THE ART OF 
 
 DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
THE ART OF 
 
 DECORATIYE DESIGN, 
 
 WITH 
 
 AH APPENDIX, GIVING THE HOURS OP THE DAT AT WHICH FLOWEBS OPEN (THB FLORAL CLOCK) ; THE 
 CHABACTEBISTIC FLOWEBS OF THE MONTHS (BOTH INDIGENOUS AND CULTIVATED), OF ALL 
 COUNTRIES, AND OF THE DIVERSIFIED SOILS. 
 
 BY 
 
 C. DRESSER, 
 
 PH.D., F.L.S., F.E.B.S. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF ORNAMENTAL ART AND BOTANY IN THE CRYSTAL PALACE, SYDENHAM ; OF BOTANY APPLIED TO THE FINE 
 ARTS IN THE DEPARTMENT OF 8C1ENCE AND ART, SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM; AND OF SCIENTIFIC BOTANY 
 IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, AND THE LONDON AND ST. MARY’S MEDICAL COLLEGES. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 DAY AND SON, LITHOGRAPHERS TO THE QUEEN, 
 
 GATE STREET, LINCOLN’S INN FIELDS. 
 
 1862 . 
 

The Author desires to acknowledge the services of 
 the following ladies and gentlemen in the prepa¬ 
 ration of this work, and to tender them his best 
 thanks:— 
 
 Mr. W. R. Tymms, 
 
 for the excellent manner in which he has trans¬ 
 ferred to stone the sketches of the Author; 
 
 Mr. Armytage, 
 
 of Albion Villas, Barnsbury, N.; 
 
 Miss Sawkins, 
 
 Miss Edwards, 
 
 Miss July an, 
 
 Miss Stock, 
 
 Miss McGregor, 
 
 Miss E. Collins, 
 
 these ladies being the most talented students of the 
 Schools of Art at Queen-square, Bloomsbury, and 
 the South Kensington Museum, for most valuable 
 assistance in the preparation of the drawings on 
 wood; and 
 
 Mr. John Allen, 
 
 a private student of the Author’s, for the prepa¬ 
 ration of the greater portion of the Appendix em¬ 
 bracing the Characteristic Plants of the varied lands 
 and soils; hence for this portion of the work this 
 gentleman is more especially responsible. 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 The difficulties under which the Author of these 
 pages laboured when a student have led to the 
 production of the present work. Although study¬ 
 ing under men of undoubted talent and kindness, 
 these teachers did not at this time appear to re¬ 
 cognise the existence of such general principles in 
 Ornament as could be explained to the student; and 
 this operated so forcibly against the rapid progress 
 of the taught, that upon arriving at a knowledge 
 of the laws which govern the production and com¬ 
 bination of ornamental forms through study and 
 research which occupied a period of fifteen years, 
 the Author resolved on setting those general prin¬ 
 ciples before such as desire a knowledge of the 
 Decorative Art which he has observed prevailing 
 in the best ornaments of all ages and has traced 
 in plants, from which he has gained much of his 
 knowledge of true ornament. It is hoped that an 
 acquaintance with the principles set forth in the pre¬ 
 sent work may be as serviceable to the reader as 
 
Vlll 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 they have been to the Author; if so, that time has 
 not been lost which has been spent in writing these 
 pages. 
 
 During the preparation of this work, the writer 
 has been so repeatedly interrupted by manufacturers 
 of the greatest eminence desiring designs for their 
 respective manufactures, that he fears a somewhat 
 disconnected character has been introduced into 
 the work. This has been avoided as far as pos¬ 
 sible under the circumstances, yet upon this point 
 particularly the Author has to ask indulgence. 
 
 North End, Fulham, S.W. 
 
 May , 1862. 
 
 The student who wishes to pursue his studies 
 in Ornament is strongly recommended to consult 
 Redgrave’s “ Report on Design,” and the “ Grammar 
 of Ornament” by Owen Jones, both works of great 
 value. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PRIMARILY, ON THE NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT . 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT.22 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GRADES IN DECORATIVE ART.34 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE AFFINITY OF THE AESTHETIC ARTS—MUSIC, ORNAMENT, 
 
 ETC.42 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS.49 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ORDER 
 
 67 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 REPETITION 
 
 84 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CURVES. 95 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROPORTION. 102 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ALTERNATION. 107 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ADAPTATION. 116 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS AND IDEAS . 165 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 178 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 THE FLORAL CLOCK. 191 
 
 ORNITHOLOGICAL CLOCK . 193 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC FLOWERS OF THE MONTHS. 194 
 
 LAND PLANTS: 
 
 GEOGNOSTIC NATURE OF SOIL. 198 
 
 PLANTS OF UNCULTIVATED SOILS. 202 
 
 CULTIVATED SOILS. 207 
 
 ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTIONS. 209 
 
 EARTH AND WATER PLANTS .. 210 
 
 WATER PLANTS 
 
 211 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES : 
 
 EUROPE. 214 
 
 ASIA. 221 
 
 SIBERIA. 226 
 
 AFRICA. 228 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 233 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 237 
 
 POLYNESIA. 240 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. 240 
 

THE 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRIMARILY, ON THE NATURE AND CHARACTER OF 
 ORNAMENT. 
 
 1. Ornament is that which, superadded to utility, 
 renders the object more acceptable through bestowing 
 upon it an amount of beauty that it would not other¬ 
 wise possess: it gives to that which it invests a new 
 charm, as colour bestows upon the flower a new love¬ 
 liness ; and as the colour cannot be said to be essential 
 to the existence of the flower, so the application of 
 ornament to objects cannot be said to be absolutely 
 necessary. 
 
 2. Yet this is a principle which is frequently 
 manifest in nature, especially when we call to mind 
 u the merely beautiful appearances of the external 
 world;” for we cannot but think that the functions of 
 the plant could as well be performed, and the works 
 which plants accomplish in relation to the well-being 
 of the kindred creation as fully perfected, were their 
 
 As 
 
2 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 shapes coarse instead of rich in refinement, and 
 clumsy instead of delicate and fair; but with no 
 niggard hand has Nature dispensed beneficent gifts, 
 for not only is the mind of man so constituted as to 
 be susceptible of pleasures, but the majority of objects 
 with which we are surrounded are of such a character 
 as administer to delight. 
 
 3. Following the dictates of nature and acting in 
 conformity with the spirit of a beautiful creation, we 
 make upon those objects with which we surround 
 ourselves, forms and lines, convolutions and zigzags, 
 and give to them colours and shades which yield 
 pleasure to our minds. 
 
 4. In so doing we not only follow the hints given 
 us by nature, but act in accordance with an inward 
 instinct or passion. Man craves after pleasurable 
 emotions, whether he be the untutored savage or a 
 member of the most highly-cultivated society; hence, 
 as certain colours and forms give pleasure to the 
 mind through the agency of the eye, certain sounds 
 through the agency of the ear, and certain flavourings 
 through the agency of the organs of taste, he pro¬ 
 duces paintings, ornaments, music, and sweets, in 
 obedience to the dictates of his nature. 
 
 5. And it is right for him so to do: he is not 
 endowed with a craving nature which is never to be 
 satisfied; with a desire for combinations of forms, 
 colours, and sounds which he is never to produce; 
 but with such desires in order that he may thus be 
 led to produce beauty and enjoy pleasures. The 
 forms which live around him, be they but those of 
 the moss upon the wall and the weed in the sea, are 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 3 
 
 such as he approves, and are contributions from 
 nature to the delight of her “ foster child.” 
 
 6. Ornament, we have said, is that which beautifies? 
 and renders objects pleasing and delightful; but what 
 is beauty ? and whence does it arise ? Beauty is that 
 quality of an object which causes delight, gladsome¬ 
 ness, or satisfaction to spring up within the beholder, 
 or induces a thrill of delight in the soul; it arises 
 from the absence of any want, and the presence of 
 that which gratifies. 
 
 7. Yet all things which charm the mind are not 
 beautiful. We receive our entire knowledge of ex¬ 
 ternal objects through the agency of the nerves; it is 
 these alone which mediate between body and mind, 
 matter and spirit, and inform the inner man of that 
 which is transpiring without. Sounds may charm 
 the ear, fruits have agreeable flavours, flowers most 
 welcome odours, and the downy couch be grateful to 
 the touch; from all of these sources the mind receives 
 pleasure, but the charming the mind through the eye 
 is alone accomplished by the aesthetic or beautiful, 
 hence beauty is that quality of an object which de¬ 
 lights the mind through the agency of the eye. 
 
 8. From the definition given of ornament it would 
 almost seem that painting, sculpture, and architecture 
 are decorative arts, for they concern themselves with 
 the production of works which are intended to delight 
 the mind through the agency of the eye. In a sense 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture are ornamental 
 arts, and their relationship with each other and with 
 decoration is close, perhaps even more intimate than 
 might be expected until the subject has had much 
 
 b 2 
 
4 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 consideration; indeed, between them there is no 
 marked line of separation, for they meet at their 
 confines as do the kingdoms of nature. 
 
 9. A plant which spreads its leaves and unfolds its 
 blossoms in a fixed abode seems very unlike the 
 sportive beast which wanders through the forest at 
 will, yet the animal and the vegetable kingdoms can¬ 
 not be separated at their lower limits; just so it is 
 with the four arts, sculpture, painting, architecture, 
 and ornament,—they meet at their boundaries, hence 
 their limits cannot be perfectly defined. 
 
 10. For the most part ornament is superadded to 
 utility. A wall is a wall, whether decorated or not; 
 and a tube will convey gas equally well whether it 
 has chased upon it beautiful devices or is without 
 enrichment. Not so with painting. As a rule, we 
 value a picture for its intrinsic merit, not as a thing 
 of utility, and not because it has made the canvas 
 more beautiful. We disregard the material on which 
 the scene is produced, and consider it only as that 
 which renders the production of beauty possible; but 
 with ornamentation we value the object decorated 
 because it is now a thing of utility and beauty. 
 
 11. We see what ornament is; and the importance 
 of a clear conception and proper understanding at the 
 outset of the nature of decoration or ornamentation 
 cannot be over-esteemed, for unless we have an exact 
 comprehension of the significance of these terms, the 
 time spent in future consideration will be wasted. 
 
 12. Our definition of ornament excludes us from a 
 narrow or one-sided view of its character such as we 
 frequently meet with, some contending that the orna- 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 5 
 
 ment of the Gothic period is alone meritorious, others 
 that with the ancient Greeks true decoration died out, 
 while others maintain that the revival of Classic art 
 in the Renaissance period brought true ornament to 
 light. 
 
 13. Few styles of ornament, if any, have arisen 
 which have not possessed some beautiful features. 
 The early Egyptians yet speak to us through their 
 quaint decorations; and in the remains of their de¬ 
 parted glory we discover grateful forms and welcome 
 combinations of lines and colours; and the symbolic 
 flower met with that gentle handling and careful con¬ 
 sideration at the hands of this ancient people which 
 commands our admiration. In the Classic ornament 
 we read the refinement of the Greeks, and perceive 
 delicacies too subtle for words to express. The Gothic 
 period brought about the fabrication of much beauty, 
 and Renaissance ornament has commendable parts, 
 and neither from the decoration of the Chinese, 
 Indians, or Moors is beauty absent. 
 
 14. It is not sufficient that an ornament be pleasing 
 when first viewed, it must give lasting satisfaction. 
 In human society we do not hastily conclude that he 
 is the best man, or even a good man, because he is 
 most pleasing at first; an intimate and prolonged 
 acquaintance may be necessary in order that a 
 right opinion be formed, and that man we judge 
 best whose character stands the test of intimacy, and 
 whose company is more pleasurable the longer it is 
 continued. 
 
 15. It is so with ornament. That which is at first 
 sight the most pleasing is not necessarily the best, but 
 
6 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 that which speaks to us of beauty throughout a long 
 intimacy. Apply this test; ask the question, Does it 
 become more beautiful the longer it is viewed? If it 
 is good ornament it will do so, and will lay hold of 
 the affections, and fasten itself upon them, and its 
 every part will become more and more lovely as it is 
 dwelt upon. 
 
 16. Another test of good ornament is this—it power¬ 
 fully affects the spirits. It can soothe as does sweet 
 music, promote mirth as does the merry air, or hush 
 to reverence as does the solemn anthem. Does it 
 speak joyfully,—it is good ornament. Does it speak 
 solemnly, and yet with well chosen gesture,—it is good 
 ornament. In a thousand strains it speaks, for, like 
 nature, u to the attentive listener it is nowhere dead, 
 never silent.” 
 
 17. But care must be used in applying these tests. 
 Pleasure is derived from that which is understood; 
 hence, if my knowledge is not sufficient to enable me 
 to comprehend an object, it may seem to me to be 
 without merit, while it is yet most perfect. The na¬ 
 ture of the verdict passed upon a work arises, then, 
 from the knowledge of the judge; and, allowing per¬ 
 fect uprightness of character, is right or wrong accord¬ 
 ing to his knowledge.* 
 
 18. This being the case, it is obvious that works 
 
 # It must ever be remembered that there is no such thing as beauty 
 absolutely. The beautiful is that which satisfies and delights the 
 educated and refined mind, and the most cultivated must be allowed 
 to be the best judges. It is so also in music, for while harsh and 
 discordant notes gratify the untutored savage, subtle harmonies alone 
 give pleasure to the cultivated mind. On this subject the author has 
 set forth his views in The Builder of March 15th, 1862. 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 7 
 
 which to an individual appear beautiful at one time 
 may not at another, and forms which he cannot at 
 first admire he ultimately approves. Indeed, in the 
 history of every art-student a change of this character 
 takes place; the shapes which at first seemed beauti¬ 
 ful are ultimately considered coarse, and lines which 
 he could not appreciate he ultimately admires. 
 
 19. These considerations reveal to us a folly which 
 is often manifested. Art-critics are numerous; yea, 
 almost as abundant as flies in August. Indeed, every 
 one volunteers an opinion upon an ornament or deco¬ 
 ration. I confess my ignorance of music; am I, then, 
 justified in putting forth a critique on an oratorio or 
 opera, and in condemning parts which I do not, 
 through my ignorance, admire ? To do so would not 
 be to perpetrate a greater folly than ignorantly to cri¬ 
 ticise an ornamental form. 
 
 20. Applying the tests which we have given for 
 the discovery of the nature of ornament, few objects 
 which are popularly regarded as decorated will be 
 found to be justly entitled to the appellation, and 
 assert their right to the term by manifesting beauty. 
 So utterly incapable of delighting are the majority of 
 our intended wall-decorations, that we do not even 
 seek gratification from them; we use them for cover¬ 
 ing the nakedness of the wall, but do not for one 
 moment expect that they will produce vibrations on 
 the heart-strings, as do the notes of the lute and the 
 lyre. A few of our old cathedrals awe by their 
 solemn grandeur, and bind in silence the profane 
 tonguq as they whisper of their consecration to the 
 service of the Most High;—art is here! The Alhambra, 
 
8 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 which is beautifully repeated in the Crystal Pa¬ 
 lace at Sydenham, overpowers by lavish richness 
 and almost superhuman glory;—art is here! The 
 Greek Court, in the same building, by its exalted 
 refinement; lulls the spirit to sweet reverie—art is 
 here! And when, in St. James’s Hall, we appear to 
 be transplanted to some fairer world—art is here! 
 In these last-named places the beauty is excessive, and 
 thereby the spirit is rendered glad, and is entranced 
 by harmonies; the proportions of the parts are just, 
 the enrichments beautiful, and the colours glorious 
 and fair: the whole is a display of knowledge, and 
 learning, and judgment.* 
 
 21. It will be found that the amount of pleasure 
 
 # The excellency of these works calls loudly to us as a nation to do 
 honour to Mr. Owen Jones, who created them. I would that the 
 nation should use him more while they have him ; when it is too late, 
 we shall mourn over our folly. In this we are only like the ancient 
 Greeks, for they rarely valued a man till he was dead; indeed, they 
 first slew him, and then erected a monument to his honour, and I fear 
 that it is not very different with us, for we treat genius coolly, we 
 insult her by a thousand slights, and ultimately starve her, or let her 
 die for want of patronage. It is a strange fact, and yet true, that in 
 this nineteenth century, when philanthropic movements abound, that a 
 Royal Academy student who took the gold medal, and manifested 
 great genius and industry, should die in a garret through starvation, 
 and that many an ornamentist of considerable ability has to retire 
 from the field in order to earn daily bread. Gentlemen, do you like to 
 buy your wives beautiful dresses, when one, two, or at most three 
 shillings was paid for the design which took at least a day to produce, 
 and was the only one chosen out of a score which were offered ! 
 And ladies, do you like to sit in your drawing-rooms which are hung 
 with papers for which the designer received but one guinea, and 
 yet the scrolls of beauty and graceful convolutions administer much 
 to your pleasure, remembering that the production of the design 
 took three days, and on the average, only one pattern is sold out 
 of every ten produced. 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 9 
 
 derivable from the contemplation of an ornament will 
 be largely dependent upon the extent to which mind 
 is embodied in it. Stephenson invested coal with a 
 new interest when he told us that it was buried sun’s 
 rays—a lump of heat and light! A strange statement 
 this, yet true; and it is also strange and true that the 
 man, while yet dead, speaks through his works. Man 
 may be said to be a spirit (the body is animal), for 
 it is the mind which exalts him above all creatures 
 amidst which he abides, and constitutes him a supe¬ 
 rior being. In this , man recognises the stamp of 
 exalted humanity, and by it he discovers a brother, 
 whatever be his habits or colour. 
 
 22. How delightful it is for mind to converse with 
 mind, and tell of joys experienced and pleasures 
 reaped in order that both may be glad! Sympathy 
 is but mind sharing lot with mind, and love but a 
 bond which unites spirits. This source of exalted 
 gratification can be embodied in ornament; and our 
 pleasure in a form or composition will be, to a great 
 extent, in ratio to the amount of mind which it 
 conceals. 
 
 23. We have a manifestation of the pleasure deriv¬ 
 able from an embodiment of’ mind in pictorial art in the 
 works of Martin. Here we have such scenes as mind 
 alone can conceive;—a prison-house more terrible 
 than words can express;—a palace with immeasure- 
 able domes, and burning lights poised in the air. 
 We glory in these works, but not because of the per¬ 
 fection of the drawing, for this is often defective, nor 
 through any extraordinary handling of the colours, 
 for in this respect also there is nothing calculated to 
 
10 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 command our interest, but because of the mind which 
 they embody. 
 
 24. As a rule, the greater the manifestation of 
 mind in a work of art of any description, the more 
 pleasure we derive from it; also, the absence of the 
 manifestation of mechanical labour in its construction 
 tends to the same result. “ Those arts,” says Sir 
 Charles L. Eastlake, “ are generally considered the 
 most worth in which the mental labour employed and 
 the mental pleasure produced are greatest, and in 
 which the manual labour, or labour of whatever kind, 
 is least apparent.” 
 
 25. We have said that few, if any, styles of orna¬ 
 ment have arisen which have not possessed some 
 meritorious or beautiful features. From this it might 
 be thought that it is well to copy the ancient forms 
 and apply them to the purposes of modern decoration, 
 for beauty cannot become old; but this is by no means 
 desirable. Although beauty cannot wear out, a re¬ 
 petition of ancient forms is not appropriate, for orna¬ 
 ment, like architecture, must express the sentiments of 
 the age in which it is created. 
 
 26. How full of meaning are some of the ancient 
 ornamental forms! The*Lotus (fig. 1) not only be¬ 
 tokened to the Egyptian coming plenty, but was an # 
 expression of their faith, it being to them as a Deity. 
 After the inundation of the Nile, the rice was set by 
 being cast upon the waters, through which it sank 
 into the soft and fertile alluvial deposit. In the 
 waters the Nymphaea* pushed forth its fresh foliage, 
 
 * Nymphaoa is the botanical generic name for the Egyptian water- 
 lily, or lotus. 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 11 
 
 which it gradually raised to the surface; and ulti¬ 
 mately from amidst the leaves its fragrant blue flowers 
 arose. The appearance of this plant was speedily 
 followed by the springing up of the rice and the suc¬ 
 ceeding harvest, but the token of the harvest was 
 found in the lotus-lily:—it was this which spoke of 
 coming plenty; of the season of fruitfulness, and of 
 approaching good. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 27. Under such circumstances we do not wonder 
 that the appearance of this plant was*anxiously looked 
 for; that its development was watched with interest, 
 and that the Egyptian joyed in its flowers. But de¬ 
 light was gradually replaced by reverence; the flower 
 which at first gave pleasure ultimately received the 
 homage and adoration of a nation, and became the 
 fancied abode of a God; and in ratio to the worship 
 paid to the spirit of the flower, and ultimately to the 
 
12 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 flower itself, was the abundance of the harvest, 
 according to the faith of the Egyptian. 
 
 28. The pleasure taken in the plant by this ancient 
 people is set forth by the frequency of its occurrence 
 in their decorations; and as the cross has been used 
 in later times to prompt to worship, so this flower, 
 even when transmuted into a conventional form, re¬ 
 minded them of rites and prayers. Fully, then, was 
 the lotus-form expressive of the faith and senti¬ 
 ments of the age in which it was created. 
 
 29. This is not an exceptional case, but a sample 
 of what true art has ever done. In the Greek orna¬ 
 ment there are but few simple forms, and even these 
 do not speak as does the Egyptian lotus. Yet the 
 Greek ornament, as a whole, will be found to give 
 utterance to sentiments in a manner most impres¬ 
 sive. 
 
 30. Refined forms are an expression of refined 
 minds, and delicate subtleties in shapes indicate a 
 keen power of perception. No system of decora¬ 
 tion with which we are acquainted embodies refine¬ 
 ment so fully as does the Greek, for it is rich in 
 refinement, and is stored with delicacies. But it 
 speaks of more than the refinement of the Greeks; 
 it reveals to us their exalted perception of the beau¬ 
 tiful, and this it does so clearly as to render such a 
 manifestation apparent even to the more careless 
 observer. Besides this, every feature, both of an 
 architectural and decorative character, in a Greek 
 edifice, is a revelation of a knowledge of Nature 
 and intimacy with her. To illustrate this by an 
 

 H i: 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 13 
 
 architectural member we may select the Doric 
 column (Plate T.)—an example of the most exalted 
 Greek creation, which appears to rise with the 
 energy of vigorous life, and yet seems pressed on 
 by a weight which it has to sustain ; the super¬ 
 incumbent mass resting upon the shaft gives to 
 it turgidity, and the capital manifests the same 
 distension. But the acknowledgment of pressure 
 is by no means offensive, for the column evinces 
 strength sufficient for the support of the superposed 
 weight, yea, strength which is evidently more than 
 equal to the work performed; hence the apparent dis¬ 
 tension of the pillar by weight only results in the 
 formation of curves of extreme delicacy and shapes 
 of subtle beauty. It is so with the Greek ornaments: 
 there is a recognition of the working of natural law 
 in each, and an embodiment of energetic life, and 
 this strife between pressure and life brings about 
 beauty almost inimitable. 
 
 31. The decorations of the Greeks express to us 
 their keen knowledge of the laws and perception of 
 the beauties of Nature. In like manner the medheval 
 ornament has its tale to tell. 
 
 32. In the earlier periods of Christian art great 
 purity is manifested, and an amount of simplicity 
 which is very grateful; but even in later times, when 
 the simplicity is to a great extent lost, the ornament 
 speaks the sentiments of the age in which it. was 
 created. The trefoil, or three-lobed leaf, speaks of 
 the Trinity; the quatrefoil, or four-lobed leaf, of the 
 four Evangelists; while the passion-flower tells the 
 
14 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 whole story of the cross. A thousand other forms 
 also speak through their symbolic character as well as 
 the knowledge which they embody. 
 
 33. What could be more impressive as a symbol 
 of the passion of our Lord than the pelican feeding 
 its young with its own blood: here we have a 
 creature picking its breast till blood issues forth, in 
 order to the nourishment of those which proceed 
 from it. Thus we have set forth the blood-shedding 
 of Christ, in order that those whom he created 
 may live. 
 
 34. Ornament, then, ever has expressed the senti¬ 
 ments of the age in which it has originated, and the 
 ancient decorative forms still tell of the faith of our 
 ancestors; but as our creed differs from theirs, and 
 as we are not prepared to endorse all their, senti¬ 
 ments, we cannot fitly appropriate to ourselves those 
 ornaments with which we do not sympathize, as they 
 are an expression of sentiments in which we cannot 
 concur. 
 
 35. It would seem difficult, at this late period of 
 the world’s history, to originate a new scheme of 
 ornamentation which should be an expression of 
 sentiments; and should such be possible we might 
 not readily be able to determine what should be ex¬ 
 pressed. Want of concord retards any expression of 
 religious faith, for unless there is unanimity the 
 views of the nation cannot be set forth by any one 
 system of ornamentation, any more than by one 
 style of architecture. 
 
 36. But the Greeks strongly impressed their de¬ 
 coration with a marked character which stamps it at 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 15 
 
 once u a style,” and distinguishes it amidst the orna¬ 
 ments of all other periods, while their religious views 
 were, if possible, more varied and antagonistic than 
 our own. 
 
 37. Though the expression of unanimity of reli¬ 
 gious principle is at present impossible, yet there are 
 sentiments in which all could acquiesce. We seek 
 refinement, as did the Greeks, and we have know¬ 
 ledge which is waiting to be embodied in form; 
 yet neither the Greek ornament nor architecture are 
 appropriate with us, for our knowledge is not as 
 the knowledge of the Greeks, and unless expression, 
 as uttered in decorative forms, is so modified as to 
 accord with the material and climate in which such 
 expression takes place, it fails to fulfil that which is 
 required of it. 
 
 38. The putting forth a volume of ancient lite¬ 
 rature as a new thing would be regarded as a folly, 
 and the right of an individual to present such under 
 this character would be questioned; and, if a few 
 sentences or paragraphs were altered, this would 
 notgreatly lessen the wrong. Yet so it is with both 
 ornament and architecture, which are so nearly asso¬ 
 ciated that in these remarks they cannot be sepa¬ 
 rated; we reproduce heathen temples without num¬ 
 ber, modifying them to an extent sufficient to render 
 the performance of worship in them possible, or to 
 fit them for the purpose of their erection, and no 
 more; or we repeat an old Christian edifice no better 
 suited to the requirements of our day:—“ The nave 
 and aisles of a Gothic church become absurd when 
 filled with pews for Protestant worship, where all are 
 
16 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 required to see and hear. The columns of the nave 
 which impede sight and sound, the aisle for proces¬ 
 sions which no longer exist, rood screens and deep 
 chancels for the concealment of mysteries now no 
 longer such, are all so many useless reproductions 
 which must be thrown aside,” and the decorations 
 are no more appropriate. 
 
 39. We cannot but think that one great token of 
 a new style of ornament has been afforded us in 
 St. James’s Hall, and, to speak figuratively, had we, 
 as a nation, the wisdom to work the mine from which 
 this came, we should not be long before we were shel¬ 
 tered by such buildings as should by their excellency 
 delight us, and,’ by embodying in form sentiments 
 in which we acquiesce, command our sympathies. 
 
 40. That St. James’s Hall is beautiful admits of 
 no dispute, but should the style of the decoration be 
 asked we could not reply. It has features which are 
 Egyptian, yet it is not Egyptian; it has parts 
 which are somewhat Greek, yet it is not Greek; and 
 few styles have appeared which are not suggested by 
 some ornamental character, and yet the decoration is 
 neither in any one style, nor in all jumbled together. 
 He who is conversant with all literature manifests 
 his knowledge in his writings, yet he does not re¬ 
 produce the ancient Classics. So, in St. James’s 
 Hall, Mr. Owen Jones has displayed a deep acquaint¬ 
 ance with all styles of ornament which have passed 
 away, and has expressed in a new form the refine¬ 
 ment of our age, which finds utterance also in sound 
 in this very place. 
 
 41. It will be thought that we are dealing out 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 17 
 
 praise lavishly to this work by Mr. Owen Jones, and 
 that it is inconsistent so to do, as our great monu¬ 
 ments of Gothic architecture are worthy of especial 
 commendation. We desire to do justly, and act 
 independently of the smiles of men. The great 
 merits of our truly grand monuments of mediaeval 
 art have repeatedly been told, and their excellency 
 is fully acknowledged, hence it would be folly to 
 direct attention to that which has repeatedly been 
 heard; the merits of these great works we most 
 highly appreciate, and have selected St. James’s Hall 
 as an illustration, primarily because of its novelty. 
 
 42. Many appear to regard ornament as the realiza¬ 
 tion or embodiment of a dream of beauty, and the 
 ornamentist as one who is favoured with a kind of 
 revelation, for, say they, we cannot control our 
 thoughts or compel our minds to originate new ideas. 
 Such a view is founded in error, for we can by culti¬ 
 vation and careful encouragement induce the mind to 
 produce the original, and ornament does not result 
 from an unintelligent dream. 
 
 43. Knowledge is the great source of ornament,— 
 it is the rich soil from which spring creations that 
 attract by their beauty and delight by their graceful¬ 
 ness, and the merit of the ornament will be dependent 
 upon the knowledge of its originator. 
 
 44. Ornament is obedient to rule and law, and the 
 principles which govern it can be learned and compre¬ 
 hended. The purest ornaments are founded upon 
 some common plan, or are subject to the same com¬ 
 mon rule, while they appear in many and varied 
 forms. Yet all the laws which govern the production 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 of ornament are not understood, nor does every mem¬ 
 ber of every successful design occupy its position 
 in obedience to a law known to the producer, for 
 judgment has to.decide in many difficult cases; 
 nevertheless it is manifest that knowledge is essential 
 to the creation of the beautiful, as we never find good 
 ornament produced in the absence of great knowledge. 
 
 45. The plant grows in obedience to law, and upon 
 fixed principles; it has a determined form and a par¬ 
 ticular habit of growth; the flower proceeds in all 
 cases from the same part of the plant, and works the 
 production of the same kind of fruit; the seed also 
 germinates under fixed conditions, and after sprouting 
 in a manner pre-determined by law, brings about the 
 repetition of the parent plant. There is no accident 
 here; the flower has not one shape one day, and, as 
 the result of casualty, a new form when next viewed; 
 and by the production of seed the plant produces its 
 like, and not accidentally a rose or a thistle. 
 
 46. Yet in some strange and exceptional cases the 
 seed does not bring about the repetition of the parent, 
 and rule seems to be departed from. The seed of the 
 cabbage produces a cauliflower, and of the Celosia 
 cristata the cockscomb; but even here an unalterable 
 law is working the change, for it is determined that 
 more than a fixed quantity of mineral matter cannot 
 be taken into the plant-system without a change of 
 form resulting; and even the size of the plant is de¬ 
 cided by the amount of heat and light which it 
 receives, together with material food; for as the erec¬ 
 tion of a building is dependent upon the presence of 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 19 
 
 material, the expenditure of force in raising the 
 material, and the activity of a ruling power which 
 determines the positions of the parts, so is the plant 
 dependent for its existence upon the presence of be¬ 
 fitting matter, the application of power to the raising 
 the matter, and the working of an overruling 
 influence. 
 
 47. That the production and development of the 
 plant is governed by rule is apparent, yet we do not 
 trace the law in all cases. It seems arbitrary that one 
 plant should grow in almost any soil and under any 
 sky, as the little daisy, while another is confined to a 
 small island or particular mountain range, as the 
 Wulfenia to the Carinthian Alps. Although we have 
 not yet discovered the entirety of the law on which 
 the distribution of plants depends, we do not doubt 
 its existence, for the secrets of its workings are ever 
 being disclosed to the attentive inquirer; so in orna¬ 
 ment we know that much is dependent upon law, and 
 are daily making acquaintance with principles which 
 to us are new, hence we cannot doubt that all beau¬ 
 tiful forms are subject to rule. It will be our en¬ 
 deavour to set forth the laws which govern the 
 production of decorative compositions, and to point, 
 as far as we may be able, in the direction that new 
 laws may be sought. 
 
 48. We have inquired into the nature of the em¬ 
 bellishing art, but what is its value ? That which 
 administers to mental gratification cannot be worth¬ 
 less and is not altogether independent of bodily 
 health. Setting aside the ministrations of decorative 
 
20 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 art to happiness and the enhancement of joys, and its 
 promptings to social intercourse, it has even a com¬ 
 mercial or money value in the busy world. 
 
 49. An illustration used by Mr. Wornum, the 
 Keeper of the National Gallery Collections, is here 
 appropriate. He called attention to a plain white jar 
 in which was sold one pound of the best Dundee 
 marmalade for seven-pence. He then exhibited a 
 second utensil, which had a fanciful shape and was 
 impressed with the significant figure of the thistle,— 
 in this was sold one pound of the same marmalade for 
 nine-pence; and lastly, he exhibited a jar which was 
 not only moulded into a particular form, but had 
 coloured oranges upon its sides,—in this one pound of 
 the same exquisite preparation was sold for one 
 shilling. Seven-pence, nine-pence, and a shilling the 
 same quantity of the same kind of marmalade fetched 
 in view of the character of the jar, and yet that which 
 was coloured would not cost one penny more than 
 that which was plain, probably not a halfpenny; 
 hence, through the agency of ornamentation, four- 
 pence more profit, at least, was made upon each 
 pound of marmalade sold. 
 
 50. In relation to the example just given it should 
 be noticed that the so-called decoration of either jar 
 was a questionable adornment; the shapes were not 
 pleasing, the forms wrought upon them were not 
 disposed with discretion, neither was the colouring 
 good. If this be the value of bad art, what must the 
 commercial importance of good ornament be? 
 
 51. As a principle, it will be found that the value 
 of the manufactured article is dependent upon the 
 
NATURE AND CHARACTER OF ORNAMENT. 
 
 n 
 
 knowledge displayed in the using and adorning the 
 material, and not upon the amount of labour ex¬ 
 pended upon its construction. The same clay can be 
 wrought into a thing of beauty or an object without 
 comeliness, and the most welcome ornaments are 
 usually both simple in character and sparingly used, 
 for extravagance in ornament is as offensive as 
 extravagance in dress. 
 
CHAPTER IT. 
 
 THE MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 1. One great work of the ornainentist is that of re¬ 
 fining his mind in order that he may be enabled to 
 discover and fully appreciate those delicacies of form 
 and line which are unperceived by the untutored and 
 careless observer: to this end the formation of an in¬ 
 timacy with nature will be found most conducive, as 
 it inevitably leads to the cultivation of taste; and the 
 ministrations of plants to the production of the more 
 exalted forms of ornament are in this particular mani¬ 
 fest and salutary. 
 
 2. In order to this refinement, the wood, the garden, 
 and the hedgerow will each form a suitable studio; 
 for the world of life, especially of plant life, must be 
 constantly observed. The form of the leaf must be 
 investigated; nor is it sufficient that each leaf receive 
 a cursory glance or hasty observation, it must become 
 the subject of much thought and prolonged medita¬ 
 tion. A simple leaf will form a good theme for 
 attentive consideration during many hours, and the 
 more anxious inquirer may profitably spend even a 
 week or fortnight in contemplating an unpretending * 
 form. Indeed, it is not the number of refined shapes 
 viewed which tends so much to the cultivation of 
 taste as the full understanding of the few. He who 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 23 
 
 reveals the cause of the beauty of a solitary leaf 
 thereby manifests that he has seen more than he who 
 has hastily viewed the riches of many lands. 
 
 3. If a week is not too long to spend in the con¬ 
 sideration of a simple leaf, how long should we medi¬ 
 tate upon a flower? Say a month. Happy should we 
 be in devoting every hour of this time to the con¬ 
 sideration of a solitary flower, if we thought that we 
 had sagacity sufficient to enable us in that time to 
 perceive and fully understand its beauty. We have 
 sat in our vinery for hours gazing at the leaves above 
 as their forms have been sharply defined upon the 
 blue heavens. We have gone evening after evening 
 and day after day to endeavour to discover the source 
 of the fulness of beauty manifested in the form of a 
 solitary leaf, and have failed to comprehend the origin 
 of half its comeliness; if hours, yea weeks, are in¬ 
 sufficient for the full understanding of the beauty of 
 a leaf, how much more shall they fail to reveal the 
 matchless loveliness of a flower! 
 
 4. The flower! There are many leaves here, and 
 parts varied in magnitude; there are small parts 
 within and large parts without, and members of 
 diversified shapes; there are lines uniting with lines, 
 shapes contrasting with shapes, and colours blending 
 with colours, all of which are worthy of the most 
 attentive study, and he who would refine his taste and 
 cultivate his perception of beautiful form must be 
 content to study a flower till his eyes grow weary with 
 viewing it, and his heart learns to feel the beauty 
 which his eyes perceive. 
 
