I 1 t < Digitized by the Internet Archive - in 2014 4 https://archive.org/details/cyclopediaofarchOOstua THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. CYCLOPEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE, HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, TOPOGRAPHICAL, DECORATIVE, THEORETICAL AND MECHANICAL, ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED, AND ADAPTED TO THB COMPREHENSION OF WORKMEN, ETC., ETC. BY ROBERT STUART, ARCHITECT AND CIVIL ENGINEER. TWO VOLUMES IK ST E. VOL. I. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI: — n. W. DERBY. 1854. PREFACE. In presenting to the public a new Dictionary of Architecture, no apology, we imagine, will be re- quired for the undertaking. Little need be said on the necessity of such a work, inasmuch as it is in reality the only one of the kind. Those which already exist on the subject, not to mention their expensive size, are rather encyclopedias of treatises on the differ- ent branches of science and art connected with archi- tecture, than dictionaries, of the practice, and theory, and history, and description of the science of archi- tecture, and architectural archaeology ; such works are intended to supersede separate treatises upon Geometry, Perspective, Trigonometry, and the Mechanical parts of architecture. Our book we wish to be of general utility to the professor and the b 3 PREFACE. amateur, and, indeed, to almost every general reader — to contain a large mass of material for general and constant reference, brought together from a multitude of sources, much of which, we believe, cannot otherwise be referred to without great labour and expense. In such a work, it is not to be wondered at, if some faults are to be found : the defects, however, we hope and trust, will be found to be but few, and not of any great importance, in comparison, at least, with the general utility of the whole. It was first intended to insert brief biographies of eminent architects in the alphabetical dictionary. It was found, however, that by giving such biogra- phical notices of all, the size of the book would be increased, without proportionally increasing its utility ; and we, therefore, came to the determination of giving biographical notices of such only as were persons of very great note, and of giving at the end, complete tables of architects arranged in chrono- logical order, and exhibiting at once their name, country, age, and works. To facilitate the reference to these Tables, an alphabetical Index of their names is added, and more particular accounts of British architects will be found in the Intro- duction. 4 PREFACE. In Appendix, No. II., we have given a Manual ot Architectural Bibliography. In many of the arti- cles of the Dictionary, we have referred to books on the subject, and sometimes given lists of them, but it was still considered very desirable that a more complete list of architectural works and writers should be given. The reader will, by means of this manual, and the Indices of names and subjects that follow it, when he has gained all the information that our book will give him on any subject, be able to refer to such books as will furnish him with more. This does not by any means pretend to con- tain a complete list of architectural books, but it contains nearly all of any importance. Our third Appendix contains brief heads of Juris- prudence, as far as it is connected with architecture, which also, we trust, will not be found devoid 01 utility. Our principal authority, in the compilation of this part of the work, has been a useful little book by Mr. Elmes, on Architectural Jurisprudence, which we can with confidence recommend to such of our readers as may wish for more information on the subject. The plates are numerous; and as it was found that frequently there were references to one plate PREFACE. from several parts of the book, it lias been deter- mined to form them into a separate volume, to make them as convenient for reference as possible ; a description, with an index of the subjects contained in them, is also given ill the third volume with the plates. INTRODUCTORY ESSAY ON THE PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND, SINCE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. The materials for a history of early English Architecture are very few, and are scattered in books and manuscripts to which it is difficult to many to gain access. If there were more, perhaps, from the rude state of the art in those ages, we should only find, that with what we know we may be sufficiently contented. Of the Architecture itself, as it is known from works that remain, numerous notices will be found in different articles of the following Dictionary : of the architects, some account will be given in the Appendix : we shall, therefore, here content ourselves in the early period, by arranging such matter as has been discovered in ancient documents relating to Architecture; and, as we approach nearer the present age, we shall embody in these notices some observations on the different styles that have prevailed in those modern times. 1 Two of the earliest documents relate to the reign of king John : the first, dated 1209, records the payment of ten marks to the architect Elyas, for repairing the palace at West- minster; the second relates to estimates made by one William Puintell, who was either an architect or a surveyor employed on the works at the Tower, (ad operationes Turris Londonise.) The interior apart- ments of the royal dwellings were at that time ornamented with painted wainscoting, as appears from an entry of the reign of Henry the Third, in 1233, ordering a chamber to be painted anew with such histories and pictures as had before adorned it, (quod cameram regis lambrus- It is extracted and abridged iu a great part from Walpole'a Anecdotes of Painting. b 7 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. catam* de castro Winton. depingi faciat eisdem historiis et picturis quibus fuerit prius depicta.) A record of the same reign, mentioned by Stowe, gives directions for repairing the granary under the Tower, and all the leaden gutters, and for leading the whole thoroughly on that side, and for white-washing the chapel of St. John. The same record orders that three painted glass windows should be made in the same chapel. In Aubrey's Survey of Surrey, quoted by Walpole, he says, on the authority of Dugdale, that the first painted glass in England was done in the reign of king John. In the same chapel of St. John, another record, of the same time, mentions a marble font with hand- some marble columns, (unum fontem marmoream cum columpnis mar- moreis bene et decenter incisis.) A record of the twenty-first of Henry the Third, orders four pounds eleven shillings to be paid to Odo Aurifaber, for painting pictures in the king's chamber. A record of the twenty-eighth of the same reign, commands the sheriff of Kent to furnish and carry to Westminster, without delay, a hundred barge loads of grey stone, (100 navatas grisise petrse,) which might either come from a Kentish quarry, or be imported from the coast of France. A record of the forty-fifth year of the same reign, contains a curious memorandum of the sums expended on the king's buildings at West- minster. 3 From some other record, we learn that the salary of Master William of Florence, as surveyor of the works at Guildford, was six- pence a day. Master William, we see, was an Italian, and it is probable that it was no uncommon thing to employ Italian artists in England about this time. The crosses erected to the memory of queen Eleanor, Vertue supposed, with great probability, to have been built after the designs of Peter Cavalini, a Roman sculptor. Vertue also discovered that this person was the architect of the shrine of Edward the Con- fessor; and the following extract from Walpole will shew at once the arguments he makes use of, and the mode in which Italian artists came into England. * Lambruscatam, wainscoted, from the French lambris. s Summa cust. operationum Westm. ab inceptione usqae in die dominica post festum divi Micliaelis anno regni regis Henrici xlv t0 . Et cclx Libre restant solvendee pro stipendiis alborum cissoram et minulorum operariorum, et pro Franca petra et aliis emptionibus quse non computanlur in hac summo ; xxix millia, cccxlv /. x\\ *. PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. V The original Inscription on the tomb ran thus : — Anno milleno Domini cum septuageno Et bis centeno, cum completo quasi deno, Hoc opus est factum, quod Petrns duxit in actom Romanus'civis : Homo, causam noscere si vis, Rex fuit Henricus, sancti praesentis arnicas. " The words Petrus duxit in actum — Romanus civis, were dis- cernible till very lately. Some old authors ascribe the erection ot the shrine to Henry himself ; others, to Richard de Ware the abbott elected in 12b"0. It is probable that both were concerned. The new abbot repaired to Rome immediately on his election, to receive con- secration from Urban the Fourth. At that time, says Vasari, flour- ished there Peter Cavalini, a painter, and the inventor of Mosaic, who had performed several costly works in that city. About four years before the arrival of Abbot Ware, that is, in 1256, had been erected a splendid shrine for the martyrs, Simplicius and Faustina, as the expense of John James Capoccio and his wife, adorned with twisted columns, and inlaid with precious marbles exactly in the taste, though not in the precise form, of that of St. Edward. Nothing is more probable than that a rich abbot, either at his own expense, or to gratify the taste of his magnificent master, should engage a capital artist to return with him, and undertake the shrine of his master's patron saint, and the great patron of his own church. Weever says expressly, that the abbot brought back with him from Rome workmen, and rich porphyry stones, for Edward the Confessor's erectory; and for the pavement of the chapel. This abbot was lord treasurer till his death in 1283, and was buried on the north side of the great altar. Over him was anciently this epitaph, confirming the circumstances above mentioned, Abbas Richardus de Wari, qui requiescit Hie, portat lapides, quos bio portavit ab Urbe. " Vasari's silence on Cavalini's journey to England, ought to be no objection: he not only wrote some hundred years after the time, but confounds his own accounts so strangely, as to make Peter Cavalini scholar to Giotto, who was twenty years younger. If it may be imagined, that Richard Ware could not have interest enough to seduce so capital a workman from the service of the pope, it might still be accounted for by higher authority. Edward the First, returning from B o INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. the Holy-land, was conducted by the king of Sicily to Rome, to visit Gregory the Tenth, who had been Edward's companion and friend in the holy war. An artful pope would certainly be glad to furnish a young king with artists, who would encourage him in raising shrines and temples. The monument of Henry the Third, erected by his son, is beautified in the same taste, with porphyry and mosaic : and the first brazen statue known to have been cast here, lies upon it. The old painting round the chapel of St. Edward, and those in a very beautiful and superior style, though much decayed, over the ragged regiment, Vertue ascribes to the same Cavalini." During the reigns which followed that of Henry the Third, the arts were allowed to lie long entirely neglected. In the reign of Henry the Fourth was painted the fine east window in the Cathedral of York. John Thornton, glazier, of Coventry, who contracted for it, was to receive for his own work four shillings a week, and to finish the whole in less than three years. Another indenture of 1338, for glazing some of the west windows, stipulates, that the workman should have sixpence a foot for white glass, and twelve-pence for coloured. The accession of Henry the Eighth in 1509, brought along with it the establishment of the arts. Till the end of the reign of this king, from the decline of the heavy Saxon and Norman, the pointed Gothic was almost the only style in use in English buildings. The style differed much in its characteristics from the styles which had flourished in Greece and Rome, but it was in its particular kind strikingly beauti- ful. It is difficult for the noblest Grecian temple to convey half so many impressions to the mind, as does a cathedral of the best Gothic taste — a proof of skill in the architects, and of address in the priests, who erected them. The latter exhausted their knowledge of the pas- sions in composing edifices, whose pomp, mechanism, vaults, tombs, painted windows, gloom, and perspectives, infused such sensations of romantic devotion; and they were happy in finding artists capable of executing such machinery. One must have taste, to be sensible of the beauties of Grecian architecture; one only wants passions, to feel Gothic. In St. Peter's, one is convinced that it was built by great princes. In Westminster Abbey, one thinks not of the builder; the religion of the place makes the first impression; and, though stripped of its altars and shrines, it is nearer converting one to popery, than all the regular pageantry of Roman domes. Gothic churches infuse 10 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. superstition ; Grecian, admiration. The papal see amassed its wealth by Gothic cathedrals, and displays it in Grecian temples. Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, and Kent, who certainly understood beauty, blundered into the heaviest and clumsiest compositions, whenever they aimed at imitations of the Gothic. Walpole, in speaking of the architects of his own time, observes — " Considering how scrupulously our architects confine themselves to antique precedent, perhaps some deviations into Gothic may a little relieve them from that servile imitation. I mean, that they should study both tastes, not blend them : that they should dare to invent in the one, since they will hazard nothing in the other. When they have built a pediment, and portico, the sibyl's circular temple, and tacked the wings to a house by a colonnade, they seem au bout de leur Latin. If half a dozen mansions were all that remained of old Rome, instead of half a dozen temples, I do not doubt but our churches would resemble the private houses ot Roman citizens. Our buildings must be as Vitruvian, as writings in the days of Erasmus were obliged to be Ciceronian." Towards the end of the reign of Henry the Eighth, the Grecian 01 Roman style was introduced. " It was first plastered upon Gothic, and made a barbarous mixture. Regular columns, with ornaments neither Grecian nor Gothic, and half embroidered with foliage, were crammed over frontispieces, facades, and chimneys, and lost all grace by wanting simplicity. This mongrel species lasted till late in the reign of James the First. " The beginning of reformation in building seems owing to Holbein, His porch at Wilton, though purer than the works of his successors, is of this bastard sort; but the ornaments and proportions are graceful and well chosen. I have seen of his drawings two in the same style. Where he acquired this taste, is difficult to say; probably it was adopted from his acquaintance with his fellow-labourers at court. Henry had actually an Italian architect in his service, to whom I should without scruple assign the introduction of regular architecture, if it was clear that he arrived here so early as Holbein. He was called John of Padua, and his very office seems to intimate something novel in his practice. He was called Devizer of his majesty's buildings" No particular work of John of Padua can be mentioned : Holmby house was one of our earliest productions in regular archi- tecture, but its date was 1583, and it could not, therefore, be well u Introductory essay. ascribed to John of Padua. Several other specimens of the same style of building are mentioned. In the reign of Edward the Sixth, architecture preserved the same footing which it had acquired during the preceding year. Somerset house was built on the site of Chester inn, where the ancient poet Occleve formerly lived. The style is a compound of Grecian and Gothic, and as the pension to John of Padua was renewed in the third year of this reign, we may suppose that he owed it to the protector, and that he was the architect of his palace. Longleat, begun in 1567, was in the same style as Somerset house, and was built by Sir John Thynne, a principal officer to the protector. In Elizabeth's reign, several names of architects occur. John Shute styles himself, " paynter and architecte," in a folio book published by him in 1563, called " The Just and Chief Groundes of Architecture, used in all the auncient and famous monyments, with a farther and more ample discourse uppon the same, than hitherto hath been set out by any other." The figures are in a better style than ordinary. In his dedication to the queen, he says, that he had been sent into Italy in 1550, by the duke of Northumberland, who maintained him there in his studies under the best architects. Stowe also mentions one Master Stickles, an excellent architect, who in 1596, built for a triai a furnace that might be taken to pieces. Robert Adams, the surveyor of the queen's buildings, seems to have been a man of abilities. He was buried in an aisle on the north side of Greenwich church, with this inscription. " Egregioyiro, Roberto Adams, operum regiorum supervisori, arcbitecturae peritis- simo, ob. 1595. Simon Basil, operationum regiorum contra rotulator hoc posuit monumentnm, 1601." The eastern side of Caius College, Cambridge, in which are the porta virtutis et sapientice was built in 1566 and 1567. These are joined by two long walls to the porta humilitatis, and in these are two little Doric frontispieces, which shew the Roman architecture reviving, with little columns and pilasters, quite unproportioned to the building which they were intended to adorn. The gate of honour cost £128. 9s. 5d. The architect was Theodore Havens. In the college is an old picture of a man in a flashed doublet, with dark curled hair and beard, holding a pair of compasses, which appears to represent Theodore Havens himself. In the gallery of Emmanuel college, 12 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. among other old pictures, is one with the following inscription, record- ing an architect of the same age. " Effigies Rodulfi Simons architect sua aetate peritissimi, qui (praeter plurima aedificia ab eo praeclare facta) duo collegia, Emanuelis hoc, Sidneii illud, estruxit integre : magnam etiatn partem Trinitatis reconcinnavit amplissiuie." On the decline of the Gothic style, the ideas of grandeur seem to have been confined to what was spacious. The palaces erected during the reign of Elizabeth, by Elizabeth of Hardwicke, the" countess 01 Shrewsbury, were in this style : " The apartments," Walpole says, " are lofty and enormous, and they knew not how to furnish them : pictures, had they had good ones, would be lost in chambers of such height ; tapestry, their chief moveable, was not commonly perfect enough to be real magnificence. Fretted ceilings, graceful mouldings of windows, and painted glass, the ornaments of the preceding age, were fallen into disuse. Immense lights, composed of bad glass in diamond panes, cast an air of poverty on their most costly apartments. That at Hardwicke, still preserved as it was furnished for the reception and imprisonment of the queen of Scots, is a curious picture of that age and style. Nothing can exceed the expense in the bed of state, in the hangings of the same chamber, and of the coverings for the tables. The first is cloth of gold, cloth of silver, velvets of different colours, lace, fringes, and embroidery. The hangings consist of figures, large as life, representing the virtues and vices, embroidered on grounds of white and black velvet. The cloths to cast over the tables are em- broidered, and embossed with gold, on velvets and damask. The only moveables of any taste are the cabinets and tables themselves, carved in oak. The chimneys are wide enough for a hall or kitchen, and over the arras are friezes of many feet deep, with miserable relievos in stucco representing huntings. There, and in all the great mansions of that age, is a gallery, remarkable only for its extent. That at Hardwicke is of sixty yards." During the reign of James the First, the arts did not meet with much encouragement. Edward Jansen, supposed to be a Fleming, was engaged in many great works, among which were Audley End, near Walden in Essex, and the greater part of Northumberland house. The former was an immense pile of building, its rooms large, though not proportionally lofty, with a gallery of immense extent. The fron- tispiece of Northumberland house, Vertue discovered to be the work 13 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. of Gerard Christmas, an architect of the same reign, who made the design for Aldersgate, and cut the bas-relief, of James the First on horseback, on it. John Smithson was an architect employed by the earls of Newcastle; he built Welbeck in 1604, the riding-house there in 1623, as appeared by his name over the gate, and the stables in 1625. When William Cavendish, earl of Newcastle, proposed to repair and make great additions to Bolsover-castle, Smithson went to Italy to collect designs, and from them, Walpole supposes, " the noble apart- ment erected by that earl (and afterwards duke,) and lately pulled down, was completed." Smithson died in 1648. 