MURRAY'S FOREIGN HANDBOOKS, HANDBOOK—HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.—Map and Plans. Post 8vo. 6s. HANDBOOK —THE RHINE AND . NORTH GERMANY, The Black Forest, The Hartz, ThUringerwald, Saxon Switzerland, RUgen, The Giant Mountains, Taunus, Odenwald, Elsass, and Lothrinqen. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 10*. HANDBOOK—SOUTH GERMANY, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Tyrol, Salzburg, Styria, Hungary, and The Danube, from Ulm to thf. Black Sea. In 2 Parts. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 12s. HANDBOOK — SWITZERLAND, The Alps of Savoy and Piedmont. The Italian Lakes and Part of DauphinS. Edited by W. A. B. Coolipge, M.A. Maps and Plans. 2 Parts. Post Svo. 10s. HANDBOOK—FRANCE, Part I.: Normandy, Brittany, The Seine and Loire, Touraixe, Bordeaux, The Garonne, Limousin, The Pyrenees, die. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 7s. 6d. HANDBOOK—FRANCE, Part II.: Central France, Auvergne, The Ce- vennes. Burgundy, The Rhone and Saone, Provence, Les Causses, Nimes, Arles, Marseilles, The French Alps, Alsace, Lorraine, Champagne, die. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 7«. 6d. HANDBOOK—THE RIVIERA, from Marseilles to Pisa. With Out¬ lines of the Routes thither, and information for Invalids on the Climate. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 6s. HANDBOOK—MEDITERRANEAN : Forming a Guide to the Coasts of Aff.ica, Spain, Italy, Dalmatia, Greece, Asia Minor, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, The Balearic Islands. Crete. Rhodes, Cyprus, die. In 2 Parts. By Sir It. L. Playfair, K.C.M.G. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 21s. HANDBOOK — ALGERIA AND TUNIS, Algiers, Constantin*. Oran. The Atl's Range, die. Edited by Sir It. L. Playfair, K.C.M.G. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 12s. HANDBOOK—SPAIN, Madrid, Toledo, The Castiles, The Basque Pro¬ vinces, Leon, The Asturias, Gai.icia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Seville, Cordova, Malaga, Granada, Valencia, Catalonia, Barcelona, Aragon, Navarre, The Balearic Islands, die., die. In 2 Parts. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 20s. HANDBOOK—PORTUGAL, Lisbon, Oporto,Cintra, Madeira, the Canary Islands, die. Map and Plan. Post Svo. 12«. HANDBOOK—NORTH ITALY, Turin, Milan, Pavia, Cremona, The Italian Lakes, Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, Mantua, Vicenza, Padua, Venice, Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna. Rimini, Parma, Modena, Piacenza, Genoa, The Riviera, die. Edited by H. W. Pullen, M.A. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 10s. HANDBOOK—CENTRAL ITALY, Florence, Lucca, Tuscany, Umbria, The Marches, die. Edited by H. W. Pullen, M.A. Maps and Plans. Tost 8vo. 6s. HANDBOOK—ROME AND ENVIRONS. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 10*. HANDBOOK-SOUTH ITALY AND SICILY, Naples and its Environs, Pompeii, Herculaneum., Vesuvius, Sorrento, Capri, die.; Amalfi, P.kstum, Pozzuoli, Capua, Taranto, Bari, Brindisi, and the Roads from Rome to Naples, Palermo, Girgenti, the Greek Temples, and. Messina. Edited by II. W. Pullen, M.A. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 12s. HANDBOOK — EGYPT, The Course of the Nile, through Egypt and Nubia, Alexandria, Cairo, Pyramids, Thebes, Suez Canal, Peninsula of Sinai, Oases, The Fyoom, die. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 15s. October, 1S93, [Continued. MURRAY’S FOREIGN HANDBOOKS— (continued). HANDBOOK — GREECE, The Ionian Islands, Continental Greece, Athens, The Peloponnesus, The Islands of the ASqajan Sea, Albania, Thes¬ saly, and Macedonia. In 2 Parts. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 24s. HANDBOOK—CONSTANTINOPLE, BRUSA, and the TROAD. Edited by Gen. Sir Ciias. Wilson, R.E...G.C.B. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. Vs. Gd. HANDBOOK—HOLY LAND, Syria and Palestine, Jerusalem, Damascus, Palmyra, etc. By tlie Rev. Haskett Smith. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. ISs. *** Handbook Travelling Map of Palestine. Iu a Case. 12s. HANDBOOK — DENMARK, Sleswig, Holstein, Copenhagen, Jutland, Iceland. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 6s. HANDBOOK — SWEDEN, Stockholm, Upsala, Gothenburg, The Shore of The Baltic, &c. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 6s. HANDBOOK — NORWAY, Christiania, Bergen, Trondhjem, The Fjelds, and Fjords. Edited by Thos. Miciiell, C.B. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. Vs. Gd. HANDBOOK—RUSSIA, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Finland, &c. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. i8s. HANDBOOK—INDIA, in Four Volumes. I. BOMBAY. Map and Plans. 15s. I hi. BENGAL. Maps and Plans. 20s. H. MADRAS. Maps and Plans. 15s. | iv. THE PUNJAB. Maps. 15s. HANDBOOK—INDIA AND CEYLON. In One Volume. Bengal, Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Punjab, the Native States, Rajputana, &c., Simla, Dar¬ jeeling, Mahabaleshwar, Matiieran, Mt. Abu, Ceylon, &c. Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 15s. HANDBOOK—JAPAN, Yokohama, Tokyo, Nikko, Niigata, Ise, Kyoto, the Inland Sea, the Islands of Shikoku, Kynshu, Yezo, &c. New Edition with 15 Maps and Plans. Post Svo. 15s. net. HANDBOOK — NEW ZEALAND, Auckland, The Hot Lake District, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin, Otago, Southern Lakes, &c. By F. W. PENNEFATHER, LL.D. Crown Svo. Vs. Gd. COMPANIONS TO THE HANDBOOKS. HANDBOOK OF TRAVEL TALK— English, French, German, and Italian. 16mo. 3s. Gd. HANDBOOK DICTIONARY—ENGLISH. FRENCH, AND GERMAN. 16mo. 6s. *** A small volume, convenient for HAND or DOCKET. HANDBOOK OF PAINTING-THE ITALIAN SCHOOLS. Revised and Remodelled. By SIR A. II. LAYARD, G.C.B. 200 Illustrations. 2 vols. Crown Svo. 30s. MEMOIRS OF THE EARLY ITALIAN PAINTERS, and the PROGRESS OF PAINTING IN ITALY". —From Cimabue to Bassano. By Mrs. JAMESON. Portraits. Crown 8vo. 12s. HANDBOOK OF PAINTING.—THE GERMAN, FLEMISH, AND DUTCH SCHOOLS. Based on the Handbook of Kiigler. By J. A. CROWE. Illustra¬ tions. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 24s. EGYPT UNDER THE PHARAOHS. A History derived entirely from the Monuments. By HENRY 13RUGSCH BEY. A New Edition, condensed and thoroughly revised. By MARY BRODR1CK. With Maps, Plans and Illustra¬ tions. Svo. ISs. October, 1893. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from Getty Research Institute https://archive.org/details/handbookfortrave01 VIEW OF ANCIENT CEMETERY, ATHENS. HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS GREECE INCLUDING THE IONIAN ISLANDS, CONTINENTAL GREECE, THE PELOPONNESE, THE ISLANDS OF THE .EGEAN, CRETE, ALBANIA, THESSALY, & MACEDONIA ; AND A DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ATHENS, ANCIENT AND MODERN, CLASSICAL AND MEDIAEVAL. tftftfj Station THOROUGHLY REVISED AND CORRECTED IN TWO PARTS—PART I. WITH MAPS AND PLANS LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET THE ENGLISH EDITIONS OF MURRAY’S HANDBOOKS MAY BE OBTAINED OF THE FOLLOWING AGENTS. AIX-LA- OHAPELLE . AMSTERDAM ANTWERP . BADEN-BADEN BERLIN BRUSSELS . CARLSRUHE COLOGNE . DRESDEN . FRANKFURT GRATZ THE HAGUE HAMBURG . HEIDELBERG BALE. BERNE COIRE . CONSTANCE GENEVA LAUSANNE . BOLOGNA . FLORENCE - . GENOA LEGHORN . LUCCA MANTUA MILAN MODENA NAPLES AMIENS ANGERS AVIGNON AVRANCHES BORDEAUX . BOULOGNE . CAEN . CALAIS CANNES CHERBOURG DIEPPE DINANT DOUAI GRENOBLE . HAVRE LILLE . GIBRALTAR LISBON Belgium, Holland, and Germany. MAYER. . MULLER.—KIRBERGER. . MERTENS. . MARX. . ASHER.—MITSCHER AND ROS TELL. . KIESSLING. . A. BIELEFELD. . GREVEN.—DUMONT.—EISEN. . BURDACH.—PIERSON. . JUGEL. . LEUSCHNER AND LUBENSKY. . nijhoff. . MAUKE SOHNE. . MOHR. Switzerland. . GEORG.—AMBERGER. . DALP.—JENT AND REINERT. . GRUBENMANN. . MECK. . MONROE(METFORD).—SANDOZ. —H. GEORG. . ROUSSY. LEIPZIG MANNHEIM - METZ . MUNICH NURNBERG. PESTH PRAGUE ROTTERDAM STRASSBURG STUTTGART . TRIESTE VIENNA WIESBADEN LUCERNE . NEUCHATEL SCHAFFHAUSEN SOLEURE . ST. GALLEN ZURICH . ZANICHELLT. . GOODBAN.—LOESCllER. . GRONDONA.—ANTOINE BEUF. . MAZZAJOLI. . BARON. . NEGRETTI. . SACCHI. — DUMOLARD. — HOEPLI. . VINCENZI AND ROSSI. . BRITISH LIBRARY (DORANT) HOEPLI.—FURCHHEIM. . PEDONE. Italy. PARMA PISA . PERUGIA ROME . SIENA . TURIN VENICE . CARON. . BARASSE. . CLEMENT ST. JUST. . ANFRAY. . CHAUMAS. — MULLER. — SAU- VAT.—FERET. . MERRIDEW. . BOISARD. — LEGOST. — CLE- RISSE. . RIGAUX CAUX. . ROBANDY. . LECOUFFLET. . MARAIS. . COSTE. . JACQUART.—LEM ALE. . VELLOT ET COMP. . BOURDIGNON. — FOUCHER.— BUYS. . BEGHIN. VERONA France. LYONS MARSEILLES NANTES NICE . ORLEANS PARIS . PAU . RHEIMS ROUEN st. Etienne ST. MALO ST. QUENTIN TOULON TOULOUSE TOURS TROYES ROWSWELL. LEWTAS. Spain and Portugal, I MADRID MALAGA BROCKHAUS.—TWIETMEYER. BENDER AND FONTAINE. LOFFLER. —KOTTER. ALCAN. MANZ. — ACKERMANN. — KAISER. SCHRAG.—ZEISER. HARTLEBEN.—G. HECKENAST. —OSTERLAMM.—RATH. CALVE. KRAMERS.—PETRI.—ROBBERS. GRUCKER.—TRUBNER. METZLER. —NEFF. COEN.—SCHIMPFF. GEROLD.—BRAUMC LLER. KREIDEL. KAISER. GERSTER. HURTER. JENT. HUBER. ORELL FUESSLI & CO.—MEYER & ZELLER.—LEUTHOLD. ZANGHIERI. NISTRI.—JOS. VANNUCHI. VINCENZ. —BARTELLI. SPITHOVER. — PIALE. — MON- ALDINI. —LOESCHER. ONORATO PORRI. MAGGI. — L. BEUF. — BOCCA FRERES.—LOESCHER.— BAL¬ FOUR. ONGANIA. — COEN.— MEINERS. —QUERCI. MUNSTER.—MEINERS. AYNE.—SCHEURING. —MERA. CAMOIN FRERES.—MEUNIER. PETIPAS.—POIRIER LEGROS.— ANDRE. BARBERY FRERES.—JOUGLA —GALIG NANI. GATINEAU.—PESTY. GAL1GNANI.—BOYVEAU. LAFON. BRISSART BINET.—GEOFFROY. —GIRET. LEBRUMENT.—HAULARD. DELARUE. HUE. DOLOY. MONGE ET VILLAMUS. GIMET ET COTELLE. GEORGET. LALOY.—DUFEY ROBERT. DURAN.—BAILLIERE. DE MOYA. Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. ST. PETERSBURG. WATKINS.—WOLFF. MOSCOW . . GAUTIER. — DEUBNER LANS.' Malta. CRITIEN. —WATSON. —C ALLE JA. Greece. ODESSA . . CAMOIN. CHRISTIANIA . BENNETT. STOCKHOLM . SAMSON & WALLIN.— FRITZ Ionian Islands. Constantinople. CORFU . J. W. TAYLOR. WICK & WEISS. Alexandria and Cairo. ATHENS, KARL WILDBERG. CALCUTTA—THACKER, SPINK, I India. ALEXANDRIA BOOK COMP. BOMBAY—THACKER & CO., LIMITED. PREFACE. The present edition of this Handbook is the result of several years’ careful inquiry carried out during a long residence and much travel in various parts of the countries described. The work is still in plan and foundation the Handbook prepared by Sir George F. Bowen, but has of necessity been considerably modified to meet present requirements. Nearly 200 pages have been added to the visible bulk of the book, but an accession of space scarcely less has also been obtained by abridgment or excision of unimportant matter. A large amount of new and practical information, useful to Travellers in the Levant, will be found in this edition; while among other additions may be specially mentioned the numerous notices/ of the Mediaeval History of Greece, a subject of peculiar interest to Englishmen, but one hitherto totally neglected in all guides to Greece, Foreign as well as English. Another neglected subject, here for the first time introduced, is the Natural History, including the Geology, of Greece. Other new features are the enlarged form and new matter of the general and special Introductions, the entirely new description of Athens, the catalogues of Greek Museums, the detailed accounts of the latest discoveries at Olympia, Mycenae, Epidaurus, Tegea, Delphi, Delos, Dodona, etc.; and, finally, the copious references to the best and newest sources of infor¬ mation, English and Foreign, on each of the topics treated. It is hoped that these additions may materially increase the practical utility of the Handbook. Some apology is due to the reader for certain irregularities in the spelling of Bomaic and Turkish words. These anomalies, IV PREFACE. from which scarcely any work on Levantine subjects is exempt, cannot be defended; but it is hoped that they will readily be excused by such readers as have had personal experience of the difficulty-of the subject. The Editor is fully conscious of the inadequacy of this work to its objects, but as the result of conscientious and unsparing labour, guided by long experience of the country described, trusts that it may yet fulfil its main purpose. It is further hoped that what is good in the book may be improved, what is defective completed, and what is erroneous corrected, by the experience and assistance of future travellers. Attention is requested to the Postscript of latest infor¬ mation. A. F. Y. *** Any fresh information, derived from 'personal experience of the countries described in this Handbook, will be very acceptable. All letters on the subject to be addressed to the Publisher, Albemarle Street. THEATRE OF DIONYSUS, ATHENS. POSTSCRIPT. (Additions and Corrections.) Page 53, note. —For Tremolo, read Tremoula. ,, 54, line 40.—For haratsh, read Tcharj. ,, 55, ,, 12.—Delete, literally old heads. 62, ,, 3.—-For caucases, read caucuses. 69, ,, 24.—For gone, read gold. 70. — Dictionaries of Mod. Greek. A very good small dictionary of German-Greek has been published by M. Antonios Jeannaraki; and an equally satisfactory one of Greek-French by M. Emile Legrand. 73, line 39.—For rinfacciamenti , read rifaccimenti. 78.—The following is the population of the principal towns of Greece according to the latest census (1879). For the population of Triccala, which varies from 12,000 to 18,000 according to season, see below, p. 701. The statement of the population of Larissa is only approximately correct, as no complete census has yet been taken of the provinces annexed in 1881. 80.- Athens 63,374 Triccala . ( see. above) Patras . . . 34,237 Chalcis . 12,250 Corfu 25,139 Argos . 11,793 Piraeus 21,618 Lamia . 9,984 Hermopolis (Syra) 21,540 Nauplia . . 9,045 Larissa (about) . 20,000 Argostoli . 8,816 Zante Tripolitza. 18,635 13,970 I Missolonghi . 8,032 ■Greek Army. The strength of the active army has been more than doubled. The following table shows its nominal strength on 31st January 1884, as given in Greek official returns Messager ■>■> . 4629. Elatea. Oche ,, Euboea . 4606. St. Elias. Geraneia . ,, Megaris . 4495. Makri Plagi. Parthenium ,, Arcadia . 3993. Rhoino. Pentelicus ,, Attica . 3642. Mendeli. Hymettus yy yy . 3369. Trelo-Yuni. Ithome ,, Messenia . 2631. Yurkano. Acro-Corinthus. ,, Corinthia . 1887. Kastro. Panhellenium . ,, iEgina . 1752. St. Elias. With respect to altitudes in Macedonia, Thessaly, and Albania, the traveller is referred to the admirable work 3 of that distinguished geologist Dr. Ami Boue, where he will find (vol. iv. p. 568) a valuable Table of Heights, determined by the author’s barometrical observations. For fuller information on the Geography of Greece, the traveller is especi¬ ally referred to the following works :— Tozer, Lectures on the Geography of Greece. 1873. Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland. 1862-72. Stanley, Geography of Greece (Classical Museum, vol. i. p. 41-81). 1 “A contribution to the Hypsometry of Greece, based chiefly on the results ©f the French Survey,” by F. F. Tuckett, 1S7S. (Heights in the Archipelago chiefly from Admiralty Charts.) 2 Olympus, as pointed out by Mr. Tozer, is the only mountain in Greece which has pre¬ served its ancient name unaltered. 3 “La Turquie,” par Ami Boue. 4 vols. Paris, 1840. Introd. J. GEOLOGY OP GREECE. 37 Thirl wall, Geography of Greece (Introd. chapter to his History). Kiepert, Lehrbuch der Alten Geographic. 1878. Smith, Article Gracia in Die. Gr. and Rom. Geog. Second edition. Wordsworth, Introductory chapter to his Greece. J. Geology and Mineral Resources of Greece. It is not a little strange that while the archaeology of Greece has been made the subject of systematic investigation and study, by a large number of able and distinguished explorers, during fully two centuries, the foundations of the country have been almost entirely neglected. We may fitly apply to Greece the words of a great Russian traveller, writing of Asia Minor : “I have long wondered why this classic soil, the object of so many archaeological researches, has never been thoroughly explored in reference to its natural history in a detailed manner ; as if Europe were so entirely occupied with the search after ruined cities that it had not a thought to spare for the ground on which they stood, and designedly endeavoured to forget the sublime works of nature by studying the ephemeral, dwarf card-houses of mankind.” 1 Many reasons might be adduced to explain this omission in the case of Greece ; none that can justify it. The most respectable is, that the structure of its wide extending secondary rocks, (including their metamorphic equiva¬ lents), is at once so complicated and so monotonous, that until very recently no geologist was to be found willing to grapple with so involved a subject,— a subject, moreover, which, from the general absence of organic remains, promised nothing but ungrateful results. The almost entire absence of interest among the Greeks themselves has doubtless been another retardatory cause— an absence of interest amounting in the case of Geology almost to aversion. In the following brief notice, we shall attempt no more than the barest outline of the geological structure of Greece, premising that our present sources of information on the subject are so limited and unsatisfactory that all statements require to be received with the greatest caution. It is with some legitimate pride that we record the fact that the earliest observations, in any language, on the geology of Greece were made by two Englishmen, viz. Dr. Sibthorpe (1785-95) and Dr. Clarke (1806). They consist of stray notices scattered through their respective writings, and though, from their slight and fragmentary character, these notes are of no practical utility at the present time, they are nearly always good and accurate in themselves. The real pioneers in the subject have, however, been Yirlet (1829) and Fiedler (1840) for Greece, and Boue (1840), followed by De Verneuil (1845) for Turkey. It is impossible to praise too highly the labours of these earlier investigators—labours not only excellent in themselves, but often carried out, especially in the case of Dr. Boue, at actual risk of life. About fifteen years after the publication of Fiedler’s work, a young French palaeontologist—since risen to eminence—M. Albert Gaudry, was deputed by the French Government to investigate the richly ossiferous deposits of Pikermi, discovered by the historian Finlay in 1835. The results of his re¬ searches, published contemporaneously in the Comptes Rendus of the Academy of Sciences, were given to the public in 1862, in two splendid volumes, under the title of “ Les Animaux Fossiles et la Geologie de l’Attique.” Again fifteen years elapsed before any other contribution of importance appeared on the subject. But in 1877 there were published the first of a series of very valuable papers on the geology of certain tracts of Greece, contributed to the journal of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna, by several zealous Austrian geologists, MM. Neumayr, Teller, Bittner, and Biirgerstein. These i “ Notes on the Geology of Asia Minor,” by P. de TchihatchefF, Leonhardt’s Neues Jahrb., 1847, and Q. J. G. S., vol. iii. (1847). 38 J. GEOLOGY OF GREECE. Gen. papers have since been republished in a single quarto volume. 1 Like most continental geologists, the writers named are far keener to notice and record local lithological details than to attempt to establish the general relations and synchronism of strata. M. Gaudry alone, we believe, has made some useful advances towards this object, and even he is not free from the prevailing characteristic of the continental school. Besides the authorities already named, there have appeared at different times sundry short notices on detached questions by various writers, including our countryman, Adm. Spratt (see Travels in Crete and Q. J. G. S. s. v. Spratt). From these various sources we are enabled to compile the following brief notice, which will be restricted to the geology of the Greek kingdom, as the structure of Macedonia, Thessaly, and Albania could not be treated of without reference to the general geology of Turkey, a subject quite beyond the limits of this Handbook. For a description of the mountain systems of Greece, the reader is referred to the preceding article (Geographical Configuration of Greece). Plutonic Rocks. —The most characteristic rock of this class in Greece is serpentine, which occurs in large masses, 2 with occasional local variation, in Locris, extending N.W.—S.E. between Darnitza and Mt. Zuka; at and immediately S. of Atalanti; also at Exarchos (Boeotia) ; and in a narrow triangular mass extending from Moriki and Sagmata to Lukisi. Serpentine, however, attains its principal development in the Island of Euboea, where it occurs at Chalcis, at Rachti, near Yatonda (containing chromite, for which there are works) and in the district S. of Makri Muli. Further FT., it forms a grand semicircular belt sweeping S. from Limni to Hagios Georgios, and thence N. again to Port Rimasi. This belt is of very unequal width ; its greatest breadth is on the N.E. side of the island, between Markataes and Port Rimasi. Apparently no serpentine or other plutonic rock occurs in Continental Greece W. of Darnitza. In the Peloponnesus serpentine is found in the districts of Argos and Corinth, at Palseokastro, Piada, Epidaurus, Hermione, Calaureia, Tripolitza, and Trinisia (Laconia). The islands of Tenos, Andros, Scyros, and Scopelos, all include serpentine in their structure. M. Gaudry opines that the Greek serpentines are due to successive eruptions at various periods. If the observation made by MM. Boblaye and Yirlet be correct, some of the Peloponnesian serpentines date from pre-Cretaceous times ; while, according to M. Gaudry, some of the Attic serpentines are no older than the Miocene period. 