 5. Plants minister to ornament, we see, by contri- 
 
24 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 buting to the refinement of taste; they also furnish 
 decorative shapes. 
 
 6. The vast stores of nature are open to us, and 
 from the floral kingdom, as from a mine of inex¬ 
 haustible wealth, the ornamentist derives forms of in¬ 
 expressible beauty. There are the forms of leaves, 
 of flowers, and of fruits, many of which are of rare 
 excellence as ornamental shapes; and besides the in¬ 
 numerable modifications of form seen in the parts 
 named, there are peculiarities of contour in organs of 
 lesser interest. The stem is not always round, but 
 has manifold shapes; the leaf-bud, especially during 
 its unfolding in spring, the flower-bud, and not un- 
 frequently the seed, furnish forms which cannot be too 
 highly appreciated or too fully considered; and here 
 we do not mention the ten thousand beauties revealed 
 by sections and dissections of flowers and plants. 
 
 7. To take the herbaceous or succulent (not woody) 
 stem as an illustration of the variety presented by a 
 member which is commonly regarded as without in¬ 
 terest ornamentally, we find that it is triangular in 
 the .sand-grass ( Carex , fig. 2, e ), and papyrus (the 
 bulrush of the Scriptures, fig./); in the former the 
 sides are concave and the angles acute, in the latter 
 the sides are convex and the angles are rounded. In 
 other instances the stem is square (i), but upon the 
 quadrangular form a number of modifications are 
 wrought, like changes of note upon the lyre with one 
 string; in some instances the angles are replaced by 
 flat faces (j ); in others by rounded surfaces, or little 
 circular ridges ( n ). In the fiddle-plant of the country 
 children, the Scropliularia nodosa (/), the sides are 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 25 
 
 slightly hollowed, the angles rounded, and each corner 
 is furnished with a membranous ridge; in the com¬ 
 mon stinging-nettle the square is modified into a 
 very beautiful form ( o ). We have hexagonal stems 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 p q r 
 
 in the hop and garden balsam ( q ); besides which 
 there are egg-shaped (c), biconvex (6?), semicircular (a), 
 and pentagonal forms (p, r). 
 
 8. Actual forms, we say, are furnished by nature; 
 and, we may add, forms ~of exceeding beauty. Who 
 can conceive a form fairer to look upon than the lily, 
 or a shape more gentle than the violet? The lowly 
 grass, by its gracefulness, bids defiance to imitation, 
 even by the keenest observer and most careful por¬ 
 trayer; and the weed in the sea has charms which are 
 unfolded to those alone who attentively observe it for 
 years. 
 
 9. Plants not only furnish the ornamentist with 
 
26 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 abstract forms, but are materials brought forth for 
 the use of the beautifier; we mean by this, that as 
 stone is adapted for building purposes, and is suscep¬ 
 tible of that treatment which renders it tit for appro¬ 
 priation to exalted purposes, so the plant is material 
 which by adaptation and modification may be used 
 for the purpose of enhancing our pleasures. 
 
 10. The rich material furnished by the plant-form 
 to the ornamentist is very manifest in the remains of 
 ancient Egyptian work. Visit the British Museum, 
 and notice the beautiful modifications and adaptations 
 of the lotus (fig. 1), of which we have already 
 spoken, found on the mummy-cases; or, better still, 
 observe in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham, first the 
 lily itself, as it appears with its blue flowers rising 
 from the waters in the tropical end, and then pass to 
 the beautiful Egyptian Court, and mark the manner 
 in which it has been applied to the purposes of deco¬ 
 ration. You may also notice in the waters the pa¬ 
 pyrus, or Scripture bulrush, and study the manner in 
 which it has been modified by this ancient people. 
 Make these observations attentively, and you will 
 feel that vegetable forms, as material, were by the 
 ancients wrought into ornament, as they are now 
 fabricated into modern devices. 
 
 11. The suggestions afforded by plants to the 
 ornament-producer are almost as numerous and va¬ 
 ried as the forms, and are worthy of equal considera¬ 
 tion with them. Some leaf-buds by their evolution 
 set forth a diversity of character in their parts, which 
 is welcome as it gives rise to the production of a con¬ 
 trast of a pleasing character. This can be illustrated 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 27 
 
 by the bud of the horse-chestnut tree, as it appears 
 in some portion of the month of May (fig. 3), when 
 its undivided scales, or protecting envelopes, draw 
 back, in order that the emerald plumage of spring 
 may appear in the form of the five or seven-fingered 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 leaves of the tree. The undivided scales have a me¬ 
 thodical arrangement, and a pleasing effect is pro¬ 
 duced by the directions which they assume; but the 
 feature to be especially marked is the manner in 
 which the divided or fingered fresh green leaves con¬ 
 trast with the whole or undivided scales. 
 
 12. A contrast not only occurs in the case of 
 
28 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN, 
 
 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 29 
 
 certain buds, but is even more apparent in other 
 instances. The botanist will observe it as brought 
 about by exogenous and endogenous foliage; there is 
 the grass with its narrow leaves, which are traversed 
 by unbranched veins, and in its midst there is the 
 buttercup and daisy, the former with divided leaves, 
 the latter with toothed leaves, and both with leaves 
 in which the veins have a branched and divergent 
 disposition; and in the Tropics the large leaves of the 
 bananas, screw-pines, and palms, with their un¬ 
 branched veins, contrast strangely and pleasingly 
 with those of the cecropia peltata and bread-fruit tree: 
 the prevalence and universality of this juxtaposition 
 of dissimilar forms will justify the statement that 
 contrast is afforded as a primary suggestion of plants 
 to the ornamentist (fig. 4). 
 
 13. That contrast is felt to be a want by those who 
 are competent judges is apparent ; the Greeks fre¬ 
 quently combined the acanthus (fig. 5) with the 
 “water-leaf,” (fig. 6), the former having its foliage 
 
 Fig. 5. Fig. 6. 
 
 much divided, and resembling, in many respects, the 
 leaves of the Scotch thistle, while the latter is whole, 
 
30 
 
 AltT OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 or without division, having much the form of the leaf 
 of the lily-of-the-valley; and into the foreground of a 
 landscape we commonly find introduced the large 
 and divided foliage of the hogweed and the un¬ 
 divided swordlike leaves of the iris. 
 
 14. Suggestions of a different character are also 
 afforded by plants. Our conception of an opening 
 leaf-bud will be found to consist in the springing of 
 a number of parts from the summit of a branch, some 
 of which are reflexed to a considerable extent, while 
 those which are internal approximate, in ratio to 
 their position, more and more to the perpendicular; 
 this arrangement of parts is suggested to the orna- 
 mentist, and such a conception or idea of a bud can 
 as easily be embodied in conventional as in natural 
 forms, for it is not dependent upon form, at least as 
 a primary feature, but upon an arrangement of 
 parts (Plate II., figs. 1, 2, 3, 4). 
 
 15. Vegetable nature is full of ornamental ideas: 
 the bud, the flower, the climbing shrub and trailing 
 plant is each an existence of which the mind takes 
 cognizance by creating to itself internally an image 
 of that which is external; but this image is without 
 detail, possessing only the salient features of the 
 object of which the conception is formed. You 
 have probably visited the lecture-room of the Syden¬ 
 ham Crystal Palace, and in order to reach it you 
 have traversed the entire length of the great build¬ 
 ing in which it is situated; but what detail have you 
 embodied in your conception of this great edifice? 
 You perhaps feel—and feel is the best word that we 
 can here use—that its walls are of crystal, that the 
 
Pi 11 
 
 

 
 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 31 
 
 centre of the building, from south to north, is a clear 
 avenue, bounded on either side by statuary, shrubs, 
 and courts, and that in one or two places there are 
 water-tanks in which grow lilies and other forms of 
 life. But have you any definite conception of the 
 character of the plants, or of the nature of the 
 statuary ? Do you know of whom there are busts, and 
 of whom full-length figures, or the number and order 
 of these works of art? or are you even aware of the 
 number and order of the larger objects, such as the 
 courts? Have you, indeed, such a conception of a 
 solitary vestibule that you could sketch its adorn¬ 
 ments from memory ? If not, how completely is 
 detail absent from the mental picture you have drawn 
 of this great temple. Should we be right in sur¬ 
 mising that your idea of this Palace is thus devoid 
 of minutiae, it will only be necessary, in order to 
 awaken reminiscences of this glorious building at 
 any future time, that we present a sketch of a 
 crystal edifice of exalted proportions, with a prome¬ 
 nade up its centre, and statuary, trees, and various 
 houselike erections on either side. 
 
 16. Although such is the case, our sketch may not 
 lead, for one moment, to the conclusion that this 
 building has been delineated; indeed, it may be very 
 unlike it, even so much so that it would be impossible 
 to mistake it for this great edifice, and yet it shall call 
 it to mind, and shall not fail in so doing in one case 
 out of a thousand. 
 
 17. Seeing the vagueness of the mental conception, 
 and the manner in which the mind can be induced to 
 form to itself an image of an object by presenting to 
 
32 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 the eye that which contains the salient features of that 
 which the spirit is to recal, we discover the possibility 
 of evoking ideas by the agency of decorative art such 
 as it does not itself present, and these ideas may be 
 pleasing or otherwise. 
 
 18. What constitutes the popular conception of a 
 flower? Undoubtedly this—the radiation of a number 
 of parts of the same or different shapes, and of bright 
 colours, from a common centre. This being the case, 
 if we place around a point a number of concentric 
 parts of almost any shape in a radiate manner, and 
 give to them an intense colour, we convey to the 
 mind an idea of a flower; and by this agency a floral 
 pattern can be constructed which in its parts presents 
 no actual resemblance to the blossoms of any one of 
 the eighty thousand flowering plants with which we 
 are at present acquainted (Plate II., fig. 7). 
 
 19. By duly considering the nature of the mental 
 conception of any flower, it is possible to suggest it in 
 a purely ideal or conventional ornament—the fuchsia, 
 the lily, the dahlia, and the rose, and indeed every 
 flower can thus be suggested to the mind; but he who 
 displays wisdom in such matters will see to it that the 
 image suggested pleasingly or appropriately accords 
 with the conditions which should regulate the cha¬ 
 racter of an ornament. 
 
 20. While it is only necessary that a series of radi¬ 
 ating parts be brightly coloured in order to suggest 
 to the mind a flower, it is essential that more detail 
 be called to aid if the intention be that of suggesting 
 a particular flower. In this case a typical shape must 
 not be widely departed from, and character of line, 
 
pirn. 
 
MINISTRATIONS OF PLANTS TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 33 
 
 quantity, and order it may also be necessary to con¬ 
 sider; but with consideration the plant can be sug¬ 
 gested, and yet the ornament which suggests it be far 
 from a mere imitation (Plate II., fig. 6, and Plate III., 
 figs. 1, 2, and 3); it may be modified and adapted, 
 and clothed in the mind of the artist, and yet be suf¬ 
 ficiently characteristic to awaken the desired thought. 
 
 21. Seeing the possibility of clothing an idea in 
 form, the plenitude of suggestions afforded by plants 
 to the ornamentist is impressive, for every flower not 
 only presents to us a shape, but also affords an idea 
 which may be embodied in conventional forms, and 
 herein rests the fulness of the ministrations of plants 
 to ornament. 
 
 22. We shall further see the manner in which 
 plants wait upon ornament, and the extent to which 
 the beautiful in form is dependent upon the floral 
 kingdom for its existence, as we proceed with our in¬ 
 quiry into the principles which regulate the produc¬ 
 tion of decorative forms, and the few instances adduced 
 in which plants are subservient to ornament will 
 establish a truth which will be supported and main¬ 
 tained by those yet to appear. 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GRADES IN DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 1. The object we have in teaching writing in our 
 schools is that of enabling mind to commune with mind 
 and spirit with spirit when the bodies in which they 
 dwell are somewhat widely separated by space or 
 time; the secondary advantages resulting from an 
 increase of power over the hand and a more careful 
 mode of thought, which writing induces, may also lead 
 us to inflict upon our children the task of learning to 
 make and arrange characters on paper, but the pri¬ 
 mary object is that of enabling them to pass their 
 thoughts through space, and hand them down through 
 time, in order to instruct, gratify, or delight kindred 
 spirits. 
 
 2. But the power to write is only of value as it 
 enables us to embody thought in form in such a 
 manner that others may reap from the forms the con¬ 
 ceptions of the mind which created them; in itself the 
 power is worthless, for no collection of indiscrimi¬ 
 nately arranged words would be of value, but as 
 thought can be conveyed by this agency the art 
 cannot be over-esteemed. 
 
 3. The works of Shakspeare, Macaulay, and Bacon 
 we greatly value, but they neither command our 
 
GRADES IN DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 35 
 
 sympathies nor our approbation because they are com¬ 
 binations of characters arranged in meritorious order 
 according to rule, but through the excellency of the 
 mind which they make known; for while reading 
 these works we recognise the minds of the authors 
 conversing with our minds as fully as if the very men 
 were standing before us in person and speaking in 
 audible sounds. 
 
 4. It is so with drawing, for this is but a vehicle 
 for thought—a means to an end; and I know not that 
 the art is worth the expenditure of labour necessary 
 to its possession but for this one power which it has. 
 Writing may be said to be a plain chariot in which 
 thoughts are conveyed from individual to individual 
 throughout a kingdom, and sometimes beyond, and 
 decorative art an ornamental car in which mind is 
 conveyed throughout the world. 
 
 5. One feature of especial interest, as appertaining 
 to drawing, is this—that the language which it speaks 
 is universal and addresses itself alike to the inha¬ 
 bitants of every land; then, however desirable it may 
 be to possess the power of delineating objects for 
 secondary purposes, the great value of such ability 
 rests in the increased means afforded for the convey¬ 
 ance of thought. 
 
 6. Seeing that we value the power of drawing 
 merely as a means and not as an end, and recognising 
 the truth already enforced (Chap. I. s. 21), that the 
 amount of pleasure derivable from an object is in 
 ratio to the amount of mind which it manifests, it 
 will not be difficult for us to determine the merits of 
 the varied classes of decorative art. 
 
36 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 7. Mere imitation is not ornamentation, and is no 
 more art in the higher sense of the term than writing 
 is in itself literature; for in order to the production 
 of ornament there must, at least, be adaptation. 
 
 8. Our so-called “ natural wall-papers” will illus¬ 
 trate the first, or most elementary, step taken towards 
 the production of ornament, for adaptation has here 
 been considered so far as is absolutely necessary in 
 order that the design may repeat in the mechanical 
 manner necessary to its production, but no further. 
 Here the effort has been to imitate what is seen, and 
 not to adapt natural forms to the purposes of decora¬ 
 tion ; the little adaptation essential is rather mourned 
 over than gloried in, and had it not been indispensable 
 would not have been considered. 
 
 9. If mere imitation is ornamentation, the orna- 
 mentist must at once give place to the photographer, 
 who, by his art, repeats natural objects with infi¬ 
 nitely more accuracy than the most careful draughts¬ 
 man ; but photography cannot invent, as it is devoid 
 of the mental or imaginative faculty, for the working 
 of the mind is essential to the production of deco¬ 
 ration, and indeed to the creation of all exalted art. 
 
 10. We have no reason to believe that when the 
 old Greeks were about to produce one of their inimi¬ 
 table statues they searched the land for the most 
 perfect human form and simply imitated what they 
 saw; if so, they would in all probability have made a 
 cast of the figure. But their statues are not casts, they 
 are types of the human shape, and have unquestion¬ 
 ably resulted from a consideration of the form of 
 many individuals. We imagine that prior to the 
 
GRADES IN DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 37 
 
 production of one of these statues an inquiry was 
 made into the perfect form of the human body, which 
 investigation might be long continued, and require the 
 observation of the forms of many; and after the mind 
 had produced to itself, in the form of a mental con¬ 
 ception, a perfect type, worked out in all its details, 
 an inquiry was further instituted into the modifica¬ 
 tion which the form underwent as the action of the 
 figure was brought to that required. After such 
 preparation, the production of a figure perfect in form 
 was comparatively easy, the difficulty rested in form¬ 
 ing correctly the mental image, and in order to this 
 the great knowledge was required. What we admire, 
 then, in the Greek statue is not the manifestation of 
 mechanical skill or labour in its construction (indeed, 
 no thought of labour is intruded upon the mind when 
 beholding it), but the knowledge manifested by it, 
 and we view it with delight as the embodiment in 
 matter of a conception of the mind. 
 
 11. We see that these works are not imitations of 
 that which actually exists, but are mind embodied in 
 form; and this principle applies equally to ornament, 
 for that which is most pleasing and meritorious is 
 that which has most fully a mental origin, while that 
 which sets forth things seen is of a less satisfactory 
 character. 
 
 12. Natural adaptations, we have seen, are the 
 lowest form of ornament, but the next step, which is 
 much more exalted, consists in the u conventional 
 treatment ” of natural forms. 
 
 13. Vegetable nature treated conventionally will 
 not be found to be far removed from truth, but will 
 
38 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 be merely a natural form, or a series of combined 
 forms, neither marred by blights nor disturbed by 
 winds, adapted to the fulfilment of a special purpose, 
 or suited to a particular position; for the most perfect 
 examples of what is usually termed “ Conventionalized 
 nature” are those which express the intention of 
 nature, if we may thus speak, or are manifestations 
 of natural objects as undisturbed by surrounding in¬ 
 fluences and unmarred by casualties. 
 
 14. In attempting the production of the ideal of 
 nature the utmost care must be used in order to dis¬ 
 criminate between truth and deformity; the beauty 
 of a plant cannot be said to be repeated in a draw¬ 
 ing if deformity is portrayed; deformity must be 
 altogether absent from a perfect work, for art has a 
 more exalted mission than that of setting forth what 
 we loathe. 
 
 15. How repugnant to refined feelings it is to be¬ 
 hold a marred feature or disfigured limb perpetuated 
 by statuary as a work of art; and although deformity 
 in plants may not be so manifest, and hence not so 
 offensive, as deformity in man, yet its presence 
 detracts from beauty, even if the source of the evil 
 be unperceived. 
 
 16. Conventionalized plants, we say, will be found 
 to be nature delineated in her purest or typical form, 
 hence they are not imitations, but are the embodi¬ 
 ment in form of a mental idea of the perfect plant; 
 but this ideal figure is the subject of a process of 
 adaptation. 
 
 17. The intention of the plant in producing the 
 bud of the honeysuckle is that of developing leaves of 
 
GRADES IN DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 39 
 
 certain shapes in a given arrangement while they are yet 
 varied in direction (Plate II., fig. 6); but should a leaf 
 be partially destroyed by blight or some insect preying 
 upon it, it will be necessary to perfect it; and should 
 the leaves on one side of the stem be smaller than 
 those on the other, owing to their receiving an in¬ 
 sufficiency of light, they must be enlarged; or should 
 any part be drawn aside from its proper position, it 
 must again be restored to its place; and in deducing 
 from many examples the laws and forms of nature, 
 and producing a truly typical shape, rests the chief 
 secret of the production of the conventional forms of 
 plants. 
 
 18. Still following an ascending series, we find the 
 next grade of decorative art in the embodying in form 
 a mental idea which has been suggested by nature, 
 and yet the form neither represents any actually 
 existing object nor any intention of nature. 
 
 19. The illustration already given (Chap. II., s. 19) 
 of the manner in which a mental conception can be 
 embodied in a new form, as that of an opening bud 
 or of a flower, will likewise tend to elucidate our 
 present meaning, and it will be unnecessary that we 
 spend time in showing that a composition may 
 embody an idea derived from a natural object, and 
 yet not imitate the object the spirit of which it em¬ 
 bodies, for we have already seen that this is possible. 
 
 20. It is apparent that the latter class of ornament 
 is a greater development of mind than either of those 
 which we have already considered, for in the “Natural 
 treatment ” there is the smallest possible amount of 
 mental power embodied, and although in “ conven- 
 
40 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 tionalized nature ” there is much more, yet there is 
 here considerably less than in the embodiment of a 
 mere feature in ideal forms. 
 
 21. Purely ideal ornament is that which is most 
 exalted, it being wholly a creation of the soul; it 
 is utterly an embodiment of mind in form, or an off¬ 
 spring of the inner man, and its origin and nature 
 give to it its elevated character. 
 
 22. It would be folly now to enforce the statement 
 that conventional ornament is the highest branch of 
 decorative art, as we have shown that the exaltation 
 of ornament is in ratio to the amount of mind mani¬ 
 fested in its creation; and the most careful considera¬ 
 tion will verify this truth, for ideal creations are as 
 far above imitations as the mind is above the bodv. 
 
 J 
 
 Many brutes can imitate, but they cannot create. 
 
 23. We are now enabled to classify ornaments by 
 affinities resulting from equality in respect to the 
 embodiment of mental power; thus we have as 
 examples of the first or most exalted grade of 
 ornament the Greek, the Moorish, the early English, 
 much of the Indian and mediaeval, many features in 
 the Japanese, and some parts of the Egyptian and 
 Renaissance. In the second class, following a de¬ 
 scending series, we may instance much of the Egyp¬ 
 tian and Chinese, and a few features in the Greek 
 and Japanese. In the third, a great portion of the 
 middle-age work, especially the later Gothic, and 
 many parts of the Chinese and Indian; and in the 
 fourth, or last class, much of the Pompeian and our 
 modern floral patterns. 
 
 24. While we have thus instanced a few examples 
 
GRADES OF DECORATIVE ART. 
 
 41 
 
 which seem, on the whole, illustrations of the grades 
 to which we have called attention, yet in several 
 cases the same part of a decoration will, by two 
 features, illustrate two grades. Many of our floral 
 patterns, while they belong to the fourth or lowest 
 class in view of their composition, belong also to the 
 first or second in view of their colouring, for it is in 
 some parts purely ideal, and in others merely sug¬ 
 gested by natural objects, and were it not for the 
 more exalted character of the colouring these 
 patterns would be much coarser than they are. 
 
 25. While there are these grades of ornament it 
 must be remembered that there can be good and bad 
 in each class, for if a purely mental creation has not 
 its parts subjected to the laws or requirements of 
 ornament, which are yet to be pointed out, it cannot 
 be satisfying, and the pain resulting from beholding 
 an imperfect decoration will be in ratio to the class 
 to which it belongs, and will be greater as the class 
 is exalted. Purely ideal art, when degraded, is 
 most offensive, as it is the nobler part of man so 
 debased as to be contemptible. 
 
42 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE AFFINITY OF THE AESTHETIC ARTS—MUSIC, 
 ORNAMENT, ETC. 
 
 1. We have now to bring forward the result of a 
 series of experiments made with the view of ascer¬ 
 taining whether a manifest harmony exists between 
 music and decorative art; for should a coincidence in 
 certain particulars be established between form and 
 sound, the rules of music might be serviceable in 
 pointing to those which regulate the distribution and 
 proportion of the members of an ornamental com¬ 
 position. 
 
 2. Our effort at reducing to rule the production of 
 ornament, which has hitherto seemed to result from 
 caprice, has not issued, we fear, in the discovery of 
 principles of much importance to the decorative arts; 
 yet as the character of the research and the results 
 gained are alike curious, we introduce them, begging 
 that they be received indulgently. 
 
 While we are aware that the unravelling the com¬ 
 plexity of ideas which prevail respecting the art of 
 decoration into a tangible code of laws has not been 
 accomplished, we feel justified in introducing this 
 chapter, as ornamentists are too prone to disregard 
 kindred studies and trust to empirical knowledge. 
 
AFFINITY OF THE AESTHETIC ARTS. 43 
 
 General cultivation tends to the extension of power 
 in a particular direction, and the laws of associated 
 arts will frequently admit of interchange. 
 
 3. Not only do the varied branches of the fine arts 
 abide too fully within their own immediate spheres, 
 but art and science dwell too widely apart. We look 
 on the one hand at the man whose refinement of mind 
 enables him to produce lines, and forms, and combina¬ 
 tions of the fanciful which charm all who behold 
 them, and we look on the other hand, and see him who 
 penetrates the deep and beautiful mysteries of scien¬ 
 tific truth; but alas! like two links of a broken chain, 
 they dwell apart. This chapter, and that, especially, 
 on u The Power of Ornament to express Feelings and 
 Ideas,” will show the desirability of uniting these; and 
 if we might become the little link which should bind 
 these two great links together we shall indeed be glad. 
 
 4. Art and science may also be pictured as two 
 angelic figures, entrusted with missions alike benefi¬ 
 cent, who see in each other much that they admire, 
 and yet there seems to be something about each which 
 tends to repel the other. I tell you that this repul¬ 
 siveness only results from their not possessing each 
 other’s more intimate acquaintance; may we, then, 
 introduce them to each other, or rather become for 
 the first time a priest, and bid the twain be one. 
 
 5. And our task is pleasing—for whether we become 
 the priest or the little link, we shall be the means of 
 uniting those which will live a long life in the enjoy¬ 
 ment of each other’s caresses, and a life which will be 
 crowned with the happiest issue. 
 
 6. The following statements will at once set forth 
 
44 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 the existence of a similarity in the manner in which 
 music and decoration influence the mind. Music, by 
 its grateful strains, lulls the spirit to sweet and joyous 
 forgetfulness, and retards its unruly outbreakings; so 
 does ornament, for it too can soothe, and entrance, 
 and hush to reverie, or kindle joys. 
 
 7. Our attention is here awakened to the existence 
 of a similarity of music and ornament in the power 
 which they each possess of working upon the mind. 
 But some will object to the assertion that ornament 
 enjoys the power of working thus fully upon the spirits, 
 but this is due to the rarity of worthy decorative ex¬ 
 amples. Some of our cathedrals awe by solemn 
 grandeur; the Greek Court in the Crystal Palace at 
 Sydenham speaks impressively, yet softly, of subtle 
 refinement, and the Alhambra overpowers by lavish 
 richness; but these Courts suffer from publicity, and 
 the fact that when viewing them we mingle with irre¬ 
 verent spirits. 
 
 8. That music and decorative art are twin sisters 
 engaged in the same beneficent work of gladdening 
 man while on his pilgrimage through life and reviv¬ 
 ing the downcast spirit is apparent, for they both 
 soothe and lull to reverie; they both awe by solemn 
 grandeur and provoke joyous mirth; they both deepen 
 sorrows and enhance joys. 
 
 9. What has been said of the power of music 
 and decoration is also true of poetry and pictorial 
 art, hence the aesthetic arts are intimately related, 
 but on the affinity of poetry and pictorial art with 
 music and ornament we must not enlarge. 
 
 10. The existence of a deeper unity between form 
 
AFFINITY OF THE AESTHETIC ARTS. 
 
 45 
 
 and sound might be expected in view of many con- 
 siderations. A fiddle-bow drawn across the edge of 
 a sheet of glass on which sand has been sprinkled, 
 while giving rise to an audible sound, causes the 
 particles of sand to collect into given shapes, which 
 vary according to the note produced, and these 
 sonorous figures are of a very interesting character. 
 That it is the sound which brings about the arrange¬ 
 ment of the sand particles is manifested by the 
 figures arising from the production of the different- 
 notes being dissimilar, and by the fact that if sand 
 is sprinkled on the tightly strained end of a drum 
 and a powerful note is produced by a cymbal or 
 other instrument, the sand will arrange itself into 
 form, although removed to a considerable distance 
 from the source of the sound. 
 
 11. Sound results from waves of air striking the 
 drum of the ear (which is a tightly stretched mem¬ 
 brane, resembling in many respects the end of a com¬ 
 mon drum), and imparting their vibratory motion 
 to it, and through its agency to the nerves commu¬ 
 nicating with the brain; and the height or depth 
 of the note is determined by the lengths of the waves 
 of air which mediate between the sonorous body and 
 the drum of the ear. 
 
 12. Having ascertained the lengths of the waves 
 which give rise to the varied notes, and the fact 
 that these bear a singular relation to each other, 
 the propriety of inquiring whether lines of the same 
 relative lengths (fig. 7) are in any way related sug¬ 
 gested itself, and there seemed to be a probability 
 in its favour, as beautiful proportion must always be 
 
46 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 of a more or less subtle character, as we shall here¬ 
 after see. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 13. The form resulting from placing in a radiate 
 manner lines which bear the same relation to one 
 another in point of length that the waves producing 
 the notes in the scale of music do is exceedingly 
 pleasing, and corresponds, when repeated or doubled, 
 with the anthemion of the Greeks (Plate IV.* 
 fig. 1); this is remarkable, that the curve formed 
 
AFFINITY OF THE AESTHETIC ARTS. 
 
 47 
 
 by the apices of the radiate members is of a high 
 order, and one in which subtle beauty abides. 
 
 14. The next experiment, in which chords are 
 embodied as well as the scale (which latter occupies the 
 central portion of our diagram), and the parts spring 
 from a spiral (Plate IV., fig. 2), is curious, inasmuch 
 as it suggests activity or motion; it has a splashing 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 character, but here also the ornament is repeated, 
 on the principle of the double monogram. A third 
 experiment, in which the air “God save the Queen” 
 
48 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 is translated into form is more curious than beau¬ 
 tiful, yet the result is not, even here, altogether 
 devoid of interest # (fig. 8). 
 
 15. These are some few of our investigations into 
 the extent and nature of the harmony existing 
 between music and decorative forms, and although 
 they cannot be said to have resulted in any great 
 good, yet harmonious chords in music, when trans¬ 
 lated into form, furnish examples of beautiful pro¬ 
 portion. 
 
 # For the sake of effect, the first portion of the tune occurs in the 
 lower half of the figure. 
 
49 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 1. In ornament, as in science, it is necessary to 
 have recourse to an analytical method. The deep 
 insight into the mysteries of the atomic world with 
 which we have been so fully favoured of late is mainly 
 due to the energy displayed in the analysis of sub¬ 
 stances. But it is not by the chemist alone that the 
 effort is made to ascertain the composition of bodies, 
 for the zoologist and botanist likewise strive to observe 
 the unit out of which all vital forms are wrought, and 
 to discover the ultima thule of life. An analytical 
 investigation is at all times interesting; the chemist, 
 while repeatedly reducing a substance to a lower 
 condition, is advancing towards the simplicity of the 
 material with which nature works, and by this he 
 learns that out of a few elementary principles “ the 
 great globe,” with all its vital forms, are wrought. 
 In like manner the botanist and zoologist discover 
 that out of one primitive form—a little cell or 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 bladder-like body of extreme smallness—all conditions 
 of life arise. 
 
 2. Pleasing as analytical research is, it has a value 
 beyond that due to the gratification which it affords; 
 for by a knowledge of the composition of substances, 
 and the manner in which elements are combined into 
 forms of utility and beauty, we alone have that power 
 over the diversified forms of matter which enables 
 us to mould them into shapes necessary to our well¬ 
 being and comfort. No one imagines that the photo¬ 
 grapher could operate as well were he ignorant of the 
 composition of his bath and of the nature of the 
 substances which he employs. It is a keen perception 
 and deep knowledge of the powers of the substances 
 which he is using that tend most to success. And no 
 one thinks that the artist would use his colours with 
 the same freedom were he ignorant of the fact that 
 green is composed of blue and yellow; our power is 
 dependent upon the knowledge which we possess of 
 the materials used, and he who would combine ele¬ 
 ments must be content to study the nature of that 
 which he uses and its capacity for union. 
 
 3. The principles here set forth are fully applicable 
 to ornament. The combination of forms cannot be 
 carried on successfully unless the forms themselves 
 are understood and the conditions of their association 
 ascertained; but as the chemical student first devotes 
 himself to analysis and only attempts the combina¬ 
 tion of elements into useful forms of matter at a later 
 period of his career, it will be found desirable for the 
 student of decorative art first to apply himself to 
 analysis, and ultimately to the combination of forms. 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 51 
 
 4. In viewing an ornament, after weighing its 
 merits and judging of its effect, the first effort 
 should be to reduce it to its most elementary con- 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 dition, or most simple unit. The common geo¬ 
 metrical form which we give in fig. 9 is merely a 
 square with semi-circles removed from the sides and 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 added to the ends (fig. 10), and the more com¬ 
 plicated pattern given in fig. 11 will he seen to be 
 the same rectangular figure with small segments of a 
 
 e 2 
 
52 
 
 ART OR DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 particular form taken from definite positions and 
 added elsewhere with the same exactness (fig. 12). 
 
 Fig. 11 . 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 give the mind greater power over forms than can be 
 gained in any other way. Already we see that the 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 53 
 
 removing a portion of a simple form from one place 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 to another affords the means of bringing about an 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 endless variety of shapes. The form given in fig. 18 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
54 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 is but a series of forms (fig. 14), such as are given 
 in fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 6. It is not only desirable to reduce a form to its 
 lowest unit, but it is well to ascertain whether it can 
 be formed of diversified elements. The form fig. 16 
 may be conceived to result from a combination of 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 /\ 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 shapes such as are seen at fig 17, with spaces be¬ 
 tween them, or of the two units shown at fig 18, or 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 55 
 
 of squares connected by crosses (fig. 19), or of 
 Fig. 19. Fig. 20. 
 
 □ □ □ □ 
 □ □ □ □ 
 x □ □ □ □ 
 
 
 diagonal members of the character set forth by fig. 20 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 may be regarded as made up of the waved line 
 
56 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 (fig. 22), the horizontal cuspid line (fig. 23), or of 
 the form fig. 24, arranged closely (fig. 25), or so as to 
 leave alternate spaces of the same form (fig. 26). 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 7. Simple and frivolous as this mode of investiga¬ 
 tion seems it is yet of the utmost value; for the power 
 of combining forms, and of fitly dividing them into 
 
 Fig. 25. Fig. 26. 
 
 smaller parts, will be more readily gained and more 
 fully possessed by the continual application of this 
 mental process of analysis to the forms viewed than 
 by any other mode of thought. But the power thus 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 57 
 
 afforded for the division of forms we shall shortly 
 have a better opportunity of showing. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 8. The forms which we here delineate (tigs. 27, 
 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35), result from the unit 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 fig. 36, but this may be termed a compound unit, 
 as it, together with figs. 37 and 38, can be reduced 
 to the diamond, or lozenge form (fig. 39), as shown 
 in figs. 40, 41, and 42, and the lozenge results from 
 two equilateral triangles (fig. 43), hence it is also 
 compound, and the triangle is the most simple 
 
58 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 element of the series of figures which we have just 
 presented. 
 
 Pm. 30. 
 
 9. We are now enabled to set forth the advantage 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 of this knowledge in the division of forms. The form 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 fig. 38 could not be more appropriately broken up than 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 59 
 
 by its division into the units of which it is composed, 
 
 Fig. 33. Fig. 34. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 K. i 
 
 ^ s? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 as shown in fig. 46, or into certain combinations of 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 ( 
 
 that unit (figs. 41, 44, 45); and similar instances 
 might be multiplied to almost any extent. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 10. Fig. 38 may further be regarded as made up 
 
60 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 of two hexagons, the one of which is divided into 
 parts; for the six triangles which surround the hexa- 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 gon (see fig. 45) unitedly make up another hexagon, 
 each triangle being the sixth portion of this figure 
 
 Fig. 42. Fig. 43. 
 
 (fig. 47). This will be the better seen if we fold one 
 member over (fig. 48). Fig. 47 may be regarded, 
 then, as fig. 45 folded up. 
 
 11. The student will find it of the utmost value, in 
 prosecuting these inquiries into the units of forms, to 
 cut out a series of figures in mounting-board, and 
 form shapes by their combination; by this he will be 
 ascertaining the adaptation of the form for union 
 and the unit of the forms produced at the same time. 
 The practice afforded by the Chinese puzzle, known 
 to most schoolboys, is good,* but is of a less useful 
 
 * This puzzle, together with a number of forms to be produced, 
 and a key, accompanied Beeton’s Annual for 1861. 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 61 
 
 character than that afforded by more regular figures, 
 as the forms produced are in themselves valueless, 
 
 and the practice only tends to the education of the 
 mind, while two ends might be answered at once. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 12. Seeing the value of analysis as applied to orna- 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 ment, it is well that we give one illustration of the 
 
62 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 capacity of a form for entering into union. The 
 series of forms commencing with fig. 27 have all 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 resulted from the triangle, and the majority could be 
 formed of the compound unit, the lozenge: this latter 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 form we shall use as an illustration. Added to the 
 figures already given, the following (figs. 49, 50, 51, 
 52, 53, 54, 55) will suffice for our purpose, as they 
 represent the principal varieties of pattern which this 
 form makes. Figs. 49 and 53 result from the form 
 being placed together in such a manner that no 
 ground is seen between; in the one case the lozenges 
 are erect, while in the other they are so disposed as 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 
 
 63 
 
 to form hexagons. In figs. 50, 51, 52, 54, the forms 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
 are so placed as to leave variously-formed spaces 
 
64 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN 
 
 between them; and in this way great variation in the 
 pattern can be brought about. 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 13. Before dismissing the lozenge, we will treat it 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 in the manner suggested in section 4; thus we cut arcs 
 from its lower portion and add them to the upper 
 (fig. 56). This gives us a new form capable of 
 
ANALYSIS OF ORNAMENTAL FORMS. 65 
 
 entering into combination (figs. 57, 58), and in the 
 
 Fra. 54. 
 