4 His son was also a man of some skill in architecture. Stephen Harrison, who calls him- self, M joyner and architect," invented the triumphal arches erected in London for the reception of James the First. The metropolis, during the reign of James, increased rapidly in extent. Elizabeth had issued several rigid proclamations against the increase of new buildings in the city ; but they had produced little effect. In 1605, which was the second year of his reign, James issued a similar proclamation, forbidding all manner of building within the city, and a circuit of one mile thereof. It commanded also that all per- sons henceforward should build all their fore-fronts and windows, either "*f brick or stone ; as well for decency, as by reason all great and well- grown woods were much spent and wasted, so that timber for shipping became scarce." As this proclamation also was ineffective, another was issued to the same purport in 1607, and some offenders were 'ensured in the star-chamber, for building contrary to its tenor. Another edict, issued in 1614, required the commissioners to proceed with all possible strictness against every offender, and from this time * Smithson's epitaph, in the chancel of Bolsover church, is as follows : " Reader, beneath this plain stone buried lies Smithson's remainder of mortality; Whose skill in architecture did deserve A fairer tomb his memory to preserve But since his nobler works of piety To God, his justice and his charity, Are gone to heaven, a building to prepare Not made with hands, his friends contented ar« : He here shall rest in hope, 'till th' world shall burn , And inierming'te ashes with his urn. Ob. Decemb. 27, 1648.* 14 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. we may date the reformation of domestic architecture in London. The first house of note erected conformably to this proclamation was built for colonel Cecilin the Strand. Next, one was built in the city, near Draper's hall, Throgmorton-street ; and another for an opulent goldsmith, opposite Sadler's hall in the Cheapside. A leather-seller in St. Paul's churchyard had constructed his dwelling, near the north gate, of timber, and was compelled to take it down, and rebuild it in the prevailing fashion. 5 Towards the end of this reign, architecture was undergoing a great change for the better. The description of a palace which has been recommended by the great and accomplished Bacon, exhibits the same style which was so successfully cultivated by Inigo Jones and Sir Henry Wotton. 6 The description given by Bacon may be compared with the design for the new palace at Whitehall, by Inigo Jones. The " Ele- ments of Architecture," by Sir Henry Wotton, contain at once the soundest doctrines of practice, and the purest ideas of taste. The great ornament of the reign of the second Charles, was Inigo Jones. Walpole has given his history, as a genius, in a few words. * Vitruvius drew up his grammar ; Palladio shewed him the practice ; Rome displayed a theatre worthy of his emulation; and king Charles tfas ready to encourage, employ, and reward his talents." Many of his designs may be seen in Campbell's Vitruvius, and in Kent's edition of his works. Among the best are the banqueting house at White- nail ; the new quadrangle of St. John's college, Oxford ; the church of St. Paul, with the piazza and arcade of Covent-garden ; the chapel of Lincoln's Inn, and part of Lincoln's-inn-fields ; the queen's chapel at St. James's; the fine villa of lord Pembroke at Wilton; Coleshill, in Berkshire; Cobham hall, in Kent; the Grange, in Hampshire; the queen's house at Greenwich ; and the portico of old St. Paul's.* Horace Walpole observes, of the banqueting house at Whitehall, that it is " a small part of the pile designed for the palace of our kings ; but so complete in itself, that it stands a model of the most pure and oeautiful taste." " Several plates, " he says, " of the intended palace of Whitehall have been given ; but, I believe, from no finished design. The four great sheets are evidently made up from general hints; nor * Stowe. • See his Essays. 7 Lord Burlington, comparing this portico with the new one, observed sarcastically ' When the Jews saw the second temple, they wept." 15 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. ould such a source of invention and taste as the mind of Inigo, ever produce so much sameness. The whole fabric, however, was so glorious an idea, that one forgets for a moment, in the regret for its not being executed, the confirmation of our liberties obtained by a melancholy scene that passed before the windows of that very banquet- ing house." 8 Another remarkable man in the service of Charles was Sir Balthazar Gerbier D'Ouvilly, of Antwerp, who was both architect and painter, though excellent in neither. He first rose to repute by the interest or the duke of Buckingham, and, after the death of that nobleman, still continued to keep his ground in the court. In one of his books, he himself says, that the king promised him the office of surveyor-general of the works, after the death of Inigo Jones. In 1662, he published a small discourse on magnificent buildings, dedicated to the king, in which he treats principally of solidity, convenience, and ornament, and glances at some errors of Inigo Jones in the banqueting house. He mentions a large room built by himself, near the water-gate, at York- stairs, and says, that the king expressed as much satisfaction with it as with the banqueting house. In this book, he proposes to the lords and commons to level the streets, Fleet-bridge and Cheapside, and erect a sumptuous gate at Temple-bar, of which he had presented a design to the king. His last book is a small manual entitled, " Counsel and Advice to all Builders," &c. London, 1663, which contains some curious things, particularly the prices of work and materials at that time. In one place he ridicules the heads of lions, which were creep- ing through the pilasters on the houses in Great Queen -street, built by Webb, the scholar of Inigo Jones. Gerbier gave designs for Hempstead-marshal, the seat of lord Craven, afterwards destroyed by fire, and died there while it was building. The foundation was laid in 1662. The early part of the reign of the first Charles was favourable to the progress of art. But this progress was stopped by the civil contentions which followed. The arts were in a manner expelled from society. That had enjoyed too much of the favour of the kin^. to share that of the people who had been oppressed by him. At the restoration, how- * The fee of Inigo Jones, as surveyor, was eight shillings and fourpence per day, with an allowance of forty-six pounds a year for house-rent, besides a clsrk, and incidental expenses. What greater rewards he had, are not on record. 16 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. ever, they returned with the royal family, and re-occupied their former place among the pleasures of society. Walpole has observed, that " the restoration of royalty brought back the arts, not taste. " The king was, indeed, rather a lover of magni- ficence than of elegance, and true taste was made to give way to extravagance and show. Architecture was patronized, and, though the general taste was corrupted by imitations from the French, \et this reign produced Sir Christopher Wren. John Webb, a scholar of Inigo Jones, built the seat of lord Mountfort, at Horseheath, in Cambridgeshire, and added the portico to the Vine, in Hampshire, for Chaloner Chute, speaker to Richard Cromwell's parliament. He also built Ambresbury, in Wiltshire, from the designs of his master, Inigo Jones. 1 He built, also, according to Gerbier, the large buildings in Queen-street, Lincoln's-inn-fields. Contemporary with Webb, lived captain William Winde, a native of Berghen-op- Zoom, and a scholar of Gerbier. He built a house for the duke of Newcastle in Lincoln's-inn-fields, the house at Cliefden, Coomb-abbey, for lord Craven, and finished Hempstead-marshal, which had been begun by Gerbier. The architect of Nottingham castle was a person of the name of Marsh, who also designed the additional buildings at Bolsover. The building of Montagu house, now the British museum, was conducted by Monsieur Pouget, a French architect, in 1678, according to Walpole. " A variety of knowledge proclaims the universality, a multiplicity of works the abundance, St. Paul's the greatness," of the genius of Sir Christopher Wren. As an architect, Wren was more than equal to Jones, but was inferior to him in taste. It has been observed, that, perhaps, nothing of Wren's is equal in invention and taste to any thing of Jones's, and nothing of Jones's equals any thing of Wren's in scientific construction. His works in domestic architecture are much inferior to his public buildings, because they are more in accord- ance with the fashions of the time. His best productions of this class are the two fine mansions at Chichester, Marlborough House in Pall Mall, the house of Mr. Tegg the bookseller in Cheapside; a house in Great Russell Street, formerly occupied by Mr. Wren, and some others. Of his public buildings, St. Paul's alone is sufficient to perpetuate his memory. Wren was for a long time the sole architect of note ; but, towards the i Webb designed the frontispiece to Walton's Poljglott Bible, which consists of architecture and figures. C 17 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. end of his life, a school of architects arose, and succeeded him. Dur- ing tfie reign of William, the name of William Salman occurs, who was employed on several considerable works. He built Thoresby House in Nottinghamshire, which was afterwards burnt; Dynham House in Gloucestershire, (in 1698,) and Chatsworth. The design of the flight of steps leading from the hall to the apartments, at Chatsworth, was borrowed by Kent, in the erection of Holkham. The steeple of War- wick church, having been burnt, was rebuilt by Sir William AVilson. In the reign of queen Anne flourished Sir John Vanbrugh, whose reputation is greater as a poet than as an architect. He was the lead- ing architect of his day, and his genius was bold, and sometimes pic- turesque, but at the same time wild and incongruous. He began Blenheim in 1705, in which work his builder was Edward Strong, one of the master masons of Sir Christopher Wren. His other principal works were — the church of St. John in Westminster, " a wonderful piece of absurdity;" Castle Howard in Yorkshire; Eastberry in Dorset- shire; King's Weston, near Bristol ; Easton Neston in Northampton- shire; one front of Grimsthorp ; two little castles at Greenwich, and the Opera House in the Haymarket. The following is the character which Walpole has sketched of Vanbrugh's style. " What Pope said of his comedies, is much more applicable to his buildings : How Van wants grace I Grace! He wanted eyes, he wanted all ideas of proportion, con- venience, propriety. He undertook vast designs, and composed heaps of littleness. The style of no age, no country, appears in his works ; he broke through all rule, and compensated for it by no imagination. He seems to have hollowed quarries, rather than to have built houses; and should his edifices, as they seem formed to do, outlast all record, what architecture will posterity think was that of their ancestors? The laughers, his contemporaries, said, having been confined in the bastile, he had drawn his notions of buildings from that fortified dungeon. That a single man should have been capricious, should have wanted taste, is not extraordinary. That he should have been selected to raise a palace, built at the public expense for the hero of his country, surprises one. Whose thought it was to load every avenue to that palace with inscriptions, I do not know ; altogether they form an edition of the acts of parliament, in stone. However partial the court was to Vanbrugh, every body was not so blind to his defects. Swift 18 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. ridiculed both his own diminutive house at Whitehall, and the stu- pendous pile at Blenheim : of the first he says; At length they in the rubbish spy A thing resembling a goose pie. And of the other; That if his grace were not more skill'd in The art of battering walls than building, We might expect to see next year A mouse-trap man chief engineer." The names of Roberti and Bagotti appear also as architects during the reign of queen Anne. Architectural taste appeared to be at its lowest ebb during the reign of the first George. Inigo Jones first revealed on our soil the beauties of antiquity, and established simplicity, harmony, and proportion. This did not last long, for the chaste beauties of this school expired with Wren, and gave place to a style whose characteristics verged into mere masses of masonry. Nicholas Hawksmoor was a pupil of Wren, and was, as early as the reign of Charles, supervisor of the palace at Westminster. He assisted Wren in conducting the works at St. Paul's until their conclusion, was deputy surveyor at the building of Chelsea college, and clerk of the works at Greenwich, it: which post he was continued by William, Anne, and George the First, at Kensington, Whitehall, and St. James's. Under George the First, he was first surveyor of all the new churches, and of Westminster Abbey, after the death of Wren. His churches are St. Mary Woolnoth in Lombard Street; Christ Church in Spitalfields ; St. George, Middlesex; St. Anne, Limehouse; and St. George, Bloomsbury. He also built part of All Souls College, Oxford; the two towers over the gateway of which are copies of his own steeple of St. Anne, Limehouse. He was associated with Vanbrugh in the works at Blenheim and Castle Howard. Among the best of his houses may be instanced Easton Neston in Northamptonshire. 1 James Gibbs was born at Aberdeen in 1683, and pursued the study of architecture in Italy. In 1720, he became the most popular man in his profession. The knowledge of Gibbs was merely mechanical : the members of his works are correct, but the whole wants taste and grace « Hawksmoor died March 25, 1736, aged nearly 70. He restored a defect in the minster of Beverley, by means of a machine of his own invention, of which a print wa published, lit also repaired in a judicious manner the west end of Westminster Abbey and gave a design for the RatcliflTe Library, at Oxford. 19 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. hi distribution and design. Among his churches are St. Martyn's, St. Mary's in the Strand; and a church at Derby. His works at Cambridge are the central pile of buildings at King's College, and the Senate-house. At Oxford, he was the author of the RatclitTe Library ; at the opening of which, he was complimented by the University with the degree of Master of Arts. The quadrangle of All Saints, though he was very inferior in Gothic architecture, is superior to the library, and possesses considerable grandeur, when seen through the gate that leads from the school. " The assemblage of buildings in that quarter," Walpole observes, " though no single one is beautiful, always struck me with singular pleasure, as it conveys such a vision of large edifices, unbroken by private houses, as the mind is apt to entertain of renowned cities that exist no longer." Gibbs died in 1754, on the fifth of August. In 1728, he published a large folio of his own designs. Colin Campbell, who was surveyor of the works at Greenwich Hos- pital, and died in 1734, had more correctness than Gibbs, though he did not excel him in taste and imagination. His best designs are Wanstead, the Rolls, and Mereworth in Kent, which was copied from Palladio. John James was also an architect employed in the works at Greenwich. He built the church there, that of St. George in Hanover Square ; the body of the church at Twickenham ; and that of St. L' ke, Middlesex. He also built the house for Sir Gregory Page, at Black- heath, of which the idea was taken from Houghton. The reign of George the Second opens a new era in the history of the arts. During the first years of this reign, Gibbs and Campbell were still at the head of their profession ; but it had begun to improve before they left it, and soon after resumed all its rights. Fine publica- tions were made of the works of Palladio, Inigo Jones, and of the antique; men of genius arose to imitate them, and men of rank came forwards to patronize their labours. A Venetian, named Giacomo Leoni, settled in England, and published a fine edition of Palladio in 1742, and was employed in building several houses. The two great patrons of architecture were Henry Herbert, earl ot Pembroke, and Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington. The great restorer of architecture was William Kent. None exceeded the earl of Pem- broke in purity of taste. Part of the works at Wilton, a lodge in Rich- mond Park, the house at Marble-hill, Twickenham, the Wate.house in the park at Houghton — were all his own designs. He overlooked 20 PROGRESS OF ARCHITECTURE. assiduously the construction of Westminster Bridge, by M. Labelye. The earl of Burlington was an enthusiastic admirer of Inigo Jones. He proved his attachment to the arts by contributing large sums to public works, and his own designs were peculiarly chaste and classic. He assisled Kent in publishing the designs for Whitehall, and gave a beautiful edition of the antique baths from the drawings of Palladio, whose papers he had procured at a great expense. The grand colonnade within the court of Burlington House, Piccaddily, is the work of lord Burlington, as are various works on his estate at Lonsborouah in York- shire. His house at Chiswick, with all its defects, is a model of taste. 1 Other designs by this munificent nobleman were, the dormitory at Westminster school; the assembly-room at York; lord Harrington's seat at Petersham ; the duke of Richmond's house at Whitehall ; and general Wade's in Cork Street. 2 William Kent was born in Yorkshire, and put apprentice to a coach- painter, but left his master without leave, and went to London, where his talents procured him patronage, which enabled him to visit Italy in 1710. On his return to England in 1719, lord Burlington gave him an apartment in his own house, and procured him employment in painting, in which branch of art his genius first distinguished him. This, however, was a misapplication of his genius, as it was a branch in which he least excelled. His taste for ornaments was excellent, and it became a general fashion to consult him in all .designs of furniture, and even of plate, barges, &c. In architecture his taste is deservedly admired. His favourite work was the house at Holkham in Norfolk ; and the great hall, with the flight of steps at the upper end, where he proposed to place a colossal statue of J upiter, was indeed very noble. " Holkham," says Walpole, " has its faults, but they are Kent's faults." The designs of Holkham were published under another name. Kent did not succeed well in Gothic architecture, as may be seen in the King's- bench at Westminster, and the house of Mr. Pelham at Esher. Ripley, who was born in Yorkshire, was employed on several con- siderable works during this reign, but was devoid of architectural taste, though he excelled most of his contemporaries in the mechanical part, • The idea of this house was borrowed from a well-known villa of Palladio. * The front of this latter was so beautiful, and the inside so ill-contrived, that lord Chesterfield said, " as the general could not live in it to bis ease, he had better take a bouse ovcr-against it, and look at it.