grades of zinc. An analysis, accompanying a sample of zinc, showed the amount of impurities contained in this metal to be— Per cent. Zinc... 99. 92 Lead... 0. 02 Iron.... 0.06 100. 00 The sample exhibited showed silver-white cystal surfaces. Although this is unusually pure zinc, it is probable that the analysis sent to the Exposition was not an average analysis of the best grade zinc. I give an analysis, made at the imperial assay-office in Vienna, of the Johan¬ nisthal zinc: Per cent. Zinc. 99. 404 Lead. 0. 563 Cadmium .. .•. 0. 019 Iron ... 0.014 100. 000 414. The same works also exhibited a model of “Kuschel and Hiuter. huber’s” rotary roasting-furnace, and blende treated therein from two roasting periods. The unroasted ore contains 55 per cent, zinc; the 174 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. half-roasted ore, G0.4 per cent, zinc; and the dead-roasted ore, 07.7 per cent. zinc. The construction of this furnace was made public by Herrn H. Hinterhuber in 1S71. I reproduce his description : The furnace presents tlie appearance of a German cupellation-hearth. Its main features are a horizontal revolving hearth, made of fire-clay, and stationary rakes. The rakes, which are not attacked by sulphur, &c., or easily destroyed by fire, give this furnace a decided advantage over those of Parkes, Bruntou, and Gibb and Gelstharp. The hearth consists of an iron shell, in which is carefully stamped a mixture of unburnt fire-clay and dust of fire-bricks, (chamotte.) It is 12 feet in diameter and revolvable. Covering the hearth is a strong arch 12 inches thick ; in the center it is 17 inches above the hearth, and on the periph¬ ery, 7 inches. Through the center of the arch pass 10 hollow three- cornered teeth of fire-clay, placed in a row; these last on an average two and one-half months. The points of the teeth nearly touch the surface of the hearth. There is a charging-funnel over these teeth, the charge passing through the teeth or rakes on to the hearth, after the plugs, which keep them closed, have been withdrawn. In order that the resulting roasted product should be of a uniform nature, it is of im¬ portance that the surface of the hearth should be perfectly even, and that the teeth of the rake be made of good fire-proof material which will not shrink or become distorted. The hearth-material is covered with largo fire-bricks well joined and plastered. The points of the five teeth on one side point in the opposite direction from those on the other side, thus effecting, at one and the same time, a raking and a turning of the charge. On one side of the hearth there are two ordinary fire-places or gas-generators, and opposite the same, on the other side, thirteen tines, which conduct the gases of combustion into a semicircular collecting-chamber common to them all, and from here the gases pass off into a chimney. The draught is regulated by apertures situated in the outer wall of the collecting-chamber corresponding to the Hues, which may be opened or closed. The steam is conducted into the furnace through two nozzles situated between the two fire-places. Though partially contrary to former experience and the statements of I’lattner, the introduction of steam into the furnace has proved to be very effective in removing sulphur and arsenic ; and also in operations of calcination for the removing of carbonic acid. It also opposes the evolving of fume's during the first period of the roasting operation. At the Johanuistbaler Zinkhiitte the roasting products, rich in sulphur, could be roasted dead in from 1 to 2 hours sooner, when steam was employed, thau wheu the operation was conducted without its employ¬ ment. The amount of zinc produced was also 2 per cent, greater. The reason why Plattuer obtained less satisfactory results may have been the fact that lie endeavored to decompose the metallic sul¬ phides with steam by exclusion of air. The roasting charge is allowed to fall upon the hearth of the sufficiently-heated furnace by THE KUSCHEL AND HINTEKHUBER FURNACE. 175 opening the hollow rake-teeth. At first, where it is only intended to expel the hydroscopic moisture of the charge, the draught is feeble and regulated by the openings in the collecting-chamber for the gases, in order to prevent the carrying off of small particles of ore. The hearth is also made to revolve slowly. If the charge is very moist, the raking- apparatus is raised at first so that it will not come in contact with the charge, and is not lowered until all the moisture is expelled from the ore. Steam is employed both during the first period and the dead-roast, ing period. When metallic sulphides are being treated, it not only causes a more complete desulphurization, but also diminishes the time necessary for conducting the operation. Steam is only employed during the first period in merely heating and calcination operations, it opposing the carrying off of small particles of the charge by the draught in the furnace, and also conducing to the ejection of carbonic acid. After the completion of the operation a slide discharging-apparatus is lowered down upon the hearth through a radial slit in the furnace-arch, which brushes the roasted charge through four apertures situated on the periph¬ ery on the hearth into a space under the furnace. 415. The following results were obtained at the Johannisthaler Zink- hiitte in treating zinc-blende, containing 43 to 46 per cent, ziuc and 22 to 25 per cent, sulphur, in the mechanical roasting-furnace, (A,) and in a Mansfield double-hearth long reverberatory roasting-furnace, (B :) A. B. Amount roasted in twenty-four hours. Time necessary in roasting, per charge. Production of zinc from roasted blende. Consumption of coal in twenty-four hours. 21 to 42 cwt. 18 to 22 hours. 35 to 39 per cent .. 24. 6 cwt. 20 to 24 cwt. 12 to 15 hours. 33 to 3(5 per cent. 24. 6 cwt. 2. 5 florins. The above calculated per ton of raw ore roasted would be: A. 3. Consumption of coal. 58. 6 to 117 pounds 103 to 113 pounds. 10. 4 to 12. 5 krs. The fluctuation in the amounts roasted within the same time is caused by the varying size of the ore-grains. By proper treatment of the ore- charge, 42 cwt. of blende can be roasted on an average in twenty-four hours, with a saving of 43 per cent, in fuel and 6S per cent, in wages, as compared with the results obtained by the long reverberatory fur¬ nace. From 30 to 40 cwt. of crushed or washed calamine carrying zinc- blende were treated in the mechanical roasting-furnace in twenty-four hours, and in the long reverberatory furnace only 24 cwt. The furnace has been in use over three years at the works named. The mechanical furnaces have many advantages over most other roast- 176 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. ing-apparatus. The most important are saving of fuel and wages, and the maintenance of a well-regulated temperature. The roasting is said to be very good. They also are adapted to chloridizing roasting. The costs of repairs were not obtained, but, as they must be large, they should not be omitted when this class of furnace is taken into con¬ sideration. 410. These zinc-works at Johannisthal were erected in 18G0. They received'the greater part of their ores at first from Upper Styria and Northern Carinthia, but the mines near the smelting-works have lately been more fully developed, and although ore from the above localities are still treated, the reduction-works are not dependent on them. There are at present five Mansfeld reverberatory roast iug-furnaces with two hearths, one Kuschiel and Ilinterhuber’s roasting-furnace, ten Belgian distillery-furnaces, and one Silesian furnace with a gas-generator. The annual production of zinc is 573,018 kilograms. 417. Bukowina. —The Copper-Works of Pozoritta in Bukowina, be¬ longing to the “ Griechisch-Orientalischeu Keligionsfond in der Buk¬ owina,” were well represented. In this display the following were con¬ sidered noteworthy: A statistical map; a black line denoted the quantity of copper pro¬ duced in different years, and a red liue showed the amount of money received for the above copper. This made a comparison of the price of copper in the different years with the quantity produced. A series of copper-ores containing from 3 to 10 percent, copper showed the principal mineral to be copper pyrites; the gangue is quartzose. A systematic collection of metallurgical productions presented an interest¬ ing insight into the copper process. 1. Copper-matte from ore-smelting contained 11 per cent, copper This is roasted in heaps nine or ten times and smelted for black copper. 2. Slag, from smelting of ore for matte. This is either made into buihling-stone or thrown on the slag-dump. 3. Black copper, from smelting of roasted matte. This is refined. 4. Slag, from smelting of matte for black copper; coutaiued 0.5 to 8 per cent, copper. It is smelted with roasted ore. 5. Cakes of refined copper; contained 90 per cent, copper; this is agaiu refined iu a small furnace. 0. Copper sand, produced toward the eud of the refining process. 7. Copper ingots, from second refining ; they are made into kettles. 8. Copper bars, from second refining ; they are articles of commerce. 41S. There are at Tozoritta two roasting-stalls, three shaft-furnaces, (two for ore and one for matte-smelting,) two refining-furnaces, and five copper-hammers. As the copper-production is yearly decreasing, it is proposed to change one of the ore shaft-furnaces iuto an iron-smelting furnace. These works produced, in 1371, from ores and old copper, 16,022 kilograms copper. 419. Hungary.— A very iuteresting exhibit was made by the Royal HUNGARIAN PROCESSES. 177 Hungarian Mint of different coins, dies, and the various utensils em¬ ployed in coining. 420. There was also a new process of extracting silver from silver copper alloys, illustrated by specimens of the products occurring in the I different manipulations. This process was invented and carried out by the mint warden, Herr Johann Cimeg. It consists in a series of smelt¬ ings of the silver-copper alloy, in crucible furnaces, with a quantity of ! sulphur sufficient to unite with a certain percentage of the copper, whereby copper, having a greater affiuity for sulphur than for silver, forms a matte, having a smaller proportion of the silver than was con¬ tained in the alloy. While the silver is, by degrees, concentrated in the alloy, the copper-matte, being of a less specific gravity, rises to the top and is drawn off. The silver-copper alloy remains behind, and is resmelted with copper-matte, or with an alloy and sulphur. The exhib¬ ited specimens illustrated the process, and were taken from the different meltings: No. I. Copper-matte, assaying 11.1 per cent, and silver-copper alloy with 45.7 per cent., from melting in crucible 400 pounds* six-kreutzer pieces and 353 pounds matte assaying 14.2 per cent. Ag. from a former operation. Eesult, 308 pounds matte. No. II. Matte, 11.3 per cent. Ag. alloy and 46.2 per cent. Ag., from smelting the alloy remaining from No. I in crucible with 347 pounds matte, assaying 14.2 to 14.6 per cent. Ag., from a former smelting. No. III. Matte, 13.1 per cent. Ag. alloy and 48 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining with No. II with 359 pounds matte assaying 14.6 to 15.9 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 312 pounds matte. No. IV. Matte, 13.3 per cent. Ag. alloy and 51.1 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. Ill with 307 pounds matte assaying 17.9 to 18 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 330 pounds matte. No. V. Matte, 13.3 per cent. Ag. alloy and 52 per cent. Ag., from melt¬ ing alloy remaining from No. IV with 346 pounds matte assaying 18.5 to 18.7 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 313 pounds matte. No. VI. Matte, 13.5 per cent. Ag. alloy and 52.5 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. V with 335 pounds matte assaying 18.7 to 18.9 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 321 pounds matte. No. VII. Matte, 13.7 per cent. Ag. alloy and 54.5 percent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. VI with 289 pounds matte assaying 18.9 to 25.2 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 261 pounds matte. No. VIII. Matte, 15.8 per cent. Ag. alloy and 60.6 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. VII with 100 pounds six-kreutzer pieces, 17 pounds sulphur, and 226 pounds matte assaying 25 to 34 per cent. Ag. Eesult, 294 pounds matte. No. IX. Matte, 16.7 per cent. Ag. alloy and 66.5 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. VIII with 300 pounds six-kreutzer * 1 Austrian cwt. = 100 pounds = 56 kilograms = 123.2 pounds English avoirdupois. 12 M 178 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. pieces and 57 pounds sulphur. Result, 273 pounds matte aud 200 pounds alloy, taken out and granulated. Xo. X. Matte, 18.7 per cent. Ag. alloy and 71.9 per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from No. IX with 310 pounds six-kreutzer pieces and 08 pounds sulphur. Result, 328 pounds matte. Xo. XI. Matte, 19.5 per cent. Ag. alloy and 75.G per cent. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from Xo. X with 300 pounds six-kreutzer pieces and 51 pounds sulphur. Result, 187 pounds matte. Xo. XII. Matte, 19.S per cent. Ag. alloy aud 79 per ceut. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from Xo. XI with 230 pounds six-kreutzer pieces and 13 pounds sulphur. Result, 210 pounds matte. Xo. XIII. Matte, 25.8 per cent. Ag. alloy and 83.4 per cent. Ag., from melting alloys remaining from Xo. XII with the 200 pounds granulated alloy from Xo. IX (assaying 00.5 per cent. Ag.) and 35 pounds sulphur. Result, 219 pounds matte and 200 pounds of alloy, taken out and gran¬ ulated. Xo. XIV. Matte, 54.7 per cent. Ag. alloy and S9.4 per ceut. Ag., from melting alloy remaining from Xo. XIII with 2U0 pounds granulated alloy from Xo. XIII (assaying 83.4 per cent. Ag.) and 35 pounds sulphur. Result, 220 pounds matte and 553 pounds silver-copper alloy, which is the final product. The silver-copper alloy from Xo. XIV is either melted in charges of 1,000 pounds, with saltpeter, in cast-iron kettles, and, after the impurities have been removed, east in molds, or copper is added until it assays 90 per cent. Ag. and 10 per cent. Cu., which is the alloy used for the Hun- garian-Austrian silver guilder. Matte assaying over 14 per cent. Ag. is remelted in the operation following. But matte assaying less than 14 per cent. Ag. is crushed, roasted, and desilverized by means of sulphuric acid. 421. This process is adapted to the extraction of silver from copper alloys where the percentage of silver is so great that it is made desira¬ ble to obtain a greater part of it in a short time. The silver remaining iu the copper-matte is extracted by a humid process. In the above instance a small part of the matte was .sent to Tajova, where the modi¬ fied Augustins method is practiced. The greater part, however, was sold to the Freiberg metallurgical works for treatment with sulphuric acid. Herr Cimeg stated to the author that this process had given unquali¬ fied satisfaction, as conducted at the mint in Kremnitz. The amount of six-kreutzer pieces treated was 140,040 pounds iu 19 working-weeks, with a consumption of 25,312 pounds Sicilian sulphur. They assayed 43 per ceut. of silver and 57 per ceut. of copper. 77.22 per cent, of the silver contained in the coin was extracted as an alloy; 21.38 per cent, remained in 1,010 cwt. of copper-matte. The loss iu silver was 1.4 per ceut. The treatment of so large a quantity of silver coin was caused by the Austrian Hungarian government issuing new coin of a different standard. HUNGARIAN PROCESSES. 179 422. The Lower Hungarian smelting-works at Scliemnitz, Kremnitz, Tarnowitz, Neusolil, were represented by a collection of their ores; in- r| terinediate and final products, consisting in silver, copper, and lead ores, slag and matte from different smeltings; litharge; apiece of cupellation- liearth so strongly impregnated with litharge that it was scarcely to be distinguished from the latter; lead ; and fine silver. 423. A systematic collection of ores and metallurgical products were exhibited from the smelting-works at Tajova, illustrating the smelting and silver extraction as conducted at that place. It consisted in copper (gelferz) and argentiferous copper-ores, matte, black copper, refined copper, residue from the silver extraction, cement silver, and refined silver. 424. Metallurgical processes of Lower Hungary. —When the ' author was in Schemnitz, in August, 1873, collecting data for this re¬ port, he was shown by Herrn Josef Wagner, royal assayer in Schemnitz, an unusually excellent description of the Lower Hungarian smelting pro¬ cesses, which is here given, with some slight modifications. This com¬ munication appeared afterward in the Oesterreichisclie Zeitschrift fur Berg und Hiittenwesen in September and October, 1873. In this communication all metallurgical processes are spoken of that have existed up to the year 1873 in the Lower Hungarian mining-dis¬ tricts; what success they have met with, and through what changes, modifications, and new improvements the same have passed, and what may be expected of them. Mining and smelting in the Lower Hungarian district probably had its commencement in the thirteenth century, when a large number of miners emigrated from Germany and settled in those localities where indications of ore-deposits were visible. Mining has been very suc- sessfully conducted, but within the last few years the production of silver, lead, and copper has somewhat decreased. 425. The principal object of all the metallurgical establishments is the utilization of the auriferous-argentiferous lead and silver ores and metallurgical products, argentiferous copper-ore, (tetrahedrite,) and non-argentiferous copper-ores, ( gelferze .) The Lower Hungarian metal, lurgical process is consequently separated into two chief branches, viz A. Silver and lead extraction. B. Copper extraction, combined with the extraction of silver by means of the humid process. 426. For the utilization of the above-named metallurgical products and ores amounting to 180,990 cwt* = 9,049J tons, there were up to the year 1873 the following metallurgical establishments: 1. The Schemnitz Hiitte, divided into the upper and lower works. a. There are two blast-furnaces at the upper works, 28 feet high, having the shape of a trapezium viewed in horizontal section ; two ordi¬ nary double-hearth reverberatory roasting-furnaces, of the Hungarian 1 cwt — 123.2 pounds English avoirdupois. 180 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. pattern, and an establishment for the extraction of silver, according to Ziervogel’s process, and the extraction of gold, according to Plattner’s process. Since the year 1804 this silver and gold extraction establish¬ ment has been out of use. b. In the lower works there are two low blast-furnaces, 22 feet high, having the shape of a trapezium viewed in horizontal section, a cupella- tion-furnace, a combined lead liquation and refining furnace, a Pattin- son battery, consisting of two kettles, one higher than the other, the upper communicating with the lower by means of an iron pipe attached to the bottom of the upper, and two double-hearthed reverberatory roastingfurnaces, (Jortschau/elungsoe/en.) These were completed in 1873, but had not been used up to the year 1874. The annual produc¬ tion is equal to 8,380.057 mint pounds of silver, 105.470 mint-pounds of gold, 1,430 cwt. (Vienna) commercial lead, and 1,049 cwt. of red and green commercial litharge.* 427. 2. The Zsarnoviczer Iliitte has two high blast-furnaces and two low, all having the shape of a trapezium viewed in horizontal section, four roastingfurnaces, two German cupellation furnaces, and one lead liquation and refining furnace. The annual production amounts to 8,830(057 mint pounds of silver, 149.871 mint-pounds of gold, 1,815 cwt. of lead, and 2,740 cwt. of red and green commercial litharge. 428. 8. The Xeusohler Iliitte has three high and two low blast¬ furnaces, four roasting furnaces, a cnpellation-furnace, and one lead liquation and refining furnace. The annual production amounts to 0,050.029 mint-pounds of silver, 150.204 mint-pounds of gold, 000 cwt. lead, and 2,332 cwt. red and green commercial litharge. 429. 4. The Kremnitzer Iliitte. These work only smelt ore, and have two high blast-furnaces. The raw matte produced from these two furnaces, amounting to 22,250 cwt., is desilverized at the Neusohler and partly at the Zsarnoviczer Iliitte. 430. 5. The Tajovaer Iliitte, with the incorporated Iliitte at Altge- birg, have for their object the utilization of the copper-ores from the Aer'aerial (government) and private mines, and the copper-matte pro¬ duced at the Lower Hungarian lead and silver smelting works. The annual production amounts to about 900 mint pounds of silver, and 2,808 cwt. of copper. 431. 6. The Mutual St. Michaelstollner Dillner Hiitte has two low blast-furnaces,two roasting-furuaces, a cupellation-furnace and liquation- hearth combined, with a lead-refining furnace. This establishment only works company ores from St. Michaelstollner. The annual pro¬ duction amounts to 1,050 mint-pounds of silver, 70 mint-pounds of gold, and 3,400 cwt. of lead. All of these smelting-works beloug to the government, with the ex- *All the figures that occur in this paper are the average figures of three years, the years 1868,1859, aud 1870. A Vienna centner (cwt.) = 11 i zoll pounds = 56 kilograms. LEAD AND SILVER SMELTING. » 181 ceptiou of the Dilluer Hiitte, but in all of them more or less ores from private company mines are smelted. The manner in which the mines are re imbursed for their ores by the smelting-works will be spoken of later. 432. A. Lead and silver smelting.— The lead and silver smelting- process is very nearly identical at all the various works, as far as tbe roasting of intermediate lead products is concerned. The following are tbe principal steps of the process : I. The ore smelting for matte. II. Beichverbleiung, with its preliminary and finishing work. III. Cupellation. IY. Liquation. 433. I.— Ore-smelting for matte. —The poorest auriferous-argentiferous ores containing no lead are smelted for matte. They are as follows, viz: a. Quartzose ores containing less than 0.070 per cent. =20 oz. 8 dwt. 4.80 gr. of auriferous silver, but capable of producing 40 to 80 per cent, of matte. b. Dressed or concentrated silver-ores containing 0.07 per cent. = 20 oz. 8 dwt. 4.8 gr. auriferous silver. c. Undressed ores containing from 0.07 to 0.14 per cent. = 20 oz. 8 dwt. 4.8 gr. to 40.5 oz. auriferous silver. d. Pyritous ores, with or without auriferous silver, but capable of producing at least 60 per cent, of matte. e. Furnace-dross, from same operation. The object of this manipulation is the slagging off of the worthless gangue matter, and .the concentration of the metals in a matte. After the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, there was smelted annually, at all the smelting-works, about 56,320 cwt. of raw ore. A smelting-charge generally consisted of 100 cwt. dressed and un¬ dressed ore, capable of producing 45 per cent, of matte; 4 to 6 cwt. of furnace-dross from the same operation; 100 to 120 cwt. slag from the Eeichverbleiuug, and 15 to 20 cwt. limestone. The following were the products therefrom: a. Eaw matte, containing 0.166 to 0.260 per cent. = 48 oz. 7 dwt. to 81 oz. 13 dwt. of auriferous silver. This goes to the Eeichverbleiuug ; l). Furnace-dross which passes through the same manipulation; c. Slag. The percentage of auriferous silver was: Per cent. In matte. 97 In furnace-dross. 1 Total. 98 Loss, 2 per cent. The amount put through in twenty-four hours, In one furnace, 70 or 90 cwt. 182 ‘ VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The consumption of fuel for every 100 cwt. of ore, dressed and un¬ dressed, amounts to 144 mass, (one mass is equal to 6.4 cubic feet.) The total cost of smelting 100 cwt. of ore amounts to : Fl. Kr. General cost and cost of manipulation... 96 90 Cost of fuel. 54 90 Superintendence. . 8 90 Total. 160 70 The average cost of smelting 1 cwt. of ore for matte amounts to 90.7 kreutzer. 4.54. II. — Reichverbleiung .—The following ores and metallurgical pro¬ ducts are treated in this manipulation: a. Lead-ores containing from 0.03 to 0.1 per cent.=S oz. 14 dwt. 19.2 gr. to 29 oz. 2 dwt. of auriferous silver, and from 40 per cent, to 60 per cent, lead; b. Lead-slimes, containing from 0.025 to 0.1 percent.=7 oz. 6 dwt. to 29 oz. 2 dwt. of auriferous silver, and from 20 per cent, to 60 per cent, lead; • v. Lead-copper ores and rich pyritons slimes from the dressing of the lead-ores; d. Ores and slimes, containing from 0.14 per ceut.=40 oz. 16 dwt. auriferous silver, up to the highest amount; c. Raw matte from the ore-smelting for matte (I); /. Furnace-products from the same manipulation, viz, lead-matte, sweepings, furnace-fumes, and lead-slag; g. Products from the cupellation and liquation manipulation. The following chemical analysis will serve to show the chemical con¬ stitution of the above ores: No. Mining company. Si Oj AI.O, CaO MgO Fo Zn MnO Cu SILVER-ORES. 1 Non Antoni. . 89. run 2.707 1.0045 0.158 1.690 0.112 0.093 0.091 2 Carlsohachter. . 00. 190 0. 470 3.083 1.003 3.928 0.361 9. 2”>6 0.151 a Christina. 7.712 4. 390 1.592 3. 334 0.415 6.682 0.282 4 Siglisberger. . 47. 74fi 8.211 2. OKI 2. 150 7.318 2.327 0.031 0. 793 5 Frnnz-Schachtor. . 30.910 17.011 10.740 1.665 5. 838 0. 305 6. 195 0. 055 G 7n fvlft 1.214 7.694 0.442 2 123 LEAD ORES AND SUMES. 7 Paeherstollner. . 19.370 2.200 Trace. 0. 170 2.340 10. 210 0.170 1.280 3 20 400 2. 128 0. 174 0. 255 4. 425 11. f.44 1. 4.50 9 Pacherst. Schlich. 4.680 1.280 0.190 Trace. 9.850 6.190 Trace. 1.290 LEAD AND SILVER SMELTING. 183 Chemical Analysis —Continued. No. Mining company. SILVElt-OUES. Nen Antoni. Carlschachter ... Christina. Siglisberger. Franz-Schachter. Schopferstoliner. LEAD OltES AND SLIMES. Pacherstollner.... Michaelistrllner.. Pacherst. Schlich. Pb 0. 