 Fra. 55. 
 
 character given at fig. 57 may be classed with scale 
 patterns. 
 
 Fra. 56. 
 
 14. We have illustrated our subject exclusively 
 with geometrical shapes, but the principle must be 
 pursued in relation to all ornament. We have 
 
 F 
 
66 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 selected geometrical forms simply because they enable 
 us more readily to set forth what we have in view; 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 and all that can possibly be done, in a work like the 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 present, is the illustration of principles which must 
 be pursued and worked out by the individual. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 ORDER. 
 
 1. No one questions the loveliness of flowers; at 
 least, such as do strangely differ from the majority of 
 mankind; yet, incredible as it may appear, we have 
 met with two individuals who do not esteem these 
 charming objects. The one was a glazier, occupied in 
 repairing one of our conservatories at the time when 
 he uttered this incongruous remark; but the other 
 was even a greater mistake, being a lady who not 
 only disliked flowers but was deaf to the soft strains 
 of music while she yet had ears, was blind to the 
 virtues of the rougher sex while she yet had eyes, and 
 was untouched by the soft influences of love, and yet 
 a lady; but whether a lady-form merely, in whom 
 nature had omitted to plant a soul, or a lady-body 
 which had been furnished with the smallest specimen 
 of such a commodity that was ever vouchsafed to the 
 human frame, it is difficult to say. Happily these 
 are exceptional examples of the race; and the class 
 which they represent form such a minority in the 
 great family of mankind that we need trouble our¬ 
 selves little with their likings. 
 
 2. Flowers are nature’s ornaments and the rich 
 decorative forms in which she loves to array her- 
 
 f 2 
 
68 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 self; they are as living jewels, the floral efflorescence 
 of earth. This being the case, we may safely take 
 them as types of ornament, and deduce from their 
 habits and mode of growth laws which shall govern 
 the production and arrangement of forms destined to 
 minister to our pleasures. We may observe them 
 attentively and study them carefully in order to 
 possess an accurate knowledge of the character of 
 the shapes and nature of the effects which we behold; 
 and although the mind feels pleasure in detecting 
 resemblances to that which it loves to contemplate, 
 there is no occasion for the apprehension of degene¬ 
 racy of taste through the observation of the majority 
 of plants; for the forms which spring up in the 
 garden, the shapes unfolded on the hedge-bank, the 
 prostrate herbage of the moors, and the sturdy trees 
 of the forest, all tell us that in the parterre, by the 
 wayside, and in the sylvan aisles, Beauty loves to 
 dwell and blossom forth. 
 
 3. In this, and the majority of the following chap¬ 
 ters, we shall refer to the teachings of nature as given 
 us in plants, in order to the illustration of the subject 
 under consideration; but this we shall do with cau¬ 
 tion. For, while we feel that plants are the orna¬ 
 ments of earth, and that their forms are in the 
 majority of instances of a beautiful character, we are 
 also aware that it does not necessarily follow that 
 because a thing is natural it is beautiful; for, while 
 the braying of an ass is natural, it is yet anything but 
 agreeable. It is so with plants; while the majority 
 are beautiful, there are yet those which have but 
 little of this quality. 
 
ORDER. 
 
 69 
 
 4. We shall refer to plants, we say, for the purpose 
 of illustration and of discovering the habits of nature 
 in respect to the point under consideration; yet we 
 shall regard as the greatest authority the opinions of 
 men who have cultivated their sense and perception 
 of the beautiful throughout a long series of years, 
 and shall approve those practices which have received 
 the sanction of the masters of the great art-epochs, 
 and commend themselves to our judgment by fitness 
 and consistency. Yet principles manifested by the 
 great majority of plants, and especially by those 
 which are richly endowed with ornamental beauty, 
 we shall value as important. 
 
 5. In pursuing this conduct some will say that we 
 are slighting nature, but this is not the case. Will 
 any one say that the odour of the garlic is as sweet 
 as that of the violet or rose? or as delicate as that 
 of the lily-of-the-valley ? Will any deny that the 
 aroma of the garden balsam ( Impatiens noli-me-tan - 
 gere), crown imperial ( Fritillaria imperialis ), or of 
 the stinking morell ( Phallus impudicus ) is less fra¬ 
 grant than that of the carnation or magnolia? or 
 will any assert that the fruits of the bitter-sweet 
 {Solarium dulcamara ), mountain-ash {Pyrus aucu- 
 paria ), and grape, are alike palatable? that the roots 
 of liquorice and gentian are alike agreeable, and that 
 wormwood and cinnamon are equally grateful to the 
 organs of taste ? To do so would be considered mad¬ 
 ness; and to assert that all plants are alike perfect in 
 form—yea, that some are not altogether without 
 beauty such as ministers to the gratification of the 
 eye—is an equal folly. 
 
70 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 6. We now proceed to consider our subject, in 
 doing which we notice first, that in the great majority 
 of the best ornaments of every age with which we are 
 acquainted a principle of order is manifestly present, 
 and this will be found to result from the decorative 
 scheme being founded upon a geometric basis. In an 
 ornamental composition we usually find that certain 
 parts are emphasized and are especially attractive, 
 these have determinate positions, even if the other 
 parts are somewhat confused in arrangement; yet, in 
 the best decorative compositions of all ages a method¬ 
 ical arrangement is found to prevail throughout the 
 entirety of the ornament. 
 
 7. There is but a small amount of evidence that 
 a scheme, of whatever character it is, has resulted 
 from the operation of mind in the absence of the 
 manifestation of order, for while confusion may result 
 from casualties order can alone spring from intel¬ 
 ligence. This being the case, it is manifest that the 
 prevalence of order throughout every member of a 
 composition, however extended, enriches it by adding 
 to its merits, for we have already seen (Chap. I., s. 21) 
 that the merit of an ornament is dependent upon the 
 extent to whieh mind is embodied in it. 
 
 8. We now turn to the vegetable kingdom in order 
 to discover whether a principle of order prevails 
 throughout the structures which are here presented 
 to us. 
 
 9. Upon beholding plants we are at first impressed 
 with the idea that their growth is governed by no very 
 rigid principle, for we see the convolvulus winding 
 its way in graceful freeness around the branches of 
 
ORDER. 
 
 71 - 
 
 the hawthorn bush, and the honeysuckle wandering 
 whither it will amidst the closely-packed habitants 
 of the thicket, and even the little daisy beneath our 
 feet appears to protrude its leaves and blossoms as it 
 pleases, and the stately tree surely generates its wide¬ 
 spread arms just as it likes. Freedom seems the rule, 
 and not order. 
 
 10. No habit has been attended with more injurious 
 consequences, as respects the favourable development 
 of ornamental art, than that of regarding vegetable 
 structures in the cursory manner that we have done, 
 and deducing from this hasty contemplation the broad 
 and erroneous conclusion that plants are not developed 
 according to fixed laws. It is this which has given 
 rise to our so-called natural-wall-papers, and it is this 
 which has led the great majority of the people to 
 foster the idea that ornaments developed in obedience 
 to law are stiff and ungraceful. The Germans are 
 greater thinkers than we are, at least they dwell more 
 upon the laws of nature, as a people, than we do, and 
 there the art is more rigid in character and more 
 obviously governed by law in its development than it 
 is with us. The utmost care should be used before 
 arriving at any broad and sweeping conclusion, more 
 especially in relation to those objects which live and 
 grow around us, as they are endowed with a power 
 of enlarging and increasing themselves, which ope¬ 
 rations it is difficult to conceive as being accomplished 
 in the absence of rule or law; and if law prevails in 
 respect to growth, we are naturally led to look for 
 order in the arrangement of the members, as the 
 manifestation of the presence of the hidden principle. 
 
72 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 A very cursory glance at the guelder rose will show 
 that the leaves are, in this instance, arranged upon the 
 stem in an orderly manner, that they grow in pairs 
 
 Fig. 59 . 
 
 (fig. 59) which are so placed that when we look upon 
 the top of the branch the leaves are seen to lie in 
 four rows (fig. 60). Here two leaves are opposed to 
 each other, one of which passes to the right and one 
 to the left, then one of the next pair advances and 
 one recedes, one of the next pair again passes to the 
 right and one to the left, and so on throughout the 
 entire length of the branch. This is not an uncom¬ 
 mon or exceptional mode of leaf arrangement, it 
 occurs in the garden-sage, the thyme, the white and 
 red dead-nettle, the lavender, mimulus, pimpernel, 
 
ORDER. 
 
 73 
 
 verbena, elder, honeysuckle, lilac, sweet-william, 
 pink, and St. John’s-wort, and in many other plants 
 
 Fig. 60 . 
 
 we might name. In the instances adduced it is 
 obvious that a law of order prevails, and this will 
 not be less apparent in the goosegrass (fig. 61), 
 
 Fig. 61 . 
 
 where the leaves are disposed in rings made up 
 of about eight leaves. In the madder, rose-bay, 
 garden-balsam, woodruff, purple loosestrife, sea-holly, 
 and mare’s-tail, the leaves are also disposed in 
 the same verticillate or whorled manner, but the 
 
74 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 rings are made up of various numbers of leaves in 
 the different plants, yet a most rigid principle of 
 order prevails in each, for while the leaves are 
 arranged in rings they are also so disposed that the 
 leaves in the one ring fall over the spaces between 
 the leaves in the next ring below; thus, if each ring 
 is formed of three leaves there will yet be six rows of 
 leaves.* 
 
 11. While the leaf arrangement is obviously orderly 
 in the cases brought forward, it is not, at first sight, 
 manifestly so in many instances. The leaves of the 
 rose, apple, and holly seem to be without arrange¬ 
 ment ; but investigation has of late years done much 
 towards the elucidation or settlement of this subject. 
 Throughout a long period of time all leaves which 
 were not arranged in an opposite or whorled manner 
 were regarded as without order in their arrangement; 
 but Bonnet noticed that, in some instances, they had 
 a spiral disposition, or were so situated that a thread 
 wound in a corkscrew-like manner around the stem 
 touched the base of every leaf; but it remained for 
 the Germans Schimper and Braun to investigate the 
 multitude of examples, and the French brothers 
 Bravais to pursue the subject mathematically, in 
 order to fully clear up the whole case before us. 
 
 12. The spiral leaf-arrangement occurs in a num¬ 
 ber of modifications which become more and most 
 complicated in character, and has its origin, or more 
 simple development, in those instances in which the 
 leaves are alternately at either side of the stem 
 
 * The rows of leaves are always most readily seen by looking upon 
 the summit of the branch. 
 
ORDER. 
 
 75 
 
 (fig. 62). In this case the leaves are in two rows 
 situated at opposite sides of the stem (fig. 63), yet 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 the leaves are not opposite, for one only proceeds 
 from the stem at the same level, and the leaves are 
 alternately at each side of the stem, as they are con- 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 secutively higher. The spiral character of this 
 arrangement will be better seen if we represent it in 
 
76 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN, 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
ORDER. 
 
 77 
 
 a diagramatic maimer, and indicate the positions of 
 the leaves by dots (fig. 64); the consecutive leaves 
 will now be seen to be equi-distant from each other; 
 that is, leaf two will be removed from leaf one by 
 half the circumference of the stem, leaf three from 
 leaf two by the same distance, and so on, regardless 
 of the extent of the series. As illustrations of this 
 mode of arrangement we may instance the sugar¬ 
 cane, leek, day-lily, travellers tree of the tropics 
 (Urania), (fig. 65), and most grasses. 
 
 13. The spiral arrangement, which we next en¬ 
 counter, is discoverable in the sand-grass (Carex), 
 many sedges, the autumn crocus ( Colchicum), and 
 certain other plants, but it is usually more obscure 
 and difficult to detect than the former (the alternate) 
 arrangement, owing to the majority of plants which 
 evolve their leaves oil this principle having short 
 stems. This arrangement (diagramatically delineated 
 in fig. 66) is characterized by having three rows of 
 
78 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 leaves, and by the leaves in the spiral series being 
 removed from each other by one-third of the circum¬ 
 ference of the stem, or 120°. 
 
 14. In the next advance we encounter an arrange¬ 
 ment in which the leaves are in five rows (fig. 67), but 
 this demands special consideration, owing to the nature 
 of the plan here manifested. The consecutive leaves 
 in the spiral series are here taw-fifths of the circum¬ 
 ference of the stem apart, or 144°. This being the 
 case, the spiral thread passes twice round the stem 
 before reaching a leaf situated over the first, while 
 in the instances before given a leaf so situated was 
 arrived at by making one circuit round the stem. 
 This disposition of the leaves is of very common 
 occurrence, being met with in the rose, apple, pear, 
 cherry, plum, black-currant, American-currant, poplar, 
 and oak (figs. 68, 69). 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 15. In the next arrangement the leaves are in 
 
ORDER. 
 
 79 
 
 eight rows, the consecutive leaves in the spiral series 
 are three-eighths of the circumference of the stem 
 apart, and the spiral thread has to pass three times 
 round the stem before encountering a leaf situated 
 over that with which we start. This arrangement 
 occurs in the holly, plantain, and aconite. 
 
 16. In the houseleek (fig. 70), minor convolvulus, 
 and wormwood, we find the leaves disposed in 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 thirteen rows, the consecutive leaves removed from 
 one another by five-thirteenths of the circumference 
 of the circle, or 138° 24', and that it is necessary to 
 follow the spiral thread five times round the stem 
 before we encounter a leaf situated over the one with 
 which we start. These are the common modes of 
 leaf-arrangement, yet they are not all the forms of 
 disposition known, for a few other spiral series are 
 
80 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 occasionally met with, which it is unnecessary that 
 we investigate, owing to their rarity. 
 
 17. We have now established the existence of 
 order in the leaf-arrangement of plants, yet it must 
 ever be remembered that vegetable structures are 
 peculiarly subject to disturbing influences, owing to 
 their not possessing the power of locomotion,* and 
 this it is which has given rise to the popular belief 
 that leaves are without arrangement. Blights, in¬ 
 sects, and birds, late frosts, winds, and hail, all tend 
 to destroy the manifestation of order in plants; and 
 the habit, peculiar to plants, of elongating in the 
 direction from whence they receive their greatest 
 supply of air and light, tends strongly to disturb the 
 natural dispositions of the parts, yet none of these 
 influences interfere with the existence of an orderly 
 law. Because an arm has been amputated, or the foot 
 of the Chinese girl confined in an iron shoe, we do not 
 say that the human figure is unsymmetrical or that 
 the feet are cramped as the result of the intention 
 of nature; neither can we justly say that because 
 the development of a plant has been disturbed or 
 marred by external influences that it is not developed 
 according to a principle of order. 
 
 18. That leaves have an orderly arrangement is 
 apparent, but these are but the summer garb of the 
 plant. In the winter the branches are studded with 
 buds, which form the winter clothing of the plant. 
 Have these an orderly disposition? and are branches 
 generated in order? and are the flowers thus subject 
 
 * There are a few exceptions to this in the case of the spores of the 
 lower plants, especially Algae, which have the power of moving from 
 place to place. 
 
ORDER. 
 
 81 
 
 in their development to rule? are not these parts 
 rather protruded casually and in no definite arrange¬ 
 ment? The answer to these inquiries will be found 
 in the following facts. The bud normally grows 
 immediately above the leaf, or in the angle formed 
 by the leaf-stalk and the upper portion of the stem 
 (fig 71), hence whatever is the arrangement of the 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 leaf such is also the arrangement of the bud.* Buds, 
 by evolution, elongation, or unfolding, become 
 branches, they are, indeed, only short branches waiting 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 to elongate under favourable conditions (fig. 72), 
 consequently whatever is the arrangement of the bud, 
 
 * Buds appear casually from any points of an old stem when the 
 chief branches have been blown from the tree by a tempest, or have 
 been removed by man, but this is only the effort made by all living 
 objects to retain life. 
 
 O 
 
82 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 such is also the arrangement of the branch.* And 
 flowers are but stunted branches with leaves, there¬ 
 fore whatever is the arrangement of branches and 
 leaves, such is also the disposition of flowers and of 
 the floral parts (fig. 73). 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 19. We now see that the varied parts of the plant 
 are subject to an orderly principle of development; 
 indeed, it is manifest that all the parts are thus pro¬ 
 truded in fixed stations, for the only two typical 
 organs of the plant are the leaf and stem, and these 
 in their modifications give rise to all the members of 
 the vegetable structure. The stem portion divides 
 into the branches and flower-stalks , and is continued 
 downwards as the root , and the leaf type appears as 
 the scales or winter clothing of the leaf bud, the sepal , 
 petal , stamen , and carpel of the flower, in other words, 
 as all the floral members save the flower-stalk, and as 
 the fruit We have here not only a manifestation of the 
 truth that a principle of order prevails in the develop¬ 
 ment of plants, but also a revelation of the fact that 
 plants are founded upon a geometric basis. The top 
 
 # It frequently happens that birds eat buds, and thus prevent a 
 symmetrical development of the branches. 
 

 
 
 
 
 3 
 
ORDER. 
 
 83 
 
 views of branches will make this very apparent. The 
 opposite arrangement is associated with the square or 
 quadrangular form, or cross (fig. 60); the verticillate, 
 with three leaves in each ring, with the hexagon, 
 the spiral arrangement with five rows, the pentagon 
 (fig. 67), while the spiral disposition with thirteen 
 rows, as manifested in the various species of house- 
 leek, is of a complicated and beautiful character. 
 Still, while we say that every flowering plant is 
 founded upon a geometric basis, we know that this is 
 frequently to an extent concealed by the slender cha¬ 
 racter of the stems, and the feeble nature of the leaves, 
 yet it is still to be found when sought. As then all 
 plants of a highly organized character, including those 
 which are most esteemed on account of their beauty, 
 are built upon a geometric plan, as the most worthy 
 ornaments have a like basis, and as order most clearly 
 manifests the operation of mind, we deduce that order 
 is essential to the production of exalted ornament. 
 Yet, as in plants the geometric principle is in some 
 instances much more manifest than in others, so in 
 ornament we. may use a positive geometric form 
 (Plate XXVII., fig. 1), or merely indicate its presence 
 by an orderly arrangement (Plate XV., fig. 2). It is, 
 however, possible to give a geometric form while such 
 does not exist separately from the ornament, as will 
 be seen in Plate V., figs. 1, 2, 3. 
 
84 
 
 • CHAPTER VII. 
 
 KEPETITION. 
 
 1. Repetition is so obviously a principle of plant 
 growth, and so manifestly a source of much of the 
 pleasure which w r e derive from beholding the vege¬ 
 table structure, that it will be unnecessary that we 
 enter into any argument in order to show its value, 
 or that we do more than point out the manner in 
 which it occurs in the plant. 
 
 2. The first form of the plant, whatever be its ulti¬ 
 mate character, is that of a little bladderlike body, 
 or cell, of a more or less spherical form, and of an 
 elastic nature. No sooner does growth commence 
 than this little cell is multiplied, that is, it generates 
 others similar to itself, which aggregate around it till a 
 spherical mass is formed. Cells are now formed chiefly 
 in an upward and downward direction, and thus that 
 elongation in contrary courses (at the summit of the 
 stem and point of the root) is established which 
 characterizes the growth of most vegetable structures. 
 At the very commencement of plant-growth repeti¬ 
 tion occurs, for the cell which at first represented the 
 plant has simply multiplied, and growth, we see, is 
 dependent upon repetition. 
 
 3. In order to point out the manner in which plants 
 
REPETITION. 
 
 85 
 
 further repeat themselves during the process of en¬ 
 largement, we may notice a spray of any plant, that 
 given in page 75 (fig. 62) will fully answer our pur¬ 
 pose; a cursory glance will show that we may cut 
 the stem through, in this instance, between every 
 second leaf, and thus divide it into similar parts, 
 indeed we may further divide it between every 
 leaf and reduce it to like portions, for it is only the 
 arrangement which gives one a direction to the right 
 and the other to the left, that in any way necessitates 
 a division between every second leaf in order that the 
 branch be reduced to units (see also Plate VI., fig. 8). 
 We have been enabled to divide the spray with 
 alternate leaves into a number of similar parts, in like 
 manner we can divide the stem with opposite leaves 
 (Plate VI., fig. 7) into units which exactly corre¬ 
 spond with each other by cutting through the stem 
 between each pair of leaves; and the whorled leaves 
 (fig. 61) can be sundered in a similar way. It 
 is obvious, from what has been said in Chap. VI., 
 s. 14, that a branch with leaves arranged in the 
 more complicated spiral dispositions consists of 
 similar parts repeated, for the spiral series occurring 
 in the oak, apple, and rose repeats in every five 
 leaves—hence if the stem is cut through imme¬ 
 diately above the fifth, tenth, and fifteenth leaf, and 
 so on, it will be reduced to similar parts. But 
 each of these units consisting of a portion of stem and 
 five leaves may be further divided, for division may 
 take place between each leaf, when it will be found 
 that the units (each being composed of one leaf and 
 the small portion of stalk to which it is attached) are 
 
86 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 similar, and that the compound unit (the five leaves 
 with their common stalk) results from the manner in 
 which these unifoliar portions are arranged together, 
 or the direction which each has. 
 
 4. In order that we see the manner in which repe¬ 
 tition occurs in the formation of the branch we may 
 have reference to its development. A little eminence 
 appears, which is its first representative; this becomes 
 slightly elongated, and a little protuberance appears 
 upon its side which developes into a leaf, thus the 
 first unit is formed; the little stem-portion further 
 elongates and originates a second leaf, it further elon¬ 
 gates and produces a third, then another unit is formed^ 
 consisting of stem and leaf, and however long the 
 branch may ultimately be, its growth consists in the 
 continued production of similar parts. 
 
 5. Repetition, manifested in a manner somewhat 
 different to that occurring in the instances already 
 adduced, occurs in the case of the flower. Here we 
 have an organ formed of one or two members repeated 
 in a circular arrangement (fig. 74), hence in this case 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 we have radiating repetition as distinguished from the 
 elongated repetition already considered. Radiating 
 repetition not only occurs in the case of the flower, 
 
REPETITION. 
 
 87 
 
 but is seen in the top view of every branch. In that 
 of the most simple spiral arrangement (Chap. VI., s. 12) 
 the leaf is repeated at either side of the stem, in the 
 opposite arrangement (Chap. VI., s. 10) in four direc¬ 
 tions from a centre, and in the spiral, found in the oak 
 (Chap. VI., s. 14), in five directions—thus in the case 
 of the branch a top view gives radiating repetition, and 
 a side view elongated repetition. 
 
 6. That repetition is a primary feature of plant 
 growth is still further shown by the branching of the 
 plant, for when this operation takes place the plant is 
 multiplied, and thus a repetition is brought about of 
 that which exists. This will be seen in the case of a 
 young plant which is possessed of but few buds, in¬ 
 deed of but two, one at either side. Here when the 
 buds develop each becomes elongated into a branch, 
 and each also sends down a portion of woody matter 
 during its elongation equivalent to the root of the 
 parent plant, thus the mother structure is repeated. 
 The mistletoe, many seaweeds, and some chickweeds, 
 as well as other plants, branch in this bifurcated 
 manner, but in whatever way the branching takes 
 place the repetition of the plant is brought about by 
 this operation. 
 
 7. We have observed repetition in the plant as 
 bringing about an elongated series and as producing a 
 radiate series, but there are yet other forms in which 
 this principle is manifested. We have what we term 
 extended repetition, which is illustrated by the plants 
 to which we have just referred— i.e ., the mistletoe, 
 chickweed, and certain seaweeds, as the species of 
 Ceramium—the ceramium ciliatum for example— 
 
8 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 and by the compound umbel (the branching flower- 
 head) of the parsnip, carrot, and hemlock. This 
 class of repetition occurs in such a manner that 
 while the plant is multiplying itself in an onward 
 direction, it is also spreading in a divergent manner, 
 and the individual branch is not extended in a con¬ 
 tinuous manner, as in the instances first noticed. 
 
 8. There are yet other modes of repetition found 
 in the plant; the one is, the repetition of a spot 
 or of a part. If we look upon the primrose from 
 above, each flower is as a star, and the flowers but 
 repeat the one form. This is the case in every flower- 
 head, and in some instances groups of flowers are 
 repeated. What is commonly called the flower of 
 the cineraria and of the china-aster is a head made 
 up of scores of diminutive blossoms, and yet each 
 head of flowers is repeated in the manner of the soli¬ 
 tary blossom in the case of the primrose. The plant 
 is also studded in the grass as a star pattern. The 
 plantains, which frequently have their leaves pressed 
 on the ground, set this forth very manifestly. The 
 other form of repetition found in the plant is what 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 we may term repetition with variation. This is well 
 illustrated by the petal of the mignonette, which has 
 the form represented in fig. 75. Here we have a 
 
REPETITION. 
 
 89 
 
 number of club-shaped parts constructed on one 
 general plan, yet all differing in form; there is a 
 repetition, yet in the repetition there is variation. 
 This principle is further set forth by the opening leaf- 
 bud (PL II. figs. 1,2, 3, 4, & 6); by the compound leaf, 
 as that of the horse-chestnut; and by the total branches 
 of a tree. We have seen that when a stem branches 
 it simply repeats itself, yet the branch when one 
 year old is only like the parent when of the same 
 age. In the case of the tree with its branches, while 
 the uppermost branches are one year old those which 
 are lower are two, those which are still lower are three, 
 those lower, four, and so on; and the older arms are 
 longer than the younger; hence we have this repe¬ 
 tition of branches, all constructed on the same type 
 and yet all varying in length, and consequently in bulk 
 and curvature. There is also that form of repetition 
 corresponding with the side view of a row of trees. 
 
 9. These are the forms of repetition occurring in 
 the plant; let us see if they have their analogues in 
 ornament. The first form which we noticed, that 
 resulting in the production of an elongated series, 
 occurs in many modifications in the diversified deco¬ 
 rative schemes; it would result from the repetition of 
 fig. 1, Plate III., and occurs in Plate VI., fig. 6. 
 
 10. The radiating repetition has its counterpart in 
 ornament in all those compositions which spring from 
 a common centre, and consist of similar portions. 
 Figs. 76 and 77, and Plate VI., figs. 1/2, 3, 4, and 
 5, are examples of this form of pattern. 
 
90 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
PL IX. 
 
REPETITION. 
 
 91 
 
 11. Extended repetition is not of such common 
 occurrence as the forms just noticed, yet it has oc¬ 
 curred in most styles of ornament, and was introduced 
 as early as the Egyptian period. It is set forth 
 ornamentally in Plate VII., fig. 2. 
 
 12. The repetition of a spot, or of a part, is exceed¬ 
 ingly common, and gives rise to a class of pattern 
 termed a powdering: when combined with order, it 
 has its most simple form in the repetition on a geo¬ 
 metric basis of a dot. Repetition, corresponding with 
 that of the leaf on the tree, appears in ornament in 
 the manner set forth at Plate VIII., fig. 2, and that 
 analogous to the repetition of the leaf and flower on 
 the plant in Plate VIII., fig. 1.* 
 
 13. Of all the forms of repetition seen in the plant, 
 that with variation is, perhaps, the most interesting; but 
 whether this be so or not, this is certain, that some of 
 the choicest ornaments result from the application of 
 this principle; and it is also of interest to notice that 
 this mode of repetition has appeared in every style of 
 ornamentation. In the Egyptian decoration it oc¬ 
 curred in the form set forth in Plate IX., fig. 1; in 
 the Greek in the Anthemion (Plate IX., fig. 2), one 
 of the most common ornaments of this period; in the 
 Alhambra we find it in the form given in fig. 1, being 
 the same as that of the Egyptian; in the early English 
 as seen at fig. 3; in the Chinese as fig. 6; in the 
 Japanese as figs. 5, 7, 8; and in the Renaissance as 
 fig. 4. And upon this one principle an infinity of 
 ornaments can be constructed, a few varieties of 
 
 * These two figures have been derived from the beautifully illustrated 
 volume, by W. and C. Audsley, “ The Sermon on the Mount.” 
 
92 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 which we give in Plates X., XI.,-and VII., fig. 1. 
 The illustrations given, and the fact that this prin¬ 
 ciple has been adopted in all ages will establish its 
 importance and commend it to the consideration of 
 the art-student. 
 
 14. The form of repetition corresponding with 
 the side view of the row of trees is set forth in 
 figs. 78, 79. 
 
 Fig. 78 . 
 
 15. We have observed the forms of repetition seen 
 in the plant, and the character of repetition discover¬ 
 able in ornament; let us now call to mind one or two 
 familiar illustrations of its value. But this it is some¬ 
 what difficult to consider apart from order; but in 
 conjunction with order its value is very manifest. A 
 word, if doubled, whatever it be, will be pleasing 
 (figs. 80, 81), and yet the forms employed are not 
 of a very ornamental character; and even a word 
 written and folded over while the ink is wet, and 
 
P1X 
 

REPETITION. 
 
 93 
 
 rubbed so that it is blotted and yet repeated, gives 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 rise to a blotch which is more or less agreeable. 
 The kaleidoscope furnishes an excellent illustration 
 
 Fig. 80. Fig. 81. 
 
 of the value of repetition. Here a few broken, irre¬ 
 gular-shaped, variously-coloured fragments of glass 
 
94 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 become extremely pleasing when repeated; and yet 
 the same fragments arranged in the same manner 
 would be altogether without interest in the absence 
 of repetition; hence it is apparent that the repeti¬ 
 tion, in an orderly manner, gives rise to the pleasing 
 aspect. While we argue that the forms seen in the 
 kaleidoscope are pleasing, we by no means commend 
 them as ornaments; for, as we have before seen, 
 unless mind is embodied in the composition it cannot 
 be satisfying; and he who has recourse to such an 
 agency for decorative schemes thereby manifests the 
 poverty of his inventive faculty, and reduces himself 
 to a mere mechanical operator. 
 
95 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CURVES. 
 
 1. Much might be said concerning sublimity of line 
 and the subtlety of curves of an extremely interest¬ 
 ing nature, but in a work like the present, which 
 purports only to lay down the principles of orna¬ 
 ment, and not to furnish essays on the varied subjects 
 associated therewith, all that can be done is to call 
 attention to those points which are essential to good 
 ornament in the briefest manner possible. 
 
 2. With curves it will be found that refinement rests 
 in subtlety, for that line the constructive origin of 
 which it is most difficult to detect is found to be the 
 most beautiful. Thus an arc (fig. 82) is the least 
 beautiful of curves, for its origin is instantly detected. 
 A portion of the bounding-line of an ellipse (fig. 83) 
 is more beautiful as a curve than the arc, for its origin 
 is less apparent, it being struck from two centres. 
 The curve which bounds the egg-shape is more subtle 
 than the elliptic curve, for it is struck from three 
 centres, hence it is more beautiful still; the curve 
 bounding the cardioid is more beautiful still, as it is 
 struck from four centres; and so on, in ratio to the 
 number of centres employed in the construction of a 
 curve, and its consequent subtlety, is its beauty. 
 
 3. We have now given a clue to the whole secret 
 
96 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 of beauty of line; but while we say that the beauty of 
 the curve increases with the complexity of its origin, 
 
 Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. 
 
 Arc. Elliptic Curve. Parabola. Hyperbola. 
 
 we make no reference to the forms which the curves 
 bound. The curve of the circle is of a low charac¬ 
 ter as a curve, yet the circle, if not beautiful, is 
 grand, and the ellipse is, as a form, very pleasing; 
 what we now speak of is the curve as a line, and not 
 as the boundary of a form. 
 
 4. The curves used by the Greeks, who understood 
 more of refinement of line than any other people, 
 appear chiefly to be those derived from conic sections, 
 as the parabolic (fig. 84, manifested in projecting 
 bodies), hyperbolic (fig. 85, manifested by the capil¬ 
 lary attraction of water confined between two pieces 
 of converging glass), and the elliptic (fig. 83) curves, 
 but these are not of equal merit in point of beauty, 
 as will appear from what has already been said—the 
 hyperbolic being the most exalted in character. 
 
 5. There are a number of other curves of a beautiful 
 character which might be named: the catenary, or 
 
CURVES. 
 
 97 
 
 chain curve, manifested when one end of a chain is 
 fixed and the other is raised to any height—the in¬ 
 volute, manifested in the unwinding a thread from a 
 reel—the convolute or rolled-up curve of the watch- 
 spring. But we do not wish to go into curves 
 mathematically; we have but to deal with beauty of 
 line, and must hence refrain from dealing with the 
 mathematical view of the case. The secondary curves 
 formed by the complicated modes of leaf-arrangement 
 are of a very high order, as will be seen by a glance 
 at fig. 70; we do not refer to the great generative or 
 watch-spring-like spiral of this figure, but to the 
 more rapid curves which we have drawn through the 
 dots indicating the positions of the leaves. 
 
 6. Curves must not only be of a subtle character, 
 but must present an amount of variety; thus that 
 line is least satisfactory which has its halves alike; 
 and in this respect, as in relation to the origin 
 of the line, that which is richest in variation is 
 most beautiful. Hogarth’s “ line of beauty ” is well 
 known; it is a curve of a subtle character, and pre¬ 
 sents that variation in its parts which is pleasing; but 
 whether it is really entitled to be termed the line 
 of beauty is questioned by some. Our respected friend 
 Mr. Arthur, the drawing-master to the Prince of Wales 
 and the Royal Family, is inclined to the belief that the 
 pastoral crook is the true line of beauty, and this 
 conviction is borne out by many circumstances, for 
 this line occurs more frequently than any other in 
 the purest early English ornaments (Plate IX., fig. 3), 
 and is that which forms the boundary of the mem¬ 
 bers of the best examples of the Greek anthemion 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 (Plate IX., fig. 2), hence in this conjecture there 
 appears to be much truth. 
 
 7. There is not only beauty, but there is also power 
 of line. A curve while yet beautiful may be feeble, 
 or it may be full of energy and life; and that line 
 will be found to be most powerful in character which 
 approaches nearest to the right line. 
 
 8. The line of life is worthy of special consideration. 
 Nothing is so pleasing as the manifestation of a 
 strong vital power, and the thought of such can 
 readily be called forth by a certain class of line. 
 
 9. The shooting forth of the buds in spring must 
 be studied in relation to this line, and the direction 
 which every leaf takes when given off by the stem in 
 its activity of energetic growth. But in order that 
 it be fully comprehended, we must have reference to 
 the tropical vegetation, where the leaves are of 
 colossal size and the vitality of plants is at its 
 maximum; but as a tropical forest is not accessible to 
 all, we give a group of young palms, in which the 
 greatest power is manifested in the direction of the 
 members, and in which we truly have the line of life* 
 (Fig. 86.) 
 
 10. We see, then, that if we desire to invest our 
 ornaments with the beauty of life it is necessary that 
 we have energetic curves, and avoid those which are 
 feeble through being bent about like worms in agony. 
 It is always better to approach the straight line in the 
 curve than to err in an opposite direction. 
 
 # These have been derived from the Java views, to which we have 
 already made reference, by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra of Regent 
 Street and Hatton Garden. 
 
CURVES 
 
 99 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 IT 2 
 
100 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 11. This knowledge of lines will give a power which 
 could not otherwise be possessed, for it affords a 
 means of manifesting strength of varying intensity in 
 conflict with power or force. A grass stem when bent 
 by the breeze has a curve varying with its thickness 
 and rigidity as well as with the pressure of the wind; 
 and to a great extent a truthful idea of the pressure 
 in the one case and the strength in the other can be 
 given by the line. 
 
 12. If the student desires to refine his taste he must 
 have curves of acknowledged beauty to contemplate 
 and dwell upon; let the hyperbolic curve be formed 
 by water between sheets of glass, and a small chain 
 be so suspended that one end is higher than the 
 other; let, also, the secondary curves in diagrams of 
 the character of fig. 70 be had constantly in sight, and 
 by thus having lines of beauty ever before the eye 
 the feeling for refinement will be developed and 
 enlarged, and thus the mind will be rendered more 
 fully susceptible of detecting and appreciating beauty. 
 
 13. In relation to music, a discovery has recently 
 been made by a Parisian philosopher, which is of in¬ 
 estimable value; it is a method of tuning instruments 
 by sight with absolute exactness, so that to a standard 
 thus afforded the most refined ear may yet be 
 cultivated. And in relation to form, the having 
 before the eye lines of such a character that the 
 taste may ever be cultivated to them as standards, 
 answers the same end as having the exact notes in 
 music. 
 
