Ck. 
 
 ^ A rvv.*^ ‘^^jT 
 
 4 'j, 
 
 \) e,*, .4^ ^ 4 .-. ; 4' 
 
 d/,^, . , 2 "^'”^^'^'’' 
 
 V-VA 
 
 / 
 
 ^ y / - 
 
 ^ t^U-s / /4 o k) « /« 2 i 
 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2017 with funding from 
 Getty Research Institute 
 
 https://archive.org/details/artofdrawinginpeOOunse 
 
THE 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 IN 
 
 WHEREIN 
 
 THE DOCTRINE OF PERSPECTIVE IS CLEARLY AND 
 CONCISELY TREATED OF 
 
 UPON GEOMETRICAL PRINCIPLES : 
 
 AND 
 
 A MECHANICAL METHOD OF 
 
 PERSPECTIVE AND DESIGNING, 
 
 Invented for the Benefit of those who are Strangers to Mathematics. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH A VARIETY OF EXAMPLES ON THREE COPPER- 
 PLATES. 
 
 f 
 
 THE TENTH EDITION, 
 
 WITH CONSIDERABLE IMPROVEMENTS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Designed as a Companion to the Artisf s Assistant.— The Art of Paint- 
 ing in Water-Colours. — The Art of Drawing without a Master. 
 
 The Art of Painting in Miniature. — The Art of Painting 
 in Oil, and the Painter's Companion, or Treatise 
 on Colours, lately Published. 
 
 Uonaon : 
 
 PRINTED FOR R. H. LAURIE, 
 
 MAPf CHART, AND PRINT, SELLER, 
 
 NO. 53 , FLEET STREET. 
 
 1825. 
 
Printed by J. Rider, Little Britain, London. 
 
 
 GEITY CENTEH LibithKi 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 The Principles, ^c, of Perspective. 
 
 Page 
 
 Of Perspective in General : *5 
 
 Definitions in Perspective 6 
 
 General Kules, or Laws, in regard to Perspective 9 
 
 Of Designing 12 
 
 The Foundation, Method, &c. of Perspective . . 18 
 Of the general Practice of Perspective, as it re- 
 gards Drawing 26 
 
 A Mechanical Method of Perspective 30 
 
 To put a Street in Perspective 33 
 
 To find the Perspective of a Double Cross .... 33 
 Representation of a Bureau with the Flap open . 34 
 
 Three Specimens of Perspective at the End. 
 
fH£ GETTY C£ra ' 
 UBtMRV 
 
 '• if 
 
THE 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 IN 
 
 PERSPECTIVE, S^c. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES, Sfc. OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 O/* Perspective in general. 
 
 Perspective is the art of delineating objects on a 
 plain surface, such as they would appear at a certain 
 distance and height, upon a transparent plane, placed 
 perpendicular to the horizon between the objects and 
 the eye. 
 
 Hence this# art is absolutely necessary for such as 
 would properly understand that of drawing; and is 
 of great consequence in the arts, of engraving, etching, 
 carving, and painting; yet perspective of itself cannot 
 be called an exclusive rule in these arts ; but is to be 
 used with judgement and discretion ; for, being wellun- 
 A 3 derstood, 
 
6 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 derstood, if it be applied too rigidly, the practitioner 
 may, fndeed, effect such things as are strictly within 
 the rules of art, yet the work will not always have 
 that agreeable effect, that apparent excellence and 
 simplicity, which a less rigorous observance of 
 the rules might produce : therefore the young 
 artist is to adhere to the precepts of perspective no 
 farther than 'as they lead to the perfection of 
 his work or design ; judgement and taste being 
 his other guides. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 Definitions in Perspective. 
 
 1. The horizontal line is that line which is supposed 
 to be drawn parallel to the horizon through the eye of 
 the spectator ; or rather, it is a line which separates 
 the heaven from the earth, and which limits the sight. 
 Thus A, B, see the plate fig. 1,* are two pillars 
 below the horizontal line C, D, by reason the eye 
 is elevated above them; in fig. 2, they are said to 
 be equal with it ; and, in fig. 3, raised above it Thus, 
 
 ♦ At the end of this book. 
 
 according 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 7 
 
 according to the different points of view, the objects 
 will be either higher or lower than the horizontal 
 line. 
 
 2. The point of sight. A, fig. 4, is that which 
 makes the centrical ray on the horizontal line a, h; 
 or it is the point where all the other visual rays, D, 
 D, unite. 
 
 3. The points of distance, C, C, fig. 4, are points 
 set off in the horizontal line at equal distances on 
 each side of the point of sight A. 
 
 4. And, in the same figure, B B represents the 
 base, or fundamental line. 
 
 5. E E is the abridgment of the square^ of which 
 D D are the sides. 
 
 6. F F, the diagonal lines which go to the points 
 of distance C C. 
 
 7. Accidental points are those where the objects 
 end : these may be cast negligently, because neither 
 drawn to the point of sight, nor to those of distance, 
 but meeting each other on the horizontal line. For 
 example, two pieces of square timber G and H, fig. 
 5, make the points I, I, I, I, on the horizontal 
 line ; but go not to the point of sight K, nor to the 
 points of distance C C ; these accidental points serve 
 likewise for casements, doors, windows, tables, 
 chairs, &c. 
 