*' 21 INTRODUCTORY ESSAY. and in the disposition of apartments and conveniences. He built the AdmiraltVj and the house at Woolterton, which belonged to lord Walpole, which is characterized by Horace Wal pole, as " one of the best houses of the size in England." The Admiralty is not, however, deserving of commendation : its screen was the work of Mr. Adam. The elder Dance was a man of some genius, as may be seen in his church of Shoreditch, and his mansion-house was preferred to a design by Pal lad io, offered to the city by lord Burlington ; but the preference is said to have been given to Dance's design, because Palladio was a papist, and was not a freeman. Perhaps, the most barbarous artist of this age, though not the least celebrated, was Batty Langley. Langley formed a kind of school, and his disciples were excellent workmen, but they were all carpenters. His Gothic style was a most barbarous invention of his own. Towards the end of the reign of George the Second, architecture had again fallen to a low ebb. The best architects of that reign left no disciples; and they were succeeded by men of no account. The profession was abandoned to common surveyors and builders. George the Third, however, was a man of some taste, and, while prince of Wales, had studied the science under Chambers, who was then in the navy. Chambers, after his accession to the throne, became the royal architect, and his works have a chaste correctness of detail, of the best style of Italian art, though his taste was too n-uch Roman, and impure. In his " Civil Architecture," which is a good book, he shews his bad taste by reviling the architecture of ancient Greece. The exclusive admiration of Roman architecture, however, soon passed away, and the art was now approaching to a greater degree of perfec- tion than it had ever before reached in England. Its great ornaments were Adam, and Wyatt, and Milne. Wyatt was always tasteful and scientific. H's Pantheon, and his other works, proved his skill in the architecture l.e had learnt in Italy. His imitations of the Gothic at Windsor, at Fonthill Abbey, and at Salisbury Cathedral, came little short of originals. Milne was the first of our countrymen who obtained a premium for art, at Rome: the design of his Blackfriar's Bridge was made before he had completed his studies. The encou- ragement now given to architecture, produced a multitude of skilful artists, such as Holland, the younger Dance, Soane, Wilkins, Harrison of Chester, Smirke, Gwilt, and Savage, 22 DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE. ARON'S - ROD. In decoration. A rodwith a serpent twined round it. The term is often used byvvorkmen as synonymous with cadueeus, or the wand which the ancients used as a symbol of the god Mercury. Abaci. A word found in some translations of Vitruvius, which is supposed to mean pannels made in the stucco of walls, which are seen in many ancient classical buildings, and used as a decora- tion above the podium or dado. Vitruvius directs that in winter eating-rooms, the cornices and ceilings are not to be minutely or delicately ornamented, because they are soon soiled by the smoke from the fire, and the soot produced by a number of lamps ; and it is probably for the same reason that he adds, " In these apartments, the abaci above the podium are coloured black, and polished with yellow and red or- naments intermixed." Galiani supposes abaci to be bricks cut from old plaster wails, and inserted into other (or new) work, to form a margin or re- lievo around some other orna- ment. Abacot. In decoration. A co- ronet or cap of state, represent- ing that which was anciently worn by the kings of England. See Crown. Abacus. An instrument used by the ancients for casting up accounts, or performing arithme- tical calculations. By some authors it is derived from the Greek word abax, (a buffet, or table.) By others, from the Phoenician word abak x (dust or powder,) because this instrument was sometimes a square board or tablet, rubbed with wax, and strewed with sand or green dust, upon which ma- thematicians noted their calcula- tions, and traced their diagrams ; 23 ABA ABA and children formed the letters of the alphabet. In furniture, abacus was the name of a tabic (or flap) without feet, fastened to the wall, used for holding vases and cups, and made so as to fold or hang down after use, a sideboard and a bujfet, which were made of the precious woods covered with plates and orna- ments of ivory or gold, a luxury derived by the Romans from the Asiatic Greeks, after their con- quest of Asia. This was Cicero's splendid stand for the exhibition of his plate. Cato makes those of more homely materials part of the furniture of a Roman farmer's house. A marble abacus is de- scribed by Juvenal, (Sat. 13,) as being that used by a poor poet to place his water pitchers on. Abacus. In Greek and Roman architecture. The upper member of the capital of a column, in the Greek doric, and a collection of members or mouldings, serving as a kind of crowning, in other orders. In the Greek and Roman examples it covers the ornaments or mouldings of the capitals. In the corinthian order, the abacus is encurvated ; which curving is called the arch of the abacus, and is commonly deco- rated with a rose or some other ornament in the centre, having the angles called the horns of the abacus cut off in the direction of the radius of the curve. The upper member of the aba- cus of the corinthian capital is called, by some English writers, a boultine (or echinus ;) the pa- rallelopipedon under it, the fillet; and the third and undermost member, the plinth of the aba- cus. Pall ad io states the proportion of the abacus to be one-third of the whole height of the tuscan 24 and ionic capitals, and in the corinthian one-seventh. The proportions, however, of this member in the various or- ders, vary much in different an- tique examples of the same order. Its general proportion, stated by the height of the entire order, is subject to similar irregularities. Palladio calls the plinth above the echinus of the tuscan, aba- cus, or dye, or dado. Others re- strict the term to the moulding or fillet under the cymatium of the capital of the Roman doric. In the ionic to the ogee, which is crowned with a fillet ; or to a cima reversa with a fillet under, when placed in the same situa- tion j and Scamozzi writes abacus for the concave moulding in the capital of the tuscan pedestal. The bowls mentioned in the Book of Kings, were the circular parts of the doric capitals, and which, in the columns at Paestum, have a great resemblance to bowls or cups, called by the Italians Tazze. The French style this member, in the capital of doric columns, the vase de chapiteau. In all the doric buildings of Greece (except one or two) and its Asiatic colonies, it is a paral- lelopipedon with the horizontal sides, squares, and the vertical faces, rectangles. In some Egyptian buildings it is a square block having the same din tensions on its side as the dia- meter of the pillar; in others it recedes, and then assumes the appearance of a cube interposed between the capital and the soffet of the architrave. According to Vitruvius, the abacus was originally intended to represent a tile covering, a basket, or vase. And it is probably more correct, with a reference to this origin, to limit its use to the ABA ABA crowning of the corinthian capi- tal } or to the coverings of baskets represented us borne on the heads of Caryatidae, ike. The abacus, according to an ingenious modern author, was the primitive capitul. If we seek for its prototype in what have been considered to be the earli- est buildings, in those countries abounding with timber, it ap- pears as a square block, or plate of wood, inserted between the trunk of a tree serving for a co- lumn, and supporting another piece of timber employed as an architrave, as well for the pur- pose of steadying the one, as for fixing the other. The wooden abacus was at first very thick, and had a considerable projec- tion, as may be observed in the capitals of many existing classi- cal buildings, thus faithfully pre- serving in their forms the history of their origin. In the course of improvement, the under edge of the abacus was chamfered, to unite it more agreeably with the shaft ; this assumed by degrees the curve form, and in receiving other modifications, it was still further assimilated to the shaft by having its horizontal section made a circle concentric to that of the column ; the abacus then formed only apart of the capital. If, instead of seeking for the origin of its introduction among buildings in those countries where writers are agreed that the pri- mitive habitations of man must have been constructed of wood, it is sought for in those regions where, from a scarcity of timber and an abundance of stone, it is probable that the first habitations were erected of the latter mate- rial, the abacus will be used for a similar purpose, and assume the same form as in wooden structures. In Egyptian build- D ings, acknowledged to be of the most remote antiquity, the aba- cus is a single cube of stone in- serted between the column and its architrave. In other examples, it consists of two and three pa- rallelopipedons increasing in size, and evidently for the purpose or giving a better bed to the stones of the architrave, and adding to their strength .by diminishing the length of their bearings. The abacus may thus be considered as a member essential both to the real and apparent stability of an order, and one of those inven- tions which have been used by man in every country and stage of civilisation. The suppression of the abacus in some modern examples of the leaved capital, and the practice ot forming that of the doric of an echinus only, may be considered to arise as well from ignorance of the first principles of construc- tion, as a barbarous taste. The Chinese practice (who often em- ploy wooden columns without capitals or abacus) is greatly to be preferred, for if we are forced to renounce the abacus, we should like them also abandon the use or the capital. See Capital, Column, Order. (See Supplement.) Abaft, (Aba/tan, Sax. behind.) In naval architecture. The hinder part of a ship, or all those parts both within or without, which lie towards the stern — used in oppo- sition to afore — as a preposition, it signifies further aft, or nearer the stern. Abasciscus. Is sometimes used as synonymous with Abacus. It is more correctly applied as a square compartment, enclosing a part, or the entire pattern or de- sign of mosaic pavement-. Abate, Nicolas, an Italian ar- chitect and painter, born at Modena, in 1512, is generally 25 ABA ABA considered as one of the best scholars of Begarelli ; he travel- led to France, and was employed in decorating with paintings some of the apartments of the palace of Fontainbleau. His style and colour nearly approach- ed to those of Raifaelle: he whs patronised by Francis I. and his successors, in whose service he remained until his death, which took place at a very advanced age, at Paris. His most celebrated architec- tural works are the old chateau of Meudon, built from his de- signs, for the cardinal de ftor- raine ; and the tomb of Francis I., at St. Deny's. Abaton. {Abatos, Gr.) An in- accessible, or impassable place, from a building at Rhodes, which no one was permitted to enter. Vitruvius thus relates the origin of its erection. " Mausolus, the most potent king of Halicar- nassus, having observed Hali- carnassus to be a place fortified by nature, well adapted for com- merce, and having a commodious harbour, he there, established his residence. This place is in the form of a theatre ; the forum is situated at the bottom, near the port. At the top, in the middle of the curve, is formed an area, or square, of ample dimensions, in the midst of which stands the mausoleum, a building so excel- lent, tha* it is numbered among the seven wonders of the world. In the middle of the citadel, above, is the temple of Mars, having the colossal statue, which they call acrolithon, made by the hand of the noble Telochares, or, as some think, by Timotheus. The temple of Venus and Mer- cury is at the extremity of the right horn of the curve, near the fountain of Salmacis. As the temple of Venus and the above- mentioned fountain stand on the right horn, so on the left stand? the royal palace which king Mausolus there judiciously situ- ated. From its right side it commands a view of the forum, the port, and the whole compass of the city ; on its left there is a secret port, so concealed by the mountains, that none can see or know what is there transacted, and the king himself could from his palace privately give his com- mands to his seamen and soldiers. After the death of Mausolus, when his wife Arthemisia reigned, the Rhodians, rilled with indigna- tion that all the cities of Caria should be governed by a woman, despatched a powerful Meet to take possession of the kingdom. Arthemisia hearing this, pre- pared a private squadron, well furnished with mariners and soldiers, and concealed them in this secret port, ordering the rest of the citizens to guard the walls. When the pompous fleet of the Rhodians appeared before the greater port, she commanded those who guarded the walls to seem to give them encourage- ment, and pretend that they would surrender the town. The deluded Rhodians having en- tered within the walls and left their navy weakly defended, Ar- themisia unexpectedly opened a canal that had a communication with the sea, brought the squa- dron out of the secret port into the greater, and the Rhodian fleet being abandoned by the mariners and soldiers, and left defenceless, she drew it off to sea. The Rhodians having, there- fore, no place of retreat, and being surrounded on all sides, were slain in the above-mention- ed forum. Arthemisia then em- barked her rowers and mariners in the Rhodian vessels, and or- ABA ABB dered them to sail to Rhodes : the Khodians seeing their vessels ap- proach decorated with laurel, be- lieved their fellow-citizens were returned victorious, and received the enemy. By this stratagem Arthemisia surprised Rhodes, slew the principal men, and then raised a trophy of her victory in the midst of the city, making two statues of brass, one repre- senting herself, and the other the city of Rhodes held by her in subjection. " In after-times, the Rhodians (as their religion forbade the re- moval of a consecrated monu- ment) erected a high wall around it in the Greek manner, that the trophy might not be seen, and ordered it to be called AbatonV Abbattis, Abatis, Abattis, Fr. In military architecture. A temporarv defensive work of tim- ber. It is usually formed of a great number of trees placed in a given alignment, with all their branches pointing outwards, and their trunks inwards. To strengthen the abattis, an earthen parapet and bancpjette for infantry is sometimes constructed in the rear of the trees, a part of which may be buried in the parapet to increase the solidity of the de- fence. When an abattis is con- structed in a ditch, the trunks of the trees composing it may be placed some feet in the ground, like palisades, and the general line of the whole may incline out- wards at an angle of about forty- five degrees, instead of having the described horizontal position. Abattis is considered, among military architects, to be an effec- tual defence against an attack of infantry; it may, however, be greatly injured, and in a short time rendered unserviceable, by a fire of artillery. On this ac- count, when it is employed to strengthen earthen works, it is usually placed in a dry ditch, or in other situations affording shel- ter from direct cannon shot. It is a very useful work on most occasions, when trees are at hand, especially in sudden emer- gencies, and has been used with great success by the ablest com- manders in all ages and nations. Athough it is more commonly used in temporary military works, it is often applied with great pro- priety to improve the defences, or to remedy the existing defects of permanent fortifications. Abbey or Abby. A building appropriated for the habitation of a religious community, under the government of an abbot or an abbess Abbeys were often of great ex- tent, and, being constructed for a large domestic society, contain- ed a variety of buildings adapted for religious obsen:*nc?«. — the government of the establishment — for transacting the secular af- fairs of the body, and for the general purposes of habitation. The church was an object of considerable importance, and was generally magnificent (compara- tively) in dimension, and splen- did in its decorations. The re- fectory was a large hall where the monks or nuns dined ; and the misericord, among other uses, served them as a sort of neutral ground, where they indulged themselves in eating that food which they were forbidden by their rules To eat at certain times in the refectory. The in- firmary was fitted for the separa- tion and accommodation of the sick. The guest-hall for the en- tertainment and reception of strangers visiting the abbey. The parlour or locutory, where the fraternity assembled at stated times t\r conversation. Themeet- 27 ABB ABE inga appointed by the peculiar rule of the order for its govern- ment or discipline, were held in the chapter. The dormitory held the beds of the monks ; or desig- nated the range of cells in which they were placed. The almonry, a storehouse near the church or abbey-gate, in which the alms of the abbey were distributed. A library, and a museum adjoining. In the writing-room, books were copied for the use or profit of the society — studies furnished with presses and cabinets — prison for the refractory — cells for penance, and others for recreation. The sanctuary was rather a precinct than a building, in which, under certain conditions, an offender was safe from the operation of the law. — Granges or farm build- ings, and abbatial residences, — schools for the instruction of youth, with separate accommo- dations for the scholars. Song- school, where the boys were in- structed in singing. The common- house, a large room with a fire in it, for the monks to warm them- selves at ; no other *fire being al- lowed except in the apartments inhabited by the abbot and some of the higher officers. A mint for coining, and a room called an exchequer, with a large square table for making calculations. The abbey had a churchyard, or burying- ground, for the interment of its members. And the abbey garden was as proverbial for its high state of cultivation, and the fine quality of its produce, as the kitchen was for its ample dimen- sion and conveniences for the preparation in abundance of those viands which, it is said, " it delights the stomach to honour." The bakehouse was in its neighbourhood. In the sacristy the garments and ceimelia of the church were deposited, the monk's garments being kept in the vcs- tiaria, or wardrobe. Many of the ordinary duties of the monks were performed in the cloisters, and it was here they delivered their lectures. For the various peculiarities in the arrangements and fittingupof these parts of mo- nastic establishments, see the se- veral words and their references, in their alphabetical order. Abbuttals, Abuttals. The boundings or boundaries of a piece of land, expressing on what other lands, streets, rivers, or roads, #c, the several sides or extremes terminate. Abele-tree. A species of white poplar, bearing a larger leaf, a finer grain, and being a quicker grower than the wild abele-tree or common white pop- lar. The leaves are divided into three, four, or five lobes of a very dark colour on their upper side, and white and downy on their under. The young branches have a purple bark covered with a white down, but the bark of the stem and older branches is grey. " In moist and boggy places," says Evelyn, " they will flourish wonderfully, so the ground be not spewing, but especially near the margins and banks of rivers, and in low, sweet, and fertile grounds." The best sort of abele-trees having been originally procured from Holland, it is in some places known by the name of DutchDeech, and it is recorded that, about a. d. 1659, ten thousand abeles were imported from Flanders, and transplanted into many countries. They are remarkable for the quickness of their growth, and the Dutch, with whom the abele is a favourite, consider a planta- tion of those trees, made at the birth of a daughter, to be an ample provision for a marriage ABE ABE portion. In England, some abeles, planted twenty-five years, measured six feet in circum- ference ; and another instance is given of a tree twelve years old girting four feet, and increasing from three to four inches each year in circumference. An abele- tree is mentioned by Evelyn, as growing at Sion, near Brentford, which was lopped in February, that in the month of October, in the subsequent year, produced branches as big as a man's wrist. Its height varies from about forty-five to one hundred and twenty feet. The colour of the wood is white with a tinge of umber or brown, and from a slight discolouration of the outer edge of the annual rings their increase is easily noted. The wood is of a very uniform texture. Jf we reckon the stiffness of oak to be 100, the stiffness of abele may be taken at a tenth less. It is nearly T W tougher than oak, but has not more than -far of its stiffness. A cubic foot when dry weighs about 3 C 2^ pounds avoirdupois; and the me- dium cohesive force of a square inch is 5711 pounds avoirdupois. It is less combustible than many other woods, burning " un- towardly, and rather moulders away than maintains any solid heat." On this account it is not well adapted for fuel. The abele is enumerated by Vitruvius (li. xi.) among woods used for building : and as being in many situations serviceable from its " toughness," and also from its colour and lightness to be proper for carving. Evelyn mentions its being an " incomparable wood for butchers' trays, and for all kinds of turnery and toy- work, and for t)ie carver." From the lightness of the wood saving much of the expense of the carriage, it is well adapted for packing-cases, and much used for this purpose by foreign mer- chants. As also for its not being liable to split in nailing. It is a favourite with bellows' makers ; * and the inhabitants of a district in Holland, which is noted for its production, make shoes of this wood, of which they export im- mense quantities, beside supply- ing exclusively the province of Holland. For all sorts of wooden domestic vessels it is much es- teemed, and in particular situa- tions for ships' pumps. It is used for carts, as well probably from a property which it possesses in a remarkable degree, of giving way to the nail, and closing upon it afterwards, as for its lightness and toughness. The wood of the abele has been long recom- mended by old women for " mak- ing the shelves of cheese-rooms, and for farm-houses in general, as neither mice nor mites will attack it." The recommendation has been repeated by a recent compiler, without any qualifi- cation. The durability of the abele, when used in building, depends entirely on its situation, with regard to dryness or moisture. In contact with moisture it quickly rots and decays 5 but un- der cover and in a dry and well- aired situation, its durability is equal to that of pine timber. Besides its not being liable to shrink, it has been strongly re- commended for floors and wains- cotting, on