 14. The union of curves with curves, and of curves 
 with right lines must always take place in a tangen- 
 
CURVES. 
 
 101 
 
 tial manner. Nothing can be more offensive than 
 seeing one line unite with another in such a manner 
 that it looks as if it would run through that with 
 which it unites, or as if a gimlet-hole had been bored 
 in the one, and the other was inserted into the opening 
 thus formed. There must be a graceful flowing of 
 line out of line, however far the composition may be 
 extended—and this can only be accomplished by a 
 tangential union. 
 
102 
 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PROPORTION. 
 
 1. u Ip nature has made the human body so that 
 the different members of it are measures of the whole, 
 so that the ancients have, with great propriety, de¬ 
 termined that in all perfect works each part should 
 be some aliquot part of the whole, Proportion is 
 that agreeable harmony between the several parts of 
 a building which is the result of a just and regular 
 agreement of them with each other,—the height to 
 the width, this to the length, and each of these to the 
 whole.” Proportion, then, consists in the combination 
 of a unit into quantities which, when set forth by 
 surfaces or solids, agreeably accord with each other, 
 and tend by their relations to gratify the beholder. 
 
 2. That proportion which is most pleasing will be 
 found to be of a subtle character; four to four is bad; 
 four to three or five to eight is better; for it is more 
 difficult to detect, and in ratio to the subtlety of the 
 relationship, and the consequent difficulty of detecting 
 it, is the beauty of the proportion. 
 
 3. In the middle-age architecture we constantly 
 have the proportion of five to eight, which in the win¬ 
 dows occurs in two relations (figs. 87, 88); but never 
 find the proportion of four to four, which is inva- 
 
PROPORTION. 
 
 103 
 
 riably bad; yet even a more subtle proportion than 
 that of three to eight will be found to be most 
 agreeable. 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 4. Professor Zeising has proposed a proportion which 
 he terms the “ golden cut,” as being that which pre¬ 
 vails throughout the entire economy of the universe; 
 but while we cannot go with him in all the steps in 
 his argument, we yet highly appreciate his a golden 
 cut,” and value it much as a subtle and valuable pro¬ 
 portion. 
 
 5. In order to find the “ golden cut,” erect, at the 
 end of a horizontal line (A B , fig. 89), a perpendicular 
 line (A (7), half the length of the horizontal line 
 ( A B) ; connect the remote extremities of the hori¬ 
 zontal line (A B) and the perpendicular line (AC) 
 by a diagonal line (C B), With the upper extremity 
 of the vertical line (A C) as a centre set-off, upon the 
 diagonal line ( C B ), a distance (C a) corresponding 
 with the height of the perpendicular line (C A). 
 
104 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 Transfer the distance corresponding with the remain¬ 
 ing portion (a B) of the diagonal line (C B) to the 
 horizontal line (A B ), when the “golden cut” of the 
 horizontal line {A B) is marked (by the point a'). 
 The proportion which the smaller portion of the hori¬ 
 zontal line (the portion A a') bears to the larger 
 portion {a' B) is unquestionably just and satisfying, 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 and is doubtless the best proportion with which we 
 are acquainted. 
 
 6. Translating this proportion into mathematical 
 representatives, the relation which 618*0339887 bears 
 to 1000*0000000 will be found to be its representative. 
 But to set this relationship forth in a longer series we 
 give the following table from Dr. Zeising’s work:— 
 
 1000*0000000 
 
 618*0339887 
 
 381*9660113 
 
 236*0679774 
 
 145*8980339 
 
 90*1699435 
 
 55*7280904 
 
PROPORTION. 105 
 
 34*4418531 
 
 21*2862373 
 
 13*1556158 
 
 8*1306215 
 
 5*0249943 
 
 3*1056272 
 
 1*9193671 
 
 1*1862601 
 
 0.7331070 and so on. 
 
 7. In relation to the circle, the proportions given 
 in the following figures (90) are from the same author, 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 as is also the mathematical setting forth of the matter 
 given in the following table:— 
 
 360*0000 degrees 
 222*4922 
 
 
106 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 137*5078 degrees. 
 
 84*9844 „ 
 
 52*5234 
 32*4610 „ 
 
 20*0624 „ 
 
 12*3986 
 7*6678 
 4*7308 
 2-9368 „ 
 
 1*7940 „ and so on. 
 
 While it is unnecessary for the purposes of decora¬ 
 tion that recourse be had in all cases to this method 
 of ascertaining proportions, a consideration of the 
 principle is by no means useless; but it is attended 
 with much benefit. The mind, by contemplating 
 those relations which are found to be most agreeable, 
 becomes thereby cultivated, and refined, and 
 quickened in its power of perception; hence such 
 considerations are valuable. But while it is not 
 necessary that we in all cases find the exact golden 
 cut, it is essential that proportion be of a subtle 
 character if beauty is desired. 
 
107 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ALTERNATION. 
 
 1. The term “ alternation ” as here used must not 
 be understood in its common sense as synonymous 
 with reciprocal, but as a term derived from botanical 
 phraseology, where it has reference to an arrangement 
 almost invariably found in the parts of the flower, 
 and in many instances in the distribution of the 
 leaves upon the stem also. 
 
 2. The flower is made up of four series of parts—a 
 ring of outer leaves, which are usually green; a ring of 
 coloured leaves; a number of awl-shaped or thread¬ 
 like members terminated in knobs which are usually 
 yellow; and a central organ consisting of one or 
 several portions. In their arrangement these parts 
 set forth the principle of alternation, for the members 
 of the second series do not fall over the parts of the 
 first series (the petals do not fall over the sepals), 
 but fall over the spaces between them, or alternate 
 with them. The parts of the third series do not fall 
 over the constituent members of the second, but be¬ 
 tween them—they alternate with them; and so with 
 the inner series. This condition of things is set 
 forth in fig. 91, where the outer series of parts (the 
 sepals unitedly constituting the calyx) is marked by 
 
108 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 diagonal lines; the second series (the corolla) is made 
 up of three leaf-like members; the third (the andrae- 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 ceum) of three awl-shaped members (each a stamen) 
 terminated in knobs, while the central consists of but 
 one three-lobed portion, and the consecutive series 
 alternate with each other as we have seen. (See also 
 fig. 74.) 
 
 3. Not only is the principle of alternation manifested 
 in the disposition of the floral parts, but, as we have 
 already said, it also occurs in the arrangement of 
 leaves upon the stem. 
 
 4. In the case of alternate leaves (fig. 62), the second 
 leaf does not fall over the first, but is situated at 
 the opposite side of the stem, and in opposite leaves 
 (fig. 59), the second pair does not fall over the first, 
 but over the spaces between the units of the first 
 pair, as is fully seen in the top view (fig. 60); but in 
 the verticillate or ringed-leaf arrangement (fig. 61) 
 the analogy with the disposition of the floral parts is 
 most fully seen, for here the parts of the second ring 
 do not fall over the members composing the first 
 ring, but between them. 
 
 5. Alternation is a principle, we see, manifested in 
 
ALTERNATION. 
 
 109 
 
 plants, and it is a principle which also prevails in 
 ornament, and appears to be called for by a natural 
 desire; for an observation of figs. 92 and 93, will at 
 once show that that (fig. 92) in which the principle of 
 
 Fig. 92. Fig. 93. 
 
 alternation occurs is more satisfactory than that in 
 which the principle is not acknowledged, through the 
 smaller leaves being hidden by the larger. So mani¬ 
 festly is the one superior to the other, and so intui¬ 
 tively is this superiority recognised, that we are half 
 disposed to regard it as a principle called for by 
 
 Fig. 94 Fig. 95. 
 
 instinct. Yet the desire for an acknowledgment of 
 this principle may arise from our intimacy with 
 flowers, in which this is almost an invariable law. 
 
 6. The two simple forms set forth in figs. 94, 95, 
 
110 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 derived from a warming-pan of early date, are of 
 interest in relation to this subject, as this principle 
 of alternation is in them fully acknowledged, and the 
 whole of the ornamental character which they mani¬ 
 fest (it matters not how little this be) is due to the 
 acknowledgment of the law of alternation which they 
 set forth. This principle is also recognised in Plate 
 XII., fig. 1, an ornament of a somewhat different cha¬ 
 racter. 
 
 7. The principle of alternation is not of modern in¬ 
 troduction into ornament, but has been recognised 
 from the earliest times. In the Egyptian ornaments 
 it is fully set forth, as a glance at the ornaments of 
 that period will show, and in the decorations of the 
 Indians (Plate XII., figs. 2 and 3), Greeks, and 
 Romans it also occurs. The Greeks frequently formed 
 mouldings and borders of leaves (fig. 96); but there 
 was not merely those forming the external series, 
 but others alternating with them, and the echinus 
 (fig. 97), or egg-and-tongue moulding of the Romans, 
 
 Fig. 96. Fig. 97. 
 
 consists of oviform masses arranged in a horizontal 
 series, with tongues or arrow-heads between them 
 alternating with them. Thus that form of alternation 
 which has its analogue in the side view of the folia-** 
 ceous branch is set forth in ornament; while the 
 principle, as manifested in the top view of the leaves 
 and in the flower, is seen in nearly all the radiating 
 ornaments of the different art-epochs. (Fig. 98.) 
 
ALTERNATION. 
 
 Ill 
 
 8. The principle of alternation is not only of interest 
 as it occurs in the ornaments of every age and in 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 
 plants in the manner which we have already seen, 
 but also because it occurs in diversified forms, or 
 under dissimilar aspects in the vegetable structure, 
 and because there seems to be a special object in its 
 adoption. 
 
 9. Relative to its purpose it seems to be designed 
 as a means of calling attention from a union of 
 lines which in all cases is unsatisfactory. Thus in 
 fig. 93 the eye immediately rests on the spaces be¬ 
 tween the four members, and is thus conducted to 
 the junction of lines, while the alternating parts 
 give an outward direction and thus direct the atten¬ 
 tion from the point of weakness; and whether the 
 alternation be manifested in the circular ornament or 
 the elongated series, the same end is answered. 
 
112 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 10. In plants we have a continual confluence of lines; 
 leaves are given out from the branches in all direc¬ 
 tions, and branches from stem, but the branching of 
 the stem is concealed by the foliage during the 
 summer months, in which period alone plants present 
 themselves in an ornamental aspect; and while the 
 leaves are given out in countless numbers, the means 
 devised for calling attention from the union of the 
 leaf-stalk with the stem are endless. The bud arises 
 in the angle formed by the upper surface of the leaf¬ 
 stalk and the stem (fig. 71), and thus acts as the 
 alternating members in the examples already 
 adduced; but a special provision for so arresting the 
 attention that it shall not fix upon this confluence of 
 lines is also made, as a pair of small leafy or mem- 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 braneous organs (stipules), of a form rich in subtle 
 beauty, conceal this juncture, or so arrest the attention 
 that it does not fix upon it (figs. ( J9, a, and 100)—thus 
 
ALTERNATION. 
 
 113 
 
 the principle of alternation is substituted by the 
 growth of special organs. And there seems a con- 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 sistency about this principle of alternation when care¬ 
 fully examined which is not apparent when but a 
 cursory glance is given, as will appear upon our 
 making one or two observations. Whatever be the 
 form of each unit of the outer series of parts in the 
 flower, as in fig. 92, it has practically, when seen from 
 above, the contour of the lozenge (fig. 101); and as 
 a member having this form we must consequently 
 consider it and regard its relationship with other 
 parts of the flower. Separating the lozenge-shaped 
 member, together with the lines which in part bound 
 the* forms to its right and left, we have a wedge and 
 two lines which flow more or less in concert for a time 
 and then diverge. (Fig. 102.) A similar thing occurs 
 Fig. 101. Fig. 102. 
 
 4 
 
 in that variation of the anthemion seen in Plate X., 
 fig. 6, where we have a wedge-shaped member, in 
 the form of a small conventional coronet, and again 
 have parts proceeding in the same direction for a 
 
 i 
 
114 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 time, and then deviating to the right and left; and 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 in figs. 103, 104, the same principle is applied. The 
 
ALTERNATION. 
 
 115 
 
 diamond or lozenge-shaped organ appears to act as a 
 wedge which separates members having a like direc¬ 
 tion, and gives to the sundered portions new courses. 
 
 11. The circumstances which we have here indicated 
 being associated in the mind with fitness and the 
 necessary course of things, seems to contribute much 
 to the apparently spontaneous desire for the alterna¬ 
 tion of parts. 
 
116 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ADAPTATION. 
 
 1. The principle of adaptation, or fitness, is of para¬ 
 mount importance in its relation to decorated objects, 
 for the applying to them this quality gives them 
 favour in the eyes of those who use them, and tends 
 to the exaltation of art, while its absence brings 
 ornament into contempt, and thus induces its de¬ 
 gradation. 
 
 2. In order that art become loveable in the eyes of 
 the people, it is necessary that it in no way militate 
 against the utility of the object which it adorns. If 
 the iron balustrade of a staircase be ornamented 
 with pointed forms which cause the ascending and 
 descending the staircase to be attended with the 
 danger of destroying the dress or injuring the 
 person, or if the enrichment of the door-handle hurt 
 the hand, or the spout of the teapot be so placed, 
 for the sake of ornamental aspect, that the restorative 
 beverage issues from the top of the pot before it 
 runs from the spout, the decorative principle sinks, 
 as the ornamental form brings about a deteriority 
 of the article in relation to utility, and the orna¬ 
 mental aspect is gained at the cost of comfort, safety, 
 and ease. 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 117 
 
 3. Utility, or adaptation to the purpose intended, 
 must precede enrichment. The most useful form for 
 the object, or most appropriate condition of the 
 surface to be decorated, must be first ascertained, 
 and then the enriching may take place by the appli¬ 
 cation of forms or lines which in no way detract 
 from utility or comfort; but no other form than that 
 which is most desirable must be used in order that 
 a special treatment of the surface be employed, for 
 perfect regard to fitness can alone save art from 
 suffering condemnation. 
 
 4. In vegetable nature the utmost regard to fitness is 
 manifested, and those forms only are employed which 
 are in accordance with the requirements of the posi¬ 
 tion; and even the constitution of the plant varies 
 with the surrounding circumstances—hence in rela¬ 
 tion to adaptation or fitness we must also be taught 
 by plants. 
 
 5. The most succulent plants grow in the dryest 
 positions. Our little stonecrop, with its leaves plump 
 with watery juices, grows upon the wall. The 
 mesembryanthemums abound in the sandy deserts of 
 Africa, and the cacti on the steppes of Mexico, and 
 the plants which grow in water contain much air. 
 
 6. No one can doubt the adaptation of these plants 
 to the circumstances under which they exist. The 
 stonecrop is located where but a scanty supply 
 of water is obtainable, and where many and long- 
 continued periods of drought are endured; but we 
 yet find this little plant flourishing, as it stores away 
 the water collected during the period of rain in 
 order to meet its constant requirements. This is 
 
118 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 also true in the case of the mesembryanthemums and 
 cacti, for in both instances the plants are also called 
 upon to endure droughts which are in some cases even 
 continued for years, and in both instances also the 
 plants have the power of storing up water, the 
 former in its leaves, and the latter in its stems. 
 
 7. The extent to which these plants are adapted to 
 the surrounding conditions is further seen when we 
 remember that the vegetable world stands between 
 the mineral and the animal kingdoms—that vege¬ 
 tables arrange the mineral constituents of the earth 
 into organic matter such as is suited to the building 
 up the animal body—that they are indeed the true 
 makers of flesh, which needs only to be arranged by 
 the animal and appropriated to the renewing the 
 wasting body; these facts, together with the know¬ 
 ledge that much water is required in order to the 
 fabricating the animal frame,* show how perfectly 
 the mesembryanthemums and cacti are fitted to 
 administer to the requirements of the animals which 
 dwell amidst them, and are sustained by them. In 
 a land where water is a rare commodity, and is 
 only to be had at particular seasons, and where 
 the land is parched and dry, the higher animals 
 could not exist were it not for the ’vegetation 
 which furnishes at the same time both meat and 
 drink. The sheep, Livingstone tells us, feed upon 
 the succulent leafage of the mesembryanthemum, 
 and the wild ass quenches its thirst and allays its 
 hunger by feeding upon plants of the cactus tribe; if 
 
 * As much as 111 pounds out of the 154 pounds of matter of which 
 the human body is composed, is water only. 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 119 
 
 the plant selected by this latter animal for a meal 
 be enclosed by spiny armour, which is frequently the 
 case, it, upon reaching the plant, prepares for the 
 attack by separating its lips and taking hold of the 
 long hard spines with its teeth and extracting them 
 one by one, or by knocking them off in a less careful 
 manner with its horny hoof; these plants then are 
 perfectly adapted to the surrounding circumstances 
 and the conditions amidst which they exist. 
 
 8. And the adaptation is not only in minor parti¬ 
 culars, but arises out of the very structure and 
 habit of the plant which results from the operation 
 of the hidden principle of life. The skin of the 
 succulent plant does not abound in the little openings 
 or pores (stomachs or mouths) which are so nume¬ 
 rous in the external covering of other plants—there 
 being as many as ninety thousand of these in the 
 square inch in the case of the under surface of the 
 leaf of the cherry laurel, while the leaves of succulent 
 plants have few openings, if any; hence when water 
 comes in contact with the root, it is sucked in, and is 
 conservated, to be used as circumstances require; 
 while in the case of the plant growing in damper 
 soil evaporation takes place with rapidity—even a 
 sunflower, when full-grown, giving out twenty ounces 
 of water in the day of twelve hours. 
 
 9. What has been said is suflicient to show that 
 the plants noticed are adapted to the localities they 
 occupy, and to the purpose they are intended to per¬ 
 form in the economy of nature; and the same perfec¬ 
 tion of adaptation will be seen if we examine water- 
 plants. The majority of the plants growing in water 
 
120 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 are attached by their roots to the bottom of the stream 
 in which they are situated. When this is the case 
 we find the minimum quantity of water embodied in 
 the substance of the plant necessary to its health and 
 well-being; and in the structure of the plant large 
 chambers stored with air, the object of which is 
 apparent. Water is liberally supplied, but should the 
 stream deepen through an excess of rain the plant 
 may be entirely cut off from the air, owing to its 
 attachment with the earth forming the bottom of the 
 stream, hence air is stored up in these instances, it 
 being as necessary to the life of the plant as water. 
 
 10. The instances brought forward are sufficient to 
 reveal adaptation to the requirements in the case of 
 habits arising out of the action of the vital force, but 
 there are other manifestations of adaptation, or fit¬ 
 ness, arising out of the character of the principle of 
 life, which are manifested in a somewhat different 
 manner. 
 
 11. The forms of the parts of the plant are in har¬ 
 mony with the circumstances amidst which the plant 
 exists. The trees which grow highest upon the moun¬ 
 tains, and the plants which grow upon the unshel¬ 
 tered plain have long, narrow, and rigid leaves,which, 
 owing to their form, are enabled to bear the fury of 
 the tempest to which they are exposed without 
 injury. This is seen in the case of the fir-trees 
 which grow high upon the mountains, where the 
 leaves are more like needles than leaves as they are 
 commonly presented to us, and also in the species of 
 heath which grow upon exposed moors; in both cases 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 121 
 
 the plants are, by the form of the leaf, enabled to 
 defy the blast, while those with broad leaves would 
 be shattered and destroyed. 
 
 12. But not only is the form of the leaf such as fits 
 these plants to dwell in such inhospitable regions, but 
 other circumstances also tend to this result. The stems 
 are in both cases woody and flexible, so that while they 
 bend to the wind they resist its destroying influence 
 by their strength, elasticity, and woody character. 
 
 13. Not only are plants with narrow rigid leaves 
 those which occupy the exposed position, but other 
 plants are also found in such ungenial situations, 
 which have broader and more membraneous leaves. In 
 this case there is, however, a peculiarity manifested 
 worthy of special notice—which is the broad and 
 membraneous leaves of those plants which grow in 
 exposed situations are formed into a rosette at the 
 base of the plant, and are closely pressed to the 
 ground, while those which are situated high upon the 
 stem are in all cases narrow. If the same plant 
 grow in the fertile valley and high on the mountain¬ 
 side it will, in the one case, have broader and more 
 luxuriant foliage, and in the other, narrowed and 
 skimp leafage, for in the one case the plant is exposed 
 to the fierceness of the boreas, and in the other it is 
 protected from the winds. These instances surely 
 show adaptation to the circumstances. 
 
 14. In relation to the stem of the papyrus, Sir 
 William J. Hooker mentions a fact which manifests 
 adaptation to its position. This plant grows in water, 
 and attaches itself to the margins of rivers, streams. 
 
122 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 and ponds, by sending forth roots and developing long 
 underground-stems in the alluvium by the sides of 
 the water. Owing to its position it is exposed to the 
 action of the running waters, the influences of which 
 it has to withstand; this it does, not only by having 
 its stems of a triangular form—a shape well adapted 
 for withstanding pressure, but also by having the 
 stem so placed in relation to the direction of the 
 stream that one angle always meets the stream, and 
 thus separates the waters, as does the bow of a 
 modern iron steam ship. 
 
 15. In the flower there is the same adaptation to 
 the purpose intended; but before this can be fully 
 set forth it is necessary that we be familiar with the 
 structure of the flower and the parts which enter 
 into its composition, otherwise it will be impossible 
 that we see the extent of the adaptation. 
 
 16. The flower, as we have already seen (Chapter 
 X., s. 2), is usually made up of four series, or 
 kinds, of parts (Plate XIII., fig. 2)—an outer ring 
 of leaves, which is most commonly green, and con¬ 
 sists of a varying number of constituent leaves, from 
 two to several, which may either be separate or 
 joined; an inner ring of leaves, which is usually of 
 a bright colour, and composed of the same number 
 of members as the outer ring of green leaves, which 
 may also be united or separate; a ring of slender, 
 threadlike, or awl-shaped members which are termi¬ 
 nated in yellow knobs, and a series of green parts 
 which occupy a central position in the flower; in the 
 case of the third series the members are most fre¬ 
 quently separate, but they may be united by their 
 
2 
 

 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 123 
 
 stalks (fig. 105), or by their knobs (fig. 106), while in 
 the case of the central bodies union frequently takes 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 place so perfectly that the central series seems to be but 
 one member, while it is yet formed of many portions. 
 In respect to the object pf these parts in relation 
 to the economy of the flower, it should be noticed 
 that the two external series—the leafy rings—are in¬ 
 tended to envelop or protect the inner portions, 
 which are more essential to the well-being of the 
 plant, and that the inner portions are destined to 
 bring about the production of seed. Within the 
 knobs which terminate the members of the third series 
 (figs. 74, 91, and 105) of parts, a quantity of pollen, 
 or dust, is formed, which, when examined by the micro¬ 
 scope, is seen to consist of little living spherules or 
 cells, which are the most simple form of plant ; this 
 dust is scattered by the bursting of these knobs, or 
 chambers in which it has been generated, when a 
 portion comes in contact with the central members of 
 the flower, and here, finding genial food formed of 
 honey, gum, and other mucilaginous forms of matter, 
 sends down roots in the midst of the substance of 
 these central portions, by which roots seeds are 
 generated in the manner that potatoes are produced 
 
124 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 by the underground stems of the potato plant, only 
 in the case of the potato several are formed upon 
 one stem, while in the case of the seed but one is 
 formed, and that on the end of each suspensor. This 
 is a popular setting forth of the floral parts and of 
 the works which they perform in the economy of the 
 flower, and is sufficiently accurate and detailed for 
 our purpose, but it should also be noticed that if 
 water comes in contact with the fine dust (pollen) 
 of the flower its fertility is destroyed, as contact 
 with water causes it to burst, and thus brings about 
 its destruction. 
 
 17. To return to our subject, we find that flowers are 
 usually inverted, as the harebell (fig. 107), and many 
 species of campanula; or they only open when there is 
 every prospect of fair weather, as the majority of our 
 garden flowers; or the flower closes at the approach of 
 rain, as the shepherd’s weather-glass, or pimpernel 
 {Anagallis arvenia ), and minor convolvulus; or the 
 head of flowers closes as the sky becomes overcast, as 
 the daisy (Beilis perennis ) and yellow hawkweed* 
 (Tolpis barbata ); or if the flower opens, the little 
 knobs do not shed their pollen or dust till the day is 
 bright, as in the apple and pear; and if the flower 
 grows in an open and exposed position, as upon a 
 mountain or moor, it is frequently elevated upon a 
 flexible slender stem, which, by yielding to the wind, 
 enables it to keep its back to the storm, and thus that 
 protection which is needed is afforded. 
 
 18. To take one or two individual instances, the little 
 
 * What is usually termed the flower in both these instances is a 
 head of flowers. 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 125 
 
 harebell, with its nodding cup situated at the upper 
 extremity of a long and slender elastic stem, studs 
 the moor and rises amidst the bushes to a height 
 greater than usual; here we find the heart-shaped 
 leaves, which are fast .yielding to decay, disposed in 
 the manner of a rosette pressed upon the ground; 
 then we have the stem, with its narrow elongated 
 leaves; and, above all, the flower in the form of a 
 nodding bell (fig. 107). How appropriate is this struc- 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 ture to the circumstances in which the plant is placed; 
 the drooping bell shelters the fine dust from the rain; 
 and when the flower is exposed to the beating water- 
 drops and is yet open, the pollen is protected through 
 the back of the flower being kept to the storm owing to 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 the slender and flexible characterof the stem (fig. 108); 
 here, then, is an instance of special adaptation. 
 
126 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 19. A yet more striking example of adaptation 
 occurs in the case of the common edible pea blossom, 
 where we have the five little green leaves, which form 
 the external series of floral parts, united into a cup¬ 
 shaped socket, which invests the base of the flower (fig. 
 
 Fig. 109. 
 
 109); within this we have five white leaves, which are 
 of variable forms and sizes; the upper is large and is 
 folded in the centre (fig. 110); the lateral, or side 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 leaves, which correspond with each other, are smaller, 
 and are situated within the margins of the upper 
 sheathing leaf, while the two lower are smaller still, 
 and unite to form a little scoop-shaped member (fig. 
 110, a ). Within this lower scoop-shaped portion the 
 ten organs, which unitedly form the third series of floral 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 127 
 
 parts, are situated, and of these nine are united into 
 one bundle by a consolidation of their stalks through¬ 
 out a great portion of their length, while one stands 
 alone (fig. Ill); and within the little scoop formed by 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 the nine united stalks the central organ rests, which 
 in this instance consists of but one portion: we here 
 have the structure of the flower; the inner or central 
 member, we see, rests in a scoop-shaped organ 
 formed by the union of nine stalks, which are each 
 terminated by knobs, and upon the upper portion of 
 this central organ the solitary unit of this third series 
 rests, which is also crowned by a golden ball. This 
 mass, consisting of the central organ and the ten 
 members of the next series, is concealed in a second 
 scoop-like organ formed by the union of the two lower 
 white flower-leaves, and these are protected by two 
 overlapping white leaves and a large upper leaf, also 
 white, which sits on the others in the manner that 
 the ridge-tile sits on the summit of the roof of a 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 house (fig. 112), and the base of the flower is further 
 protected by the green cup at the back; we see, then, 
 
128 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 the special provision made for the protection of the 
 pollen or fine dust of this flower, and thus for its 
 fruitfulness or seed-bearing. 
 
 20. Not only is protection afforded by part over¬ 
 lapping part, but the whole flower is turned by the 
 wind in the manner of a weathercock—hence it also 
 keeps its back to the storm. 
 
 21. We now see something of the extent of the pro¬ 
 tection afforded to the pollen of this plant, and this 
 careful concealment is ever vouchsafed unless the 
 weather is very propitious, when the large upper leaf 
 is uplifted, and the side leaves are spread, and the 
 lower scoop-shaped member is depressed. But even 
 in this spreading of the parts there is a special object: 
 the bee can now enter the flower; and in its search 
 after honey it brushes past the ruptured knobs, and 
 thus conveys the pollen to the central organ of 
 the flower, where its growth will be fostered and 
 its development ensured; but should there be the 
 promise of a shower, the little basal scoop is uplifted, 
 the lateral leaves doubled together, and the large 
 upper leaf is lowered and folded over the other parts, 
 and unless the pollen has fulfilled the purpose of its 
 creation, should the rain beat and the wind blow, 
 the back of the flower is constantly directed to the 
 storm, and thus the parts are preserved from injury. 
 
 22. Two circumstances, which we have not yet men¬ 
 tioned, combine to give to this structure of the pea- 
 blossom exceeding interest; first, the seeds of the 
 different kinds of pea contain more nourishment than 
 any other food which we use; and second, the large 
 upper sheathing-leaf, which is primarily instrumental 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 129 
 
 in furnishing the perfect protection of which we have 
 been speaking, can be shown to occupy an abnormal 
 position, its place being that indicated by the dotted 
 line in our diagram (fig. 112); these facts, considered 
 in conjunction with the structure of the flower already 
 noticed, manifest most clearly the recognition of the 
 principle of adaptation or fitness, in the case of plants, 
 to the work which they are intended to perform and 
 the circumstances in which they are called to exist; 
 and as in plants so in ornament, adaptation and 
 fitness cannot be too strongly manifested or too fully 
 considered. 
 
 23. We see that the study of the vegetable kingdom 
 suggests the utmost regard to fitness and perfect 
 adaptation; but in order to apply the principle to 
 the requirements of ornament we shall first contem¬ 
 plate one or two well-considered objects furnished 
 by ancient art. 
 
 24. Professor Semper used to say, that the history of 
 a nation can be read in the form of the water-vessel. 
 Without insisting upon the accuracy of this assertion 
 when taken in its wider significance, we yet say that 
 a great deal may be learned from such a simple 
 utensil; but in order to this, the water-vessel must 
 be a well-considered object, and be perfectly adapted 
 to the purpose for which it has been originated. 
 
 25. The characteristic form of the Egyptian water- 
 vessel is represented in fig. 113, and of the Greek in 
 fig. 114, and while both answered a similar purpose 
 they yet widely differ in shape. 
 
 26. But not only do these vessels differ in form, but 
 associated circumstances differ also; and it is this 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 variation of circumstances which brought about the 
 difference in form of the two water-vessels. The 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 peculiar features of the Egyptian water-vessel are its 
 formation out of bronze, the roundness of its base, 
 which renders it unfit for standing, the narrowness of 
 its mouth, and the handle arching the orifice; and of 
 the Greek its being wrought of clay, the secure base, 
 the wide mouth, the contraction in the centre, and the 
 handle at either side. We learn from these forms of 
 vessel, allowing their adaptation to the conditions 
 which they are intended to fulfil, that the Egyptians 
 drew water from a river, or at least from a position 
 which required the vessel to be attached to a cord and 
 cast into the supply, for the roundness of the base at 
 once points to this, it being a provision for enabling 
 the vessel to fill by turning upon its side rather than 
 float upon the surface of the waters, which it would 
 readily do were its base flattened, and its formation 
 out of metal is to facilitate this end. The arched 
 handle not only points to the attachment of the vessel 
 to a string in order that it be cast into the water, but 
 also to the carrying the vessel pendant from the hand, 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 131 
 
 in the manner that the pails of the present day are 
 carried, and the contracted mouth restrains the splash¬ 
 ing over of the water; and what this simple water-vessel 
 points to we find to have been the case, for the Egyp¬ 
 tians derived water from the Nile in the very manner 
 that we have shown the vessel is adapted to operate. 
 But with the Greeks habits are different, as the water- 
 vessel manifests. The base is flat, in order that the 
 vessel may stand; the mouth is large in order to collect 
 the water which falls from above—from the dripping 
 rocks and water spouts—and this largeness of orifice 
 points unmistakeably to the collecting falling water. 
 This being the case, a vessel formed of heavy metal 
 was unnecessary; the contraction prevents the water 
 splashing over when carried, and up to this point the 
 vessel was filled and not higher; and the handles at the 
 side show that it was carried on the head. But in con¬ 
 junction with this mode of carrying there is another 
 consideration of interest, which is, the centre of gravity 
 must be high; if we attempt to balance a stick with 
 one enlarged end on the finger, it will be found 
 necessary that the weight be at the top, and in order 
 that the object ride steadily and easily, it will be 
 necessary that the weight be considerably elevated. 
 In the Greek water-vessel, which is to be balanced on 
 the head, we find this condition fully complied with, 
 the centre of gravity occupying the position indicated 
 by the letter a in the illustration, while in the Egyp¬ 
 tian vessel the centre of gravity is low, as is also 
 indicated by A; but where the vessel is to be car¬ 
 ried underhand it is as great an advantage to have the 
 centre of gravity low, as it is in the case of a coach, 
 
 k 2 
 
132 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 where insecurity results from its being raised, and that 
 in direct ratio to its altitude. The Greek water-vessel, 
 then, consists of a capacity or chief cavity, a funnel to 
 collect and guide the water, a base for the vessel to 
 rest upon, and handles to* enable it to be raised to the 
 head, and the centre of gravity is high in order that 
 it may readily balance—and we read from this vessel 
 that the Greeks procured water from dripping rocks, 
 water-courses, &c., and this is exactly what did occur, 
 for the people derived water from these sources in the 
 manner set forth. These are the direct teachings of 
 the Egyptian and Greek water-vessels; but how many 
 circumstances and incidents of common life can be con¬ 
 ceived to grow out of these modes of collecting water. 
 There is the gossip round the well and the lingering by 
 the river side, where the image of the date palm is mir¬ 
 rored forth by the glassy surface of the waters. The 
 effect of the noise of the splashing waters, which seem 
 to be filled with the energy of life, upon the mind in 
 the one case, combined with the loud and energetic 
 speaking which would be necessary in order that the 
 voice be not drowned by the noise, and of the calm 
 tranquillity of the river bank in the other, where 
 the limpid stream ever flowing on in silent majesty, 
 must be considered. Then we have reference to the 
 potter’s art in the one case and the metal-worker’s in 
 the other. But we will not push the subject further. 
 We bring forward these two vessels in order to illus¬ 
 trate the manner in which well-considered objects 
 speak of the habits and customs of the times and 
 nations in which they originated. 
 
 27. We haveillustrated the extent to which ancient 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 133 
 
 objects were adapted to the purpose for which they 
 were intended. Let us now see the application of the 
 principle of adaptation to modern requirements. 
 
 28. An object should not only be so far fitted for 
 the work for which it is intended* that it is possible to 
 use it for the purpose of its production, but it should 
 be perfectly adapted to meet all the requirements of 
 the work to which it is assigned, and that in the 
 easiest and most simple manner. 
 
 29. The principle of fitness is constantly violated in 
 the placinghandles and spouts on vessels; but this arises 
 out of the want of a knowledge of those principles in¬ 
 volved in the attaching such affixes to utensils. What 
 can be worse than having the handle so placed in re¬ 
 lation to the spout—say in the case of a teapot—as to 
 give a considerable leverage, which can only be exerted 
 against the person who is pouring out the tea? We 
 constantly hear ladies complain of the exceeding 
 weight of the teapot, and of the fatiguing and wrist¬ 
 breaking work of pouring out tea, while others have 
 teapots of equal capacity which are not heavy, and 
 which do not cause this operation to be either wrist¬ 
 breaking or fatiguing; yet such teapots are perhaps 
 the exception in these days. A pound weight may 
 balance a half-hundred weight if the leverage be in 
 its favour; so a light teapot and a small quantity of 
 liquid may practically have a considerable weight, 
 when the teapot is held by the handle, if the lever¬ 
 age is exerted to the disadvantage of the person who 
 sustains it. Can any one, however, say that the 
 object is perfectly adapted to its work if in this or 
 any other particular its use is attended with difficulty 
 
134 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 or disadvantage. If the handle is a disadvantage we 
 had better be without it, and hold the vessel by 
 merely sustaining it between the hands, protected 
 from the heat by two kettle-holders. 
 
 30. In order that the handle and spout be rightly 
 placed on a tea-pot or similar vessel, it will be neces¬ 
 sary that the form be originated with special reference 
 to these affixes, and with full knowledge of the prin¬ 
 ciples on which these additions are to be made. The 
 first thing to be ascertained, in order that the spout 
 and handle be rightly situated in relation to each other, 
 is the position of the centre of gravity of the gene¬ 
 ral mass of the vessel (. a, fig. 115); this being found, 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
 the centre of the handle falls upon any right line (a b, 
 fig. 115), which passes through the centre of gravity 
 ( . a ), but that which is of special importance is this 
 —the spout must also fall upon a line so situated 
 that it forms a right angle with the line passing 
 through the centre of gravity and the centre of 
 the handle, as the line a b. If the handle is 
 raised to the position indicated by the dotted 
 line the spout must be lowered to the position 
 of the dotted spout, for the direction lines of the 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 135 
 
 spout and handle must bear the relation to each other 
 of the lines enclosing the right angle. If the angle 
 be made obtuse, leverage tending to bring about the 
 lowering of the teapot will be induced, and if the 
 angle be made acute, pressure will have to be exerted 
 in order to depress the mass; hence it is of the utmost 
 importance that the relation of right angle be main¬ 
 tained between the spout and the handle. 
 