 8. The point of direct view, or of the front, is 
 when we have the object directly before us; in which 
 case it shews only the fore-side; and if below the 
 
 horizon; 
 
8 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 horizon, a little of the top ; but nothing of the sides, 
 unless the object be polygonous. 
 
 9. The point of oblique view, is when we see an 
 object aside of us, and as it wxre aslant, or with the 
 corner of the eye; the eye, however, being all the 
 while opposite to the point of sight; in which case, 
 we see the object laterally, and it presents toT us two 
 sides or faces. The practice is the same in the side 
 points, as in the front points ; a point of sight, points 
 of distance,* &c. being laid down in the one as well 
 as the other. 
 
 10. Ichnography is the figure of the platform in 
 perspective, or the plan any thing is to be raised 
 upon. 
 
 11. Orthography, in perspective, is the figure of 
 the front or fore-side of ah object, as a house, &c. 
 or it is the figure of such an object directly opposite 
 to the eye. As the ichnography represents the plan, 
 the orthography represents the side opposite to the 
 eye. 
 
 12. Scenography is what exhibits the object quite 
 perfect, with all its diminutions and shadows, front, 
 sides, height, and all raised on the geometrical 
 plan. 
 
 CHAPT 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 9 
 
 CHAPTER. III. 
 
 General Rules, or Laws, in regard to Per^ 
 spective. 
 
 Let every line which is the object or geometrical 
 figure, if straight, perpendicular, or parallel to its 
 base, be so also in its scenographic delineation, or 
 in the description thereof, in all its dimensions, such 
 as it appears to the eye ; and let the lines, which in- 
 the object return at right angles from the fore-right 
 side, be drawn in like manner scenographically 
 from the point of sight. 
 
 Let all straight lines, which in the object return 
 from the fore-right side, run in a scenographic 
 figure into the horizontal line. 
 
 Let the object you intend to delineate, standing 
 on your right hand, be placed also on the right hand 
 of the point of sight; and that on the left hand, on 
 that hand of the same point ; as also that which is 
 just before, in the middle of it. 
 
 Let 
 
10 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 Let those lines which, in the object, are equi- 
 distant from the returning line, be drawn, in the 
 scenographic figure, from that point found in the 
 horizon. 
 
 In setting off the altitude of columns, pedestals, 
 and the like, measure the height from the base- 
 line upward in the front or fore- right side; and a 
 visual ray down that point in the front, shall limit 
 the altitude of the column, or pillar, all the way 
 behind the front side, or orthographic appearance 
 even to the point of sight. This rule must be ob- 
 served in all figures, as well where there is a front 
 or fore-right side, as where there is none. 
 
 In delineating ovals, circles, arches, crosses, spi- 
 rals, and cross-arches, or any other figure in the 
 roof of any room, first drawn ichnographically, and 
 so, with perpendiculars from the most eminent points 
 thereof, carry it up to the ceiling, from which several 
 points carry on the figure. 
 
 The centre, in any scenographic regular figure, 
 is found by drawing cross-lines from the opposite 
 angles, for the points where the diagonals cross is 
 the centre. 
 
 A ground-plane of squares is alike, both above 
 and below the horizontal line, only the more it is 
 distant either above or beneath the horizon, the 
 squares will be so much the larger or wider. ■ 
 
 In drawing a perspective figure, where many lines 
 
 come 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 11 
 
 come together, you may, for the directing of your 
 eye, draw the diagonals in red, the visual lines in 
 black, the perpendicular in green, or other different 
 colour from that which you intend the figure should 
 be of. 
 
 Having considered the height, distance, and posi- 
 tion, of the figure, and drawn it accordingly, with 
 side or angle against the base, raise perpendiculars 
 from the several angles or designed points from the 
 figure to the base, and transfer the length of each 
 perpendicular from the place where it touches the 
 base to the base on the side opposite to the point of 
 distance, so will the diametrals, drawn to the perpen- 
 diculars in the base, by intersection with the diagonals, 
 drawn to the several transferred distances, give the 
 angles of the figures ; and thus will lines, drawn from 
 one point to another, circumscribe the scenographic 
 figure. 
 
 If in a landscape there be any standing waters, 
 as rivers, ponds, and the like, place the horizontal 
 line level with the farthest sight or appearance of 
 it. 
 
 If there he any houses or the like in the picture, 
 consider their position, that you may find from what 
 point in the horizontal lines to draw the front and' 
 sides thereof. 
 
 In describing things at a great distance, observe 
 the proportion, both in magnitude and distance^ in 
 
 the 
 
12 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 the draught, which appears from the object to the 
 eye. 
 
 In colouring and shadowing every thing, you must 
 represent the same in your picture that you observe 
 with your eye, especially in objects lying near; but 
 according as the distance increases, so the colours 
 must be fainter, till at last they lose themselves 
 in a darkish sky- colour. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Of Designing, 
 
 The design is the first idea of a large work drawn 
 roughly and smalls with an intention to be executed 
 and finished at large ; and this design, according to 
 the rules of mathematicians, makes the object of 
 perspective. 
 