3 Granitic rocks are very scantily represented on the mainland of Greece ; the only noteworthy example is a small patch at Plaka in S. Attica. Granite is, however, the principal constituent of many of the iEgean islands, among others of Delos, Myconus, Paros, Seriphos, Naxos, and Tenos. It also occurs in small patches at other points in Attica andEubceain the form of that white or greenish felspathic rock to which continental geologists give the name of Eurite. Occasionally it exhibits a porphyritic structure. Perhaps the most interesting point for studying the Greek granites is the island of Myconus, where, according to M. Cordelia, the granite passes into syenite on the N. (Cape Tourlo), and into gneiss in the centre of the island. The latter observation, if correct, is of interest in con¬ nection with Sir A. C. Ramsay’s views on the genesis of granite. According to M. Cordelia, the passage of granite into gneiss may be also observed in the islands of Delos (Mt. Cynthos), Ios, and Naxos (between H. Ioannes—E. of the town—and the village of Angaries, as well as on Mt. Coronon.) 1 “Geologische Studien in den Kustenlandern des Griechischen Arcliipels.” Separat- ausgabe des xl. Bd. der Denkschriften der K. K. Akad. der Wis. (Math-Naturwiss Classe). Vienna, 1880. M. Fuchs and two of the writers named above had already in 1875-6 con¬ tributed a few notes on Greek geology to the records of the Imp. Geol. Institute of Vienna. 2 It occurs at many other points in Attica and Boeotia in small patches ; among others at Athens, Oropos, Thebes, and Stylis. 3 “ Animaux Fossiles et Geologie de l’Attique,” vol. i. p. 396. Introd. J. GEOLOGY OF GREECE. 39 Palaeozoic Rocks. —No trace of these has been detected in the Greek king¬ dom. Of the islands of the JEgean described in this Handbook, Samothrace appears to be their sole representative. On the strength of some Spiriferse discovered by M. Yirlet in this island, it has been classed by him as Silurian. Secondary Rocks. —The secondary rocks are by far the most extensively developed in the Greek kingdom. Under this head must be included the metamorphic rocks (marbles and crystalline schists), which form several of the most celebrated mountains of Greece (e.g. Pentelicus, Hymettus, Tay- getus, etc.) None of the Greek sedimentary rocks are apparently older than the Cretaceous period, to which all the secondary deposits of Greece are regarded as belonging. Nearly three-fourths of the surface of Peloponnesus are formed of rocks of this age, here represented by compact limestone, alternating with marls, sandstone, and conglomerate. They exhibit extensive traces of rupture and dislocation on a grand scale, and are also in great part metamorphised ; organic remains are rare. MM. Boblaye and Yirlet classed this group as Lower Cretaceous. Such subdivisions can, however, scarcely be assigned with safety while our knowledge of Greek geology remains so fragmentary. The cretaceous system (limestone and sandstone), exclusive of insignificant exceptions, forms the entire mass of Continental Greece W. of Darnitza. E. of Darnitza it continues to be the dominant formation, but its superficial continuity is broken by the presence of deposits of later age. E. of the point named, it sweeps along the N. coast from Lamia to Cape Almyro ; and South¬ wards, from the Gulf of Aspraspitia till it joins the great cretaceous mass formed by the mountains of Megaris and Attica ; it then reappears in Euboea. The Ionian Islands are principally constituted of cretaceous rocks, though associated with others of Tertiary age; the N. Sporades (notably Skopelos, Gioura, and the Piperi) are also in great part cretaceous. Tertiary Rocks. —These are of considerable interest from their comparative richness in organic remains. Eocene —This period is not, as far as is yet known, represented in Continental Greece, 1 but it affords several isolated deposits in Peloponnesus. The nummulitic rocks of Tripolitza are the best known example ; they have yielded five species of this characteristic fossil. The freshwater deposits of Koumi in Euboea formerly classed as Eocene by Prof. Unger and Adm. Spratt, are pronounced by M. Gaudry, on what appears good evidence, to be of Miocene age. Miocene. —In this period Greece was united to Asia Minor by broad grassy plains, occupying the space now covered by the iEgean, which afforded habitation and sustenance to troops of the Dinotherium, the Hipparion, the Giraffe, and other large herbivorous animals, which then peopled Greece. This development of the herbivora as the domi¬ nant class is, in the words of M. Gaudry, ‘ ‘ the most characteristic feature of later Miocene times. ” 2 These broad prairies were interspersed by occasional freshwater lakes, of which traces have been found in Attica, Euboea, the Island of Chiliodromi, Asia Minor, Scio, Mytilene, Samos, Crete (?) and European Turkey. The Miocene scenery of Greece was further diversified by an almost tropical richness of vegetation, as revealed in the freshwater deposits of Koumi and Oropos. Lacustrine deposits occur at intervals over a large extent of Attica, and a portion of Boeotia, but we must refer the reader to M. Gaudry’s description ( Animaux Fossiles, vol. i. p. 401) for particulars, and confine our remarks 1 Unless, indeed, a recent report of nummulites having been discovered near Lamia be confirmed. 2 “ Considerations sur les Mammiferes qui ont vecu en Europe a la fin de l’epoque Miocene,” par Albert Gaudry, 1873, p. 9. According to M. Gaudry the fossil fauna of Pikermi, Mont Leberon (Provence), Baltavar (Hungary), and Concud (Spain), represent a later period than the analogous Upper Miocene fauna of Eppelsheim. Ibid, page 21. 40 J. GEOLOGY OF GREECE. Gen. to the typical deposit of Koumi. The lacustrine Miocene deposits of Attica exhibit almost everywhere traces of dislocation ; this disruption must have occurred before the close of the Miocene period, for at several points horizontal Pliocene strata rest unconformably on highly inclined lacustrine beds. The contiguous valleys of Koumi and Kastrovalla in Euboea are both filled by nearly horizontal lacustrine strata, resting unconformably on beds of secondary age. The two valleys are only separated by a narrow ridge of semi¬ crystalline limestone and friable schists. ‘ ‘ The lacustrine deposits consist of white marls interstratified with compact calcareous beds, resembling litho¬ graphic stone,” which splits into slabs and is used for tiles. “ In some of the spots which are quarried for these slabs, freshwater shells and the leaves of land plants abound to such an extent that it is hardly possible to split any fragment without exposing an impression of a leaf. ” 1 The well-known lignite beds are overlaid by about 200 ft. of calcareous strata and marls. The lignite, according to Adm. Spratt, contains no vegetable impressions. It was dis¬ covered about 1832 through exposure by a landslip. The fossil flora of Koumi has since been described in detail by M. Unger, 2 who enumerates no less than 115 species of trees and shrubs from these beds. Count Gaston de Saporta, assisted by M. Ad. Brongniart, has also done much to elucidate the subject, and has contributed an interesting tabular view to M. Gaudry’s work ( Animaux Fossiles) of the Flora of Koumi and Oropos, as compared with that of the Miocene deposits of Austria and Switzerland. As the result of this comparison, M. de Saporta regards the Koumi-Oropos beds as Lower Miocene, or, as he expresses it, occupying chronologically an intermediate position between the “ Calcaire de la Beauce ” and “Sables de Fontaine¬ bleau. ” 3 A considerable number of fossil fish have also been obtained from the same quarries. Pliocene. —To this period belong the celebrated Pikermi beds, so named from the ravine in which they were first observed. They extend from the upper slopes of Pentelicus down to Marathon, and are also visible at Stavro, Kharvati, and Cephissia. About Daoud Mendeli (a ruined convent) they occupy depressions in the mica schist. They consist of breccia, con¬ glomerate, and sandy marls ; they are conspicuous by their bright red colour when exposed, and also, in general, by their fertility. According to M. Gaudry, they may be best studied between Cephissia and Tziourka. Similar beds occur at several other points in Attica ; they are mostly horizontal, and repose unconformably on highly inclined Miocene lacustrine strata. Their stratigraphical relations may be best observed along the cliffs between the mouth of the Pikermi torrent (near Raphina) and the plain of Marathon. M. Gaudry claims for these deposits an exclusively fluviatile origin. In support of this view he adduces the following facts ;—(1) That these beds have not the regularity of lacustrine deposits, but resemble those in course of for¬ mation by Greek streams ; (2) that they are composed of pre-existing Pentelic rocks ; (3) that the fauna is exclusively terrestrial. The fauna of Pikermi is as varied in kind as it is rich in numbers, 4 but the skeletons are all broken up, and the bones distributed in the utmost confusion. 1 “ On the Geology of a part of Euboea and Boeotia,” by Lieut Spratt, R. N., Q. J. G. S. vol. iii. a “Die*Fossile Flora von Kumi auf der Insel Euboea,” by Prof. F. Unger, in Denk- schriften der K. K. Akad. der Wis. (Math. Naturwiss. Classe) xxvii. Bd. Vienna, 1867. 3 “ Un peu au dessus des Sables de Fontainebleau; vers l’horizon du Calcaire de la Beauce.” 4 The following list of the specimens obtained by M. Gaudry alone will give some idea of the wealth of the Pikermi beds Hipparion, remains of 80 individuals. Dinotherium, ,, 2 Helladotherium, „ 11 Camelopardalis, ,, 3 Mastodon, ,, 4 Rhinoceros, „ 23 | Ancylotherium, remains of 3 individuals. Sus, „ 12 „ Various Carnivora, „ 32 ,, Monkeys, ,, 25 „ Antelopes, etc. ,, 154 ,, Introd. J. GEOLOGY OP GREECE. 41 The following are some of the principal genera and species :— Rhinoceros pachygnathus, R. Schleiermacheri, Hipparion gracile, Mastodon Pentelici, Dinotherium giganteum, Ancylotherium Pentelici , Hyaena eximia, IP. grceca; also species of Helladotherium, Camelopardalis, Palceoreas, Tragocerus, Palceoryx, Paloeotragus, and in this strange company familiar Sus (S. erymanthius). The Quadrumana were represented by Mesopithecus Pentelici. We must now give an abridged account of the ingenious theory by which M. Gaudry accounts for the presence of a Miocene fauna in beds of Pliocene age. He assumes that w T hen the greet catastrophe took place which closed the Miocene period, and caused the irruption of the sea between Greece and Asia, some of the inhabitants of the plain sought a refuge from the inunda¬ tion on the neighbouring heights, but that being deprived alike of space, food, and water, they soon died, and that their bones were ultimately swept by the mountain torrents into the ravine of Pikermi. That these animals could not have tenanted Greece later than the upheaval of the Miocene strata seems clear, for at the close of that period of upheaval Attica had already assumed its present arid configuration ; the waters seem all to have been drained off into the sea in the act of upheaval. 1 Pliocene freshwater deposits are wholly wanting in Attica, although not in some other parts of Greece. M. Gaudry concludes his remarks on the Pikermi fauna by an observation so excellent in itself, and so cogent in its application to many other cases besides the one under consideration, that we prefer to give it in his own words un¬ translated :— “Je ne pense pas que les partisans de la theorie des causes actuelles rejettent a priori mon explication, parceque elle suppose une dis¬ location brusque ; ce serait exagerer cette belle theorie que de vouloir rendre compte de tous les faits geologiques par des actions lentes, et nier qu’il y a eu autres fois des dislocations plus violentes que celles dont nous sommes les temoins.” 2 A band of Pliocene strata (mainly calcareous tufa, very similar to that of Sicily), forms the coast-line of Peloponnesus, and a considerable portion of Continental Greece, including Attica. The yellow Piraic limestone, so much employed for the foundations of ancient buildings, is of this character. Tufa, of the same age and structure, extends in horizontal strata, across the Isthmus, from Kalamaki to Corinth. The coast Pliocene has hitherto yielded some twenty-five species of mollusca. 3 The fossils which mainly characterise the formation here, as elsewhere, are Pecten and Ostrea, of both of which genera several species occur. The general facies shows a mingling of extinct and recent forms. Pliocene rocks also enter largely into the structure of the Sporades, the Ionian Islands, and some of the Cyclades. Besides these marine Pliocene strata, there occur in the districts of Me gar a and Corinth certain mingled fresh and brackish water deposits of the same age. 4 They are best developed at Megara. They extend W. of the town, and cover the front of Mt. Geraneia, occupying an area 2 or 3 leagues long by 1 wide, and attain at some points a thickness of at least 80 metres. The formation consists of three stages, viz. an upper and lower freshwater lime¬ stone, separated by an intervening stratum (also limestone) of brackish origin, as proved by its organic contents. The faunae of the upper and lower fresh- 1 “Animaux Fossiles,” vol. i. p. 432, et seq. An Austrian geologist, M. Fuclis, has written an interesting paper, with the view of proving the Pikermi fauna to be of Pliocene age. But such a conclusion seems alike irreconcilable with the character of the fauna and the position of the beds. At any rate, it seems desirable to have more precise information, before accepting a classification so much at variance with the conclusions of the writer who has hitherto done most to elucidate the subject. 2 “Animaux Fossiles,” vol. i. p. 434. 3 Iiid. vol. i. p. 439. * These freshwater deposits were confounded by the French Expedition with the ordinary coast Pliocene. 42 J. GEOLOGY OF GREECE. Gen. water deposits appear to be identical. In the Talley of Corinth the brack¬ ish stratum is thicker than at Megara, and the upper lacustrine stage is absent. 1 M. Gaudry is disposed to regard the calcareous deposits of Megara as the equivalents of Sir Roderick Murchison’s Aralo-Caspian (or Steppe) lime¬ stone. 2 This may be the case, although the circumstances under which they were formed differed widely. The Greek beds contain very few organic remains. The only species common to the Russian and Greek deposits is the recent Cardium edule, and the only genus Neritina , species of which occur in both. 3 M. Gaudry also considers it probable that the younger freshwater deposits of the interior of Asia Minor, the valley of the Xanthus, Cos, and Rhodes, are of the same age as those we have just described. Prof. E. Forbes, who was, we believe, the first writer to point out the difference in age between the lacustrine deposits of the coast (see above under Miocene) and those of the interior of Asia Minor, regarded them as of later date than the Smyrna deposits, but “ anterior to the Pliocene marine formations of Asia Minor and the Sporades.” 4 Prof. Forbes had, however, it should be observed, classed the older lacustrine deposits as Eocene. Post-Tertiary Rocks. —No deposits of this period in Greece, as yet de¬ scribed, are of much interest. It will suffice to specify three examples ; one of the Post-Pliocene, the others of the Recent formation. Prof. Domnandos 5 obtained many years ago a portion of a tusk of Elephas primigenius (Mam¬ moth) from the gravel beds of the Alpheus at Megalopolis, and in 1861 Sig. Guicciardi-Barazetti discovered in the same locality a molar of the mammoth, and fragmentary bones of Bos primigenius. Further particulars are wanting. Near Kalamaki is a recent deposit, which, according to M. Horner, has yielded 84 species of existing mollusca. M. Cordelia has described a very singular deposit which has formed on the Laurium sea-board, within historic times. It is a very hard conglomerate, consisting of the ancient scorise from the mines associated with shingle, quartz, and sand; the whole bound together by a strong argillo-calcareous cement. The hardness and durability of this exceedingly modern rock is such that it is quarried by the villagers of Keratia to form the hand mill¬ stones with which they grind their wheat and barley. Volcanic Rocks. —The only present centre of active volcanic action in Greece is the Santorin group of islands. As this has been fully described under its proper heading, it is needless to say more of it here. The volcanic rocks of Greece belong to very various periods ; indeed Sir C. Lyell went so far as to state, doubtfully, that volcanic rocks of Jurassic age occurred in the Morea. This assertion, however, has never been either confirmed or dis¬ proved. The older volcanic rocks of Greece consist almost exclusively of trachyte and its allied forms. Trachyte proper occurs in the islands of Melos, Anti-Melos, Cimolus, Polycandros, Pholegandros, Santorin, Anti- Paros, Scyros, Poros, and iEgina, and in the peninsula of Methana. It usually occurs in hummocks or low hills. At Kastro, in the island of Anti- Melos, these attain the height of from 850 to nearly 1700 ft. Near Port Apollonia in Melos, the trachyte has assumed a columnar prismatic structure. Quartz-trachyte occurs in Cimolus and the adjoining islets, and in Melos, where it is quarried for mill-stones. Pearlstone is found in the islands of 1 “Animaux Fossiles,” vol. i. p. 448. 2 “ Russia and the Ural Mountains,” vol. i. p. 297. 3 Compare the above, vol. i. p. 306, with “Animaux Fossiles,” vol. i. p. 445-47. 4 “ Note on the Fossils collected by Lieut. Spratt in the Freshwater Tertiary Formation of the Gulf of Smyrna,” by Prof. Edward Forbes, Q. J. G. S., vol. i. 5 Prof. Domnandos deserves a passing notice as the only naturalist modern Greece has hitherto produced. His zoological and geological collections, bequeathed to the public on his death in 1S57, formed the nucleus of those now in the university. Introd. J. MINERAL RESOURCES OF GREECE. 43 Melos and Anti-Paros. Obsidian occurs in great abundance among the Pliocene conglomerates of Melos, at Nychia ; and also in the Santorin group. It appears to have been an object of export from Melos in ancient times. 1 The best example of an extinct volcano in the iEgean, is afforded by the Turkish island of Nisyros. This island is nearly circular in form, and, according to Dr. Ross, 2 of exclusively volcanic origin. The centre of the island is occupied by a vast, nearly crescentiform, crater, about a league long by half a league broad, and over 2000 ft. deep. The crater contains several solfatare, the largest of which is about 100 paces in diameter. At the time of Dr. Ross’s visit slight detonations occurred every 20 to 30 seconds. Some¬ times these are loud enough to be heard at a distance of more than 3 miles. The crater is surrounded by precipitous lava cliffs, and streams of lava can be traced on all sides from the rim of the crater towards the sea, into which they project as headlands. Hot saline water springs up at almost any point along the sea-shore on digging to a very slight depth in the sand and shingle. This water has a temperature of from 28° to 30° R., and is used by the peasants for fulling coarse cloth. For this purpose the women scoop out small shallow basins in the shingle. Thermal springs are common in many parts of Greece ; some of them are in high local repute as remedies. Mineral Resources of Greece .—The following brief notice of the principal industrial products of the mines and quarries of Greece may complete our notice of Greek Geology. 3 Gold occurs in very small quantities in the island of Scyros. It is found in the bed of the stream just below the town, among debris of serpentine and magnetic iron. Some ancient scoriae found here yield, after crushing and smelting, 3 to 5 per cent gold. The gold mines of Siphanto are mentioned by Herodotus, and traces of them near Hagios Sosti may still be recognised, though some of the galleries have been inundated by the sea. No gold is now found here. Gold is also found at Doliana in the Peloponnesus, mixed with iron pyrites. Silver is worked at Laurium (See Rte. 4), Seriphos, Carystus, Anti-Paros, Thera, and Anaphe, in conjunction with lead. Traces of ancient silver mines may be seen in the islands of Melos, Cimolus (whence its Italian name of Argentiera), and Zea. Lead is found associated with silver at all the above named localities. Zinc is obtained from Laurium and Mt. Hymettus. The latter mine is in the hands of an English firm (Messrs. Swan & Co.), who have established works at the foot of the western slopes. Copper occurs in conjunction with other ores at Laurium, Carystus, and Seriphos, and with less alloy at two points in Phthiotis (Limogardi and Bosoni), near Epidaurus, and at Troezene. Works have been established at all these places, Avith more or less success. Copper has also been detected at several other points in both Continental and Insular Greece, but without leading to any practical results. Iron is found in Southern Euboea, near Cape Matapan, and in the islands of Cythnus, Chiliodromi, Scyros, and Seriphos. The principal mines are at Seriphos, and appear to be prospering. The ore is exported to NeAvcastle in the rough, and there smelted. 