account of its lesser inflammability; but its softness is an objection to its use in floor- ing. " Lord Sheffield," says Fontey, " has lately made some floors, which, in appearance, are superior to any thing he had seen, whether of deal or oak, and he sees no reason to doubt its du- ABE ABR nihility. Floors, however, he considers as one only of the many inferior purposes for which it is applicable, as it is certainly pro- per for almost every article of . furniture usually made of maho- gany. For the lighter descrip- tions of this wood, now so fa- shionable, (and high priced,) it might be made a very good sub- stitute without any other addi- tion to the natural colour of its fibres, than the means cabinet- makers generally resort to in order to heighten the colour of such wood. And with respect to the sap, and where more of colour is required, the aquafortis stain will instantly produce it, so far as that it would be difficult to distinguish it from real maho- gany. He thinks it equal to the best in colour and smoothness of surface, and much superior to the plain or inferior sorts in these re- spects, as well in transparency as variety • and it has the fur- ther advantage over mahogany and most other woods, that it takes but little of either oil or rubbing to produce upon it a sort of mellow shining surface, so much admired in furniture, that has been some years subjected to proper attention." In landscape gardening, the abele is employed to screen un- seemly or unimportant buildings, or walls, for which it is well adapted, from the denseness of its foliage. Its shade is reckoned wholesome, and its " umbram hospitalem " is celebrated. In modern practice, the abele is placed at a distance from walks or dressed lawns, as its suckers, and the litter which its leaves produce in autumn, are detri- mental to that verdure and neat- ness of turf which are essential in those situations. Its aspir- ing form harmonizes finely with 30 the horizontal lines of Greek building; and few trees can be introduced with a happier effect in city vistas, where the streets are wide and the houses lofty. One beauty poplars possess ;>ver almost all other trees in landscape scenery, is the waving line which they form when agitated by the wind. Most trees under these circumstances are only partially moved ; one side is at rest while the other is in motion : but the poplar, bending in one continuous sweep, gives a variety and an air of animation to the scene that is altogether admirable. Abel-the-Great. A large stone, on which the ark was placed, when it was sent back by the Philistines. Abe.v-bohax. The boundary stones which among the ancient Jews marked the territorial se- paration of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. Aberthaw-lime-stone. See Mortar. Abreuvoir. (Fr.) A watering- place. The engraving represents a very celebrated abreuvoir in Grand Cairo, in the modern Ara- bian style. In masonry, abreuvoir is the joint between two stones, or the interstice left to be filled up with mortar or cement, when either are to be used. Abreast. In naval architecture. Within the ship, denotes on a line with the beam, or by the side of any object aboard. Abraxas, Abracax, Abrasas. In decoration. The name of a species of gems and small statues, having figures of beetles, ser- pents, with human heads, #c, and words, and letters in the Roman, Greek, Phoenician, and other cha- racters, engraved and sculptured upon them. The word is derived from the A B R ABU solar divinity Abraxas, and these stones and statues are thought to have been worn as amulets, (some- times called abracadabra,) by the worshippers of that god, to pre- serve them from misfortune. Their origin and uses are still considered to be good debatable subjects among antiquaries. The most ingenious of the many theo- ries proposed for their explana- tion, appears to be that suggest- ed by Ilieronymus, in which the figures and cabalistic letters are considered to be allegorical of the motions of the sun and heavenly bodies. In this theory the figure in the engraving, representing a man with the head of a cock, armed with a buckler and poi- gnard, and his extremities also decorated, and ending with the head of this bird, may be satis- factorily deciphered. The cock, among some ancient people, was sacred to the sun, whose appearance he announced by his crowing ; the cock was also sacred to ^seulapius, the god of medicine, which is indicated by the legs being formed like ser- pents, and terminated with the head of a cock ; iEseulapius is himself typified by the serpents. In the position which the god occupies, he is the image of the decline (or lower part) of the sun, or autumn and winter. The figure is in a menacing attitude, or defending himseU (or votaries) from the fury of the suffocating Typhon, which is considered as an evil genius ; this then makes the engraved figure to represent the benevolent and protecting being Abraxas. The next sculpture represents the god Anubis, with the head of a dog, symbolical of the constel- lation of that name, concurring with the rise or fall of the waters of the Nile, which is farther indi- cated by Abraxus holding in his hand a vase to contain the water. Absis. See Apsis. Abutment. The extremity of a bridge ; the last or boundary pier of the high water-way ; the land-stool ; land-pier ; sometimes the revetment, or facing of ma- sonry of this pier. The steep banks of rivers, or the sides of ravines, being com- posed of rock, or other materials of that consistency, as will allow the arch to rise or spring from it, without the intervention of a pier, or a revetment of masonry, is an instance of a natural abutment. — The abutment is said to be arti- Jicial, when a mass of masonry is formed to resist the entire pres- sure and thrust of the arch. — Many of the mountain bridges 31 ABU AB Y of all countries are instances of arches rising from the natural abutments. In the bridges con- structed on rivers with low shores, are instances of artificial abutments. Among English and French architects, the natural abutment is seldom alone trusted to ; even in high rocky banks, it is not unusual for them to form an abutment of masonry. In the construction of abut- ments the same care is required in laying the ^foundations, the joining of the stones, and the filling up, or backing, as in the formation of the piers, (which see.) Abutments are often strengthened with counterforts behind them. It has been re- commended, by some authors, to lay the stones of which the abutment is composed, with joints radiating more or less to the centre ; but the advantages said to be derived from this prac- tice are quite hypothetical, for, much as has been written on the subject, the value of the forces acting to overturn a pier, and those increasing its stability, are equally unknown. The following rule has been given in a recent compila- tion, to determine the proper thickness of an abutment. The square of the height of the abutment is to be multiplied by 160, and the product divided by the weight of a square foot of the arch, and by the rise of the arch: unity then is to be added to the quotient, and the square root to be extracted ; then diminish the square root by unity, and multi- ply the diminished root by half the span of the arch — the quotient will be the thickness of the abut- ment. For an arch of 200 feet span, with a rise of IS feet, this will give an abutment nearly 33 feet thick, which may be correct : 32 but with only attempts at cer- tainty for a guide, it were safer to trust solely to the tact derived from observation or experience. See Bridge, Counterfort, Pier, Revetment, Retaining-watl. In a range of casemates, or other bomb-proofs, in military architecture, the same terms ap- ply which are used in speaking of a bridge, or any other work composed of a series of arches — the intermediate walls being call- ed piers, and the end walls abut- ments. Abutment, among carpenters and joiners, is the joint or join- ing of two pieces of timber ; in which the fibres or grain of the wood of the abutting pieces are placed as nearly as practicable in a direction at right angles to each other. Abydos, Bridge of. " While Xerxes," says an ancient histo- rian, " was preparing to go to Abydos, numbers were employed in throwing a bridge over the Hellespont, from Asia to Europe. They, on whom the office was imposed, proceeded in the work, co; mencing at the side next Ab).. »s. The Phoenicians used a cordage made of linen, the Egyptians using a cordage made of the bark of the biblos — the bridge was no sooner completed, than a great tempest arose, which tore in pieces and destroyed the whole of their labour. " When Xerxes heard of what had 'happened, he was so enraged, that he ordered three hundred lashes to be inflicted on the Hel- lespont, and a pair of fetters to be thrown into the sea. It is said, that he even sent some execu-- tioners to brand the Hellespont with some mark of infamy ; but it is certain that he commanded those who inflicted the lashes to use these barbarous, mad expres- BRIDGE OF ABYDOS. sions. ' Thou ungracious water, thy master condemns thee to this punishment for having injured him without provocati n; Xerxes the king will pass over thee, whether thou consentest or not : iust is it that no man honours thee with sacrifice, for thou art insidious, and of an ungrateful flavour.' After thus disgracing the sea, the king commanded those who presided over the bridge to be beheaded. "A bridge was then constructed by a different set of architects, who performed it in 1 he following man- ner. They connected together ships of different kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three-banked galleys, to the num- ber of three hundred and sixty, on the side towards the Euxine Sea, and three hundred and thirteen on that of the Hellespont. The former of these were placed trans- versely, but the latter, to diminish the strain upon the cables, were placed in the direction of the current. When these vessels were firmly connected to each other, they were secured on each side by anchors of great length on the upper side, because of the winds which set in from the Euxine ; on the lower, towards the iEgean Sea, on account of the south and south-east winds. They left, however, openings in three places, sufficient to afford a pas- sage for light vessels which might have occasion to sail into the Euxine, or from it; having per- formed this, they extended cables from the shore, stretching them upon large capstans of wood. Tor this purpose they did not employ a number of separate cables, but united two of white flax witli four of biblos ; these were alike in thickness, and ap- parently .so in goodness; but those of flax were in proportion much more solid, weighing not less than a talent to every cubit. When the pass was thus secured, they sawed out rafters of wood, making their length equal to the space required for the bridge ; these they laid in order across upon the extended cables, and then bound them fast together. They next brought unwrought wood, which they placed very regularly upon the rafters ; over all this they threw earth, which they raised to a proper height, and finished all by a fence on each side, that the horses and other beasts of burden might not be frightened by looking down upon the sea." Thus far the Greek writer, but his account has been observed by some of his commentators to be (in one or two instances) in- consistent ; the vessels he de- scribes as placed transversely must reach to a much greater extent than the same number placed side by side ; and, since the Helles- pont in the neighbourhood of Abydos, has a very considerable bend in its course, first running northward from Abydos towards Sestos, and then taking a pretty sharp turn to the eastward, that it might truly be said of the two lines of ships on different sides of the angles mentioned, the ships in one line presented their heads to the Euxine, the others their sides, although the heads of both were presented to the current. The different numbers in the two lines certainly indicate different breadths of the strait, which can only be accounted for by their being at some distance from each other, for it cannot be said that the line was placed ob- liquely across the 9trait. The cables extended from each shore appear to have been for the sole purpose of supporting the bridge- 33 A B Y D TJ S. ways — the ships were kept in their places by anchors a-head and a-stern ; by the lateral pres- sure of each other, and by the side fastenings. As no mention is made of the current making anchors necessary on the upper side, it is conjec- tured by another commentator, that some words expressing that circumstance may have been lost in the original, and that it is pro- bable that each range of vessels were secured by anchors above and below — those placed with the current having anchors from head and stern, the transverse ships having them from each side, so that there would be in all four sets of anchors — perhaps the cables extended from shore to shore served each range of vessels on the inner side ; if so, there would only be two sets of anchors, one from the upper sides of the transverse ships, the other from one end of those which lay side by side. Abydus. A town in Egypt, celebrated for containing a mag- nificent temple, built by Isman- des, in honour of Osiris, and which was further remarkable, from its being the only shrine in Egypt where singers and musici- ans were denied entrance. During the reign of Augustus, the town had dwindled into a village ; and at the present day, it is in ruins, and a desert j but the greater part of the building to which it owed its fame yet remains, to attest its ancient splendour. The entrance to the temple is under a portico, 60 feet high, supported by two rows of large marble columns ; beyond is the temple, 300 feet in length, and 140 feet wide At the entrance is an immense hall, containing twenty- eight columns, 60 feet high, and 19 in circumference at the base. They stand 12 feet asunder. The enormous stones of the ceiling are so perfectly joined and in- serted one in the other, as to ap- pear to the eye one sole marble slab, 126 feet in length, and 66 in breadth. The walls are loaded with innumerable hieroglyphic:-, among which are a multitude ot animals, birds, and human figures, wearing pointed caps (still worn by Egyptian priests, on festivals,) with a piece of pendant stuff be- hind, and clothed in open robes, which do not descend below the waist. The rudeness of the sculp- ture bespeaks antiquity and art in its infancy. At the further end of the first hall is the great door, which leads to an apartment 46 feet long, and 22 feet wide. Six square pillars support the ceiling; and four doors at the corners lead to four other chambers, to which, at present, the heaps of rubbish debar all entrance. The last hall, 64 feet long, and 24 wide, contains stair- cases leading to the subterranean parts of this grand edifice, with sculptures and hieroglyphics, si- milar to the other chambers. Six lions' heads, on two sides of the temple, serve as water-spouts : a very singular staircase leads to the summit of the building — it is formed by the stones being in- serted into the wall, f.'om which they project 6 feet, so that being only sustained on one side, they appear suspended in the air. Neither the walls, roof, nor columns, of this edifice are in- jured by time, and did not the hieroglyphics, which are defaced in many places, show marks of age, it would seem as if newly built ; such is its solidity, it will stand for ages, unless purposely destroyed. The colossal figures, the heads of which serve as orna- ments to the capitals o** the co- ABYSSINIAN BUILDINGS. lumns are in basso-relievo, but all the remaining hieroglyphics within the temple are cut into the stone. On the left of this great building there is a smaller one, at the further end of which stands a kind of altar. This ap- pears to have been the sanctuary of the temple of Osiris. See Egyptian Building. Abyssinian Buildings. The most remarkable architectural objects which remain in the kingdom, are found in the pro- vince of Tigre, on the site of the ancient city of Axum, in former times the capital of the empire of Abyssinia. On approaching Axum from the modern town of Adowa, the first object which attracts attention is a small obe- lisk, about 9 feet high, at the Small Obelisk at Axum. foot of a hill on the right hand, at the summit of which stands the monastery of Abba Pantaleon, and immediately opposite a large square stone, with a Greek in- scription. After passing between these, the modern town of Axum and its church begin to make their appearance ; and upon in- clining a little to the northward, leaving a number of broken pe- destals on the left hand, a full view of the " large obelisk' " is presented, standing close to an immense daro-tree. This highly wrought and magnificent work of art is formed of a single block of granite, measuring full 60 feet in height. All it& ornaments are very regularly disposed andboldly relieved, which, together with the hollow space or recess running up the centre, and terminating with a patera at top, give a light- ness and elegance to the whole form, which is probably unrival- led. On comparing it with simi- lar structures of undoubted Gre- cian and Roman construction, it may be considered the most ad- mirable and perfect monnment of its kind in existence. There are no hierogliphics on the obelisk, but its faces are co- vered with a repetition of an or- nament of a peculiar description, similar in its details to that shown on the figure of the " small obelisk at Axum." At the bot- tom of the obelisk, a figure oi a wooden door, and lock and latch, are carved as if to represen an entrance through it to som, building behind. The lock and latch seem designed first U draw back, and then to lift up exactly in the manner those kint 1 of locks are fashioned in Egyp 4 and Palestine at this very day but were never seen in Ethiopia or at any time in use in Abyssinia It is conjectured that Ptolem^ Evergetes, the third Grecian king of Egypt, after having conquerec 1 Axum, and overrun the neigh bouring kingdoms, resided som time in this ancient capital o Ethiopia, " and being absolutely ignorant of hieroglyphics, then long disused, he left the obelisk he had erected for ascertaining his latitudes, ornamented with figures of his own choosing, and representations of the inventions of his subjects, and particularly the door for the convenience or private life, to be imitated by his new-acquired subjects, the Ethi- 33 ABYSSINIAN BUILDINGS. opians, to whom it had hitherto been unknown." Several other obelisks lie bro- ken on the ground at no great distance, one cf which is of still larger dimensions. The era of their erection, it is probable, could not have been prior to the reign of the Ptolemies, as their style of architecture is strictly Grecian, and similar to the one which we have already described. The tradition of the country as- cribes them to a later period — the reign of the Emperor Acizana, about, three hundred years after Christ ; but the native workmen of that age were probably un- Axum equal to complete such chaste and elegant works of art. What- ever era may be assigned to them, opinions seem to coincide that they were the work of Grecian artists; and what gives additional strength to the conjecture, is the fact of its having been the cus- tom of the ancient Abyssinian emperors to procure artificers ot the Greek nation from Egypt, See Obelisk. The monument called the King's Chair, is also situated at Axum. It is a small square enclosure surrounded by pillars, on a seat within which the ancient kings of Ethiopia used to be crowned Chair. The pillars are octagonal, and are supposed to exhibit, in their form and finish, traces of the workmanship of the lower Roman empire. The seat is of granite, as well as the pavement and pil- lars, and it is supposed that, for- merly, the pillars were crowned with small images, probably of metal, of the Dog Star, and that the pillars are Egyptian. The church of Abba Garima is said to have been built about the year a. d. 560 : thirty rough steps lead up to a w retched shed form- ing the porch of the church. This is approached through an open area, walled round ; in the centre of which is the main building, ot a square form, and divided by a passage that runs through it into two unequal compartments. It is built of solid masses of stone and 1 imber, which have in some places been strengthened by bars of iron ; and the butt etuis of all the beams and planks have been rounded, and left projecting as ABYSSINIAN BUILDINGS. ornaments. Within it is orna- mented with some miserable paintings. Of the many singular excava- tions which are found in this country, that of the church of Abu-has-ubha is one of the most interesting. In the front of the excavation is a thatched and two-storied en- trance, built in a style resembling that employed by the Portuguese — from this three doors lead into an oblong square room, the di- mensions of which are about 50 by 30 feet, supported by two rows of columns, each consisting of four pillars and two pilasters. The pillars are about three feet in diameter, resembling the Tus- can order in their proportions. Beyond this apartment is a room, answering in some degree to the Plan of the Churchqf Abu-has-ubha. -' i-L- ? a pc Li tion, by two square pillar3, and has a dome-shaped ceiling, about 40 feet high, of very excellent workmanship. On each side is a smaller room, communicating