 The art of drawing or painting has been, by some 
 of the greatest masters, divided into the design or 
 draught, the proportion, the expression, the claro 
 obscuro, the ordonnance, the colouring, and the 
 perspective. 
 
 The 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 IS 
 
 The design is the simple contour, or outlines, of 
 the hgures intended to be represented, or the lines 
 that terminate and circumscribe them ; such design 
 is sometimes drawn in crayons, or ink, without any 
 shadows at all ; sometimes it is hatched, that is, 
 the shadows are expressed by sensible outlines, 
 usually drawn across each other with the pen, cray- 
 on, or graver. Sometimes, again, the shadows 
 are done with' the crayon, rubbed so as that 
 there do not appear any lines ; at other times 
 the grains or strokes of the crayons appear as 
 not being rubbed : sometimes the design is wash- 
 ed, that is, the shadows are done with a hair- 
 pencil in Indian ink, or some other liquor: and 
 sometimes the design is coloured, that is, co- 
 lours are laid on much like those intended for the 
 grand work. 
 
 The essential requisites of a design are correct- 
 ness, taste, elegance, character, expression, and 
 perspective. Correctness depends on the justness 
 of the proportions, and knowledge of anatomy. 
 Taste is a Certain manner of correctness peculiar to 
 one^s self; derived either from nature, masters, or 
 studies, or all of them united. Elegance gives a 
 delicacy that not only strikes persons of judgment, 
 but communicates an agreeableness that pleases 
 universally. The character is what is peculiar to 
 each thing, wherein there must be diversity, inso- 
 much that every thing has its peculiar character 
 B to 
 
u 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 to distinguish it. The expression is the repre- 
 sentation of the parts of a painting or a figure, ac- 
 cording to the situation they are in with regard to 
 the point of sight. 
 
 The design or draught is a part of the greatest 
 import and extent in drawing. It is acquired 
 chiefly by genius and application, rules being of 
 less avail here than in any other branch of the art, 
 as colouring &c. The principal rules that regard 
 design are, that novices accustom themselves to 
 copy good originals at first sight ; not to use 
 squares in drawing, lest they stint and confine their 
 judgment; to design well from life before they 
 practise perspective; to learn to adjust the size of 
 their figures to the visual angle, and the distance 
 of the eye from the model or object; to mark out 
 all the parts of their design before they begin to 
 shade; to make, their contours in great pieces, 
 without taking notice of the little muscles and 
 other breaks; to make themselves masters of the 
 rules of perspective : To observe the perpendicu- 
 lar, parallel, and distance, of every stroke; to com- 
 pare and oppose the parts that meet and traverse 
 the perpendicular, so as to form a kind of square 
 in the mind, which is the great, and almost the 
 only, rule of designing justly ; To have a regard 
 not only to the model, but to the part already de- 
 signed, there being no such thing as designing 
 with strict justness, but by comparing and pro- 
 portioning 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 15 
 
 portioning every part to the first. All other rules 
 relate immediately to perspective. 
 
 There are several methods invented of designing 
 mechanically. The following is the method of the 
 learned Sir Christopher Wren^ and may be put in 
 practise with great ease. A, fig. 6, is a small sight 
 with a short arm B, which may be turned round 
 about and moved up and down the small cylinder 
 C D, which is screwed into the piece ED, at D ^ 
 this piece E D moving round about the centre E, 
 by which means the sight may be removed either 
 towards E or F. E F is a ruler fastened on the 
 two rulers G G, which rulers serve both to keep 
 the square frame S S S S perpendicular, and by 
 their sliding through the square holes T, T, they 
 serve' to stay the sight either farther from, or nearer 
 to, the said frame ; on which frame is stuck on, 
 with a little wax, the paper O O O O, whereon 
 the picture is to be drawn by the pen I. The pen I 
 is, by a small brass handle V, so fixed to the ruler 
 H H, that the point I may be kept very firm, so as 
 always to touch the paper. H H is a ruler that is 
 constantly, by means of the small strings aaa, bbb, 
 moved horizontally or parallel to itself ; at the end 
 of which is stuck a small pin, whose head P is the 
 sight which is to be moved up and down on the 
 outlines of any object. 
 
 The contrivance of the strings is this: The two 
 strings aaa,bbb, are exactly of an equal length; 
 
 two 
 
16 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 two ends of them are fastened into a small leaden 
 weight, which is employed in a socket on the back 
 side of the frame, and serves exactly to counter- 
 poise the ruler H H, being of an equal weight with 
 it. The other two ends of them are fastened to 
 two small pins H H, after they have rolled about 
 the small pullies M M, L L, K K, by means of 
 which pullies, if the pen I be taken hold of, and 
 moved up and down the paper, the string moving 
 very easily, the ruler will always remain in an 
 horizontal position. 
 
 The manner of using jt is thus : Set the instru- 
 ment upon a table, and fix the sight A at what 
 height above the table, and at what distance from 
 the frame S S S S, you please. Then looking 
 through the sight A, holding the pen I in your 
 hand, move the head of the pin P, up and down 
 the outlines of the object, and the point of the pen 
 I, will describe on the paper O O O O, the shape 
 of the object so traced. 
 