1 Some fine illustrations (photographic) of Greek \ r olcanic rocks will he found in a mag¬ nificent work issued by the French Government, entitled “ Mineralogie Micrographique : Roches Eruptives Frangaises,” par F. Fouque et A. Michel Levy, 1S79. 2 “Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln dcs Aegaischen Meeres,” by Dr. LudAvig Ross. Tubingen, 1843. See vol. ii. pp. 67-79. 3 These particulars respecting Greek mines and quarries are mostly derived from a report by M. Cordelia (consulting engineer of the Laurium Company), i'prepared for the Greek section of the Paris Exhibition of 1S78. 44 K. HELLENIC AND BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Gen. Lignite is worked at Koumi and Oropos, and is now employed in some of the smelting operations at Laurium. It burns badly, emitting much smoke, and its caloric power is only in the proportion of 1 to 3 as compared with the best Newcastle coals. Petroleum and Bitumen occur at several points in the kingdom, but have not as yet been put to any use. Sulphur occurs at several points in Greece, but in Melos alone are the deposits of sufficient value to repay the expense of extraction. Emery is largely exported from Naxos ; most of it goes to England. It is also found in Paros and Sicinos, as well as near Thebes. The export trade appears, however, to be entirely confined to the Naxians. Several other mineral exports might be specified, but the above are the most important. The principal marble quarries of Greece are the following:— Pentelicus and Paros. —White statuary marble. Also at Pentelicus a coarser variety used for building purposes. 1 The Paros quarries are worked by a Belgian Company. Hymettus. —White marble, with a black or blue streak; also dark blue- gray marble. Dimaristica (near Gythium).—Red marble ; the proprietor of the works is German. Scyros. —These famous quarries produce a variety of beautiful marbles, in¬ cluding the following colours:—Pure white (used for statuary), red, gray, brown, and yellow. The variegated marbles of Scyros enjoyed a high reputation in ancient Rome. Tenos. —The marbles of Tenos rival those of Scyros in beauty if not in fame. They include a dark-green kind, resembling serpentine, which has furnished the new R. C. Church at Athens with monolithic columns 19 \ ft. high. Another very effective Tenian marble is known locally as “ Turchino ,” and consists of a pure white ground, with patches of dark blue. Besides these, Tenos furnishes excellent black and white marbles. Many of the ancient quarries of Greece still remain to be re-opened, includ¬ ing the celebrated Cipollino quarries of Southern Euboea. K. Practical Observations on Hellenic and Byzantine Architecture, with a Glossary of the Principal Terms. It would be entirely beyond the scope of the present work to enter on the wide domain of Greek archseology, 2 but a few practical observations on the principal characteristics and divisions of Hellenic architecture will not be out of place, and may facilitate to the casual observer the proper appreciation and enjoyment of the splendid remains of ancient Greece. The subject may be conveniently distributed under the three following heads :—I. The masonry of the ancient Greeks as exemplified chiefly in the remains of their military architecture. II. The three Grecian orders — Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. III. The Greek Temple. I. The masonry of the ancient Greeks. —The material most commonly em¬ ployed was the palombino or gray limestone, of which so many of the Greek mountains are constituted. Sandstone was also employed, but less frequently. The mural masonry of Greece is usually divided into three classes, as follows :— 1 Pentelican marble has only been extensively quarried since about the year 1865. Pre¬ vious to that date the expenses of extraction and transport were so high as to be practically prohibitory. A curious proof of this is that when (circa 1S52) the Convent Church of Pen¬ telicus was repaired, it was found more economical to import the marble from Carrara than to extract it from the subjacent rock ! 2 The best guide to classical archseology is still unquestionably Otfried Muller’s “ Hand- buch der Archaeologie der Kunst,” second edition (1S52), revised by Welcker. Introd. K. HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE. 45 A. Cyclopcean. —Irregular blocks of stone are here rudely adapted to each other, the interstices being filled up with smaller pieces, or with rubble. Such rough walls, hardly to be distinguished at first sight from the masses of broken rock which strew the surface of a limestone country, were of old believed to have been erected by the Cyclopes, whence their name. The walls of the citadel of Tiryns afford a fine example of this kind of construction. The Cyclopsean has been commonly regarded as the most ancient species of Greek masonry, but the fallacy of such a classification has been clearly demonstrated (see below). B. Pelasgic or Polygonal. —In masonry of this class, the stones are no longer unhewn (apyol \L6 ol), but their sides are sufficiently smoothed to enable them to be compactly fitted together. At the same time the face of the wall was cut or ground to a tolerably smooth surface. The walls of Larissa (the citadel of Argos) and, in parts, those of Mycenae, afford good examples of this species of masonry. It is still in common use in many parts of S. E. Europe for garden walls, etc. C. Rectangular, or Hellenic. —This species of masonry is divided into three orders, of which the rudest variety is regarded as the most ancient. Its general characteristics are, that the blocks are rectangular and laid in horizontal parallel courses, while the vertical joints are either perpendicular or oblique. The walls of Mycenae present one of the earliest examples of this kind of construc¬ tion. The defences of Messene are a splendid example of this species of masonry in its most perfect form. We have already observed that the mode of construction of walls cannot be accepted as any criterion of their antiquity. ‘‘ In the construction of their walls,” the Greeks, “adhered as a mere matter of taste to forms which they must have known to be inferior to others. In the example, for instance, of a wall in the Peloponnesus, we find the polygonal masonry of an earlier age actually placed upon as perfect a specimen built in regular courses, or what is technically called ashlar work, as any to be found in Greece.”— Fergusson. This brief notice of the mural architecture of ancient Greece, may be fitly terminated by stating the principal conclusions to which Mr. E. H. Bunbury has come, after an exhaustive examination of the whole subject. For this pur¬ pose we shall quote Mr. Philip Smith’s summary. 1 Mr. Bunbury has con¬ clusively shown—(1) “ That while in such works as the walls of Tiryns, we have undoubtedly the earliest examples of mural architecture, it is quite a fallacy to lay down the general principle, that the unhewn, the polygonal, the more irregular and the more regular rectangular constructions, always in¬ dicate successive steps in the progress of the art; and that it is also erroneous to assign these works to any one people or to any one period ; (2) That while such massive structures would of course be built by people comparatively ignorant of the art of stone-cutting, or of the tools proper for it, they might be, and were also, erected in later times, simply on account of their adapta¬ tion to their purpose, and from the motive of saving unnecessary labour; (3) That the difference between the polygonal and the rectangular structures is generally to be ascribed, not to a difference in the skill of the workmen, but to the different physical characters of the materials they employed—the one sort of structure being usually of a species of limestone, which easily splits into polygonal blocks, and the other a sandstone the natural cleavage of which is horizontal.” II. The three Grecian Orders may be characterised as follows :— A. The Doric, the oldest, the simplest, and the most dignified of all. A shaft of massive proportions, without a base, crowned with the simplest of capitals and the heaviest of abaci, supports an entablature massive like itself, 1 “ Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities,” p. 770. 46 K. HELLENIC ARCHITECTURE. Gen. and composed of a very few bold members. The great characteristic is the triglyphs, originally the ends of the cross- beams appearing though the en¬ tablature. The grave simplicity and majesty of a Doric temple admirably expresses the mind of the race among whom it originated. “The Doric character,” as Miiller observes, ‘‘created the Doric architecture.” B. The Ionic order retains the impress of the Asiatic people among whom it arose. The great characteristic of the Ionic pillar is the volutes, or spiral projections at each angle of the capital, supposed by some writers to have been suggested by the curling down of bark at the top of the wooden column of primitive ages. A more probable explanation is that given by C. 0. Muller, who regards the Ionic as merely a decorated Doric capital, and, adopting the theory which regards the original Ionic column as a grave-pillar, suggests that the volutes may represent suspended ram’s horns, a ram being the customary offering to the dead. Both the Ionic and the Corinthian orders have bases to their columns. Colonel Leake has made the judicious observation, that of the two early forms of Grecian architecture, the Ionic was usually employed for buildings on a level surrounded with hills ; whereas the massive and majestic Doric was best displayed on a lofty rock. It was, in fact, situation that determined the Greeks in all the varieties of their architecture. “So far,” says Leake, “from being the slaves of rule, there are no two examples of the Doric, much less of the Ionic, that perfectly resemble each other either in proportion, construction, or ornament.” C. The Corinthian, the third and latest of the Grecian orders, with its tall slender colums, its elaborate cornice, and highly-wrought capitals, offers a striking contrast to the original Doric. “Here,” says Mr. Freeman, “the utmost lightness of proportion and the most florid gorgeousness of detail have utterly banished the sterner graces of the elder architecture ; so completely had commerce, and the wealth and luxury which attended it, changed the spirit of the famous city whose name it bears, since the days when her two harbours were first added to the conquests of the invading Dorian.” The earliest known examples of the use of the Corinthian order are the Philippeium at Olympia, erected b.c. 338, and the monument of Lysicrates at Athens, which dates from b.c. 335. According to a well-known legend re¬ corded by Yitruvius, the idea of the beautiful Corinthian capital was sug¬ gested to the sculptor Callimachus by the sight of a basket covered by a tile, and overgrown by the leaves of an acanthus on which it had been accidentally placed. The order appears to have been invented about the time of the Peloponnesian war, but did not come into use until some time afterwards (Smith). “We must remember,” writes Mr. Freeman (Hist, of Architecture, 1849), “that the Grecian orders do not, like the styles of Gothic architecture, each represent the exclusive architecture of a single period. The invention of new forms did not exclude the use of the elder ones; and the three orders were employed simultaneously. Consequently there were many cases in which the architect who adopted the stern grandeur of the Doric order chose it in \ actual preference to the elegant Ionic and florid Corinthian, which were in contemporary use.” III. The Greek Temple .—It is almost needless to say that this is the most important and characteristic form of Hellenic architecture. ‘ ‘ Other Grecian remains, however interesting as matters of archaeology, throw but little light upon architecture. The magnificent propylaea of Athens are simply a Doric portico, differing in no essential respect from those forming the fronts of the temples. The vast theatres, whether constructed or hewn in the rock, teach us no new lesson, and can hardly be called works of architecture in the strictest sense. Still less can we look for domestic architecture among the Greeks ; it was an art not likely to be cultivated among a people who looked Introd. K. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. 47 with, envy on any individual display of magnificence as betokening designs against their liberties. Freeman. Temples are distinguished by different names according to the number and arrangement of their columns. The essential feature in all temples is the naos or cella, the shrine of the tutelary divinity, of which the temple in its primary form alone consisted. The pronaos and opisthodomus were added at a later period. “The simplest Greek temples were mere cells or small square apartments, suited to contain an image—the front being what is technically called distyle in antis, or with two pillars between antce, or square pilaster-like piers ter¬ minating the side walls. Hence the interior enclosure of Greek temples is called the cell or cella, however large and splendid it may be. “The next change was to separate the interior into a cell and porch by a wall with a large doorway in it, as in the small temple at Bhamnus, where the opening, however, can scarcely be called a doorway, as it extends to the roof. A third change was to put a porch of four pillars in front of the last arrangement, or, as appears to have been more usual, to bring forward the screen to the positions of the pillars, as in the last example, and to place the four pillars in front of this. Hone of these plans admitted of a peristyle, or pillars on the flanks. To obtain this it was necessary to increase the number of pillars of the portico to six, or, as it is termed, to make a hexastyle, the two outer pillars being the first of a range of 13 or 15 columns, extended along each side of the temple. The cell in this arrangement was a complete temple in itself— distyle in antis, most frequently made so at both ends, and the whole enclosed in its envelope of columns. Sometimes the cell was tetrastyle, or with four pillars in front. In this form the Greek temple may be said to be complete, very few exceptions occurring to the rule, though the Parthenon itself is one of these few. It has an inner hexastyle portico at each end of the cell ; beyond these outwardly are octastyle porticoes, with 17 columns on each flank.”— Fergusson. 1 Byzantine Architecture. —This notice would be incomplete without a few remarks on the architecture of Christian Greece. A wide and interesting field of study for the architect or archaeologist is afforded by the Byzantine churches of Greece. The Byzantine monuments of the Greek kingdom have hitherto been little studied, and are now fast disappearing under the ruthless hand of an ignorant priesthood, who year by year carry on their work of destruction under the name of restoration. Educated Greeks'seldom have any knowledge of eccle¬ siastical archaeology, and being at the same time totally deficient in the strong religious conservatism of the more devout peasantry, they offer no opposition to the wholesale destruction of these ancient landmarks. Hor is “restoration ” the full extent of the evil. Both under the Graeco - Bavarian Government and in a less degree under the present one, numerous churches, inscriptions, and other monuments of mediaeval Greece, have been wilfully "destroyed entirely without adequate object, 2 often with no object whatever. Any traveller, even though he possess no archaeological knowledge, who will take the trouble to make accurate drawings, however rough, of any Byzantine or other mediaeval remains he may meet with, may be assured that he will not only be doing good service to archaeology in the present, but gathering materials which will probably possess a high artistic value a few years hence, when the monuments they represent may have been mutilated or destroyed. 1 Excellent articles on the structure of the Greek temple and theatre will he found in Dr. Smith’s “Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.” 2 Thus, no less than seventy ancient churches in Athens alone were destroyed by order of Government in or about 1840, and the price realised by the sale of the old materials used to build the new cathedral. This act of ruthless Vandalism almost exceeds credibility, bxit is an indubitable fact. See Neigebaur and Aldenhoven’s “Handbuch fur Reisende in Griechenland,” 1S42, vol. ii. p. 75; and Mommsen’s “Athense Christianse,” 1868, p. 6. 48 K. BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. Gen. \ A plan roughly drawn to scale will, it is needless to say, greatly enhance the value of such memoranda. ‘ ‘ The term Byzantine has of late years been so loosely and incorrectly used —especially by French writers—that it is now extremely difficult to restrict it to the only style to which it really belongs. Strictly speaking, the term ought only to be applied to the style of architecture which arose in Byzantium and the East after Constantine transferred the government of the Roman empire to that city. It is especially the style of the Greek church as contra¬ distinguished from that of the Roman church, and ought never to be employed for anything beyond its limits. The only obstacle to confining it to this definition occurs between the reigns of Constantine and Justinian. Up to the reign of the last named monarch, the separation between the two churches was not complete or clearly defined, and the architecture was of course like¬ wise in a state of transition. After Justinian’s time the line may be clearly and sharply drawn, and it would therefore be extremely convenient if the term “Greek architecture” could be used for the style of the Greek church from that time to the present day. If that term be inadmissible, the term Sclavonic might be applied, though only in the sense that the Gothic style could be designated as Teutonic. If the employment of either of these terms is deemed inadvisable, it will be necessary to divide the style into Old and New Byzantine: the first comprehending the three centuries of transition that elapsed from Constantine to the Persian War of Heraclius and the rise of the Mohammedan power, which entirely changed the face of the Eastern empire; the second including all those forms which were practised in the East from the reappearance of the style in, or after, the 8th century, till it was superseded by the Renaissance. Though the styles of the East and West became afterwards so distinctly separate, we must not lose sight of the fact that during the age of transition (324-530) no clear line of demarcation can be traced. Constantinople, Rome, and Ravenna were only principal cities of one empire, throughout the whole of which the people were striving simul¬ taneously to convert a Pagan into a Christian style. Prior to the age of Constantine one style pervaded the whole empire, and the problem of how the Pagan style could be best converted to Christian uses was the same for all. ”— Fergusson. All the churches of the Greek kingdom, which have been hitherto described, belong to Mr. Fergusson’s Neo-Byzantine category, while several of those at.. Thessalonica are of the older period. “A true Byzantine church,” writes Mr. Neale, “might most fitly be defined as a gabled Greek cross-, with central dome, inscribed in a square or quasi¬ square. This square has on the west an addition, not usually under the same roof, and sometimes a mere lean-to, and is on the east, externally for the most part, and almost always internally, triapsidal. . . . The three apses are, that on the north for the chapel or Prothesis ; that in the centre for the altar ; that on the south for the sacristy. ” The interior arrangement involves a fourfold division :—1. The Narthex , or vestibule, properly set apart for catechumens or penitents, divided from the rest of the church by a screen, and often forming the western addition alluded to above. 2. The Nave. 3. The Choir. These two divisions are less distinctly, and often not at all, separated; sometimes there is a low wooden barrier .between them, corresponding to the rood-screen in Western churches. The choir is sur¬ rounded by stalls, as is also sometimes the nave. 4. The Bema, or Sanctuary, is the distinguishing characteristic of Greek churches. In all of them, even to the smallest chapel or oratory, a solid, lofty wooden screen cuts off the apse, or apsides, at the east end. This screen is called the Eiconostasis ( WLKovkaraais ), from the icons, or holy pictures, on its panels, and answers to the altar-rails in our churches. The inner space, corresponding with the Holy of Holies in Introd. K. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 49 the Jewish temple, contains the altar, and is entered through a central opening (closed by a silk curtain), in the Iconostasis. There is only one altar, called simply the Sacred Table ('H \A/y la Tpdirefa). The ancient division of the sexes is usually maintained, and in many of the larger churches provided for by a women’s gallery extending over the narthex (the W. end). The stalls are merely narrow ledges 3 or 4 inches broad, affording some support but not a seat. The congregation have no seats, but species of crutches are provided for the support of weak or aged persons. The paintings with which all Greek churches are decorated are in the highest degree interesting. They are all executed after a traditional model prescribed by ancient authority, and the colours and processes are the same which have been followed for some thirteen centuries. The result is that the poorest and w r orst executed icon preserves something of the inherent dignity of the original type, and the eye is never offended by the gaudy colours and flaunting drapery so common in the religious pictures of the Roman Catholic Church. On the subject of Greek religious art, the reader may advantageously consult Didron’s “ Iconographie Chretienne,” Curzon’s “Monasteries of the Levant,” and Henfrey’s translation of the “Book of the Monk Theophilus.” The works on Byzantine architecture named below will be found useful. It is needless to give a separate list of special works on Hellenic architecture, as they will be quoted under their proper heads in the course of the following pages, but the names of a few useful Handbooks may not be out of place. Fergusson, History of Architecture (2d ed.), 1874, vols. i. and ii. Muller, Handbucli der Archaeologie der Kunst (2d ed.), Stuttgart, 1852, revised by F. G. Welcker. Muller, the same translated by J. Leitch under the title of Ancient Art and its Remains , 1852. Rosengarten, Die Architektonischen Stylarten (3d ed.), Brunswick, 1874. This is a very slight work of a popular character, but it contains some useful diagrams and details not easily attainable elsewhere. It has been translated into English. Adamy, Architektonik der Hellenen , Hanover, 1882. Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture , 1864 (chiefly Salonica). Couchaud, Choix des Eglises Byzantines en Grece , 1842 (Greek kingdom only). Lenoir, Architecture Monastique , 1856. Pulgher, Eglises Byzantines de Constantinople. Vienna, 1878-80. Fergusson, History of Architecture, Book ix. Glossary of the Principal Terms used in Greek Architecture. 1 N.B .—Terms relating to Hellenic architecture are printed in small capitals ; those relating to Byzantine architecture in italics. Abacus. —The square or oblong rectangular member interposed between the capital of a column and its entablature. Abutment. —The solid masonry which resists the lateral pressure of an arch. Acroteria.— Bases or small pedestals on the angles and top of the pedi¬ ment, intended for the support of a statue or other ornament. Amphiprostyle.— Having a portico at both extremities. Analemma.— Applied in the plural to walls built on strong foundations. In the singular it signifies an instrument, described by Vitruvius, to measure the length of shadows cast by a fixed gnomon. 1 Compiled from various sources. [Greece.] E 50 K. GLOSSARY OP ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Gen. Andron.—A passage, open space, or court. Annulet.—A small flat fillet encircling a column. Antji (TrapacrTades ).—Pilasters terminating the side walls of a temple, generally so as to assist in forming the portico. Sometimes, antse stood detached as rectangular piers. Antefixa:. —Ornamental blocks—frequently decorated with the honey¬ suckle pattern—placed along the eaves of a roof to cover the termination of the tiles. Anthropostyle. —An anthropomorphic pillar. Apse. —The semicircular recess behind the altar. Most Greek churches (small chapels excepted) have 3 apsides. See below Diaconicum and Prothesis. Ar-EOSTYLE. —That species of intercolumniation which has an interval of four diameters between the columns. Architrave. —The horizontal course which forms the lowest member of the entablature, and rests immediately on the columns. Archivolt. —Mouldings on the face of an arch, resting upon the imposts. Astragal.—A narrow moulding, the profile of which is semicircular. Atlantes. —Male figures serving as pillars, called by the Romans Telamones. Attic.—A term commonly applied to constructions resting on the en¬ tablature. Base. —The lowest portion of a column, that on which the shaft rests. True Doric columns have no bases. Balteus. —Applied usually to the precmctiones of an amphitheatre, but by Vitruvius to the band surrounding the volute on each side of an Ionic capital. Bema. —That portion of the church which is enclosed by the eiconostasis — the Sanctuary. The Bema is raised one step above the general level of the church, whence the name. Blocking Course. —A plain course of stone forming a low parapet above the cornice of a portico or other building. Capital.— The head of a column or pilaster. Caryatid. —A female figure supporting an entablature. Said to be derived from Caryse, a city in Arcadia, which declared in favour of the Persians, and was therefore destroyed by the allied Greeks, the men slain, and the women made captives. As male figures representing Persians were sometimes em¬ ployed with an historical reference instead of columns, so Grecian architects used for the same object and intention female figures of the Caryatides, or women of Caryse. Cassoon.— A sunk panel or coffer in the ceiling. Cavea. —See Coilon. Cella.— The central chamber of a temple, supposed to be the peculiar habitation of the deity, whose statue it usually contained. The cella in the early temples had generally no windows, and received light only through the door, or from lamps burning within. It was afterwards frequently hypcethral in large temples of later times. Coffers. —Sunk panels in vaults or domes. Coilon. —The semicircular concave portion of a theatre, occupied by the spectators. This was in the majority of cases formed, in part at least, by excavating the natural rock or earth in a hillside, whence Cavea. Cornice.— The crowning projection of the entablature. Corona. — The main vertical band or face of the cornice. Cortina.— The vaulted part of a theatre over the stage. Usually applied to domed vaults, and thus metaphorically to the heavens. Crypta.— Employed in several senses, but chiefly to signify a subterranean vault or tunnel. Introd. K. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. 51 Cymatium. —The upper moulding of the cornice. Decastyle. —An edifice having ten columns in front. Dentils. —Tooth-like ornaments common to the Ionic and Corinthian cornices. Diaeonicum .—Applied in Byzantine architecture to the apse left (usually south) of the “Holy Table” (ay La t pane fa), which serves as a sacristy. Diastyle. —An intercolumniation of about three diameters. Dipteral.— Having a double range of columns. Ditriglyph.— An interval between two columns admitting two triglyphs on its entablature. Echinus. —Properly the egg-and-anchor ornament peculiar to the Ionic capital. Entasis. —The almost imperceptible swelling of the shaft of a column between the capital and the base. Eiconostasis .—The screen which in Greek churches separates the Bema, or Sanctuary, from the body of the edifice. It is generally decorated with pic¬ tures, whence the name. Encarpus. —Festoon of fruit or flowers, forming an ornament. Entablature.— The horizontal superstructure of a colonnade ; in Greek architecture comprising the architrave, frieze, and cornice. Epistylium. —See Architrave. Eustyle. —An interval of diameters between the columns. Exedra. —Appears to have been commonly understood to signify the diminutive of Lesche —a place where people met for conversation. The Exedra of Herodes Atticus at Olympia is a good typical example of the kind of structure. The Romans employed the word in a somewhat different sense. Fastigium. —See Pediment. Fluting.— The vertical channelling of the shafts of columns. Frieze.— The central course of the entablature, between the cornice and architrave. Glyphs. —The perpendicular channels cut in the triglyphs of the Doric frieze. Guttle. —These are small pyramids, or cones, immediately under the triglyph and mutule in the Doric entablature. Hexastyle.— Having a front range of six columns. Hypa:thral.— Without a roof, and open to the sky, as part of the cella of a temple sometimes was. Hyperthyrum.— The upper member of a doorway. Hypotrachelium.— The necking of a capital, introduced between the capital itself and the shaft of the column. Impost.—T he member on which the arch immediately rests. Intercolumniation— The space between two columns. Lacunaria.— Sunk panels or coffers in ceilings. Metope. —The interval between the Doric triglyphs. Modillion. —An ornament, resembling a bracket, in the Corinthian cor¬ nices. Module.— The semi-diameter of a column. Monotriglyphic.— Having only one triglyph over each intercolumniation. Mutules. —Plain projecting blocks supporting the corona in the Doric cornice, answering to modillions in the Corinthian. Naos.— See Cella. Narthex .—The outer vestibule of a Byzantine church. It is separated by a wall from the church, and was originally appropriated to the use of cate¬ chumens and penitents. Narthex (vapQiq%) is the Greek name of a species of ferula , the stems of which were used in former times for flogging delinquents. 52 K. GLOSSARY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS. Gen. The coarse yellow flowers of the narthex are a conspicuous feature in the vegetation of many parts of Greece and Sicily. Mt. Narthacium in Thessaly is supposed to owe its name to this plant. Octastyle. —Having a front range of eight columns. Opisthodomos, or Posticdm. —The chamber behind the cella, often used as a treasury. Orchestra. —A circular level space, corresponding somewhat in position to the pit of a modern theatre ; hut anciently set apart for the chorus. Pediment, or Fastigium. —The triangular termination of the roof of a temple, resting upon the- entablature and enclosing the tympanum. Peribolus. —The boundaries of the temenos, or close, in which a temple stood. Peripteral. —Having columns all round the cella. Peristyle. —The passage round the outside of the edifice between the columns and the wall. Pilaster. —A square engaged pillar, i.e. attached to a wall. Plinth. —The low square step on which a column is placed, or the slab on which a statue stands. Podium. —A dwarf pedestal wall. Often employed for any kind of low boundary wall. Portico (arod ).—The covered space in front of the cella, or any enclosure having a roof supported by columns, whether attached to a temple or not. Posticum..— -See Opisthodomos. Precinctiones. —The landings, or gangways, which separated and gave access to the ranges of seats in theatres. Pronaos. —The porch in front of the Naos. Propyreum. — A species of outer gateway giving admittance to the Temenos of a temple. The term is not, however, restricted to religious architecture. Proscenium. —The stage of a theatre. Prostyle. —This term distinguishes the open projecting portico from the portico in antis. Prothesis. —In Greek churches the northern apse, corresponding to the Diaconicum on the south. Pseudo-dipteral. —False or imperfect dipteral, the inner range of columns being omitted. Pycnostyle. —The first method of intercolumniation, having one diameter and a half between the columns. Scotia.— The large concave moulding in the base of a column. Soffit.— Ceiling; applied to the underside of arches, and of other architectural members. Stoa.— See Portico. Strig.®.— See Flutings. Stylagalmatic.— Supported by figure columns. Stylobate.— The basis or substructure on which a colonnade is placed. I Systyle.— An intercolumniation of two diameters. Telamones.— See Atlantes. Tetrastyle. —Having a front range of four columns. Torus. —A large convex moulding in the base of a column. Triglyph (Tply\vos ).—The distinguishing ornament of the Doric entabla¬ ture, being a tablet channelled with vertical grooves. Tympanum. —The triangular space enclosed by the cornice of the pedi¬ ment ; so called by the Romans from its analogy to the parchment in the frame of a drum ; named aerds by the Greeks, a term for the use of which various unsatisfactory explanations have been suggested. Volute. —The Ionic scroll; the chief characteristic of the Ionic order. Introd. L. BRIEF OUTLINE OF GREEK HISTORY. 53 Yomitoria.—P assages giving egress from a theatre. Xyst.—A large court with a portico on three sides, planted with rows of trees, and used as a palaestra. Zophorus. —See Frieze. L. Brief Outline of Greek History. Though frequent reference will be made, under their separate heads, to the annals of her more famous cities and localities, it would be foreign to the plan of this work to give a systematic account of the ancient history of Greece. A brief outline of her modern history is, however, requisite, as less familiar to the general reader, but indispensable to a right understanding of the present condition of the country and people. During the three centuries which preceded the reign of Alexander the Great, Greece exhibited one of the most splendid and active scenes of social and political existence which the world has ever witnessed ; to these two centuries succeeded, during which the energy which had so long animated the rival states gradually died away, for the independence of Greece was controlled by the Macedonian kings. The year 146 b.c. witnessed the last faint struggle of Grecian freedom against the still mightier power of Rome. Reduced to the condition of a province, Greece followed the fortunes of her conqueror—she became the theatre of the contests with Antiochus and Mithridates and of the fierce strife of the civil wars ; and then fell upon her that devastation of her cities and depopulation of her territory from which she has never yet recovered. The general tranquillity of the first two centuries of the empire was shared by Greece ; but in the succeeding ages the country was deluged with successive streams of Slavonians, Albanians, and other invaders from the north. These alien races have left deep traces of their presence in the names of places, as well as in the language and blood of the Greek nation. In the partition of the Roman world by Constantine, Greece fell to the share of the Eastern empire. When during the Fourth Crusade, Constantinople twice fell (1203 and 1204) before the fleet of Dandolo and a small army of Latin crusaders, a portion of the sea-board and the principal islands were seized by Yenice ; while Northern Greece and the Peloponnesus were shared out among noble adventurers from Western Europe. Then began for Greece about 250 years of true northern Feudalism. Few passages even in mediaeval history are more romantic and interesting than the records of the feudal rule of the Dukes of Athens, the Princes of Achaia, the Lords of Argos and Corinth, the Mar¬ quesses of Bodonitza, etc.; all titles strange to Greek ears, but coming pleasantly on English ones with their suggestions of Chaucer and Shakspeare. Castles, churches, and other edifices—as well as various names of places 1 —still remain to attest the conquests in Greece of these nobles of the West. Although the Latin empire in Constantinople lasted only 57 years, the Latin princes generally retained their principalities, as vassals of the restored Byzantine emperors, until the whole of Greece was finally reduced under the sway of the Ottomans about the middle of the 15th century. Some further details respecting the Feudal Age of Greece will be given under their proper heads hereafter. Yenice still maintained her hold on Crete and some other portions of both Insular and Continental Greece, and during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries bore the chief brunt of the Moslem arms. In 1644 Crete was treacherously attacked by the Turks in time of peace, 1 For example:—Clarence survives as Clarenza, St. Omer as Santameri, Tremoille as Tremolo, etc. 54 L. BRIEF OUTLINE OF GREEK HISTORY. Gen. (see below, Sec. IV.) and in 1669 its capital, Candia, defended through a siege of twenty-four years with matchless valour, capitulated to the Turks. The Venetian power in the Levant was fatally shattered by the loss of Crete and the exhausting war which preceded it. Even at the present day, the expression “ To go to Candia ” is a popular Venetian synonym for irretriev¬ able ruin. Fifteen years after this catastrophe the genius of one man won for Venice in her decay temporary triumphs more brilliant than any which had attended her in the zenith of her power. This was Francis Morosini, the heroic defender of Candia, who in 1684 opened the campaign which resulted in the conquest of Peloponnesus. But the disastrous campaign of 1715-17 closed by the peace of Passarovitz (1718) re-established the Ottoman supre¬ macy and put a final term to the victories of the Bepublic. Henceforward the Levantine possessions of Venice were limited to the Ionian Islands and the Albanian stations of Butrinto, G-omenitza, Parga, Prevesa, and Vonitza. It has been justly observed by Finlay “that the conquest of Greece by Mohammed II. was felt to be a boon by the greater part of the population,” and the same remark equally applies to the two and a half centuries which followed the fall of Constantinople. “Mohammed II. and many of his successors were not only abler men than the Greek emperors who preceded them; they were really better sovereigns than most of the contemporary princes in the West. ... It was, therefore, in no small degree by the apathy, if not, by the positive goodwill, of the Christian population that the supremacy of the Sublime Porte was firmly established. ”— Finlay. Venetian official reports of the 16th and 17th centuries abound in complaints of the frequent emigration of the Greek subjects of Venice to Ottoman territory. Using the rights of conquest after the fashion of the Normans in England, the Turks had everywhere, except in the Cyclades (in which they did net settle), seized on the greater part of the most fertile lands. Hence they formed the landlord class of Greece ; 1 while the Rayahs , as the Turks style their non-Mussulman subjects, usually farmed the territories of their masters on the metayer system. Gradually, too, there grew up a class of small Greek freeholders, forming a kind of yeomanry. From this class descended many of the self-styled Archons mentioned by travellers of the last century, and to the same stock belong the few Greek families (Islanders and Phanariotes excepted) who at the present day know who their great-grandfathers were. Again, to quote Finlay, “ The great financial distinction between the true believers and the infidel subjects of the Sultan was the payment of the haratsh, or capitation tax. This tax was levied on the whole male unbeliev¬ ing population, with the exception of children under ten years of age, old men, and priests of the different sects of Christians and Jews. The maimed, the blind, and the paralytic, were also exempted by Moslem charity. This payment was imposed by the Koran on all who refused to embrace the Mohammedan faith, as the alternative by which they might purchase peace.” Corvees, frequent extortions, and the rapacity of the Turkish governors, kept the subject populations in a precarious condition, yet not more so than under their former Byzantine masters. The sufferings of the Greeks were in many cases great, still it should be remembered that acts of special tyranny were then as now—with occasional exceptions—rather the acts of a class than 1 The lands, in most eases, passed to the Turks, not by private appropriation, but by special grant of the Sultan, as the reward of distinguished service. Until the decline of the Ottoman Empire, these fiefs were held by military tenure, and for one life only. As the power of the central government declined, the fiefs tended to become hereditary. The Turkish landed-proprietors were of as many grades as those of other nations, but vulgarly known by the collective designation of Agas, a term sometimes nearly corresponding to ’Squire, but even more vague in the limits of its application. Introd. L. BRIEF OUTLINE OF GREEK HISTORY. 