328 1.195 0. 672 2. 918 0. 300 48. 100 52. 320 Au As 0. 254 0.207 0. 385 0. 370 0. 255 0.539 0. 040 0. 048 0. 050 Sb 0. 087 Trace -do ... .do ... .do ... 0.160 Trace 0. 050 2.142 4. 475 3. 945 9. 126 5. 965 1. 379 Mg 0. 300 o. 315 "6.’345 Combined with Si O, Ca 0.120 6. 523 'O. 600 1.360 SO, 1. 360 Co, 1.068 8. 375 9. 250 7. 833 14. 400 6. 542 0. 150 O. HO and loss. 1.084 1.300 0. 658 3. 094 3. 360 0.266 1.310 "i.’eoo 435. The “ Reichverbleiung” consists in the following manipulations : 1/Roasting, as preliminary manipulation. 2. u Reichverblei” smelting, as chief manipulation. 3. Matte-smelting. 4. Matte-matte smelting, (Lech-Leclischmelzen,) final manipulation. 436. 1. Roasting, a. Roasting in reverberatory f urnaces. —The lead-ores to be roasted are so mixed with richer pyritous-lead slimes and argen¬ tiferous slimes that the average percentage in lead will amount to between 30 and 45 per cent. Such a roasting-charge weighs about 1,000 cwt., and is called the lead-wasting dump. Analysis of toasting-dump at the Dillner JELiitte No. 10. Si O s . 17.870 A1 2 0 3 . 1.842 CaO... 2.680 Mg O. 0. 320 Fe.. 15.187 Zn .. 9. 429 Cu'... 1.099 Pb. 33.332 Sb. 0. 042 S. 16.770 Au+Ag... 0. 029 The method of roasting is different at the various works. At the Schemnitzer Hiitte slag-roasting is in vogue, at the Zsarnoviczer & Neu- sohler Hiitte dust-roasting, (roasting without agglomerating,) and at the Mutual Dillner Hiitte the agglomeration-roasting is made use of. It remains to be said that by the use of the slag-roasting the loss in lead and the consumption of fuel are greater than by the other methods, but, on the other hand, has the advantage that it allows of a better desul¬ phurization and preparation of the roasting-cbarge. The result of desulphurization by the different methods of roasting is as follows: Slag-roasting, (roasting until the charge is well melted,) 2 per cent. 184 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. sulphur remains; agglomerating roasting, 34 per cent, sulphur remains; dust-roasting, (roasting without fusing or agglomerating,) 5 per cent, sulphur remains. According to analysis by the Gewerkschaftlicher Ceutral-Probir- gadens, the raw-lead roasting-heap (Dilluer Hiitte) contains 1G.770 per cent. S.; after preliminary roasting it contains 11.080 per cent. S.; after dead-roasting it contains 3.030 per cent. S. The roasting is conducted at all the works in Hungarian “ Fortschau- felungsofen” (long reverberatory roasting-furnaces) with double hearth. About 40 cwt. of the roasting-heap is put through in every twenty-four hours. The consumption of fuel per 100 cwt. is as follows: In the slag-roasting.2.1 to 34 klafters of 3 foot wood. In the agglomerating roasting. 2 to 3 klafters of 3-foot wood. In the dust roasting. 1£ to 2 klafters of 3-foot wood. The average cost of roasting 1U0 cwt. of charge by the agglomerating roasting method is— Fl. Kr. Cost of fuel, 2^ klafters wood, at 0 florins 15 kreutzer. 15 18. 75 Wages, 54 shifts, at 1 florin 20 kreutzer. 0 60. 00 Repair of tools for 54 shifts, at 3|J kreutzer. 0 19.50 Total. 21 98. 25 The actual cost of roasting, exclusive of superintendence, is equal to about 21.9S kreutzer per cwt. b. Roasting in free heaps .—Raw matte, lead-matte, copper-matte, and furnace-dross are roasted in this manner. The expenses per 100 cwt. are— Fl. Kr. For stamping 100 cwt., at 1 kreutzer. 1 0.00 For laying over 100 cwt., at ^ kreutzer. 0 75. 00 For fuel, 1 klafter wood, at 0 florins 75 kreutzer. 1 12. 00 For arranging tlie roasting floor, one shift. 0 50. 00 Total... 3 37. 00 437. 2. “ Rcieheerbleischmehen —This, the principal manipulation of the silver-smelting works, beneficiates the richer silver-ores and slimes with roasted lead ore, roasted raw matte,cupellation-products, and dross. The object of this manipulation is theslagging-off of the worthless gangue matter and a concentration of the gold aud silver in the lead. As is to be seen from the foregoing analyses, the silicic acid is the principal slag-form¬ ing ingredient. The character of the ores is acid, that is to say, there is a superabundance of silicic acid and a lack of bases. Furthermore, all the ores, especially the lead-ores, carry a large percentage of zinc. It is well known how disadvantageous to lead-smelting processes this metal is. I7ow, in order uot to supply the lack of bases with worthless fluxes, aud also to make the zinc in smelting as little troublesome as HUNGARIAN PROCESSES. 185 • possible, the ore-charge is fluxed with the roasted matte that contains a large percentage of iron and some gold and silver from the govern¬ ment works. This not only supplies the place of the failing bases, but also acts as a solvent on the zinc. The fusibility of the charge depends upon the amount of roasted matte used as flux. From the advantages gained by the addition of roasted matte, it can be easily explained why only such a small amount of slag is added in working charges so rich in zinc. At the Mutual Dillner Hiitte, up to the year 1872, lead-slimes and larger amounts of slag from the same manipulation took the place of this matte, on account of there not. being a sufficiency of the latter. Now, as the percentage of zinc has greatly increased of late in the lead- ores of Michaelstolleur, the above flux was not sufficient to effect an easy and-effective smelting. It was necessary every three, or, at the high¬ est, four weeks, to blow the furnaces out, on account of furnace-accre¬ tions and irregular working, and, moreover, the productions never amounted to more than 24 cwt. per twenty-four hours. Tbe charge was now so made up, according to a previous one of the kind, that roasted lead-matte formed a portion, and the “ Eeichverbleiungs ” slag was replaced by that from the matte-smelting, which contains a large percentage of iron, and the smelting carried on with a somewhat de¬ creased pressure of blast. The results were much better, as compared with the former. In twenty-four hours over 51 cwt. of pure ore-charge was jiut through, exclusive of slag; the campaign lasts nearly eight weeks; less fuel was consumed, and the loss in metal was also much smaller. The zinc, which principally goes into the matte and slag, becomes mechanically entangled in the slag, oversaturated as it is with bases, and is thus carried out of the furnace. The high percentage of ziuc (about 12 percent.) found in the slag is easily explained in this manner. The average composition of the charges at the various works for a long time was as follows : 1. 2. 3. 4. Sekemnitzer. Zsarnoviczer. Maiqosngjsj Dillner. Cwt 46 54 32 3 38 8 50 Cwt. 45 55 45 Cwt. 47 ’ 53 38 Cwt. 60 40 15 20 12 42 4 50 47 2 50 Additional slag: *54 ' i 1 * Percentage. 186 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. In order to cover the auriferous silver, for every mint-pound of the same 2 to 24 cwt. of lead is added. The products of this manipulation are: a. Eicli lead, containing 0.4 to 0.0 per cent. = 116 oz. 12 dwt. to 174 oz. 19 dwt. silver and gold; this goes to the cupellation-fnrnace, and has the following chemical composition at the Schemuitzer Hiitte, No. 11: Cn. 0.148 Sb. 0.095 As. trace. Fe. 0. 019 Zn. trace. AuAg. 0. 467 Pb. . 99. 220 Ilesidue.•. 0.010 />. Load-matte, containing from 0.075 to 0.15 per cent. = 21 oz. 17 dwt. to 43 oz. 15 dwt. silver and gold, 10 per cent, to IS per cent, lead, and 0 per cent, to 15 per cent, copper. According to chemical analysis, the lead-matte at the Schemnitzer Iliitto is constituted as follows: S. Fe. 1’b_ Cu. Sb. An Ag . Mn .... CaO... Mg O .. Residue 23. Ill 44. 505 14.806 10. 856 0. S75 0.128 0. 697 0. 450 trace. 0. 700 c. Furnace-dross sweepings and furnace-fumes go through the same process again. The furnace-dross from the Dillncr Iliitte is constituted as follows : Analysis Xo. 13. S. Pb. Fe. Zn. Cu. . Sb. Residue.. 27. 689 20. 269 14. 000 32. 237 0. 664 0. 05s 6 . 000 d. Slag assaying from 0.003 to 0.006 per cent. = 17 dwt. to 1^ oz. in silver and 1 per cent, to 3 per cent. lead. HUNGARIAN PROCESSES. 187 Scliemnitzer Hiitte, analysis No. 14. Si 0 3 . 35.372 Fe O. .. .. .... 30.710 CaO. 7.716 Mg O ........ 1.716 Mil O. 3. 783 Zn O. 4. 633 PbO. 3.041 CuO. 0.261 Al 2 0 3 .. 10. 266 Ag. 0. 002 S. 1. 740 Dillner Hiitte , analysis No. 15. Si0 3 ... Fe O. Ca O... Mg O. MnO. ZnO... PbO.. . • CuO. 0.338 A1 2 O s . 5.000 Ag.. 0. 003 S. 2. 754 36. 333 32. 650 6.345 0. 785 12. 666 2.154 Iu the smelting of 100 cwt. of the above charge the following was the production— AtNeusohl. At Schomnitz. At Dillner. Per cent. 27. 68 8. 02 1. 55 Per cent. 27. 94 6. 70 5.02 Per cent. 26. 05 9. 25 6. 00 37. 25 39. 66 41. 30 Percentage of metal: Silver. Gold. Lead. Bullion. Per cent. 96. 79 5. 69 0. 74 Per cent. 100. 57 1. 16 0. 60 Percent. 93.52 2. 57 1.15 103. 22 102. 33 97. 24 The smelting is conducted entirely in ordinary high blast-furnaces, 28 feet high, with two tuyeres, and in low blast-furnaces, 22 feet high, with two tuyeres. The furnaces are tended by a smelter and a charger, who at the same 1 88 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. time wheels away the slag. The amount put through in twenty-four hours, without reckoning the slag, varies between 40 anti 52 cwt. The consumption of fuel was different at the various works; it was as follows: At the Schemuitzer Iliitte, for every 100 cwt. of charge, 2S mass. At the Dillner Iliitte, for every 100 cwt. of charge, 80 mass. At the Neusoliler Iliitte, for every 100 cwt. of charge, 105 mass. 45S. Matte-smelting. — This operation treats the roasted matte from the “ L’eichverbleiung,” silver ores, roasted lead-copper-ores, cupellation- produets, and lead for fluxing. The object of this operation, besides the concentration of the copper in the matte, is the extraction of the gold, silver, and lead from the lead-matte. The products of this operation are: a. Lead, carrying 0.25 to 0.4 per cent. = 72 oz. IS dwt. to 110 oz. 12 dwt. auriferous silver. b. Matte, containing from 0.07 to 0.4 per cent. = 20 oz. 9 dwt. to 11G oz. 12 dwt. auriferous silver, 15 per cent, to 28 per cent, copper, and 11 per cent, to 10 per cent. lead. c. Furnace dross, sweepings, &c. d. 'Slag, (singulo silicate) containing 0.002 to 0.004 per cent. = 11 dwt. 15.8-4 gr. to l'oz. 8 dwt. 7.08 gr. auriferous silver, and 1 per cent, to 3 per cent, and 0.200 to 0.500 per cent, copper. The smelting-charges were dissimilar at the different works. The following was the average “ make-up” for three years: T.Piul.mntto. Silver-ores .. [.pad-popper -pits . I'tipelUition products_ Fliix-M. Sweepings . '■ Reichverblelnngs" slag Slag from ore-amettiug.. Iron... Xeuaobl. Dillner. 100 cwt. 20 cwt. B cwt. It 52 e 50 per cent 1.1 per cent. 100 cwt. in cwt. | 20 90 20 per cent. L 20 per cent. From 50 to 70 cwt. of clean charge were put through in twenty-four hours. The consumption of fuel was greatest at the Neusohler Iliitte; about 140 mass to every 100 cwt. of charge. At the other works scarcely 100 mass wore consumed. The reasou of the larger consumption of fuel at the Neusohler Iliitte, in all its smelting operations, is principally on account of the bad quality of coal. 439. Second matte-smelting .—The roasted matte from the foregoing operation is treated by this manipulation. The object of the operation is the same as that of the former. A charge generally consists of 100 cwt. of matte and 12 to 15 cwt. of cupellation-products. As flux, from 50 per cent, to SO per cent, of slag from the ore-smelting is made use of. Lead is also added in order to effect a perfect extraction of the auriferous silver, as in the foregoing operation. HUNGARIAN PROCESSES. 189 The products of the operation are : a. Matte-lead, carrying 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. = 5S oz. 0 dwt. to 87 oz. 9 dwt. auriferous silver. b. Copper-matte, carrying 0.04 to 0.08 per cent. = 11 oz. 14 dwt. to 23 oz. 7 dwt. auriferous silver, 40 to 50 per cent, copper, and 4 to 11 per cent, lead.* According to chemical analysis, the copper-matte from Dilluer Hiitte, ]Sfo. 16, contains the following percentage of constituents : Si o 3 .. Fe .... Pb.... Cu... . Sb .... Zn .... An Ag S. 0. 761 23. 333 6. 787 39. 919 0.186 4.013 0.052 22. 728 As.-.-. trace c. Furnace-dross , sweepings, dec., dec .—The copper-matte from all the works is sent to the copper and silver extraction works in Tajova, for further treatment. As the gold in the copper-sweepings is not consid¬ ered, when the same are dissolved at Tajova, it therefore remains to be noticed that the extraction of the gold from the auriferous-argentifer¬ ous charge is almost perfect by the Reichverbleiung operation and its finishing manipulations. While the amount of gold contained in a mint-pound of auriferous silver iu the rich lead is equal to 0.020 to 0.030 per cent., 5 to 8 oz., so is the same in the matte-lead at the highest only from 0.005 to 0.007 per cent., equal to 1 to 2 oz., and in the copper-matte scarcely 0.0004 mint-pound, equal to 2 dwt., or the amount of gold con¬ tained in a cwt. of copper-matte containing 0.05 per cent., equal to 15 oz. auriferous silver, is scarcely 0.00002 mint-pound. 440. There was treated in the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, at the three governmental silver-smelting works, by the operation of u Eeicliver- bleiung” and its finishing manipulations, the following amount of ores and metallurgical products: Charge. Material. Dry weight. Average amount of, contained in same. Au Ag. Lead. Copper. No. Cwt. Lbs. Mint lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1 153. 970 73 0 279 O 12 2 Lead-ores, slimes, and lead-copper ores. 122. 880 41 0. 052 37.55 0. 61 3 Metallurgical products. 244. 369 73 p. 081 41. 72 2. 20 Total. 521.119 187 0.412 79. 27 2. 93 * The analyses 1,2, 3, 4, 5,7, 9,11,12, and 14 were made by the royal Hungarian dis¬ trict analyst, Carl Dobrovitz, and Nos. 6, 8, 10, 13, 15, and 16 by the author, Josef Wagner. 190 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The following was the production of metal in percentage: Gold and silver. Lead. Copper. Per cent. 104. 86 4. $6 Per cent. 97.58 Per cent. 107. 49 7. 49 2.42 Consumption of fuel for total amount treated: Per cent, of charge. Wood, (3 feet long,) G,S13 klafter. 0.013 klafter. Charcoal, 548,451 mass. 1.052 mass. EXPENSES. Ou total amount treated. On per 1 cwt. of charge. Florins. Kr. Kreutzer. a. Cost of fuel. b. Cost of manipulation and 248,209 54 47.G2 general expenses. 172,342 19 33.0G c. Superintendence. 39,358 57 7.55 Total. 459,910 30 88.23 If calculated per 1 cwt. of ore and slime, it would be=l florin GG.17 kreutzer. At the Mutual St. Miehaelstollner-Dillner HUtte there is smelted annually over 20,000 cwt. of ore, &c. The total cost per cwt. of ore and slime in 1S72 was equal to 1 florin 45 kreutzer. 441. III. — Cupellation. —The auriferous-argentiferous lead coming from the “ Reichverbleiung” operation and its finishing manipulations is cu¬ pelled ; also silver-ores assaying higher than 3 per cent.=S74 oz. are man¬ ipulated by this process. This operation is conducted in a German cupel-' lation-furnace with movable top, and which is furnished with a Siberian litharge-reduction furnace. From 200 to 250 cwt. lead are cupelled at a time. The operation is so conducted that about half the litharge pro¬ duced is immediately reduced to lead by means of the reduction-fur¬ nace. The products of this operation are: a. Auriferous blick-silver, having a fineness of 980 to 992 in 1,000 parts. h. Manipulation litharge \ c. “ Abstrich” £ are resmelted. (1. Test ) e. Lead from the reduction of litharge is liquated for commercial lead. /. Red and green commercial litharge. 442. In the years 18GS, 1869, and 1870 there was cupelled by the gov¬ ernment silver-smelting works about 143,6S8 cwt. of lead, containing very nearly 0.500 mint-pound gold per cwt. of auriferous silver. CUPELLATION AND LIQUATION. 191 The metallic production of auriferous silver in per cent, was: Per cent. As blic-silver...„..... 96.25 In the products... 4.24 Total. 100.49 Consequently there was a surplus of. 0.49 Average loss in lead amounted to about 5 per cent. TOTAL EXPENSES. Per mint-pound of silver produced. Florins. Kr. FI. Kreutzers. a. Cost of fuel.. 20,712 98 31.5 b. Cost of manipulation and general expenses... 42,737 65 65.5 c. Superintendence. 8,886 50 13.5 Total. 72,337 13 1 10.5 443. IV. Liquation .—As a part of the very impure lead is liquated be¬ fore undergoing the operation of cupellation, consequently this operation can only be considered as a preliminary manipulation to the cupellation, and the refining of the litharge-lead to commercial lead can only be con¬ sidered as the actual liquation operation. The operation of liquation, in¬ cluding the refining, is conducted in a combined lead liquation and refin¬ ing furnace, which was first brought into use in the year 18G0, at the Schemnitzer works, by Superintendent Willibald Kachelmann. The same consists of two principal parts, i. e., a reverberatory and a kettle furnace, each with its own fire-place. The kettle furnace, which has a. cast-iron kettle capable of holding 50 cwt. of lead, stands close up to and under the reverberatory furnace, which is furnished with a spout, through which the liquated lead flows into the kettle. The liquated lead is re¬ fined by means of green birch-tree branches, which are immersed into the lead-bath, and held there by means of a special arrangement. The general costs of liquation in per cent, of lead amounted to: Florin. Kr. a. Cost of fuel. 1 90 b. Cost of manipulation and general expenses. 6 79 c. Superintendence. 1 30 Total. 9 99 444. Total cost of the lead and silver smelted during the years 1868, 1869, and 1870: Florin. Kr. I. Cost of the ore-smelting.153,626 96 II. Cost of the Reichverbleiung and finishing manipu¬ lations ..... 459, 910 30 192 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. Florin. Kr. III. Cost of the cupellation.. 72,337 13 IV. Cost of the liquation. 2,924 99 Total.CSS, 799 38 The loss in lead amounted to 8,438 cwt. 47 lbs., or 5.5 per cent, of the production; the same represents a value, according to the tariff, of 107,158 florin, 77.9 kreutzer. Cost of production : a. For silver-ores and slimes. 1. There was smelted: Operation. Ores anil slimes. Auriferious silver. Assay. Amount. Mint-pounds. Cict. 1 Lbs. 102,784 1 94 153,970 j 73 0. 071 0. 271 10. 008 41,831 850 833 “ Xieiuh'vorbleiung ” operation. Cofct thereof: Florin. Kr. Ore-smelting.153,020 90 lleichverbleiung, and finishing manipulation, per cwt. 106.17 kreutzer.255, G99 41 Cupellation according to the contents in silver. 00,071 03 Loss in lead by cupellation. 95,803 28 Total.571, SOI 28 The complete manipulation of a cwt. of silver-ore or slime, containing 0.170 mint-pound = 19 oz. 10 dwt. 4.S0 gr. auriferous silver, costs 1 florin 97 kreutzer. b. For lead and lead-copper ores and slimes.* 1. There was smelted : Ores anil slimes. Average contents. Contents. An and Ag Pb Gold. Silver. Lead. 122.330 cwt. 41 pounds. 0. 052 37 Mint-pound«. 6, 389 Mint-pounds. 855 Cirt. 46, 142 Pounds. 61 Cost of smelting the above : Florin. Kr. Cost of smelting per cwt. 100.17 kreutzer.204,210 80 Cost of cupellation according to the amount of silver. 7,005 50 * The loss iii lead resulting from smelting and liquation, and which was subtracted from the metallic contents in the redemption of the dross, is not considered in the above statement of expenses. STATISTICS OF PKODUCTION. 193 Florins. Kr. Loss of lead ia cupellation according to the amount of silver. 11,355 50 Cost of liquation. 2,924 99 Total...226,156 79 The complete manipulation of a cwt. of the charge, containing on an average 0.052 mint-pounds — 15 oz. 3 dwt. 6.24 gr. auriferous silver, and 37 per cent, lead, costs 1 florin 84 kreutzer. I c. For auriferous silver produced. There was produced 63,152.9S6 mint-pounds auriferous silver, contain¬ ing 0.0192 mint-pound gold = 5 oz. 11 dwt. 20.31 gr. Cost of production: Florin. Kr. Total cost ore-smelting.153, 626 96 Total cost of Eeichverbleiung of the silver-ores.255, 699 41 Total cost of cupellation.. 72,337 13 Loss in lead by cupellation..107,158 77 Total.58S, 822 27 The production of a mint-pound of auriferous silver (0.0192 mint-pound gold and 0.9808 mint-pound silver) having a value of 57 florin 52 kreut¬ zer, costs 9 florin 32 kreutzer. d. For liquated lead and commercial litharge. Only such lead as was actually refined at the silver-smelting works, as liquated lead, and such litharge as was produced during the operation of cupellation, is here taken into account. The production is regu¬ lated according to the demand; if, for example, the demand for the same increases, more is consequently produced. 1. About 33,493 cwt. of liquated lead and commercial litharge was produced. The costs thereof were : Florin. Kr. For smelting the lead-ore.204,210 89 For liquation. 2, 924 99 207,135 88 The production of a cwt. of liquated lead or litharge, costs 6 florins 18 kreutzer, and is worth 14 florins. Besides the production of blick-silver, lead, and litharge, there was also produced at the three government silver-smelting works, in addition to the above, 4,641 cwt. 77 lbs. of copper-matte, carryiug on an average 44 per cent, copper, and 0.094 mint-pound =27 oz. 8 dwt. 2.88 gr. silver, which represents a value, according to the tariff, of 119,693 florins 36 kreutzer. They have also to share a part of the above costs of production. If these are brought into the account, the cost of producing a mint- 13 M 194 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. pound of auriferous silver aud a hundred-weight of liquated lead and litharge is somewhat less.* 445. B. Copper-smelting. —The following ores and products are util¬ ized by this manipulation: a. Argentiferous copper-ore containing, on an average, 12 per cent, copper and 0.040 mint-pound silver = 12 oz. b. Nou-argeutiferous copper-ore ( gelferz) containing 18 per cent, copper and upward. c. Precipitated copper from the mine-waters. d. Mint-cement, copper, aud copper-sweepings. e. Copper-matte, from the silver-smelting works, containing 40 per cent, copper aud upward, 4.11 per cent, lead aud 0.0S0 mint-pound = 23 oz. 0 dwt. 12.40 gr. silver. The argentiferous, as well as the non-argentiferous, ores aud products are worked separately. There are two siuelting-works running. The Altgebirg has the preliminary work and production of copper. 44G. The following are the different manipulations : I. Smelting for argentiferous matte. If. Smelting of the roasted argentiferous matte, ( Rostdurch - stechen.) III. Smelting of the roasted lead-products. IV. Extraction of silver from black copper. V. lveduction of the dross and sweepings. Yl. Smelting of the furnace-dross, resulting from the smelting of the non-argentiferous copper-ores, ( gclbfabzugselimdzen .) VII. Befining. * In the yenr 1858, at the Scheinuitzor lliitte, the combined methods of silver-extrac¬ tion, according to Ziervogel, and gold-extraction, according to I’lattner, were adopted for the extraction of silver and gold from the matte. The manipulations in this process are as follows : a. Smelting of the poor argentiferous pyritous ores for matte. h. Crushing the matte. c. Roasting the finely crushed matte. The object of this operation was to transform tho argent sulphide contained in the matte into argent sulphate. d. Dissolving the silver out of the roasted powder with hot water and the precipita¬ tion of the same with copper. c. Precipitation of the copper in solution from which the silver has been extracted by means of old iron. /. Chlorination of the residue from the silver-extraction in order to transform the gold into gold chloride. g. Dissolving the gold chloride formed in hot water and precipitation of same by means of an iron-vitriol solution. The residues from this extraction process are used as a basic-flux in the smelting operations. It cost, in 1862, 36 florins to extract a mint-pound of auriferous silver according to this process. Although the ores treated by this process have never contained more than 0.09 per cent. = 26 oz. 5 dwt. auriferous silver, still the results could not be compared with those obtained with the “ Eeichverbleinng” operation; consequently, in the year 1864,. the above process of extraction was done away with. HUNGARIAN COPPER-SMELTING. 195 447. I. Smelting for argentiferous matte .—Argentiferous copper-ores and unroasted furnace-dross from the same operation are utilized by this manipulation. The following is the average “make-up” of a smelting- charge for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870: Per cent. Argentiferous copper-ore. 97.33 i_ Unroasted furnace-dross. 2.67 J percen Limestone. 80.00 Slag resulting from the smelting of roasted matte. 59.00 The smelting was conducted in two blast-furnaces, 28 feet high, with two tuyeres. This manipulation has for its object the concentration of all the copper and silver into a matte. The products of this manipula¬ tion and their amount in percentage from the above charge were as follows: 1. Raw matte, 24.69 per cent., cari'ying 34.68 per cent, copper and 0.156 mint-pound = 45 oz. 6 dwt. 13.92 gr. silver. 2. Antimonial speiss, amounting to 0.89 per cent., and containing 25.08 per cent, copper and 0.204 mint-pound = 59 oz. 9 dwt. 7.68 gr. silver. 3. Eaw furnace-dross, 2.70 per cent., containing 4 per cent, copper and 0.010 mint-pound = 2 oz. 18 dwt. 4.80 gr. silver. There was no loss in metal of any kind. The quantity put through each furnace in twenty-four hours was 78 cwt. of ore and dross. The consumption of fuel per 100 cwt. amounted to 166 mass, or 1,075 cubic feet. The raw matte is roasted twelve times in free heaps. The consump¬ tion of wood was equal to 7.72 cubic feet per hundred-weight of matte. 448. II. Smelting of the roasted argentiferous matte , ( Bostdurchstechen.) —Besides the roasted matte, roasted copper-oberlech, (matte,) dross, unroasted speiss, (on account of the easier breaking up of the black copper,) and siliceous argentiferous copper-ores are treated in this manipulation. The average smelting-charge, in per cent., for three years, was as fol¬ lows : Cwt. Boasted matte. Oberlech matte Furnace-dross . Speiss. Ore. 68. 