 Another mechanical method of designing much 
 practised is, by means of the camera-obscura; 
 being a machine that represents an artificial eye, 
 wherein the images of external objects are exhi- 
 bited distinctly in their native colours, either in- 
 vertedly or erect. The camera-obscura, or dark- 
 ened room, is made after two different methods : 
 one, the camera-obscura, properly so called; that 
 is, any large room made as dark as possible, so as 
 
 to 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 17 
 
 to exclude all light but that which is to pass through 
 the hole and lens in a hall fixed in the window of 
 the said room. 
 
 The other is made in various forms, as that of 
 a hox, whose sides fold out, &c. for the conve- 
 niency of carrying it from place to place. 
 
 For the construction of a camera-obscura. — 1. 
 Darken the room E F, fig. 7, leaving only one 
 little aperture open in the window at V, on the 
 side I K, facing the prospect A B C D. 2. In this 
 aperture fit a lens, either plane, convex, or convex 
 on both .sides. 3. At a due distance, to be deter- 
 mined by experience, spread a paper or white cloth, 
 unless there he a white wall for the purpose : Then 
 on this, G 'H, the desired objects A B C D will 
 be delineated invertedly. 4. If you would have 
 them appear erect, place a concave lens between 
 the centre and the focus of the first lens, or 
 receive the image on a plane speculum inclined 
 to the horizon under an angle of 45®, or by 
 the means of two lenses included in a draw- 
 tube instead of one. If the aperture does not 
 exceed the size of a pea, the objects will be re- 
 presented without any lens at all. And thus 
 the objects may be drawn or copied to the greatest 
 degree of accuracy. 
 
 For a farther explanation upon this head, as 
 also for several other mechanical methods of taking 
 draughts, &c. we refer the reader to The Artist's 
 B 3 Assistant 
 
18 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 Assistant — The Art of Drawing and Painting in 
 Water-Colours, and The Art of Drawing without a 
 Master, published by the Proprietor of this work, 
 in Fleet Street, London. 
 
 N.B, The Art of Painting in Oil, and The Art 
 of Painting in Miniature and Wax^Crayons; also 
 Gilding on Glass, are new works, published as 
 above, since the first edition of this pamphlet. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Foundation, Method, ^c, of Perspective, 
 
 Perspective is either employed in representing 
 the ichnographies, or ground-plot of objects, or 
 the scenographies, or representation of the objects 
 themselves. 
 
 The foundation of perspective may be thus con- 
 ceived : Suppose the pentagon A B D E F, fig. 8, 
 were to be represented by the rules of perspective 
 on the transparent plane V P, placed perpendicu- 
 larly on the horizontal plane H R, dotted lines are 
 imagined to pass from the eye C to each point 
 on the pentagon, C A, C B, C D, &c. which are 
 supposed in the passage through the plane P V, 
 
 to 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE, 
 
 19 
 
 to leave their traces or vestiges in the points 
 a, Iff d, &c. on the plane, and thereby to delineate 
 the pentagon ahdef; which, as it strikes tlie eye 
 by the same rays that the original pentagon A 
 B D E F does, will be a true perspective represen- 
 tation of it. 
 
 The business of perspective, therefore is, to lay 
 down geometrical rules for finding the points a, 
 bf d, c, f, upon the plane. 
 
 By the following examples it will appear, that 
 the whole practice of perspective is built upon the 
 foundation already laid down. 
 
 Thus, to find the perspective appearance of a 
 triangle ABC, fig. 9, between the eye and the 
 triangle, draw the line D E, which is called the base 
 or the fundamental line; from 2 draw 2 V, repre» 
 senling the perpendicular distance ,of the eye above 
 the fundamental line, be it what it may; and through 
 V draw, at right angles to 2 V, H K parallel to D 
 E : Then will the plane D H K E represent the 
 transparent plane, on which the perspective repre- 
 sentation is to be made. Next, to find the perspec- 
 tive points of the angles at the triangle, let fall 
 perpendiculars, A 1, C 2, B 3, from the angles, 
 to the base D E ; set oflf these perpendiculars upon 
 the base, opposite to the point of distance K, to 
 B, A, C. From 1, 2, 3, draw lines to the prin- 
 cipal point V ; and from the points A, B, and C, 
 in the fundamental line, draw the riglit lines A K, 
 
 BK, 
 
20 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 B K, C K, to the point of distance K; which is 
 so called because the spectator ought to be so far 
 removed from the figure or painting, as it is dis- 
 tant from the principal point V. The points a, by 
 and c, where the visual lines V 1, V 2, V 3, in- 
 tersect the lines of distance A K, B K, C K, will 
 be angular points of the triangle a be, the true re- 
 presentation of A B C. 
 
 By proceeding in this manner with the angular 
 points of any right-lined figure, whether regular 
 or irregular, it will be very easy to represent it in 
 perspective : However, in practice, several com- 
 pendious methods will occur to every artist. 
 