55 a sect, the result rather of prerogative of office than intolerance of religion. Although the Mussulmans enjoyed by legislature many privileges over their Christian fellow-subjects, yet the humbler and, in especial, the rural classes were far from exempt from the tyranny and exactions of Turkish officials. The Greeks, as we have seen, were not wholly devoid of landed property, and their Church also, whose hierarchy was sometimes, from motives of policy, rather courted than persecuted by the conquerors, retained a part of its ancient possessions. Under Turkish supervision and control all influence was in the hands of the higher clergy and of this landed class ; they, like the headmen of villages in India, regulated the local affairs of the districts in which they resided. By the Turks they were styled Khoja-bashis (literally old heads), and by the Greeks, Archons ("A pxovres), or Primates (UpoecToi). They adopted many Turkish customs; and the oppression which they exercised over their own countrymen was sometimes more galling than that of the Turkish functionaries. The mountaineers on the continent, and the JEgean islanders of all classes, being less exposed than their brethren to the influence of a despotic government, were in general of a character superior to that of their less favoured countrymen. Continental Greece, like the rest of the Ottoman empire, was divided into separate governments, each ruled by a Pasha. With the exception of Crete, in which the Mohammedans formed about a third of the whole population, and which was always administered in the same way as the Continent, the Islands, generally, were left to their own local administrations : the Capitan- pasha, or High Admiral, was their Governor-General, and periodically sailed round to collect the taxes, and to procure a regular supply of seamen for the Imperial navy. Many of them, notably Hydra and Spetzia, with the municipal ability which always distinguishes the Greeks when left to themselves, formed regular independent little commercial republics, with no small share of the carrying trade of the Levant for their miniature navies. The first attempt of the Greeks to throw off the Ottoman yoke was in 1769-70, at the instigation of Russia. We have no space to enlarge either on the widespread intrigues which preceded the invasion of the Morea by a band of Russian adventurers, nor on the incidents of this unhappy insurrection. It inflicted lasting injury on the country, and first taught the Greek nation to forsake the safe path of national development and progress for the hazardous game of foreign intrigue and factious revolt. The memory of this time is preserved in a contemporary and most pathetic ballad, “The Lay of Romania” (Trjs'FoiifieXris rb rpayovdi). After detailing the sufferings of the Greeks at the hands of the enraged Turks, the minstrel continues :— k’ oi MocrKoficus ol (friXoi /xov , i) ixovaxn P<’ iXirLba, Kcd tL KaXo fiov Kd/xave, adv rjXdav arov Ae/3 dvre ; vd jx dcfrav'ujovv rd vrjaid Kal vd /xe Trapamjixovv' Kal TrdXiV /xe rbv rdpavvov vd napiovv tt]v dyarngv. And the Muscovites, my friends,'my only hope, What good have they done me since they came to the Levant ? They desolated my islands, have abandoned me, And again with the tyrant dwell in love.i The terrible chastisement the Turks inflicted on the rebels paralysed all efforts to change their condition for another half century. During this interval many patriotic Greeks, both at home and abroad, 1 See Legrand, “ Recueil de Chansons populaires Grecques,” (Coll, de Monument? de la, Langue Neo-Helleniquc , N, S, No. J.) Paris, 1874, 56 L. BRIEF OUTLINE OF GREEK HISTORY. Gen. sought by their writings to re-animate the spirit of their countrymen, and to prepare their minds for appreciating and regaining fheir independence. Schools were opened, in which the ancient literature of Greece and a portion of that of Western Europe were taught, while translations were made into modern Greek of various useful works. In 1814 was founded at Odessa the Philike Hetairia. This was a secret political society, established for the diffusion of revolutionary counsels among the subjects of the Porte. In spite of the evidence of facts to the contrary, Western writers have fallen into the error of attributing to the Hetairia an importance which neither the character of its members (mostly bankrupt merchants and the like), nor its political achievements can justify. To assign, as has been constantly done, to the Hetairia any marked share in the struggle which liberated Greece is both an historical error and a libel on the patriotism and good sense of the nation. Greece was already ripe for revolt when, in the spring of 1821, the war between the Sultan and his powerful vassal, Ali Pasha of Joannina, by divert¬ ing the attention and resources of the central government, afforded the Greeks a favourable opportunity for open insurrection, at first as auxiliaries of Ali, but ere long in an independent character. The first blow was struck in April, and in a few months from that date the revolted Greeks had made good their footing, secured the principal towns of the Morea, and established a central government. Our limits forbid us to detail in this place the disasters which subsequently befell the patriotic cause, the efforts in its behalf of so many of our country¬ men (among whom Byron, Church, Gordon of Cairness, and Francis Hastings, seem to be those most gratefully remembered), and the fluctuating fortunes of that long struggle, which was terminated practically by the battle of Navarino in October 1827, and formally in September 1829, by the recog¬ nition on the part of the Sublime Porte of the independence of Greece in the Treaty of Adrianople. 1 At the latter date Greece was under the government of the Corfiote John Capo d’lstria, who had been elected for seven years governor of Greece {KvfiepvriTrjs rrjs 'EXXdSos), at the National Congress, held at Trcezen in April 1827. Its limits were finally, after much discussion, fixed by the three pro¬ tecting powers, England, France, and Russia, nearly at those of what had been anciently Hellas Proper; that is, they included the Peloponnesus, the Cyclades, some of the Sporades, the island of Euboea, and so much of Northern Greece as lies S. of a line drawn, partly along the chain of Othrys, from the Ambracian Gulf {Gulf of Arta) to the Pagassean Gulf {Gulf of Volo). This continued to be the Greek frontier until 1881 (see below). The limits of the new state having been defined, the next matter to be set¬ tled was the proper form of government. Count Capodistria was invested with powers essentially monarchical; and experience has shown that no other polity is adapted to the genius and character of the modern Greek nation. Unfortunately, however, the Greeks themselves were never formally consulted in the matter, and the consequence was that they threw many obstacles in the way of an adjustment of differences. When the allies endeavoured to find a permanent sovereign for Greece, several conditions tended to limit the number of candidates for this honour. It was determined that the person elected should belong to a royal house; whereby Capodistria was excluded. From the mutual jealousies of England, France, and Russia, and for other reasons, Prince Paul of Wirtemberg, one of the princes of Baden, i The Greek Revolution has been fortunate in having three excellent historians : Gordon, who described it as a soldier ; Tricoupi as a poet; and Finlay as a politician. We advise the traveller to read the works of all three. If this cannot be done, the pre¬ ference should be given to Finlay, as the newest, the ablest, and the most complete. Introd. L. BRIEF OUTLINE OF GREEK HISTORY. 57 and several others, were successively rejected ; at length the allies offered the new crown to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians), who, after some hesitation, finally declined it, alleging as his motives the unwillingness of the Greeks to receive him. and their dissatisfac¬ tion at the confined boundaries assigned to them. The truth appears to he that Count Capodistria repaid the slight which had been put upon him and the rest of the Greeks, in not consulting them in the negotiation, by exagger¬ ating to Prince Leopold the difficulties which awaited him. At the same time the President gained his point in the prolongation of his own tenure of office for a period apparently indefinite. By his delay in summoning a National Assembly and other high-handed acts, Capodistria occasioned general discontent, and there were several insur¬ rections against his authority. At last two captive members of the Mavro- michali family, exasperated by long suffering at his hands in the persons of themselves, their aged father (the well-known Bey of Maina), and their clan, and believing their own lives in danger, took the untoward resolve of settling the question according to the customs of Maina. Accordingly they waylaid Capodistria (in broad daylight) on his way to church at Nauplia, on 9th Oct. 1831, and as he was entering the building George Mavromichali stabbed him in the side, while Constantine shot him in the back. He expired almost immediately, and Constantine was killed on the spot by the soldiers on guard. The other escaped for the time, but, being soon afterwards arrested, was shot on 22nd Oct. by sentence of court-martial. The prompt action of Capo- distria’s party secured the succession to his brother, Augustine Capodistria, who assumed the government for a short period. But he was soon obliged to resign, and quitted Greece. After much deliberation the choice of the Three Powers finally fell on Prince Otho, a younger son of the King of Bavaria, who was proclaimed on August 30, 1832, at Nauplia, where he arrived in the beginning of the following year. It was provided that King Otho should attain his majority at the age of eighteen [i.e. in June 1835), and that three Bavarian councillors, appointed as a Regency, should govern during his minority. It was also provided that a body of Bavarian troops, armed, equipped, and paid by the Greek state, should be maintained until the organisation of a national army. Moreover the Allies guaranteed to the new government of Greece a loan of 60 millions of francs (about £2,400,000). On attaining his majority King Otho declined to establish a representative form of government, and continued to govern mildly but absolutely, assisted by a Council of State appointed by himself. In 1836 he married the Princess Amelia, daughter of the Grand Duke of Oldenburg, but had no issue. A constitutional form of government was obtained subsequently by what is perhaps the most peaceable and orderly revolt recorded in history. On September T 3 T , 1843, the constitutional party having matured their plans, and having gained the army and the great mass of the people to their cause, surrounded the Palace at Athens with a body of troops, and firmly but respectfully required King Otho to sign the Charter which they offered him, or to quit Greece immediately and for ever. A vessel was pre¬ pared to convey the Sovereign and Court to Germany, in case of refusal; but not a drop of blood was spilt on either side. After a parley and hesita¬ tion of several hours, the King gave way, and signed the Constitutional Charter, which, among many other provisions, established a representative government, and enforced the dismissal from the Greek service of the Bavarian officers and soldiers, and of all other foreigners, with the exception of such as had taken a share in the War of Independence. Since 1843 there have been various local disturbances ; the incident best remembered by Englishmen is probably the blockade of the Greek Ports, in the spring of 1850, by the British fleet, in consequence of the refusal of 58 M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. Gev. King Otho’s government to liquidate the claims advanced by several British and Ionian subjects for compensation for various losses and injuries. The blockade lasted rather more than three months, when the Greek ministry at length conceded the points in dispute. The policy of Lord Palmerston, then Foreign Secretary, was sharply commented on in England, and was the sub¬ ject of Sir Robert Peel’s last and memorable speech. The debates in both Houses will still repay perusal. In consequence of the aggressive attitude of Greece during the Crimean War, the Piraeus was from 1854 to 1856 occupied by a combined English and French force. On 19th Oct. 1862 a revolution at Athens overturned the Bavarian dynasty and established a provisional government. King Otho was forced to quit the kingdom on Oct. 24, 1 and on 6th June 1863 the vacant throne was accepted by the second son of the King of Denmark (born 24th Dec. 1845), who arrived at the Piraeus on Oct. 30, 1863. His Majesty, who reigns under the title of George I., King of the Hellenes, married, on 27th Oct. 1867, Her Imperial Highness Olga, daughter of the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia. The King belongs to the Lutheran Church, but his children are members of the Greek Church. The Ionian Islands were ceded to Greece on the acceptance of the throne by his Majesty. The Crown Prince, Constantine Duke of Sparta, was born at Athens, 2nd Aug. 1868. In 1878 the claims of Greece to an extension of frontier were laid before the Congress of Berlin. In consequence of the recommendation of the Great Powers, the Porte agreed to a modification of the frontier in favour of Greece. The negotiations between the two States concerned proving, how¬ ever, abortive, the proposal of 1878 was re-enforced by the same Powers at the Conference of Berlin in 1880. Finally, the details of the con¬ cession having been settled, the cession of the district of Arta and the rich province of Thessaly was carried into effect in the summer of 1881. M. The Peoples of Greece : their Nationalities, Characteristics, Customs, and Beliefs. The inhabitants of the kingdom of Greece (exclusive of the districts an¬ nexed in 1881) number, according to the latest census (1879), 1,679,775, and include three distinct nationalities, viz.— 1. The Greeks proper, who long gloried in the title of 'Pu/xaioi (Romans), but who have in recent years adopted the pagan designation of Hellenes ("EXA^es). 2. The Albanians, who on the mainland (exclusive of Athens) are nearly equal to the Greeks in number. 3. The Wallachs, who in Greece are all nomadic or semi-nomadic. Besides these there are about 2600 Jews and over 12,000 Latins . 2 The latter are in most cases descended from the old Yenetian and Genoese colo¬ nists, whose names they sometimes bear ; they are chiefly confined to the Islands of the iEgean. The history and national characteristics of the Albanian and Wallachian races will be noticed when describing their native lands. (See below, Sect. Y. ) 1 King Otho and Queen Amelia retired to Bamberg, where the former died in 1S67, and the latter in 1875. To the last they both retained their interest in, and solicitude for, the welfare of Greece. Now that the heat of political feeling has spent itself, the public is be¬ ginning^ do justice to the true (if sometimes ill-directed) patriotism and devotion of Otho and his high-spirited Queen. They are remembered with gratitude by their former subjects as among the truest benefactors the country has ever known. 2 These numbers are only approximative. There has been no religious census since 1870, when the result given was 12,585 non-Orthodox Christians (including a few Pro¬ testants), and 25S2 Jews, Introd. M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. 59 It will suffice here to describe their distribution in Greece. Accurate statistics are wanting, and there is a disposition on the part of the Greeks to under - estimate the numbers of their Albanian population. In round numbers it may probably, however, he reckoned at not less than 240,000 souls. “ Some Albanian colonies settled in Greece before it was conquered by the Turks, and within the greater part of the limits occupied by the Albanians at the present day, the Greeks have been as completely expelled as the Celtic race in England by the Saxon. Albanian colonists now occupy all Attica and Megaris, with the exceptions of the towns of Athens and Megara, where they form only a part of the population. They possess the greater part of Boeotia and a small portion of Locris near Talanta. The southern part of Euboea and the northern part of Andros, the whole of Salamis, and a part of JEgina, are peopled by Albanians. In the Peloponnesus they are still more numerous. They occupy the whole of Corinthia and Argolis, extending themselves into the northern part of Arcadia and the eastern part of Achaia. In Laconia they inhabit the slopes of Taygetus called Bardunia, which extend to the plain of Helos, and, crossing the Eurotas, they occupy a large district round Monem- vasia. Besides these large settlements, there are some smaller clusters of Albanian villages to the north of Karytena and in the mountains between the Bay of Navarin and the Gulf of Coron. The islands of Hydra and Spetzia were entirely peopled by Albanians. Marathon, Plataea, Leuctra, Salamis, Mantineia, Ira, and Olympia, are now inhabited by Albanians and not by Greeks. Even in Athens the Albanian language is still heard among the children playing in the streets near the Temple of Theseus and the arch of Hadrian. ”— Finlay. The Albanians of Greece belong exclusively to the Southern, or TosTc tribe (see Sect. Y.). They live on excellent terms with their Greek neighbours, but, in spite of all efforts made to Hellenize them, hold steadily to their national customs and, in most cases, language, and very seldom intermarry with Greeks. Of course this observation scarcely applies to the wealthier classes who, under the temptation of political ambition, commercial interest, or other causes, have often sought to de-nationalize themselves as sedulously as the Scotch place-hunters of old. The Albanians are generally of fairer complexion than the Greeks ; they are very spare and muscular, and pride themselves on the slightness of their waists. They are decidedly superior to the Greeks in both physical and moral vigour, as well as more trustworthy ; their defi¬ ciency in cleverness, and especially versatility, causes them to be the frequent butt of their Greek neighbours. But the Albanian stock has furnished Greece with some of the most distinguished heroes of the Revolution. Thus Botzaris, Canaris, Tombasis, Miaulis, the premier Coletti, and a host of lesser nota¬ bilities, were all of Albanian blood. The dress of the wealthier peasants is very graceful, and owing to its gallant associations became so popular at the Revolution as to be adopted as the national dress. It consists generally of a voluminous white linen kilt ( fustanella) confined at the waist by a bright coloured sash, a tight sleeveless vest, crimson or blue gaiters (with conspicuous garters) and turned up shoes, ( tcharouicia) such as were worn in England in the time of Richard II. Over the vest or waistcoat is worn either a loose jacket with flying sleeves (Edward II. style), or a heavy white woollen straight sleeveless coat, lined with sheep¬ skin. The women are generally handsome and well formed when young, but hard fare, exposure, and the field labour which they undergo, soon nip their beauty in the bud. They wear a tight petticoat, and a narrow straight white woollen greatcoat, sometimes rudely embroidered. The unmarried girls carry their whole fortune on their heads, in coins of 60 M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. Gen. many ages and countries, braided in their hair, or fastened in rows as a mailed skull-cap. This is a prevailing fashion, and, as it has been judiciously observed, enables a lover to reckon up the dowry as well as the charms of his fair one before he declares his affections. The Wallachs in the kingdom of Greece (exclusive of Thessaly) speaking that language were officially estimated in 1875 at over 11,000. Besides these, there are many semi-Hellenized who speak Romaic. They are found in nomad encampments throughout Northern Greece, whence their name is often applied by the Greeks, indiscriminately of race, to denote any wandering shepherds. They are frequently but erroneously described as Gypsies, under which disguising name travellers have often alluded to them. The Wallachs have more peaceable habits and more industry than the Albanians ; and if they are endowed with less native acuteness and desire for information than the Greeks, they possess greater steadiness and perseverance. We may now enter on the consideration of the Greeks properly so called. And first of all a word must be said on the vexed and (to us it appears) futile question of their origin. With reference to their claim to true Hellenic descent, Mr. Finlay observes that “Two questions still admit of doubt and discussion. The one relates to the number of the slave population employed in agriculture when Greece was in its most flourishing condition, and the other to the proportions in which the free population and the slaves were diminished in the general depopulation of the country that preceded the Slavonian immigration. A large proportion of the slaves employed in agriculture were of foreign origin, as we know from the enormous extent of the slave trade. We know also that under the domination of the Romans, the higher classes of Greece either died out or lost their nationality by adopting the names and assuming the manners of Roman citizens. It seems therefore probable that pure Hellenic blood began to be greatly adult¬ erated about the time when the ancient dialects fell into disuse. Still there can be no doubt that the Greek population retired before the Slavonian immigration, and did not mingle with the intruders ; but on the other hand there is no evidence to determine whether the agricultural slaves were exter¬ minated by the barbarian invaders of the Hellenic soil, or were absorbed into the mass of the Slavonian or Byzantine population. These questions prove how uncertain all enquiries into the direct affiliation of the modern Greeks must be. Of what value is the oldest genealogic tree, if a single generation be omitted in the middle ? “The gospel and the laws of Justinian blended all classes of citizens into one mass, and facilitated the acquisition of the boon of freedom by every Christian slave. But a Christian church which was neither Greek nor Roman arose and created to itself a separate power under the name of Orthodox, forming a partnership with the imperial authority, and acquired a power greater than any nationality could have conferred. A social organi¬ sation at variance with all the prejudices of ancient private and political life was framed, and the consequence was that the change created a new people. Such seems to be the origin of the modern Greeks.” We must decline to rake up the embers of the weary Fallmerayer-Hopf controversy, and will content ourselves with observing that though Fall- merayer certainly over-estimated the extent to which the Slavonisation of Greece was carried, his error was one rather of degree than absolutely of kind. Nor should it be forgotten that some of the data on which Fallmerayer relied for the substantiation of his theory were supplied to him by a Greek (Pittakys), and by that Greek forged. The name of writers on Greek subjects is legion, but it is extraordinary how few of these have contributed to our real knowledge of the people. The Introd. M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. 