 31. In some instances we find the tea running from 
 the spout of the teapot before the pot itself is full, 
 this of course arises from having the spout short; but 
 a more common evil is the tea runs over the top of 
 the pot before it runs out of the spout, when an 
 attempt is made to pour out the liquid. In order 
 the more fully to prevent this, we see no objection 
 whatever to the lid having the form and situation 
 shown in fig. 116, if necessary, for fitness and adap- 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 tation must be a first consideration in the production 
 of useful objects. 
 
 32. In respect to the placing handles on jugs nothing 
 can be worse than our common practice of attaching 
 high handles to vessels of this class, which are with¬ 
 out the advantage of a spout deviating in direction 
 from the vessel. When we take hold of the water- 
 
136 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 ewer in the bedchamber we grasp the handle near 
 its base, just where the handle ought to be situated; 
 and were it not that the handle is continued to the 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 lower portion of the jug it would be as difficult to 
 pour water from it as it is to raise a chair by 
 taking hold of one of its legs. Fig. 117 represents a 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 a 
 
 jug, and the dotted handle marks a correct position 
 for this affix. Fig. 118 also gives positions for the 
 handle and relative positions for the spout; thus the 
 
ADAPTATION. 137 
 
 handle a and the spout a correspond; the handle b 
 and the spout J, and the handle c and the spout c. 
 
 33. A consideration of the principle of adaptation 
 will further show us that each material is especially 
 susceptible of some particular treatment, and this will 
 reveal to us the folly of attempting the imitation of 
 one material with another. Clay is especially adapted 
 for being formed into jugs and other vessels of capa¬ 
 city which are required to hold water; why, then, 
 cause clay jugs to imitate wicker work, as though 
 it were to any extent adapted for fabrication into 
 vessels which of necessity must be water tight? 
 The folly of supping soup with a knitting-needle, of 
 lading water with a gridiron, or carrying wine in a 
 sieve is not greater than that of causing a jug to 
 appear as wicker-work. Neither is the making a 
 jug in imitation of cooperage much less a folly; still, 
 a barrel will hold water, but why make an earthen 
 vessel look like a specimen of bad cooperage and of 
 defective wood carving when the clay can be wrought 
 into objects of capacity of infinitely greater beauty 
 than those formed of wood? Wood has its special 
 uses, and is peculiarly suited to certain works, and 
 clay is adapted for the formation of special articles; 
 then one material should not stoop to do badly what 
 the other does well when it can do well what the 
 other cannot; the effort must be to find the sus¬ 
 ceptibilities of each material, and to apply the utmost 
 skill to the furtherance of its legitimate uses. 
 
 34. Not only must the susceptibilities of the mate¬ 
 rial be ascertained, but the most appropriate mode of 
 fabricating the material into forms of utility and 
 
138 AKT OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 beauty must be sought out. Clay is peculiarly 
 fitted for being worked by the potter’s wheel, as 
 this mode of fabricating it into forms of utility is 
 simple, and is at the same time calculated to bring 
 about the production of graceful forms, for here 
 the influence of the attraction of the earth upon 
 the semi-plastic clay aids the potter in producing 
 favourable results, as will appear from the follow¬ 
 ing—A vase may be said to consist primarily of a 
 capacity and a double funnel (an inlet and outlet). 
 The former we represent by an ellipse, the latter by a 
 cylinder (fig. 119). We now determine the width 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 of the foot at varied heights, at a and b , fig. 120, in 
 this case, and then connect the parts by the plastic 
 clay, which, by yielding to the earth’s drawing force, 
 takes the direction given by the dotted lines. The 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 139 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
140 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 form thus produced separated from constructive 
 forms is seen in fig 121. 
 
 35. Another illustration of the favourable influence 
 of attraction upon plastic or semi-plastic matter in 
 bringing about the production of beautiful forms 
 occurs in the case of the flask where pressure of air 
 from within causes the distension; but the form 
 results from the attractive force of the earth acting 
 upon the plastic glass and the included dense air, 
 which is also wrought upon by the same drawing 
 influence. Some of the smaller vessels of the Greeks 
 manifest forms which would appear to result from 
 vessels of certain shapes being filled with fluid while 
 yet plastic, which also shows the manner in which 
 attraction aids in the production of vessels of utility 
 from clay; and this one fact — that clay is sus¬ 
 ceptible of this attractive influence and is placed 
 under its direct operations when wrought into form 
 by the wheel,—tends to show that this is the most 
 appropriate mode of working it, and that it, as a 
 material, is especially suited to this method ,of fabri¬ 
 cation. 
 
 36. We see that each material can be worked 
 into a form which is to it especially befitting, and 
 that vessels appropriated to special purposes have 
 a limited range of form within which they may 
 vary, and yet be perfectly adapted to the work which 
 they are intended to perform, but departure from a 
 typical shape beyond certain limits is attended with 
 the sacrifice of utility. The Doric column (Plate I.) 
 has a form which is universally admired by those who 
 have cultivated their sense and perception of the beau- 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 141 
 
 tiful, but it arrived at its just proportions after the lapse 
 of many years. Age after age tried only to perfect its 
 form, and not to originate that which was new; so we 
 must strive to discover the best class of form for the 
 object, and to perfect an individual shape till its 
 beauty is impressive. So long as we are striving 
 after new shapes and are forced by this excessive desire 
 for novelty to produce jugs in the form of the human 
 head, we shall make but little progress. Allowing 
 that men’s heads without brains are common, we need 
 not imitate such, especially as jugs—for no one will 
 argue that such is a befitting form for a vessel of this 
 character. 
 
 37. Another class of folly often manifested, arising 
 out of a want of adaptation, is the making one surface 
 or fabric imitate another surface or fabric—as silks to 
 imitate the coarse texture of the Turkey carpet. In 
 the case of this coarse material, the best curves are 
 formed that the material admits of; hence, in silks, 
 we should strive to form the most perfect lines and 
 shapes of which the material is capable, and not to 
 imitate the defects of a coarse material. The effort 
 should always be to reach the ideal perfection, and 
 not to perpetuate a defect or deformity. Then we 
 make wall-papers imitate woven fabrics, and carpets 
 represent marble floors; while, if our floors were 
 marble, we should cover them with rugs in order to 
 increase our comfort. All these, and a thousand 
 other absurdities, arise out of the want of a due con¬ 
 sideration of the principle of adaptation or fitness. 
 
 38. A consideration of that adaptation which 
 prevails in the more perfect works of ornamental art 
 
142 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 of all ages, and of that fitness which occurs so 
 fully in the diversified vegetable objects, leads to a 
 number of other thoughts, all of some interest; but 
 upon none of these can we dwell, and but few can we 
 name, yet some must not be passed without notice. 
 
 39. In the case of a plate, the border only should 
 be decorated, for this is an article of utility, and the 
 centre is covered when the plate is in use; and the 
 interior of a cup should never be enriched with deco¬ 
 rative forms, save just round the orifice, for to do 
 more is to be extravagant. With wood carving, as 
 the legs of tables, the legs and backs of chairs, &c., no 
 small points must jut out, as there would be the con¬ 
 stant danger of their being broken off; and, in the 
 case of metal-work, no sharp prominences must occur 
 which are calculated to injure the person or destroy 
 the garments of those who make use of the article. 
 
 40. Walls should at all times be flat; and the very 
 appearance of rotundity should be avoided, save in those 
 parts with which the body does not come in contact. 
 The cornice round the upper portion of the room may 
 most desirably be in relief; but this is purely an archi¬ 
 tectural feature; and even the wall, down to a certain 
 level, may be enriched by a relief diaper, as occurs in 
 the Moorish buildings, and is rendered possible in the 
 case of common walls by an improvement effected by 
 Messrs. Scott, Cuthbertson, and Co., of Chelsea, 
 London, who furnish u self-colour ” papers, in low 
 relief, of a very beautiful character. But in all cases 
 flatness is a pleasing feature where the body comes in 
 contact with the surface; hence this character should 
 be rigidly preserved, for it is the prerogative of art 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 143 
 
 to take hold of the most pleasing feature of an object, 
 or most welcome condition of a surface, and to im¬ 
 press it, adding with it that amount of enrichment 
 which is desirable. It may be thought that in the 
 case of the Moorish treatment the belt of smooth 
 tiles (corresponding with our old-fashioned wainscot¬ 
 ing) is not sufficiently high to protect the body of 
 the occupant of the apartment from contact with the 
 embossed portion of the wall; but a moment’s medi¬ 
 tation shows that it is—for it rises above the elbow 
 when the man is standing, and above the head when 
 sitting. For, where Moorish architecture occurs, the 
 low settee and ottoman are used, which raises the 
 occupant but little above the floor of the room, and a 
 reclining position of the body is adopted. 
 
 41. In the case of carpets and other floor-decorations 
 the objection to relief, or the appearance of relief, be¬ 
 comes greater than in the case of the wall, for nothing 
 can be more uncomfortable to walk over than a rough 
 and uneven surface of land and water, bestrewed with 
 bushes and other large objects which cast massive 
 shadows, interspersed with fragments of Louis-Quinze 
 ornament. Certainly, in the case of a floor at least, 
 flatness is a desirable feature, and if desirable, then 
 a feature which art should impress. A new inven¬ 
 tion in abominations has . recently occurred; a 
 carpet having appeared which is enriched with 
 well-formed bows of ribbon, in which the light and 
 shade are so well managed that the aspect of relief 
 is fully given; but the peculiarity and crowning 
 point rests in the centre of each bow being securely 
 attached to the ground by a large button, hence the 
 
144 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 uncomfortable character of the pattern is increased to 
 a maximum by the idea being afforded that those who 
 walk over the carpet are proceeding through large high 
 loops which are securely attached to the floor. 
 
 42. In setting forth the principles w r e now advance 
 we are opposing a tide of feeling which has its chief ad¬ 
 vocate and expounder in Mr. Ruskin—yet a tide which, 
 happily for decorative art, is waning. This gentleman 
 may dogmatically say that no one who can paint a 
 picture would decorate a wall with ornament.* But 
 to apply this summary method of dealing with the 
 case to the opposite side, may we not with equal truth 
 say that no one who could justly decorate a wall 
 would paint a picture upon it? But it is easy to dog¬ 
 matize and make bold assertions, it is another matter, 
 however, to offer proof and to build up statements by 
 reason. As a decorative scheme, the Alhambra is in 
 our judgment much higher than the Vatican, for in 
 the latter the ornament is bad and the general effect 
 seems sacrificed to the exceeding power of the pictorial 
 works; but while the representative of the Natural 
 School seems to have a true feeling for pictorial art, 
 he has little knowledge of ornament, and while he 
 has done much to advance the principles and maintain 
 the claims of the former, he has done but little, we fear, 
 to foster a genial growth of the latter; for if we take 
 away the elegance from his pen, and his noble power 
 of utterance, we have little practical information 
 afforded • respecting ornament, and little advanced 
 which is likely to prove of permanent worth. 
 
 43. To talk of walking over beds of roses is very 
 
 * The Two Paths. 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 145 
 
 agreeable, and poetical also; and by expressions of this 
 character it is easy to make a successful appeal to 
 tender hearts and feelings, but after all the judgment 
 is not reached. The fancy of a brute may be tickled, 
 but man is endowed with reason which requires to be 
 satisfied. But the case is altered by the fact that not 
 one-tenth part of the designs put forth upon the prin¬ 
 ciples of the Natural School are rosy beds; many are 
 composed of flowers interspersed with wooden-looking 
 lumps of Louis-Quatorze and Louis-Quinze orna¬ 
 ment; many more are made up of trees, bushes, and 
 ponds, while others are of the ribbon character. Then 
 we have groined-roof patterns, Gothic-moulding pat¬ 
 terns, and many other varieties of a somewhat similar 
 class. The strongest advocates of relief floral patterns 
 need not contend in favour of the walking over in¬ 
 verted groined roofs, but if the principle of light and 
 shade be permitted in one case it must be allowed in 
 others; yet we are ready to admit that the want of 
 pleasing associations may render the latter class of 
 pattern more inappropriate than the former. The 
 only two complete representations of nature in the 
 kinds of pattern named occur in the strictly floral 
 pattern and the pictorial design which embraces in 
 its parts trees, avenues, and lakes. Now it is argued 
 that as what is here represented is natural, and as 
 lakes and trees appear in creation with light and 
 shade and diversified tints, it is legitimate and right 
 to depict them on our floors. This argument seems 
 to have many applications. On the same principle 
 we might say that because a thorn is bounded by 
 curves of exceeding beauty and has light and shade, 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 that it is an agreeable thing to sit upon. It does not 
 follow that because a thing is beautiful where it is 
 that it is a just decoration if removed to a new posi¬ 
 tion amidst altered circumstances. The expounder 
 of the principles of the Natural School speaks much 
 about.the “interpreting nature.” This is, unques¬ 
 tionably, right; but it does not hence follow that we 
 are to accept his interpretation, for to us it seems 
 that such a rendering is in some cases at least not 
 very accurate. In the case before us we think nature 
 does not teach the application of landscapes or any 
 incongruities to the purposes of floor-decoration, but 
 sets before us a thousand instances in which she most 
 palpably manifests a perfect adaptation to the condi¬ 
 tions under which she exists; and when she forms a 
 bed such as we love to walk upon, she fabricates it of 
 the short and tender grass blades which constitute 
 the velvet pile of nature, and has its analogue in the 
 mossy surface of ©ur carpet. In wandering over a 
 common, we instinctively avoid furze-bushes, pools of 
 water, stumps of trees, and the like, hence why place 
 them on the floor where we are compelled to walk? 
 Whenever we come in contact with an object on the 
 moor which casts a massive shadow, we avoid it; then 
 why place it in the path which we must tread? Those 
 who insist upon the application of flowers in relief to 
 the purposes of ornamentation seem only to have 
 looked at the surface of things, and have not contem¬ 
 plated the deep teachings of vegetable nature as to 
 adaptation. In the case of the leader of the Natural 
 School, the knowledge of nature seems to have been 
 derived from a secondary source, for, if we are rightly 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 147 
 
 informed, application was made at South Kensington 
 for the titles of the botanical writings of the author 
 of these pages, of which good use seems to have been 
 made, judging from certain principles and illustra¬ 
 tions set forth in the first chapter of the last volume of 
 Modern Painters; but in order to the receiving the 
 full teachings of nature reference must not only be 
 made to works written with one distinctive object, but 
 to the volume of nature which is alike open to all. 
 The best lessons which nature teaches are in some 
 cases hard to learn and difficult to acquire, but he who 
 would know her fully must be content to encounter 
 difficulties and spend long hours in ascertaining small 
 truths, and he who does so will find that plants teach 
 consistency. 
 
 44. There is another phase of the subject. Plants 
 not only manifest certain forms and combinations of 
 lines and colours, but they set forth a principle of life 
 and energy which in the tropical flora is extremely 
 manifest.* We have now to consider whether this 
 principle of life can be set forth in conventional 
 forms, and if it can, whether a composition in which 
 the spirit of nature is embodied does not more fully 
 represent the plant—or, at least, the principles of 
 plant-growth—than the ordinary floral patterns ? and 
 to decide this matter we can call in a high authority. 
 
 * The magnificent set of stereoscopic views of Java recently published 
 by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, set this forth with exceeding power. 
 The energy displayed by the publishers of these views in the procuring 
 photographs of scenes and lands of the deepest interest, and the great 
 cost at which these are procured, should elicit for them that patronage 
 which the undertaking deserves. Figs. 4, 65, 86, are taken from the 
 Java scries alluded to. 
 
148 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 Some few years back the author, while in conversation 
 with Dr. Lindley, who is well known as a botanist, 
 called attention to the sectional forms of certain seed- 
 vessels as ornamental objects, when the learned Doc¬ 
 tor related an anecdote which had occurred in his 
 history shortly prior to this time. He required a 
 wall-paper, and went in search of such to a large shop 
 in Oxford Street, when a number of floral patterns of 
 the highest order were unfolded, but all failed to 
 charm; impatience now began to manifest itself on 
 the part of the Doctor, who said, “ If you have nothing 
 which contains more nature than these I must go 
 elsewhere/’ whereupon a number of conventional pat¬ 
 terns were introduced, and one was speedily chosen: 
 here we have a man who has spent his life in con¬ 
 templating nature, bearing testimony to the fact that 
 by certain conventional forms more nature is mani¬ 
 fested than by any of the so-called natural patterns. 
 There is a hidden principle of life in plants unfelt by 
 the casual observer, which lies far back beneath the 
 forms of her parts, as the soul dwells in the recesses 
 of man’s nature, and this it is which few can 
 portray. 
 
 45. We have set forth our principles concerning 
 adaptation in ornament, principles which are alike 
 manifested by nature and by art in her best periods, 
 hence we have arrived at a stage at which it will be 
 well to advance the principles of a few men whose 
 names are honourably known in connexion with 
 ornament, in order to show how the matter stands; 
 for while we are perfectly aware that no cause is 
 proved to be right by the multitude being on its 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 149 
 
 side, it is yet well that we make ourselves acquainted 
 with the weight, in the form of great masters, on each 
 side. On the one side we have Mr. Ruskin, who 
 was formerly upheld by Mr. Redgrave, R.A., then a 
 leader of the Natural School, but a man who has 
 since become the expounder of orthodox views and 
 the awarder of merit upon the same sound prin¬ 
 ciples,* and is now in a remarkably unsettled state of 
 mind, judging from the works which have recently 
 issued from the South Kensington establishment, at 
 which he is the Art superintendent. Besides Mr. 
 Ruskin we have no great name on this side with 
 which we are acquainted, and certainly not the name 
 of any great ornamentist. On the other side, we have 
 Owen Jones, a man who, by his works, has manifested 
 his knowledge of ornament, and who has given forth 
 more real practical information respecting the deco¬ 
 rative art in his Propositions, formerly sold by the 
 Department of Practical Art for one penny, and now 
 united with his Grammar of Ornament , than Mr. 
 Ruskin has in his much more voluminous writings. 
 Hear what Owen Jones says (these passages are two of 
 the Propositions):—“ Flowers or other natural objects 
 should not be used as ornament, but conventional 
 representations founded upon them sufficiently sug¬ 
 gestive to convey the intended image to the mind 
 without destroying the unity of the object they are 
 employed to decorate.” u As architecture, so all works 
 of the decorative arts, should possess fitness , proportion, 
 
 # See Redgrave’s Report on Design, bound with the Jurors’ Reports 
 on the 1851 Exhibition, and published separately by Chapman and 
 Hall, a most valuable essay. 
 
150 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 harmony, the result of all which is repose.” Then we 
 have Digby Wyatt:—“ Infinite variety and unerring 
 fitness govern all forms in nature.” Yitruvius:— u The 
 perfection of all works depends on their fitness to 
 answer the end proposed, and on principles resulting 
 from a consideration of nature herself.” Sir Charles L. 
 Eastlake:—“ In every case in nature where fitness or 
 utility can be traced the characteristic quality or 
 relative beauty is found to be identified with that of 
 fitness.” A. W. Pugin:— u How many objects of 
 ordinary use are rendered monstrous and ridiculous 
 simply because the artist, instead of seeking the 
 most convenient form, and then decorating it, has 
 embodied some extravagance to conceal the real 
 purpose for which the article has been made.” And 
 the Kensington Department of Art avowedly; but 
 how this tallies with their late practice we cannot 
 see, for the last mania has here been for modern 
 Italian relief ornament, as suggested by the 
 Majolica ware. This enumeration of authorities 
 will give some idea of the weight on either 
 side. 
 
 46. Before dismissing this subject, we may have re¬ 
 ference to remarks frequently made condemnatory of 
 manufacturers who produce articles in bad taste, for it 
 is said, if such articles were not produced we should 
 not buy them. This is not fair; the producer and the 
 consumer must share the condemnation: so long as the 
 consumer, by his want of knowledge, creates a demand 
 for articles of bad taste, that demand will be met by 
 the producer, for the manufacturer and consumer are 
 alike ignorant of the principles of true ornament, 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 151 
 
 and the producer concerns himself only with the 
 supplying that for which there is a demand. If it 
 be urged, on the one hand, that in the case of the 
 manufacturer’s ignorance of art he should employ 
 some one of taste to see to these matters, it must be 
 admitted that it is equally imperative on the con¬ 
 sumer who has no art knowledge to employ some 
 person of sound judgment to buy for him, but 
 how rarely is this done! We have known but one 
 instance in which a person has employed another to 
 buy for him, owing to his want of taste. Owen 
 Jones seems to be right when he says, “ No improve¬ 
 ment can take place in the art of the present genera¬ 
 tion until all classes, artists, manufacturers, and the 
 public, are better educated in art.” A curious fact 
 occurs in relation to the partners of one of the 
 largest carpet manufactories in the north of England 
 and their rugs, which is appropriate here. The 
 author of these pages, being on terms of some in¬ 
 timacy with one of the partners, upon calling at the 
 works found hung upon the walls of the counting- 
 house, as pictures, certain of their magnificently- 
 wrought lion and similar rugs ; here they were 
 appropriate and effective. But upon visiting the 
 house of this liberal and princely manufacturer, in 
 order to partake of his bounties, it was found to be 
 a Gothic mansion, well stored with the most appro¬ 
 priate Gothic furniture, and nowhere was a lion 
 rug to be found. Here we have an instance which 
 shows that so long as there is a demand the supply 
 will be kept up, even while the manufacturer holds 
 contrary views of art; and indeed it is better that the 
 
152 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 people, through their knowledge, refuse to buy works 
 of false art than that they be debarred from procur¬ 
 ing such simply through the cutting off the supply. 
 The former state of things we may hope to see; the 
 latter we must never hope for. 
 
 47. Not only is a flat treatment the only treatment 
 which is adapted to a flat surface, as a wall, but there 
 are special effects which are peculiarly suited to the 
 particular rooms; thus a drawing-room should be 
 bright and light, and calculated to cheer and encourage 
 pleasurable conversat ion—hence no dark paper is suited 
 to such a room, for it would fail to induce the condi¬ 
 tion of mind desired. The paper on the wall of the 
 dining-room should be darker and lower in tone, for 
 the object of special attraction here is the spread table 
 —hence no object should call attention from it. The 
 library should be rich and calculated to foster medi¬ 
 tation, and the bed-room cheerful and calm, so that in 
 the hour of sickness the influence may be soothing. 
 Yet in all cases both the wall and the floor, hence 
 the paper and the carpet, should serve as a back¬ 
 ground to the contents of the room, and should be 
 of that subdued character which enhances the value 
 of the furniture exposed. If good engravings or 
 sketches are hung upon a wall covered with an unsuit¬ 
 able paper, they will hardly ever be noticed; but 
 if they be hung upon a suitable background their 
 attractiveness will call forth many a comment, hence 
 we see that a special class of paper is peculiarly suited 
 to a particular condition. 
 
 48. A consideration of adaptation or fitness further 
 shows that ornaments destined for vertical and hori- 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 153 
 
 zontal positions—for walls and floors—should be of a 
 different class; that the wall decoration should have 
 its halves corresponding while the floor should consist 
 of radiating parts. 
 
 49. This is a principle which has been universally 
 obeyed in the best periods of art, and occurs most fully 
 in the vegetable kingdom, as will be seen by attentive 
 observation. The top view of every plant (with the 
 exception of a few so low in the scale of organiza¬ 
 tion that they are not popularly regarded as plants) 
 shows it to be of a radiating character. While this 
 statement is true, even in the case of trees and 
 the larger vegetables, it concerns us chiefly in re¬ 
 lation to the smaller plants. In wandering over 
 the moor we notice that every plant which we look 
 down upon has this radiate structure—the daisy, the 
 buttercup, the jelly-flower (Cardamine pratensis ), 
 the primrose, the cinquefoil [PotentiilcC ], and whatever 
 plant we look down upon, it matters not what it is, 
 for in all cases the leaves and the flowers and the 
 prostrate stems spring from a common centre. These 
 are the horizontal ornaments of nature, and with the 
 top or radiate view of these structures are we alone 
 familiar. We know the aspect of the daisy plant, 
 of the dandelion, and of the London pride as seen 
 from above, but are not familiar with the side view 
 of such structures, and all plants with the top view 
 of which we are familiar, and which are conse¬ 
 quently to us horizontal ornaments, are of a radiate 
 character. On the contrary, all plants with the side 
 view of which we are familiar have but their halves 
 corresponding, and in many cases the halves are not 
 
154 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 exactly alike, setting aside the influences of disturbing 
 causes, 
 
 50. When the leaves are opposite (see section 10, 
 Chap. VI.) the halves of the structure exactly corre¬ 
 spond, when seen laterally, if undisturbed; and the 
 same is the case if the leaves are disposed in rings 
 (Chap. VI., s. 10). But when the parts have a spiral 
 exodus, the halves cannot be precisely alike; yet even 
 here nature seems to make an effort to secure this 
 vertical symmetry, which is pleasing in objectshaving 
 an upward tendency. 
 
 51. In the case of the flower it is similar. If the 
 halves only are alike, the blossom is so situated that it 
 becomes a vertical ornament, as in the violet (fig. 122), 
 
 Fig. 122 . 
 
 where the head nods, the mimulus, sage, dead-nettles, 
 eye-bright, lavender, and mother-of-thousands ( Saxi - 
 fraga sarmentosa ), Plate XIII., fig. 1, where the 
 flowers proceed laterally from the stem; but if 
 the flower consists of similar radiating parts (Plate 
 XIII., fig. 2), it occupies a horizontal position, as 
 the rose, sweet-william, pink, and buttercup. Yet 
 we occasionally find flowers formed of similar radi¬ 
 ating parts placed vertically; but to this there is 
 less objection than to a bi-symmetrical flower being 
 placed horizontally. It will be said that flowers of a 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 155 
 
 bi-symmetrical character do occur horizontally, and 
 the candy-tuft (Fig. 123), hemlock, and many uinbel- 
 
 Fig. 123. 
 
 liferous plants will be adduced as examples; for in these 
 cases the halves of ithe flower only correspond, and 
 these do enjoy a horizontal position. Circumstances, 
 it is said, alter cases, and this is true in this instance 
 at least; for here the flower is not solitary, but the 
 blossoms are so arranged that the symmetrical cha¬ 
 racter is restored by their disposition, as the smaller 
 halves of the flower are, in all cases, directed towards 
 the centre of the circle (fig. 124). We learn, then, 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
 that in the case of those plants which appear as hori¬ 
 zontal ornaments we have a radiate structure, and in 
 the case of those plants which appear as vertical 
 objects we have a bi-symmetrical structure. Apply¬ 
 ing these principles to the case of conventional orna¬ 
 ments, we see that while a pattern constructed on such 
 
156 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 a form as is represented in fig. 57 is adapted, in 
 its present arrangement, for a wall-decoration, it 
 would be most objectionable as a floor-pattern; for in 
 this position it would of necessity be wrong way 
 upwards to a large portion of the occupants of the 
 room. Yet such patterns are fabricated and used, 
 bad as they are; and when they are purchased and 
 taken home a long discussion ensues as to how the 
 pattern is to run—whether to the fire or from the fire; 
 and all this arises out of the pattern being unsuited 
 to its position. We have seen that, in certain cases, 
 flowers of a bi-symmetrical character have a hori¬ 
 zontal position, so it is not necessary that all floor- 
 patterns be made up of squares and circles. Even the 
 form represented in fig. 57, which we have just been 
 considering, is admirably fitted for a horizontal posi¬ 
 tion ; but then the arrangement must be that repre¬ 
 sented in fig. 58, which is pronounced or emphasized 
 equally in different directions.* 
 
 52. The arrangement of the diamond or lozenge 
 form, given in fig. 53, is perfectly suited for a wall or 
 vertical surface, while the dispositions of this form, 
 given in figs. 50, 51, 52, and 54, are better suited for 
 floors or horizontal surfaces; and the same thing 
 occurs with the form set forth by fig. 125, which is 
 perfectly suited to a vertical surface when erect, as 
 here drawn, or when by inversion it is changed into 
 
 * A carpet pattern of a very simple character founded upon this 
 basis was designed by the author and manufactured by Messrs. Jack- 
 son and Graham some time since, and a wall paper to match, on the 
 basis of fig. 64, has recently been cut by Messrs. Scott, Cuthbertson, 
 and Go. 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 157 
 
 a scale pattern (fig. 126); while, if it is required as a 
 floor-decoration, it must be arranged in the manner 
 represented in fig. 127. 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 53. With stair-carpeting the case is somewhat dif¬ 
 ferent ; for here the form and arrangement given in 
 fig. 57 would not be so offensive and inappropriate as it 
 
 Fig 126. 
 
 would upon an ordinary floor; but even here, imme¬ 
 diately the top stair is ascended, such a pattern would 
 be very objectionable. Hence the treatment should 
 be similar to that of the common floor, or the 
 pattern should be accented in two directions only 
 (figs. 128, 129). 
 
158 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 54. We have seen that in the case of plants those 
 which are seen as horizontal objects have a radiating 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 character, while those which appear as vertical objects 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 are of a bi-symmetrical character; in conjunction with 
 this one circumstance should be considered, which is, 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 159 
 
 as vegetable forms are of a flexible or elastic nature, 
 it is impossible for a radiating ornament to retain a 
 circular form if placed vertically, owing to the influ¬ 
 ence of attraction upon plastic matter. 
 
 55. For the purpose of illustration, we shall compare 
 a plant, with its circular system of leaves, to whalebone 
 radii terminated in knobs proceeding from a fixed 
 centre, fig. 130. The centre in our figure corresponds 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
 with the short stem of the plant from which the 
 leaves proceed, the whalebone rays, with the leaf¬ 
 stalks and the knobs on the extremities of these rays, 
 with the leaves; when this is sustained horizontally, 
 and viewed from above, it appears as a regular star; 
 for the depression of the rays by the attractive in¬ 
 fluence of the earth, to whatever extent it may take 
 place, is unobservable in the position from which we 
 are viewing it; or, to be more accurate in expression, 
 the character of the ornament is not altered, for all 
 the rays are of the same length, and each appears as 
 
160 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 a right line; but let this arrangement be placed ver¬ 
 tically, and viewed as a wall-decoration, and its cha¬ 
 racter is seen to be altered, for it no longer consists of 
 members having the same direction, but of parts so 
 arranged that the whole is now of a bi-symmetrical 
 character (fig. 131), and this one fact seems to give 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 much consistency to many of those forms which we 
 have used as illustrations of repetition with variation 
 (see Plate IX.). 
 
 56. In relation to adaptation one other hint is given 
 us by nature through the medium of plants, which is, 
 that the portions of a composition may be removed 
 from their normal stations if the conditions are so 
 altered as to render this desirable. This can be 
 illustrated by the ivy, where the leaves are generated 
 upon the spiral principle, and are so protruded that 
 the sixth leaf falls over the first, and two revolutions 
 of the spiral thread round the stem are made in 
 encountering the fine leaves which form the unit of 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 161 
 
 the spiral series (Chap. VI., s. 13); the arrangement, 
 indeed, is precisely like that of the oak represented in 
 figs. 68, 69. This is the normal arrangement of the 
 leafage of the ivy, and the disposition which occurs in 
 all cases where an equal supply of air and light is 
 received on all sides, but no sooner is the plant brought 
 in contact with a wall than it completely alters the 
 arrangement of its leafage to the alternate disposition 
 (Chap. VI., s. 12); and even this is so modified that 
 the leaves are all turned towards the spectator, and 
 thus the most beautiful arrangement of the parts 
 possible under the circumstances is brought about. 
 
 57. A similar departure from the normal law fre¬ 
 quently occurs in the jasmine, which has its leaves 
 arranged in crossing pairs (Chap. VI., s. 10). We 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 contact with a wall the crossing arrangement is 
 departed from, and the leaves pass only to the right 
 
 M 
 
162 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 and left (fig. 132). In the case of the ivy, one 
 leaf out of five, at least, would come in contact 
 with the wall and be cramped and injured, and 
 consequently of an unsightly character, were it not 
 for this departure from rule; and in the case of the 
 jasmine, one leaf out of four would be destroyed; 
 but by this departure from the normal habit of 
 growth the leaves are preserved from injury, and a 
 new disposition of the parts is brought about which 
 secures beauty. 
 
 58. An instance of a somewhat similar character, 
 having a more special reference to the relation of wall 
 and floor-patterns, or the manner in which a pattern 
 suited to the former position should be modified in 
 order to be appropriate to the latter position, we have 
 noticed occurring especially in the goosegrass, where 
 the leaves are arranged in rings in the manner repre¬ 
 sented in fig. 61. This plant has feeble stems, yet it 
 is destined to an erect position: for the angles of the 
 stem and the midribs of the leaves are each furnished 
 with, hooks which by their graspings sustain the 
 plant in an erect position. When thus vertical, 
 the leaves are given off from the stem in all 
 directions, at equal angles, a condition shown 
 in fig. 61, to which we have just made reference, 
 but if by any accident the seed springs up, and the 
 plant develops itself where there is nothing on which 
 it may lean, the stem reclines upon the earth, and 
 develops in an onward instead of an upward direc¬ 
 tion. Here, however, is the circumstance to be 
 noted: the direction of the leaves is now changed, 
 for instead of their proceeding from the stem in such 
 
ADAPTATION. 
 
 163 
 
 a manner that they all form with it equal angles, 
 some leaves are so raised, and others so depressed (fig. 
 133), that we have an arrangement which appears 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 in top view as a series of rings of leaves connected 
 by a stem (fig. 134.) What do these instances teach 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 
 us? Is it not that fitness must precede all other con¬ 
 siderations, and that we must apply ourselves to the 
 task of discovering the most befitting form, or ap¬ 
 propriate condition of an object or surface, and after 
 this seek to apply such enrichments to it as seem 
 desirable and in no way violate the principle of con¬ 
 sistency? We now see the teachings of nature upon 
 the subject of adaptation, and the application of 
 these teachings to the case of decoration; yet even 
 with this knowledge, and an acquaintance with the 
 practice of those ages in which art has flourished, 
 which has in all cases been in unison with the prin¬ 
 ciples we are advocating, we cannot hope that any 
 great advances will be made, so long as articles of 
 
 m 2 
 
164 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 furniture are chosen in the manner in which they 
 now are. If a house is to be furnished, or even a 
 room, the purchaser selects first a pretty paper for 
 the wall, then a pretty carpet for the floor, then 
 pretty curtains for the windows, a pretty cover for 
 the table, pretty chairs and tables, and as many 
 pretty things as are deemed necessary, without ever 
 thinking whether all these pretty things will make a 
 pretty whole. The carpet may be good as a carpet, 
 but may combine with the wall anything but har¬ 
 moniously; the table-cover may be well chosen as a 
 solitary object, but may prove to be the opposite of 
 what it ought when brought into society; and both 
 the curtains for the windows and the covers of the 
 chairs may be offensive when in juxtaposition with 
 other objects: so long, we say, as we proceed in this 
 manner, little advance can be looked for; we must 
 select those objects which are in all respects best 
 adapted to the circumstances in which they are to be 
 placed, and this can only be done where knowledge 
 is possessed. 
 
F 7 xev: 
 
165 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS 
 AND IDEAS. 
 
 1. A drinking vessel preserved in the South Ken¬ 
 sington Museum is beautified by an ornament which 
 sets forth the Chinese notion of an eclipse; a golden 
 ball represents the sphere about to be lost in darkness, 
 a number of clouds float in mid air, and a monster 
 dragon advances with the view of swallowing the 
 golden orb; here we have a subject—a thought—an 
 idea, shrouded in ornament or set forth by decorative 
 forms,* and that in a manner alike beautiful and im¬ 
 pressive, for the dragon is all that could be desired, 
 being vigorous, energetic, grotesque, and ornamental; 
 but the success of the composition, great as it is, does 
 not concern us at present, as our attention must fix 
 itself upon the fact that a subject is portrayed by orna¬ 
 mental characters, and upon the agencies employed to 
 bring about this end. (Plate XIY.) 
 
 2. In paragraph 14 of Chapter II. we have shown 
 that an image possessing the salient characters of an 
 object will call the object to mind, while the image is 
 
 * We could not regard the dragon as a piece of ornament were it a 
 representation of any existing creature, but as it is a mere ornamental 
 animal, we are justified in so doing. 
 