by a door and window with the larger excavation. The ceiling in front of the Ventre room, in the larger excavation, is hollowed out into a dome of about 30 feet high, curiously painted and carv- ed; and in front of the side-rooms it is also adorned in the same manner, but withmit the dome. The floor is flagged with square stones, and the walls are carred and ornamented with crosses, paintings, and inscriptions in the Ethiopic character, which are said to entirely consist of sentences taken from the Bible. In each of the side cells is a tomb. On the outside several tombs are ex- cavated in the rock, and only covered over by loose stones. It is also conjectured that this church was the work of Egyptian artists, during the reign of the emperor Lalibala (about a. d. \02°). Thfc ?n' "d elevations of some of these excavations are in a very simple taste ; and travellers who have visited Abyssinia speak in high terms of their general effect, being in admirable accordance with the simple grandeur of the surrounding scenery. Elevatioii of an Abyssinian Exca- vated Church. chancel of modern churches. It is divided from the larger excava- ABYSSINIAN BUILDINGS. The church at Axum is a modern erection, and the first impression on beholding it, is its great resemblance to gothic houses in England. The colon- nade in front is supported by four Modern chutch at Axum. massive stone pillars, about five feet in diameter, composed of small stones, and covered with plaster. It is flat-roofed, laid with mortar and stucco, and its parapet surrounded with gothic ornaments. It is 111 feet in length, and 51 in breadth : is approached by two flights of steps. The upper flight only is shown in the engraving. A row of broken pedestals still remaining indicates the principal entrance. The tradition of the neighbourhood says it was erected on the site of an ancient temple • the fifty-five broken obelisks form- ing the ornaments of its approach. There is no country in the world in which there are so many churchesasin Abyssinia. Though the country is very mountainous, and, consequently, the view very much obstructed, it is seldom that you see less than five or six of these buildings; and if you are on a commanding ground, five times that number. In Gondar there are forty-two churches to a population of ten thousand families. Every great man that dies thinks he has atoned fo- all his wickedness if he buil 's a church in his lifetime or leaves funds to erect one after his death The king builds many — wherever a victory is gained, there a church is erected. The situation of a church is generally chosen near running water for the convenience of ab- solution. They are always placed on the top of some beautiful round hill which is surrounded with rows of trees called azz (the Vir- ginia cedar), and which grow in this climate to great beauty and perfection. This plantation of cedar is interspersed at proper distances with a number of the trees called cusso. All the country churches are round, with thatched roofs, their summits being perfect cones. The outside is surrounded by a num- ber of wooden pillars, formed of the trunks of the cedar-tree Church of Muccallahi. placed to support the edifice; about 8 feet of the roof projecting beyond the wall of the church, which forms a colonnade or an agreeable walk in hot or rainy weather. The inside of the build- ing is formed in several divisions, according as is prescribed by the law of Moses : the first, of a circle somewhat wider than the inner one — here the congregation sit : within this is a square, and that square is divided by a veil or curtain, in which is another small division, answering to the Holy of Holies • this is ve«*v w*rrnw A B Y A B Y go as to allow only the priests to enter it. They are full .f pictures paint- ed on parchrnenc, which are nail- ed upcn the walls in a manner little less slovenly .than we see paltry prints in country English alehouses. There has always been known and practised among the scribes a species of painting, or rather a sort of daubing, much inferior to the worst of our sign- painters. In some instances, for the adorning of a particular church, they get a number of pictures of saints, on skins of parchment, ready finished, from Cairo, in a style very little supe- rior to these performances of their own. They are placed like a frieze, and hung along the upper part of the wall. St. George is generally to be seen there, with his dragon, and Demetrius fight- ing with a lion. Nothing embossed or in re- lief ever appears in any of the churches. All this would be reckoned idolatry. On this ac- count they do not wear a cross on the top of the ball of the sendick or standard, because it casts a shade. But there is no doubt that pictures have been used in their churches from the earliest age of Christianity. The Palace at Gondar stands at the west end of the city, and was formerly a building of con- siderable importance. It is built in a square form, and flanked with square towers four stories high ; the palace properly consists of a number of houses detached from each other, with one room in each ; in one of these the coro- nation is performed, in another the king sits in festivals, a third is called the gold house, and another the brocade-house, where the wardrobe and gold stuffs used for presents, or received as such, are laid up; and a square tower containing many fine apartments. The houses stand in a square court, nearly a mile in circum- ference; a substantial wall, 30 feet high, built of stone and lime, in the time of the Kmperor Fa- cilidas, by masons from India, surrounds all the buildings ; a platform roof, connecting the outer and inner walls, lias bat- tlements, loop-holes, and other conveniences for discharging missile weapons from its para- pet. The interval, between these walls, forms a covered way by which you can go along the whole, and look into the street ; a church is built to each corner. The part built by Facilidas, has in part fallen into ruins, although there is still ample lodging in the two lower floors of it ; the au- dience-chamber being above 12 feet long. A succession of kings have built some apartments, or houses of one story high, in different parts of the area or square, oj mud and clay only, and thatched with straw, in the fashion or their country, according to the taste of the reigning prince ; these mud erections are, however, magnificently lined and furnished within. Some idea of the Abys- sinian taste in decoration may be formed, from an account of the operations of the Emperor Ya- sous II. A rebellion and massacre happening at .Smyrna, many Chris- tian inhabitants fled to Cairo for protection*; but finding that city in a stdl less peaceable state than the one they had left, repaired to jidda, on their way to India; missing the monsoon, and being destitute of money and necessa- ries, they crossed over the Hed Sea for Massuah, and came to Gondar. Twelve of them were silversmiths, very expert in that A BY ABY fine work called filligrane, who were all well received, and speed- ily employed by the king-, as their own taste directed them, in his palace at Gondar, which he was then ornamenting, by the hands of these and other Abys- sinians, sons of Greek artists whose fathers were dead. The emperor finished the decoration of his presence-chamber in a man- ner truly admirable. The skirt- ing, which in oar houses is gene- rally of wood, was finished with ivory, as high as four feet from the floor. Over this were rows of mirrors, from Venice, joined to- gether, and fixed in frames of copper, or cornices, gilt with gold. The roof, in gaiety and taste, corresponded perfectly with the magnificent finishing of the walls of the room. It was the work of the Falasha (or Jews), and consisted of painted cane, split and disposed in Mosaic figures, which produces an effect of great lightness and beauty. The king began another cham- ber of equal magnificence, con- sisting of plates of ivory, with shades of all colours stained in each plate at proper distances ; but he did not live to finish it. The great hall of the gover- nor's palace at Antalow, may be aptly compared in size to an Eng- lish barn, but without its comfort. The residence of another man of high rank near Tcherkin, is de- scribed as being built of cane very artificially disposed ; the outer wall of fascines #f cane, so neatly joined together as to be impervious to wind or rain ; and the inside of the state-rooms are hung with long stripes of carpet- ing, and the floors covered with the same material. Permanent bridges are almost unknown in this country : there is one very solid good stone bridge 40 of four arches, built by the Em- peror Facilidas, on the river Mo- getch, near Gondar. Much as Gondar excels in ap- pearance the other towns of the kingdom, this is more specious than real; — for the composition splendour of the churches which are the great ornament of the capital, the Abyssinians are in- debted to the Portuguese, who erected them during the conti- nuance of their power, and left them as models for artisans of the present time. But the want of wood and stone, added to the want of enterprise among the Abyssinians, render the little science which still glimmers in the country almost useless, for they are ignorant of the art of making brick ; the few G'eek artisans, at present in the coun- try, are little better than native workmen. The roofing of the houses, and neatness of the churches, are admirable, but this is performed here as elsewhere by the Falasha. The general form and appear- ance of Abyssinian buildings are exhibited in the modern town of Axum. The houses in the town of Abha are of a different, but also common form ; in villages built on the sides of hills the roof of the cottage being a continua- tion of the natural slope of the ground : the smoke is conveyed from the inside by a hole in the roof. At Adowa the buildings are all constructed of rough stone, cemented with mud, instead of mortar. Mortar not being used throughout the empire, except at Gondar, where it is very bad. The roofs are in the usual form of a cone, and thatched with a reedy sort of grass, something thicker than wheat-straw. r l he Jews, called Falasha, enjoy this A BY A BY trade of thatching exclusively ; they begin at the bottom, and finish at the top. In building these houses, the only tools employed are a kind of adze to shape the stones, and the blade-bone of a bullock to dig out the earth for the foundations, and to temper the mortar ; and, notwithstanding these imperfect instruments, the operation is con- ducted with great expedition. The working of iron and brass is general throughout the country, and both are commonly employed in their buildings. Smiths are called Buda, and a strange superstition is attached to their employment. Every man engaged in the occupation being supposed to possess a power of transforming himself into a hyaena, during which he is thought to be capable of preying even upon human flesh. And it is a^o believed, that if, during the pe- riod of his transformation, he should experience any bodily in- jury, that a corresponding wound would be found on his proper body; a belief which is inconceivably strong throughout the country. The houses in Maitsliaw are of a very singular construction; the first proprietor has a field, which he divides into three or four, as he pleases, (suppose four), by two hedges made of the thorny bianches of the acacia tree. In the corner, or intersection, of these two hedges, he begins his low hut, and occupies as much of the angle as he pleases. Three other brothers, perhaps, occupy each of the three other angles — behind these their children place their houses, and enclose the end of their father's hut by another, which they make generally shorter than the first, because broader. After they have raised as many houses as they please, they sur- round the whole with a thick, and almost impenetrable abbattis, or thorny hedge, and all the family are under one roof, ready to assist each other on the first alarm ot danger, or of an enemy. The monastery of Aba Asfa, now in ruins, is evidence of a better style of construction hav- ing been practised in Abyssinian building. Part of the walls, forty feet high and five feet thick, have been built with large masses ot stone, seven feet long and 20 in- ches broad, and fitted so exactly to one another, as scarcely to leave a visible interstice between them. No mortar or other fas- tening having been made use ot throughout the building. The Shangalla, who were for- merly a very numerous people, divided into several tribes, during the fair half of the year live under the shade of trees, the lowest branches of which they cut near the stem on the upper part, and then bend or break them down, planting the ends of the branches in the earth — these branches they cover with the skins of wild beasts. After this, they cut away all the small or superfluous branches in the inside, and so form a spacious pavilion, which, at a distance, appears like a tent; the tree serving for the pole in the middle of it, and the large top overshadowing it. Every tree is then a house, under which live a multitude of black inhabitants until the tropical rains begin. Nothing can be more beautiful than these shady habitations; but they have the fatal disadvantage of being easily discernible from the high grounds, and thus guide their enemies to the places they inhabit. The soil, called by the Abyssinians Maraga, when wet by the tropical rains, dissolving into mire, forces these savages to 41 A B Y A B Y search for winter quarters ; their tents under the trees being no longer tenable — they retire (with their food all dried in the sun) into caves dug into the heart of the mountains, which are not in this country basaltes, marble, or alabaster, as is all that ridge which runs down into Egypt along the side of the Hed. Sea, but are of a soft gritty sandy stone, easily excavated, and formed into differ- ent apartments. The Shiho, another tribe of savages, have neither tents nor cottages, but. either live in caves in the mountains, under trees, or in small conical huts, constructed of a strong grass like reeds. The houses at Arkeeko are also formed of grass, with a few of clay. At Thalassa, the Ha- zorta tribe live in cavas, or ca- bins, just large enough to hold two persons, and covered with an ox's hide. The Ogows, of the province of Avergale, another tribe, invari- ably construct their buildings without mortar ; the better sort of buildings being constructed in the characteristic form of ancient Egyptian temples. At Dankali, in the Bay of Am- phila, and which formerly was comprehended in the Abyssinian kingdom, a tribe of the Hazorta form their huts like the wig- wams of the American Indians, covering them with mats made of the leaf of the doom-tree. Their rude tombs have a striking simi- larity to some Egyptian monu- ments. In a secluded spot be- tween two hills, one of their burying-grounds was discovered. The tombs were rudely con- structed in the exact shape of pyramids, with stones cemented together with chunam ; some of them were entirely covered with this material ; the base of one *1 which was measured occupying a space of full ten feet square. Acacia. (Robinia Fseudo Acacia). The common, false, or bastard acacia, is a native of the American States, where it is known by the name of the locust- tree; being well furnished with leaves, which appear late in the spring, and fall off early in the autumn, and these being of a brilliant rich green, make a fine appearance. The finely-pinnated leaves and pendulous white flowers in pretty long branches hanging down like those of the laburnam, add greatly to its beauty — the flowers, however, are not always produced, and when they are, they last only for about eight days, and appear in June — they smell very sweet, and perfume the air around them. The acacia requires to be planted in a sheltered situation, for although " adorning our walks with their exotic leaf and sweet flowers, and very hardy against a pinching winter, they are not so proof against blustering winds/' The acacia will grow well in almost any soil, but the trees thrive best in one of a light sandy nature; here they have been known to shoot 6 feet in one year. The wood, when green, is of a soft texture, but becomes very hard when dry. It is of an agreeable bluish yellow colour, having a reddish tinge in the pores. One side of its annual ring is very compact, and the other slightly porous, and in working it, there is not much difference between the labour, and that required for oak. Has- senfratz ( Traitc de Vart du Char- pentier), states the average length of its trunk in France to be about 32 feet, and about 2 feet in dia- meter. A locust-tree in York- shire, three feet from the ground, A C A A C A measured 4 feet 10 inches in cir- cumference, and was 60 feet high. The wood makes excellent fuel, and its shade is less injurious to grass than that of most other trees. In New England, the leaves afford a wholesome food for cattle: horses seem to like it, and hogs are fond of it. The value of the acacia is very little known in England, but is highly prized in North America, and said to be superior to the laburnam; being close-grained, hard, and finely veined, it is more valued by the American cabinet- maker than any other wood what- ever. Pursh, in his Flora, asserts that being; nearly incorruptible, it is equally useful for posts and gates. At New York it has been found, upon repeated trial, that posts for rail-fencing of acacia stand wet and dry next the ground, better than those of any other wood in common use, al- most as well as posts of swamp cedar. Gate posts of this timber, on an estate near Baltimore, have remained fresh for nearly a cen- tury. Most of the houses which were built at Boston, in New England, on the first settling of the English there, were built of this timber, which, in 1782, were firm and sound as when erected. Among those who use the wood it is reckoned better than the best white oak for the axle-trees of carriages. The first experiment to employ the locust-tree for ship-building purposes was made in Virginia in 1737. " I then happened, 5 ' says .Mr. Harrison, " to be ac- quainted with an ingenious ship- wright that had been sent over by some merchants of Liverpool to bui'd two large .ships. I had frequent conversations with him respecting the qualities of the principal timber-trees of that country — he reckoned the oaks, elms, ashes, common to both countries, much inferior to the same sorts in England — but fre- quently spoke of the locust-tree as of extraordinary qualities, both for strength and duration; and it a sufficient quantity could be had, 1 he considered it to be the btst timber he had ever men with for building of ships. After lie had finished his engagement with his employers, he put a small ship on the stocks for himself, but not having a sufficient quantity ot iron, he substituted trenails ot the locust-tree, and the experi- ment succeeded beyond his most sanguine expectations." It was many years afterwards, however, when they were used by an emi- nent ship-builder of New York, and since that, the practice has extended among the other ship- builders in North America. As yet, the use of the locust-tree has been confined to trenails, on ac- count of its scarcity ; but were it as plentiful as oak, it would be applied for more purposes by the shipwright, such as knees, floor- timbers, and foot-hooks, being much superior to oak for its strength and duration, and from the tree spreading into branches, affords full as large a proportion of crooks or compass timber as oak. A cubic foot of acacia, in a dry state, weighs from 48 to 53 pounds avoirdupois. If we com- pare its toughness in an unsea- soned condition with that of oak, it will not be more than less. Its stillness is equal to of oak; and its strength nearly ; but were it properly seasoned, it might possibly be found much superior to oak in strength, tough- ness, and stiffness. A piece of unseasoned acacia, two feet six inches l<^ng, and an inch square, AC A AC A in the vertical seetion, broke when loaded with a weight of 247 pound* avoirdupois. Its medium cohesive force is about 11,500 pounds. In Landscape Gardening, the acacia is only esteemed for its form, when young,; but it is well adapted, at all ages, for copse- wood and rough timber In plan- tations in dressed ground, they are seldom introduced, from their being liable to have their branches broken by strong winds, which renders them unsightly. Mr. Gilpin considers it, " even in England, a very beautiful tree, whether it feathers to the ground, or is adorned with a light foliage hanging from the tree;" but in consequence of its being least able, of all trees, to endure the blast, its beauty is very frail and uncertain." Academy. (Academia, Gr.) A public villa, or grove, situated in the suburbs of Ancient Athens, which is said to have derived its name from one Academus, an Athenian citizen, to whom it be- longed (in the time of Theseus), and who devoted it to the exhi- bition of gymnastic exercises; others derive it from Cadmus, who first introduced the use of letters into Greece. It was adorn- ed with shady groves, fountains, and temples, by Cimon; and was enclosed with a wall, by Hipparchus. Sylla cut down a great many of the trees, in his siege of the city. The most interesting objects in this celebrated spot were the tombs of those Athenians, or their allies, whose services to the state gave them a claim to the grate- ful remembrance of its