61 fact is, that the character of the Greek nation is an exceedingly complicated and difficult one for foreigners to understand. Most writers have solved the difficulty by taking refuge in either wholesale vilification or equally indis¬ criminate laudation. Men have at no time been wanting who knew better, e.g. Consuls of the good old English type (happily not quite extinct), and probably many merchants of the old Turkey Company. But these were seldom, if ever, writers of books, and their knowledge died with them. Of those persons who have actually published notices of the Greek nation within the last 100 years, we only know of five, possibly six, •who have shown a thorough comprehension of, and insight into, the Greek character ; knowledge acquired in each case by years of residence and study. One obstacle has of course been (as it still is) the language. But this is not all. The Teuton in general, and John Bull in particular, has a certain wholesome dislike and distrust of whatever he does not understand, and to the simple Saxon mind the Greek is of all created things about the most bewildering. Add to this, that casual travellers are generally brought in contact with the least creditable classes of the nation. “ Thus, young men run over a part of Greece rapidly, cast a glance at its mountains and ruins, find muleteers and boatmen cheat them, and at once condemn the whole race, without knowing a single gentle¬ man, or even a single peasant in the country, or having learned a single sentence of the language.” To understand the Greeks, their character and their needs, is obviously the only possible means of helping them, yet it is what hardly any of their advocates have taken the trouble to do. Let us begin by satisfying ourselves as to what the Greeks are, and we may then be in a better position to say what they are not. All impartial observers are agreed that the Greeks are as a race clever, plausible, in most cases eminently practical, industrious, eager for informa¬ tion, attached to their families and home life, sober, moral, and good- tempered. These qualities belong to the nation at large in both Greece and Turkey, but more especially to the humbler and rural classes. On the other hand, the typical Greek is as conspicuously deficient in self-respect as he is in respect for others ; he has rarely any conception of dignity, earnestness, perseverance, or accuracy, whether in things moral or material; add to this, that he is vain to the point of absurdity, and having little imagination, and no sense of humour or dread of ridicule (for “ there the men are all as mad as he ”) to check the exuberance of his own absurdity, the Greek seems to a foreigner perpetually playing the part of his own caricature. Broadly speaking, we may say that the good qualities of the Greeks are inherent in their own character, and belong to the race at large, whether in Europe or Asia, Greece or Turkey ; while their faults are very largely refer- rible to their vicious or inept political and educational systems as developed in the kingdom. “ The one thing necessary to Greeks is moral training and its application to political life. But they do not have this ; what they have is exactly the reverse of this, both in their home and their foreign policy. And those who encourage and gratify them in this, and in everything they do, merely for the sake of adorning themselves with the once creditable name of Philhellene, do but encourage the Greeks to their damnation in all that constitutes public morality. The real problem is this: how to make men who are certainly shrewd in all matters of pure business, and honestly patriotic in all matters of pure ideality, retain something approaching to common sense and common honesty in public life.” 1 Probably politics have, in the absence of moral training, operated more than any other cause in Greece to debase the moral qualities of the inhabitants. Universal suffrage has made every man in the i “ Selected Writings of Viscount Strangford,” vol. i. p. 839. 62 M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. Gen. country a political unit of appreciable value, and the whole upshot of the political life of Greece during the last 30 years has been to convert the peace¬ ful and estimable rural populations into mere caucases of rival politicians —persons, not parties. The result is that while the material progress of the country has been great, there is a general complaint among the Greeks them¬ selves that the moral character of the nation has made a retrograde move¬ ment, and that it is at a lower level now than it was even under Turkish despotism. Of the remarkable commercial abilities of the Greeks we shall have occasion to speak hereafter (see Art. Q) ; it may suffice here to say that they are universally recognised. In concluding these remarks on the Greek character, we may observe that there is nothing all honest Greeks (and there are many such) have a more downright wholesome contempt for than the mawkish indiscriminating Phil- hellenism of a certain class of our countrymen. In the words of one who knew the Greeks as few have done, ‘ ‘ The highest praise from the mouth of a Greek is that which he applies to Finlay and. Charles Alison, and very few besides. He does not say Mas dycnraei, ‘ He loves us,’ but Mas KaTaXa/ui^dvet, ‘ He understands us ; ’ for he knows that such thorough understanding cannot fail of bringing some sympathy in its train. ” 1 In their family life Greeks are generally very united, and it is an unfre¬ quent consequence of the death of a father that the children should divide the property and separate ; the more general course being that the eldest son, though entitled to no greater portion than the other members, should become the head of the family, and manage the common inheritance for the common benefit of all his brothers and sisters. Poor relations, dependents, and servants, are kindly treated by the Greeks. Marriages are negotiated in the usual continental manner; but the first steps are frequently taken by the parents of the girl. At Megara the custom of throwing the handkerchief is known to have been practised within the last thirty years. Girls are rarely married without a dowry ; and the first care of parents, of whatever condition, is to set aside such portions for their daughters (begin¬ ning on the christening day) as their station in life requires. In the bourgeois and peasant classes, young men are not usually considered at liberty to marry until their sisters have all been provided for. The national (Albanian) costume of Greece is very rich, and costs, when of the best kind, from £60 to £400. It includes two velvet jackets, one inside the other, richly embroidered in gold with fanciful patterns of birds, flowers, stars, etc., with a white fustanella (kilt), bound round the waist by a shawl or belt, generally containing pistols and daggers, often with silver hilts and scabbards curiously worked, and sometimes studded with precious stones. An Albanian chieftain wears also at his belt a whole armoury of little silver cartridge-boxes, and a small silver ink-horn ; in fact, he invests all his money in his arms and apparel. Embroidered shoes, the scarlet fez (or Phrygian cap), with a long blue tassel, and a shaggy white capote , complete this gay attire. The plainer kind (such as that worn by the light infantry) is equally pretty and not expensive. Under King Otlio (who him¬ self always wore it), the national costume was worn by all classes to the great advantage of their appearance. But at the present time it has almost entirely died out among the wealthier classes. This is much to be regretted, as it is the only dress really suited to the Greeks, and infinitely superior to their shabby imitations of French fashions. Besides the above there are many other picturesque local varieties of cos¬ tume which we have no space to notice. Persons curious on the subject should 1 “Letters and Papers of the late Viscount Strangford,” p. 218. Introd. M. THE PEOPLES OF GREECE. 63 procure Moraites’ collection of photographs of Greek peasants, including ex¬ amples of some 50 varieties of national costume. The national dress is generally worn by the peasantry on the mainland, but the islanders, both of the Ionian and iEgean Seas, wear a garb of a very different cut—consisting of a jacket of rough dark cloth, with wide blue trousers, descending only as far as to the knee, and bound round the waist by a crimson sash. The red fez, and long stockings and pumps, complete the island costume. Often, however, long boots are substituted for shoes. When a young island spark wishes for the refreshment of a fight, he unties his sash and lets it trail behind. The challenge is accepted by treading on it. (“ Who’ll tread on my coat ? ” as other islanders say at Donnybrook Fair.) The dress of the Greek women varies in different districts, but it usually is limited to a short quasi-Zouave-jacket (embroidered in gold), worn with any sort of skirt, and a scarlet fez. The fez is much looser than that worn by the men, and hangs down on one side with a large blue tassel ; its general effect is happily described by Fallmerayer as “ rather huzzar-y ” (etwas Husarisch). The fez is often worn with common European attire ; it is not becoming, perhaps because unpleasantly suggestive of revolutionary “Caps of Liberty.” The habits and customs of the Greek peasantry may, in many instances, as we have already observed, be traced far back into classical times. That their manners are almost identical with those of the Turks, except in those points in which their respective religions have given rise to a difference, may be attributed to the strong tincture of Oriental customs, which is traceable in the Greeks of every age, in consequence of their situa¬ tion on the borders of the Eastern World. But though the resemblance may thus partly be traced to a common origin, the Turks have probably adopted most of their present customs in the progress of their conquest of Greece and Asia Minor, during which they gradually exchanged the rude and simple habits of Tartary for the comparative refinement and luxury of the Byzantine empire. The kalpak, the origin of the fez, was itself worn by the Byzantine emperors. One custom, however, which appears to be distinctly Turkish is the use of the comboloio, or Moslem rosary. The custom of carrying this constantly in the hand, and passing the beads at every leisure moment, prevails all over the Levant, and even extends as far north as Roumania. In the provincial towns of Roumania, a lady going out to spend the day with a friend takes her comboloio, as a matter of course, just in the same way that an English lady might take a piece of work. In Greece the pleasures of the comboloio seem restricted to the male sex. In the Chamber of Deputies the ceaseless clicking of beads often becomes a public nuisance, but is never interfered with. The belief in the Evil Eye (not extinct in England) is universal in the Levant, and must on no account be trifled with. Amulets, as in Italy, are frequently worn as safeguards against its influence. Hares are never killed in Macedonia out of deference to the goddess Diana ; 1 and all over Greece the life of a snake found inside the house is always spared—a last survival of serpent worship. Among interesting classical survivals are some of the national dances. The commonest dance is Byron’s “dull Romaica,” which is very inferior both j in attraction and antiquity to many others. Crete is a great dancing i country ; so is Albania, where all the male part of the population is famous for its performances “on the light fantastic toe”—a term highly applicable to tcharoukia! The modern Greeks have still retained many relics of the customs observed 1 Possibly this rule may have died out now, hut it was current within the present cen¬ tury. See Consul Charnaud’s observations to Dr. Clarke, in the latter’s “ Travels.” vol. iv 64 N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. Gen. by their ancestors at the birth of their children, at their marriages, and at their funerals. In the remoter and more primitive districts of Greece most of the ancient ceremonies expressive of veneration for the dead are still preserved. The deceased is dressed in his best apparel, crowned with a garland of flowers, and carried in procession to the grave, with dirges sung by mcerologists, or professional mourners, like those of Ireland or the Highlands. “The last embrace is concluded,” writes Dr. Wordsworth, “with a chant of the solemn and melodious hymn attributed to Damascene:—‘Seeing me speechless and breathless, oh ! weep over me, all my brothers, friends, kindred, and acquaint¬ ance ; for yesterday I was speaking to you. Give me the last embrace, for I shall not walk or speak with you again. I go away to the Judge, with whom there is no respect of persons ; I go where servants and masters stand together, kings and soldiers, rich and poor, in equal dignity; for every one will be either glorified or condemned, according to his own works.’ ” H. Brief Sketch of the Modern Greek Language and Literature. Gibbon (chap. lxvi.) has remarked that ‘ ‘ in their lowest servitude and depression, the subjects of the Byzantine throne were still possessed of a golden key that could unlock the treasures of antiquity; of a musical and prolific language that gives a soul to the objects of sense, and a body to the abstractions of philosophy.” By far the ablest notice of the vicissitudes of the Greek language in post- classical times is that prefixed by Prof. E. A. Sophocles to his great Dictionary of Byzantine Greek. As the work is not one that the traveller is likely to have at hand, we shall quote some of the more important passages. “In the year b.c. 146, the fall of Corinth reduced Greece to a Roman province. In the last half of the 1st century of the Christian sera the Emperor Hero declared it free. The Greeks, however, were incapable of making a wise use of this boon. Envy and hatred suddenly revived and produced their usual effects. Yespasian therefore brought them back under the Roman yoke, declaring at the same time that they had unlearned liberty ; words implying that they had lost the faculty of governing themselves. The Greek rhetoricians, on the other hand, with their usual superficialness, asserted that Greece had never been in a more prosperous condition than when Yespasian deprived it of its independence. This is the period of empty declamation, of grammatical works, of fanaticism, theosophism, theurgy, mysticism, religious persecution, religious imposture, and philosophical charlatanry. The principal literary centres were Alexandria, Athens, and Antioch. “The common dialect was now more or less spoken and written in regions widely remote from each other, in Spain, in Mesopotamia, and from ^Ethiopia to Sarmatia. It was a sort of universal language, and consequently a medium for communication. Every well-educated person was supposed to be acquainted with it ; and if Epictetus is to be believed, the Roman ladies were particularly fond of Plato’s Republic. Meanwhile the population of Greece was rapidly diminishing. This may explain the fact that most of the writers of this period were not natives of Greece proper ; and some of them were not even of Greek descent. [Cic. Pis. 40—Achaia exhausta, Thessalia vexata, laceratse Athense, etc.] “ The Atticists. —In the 2nd century of our sera the language had deviated perceptibly from the ancient standard. Old words and expressions had disappeared, and new ones succeeded them. In addition to this new meanings were put upon old words. The syntax, moreover, was undergoing some changes. Further, Latinisms 'and other foreign idioms were continually creeping into the language of common life. The purists of the day made an Introd. N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. 65 effort to check this tendency, hut they were steadily opposed by usage, and not unfrequently by good sense. These self-constituted guardians of the honour of the old Attic may be divided into two classes: the grammarians on the one hand, and the literary exquisites on the other. The former took it upon themselves to annihilate every word and phrase that had not the good fortune to be under the special protection of a Thucydides or a Plato. They assumed that the limits of the Greek language had been for ever fixed during the Attic period. In short, they overlooked the simple fact that a spoken language never remains stationary, but imperceptibly passes from one stage to another. Sometimes they would carry their presumption so far as to attempt to correct authors of the first order. ‘ If there were no physicians, nothing would be more foolish than grammarians,’ said one of the wits of this period. The literary exquisites, technically called Atticists (who may be regarded as the predecessors of the modern logiotati), conceived the preposterous idea of restoring the classical Attic in all its splendour. They imagined that all that was necessary to constitute an Attic author of the first class was the use of rare and obsolete words and expressions. Every obscure corner of Greek literature was zealously ransacked for these hidden treasures. Sometimes they would use words of their own coinage. It is hardly necessary to observe here that the style of the Atticists was essentially macaronic. “ The Asiatic Style. —The Asiatic style,—that is, the style in which little else is required than high-sounding words and sonorous periods,—made its appearance among the Greeks in the 1st century b. c. It is represented by the declamations of Dion Chrysostomus, Aristides, Himerius, Themistius, and Libanius. These oration makers enjoyed a high reputation for eloquence in their day. Thus the admirers of Polemon and Aristides had no difficulty in putting them on an equality with Demosthenes. “Hellenistic Greek. —The Jews after the dispersion generally adopted the language of the Gentiles among whom they resided. A Jew whose native language was the Greek was called a Hellenist. The Jews of Alexandria used the common dialect of that city, that is, the Attic as modified by the Macedonians. But as they impressed upon it the peculiarities of the Jewish mind, we are not to suppose that their dialect was identical in every respect with that of their Greek neighbours. Now the language of the Hebrew Scriptures was no longer understood by the Alexandrian Jews. It became therefore necessary to translate them into Greek. According to Pseudo Aristeas, a Greek Jew, the Pentateuch was translated by 72 learned Jews (6 from each tribe), in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus. The translation of these 72 mythical interpreters is call the Septuagint ( seventy) version. The other Hebrew books must have been translated after the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, but before the beginning of the 1st century B.c. The writers of V the New Testament and of the Apocrypha, strictly so called, were Hellenists. They used the common dialect as spoken by Jews of limited education. And us there was a great gulf between the doctrines propagated by the Apostles f Ad the religion of the Greeks, these writers were sometimes obliged to give ivy meanings to old words and expressions. Further, their diction is, in a manner, based upon that of the Septuagint. It is not surprising therefore that the style of the sacred books of the Christians should have been regarded as co'ntemptible by mere verbal critics. lc Ecclesiastical Greek. —Many of the early Christians believed that philo¬ sophy proceeded from the devil, 1 and as a matter of course they discouraged 1 A sort of faint echo of this belief still lingers among the Greek peasantry in remote districts, who use the term Philosophy exclusively as the synonym of Astrology. (This use of the word is well illustrated in the “ Tale of the King’s Son,” published by M. Legrand.) Systematic astrology is, however, a mere vague traditional reminiscence among the Greeks of the present day ; and Philosophy, in popular parlance, now designates, we believe, much ' humbler forms of the magic arts. [Greece.] f 66 N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. Gen. the study of Greek authors. The more intelligent of the Fathers, however, recommend these authors for the mental discipline they afford. The ecclesi¬ astical writers were more or less under the influence of the Septuagint and of the New Testament, but they wrote in the common dialect of their times and places. The ecclesiastical vocabulary continued to receive accessions until a late date, but by far the greater number of theological terms was introduced before the close of the 5th century. “Byzantine Greek .