 
166 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 in all minor particulars unlike that which is brought 
 before the mental eye, which truth being recognised 
 by the Chinese artist has enabled him to call forth 
 within us the idea of a dragon by an ornamental 
 creation which, while it is possessed of eyes, legs, 
 body, tongue, and teeth, is yet unlike any creature 
 that either does or can live, yet unmistakeably a 
 dragon, for the salient features in the mental concep¬ 
 tion of this monster are present, which of themselves 
 suffice to enable the mind to recognise the intended 
 thought; but in this instance the inducing the mind 
 to create to itself a particular creature is not difficult, 
 as the term dragon is applied generically to all animals 
 with a long body continued as a tail, short and power¬ 
 ful limbs, and a head furnished with a large mouth 
 and powerful jaws, as well as by the dragon being a 
 mere fabulous creature. The clouds are depicted in 
 a manner so conventional that unless the significance 
 of the forms used were known it might be difficult to 
 determine what was portrayed; yet in a symbolic 
 system the use of forms of a wholly conventional 
 character is sanctioned by the practice of ages as the 
 counterparts in ornament of natural objects. 
 
 3. This illustration makes manifest the possibility of 
 setting forth an idea by decorative forms, and we might 
 bring forward others which would show that a plu¬ 
 rality of thoughts can be illustrated by ornament, 
 and that knowledge may be shrined in beautiful 
 forms. We frequently 'find upon Chinese vessels the 
 earth represented as a plain, the plain in some in¬ 
 stances resting on the back of a tortoise, and the con¬ 
 ventional clouds floating above; thus this ingenious 
 
PL-'237: 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 167 
 
 people set forth that which they believe. We know 
 the earth to be spherical, and to be surrounded by 
 clouds and starry worlds, hence it is but right that we 
 set forth our knowledge in ornament as do the Chinese. 
 In order to this, we draw the earth as a globe, or, to 
 be precise, as an oblate spheroid; we mark upon 
 it the great continents and a few longitudinal lines; 
 we now surround it with clouds, using the form 
 furnished by the middle-ages, and place externally 
 the stars. (Plate XV.) 
 
 4. Although we see the possibility of expressing 
 definite ideas by the agency of ornamental shapes, 
 yet this has been accomplished by the aid of forms 
 having an acknowledged significance; and pleasing as 
 this mode of expression by the agency of symbols is, 
 yet the power of utterance thus afforded is limited. 
 Orange-blossoms may set forth innocence, and call up 
 reminiscences of Hymen’s altar; holly and mistletoe 
 will express Christmas, and evoke thoughts of merri¬ 
 ment and joy; the violet will typify humility, leaf- 
 buds spring, a profusion of flowers summer, ripe 
 fruits autumn, leafless branches winter, the trefoil 
 the Trinity, and the quatrefoil the four Evangelists; 
 yet the number of such symbols is few, consequently 
 they afford no great means of expressing ideas. 
 
 5. In order that a symbolic art be powerful in utter¬ 
 ance it is necessary that the people have knowledge of 
 the purport or significance of the forms used and of 
 the circumstances to which they have reference, for in 
 the absence of this knowledge the decoration, through 
 not being understood, ceases to be impressive; and 
 this is the great drawback to a symbolic system, and 
 
168 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 is that which will ever limit its development and re¬ 
 tard its adoption, even if nourished by favouring 
 circumstances; but as the most propitious conditions 
 for the healthy growth of such a system have passed 
 away, there is no reason in hoping that symbolism will 
 again prevail. Still, all are agreed as to the desira¬ 
 bility of embodying our knowledge in ornamental 
 forms; indeed, this must be done in order that decora¬ 
 tion command our sympathies and be satisfying, but 
 it must be accomplished without the aid of symbols. 
 The appeal must be made to that knowledge which is 
 invariably gained by the common-life experience of 
 those addressed, or to the education which such are 
 known to possess. This is the only way in which we 
 can hope to exalt ornament, and to endue it with the 
 power of eliciting the sympathies of the people, and 
 of drawing to itself that patronage and interest 
 necessary to its advancement. We condemn the con¬ 
 duct of the people in not nourishing the growth of 
 ornament, and upbraid them on account of their 
 ignorance of art, saying, that this alone is the cause 
 of the poverty of the harvest of decorative forms. 
 
 6. But is it so? Is there no fault on our side? Have 
 we furnished ornaments which, while they are comely 
 inform, also manifest the knowledge of our age? And 
 have we placed our fellow-countrymen under an 
 obligation by furnishing their houses with decorations 
 which will proclaim to generations yet unborn the 
 nature and extent of our discoveries, and which, at 
 the same time, instruct those who now dwell upon 
 them? If we have not done so, can we wonder that 
 art is not cherished more ? Do we not rather marvel 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 169 
 
 that in this respect things are not worse than they 
 are? So long as we repeat ancient forms, or continue 
 to produce designs which in no way set forth our 
 knowledge, we must fail to invest ornament with that 
 power which it ought to possess, and that which will 
 bind it to the people. The mechanical arts are justly 
 set forth; our stoves and bronze vases are well cast; 
 our marble mantel-shelves are well cut and finished; 
 the furniture of our rooms is well put together; the 
 glass shades are well blown; the windows are of large 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 sheets of smooth, bright, transparent glass; the rugs 
 are well made, the carpets well woven, and the wall¬ 
 papers printed with great exactness,—which all teach 
 us the perfection of our machinery and the greatness 
 of our mechanical skill; and they will also tell, in 
 future ages, of the vastness of our power; but the 
 art will fail to speak of our greatness, powerful in 
 utterance though art be. 
 
 7. Fig. 135 will serve to elucidate the manner in 
 
170 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 which knowledge can be embodied in ornament and 
 illustrated by it, as it has two members which we 
 may consider as setting forth natural facts. If a ball 
 is thrown against a wall, it will rebound, and that in 
 such a manner that the angle formed by it and the 
 upper portion of the wall as it rebounds, will be 
 coincident with that formed by the ball and the lower 
 portion of the wall, as it first left the hand. If the 
 ball be replaced by a mobile fluid, it will manifest 
 the action of a new influence; for while a portion re¬ 
 bounds, part will run upwards in contact with the 
 vertical surface, being thus drawn from its course 
 and held to the wall by surface attraction. This is 
 well seen at our coasts, where wave after wave ad¬ 
 vances, and after running up the gravel beach, strikes 
 against the cliff: one portion of the water imme¬ 
 diately rebounds, while another portion ascends in 
 contact with the rocky surface. In some places the 
 cliff has been sapped by the ever-rolling waves, where 
 the water may be seen striking against the vertical 
 rock at the back, and then flying off and striking the 
 overhanging surface, which it continues long in con¬ 
 tact with while urging its way to the margin of the 
 overhanging rock. Another familiar instance in 
 which surface attraction is made manifest is furnished 
 by an experiment occasionally seen at the tea-table. 
 The spoon, when poised on the edge of the cup in such 
 a manner that the bowl floats on the tea, draws the 
 liquid from its position of rest into an elevated ring in 
 immediate contact with the spoon, which appears to 
 sustain the spoon, and gives a clinging effect, which is 
 applied in Plate XVII., fig. 2, and Plate XXIII., fig. 2. 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 171 
 
 The circumstances or facts of these examples may be 
 considered as embodied in our figure (fig. 135), where 
 from the spiral a member is given off to the right in a 
 diagonal yet upward direction, which, through coming 
 in contact with a solid surface, rebounds in part and is 
 in part conducted along the horizontal plane. The re¬ 
 bounding of the member, which appears to be urged 
 forward by a vital power, manifests obedience to 
 natural law; and its continuance in contact with the 
 surface yields the same submission to the forces of 
 nature, while the quaint drawing aside of the member 
 given off by a weak force to the left (the weakness of 
 the energy by which it is urged forward being mani¬ 
 fested by the fact that it is removed thus easily from 
 its course) shows equal submission to the same influ¬ 
 ence. This ornament, derived from a high source, 
 (The Preacher , illuminated by Mr. Owen Jones) in 
 order to check all doubt concerning its beauty while 
 yielding obedience to decorative laws, may justly be 
 said to embody two natural facts with which we have 
 acquainted ourselves, and these it manifests without 
 the aid of forms having an acknowledged significance. 
 
 8. This may be thought to be an exceptional case, 
 but it is not such. Doubtless any thought may be set 
 forth by ornamental forms; but in order to this an 
 inquiry into the facts and circumstances which go to 
 make up the mental conception of that which is to be 
 set forth must be instituted and carefully conducted. 
 What goes to form our conception of evening? Not 
 one fact alone, but a number which we have be¬ 
 come familiar with throughout life: it is these which 
 we have to ascertain and discover. Some days 
 
172 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 pass away, and are succeeded by night, without our 
 being impressed with the period of twilight, while 
 at other times we feel that it is evening. What is it 
 that causes us thus to feel? And what do we now 
 see that we do not meet with at other times? The 
 aerial vault has a hue peculiar to this period of day— 
 a fact which can never fully be appreciated till an 
 attempt is made at mixing a flat tint which exactly 
 represents it. There is the brightening u star of the 
 evening,” which shines forth long before its comrades 
 less brilliant than itself. Measure with exactness the 
 means necessary to represent this shining sphere which 
 has a colour that cannot be told, and brilliance 
 which can only be represented by heightening the 
 contrast between the star and the sky. The herbage 
 partakes of the influence, and alters the position of 
 its leaves, which for the most part rise and form a 
 more acute angle with the upper portion of the stem. 
 And the majority of flowers close, while others open, 
 as the evening primrose.* The colours are also 
 altered; blue becomes lighter, till in the later dusk it 
 is impossible to tell a surface washed with cobalt in 
 its intensity from a sheet of white paper. Orange 
 and red become darker, and finally disappear in 
 black. The bright orange flower of the common 
 nasturtium (almost orange-chrome in colour) at the 
 period of the later dusk presents the mahogany or 
 rich chestnut colour of the dark flower of the same 
 
 * This they do at various periods of the evening, which usually cor¬ 
 respond with the hours of opening in the morning: thus, if a flower 
 opens at six o’clock in the morning, it usually closes at six in the 
 afternoon; if it opens at eight in the morning it closes at eight in the 
 evening. See the “ Floral Clock,” given in the Appendix. 
 
Pi XVI: 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 173 
 
 species,* while yellow is least changed under these 
 circumstances. Greens become darker, objects are 
 blended and confused, and soft indistinctness pre¬ 
 vails. Besides these characters, there are owls, the 
 moon, mushrooms, bats, and large-eyed monsters^ 
 all of which contribute to the mental conception of 
 this period of day. 
 
 9. Having ascertained what goes to make up our 
 mental idea of evening, it is not difficult to set forth 
 the thought in ornament, or to create a decorative 
 scheme which shall so impress the mind as to cause it 
 to originate to itself the sense of evening. But in 
 order to this it is not necessary that we avail our¬ 
 selves of all the elements which are associated with 
 evening, for a few salient features will usually suffice. 
 All that is necessary is that we originate a series of 
 conventional forms which shall call to mind the 
 salient features in our conception, and the result is 
 gained; but the success of the effect will rest upon 
 the character of the ornament, the arrangement of 
 the composition, and the right perception of the 
 characteristic features. Plate XYI. is a hasty sketch 
 in which we have endeavoured to convey the thought 
 of the evening star. 
 
 10. We next offer an illustration of a “ Hobgoblin,” 
 —a creature with eyes as large as tea-saucers, resident 
 in Pad-foot-lane. (Plate XVII., fig. 1.) It will be 
 found that we associate with our conception of evening 
 
 * The flowers of the common varieties of the nasturtium, such as we 
 find in cottagers’ gardens, are in colour either lemon-yellow, orange, 
 or of a dark and rich chestnut-maroon; the two latter are. alluded to 
 above. 
 
174 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 the existence of creatures with luminous eyes; for in¬ 
 sects generally impress by their eyes and wings, and 
 although perfectly familiar with the organs of vision of 
 these creatures, we are frequently altogether ignorant 
 of the character of the mouth. Hobgoblins are asso¬ 
 ciated with evening, hence it is necessary to link them 
 with our conception of this portion of the day and to 
 make them terrific through the magnitude of the eyes. 
 In Plate XVIII., fig. 1, another form of monster is 
 given. 
 
 11. It should be remembered that a play upon 
 other forms is suggested by plants: for various re¬ 
 semblances to animal forms appear in the Orchid 
 flowers; flies are seen in the fly-ophrys, bees in the 
 bee-ophrys, musquitoes are borne by the musquito- 
 flower of the Peruvians; the butterfly is found in the 
 butterfly-plant of Trinidad; pelicans in the pelican- 
 flower, which is a kind of lady’s-slipper; the skin of 
 the tiger in the tigerlike stanhopea; that of the 
 leopard in the leopardlike bolbophyllum. The lynx¬ 
 like flower of Hernandez is so called from its lynx¬ 
 like eyes and teeth. Then we have the military- 
 orchis and the monkey-orchis, the lizard-orchis, the 
 lady’s-slipper, dragon-flies, moths, swans, doves, 
 bulls, serpent s’-heads, and frogs in various other 
 flowers of this extensive order; hence, in our practice 
 of playing upon other forms we are but following a 
 hint given by nature in some of her most beautiful 
 manifestations. 
 
 12. Our sketch of the Hobgoblin may be appro¬ 
 priately followed by one of evening in which this 
 creature is present. (Plate XIX.) 
 

PI. KJX 
 
 
 
 


 

 
 R XXL 
 
 4 
 
pi :xxu 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 175 
 
 13. The most simple agency by which the thought 
 of ascension can be called to mind is by the arrow with 
 its apex directed upwards, and of descension by an 
 arrow inverted; but the ideas evoked by such a use 
 of this simple form are necessarily indefinite. In 
 order that a sense of ascension and descension be 
 more perfectly awakened a more complicated mode of 
 expression must be adopted, which shall be an em¬ 
 bodiment of occurrences or effects associated by the 
 mind with these acts. An umbrella, moved through 
 the air with considerable velocity, in such a manner 
 that the handle follows, has its web pressed closely 
 against the stick. A bird in rapid flight has its fea¬ 
 thers pressed against the body. A parachute during 
 ascent is closed. Should the umbrella be pulled 
 downwards through the air it will be forced open; 
 a bird when descending has its wings uplifted; and 
 the parachute is spread—hence these bodies, when in 
 these particular conditions, tend to induce the mind 
 to originate to itself the thought of ascension or 
 descension, or progression and retrogression, as they 
 are directed perpendicularly or horizontally. As 
 illustrations of what is necessary in order to the 
 awaking the thought of ascension and descension, we 
 give the following illustrations. (Plates XX., XXI., 
 XXII.) 
 
 14. Our ideas of ascension and descension are de¬ 
 rived almost exclusively from the observation of bodies 
 rising and falling through the atmosphere; we may 
 have observed objects rise and sink in water or other 
 liquids, but from bodies moving through the air our 
 chief sense of these acts is gained. The air is fluid 
 
176 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 matter, having density and weight, and offering re¬ 
 sistance to all bodies moving through it; hence if an 
 object moves through it, it is pressed upon, as the air 
 has not the motion of the moving body; and if the 
 object be flexible or elastic its form is altered, or the 
 direction of its parts changed by the resistance 
 offered. The nature of the resistance must be care¬ 
 fully considered, and the manner in which it is offered. 
 If the medium, through which the body moves were 
 more dense, the resistance offered would be greater; 
 thus motion through water might be set forth as well 
 as motion through air, but the want of familiarity 
 with the aspect of bodies when moving through this 
 medium might debar it from being appreciated. The 
 effect of pressure on bodies of varied degrees of elas¬ 
 ticity and extensibility, both free and fixed, should 
 be most carefully and constantly studied. Some 
 little time back we were much instructed on this sub¬ 
 ject by a series of experiments performed by Pro¬ 
 fessor Tyndall, at the Royal Institution, illustrative 
 of his views of glaciers; he caused semi-plastic 
 matter (pipe-clay reduced to the consistency of thick 
 batter by water), to flow down planes of varying 
 declivity, having coloured lines and circles impressed 
 upon it, which underwent remarkable changes of 
 form as they descended and were acted upon by vary¬ 
 ing pressure. The rings resulting from bubbles of 
 phosphuretted hydrogen gas being introduced into 
 the atmosphere, when acted upon by gentle currents 
 of air, manifest the action of force very readily. The 
 influence of matter in motion upon matter, whether 
 moving or fixed, is at all times worthy of study, for 
 
POWER OF ORNAMENT TO EXPRESS FEELINGS. 177 
 
 by observing the aspects of matter when acted upon 
 by various influences, and diligently inquiring into 
 the nature of the mental conception of facts and 
 occurrences, it will be found possible to express feel¬ 
 ings and ideas by ornaments without the aid of 
 symbolic forms. 
 
 N 
 
17S 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 1. There are a number of principles which, while 
 very important in relation to ornament, are yet of 
 minor interest when brought in comparison with those 
 which we have already discussed; yet while of small 
 moment, when thus compared with the most impor¬ 
 tant laws of decoration, they are not the less worthy 
 of careful consideration. The key-stone is but small 
 in relation to the arch, yet very important; the eye 
 is but small in relation to the body, yet of incalculable 
 worth; and just as the arch could not stand without 
 the key-stone, and the body suffers a great want if 
 the eye be absent, so these principles, while yet rela¬ 
 tively small, are so momentous that if they be neg¬ 
 lected the whole composition is marred. 
 
 2. In setting about the production of a design, the 
 first thing to be considered is the fitly dividing the space 
 or form to be ornamented into primary divisions or 
 shapes. This may be accomplished by bands, spaces, 
 interlacing-lines, or in ways which can only be fully 
 comprehended by a careful inspection of the works of 
 great masters; and in such investigations the student 
 may profitably spend much time. 
 
 3. In the primary divisions, the utmost attention 
 
PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 179 
 
 must be paid to proportion (Chap. IX.) and con¬ 
 sistency. If the shape to be divided is of a geo¬ 
 metrical character, the mode of division set forth 
 in Chap. V., s. 9, may be advantageously em¬ 
 ployed; but should it be a vase, then the primary 
 lines of the ornament must tend to emphasize the 
 beautiful quality of the object, and not to destroy the 
 form, for no decoration is tolerable which militates 
 against the general beauty of the shape. 
 
 4. We have seen that in the selection of a form the 
 utmost regard must be paid to utility, and that the 
 usefulness of an object or vessel must never be im¬ 
 paired by its decoration (Chap. XI., s. 3); so in rela¬ 
 tion to the general division of the form, it must be 
 such as will tend to impress the use as well as the 
 beauty of the object or surface decorated. 
 
 5. After the division into primary forms, the secon¬ 
 dary shapes and lines may be cared for; but to the 
 excellence of the primary forms too much attention 
 cannot be given. In conjunction with the secondary 
 forms, the masses or spots in the ornamental scheme, 
 which may be rendered more or less prominent by 
 magnitude, or strength of colour, or the relative 
 lightness or depth of the tint, may be regarded; and 
 these secondary masses are also worthy of very spe¬ 
 cial consideration. 
 
 6. After this the detail may be thought out; and 
 while an excess of merit cannot in any place occur, yet 
 the primary setting out is of the greatest importance, 
 then the secondary forms, then the detail; for at a 
 distance the primary forms can alone be seen, while 
 in order that the secondary forms be perceived a 
 
 n 2 
 
180 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGM. 
 
 nearer view must be had, and only upon closer in¬ 
 spection is the detail visible, as with refinement 
 there is always softness and delicacy: those deco¬ 
 rative schemes which have all their parts in such 
 harsh contrast that the minutiae can be seen while 
 the spectator is far from the object, are cut off, by 
 their vulgarity, from commendation. 
 
 7. When we see a tree at a distance its general form 
 strikes us, but nothing more. It may have the form 
 of an egg, as a well-grown horse-chestnut, or of a 
 spindle, or lance, as the tall poplar, or of an umbrella, 
 as some cedars; but whatever its shape be, nothing 
 strikes us but the general form when it is thus viewed. 
 
 8. Upon approaching nearer to the tree we observe 
 a general division into large masses—masses which, in 
 tall trees, are elongated, and in broad trees are de¬ 
 pressed ; but it is only by our being in close proximity 
 to the tree that we discover the form of the leaf and 
 the general detail. This is the teaching of the plant 
 upon the subject, and the student cannot do better 
 than follow the dictates of nature. 
 
 9. Effects of varied characters can be produced by 
 the adoption of distinctive treatments and materials. 
 The lavish use of elongated pointed forms and of 
 sharp lines of white or gold will give a crisp and 
 thorny aspect, whereas larger forms of a less pointed 
 character will give breadth, which is frequently desi¬ 
 rable ; this difference occurs between the foliage of the 
 holly bush and fig-tree. These things are mentioned 
 in order that the attention of the student be 
 awakened to the means afforded of varying the effect 
 by the alteration in character of the material used, 
 
N PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 181 
 
 for all power is of value; but with the increase of 
 power there is also a proportionate increase of re¬ 
 sponsibility—hence care must be used in fitly appro¬ 
 priating the ornament to the surrounding circum¬ 
 stances. 
 
 10. Mr. Owen Jones justly says, that as a composi¬ 
 tion to be satisfactory in its colouring must have the 
 presence of the primary colours, red, blue, and yellow, 
 in their intensity or in combination, so must a com¬ 
 position, to be perfect in form, have the presence of 
 the three lines—the straight line, the diagonal, and 
 the curve. Thus fig. 136 is not satisfactory, for it car¬ 
 ries the mind up, down, and across. Fig. 137 is not 
 satisfactory, for it still leads the mind outwards; but 
 fig. 138 gives rest, as the circle fixes the attention and 
 binds it to a focus. 
 
 compositions are to have the basis given in fig. 138; 
 for this is by no means desirable; yet this principle 
 can be present while much altered in aspect. Figs. 
 
182 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 139,140, 141, are so many embodiments of the spirit of 
 the statement, while in fig. 140 the most prominent set 
 of lines is represented by spaces; thus we see that 
 the principle can be embodied while the form is yet 
 modified; and this alteration of character admits of 
 endless variation, while the Spirit of the proposition is 
 yet felt and preserved. See Plate XXIII., fig. 1. 
 
 12. In a composition an amount of attention should 
 be given to space as well as form; indeed in some cases 
 it is as agreeable to see large and small spaces as it is 
 to observe large and small, forms, which are very 
 necessary, as we gather from section 6 of this 
 Chapter. But while it is necessary that some atten¬ 
 tion be paid to a judicious alternation of space 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 and form, too much attention must not be given to 
 the ground, as the beauty of the ornament must never 
 be sacrificed to the aspect of the space. In fig. 142 
 
 Fig. 143. Fig. 144. 
 
 we have the most simple illustration of that class of 
 pattern in which the ground and figure are both 
 
PLXXffl. 
 
 Day & Son,lith?!? to the 
 
PI: XXIV. 
 
PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 183 
 
 ornamental and are yet dissimilar; and in figs. 143, 
 144,145, and 146, the same principle is applied in orna¬ 
 ment, while fig. 147 illustrates the principle of having 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 form and ground similar, which we have carried into 
 ornament in figs. 148, 149, 150, and 151, but this can 
 be rarely done without the ornament suffering. 
 
 Fig. 148. Fig. 149. 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 13. A class of decorations of a distinctive character 
 arise from the ground being wholly covered with orna¬ 
 ment; but as the construction of this form of pattern 
 (Plate XXIV.) is attended with difficulty, the shapes 
 frequently becoming cramped and imperfect unless 
 
PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 185 
 
 should be broken in the centre, as in fig. 153, for 
 this breach of continuity alters the character of the 
 composition, it being now resolved into a mere group¬ 
 ing of sprays. 
 
 15. Besides the principles which we have already 
 laid down, there are many other little things which 
 demand attention. An arrangement of parts, for 
 instance, in an ornamental composition such as tends 
 to suggest the human countenance, or any monster, 
 should be scrupulously avoided. Fig. 154 represents 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 one of four similar appearances in the case of one 
 wall-paper pattern; and in Plate XXV. a lady 
 of the character represented in the lower figure, 
 with a handkerchief over her shoulders, will be 
 distinctly seen if the ornament be placed at a 
 distance from the spectator. Little things of this 
 character are so numerous that the student must 
 trace them out for himself; but before taking a fare¬ 
 well of our reader, we should say a word upon the 
 starting-point in a design and the turning the corner, 
 which to the young student are both difficulties. 
 
 16. That starting is the best which is most simple 
 and easy. As in literature, a forced commencement is 
 
186 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 always objectionable, and a natural and easy beginning 
 is that which we like, so in ornament that which is 
 easy is agreeable. 
 
 17. A simple braiding of the stalks is in some cases 
 very acceptable, as in Plate XXVI., figs. 1, 2, 3; or a 
 mere ornamental treatment of the end of the branch 
 (the heel), Plate XXVI., fig. 4, such as it seems to 
 suggest, Plate XXVI., figs. 5 to 17; or the growing 
 out of the ornament from a line which forms part 
 of the basework of the composition, as in Plate 
 XXIII., fig. 1. The starting with the abrupt end 
 of the stalk is in some cases not offensive, as in 
 Plate II., fig. 7, and the springing the chief lines 
 
 Fig. 155. Fig. 156. 
 
 from little simple forms, such as figs. 155, 156, 157, 
 and 158, is in some cases desirable; but if any principle 
 
H XXVI. 
 
 Xhcj & Snn.! 'at vmeoi 
 
FLXXVE 
 
 i 
 
PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 
 
 187 
 
 of starting is to be especially commended, it is that 
 which is least obtrusive, and indeed, is least like 
 a formal commencement. 
 
 18. In relation to the parts of the design it should 
 be noticed that the members may in some cases be to an 
 extent dissevered from the parent stem with advan¬ 
 tage, as in figs. 159 and 160; but in this case great care 
 
 Fig. 159. Fig. 160. 
 
 must be used in order so to arrange the parts that 
 their origin can be traced, and that they do not 
 appear as scattered fragments, which are very 
 objectionable; but with care this mode of treatment 
 is in some cases very valuable. (Fig. 78 and Plate 
 XVIII., fig. 2.) 
 
 19. What we have said of the starting-point will in 
 part apply to corners, for an easy and simple mode of 
 treatment is here also necessary. Plate XXVII. is 
 introduced with the view of setting forth two modes 
 of treating the corner; in the one case the angle is 
 treated as such, and in the other the ornament merely 
 flows round; but in this, as in other difficulties, 
 reference must be had to great works, by which a 
 true knowledge of the best modes of overcoming 
 the difficulty will be gained.. 
 
 20. Another point which demands notice in this 
 
188 
 
 ART OF DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 summary of minor principles is that two centres may 
 in some cases be employed in a composition, and that 
 in two distinct ways. Thus in the one case the 
 parts may spring from one centre and meet in another 
 (fig. 162), a condition of things found in fig. 1, Plate 
 XXIII. In the other case, while the parts bear a 
 relation to one line as a centre (the line a b in the 
 figure, fig. 162), they also bear a special relation to 
 another line as a centre (the line c d ; see also Plate 
 XXVIII. and Plate XV., fig. 2). 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 b 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 d 
 
 21. We have now called attention to the chief prin¬ 
 ciples which claim the consideration of those who 
 desire a knowledge of ornament; yet all the teaching 
 that could be brought to bear upon the individual 
 could never make him originate such compositions as 
 by their beauty delight, if separated from the most 
 persevering efforts and constant feeling after beauty. 
 But with diligent inquiry, persevering application, and 
 long-continued thought, the greatest difficulties maybe 
 surmounted. The designer’s mind must be like the 
 
PRINCIPLES COMMON TO ORNAMENT. 189 
 
 vital force of the plant, ever developing itself into 
 forms of beauty, yet while thus free to produce, still 
 in all cases governed by unalterable laws; and in the 
 action of the mind being controlled by rules we rejoice, 
 and not mourn—“ for he who is obedient to the 
 great parent laws of nature is the freest man. ,, 
 
 “ He is a freeman whom the truth makes free, 
 
 And all are slaves beside.” 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . • 
 
 • ' 
 
191 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 CONSISTING OF 
 
 The “ Floral Clock,” or the Hours of the Day at which 
 Flowers open. 
 
 The Ornithological Clock, or the Hours at which Birds 
 rise. 
 
 The Characteristic Flowers of the Months. 
 
 Other Characters of the Months. 
 
 The Characteristic Plants of various Soils and Situations. 
 The Characteristic Plants of various Countries, 
 
 THE FLORAL CLOCK. 
 
 The Floral Clock, Horologium, Florae, resulted from the obser¬ 
 vation by Linnaeus of the hours at which plants expand and close 
 their blossoms. Linnaeus found that the flowers open with such 
 regularity that the hour of the day is marked by their unfolding; 
 and he likewise observed that the closing of the blossom indicated 
 the corresponding hour in the afternoon. Thus, if the flower opens 
 at six o’clock, a.m., it closes at six o’clock, p.m. : this, however, is 
 not invariably the case, and must not be relied on, while the period 
 of opening is much more certain. Indeed, the hour of closing is 
 tolerably certain also; but it is not regularly twelve hours 
 from the time of opening. The Floral Clock suggested by Lin¬ 
 naeus, yet in a much more extended form than that given by him, 
 we subjoin, as it may be of value to the ornamentist and artist in 
 affording a means of marking the periods of day. 
 
 Major convolvulus. 
 
 (Ipomcea purpurea) 
 
 Ipomoea nil . 
 
 Bindweed. 
 
 (Calystegia Sepium) 
 Yellow hawkweed. 
 
 (Tolpis barbata) . 
 
 Hours at which 
 the flowers open. 
 
 2 
 
 3 to 
 
 a.m. 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 
 4 
 
192 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hours at which 
 the flowers open. 
 
 Yellow goat’s-beard, or meadow salsify. 
 
 (Tragopogon pratense) .4 to 5 a.m. 
 
 Matricaria suaveolens . . . . . . . 4 to 5 „ 
 
 Buttercups. 
 
 ( Ranunculus) . 5 „ 
 
 Wild succory. 
 
 (Cichorium Intybus) ..... 5 „ 
 
 Papaver nudicaute . 5 „ 
 
 Dandelion. 
 
 (Taraxacum Dens-leonis ) .... 5 to 6 „ 
 
 Minor convolvulus. 
 
 (Convolvulus tricolor) .... 5 to 6 „ 
 
 Common lapsane, or nipple-wort. 
 
 (Lapsana communis) .... 5 to G „ 
 
 Sow-thistle, or Milk-thistle. 
 
 (Sonchus oleraceus) . 6 ,, 
 
 Spotted cat’s-ear. 
 
 (.Hypochceris maculata) .... 6 „ 
 
 Convolvulus siculus .6 „ 
 
 Water lilies. 
 
 ( Nymphcea) .7 „ 
 
 Wall or ivy-leaved lettuce. 
 
 (Lactuca muralis) .7 „ 
 
 Small Cape marigold.7 „ 
 
 Bearded fig-marigold. 
 
 (Mesembryanthemum barbatum) . . 7 to 8 „ 
 
 Yenus’s looking-glass. 
 
 (i Campanula or Specularia Speculum) 7 to 8 „ 
 
 Cucumis anguri .7 to 8 „ 
 
 Yellow mouse-ear.8 „ 
 
 Scarlet pimpernel. 
 
 (Anagallis arvensis) .8 „ 
 
 Nolana prostrata .8 to 9 „ 
 
 Field marigold. 
 
 (Calendula arvensis) .9 „ 
 
 Sandworts. 
 
 ( Arenaria) .9 to 10 „ 
 
 Knotted fig-marigold.10 to 11 „ 
 
 Green colewort . . . . ... . 10 to 11 „ 
 
 Alpine dandelion .10 to 11 „ 
 
 Common star of Bethlehem, or Lady Eleven- 
 o’clock. 
 
 (Ornithogalum umbellatum) ... 11 „ 
 
ORNITHOLOGICAL CLOCK. 
 
 193 
 
 Many fig-marigolds. 
 
 ( Mesembryanthemum ) 
 Common passion-flower. 
 
 (Passiflora ccerulea) . . . 
 
 Carnation. 
 
 ( Dianthus) . 
 
 Afternoon squill. 
 
 Pyrethrum corymbosum . 
 
 Purple hawk weed. 
 
 (Barkhausia rubra) 
 Night-flowering catchfly. 
 
 (Silene noctiflora) . . . . 
 
 Evening primroses. 
 
 {(Enothera) . 
 
 Marvel of Peru. 
 
 ( Mirabilis) . 
 
 White Lychnis. 
 
 {Lychnis vespertina) . . . 
 
 Cereus grandiflorus . 
 
 Mesembryanthemum noctiflorum . . 
 
 CEnothera tetraptera . 
 
 CEnothera suaveolens . 
 
 Night-flowering cereus. 
 
 Hours at which 
 the flowers open. 
 
 12 noon. 
 
 12 
 
 >> 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 p.m. 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 to 
 
 7 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 to 8 
 7 to 8 
 7 to 8 
 
 7 to 8 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 )> 
 
 a 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 )> 
 
 ORNITHOLOGICAL CLOCK. 
 
 The Floral Clock may be appropriately followed by the Ornitho¬ 
 logical Clock, constructed by a German woodman. This clock 
 has been formed by noting the hours at which birds wake and sing 
 in the morning. “ The signal is given by the chaffinch, the earliest 
 riser among all the feathered tribes. Its song precedes the dawn, 
 and is heard in summer from half-past 1 to 2 o’clock, a.m. Next, 
 from 2 to half-past 3, comes the blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla), 
 whose warblings would equal those of the nightingale if they were 
 not so very short. From half-past 2 to 3 o’clock the quail is 
 heard ; from 3 to half-past 3 the hedge-sparrow; then from half¬ 
 past 3 to 4 we have the blackbird, the mocking-bird of our climate, 
 which imitates all tunes so well that all the blackbirds of a French 
 canton were made to sing the Marseillaise Hymn by letting loose a 
 blackbird which had been taught that tune. From 4 to half-past 
 the lark pours forth its melodies; from half-past 4 to 5 the black- 
 
 O 
 
m 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 headed titmouse is heard; lastly, from 5 to half-past the sparrow 
 awakes and begins to chirp. To throw this into a tabular form, 
 for the convenience of reference, it is as follows :— 
 
 Chaffinch.1.30 to 2 a.m. 
 
 Blackcap—( Sylvia atricapilla) ... 2 to 3.30 „ 
 
 Quail.2.30 to 3 „ 
 
 Hedge-sparrow ..3 to 3.30 „ 
 
 Blackbird (mocking-bird) .... 3.30 to 4 „ 
 
 Lark.4 to 4.30 „ 
 
 Black-headed titmouse.4.30 to 5 „ 
 
 Sparrow.5 to 5.30 „ 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC FLOWERS OF THE MONTHS. 
 January. 
 
 Christmas rose ( Helleborus). 
 
 Winter aconite ( Eranthis hyemails). 
 
 Laurustinus ( Viburnum tinus). 
 
 In the green-house, camellias are in full bloom. 
 
 In the stove, Strelitzia. 
 
 In the pits, forced hyacinths, tulips, and cinerarias. 
 
 February. 
 
 Snowdrop ( Galanthus nivalis). 
 
 Crocus ( Crocus vernus). 
 
 Hazel ( Gorylus Avellana). 
 
 March. 
 
 Primrose ( Primula vulgaris). 
 
 Wood anemone ( Anemone nemorosa). 
 
 Speedwell ( Veronica agrestis). 
 
 Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara). 
 
 April. 
 
 Fruit blossoms generally, as 
 
 Apple ( Pyrus Malus). 
 
 Pear (Pyrus communis). 
 
 Cherry ( Gerasus communis). 
 
 Plum ( Prunus domestica). 
 
 Apricot ( Prunus Armeniaca). 
 
 Peach ( Amygdalus Persica). 
 
 Almond (Amygdalus communis). 
 
CHARACTERISTIC FLOWERS OF THE MONTHS. 195 
 
 Narcissus (. Poet's and others). 
 
 Daffodil {Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus). 
 Cowslip (Primula veris). 
 
 Bluebell [Hyadnthus nutans). 
 
 Sweet violet ( Viola odorata). 
 
 Elder [Sambucus nigra). 
 
 May: 
 
 Lady’s smock (Gardamine pratensis). 
 Strawberry (Fragaria vesca). 
 
 Hawthorn (Cratcegus Oxyacantha). 
 Honeysuckle [Lonicera Periclymenum). 
 Buttercups [Ranunculus). 
 
 Daisy [Beilis perennis). 
 
 Lilac [Syringa vulgaris). 
 
 Laburnum [Gytisus Laburnum). 
 
 Crown Imperial [Fritillaria imperialis). 
 
 June. 
 
 Dog rose [Rosa canina). 
 
 Pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis). 
 
 Borage [Borago officinalis). 
 
 Horse chestnut [jEsculus Hippocastanum). 
 Columbine [Aquilegia vulgaris). 
 
 Lily-of-the-valley [Convallaria majalis.) 
 Guelder rose (Viburnum Opulus). 
 
 July. 
 
 White lily [Lilium candidum). 
 
 Harebell [Campanula rotundifolia). 
 Sunflower [Helianthus annuus). 
 
 Vine (Vitis vinifera). 
 
 Field Scabious [Scabiosa arvensis). 
 
 Many Thistles. 
 
 Corn poppy [Papaver Rhceas). 
 
 Common mallow [Malva sylvestris). 
 
 St. John’s-wort (Hypericum perforatum). 
 Jasmine [Jasminum officinale). 
 
 August. 
 
 Toadflax [Linaria vulgaris). 
 
 Golden rod [Solidago Virgaurea). 
 
 China aster [Aster Chinensis). 
 
 O 2 
 
196 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Dodder ( Cuscuta Europcea). 
 Teasel ( Dipsacus sylvestris). 
 Chamomile ( Antliemis nobilis). 
 
 September. 
 
 Honeysuckle, flowers a second time (see May). 
 Ivy ( Hedera Helix). 
 
 Ladies’ tresses ( Ophrt/s spiralis). 
 
 October. 
 
 Strawber: y-tree {Arbutus Unedo). 
 Chinese holly-oak ( Alcea rosea). 
 
 Other characters of the months are given in the following 
 table :— 
 
 January. 
 
 Berries on trees, as on Holly and Bose. 
 
 Trees without leaves. Buds on branches small. 
 
 February. 
 
 Buds on trees rather larger than last month. 
 
 Peas {Pisum sativum) sown. These are also sowji in March. 
 Berries on bushes, few. 
 
 March. 
 
 Oats ( Arena sativa) sown. These are also sown in April. 
 
 Barley {Hordeuin sativum)' sown. Barley is sown till May. 
 Common elder {Sambucus nigra) comes into leaf in early seasons. 
 Gooseberry {Ribes grossularia) comes into leaf and bud in early 
 seasons. 
 
 Ivy {Hedera Helix) berries ripe. 
 
 See February. 
 
 April. 
 
 Elm {Ulmus campestris) comes into leaf if the season is early. 
 
 This also applies to the two following trees:— 
 
 Beech {Fagus sylvatica ), leafing. 
 
 Larch-tree {Abies Larix). 
 
 See March. 
 
 May. 
 
 This month particularly characterizes summer. 
 
 Walnut {Juglans regia) leafing. 
 
 White-beam-tree {Pyrus Aria) leafing. 
 
 Mulberry tree {Morus nigra). 
 
CHARACTERISTIC FLOWERS OF THE MONTHS. 197 
 
 In the case of trees leafing much is dependent upon the season. 
 If it be late, all the trees here noted will develop their leaves a 
 month or more later. 
 
 Summer or herbaceous stems shooting from the ground. 
 
 See April. 
 
 The flowers in this month are generally pale in colour; per¬ 
 haps yellow prevails. 
 
 June. 
 
 Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus) leafing. 
 
 There is a redundance of blossom in this month : a greater 
 number of plants expand their blossoms in this month than in 
 any other. 
 
 Trees in full leaf. 
 
 All foliage fresh, delicate, and full in colour. 
 
 Vegetable growth at its maximum. 
 
 Hay-making. (This goes into July.) 
 
 Puff-balls (Lycoperdon bovista) appear. 
 
 Truffles begin to be found. 
 
 July. 
 
 This month more particularly characterizes summer. 
 
 Whortleberries ripe ( Vaccinium uliginosum). 
 
 Peas ( Pisum sativum) cut. This may take place next month. 
 Apricots ( Prunus Armeniaca) ripe. If the season is late, these are 
 not ripe till August. 
 
 Rye harvest begins. This may be next month. 
 
 Wheat harvest begins in the earliest districts. 
 
 Flowers generally of bright colours. 
 
 Wild cherries ripe. 
 
 August. 
 
 Oats ( Avena saliva) cut. 
 
 Barley ( Hordeum sativum) cut. 
 
 Hop-picking begins. 
 
 These harvests are a month later in backward seasons. 
 
 Beech begins to turn yellow in early seasons. 
 
 Flowers few. Of bright colours. 
 
 Seeds of annuals ripe. 
 
 See July. 
 
 September. 
 
 Apples, and fruits generally, ripe. 
 
 Grape harvest in early seasons. 
 
198 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Beans ( Vida faba) cut in early seasons. 
 
 See August. 
 
 Flowers almost gone ; trees in autumn colours ; seeds ripe. 
 October —A utumn. 
 
 Wheat sown. 
 
 Fall of leaf. This may take place in November in late seasons. 
 Flowers gone; later seeds ripe. 
 
 Leaves of rich colours, if not shed. 
 
 November. 
 
 Trees without foliage. 
 
 Earlier berries ripe, as 
 Mountain ash. 
 
 Hawthorn. 
 
 Bose hips. 
 
 December — Winter. 
 
 Later berries deepening in colour. 
 
 The following is a list of such plants as characterize the various 
 kinds of soil:— 
 
 LAND PLANTS. 
 
 GEOGNOSTIC NATURE OF SOIL. 
 
 Chalk Plants. 
 
 Lady’s-slipper {Cypripedium Calceolus). 
 
 Bee ophrys ( Ophrys apifera). 
 
 Military orchis ( Orchis militaris). 
 
 Pyramidal orchis {0. pyramidalis ). 
 
 Teucrium montanum. 
 
 Blue moor-grass ( Sesleria cceruled). 
 
 Box ( Buxus sempervirens). 
 
 Gravel Plants. 
 
 Ordinary Gravel. 
 
 Alpine crowfoot (. Ranunculus alpestris). 
 
 Ranunculus glacialis. 
 
 Baccharis phylicceformis. 
 
 „ genistelloides. 
 
 „ sagittalis. 
 
 „ quadrangular is. , 
 
 Calycera ventosa. 
 
GEOGNOSTIC NATURE OF SOIL. 
 
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200 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sida pedicular ifolia. 
 
 „ borussica. 
 
 Pit Gravel. 
 
 Knot grass (Polygonum aviculare). 
 
 Sheep’s*sorrel (Pumex Acetosella). 
 
 Common bent-grass (Agrostis vulgaris). 
 
 Silvery hair-grass {Aira caryophyllea). 
 
 Hard fescue-grass (Festuca duriuscula). 
 
 Thyme-leaved sandwort (Arenaria serpyllifolia). 
 
 Wall hawkweed (Hieracium murorum). 
 
 Papaver dubium. 
 
 Climbing buckwheat (Polygonum Convolvulus). 
 Upright goosefoot (Chenopodium urbicum). 
 
 Perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne). 
 
 Soft brome-grass {Bromus mollis). 
 
 River Gravel. 
 
 Brook saxifrage (Saxifraga rivularis). 
 
 Toad-rush (Juncus bufonius). 
 
 Sharp-flowered rush (J. acutiflorus). 
 
 Plantain shoreweed (Littorella lacustris). 
 
 Bock Plants. 
 
 Rock sedum (Pedum rupestre). 
 
 White sedum (S. album). 
 
 Welsh sedum (S. Forsterianum.) 
 
 Thlaspi saxatile. 
 
 Common thrift (Statice Armeria). 
 
 English scurvy-grass (Cochlearia Anglica). 
 
 Danish scurvy-grass ( C'. Danica.) 
 
 Mountain rose-root (Rhodiola rosea). 
 
 Sand Plants. 
 
 Sandy Soil. 
 
 Bird’s-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus.) 
 
 Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia) 
 
 Eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis). 
 
 Sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). 
 Drifting Sands. 
 
 Sea-bent (Arundo arenaria). 
 
 Sand-wheat grass (Triticum junceum). 
 
 Hard fescue grass (Festuca duriuscula). 
 
 Sand carex (Carex arenaria). 
 
 Hollow bedstraw (Galium verum). 
 
LAND PLANTS. 
 
 201 
 
 Smooth rupture-wort ( Herniaria glabra). 
 
 Sea mat-weed ( Arundo arenaria). 
 
 Stonecrop (>Sedum acre). 
 
 Sea lyme-grass ( Elymus arenarius). 
 Ammophila arenaria. 
 
 Creeping willow ( Salix repens), 
 Calamagrostis arenaria. 
 
 Buck’s-horn plantain ( Plantago Coronopus). 
 Sandy Loam on Clay Subsoil. 
 
 Common rush ( Juncus effusus). 
 
 Sneeze wort (. Achillea Ptarmica). 
 
 Wild tansy ( Potentilla anserina). 
 
 Mug wort ( Artemisia vulgaris). 
 
 Sandy Loam on porous Subsoil. 
 
 Common Broom ( Genista scoparius). 
 
 Black knapweed ( Gentaurea nigra). 
 
 Common ragweed (Senecio jacobea). 
 
 Hollow bedstraw ( Galium verum). 
 
 Clay Plants. 
 
 Good Clay. 
 
 Queen of the meadows ( Spircsa Ulmaria). 
 Wild sylvestris ( Angelica sylvestris). 
 
 Great spearwort ( Ranunculus Lingua). 
 Common sorrel ( Rumex Acetosa). 
 
 Thin Clay. 
 
 Bitter crowfoot ( Ranunculus acris). 
 
 Tufted hair-grass {Aira ccespitosa). 
 
 Corn horsetail {Equisetum arvense). 
 
 Marsh woundwort {Stachys palustris). 
 
 Strong clayey Loam on porous Subsoil. 
 
 Bladder campion ( Silene inflata). 
 
 Toadflax {Antirrhinum linaria). 
 
 Bed shank ( Polygonum amphibium). 
 
 Great napweed {Centaurea scabiosa). 
 
 Bough cock’s-foot grass {Dactylis glomerata). 
 
 Thin clayey Loam on porous Subsoil. 
 
 Common rest-harrow {Ononis arvensis). 
 Harefoot trefoil {Trifolium arvense). 
 
 Hop trefoil {T. procumbens). 
 
202 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Alluvial Deposits. 
 
 Common reed (Arundo Phragmites). 
 Round-headed rush (Juncus conglomeratus). 
 White bent-grass (Agrostis alba). 
 
 Reed meadow-grass {Poa aquatica ). 
 
 Floating meadow-grass {P. fluitans). 
 
 Steppe Plants. 
 
 Dactylis reopens. 
 
 Gynodon dactylon. 
 
 Zygophyllum album. 
 
 Cressa cretica. 
 
 Uniola maritima. 
 
 Spartina glabra. 
 
 Gerardia maritima. 
 
 Aster subulatus. 
 
 Poa thalassica. 
 
 Salsola corticosa. 
 
 „ glomerata. 
 
 „ prostrata. 
 
 Statice tartarica. 
 
 Glycirrhiza hirsuta. 
 
 ,, Icevis. 
 
 Atriplex lacinata. 
 
 Ceratocarpus arenarius. 
 
 Polycnemum. 
 
 Chenopodium. 
 
 Frankenia. 
 
 Tamarix. 
 
 Salicornia. 
 
 Chorispora sibirica. 
 
 Halocnemum. 
 
 PLANTS OF UNCULTIVATED SOILS. 
 Field Plants. 
 
 Common whitlow-grass (Draba verna). 
 Blunt-fingered speedwell (Veronica triphyllos). 
 Ivy-leaved speedwell ( V. hederifolia). 
 
 Common viper’s bugloss (Echium vulgare). 
 Common daisy {Beilis perennis ). 
 
 Dandelion {Taraxacum Dens-leonis). 
 Buttercups. 
 
LAND PLANTS. 
 
 203 
 
 Meadow Plants. 
 
 Clustered bell-flower ( Campanula glomerata). 
 Spreading bell-flower ( Campanula patula). 
 Myosotis scorpioides. 
 
 Trifolium pratense. 
 
 „ fragiferum. 
 
 „ repens. 
 
 Pasture Plants. 
 
 Low Pastures. 
 
 Daisy ( Beilis perennis). 
 
 Common burnet-saxifrage ( Pimpinella Sax frag a). 
 Ranunculus repens. 
 
 „ bulbosu8. 
 
 High Pastures. 
 
 Common ling ( Calluna vulgaris). 
 
 Hairy milk-vetch ( Astragalus uralensis). 
 Mountain avens ( Dryas octopetala). 
 
 Reticulated willow (Salix reticulata). 
 
 Mountain cudweed ( Gnaphalium alpinum). 
 Cloudberry ( Rubus Chamcemorus). 
 
 Common bear-berry (. Arbutus uva-ursi). 
 
 Mountain Pastures (Dry). 
 
 Common ling ( Calluna vulgaris). 
 
 Crow-berry (Empetrum nigrum). 
 
 Cross-leaved heath (Erica Tetralix). 
 
 Common club-moss ( Lycopodium clavatum). 
 Savin-leaved club-moss ( L. alpinum). 
 
 Stool-bent (Juncus squarrosus). 
 
 Paddock-pipe {Equisetum palustre). 
 
 Deer-hair (Scirpus ccespitosus). 
 
 Yellow-grass (Narthecium ossifragum). 
 
 Purple melic-grass ( Melica ccerulea). 
 
 Blue moor-grass ( Sesleria ccerulea). 
 
 Mat-grass (Nardus stricta). 
 
 Mountain Pastures (Wet). 
 
 Soft rush (J uncus effusus). 
 
 Soft meadow-grass (Holcus mollis). 
 
 Rup {Juncus ccespitosa). 
 
 Sprat (J. acutiforus). 
 
 Pry (Garex panicea). 
 
 Devil’s-bit scabious (Scabiosa succisa). 
 
204 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Heath Plants (Dry). 
 
 Common heath (Erica vulgaris). 
 Cross-leaved heath (E. Tetralix). 
 Fine-leaved heath (. E. cinerea). 
 
 Common ling (Calluna vulgaris). 
 
 Dog’s bent-grass {Agrostis canina). 
 
 Juniper (Juniperus vulgaris) 
 
 Ledum palustre. 
 
 Andromeda polifolia. 
 
 Parnassia palustris. 
 
 Sphagnum. 
 
 Polytrichum. 
 
 Heath (Wet). 
 
 Cotton-grass (Eriopliorum polystachion). 
 Orange berry (Vaccinium Oxycoccus). 
 
 Moor Plants (Dry). 
 
 Petty whin (Genista anglica). 
 
 Mat-grass (Nardus stricta). 
 
 Yellow mountain-violet (Viola luted). 
 Common tormentil (Tormentilla officinalis). 
 Mountain cudweed (Gnaphalium dioicum). 
 Moor (Wet). 
 
 Dwarf silky-willow (Salix repens). 
 
 Common butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris). 
 Round-fruited carex {Carex pilulifera). 
 Moss-rush {Juncus squarrosus). 
 
 Scaly-headed club-rush {Scirpus ccespitosus). 
 Grass of Parnassus {Parnassia palustris). 
 
 Marsh Plants. 
 
 Ragged Robin {Lychnis Flos Cuculi). 
 Common buckbean {Menyanthes trifoliata). 
 Marsh marigold {Caltha palustris). 
 Brook-lime {Veronica Beccabunga). 
 
 Marsh cinquefoil {Comarum palustre). 
 Marsh bedstraw {Galium uliginosum). 
 Water featherfoil {Hottonia palustris). 
 Marsh fleawort {Cineraria palustris). 
 Nodding bur-marigold {Bidens cernua). 
 Cotton-grass {Eriopliorum angustifolium). 
 
LAND PLANTS. 
 
 205 
 
 Bog Plants. 
 
 Alpine butterwort (Pinguicula alpina). 
 
 Black bog-rusli (Schoenus nigricans). 
 
 Downy-stalked cotton-grass (Eriophorum pubescens). 
 Bird’s-eye primrose (Primula farinosa). 
 
 Bush Plants. 
 
 Common marjoram (Origanum vulgare). 
 
 Asarum europceum 
 Corydalis bulbosa. 
 
 Asclepias vincetoxicum. 
 
 Forest Plants. 
 
 Two-flowered linnsea (Linncca borealis). 
 
 Pyrolce. 
 
 Bilberry ( Vaccinium Myrtillus). 
 
 Ophrys ovata. 
 
 Deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna). 
 
 Water avens (Geum rivale). 
 
 European chickweed wintergreen (Trientalis europcea). 
 Common wood-sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella). 
 
 Orobanche. 
 
 Orchidce. 
 
 Carex. 
 
 Alpine Plants. 
 
 Drooping saxifrage (Saxifraga cernua). 
 
 Alpine brook-saxifrage (-Saxifraga rivularis). 
 
 Purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia). 
 
 Whitlow grass (Draba rupestris). 
 
 Luzula arcuata. 
 
 Jointed pipewort (Erioeaulon septangulare). 
 
 Alsine rubella. 
 
 Pyramidal bugle [Ajug a pyramidalis). 
 
 Scottish primrose (Primula Scotiea). 
 
 Least willow (Salix herbacea). 
 
 Alpine stitch wort (Stellaria cerastoides). 
 
 Desert Plants. 
 
 Asiatic Deserts. 
 
 Zizyphus Spina Christi. 
 
 Euphorbia antiquorum. 
 
206 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Pride of India (Melia AzedaracK). 
 Calligonum polygonoides. 
 Anastatica hierochuntina. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Tamarix . 
 
 North African. 
 
 Mesembryanthemum copticum. 
 
 „ crystallinum. 
 
 „ biflorum. 
 
 Acacia vera. 
 
 Sidra nebach. 
 
 Zizyphus Lotus. 
 
 Tamarix gallica. 
 
 „ africana. 
 
 „ orientalis. 
 
 South African. 
 
 Euphorbia meloformis. 
 
 „ mammillaris. 
 
 „ biglandulosa. 
 
 „ trigona. 
 
 „ clava. 
 
 „ lactea. 
 
 „ neriifolia. 
 
 Aloe ichotoma. 
 
 Stapelice. 
 
 Syngenesia. 
 
 Mesembryanthemum. 
 
 Sesuvium. 
 
 Grassula. 
 
 Sempervivum. 
 
 Sedum. 
 
 Cotyledon. 
 
 Bryophyllum. 
 
 Encephalartos. 
 
 South American. 
 
 Caven bush (Acacia caven). 
 Loranthus phyllus. 
 
 Cactus senilis. 
 
 „ ficus-indica. 
 
 Furcrcea gigantea. 
 
 „ longceva. 
 
 Dwarf verbenas. 
 
LAND PLANTS. 
 
 207 
 
 Opuntia tunas. 
 
 Cerei. 
 
 Cacti. 
 
 Melocactus. 
 
 Echinocactus. 
 
 Mammillaria. 
 
 Azorella. 
 
 Bolax. 
 
 Fragosa. 
 
 Lycopodia. 
 
 Yucca. 
 
 Agaves. 
 
 CULTIVATED SOILS. 
 
 Fallow Plants. 
 
 Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella). 
 
 Field convolvulus (Convolvulus arvensis). 
 Androsace septentrionalis. 
 
 Echium vulgare. 
 
 Artemisia campestris. 
 
 Garden Weeds. 
 
 Nettle ( Urtica urens). 
 
 Alsine media. 
 
 White dead-nettle (Lamium album). 
 
 Hen-bit dead-nettle (L. amplexicaule). 
 
 White goosefoot (Chenopodium album). 
 
 Upright goosefoot ( C'. urbicum.) 
 
 Common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). 
 
 Mouse-ear chickweed (Cerastium arvense). 
 Herb-mercury (Mercurialis perennis). 
 
 Fence Plants. 
 
 Wild succory (Cichorium Intybus). 
 
 Common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare). 
 
 Mugwort {Artemisia vulgaris). 
 
 Yellow bedstraw (Galium verum). 
 
 Hedge Plants. 
 Stinging-nettle ( Urtica dioica). 
 
 White dead-nettle {Lamium album). 
 
 Borage {Borago officinalis). 
 
 Bryony {Bryonia dioica). 
 
 Broad-leaved bur-weed {Xanthium strumarium). 
 Thorn-apple {Batura Stramonium). 
 
208 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Violet (Viola tricolor). 
 
 Black bryony (Tamus communis). 
 Wood-sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella). 
 
 Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus). 
 Traveller’s-joy (Clematis Vitalba). 
 Honeysuckle (Lonicera Caprifolium). 
 Everlasting-pea (Lathyrus sylvestris). 
 Tuberous moschatel (Adoxa Moschatellina). 
 
 Field Pi-ants. 
 
 Clay Soil. 
 
 Good clay. 
 
 Common broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius). 
 Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris). 
 
 Nipplewort {Lapsana communis). 
 
 Corn-cockle (Agrostemma Githago). 
 
 Wild chamomile (Matricaria Chamomilla). 
 
 Thin clay. 
 
 Common coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara). 
 
 Wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis). 
 
 Knot-grass (Polygonum aviculare). 
 
 Clay on porous Subsoil. 
 
 Scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis). 
 
 Ivy-leaved speedwell ( Veronica hederifolia). 
 
 Black mustard {Sinapis nigra). 
 
 Hairy tare {Ervum hirsutum.) 
 
 Sand Plants. 
 
 Sandy Soil. 
 
 Common spurrey {Spergula arvensis). 
 
 Purple dead-nettle {Lamium purpureum). 
 Common fumitory {Fumaria officinalis). 
 Shepherd-purse {Thlaspi Bursa-pastor is). 
 Common knawel {Scleranthus annuum). 
 Common couch-grass {Triticum repens). 
 Common cudweed {Gnaphalium germanicum). 
 
 Sandy Loam on Clay Subsoil. 
 
 Charlock {Raphanus Raphanistrum). 
 Sheep-sorrel {Rumex Acetosella). 
 
ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 209 
 
 Corn-marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum). 
 Toad rush (Juncus bufonius). 
 
 Sandy Loam on porous Subsoil. 
 
 Common corn mint (Mentha arvensis). 
 Blue-wort (Centaurea cyanus). 
 
 Corn madder (Sherardia arvensis). 
 
 Corn gromwell (Lithospermum arvense). 
 Parsley-pest (Alchemilla arvensis). 
 
 Tall oat-grass (A vena elata). 
 
 Corn-thistle (Cnicus arvensis). 
 
 Alluvial Deposits. 
 
 Common reed (Arundo Phragmites). 
 
 Corn thistle (Cnicus arvensis). 
 
 Declaimed Marsh Land. 
 
 Common colt’s-foot (Tussilago Farfara). 
 Common butter-bur (Petasites liybrida). 
 Goosegrass (Galium Aparine). 
 
 Declaimed Heath Land. 
 
 Soft brome-grass (Bromus mollis). 
 
 Field scorpion-grass (Myosotis arvensis). 
 Wild oats (A vena fatua). 
 
 Goosegrass (Galium Aparine). 
 
 ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTIONS. 
 
 Wall Plants. 
 
 Wall-germander (Teucriwm Chamcedrys). 
 Lecanora muralis. 
 
 Dicranum murale. 
 
 Wall-rue spleenwort (Asplenium ruta-muraria). 
 Dock spleen wort (A. fontanum). 
 
 Stonecrop (Sedum acre). 
 
 Live-long {Sedum telephium ). 
 
 Ivy {Hedera Helix). 
 
 Due-leaved saxifrage {Saxifraga tridactylites). 
 Wild wall-flower {Cheiranthus fruticulosus). 
 Linaria Cymbalaria. 
 
 Speedwell-leaved whitlow grass {Draba muralis). 
 P 
 
210 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Wall hawk weed (Hieracium murdrum). 
 
 Jagged chickweed (Holosteum umbettatum). 
 
 Grimmia pulvinata. 
 
 Tortula muralis. 
 
 Roof Plants. 
 
 Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum). 
 
 Mosses. 
 
 Lichens. 
 
 Board Plants. 
 
 Parmelia parietina. 
 
 Lecanora muralis. 
 
 Ramalina fraxinea. 
 
 Rubbish Plants. 
 
 Nettle (Urtica dioica). 
 
 Common dock (Rumex obtusifolius). 
 
 Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris). 
 
 Annual poa (Poa annua). 
 
 Field poa (P. pratensis). 
 
 Common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare). 
 
 Round-leaved goosefoot (Chenopodium polyspermum). 
 TJ pright goosefoot (G. urbicum). 
 
 Red goosefoot (G. rubrum). 
 
 Stinking groundsel (Senecio viscosus). 
 
 Borage (Borago officinalis). 
 
 Burweed (Xanthium strumarium). 
 
 Common henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). 
 
 EARTH AND WATER PLANTS. 
 
 Amphibious Plants. 
 
 Lady’s smock (Gardamine pratensis^. 
 
 Water cress (Nasturtium officinale). 
 
 Amphibious yellow cress (N. amphibium). 
 Creeping yellow cress (N. sylvestre). 
 
 Great water-dock (Rumex Hydrolapathum). 
 
 Tall red mint (Mentha rubra). 
 
 Spear mint (M. viridis). 
 
 Horse mint (M. sylvestris). 
 
 Amphibious polygonum (Polygonum amphibium). 
 
EARTH AND WATER PLANTS. 
 
 2 L1 
 
 Inundated Plants. 
 
 Common mudwort (Limosella aquatica). 
 Water purslane (Peplis Portula). 
 
 Toad rush (Juncus bufonius). 
 
 Marsh marigold {Caltha palustris). 
 Water crowfoot (Ranunculus scleratus). 
 
 Sea-shore Plants. 
 
 Ordinary. 
 
 Sea-side campion (Silene maritima). 
 
 Sea plantain ( Pla/ntago maritima). 
 
 Black saltwort (filaux maritima). 
 
 Sea lungwort (Pulmonaria maritima). 
 
 Sea holly (Eryngium maritimum). 
 Glass-wort (Salsoli Kali). 
 
 Sea-reed (Arundo arenaria). 
 
 Sea lyme-grass (Elymus arenarius). 
 Sea-side sedge (Carex arenaria). 
 
 Lythrum maritimum. 
 
 Common brook-reed (Samolus Valerandi). 
 Mangrove (Rhizophora Mangle). 
 Avicennia nitida. 
 
 „ tomentosa. 
 
 Marsh. 
 
 Sea arrow-grass (Triglochin maritimum). 
 Sea marsh-grass (Poa procumbens). 
 
 Pale carex (Carex pallescens). 
 
 Great common carex ( C'. riparia). 
 
 Gravel. 
 
 Sea rocket (Cakile maritima). 
 
 Sea-side goosefoot (Chenopodium maritimum). 
 Frosted sea orache (A triplex laciniata). 
 Sea-side campion (Silene maritime). 
 
 WATER PLANTS. 
 Salt-water Plants. 
 Sea ruppia (Ruppia maritima). 
 Fucus pyrifera . 
 
 Sargassum vulgare. 
 
 Algce. 
 
 Zosterce. 
 
 Fuci. 
 
 2 
 
212 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Salt-Water Springs. 
 
 Glaux rnaritima. 
 
 Salsola. 
 
 Salicornia. 
 
 Anabasis. 
 
 Charce. 
 
 Fresh-Water Plants. 
 
 Floating Plants. 
 
 Floating alisma (Alisma natans). 
 
 Common frogbit (Hydrocharis Morsus-rance). 
 Ivy-leaved duckweed (Lemna trisulca). 
 
 Lesser duckweed (L. minor). 
 
 Pistia stratiotes. 
 
 Confervce. 
 
 Oscillatoriece. 
 
 Aquatic Plants. 
 
 Lake Plants. 
 
 White water-lily (Nymphoea alba). 
 
 Yellow water-lily (Nuphar luteum). 
 
 Bull-rush (Scirpus lacustris). 
 
 Scirpus palustris. 
 
 Common reed (Arundo Phragmites). 
 
 Water soldier (Stratoites aloides). 
 
 Butomus umbellatus. 
 
 Pontederia Lotus. 
 
 Water crowfoot (.Ranunculus aqualilis). 
 
 Ditch Plants. 
 
 Common frogbit (Hydrocharis Morsus-rance). 
 Forget-me-not (Myosotis palustris). 
 
 Water speedwell (Veronica Anagallis). 
 Phellandrimn aquaticum. 
 
 Water soldier (Stratoites aloides). 
 
 Common flowering rush (Butomus umbellatus). 
 Biver Plants. 
 
 Ranunculus Jluviatilis. 
 
 Conferva rivularis. 
 
 Fresh-water Springs. 
 
 Water chick weed (Montia fontana). 
 
 Brooklime ( Veronica Beccabunga). 
 
EARTH AND WATER PLANTS. 
 
 213 
 
 Submerged Plants. 
 
 Hornwort ( Ceratophyllwn demersum). 
 
 Ohara. 
 
 Awlwort ( Subularia aquatica). 
 
 Vallisneria spiralis. 
 
 Fresh and Salt Water Plants. 
 
 Conferva glomerata. 
 
 Slender pond weed ( Potamogeton pusillus). 
 
 Fennel pond weed (P. pectinatus). 
 
 Common Zannichellia ( Zannichellia palustris). 
 
 Diatomece. 
 
 Each of the following plants covers a large tract of country by 
 the frequency of its repetition. The plants named in this list have 
 social habits, as they live in groups. 
 
 Social Plants. 
 
 Sphagnum palustre. 
 
 Musa paradisiaca. 
 
 Dicranum glaucum. 
 
 Dracaena terminalis. 
 
 Arundo Phragmites. 
 
 Pandanus odoratissimus. 
 
 Pinus sylvestris, 
 
 Nipa frutescens. 
 
 Polygonum aviculare. 
 
 Chamaerops humilis. 
 
 Polygonum junceum 
 
 Phoenix dactylifera. 
 
 Poa annua 
 
 Mauritia flexuosa. 
 
 Yaccinium Myrtillus. 
 
 Pteris aquilina. 
 
 Juncus bufonius, 
 
 Baeckia frutescens. 
 
 Myriophyllum spicatum. 
 
 Tilia europea. 
 
 Alnus glutinosa. 
 
 Fagus sylvatica. 
 
 Be tula alba. 
 
 Castanea vesca. 
 
 Rhizophora Mangle. 
 
 Quercus robur. 
 
 Banksia speciosa. 
 
 Ulmus campestris. 
 
 Pro tea argentea. 
 
 Opuntia tunas. 
 
 Pro tea mellifera. 
 
 Rhododendron. 
 
 Bambusa arundinacea 
 
 Araucaria excelsa. 
 
 Thymus cover. 
 
 Eucalyptus globulus. 
 
 Erica vulgaris. 
 
 Mimosae. 
 
 Acacia caven. 
 
 Cinchona. 
 
 Lycium gracile. 
 
 Escallonia. 
 
 Cupressus callitris. 
 
 Genista. 
 
 Cereus peruvianus. 
 
 Ulex. 
 
 Cocos nucifera. 
 
 Baccharidae. 
 
 Musa sapientum.' 
 
 
214 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The following lists give the characteristic plants of different 
 countries :— 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 France. 
 
 In the South (wild). 
 
 Evergreen oaks. 
 
 Myrtles. 
 
 Wild olives. | Aloe. 
 
 (This district is particularly characterized by evergreen trees and 
 shrubs.) 
 
 Gistus. 
 Dwarf palm. 
 Indian fig. 
 
 Middle and North (wild). 
 Pinus maritima. 
 
 {Erica 
 
 Common heath 
 vulgaris). 
 
 The pea blossoms and plants allied to our dandelion and thistles 
 are the most common plants. In this district the trees shed their 
 leaves. 
 
 In cultivation. 
 Olive. 
 Maize. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Orchard trees. 
 
 Spain and Portugal. 
 
 The South. 
 
 Palms. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Chamoerops humilis (a fan 
 palm). 
 
 Banana (in the south). 
 Orange (flowers April and 
 May). 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Judas tree. 
 
 Cactus {Cactus Tuna). 
 
 Aloe (American). 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Meadow saffron. 
 
 Autumnal snowdrop. 
 
 Gum cistus. 
 
 Forest trees. 
 
 Quercus Ballota (a kind of oak). 
 „ cegilopifolia „ 
 
 „ faginea „ 
 
 „ prasina „ 
 
 „ crenata „ 
 
 „ rotundifolia „ 
 
 „ humilis „ 
 
 „ suber (Cork oak). 
 
 Lime tree. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Chestnut (Spanish). 
 
 Yew. 
 
 Scotch pine. 
 
 (The forest trees are chiefly evergreens.). 
 
 Shrubs and small trees. 
 Bay tree. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Phillyrea media. 
 
 „ anguslifolia 
 Juniperis Sabina. 
 
CHAKACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 215 
 
 Celtis australis. 
 Pistacia. 
 Terebinth. 
 Lentiscus. 
 
 Rhamnus Alaternus. 
 Strawberry tree. 
 Jasmine. 
 
 Caper. 
 
 Balearic Isles. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Carob tree. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Almond. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Cactus Opuntia. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Some species of grain. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pinus halepensis. 
 
 Oak (common). 
 Clematis cirrhosa. 
 Hypericum balearicum . 
 The dwarf palm. 
 Cyclamen. 
 
 Polygala. 
 
 Anonis. 
 
 Anthyllis. 
 
 Italy and Sicily. 
 
 The South (wild). 
 
 Aloe ( A . americana). 
 Prickly fig. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Carob tree. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Arbutus. 
 
 Tamarisk. 
 
 Manna ash. 
 
 Chestnut (edible). 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Stone pine ( Pinus Pinea). 
 Lemon. 
 
 Caper. 
 
 Dwarf palm. 
 
 Pinus halepensis. 
 
 North (wild). 
 
 Common oak. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Horse chestnut. 
 
 Plum. 
 
 Cork oak ( Quercus suber). 
 Quercus cerris. 
 
 Yew. 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Scotch fir. 
 
 Pinaster. 
 
 Arundo Donax (a large and 
 important reed). 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Millet. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Mulberry (red and white). 
 Sugar cane. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Custard apple. 
 
216 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Greece and the Grecian Archipelago. 
 
 Trees and Shrubs (wild). 
 Olive. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Oaks ( Quercus Ilex). 
 
 „ ( „ cocci/era). 
 
 „ ( „ jEgilops). 
 
 Common oak. 
 
 Oriental hornbeam. 
 Beech. 
 
 Manna ash. 
 
 Scotch fir. 
 
 Stone Pine. 
 
 Prickly fig. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Osyris alba. 
 
 Terebinth. 
 
 Caper. 
 
 Jasmine. 
 
 Philly roea media. 
 
 „ angustifolia. 
 Strawberry tree. 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Christ’s thorn. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 Chaste tree. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Yew. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Chestnut (edible). 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Pear. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Almond. 
 
 Herbaceous, or tender plants. 
 Narcissus Tazetta. 
 Loranthus europus. 
 Tuberoses. 
 
 Hyacinths. 
 
 Irids. 
 
 Banunculus. 
 
 Tulip. 
 
 Anemone hortensis. 
 Poterium spinosum. 
 Dianthus arboreus. 
 Cultivated plants. 
 
 Pistacia. 
 
 Lentiscus. 
 
 Astragalus tragacantha. 
 „ cretica. 
 
 „ terebinthus. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Much pasture land. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Siberian pin e(PinusCembra) 
 Pinaster. 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Maple. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Cytisus. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 217 
 
 Broom. 
 
 Sorrel. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 A number of pea-blossoms. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Maizfe. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Chestnut (Spanish). 
 Hemp. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Much pasture land. 
 
 Germany, including Prussia , Austria , Hungary, and the 
 German States. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Common heath {Erica vul¬ 
 garis). (This is very 
 common.) 
 
 Juniper is communis. 
 Ledrum palustre. 
 Andromeda polifolia. 
 Abietinse. 
 
 The forests are formed of the ordinary trees, as birch, beech, 
 &c., which shed their leaves. 
 
 Honeysuckle. 
 
 Ivy. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Hop. 
 
 Bubus (the blackberries). 
 Guelder rose. 
 
 Trapa natans . 
 
 One-third of Germany is foi 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Chara vulgaris. 
 
 Salvia pratensis. 
 Thesium linophyllum. 
 Limosella aquatica. 
 Cucubalus tatarica. 
 
 (Common in forests.) 
 
 land. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Lentils. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Hops. 
 
 Rape. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Holland and Belgium. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Common heath. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Water lily (white <fc yellow). 
 Flowering rush. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Grasses. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Madder. 
 
 Rape. 
 
218 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mustard. 
 
 Hop. 
 
 Ordinary vegetables. 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pines. 
 
 Firs. 
 
 Common heath. 
 
 J uniper. 
 
 Ledum palustre. 
 Andromeda polifolia. 
 Willows. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 ' Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Much pasture land. 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 A great preponderance of 
 forest land. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Pine ( Pinus sylvestris ). 
 Spruce. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 Foxglove. 
 