 Again, if the scenographic appearance of any 
 solid were to be represented ; suppose of a trian- 
 gular prism, whose base is the triangle mnOf fig. 
 10, you need only find the upper surface of it, in 
 the same manner as you found the lower, or base ; 
 and then, joining the corresponding points by right 
 lines, you will have the true representation of the 
 solid in perspective. So that the work is the same 
 as before; only you take a new fundamental line, 
 as much higher than the former as is the altitude 
 of that solid whose scenographic representation you 
 would delineate. 
 
 But there is still a more commodious way, which 
 is this : — Having found, as above, the base or ich- 
 nographic plane mno, let perpendiculars be erect- 
 ed to the fundamental line from the three angular 
 
 points 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 21 
 
 points which will express the altitudes of those 
 points. But because these altitudes, though equal 
 in the body or solid itself, will appear unequal in 
 the scenographic view, the farthest off appearing 
 less than those nearer the eye, their true propor- 
 tional heights may be thus determined. Any where 
 in the fundamental line, let A B be erected per- 
 pendicularly, and equal to the true altitude ; or, if 
 the figure has different altitudes, let them be trans- 
 ferred into the perpendicular A B; and from the 
 points A and B, and from all the points of inter- 
 mediate altitudes, if there be any such, draw right 
 lines to the point of sight V : Those lines A V, B V, 
 will constitute a triangle with A B, within which all 
 the points of altitude will be contained. Through 
 the points onm, draw parallels to the fundamen- 
 tal line ; and from the points a a ay &c. erect per- 
 pendiculars to those parallels ; and the points 
 where they intersect the lines A V, B V, as 
 in a ay h by «^c. will determine the apparent height 
 of the solid in that scenographic position to the 
 eye in V. 
 
 In practice, these parallels and perpendiculars are 
 easily drawn by means of a good drawing-board, or 
 table fitted for the purpose. 
 
 To exhibit the Perspective of a Pavement con- 
 sisting of square stones viewed directly. Divide 
 the side A B, fig; 11, transferred to the fundamental 
 line D E, into as many equal pl^rts as there are 
 
 square 
 
22 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 square stones in one row. From the several points 
 of division draw right lines to the principal point 
 V, and from A to the point of distance K, draw 
 a right line A K, and from B to the other point 
 of distance L, draw another line L B. Through 
 the points of the intersections of the correspond- 
 ing lines, draw right lines on each side, to bo 
 produced to the right lines A V and B V. Then 
 will A/^ B be the appearance of the pavement 
 AFGB. 
 
 To exhibit the perspective appearance of a square 
 A B D C, fig. 12, seeing obliquely, and having one 
 of its sides A B in the fundamental line. The 
 square being viewed obliquely, assume the principal 
 point V, in the horizontal line H B, in such a man- 
 ner as that a perpendicular to the fundamental line 
 may fall without the side of the square A B, at least 
 may not bisect it : and make V K the distance of 
 the eye. Transfer the perpendiculars A C and 
 B D to the fundamental line D E ; and draw the 
 right lines KB, K D ; as also A Y and V C : Then 
 will A and B be their own appearances : and c 
 and d the appearances of the points C and D. Con- 
 sequently, A c d B is the appearance of the square 
 A B D C. 
 
 If the square A C B D be at a distance from the 
 fundamental line D E, which yet rarely happens 
 in practice, the distances of the angles A and B 
 must likewise transferred to the fundamental 
 
 line^ 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. ^3 
 
 line, and even the oblique view itself is not very 
 common. 
 
 The reason why objects appear the smaller 
 as they are at the greatest distance is, that they 
 appear according to the angle of the eye where- 
 in they are seen ; and this angle is taken at 
 the eye, where the lines terminating the object 
 meet. 
 
 The eye A, fig. 13, for instance, viewing the ob- 
 ject B C, will draw the rays A B and A C, which 
 give the angle B A C ; so that an object viewed un- 
 der a great angle will appear large, and another 
 under a less angle smaller: For, among equal ob- 
 jects, those at the greatest distance appear small- 
 est; and, consequently, in all perspective that the 
 remotest objects must be made the smallest, will 
 be manifest from the figure ; the objects B C, D E, 
 FfG, H I, and K L, being all equal, but at. differ- 
 ent distances from the eye, it is evident that the an- 
 gle D A E is less than the^ angle B A C, that FAG 
 is less than DAE, that HAT is ''less than FAG, 
 and that K A L is less than H A I, Hence the 
 second, third, fourth, and fifth, objects will ap- 
 pear smaller and smaller, though really all equal, 
 inasmuch as the angles diminish in proportion as the 
 objects recede. 
 
 If the eye, on the other hand, were removed to 
 M, K L would appear the largest, and B C no 
 bigger than NO. ' 
 
 Hence 
 
24 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 Hence it follows, that, as objects appear according 
 to the angle they are seen under, if several lines be 
 drawn betweeit^the sides of the same triangle, they 
 will appear equal : Thus all the lines comprised 
 between the sides O N and OP, fig. 14, of the 
 triangle NOP, will appear equal to each other : 
 and, as objects comprehended under the same an- 
 gle seem equal, so all comprehended under a greater 
 angle must seem greater, and all under a smaller 
 angle, less. 
 