—When Constantine the Great removed the seat of empire to Byzantium, he called it New Rome and also Constantinople. The Greeks began now to lose their national consciousness. They were called now Romans, and sometimes Eastern Romans , to distinguish them from the Western Romans, i.e. the genuine Romans. With regard to the name Hellenes, which the ancient Greeks gave themselves, it is to be observed that during the preceding periods the Jews of Alexandria and of other places out of Palestine often used it in the sense of pagans, heathens, Gentiles, idolaters. This signification passed into the works of the Christian authors. The name Tpaucos from Polybius downward represents the Latin Grcecus, a Greek. But Greek speaking people always regarded it as an exotic. The later Byzantines, when they speak of the inhabitants of Greece, usually designate them by the term 'EAAaSt/cot. “ Although Christianity, that is, the externals of Christianity, enjoyed the protection of the court, the ancient religion continued to struggle for existence as late as the 9th century. “The language, notwithstanding the changes it had undergone, retained its original character as late as the 6th century ; that is, it was ancient Greek in the strictest sense of the expression. The spoken language formed the basis of the written, but at the same time it contained many words and phrases which good scholars generally avoided. Thus Chrysostom’s style, though superior to that of an uneducated person, was level to the compre¬ hension of the common people of Constantinople, with whom he was a great favourite. From the beginning of the 7th century to the close of the 11th, learning was at a very low ebb, and a good scholar was so rare an object that his literary attainments were likely to be regarded as the result of proficiency in magic. With very few exceptions the learned of this age were incapable of appreciating the merits of the best models of antiquity. In their writings they endeavoured to avoid as much as possible whatever belonged to the language of common life. “Modern Greek. —Imbecility, pedantry, childishness, and self-conceit are the characteristics of the last epoch of the Byzantine period. In the 12th century the ancient language was an obsolete language, that is, it was no longer understood by the masses. Those, however, who made any pretensions to education, affected to write according to the grammatical rules of classical Greek. The popular dialect of the 12th century was essentially the same as the Romaic or modern Greek of the present day, and may with propriety be called the early modern Greek. The learned gave it the name of the vulgar- dialect, the common dialect, the common language of the Romans. In tlF r latter part of the 18th century, Ilgen, of the University of Jena, in his preface to the Homeric Hymns, maintained that the popular modern Greek was the same as the language of the rustics of ancient Greece. Coray modified the German professor’s assertion, by asserting that the popular dialect of the. first four centuries of the Christian sera was essentially the same as that of the 12th century, which was modern Greek. These are mere assumptions. The fact is that during the best days of Greece the great teacher of Greek was the common people. As to Ilgen’s rustics, Philostratus informs us that in his time {i.e. the 3d century), the inhabitants of the interior of Attica spoke purer Greek than those who resided in the capital. It must always be borne Introd. N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. 67 in mind that from the 12th century downwards the Greeks had in a manner two languages ; namely, the traditional language of the many, (modern Greek), and the written language of scholars, (scholastic Greek). The latter was supposed by the ignorant to be excellent Attic, but in reality it was little else than a lifeless mass of far-fetched words and expressions. Theodoras Ptochodromus, one of the most learned men of the 12th century, wrote in both these languages. His popular verses, addressed to the Emperor Manuel Comnenus, are regarded as the earliest specimen of modern Greek, properly so called.” 1 At the present day, throughout the whole extent of the countries where Greek is spoken—from the Adriatic to the Black Sea, and from Adrianople to Cyprus—the only dialects essentially distinct from the ordinary language are those of certain villages near Trebizond, and of a small mountainous dis¬ trict between Argos and Sparta, called Tzakonia (TfaKovLa), of which we shall have occasion to speak later (see Sect. III.) Modern Greek is sometimes spoken of as bearing the same relation to the ancient as Italian to Latin, but this is a very unsatisfactory comparison, inas¬ much as the modern tongue never was refined and systematised into a distinct language. A far more correct analogy to express the relation existing between popular and classical Greek would be to compare genuine rustic Yankee with the English of Addison ; while the amazing Greek of the Athenian newspaper press finds a nearly perfect analogue in the scarcely less amazing English of certain New York papers. The following remarks in an article 2 attributed to Bishop Blomfield bear on this question, and are the more interesting from having been written at a date (1820) when the race of modern Athenian logio- tati had not yet sprung up to obscure questions of simple philology, with their Crazy pseudo-patriotic pedantry. “Amidst the corruption of the Neoteric Greek we observe in almost every sentence words strictly Hellenic, many of which are recognised by every reader as in use among the best writers of the language, and still retaining their form unaltered ; there are also others of frequent occurrence in later Greek writers and in Romaic, the date of which is more ancient than is commonly supposed. This part of the subject might be illustrated by many curious examples. 3 “ AI and E are pronounced alike by the modern Greeks; Yilloison has shown that they were confounded in the time of Augustus ; and in an epi¬ gram of Callimachus, e%ei answers in echo to vaixi. The similarity of sound prevailed at a much earlier period ; we find AAKMEfiNIDH2 on the Sand¬ wich marble, and in an ancient inscription copied by Spon. “The same sound is given to El and I by the modern Greeks. These letters were frequently confounded in former times. ANAKTEI occurs in a very ancient inscription found by Col. Leake in Asia Minor ; EIDI AN on the Heraclean Tables ; AIEITPEE2 on a marble of Attica of remote date. El and I, as Yalckenaer has remarked, were pronounced alike in the time of Ammonius, or in the beginning of the 2nd cent.; and rl^r)v, Tcdhlvgv, yt.vuo-KS/j.a'os, are written with et in the letter of Mark Antony to the Aphro- disians. “A is pronounced in some words in Romaic instead of P, 4 as ax^ddia for 1 “Greek Lexicon of the Roman and Byzantine Periods,” by E. A. Sophocles, Boston, U.S., 1870. Introduction, pp. 5-11. 2 “ On the Decline and Corruption of the Greek Tongue,” Quar. Rev. vol. xxiii. 3 The Bishop gives several, which we are obliged from want of space to exclude. Ex¬ amples are the less needed that his argument is now universally admitted. 4 The converse process also occurs as a provincialism in both ancient and contemporary Greek ; thus Alcibiades, wishing to reprove some one as a flatterer (k6 Aa£), has raised in¬ extinguishable laughter by calling him a crow ( Kopa £). 68 N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. Gen. axpddia. One of the most learned of the ancient commentators (the Scholiast on Apollonius Rhodius) says, ovyyeves to A ra P; and adds, ’Axpddas was sounded as ’A^XaSas. “ T is now pronounced in Romaic, in some words, as A. This is not a modern innovation ; it appears from an inscription, published by Gruter, that 5ia irdvrwv was written in Latin DIA PANDON.—( Scalig. Anim. in Euseb. Chron. p. 118). “ El and H have the same sound in modern Greek. “ Singularis locus est apud Aristophanem in Yespis, de confusa et valde affini jam turn permutatione tu v el et 97 , ubi ait Poeta rjv e^exv £ 1 X 77 /car’ bpdpov , rjXiacret. irpos ij\iov —v. 771 ludit in similitudine vocum 61 X 97 et ^Xtos et rfXidfav.” —( Casauboniana , p. 49.) “ The sound of no letter has been so much the subject of debate as that of B. It is pronounced in Romaic like the English V.” (This is the least satis¬ factory paragraph in the essay, and we therefore omit it.) “ The same sound is now given to T and I, that of our English ee. But Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his treatise De Compos., plainly marks the distinction between the two letters. “There is,” he says, “a considerable con¬ traction of the lips in sounding T ; but the lips give no effect to the sound of I; the breath is driven against the teeth, and the mouth is open a little.” From the representation of the note of the cuckoo in the Birds of Aristophanes, we cannot suppose that the letter T had the modern sound of ee, x^^od’ 6 k6kKV i; eiTTOl JZokkij. —v. 505. 1 “ T is sometimes pronounced as i. 2 At what period this practice was intro¬ duced we have not been able to ascertain. “ 01 and I have been confounded in pronunciation for many centuries. In the inscriptions relating to the Christian martyrs of Nubia, we find TENITO, KOAEI2, for TENOITO, KOAnOIS.” When the conquest of Constantinople dispersed the learned men of that city, and sent them to seek safety in Western Europe, the circumstances of the time were peculiarly favourable to their objects, which were liberally pro¬ moted by the Houses of Aragon (of Naples), Medici, Sforza, and Este, as well as by some of the Popes and Doges of Yenice . 3 Among the Englishmen wdio studied Greek under Demetrius Chalcondylas at Florence were Latimer, Linacre, and Grocyn, who were, of course, taught according to the modern pronunciation. “ The superiority of these masters arose from the familiar use of a living language ; and their first disciples were incapable of discerning how far they had degenerated from the knowledge, and even the practice, of their ancestors. A vicious pronunciation which they introduced was banished from the schools by the reason of a succeeding age .” 4 This faulty method was afterwards successfully impugned by Erasmus, after whom the pronunciation still used in England—but of late years frequently discarded in Germany and elsewhere on the Continent 5 —is denominated the Erasmian system. Erasmus himself, however, yielding to that love of temporising which was the bane of his life, abstained from all attempt to publicly promote the adoption of the system which he yet declared to be the correct one. Two English scholars showed more spirit: Sir John Cheke and Sir Thomas Smith not only adopted the Erasmian system, but by their spirit and eloquence successfully 1 A well-known Greek scholar, M. Rangabd, has endeavoured to palliate his country¬ men’s mispronunciation of T by bringing to light the hideous fact that Schiller somewhere is guilty of making suss rhyme to Paradies ! See “ Sur la Prononciation du Grec,” Ann. de I’Ass. pour VEnc. des Etudes Grecques , vol. vii. p. 121. 2 Rather as y. T has the y sound before the vowels e, 97 , i, and v. 3 No prince of his time did more to promote the study of Greek than Francis I., but he (b 1494) belongs to a later period. 4 Gibbon, “ Decline and Fall,” chap. Ixvi. 5 Not, however, discarded in favour of the modern Greek mode, be it observed, which German scholars are unanimous in reprobating. Introd. N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. 69 introduced it into the University of Cambridge, of which they were then the brightest ornaments. They continued to teach the new pronunciation for four years, at the end of which time Bishop Gardiner, of sinister memory, then Chancellor of the University, interposed with an edict forbidding the use of the Erasmian pronunciation, and enforcing his decree by penal statutes ! But the intrepid Cheke stood firm, (Smith was in France), and maintained a long and resolute paper warfare with the Bishop, wherein Smith arrived in time to take part. Sir John naturally got the worst of it for the time, but not ■without making many converts. Accordingly, the Erasmian system only flourished the more for prohibition, and by many was adopted as a sort of badge of the reformed Church. Besides, common sense was on Cheke’s side. As Gibbon cogently observes, “the monosyllable (3r) represented to an Attic ear the bleating of sheep, and a bell-wether is better evidence than a bishop or a chancellor .” 1 And thus from the time of Queen Elizabeth, in the words of Thomas Fuller, ‘ ‘ this new pronunciation has prevailed, whereby we Eng¬ lishmen speak Greek and are able to understand one another, which nobody else can .” 2 The following directions for the pronunciation of modern Greek may be found useful. Those letters only are noted of which the Greek and English pronunciations differ:— a is pronounced by the Greeks like e and at 7J, l, l/, €L , Oi, vi o 0} ov av €V P 99 99 } 5 n 99 19 99 j i 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 a in father, e ,, etch, e ,, me. 6 ,, gone. o ,, odd. ou ,, soup. af, av in after, avow. ef, ev ,, effort, ever. v in English. When a Greek has to express in writing the B and D of foreign names, he uses fjLTT and vr . 3 y has the sound of y consonant before e, y, i, v, ai, ei, oi, vi ; in other cases it sounds nearly as g in gun. Before y, k, £, %, it has the sound of ng. To give it the sound of our g before the slender vowels at the beginning of words, the Greeks use y k. 5 is pronounced like th in then. 6 ,, ,, th ,, think. X before e, 77 , 1, v, cu, ei , 01, vi , has the sound of h as it is pronounced in the names Hughes and Hume. In all other eases it is pronounced like the {soft) Celtic cA 4 The Breathings are written, but not sounded. All pronunciation is by accent, irrespective of quantity. Diminutives are nearly as common as in Italian ; thus— ttcjuU, a child; Traid&Ki, a little child. Augmentatives are very rare ; e.g. toOlovt) from irbOos. 1 Roger Ascham had said much the same 200 years earlier. 2 It is a proof of how speedily and completely the Erasmian pronunciation was estab¬ lished in England, that Wheler, who was born about 100 years after the Gardiner edicts, introduces the modern Greek pronunciation as a novelty to the readers of his Travels. He adds, “ It were to be wish’d that our schools would teach the modern way of pronouncing Greek as well as the antient. For it would be a great help to those that travel into those parts, or intend to be understood of the modern Greeks at home.” 3 There are a few words—chiefly nouns proper, and mostly occurring in Crete—which contain the letters B and D in their true pronunciation. 4 It is an error to describe the x as identical in sound with the German ch, as is often done. Wheler gave the true guide when he wrote of x, “ The Welch pronounce it exactly right.” 70 N. MODERN GREEK LANGUAGE. Gen. Sometimes caressing expressions are applied to hateful objects, e.g. the small¬ pox is called evcpXoyia, just as the Furies were anciently called Eumenides, as if to disarm their wrath. Another class of diminutives is come into great use as patronymics, which have been frequently formed by adding ttovXos (from 7 ruXos) to the name of the father, e.g. Petropulos (IIeTp 67 roiAos) is made the family name of the descendants of a Peter, etc. Other patronymics are formed by adding tdrjs to the paternal baptismal name. Before the Revolu¬ tion, the majority of Greeks ( Islanders excepted) rarely had any surnames, and individuals of the same name were distinguished by the addition of the names of their fathers, and by those of their native places. The same was the case in Norway until recent times, and in Esthonia in the present century. Readers of the charming “Letters from the Baltic” will remember the amus¬ ing picture of the-author’s hostess ransacking the Waverley novels for sur¬ names for the enfranchised peasants ; also how exceedingly hard it proved to find anything grand enough to satisfy their ambition. Similar cases might be quoted from among the Greeks, who have occasionally made free with the greatest names of antiquity, not as baptismal appellations merely, but as surnames. In concluding this part of our subject, we may observe that the traveller will find all the grammatical information he needs for merely colloquial purposes, as well as a selection of useful practical dialogues, in the excellent “Handbook of Modern Greek” noted below . 1 This useful little book should be in the hands of every traveller in Greece. Another and more detailed work is the excellent grammar of Jeannaraki , 2 an esteemed Greek scholar, who has also published a collection of the songs of his native island, Crete. It may be supplemented by the grammar of Vlachos . 3 A satisfactory dictionary of modern Greek is still wanting. One (modern Greek and German) has long been in preparation by Dr. Deffner, on the plan of the great work of Sachs, and, when published, will no doubt be the best; but there is no immediate prospect of its appearance. As yet the only one that can be recommended is the small Greek-Italian and Italian-Greek dictionary of Perides , 4 which, for ordinary purposes, is excellent. That of Kind 5 is also fairly good. All the others are merely useless lumber. Readers desiring fuller information on the subject of the modern Greek language are referred to the following works :— Leake, Researches in Greece. 1814. Sophocles, Romaic Greek Grammar. Out of print. (Unquestionably the most eminent authority on the subject.) ,, Lexicon of Rom. and Byz. Greek. 1870. The preliminary essay. Deffner, Various valuable papers in his Archiv fur Mittel u. Neugriech- ische Philologie. Athens. Donaldson, Modern Greek Grammar. Vlachos, Do. Do. Do. Clyde, Romaic and Modern Greek compared. Geldart, The Modern Greek Language in its relation to Anc. Greek. D’Eichthal, Various interesting papers on Modern Greek in the Ann. de VAss. pour VEnc. des Etudes Grecgues. Rangabe, Grammaire du Grec Actuel. 1873. Blackie, On Greek Pronunciation. 1 “A Handbook of the Modern Greek Language,” by Edgar Vincent and T. S. Dickson. 1879. 2nd Ed. 1881. 2 “ Neugriechische Grammatik,” by Antonios Jeannaraki. Hanover, 1877. 3 “ A practical and easy method of learning the Mod. Greek Language,” 1867. 4 “ AetjiKov AraXiKov Kal"EXXrjviK6v.” 2 vols. Syra, 1862; and “ Aej-ucbv "E\- XyvoLTaXiKov .” 2 vols. Athens, 1878. 5 Kind, “ Handworterbueh der Neugriechischen u. deutschen Sprache.” Leipzig, 1870. Introd. N. MOD URN GREEK LITERATURE. 71 Pennington, On Greek Pronunciation. Legrand, Grammaire de la Langue Grecque Moderne. 1879. Boltz, Die Hellenische oder Neugriechische Sprache. Darmstadt, 1881. These works are named merely for the object of affording as wide a view of the subject as possible ; they are of very unequal value. Modern Greek Literature. —It is by no means easy to fix a clear boundary between the later Byzantine and the early modern Greek literature. Any such line of demarcation must necessarily be somewhat arbitrary, and few writers wholly agree on the subject. We shall not enter on the discussion of this vexed question, but we believe we cannot go far wrong in regarding the conquest of Constantinople as coincident with the dawn of a new sera of literary activity for the nations of Eastern as well as Western Europe. Until recent years few persons had any accurate conception of the real contemporary effects of that great event. They tacitly ignored the existence of any post- Byzantine literature, and seemed to imagine that the entire literary produc¬ tiveness of the nation ceased with the exodus of the terrified schoolmen from the capital. It is perfectly true that through the enlightened patronage of the Italian princes, the great cities of Italy became, for a time, the literary centres of the Greek nation in place of their own capital ; but the home- staying Greeks, though usually far less able, were by no means unproductive writers. The real difference was simply that, while the latter droned on in the old Byzantine v grooves, their more fortunate self-exiled countrymen struck out fresh lines of thought and research, under the stimulating and invigorating in¬ fluence of the most highly cultivated and intellectual society of the age. Nor was this all. Many of these exiles, with the strong love of their birthplace, which to this day is one of the best and most marked features in the Greek character, grew home-sick among the courts and universities of Western Europe, and returned to the East, bringing with them a rich harvest of new ideas. Thus it gradually came to be a' recognised custom with the wealthier, and an object of ambition with the poorer, classes to send their sons to study at some foreign, usually Italian, university. Schools specially for Greeks, were founded by Leo X. and Francis I. in their respective capitals, while others were established by learned Greeks in Venice, Padua, Messina, etc. We have, of course, no clue to the place of origin or status of the majority of the students who frequented these schools ; but if we merely confine our observation to those Greek writers who attained sufficient celebrity to have their histories recorded, we may form a tolerably fair approximate estimate of the degree of literary ability and cultivation which obtained in different provinces. This investigation reveals some curious, and, probably to most persons, unexpected results. Athens and the neighbouring country stand almost at zero, Peloponnesus slightly higher, Constantinople and Joannina much higher, and about equal. Lastly, we find Crete perhaps highest of all, alike in the productiveness and ability of its students. The Cretans also enjoyed a separate and special reputation for the extraordinary beauty of their caligraphy, which was considered superior to that of all others. From the Fall of Constantinople (1453) to that of Candia (1669) the Italo- Hellenic schools continued to produce an uninterrupted succession of treatises on philosophy and Belles Lettres, disquisitions on grammar, etc., as well as editions of ancient authors, occasionally annotated. About the time that the Italo-Hellenic schools ceased to be productive, political events were preparing the way for a literary revival in Constantinople. In the last quarter of the 17th century, Alexander Mavrocordato, physician - in - chief to the Sultan, and at a later date, Hospodar (Viceroy) of Wallachia, was named Grand Dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and in that capacity successfully negotiated the Peace of Carlowitz (1686). Alexander Mavrocordato, the ablest member of a family which has furnished several eminent men in successive generations, 72 N. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. Gen. was descended of a wealthy Chian family. He possessed, in addition to great natural ability, knowledge unusually extensive for his time and nation, joined to a supple manner, an iron will, and a boundless ambition. With these advan¬ tages, his advancement could only be a question of time and opportunity; and he was favoured by both. During his tenure of office as Dragoman, he lost no opportunity of extending his power throughout the empire, and of promoting and consolidating the interests and influence of his fellow-countrymen—such at least as accepted his supremacy. He had no enemies, for the same simple reason given by a distinguished Spanish statesman in the present century— he had put them all to death. Such was the character of the remarkable man who is known in modern Greek history as the founder of national education, one of the greatest benefactors of his country, and the man who of all others, perhaps, did most to prepare the way for the resurrection of the Greek nation four generations later. In Roumanian history his place is no less eminent; but there he figures as the Nero of Wallachia —a title which sufficiently expresses the opinion of his quondam subjects. Both verdicts are well substantiated. Besides the school of the Patriarchate (an old foundation), there existed a High School at Constantinople, founded in 1660, and also a few others in the provinces ; Mavrocordato now added to their number schools in Constantinople, Joannina, and Patmos, all three endowed by him¬ self. 1 His son and successor, Nicholas, was equally enlightened and far more humane. So early as 1640, two monks 2 of Gouvis (Tov^tjs), a convent situated in the remote district of Agrapha, on the Thessalian border, founded a small museum in their monastery,—an excellent example not followed elsewhere until long after, and which was probably derived from the Benedictines of Italy. Another local museum was established at Larissa, also in Thessaly, in 1702, by the liberality of Parthenios, an Athenian. No other collection appears to have formed in Greece until the present century. In 1710 a small observatory was established at Constantinople by the astronomer Notaras, afterwards Patriarch of Jerusalem. At the same place, and at about the same date, a botanic garden was planted by Argyrammos, author of a dic¬ tionary of Botany. The introduction of Greek printing into Constantinople did not take place until 1627, although the Jews had already had a press there in the fifteenth century. The first ,font of type was brought from Oxford, and the press set up by an Ionian monk during the Patriarchate of the famous Cyril Lucar, under the protection of King Charles’s ambassador—that “ Great Elchee,” Sir Thomas Roe. 3 The introduction of printing into Constantinople was violently opposed by the Jesuits, supported by the French ambassador, who denounced the whole undertaking to the Porte as treasonable, and used every possible intrigue to obtain the destruction of the workshop. We have no space to detail the curious scenes that ensued ; suffice it to say that the strong hand of British diplomacy prevailed, and Sir Thomas brought both printing-press and patriarch off with flying colours. 4 During the 18th cent, education continued to advance among the Greeks by slow stages, and though few works of any original merit appeared, many useful translations from the French, and a few from the Fmglish and German 1 Alexander Mavrocordato I. was also the founder of the first Greek church at Vienna. 2 These were Eugenios Joannulios Aetolos and his pupil Anastasios Gordios. 3 Sir Thomas Roe was ambassador of James I. and Charles I. to the Porte from 1621 to 1628. His “ Negotiations” were published in 1740. 4 It is rather an interesting coincidence that while the original introduction of printing into Greece was mainly the work of an Englishman, so again, two centuries i i ter, it was an Englishman, the Hon. Leycester Stanhope (afterwards Earl of Harrington), ■yyho established the first printing-press in enfranchised Greece. Introcl. N. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 73 languages, were published. Most, if not all, of these were printed abroad, the favourite places of imprint being Yenice and Vienna. Even at the present day old custom so far prevails that all Church books in use throughout the Levant are, without exception, printed at Yenice. In this the Greeks show good taste, for nothing better need be desired than the handsome quarto Venetian Gospels, printed in fine bold type on Dutch paper and costing (leather binding included) the modest sum of ten shillings. About 1812 a species of High School was established in Athens, the greater part of the funds for which were contributed by our countrymen at home and abroad. In 1814 a Society for the promotion of education in the Greek provinces was formed at Athens, under the auspices of Lord Guilford, who some years later founded the excellent Ionian Academy. Unfortunately the Athenian society soon abandoned the useful object for which it was founded, and sank into being a mere instrument of political intrigue. The Revolutionary war necessarily arrested for the time being all educa¬ tional progress ; it produced, however, a distinct literature of its own. The first newspapers published in Greece also date from this period ; a collection of them, including that of Missolonghi, issued during the siege, is preserved at the Chamber of Deputies in Athens. (See below, Rte. 2.) Immediately on the restoration of peace, Capodistria devoted himself with great energy and success to providing for the educational needs of the new State. His work was continued and completed by the Government of King Otho, and the edict of x 3 g- March 1834, placed Public Education in Greece on a secure and per¬ manent basis. Finally in May 1837 the present University of Athens was opened, which’now affords instruction to some 1500 students annually. Having now completed our survey of Modern Greek Literature during the last four hundred years, we will add a list of the most useful works on the subject. Of these by far the best is the excellent “ History of Modern Greek Literature,” by Dr. Nicolai, a really admirable little handbook, which should be read by every one interested in the subject of which it treats. A perusal of the works named will afford most persons all the information they require respecting this department of literature. According to Prof. Jebb, “ during the last fifty years Greek writers have contributed to almost every province of letters ; ” but this statement though correct, is so only in a catalogue sense ; whole departments of literature being in several cases represented merely by a few trumpery pamphlets, scarcely worth the paper they are printed on. The Greek literature of the present day is curiously deficient in originality, and even in national character. The majority of the works in circulation are mere imitations or rinfacciamenti from foreign models, with simply a few stock-in-trade touches put in to supply local colour. In the departments of Philology, Archaeology, and History, however, several writers have produced works of original research and permanent value. An Englishman who wishes to obtain a good idea of the general character of the Greek literature of the day, may easily do so by reading Tricoupi's History of the Greek Revolution, a few of Rangabe's dramas and essays (philological and archaeological), an historical novel by Zambelios , a political essay by Roides (any one of those republished from the “ Hestia”), one of the historical studies of Renieri, a few poems of Valaoriti , and some of the poems and comedies of Vlachos. The last-named writer has also published some excellent translations from the German classics. After going through the above short course, the English reader will not only have learned all that he is likely to care to know of the subject, but will really be as well fitted to form an opinion on the general merits of modern Greek literature as nine in ten of the Greeks he may meet. Leake, Researches in Greece. 1814. Gidel, Etudes sur la LitUrature Grecgue Moderne. 1866. 74 O. THE GREEK CHURCH. Gen. Gidel, Etudes sur la Literature Grecque Moderne. 1878. (2nd series.) Egger, V Eellenisme en France. 2 vols. 1866. Didot, Aide Manuce et l' Eellenisme d Venise. 1869. Nicolai, Geschiclite der neugriechischen Literatur. Leipzig, 1876. Rangabe, Histoire de la Litterature Grecque Moderne. 1877. 0. The Greek Church. The great Christian communion generally known in the West as the Greek Church , calls itself the Orthodox Church of the East ('H ’0 pd6do£os A vardhiKT) ’E KK\r]cria). Just, however, as Roman Catholics commonly drop the prefix Roman, so the Greeks omit the words “ of the East,” and style their communion The Orthodox Church. It includes among its members an overwhelming majority of the population of Russia, European Turkey, Servia, Roumania, and Greece, as well as the larger portion of the Christian subjects of Turkey in Asia. From an early age the Greek Church has been governed by the four Patriarchs of Constantinople, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria. In the latter part of the 16th century, a fifth patriarch, that of Moscow, was created for the Church of Russia, which had previously been subject to the see of Constantinople. But Peter the Great suppressed this office, and since his reign the Church of Russia has been governed by a synod of its own bishops, with the Emperor as nominal head. The Churches of the East and West have had many acrimonious contro¬ versies from the earliest ages, especially on the subject of images and about the extent of their respective jurisdictions. But the final schism did not take place until 1054, when Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, was formally excommunicated by the Pope, for his refusal to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. The Fourth Crusade had the effect of embittering the dispute, for the Franks in many places plundered the Greek monasteries, and insulted or expelled the clergy. “The Greek Church and nation have never forgotten the Fourth Crusade. From that day to this the enmity between the two Churches has been of the bitterest character. The attempt to reconcile them seems hopeless. On many points, both of doctrine and ceremony, it only requires a conciliatory spirit on both sides to effect, if not a reconciliation, at least a compromise. But the great difficulty of the supremacy always interposes itself. Since the papal claims reached their fulness a reconciliation on equal terms has been impossible.”— Edin. Rev. No. 218. The attempts at union made by several of the Palieologi were prompted by the desire to obtain the aid of the West against the victorious Ottomans ; and they were invariably repudiated by the Greek clergy and people. In the 16th century the Lutherans ineffectually attempted a union with Constan¬ tinople ; and in the 17th century, and later, some intercourse took place between that See and the English Church. The most striking case was that of the learned and enlightened Cyril Lucar, Patriarch of Alexandria, and afterwards of Constantinople. His story forms a curious and little known chapter in the religious history of the 17th century, and the persecution (ending in a violent death) with which the Greeks visited his efforts to establish friendly relations between the English and Greek Churches may serve as a curious practical commentary on some schemes of our own times. He is now best remembered by his gift of the famous Codex Alexandrinus (now in the British Museum) to King Charles I., to whom he also dedicated one of his works. The main points of dogmatic difference between the Greek and the Roman Churches are, besides the all-important one of the papal supremacy, the Introd. O. THE GREEK CHURCH. 75 doctrine of purgatory, and the double procession of the Holy Spirit; the Orientals objecting to the Latin form of Jilioque in the Nicene Creed. Neither the oppression of the Moslems, nor the insults of the Latins, were ever able to alienate the affections of the Greeks from their national Church. This devotion is based on political as well as on religious grounds. For the Greek, like the Spaniard in the middle ages, owes to the preservation of his Church the preservation also of his language and his nationality, which would otherwise have been absorbed in those of his conquerors. To their Church the Greeks are mainly indebted for their very existence as a distinct people from the fall of the Eastern Empire to the Greek Revolution. The Greek bishops in the Turkish dominions are personages of considerable political importance, as they are regarded by the Government as the heads of the Christian community, and are generally allowed to settle all civil causes among their co-religionists. In fact, the bishop is the most important func¬ tionary in a province after the Pasha. (See Handbook for Turkey.) In Greece the higher clergy are salaried by the State, the Metropolitan of Athens receiving 6000 dr., the Archbishops each 5000 dr., the Bishops each 4000 dr. per annum. Many of them are also in receipt of revenues from Church lands. The lower clergy are entirely dependent on the contributions of their flocks, and on fees. There are no regular tithes, but the parochial clergy in some districts receive a contribution in kind from their flock at the harvest. A fixed number of preachers is assigned to each province and paid by the State. They are quite distinct from the local clergy, and may be said to form a sort of staff corps of the Church militant. Deacons are permitted, and parish priests required, to be married. Bishops, however, must either be unmarried or widowers. In consequence, they are frequently drawn from the ranks of the monastic clergy. The parochial clergy are mostly sober, well-conducted men, but too grossly ignorant to exercise much personal influence over their flocks. In Greece, however, the authority and ascendency is always that of the Church in the abstract, and is little affected by the character of individual ministrants. Here and there, among the higher clergy, a learned divine may be found, but taken as a whole the priesthood have certainly not kept pace with the general demand for education. Many of the parochial clergy can actually neither read nor write. “We were not a little astonished in one of the schools to see several Greek priests learning reading and writing along with the boys. The sight of these bearded priests in their sacerdotal garments learning their b, a, ba, and twice one are two, gave us no very high idea of the state of learning among these self-styled successors of the Apostles. On mentioning this after¬ wards to a friend, and expressing my surprise that persons so grossly ignorant could be admitted into the priesthood, he said it was by no means uncommon, that they learn to repeat the service by rote, and their flocks neither know nor care about the amount of their attainments.”— R. H. Herschell. The Ecclesiastical Seminary at Athens (see Rte. 2), as well as the older established “ Greek Maynooth ” (Byron) at Khalki, which sends four students yearly to complete their studies in Germany, have both done good service. But as a rule none of the more promising students take orders ; or they only do so after joining the rule of St. Basil (see below), which excludes them from parochial employment. All Greek ecclesiastics let their hair and beards grow to their full length, which, coupled with their tall dark hats and flowing Eastern robes, give them a very primitive and striking appearance. Some of the vestments worn in the celebration of the sacred offices are rich and splendid. Their expression and bearing are seldom, however, in accordance with these external attributes. The traveller may recall Adolf Erman’s observations on the subject (Travels in Siberia), and the Turkish proverb “ Much hair, little brain.” 76 O. THE GREEK CHURCH. Gen. Since the Revolution the Greeks of the kingdom no longer recognise the authority of the Patriarch of Constantinople. Curiously enough, however, all Greeks contest with acrimony the right of any of the Slav branches of the Church to equal liberty. In the case of Greece, the rupture was caused by the refusal of the Patriarch, who succeeded the murdered Gregory, to sanction the Revolution. When the independence of Greece had been achieved, a fruitless negotiation took place between Capodistria and the Patriarchate, and by an official paper, dated June 1828, the new Greek Government declined to treat with the Patriarch on the former terms of submission. In July 1833 a National Synod was held at Nauplia, when the two following decisions were approved by 36 Greek prelates : 1 — 1. The Church of Greece, which spiritually owns no head but Jesus Christ, is dependent on no external authority, and preserves unbroken dogmatic unity with all the Eastern Orthodox Churches. With respect to the administration of the Church, she acknowledges the King of Greece as her supreme head, as is in nothing contrary to the Holy Canons. 2. A permanent Synod shall be established, consisting entirely of Bishops selected by the King. This is to be the highest ecclesiastical authority, after the model of the Russian Church. The Synod of Nauplia further resolved on eventually reducing the Greek Sees from about 40 to 10, co-extensive with the Nonces, or chief civil divisions of the kingdom. But this arrangement gave rise to great discontent, and was never carried out. The Patriarch refused to acknowledge the independence of the Greek Church ; it was not thought advisable to consecrate new Bishops without his sanction ; and at one period the Greek Hierarchy seemed likely to die out. However, negotiations were set on foot with the Patriarch in the early part of 1850 ; and on June 29 (July 11) of that year, he, in conjunction with the Synod of Constantinople, issued a decree styled a Synodal Tome (Suz'oSt/cos Tdfios), whereby the Church of Greece was recognised as independ¬ ent or autocephalous (avroKecpaXos). The number of Bishops in the kingdom of Greece is 30, including 13 Archbishops. They are elected by the Synod, three names being presented to the King, from amongst which his Majesty selects one on occasion of each vacancy. Like the Emperor of Russia, the King of Greece is the temporal head of the Church ; the affairs of which are conducted by the Holy Synod of the Kingdom of Greece, which sits at Athens, and is composed of five Bishops, generally taken in order of seniority in consecration (/card ra irpeafieia), and assisted by a Royal Commissioner and a Secretary. By a law passed in 1852, the Metropolitan of Attica is ex-officio President of the Synod. Monasteries. —There is only one monastic order in the Greek Church, viz. that of St. Basil. Greek monasteries are divided into two classes : 1. Ccenobia {Kocvofica —i.e. where all live in common) ; 2. Idiorhythmic (idioppvd/xa —i.e. where every one lives in his own way). In the Ccenobia every single member is clothed and lives alike ; and the government is strictly monarchical, being administered by an abbot (Hyodpcevos). The Idiorhythmic convents rather resemble a republic, or, as a monk of Mount Athos remarked to Sir G. Bowen, “ constitutional states, like England.” These last are under the administration of wardens (’EiriTpo-iroL), two or three of the fathers annually elected, like the officers of an English college, and who have authority only over the finances and general expenditure of the society ; bread and wine being issued from the refectory to all the members, who add to these commons, in their own cells, what each can afford to buy. “ The monks on entering pay a certain sum in consideration of which they are in part proprietors of the establishment, and nothing of importance can be 1 The important measure of liberating Greece from the control of the see of Constanti¬ nople, owed its success mainly to the exertions of MM. von Maurer, Tricoupi, and Schinas. Introd. P. THE GREEK KINGDOM. 7 7 done without the general consent, which often infers a general quarrel and dis¬ turbance. In both kinds of monasteries almost all the clothes-making, carpentry, and other works are conducted by the monks themselves : one hakes, another makes shoes, another distils arrack. They have usually several koct/jukol 1 or lay brothers, who often become monks ; these attend to the cattle and to out- of-door affairs, and assist the monks in hewing wood and drawing water. Of the monks there are several divisions with respect to the positions they hold: the Archimandrites or Abbots ; Hegumenoi or superiors of smaller convents ; Iero monachoi and Iero diachonoi, monks in holy orders. Of the simple monks one is called ascetic, aaKyruios, because he lives apart in a crKTjTr], or cottage ; xo/x 777-77 s from Ko/xrj, a village ; avaxwprjris, an anchorite, from avax