citizens; for " every Athenian that died, either in naval or land engage- ments, fighting for his country, had here a sepulchre; excepting 44 those who fell in the battle of Ma- rathon, for the tombs of these are raised, in memory of their virtue, in the same place where they died." First were the tombs oi those who conquered Thrace, but were slain by the Edoni-— of the Thessalian knights, who came to assist them against the Pelopon- nesians — near these was the se- pulchre of the Cretan archers — of the Cleoneei, who came with the Argives into Attica — " also a sepulchre of those Athenians who fought against the iEginetse, for that institution of the people was certainly just, which confer- red the honour of public burial on servants, and inscribed their names on pillars, if they were such as had vigorously assisted their masters in battle;'' — of Ku- bulus, the son of fc'pintharus, and those men whose virtue was not assisted by fortune — of those " who fell at Corinth, where the god evinced, in no trifling degree, as likewise afterwards in the Leuctrian battle, that those who were called bold by the Greeks, were nothing without the assist- ance of fortune." — ' k One column was erected over many, as the inscribed elegies evinced, who died in Eubcea and Chios, and on the continent of Asia, and in Sicily. — On another pillar vvere inscribed their names, who fell at Thrace and Megara ; and like- wise their names, who conquered the Syracusans. — Their sepul- chres were likewise to be seen here that fought in a naval battle about the Hellespont — those that opposed the Macedonians in Chaeronea — those that fought under Cleon, at Amphipoli*-— those that fell at Delium — those that Leosthenes led into Thessaly ■ — those that sailed with Cimon into Cyprus — and those that fol- lowed Oiympiodorus, who, though A C A A C A only thirteen in number, drove out the guard of the Macedo- nians — of Toimides and his sol- diers. Here, also, were the tombs of Pericles, under whose govern- ment Athens reached the pin- nacle of her glory and refinement — and of Chabrias — of Phormio — of Conon — of Timotheus — N't* cias, the son of Nicomedes, who was the most excellent painter of animals of his time — and Aristo- geiton, who slew Hipparchus — of Ephialtes, the orator — and Ly- curgus, the son of Lycophron, who, in collecting money for the public treasury, surpassed Peri- cles, the son of Xanthippus, by 6500 talents." Before the sepul- chre of those who were slain by the Edoni. was a column, in which " Mel an Opus and Marca- bas, two knights, are seen fight- ing;" there was also the tomb of Clesthenes, who first instituted the mode of distribution into tribes. " All the rest of the Athenians are buried in the way ivhich leads to the Academy, and columns are placed on their tombs, with in- scriptions, signifying the name and town of each individual." See Cemetery, Cenotaph. Besides these memorials of statesmen and heroes, the groves of the Academy were adorned with altars to the Muses, to Mer- cury, to Minerva, to Hercules, an enclosure to Diana, in which were the images of Ariste, and Calliste; also a temple, into which, every year, they carried the sta- tue of Bacchus. Jn a corner of this grove, Plato purchased a small garden, and there he opened his celebrated school for the study of philoso- phy. From this circumstance is derived the usual meaning of the word academy, as a place for the instruction of youth, or for the study and cultivation of any of the liberal arts and ajiences. (See School.) Cicero called one of his country seats by this name, where he had fine groves, and pleasant walks for the entertainment of his philosophical friends and vi- sitors. Among architects, technically, academy is a place for the recep- tion of a society, and for the so- ciety itself, formed for the purpose of promoting and cultivating the science of design, by lectures and conversation; and where facili- ties are afforded to individuals to refine their taste, and improve in the art of drawing, by copying from antique remains, or models, procured at the expense of the society. These are the two grand objects of modern academies of design, to which are sometimes added, that of forming a taste in the pub- lic for works of art, by a public exhibition of the productions of its members at stated times — of directing the studies of young artists into the proper channel, — of stimulating their perseverance, and ambition to excel in their art, — by a distribution of medals, and other ' academic* honours — and also of enabling those aspi- rants who may have distinguished themselves, to reside for a cer- tain time in Italy, for the further prosecution of their studies. Al- most every European capital has its academy of the fine arts, em- bracing all, or some of these ob- jects, and they are all composed of painters, sculptors, and archi- tects. The French have a Royal Aca- demy of Architecture distinct from that of Painting, which was founded by the great Colbert, in 1671. Its members have the title of academicians, and enjoy some privileges of precedence in rank. There are two professors who lec- 45 A C A AC A ture on the general principles of architecture, and others on geo- metry, mensuration, carpentry, Sfc. Every year they distribute two medals to the students, one of which is of gold; this prize entitles its possessor to be sent to Rome for several years as a student, at the expense of the Academy. The establishment of the Academy has been of immense benefit to the respectability of the body of French architects. The Royal Academy of Lon- don, founded, in the year 1762, by George the Third, embraces all the objects which we have enu- merated, as entering into the plan of European academies. It is under the immediate patronage of the king, and consists of forty members, called academicians, chosen from among the most eminent painters, sculptors, and architects in the kingdom; and a certain number of members called associate academicians, from among whom, a vacancy occur- ring among the academicians is supplied. In the list of associates there are several eminent engra- vers, but these are rarely elected to the higher honour. At the time of the formation of the Aca- demy, neither their present num- bers nor eminence could have been foreseen, and the charter of foundation limits the election of academicians to painters, sculp- tors, and architects. There are, however, instances where engra- vers have been elected academi- cians — being admitted under the title of painters. The Academy is governed by a president and council, chosen from the body of academicians ; — and the ordinary business of the institution, and care of its books and prints is entrusted to a librarian ; — the museum to the Keeper, generally an academi- 46 cian who resides in the building; — the visitors who are annually appointed, to attend alternately to direct the students in their studies ; — a secretary, treasurer, and other subordinate officers. — Lecturers are appointed who an- nually deliver a series of discour- ses on painting, sculpture, archi- tecture, and perspective — and on the anatomy necessary for paint- ers. The library is rich in books and prints relating to the fine arts, and is open to all the stu- dents at stated times — the mu- seum of casts from the antique, is, through the munificence of hi& late majesty, one of the finest in Europe, and every convenience and facility is afforded to those who avail themselves of the pri- vilege of drawing from them. In winter, the students who have at- tained a certain proficiency, or a medal, are admitted to draw from the " living figure," provided for that purpose by the Academy ; and in summer, to paint from ( lie same description of studies. The only qualification required to obtain the privilege of studying in the Royal Academy, and to be admitted to all the lectures, and to the use of its library, is a cer- tain proficiency in drawing, if the candidate be a painter or archi- tect ; and in modelling, if he be a sculptor. The drawings submit- ted for this purpose are to be made within the walls of the Academy, under the eye of the keeper, who generally suggests the subject of the design. '1 hese being laid before the president and council at one of their meet- ings, they judge from the spe- cimens, whether the candidate has the requisite facility in the rudiments of his art, and admit, or reject him as they see occa- sion. The establishment of the RoyaJ A C A A C A Academy is the only institution in England where architecture as a fine art is cultivated and encouraged. But candour extorts the confession, that although the advantages arising to architecture from its establishment have been manifold and important, both in promoting a love for its beauties in the public, and directing the taste of its professors, and liber- ally as the treasures of its mu- seum and library have been thrown open to all, its plan is but little calculated to benefit the student of architecture. The general principles of de- sign, it is admitted, which are taught in its lecture-room, being common to all the arts, a know- ledge of them is as essential to the architect as to the painter, and the advantages would on this admis- sion appear to be equal. To the painter and sculptor however, the decorative parts of architecture are alone of any use, which con- fines the lecturer to illustrations and 'principles drawn from orna- mental and. picturesque archi- tecture ; this, then, will be the only part of his profession in which a student of architecture will acquire any information by his attendance at the Academy ; any thing exclusively adapted to only one description of au- ditors could not with propriety be introduced into a system of instruction addressed in common to all the three classes. It must also be admitted that there is no description of build- ing in which utility alone must be studied, where a cultivated taste would not become apparent, even to ordinary observers, in a refined and elegant adaptation of the means to the end. But this is a class of buildings, in the arrangement and execution of which, not only all that the ar- chitect has learned at the Aca- demy is of no use, but in which those decorations he has studied with c,are, and can apply with propriety and elegance, would not only be useless but thrown away. This description too ot buildings is neither the least n!K merous, nor the least important of those, which in the course ot his profession, the architect is called upon to design and see carried into execution. It is here that the science and practice of construction, instead of secondary, becomes of primary consideration, — but in every thing relating to it, the young archi- tect is not only left without a guide, and without a stimulus to carry him through the most laborious portion of his studies, but his exertions are absolutely depressed. He is associated with painters, who can have no relish for practical details, and his works are to judged in a great degree not only by them, but by their standard of excellence. His productions therefore are to have a painter-like air, as well in ef- fect as in composition ; the re- sult is obvious, in his search af- ter and study of pictorial excel- lence and effect, instead of that simplicity, and of that attention to fitness and propriety, which are the grand essentials of archi- tectural beauty, — his designs, when analyzed, are meretricious in style, gaudy in ornament, and not unfrequently impracticable in execution. The celebrated Pe- ranisi may be instanced as an example of the truth of this posi- tion. — with an imagination of as- tonishing fertility, and an exqui- site taste in detail, his whole sys- tem of architectural composition, was a manful setting of consist- ency at defiance, but producing compositions of wonderful splen- 47 A C A A C A dour and beauty in the Royal Academy. It is thus, that, in the struggle • of an honourable ambition to cope with those who have un- wisely been made his rivals, that a student of architecture loses a relish for the severer studies of . his profession ; and when the day of trial arrives, and his plans are to be carried into execution, it is too late to supply his defi- ciencies. The formation of the Academy is productive of another evil, which has a deep and powerful influence, not only on the pro- fessors, but on the art itself. From the list of academicians being limited to forty, only a smail number (three or four) can be architects — this is a great hardship on those individuals whose abilities and integrity have placed them in the upper ranks of their profession. These form the greater number, but have no bond of union among themselves, or fellowship with their three or four brethren in the Academy; and the result is, that the fine taste and independent practice of those (both in the Academy and out of it) who are an honour to their profession, are borne down and obscured by the activity of a host of rapacious barbarians around them, assuming the name, and usurping the functions, of an architect. The same thing was the case in France, and gave rise to the Royal Academy of Architecture; and in all probability will con- tinue to be the case in England, until some society be organized, where genius and taste may ac- quire vigour and influence, from their union and concentration, and which the public may look to, as offering a guarantee that the junior branches of the pro- 48 fession are properly grounded in their art; and also, where a check will be placed, for the purpose of controlling the discre- ditable practices of a few indi- viduals, which have brought so much undeserved obloquy on the whole body. It was with a view to raise the rank of the profession, as well as the art itself, that, about ten or twelve years ago, several archi- tects of great respectability as individuals, and eminent for their talents as artists, attempted to es- tablish an Academy of Architec- ture ; but from some peculiarity in its constitution, it failed of re- ceiving the support of the profes- sion generally, and its meetings were discontinued. The volume of its Transactions, and one or two of its occasional publications, leave deep cause for regret, that so meritorious an institution should have been abandoned. Nothing would have had a greater effect than its example, in acquiring for the professors that rank in so- ciety to which they are entitled, in making the profession of an architect (as in good old times it has been) that of a gentleman, and the title one of distinction and honour. Acanthines (from Akanthos). In decoration, a border or fillet ornament, with leaves of the acanthus. Acanihine vases and paterce were those vessels orna- mented with representations of acanthus leaves. Virgil describes the handles of Alcimedon's cup as adorned with them. Acanthus (Acanthus, Gr., a thorn.) In decoration, the leaf which forms one of the orna- ments of the Corinthian capital ; and supposed to have first been used for that purpose by a ce- lebrated ancient sculptor. " A Corinthian maid just marriage- A C A able being seized with a dis- order died. After her interment, her nurse collected and disposed in a basket the toys which had pleased her when alive, carried it to the grave, placed it on the top, and that it might endure the longer in the open air, covered it ^ with a tile. The basket chanced to be placed over the roots of an acanthus, which being thus de- pressed in the middle, the leaves and stalks, in the spring season, issued outward and grew round the sides of the basket, and being pressed by the weight at the angles of the tile, were made to convolve at the extremities like volutes. At that time Callimaohus, who for his ingenuity and excellence in the arts was by the Athenians called Catatechnos (or the first of artists) happening to pass by this tomb, took notice of the basket, and being pleased with the delicacy of the foliage grow- ing around it, as well as with the novehy of the form, made some columns near Corinth, ac- cording to this model, and from thence established the symmetry, and determined the proportions of the Corinthian order." — Vitru- vius. The leaved capital however, it is remarked by Quatremere (Juincy, appeared in Egyptian buildings long before the time of Caliimachus. Although the ac- count of Vitruvius may be in- correct, as far as regards the in- vention of the capital, it may and appears to be true as to the fact of Caliimachus having first intro- duced the acanthus-leaf as a de- coration into Greek capitals, in- stead probably of the olive, or laurel. The great variety also which is observable in the deco- rations of ancient capitals is also an argument against its being de- rived as related by Vitruvius — AC A their form and proportions being totally independent of the orna- mental accessories, which appear to have been employed with an allegorical or religious meaning, oftener than from the taste or whim of the artists. Wilkins, in his excellent trans- lation of Vitruvius, also doubts the claim of Caliimachus. " This fanciful and ingenious story" he thinks cannot be received as credible history — the tale, how- ever, is valuable, as affording an intimation of the date of the in- troduction of the acanthus leaves into Grecian capitals. Caliima- chus lived towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, and was the artist so celebrated as the author of the lamp preserved constantly burning in the Temple of Mi- nerva Polias at Athens. It is not improbable that the charac- teristic ornament of the style may have been imported from Egypt. The flower of the lotus, which generally formed the de- coration of the ponderous struc- tures of that country, in some of its fantastic varieties bears a near resemblance to the ornaments of the Corinthian capital ; and as no great degree of intercourse prevailed between Greece and Egypt until the more recent pe- riod of their history, its late appearance in Europe is suffi- ciently accounted for. The concluding years of the Peloponnesian War witnessed ex- amples of the style in Greece, and no notice occurs in ancient writers of its previous existence. Two sorts of acanthus are sup- posed to be imitated in the leaves of capitals. The one employed by the Greeks is known amongst us by the name of the brank ursine (from the officinal name branca ursi) and by the vulgar appellation bears-b/cech, from its ACC A C roughness giving it some resem- blance to the shaggy hide of the bear. These terms are now sel- dom used, and the softer and more classical name of acanthus is generally given it in English. It is a native of Italy, Sicily, and the isles of the Archipelago, and forms an ornament to the flower plat in some states of Barbary. The other variety, wild or prickly acanthus, is of a more diminutive character, as well in its size as in the indentations of its leaves, and other qualities, which give so much grace to the larger variety — this has, it is said by some writers on architecture, been the model followed by the architects of buildings of the middle ages. A botanist, however, would not only be at a loss to distinguish any difference in the leaves used by architects (according to ano- ther author) of any period, but he would find it exceedingly dif- ficult, if not impossible, to say at all what was the leaf used in the Corinthian capitals by Greek architects, or by those moderns who follow this practice. He thinks it possible, that to a ** warm imagination" the leaves of the Corinthian capital (of the Temple of Jupiter Stator, for instance), may suggest those of the herb bear's-breech, but so many pic- turesque and sculpturesque beau- ties having been introduced, which make the resemblance so indis- tinct, that he considers it " an admirably beautiful ornament, which does not resemble any leaf with which we are at present ac- quainted." Accesses. See Passage. Accessible Altitude, in Geo- metry, the height of an object whose foot may be approached from a remote station. ActEssoniEs. Those parts or 50 ornaments, in architectural com- position, whether designed or accidental, which are not appa- rently essential, either to the use or character of a building — they have been compared to epi- sodes in poetry. See Compusitiux f Design, Accident. An effect or com- bination in architectural compo- sition which was not foreseen: a deviation from regularity or sym- metry without design. Sir Joshua Reynolds was of opinion that it might not be amiss for an archi- tect to take advantage of acci- dents, to improve the composition of his designs — to follow them when they lead, and to improve (or assimilate) them rather than always trust to a regular plan. It often happens that additions have been made to houses at va- rious times for use or pleasure; as such buildings depart from regularity, they now and then acquire something of scenery (picturesqueness?) by this acci- dent, which might be successfully adopted by an architect in an original plan, if it does not too much interfere with convenience. The forms and burning of the streets of London, and other old towns, are accidents, without any original plan or design, but they are not always the less pleasant to the walker or spectator on that account. On the contrary, if the city had been built on the regular plan proposed by Sir Christopher Wren after the great fire, the effect might have been, as we know it is in some new parts of the town, rather un- pleasing — the uniformity might have produced weariness, and a slight degree of disgust. Accidental Point, in per- spective, a point on the horizontal