 Uieracium aurantiacum. 
 Sedum anglicum. 
 Chrysosplenium oppositifo- 
 lium. 
 
 Hypericum pulchrum. 
 Erica cinerea. 
 
 Rosa spinosissima. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 B; gg- 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Russia (in Europe ). 
 Southern part. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Common oak. 
 
 Beech (red and white). 
 
 Sea pine (Pinus maritimd). 
 Juniper. 
 
 Yew. 
 
 Quercus cerris. 
 Beech. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 219 
 
 Linden tree. . 
 
 Plane. 
 
 Maple. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Pear. 
 
 Manna ash. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Spindle tree. 
 
 Water elder. 
 Wayfaring tree. 
 Lantana. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Privet. 
 
 Cornel. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Trefoil. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Medick. 
 
 Lucerne. 
 
 Madder. 
 
 Goosegrass. 
 
 Woad. 
 
 Dyer’s green. 
 
 Litmus. 
 
 Safflower. 
 
 Sumach. 
 
 Cotinus. 
 
 On the extensive Steppes. 
 A triplex lacinata. 
 Astragali. 
 
 Glycirrhiza hirsuta. 
 
 ,, Icevis. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Scotch fir (forming immense 
 forests). 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Maple. 
 
 Elm. 
 
 Glycirrhiza echinata. 
 Salsola prostrata. 
 
 Statice tartarica. 
 
 Lathyrus tuberosus. 
 Medicago sativa. 
 
 Vicia sylvatica. 
 
 Lotus corniculatus. 
 Serratula arvensis. 
 
 Inula brittanica. 
 
 Artemisia absinthium. 
 Anabasis aphylla. 
 
 Tamarix gallica. 
 Cynanchum acutum. 
 Senecio linifolius. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Millet. 
 
 Chick peas. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Tobacco ( Nicotiana pani¬ 
 culate!). 
 
 Onions. 
 
 Apples. 
 
 Pears. 
 
 Plums. 
 
 Figs. 
 
 Walnuts. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Hazel-nut. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Mountain ash. 
 Hazel. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 J uniper. 
 Cranberry. 
 
 Northern part. 
 
220 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Bilberry. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Bye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Lapland. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Cudbear. 
 
 Spruce fir. 
 
 Arbutus alpina. 
 
 Scotch fir. 
 
 J uncus trifidus. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Lycopodium alpinum. 
 
 Meadow trefoil. 
 
 Prunella vulgaris. 
 
 Lily of the valley. 
 
 Viola bifolia. 
 
 White water-lily. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 Yellow „ „ 
 
 Bird-cherry. 
 
 Salix glauca. 
 
 Mountain ash. 
 
 jj hastata. 
 
 Diapensia lapponica. 
 
 Beindeer moss (Genomyce 
 
 Bed currant. 
 
 rangiferina ). 
 
 Arctic raspberry. 
 
 Iceland moss (Lichen islan- 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 clicus). 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Iceland and Faroe Islands. 
 
 Wild. No trees. 
 
 Thymus serpyllum. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Lychnis Flos Cuculi. 
 
 BirCh 1=1 t,K 
 
 Spergula arvensis. 
 
 Alder J shrubb y- 
 
 Vaccinium Myrtillus. 
 
 J uniper. 
 
 „ uliginosum. 
 
 Grasses. 
 
 „ Oxycoccus. 
 
 Erica vulgaris. 
 
 Arbutus Uva-ursi. 
 
 Chara. 
 
 Iceland moss. 
 
 Hippuris vulgaris. 
 
 Pisum maritimum. 
 
 Veronica Anagallis. 
 
 Arundo arenaria. 
 
 Arundo Phragmites. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Comarum palustre. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Limosella aquatica. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Serratula arvensis. 
 
 Turnip. 
 
 Shepherd’s purse. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Draba verna. 
 
 Cauliflower. 
 
 Prunella officinalis. 
 
 Cummin. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS 
 
 221 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Asia Minor and Palestine. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Sweet chestnut. 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Horse chestnut. 
 
 Lilac. 
 
 Sweet jasmine. 
 
 Melon. 
 
 Cucumber. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Henna. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Pistachio. 
 
 Carob-tree. 
 
 Cordia mixa. 
 
 Guilandina morinda. 
 Indian tamarind. 
 
 Melia Azedarach. 
 
 Acacia nilotica. 
 
 „ farnesiana. 
 
 Apple of Sodom ( Solanum 
 sodomceum). 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Plane. 
 
 Pear. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Plum. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Medlar. . 
 
 Quince. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Strawberry tree. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Terebinth. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Sycamore fig ( Ficus Syca- 
 morus). 
 
 Cedar of Lebanon. 
 
 Christ’s thorn ( Zizyphus 
 Spina Christi). 
 
 Amyris gileadensis 
 Rose of J ericho ( Ana - 
 statica hierochuntica). 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 Keura odorifera. 
 Pear. 
 
222 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Apricots. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Durra ( Holcus Sorghum). 
 Balsam . (A myris opobal- 
 samum. 
 
 Myrrh ( Amyris Kata/). 
 
 Aloes (Aloe officinalis). 
 Senna (Cassia lanceolata). 
 Tamarinds ( Tamarindus 
 officinalis). 
 
 Gourd. 
 
 Melon. 
 
 Cocoa-nut. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Almond. 
 
 Filbert. 
 
 Mangosteen. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Quince. 
 
 Christ’s thorn (Zizyphus 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Spina Christi). 
 
 Apricot. 
 
 Water melons. 
 
 Almond. 
 
 Tamarix. 
 
 Cherry. 
 
 Euphorbia antiquorum. 
 
 Currants. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Lentisk. 
 
 Pride of India (Melia Aze- 
 
 Orange. 
 
 darach). 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Banyan. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Dalbergia Sissoo. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Tamarind. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Sesame. 
 
 Sycamore. 
 
 Holcus spicatus. 
 
 Oriental plane. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Guava. 
 
 Sorghum saccliaratum. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Pistachio. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Beet. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 Hindostan. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Butea frondosa. 
 
 Hornbeam. 
 
 Carey a. 
 
 Cedrelas. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 223 
 
 Croton. 
 
 Daphne gardneri. 
 
 „ cannabinum. 
 Dipteronilis grandiflora. 
 Spindle tree. 
 
 Ash {FraxinusJtoribunda). 
 Gmelina arborea. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Teak. 
 
 Holly. 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Privet. 
 
 Nutmeg. 
 
 Magnolia. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Pinus Deodara. 
 Rhododendron arboreum. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Pium. 
 
 Oaks (10 species). 
 
 Pyrus. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Sandal tree. 
 
 Sacred bean. 
 
 Chamcerops Martiana. 
 Cocoa-nut. 
 
 Palmyra palm. 
 
 Caryota urens. 
 
 Betel-nut palm. 
 
 Phoenix farinifera. 
 
 „ humilis. 
 
 Sago palm ( Sagus fari¬ 
 nifera )• 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Pancratium. 
 
 Crinum. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Pine apple. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Opium poppies. 
 Coffee. 
 
 Betel pepper. 
 Areca-nut palm. 
 Holcus sorghum. 
 Panicum. 
 
 Paspalum. 
 
 Elansinse. 
 
 Pliaseolus. 
 
 Dolichas. 
 
 Gourds. 
 
 Tesamum. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Turmeric. 
 
 Crotolaria juncea. 
 Hibiscus cannabinus. 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Carrots. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Millet. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Vetches. 
 
 Mustard. 
 
 Coriander. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Saffron. 
 
224 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The following are plants of Ancient Hindostan :— 
 
 Nymphosa stellata. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Nelumbium. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Acacia. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Pandanus. 
 
 Lentil. 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Onion. 
 
 Sacred fig. 
 
 Garlic. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Leek. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Henna. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 
 China. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Bmckia frutescens. 
 
 Palms. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Caper. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Guava. 
 
 Mallows. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Papaw. 
 
 Camellias. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Litche. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Magnolias. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Terebinth. 
 
 Apricot. 
 
 Myrtles. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Aucuba. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Hornbeam. 
 
 Mulberry (black and white). 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Sacred Bean of India. 
 
 Lemon. 
 
 Finns chinensis. 
 
 Olea fragrans. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Camellias. 
 
 Lycium barbatum. 
 Lime. 
 
 Scotch fir. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Finns cembra. 
 
 „ strobus. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Aucuba japonica. 
 Salisburia adiantoides. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 225 
 
 Sophora japonica. 
 
 . Pyrus japonica.- 
 Mespilus japonica. 
 Hydrangea hortensis. 
 
 Yew. 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 Salixjaponica. 
 
 Eleagnus umbellata. 
 Orange. 
 
 Camphor tree. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Olea fragrans. 
 
 Cycas revoluta. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Mulberry (black and white) 
 Salix integra. 
 
 Betula japonica. 
 
 Quercus glabra. 
 
 „ glauca. 
 
 „ acuta. 
 
 „ cuspidata. 
 
 Quercus serrata. 
 Cupressus japonica. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Daid-su (a kind of bean). 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Convolvulus. 
 
 Dioscorea. 
 
 Polygonum fagopyrum. 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Nymphcea nelumbo. 
 Arum esculentvm. 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 Cycas revoluta. 
 
 Sesamum orientate. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Willows. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Cashmere. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Orchard trees. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Thibet. 
 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 Elder. 
 
 Fir. 
 
 Horse chestnut. 
 
 Juniper. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Gooseberry. 
 
 Hazel. 
 
 Baspberry. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Bhododendrons. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Vaccinium. 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Erythrina monosperma. 
 Bombax heptaphyllum. 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Pine. 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Michelia. 
 
 Gordonia. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Pear. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Pine-apple. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Opium poppy. 
 Mulberry. 
 
 SIBEKIA. 
 
 Western Siberia with Eastern-side of the Altai Mountains. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Forest trees. 
 
 Steppe plants. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Adonis vernalis. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 Anemone patens. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Artemisia. 
 
 Larch. 
 
 Allium. 
 
 Pinus Cembra. 
 
 Gypsophilla. 
 
 Firs. 
 
 Statice . 
 
 Pines. 
 
 Ceratocarpus arenarius. 
 
 Spruce. 
 
 Diotis ceratoides. 
 
 Pinus sibirica. 
 
 Polycnemum. 
 
 „ Abies. 
 
 A triplex. 
 
 Mountain plants. 
 
 Chenopodium. 
 
 Gentiana altaica. 
 
 FranJcenia. 
 
 Veronica densiflora. 
 
 Tamarix. 
 
 Primula nivalis. 
 
 Salicornia. 
 
 Pedicularis resupinata. 
 
 Halocnemum. 
 
 Gentiana acaulis. 
 
 Amaryllis tatarica. 
 
 Cortusa Mathiola. 
 
 Rindera tetraspis. 
 
 Cardamine macrophylla. 
 Saxifraga Geum. 
 
 Nepeta sibirica. 
 
 Central Siberia. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pinus Abies. 
 
 Pinus Cembra. 
 
 Plantanus orientalis. 
 
 „ larix. 
 
 Populus alba. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 227 
 
 Populus balsamica. 
 
 Betula alnus. 
 
 „ nana. 
 
 „ fruticosa. 
 Rhododendron tauricum. 
 
 „ chrysanthum. 
 Stachys palustris. 
 
 „ sylvatica. 
 
 Scutellaria galericulata. 
 Schwertia perennis. 
 Sanguisorba officinalis. 
 Tanacetum vulgare. 
 Trientalis europcea. 
 Valeriana officinalis. 
 
 Vaccinium vitis-idcea. 
 
 „ uliginosum. 
 Anemone narcissiflora. 
 
 „ sylvestris. 
 Atragene alpina. 
 Andromeda polifolia. 
 Antirrhinum linaria. 
 Arbutus uva-ursi. 
 Euphrasia officinalis. 
 Potentilla anserina. 
 Pyrola. 
 
 Galium boreale. 
 
 Sedum palustre . 
 Lysimachia thrysijlora. 
 
 Eastern 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Birch. 
 
 Pinus Cembra. 
 
 Sorbus aucuparia. 
 
 Alnus incana. 
 
 Willows. 
 
 Spircea kamtschatica. 
 
 Allium ursinum. 
 Maianthemum canadense. 
 Uvularia amplexifolia. 
 
 Iris sibirica. 
 
 Caprifolium. 
 
 Bose. 
 
 Atragene alpina. 
 Rhododendron Jcamtschati- 
 cum. 
 
 Empetrum nigrum. 
 Trientalis europcea. 
 
 Linncea borealis. 
 
 Cornus suecica. 
 
 Urtica dioica. 
 
 Lupinus nootkensis. 
 Mimulus luteus. 
 
 „ guttatus. 
 
 Siberia. 
 
 Epilobium angustifolium. 
 „ latifolium. 
 
 „ luteum. 
 
 Rubus spectabilis. 
 
 A ngelica. 
 
 Heracleum. 
 
 Carices. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Potamogeton. 
 
 Ranunculus aquatilis. 
 Sparganium. 
 
 Hippuris. 
 
 Sorrel. 
 
 Polygonum. 
 
 Aconite. 
 
 Monkshood. 
 
 Meadow rue. 
 
 Geranium pratense. 
 Gomarum palustre. 
 Oxycoccus. 
 
 Arbutus alpina. 
 
 Azalea procumbens. 
 
 East Indian Archipelago and Ceylon. 
 
 Wild. Pitcher plant (Nepenthes 
 
 distillatoria). 
 
 2 
 
 Rafflesia A rnoldii. 
 
228 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Bryonia. 
 
 Cocoa-nut 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Caryota. 
 
 Cissus. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Pothos. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Loranthus. 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Acrostichum. 
 
 Jack. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Malay apple. 
 
 Cardamom. 
 
 Mangosteen. 
 
 Galanga. 
 
 Psidia. 
 
 Costus. 
 
 Oranges. 
 
 Acorus. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Schoenanthus. 
 
 Cashew-nut. 
 
 Calamus aromaticus. 
 
 Guava. 
 
 Turmeric. 
 
 Averrhoas. 
 
 Pandanus. 
 
 Amoma. 
 
 Nipa palm {Nipa frute- 
 
 Hedysarum. 
 
 scens). 
 
 Galega. 
 
 Mangrove. 
 
 Hibiscus. 
 
 Avicennise. 
 
 Justicia. 
 
 Fig trees. 
 
 Cleome. 
 
 Melaleuca leucadendron. 
 
 Impatiens. 
 
 Eugenia. * 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Amomum. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Bicinus. 
 
 Camphor. 
 
 Ipomsea. 
 
 Clove. 
 
 Dioscorea. 
 
 Nutmeg. 
 
 Basella. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 Aristolochia. 
 
 Betel pepper. 
 
 Ophioglossum. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
 Phaseolus. 
 
 Galangale. 
 
 Memordica. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Casuarina. 
 
 Eugenia. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Barbary. 
 
 Wild on the mountains. 
 Quercus suber. 
 
 „ Ilex. 
 
 „ dbtecta. 
 
 „ pseudo-suber. 
 
 Quercus coccifera. 
 
 „ pseudo-cocci/era. 
 
 „ Ballota. 
 
 Aleppo pine ( Finus hale - 
 pensis. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 229 
 
 Fresnella Fontanesii. 
 Juniper us phcenicea. 
 
 „ lycia. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Wild on the plains. 
 
 Buckthorn. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Acacia. 
 
 Cedar. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Peaches. 
 
 Plums. 
 
 Almonds. 
 
 Oranges. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Figs. 
 
 Egypt 
 
 Wild by the Nile. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Figs. 
 
 Willows. 
 
 Acacias. 
 
 Tamarisks. 
 
 Sycamore fig. 
 
 Oleander. 
 
 Christ’s thorn. 
 
 Papyrus. 
 
 Sandy plains. 
 
 Tamarisk. 
 
 Caper. 
 
 Cassias. 
 
 Acacias. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Salsola. 
 
 Traganum. 
 
 Calligonum. 
 
 Salicornia. 
 
 Mesembryanthemum. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Pistachio. 
 
 Zizyphus Lotus. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Jasmine. 
 
 Spina Christi. • 
 
 Chaste tree. 
 
 Palmetto Palm (Cham«e- 
 rops humilis). 
 
 Castor-oil tree. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Mulberry (white). 
 
 ) Nubia. 
 
 Colutea. 
 
 Carduus. 
 
 Prickly fig. 
 
 Oases. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Doum palm. 
 
 Palm of Thebes (Cucifera 
 thebiaca). 
 
 Acacia vera. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Sycamore fig. 
 
 Egyptian arum (Arum co~ 
 locacia). 
 
 Gourd. 
 
230 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Cucumber. 
 
 Holcus dhourra. 
 
 Sassflower. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Onion. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Plants of Ancient Egypt. 
 
 Sacred bean of India. 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Papyrus. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Red-flowered lotus. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Onion. 
 
 Thuja orientalis. 
 
 Bean ( Vida /aba). 
 
 Viola odorata. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Mallow. 
 
 Arundo donax. 
 
 Squill {Scilla maritima). 
 
 Water-melon. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Cucumber. 
 
 Plum. 
 
 Garlic. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Radish. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Date palm. 
 
 Beet. 
 
 Doum palm. 
 
 Mustard. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Rue. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Ocymum basilicum. 
 
 Pear. 
 
 Black mulberry. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Fennel. 
 
 Lentil. 
 
 Madder. 
 
 Almond. 
 
 Coriander 
 
 Leek {Allium porum). 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 Rose. 
 
 Asparagus. 
 
 Cummin {Cumimum cymi- 
 
 Endive. 
 
 mum. 
 
 Elder. 
 
 Poplar (white and black). 
 
 Ficus carica. 
 
 Aspen. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Melilotus officinalis. 
 
 Zizyphus Lotus. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Opium poppy {Papaver 
 
 Pistachio-nut. 
 
 somniferum). 
 
 Calendula officinalis. 
 
 Sassflower. 
 
 Plantago major. 
 
 Ash. 
 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Papyrus. 
 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 A myris Opobalsamum. 
 Juga Sassa. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 231 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Farek (Bauhinia acumi¬ 
 
 Kol-qual ( Euphorbia anti¬ 
 
 nata). 
 
 quorum). 
 
 Kuara ( Erythrina abyssi- 
 
 Gir-gir (Andropogon afer). 
 
 nica). 
 
 Kantuffa. 
 
 Teff {Poa abyssinica). 
 
 Gaguedi ( Protea abyssi- 
 
 Cassia fistula. 
 
 nica). 
 
 
 Central Africa. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Passion- flowers. 
 
 Onions. 
 
 Aristolochise. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Calamus. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Balanophorse. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Ground nuts. 
 
 Millet. 
 
 
 Western Africa. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pulse. 
 
 Adansonia digitala. 
 
 Ground-nut. 
 
 Bombax pentandrum. 
 
 Limes. 
 
 Raphia vinifera. 
 
 Plantain {Musa sapien- 
 
 Pandanus Candelabrum. 
 
 tum). 
 
 Sterculia acuminata. 
 
 Papaw ( Carica Papaya). 
 
 Ordeal tree. 
 
 Pine-apple. 
 
 Anona senegalensis. 
 
 Pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo). 
 
 Chrysobalanus Icaco. 
 
 Tamarind. 
 
 Pine-apples. 
 
 Oil-palm (Blais guineensis) 
 
 Oil palm. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Wild guava (Psidiumpyri- 
 
 Capsicum. 
 
 ferum ). 
 
 Negro peach ( Sarcocephalus 
 
 Orange. 
 
 esculentus). 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Locust-tree ( Inga biglobosa) 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Cashew-nut. 
 
 Cassava ( Jatropha Mani- 
 
 Baobab, or monkey-bread. 
 
 hot). 
 
 
 Southern Africa. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Protea repens. 
 
 Heaths. 
 
 „ mellifera. 
 
 Proteas. 
 
 Fig-marigolds. 
 
 Silver-tr ee(Protea argentea). 
 
 Stapelia. 
 
232 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Diosma. 
 
 Eriocephalus. 
 
 Aloes 
 
 Calendula. 
 
 Euphorbias. 
 
 Othonna. 
 
 Tamus elephantopus. 
 
 Arctotis. 
 
 Irids 
 
 Corymbium. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Senecio. 
 
 Strelitzia. 
 
 Yirgilia. 
 
 Palmiet (Juncus serratus). 
 
 Aspalathus. 
 
 Pelargonium. 
 
 Lobelia.. 
 
 Acacias. 
 
 Indigofera. 
 
 Polygala. 
 
 Agathosma. 
 
 Fabacese. 
 
 Morea. 
 
 Acacia capensis. 
 
 Phylica. 
 
 Asters. 
 
 # * Gladiolus. 
 
 Gnaphalium. 
 
 Halleria. 
 
 Xeranthemum. 
 
 A corns palmita. 
 
 Zamise. 
 
 Cluytia. 
 
 Ixise. 
 
 Barrosma. 
 
 Amaryllidse. 
 
 Cycadese. 
 
 Elichrysum. 
 
 
 Madeira. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Vaccinium padifolium. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Prickly fig. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 Myrtle. 
 
 Arum. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Spartium. 
 
 Pomegranate. 
 
 Heaths. 
 
 Mulberry. 
 
 Pteris aquilina. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Cichoracese. 
 
 Onions. 
 
 Canary 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Yisnea. 
 
 Euphorbias. 
 
 Olive ( Olea excelsa). 
 
 Mesembryanthemums. 
 
 Arbutus catticarpa. 
 
 Cacalia Kleinia. 
 
 Sideroxylon. 
 
 Dragon’s blood tree. 
 
 Ivy ( Uedera canariensis). 
 
 Date. 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Golden campanula ( Cam¬ 
 
 Palmetto. 
 
 panula aurea). 
 
 Indian fig. 
 
 Fir ( Pinus canariensis). 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Juniperis cedro. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS, 
 
 233 
 
 Spartium nubigenum. 
 Grasses. 
 
 Cypress. 
 
 Erica Arborea. 
 
 Sempervivum. 
 
 Aizoon. 
 
 Cotyledon. 
 
 Crassula. 
 
 Cordon ( Euphorbia cana - 
 riensis). 
 
 Euphorbia balsami/era. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 « 
 
 Sugar cane. 
 
 Arum calocacia. 
 
 Olive. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Tanghii tree ( Tanghinia 
 veneniflua). 
 
 Hydrogeton fenestralis. 
 Palms. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Citron. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Manise. 
 
 Batata. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Calabastes. 
 
 Earth-nut ( Arachis hypo 
 gea). 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Pine-apple. 
 
 Bread-fruit tree. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Bean. 
 
 Mauritius and Bourbon. 
 
 The flora of these islands is almost identical with that of the 
 Indian Archipelago. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cloves. 
 
 Nutmeg. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 Mexico. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Vanilla. 
 Caoutchouc. 
 Styrax officinalis. 
 
 Hand plant. 
 Dahlias. 
 
 Convolvulus Jalapa . 
 Agave americana. 
 
234 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Logwood tree. 
 Furcrcea. 
 Yuccse. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Dice. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Manioc. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Maguey. 
 
 Cactus coccinellifer. 
 Anona cherimolia. 
 Wheat. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Agaves. 
 
 Opuntia tunas. 
 
 Sub-tropical Zone of North America. 
 (From Tropics to 34°.) 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Magnolia grandiflora. 
 
 „ glauca. 
 Calycanthus Jloridus. 
 Kalmia hirsuta. 
 
 „ cuneata. 
 
 Halesia tetraptera. 
 
 „ diptera. 
 
 Laurus catesbeyana. 
 
 „ caroliniensis. 
 JDiospyros virginicus. 
 
 Olea americana. 
 
 Ilex vomitoria. 
 
 Pines. 
 
 Oaks. 
 
 Cypress (Cupressus dis- 
 ticha). 
 
 Tillandsia usneoides. 
 
 Fan palm (Chamcerops pal¬ 
 metto). 
 
 Salix nigra. 
 
 Populus deltoides. 
 
 Laurus sassafras. 
 
 Myrica caroliniensis. 
 Miegia macrosperma. 
 Ludolphia mississipensis. 
 Bubus. 
 
 Vitis riparia. 
 
 Ampelopsis bipinnata. 
 Juglans paean. 
 
 „ rubra. 
 
 Acer negundo. 
 Sarracenia. 
 
 Yenus’s fly-trap. 
 Rhododendrons. 
 
 Azaleas. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Bice. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Warmer Temperate Zone of North America. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Solidago. 
 
 Asters. 
 
 Oaks. 
 
 (From 34° to 45°) 
 
 Pines. 
 
 Vaccinse. 
 
 Liriodendron tidipifera. 
 Mimosa. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 235 
 
 Smilax china. 
 
 „ hastata. 
 
 Smalteri. 
 
 Miegia macrosperma . 
 Ludolphia mississipensis. 
 Bignonias. 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Beech. 
 
 Elms. 
 
 Hazel. 
 
 Plantanus occidentalis. 
 Boses. 
 
 Walnut. 
 
 Wellingtonia gigantea. 
 Sugar maple. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Colder Temperate 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Bye. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Flax. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Hops. 
 
 Apple. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Water-melons. 
 
 Peach. 
 
 Buckwheat. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Zone of North America. 
 
 (From 45° to 58°.) 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Firs. 
 
 Alder. 
 
 Sorbus. 
 
 Hawthorn. 
 
 Rubus odoratus. 
 Cornus suecica. 
 Gooseberry. 
 
 Azalea. 
 
 Calla: 
 
 Linncea borealis. 
 Lathrcea stelleri. 
 Panax horridum. 
 Arenaria peploides. 
 Glaux maritima. 
 Carex. 
 
 Juncus. 
 
 Veronica serpyllifolia. 
 
 „ anagallis. 
 Potentilla anserina. 
 
 „ ruthenica. 
 Sisyrinchium. 
 Plantago. 
 
 Triglochin. 
 
 Dodecatheon. 
 
 Pedicularis. 
 
 Elymus. 
 
 Bartsia. 
 
 Campanula. 
 
 Angelica. 
 
 Heracleum. 
 
 Fritillaria. 
 
 Pisum maritimum. 
 Cochlearia danica. 
 Ranunculus acris. 
 Galium boreale. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oat. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Bye. 
 
 Hemp. 
 
 Potato. 
 
236 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Sub-arctic and Polar Zones. 
 
 (From 5 8° to the North Pole.) 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Rhododendron lapponicum. 
 Andromeda tetragona. 
 
 „ polifolia. 
 
 „ caliculata. 
 
 Vaccinium vitis idoea. 
 
 Oxy coccus palustris. 
 
 Azalea procumbens. 
 
 Birch (Betula glandulosa). 
 Alder (Alnus glutinosa). 
 Saxifraga aizoides. 
 
 „ oppositifolia. 
 
 „ cernua. 
 
 „ groenlandica. 
 
 Polygonum viviparum. 
 
 Arnica montana. 
 
 Dryas integrifolia. 
 
 Holcus alpinus. 
 Pedicularis lapponica. 
 
 „ sudetica. 
 
 „ hirsuta. 
 
 Plantago lanceolata. 
 Cerastium viscosum. 
 Oxyria reniformis. 
 Triglochin maritimum. 
 Tojieldia borealis. 
 Epilobium palustre. 
 
 „ latifolium. 
 
 „ angustifolium. 
 
 West India Islands. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Mahogany (Swietenia Ma- 
 hogani). 
 
 Pimento {Alyrtus Pimento). 
 Avocada pear (Laurus Per- 
 sea). 
 
 Papaw tree(CaricaPapaya). 
 Anacardium occidentale. 
 Passion-flowers. 
 
 Pine-apple. 
 
 Mammee tree (Mammea 
 americana). 
 
 Mango. 
 
 Teak. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Trumpet tree. 
 
 Banyan fig. 
 
 Tree ferns. 
 
 Heliconias. 
 
 Cocoa-nut. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Cabbage palm. 
 
 Nutmeg. 
 
 Cassia. 
 
 Cannon-ball tree. 
 
 Screw pine (Pandanus odo- 
 ratissimd). 
 
 Bread fruit tree 
 Quercus suber. 
 
 „ robur. 
 
 Piper nigrum. 
 
 Cactus. 
 
 Euphorbia. 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Pine-apple. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Maranta arundinacea. 
 Pimento. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Indigo. 
 
 Ginger. 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 237 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 Brazil. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Cassias. 
 
 Cecropias. 
 
 Myrtles. 
 
 Cacti. 
 
 Bignonias. 
 
 Paullinias. 
 
 Passion-flowers. 
 
 Coronilla. 
 
 Macauba-palm. 
 
 Securidaceae. 
 
 Mikanias. 
 
 Celtis. 
 
 Rhexias. 
 
 Melastomas. 
 
 Bauhinias. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Nightshades. 
 
 Sebestanas. 
 
 Eupatoria. 
 
 Crotons. 
 
 Cerei. 
 
 Silk cotton tree. 
 
 Brazil wood tree. 
 
 Lecy this. 
 
 Cabbage palm. 
 
 Begonias. 
 
 Costus. 
 
 Heliconias. 
 
 Brazilian pine (. Araucaria 
 imbricata). 
 
 Mangrove’ tree ( Rhizophora 
 Mangle ). 
 
 Laurel. 
 
 Geofir sea. 
 
 Barbadoes cedar. 
 
 Eugenia. 
 
 Theophrasta. 
 
 Conchocarpus. 
 
 Dwarf-palms. 
 
 Bindweed. 
 
 Pothos. 
 
 Arum. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Bromelias. 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Brazil nut (Berth olletia 
 excelsa). 
 
 Cocoa or chocolate tree. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Orange. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Yam. 
 
 Batatas. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Mandiocca root (Jatropha 
 Manihot). 
 
 Colombia. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Heliconia. 
 
 Alpinia. 
 
 Theophrasta. 
 
 Plumieria. 
 
 Csesalpinia. 
 
 Cecropia peltata. 
 Balsam tree of Tolu. 
 Quinine tree. 
 
238 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mangrove tree. 
 Ceroxylon andicola. 
 Tree ferns. 
 
 Cinchona lanci/olia. 
 
 „ cordifolia. 
 
 „ longifolia. 
 
 „ oblongifolia. 
 
 Fuchsias. 
 
 Passion flowers. 
 
 Sisyrinchium. 
 
 Melastomae. 
 
 Bocconia frutescens. 
 Arums. 
 
 Quercus granatensis. 
 Clusias. 
 
 Calceolarias. 
 
 Lobelias. 
 
 Walnut tree. 
 
 Ebony tree. 
 
 Sassafras. 
 
 Cocoa tree. 
 
 Vanilla. 
 
 Tamarind. 
 
 Medlar. 
 
 Manch ineel tree. 
 
 Cassia. 
 
 Sapotas. 
 
 Guava. 
 
 Arracacha (Arracacia es- 
 culenta). 
 
 Cow tree ( Galactodendrum 
 utile). 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Cocoa. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Banana. 
 
 Batatas. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Cacti. 
 
 Tillandsia. 
 
 Melocacti. 
 
 Cerei. 
 
 Willow. 
 
 Manglillo. 
 
 Huarango. 
 
 Cordia. 
 
 Buddlea. 
 
 Heliotropium. 
 
 Lantana. 
 
 Lycium. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 Schinus Molle. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Cocoa-nut palm. 
 
 Orchid. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Yellow potato of Peru (. Pa¬ 
 pas amarillus). 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Vine. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 La Plata. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Ombu ( Thytolacca dioica). 
 Thistles. 
 
 Cardoon ( Cynara Cardun- 
 culus). 
 
 Ferns. 
 
 Curily pine ( Araucaria 
 brasiliensis). 
 
CHARACTERISTIC PLANTS. 
 
 239 
 
 Ybaro ( Sapindus sapo- 
 naria). 
 
 Cacti. 
 
 Paraguay tea ( Ilex para- 
 guensis). 
 
 Leguminous plants. 
 
 A great portion of the country is occupied by pampas, extensive 
 treeless plains, covered with grass. 
 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Mandiocca. 
 
 Maize. 
 
 Batatas. 
 Wheat. 
 Barley. 
 Paraguay tea. 
 Peach tree. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Boble (Fagus obliqua). 
 Lingui ( Laurus lingui). 
 Queule ( Gonmertiganitida). 
 Laurel (Lauretta aroma- 
 tica). 
 
 Canelo (Dvymis chilensis). 
 Avellano (Quadria hete- 
 rophylld). 
 
 Chili pine. 
 
 Boldo (Boldoafragrans). 
 Peumo (Peumos rubra). 
 Fuchsia. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Cavenia. 
 
 Palm of Chili (Molince 
 micrococcus). 
 
 Saccharine. 
 
 Acacia Caven. 
 
 Ephedra chilensis. 
 
 Myrtus communis. 
 
 Calceolarias. 
 
 Baccharis. 
 
 Eupatorium. 
 
 Proustia. 
 
 Mutisise. 
 
 Lobelia tupa. 
 Psoralea. 
 
 Cestrum. 
 
 Dodder. 
 
 Salpiglossis. 
 Malesherbia. 
 Loranthus aphyllus. 
 Cultivated. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Potato. 
 
 Pumpkin. 
 
 Lettuce. 
 
 Cabbage. 
 
 Yine. 
 
 Terra del Fuego and Straits of Magellan. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Evergreen beech (Fagus 
 betuloides). 
 
 Birch (Betula antarctica). 
 Fagus antarctica. 
 Cranberry. 
 
 Drymis Winteri. 
 Wild celery. 
 Scurvy grass. 
 Yeronica, 
 Fuchsia. 
 
240 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Pandanus odoratissima. 
 Draccena terminalis. 
 
 Morus papyri/era. 
 Erythrina corallodendron. 
 Santalum Freycinetianum. 
 Bamboo. 
 
 Acacia heterophylla. 
 
 Pine apple. 
 
 Casuarinse. 
 
 Aleurites triloba. 
 
 Ipomea. 
 
 Ananas. 
 
 Asplenium nidus. 
 
 Pteris. 
 
 PiperacesB. 
 
 Lobelias. 
 
 Urticese. 
 
 Charpentiera obovata. 
 
 Metrosideros polymorphous. 
 Jambosa Malaccensis. 
 
 Both wild and cultivated. 
 
 Bread fruit (Artocarpus in - 
 cisa). 
 
 Cocoa-nut (Cocos nucifera). 
 Yam (Dioscorea alata). 
 Taro (Arum esculentum). 
 Plaintain (Musa sapientum). 
 ’B&iidLn&(Musaparadisiaca). 
 Mape or rata (Inocarpus 
 edulis). 
 
 Brazilian plum (Spondias 
 dulcis). 
 
 Ahio (Eugenia malaccenus). 
 Pteris esculenta. 
 
 Poly podium Medulla. 
 
 „ dichotomum. 
 
 AUSTRALIA AND 
 
 Wild. 
 
 Proteas. 
 
 Acacias. 
 
 Eucalyptus. 
 
 Epacris. 
 
 Myrtles. 
 
 Leguminous plants. 
 Composite plants. 
 
 Melaleuca. 
 
 Gnaphalium. 
 
 Casuarina. 
 
 Mimosa. 
 
 Araucaria excelsa. 
 
 Orchids. 
 
 Callitris. 
 
 Xanthorrhea. 
 
 Doryanthes excelsa. 
 Cephalotus follicularis. 
 Castonospermum australe. 
 Claudea elegans. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 Phormium tenax. 
 Banksia. 
 
 Dryandra. 
 
 Bceckia. 
 
 Leptospermum. 
 
 Cupressus callitris. 
 
 Olax. 
 
 Exocarpus. 
 
 Angophora. 
 
 Metrosideros. 
 
 Zamia spiralis. 
 
 Drosera pedata. 
 Hcernodorum teretifolium. 
 Ferns. 
 
 Marsdenia suaveolens. 
 Stackhousia monogyna. 
 Samolus littoralis. 
 Hibbertia volubilis. 
 
 „ diffusa. 
 
 Juncus vaginatus. 
 
SOUTH AMEK1CA 
 
 241 
 
 Lycopodia. 
 
 Loranthus. 
 
 Kanguru-grass ( Anthrisli- 
 ria australis.) 
 Mesembryantliemum cequi- 
 laterale. 
 
 Polygonum junceum. 
 Viscum. 
 
 Lobelia. 
 
 Dichondra repens. 
 Epilobium. 
 
 Alisma. 
 
 Triglochin. 
 
 Actinocarpus. 
 
 Najaa. 
 
 Lemiia. 
 
 Cyperus. 
 
 Scirpus. 
 
 Schoenus. 
 
 Carex. 
 
 Myriophyllu m. 
 Mentha. 
 
 Dracaena australis. 
 Areca olerace 
 
 THE END. 
 
 R 
 
LONDON : 
 
 SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CUANDOS STREET, 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 

 
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