80 12. 44 3. 70 2. 30 12. 76 Total. 100. 00 The smelting was conducted in low blast-furnaces, having two tuyeres; 50 to 80 per cent, slag from the matte-smelting was added to the above charge. The products from this manipulation in treating the above charge were as follows: 196 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Per cent, of the production. 1. Black copper... 38.84 2. Oberleck... 12.30 3. Dross. 3. 70 The oberlech ami dross, after having been roasted, pass through the same operation again, while the black copper, containing 80 to 85 per cent, copper and 0.250 to 0.25G mint-pound = 74 oz. 13 dwt. 13.92 gr. silver, is sent to the silver-extraction. There was put through in twenty-four hours 7G cwt. of charge, and the consumption of fuel per 100 cwt. of same amounted to S0.11 mass, or 517.71 cubic feet. 449. III. Smelting of the roasted lead-products , ( Rostdurchstechcnblei - scher Geschicke.) —The copper-matte from the silver-smelting works, and also the silicious-argentiferous copper-ores, are treated in this operation. This operation is incidental with the former roasting-operatiou. The following are the products of the operation : 1. Black copper, sent to the black-copper extraction-furnace. 2. Oberlech i ,. . pass through the same operation. 3. Dross ) 1 e 1 450. 1 V. Extraction of black copper. —By this operation black copper, free from lead, and that also which contains lead, are treated together, in a certain proportion to each other; also, cement-copper, oxide of cop¬ per, liquated copper, rich dross, &c. The following are the various operations: 1. Preliminary operations, consisting in— a. Breaking of the black copper into pieces, which is partly accom. plished in the operation of smelting for matte. b. Crushing and stamping the black copper and assortment of the black-copper ernshings. c. Chloridizing-roasting of the black copper-crushings by means of salt; a difference is also made in this operation between the preliminary roasting and good roasting, as the length of the operation depends upon the amount of salt used, and this again upon the percentage of copper and silver contained in the charge. The operation generally lasts ten hours when 10 per cent, of salt is used for chloridizing a charge con¬ taining 0.250 mint-pound = 72 oz. 17 dwt. 14.40 gr. silver. The sue. cess of the extraction greatly depends upon the perfection of the roasting. d. Screening and sortiug of the roasted black-copper crushings. The lumps of incompletely roasted matte, after having been separated from the well roasted, are ground to powder and then roasted over again. 2. Extraction of the well roasted black-copper crushings. a. Lixiviation of the roasted powder with cold solution of salt; the products are: Bich solution, out of which the silver is precipitated; poor solution, from which the copper is precipitated. HUNGARIAN COPPER-SMELTING. 197 b. Washing of the extracted powder with hot water 5 the wash-water is carried to the solution out of which the copper is to be precipitated. It takes on an average fifteen hours to lixiviate a charge of 400 to 500 pounds. The wasted residue is tested for silver; if it contains 0.000 mint-pound = 2 oz. 12 dwt. 11.52 gr. silver, or less, the same is given over to the copper-manipulation; if it contains over 0.009 mint-pound — 2 oz. 12 dwt. 11.52 gr. silver, it is dumped on a warm place, wdiere the process of chlorination continues of itself, and after some time it is again lixiviated. c. Precipitation of the silver from the rich solution by means of copper granules. The cement-silver produced in this manner is wrnshed out with hot water, pressed, dried, and melted in a graphite crucible, with a slight addition of borax and potash. The melted silver is poured into molds, and sent to the mint in Kremnitz. d. Precipitation of the copper from the desilverized rich solution, poor solution, and wash-water with iron. The cement-copper, produced in this manner, and which always contains some silver, again passes through the process of extraction. In 1868, 1869, and 1870 there was treated, inclusive of the interme¬ diate products obtained by the process, 9,267 cwt. 51 lbs. ore, carrying 7,103 cwt. 60 pounds copper and 2,908.718 mint-pounds silver. The pro¬ duction v’as: metallic silver, 2,620.829 mint-pounds; by-products and residues, 221.092 mint-pounds; with 7,102 cwt. 76 lbs. copper. Total 7,102 cwt. 76 lbs. copper and 2,841,921 mint-pounds silver. Loss in copper was equal to 0.01 per cent., in silver 2.27 per cent. = 661 oz. 14 dwt. 4.80 gr. 451. V. Reduction of residues. —This operation treats the extraction- residues, copper-dross, unroasted u gelf oberlechf (copper-matte,)refining- dross, cement-powder and products from the “ Neusohler Kupferhammerf The object of this operation is the reduction of the residues from the extraction-operation and the desulphurization of the matte. This is effected at a red heat, by means of the mutual reaction of the oxides upon the sulphides, whereby sulphurous acid is formed and disengaged. This manipulation is conducted in a u spleissofenf (refining-furnace.) The following are the products of this operation : * 1 . Eeduction-copper, which is refined. 2. Reduction-dross, v 3. Reduction-matte, > go to the dross-smelting. 4. Reduction “abstrich,”) 452. VI. “ Gelfabzugsclimelzenf smelting of non-argentiferous dross .— The reduction dross, matte, and abstrich, refining-dross, refiuiug- abstrich, and hearth, copper-scales, furnace-dross, and non-argentiferous ores are treated in this manipulation. This operation is similar to the other, the only difference is, that it is conducted in low blast-furnaces. The following are its products: 1. Gelf-dross copper, which is refined. 198 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 2. Gelf-ilross matte, goes to the residue-redaction. 3. Gelf dross furnace dross, to pass through the same operation again. 453. YII. Refining. —Ron-argentiferous copper, reduction-copper, “ ma- traer” copper, and copper-scales are treated in this operation. The ope¬ ration is conducted in an ordinary refining-furnace, using wood as fuel. The products of this operation are : 1. Refined copper, which is taken to the copper-mill in Xeusohl. 2. Granulated copper, used for precipitating the silver in the rich solution. 3. Refining-dross, \ 4. Refining-hearth, ^ taken to the dross smelting. 5. Crucible-dross, ) 454. Total costs of the copper-smelting during the years 1SGS, 1SG9, and 1S70: Altgebirg. I. For smelting for argentiferous matte. \ II. For resmelting of roasted argentiferous matte) Tajova. III. Smelting of roasted lead-ore. IV. Extraction of black copper. V. Reduction of residues... VI. Smelting of non-argentiferous dross. VII. Refining. Total.. 132,746 20J The costs of I, TI, III, V, VI, and VII belong to the copper-produc¬ tion, IV to the silver-production. Production of refined copper, 8,GOO cwt. 77 : f lbs.; production of silver, 2,620,892 mint-pounds. The expense, therefore, for the production of a hundred-weight of re¬ fined copper, worth GO florins, 12 florins 03 kreutzer. The production of a mint-pound of silver, worth 45 florins, 11 florins 14 kreutzer. 455. C. Re imbursement of ores and slimes from the mines by the Lower Hungarian Government Smelting Works. —At the present time there are two regulation-tariffs for the purchase of ores, slimes, &c. I. For gold, silver* lead, and lead-copper ores. II. For argentiferous and non-argentiferous copper-ores. In planning the tariff, the actual costs of metallurgical treatment from the previous year were taken for its basis, at the same time taking into consideration the increased price of fuel and wages, which has taken place since that time. For the planning of the present regulation-tariff, that is, for the pres¬ ent year, 1873, the results of manipulation for the years 1S68,18G9, and 1870 were taken as a basis upon which to construct. FI. Kr. GG, 082 544 5,5S1 874 29,202 76 11,803 85 8, 41G 82 11,G58 354 HUNGARIAN TARIFF FOR SMELTING. 199 The Vienna centner (hundred-weight)=112 zoll-pounds, serves as the weight unit in the purchase of all ores. Purchasable ore; all ores in which the metallic value, capable of ex¬ traction, is not completely covered by the “metal-calo” and the gold reduction given below. The purchase-price of tlie gold is fixed at 697 florins 50 kreutzer, “ O. W.,” in gold per mint-pound; for silver, 45 florins. The price paid for the copper and lead depends upon the market price. At present 12 florins 75 kreutzer is paid for lead, (paper money,) and for copper 49 florins per cwt. The assay-sample for ores and slimes is generally taken from 100 cwt. Their metallic contents are then determined, the various assay-results averaged; then the worth of the ore, &c., is calculated from the aver¬ age assay-result, and paid for according to existing and known regula¬ tions. 456. a. Assay equalization-tariff. 200 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 187:1. —01 da epnnod-inim in pp>3 3aiun?juoQ .-Jl-rCCOOWO SOOOOO- JOOOOOOOO 200000000 5 s« l TO O o O O 5 ~ o-7' r*. ro ; o o o o o o o 't:*-'iooooooo «o — ^irroooo ^OOOOOrxtOO *0009 •jojjtp ? noijuz!pcnl>7[ •oooooooooo —oi (In JO A] 19 sno -jojuuu 3uju‘ir)uo3 'tji.-; oooooooooo ~ o — ociooooooo 2 o O O O — Cl -T O CD o o •oono -jojiip uojiBzi[onb3 •9)uo;noo-jod(Io3 •oono -jojjip uojjuzipjnb^ •8jnojnoo-pBo r i -r o CH *9ono -jo^ptp noiiuzi[Biib3 •sinoinoo HUNGARIAN TARIFF FOR SMELTING. 201 Assay tariff. Assay. Examination. 1. Golil-assay: . а. Argentiferous dross containing from 0. 000 toO. 030 mint-pounds An. Ag.. Argentiferous dross containing from 0. 030 to 0. 0G0 mint-pounds Au. Ag... Argentiferous dross containing from 0. 0G0 to 0.100 mint-pounds Au. Ag... Argentiferous dross containing from 0.100 to 0. 200 mint-pounds Au. Ag. .. Argentiferous dross containing from 0. 200 to highest mint-pounds Au. Ag.. б. Lead-dross containing from 0. 000 to 0. 030 mint-pounds Air. Ag. Lead-dross containing from 0. 030 to 0. 060 mint-pounds Au. Ag. Lead-dross containing from 0. 060 to 0. 100 mint-pounds Au. Ag. Lead-dross containing from 0.100 to 0. 200 mint-pounds Au. Ag. Lead-dross containing from 0. 200 to highest mint-pounds Au. Ag. 2. Silver-assay of ores, slimes, mattes, &c. 3. Lead-assay of ores, slimes, mattes, &c. 4. Copper-assay of ores, slimes, mattes, &c. 5. Silver-assay of lead-metal. 6. Matte-assay of ores, slimes, mattes, &c. 7. Silver-assay of blick-silser . FIs. 14 9 6 4 3 12 8 6 4 3 Kr. 07 12 60 63 26 40 31 74 56 41 31 43 66 7 23 14 Purchase. FIs. Kr. 28 14 18 24 13 20 9 26 6 52 24 80 16 62 . 13 48 9 12 6 82 93 1 29 1 98 21 69 42 457. MeMllic deduction. —1. Gold and silver .—There is no allowance made for loss in gold and silver in the assay of ores and slimes. In the assay of anriferous-argentiferous copper-dross, poor in lead, and dross containing copper, gold, and silver, also mint-sweepings and sweepings from other establishments, and, lastly, rich lead, 2 per cent, is subtracted from the amount of gold and silver found in assay. 458. 2. Lead-contents .—In determining the lead-deduction for the dif¬ ferent lead-ores, the quantity of slag which they would produce was taken into consideration; for pyritous lead-slimes a small “ lead-calo ” is put in, as well as for silicious lead-ores having the same metallic con¬ tents. In the year 1873 there was put in the purchase-tariff for lead-percent¬ age in the lead-dross, the following deductions, irrespective of the aurif¬ erous silver-contents: Lead contents in a Vienna centner. 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-liigb- est. Lead deduction in percentage. Of lead-ores and lead-copper ores. Of lead-slimes and lead-copper slimes. 22 15 19 13 16 11 13 9 10 7 7 6 459. Smelting expenses.— -In determining the smelting-cost of ores, slimes, sweepings, &c., containing different amounts of the metals, the amount of slag producible from them was also taken into consideration, and in the year 1873 the following smelting-costs were put in : 202 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. (a) Of silver-ores, $c. Gold and silver contents. Having a matte contents per hundred-weight in pounds. 0-19 20-29 30-39110-19 50-59 00-61 65-69 70-00 Cost in kreutzer of a Vienna centner for smelting. ("From 0.001 to 0.100. 251 217 183 119 85 48 21 *+32 Containing no ziac or anti- I From 0.100 to 0.200 251 221 194 161 101 69 11 *+ 8 mouy. 1 From 0.200 to 0.300 261 231 207 180 123 90 66 118 (From 0.300 to CO .. 267 213 219 195 111 109 87 113 | From 0.001 to 0.100 278 211 210 176 112 75 18 *+ 6 Containing antimony. ) From j From 0.100 0.200 to to 0.200. 0.300. 278 278 218 251 218 221 188 197 12S 110 93 107 68 83 118 136 l From 0.300 to CO .. 279 235 231 207 153 121 99 155 f From 0.001 to 0.100. 291 257 223 189 125 88 61 *+ 7 n . . , ] From 0.100 to 0.200. 291 261 231 201 HI 106 81 113 0.200 to 0.300. 291 261 237 210 1761 120 96 119 (From 0.300 to CO .. 292 268 211 220 166 136 112 168 * Premium. ♦ Figures. (b) Of lead-ores, fc. Contents in gold and silver. Silicions lead-ores and lead-cop¬ per ores. Pyritons lead-slimes and load-cop¬ per slimes. (■Containing no An. Ag. 1 From O.i'Ol to 0.100. .. From 0.100 to 0.200... I From 0.200 to 0.300... ( From 0.300 to CO. f Containing no An. Ag. I From 0.001 to 0.100... I From 0.100 to 0.200... I From 0.200 to 0.300... (From 0.300 to0.co ... Lead contents per hundred-weight. 10-19 20-29 30-39 10-19 50-59 60-00 Numbers for each hundred-weight kreutzer. 193 121 355 286 217 118 507 138 369 290 131 162 535 166 397 328 259 190 564 195 126 357 288 219 592 523 151 :
ao 0B 9 9 •*5 w a w ® - . 9 9 c o U 9*5 s 5 3 a ~ c o 30 O 06 3 45 — 1 39 0. 100 0. 013 30 0. 088 0.0011 o 92 O 61 3 45 — — 84 0. 100 0. 013 50 0. 088 0.0011 3 86 3 45 3 45 0 0 00 0.100 0. 013 00 0. 088 0.0011 4 48 4 00 3 43 + 55 + 6 -f 7 0.100 0.013 70 0.083 0.0011 4 94 4 42 3 45 + 1 04 0. 150 0. 013 0 0. 132 0.0017 4 93 4 40 5 49 — 1 09 0. 150 0.013 30 0. 132 0.0017 5 45 4 66 5 49 — — 63 0. 150 0.013 50 0. 132 0. 0017 6 38 5 69 5 49 + — 20 0. 150 0.013 60 0. 132 0.0017 6 75 6 02 5 49 + — 53 -f 8 + 7 0. 150 0.013 70 0. 132 0. 0017 7 46 6 65 5 49 + • 1 23 0. 200 0. 013 0 0. 176 0. OOC1 7 38 6 58 8 26 — 1 66 0.200 0.013 30 0. 176 0. 0021 7 84 7 00 8 26 — 1 26 0. 200 0.013 50 0. 176 0.0021 e 82 7 87 8 26 — — 39 0. 200 0.013 60 0. 176 0. 0021 9 19 8 21 8 26 — — 05 0. 200 0.013 70 0. 176 0. 0021 10 02 8 94 8 26 + — 68 0.500 0.013 0 0.440 0. 0058 22 60 20 18 20 41 — — 23 0. 500 0.013 30 0. 440 0. 0058 23 11 20 63 20 41 — — 22 0. 500 0.013 50 0. 440 0. (1058 23 92 21 35 20 41 + — 94 0. 500 0. 013 60 0. 440 0. 0058 24 25 21 65 20 41 — 1 24 0. 500 0. 013 70 0. 440 0. 0058 24 95 22 27 20 41 + 1 86 0. 800 0.013 0 0- "05 0. 0002 37 89 33 63 33 52 + — 31 0. 800 0.013 50 0.705 0. 0092 39 21 35 00 33 52 + 1 48 0. 800 0.013 70 o. 70S 0. 0092 40 23 35 89 33 52 + 2 37 1. 000 0.013 0 0.881 0.0116 43 08 42 92 42 25 + — 67 1. 000 0. 013 50 0.881 0.0116 49 39 44 10 42 25 + 1 85 1.000 0.013 70 0.881 0.0116 50 43 45 02 42 25 + 2 77 1. 500 0.013 0 1. 321 0.0174 73 56 65 67 64 50 + 1 17 1. 500 0. 013 50 1. 321 0.0174 74 87 66 83 64 50 + 2 33 1. 500 0.013 70 1.321 0. 0174 75 90 67 76 64 50 + 3 26 2.000 0.013 0 1.760 0. 0232 09 03 88 42 86 85 + 1 57 2. 000 0.013 50 1.760 0. 0232 100 35 69 59 86 85 + 2 74 2.000 0.013 70 1. 760 0.0232 101 37 90 51 86 85 + 3 66 Note.—A ccording to the Vpper and Freiberg tariffs, gold and silvpr ores arc only payable when total payments per Zoll-centner amount to at least -2 thaler = 3 florins O. W. = $1.42 gold. TARIFFS FOR PURCHASE OF ORES. 207 II .—Table for lead-ores* A.—QUARTZOSE, LEAD-ORESE. Contents in a Vienna ceDtner. Contents in a Zoll-cent¬ ner. Payment according to the tariff of— Greater or less price in comparison with the Upper Harz and Frei¬ berg tariff. Auriferous silver. Contents of gold in a mint-pound of auriferous silver. (Mint-pound, 500 grams.) Lead-contents, (Vi¬ enna pound.) Auriferous silver. Contents of gold in a mint-pound of anriferous silver. (Mint-pound 500 grams.) Lead-contents. (Vi¬ enna pound.) Schemnitz, Lower Hun¬ gary. Fiscal works of the Up¬ per Harz, Freiberg, &c. V. centner. Zoll-cent¬ ner. Zoll-cent¬ ner. Mint lbs. Mint lbs. Mintlbs . Mint lbs. FI. Er. Fl. Er. Fl. Er. Fl. kr. 0. 040 0.015 30 0. 035 0. 0005 30 1 17 1 4 2 20 - 1 16 0. 040 0. 015 40 0. 035 0. 0005 40 3 8 2 77 2 90 - 13 0. 040 0. 015 50 0. 035 0. 0005 50 5 5 4 51 3 60 - 91 0. 040 0.015 60 0. 035 0. 0005 60 7 10 6 16 4 30 + 1 86 *Tn table I and II the net value per “ Zoll-centner” is reckoned from 5 to 10 kreutzer higher in every lot, according to the Upper Harz and Freiberg tariffs, than is actually given in payment. This sur¬ plus was kept in for reason of the silver-contents, the author not knowing whether the same is paid for, and if so how high. B.—PYRITOUS LEAD-ORES. 0. 040 0. 015 30 0. 035 0. 0005 30 3 24 2 90 2 20 + 70 0. 040 0. 015 40 0. 035 0. 0005 40 4 73 4 22 2 90 + 1 32 0. 040 0. 015 50 0. 035 0. 0005 50 6 25 5 58 3 60 + 1 98 0. 040 0.015 60 0. 035 0. 0005 60 7 54 6 73 4 30 + 2 43 0. 030 0. 040 20 0. 025 0. 0010 20 1 77 1 58 1 43 + 15 0. 030 0. 040 40 0. 025 0. 0010 40 4 68 4 18 2 97 + 1 21 0. 030 0.040 60 0. 025 0. 0010 60 7 71 6 89 4 38 + 2 51 0. 040 0. 060 20 0. 033 0. 0021 20 2 95 2 63 2 25 + 38 0. 040 0. 060 40 0. 033 0. 0021 40 5 86 5 24 3 78 + 1 45 0. 040 0. 060 60 0. 033 0. 0021 60 7 89 7 4 5 14 + 1 90 0. 050 0. 080 20 0.041 0. 0035 20 4 38 3 91 3 37 + 54 0. 050 0.080 40 0.041 0. 0035 40 7 36 6 57 4 90 .+ 1 67 0. 050 0. 080 60 0. 041 0. 0035 60 10 32 9 22 6 31 + 2 91 0.100 0.100 20 0. 080 0. 0089 20 10 1 8 94 8 33 + 61 0.100 0.100 40 0. 080 0. 0089 40 12 92 11 53 9 86 + 1 67 0.100 0.100 60 0. 080 0. 0089 60 15 95 14 24 11 29 + 3 00 Note.— According to the Upper Harz and Freiberg tariffs, lead-ores are only bought when their value amounts to 2 thaler = 3 florins O. W. = $1.42 per hundred-weight. As can be seen by the comparison, the payment of auriferous silver and lead-ores is, in general, better according to the Schemnitz tariff than the Freiberg tariff, &c., from which we can draw the conclusion that the smelting-costs are, on an average, lower at the Lower Hunga¬ rian works than at Freiberg or in the Upper Harz, when judged from the tariff's. 469. E. Changes in the Lower Hungarian metallurgical pro¬ cesses. —Though the Lower Hungarian metallurgical works, up to the year 1873, have good results to show in comparison with other works of similar character, still the continually-increasing price of fuel, especially of charcoal and wood, and the large administration-costs of the separate works, made a complete change in the metallurgical process absolutely necessary. Above everything else, it was determined to consolidate all the lead and silver smelting-works into one, and the Schemnitzer Hiitte, being the most central, was chosen for that purpose. The Ueusohler Hiitte was given up at the beginning of this year, and the Zsarnowiczer Hiitte is to be given up toward the close of same. 208 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. The smelting-operations will be so conducted that large amounts can be smelted at once, and so treated by preliminary processes that the in¬ gredients contained in the ores that are of disadvantage to the smelt¬ ing-operations, such as sulphur and zinc, will be turned to profit. The Freiberg smelting-works were chosen as a model in the erection of the works. The Fortschaufelungs-Rostofen (long reverberatory roasting-furnaces) have been in operation since March, 1873. The length of the hearth is 52 feet by 8 feet wide, and they give very satisfactory results. During the first roasting experiments in these furnaces wood was used as fuel; afterward bituminous coal was made use of for the continual work. The smelting will bo conducted in round blast-furnaces of the Filz pattern with eight tuyeres; the one already erected has a small “sumpf.” The gases escape by a canal in the side of the furnace, through a chimney 30 feet high. Coke will be used as fuel in the new furnace. The experiments to be made upon the production of zinc will first be made with the blendie-pyritous slimes; the same will be roasted, and, by lixiviating with water, zinc-vitriol will be produced. As all the Schemnitz lead-ores carry more or less zinc, the mines are to be compelled, in dressing their ores, to separate them into those rich and poor in zinc. In order that such a separation, which is of great im¬ portance to the smelting-manipulations, shall be carried into effect, the smelting-works are to determine upon what amount of zinc contained in an ore shall receive payment therefor, and how the smelting-costs of the ores rich in zinc arc to compare with those poor in that metal. Up to tho present time there has been no difference made in the tariff upon tho smelting costs of ores containing an equal percentage of lead, whether the same carry 10 per cent, or 30 per cent, of zinc. At the St. Michaelistollner mine almost perfectly pure zinc blende was obtained in dressing the blendic lead-ores. According to analysis made by the author, the same contained : Si 0 3 Fe .. CaO rb.. 4. 050 2. 025 1.000 1.330 Cu_ Zn_ Au. Ag 0.150 59. 399 0. 008 S. 30. 533 The construction of a sulphuric-acid manufactory could not be under¬ taken, as the financial “ministerium” has not as yet granted the nec¬ essary money. It is desirable that this want should be made known as soon as possible, for it is to the interest of the government, as well as the private mines, and would also be of advantage to the smelting-works, that a source of revenue should be made of the manufacture of the sul¬ phur contained iu the ores into sulphuric acid. SURVEY OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. 200 From the ores at our disposal, there could be produced over GO.000 cwt. of sulphuric acid yearly. By means of smelting large amounts of ore and the use of coke and bituminous coal, the smelting costs will fall much behind those of former times. There is, therefore, a possibility, in consequence of the diminished administration and smelting costs, and, further, by the turning to account of the sulphur and zinc, that the ore-tariff can be made of such advan¬ tage on the part of the miniug interests, that even products, which at present must first be concentrated by wet-dressing, in order to reach the demanded percentage of metal, can be sold with profit. As now the railroad, which was built by “Montan-Aerar,” runs di¬ rectly to the smelting-works, it will be possible for distant mines of Hungary, and even foreign'mines, to send and sell their ores to the Chemnitz works, especially as the works, according to section 22 of the purchase tariff, have no use of the same, the net profits of the works for each year being divided among the sellers of ore in proportion to the amount delivered by each. Metallurgical products, such as argentifer¬ ous matte, &c., are purchased according to the same rules and regula¬ tions. 470. Survey of the metallurgical processes A and B.—A. At the lead and silver smelting-worlcs Schemuitzer, Zsarnoviczer, Kemnitzer, hTeusholer, and the Mutual Dilluer Hiitte. Mining products: a. Auriferous-argentiferous-pyritous slimes ; b. auri¬ ferous-argentiferous slimes ; c. Gold and silver ores, raw-ores, enriching- ores, and lump-ore; d. Auriferous-argentiferous lead-ores and slimes; e. Auriferous-argentiferous lead-copper-ores and pyritous slimes. Products: /.Cupels; #. dross-slimes; h. different industrial products. Fluxing material: i. Flux-pyrites, limestone, iron, and slag from its own manipulation. I. SMELTING FOR MATTE. Smelted: a. Pyritous 6. Silver- c. Raw g. Sweepings; i. Flux, py- 2. Furnace- slimes. slimes. ores. rites. dross. Produced: 1. Raw matte. : 2. Furnace-dross. II. MANIPULATIONS OF “ REICHVERBLEIUNG.” 1. Preliminary operations. A.—Roasting in reverberatory furnaces. A.—Roasting in heaps, b. Silver- d. Lead-ores e. Copper-ores and 1. Raw 7. Lead- 10. Matte- 8. Sweep- slimes. and slimes. pyritous slimes. matte. matte. matte. iugs. 4. Roasted lead, roastiug charge. 5. Fumes. Roasted products as above. 2.—Chief manipulations. B .—“ Reichverblei” smelting. 4. Roasted lead, 1. Raw c. Enrich- 17. Litharge. 18. Test and 7. Lead- 8. Dross- roasting charge, matte, iug ores. “ abstrich.” matte. b. Rich lead. 7. Lead-matte. 8. Furnace-dross. 14 M 210 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. 3.—Finishing manipulations. C. — Matte-smel ting. D. — Matte-resmelting. 7. Roasted lead-matte; e. Copper-ore; 17. Litharge; 18. Test “ abstrich ; ” 19. Fur¬ nace-dross ; 23. Carcass, ( “ Kienstocke.”) 9. Matte-lead; 10. Matte-matte; 11. Fur¬ nace-accretions, sweepings. III.—CUPELLATION. 10. Matte, roasted matte; 17. Litharge; 18. Test “ abstrich 15. Furuace- dross. 13. Matte-matte lead ; 14. Copper-matte; 11. Furuace-dross, sweepings. IV.—LIQUATION. C. Rich lead; 9. Matte-lead; 13. Matte- 19. Lead from litharge, matte lead ; c. luirtp-ore. 17. Manipulation-litharge ; 18. Test “ ab- 20. Commercial lead; 23. “ Kienstocke." strich; ” 19. Litharge-lead; 20. Bliek-sil- ver; 21. Red and green commercial lith¬ arge. AT THE COPPER-SMELTING WORKS. Smelting ivories : Altgebirg and Tajowa. Mining products: Argentiferous copper-ores, noil-argentiferous copper- ores, mine cement slimes. Other products : Mint-cement copper, copper-scales, copper-matte from silver-smelting works, “Matreier” cement-copper. Fluxing and other material: Limestone, salt, slag, salt-solution, hot water, iron, and copper. I. —Smelting of argentiferous matte. II. —Resmklting of argentiferous MATTE. a. Argentiferous copper-ore; 3. Raw sweepings. 1. Raw-matte. 2. Speiss. 3. Raw sweep¬ ings. Ill.—R esmelting of f Roasted raw-matte. 5. “ Obcr” matte. 6. Dross. 2. Unliquated speiss. a. Ar¬ gentiferous copper-ores. 4. Black copper. 5. “ Ober” matte. 6. Dross. LASTED LEAD PRODUCTS. Roasted; b. Matte from silver- 2. Speiss. ; works. 7. Black copper. IV.—Extraction of sn. 1 A.—Roasting with salt. 47. Black copper, d, 20. Cement-copper. 