line, where certain lines parallel to each other, but not to the AC H A C H principal object in the picture, converge. From the position of the object represented, an acci- dental point may not be in the horizontal line Accompaniments. Buildings or ornaments having a necessary connexion, or dependence, and which serve to make a design more or less complete — a cha- racteristic peculiarity of orna- ments. Accouplement. Among car- penters, a tie or brace ; some- times the entire work when framed. Acer. See Maple. Acerra. In decoration, vases made like a little chest, or box, in which the ancients put per- fumes and incense. These are frequently seen, in sculptures of sacrifices, in the hands of the Camilli, on the Trajan column; and in others, in the hands of the vestals. They are adorned with sculptures. The Thuribu- lum was also a vase for incense, 'jut antiquaries are not agreed whether it was an acerra. It is sometimes introduced ns a deco- ration, on the friezes of temples. Also, " an altar erected by the Romans, on which perfumes were burned before a dead body, until the period of its inhumation.'' Achmin, a large town of upper Egypt, situated on the eastern bank of the Nile. " We admire there," says Abulfeda, as cited by Mr. Savary, " a temple, which is equal to the most celebrated mo- numents of antiquity. It is con- structed with stones of a surprising size, on which are sculptured in- numerable figures." Although it is now fallen from its ancient splendour, this town is still one of the most beautiful in Kgy.pt. It appears to be the same as the Cliemmis of Herodotus, which was called, in the time of Strabo, Panopolis, or the city of Pan, that deity being the object of the worship of its inhabitants. Hero- dotus says, that Perseus was a native of this city, and that his descendants had established fes- tivals there in his honour. The ruins of the temple described by Abulfeda, are beyond the limits of the town, to the north. No- thing remains of it but the stones, which are of such magnitude that the Turks have not been able to move them. They are covered with hieroglyphics. On one of them are traced four concentric circles in a square : the innermost contains a sun: the two next, di- vided into twelve parts, contain, the one twelve birds, the other twelve animals, almost effaced, which appear to have been in- tended for the signs of the zodiac : the fourth has no divisions, and presents twelve human figures. Mr. Savary supposes the whole to represent the twelve gods, the twelve months of the year, and the twelve zodiacal signs. The Egyptians, Herodotus tells us, first divided the year into twelve months, and gave them the name of the twelve gods. The four seasons occupy the angles of the square, on the side of which may be distinguished a globe with wings. Mr. Savary thinks that this stone belonged to a temple dedicated to the sun, and that the whole of these hieroglyphics mark his passage into the signs of the zodiac. The columns of the tem- ple have been partly broken, to make lime and mill-.tones. Some of them have been transported into one of the mosques of Ach- min, where they are placed with- out any taste, and others are heaped up in the square of the town. Mr. Savary tells us of a singular instance of imposture at this rjlace : the people have been 51 A C R ACR induced to believe in the divinity and immortality of a serpent, which they worship, and into which the soul of one Sheiik Haridi, a religious man, who lived above a century ago, is believed to have passed. Except the tem- ple, the ancient buildings of Achmin have entirely vanished. It is in modern times noted only for its manufactory of cotton stuffs and pottery. Acorn. In naval architecture, a little ornamental piece of wood, fashioned like a cone, and fixed on the uppermost point of the spindle, above the vane, on the mast head. Acoustics. (Gr.) The science which comprehends every thing relative to the nature, operation, and effects of sound. Some knowledge of this science is very necessary to the architect of large edifices, particularly churches and places intended for public speak- ing, to guide him in regulating the proportions, so as to have the best possible effect on the hearers. The theory of whispering galleries and echoes is explained under the article Echo. Acoustic Vessels. A kind of vessels made of brass, shaped like a bell, which, being of all tones within the pitch of the voice, rendered the sounds more distinct and audible, so that the ancient actors could be heard through all parts of the theatres, which some- times exceeded 400 feet in dia- meter. Vases, harmonically tuned, were placed in various parts of the opera-house at Turin, and in some other theatres of Italy, but without the effect of augmenting the tone of the actor's voices, or of the instruments. Acradina, the strongest, larg- est, and most beautiful of the four divisions of Syracuse It con- tained a forum, a senate-house, &c. 52 Acrolinthon. A celebrated statue of colossal proportions placed in the temple of Mars, which was enclosed in the citadel of the tow n of Halicarnassus. Acropolis. (A/crospolis, high- est city, Gr.) In ancient military architecture, a citadel, a Greek strong hold or fortress. An Acropolis should, accord- ing to Alberti, occupy an elevated ground behind a city, from whence there are easy means of sallying against enemies or seditious citi- zens, or of receiving reinforce- ments. It should be the point of junction for all the town walls, and small because more easily defended. The foundations (of the walls) should be solid — ot vast stones in an oblique line, on purpose that scaling ladders may be weakened by curvature, the besieging enemy be unable to avoid the stones discharged; and those sent from their engines fly off obliquely — the inner area should be thickly strewn with large stones to prevent mining. The Acropolis was not only to be a refuge during danger, but to be especially devoted for guarding matrons, virgins, and the sacred religious objects from profanation — for this reason there were temples erected in every Acropolis. Every ancient Greek city ap- pears to have occupied a peculiar plain, surrounded by a natural wall of mountains — or possessed its Acropolis and its plain, the former for refuge during war, and the latter for agricultural purposes. Among architects, Acropolis is applied by way of eminence to the citadel of Athens, in which are some magnificent remains of ancient Athenian buildings, chiefly monuments raised by Pericles — which have not only reflected an ACROPOLIS. imperishable glory upon his go- vernment, but so admirable are they in design and decoration, that the age in which they were erected they have distinguished above all other ages as that of inimitable taste and refinement. The rock of tlie Acropolis is on three sides rugged and steep. On the west the ascent is less difficult, and here was the only approach. Near the summit is a broad flight of steps by which the terrace or platform in front of tiie Probylaeum was approached. These extend the whole width of the principal portico, and were flanked by two square pedestals of considerable magnitude and height, which are thought to have supported equestrian statues. The western end of the hill was 168 feet in breadth, an opening so narrow, that the space was filled up with a single building, which serving the purpose of a gateway, should at once adorn and protect the citadel. This work, the greatest architectural work in Athens, which equalled the Parthenon in happiness of execution, and almost surpassed it in originality and grandeur of design, is said to have cost 2012 talents. Of the 168 feet forming the dimension of the natural entrance of the Acropolis, 58 feet were left near the centre, for the great artificial entrance, the remainder being closed by two wings, which projected 32 feet in front of the grand co- lonnade of the entrance. The entire building was called Pro- pria?, from its forming a vestibule to th ' five gates. The wall in which these doors were pierced, receded about 50 feel from the front of the artifi- cial opening of the hill, which was ir>elf thrown back a few feet beyond the natural entrance. The whole work has been compared by one of the ablest recent wri- ters on the antiquities of Athens, to the front of a modern fortifi- cation: — the great vestibule or propylaeum, resembling the cur- tain, and each of the wings pre- senting a face and flank like two adjoining bastions: the difference between it, and the front of a modern fortification, being such only as naturally arises from the difference of weapons, and of the art of war of the two ages, and from the admirable taste with which the Athenians combined utility with ornament. This magnificent building was constructed entirely of Pentelic marble — the propylaeum or vesti- bule consisted of a front of six Doric columns, mounted upon four steps, which supported a pe- diment. The columns are five feet in diameter, nearly 29 feet high, and have an intercolumnar space of about 7 feet, except be- tween the two central columns, where a space of 13 feet is left for the sake of the carriage-way — behind the Doric colonnade was a vestibule 43 feet deep, the roof of which was supported by six Ionic columns standing in a double row, and thus dividing the vestibule into three aisles. These columns were nearly 34 feet high, their architraves being on the same line with the frieze of the Doric colonnade. The ceiling was laid upon marble beams rest- ing on the side walls, and on the architraves of the two rows of Ionic columns — the beams cover- ing the side aisles were 22 feet long, and those of the centre aisle 17 feet, with a proportional breadth and thickness. These enormous masses raised to the roof of a building standing on the summit of a steep hill, might well excite the admiration of 53 ACROPOLIS. ancient travellers. See Athens, Propyltsum. The wings of the Propyl aea were nearly symme- trical in front, each presenting on this side, a wall adorned only with a frieze of tryglyphs, and with antse at the extremities. The great simplicity of the wings in this direction was charac- teristic of the work of defence, of which they formed so impor- tant a part, and the purposes of which regulated their construc- tion. The flanks also in these bastions were uniform in their external appearance, each of them presenting a Doric front of three columns, in antse of three feet in diameter supporting pediments, the summits of which were on a level with the frieze of the great Propylaeum. The inner or south- ernmost column of each wing stood in a line with the great Doric columns of the Propylaeum, and as both these columns and those of the wings were upon the same level, the three porticoes were all connected together, and the four steps which ascended to the Propylaeum were continued also along the portico of the two wings. Here the uniformity of the building ended, for in regard to interior size and distribution the wings were very dissimilar. In the northern wing, a porch 12 feet deep, conducted by ihree doors into a chamber, ?A feet by 26; the porch and chamber thus occupying the entire space lying between the western wall of that wing. The southern wing con- sisted of a porch or open gallery, 26 feet by 1 6, which, on the east and south sides, was formed by a wall connected, and of the same thickness, with the side wali of the Propylaeum; having its roof supported by a narrow pilaster, standing between the north-west column of the wing and an antai, 54 which terminated its southern wall. The wall thus appearing in front of this wing, and pre- serving the outside symmetry, formed a screen to the open gal- lery, between which and the screen there was a passage of four or five feet, leading into the cita- del by a postern gate. The mili- tary defences of the Propylaeum would have been incomplete with- out this postern. The circumstance which prin- cipally appears to have regulated the Greeks in protecting the ap- proach to their fortified places, was the undefended state of the Greek soldier on the right side of his body; while an ample shield covered the left of the Aoplita, all his right side was exposed to the missiles of the enemy. It may be inferred from the description by Thucydides, of the battle between the Lace- daemonian:-; and Argives, at Man- tinea, that this effect of the arms of the Greeks, was one of the chief regulators of the movements of their troops in the field of battle; but it was still more im- portant, as a leading principle, in defending the approaches to the gates and vulnerable points of their fortifications, as Vitruvius instructs his readers, and as we find exemplified in a great variety of Greek ruins still existing in Greece, Italy, and Sicily. It often taught the Grecian engineers how to occupy their ground, and in many cases determined the general form of theirfortifications; and it frequently regulated the construction of their gates, and the direction in which they were to be approached. In several Acropoles there are seen traces in the rocks of the ancient paths leading to the gates, where it is very evident, that the direction of the paths was contrived w ith a view ACROPOLIS. to oblige the enemy in his ap- proach to expose his right side to the rampart. It follows that the left front of a Greek fortifica- tion was more easily defended against the approach of an enemy than the right ; and as the only approach to the Acropolis was by the ridge falling to the south- west, it was greatly favoured by natural situation ; its right, which would otherwise have been the weaker side, is defended by steep rocks ; while the ridge which slopes from the left, bv obliging the assailants to move from that quarter, facilitates the formation of outworks, which would have the effect of obliging the enemy to mount the steep ascent under the continual disadvantage cf exposing his right side to the besieged. The plan, which is partly con- jectural, will more fully explain the construction — the entrance- gate A, was completely command- ed from the wall BC, of the Acro- polis, and the soldier who was ad- vancing to the attack, was obliged continually to expose his right side to the soldiers on the ram- part. Having turned the point C, he again exposed his right side to that part of the rampart or platform above EF; and it is probable that while advancing to G, he was farther exposed to the missiles of the Athenians from a lower citadel or fort, meant to command or overlook the road beneath. If the enemy succeeded in turning this terrace by a pas- sage at the end of it, he pro- ceeded to the right, and advanced to the gate of the Propylaea, and thus would obtain possession of the outwork BE in reverse. The besieged would then be under the necessity of retiring within the Propylaea. In approaching the entrance of this building, the be- sieger was again exposed in front from the Propylaeum, and on the other side from the wings IK ; and here again his right was still more undefended, because the besieged in the southern wing had the power of retreat and re- inforcement through the postern, which was placed at or near the gate L ; this situation was thus so well secured and covered by the construction of the southern wing, that the postern still afford- ed the opportunity of endangering the rear of the besiegers. The postern was therefore es- sential to the military defences of the Propylaea, and the ine- quality of the two wings, is not to be ascribed to any difficulties arising from the nature of the ground; for while the adorning of the citadel was the object of the architects, and their director Pericles, its details and plan were parts of an admirably-contrived system of military architecture. This building was completed in five years, and is estimated to have cost nearly 480,000/. For its details, see Proipylcea. After the battle of Marathon, when success so often favoured the arms of the Athenians, and the state rose rapidly to domi- nion and to glory, Victory was then fabled to have been fixed by their tutelary deity Minerva to the Acropolis, by being deprived of her wings. Jn the Acropolis, therefore, they placed her statue and temple, which were erected from the spoils taken in that ce- lebrated contest. Of this little temple, of which there are now no traces on the spot, the figure V. is a conjec- tural elevation, by Mr. Cockerell, from an admeasurement of some detached fragments, lying in the Acropolis, and one or two frag- ments (which are suoposed to have ACROPOLIS. belonged to it,) at present in the British Museum It was seen by Spon and Wheler, who have given a few measurements of what then remained at their visit. It was used as a powder-magazine by the Turks, and destroyed in an acci- dental explosion. On the steepest part of the ascent to the Propylaea, about 17 feet before the south-western angle of the northern wing of the vestibule, was placed a pedestal, supporting, it is supposed, an equestrian statue, having a cor- responding pedestal and statue placed opposite the southern wing. The statues are conjectured to have been those of Marcus Agrip- pa, who was a great benefactor to the Athenians, and Caius Caesar Octavlanus, his colleague in his third consulship. The fine taste of the Athenians, it has been re- marked, has been shewn even in the placing of these statues ; the pedestal of M. Agrippa did not stand parallel to the front of the entrance-gate or vestibule, but its south-western angle was thrown a little back. " Undoubtedly," says an observer, (himself imbued with no small portion of that sa- gacity and fine taste, which he was noticing to be displayed by others,) il for the purpose of more advantageously exhibiting to those who ascended the hill, the statue which stood upon it." Upon a minute inspection of several fragments of two pedi- ments found in the ruins, it was discovered that some of the mem- bers of the cornice were gilt ; on others an enrichment was painted in reddish ochre; in one instance, the form of the echinus moulding was slightly sculptured, for the purpose of assisting the effect of the painting ; a mode of deco- ration not uncommon in Grecian buildings: it seems probable that 56 the colour which was observed was the ground of gijding which has long perished. After passing through the Pro- pylaea, a descent of steps conducts to the grand platform or area of the Acropolis, on which was erect- ed the Parthenon. The level of the rock on which it is founded is more than 30 feet higher than that part on which the Propylaea is built; so that the temple was so far elevated above the level of the western entrance, that the pavement of its peristyle was upon the same level as the capi- tals of the columns of the eastern or inner portico of the Propylaea. This temple was begun and finish- ed under the government of Peri- cles, and is justly esteemed the " Pride of Athens, and the boast of Architecture." In whatever direction Athens is approached, it forms a splendid and magnifi- cent feature in the landscape. It was built under the architect Ichinus, to whom some have ad- ded the architect Callicrates. The platform is elevated three steps above the surrounding ground, and the area embraced by the uppermost steps is little more than 227 feet in length, and 101 in width. There were eight columns in the portico of either front, and 17 in the flanks; these columns were 6 feet 2 inches in diameter, and 34 feet high. From the episty- lium of the eastern, or principal front, were probably suspended shields of gilt metal, in confor- mity with the practice observed in the temple of Jupiter at Olym- pia. The total height of the tem- ple being about 65 feet. Within the peristyle, at either end, there was an interior range of six columns of 5^ feet in dia- meter, forming a vestibule to the door of the cella or adytum; ACROPOLIS. these vestibules were ascended by two steps from the peristyle. — The cella, 62% feet broad within, was divided into two unequal chambers, of which one was near- ly 44 feet long, and the other about 9?t feet long. The ceiling of the smaller chamber was sup- ported by 4 columns, and of the larger by 16 columns; the order of these interior columns is un- known, as all traces of their orna- ments appear to have perished; even their existence can be but conjectured., by means of the con- struction of the pavement, and by a trace of one of the columns in either chamber. The existence of these internal columns is not however admitted by W ilkins, who made a very minute inspection of the building in 1 80 ] . Under Parthenon, his arguments in favour of this sup- position will be stated at length. The metopes were enriched with sculptures, executed in high re- lief; the subject, a series of com- bats between one of the Lapitliae and the Centaurs : in the tympan of the pediments were sculptured groups of a colossal size, many of the figures being perfect statues, wholly detached from the tympa- num, and sculptured all round, — The circumstances attending the birth of Minerva were represented over the one entrance, and also the contest between the goddess and Neptune for the honour of presiding over the affairs of the city ; for the Athenians, in choos- ing a tutelary deity, did not omit the opportunity of paying a com- pliment to their national vanity. Behind the columns of both fronts was another range of co- lumns, of lesser dimensions, ad- vanced before the antae of the pronaos and posticum, contrary to the usual Greek practice ; and the area of the pronaos and of the H posticum was elevated