 Thus much being premised, if there be a num- 
 ber of columns or pilasters to be ranged in per* 
 spective on each side of a hall, church, or the like, 
 they must of necessity all range under the same 
 angle, and all tend to one common point in the ho- 
 rizon O, fig. 15. For instance, if from the points 
 D E, the eye being placed at A, and viewing the 
 first object D E, you draw the visual rays D O and 
 E O, they will make the triangle DOE, which 
 will include the columns D E, EG, H I, K L, 
 M N, so as they will all appear equal. 
 
 What has been said of the sides is likewise to be 
 understood of the ceilings and pavements; the di- 
 minution of the angles of remote objects, placed 
 either above or below, following the same rule as 
 those placed laterally. Trees, being ranged by the 
 same law, have the same effect as the columns, &c«. 
 for being all Comprehended in the same angle, and 
 the two rays having each its own angle, and all the 
 
 angles 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 ' 25 
 
 angles meeting in a point, they form a third, which 
 is the earth, and a fourth, which may he supposed 
 the air, and thus afford an elegant prospect. 
 
 To exhibit the perspective of a circle, I. If the 
 circle be small, circumscribe a square about it: 
 Draw diagonals and diameters Aaandc/e, fig. 16, 
 intersecting each other at right angles; and draw 
 the right lines f g and b c parallel to the diameter 
 d e through b and f; as also through c and g draw 
 right lines meeting the fundamental line in the points 
 3 and 4. To the principal point V draw right lines 
 V 1, V 3, V 4, V 2, and to the points of distance 
 L and K, draw the right lines L 2 and Kl. Lastly* 
 connect the points of intersection a, 6, d,fy g, e, c, 
 with the arches a b, b d, df^ &c. Thus will a b df 
 h g cahe the appearance of the circle. 
 
 If the circle be large, on the middle of the fun- 
 damental A B, fig. 17, describe a semicircle, and 
 from the several points of the periphery C, F ; G, 
 H, I, ^c. to the fundamental line let fall perpen- 
 diculars, C 1, F 2, G 3, H 4, I 5, §*c. From the 
 points A, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, draw right lines to the 
 principal points V ; as also a right line from B to 
 the point of distance L, and another from a to the 
 point of distance K. Through the common inter, 
 sections draw right lines as in the preceding case : 
 Thus we shall have the points e, f, g, h, c, which 
 are the representations of these. A, C, F, G, H, I, 
 which, being connected as before, give the projec- 
 tion of the circle. 
 
 c 
 
 Hence 
 
26 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 Hence appears not only how any curvilinear 
 figure may be projected on a plane, but also how 
 any pavement, consisting of any kind of stones, may 
 be delineated in perspective. 
 
 CHAPTER VI, 
 
 Of the general Practice of Perspective as it re- 
 gards Drawing, 
 
 The practical part of perspective is only the ap- 
 plication of these rules to the actual description of 
 objects. But, as this part is purely mathematical, 
 its assistance towards drawing is only what can be 
 performed by rule and compass, and can therefore 
 strictly serve only for finding the images of points 
 of which they are composed; and, as they are in- 
 finite, it is endless to find them all by the strict 
 rules ; whence it becomes necessary, after a suffi- 
 cient number of them are found, to complete the 
 image by the help of drawing; to the better effect- 
 ing of which, these points serve as a guide. Thus, 
 when a circle is to be described, the practical rules 
 serve to find a sufficient number of points in the 
 circumference, which, being neatly joined by hand, 
 will perfect the image, so that, in strictness, nothing 
 in this image is found in mathematical rules, save 
 the few particular points; the rest owes its being to 
 the hand of the drawer. 
 
 Thus, 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 27 
 
 Thus, also, if auy complicated figure be propos- 
 ed, it may not be easy to apply the practical rules 
 to the description of every minute part ; but, by in- 
 closing that figure in a regular one, properly subdi- 
 vided, and reduced into perspective, that will serve 
 as a help, whereby a person skilled in drawing may, 
 with ease, describe the object proposed. Upon the 
 whole, where the boundaries of the proposed ob- 
 jects consist of straight lines and plain surfaces, they 
 may be described directly by the rules of perpec- 
 tive ; but when they are curvilinear, either in their 
 sides or surfaces, the practical rules can serve only 
 for the description of such right-lined cases as may 
 conveniently inclose the object, and which will en- 
 able the designer to draw them within those known 
 bounds with a suflScient degree of exactness. 
 
 It is, therefore, in vain to seek, by the practical 
 rules of perspective, to describe all the little hoi. 
 lows and prominences of objects; the different light 
 and shade of their parts ; or their smaller windings 
 and turnings ; the infinite variety of the folds in 
 drapery ; of the boughs and leaves of trees ; or the 
 features and limbs of men and animals ; much less 
 to give them that roundness and softness, that force 
 and spirit, that easiness and freedom of posture, 
 that expression and grace, which are requisite to a 
 good picture; For the rules designed to answer these 
 purposes, the reader is desired to consult The Art 
 of Drawing, already referred to. 
 