11. Roasted kernels. 10. Roasted black copper-powder. 11. Ker¬ nels. C.— Washing with hot water. 15. Extraction residues. . “ Obcr " matte. 9. Dross, a. Argentiferous copper-ores. 8. Ober matte. 9. Dross. er from black corrER. B. — Lixiciation with cold solution of salt. 10. Roasted black copper-powder. 14. Rich residues. Rich solution, poor solution, rich residues, extraction residues. D.—Precipitation with copper. 12. Rich solution. 30. Granulated cop¬ per. 16. Wash-water. 17. Residues. 18. Extra silver. 30. Granulated copper. 19. Copper solution. SURVEY OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. 211 E.- -Precipitation of copper with iron. 19. Copper solution. 13. Poor solution. 16. Wasb-water. 20. Cement-copper. 21 V.— Reduction of residues. 17. Residues. 26. Dross-copper. 27. Un¬ liquated non-argentiferous matte. c. Mine-cement slimes. 31. Refining dross, e. Copper scales. 22. Redaction copper. 23. Dross. 24. Matte. 25. “Abstrich.” . Manipulation solution. VI.— Smelting of non-argentiferous DROSS. 23. Dross. 24. Matte. 25. “Abstricli.’’ e. Copper scales. 28. Sweepings from copper hammer, b. Non-argentiferous copper-ore. 31. Dross. 32. Test- bottom. 33. Crucible dross. 26. Dross copper. 27. Non-argentiferous matte. 28. Fur¬ nace-dross. VII.— Refining. 26. Dross-copper. 22. Reduction-copper, g, M. cement-copper, e. Copper scales. 29. Refined copper. 30. Kernel copper. 31. Dross. 32. Hearth. 33. Crucible dross. 471. Upper Hungary.— The Upper Hungarian u Wald Biirgerschaft Schmelzand Amalgamir werke” and the Phoenix Hiitte were represented by a complete collection of their ores, intermediate and final products, which will serve to illustrate the different manipulations: copper-ore, carrying mercury and silver, (tetrahedrite,) argentiferous quartzose, and gelferze, and non-argentiferous copper-ores. From the silver , copper, and quicksilver process. Matte, roasted matte, oberlech speiss, slag from ore and matte smelt¬ ing, antimonial speiss, black and granulated copper, silver amalgam, cement-silver, silver bricks, and mercury. From the copper process. Matte, roasted matte, upper matte, slag from ore, matte, and black copper-smelting; refined copper and manufactured articles, kettles, tuyeres, &c. 472. These two works, and also a third, the “Georgshiitte,” belong to the private companies who own the mines in the Schmollnitz district. Non-argentiferous copper-ores, exclusively, are reduced at the Phoenix Smelting-Works; but all kinds of copper-ores are treated at the other two works. The processes are at all three works the same, where ores of a corresponding nature are treated. The argentiferous ores contain from 0.06 to 0.07 per cent. = 17 oz. 9 dwt. 19 gr. to 20 oz. 8 dwt. 9 gr. silver, and 10 per cent, copper. The non-argentiferous copper-ores from 4.5 to 5 per cent, copper. The utili¬ zation of the ores carrying copper, silver, aud quicksilver is performed in three principal operations. 473. a. The quicksilver-distillation.* This is conducted in round * Free use is here made of a portion of the work entitled “ Beschreibung einiger wichtigerer MetaUbergbaue in Oberungarn,” by Gustav Fuller. 212 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. bias, which are about 20 feet in diameter, and surrounded with a low stone wall; a shaft made of pieces of wood is erected iu the middle and tilled with charcoal. This is used to light the fuel, and, after the fire is started, to preserve a draught during the continuation of the roasting. ’When the bins are to be charged, a thin layer of finely-crushed ore is spread on the bottom ; upon this wood is first placed, and then a small quantity of charcoal. The ore, that has already served for a covering and condonsing-medium, is laid about 0 inches thick upon the fuel. The richer and larger pieces of ore are then charged, and the poorer come on top. The upper part of the heap is kept cool by throwing fresh quantities of ore on the places that become warm. When the ore has been roasted and cooled, which operation lasts about three to four weeks, the quicksilver is found condensed and scattered throughout the upper layers. It is obtained by repeated washing in sieves and purified by distillation. 47 t. I>. The residue from the quicksilver is smelted in shaft furnaces lb feet high. The charge is 50 cwt. residue from amalgamation, 50cwt. unroasted non argentiferous copper-ore, 5 cwt. pyritous ore, 20 cwt. quartz, 10 cwt. slag from matte smelting, and 520 cubic feet charcoal. The products are matte, speiss, and slag. The speiss contains 0.2 per cent. = 53 oz. fi dwt. silver, and 23 per cent, copper. The silver is ex¬ tracted by amalgamation, and the residue is smelted for speiss, which is sold, and copper-matte, from which an inferior grade of copper is pro¬ duced. The matte is crushed and roasted iu free heaps about twelve to thirteen times. The roasted matte is smelted for black copper iu shaft- furnaces 11 feet high. The charge is composed of: 100 cwt. roasted matte, 15 to 20 cwt. quartz, and 550 cubic feet charcoal. The black-copper, containing 0.35 per cent. = 102 oz. silver, and 82 per cent,, copper, runs, when tapped, into a water-basin, and is granu¬ lated. It is then roasted, and the silver extracted by amalgamation. The matte from the black-copper smelting, assaying 0.07 to 0.175 per cent. = 20 oz. S dwt. to 50 oz. 10 dwt., and 50 to GO per cent, copper, is added to the raw matte after the fourth roasting, and is smelted with that for black-copper, &c. The slag is smelted with roasted argentifer¬ ous copper-ore. 475. c. The non argentiferous ore is roasted and smelted with slag and quartz. The resulting matte is roasted, and then smelted in a shaft-furnace, with the following charge : 100 percent, roasted matte, 312 percent, amalgamation residue, 50 percent, quartz. The consumption of charcoal is 470 cubic feet to 14S cwt. of charge. The result is slag, matte, and raw copper. The matte is roasted with the matte from ore- smelting. The slag smelted with non-argentiferous roasted ore, and the raw copper is refined, producing commercial copper. 47G. These three smelting-works have twelve shaft-furnaces, five reverberatory furnaces, two small Hungarian reverberatory furnaces, with two hearths and amalgamatiou-apparatus. The annual produc- SURVEY OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES. 213 tion has greatly decreased in the last few years. It was, in 1871, cop¬ per, 491,000 kilograms; silver, 1,023 kilograms; quicksilver, 17,040 kilograms. 477. Transylvania.—Zalathna. —There was au interesting display of statistical charts, ores, and products from the smelting-works at Zalathna, among which were the following: Silver, gold, and lead ores; copper-matte, black-copper, slag, cement-silvex’, gold, and silver. A piece of cupellation-hearth, on which lead containing gold and silver had been cupelled, was exhibited. In this there were several cavities, in which were large and small buttons, having the color of almost pure gold. 478. The smelting-works at Csertester and at Zalathna were ei'ected in 1740 to 1750, and are both worked by the government. They have two large, four small, and two low shaft-furnaces; two cupellation- furnaces; two copper-refining furnaces; and au amalgamation-apparatus. 479. A new process has lately been introduced at Zalathna, by which it is stated a great saving in the treatment of the ores will be effected. The ores* containing gold and tellurium are first roasted, and then smelted, whereby a raw matte is obtained. The matte is granulated and treated with dilute sulphuric acid, which is heated by steam. The residue, containing lead, silver, copper, and gold, is smelted with lead- flux, and the silver-lead produced is cupelled. Oi’es rich in tellurium and also the fumes from the preceding roasting are first treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and then with concentrated sulphuric acid. Tellurium is precipitated with metallic zinc. It is then washed and dried, when it is melted in a porcelain crucible. The tellurium contains antimony, arsenic, copper, and lead. From one hundred and sixteen pounds of ore two pounds of tellurium ai'e produced. 480. These works produce annually : Gold, 288.95 kilograms ; silver, 019.92 kilograms ; copper, 19,992 kilograms. 481. There were also a collection of ores and a few metallurgical pro¬ ducts and drawings exhibited from the “ Sicbruburger Kupfergewerk- schaft.” The copper ore is reduced by roasting, smelting for matte; and then, after roasting, smelting for black copper; which is refined, either producing rosette copper or copper ingots. The works own four large shaft-furnaces and one refining-furnace. The amount of copper produced annually is valued at 120,000 to IGO',000 florins. 4S2. Nagy Banya.—A large and systematic collection of geological charts and specimens of rock and minerals were exhibited by the United Smelting-Works of Nagy Banya. The three principal works are: Yerespatek, represented by gold and tellurium ores and products of amalgamation, which process is practiced for the extraction of gold. The value of the annual production of gold, and tellurium averages 35,750 florins. * Tlie description of this process is from the official report of the “ Central commisson des defttschen Reiches,” and thus appeared in the Berg- und Hiittenmannische Zeitung, 1874, p. 181. 214 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. The Felso Banya Copper-Works displayed several samples of manu¬ factured copper articles. The Feruezely Silver, Gold, and Lead Works exhibited charts of pro¬ duction, ores, product of the humid silver-extraction process, litharge, and soft lead. 483. The process of extracting gold and silver from roasted ore was introduced by Kiss in 1S59. It consists in a preliminary chloridizing roasting, after which the copper chloride is extracted with cold water and the chlorides of silver and gold with Ca O S 2 0>. Copper is precipi¬ tated by iron, the gold and silver with calcium sulphide. 484. Zinc-desilverization was introduced in Fernezely in the begin¬ ning of 1873, these being the second works in the Austriau-Hungariau Empire at which this process is practiced. The average annual production of the works at Fernezely, Verespa- tek, and Felso Banya is : gold, 435.5 kilograms ; silver, G,S13 kilograms ; copper, 93,570 kilograms; lead, 740,050 kilograms. 485. Galicia.— The zinc-metal industry of Galicia was represented by the reduction-works of A. M. O. Potockie Siersza, near Krackau, who exhibited zinc-ores, calamine and blende, cadmium, raw and refined zinc;- also a model of a zinc distillation-furnace, with a gas-generating furnace attached. CHAPTER X. KUSSIAN EXHIBITS. Exhibit of smelting-works at Nijni-Tagnil; Ores treated, furnaces employed, fuel; Kefining the black copper; Exhibits of Bogolorsk, Jongor, Yerkh- Issetsk, Kedaberg, Paulina Zinc-Works. 486. The display of mineral and metallurgical products was small, owing to the difficulty of transportation, but the articles exhibited were interesting, and the quality did justice to Russia’s well-earned reputa¬ tion. 487. The copper-works of Prince Paul Demidoff, located at Nijni- Tagnil, in the Verkhatourie district, in the Ural Mountains, were repre¬ sented by an incomplete collection of copper ores and products. The ores were composed of copper and iron pyrites and copper carbonates. The products were slag from ore-smelting, matte, black and refined copper ; the latter was of a light-rose color, and had a remarkably dis¬ tinct crystalline structure. 488. The copper-works at Nijni-Tagnil,* founded in 1725, are the most important in the Ural Mountains, and produce almost 40 per cent, of Russia’s total production of refined copper, and 65 per cent, of the total production of sheet-copper. The richest ores treated are the Siberian, containing as high as 16 per cent, copper, the ores from the Altai 9 per cent., the Ural ores 4 per cent., and the ores from the Kasan district with seldom 2 per cent, copper. They are, with very few exceptions, easily reducible. 489. When smelting arsenical ores, a small quantity of black copper is produced, the object' of which is to concentrate the arsenic in the black copper, in order to obtaiu a purer matte. Smelting is conducted partly in the old Swedish furnaces, partly in furnaces which are semi¬ circular in horizontal section, and having generally ten tuyeres, but principally in Rachette furnaces with blast heated to about 100° C. They have been modified by Skindar, who gave them an oval shape in horizontal section. The latter furnaces make campaigns of several months, and give general satisfaction. 490. Formerly 100 pounds of charcoal were calculated to carry 400 pounds of charge in smelting ore; at present 100 pounds of charcoal carries 414 to 420 pounds charge in the ore-smelting, and 437.5 to 450.5 pounds charge in the matte-smelting. The percentage of copper in the slag from ore-smelting is also more favorable; formerly it was 0.25 to 50 * The description of copper-smelting is from “ Eussland’s Montan Industrie and Einer Bereisuiuj der vorziiglichsten Hiittemverken des Urals im Jahre, 1870, hy P. V. Turner. 216 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, lfc73. per cent., but it is now only 0.25 to 30 per cent. If we compare tbe quantity of fuel consumed in smelting copper at other places with that in Nijni-Tagnil, we will perceive that very successful results have been obtained at the latter place. In Atridaberg, in Sweden, 100 pounds of charcoal carry 312 pounds charge. In England, where the operation is performed in a reverberatory furnace, with bituminous coal as fuel, 100 pounds of coal is calculated to smelt 223 pounds charge, producing slag with 0.50 per cent, copper. Although it is impossible to compare ex¬ actly the effect of charcoal and bituminous coal, it is an important fact, that the slag-dumps at Nijni-Taguil contain only about half as much copper as those in Wales. 491. The black copper is refined partly in refining-hearths and partly in English reverberatory furnaces. A comparison of the two shows tbe latter method to be the more advantageous both in regard to a sav¬ ing in fuel and metal. In tbe refining-hearth 11 cubic feet (English) of ore and 6 cubic feet charcoal are consumed in the production of 100 pounds refined copper, with a loss of 16.5 percent.; while tbe consumption of fuel per 100 pounds refined copper in tbe English furnaces is 5.1 to 5.3 cubic feet of split wood, and the loss of copper is 13.9 to 15.4 per cent. 492/ Tbe copper-works at 2s ijni-Tagnil produced, in 1S72, 1,501,026.44 kilograms of refined copper. In addition to tbe above the following small displays of copper products from the Ural Mountains were made: 493. The copper-works of Bugolovsk in the district of Verkhatourie, government of Perm, were represented by samples of ores, matte, and refined copper. These works produce annually 196,560 kilograms of refined copper. 494. The works at Jongoo, in the government of Perm, exhibited copper pyrites, malachite, and refined copper. They were founded iu 1757. Tbeir annual production is 163,S00 kilograms of refined copper. 495. Mine, de Stanboek-Fernor exhibited copper pyrites and mala¬ chite from her copper-works at Verkb-Issetsk, in the government of Perm. Tbe works were founded in 1773, and produced annually 278,460 kilograms of refined copper. 496. Tbe copper-works at Kadaberg, in the Caucasian Mountains, were represented by a few metallurgical products, viz, slag, matte, and refined copper. 497. The Paulina Zinc-Works, owned by M. G. de Kramsta, located iu the government of Piatrkow, iu the Bendian district, Poland, made a very interesting exhibit of drawings, showing tbe situation of the zinc- works and tbe plans according to which they were erected ; tbe f urnaces were also described by elaborate drawings. They ai’e muffle-furnaces, with gas-generating furnaces attached. The ores were blende, calamine, galena, anti cerusite. Tbe lead-ores are sent to Prussia for reduction, tbe zinc-ores alone beiug reduced at these works. The production of zinc in 1S71 was 1,342,707.88 kilograms. This amount exceeds one-half of Russia's total zinc production. These zinc-works have been in opera¬ tion since tbe commencement of the present century. CHAPTER XI. TURKISH EXHIBITS. Exhibits of Turkey; Condition of jietal industry; Smelting process. 498. There was only a small exhibit of metallic minerals from Turkey, and even then it was with difficulty that the names of the owners or the localities whence they came could be ascertained. Noticeable were ga¬ lena ores from the district of Kourouk and Salonique, in Turkey in Asia; lead from the department of the Dardanelles; copper-ores from the de¬ partments of Aleppo and Sivas; copper from the department of Diar- bekir, exhibited by M. Theodori. 499. We are informed that the mineral resources of Turkey are very ex¬ tensive, but however that may be, it is still true that this, as well as many other branches of industry in that country, is still in its infancy. We shall here make use of a report made by Herr W. Fishback, a German engineer, who is employed by the Ottoman government. It appeared in the u Berg-und Hiittenmannische Zeitung” in 1873, p. 109. Lead and silver were extracted in Turkey by the ancients; they worked the outcroppings, and sank shafts down to the water-level only, for, strange as it may seem, they had not learned the use of adits. The richest lead and silver mines are in Cratova, near the river Egriderb, near Nevrokop and Serres, in Macedonia, near Ghumiischane, Bulgar- maden, Cosaii in Syria, and in Asia. Copper was extracted many cen¬ turies ago in Asia. It is found in several localities. Herr Fishback discovered, in 1872, on the surface, an unusually rich occurrence of cop¬ per-ore, (copper glance,) but does not inform us as to its extent. The ore-veins (argentiferous galena) ruu from north to south ; they have a regular dip and a permanent thickuess. The ores are only sep¬ arated imperfectly from the associated minerals by hand. Small quan¬ tities of iron pyrites sometimes accompany the galena, and very seldom blende. The ore is but partially roasted iu large heaps surrounded by walls. 500. The smelting is conducted in low shaft-furnaces, with a low pres¬ sure of blast. Charcoal serves as fuel. The manner and relative pro¬ portion of charging ore, flux, and fuel, is improvised by the workmen, who lack all experience. Silver-lead has been cupelled until recently in flat-bottomed open hearths, made of wood-ashes. The heat was pro- 218 VIENNA INTEKNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. r.•.. Instruments. II 28 36 Westminster. . II 30 38 Cloth, (sec Cotton.) Cloth cutler, Worth's. Introduction. . II I 324 271 Do . Machinery... III 319 294 Clothing, linen, ready-made. Introduction. b I 404 294 Cluli-hnuses. Metallurgy. . K IV 105 76 Coal, Hoffman's report. Introduction. I 370 244 mines of lioohum. Metallurgy. . E IV 111 81 Pennsylvania... Introduction. III 256 116 Russia production. Metallurgy. . E IV 217 151 Coal-tar products. Chemical Industry. . A II 8 8 Cohalt, Ktipelwicser s report. Introduction. . n I 398 284 Serlo and Stolid's report . . B I 362 226 Cnekerill locomotives. Machinery. . A III 62 74 oscillating engines. . A III 58 62 works. III 383 365 history. Metallurgy. . F. IV 131 110 Colin on sewing-machines. Introduction. . B I 423 322 Coignnrd pump. Machinery. . A III 178 207 Coins, value of... Introduction. . A I 27 Do. . B I 224 Coke blast-furnaces, Bochum. Metallurgy. . E IV Ill e3 furnaces. Bochum..... . E IV 111 84 Cold-rolled bronic. Machinery.. III 334 310 Dean's... III 321 295 shafting. .do. III 326 301 Anderson’s report. Introduction. I 240 86 Holmes' report. I 253 105 Cold-rolling, applications of. Machinery. . A III 334 311 Colladon s floating wheels. . A III 179 186 Collier, r„ Report on Commercial Fertilizers Fertilizers. . C II Collodion negatives.. Photography. . D II 12 27 Collins & Co.'s plows. Introduction. . B I 272 128 •Colonial agricultural policy. . B I 324 178 GENERAL INDEX, 15 SUliJECT. Retort. Vol. Page. Art. Coloring materials, artificial. Chemical Industry.. ... A II 8 8 Colt’s armory. Iutroductiou. .... B I 343 201 Commerce, Richter's report. .... B I 461 364 Commercial Fertilizers, Report by P. Collier. Fertilizers.. .... C II Commissioners, United States. Introduction. .... A I 156 60 assignment of duties... Forestry. .... D I 9 1 regulations. Introduction.. .... A I 159 62 •Committee, advisory, of citizens. .... A I 153 61 Concentration of sulphuric acid. Chemical Industry. .... C II 6 o Condensation, surface. Machinery.. .... A III 44 52 Conde water-worts. Hydraulic Engineering .... .... D III 47 60 •Conductor, telegraphic. Telegraphs. .... I II 8 7 Do. .... J II 11 10 •Cone-pulleys for lathes. Machinery.. .... A III 213 ooo Congress, International. Introduction.. .... A I 90 53 of millers, desirable. Vienna Bread. .... B II 64 135 act authorizing appointment of United States commissioners. Introduction. .... A I joint resolution, appropriation. ... A I •Conservatoires des Arts et Metiers. Machinery. .... A III 392 373 Constantinople, school of forestry. Forestry.. .... D I 100 156 Construction, Materials of, Report by N. L. Derby. Architecture. .... B IV Construction of Private Dwellings in Vienna, Report by T. R. KlERNSkE. Architecture.. .... A IV Construction, (see Architecture.) buildings in general. Exhibition Buildings. .... Aa IV 16 32 exhibition buildiD^s. .... Aa IV 8 12 special services. .... Aa IV 16 33 superintendence. .... Aa IV 16 31 C/O'&Tme of fljur... Vienna Bread. .... B II 42 96 Cooperage. Wood Industries. .... c IV 14 14 Coffer, &c., Metallurgy of, Report by H. Painter. Metallurgy.. .... F IV Copper. Introduction. .... B I 369 240 Brixlegg Smelting Works. Metallurgy. .... F IV 165 385 extraction, at Altenau.. .... F IV 106 243 Kafveltorps Stock Company. .... F IV 23 52 Lower Hungary. .... F IV 194 445 Do. IV 209 470 Mansfield Copper Works. .... F IV 133 320 Oker Smelting Works. IV 127 300 Do. .... F IV 129 304 Russia, arsenical ores. .... F IV 215 4S9 refining-hearths.. IV 216 404 reverberatory furnaces. .do. IV 216 401 Copper plate printing. Printing and Paper. .... 0 II 10 10 Copper-vitriol at Altenau. Metallurgy. . F IV 113 260 production. IV 115 266 Freiberg. IV 86 208 Oker Smelting-Works. IV 130 303 Coprolites, English. Fertilizers. .... C II 17 15 Copyists, continental nations as. Machinery. .... A III 11 22 •Corinthian furnaces, sections of. Metallurgy. .... E IV 21 23 Corn, nutritive value of. Vienna Bread_ . . II 110 236 •Cornices of molded stone. Working of Stone. IV 10 8 Correspondence by telegraph. Telegraphs . II 82 73 Corrugated iron.. Architecture . IV 14 27 Corundum and emery. Introduction.. . I 369 237 16 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. Subject. Repost. Vol. Page. Art. Cotswold sheep. Sheep and Wool. ... E I 21 26- meriuoes. ... E t 13 14. Colton, Peez’s report. Introduction. ... B I -tut 29a Tisserand’s report. ... B I 299 153 Cotton goods, Peez’s report.. ... B I 401 292 Weigert’s report. ... B I 374 249 Cotton iiiacliiuery, German. Maehinerv. ... A III 350 344 Cotton manufacture, Delbaye's report. Introduction. ... IS I 332 168 Swiss... Machinery. ... A 111 348 324 Cotton printing and dyeing. Introduction. ... B I 475 382 Cotton spinning, Peez's report. .do. ... B I 404 293 Steiger-Meyer's report. .do. ... B 1 ■475 380 Cotton-weaving, Peez's report. .do. ... 1$ I 404 293 Steiger-Meyer s report. ... B I 475 381 (.'ourts of justice, Georgs-Marieu-Mutte Co. IV 102 71 Cradle. education.. ... IC 11 6 o Cranes, steam, Appleby & Co. Machinery. ... A III 335 315 Wilson & Co.'s. .do. ... A nr 335 315 Creches... education . ... K ii 6 3 C'rousot; Schneider A Co. Metallurgy. ... E IV 118 9L Crewe, tailroad repair-shops at. Machinery. ... A HI 401 382 Cross-breeding, efficiency of. Sheep and Wool. ... E I 38 48 In France. ... E I 34 42 Cryolite). Introduction. ... IS I 305 233 for making soda. Chemical Industry. ... A II C 3 Crystals. Chemical Materials. ... F 11 7 8 Cumberland, and the hematite district. Machinery. ... A III 405 384 on*a. ... A 11 r 400 380 Cnpcllation-furnace. Metallurgy. ... F IV 158 374 Cutter-grinder, Pratt Si Whitney Company's,... Machinery...... in 220 234 Cut-otl of the Danube. Hydraulic Engineering.... ... D hi 5 3- Cutts, It. D., Report on Instruments ok Pkk- C1SION. Instruments. ... II ii Cylinder-mill, Buchholz's. Vienna Bread. ... B H 61 132 porcelain.. ... IS II 41 102 Cylinder-milling. II 42 97 D. Dalmatia woods. Forestry. ... D I 30 3 Damplimot on silk and silk-industries. Introduction. ... B 1 332 180 Dams on the Ybbs and Eurlaf. Hydraulic Engineering. ... D III 9 13 Daniell's batteries. Telegraphs. ... .r II 16 22 Danube River.... Hydraulic Engineering. ... D III 5 1 cut-offs. ... D III 5 3 embankments. III 6 4 basins. ... D III 6 5 Douan Canal. III 6 C rtooils and ice-gorges. ... D III 6 7 caisson. ... I) III 7 6 Lower, improvements. . Dubroiji's photographic exhibits.. Photography. .... D II 11 25 Duke of Northumberland's Alnwick Castle Architecture. .... B IV 18 34 Dutuont, Nout A, centrifugal pump. Machinery. .... A HI 197 200 Duster for bran. Vienna Bread.,. .... I) II 48 108 Dutch, (tee Holland. Netherlands.) Dutch clocks. Instruments. .... G ii 25 . 33 schools for idiots... Education. .... K ii 77 34 Dwellin')#, Private, or Vienna, Report by J. NiEllN'SEE. Architecture. .... A IV Dyeing... Introduction.. I 475 382 and printing in Switzerland. Machinery. r III 348 325 Earle's steam-pomp. ij. Machinery. III 189 199 Earlswnod school for idiots .. Edneation ... .... K 11 83 39 Edison's automatic telegraphy. Telegraphs. .... I ir 13 13 duplex telegraphy. .... I ii 34 18 Education. Report by J. W. Ilorr. Edneation. .... L n Education, Report by E. Ssmut. .... K ii Education, (tee Instruction, Schools.) of automatism. Education. .... K ii 17 9 of both sides.. .... K ii 29 14 by example and competition. .... L n 32 49 free edneation .. .... K ii 3 1 in general . it 99 48 of the hand. .... K n 114 67 of idiots, (see Idiots.) of language. Edneation. .... K 11 119 71 Levassenr's report, (see Reports. French. Introduction. .... B i 352 215 modern tendencies of. Education. .... K ii 123 73 National Bureau of. Introduction. .... B i 448 357 object of. Education. .... K ii 113 66 Paris and Vienna.. .... L ii 5 1 physiological. . .... K ii 123 73 principles and methods. .... L ii 32 50 GENERAL INDEX. 19 Subject. ' Report. Education of the senses. Education. industrial.do. medical.do. sex in.do. through, not of the senses.do. Tschudi’s report. Introduction. in the United States.Education. of workmen at Vienna.do. Educational appliances, Fussell's report.Introduction. exhibits. Education. Egyptian.do. technical.Machinery. Egger Smelting “Works. Metallurgy. Egypt, educational exhibits... Education.. photographical exhibits. Photography. forest area. Forestry. Ebrenwerth’s puddler.Metallurgy. Ehrhardt-Dingler boiler. Machinery. engine.do. Electical bridge. Instruments. clocks.do.. deep-sea thermometer.do. machine, Holz.. Physical Apparatus_ Electricity and magnetism. do. Embroidery, Swiss.Machinery. Emery and corundum.Introduction. Ems Smelting Works. Metallurgy. Encaustic tiles.Working of Stone. Encephalon training. Education. Engineering, Civil, Report by W. Watson _Civil Engineering. Kleitz's report.Introduction. Engineering, Hydraulic, Report by C. Davis. . Hydraulic Engineering Engines, (see Locomotives.) aero-steam, Henderson's theory. Machinery. blowing.do. caloric.do. Ericsson’s.do. Lehmann's.do. Sterling’s.do. gas, compared with steam-engines.do. Bray ton’s.do. Thurston's trial of.do. Lenoir’s.do. non-explosive, advantages of.do. Otto & Langen’s.do. Tresca’s trial.do. theory of, Rankine’s.do. steam, sero, Henderson's theory.do. American. Introduction. beam.Machinery. British, efficiency of.do. Brotherhood & Hardingham’s.do. Burmeister & Waine's.do.. Clayton & Skuttlewortk's.do.. Cockerill’s oscillating.do. compared with gas-engines.do. dimensions, table of.do. double-cylinder.do. Vol. Page. Art. K LI 115 68 K II 117 70 K II 116 69 K II 129 77 K II 33 16 B I 482 88 L II 33 51 L II 22 24 B I 280 143 L II 8 3 L II 18 23 A III 341 319 F IV 170 399 L II 18 23 D II 22 57 D I 77 103 E IV 50 33 A III 132 145 A III 31 41 H II 11 22 G II 27 35 H II 10 19 F II 11 14 F II 9 12 A III 189 326 B I 369 237 F IV 155 363 D IV 24 28 K II 23 12 C III B I 345 201 D III A m 151 153 A hi 412 392 A iii 150 154 A hi 150 155 A HI 162 160 A iii 151 156 A iii 149 153 A HI 165 164 A iii 165 165 A iii 162 161 A iii 168 168 A in 168 169 A iii 171 170 A iii 174 177 A iii 151 158 B i 415 310 A iii 59 64 A in 424 401 A ni 37 44 A in 52 56 A IH 101 115 A iii 58 62 A in 149 153 A iii 39 47 A HI 49 55 20 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1573. Subject. Eepobt. Engines, steam, Donan-GeselLdiaft's.. Machinery. Ebrhardt-Dingler’a.do. rirt-, tine Fire engines, i Galloway's.do. historical sketch.do. Marshall, Sons & Co.’». do. Monarch, iron-clad.do. New York Safety Steam Power Company's.do.... Go...Introduction. Norwalk Iron Company’s. Machinery. I)o. Introduction. Do... Penn & Co.'s.. Machinery. Pickering's.do .. Do. Introduction. l)o.do. (>•>1 table, economy of. Machinery. trade in............do .. Porter-Alien. ....do. Heading Iron Works'... Policy ii. Co.'s..do. Schneider & Cu.’a.do. Sellers A Co.’*. Introduction .. Siemens’. Machinery. Sociu A Wicks’ ..do. Stablllmento DolmlcoTricstlno .do. Sulaer Druthers'.do. Tangyc Druthers'... traction, and road locomotives.do. Turner A Co.'s. do. England, (sc* British. Great Britain.) England, consumption of fertilisers. Fertiliser*. coprolites.do. importation of gnano 1-1) to 1861.do. fertilUors 1861 to ..In . English schools for idiots . Education. superphosphates. Fertilizers. telegraphic administration. Telegraphs. instruments . do.. lines. do.. tiles.. Architecture. traction-engines.Machinery. watches. instruments. F.nnis, R. and T. A., job-printing. Printing and Taper Equipments, army. Herzog’s report. Introduction. Ericsson’s caloric engine. Machinery. Escapements, tonrliillon. Instruments. Essen. Krnpp's works at.Machinery. Essex County (New York) iron-ores.Metallurgy.. Essex Hall, school for idiots. Education. Etching, l>y Tilghman's sand-blast..Introduction. Ethyl series.Chemical Materials . European Mam fai ti ring PrsTRt' ts. Report by R. H. Tnt'RSTON.Machinery. European copies of United States machinery.do. forest administration.Forestry. machinery practice.Machinery. YoL Page. Art. A III 57 59 A III 31 41 A III 29 39 A III 42 50 A III 100 114 A III 430 408 A III 26 37 D I 418 312 A III 25 30 B I 267 183 B I 416 311 A III 450 420 A III 35 43 B I O54 104 B I 417 313 A III 98 112 A HI 103 119 A 111 33 42 A III 100 113 A HI 101 116 A III 29 40 B I 416 314 A HI 38 45 A in 20 32 A HI 57 60 A III 21 33 A HI 29 38 A HI 87 104 A III 101 116 C II 10 8 C 11 17 15 C II 14 12 C It 15 13 K 11 82 38 C II 34 34 I II 51 26 I II 10 10 3 II 23 31 B IY 7 8 A III 83 101 G II 19 25 0 II 7 5 B I 380 387 A III 150 155 G II 13 16 A III 370 360 E IY 1G1 K II 63 38 B I 378 255 F II 14 21 A I A III 195 203 D I 10 3 A III 17 25 G'ENERAL INDEX. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. 21 Art. European machinery practice, influence in United States. machinery. .... A ' Ill 40 48 manufacturers, position of. .do. .... A III 18 28 work of. .... A III 78 90 telegraphic conductors. Telegraphs. ... J II 14 19 ink-writer. .do. .... J II 7 6 insulator tests. .do. .... J 11 22 30 relays. .... J II 5 1 service . .... J II 31 41 sewing-machines. Sewing-Machines. .... B III 6 2 sheep.. Sheep and Wool. . E I 16 17 wheat. Vienna Bread. _ B II 19 46 Euteuberg Forest School. Forestry. _ D I 99 14G Exchange at Brussels. Architecture. _ B IV 23 50 Excreta, (see Fertilizers.) Excreta, chemical products of. Fertilizers. . C II 56 64 Exhibition Buildings and Railroad Strug- tures, Report by L. Bridges . Exhibition Buildings. _Aa IV Exhibition buildings. Architecture. _ B IV 24 54 Lyons. Machinery. .... A III 397 373 review of. _ A III 11 21 success of. _ A III 3 1 Exhibitions, (see Fairs, International.) Exhibitions, industrial, earliest. Introduction. _ A I 33 9 origin of .... _ A I 31 1 French, origin of. .do. .... A I 33 10 Exhibitors, faults of management. Machinery. _ A III 10 18 United States, success of. _ A III 10 19 Do. Exhibition Buildings. .... Aa IV 7 9 Exhibits, classification, Dublin, 1853. Introduction. _ A I 40 22 London, 1851. _ A I 36 17 London, 1862 . .do. .... A I 49 36 New York, 1853 . .do. .... A I 42 25 Paris, 1855 . .do. .... A I 44 30 Vienna, 1873 . .do. .... A I 98 57 distribution by nations. Exhibition Buildings. _Aa IV 6 4 general, character of. Machinery. _ A III 4 4 national, character of. ......do . . .... A III 16 24 of California. Introduction. .... B I 300 156 of States (United States). .do. .... A I 197 64 Exmoor sheep. Sheep and Wool.. . E I 27 34 Exner, (see Reports, Austrian.) Expansion of steam, economic gain by. Machinery. _ A III 18 27 maximum effect by. .do. .... A III 48 54 Experience, lessons from. . Education.. . K II 3 1 F. Fabrics, textile, Weigert's report. Introduction. _ B I 374 248 Fagersta iron-ores and limestone. Metallurgy. .... E IV 142 122 steel, Kirkaldy’s experiments. .do. _ E IV 147 124 gun-barrels. _ E IV 144 123 plate, test of. . E IV 150 125 ■works, exhibit .. .do.. . E IV 141 121 Fairbairn’s tests of Barrow steel. Machinery. . A III 408 387 Fairfield, G-. A., Report on Sewing-Machines. Sewing-Machines.. . B III Fairfield Works of Elder & Co. Machinery.. . A III 423 399 Fairs. Introduction. . A I 32 7 Fats and oils, chemistry of. Chemical Industries. . A II 7 7 22 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1S73. Subject. Report. Yol. Page. Art. Feed-water beater. Machinery. .... A Ill 134 149 Febling's analysis of bread. . ViennaBread.. .... B II 96 213 Fermentation. .do.. .... B II n 167 alcoholic. .... B II F3 160 changes by. .... B II 111 240 effect of. .... B II 63 162 loss due to. II 96 215 theories of. .... B 11 61 177 Ferro-manganese of lteaicza. Metallurgy.. .... E IV 46 27 Fertilizers, Commercial Report by P. Cot,- LIEU. . Fertilizers. ... C II A merican, analysis. .do. .... C II 36 36 composition. .... C II 37 37 price. II 39 33 value... ... C 11 36 38 commercial, exhibits. . 11 10 9 frauds iu manufacture and sale ,... II 41 40 Importation into England. ... C 11 15 13 manufacture and sale. ... C 11 41 40 potash. 11 53 58 nUuxljt'-'r ilotlAr rcfllftO.. .do.. 11 49 53 Sehmied s report. , Introduction.. .... B I 399 265 Fibrins, vo^etablc. . .... B II 9 21 Flfo-wlfeat, \(iunesota... . .... » 11 so 128 milling process. .do.. .... It II 56 123 Finances of Paris exhibition, 1867. .... B 11 57 42 Fire, precautions against. Architecture. ... A IV 15 24 Fire-box, Ilelpalre's . Machinery. lit 78 SI Fire-arms, Ulrich's report. Introduction... I 47e 365 Mertlun's report. ... B I 313 200 Ucmiogtou's report... ... It I 353 112 Russell's re|»nt.. ... U 1 254 111 Somrad's report. ... B I 346 346 Sharpe's report. ... B I 255 113 Smith A Wesson's report. ... B I 255 114 Fire engines, steam, American and Ilritish ... Machinery. ... A III 106 123 merits of. ... A III 106 124 historical sketch. ... A III 107 125 rotary. ... A m 103 120 Silsby Manufacturing Co.. ... A hi 105 121 Fish, Hamilton, Se- ketakt ok State, Intro- ductokt Letter .. Introduction. ... A i Fish. ... B i 472 376 guano . Fertilizers. ... C ii 47 46 scraps. ... C ii 47 46 Flashes on the Tonne. CiTil Engineering. ... C nr 27 29 Flagging, Yorkshire. Working of Stone. ... I) IV 26 32 Flattich on house carpentry.. Introduction. ... B l 406 298 Floods, protection against. Hydraulic Engineering_ ... D III 6 7 Floors, arched. Architecture. IV 17 29 Austrian. ... B IV 19 37 cement. Working of S'one. ... I) IV 30 37 construction. Architecture. ... A IV 16 26 materials. Working of Stone. ... D IV 31 38 Florence, school of forestry. Forestry. ... D I 97 140 Flour, aroma of. Vienna Bread. ... B II 74 159 bolt. ... B II 49 109 changes in becoming bread. .do. ... B II 92 201 GENERAL INDEX, 23 Subject. Retort. Flour, characteristics of. Vienna Bread. chemical examination of.do. Hungarian.do. light bread from.do. low and high milled.do. No. O and A grits.do. self-raising. do. southern.do. testing of.do. Vienna bread.do. Flues, laws relating to. Architecture. Fly-presses, German... Machinery. Food, (see Agriculture, Ott Thiel, Tisserand, Warhanek, and Wines.) industries, machinery of. Machinery. of plants. Fertilizers. Forests and Forestry, Report by J. W. Warder . Forestry. Forestry of Lower Austria.-.do. schools of, Austria.do. Austro-Hungary.do . Baden. do. Bavaria.do. Belgium.. do. Brunswick.do. France.do. Germany.do. ■ Do.do. Hanover.do. Hesse-Darmstadt.do. Hungary.do. Italy.do. Norway.do. Portugal.do. Russia.do. Prussia.do. Saxe-Weimar ..do. Saxony.do. Spain.do. Sweden.do. Switzerland.do. Turkey.do. Wurtemberg.do.. Forests, effect of grazing in.do. of Algeria.do. Austria.do. Lower.do.. Upper.do. Austrian state-railroad.do.. Bohemia. do. Bukowina.do. Carinthia.do. Carniola.do. Egypt..do. Europe, administration.*..do. France. do. Galicia.do. Germany.:.do. Vol. Page. Art. B II 68 143 B II 75 161 B II 71 149 B II 84 183 B II 73 156 B II 73 155 B II 91 198 B II 66 138 B II 74 156 B II 59 129 A IV 15 25 A III 357 348 A III 358 349 C II 5 1 D I D I 68 84 D I 98 142 D I 99 147 D I 97 140 D I 97 134 D I 100 153 D I ' 97 137 D I 100 150 D I 96 133 D I 98 141 D I 97 133 D I 97 139 D I 99 147 D I 100 149 D I 100 152 D I 100 154 D I 100 151 D I 96 133 D I 97 138 D I 97 135 D I 100 155 D I 100 152 D I 99 148 D I 100 156 D I 97 136 D I 29 31 D I 79 105 D I 64 79 D I 66 81 D I 69 86 D I 49 62 D I 71 90 D I 71 92 D I 74 97 D I 75 98 D I 77 103 D I 10 3 D I 53 66 D I 72 93 D I 60 76 24 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Subject. Retort. Yol. Page. Alt. Forests of Goriiz.. .. Forestry. ... D I 72 94 Great Britain.. ... D I 51 63 Guadeloupe. I ei 108 Guiana.. ... D I 60 106 Holland.. ... D I 53 65 Hungary. ... D I 76 100 Ixtria. ... 1) I 72 94 Italy. ... D 1 58 7«> Martinique.. ... D I 61 107 Netherlands. .do. ... D I 53 65 New Caledonia.. .do. ... I) I 61 no Norway.. ... D I S3 68 Oceanic colonies.. .do. ... D I 61 111 Portugal.. .... It I 57 71 Russia. ... 1) I 55 69 Salzburg...... ... 1) I 70 68 Sardinia... ... D I 50 74 Saxe Coburg Gotha.. ... D I 49 60 Sehwarzenberg.. ... D I 85 115 Senegal.. ... D I 61 109 Sicily. .... D I 59 74 Spain. .... I) I 56 70 Styrla. .... I) I 75 99 J Sweden. .... » I 53 68 Switzerland... .... 1) I 53 67 Vienna Joint Stock Company ...... .... I> K I IV 62 112 1*4 locomotive wheels. .. Machinery. III 335 314 Forgings, architectural. .. Architecture. .... b IV 13 21 hydraulic.. .. Machinery. III 334 313 hydraulic. .. Metallurgy. .... K IV 53 34 Foundations, cement. .. Architecture. .... It IV 0 16 of exhibition buildings.. .. Kxhibilion Buildings.. IV 6 11 Founderics in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia . .. Metallurgy. .... E IV 19 19 Founder)'-work for sowing machines. ,. SewingMachines.. .... B hi 27 6 Fonrneyron-Jonral wheel, Tbime's. .. Machinery.. .... A hi 164 192 turbines of Nagle & Kacmp . in 160 188 Fourrade's wotk and reward.. .. Education.. .... K it 55 27 Framed buildings. .. Architecture. ... B IV 18 36 Frankfort, school for idiots. .. Education. .... K ii 81 37 Freiberg, Berg-Academic. .. Machinery. m 363 357 Copper-Vitriol Works. .. Metallurgy. ... F IV 9 23 Metallurgical Works. .... F IV oe 227 rousting ores at... ... F IV 42 101 Smelting Company. IV 168 394 smelting process. .... F IV 56 136 roasted matte. .... F IV 77 187 Smelting Works. IV 96 225 sulphuric-acid manufactory. .... F IV 46 108 French art. .. Patronage of Art. .... X II 12 16 clocks. .. Instruments.. .... G II 25 33 colonies, photographs from.. .. Photography. ... D II 13 30 educational exhibits. .. Education. .... L II 18 2* exhibitions, origin of. .. Introduction. I 33 10 fairs . ... A I 32 5 forests . .. Forestry. .... D I 53 66 products of. ... D I 40 10 hydraulic engineering. . Hydraulic Engineering- ... r» III 12 2! GENERAL INDEX. 25 Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Trench lead-refining . Metallurgy . ... F IY 9 24 manufacturing districts. Machinery . .... A III 391 372 metallurgical exhibits . Metallurgy . .... F IY 9 19 metal industry. _ F IY 9 23 metal-working tools. Machinery. .... A III 244 252 photographic exhibits. . Photography. _ D II 10 20 Photographic Society . _ D II 10 21 phosphates . Fertilizers . . C II 19 20- prices of . . C II 26 31 reports, ( see Reports, French.) schools . Education . . K II 103 57 for Idiots . . K II 79 35 sheep, ancient breeds . Sheep aud Wool . . E I 37 47 breeding establishments . _ E I 36 45 cross-breeding . _ E I 34 42 distribution of breeds . _ E I 33 41 local adaptation of . . do . . E I 35 43 methods of husbandry. . do .. . E I 38 49 mutton producers . . E I 37 46 Rambouillet stock . . E I 35 44 statistics . . E I 32 40 telegraphs . Telegraphs . . I II 62 49 telegraphs .:. . J II 23 31 administration. .do . . I II 52 34 employes .. . I II 71 60 instruments . .. do . . .1 II 23 32 Hughes’ . . J II 25 34 officers . . I II 69 56 organization .. . do . . I II 52 34 wood-working tools. . Machinery . . A III 284 273 Friedberg Institution for the Blind and Deaf- Mutes. . Deaf-Mutes. . M II 8 9 Friedmann’s injector. Machinery. . A III 138 150 Friedmann on Hew York Harbor improvements. Introduction. . B I 437 349 Fruits, preserved, Ott’s report .. . B I 472 377 Fuels, mineral, of the United States . . do . . B I 255 115 Furnaces, (see Blast-furnaces.) dimensions of Cleveland . Machinery . . A III 409 390 practice at Scotch .. . A III 419 398 Furniture, American ... . Wood Industries . . 0 IY 6 3 exhibits . . C IV 16 16 Furring and lathing . , Architecture . . B IV 8 13 Fiirstenberg Prince, area of domain. Forestry. . D I 93 129 flora.. . D I 93 129 forest culture. . D I 94 130 Fiirst & Bradley's plows. . Introduction. . B I 273 130 Fussell, on educational appliances.. .do. . B I 280 143 G. Galicia flora... Forestry. . D 1 72 93 forest products. . D I 26 25 State forests. . D I 72 93 topography. . D I 72 93 Gallaudet, Dr., School at Hartford. Gallaudet, E. M., Report on Governmental Education. . K II 64 28 Patronage op Art. . Patronage of Art. . N II Report on Deaf-Mute Instruction... Deaf-Mutes. . M II Galloway compound engines. Machinery. . A III 29 39 26 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Retort. Galloway steam-boiler, trial of. Machinery. Galvanized iron and roofing-metal.-Architecture. telegraphic wire. Telegraphs. Galvano-plastic apparatus for electrotypes. Government Printin; Gardening, landscape.Architecture. Gabkktso.v, II., Report of CuiKF Executive Commissioner.. Gas, ammonia from.... Fertilizers. and steam engines compared.Machinery. compared with steam as a motor.do. engines, advantages of Crayton's non- explosive.do. defects in explosive.....do.. Lenoir's .. do. non-explosive. do. Otto & Langen's. do. IUnkine's theory of.do. illuminating, Stiugl s report.. Introduction . Gavltt A Co.'s exhibits of printing. Printing and Paper.. Gear-cutter, Sellers & Co. Machinery. Do. Introduction. Gear-molding machine, Scott's. Machinery. Genius, creative, tralnlug of. Education.. Genoa, school of forestry. Forestry. Gentllly, school for Idiots.. Education. Geography, Instruction In. Introduction. teaching of. Education.. Geology of Swedish Iron-ores. Metallurgy. Georgs Marten Hutto Company.do. German and United States, graphic arts. Introduction. book Illustrations. Photography. Empire sc pool of forestry. Forestry... entries of sheep.Sheep and Wool.... (looks, sheep.do. lithography... Printing and Paper locomotive-works, character of. Machinery. moriuoes, wool of...Sheep and Wool... metallurgical exhibit. Metallurgy. opinion of American tools.Machinery. phosphates... Fertilizers. price.do.-. school for idiots... Education. sewing-machines. Sewing-Macbinoa .. superphosphates. Fertilizers.... telegraphic collection. Telegraphs. employis.do. office .. do. telegraphs.*1°. watches..... Instruments.. Germany, educational apparatus.Education. exhibits.do. models.-.do. fiue wool of.Sheep and Wool- forest administrations.Forestry. area. do. products.do. metallurgical exhibits. Metallurgy. periodicals.....Education. Vol. Page. Art. A Ill Ill 127 B IV 14 26 J II 15 20 P II C 10 B II 24 55 C 1 C II 41 52 A III 149 153 A III 147 152 A III 105 165 A III 103 162 A in 1(18 lfd A hi 168 168 A hi 168 169 A in 174 177 B i 400 2*6 0 ii 6 6 A in SI6 225 B i 582 361 A hi 381 295 K ii 34 17 D i 100 149 K ii 81 37 II i 337 221 K ii 123 72 E IV 158 134 K IV 04 64 It i :79 256 D ii 16 41 D i 06 133 E i 0 10 E i 10 11 0 ii 15 19 A in 78 87 E i 10 11 E IV 55 36 A III 338 317 C 11 20 22 C II 25 29 K II 77 34 B III 6 2 C II 31 33 I II 43 24 I II 71 60 I 11 58 46 . I II 58 46 G II 19 26 . L II 20 23 . L II 19 27 . L II 20 29 . E I 41 53 . D 1 60 76 . D I 60 76 . D I 61 77 . F IV 30 68 . L n 20 30 GENERAL INDEX. 27 Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Germany, photographic exhibits . . Photography. . D II 16 41 sheep, Spanish breed. . Sheep and Wool . . E I 40 52 soil .. . Forestry . . D I 63 78 trees. . D I 62 78 Gewerbe-Schule at Vienna. Machinery. . A III 367 359 Gheel, school for idiots.. . Education . . K II 77 34 Ghent, school for idiots .•. . do . . K II 77 34 Gibus, W., Report on Physical Apparatus i Physical Apparatus _ and Chemical Materials.} Chemical Materials .... II Giersberg on the work at Hallett’s Point, N. Y. Introduction . . B I 391 277 Gillet, Dr., school . . Education . _ K II 64 28 Gintl on resins . Introduction . . B I 401 288 starch . . B I 400 287 Girard’s sluice-gates . . Civil Engineering . . C III 34 40 turbine, Gwynne & Co.’s . . Machinery . . A III 178 183 Girders and columns, iron . . Metallurgy . . E IV 64 56 strains on . , Civil Engineering . ....... C III 62 82 Gladbaoh, school for idiots . . Education . . K II 76 33 /Glassware, chemical . Chemical Materials .... . F II 18 28 Gleiwitz lurnace, exhibit . . Metallurgy . . E IV 114 89 Globes ... Introduction . . B I 358 223 Gluten . . Vienna Bread . . B II 8 17 cells, illustrated . . do . . B II 69 146 size of . . B II 73 154 changes in . . do .. . B ii 92 202 chemical constitution . . do . . B ii 12 31 percentage in flour . .. do . . B ii 12 30 Gold . Introduction . . B i 370 242 pens, Nagel on the manufacture . . B i • 409 301 Goldschmidt on leather . . do . . B i 406 295 Goniometers . Physical Apparatus _ . F ii 6 5 Goritz exhibit of forest products . Forestry . . D i 26 26' area . . do . . D i 73 94 coast-land forest . . do . . D i 72 94 description of country . . do . .. D i 73 95 flora . . D i 74 96 Governmental architectural work . Architecture . .. B IV 22 46 Governmental Patronage of Art, Report by E. M. Gallaudet. Patronage of art . .. N II 7 4 Governmental Printing Institutions, Report by A. H. Brown. Government Printing... . P II Graham, L., exhibit of printing . Printing and Paper . . 0 II 7 5 Grain, wheat, coatings . Vienna Bread . . B II 5 8 effect of milling . . B II 70 148 Hungarian . . B II 16 42 nutritive salts . . B II 109 233 phosphorus in ... . B II 13 33 separation of . . B II 22 55 Granite, use in United States .. Architecture . . B IV 5 3 Graphic arts, “ Picturesque America ”. Introduction. . B I 336 191 Lorck’s report. I 337 253 Grate, Bolzano’s. .. Machinery . III 133 148 Zeh’s . . A III 133 148 Groat Britain, ( see British, England.) fairs in . Introduction . . A I 32 4 forests . Forestry . I 51 63 photographic exhibits . Photography . II 7 9 woodlands .. Forestry . I 51 64 28 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Eepout. Vol. Page. Art. Greece, forest products. Forestry.. .. D I 38 40 metallurgical exhibits. Metallurgy.. .. F IV 219 501 Greenwich observatory records. Instruments. .. G II 9 7 Grcfe on lithography and chromo-lithography .. Introduction.. .. B I 411 305 Grenoble school of forestry. Forestry. .. D I 100 150 Grinding wheat. Vienna Bread. .. B II 18 45 finer products of. II 3.1 7G Grits in 0 and A flour. .. B II 73 155 nature and cause of. .do. .. B II 7-1 158 purification of. .. B II 49 110 unpurified. .. B II 34 75 Vienna. .do. .. B II 31 G7 Groats, Pumpernickel. .. B II 111 238 Grosshappen forests. Forestry. .. D I G8 85 Gros Zdikau forests. .do. .. D I 91 122 Grounds of the exhibition. .. Aa IV 5 1 Group jury No. XIII, cou^iosition of. .. A III G 8 sections of . .do.. .. A III 7 10 Groups, building, at Vienna. Architecture. .. A IV 10 14 Grove-batteries.j. Telegraphs. .. J 11 10 • 22 Gruuer on mineral industry, iron,.and steel. Introduction.. .. B I 293 147 Sellers &. Co.’s rotary puddler and rolls. .. B I 294 148 Guadeloupe, forests of. Forestry. .. D I 61 108 Guano, fish. Fertilizers. .. C 11 47 46 price and composition. .. C II 47 48 importation into England. .do.. .. C II 14 12 Peruvian, consumption of. .. C II 44 42 present supply. .do. .. C II 44 43 qualities. .. C II 41 44 Guiana, forests of. Forestry. .. 1) I 60 10G Guinotte valve-gear. Machinery.. .. A III G3 7G application to reversing en- gines . .. A III G7 79 automatic adjustment. .. A III G9 82 construction of. .. A III 65 78 design of. .. A III 63 77 peculiar applications. .. A HI G8 80 use in hoisting-engines_ .. A nr Gd 81 Gun, (see Fire-arms.) Gun-barrels, tJchatius' theory of making. .. A iii 328 302 GWynne's Girard turbines. .. A m 178 183 pumps. .. A iii 203 195 Hoardt on iron and steel works.. H. Introduction. .. B i 407 297 Hague School for Idiots. Education. .. K i 77 34 Hall, machinerv. Machinery.. .. A iii 3 2 Hallett’s Point. Xew York, submarine opera- tions at. Kleitz's report. Introduction.. .. B i 345 208 Schwedler, Sternberg, Giersberg, and Housselle's reports. .. B i 491 277 Hall's dovetailing machine. Machinery. .. A iii 257 26G sudden-grip vis3. .. A iii 257 2G6 Anderson’s report. Introduction. .. B i 241 88 Hartig and others’ re- port. .. B i 382 260 Hamburg sewerage.A. Hydraulic Engineering. .. D iii 12 20 GENERAL INDEX Subject. Report. Hamoi wire-works. Metallurgy. Hammer, Massey’s steam. Machinery. Sellers & Co.’s.Introduction. Sellers’ steam.Machinery. Hampshire downs.Sheep and “Wool. Hanamann on sugar and apparatus. Introduction. Hand, education of the...Education. Hannak on instruction in history. Introduction. Harborimprovements. (seeHallett’sPoint.N'. T.) Harpol’s, Oscar, typographical exhibit. Printing and Paper.. Harrison’s chronometer.Instruments. Harrow, Nisliwitz’s. ^ D troduction. Hartford School. Education. Hartig and others, (see Reports, German.) Harvesters, (see Mowing-machines.) Johnston Harvester Co. Introduction. Schmied's report.do. Schmied’s report.do. Harvesting wheat_* . Vienna Bread. Hasanclever and Helbig’s furnaces.Metallurgy. Hassall’s investigations of yeast-plant.Vienna Bread. Haswcll’s apparatus for forging.Metallurgy. cross-heads.do. cylinder-heads.■. do. forged crank.do . hydraulic forging process.do. journal-boxes. do. locomotive, hydraulic-forging.do. locomotive wheels, solid.do. Hearing, concord of. Education. Heat apparatus.Physical Apparatus.. effect on yeast-cells. Vienna Bread. Heaters, Berryman’s and others’.Machinery. Heating of flour. Vienna Bread. prevention of.do. Heinrichshof at Vienna. Exhibition Buildings Heinricke’s school for deaf-mutes.Education. Hematite ores, Cumberland.Machinery. Henderson’s theory of aero-steam engines. do. Kerbst A Co.’s Smelting Works.Metallurgy ...,. Hercules, Her Britannic Majesty’s iron-clad_Machinery. Hernandez's school for deaf-mutes. Education. Herzog on arms and equipments.Introduction. Hesse-Harmstadt school of forestry. Forestry. Hexyl series. Chemical Materials .. Hill’s school for deaf-mutes. E lucation. Hinterbrahl school of forestry.Forestry. Hinterhuber & Kuschel’s furnaces. Metallurgy. Hinton, L. J., Report on Working of Stone and Artificial Stones . Working of Stone... Hirsch, J. M., lithographic work.Printing and Paper... Hirsch on American gun-factories. Introduction. hospital cars, litters.do. wqtch-making.do. school for deaf-mutes.Education. Historical photographic collection. Photography. sketch, Ahbd L’EpOe.Education. telegraphs. Telegraphs. telegraphical collection.do. 29 Vol. Page. Art. E IV 52 A III 299 289 B I 238 81 A III 294 288 E I 2G 32 B I 402 289 K II 114 67 B I 454 362 0 II 8 6 G II 7 3 B I 273 133 K II 64 28 B I 277 138 B I 429 334 B I 425 326 B II 18 45 F IV 147 345 B II 82 178 E IV 176 E IV 179 E IV 182 E IV 184 E IV 175 E IV 180 E IV 174 E IV 183 K II 52 25 F II 13 17 B II 79 173 A III 134 149 B II 39 83 B II 20 48 Aa IV 15 30 K II 43 19 A III 408 386 A III 151 158 F IV 143 345 A III 434 411 K II 49 24 B I 480 387 D I 97 139 F II 15 25 K II 43 19 D I 99 146 F IV 173 414 D IV 0 II 8 6 B I 478 385 B I 479 386 B I 477 384 K II 43 19 D II 21 51 K II 55 27 J II 30 40 I II 43 24 oO VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1673. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. History, instruction in. . Introduction. ... B I 454 362 of the band-saw. . Machinery_y. ... A III 255 263 chromo-lithography ... . Printing and Paper. ... 0 II 9 8 chronometers. . Instruments. ... G II 7 3 clocks. ... G II 22 30 Cockerill’s Works. . Machinery. III 384 366 Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.. ... A HI 393 374 Creusot. ... A III 394 376 locomotivo-engiucs. ... A III 81 98 marine-engine practice. ... A III 42 50 printing. Printing and Paper. ... 0 11 5 1 progress in the adoption of steel... . Machinery. ... A III 81 97 sectional steam-boilers. ... A in 118 131 steam-engine improvement.. ... A in 17 26 fire-engines. ... A in 107 125 stone-dressing in England.. . Working of Stone. ... D IV 11 10 Hoes, Deere A Co.’s. Introduction. ... B i 273 131 Hofksai's albums. . Printing and Paper. ... 0 ii *24 37 Holland, collective teaching. . Education. ... K ii 45 2*2 forests . . l-'orcstry. ... D i 53 . 65 Hollando-Gerraan schools for deaf-mutes. . Education. ... K ii 43 19 Holmes and Payton's stone-dressing machine... . Working of Stone. ... D IV 10 9 on American steam machinery.. . Introduction. ... B i 252 103 4 cold-rolled shafting. ... B i 253 105 Pickering’s engine. ... B i 252 104 steam-pump and water-wheels. ... B i 253 106 Holtz electrical machines. Physical Apparatus. ... F ii 11 14 Ilolzappel, lead work at. . Metallurgy. ... F IV 151 354 Ilotner, Leo & Co., letter-engraving. Printing and Paper. ... 0 ii 8 6 Hooke's improvements on horology. Instruments. ... G ii 9 8 Horology, Dr. Hooke’s work in. ... G ii 7 4 schools of. ... G ii 13 15 Hokstorp, E. N., Iteport on Vienna Bread_ . Vienna Bread. ... B ii analysis of prize-flour. ... B n 105 232 experiments with state bread. ... B ii 95 211 Horton lathe-chucks. Machinery.. ... A hi 337 316 Hospital cars and litters. Introduction. ... B i 479 386 Georgs-Marien-niitte Companv. Metallurgy. ... E IV 103 73 railroad cars. Introduction. ... B I 436 347 Hot-blast stoves, Whltwoll... Metallurgy. ... E IV 155 Houses for work-people, Georgs-Marien-Uiitto Company. ... E IV 98 66 House-zius of Vienna. Architecture.. ... A IV 6 5 Honsselle and others on harbor improvements at New York. Introduction. ... B I 391 277 Howard steam-boiler. Machinery.. ... A III 118 130 detailed description of.... .do. ... A III 124 133 Howe sewing-machine. Sewing-Machines. ... B III 10 3 Hoyt, J. W., Report on Education . Education. ... L II Hughes' telegraphic printer. Telegraphs. ... J 11 9 7 Hull's, Miss, school. Education. ... L II 64 28 Hungarian climate. Vienna Bread. ... B u 15 38 mill-industry. ... B II 75 163 mills, high milling. ... B II 57 125 products of. ... B II 61 133 prize flour. .do. ... B II 71 149 sheep . Sheep and Wool. ... E I 15 15 culture. ... E I 39 51 GENERAL INDEX. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Hungarian wheat. Vienna Bread. ... B II 14 bread . ... B II 84 character of. ... B II 16 compared with Victoria. .do.. ... B II 15 Dempwolff’s investigations.. ... B II 103 hardiness of. .do... ... B II 30 varieties of. ... B II 16 Hungary, (see Austro-Hungary.) educational exhibits. Education. ... L II 17 exhibits of forest products. . Forestry... ... D I 33 flora. ... D I 77 forests . ... D I 76 state . ... D I 77 Lower, metallurgical processes. Metallurgy. ... F IV 179 mint .. ... F IV 177 silver extraction in. ... F IV 181 photographic exhibits. Photography. ... D II 21 school of forestry. Forestry:. ... D I 99 Upper, quicksilver distillation. Metallurgy. ... F IV 211 Hiipsclier on penmanship. Introduction. ... B I 458 Hiitte, Julius, lead-smelting works. Metallurgy. ... F IV 132 zinc-vitriol works. ... F IV 131 Hydraulic Exgineerinc,, Report of C. Davis .. Hydraulic Engineering .... ... D III forging. Metallurgy. ... E IV .53 forging. Machinery. ... A III 334 motors, character of. .do. ... A in 176 Hygrometry.. . Wood Industries. ... C IV 8 Hygroscopic changes, effect on wood. I. Hydraulic Engineering.... ... C IV 7 Ice-gorges on the Danube. ... D III 6 Idiots, American schools for. Education. ... K n 86 education of. ... K n 75 foreign schools for.. .do. ... K n 75 training of. ... K n 90 Illinois, schools of. ... K n 64 Illuminating-gas, Stingl’s report.. . Introduction. ... B i 400 Illustration, book, (see Engraving, Photography) Germany... . Photography. ... D n 16 Ilsenburg, cast iron art work. Metallurgy. ... E IV iron, its quality. .do.. ... E IV molding-sand.. ... E IV temperature of fusion. ... E IV Imitation, a means of learning.. . Education. ... K II 66 of Japanese paper. . Paper and Printing. ... O II 23 training of. Education. ... K II 25 Imperial pavilion at Vienna. ... . Exhibition Buildings. IV 11 Importation of instruments.. . Physical Apparatus. ... F II 18 Impressions, nature of.. . Education. ... K II 33 received bv children.. ... K II 33 Imprimerie Nationals Fran 9 aise.. . Paper and Printing. ... O II 14 (see Printing-office.) Indeich on agricultural machinery.. . Introduction. ... B I 362 forestry. ... B I 362 Warder, Mitchell & Co.’s mower_ ..do. ... B I 362 India, British, educational exhibits. . Education. ... L II 17 forestry exhibits. . Forestry. ... D I 39 India rubbgr. . Introduction.. ... B I 375 31 Art. 36 183 42 40 229 64 43 18 37 102 100 102 424 420 432 52 147 473 363 313 310 34 313 179 6 4 7 41 32 32 46 28 286 41 187 189 188 190 30 31 13 20 29 16 16 33 228 227 229 21 46 251 32 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. India-rubber goods Schnek’s report. Introduction. ... B I 406 296 Indian corn, nutritive value. Vienna Bread. .... B II no 236 Inductoriums. Physical Apparatus. ... F II 10 13 Industrial exhibition at Lyons. Machinery. ... A HI 397 378 origin of. Introduction. ... A I 32 1 palace. Exhibition Buildings. IV 5 3 schools of Goorgs-Harien-HiUte Co.. Metallurgy. .... E IV 101 09 senses, education of. Education. ... K II 117 70 Industries, intiuences affecting Swiss. Machinery. ... A III 347 323 German food, machinery for. ... A III 358 349 linen, of Switzerland. .do. ... A III 349 330 Infant schools... Education. 11 23 11 training of. ... IC II 25 13 Inflexible, Her Britannic Majesty's iron-clad... Machinery. ... A III 434 411 Injectors, Friedmann's. ... A III 138 150 history and philosophy of. .do. ... A III 133 150 Sellers & Co.’s. .do. ... A III 138 150 Ink-writer, telegraphic.. Telegraphs. ... J II 7 0 Institute of Technology, Stevens, Professor Thurston’s tests of steel at. Machinery. ... A III 409 338 Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, Report by K. M. Gallaudet . Deaf-Mutes. ... M II Instruction, (see Education.) in history, Hannak's report. Introduction. ... B I 454 302 in learning and in art, Langl's report .(lo. ... B I 451 301 means of, Lowcnthal’s report. .do. ... B I 445 355 musical, IVoinwunu’s report ..._ ... B I 419 359 natural history, Pokorny's report... ... B I 445 354 physiological. Education. ... 1C II 70 31 popular. Architecture. ... A IV 23 34 Instruments or Precision: Report by C. F. Carpenter . Instruments. ... G II Report by R. I). CUTTS. ... H II Insulators, telegraphic. Telegraphs. ... I II 8 ? Do. ... J II 10 ii manufactures. ... J 11 22 29 Prussian. ... J II 21 28 tests, European. ... J II 22 30 Internal navigation. Hydraulic Engineering_ ... D III 12 22 International congresses. Introduction. ... A I 80 53 International exhibitions— Earlier. ... A I 32 12 1851, London, awards. ... A I 38 19 buildings. ... A I 35 15 classifications.. ... A I 30 17 exhibitions. ... A I 35 1G inception. ... A I 34 13 jurors. ... A I 33 13 preparations. .do. ... A I 34 14 1853. Dublin, buildings. ... A I 39 21 exhibitions. ... A I 39 22 inception. ... A I 39 20 1853. New York, buildings. ... A I 41 24 classification. .do. ... A I 42 25 inception. ... A I 40 23 juries. ... A I 42 26 1855, Paris, arrangement. .do. ... A I 44 29 awards. ... A I 46 32 GENERAL INDEX. 33 Subject. Report. Yol. Page. Art. International exhibitions — Continued. 1855, Paris, buildings . Introduction . .... A I 43 28 classifications. .... A I 44 30 exhibition . .... A I 46 31 inception . .... A I 42 27 1862, London, buildings. .... A I 48 34 classification. .... A I 49 36 exhibition. .... A I 48 35 inception . .... A I 47 33 juries . .... A I 51 38 organization ... .... A I 50 37 1867, Paris, arrangement . .... A I 52 41 awards . .... A I 57 45 buildings . .... A I 52 40 exhibition . .... A I 55 43 finances . .... A I 55 42 inception . .... A I 51 39 juries . .... A I 57 45 official reports and records. .... A I 56 44 1873, Vienna, administration. . A I 110 58 admission-tickets. .... A I 76 51 advisory committee of citizens. .do. .... A I 158 61 arrangement. .... A I 64 48 awards, distribution. .... A I 198 65 distribution by groups. .do. .... A I 199 67 to exhibitors from the United States... .... A I 200 69 Do. .... A I 215 70 tabular exhibit.. .... A I 199 66 tabular exhibit classi¬ fied by states. .... A I 216 71 buildings. .... A I 65 49 calendar, general. .... A I 78 52 catalogue, official, United States section.. .... A I 190 63 classification of exhibits. ..do. .... A I 98 57 commissions of the United States .. . .do. _ A I 156 60 commissions of the United States, regulations . . do .. .... A I 159 62 congresses, international. _ A I 80 35 contributions from the several states. _ A I 196 64 diplomas of honor. _ A I 200 68 inception. _ A I 58 46 jury, international; regula¬ tions . . do .. . A I 92 56 jury, international; selection, list of members . _ A I 116 59 location . . A I 64 47 machinery; special regulations . do . . A I 82 54 regulations, general . . do . _ A I 70 50 transportation-rates, reduction of ....-. . B I 85 55 Invention, progress of German . Machinery .. . A III 356 344 Iron and its ores, Hofmann's report. Introduction. . B I 369 238 Kupelwieser’s report. . B I 397 283 British India. Metallurgy. . 'E IV 170 3 34 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Iron anil stool forgings. Metallurgy. ... E IV 138 117 Griiner’s report. Introduction. ... B I •293 147 Maw anil Dredge's report. ... B I 281 145 Russian. Metallurgy. ... E IV 208 149 wares, Haardt's report. Introduction. ... B I 407 297 works, Osnabruck. Metallurgy. ... E IV 92 63 corrugated... Architecture. ... B IV 14 27 cost. ... B IV 13 23 driving-wheels of locomotives, forged. Machinery. ... A III 81 95 galvanized, and roofing-metal. Architecture. ... B IV 14 26 girders and columns. Metallurgy. ... E IV G4 56 in buildings... . Architecture.. ... A IV 12 19 industriesof Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia. Metallurgy. ... E IV 16 16 linings for shafts of mines . ... E IV 127 104 Low Moor. Machinery. ... A III 415 395 making, British. ... A HI 405 383 ... E IV 168 Prussian ...,. .do. ... E IV 56 41 manufactures in Switzerland. ... A III 350 333 Sweden. Metallurgy. ... E IV 152 127 mines, Spanish. ... E IV 207 118 ores and steel, Fagersta.— ... E IV 142 122 .do. ... E IV 172 . E IV 166 sliip-huilding. . Machinery. ... A III 421 398 shoes for railway brakes. , Metallurgy. ... E IV GO 48 vessels, classification of. . Machinery. ... A III 420 405 vs . steel.. ... A III 81 94 vs. wood in ship-buihling. ... A III 421 398 wire fiom Westphalia.. . Metallurgy. ... E IV GO 50 works, Cockerill's. .do. ... E IV 1)1 110 wrought. Architecture. ... B IV 13 23 production of. Introduction. ... B I 3G6 234 Iron-clad Bellerophon. . Machiuerv. ... A III 58 61 Indexible.. ... A III 434 411 Minotaur. ... A III 58 61 Monarch.. ... A III 426 404 Irrigation, utilization of sewage bv.. . Fertilizers. ... G II 59 66 Isochronism in chronometers.. . Instruments. ... G 11 7 3 Istria flora. . Forestry. ... D I 74 96 forestry exhibits. ... D I 26 26 forests.. ... D I 72 94 Italian engineering. Hvdraulic Engineering- ... D HI 15 27 locomotives. ... A III 70 84 schools. . Education. ... K II 101 52 Italy, educational exhibits. ... L 11 21 32 flora. # .. . Forestry. ... D 58 72 forestry exhibits. ... D I 16 16 metal industry. . Metallurgy. ... F IV 13 30 production .. ... F IV 15 39 photographic exhibits.. . Photography. ... D II 14 32 smelting process. . Metallurgy. ... F IV 14 38 telegraphic administration. . Telegraphs. ... I II 57 30 emplovfs. ... I 11 74 65 officers . ... I II 69 58 telegraphs. ... I 11 65 51 Itard's principles of teaching idiots. . Education. ... K II 75 32 GENERAL INDEX. ' 35 Subject. Report. J. Vol. Page. Art. Jaccard's watches. . Instruments. . G II 16 22 Jaite’s telegraphic repeaters. . Telegraphs.. . 1 II 11 11 Janke’s school for deaf-mutes.. . Education.. _ K II 43 19 Japan, art of printing in. . Paper and Printing.. . 0 II 24 35 forestry exhibits. . Forestry. . D I 40 50 photographic exhibits. . Photography. . D II 22 58 Japanese alphabet. . Paper and Printing. . 0 II 24 36 colors. . 0 II 24 36 paper..... . 0 11 21 28 imitations. . 0 II 23 31 pavilion.. . Exhibition Buildings. _ Aa W 12 21 pictorial printing. . Paper and Printing. . 0 II 25 38 plane-tables. , Instruments.. . H II 8 14 Jewell Brothers’ mills. . Vienna Bread. _ B II 67 140 Joachimsthaler forest.. , Forestry. . D I 71 90 Johnston Harvester Company.. Introduction. _ B I 277 138 harvester, Scbmied’s report. _ B I 429 334 mower and reaper, Tisserand’s report. . B I 309 162 Jones & Laughlin’s cold-rolled shafting. _ B I 240 86 Do. Machinery. _ A III 324 296 Jonval wheels of Rieter & Co. . A III 179 184 Joseph I, of Austria, architectural impulse —... . Architecture. . A IV 20 31 Judenberger Iron Works’ exhibit. . Metallurgy. . E IV 49 31 Jury for education. Education. _ L II 27 43 Group XIII, organization of. Machinery. _ A III • 6 8 International. .... A III 5 5 on products of milling. Vienna Bread. .... B II 33 71 pavilion. Exhibition Buildings. IV 11 20 selection of group. Machinery. .... A III 7 10 system, defects of. .... A III 5 7 work, methods... .... A III 7 9 K. Kafveltorps Stock Co.’s mines . Metallurgy. .... F IV 23 53 sulphuric acid manufacture .do..... .... F IV 24 58 Hammerer & Starke’s plane-tables. Instruments. .... G II 8 13 Kappeler’s mercurial barometer. .... H II 9 18 Kerosene oils, Schwarz's report. Introduction. .... B I 463 367 Kirby’s mowers and reapers. .... B I 311 163 Kitchen of “ Z ins-house ”. Architecture.. .... A IV 7 7 Klar, Lechner, and Richter on— Books. Introduction. .... B I 447 356 Book-trade, American. .... B I 450 360 National Bureau of Education. ..do. .... B I 448 * 357 Kieitz on civil engineering. .... B I 345 207 Knapp’s dovetailing-machine— Anderson’s report. .... B I 246 95 Exuer’s report... .... B I 422 318 Hartig and others’ reports. .... B I 383 265 Knirr on schools. .... B I 440 351 school apparatus. .... B I 444 353 plans. .... B I 444 352 Kopp on albumen and starch... .... B I 469 373 chemicals. .... B I 468 369 oils. ■R I 46R 371 petroleum. .... B I 468 372 pharmaceutical preparations. .... B I 468 370 36 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL Lechner, Klar, and Richter on American book trade.do. B Lecbner, Klar, and Kichter on American books.do. B Subject. KErouT. Yol. Page. Art. Kopparberg Copper Works. . Metallurgy. . F IV 22 51 Kraft & Son's plane-tables. . Instruments. . G II 8 13 Krain, metal products.. . Metallurgy. _ F IV 176 416 Krupp’s, Friedrich, artillery. _ E IV 76 61 establishment, production of. . Machinery. . A in 371 362 machinery. . Metallurgy. _ E IV 72 60 mines and smelting works.. . Machinery. . A iii 370 361 ordnance. . A in 374 363 steel-works.. iii 370 360 wheels. _ A iii 81 96 works of. . Metallurgy.. . E IV 69 59 Kupelwieser on metallurgical processes. . Introduction. _ B i 396 280 nickel and cobalt. . B i 398 284 ores of iron. . B i 397 2P2 Pittsburgh steels. . B i 397 281 Sellers «fc Co.’s rotary puddlcr. .do. . B i 397 283 Kuschel & Iliuterhuber'e furnaces. . Metallurgy. . F IV 173 414 L. Laboratories, requirements of. . Chemical Materials. . F .11 17 27 Laibach, ferromanganese.. . Metallurgy. . E IV 48 29 _ E IV 159 Lancashire, England. . Machinery. . A III 413 394 Lancaster School for Idiots.. . education. _ K II 85 40 Landed property, distribution of. . Introduction.. _ B I 320 174 Landolt on mowing-machiucs.. _ B I 467 368 Landscape gardening. . Architecture. _ B IV 24 55 Lane & Bodley wood working machinery.. . Introduction. _ B 1 421 317 Langl A Bayer on painting.. . B I 430 350 Langl, on instruction in learning and art. . B I 451 361 Language, education of. . education. .... K II 119 71 signs a means of.. . K II 66 30 La Salpetriere School for Idiots. _ K II 81 37 Lathes, B. 1). Whitney's. . Introduction. .... B I 424 323 gnuge. . Machinery. .... A III 249 258 construction of.•>. .... A III 212 221 Horton’s chucks for.. .... A III 337 316 Pratt & Whitney Company's engine ... .... A III 226 234 Sellers & Co.'s. _ A III 209 218 Do . . Introduction. .... B I 234 76 spindles of. . Machinery. .... A III 213 2-22 weight of.. .... A III 213 223 Lathing and furring. . Architecture. _ B IV 8 13 Lauer on skorels.. . Introduction. . B I 436 348 Lautentlial silver-lead. . Metallurgy. . F IV 126 295 zinc desilverization at. .do. . F IV 118 275 process . . F IV 126 297 Lead, Metallurgy of, Report by H. Fainter . F IV Learning, imitation a means of. . education.. . K II 66 30 Leather, Peuinger's report.. . Introduction.. . B I 375 250 Goldschmidt's report.. . B I 406 295 Sayer s report; cow, calf, and horse hides. . B I 335 190 leather and caont- chouc. . B I 334 189 450 366 447 356 GENERAL INDEX. 37 Subject. Eeport. Vol. Page. Art. Lechner, Klar, and Eichter on American National Bureau of Education. Introduction. .... B I 448 357 Le Creusot, Schneider & Co.’s works at. Machinery. .... A III 394 375 Lehman’s hot air engine. .... A III 162 160 Leicester sheep, description. Sheep and Wool.. .... E I 19 22 improvement of. ......do . .... E I 19 21 in the United States. .... E I 20 23 Leignitz School. Education. .... K II 43 20 Lenoir’s gas-engine.-. Machinery. .... A III 162 161 Tresca's trial of. .... A III 163 163 Leopoldsdorf, trial of agricultural machinery .. Introduction. .... B I 306 160 L'Epee, life and work. Education. .... K II 55 27 Lessing school of forestry. Forestry. .... D I 100 151 Lessons, object, in the kindergarten. Education.. .... K II 15 7 from experience. .... K II 3 1 Letter-press printing at Vienna. . Printing and Paper. .... 0 II 5 2 Levasseur’s report, (see Eeports, French.) Lewis, Hugh, &, Co.’s, lithographic exhibits ... .... 0 II 8 t) Libraries of Georgs-Marien-Hiitte Company ... Metallurgy. .... E IV 102 70 Liebig’s, Baron, views of fermentation. Vienna Bread. .... B II 83 181 nutritive salts in food. ___do ..... .... B II 110 235 Lincolns. . Sheep and Wool. .... E I 21 26 Linen industries of Switzerland. . Machinery. .... A III 349 330 ready made clothing. Introduction. .... B I 404 294 Lines, K. B., Eeport on Telegraphs and Telegraphic administration. Telegraphs. .... I II Link-motion blocks, Haswell’s. Metallurgy .. .... E IV 181 Lippstadt Wire Works. .... E IV 63 54 Liquors, (see Wines.) Lisbon school of forestry. Forestry. .... D I 100 154 Lithographic exhibits, Hugh Lewis & Co. Printing and Paper. ... 0 II 8 6 Domestic Lithographic and Printing Company. .do... .... 0 n 8 6 Joseph M. Hirsch. .... 0 ii 8 6 materials and methods, German .. .do. .... 0 ii 15 19 press of Eader. .... 0 n 16 21 printing and presses. ......do . .... 0 ii 15 20 Lithography and chromo-lithography, Grefe’s report on. Introduction. .... B JL 411 305 and typography, Lorck’s report .. --do. .... B i 317 254 Staatsdruokerei, Vienna. Government Printing. .... P ii 6 8 Litters and hospital cars, Hirsch’s report. Introduction. .... B i 479 386 Little VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Ornamentation of the cradle. Education. . K II 4 O Osborne, D. H., mowers anil reapers— Maw & Dredge’s report. Introduction. . B I 280 142 Schmied’s report... . B I 429 332 Tisserand’s report. . B I 311 163 Oscillating-engines of Penn & Sons’. Machinery. . A I 450 420 Osnabriick Iron and Steel Works. Metallurgy. . E IV 92 63 Osse iron viaduct. Civil Engineering. . C III 24 23 Ott on cannod beef. Introduction. . B I 413 379 condensed milk. .do. . B I 472 378 meat and fish. . B I 472 376 meat extracts. .do. . B I 471 375 preserved fruit. . B I 472 377 wines. . B I 470 374 Otto&Laiigen’sgas-etigiucs. Machinery. . A III 168 169 trial of, by M. Tresca .do. . A III 168 170 Overfall at Brul6e Island. Civil Engineering. . C III 34 40 Oxford downs. Sheep and Wool. . E I 27 33 I\ Pacific islands, phosphate of. Fertilizers. . C II 19 19 Paddle-wheel and chain towago. Machinery. . A III 53 58 feathering. . A III 58 63 Painter, If., Report on Metallurgy oe Lead, Silver, Goiter, and Zinc. Metallurgy. . F IV Painting, Bayer and Langl’s report. Introduction. . B I 439 350 Palais, first-class dwelling. Architecture . . A IV 9 13 Paper and wool manufactures in Germany. Machinery. . A III 353 338 barrels. Printing and Paper. . 0 II 27 39 Chiucso and Japaneso. . 0 11 21 28 for walls. . O II 21 27 imitations. . 0 11 22 31 manufacture of.... . 0 II 22 30 machinery in Germany. Machinery. . A III 357 347 McNicol's. Printing and Paper. . O II 20 25 manufacture. . 0 II 20 25 Do. Introduction . . B I 376 252 pulp, prices and qualities. Printing and Paper. . O II 20 26 Parey, Patented Felted Fabric Company. . 0 II 23 31 Paris, education at. Education. II 20 30 International Exhibition, (see Interna- tioual Exhibition.) wheat-bread. Vienna Bread. . B II 88 193 . E IV 160 Parquetry. Architecture. . B IV 18 33 Do. Wood Industries. . C IV 13 13 Partitions in buildings. Architecture. . B IV 19 39 Pasteur on fermentation. Vienna Bread. . B II 82 179 Fastry. Introduction. . B I 371 245 leavened and unleavened... Vienna Bread. . B II 76 165 Patek, Philippe & Co.’s watches. Instruments. . G 11 14 17 Patronage of Art, Report by E. M. Gallaudet. Patronage of Art . . P II Paucksch & Freund's steam-boiler. Machinery. III 133 147 Paul on the Steiuway piano-fortes: devices, special. Introduction. . B I 330 276 system of construction. I 385 273 tone, quality. I 388 275 upright piano. I 386 274 GENEE :al index. 47 Subject. ItEl’ORT. Vol. Page. Art. Paur’s, Ignaz, apparatus. Vienna Bread... .... B II 32 69 method of milling .... .... B II 32 68 purifier... .... B II 50 111 PaTilion, Imperial. Exhibition Buildings. IV 11 20 Japanese. .... Aa IV 12 24 Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. .do.. .... Aa IV 12 22 school-house annex. .... Aa IV 12 23 Sell warzenburg. .... Aa IV 12 21 I’eekskill Plow-Works. Introduction. .... B I 272 129 Peez on cotton and cotton-goods. ...... do .... .... B I 404 292 spinning and weaving. ..do..... .... B I 404 203 Penmanship, Hiipscher’s report. .... B I 458 363 Penn & Sons’ steam-engines. Machinery. .... A III 450 420 .... 10 IV 162 coals. Introduction. .... B . I 314 166 Pens, gold, Nagel's report. .... B I 409 301 Periere’s principles of teaching idiots. Education. .... K II 75 32 Periere, action of his enemies. --do.-. .... K II 55 26 his claims .... ..do. ... K II 49 24 classification. .. K II 49 24 death. .... K II 55 26 discovery defined. .... K II 52 25 Perin & Co.’s band-saw. Machinery. . A III 284 274 Periodicals, German. Education. L II 20 30 Perkmann and others, (see Schwab.) Persia, forests of. Forestry. .... D I 38 41 Peruc forests. .... D I 91 121 Peruvian guano. Fertilizers. .... c IV 44 42 Pesth, grits-purifier, at. Vienna Bread. .. B II 50 112 AValzmiihle. B II 103 229 analysis of flour. .. B II 105 232 Petroleum, Kopp's report. Introduction. .... B I 468 372 Pettigrew on mines. B I 295 149 Pharmaceutical preparations, Kopp’s report_ . B I 468 370 Phosphates and sulphates. Vienna Bread. . B II 12 29 in vital tissues. B II 111 237 analysis of. Fertilizers.. C IV 24 27 Canadian. . C IV 20 23 French. C IV 19 30 price. .... c IV 26 31 German. . C IV 20 22 price.. ... c IV 25 29 Pacific islands.. . C IV 19 19 Sombrero. . c IV 18 16 South Carolina. . c IV 20 24 Spanish. . c IV 20 21 price ..... . c IV 26 30 St. Martin’s. . c IV 19 18 Prussian. . c IV 22 25 prices of. . c IV 24 28 United States. ..... c IV 26 32 English super. . c IV 34 34 Germau super. . c IV 21 33 Phosphatic bread. . B II 109 233 Phosphoric acid and nitrogen, mutual dependen- cies.. , Vienna Bread. . B II 15 39 in bread. . B n 93 206 price ......... Fertilizers. . C IV 35 35 48 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1373. Subject. Report. Tol. Page. Art. Phosphoric acid iD wheat. Vienna Bread. .... B II 13 33 Phosphorus. Fertilizers. .... C IV 7 5 Photo-engraviDg, Pousse Ion’s process. Photography. .... D II 12 26 Photographs in colors. II 13 28 moonlight. .... D II 14 33 Photography, American. .... D II 5 3 awards. Introduction.. .... B I 337 192 Davanne's report, astronomical... .... B I 338 193 French society. Photography. .... D II 10 21 Moiickhoven’s treatise. .... D II 15 39 Portuguese.1. .... D 11 10 18 Server’s report. Introduction. .... B I 410 304 Society of Bologna. Photography.. .... D II 15 34 Photo-lithograplis ...". .... D II 17 44 Photo-lithography, progress in. Printing and Paper.. .... 0 II 9 9 Photometer, Tidal’s. Photography. .... D II 13 29 Physical apparatus. Physical Apparatus. .... F II 15 22 Physiological education. Education. .... K II 123 73 primary school. .... K II 111 64 training of genius. .... K 11 34 17 Piano, Steinway’s, (see Paul’s report.) Pickering’s steam-engine. Machinery. ... A III 35 43 Holmes' report. Introduction. ... B I 252 104 Maw A Dredge’s report .do. .... B I 266 121 Padinger’s report. .do. .... B I 419 313 Picker-motion, Ross’. Machinery. .... A III 290 282 Pictorial printing in Japan. Printing and Paper. ... 