 Perspective, then, must content itself with its pe- 
 
 culiar 
 
28 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 ciiliar province of exhibiting a kind of rough-draught 
 to serve as a ground-work, and to ascertain the ge- 
 neral proportions and places of the objects, accord- 
 ing to their supposed situations, leaving the rest 
 to be hnished, beautified, and ornamented, by a hand 
 skilful in drawing. 
 
 The perspective principle is essential where it is 
 most wanted, and where a deviation from its rules 
 would be most observable, as in describing all re- 
 gular figures, pieces of architecture, and other ob- 
 jects of that sort, where the particular tendency of 
 the several lines is most remarkable : the rule and 
 compass, in such cases, being much more exact 
 than any description made by hand ; but still the 
 figure described by the perspective rules will need 
 many helps from drawing; the capitals and other 
 ornaments of pillars, and their entablatures, the 
 strength of light and shade, the apparent roundness 
 and protuberance of the several parts, must owe 
 their beauty and finishing to the designer’s hand ; 
 But, with regard to such objects as have no constant 
 and certain determinate shape or size, such as clouds, 
 hills, trees, rivers, uneven grounds, and the like, 
 there is a much larger latitude allowable, provided 
 the general bulk, or natural shape, of those objects 
 be in some measure observed, so as not to make 
 them appear unnatural or monstrous. 
 
 But, although the strict and practical rules of 
 perspective are in a great measure confined to the 
 description of right-lined figures, yet the knowledge 
 
 of 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 29 
 
 of the general laws of that science is of great and 
 necessary use to inform the judgment after what 
 manner the images of any proposed lines should run, 
 which way they should tend, and where terminate ; 
 and thereby enables it the better to determine what 
 appearance any objects ought to put on, according 
 to their different situations and distances; it accus- 
 toms the eye to judge with greater certainty of the 
 relations between real objects and their perspective 
 descriptions ; and the hand to draw the same accord- 
 ingly ; and directs the judgment readily to discover 
 any considerable error therein, which might other- 
 wise escape notice. Besides that, when the ground 
 or general plan, and the principal parts of a picture, 
 are first laid down according to the rules, every 
 thing else will more naturally fall in with them, and 
 every remarkable deviation from the just rules will 
 be the more readily perceived, and the easier avoids 
 ed or rectified ; so that although it may be infinitely 
 tedious, or absolutely impracticable, to describe every 
 minute part of a picture by the strict mechanical 
 rules, yet the employing them, where they can be 
 the most commodiously used, will give the picture 
 in general such a look, as will guide the artist in 
 drawing the other parts, without any obvious in- 
 consistency. 
 
 c3 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
30 
 
 ART OF DRAWIKG 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 A Mechanical Method of Perspective, 
 
 For the benefit of such as are unacquainted with 
 mathematics, we propose to lay down the follow- 
 ing directions, whereby they may lay any plan in 
 perspective, and raise pillars or buildings to due 
 heights, according to their proper distances. 
 
 Suppose, L L D B A, fig. 18, a square piece of 
 pavement, consisting of twenty-five pieces of mar- 
 ble, each a foot square: it must be measured ex- 
 actly, and laid regularly down upon paper ; and, for 
 the sake of a more distinct notion how every parti- 
 cular square will appear when you have a true per- 
 spective view of them, mark every other stone, or 
 marble, black ; or else number each of them, as in 
 the figure, which is divided into squares, every 
 other one of which may be made to appear black, 
 like the three at the bottom marked BCD; or 1 2 
 ' 3 4, answering to those which are marked in per- 
 spective with the same numbers. 
 
 Now, to lay your plan in perspective, fix your 
 point of sight as you observe in the figure ; or more 
 or less to the right or left, as you think proper: 
 Then draw the line K K parallel to, and at what 
 distance you will from L L j and raise aline on each 
 
 side 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 31 
 
 side from L to K, to form the figure yon see as a 
 frame to your picture; then draw a line from tlie 
 corner K, which is the point of distance to the oppo- 
 site corner L; and this line will regulate your work. 
 Thus far done, draw lines from the squares of your 
 plan to the point of sight, as exactly as possible ; and 
 wherever your line of distance cuts those lines, there 
 draw lines parallel to the line L L, which will give 
 you the squares in perspective, or the true figure of 
 every square; Thus D in the perspective plan an- 
 swers to D in the measured plan, and 12 3 and 4, an- 
 swers to their corresponding squares in the same plan. 
 
 Now it remains to direct you how to raise either 
 pillars, trees, houses, or any other bodies, accord- 
 ing to their respective heights at different distances 
 and proportions on the plan you have laid down. 
 