0 11 25 38 ‘'Picturesque America,” graphic arts, Masson’s report. Introduction. ... B I 336 191 pjlA . Vienna Bread. ... B II 96 215 Pile-driver, steam.. Hydraulic Engineering .... ... D III 56 69 Pipe-bonding machine, Miller's. Machinery. ... A III 319 294 Do. Introduction. ... B I 241 87 Pitkins Brothers’ steam-boiler. Machiuerv. . ... A III 109 126 Pittsburgh steels. Introduction. ... B I 397 281 Planers, Pratt & ’Whitney Company’s. Machinery. ... A III 228 238 Plane-tables. Instruments. ... H II 8 11 Austrian. ... H II 8 13 Japanese. ... H II 8 14 Kraft & Sons’. ... H 11 8 13 Starke Sc Kammerer’s. .do. ... H II 8 13 StupendorfFs. ... H II 8 12 Swiss. ... H II 9 * 15 Planing-machiue for wood, Arbey's. Machinery. ... A III 284 274 Plans, architectural. Architecture. ... B IV 25 58 Plant-food, constituents of. Fertilizers. ... C IV 5 1 Plastering. Exhibition Buildings. IV 17 35 ceilings. Architecture. ... A IV 12 18 Plate, Fagersta, tests of. Metallurgy. ... E IV 150 125 Playthings, object-lessons with. Education. ... K II 34 17 Plows, Collins Co.’s. Introduction. ... ... B I 272 128 Fiirst Sc Bradley's. ... B I 273 130 Peekskill Plow Works. ... B I 272 129 Schmied’s report. ... B I 424 324 Pneumatic-pier sinking. Hydraulic Engineering. ... D III 8 .11 tubes for dispatches. Telegraphs. ... J II 26 36 Pokorny and others, (see Schwab). Introduction. ... B I 410 351 Polaristrobometers. Physical Apparatus. ... F II 8 9 GENERAL INDEX, 49 Subject. Retort. Vol. Page. Art. Polarized relays of Siemens. Telegraphs. .... j II 6 3 Polishing-maoliine, lithographic. Printing and Paper. .... 0 II 17 22 Politico-economic relations. Introduction. .... B I 321 175 Polytechnic school at Dresdenl. Machinery. .... A III 362 356 Porcelain cylinder-mill. Vienna Bread. ... B II 44 102 decoration of. Photography. .... D II 16 42 stores, German. Architecture. ... A IV 16 27 Port a 1’Anglais Canal lock. Hvdraulic Engineering .... ... D III 37 46 Portable steam-engines, trade in. Machinery. ... A III 103 119 sources of their economy .do. III 98 112 Porter-Alien engine.. ... A III 33 42 Portland cement. Working of Stone. ... D IV 34 41 stone. ... D IV 12 12 Portugal forest-product. Forestry. I 15 14 telegraphic administration. Telegraphs. ... J II 57 39 Portuguese educational exhibits. Education. ... L II 22 34 photographs. Photography. II 16 42 schools. Education. ... K II 102 53 Posts, telegraph. Telegraphs. ... J II 10 10 Potash as a fertilizer. Fertilizers. ... C IV 52 58 cost in various salts. ... C IV 53 60 from wood-ashes. .do. ... C IV 51 55 salts at Leopoldshall. Chemical Industry. ... A II 7 5 Stapfurt. ... A II 7 5 Stassfnrt. Fertilizers. ... C IV 53 59 production... Chemical Industry. ... A II 7 5 Potassium in plants. Fertilizers. ... C IV 8 5 Power-looms, weaving by. Machinery. ... A in 348 325 Powis, James, & Co.’s exhibits. ... A iii 283 272 Prague flour mills. Vienna Bread. ... B n 60 130 school of forestry. Forestry.:_ ... D i 99 146 Prang’s chromos.. Printing and Paper. ... 0 n 11 15 Pratt & Whitney Company’s tools. Machinery. ... A m 220 227 Do. Introduction. ... B i 239 84 Preeducation. Education. ... K n 102 53 Preface, general. Introduction. ... A i 29 to abstracts of foreign reports. ... B i 219 Preservation of timber. Preserved food, ( see Food.) Telegraphs. ... J ii 18 26 Preserves, Warhanek’s report. Introduction. ... B i 403 291 Press, Stiles & Parker drop. Machinery. ... A iii 236 245 the fly. iii 357 348 Presse, Neue Freie. Printing and Paper. ... 0 ii 6 3 Pribram Smelting-Works. Metallurgy. ... F IV 158 374 production. .do .. ... F IV 163 378 Primary instruction.. Introduction. ... B I 348 210 expenses. .do. ... B I 350 211 Primary schools, physiological... Education. ... K II 111 64 Prime-movers in Germany. Machinery. ... A III 354 340 Priming in steam-boilers, measurement of. ... A III 123 136 Printing and dyeing in Switzerland. ... A III 348 325 art of. Printing and Paper. ... 0 II 5 1 at Vienna. ... 0 II 5 2 in China. ... 0 n 24 35 in Japan. ... 0 ii 24 35 Japanese pictorial.. .do. ... 0 ii 25 38 music. ... 0 ii 18 24 oriental. 4 ... 0 ii 24 35 50 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873, SUBJECT. Repoet. Vol. Page. Art. Printer, Hughes’.. . Telegraphs.. .j II 21 28 Printing-Office, French ^National... Government Printing. _p II 11 24 State, Vienna. _p II 5 4 of notes and bonds.. _p II 6 7 photography.. .... p II 7 11 presses . .... p II 9 19 Sarch’s report. Introduction. .... B I 377 254 and dyeing, Stieger-Mayer's report_ .... B I 475 382 Prizes, (see Awards.) to American educational exhibits. Education. .... L II 24 41 Production in America, increase. Introduction. .... B I 323 176 tabular exhibit of. I 325 179 of coal, Russian. Metallurgy. .... E IV 217 151 iron and steel, Austrian. .... E IV 8 7 in the Alpine region. .... E IV 8 8 world. .... E IV 1 o iron-oro in Sweden.. .... E IV 162 135 metals.. .do . .... F IV 163 378 pig-iron in the Alpine region_ .... E IV 10 9 Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia.. .... E IV 18 18 steel works, Belgian. .... E IV 139 118 Profiling-machine by tko Pratt & Whitney Company. Machinery. .... A III 221 229 for sewing-machines. Sewing-Machines. .... B III 20 7 Progress in America, causes of. Introduction.. .... B I 328 183 Propulsion of vessels, principles of economy in. Machinery. .... A III 53 58 Propvl series. Chemical Materials. .... F II 15 22 Prunier’s pumping-machinery. Machinery. .... A III 191 200 Prussia, schools of forestry. Forestry. .... D I 96 133 Prussian iron-making and ore-extraction. Metallurgy. .... E IV 56 41 insulators . Telegraphs. .... J II 21 23 schools. Education. .... K II 102 55 Silesia, wool-growing in. Sheep and Wool. .... E I 42 56 Public buildings, locating. Architecture. .... B IV 23 51 Pnddler, Ehrenwerth's. Metallurgy. .... E IV 50 33 Sellers & Co.'s rotary, Anderson's re- port. Introduction. .... B I 240 86 Gruner's report. Kupelwieser's .... B I 294 143 report. .. B I 397 283 Puddling-furnace, Sellers' rotary. Machinery. .... A III 292 287 process, Ackerman's report. Metallurgy. .... E IV 175 141 works in the Alpine regions. .... E IV 11 10 Pulp, paper. Printing and Paper.. .... O II 20 26 Pumpernickel of Westphalia. Vienna Bread.. .... B II 88 192 groats . .... B II no 236 Pnmping-machinerv, Decker Brothers'. Machinery. .... A in 189 197 Prunier's. .... A iii 191 200 Pumps, applications of the centrifugal. .do.. .... A hi 199 211 and classification of. .... A in 185 194 Pumps and blowing apparatus. ... A in 359 351 Bernays'. ... A in 197 205 Boulton & Jmravs’.. ... A in 199 210 Cameron's steam. ... A in 166 196 centrifugal, their proper form. ... A in 193 202 Coignard's. ... A in 193 207 Earle's steam. ... A in 189 199 GENERAL INDEX, 51 Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art, Pumps, Erste-Briinner- Maschinen ■ Fabrik-Ge- sellschaft’s. Machinery. .... A m 193 201 G Wynne's. .... A iii 195 203 Nagel & Kaemp’s. .... A m 198 208 Neut & Dumont's. .... A in 197 206 Schiele's. .... A m 199 209 Selden’s steam. .... A in 189 198 steam, later forms of. .... A iii 186 195 Holmes’ report. Introduction. .... B i 253 106 Zwiauer’s report. .... B i 423 320 Punch. Stiles &. Parker's. Machinery. .... A in 238 246 Purification of wheat. Vienna Bread. _ B n 55 121 Purifier at Pesth. .... B n 50 112 Q. Quarrying stone. Working of Stone. .... D IV 17 15 Quicksilver, distillation. Metallurgy... .... F IV 211 473 R. X Rader’s lithographic press. Printing and Paper. ..... 0 n 16 21 Eadinger’s report, (see Eeports, Austrian.) Eailroad construction. Exhibition Buildings. IV 22 45 exhibits. IV 22 44 plant, German. Machinery. .... A iii 360 351 Eailroad-signals, Austrian. Exhibition Buildings. IV 25 48 Eailroad Structures and Buildings of the Exhibition. Eeport of L. Bridges .. .do. .... Aa IV subsidies. IV 22 45 switches, Saxby & Parmer's. .... Aa IV 23 47 ties, continuous. IV 23 46 Railway and telegraph administration, relation between. Telegraphs. .... i n 58 46 station. Architecture. _ A IV 24 36 Do. .... B IV 21 41 terminus at Paris. Civil Engineering. .... C m 20 11 Rambert on school-desks. Introduction. .... B i 485 390 Eambouillet stock of France. Sheep and Wool. .... E i 35 44 Eamie... Introduction. .... B i 309 155 Eankine's theory of the gas-engine. Machinery. .... A in 174 177 Bansome chemistry of manufac- ture. .... D IV 43 53 durability. .... D IV 44 54 history of invention of. .do.. .... D IV 41 50 process of manufac- ture. . D rv 43 53 Eansome, Sims & Head's straw-burner. Machinery. .... A in 101 117 Bates for telegraphing. Telegraphs. .... J n 30 40 Eeapers, (see Mowers.) Bed cement tor curved brick-work. Architecture. .... B IV 9 15 Register, Morse’s telegraphic. Telegraphs. _ J ii 7 5 Regulations for buildings. Architecture. .... A IV 17 28 genera], at Vienna. Introduction. .... A I 76 51 for United States commissioners to Vienna.. .... A I 159 62 Belay, Siemens'. Telegraphs. .... J n 5 2 polarized. .... J ii 6 3 52 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Yol. Page. Art. Remington's cultivators. Introduction. . B I 273 132 fire-arms. . B I 255 111 Remington sewing-machine. Sewing-Machines. . B III 25 3 Reports, Austrian: Bayer and Langl on painting. Introduction. . B I 350 439 Benedikt on artificial teeth. . B I 311 432 dental apparatus. I 312 432 Borg on book-binding. . B I 302 109 Brinckman on split-wood manufactures. . B I 300 108 veneers. . B I 299 408 Cohn on sowing-machines. * I 322 123 Exner on wood-working machines: Knapp’s dovetailing machines_ I 318 422 I.ane & Bodloy. . B I 317 421 C. B. Rogers & Co.’s. .do. . B I 310 421 B. I). Whitney. . B I 315 420 B. D. Whitney’s lathe. . B I 323 421 Woodbury’s brush-machine. . B I 319 422 Flattich on house-carpentry. .do. . B I 298 408 Friedmann on Now York harbor improve¬ ments . . B I 319 437 Gintl on resins. .do. . B I 088 401 starch . . B I 287 400 Goldschmidt on leather... . B I 295 4 JO Grofo on lithography and chromo-lithogva- pi>y. . B I 305 411 Haardt on iron and steel wares. .do. . B I 297 407 Ilanamann on sugar and apparatus. . B I 280 402 Iliipschoron penmanship. . B I 303 458 Ilannak on instruction in history. . B I 302 454 Kupelwieser on iron and its ores. . B I 282 397 metallurgical processes .... . B I 280 390 nickel and cobalt. _ B I 281 398 Sellers & Co.’s rotary pud- filer. . B I 283 397 Pittsburgh steels. . B I 281 397 Langl on instruction in learning and in art. .do. . B I 301 451 Lanor, Zinner, and Brunner on shovels. . B I 318 430 Lechner, Klar, nud Richter on the American book-trade.. .do. . B I SCO 450 books. . B I 350 447 National Bureau of Education. . B I 357 418 Lott on book-binding. . B I 303 410 Lbwentlial on means of instruction. . B I 355 445 Migotti on linen ready-made clothing. . B I 294 401 Mnorhof on hospital railroad-cars. .do. . B I 347 436 Nagel on the manufacture of steel pens. . B I 301 409 Novelly on lubricating apparatus. . B I 300 413 safety-valves. . B I 307 413 Pcez on cotton and cotton goods. .B I 292 404 cotton-spinning and weaving. .do. . B I 293 404 Pokornv on instruction in natural historv.. . B I 354 415 Radinger on American engines. . B I 310 415 motor and belts. ..do. . B I 309 414 Norwalk Iron-Works engine ... .do. . B I 311 416 Pickering's engine. . B I 313 119 S ifety Steam Tower Compa¬ ny's engine. . B I 312 118 GENERAL INDEX. Subject. Report. Reports, Austrian—Continued. Radinger on Sellers 321 B I 414 308 B I 423 320 B I 233 75 B I 231 73 B I 251 102 B I 238 82 54 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873, Subject. Report. Yol. Pago. Art. Reports, British—Continued. Anderson on— American special tools, peculiarmerits of. Introduction. . B I 239 83 Armstrong’s dovetailing-machine. _do. . B I 245 94 Avery’s wool-spinner. . B I 247 97 B. D. Whitney’s wood working tools. . B I 243 93 Bigelow's boot and shoo machinery. Brown & Siiarpo Manufacturing Com. -do. . B I 249 98 pany’s tools. . B I 239 85 C. B. Rogers & Co.’s wood-working tools... -do. . B I 247 96 Darling, Brown & Sharpe’s tools. -do. . B • I 242 90 Kail’s “Sudden-Grip” vise. . B 1 241 88 Jones & Laughlin’s cold-rolled shafting... . B I 240 86 Knapp’s dovetailing-machino. -do. . B I 296 95 Matthews’ soda-water apparatus. . B I 251 101 Miller's pipe-bending machine. . B I 241 87 Morse twist-drills. . B I 242 91 Pratt &. Whitney Company’s tools. _do. . B I 239 84 Sellers & Co.’s drill-sharpener. _do. . B I 235 78 hammer. _do. . B I 238 81 lathes. _do. . B I 234 70 machinery. ....do . . B I 232 74 rotary puddler. _do. . B I 236 80 sewing-machines. . B I 250 100 Sides & Parker Press Company 's tools... . B I 242 69 Tilghman's sand-blast. _do. . B I 234 77 AYest’s tire-setter. _do. . B I 243 92 Woodbury’s brush-making machinery_ Maw & Dredge on— Adrianco, Piatt & Co.’s mower and -do. . B I 250 99 reaper. Aultmau, Miller & Co.’s mower and . B I 279 141 reaper. . B I 277 137 American drills. _do. . B I 274 134 building materials. _do. . B I 288 144 Capron water-wheels. . B I 272 127 Collins & Co.’s plows. . B I 272 128 Deere A Co.’s hoes. -do-.. . B I 273 131 D. M. Osborne’s mower and reaper. ....do . . B I 280 142 Pttrst & Bradley’s plows. . B I 273 130 iron and steel. . B I 281 145 Johnston Harvester Company. . B I 277 138 locomotive-engines. _do. . B I 287 117 double-bogies. . B I 260 113 length of tubes. . B I 262 119 passenger-engines. _do.. . B I 264 120 ■mineral fuels of the United States.. _do.. . B I 255 115 Nishwitz’s harrow. . B I 273 133 Norwalk Iron-Works engine.. . B I 267 123 Peekskill Plow Works. . B I 272 129 Pennsylvania coals.. -do. . B I 256 116 Pickering’s steam-engines. . B I 266 121 reapers and mowers. . P. I 274 135 Remington’s cultivators.. . B I 273 132 Sieberling’s mower and reaper. . B I 279 140 technical schools. _do. . B I 269 125 Underhill’s angular belt.. Warder, Mitchell & Co.’s mower and . B I 266 122 reaper. ... do. . B I 279 139 GENERAL INDEX 55 Subject. Report. Yol. Page. Art. Reports, British — Continued. Maw & Dredge on— “Wood's mowers and reapers . Introduction . .... B I 275 136 workmanship . . _ B I 271 126 Fussell on educational appliances. _ B I 280 143 Holmes on — American steam-machinery. . . do . .... B I 252 103 cold-rolled shafting. _ B I 253 105 Pickering’s engine. .... B I 252 104 steam-pumps and water-wheels . _ B I 253 106 Russell on small-arms from the United States. .. do . _ B I 255 111 Vizetelly on wines . .... B I 284 146 Reports, French : Damplimot on the — silk industry ; silk-worm culture . .. do . B I 332 186 silk production and consumption . _ B I 333 187 Davanne on— astronomical photography . _ B I 338 193 photography ; awards . .. do . .... B I 337 192 Delhaye on cotton manufactures. .... B I 332 188 Grnner on— mineral industry ; iron and steel. ..do. .... B I 293 147 Sellers & Co.’s rotary puddler and rolls.. _ B I 294 148 Xleitz on— civil engineering; Sutro tunnel. ..do. .... B I 345 207 Fink bridge, at Louisville. ..do. .... B I 346 209 New York harbor improvements. _ B I 345 208 Levasseur on— attendance at schools. _ B I 352 215 colleges for young women. ..do. _ B I 356 219 education. _ B I 348 210 in the South. .... B I 354 216 secondary . .... B I 355 218 educational exhibits. .... B I 356 220 globes. .... B I 358 223 instruction in geography. .... B I 357 221 primary. .do. .... B I 348 210 expenses of. .... B I 350 211 rural charts. .... B I 357 222 school edifices. .... B I 351 212 teachers’ salaries. .... B I 351 213 teaching as a profession. .... B I 352 214 methods of. .do. .... B I 358 224 text-books. .... B I 358 224 United States Bureau of Education. .do. .... B I 354 217 Masson on the graphic arts ; “ Picturesque America ”. .... B I 336 191 Mertian on— the art of war. .... B I 343 200 Colt armory work. .... B I 343 201 fire-arms. _ B I 343 200 Military saddles. _ B I 345 206 Sharpe's rifles. _ B I 343 203 Smith & Wesson’s fire-arms. .do. .... B I 343 202 Springfield rifles and muskets. .do. .... B I 343 204 Onimus on dental manufacture. _ B I 342 199 Pettigrew on mineral industry; iron and steel . .... B I 293 147 Sayer on— leather and caoutchouc.. .do... .... B I 351 189 56 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, . 1873. Subject. Retort. Vol. Page. Art. Reports, French—Continued. Sayer on— leather from cow, calf, and horse hides.. Introduction. . B I 335 190 Teissonii-re on— wines, &c.; viniculture in tho United States. .... B I 330 184 wine production of the world. . B I 330 185 Tisserand on— Adriance, Platt & Co.’s mower and reaper.. .... B I 312 1G4 agricultural development, history of. .... B I 31G 172 implements. . B I 301 157 products. _ B I 310 171 agriculture in the United States. . B I 29G 150 Aultman, Miller & Co.’s mower and reaper . .... B I 31-1 1G5 awards, distribution of. _ B I 31G 170 beet root sugar cultivation.. _ B I 355 180 California exhibits. _ B I 300 15G cereals ; Northern Pacific Railroad Co.; Oregon.. .... B I 203 151 colonial agricultural policy.. _ B I 321 17o cotton. .... B I 277 133 Johnston's mower and reaper. .... B I 309 1G2 landed property, distribution of. - B I 31G 172 Leopoldsdorf trial of mowers and reapers ..do. .... B I 30G 1G0 live-stock in the United States. .... B I 32G 132 McCormick's mower and reaper. .... B I 314 1GG mowers and reapers, American. . ..do. .... B I 303 158 Osborne, D. M., Sc Co.’s mower and reaper. .... B I 311 163 politico-economic relations. .... B I 325 175 production, increaso of. .... B I 333 17G tabular exhibit, 1870. .... B I 325 179 progress, causes of. .... B I 328 183 data indicating. .... B I 319 173 ramie. .... B I 300 155 resume; Paris, 1367; Vienna, 1373. .... B I 315 1G9 Sieberling’s mower and reaper. .... B I 314 1G7 Sprague’s mower. .do . .... B I 314 167 staple products of the United States . .do . .... B I 323 177 Superior Machine Company's mower_ .do. .... B I 314 168 tobacco. .... B I 299 152 viniculture in the United States. .do . .... B I 32G 181 Warder, Mitchell & Co.'s mower and reaper . .... B I 307 161 wines, American . .... B I 300 154 "Wood's reaper and binder . . do . .... B I 305 159 Tresca on — machinery; influence of American pro¬ gress . .... B I 339 194 metal-working machinery . . do . .... B I 340 195 Sellers VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Pago. Art. Shropshire downs. Sheep and Wool. . E I 25 31 Sicily forests. Forestry. . D I 59 74 Sidewalks of London. Working of Stone. . D IV 26 33 Sieherling’s mower and reaper— Haw & Dredge’s report. Introduction. . B I 279 140 Schmied’s report. .do. . B I ■429 333 Tisserand's report. .do. . B I 314 167 Siemens’ deep-sea thermometer. Instruments. . H II 10 19 direct process . Metallurgy. . E IV 15t» engine. Machinery. . A III 38 45 regenerative furnace. Metallurgy. . E IV 151 353 relays. Telegraphs. .I II 5 2 polarized. II 6 3 Sight, care of.. Education. . K II 52 25 Sighs boiler. Machinery. . A III 133 148 Signs, a means of learning. Education. II 66 30 Sii.cox, G. W., Report on Art of Printing and Manufacture of Paper. Printing and Paper. . 0 II “ Silent World”. Deaf-Mutes. . M II 9 7 Silesia, Prussian, wool-growing. Sheep and Wool. . E I 42 56 Silk industry; silk-worm culture. Introduction. . B I 332 186 manufactures of Switzerland. Machinery. . A III 349 284 production and consumption. Introduction. . B I 332 187 Silsby Manufacturing Company’s steam (Ire- Machinery. . A III 105 121 engine. Introduction. . B I 369 241 IV 115 267 Lower Hungary. . F IV 181 432 Mansfield Copper Works. .do. . F IV 134 317 Royal Hungarian Mint. .do. . F IV 177 420 Stolberg Stock Company. .do. . F IV 149 348 production of. Introduction. . B I 366 236 Sweden. Metallurgy. . F IV 25 61 refining, Freiberg. .do. . F IV 74 175 Simultaneous systems of telegraphing. Telegraphs.. . J II 29 16 Sinclair’s boiler. Machinery. . A in 127 140 rti a Eorestr y. . D i 92 123 Slaughter-house refuse. Fertilizers. . C n 49 53 Slide-valve engines. Machinery. . A in 24 35 Slotting-machine, Sellers A Co.’s... . A hi 29 236 Sluice-gates, Girard's. Civil Engineering. . C in 34 40 Smelting, (see Roasting.) lead, Brixlegg Smelting Works. Metallurgy. .... F IV 165 386 .do. _ F IV 104 364 Julius Hutto.-. . F IV 132 311 process, Bley berg. . F IV 17 42 Carinthia. . F IV 169 397 V *1 . F IV 58 136 roasted matte. IV 77 187 Holzappel. . F IV 151 354 .do. _ F IV 14 38 Meclieruiclier Smelting Works- .do.. _ F IV 152 358 Miiblbacb Smelting Works ... .... F IV 1(6 390 Stolberg Stock Company. .do. .... F IV 167 246 St ria .do. _ F IV 172 410 Tarnowitz... _ F IV 137 324 Turkey. _ F IV 217 500 Smelting works, (see Furnaces.) Binsfeldhammer furnaces. do GENERAL INDEX. 67 Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Smelting works, Bieiberg Smelting Company .. . Metallurgy. . F IV 169 396 Brixlegg. .do. . F IV 164 381 Ems. . F IV 155 364 Krupp's. . Machinery. . A in 370 361 Miiklbach... . Metallurgy. . F IV 166 390 Priam. . F IV 158 374 Smith & Wesson's fire-arms, Mertian’s report . . Introduction. . B I 343 202 Bussell's report.. . B I 235 114 Smith, J. L., Report on chemical industry. . Chemical Industry. . A II Smut-machine for wheat. . Vienna Bread. . B II 28 62 SociOtO Anonyme de Couillet locomotives. . Machinery. . A m 63 75 des Hauts-Fourneaux. . Metallurgy. . E IV 130 108 Cockerill's mariue engines. . Machinery. . A in 58 62 locomotives. .do. . A TIT 62 74 Society, Photographic, of Bologna. . Photography. . D II 15 34 Socin & Wick’s engine. . Machinery. . A III 21 32 Soda manufacture. . Chemical Industry. . A n 6 3 saltpeter. . Fertilizers. . C n 48 49 water apparatus, Matthews'. . Introduction. . B i 251 101 Soil, black, of Russia. . Fertilizers. . C ii 6 3 exhaustion of. .do. . C ii 6 2 Sombrero phosphate. ....... do... -. . C n 18 16 Sounding-line of deep sea thermometer. . Instruments. . H ii 10 22 Southdowns..,. Sheep and "Wool. E history and characteristics.do. E Southern flour.Vienna Bread. B South Kensington Museum. Patronage of Art.. K Sowing-machines, Scbmied's report.Introduction. B Spain, educational exhibits. Education.. L forest.Forestry. D metallurgical exhibits.Metallurgy. F method of education. Education. L photographic exhibits. Photography. D Spanish-French school for deaf-mutes. Education. K phosphate. Fertilizers. C price. do. C sheep in Germany. Sheep and Wool. E telegraphic administration. Telegraphs. I Spectroscopes. Physical Apparatus. F Speech, alphabet. Education. K Bell's theory of.do. K class books.do. K symbols.do. K visible.do. K Spinning of cotton, Peez’s report. Introduction. B Steiger-Meyer’s report.do. B machine for wool, Avery's.do. B Split-wood manufacture.do. B Sprague mower, Scbmied's report.do. B Tisserand’s report.do. B Springfield muskets and rifles.do. B Staatsdruckerei, Vienna. Government Printing. P Stairways. Architecture. B construction. AVorking of Stone. D Stanford's products from sea-weed. Fertilizers. C sewage.do. C Stapfurt potash. Chemical Industry. A Staple products of the United States. Introduction. B I I II II I II I IV II II II II II I II II II II II II II I I I I I I I II IV IV II n ii i 23 24 66 8 425 22 16 7 22 10 43 20 26 40 55 8 65 64 65 65 65 414 475 383 408 430 314 343 5 19 23 55 55 7 326 29 30 138 7 325 35 15 12 35 19 19 21 30 52 33 10 29 28 29 29 29 293 380 266 300 336 167 204 4 38 27 61 62 5 177 68 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Starch. Vienna Bread. .... B II 9 18 character of. .... B II 06 145 charges of.. .... B II 92 202 conversion into dextrine. .... B II 92 203 grains.. .... B II 73 154 Gintl's report. Introduction. .... B I 401 287 Kopp's report. .... B I 469 373 Starke I 53 ce photographic exhibits.. . Photographv. .... L> II 15 35 school-house. .... I. II 22 36 furniture and apparatus.. .... I. 11 23 38 Swedish schools. ... IC II 100 51 telegraphic administration. . Telegraphs. ... I II 57 43 twin-screws for steamers. ... A III 50 65 Swiss clocks. . Instruments. .... G II 5 o industries, influences affecting. ... A III 347 323 metal-working tools.. .... A III 245 253 plane-table. . Instruments. .... II II 9 15 railroads. . Telegraphs. .... I 11 or. 52 schools. . Education.. .... K II 100 51 silk manufactures. . Machinery. .... A III 291 284 telegraphic administration. . Telegraphs. ... I II 58 44 employes. .... I II 75 CG offices. .... I II 70 59 telegraphs. .... I II CG 52 watches. . Instruments.. .... G II 12 12 Switzerland educational exhibits. . Education. .... L 11 24 39 forest area. . Forestry. .... D 1 53 67 forestry exhibit. ... D I 15 13 photographic exhibits.. . Photography. .... 1) II 13 31 text-books. . Education. ... K II 24 42 Symmetry, its effects.. ... K II 29 14 Sympathetic function, precedence of. .do. ... K II 23 12 Syracuse school for idiots. ... K II 89 43 GENERAL INDEX 71 SUBJECT. REPORT. Vol. Page. Art. T. Tact, concord of. . Education. . . K II 52 25 Tangye & Co.'s engines.. . Machinery. . A III 29 38 Tarnowitz Lead and Silver Smelting Works.... . Metallurgy. . F IV 136 323 Tartaric acid in self-raising flour. . Vienna Bread. . B II 91 198 Taste, architectural. Architecture. .... B IV 26 59 Teacher and text-hooks. . Education. . K II 111 64 kindergarten. . K II 16 8 mother’s. . K 11 46 23 theoretical and practical. ..do... . K II 16 8 women.... . K II 46 23 Teaching, (see Education, Training.) as a profession. Introduction. . B I 352 214 methods of. . B I 358 224 Technical schools, influence of. . B I 269 125 Teeth, artificial. . B I 132 341 Teissoniere on wines ; viniculture in the United States. . B I 330 184 -wine production of the world_ ..... B I 330 185 Telegraphic administration. Telegraphs.•. . I II 57 25 Austro-Hungarian.. .do.. . I II 54 30 Belgian. . I 11 55 31 British. . I II 56 35 Banish. . I II 55 32 European. .do. . I II 51 20 French. .do. . I II 55 34 German. .do. . I II 54 29 Italy. .do.. _ I II 57 36 Netherlands. .do... T II 57 38 Norway. . I II 57 37 Portugal. --do.. . I II 57 39 Roumania. .do. .... I II 57 40 Russia. .do. _ I II 57 41 Servian... .do. _ I II 57 42 Spanish. .do. .... I II 55 33 state;. _ I II 52 28 Swedish.. .do... _ I II 57 43 Swiss. .do. ..... I II 58 44 Turkish. .do. _ I II 58 45 apparatus. .... I II 9 9 Bo. Physical Apparatus. _ F II 9 12 automatic. Telegraphs. . I II 11 14 Bo. _ I II 12 12 Little’s. _ I II 15 13 Siemens’.... .do. _ J II 11 15 auxiliary. .do. .... I II 42 23 batteries. . I 11 7 6 Bo. . .T II 16 21 Belgian. _ J II 9 8 Callaud’s. .do. _ J II 16 23 Daniells. .do. _ J II 16 22 Grove’s. .do. . J 11 16 22 Bauer's. . I II 36 19 classification. .do. _ I II 7 5 B’Arlincourt’s. _ I II 40 22 Edison’s automatic. .do... .... I II 13 13 duplex. .do.. .... I II 34 18 English and French. _ J 11 24 34 72 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. SUISJECT. Report. Yol. Page. Art. Telegraphic apparatus, European. Telegraphs. . I n 10 10 French. . .do. . J II 23 32 Gally’s.. ..do. . I II 29 15 German historical. ..do. . I II -13 24 Hughes' printer.. ..do. . J II 9 7 ink-writer, European. ..do. . J II 7 G Jaite’s. ..do. . J II 12 1G Do. ..do. . I II 11 11 Little's. ..do. . I 11 13 13 Meyer’s. ..do. . I II oo 14 Morse's. ..do. ......... .1 II is 05 register, Morse’s. ..do. . J 11 7 5 relays, Siemens’ polarized... .. do. . J II C 3 Siemens’. ..do. . J II 5 2 Stearns's duplex. ..do. . I II 29 15 transmitting. ..do. . I 11 0 0 circuit, connecting. ..do. .T II 0 4 conductors. ..do. . I II 8 7 wire. ..do. . J II 11 19 European. ..do. .1 ir 14 19 galvanized. ..do. . .1 n 15 20 correspondence. ..do. I ii e 2 73 employes. ..do. I n 71 GO / Austro-Huagariau. ..do. I ii 71 G 1 Itelgian. ..do. I ii 72 G2 British. ..do. I ii 74 64 French . ..do. 1 ii 70 G3 German. ..do. I 11 71 60 Italian. ..do. I II 74 G5 Russian. ..do. I II 7G G7 Swiss. ..do. I II 75 GG exhibits, American. .. do. I II 5 2 German. ..do. I II 43 24 insulators . ..do. .1 II 10 11 Do. I II 8 7 manufactures. ..do. J II oo 29 tests, European. ..do. ■T II 22 30 Prussian. ..do. J II 21 28 offices. ..do. I II G7 53 Austro-Hungarian. ..do. I II C 8 54 Belgian. ..do. I II G 8 55 British. ..do. I II G9 57 French. ..do. I II C9 56 German. ..do. I II G7 53 Italy. ..do. I II 69 58 Swiss. ..do. I II 70 59 resistance. ..do. . T II 23 33 measures of. ..do. . J II 17 24 statistics. European. ..do. I n 82 72 of cost. ..do. I ii 7G 86 tariff. ..do. . I ii 80 G9 traffic.- ..do. . I n 81 70 transmission, double.— ..do. . .T ii 12 18 pneumatic tubes. ..do. . J ii 26 36 rates . ..do. . J ii 30 40 Telegraphs and Aitaratus, Report by David Brooks. ..do. . J ii Telegraphs and Telegraphic AdjuRIstra- tion, Report by R. B. Lines. ..do. . I ii GENERAL INDEX 73 Subject. Beport. Vol. Page. Art. Telegraphs and railroads. .. Telegraphs. .... I II 58 46 Austro-Hungarian ... ..do. . I II 59 47 Belgian. .do. .... I II 60 48 British. .do. _ I II 63 50 French. .do. _ I II 62 49 German . ..do. . I II 58 46 Italy.. .do. . I II 65 51 Swiss.. .do.. . I II 66 52 batteries for.. .do.. . I II 7 6 branch lines. .do. . J 11 29 39 cost of.. .do. . J II 28 38 English and French. . J II 14 34 European. --do. .... -I II 31 41 French. .do.. . I II 62 49 German. _...do. . I II 58 46 historical sketch ... .do .. . J II 30 40 methods. I II 6 4 modern construction. .do. . J II 19 27 monopolies. . J II 27 37 posts for. .do. . J II 28 38 preservation of.. . J 11 16 26 proper system.. .do.. . J II 32 42 • rates. . J II 30 40 simultaneous system .. .do. . I II 29 16 system, Wheatstone’s. .do. . J II 12 17 underground lines.. .do. . J II 11 13 Do. .do. . I II 9 8 underground wire in cities. .do. . J II 23 35 United States. . ,J 11 31 41 Telegraphy, automatic. 1 II 12 12 Tenement-houses. .. Architecture.. . A IV 8 12 Terra-cotta.. .. Working of Stone. . D IV 39 46 Do. .. Architecture. . B IV 5 i Austrian.. . B IV 5 2 Tessits and Marechal's photographic process.. .. Photography.. . D II 11 24 Tests of watches. .. Instruments. . G II 15 19 Tetschen forests. .. Forestry. . D I 90 119 Text-books and teachers. .. Education. . K 11 111 64 in schools. . K II 108 63 in Switzerland. . K II 24 40 Textiles, (see Cotton.) Textile machinery at Vienna. .. Machinery.. . A III 288 278 manufactures of Germany. ..do. . A III 352 337 Weigert’s report. .. Introduction. . B I 374 248 Zeman on twilled goods. . B I 414 308 Text-books. . B I 358 224 Theaters, Vienna.. .. Architecture. . A IV 24 30 Thermometer, air.. .. Physical Apparatus. . F II 13 17 balance. .. Instruments. . H II 11 23 for deep-sea sounding.. .do . .. . H II 10 19 mercurial. .. Physical Apparatus. . F II 13 18 resistance.. .. Instruments. . H II 10 20 Thiel on articles of food. .. Introduction. . B I 371 245 condensed milk. . B I 373 247 meat and pastry. . B I 372 246 sugar ... . B I 371 245 Thilenius mill-stone. .. Vienna Bread. . B II 40 92 Thime’s turbine water-wheel . .. Machinery. . A II 184 192 74 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Thimmonier's sewing-machine. . Sewing-Machines. .... B Ill 8 2 Thompson, J. L., paper-barrels. . Printing and Paper. .... 0 II 27 39 Thun, Count, estate of. . Forestry. .... D 1 89 118 Thurston, R. H., Report on Machinery and Manufactures. . Machinery. .... A III tests of Barrow steel. .do. III 109 388 trials of steam-boilers.. .... A III 119 133 Braytou's gas-engines.do. III 105 105 traction-engines. III 87 104 Tide-motors. , Hydraulic Engineering_ .... D III 1-1 25 Tiles, English. . Architecture. .... B IV 7 8 Roman.. .... B IV 7 9 Tilghman’s sand-blast. Machinery. .... A III 31G 292 Do. Working of Stone. .... D IV 5 i Anderson's report. Introduction. .... B I 234 77 Lorck’s report.. .... B I 378 255 Timber, durability of. Forestry. .... D I 29 32 transportation. Hydraulic Engineering_ .... D III & 12 Tire-setter, West’s, Anderson’s report . Introduction. .... B 1 243 92 Hartig’s report. .... B I 382 202 Thurston’s report. Machinery. ... A III Tisserand's reports, (tree Reports, French.) Tobacco. . Introduction. .... B I 299 152 Tools, (see Reports.) American. ... B I 239 83 and British compared. Machinery. ... A III 190 204 wood-working. .do .. .... A III 249 257 B. D. Whitney’s . ... A III 249 257 British. ... A III 205 206 Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Co.'s... .do. ... A III 232 240 Fay & Co.'s. ... A III 259 267 for special purposes. Introduction. ... B I 338 62 French metal working. ... A III 244 252 wood-working.. ... A III 284 273 German machine. ... A III 358 350 opinion of American.. .do. ... A III 338 317 Tratt & Whitney Company’s. .do. ... A in 220 227 Robinson & Co.’s. ... A in 205 269 Sellers & Co.’s. ... A in 205 210 Sharpe, Stewart & Co.'s. .do. ... A iii 399 361 Swiss metal-working. ... A in 245 253 Towing and chain. ... A in 53 58 Traction-engines.. ... A iii 83 101 advantages of steam. ... A iii 97 111 Thurston's trial of. .do. ... A iii 87 104 Training, (see Teaching.) automatism. . Education. ... K ii 25 13 contractility. .do. ... K ii 25 li imitation. ... K ii 25 13 kindergarten ...«. ... K ii 19 10 methods of. ... K ii 111 65 objective and subjective . ... K ir 19 10 prominent points of. .do. ... K ii 90 46 rhythm. ... K n 25 13 special senses. ... K ii 33 16 symmetrical. ... K ii 29 14 Transferring drawing to stone. Printing and Paper. ... 0 ii 17 Transportation. Ackerman's report. Metallurgy. ... E IV 155 131 GENERAL INDEX. 75 Subject. Report. Vol. Page. Art. Transportation rates. Introduction. .... B II 85 55 Trask, Mi«s, school anil method. Education. .... K II 64 28 Tresca's trial of the Lenoir gas-engine. Machinery. .... A iii 163 163 Otto & Langen gas-engine.. .do. .... A HI 168 170 on machinery ; influence of American progress... Introduction. .... B i 339 194 metal-working machinery. .do.. .... B i 340 195 Sellers & Co.’s tools. .do. .. .... B i 340 196 sewing-machines. .do. .... B i 341 198 wooil-working tools. .do. .... B i 341 197 Trial of mowers at Leopoidsdorf. .do. .... B i 306 160 Tschndi on education. .do. .... B i 482 388 in Germany and the United States. .do. .... B i 484 389 Tunnel, Sutro. .... B i 345 207 Turbines as motors. Machinery. .... A in 176 180 at Conde. Civil Engineering. .... C hi 50 64 Capron’s. Machinery. .... A in 177 182 efficiency of. .do. .... A hi 177 181 GWynne & Co.'s Girard. .do. .... A hi 178 183 Nagel & Kaemp’s Fonrneyron. .do.... .... A hi 180 188 Tliime’s Fourneyron-.Jonval. .do. .... A hi 184 192 Turin school of forestry. Forestry. .... D i 100 149 Turkey, educational exhibits. Education. .... K ii 24 41 forestry exhibits. Forestry. .... D i 38 39 metallurgical exhibits. Metallurgy. .... F IV 217 498 photographic exhibits. Photography. .... I) ii 22 55 Turner’s, E. & F., engines. Machinery. .... A hi 101 116 Turu-halle of Georgs-Marien-IIiitte Company .. Metallurgy. .... E IV 100 77 Twilled goods. Introduction. .... B I 414 308 Typo-foundery, state printing-office, Vienna_ Government Printing. .... P II 6 9 foundery. .do. .... P II 10 20 setting machine. .do. .... P II 14 35 Typography. Introduction. .... B I 377 254 Tyrol, Forestry exhibits. Forestry. u. .... 1) I 30 34 Uchatius* cold-rolled brouzo. Machinery.. .... A III .324 298 theory of working gun-barrels. .do. .... A III 328 302 Underhill's angular belt. .do. .... A III 334 312 United States, (see American.) agricultural development. Introduction. .... B I 316 172 Bureau of Education. .do. .... B I 354 217 commissioners to Vienna. .do. .... B I 156 60 commissioners to Vienna, regu- lations. .do. .... A I 150 02 contributions of the different States.. .... A I 197 64 landed property, distribution of. .do. .... B I 320 174 politico-economic relations. .do. .... B I 321 175 production, increase of. .do. .... B I 323 176 tabular exhibit, 1870. .do. .... B I 325 179 progress; data. .... B I 319 173 section of exhibition. Exhibition Buildings. IV 7 8 section ; official catalogue. Introduction. .... A I 190 63 staple products. .... B I 323 177 “ Universal'’ surveying instrument. Instruments. .... H 11 6 7 Uruguay photographical exhibits . Photography. .... D II 23 60 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. SUIi.IRCT. Report. Vol. Page. Alt, Y. Vallambrosa school of forestry. Forestry. ... D I 100 149 Valve-gear, Guinotte’s. Machinery. ... A III 03 70 Valve, plain slide. ... A III 24 35 Valves, safety. Introduction. ... B 1 413 307 V eneers. ... B I 408 291) Venezuela photographic exhibits. Photography. ... D II 7 8 Vessols, classification of. Machinery. ... A III 420 405 Swedish twin-screw. .do. ... A III 59 G5 Viaduct, Boable. Civil Engineering. ... C III 15 i over the Osse. ... C III 24 23 D III 10 10 Victoria wheat. Vienna Bread. ... B ir 15 40 Vidal’s photometer. Photography. ... 1> n 13 2!) Vienna, (see International exhibitions.) American mechanics at. hi 343 322 apartment buildings. Exhibition Buildings. ... Aa IV ' 13’ 29 arsenal. .do. IV 14 27 bakery.. Vienna Bread. ... B ii 07 217 phosphatie bread. .do. ... B li 112 213 Vienna isukad, Report by E. N. lIoitsFOBU. .do. ... B ii bread. .do. ... B n 1 o superiority of. .do . ... B ii 100 223 huildijigs of the exhibition, Report on.. Exhibition Buildings. ... Aa IV buildings. Working of Stone. . it IV 33 44 city of. ... Aa IV 5 2 configuration, iutlnence in plans for buildings. Architecture. ... A IV 3 10 education of workmen iu. Working of Stone. ... D IV 2*2 24 Hour.... Vienna Bread. ... B ii 59 120 grits.. . ... B ii 31 07 IV 15 30 making mosaic-works. Working of Stone. ... 1) IV 25 31 metal-working machinery at . Machinery. ... A iii 201 212 modes of work. Working of Stone. ... D IV 22 25 opera-house. Architecture. ... B IV 22 45 private dwellings, report on. ... A IV size and situation of. -- A IV 5 t state printing office. Government Printing. ... P ii 0 5 stock company's office. Forestry. ... D T 83 113 stone-working nt. Working of Stone. D IV 21 22 IV 14 20 textile machinery at. Machinery. ... A III 288 278 Working of Stone. D IV 32 30 wages of workmen in. ... D IV 25 31 water supply. Hydraulic Engineering- ... D III 10 15 woods used in building. Architecture. ... B IV 17 32 wood-working machinery at. Machinery. --. A III 247 255 Villach lead. Metallurgy. ... F IV 168 395 Villers-Cotteret’s school of forestry. Forestry. ... D I 100 149 Viniculture, (see "Wines.) In the United States, Teissoniere's report. Introduction . ... B I 330 184 Tisserand's report_ ... B I 320 181 of the world, Teissoniere’s report .. ... B I 330 185 Vise, Hall’s “Sudden-Grip"— Anderson's report. ... B I 241 88 Hartig and others' report. ... B I 385 2GO GENERAL INDEX. 77 Subject. Retort. Vol. Page. Art. Vivenot on mining products.. . Introduction... .... B I 395 279 Vizetelly on wines. .... B I 284 146 Voice, vibrations, effect upon babes. . Education. .... K II 53 25 w. Wages, French Rational Printing-Office. . Government Printing_ .... P II 12 28 mosaic workmen. . Working of Stone. .... D IV 25 31 State PrintiDg-Office, Vienna. . Government Printing_ .... P II 9 16 stone-cutters of Vienna. . Working of Stone.. .... D IV 22 23 Wagons and wheels, Eideli’s report. . Introduction. .... B I 430 337 Wald-Biirgerschaft Smelting Works. . Metallurgy. .... F IV 212 476 Wall-paper. . Printing and Paper. .... 0 II 21 27 Walls, bonding of. . Architecture. .... B IV 7 10 durability of. .... A IV 13 21 of the exhibition buildings. . Exhibition Buildings. - - - - Aa IV 8 11 partition. . Architecture. .... B IV 19 39 thickness of. .do. .... A IV 14 22 Walter printing-press. . Government Printing. .... P II 14 36 Walzmiible, Pesth. . Vienna Bread. .... B II 103 229 prize flour from. .. - - B II 105 232 Wcgmann's. .... B II 44 101 War, {see Army; Army Equipments; Fire- arms.) Wakdek. J. A..ReportonFouESTs and Forestry Forestry. - - - D I Warder, Mitchell & Co.’s mower and reaper— Indeich’s report. . Introduction. .... B I 302 229 Schmied's report. .do. .... B I 427 328 Tisserand's report. ... B I 307 161 Warhanek on preserves... .do. .... B I 403 291 Warth’s cloth-cutter. . Machinery. .... A III 319 294 Do. . Introduction. .... B I 384 271 AVatch and clock manufactures in Switzerland . Machinery...’... .... A III 349 328 Watches, Audemar’s. . Instruments... .... G II 16 21 , Austrian. .... G II 20 27 Badollet & Co. .do. - - - - G II 14 18 Breguet. .... G II 17 23 report. .do. .... G II 18 24 chronometers, English. .do. .... G II 9 7 French. .do. .... G II 10 9 Harrison. .do. .... G II 7 Italy. .do. .... G II 10 9 marine. .do. .... G II 7 3 Netherlands. .do. .... G II 10 9 pocket. .do. .... G II 10 10 Switzerland. .do. .... G n 10 9 Do. .do. .... G ii 11 10 compensation of. .... G II 11 11 Dufour, Zentler & Brother. .do. .... G 11 17 22 Ekegren, M. R. .do. - .. G ii 15 20 English. .... G ii 19 25 and Swiss. .do.. .... G ii 12 12 French & Co. .... G ii 19 25 German. .do.. .... G ii 19 20 Gratel. .do. .... G ii 18 23 Haas & Co. .do. .... G ii 17 22 improvements in. .do.-. .... G ii 20 20 isoclironism. .do. .... G ii 8 .5 Jaccaid. . .do. .... G ii 16 22 78 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Redout. Vol. Page. Alt* Watches, Japay Brothers & Co. Instruments. . G II 18 23 JeaDjaqnet & Co. . G II 17 22 Kloftenberger. . G II 19 25 Kullberg. .(lo. . G II 19 25 Lange & Sons. . G II 19 26 Leroy & Sons. . G II 17 23 Montandon. .do. . G II 16 22 Paintard. . G II 15 18 Patek, Philippe & Co. .do. . G II 14 17 Rodanet & Co. .do. . G II 18 23 Romieux. . G II 15 18 Souchy & Son. .do. . G II 20 27 Swiss and English.. .do. . G II 12 12 tests at observatories. . G II 15 19 Watchmaking. .do.. . B I 477 384 Water in wheat. . Vienna Broad. . B II 9 25 power compared with steam-power. . Machinery. .... A III 175 178 iu Sweden, Ackerman's report.. IV 157 133 proportion in bread... . Vienna Bread. . B II 96 213 supply of tho exhibition. . Architecture. . 15 IV 9 14 Vienna. .do. . B IV 10 15 Water-wheels. . Introduction. . B I 253 106 Capron's. .do. . B I 272 127 Collation's floating. . Machinery. . A III 179 180 II 18 47 Woodland, effect of pasturing in. . Forestry. . I) I 21 20 Woods’ mowers and reapers: Michael's report. Introduction. . B I 253 108 Tisserand's report. . B I 305 159 Woods for interiors. Architecture. . B II 19 39 Vienna. . B II 19 39 Wool, and Sheep, Report by J. R. Dodoe. Sheep and Wool. . E I Wool, demand and supply. . . E I 6 3 fine, of Saxonv. .do .. . E I 41 53 German, prices. . E I 41 54 raerinoes.. . E I 10 11 grades of. German mcrinoes. . E I 10 11 growing, future prospects of. .do. . E 1 46 62 in Saxonv. .do. . E I 41 55 GENERAL INDEX, Subject. REPORT. Vol. Page. Art. Wool-growiug in Prussian Silesia. Sheep and Wool. . E I 42 56 United States.. . E I 45 59 importation into the United States. ..do. . E I 48 61 manufacture in Great Britain. . E I 17 18 product of the -world. . E I 49 63 spinner, Avery’s. Machinery. . A I 238 279 Anderson’s report. Introduction. . B I 247 97 Hartig and others’ report .do. . B I 383 206 Zeman's report. . B I 423 321 Woolen manufactures of Switzerland. Machinery. . A III 349 329 Woolwich ordnance compared with Whitworth. . A III 438 414 Wootz or Indian steel. Metallurgy. . E IV 171 Working of Stone, Report hy L. J. Hinton — Working of Stone. . D IV Workingmen, British, at Vienna. Machinery. . A III 342 321 education in Vienna. Working of Stone. . D IV 22 24 Association, Georgs-M arien- Hiitte Company. Metallurgy. .. E IV 102 72 Working-people, care of, Georgs-Marien-Hutte Company. . E IV 98 05 in Europe, condition of. Machinery.. . A III 390 371 Workm an ship... Introduction. . B I 271 126 Works, Borsig’s locomotive.- -. Machinery.. . A III 304 358 Cail & Co.’s. . A III 396 379 Dowlais. . A III 448 418 Eairfield. . A III 423 399 Krnpp’s. .do. . A III 370 360 Do. . Metallurgy.„ . E IV 69 59 Low Moor iron. Machinery. . A III 415 395 Schneider & Co.’s.... . A III 394 376 Sharpe, Stewart & Co.’s locomotive_ .do. . A III 399 381 Socidtd Cockerill's. . A III 383 365 Worssam & Co.’s exhibits. . A III 280 271 Worthley’s photographic process. Tbotography. .... D II 8 10 Wrought iron and steel, Ackerman s report_ Metallurgy. .... E IV 172 140 E IV 179 . E IV 186 in constructing buildings. Architecture. . B IV 13 23 journal-boxes. , Metallurgy. . E IV 180 Wiirtemberg school of forestry. . Eorestry. D I 97 136 Y. Veast bread, problem of a... . Vienna Bread. . B II 86 186 cells. .do. . B II 80 176 Blondeau’s theory of. .do. . B II 79 172 Do .. . B II 82 178 cavities in. . B II 79 172 effect of heat on. . B II 79 173 solution of sugar. .do. .. .. B II 80 174 illustration of growth.. ..do .. . . B II 80 175 size.... . B II 78 169 fermentation, charges by. .do. . B II 111 240 effect of. . B II 83 182 loss due to. . B II 96 215 Pasteur's theory.. . B II 81 179 process of.. . B II 78 109 theories of. . B II 81 177 plant, illustration. . B II 80 175 Mitscherlich's observations. . B II 78 171 82 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Subject. Report. Yol. Page. Art. Yeast plant, Wiesner’s observations. ... B II 82 177 pressed. .do. ... B II 86 187 preparation of. .do. ... B II 87 189 Zettler’s. ... B II 87 190 Yonne and the Seine, river improvements . . Hydraulic Engineering_ . D III 14 24 Yorkshire flagging. ... B IV 26 32 Young’s diamond-saw. ... D 1 i IY 16 14 z. Zaffauk on cartography. . Introduction. . B I 433 343 Zalathna Smelting Works. -Metallurgy. ... F IY 213 478 Zeh’s grate. ... A III 134 148 Zeman on Avery's wool-spinner. ... B I 423 321 twilled goods.. ... B I 414 308 Zinc, &c., Metallurgy of, Report by H. Painter. .Metallurgy. . ... P IV and cadmium.;. ... B I 366 235 dcsilvcrization, Ems Smelting Works. ... F IV 155 367 Germania Smelting and Refining Works_ .do. ... F IV 4 10 Uerbst & Co. ... F IV 144 336 Jarnowitz. ... F IV 131) 326 Lautenthal, Pattinson's process. ... F IV 118 275 Mccheruicher Smelting Works. .do. ... F IV 153 359 metallic production at Friebcrg. ... F IV 57 135 Minin <4 Compnuics do la Viello. ... F IV 1 !) 46 Stolberg Stock Company. .do. ... F IV 148 347 Stvria. ... F IV 172 411 vitriol manufacture, Julii^ Biitto .... .do. ... F IV 131 310 Zinc-blonde for sulphuric acid. ... A II 5 o Zinner and others on shovels. .... B I 436 348 Zins-houso. ... A IV G 5 Zurich school of forestry. .... D I 09 148 Zwinner on pumps . ... B I 423 320 REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS TO VIENNA INDEXED BY AUTHORS’ NAMES. Volume. Blake, Wm. PIiipps, Mining Engineer, Member of tbe International Jury. Metallurgy of iron and steel. E IV Bridges, Lyman, Member of tbe Artisan Commission of the United States. Buildings of the Exhibition and railroad structures . Aa IV Brooks, David, Esq., Honorary Commissioner of the United States. Telegraphs and apparatus. J II Brown, Arthur IT., Esq., Honorary Commissioner of the United States. Governmental printing institutions. P II Carpenter, Charles F., M. D., Honorary Commissioner of the United States. Instruments of precision for keeping time, etc. G II Collier, Peter, Ph. D., Member of the Scientific Commission of tbe United States, Member of the International Jury. Commercial fertilizers. C II Cutts, Richard D., U. S. Coast Survey, Honorary Commissioner of tbe United States. Instruments of precision... II II Davis, Charles, C. E., Member ofthe Artisan Commissionof theUnited States. Hydraulic engineering. D III Derby, Nelson L., B. A., Honorary Commissioner of the United States. Architecture and materials of construction.. B IV Dodge, J. E., Statistician to the United States Department of Agriculture. Sheep and wool. E I Doremus, Charles A., Ph. D., Assistant to the Chair of Chemistry and Toxi¬ cology, Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York City. Photography and recent improvements in photography. D II Fairfield, George A., Esq. Sewing-machines.-. B III Gallaudet, Edward M., Esq. Deaf-mute instruction. M II Governmental patronage of art. N II Garretson, II., Esq., Chief Executive Commissioner. Report of the Chief Executive Commissioner..... C I Gibbs, Wolcott, M. D., Rumford Professor in Harvard University, Member of the Scientific Commission of the United States. Physical apparatus and chemical materials. F II Hinton, Louis J., Esq., Member ofthe Artisan Commission ofthe United States, Member of the International Jury. The working of stone ; Artificial stones. D IV Horsford, ProfessorE. N., Member of the Scientific Commission ofthe United States, Member of the International Jury. Vienna bread. B II 84 VIENNA INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1873. Volume. Hoyt, John \V., A. M., Honorary Commissioner of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Education .. L II Limes, Robert B., Esq., Member of the Artisan Commission of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Telegraphs and telegraphic administration . I II Lowe, N. M., Esq., Member of the Artisan Commission of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Wood industries. C IV Niep.ns£e, John R., F. A. I. A., Member of the Artisan Commission of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Private dwellings in Vienna . A IV Painter, Howard, Honorary Commissioner of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Metallurgy of lead, silver, copper, and zinc . F IV Rcppaner, Dr. Anthony, A. M., M. D., Assistant Commissioner of the United States. Medicine and surgery... E II Seguin, Edward, M. D. Education. K II Silcox, George \V. f Esq., Honorary Commissioner of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Tiny ART OF printing and manufactures of paper. O II Smith, J. Lawrence, M. I)., Member of the Scientific Commission of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Chemicals and chemical industry . A II Thurston, Robert II., A. M., C. E., Editor of the Reports, Member of the Scientific Commission of the United States, Member of tho Interna¬ tional Jury. Introduction to the reports of the United States Commissioners to Vienna. I Machinery and manufactures .,. A III Warder, John A., M. I)., Member of tho Scientific Commission of the United States, Member of the International Jury. Forests and forestry. D I Watson, William, Ph. D., Honorary Commissioner of the United States. Civil engineering; Public works; Architecture. C III REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS INDEXED BY TITLES. Y o] ume. Apparatus, Physical, and chemical materials, suitable for scientific research. Wolcott Gibbs. F II Architecture and materials of construction. N. L. Derby. B IV private dwellings in Vienna. J. E. Niernsee. A IV CIVIL ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC WORKS. WM. WATSON . C III Art, Governmental patronage of. E. M. Gallaudet. P II Bread, Vienna. E. N. Horsford. B II Buildings of the Exhibition and railroad structures. Lyman Bridges . Aa IV Chemicals and chemical industry. J. L. Smith. A II PHYSICAL APPARATUS. WOLCOTT GlBBS. F II Civil engineering : Public works ; Architecture. Wm. Watson. C III Commercial fertilizers. P. Collier. C II Dwellings, Construction and embellishment of. ,J. I’. Niernsee. A IV Deaf-mute instruction. E. M. Gallaudet. M II Education. J. W. Hoyt. L II Education. E. Seguin. .- K II Engineering, civil. Wm. Watson. C III HYDRAULIC. C. DAVIS. D III mechanical. E. PI. Thurston. A III Fertilizers, Commercial. P. Collier. C II Forests and forestry. J. A. Warder. D I Hydraulic engineering. C. Davis. D III Instruments of precision. C. F. Carpenter. G II Instruments of precision. E. D. Cutts. H II Introduction to the reports. E. H. Thurston. A I Machinery and manufactures. E. H. Thurston. A III Medicine and surgery. A. Euppaner. E II Metallurgy' of iron and steel. W. P. Blake. E IV Metallurgy of lead, silver, copper, and zinc. H. Painter. F IV Photography'and improvements in photography'. C. A. Doremus. D II Physical apparatus and chemical materials. W. Gibbs. F II Printing institutions in Europe. A. II. Brown. P II Printing and manufactures of paper. G. W. Silcox. O II Eailroad structures and buildings of the Exhibition. Ly'man Bridges . Aa IV Eeport of the Chief Executive Commissioner. H. Garretson. C I Sewing-machines. G. A. Fairfield. B III Stone-working and artificial stones. L. J. Hinton. D IV Telegraphs and apparatus. D. Brooks. J II Telegraphs and telegraphic administration. R. B. Lines. I II Vienna bread. E. N. Horsford. B II Wood industries. N. M. Lowe. C IV V GETTY CENTER LIBRARY