 Having your plan measured out in perspective 
 into squares of a foot, or any other measure, let one 
 of these squares, 1, 4, in fig. 19, serve for the base 
 of a pillar a foot thick. Mark the line L K, by the 
 scale of the ground plan, into equal proportions or 
 feet, a, 6, c, d ; which being so many feet high, and 
 standing on the base, are uprights, not in perspec- 
 tive. Then draw a line 4, 5, parallel to 1 c. Join 
 c and 5, and then you have the front of a body three 
 feet high and one foot wide, being that which you 
 was to raise. From 4 draw a line with a black-lead 
 pencil, to the point of sight, and from 3 raise a line 
 parallel to 4, 5, till it touches the penciled line pass- 
 ing from 5 to the point of sight, which will give you 
 
 the 
 
82 
 
 ART OF DRAWING 
 
 the side appearance of the column or body, as you 
 will see it from the place where you stand. 
 
 Then, with a pencil, from c draw a line to the 
 point of sight, which will determine the line 6, 7, 
 that bounds the perspective view of the column at 
 top. Afterwards from 2 raise a penciled line pa- 
 rallel to a c or L c, till it touches the line drawn 
 from c to the point of sight ; draw then 6, 7, paral- 
 lel to c 5, and you will have the square of the top 
 of the column, as observed from A, which is suppos- 
 ed to be the place where you stand. 
 
 It is to be observed, that the line drawn from 2 
 to 6 is only an imaginary line, and in consequence 
 is to be rubbed out ; because, not being seen from the 
 place where you stand, it must not appear in the 
 drawing. The same may be understood of the line 
 drawn from 1 to 2 ; but it is necessary that they ap- 
 pear in the draught, on account that they direct you 
 how to regulate the top of your column, and to place 
 it with certainty upon its base. 
 
 Lastly, finish your column with lines only, that 
 is from 1 to c, from 4 to 5, from 3 to 7, from c to 5, 
 from 6 to 7, and from 1 to 4, whereby you will have 
 the true representation of the column, as in fig 20. 
 
 When this is done, you may erect another co- 
 lumn on any one of the squares in the same manner, 
 observing to fling your shades all on one side ; and, 
 being able to master these few examples, which may 
 cost you very little trouble, you will be capable of 
 doing any thing in this way. 
 
 To 
 
IN PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 33 
 
 To put a Street in Perspective; see plate IL^^. 1. 
 
 A BARE sight of the figure may suffice to shew 
 the method, which is exceeding easy. 
 
 All you have to do is to make a plan of simple 
 squares the common way ; and to take one, or two, 
 or three, of the squares for the breadth or length of 
 each house, and in such breadths, &c. to set off the 
 measures of the doors and windows, and to get the 
 diminutions by drawing lines from the several mea- 
 sures to the point of distance ; as here from BCD 
 E and F. 
 
 The first angle of each house may serve for a line 
 of elevation, as the angle G in the first house. 
 
 If you require any cross streets, one, two, or 
 three, squares, according to the width of the street, 
 are to be left vacant, and nothing upon them, as 
 described at H I. 
 
 Fig. II. This figure is to show that, where houses 
 are to be made to advance or fall back, you have 
 only to place their elevation forwarder or backward- 
 er on the plan of their squares. 
 
 Thus L advances a square further than K, and M 
 further than L, and so of the rest. 
 
 To find the Perspective of a double Cross, 
 
 Let L H, fig. 1 plate 3, be the horizontal line, A 
 D the ground line, L the centre, H the point of dis- 
 tance, A B C D the extent of the cross-bar, B C 
 
 its 
 
34 ART OF DRAWING IN PERSPECTIVE, 
 
 its thickness; draw A L, B L, C L, D L, and from 
 A draw A H, gives the point 6, c, E ; through these 
 points draw lines parallel to A D, for a g on A L, 
 and c? on D L ; on the point B set the perpendicular 
 B G ; with the height of the parts required ; then 
 on the points h, c, e, in the plan of the upright 
 post, raise perpendiculars at pleasure, and through 
 the points on B G, draw G L, K L, I L, cutting 
 bo Q.iqr; draw through the point r a line parallel to 
 the ground line, cross the perpendicular lines c 6, as 
 m, r, s, #, and another parallel to it through 5^, I K ; 
 K n is the end of one of the cross-hars, draw K L 
 and I L : Perpendicular on a, g, E, will determine 
 the points m, &c. where the line I Q intersects 
 /, /), draw a line parallel io m t; from t m draw lines 
 from the point L ; a perpendicular on g^ will finish 
 the side ra L. 
 
 The Representation of a Bureau with the Flap 
 open* 
 
 A i ^ is the circle described by the flap opening, 
 P L the horizontal line, L the centre, O O X the 
 vanishing line of the plane B A O O two points 
 to draw the circle by ; X the point of distance on 
 O L X, A K M N, the flap, A N the joint it turns 
 on. See fig. 2. 
 
 FINIS. 
 
 Fricted by J, Rider, Little Britain, London. 
 

.eiatB 3. 
 

X 
 
 TuhfisTird Sept.i^jSs,^. by S3 Jleet Street, Zcmdan. 
 
i ''V 
 

 ,4 0^-7 
 
 THE GETTY CENTER 
 LIBRARY 
 
 G?oow^ (jj \\\\ : 
 
 '(i 4- 9 9-4' 
 
 4 9i^g 
 3-4 '<b 6<=>^^ 
 
 '/S 5 o n 
 
 THE GETTY CENTER 
 LIBRARY