two steps above the level of the peristyle. The entablature or frieze of the inner range was continued along the side-walls of the temple, and enriched with sculptures executed in bas-relief ; it was not broken by the insertion of triglyphs : but in the epistylium, the guttae, or drops, are introduced in the same manner as when the usual inser- tion of triglyphs was made. This afforded an opportunity for an uninterrupted representation of the grand procession which took place at the celebration of the Panathensean fesiival. The transverse walls, terminat- ing the pronaos and posticum, receded 1 2 feet behind the columns of the interior ranges, and door- ways of ample width and height were left in them for the ap- proaches to the cella. Stuart imagined the Parthenon to have been of that description of temples called Hypaethral, or those of which the cella was divided into three aisles, of which the two next the side-walls were covered with a roof, and the mid- dle aisle left open to the sky. — The researches of recent travel- lers having thrown additional light on this subject, his opinion is no longer tenable, and the pas- sage in Vttruvius, which was con- sidered to allude to this temple, has been shown to be a corruption of that author's text. '1 litre vt ere no columns in the cella of the temple. The roof was unquestionably of timber, and covered with marble, sculptured so as to represent large tiles, after the model observed in the Temple of Jupiter at Olym- pia. £ome of the blocks of stone of which the Parthenon is composed, are so closely fitted, that no se- paration is visible; and in some 57 ACROPOLIS. instances, where the adjoining fragments of two contiguous stones have broken on", they adhere al- most as firmly as though they had never been disjoined ; this cohe- sion is, however, only observable in the vertical joints : the separa- tion between the horizontal beds of the blocks is far more conspi- cuous. The want of cement was amply supplied by the liberal use of iron cramps ; in a block of four feet in length, three cramps are some- times found connecting it with the next adjoining. One set of cramps being used for connecting the stones of the same bed toge- ther, and the other for connecting the superincumbent courses ; the first, which united the blocks both at the end and at the sides, resembled the letter H, protract- ed so as to be from II to 15 inches in length. The others were plates of iron, 5 inches in depth, 3 in width, and three quar- ters of an inch thick. They were usually inserted half their depth into the stones beneath the verti- cal joints of the next superior course, the other half remaining to be received into a groove made across the common joint of the two blocks meeting above it. Holes of the same form, but of greater dimensions were sunk for the reception of the first sort of cramps, the space being filled around with melted lead ; lead was only used in fixing the second sort of cramps in the horizontal courses, but no means appear to have been employed for its intro- duction at the angles of two blocks, whose vertical joint is immediately above them. The stones composing the shaft of each column were held toge- ther by round pins of wood ; square sockets of the same mate- rial were first sunk in the centre 58 of two adjoining blocks, the socket of the lower course received half the pin, and the other half pro- jected into the socket in the upper stone. The pins which have been found, appear to have shrunk very considerably ; besides these, there were usually two metal plates, of the kind already men- tioned, inserted in these blocks composing the column, as in the other part of the building. North of the Parthenon stands the Erecht/ieum, a double temple of the Ionic order; its size, com- pared with that of the Parthenon, is small, but its details and com- position are equally beautiful. This temple was built over a salt-spring or well, and was pro- bably a spot consecrated to the gods earlier than any other in Athens. It was the burying- place of Erechtheus ; and enclos- ed an olive tree, an object which was held in great veneration by the Athenians. — The present re- mains form part of the temple raised during the dominion of Pericles. The Krechtheum consists of two temples : one of them dedicated to Minerva Polias, and the other to Pandrosus. The whole erec- tion is sometimes called the Tem- ple of Minerva Polias, from its being the more important of the two buildings. The wooden sta- tue of the goddess, which was here worshipped, was considered the most holy of any in Attic land, and was especially venerated by the Athenians as being the pecu- liar protectress of their Acropolis. The floors of the cellar of the two temples were not upon a level, that of Minerva Polias being ele- vated 8 feet above the Pandro- seum. The Pandroseum is formed ot two chambers, of which the west- ern is narrow and opens into a V ACROPOLIS. portico at either end ; the northern portico being formed of six Ionic columns, and the southern portico, instead of columns, has its roof supported by six female figures called Caryatids. The porticoes of the temple were approached by a descent of steps, and within it was preserved the sacred olive; The Caryatic portico is thought to be a building mentioned in old Greek writers, and called the Ce- cropium. Besides these temples, the re- mains of which are still in exist- ence, ancient authors enumerate the temples of Jupiter Polieus, Pandion, and to Home and Au- gustus, the Hierum of Venus Le- acna, which contained the brazen lioness, and the statue of Venus by Calamis; the Diitrephes, the two Hygaeiae, the Aspergillifer by Lycius, and Perseus slaying Medusa by Myron; between the temple of Diana and the Parthenon were the Trojan horse, the Epi- charmus, the JEnobius, the Her- molycus, the Phonnio. Theseus and the Minotaur, Apollo flay- ing Marsyas, Phryxus sacrificing, Hercules slaying the serpents, Minerva rising from the head of Jupiter, the bull dedicated by the Areopagus. Not far from the temple of the genius of pious men stood the warrior with silver nails, by Cleoetas, Earth praying for Rain; then the statues of Timo- theus, Conon, Procne and Itys of Alcamenes, the contest of Nep- tune and Minerva, Jupiter by Leochares, and Jupiter Polieus. In front of the Parthenon, to- wards the east, stood Apollo Por- nopius by Phidias, the Anacreon, and the statues by Deinomes, of Io and Callisto. On the eastern extremity of the Acropolis were the Glympiodorus, the Diana Leucophryne, and the ancient statue cf Minerva by Eudocus. On the opposite side were the half-burnt figures of Minerva, the statue of Lysimacha, and the co- lossal group of Erechtheus and Eumolpus; near or between these were* the hunting of the wild boar. Cycnus and Hercules, The>eus discovering the sandals, Theseus subduing the bull ; the Cyclon, and a brazen colossus of Minerva by Phidias. Near the entrance of the Propylaea were a statue of Pericles, and a statue of Minerva Lemnia by Phidias. Besides these were a statue of the mother of Isocrates, of Isocrates himself, Mercury (surnamed the Unini- tiated), a brazen ram, compared for its colossal dimensions to the Trojan horse, Daraus, a statue of the Emperor Adrian, a Minerva by Nicias, a statue of Demetrius of Phalerum, an ox by Lysias, a horse dedicated by Diphilus, upon occasion of his being made a Roman knight, and numerous portraits of Grecians of no great note; but besides these, the ser- vility and flattery of the Athe- nians had crowded the citadel with statues of powerful Ro- mans. Chandler supposed the Acropo- lis also to have enclosed streets of houses; but such an arrangement would have been at variance, as well with the fine taste, as with the religious prejudices of the Athenians. In justice to both, we must consider the entire plat- form of the Acropolis as a splendid composition of architecture and sculpture, and as " a single superb monument or magnificent dedi- cation to the gods." The walls of the Acropolis are built at the extreme edge of the precipice, and are about 2500 feet in circuit ; the length from the south to the northwest angle about I 150 feet, and its greatest breadth 500 feet, forming an ir- 59 ACROPOLIS. regular polygon ; the height of the rock may be about !;>() feet from the plain, composed of a stone of a calcareous and friable quality, and of a deep ochreous tint. From the Pelasgi, who are said to have been the first inhabitants of the piains, the citadel some- times received the name of the Pelasgic fortress ; and from a tra- dition of Cecrops. the first king, having here founded the city, it was also called the Cecropian Kill. In progress of time, as it increased in importance, the houses stretched into the plain, when the distinction of the lower and upper city, or Acropolis, took place, until, in later times, the plat- form of the Acropolis was appro- priated solely to the uses of the citadel. Who first surrounded the Acro- politan platform with a wall, is unknown, but it is probable that the work of Pelasgi may be traced in part of the boundary wall, from a division of it having received that name by tradition. It is cer- tain, however, that the walls had fallen into decay at the period of the first Persian war; for it was then necessary to repair them with palisades ; that the ancient walls had been constructed with care, and in the manner usual in mili- tary erections, appears highly pro- bable from a passage in Thucy- dides : — he describes the fortifica- tions to have been restored, after that war, in great haste, (and by inference, in an inferior manner to the old wall), and says, " the foundations were built of stones of every shape and size — not fitted to one another ; and the wall is full of sepulchral columns, and of wrought stones from former buildings, united together." Cinion appears to have restored 60 and re-established those parts of the walls which the Persians in their second inroad under Mar- dcnius, had thrown down. Those which were demolished by the Spartan Lysander, were rebuilt by Conon, and after the battle of Chaironea they were repaired by Demosthenes. Philip, son of Demetrius, of Macedon, with un- sparing vengeance, also appears to have destroyed a great part of the enclosure; and Sy 11a comple- ted this so effectually, that they lay in ruins for nearly three hun- dred and fifty years afterward, — when they were again rebuilt in the reign of Valerian and Galli- enus, and also afterwards repaired by Justinian. Notwithstanding all these di- lapidations, it is probable that a considerable portion of the walls at this moment forming the en- closure, are part of the works existing from the period of first reparation ; a part of the northern side bears the strongest evidence of having been part of the work erected in the time of Themisto- cles. The upper part of the present wall is the work either of the Venetians or Turks, — the but- tresses are the additions of a recent period. The lower parts are composed of large rectangular blocks of stone, without any re- mains of what has been called polygonal building. The Acropolis was lately used as a fortress by the Turks, but all its statues and decorations have for ages disappeared. The Parthenon was converted into a Greek church, and the ancient roof having perished, it was co- vered with a roof and cupola in the usual manner. At the siege of Athens, in 1^76, by the Vene- tians, the explosion of a bheJI, ACROPOLIS. fired by the besiegers, nearly de- stroyed half of the fabric, and the walls of' the Cella were almost totally levelled, and five of the columns of the pronaos — eight columns on the north side, and six on the south side, were also at this disastrous time thrown down. — The shell appears to have explo- ded in nearly the centre of the Cella, or Adytum ; many of the masses were carried to a consi- derable distance beyond the build- ing. The columns of the eastern portico suffered nothing, but the pediment and its sculptures were almost wholly destroyed: one of the principal groups which re- mained, after the citadel surren- dered, was shattered to pieces in the attempt of Morosini, (a Vene- tian barbarian who accompanied the expedition,) to displace it, for the purpose of transporting it to Venice. What was then unhap- pily begun, has been since nearly completed. The British Museum possesses the greater part of the sculptures which once adorned its metopes and pediment ; and, what with the influence of the seasons, and the operations of petty spoil- ers, the temple is rapidly approach- ing total annihilation. The columns of the Propylsea are disfigured, and their fine pro- portions are lost, by an accumu- lation of rubbish — of the columns supporting the marble ceiling, only some of the shafts remain, the capitals and ornaments have perished; every thing is buried by the ruins, which have risen about eighteen feet above the original level, and vaults and prisons have been constructed beneath the accumulation. The Erechtheum has suffered more from wilful spoliation than even the Parthenon ; one of the columns and its entablature is in the British Museum ; only five co- lumns of its portico and their cpi- stylia remain ; but mutilated, dis- jointed, and shaken, they cannot long resist the attacks of time, and wanton, barbarous dismem- berment : the wall towards the south is nearly level with the ground — the transverse walls have almost totally disappeared. The Pandroseum, which, be- fore 1801, was in a state of pre- servation that would have for ages resisted the attacks of the weather, has even suffered more than the Temple of Minerva Polias from the fangs of the dilapidator. Of the six exquisite caryatidae one was wanting when Stuart visited Athens ; and its place was ill-supplied by a pillar of modern masonry — another, in 1801 , was removed by Lord Elgin, which has also found its way into the British Museum; and. as if the genius of the deepest and most unfeeling barbarism had guided his lordship's spoliation, the statue he selected was taken from a part of the buiiding which has not only irretrievably destroyed the admirable beauty of the fabric, but also its sta- bility. 64 Every thing," says an eye- witness of the transaction, u re- lative to this catastrophe, was con- ducted with an eager spirit of in- sensate outrage, and an ardour of insensate rapacity, in oppo- sition not only to every feeling of taste, but to every sentiment of justice and humanity." " Independent of the moral blame which necessarily attaches to such an act," says Mr. Dod- well, " the authority of the ex- ample may be henceforth pleaded as a precedent, and employed as an apology for similar depreciations. The Athenian Temples will pro- bably be destroyed for their orna- ments, which instead of remain- 61 ACROPOLIS. ing in their original places as the property of all nations, will be appropriated by the strongest. " When we come to trace the causes which led to this scene of havoc and destruction, the greater share of the odium will naturally, and not unjustly, be referred to those who first exhibited the ex- ample of such unhallowed viola- tions of all that the feeling of genius and taste respects and con- secrates. We cannot also omit to observe, that had the temples been left untouched, and the sculpture only been removed which had already fallen, our Na- tional Museum would still have been enriched with sufficient spe- cimens for the improvement of our national taste, while casts would have answered every pur- pose of those originals of which the temples have been sacrile- giously despoiled. " It is indeed impossible," con- tinues this accomplished traveller, " to suppress the feelings of regret which must arise in the breast of every traveller who has seen these temples before and since their late dilapidation ; nor have I any hesitation in declaring that the Athenians in general, nay, even the Turks themselves, did lament the ruin that was committed, and loudly and openly blamed their sovereign for the permission he had granted. I was on the spot at the time, and had an opportu- nity of observing, and indeed of participating in the sentiment of indignation which such conduct universally inspired : the whole proceeding was so unpopular at Athens, that it was necessary to pay the labourers more than their usual profits, before any could be prevailed upon to assist in this work of profanation. " During my residence at 62 Athens, the work of devastation, having been begun by the Chris- tians, was imitated in an humble manner by the Turks, and a large block of the epistylia of the Erech- theum, at the south-west angle, contiguous to the Pandroseion, was thrown down by order of the Disdar, and placed over one ot the doors of the fortress. I ima- gined that he intended to demo- lish the other parts of this ele- gant edifice, which seems doomed to destruction. I took the liberty of remonstrating on the impro- priety of his proceedings — he (a Turk ! !) pointed to the Parthe- non, to the Caryatid Portico, and to the Erechtheion ! and answered with a singularly enraged tone ot voice, 4 What right have you to complain — where are now the marbles, which were taken by your countrymen from the tem- ples?' " Whatever feelings of satisfac- tion therefore may be experienced at these having become the proper- ty of the nation, the deepest exe- cration ought to follow the dis- memberment of these exquisite buildings, for a purpose so sordid and mercenary as that which seems to have influenced Lord Elgin — ■ mutilated in his own person, he seems to have delighted in muti- lating those remains of Athenian glory and magnificence, which for twenty-two centuries the Romans, the Vandals, the Huns, the Vene- tians, and the Turks had spared! The Acropolis of Tiryns is the best specimen existing of the mode of building fortresses in the heroic ages. It was surrounded with walls in the time of Homer, who calls it the " walled or for- tified Tirynthus." The ruins which are now seen are considered to be those which existed in the time of the bard, ACROPOLIS. and were built by Prcetus about 1376 years before Christ. — The Acropolis is built on asmall mount about fifty feet above the level of the plain, and the foundations of the enclosure are still perfect. The ancient city is supposed to have surrounded the fortress ; and that the sea formerly came nearer to its site than at the present day ; being now nearly fifteen minutes (journey) distant. The plan of Tiryns (figure V.) is compared to that of a long ship, and the ingenious Mr. Bryant supposes that in fact its type was the long ship of Danaus. Towards the east of Tiryns rise some barren hills, the quarries of which furnished the stones for the Tirynthian Acropolis. The Acropolis had entrances from the east, from the west, and one at the south-eastern angle. The eastern entrance (a, fig. V.) is still in tolerable preserva- tion, and is approached by a slop- ing way (6), fifteen feet wide, along the eastern and southern sides of a tower (c), twenty feet square and forty feet high, pass- ing at the end of the second side, under a gateway composed of immense blocks of stone ; the stone forming the architrave be- ing 10| feet long. — It is thought that there was formerly a trian- gular stone above the architrave of this portal, forming a kind of pediment ; the fragments are now lying on the spot, but without any appearance of having been sculptured: The walls are generally 25 feet thick, and are formed of three pa- rallel ranks of stones, 5 feet thick, which separate two ranges of gal- leries in the walls, each five feet broad and about twelve feet high — the sides of the galleries are formed of two courses of stone, and the covering of other two horizontal courses wnich project until they meet. (fig. VI.) The roof is pointed when seen from below, the lower surfaces of the stones being cut. at an angle of forty-five degrees, (figure VII.) That part of the gallery (figure IV.) which is now uncovered, is about ninety feet long, and has six openings or recesses towards the east, one of which is a kind of window or door, which proba- bly communicated with some ex- terior building, of which there are still some traces of the foun- dation in existence — the space between these niches varies from ten feet six inches, to nine feet eight inches, and the niches them- selves are from five feet six inches to four feet ten inches wide ; these galleries were probably continued all round the citadel, but they are only accessible at present where the walls are least perfect (w, fig. III.), at the southern part of the enclosure. The galleries were probably constructed for shelter of the garrison in case of a siege, as no loop-holes or other open- ings, open from them into the plain, and which would have been the case, had they been construct- ed for any defensive purpose, — if the inner gallery received light from the arched area, the exterior must have remained almost dark. Jtfo remains of the south-eastern portal remain ; it appears to have been connected with the eastern gate by an avenue enclosed be- tween the outer wall and the inner curtain ; yet it is not easy to con- jecture the use of this singular place, — others, of a similar kind, are met with at Argos, and in some other ancient cities of Greece. The walls of Tiryns and Myce- nae, are the finest remains of Acro- politan building in Greece, but they are inferior in magnitude to erections, (called Cyclopean), of 63 ACROPOLIS. Norba, in Latium ; and several other Pelasgic fortresses of Cora, Signia, and Alatrium, in Italy, (the walls of which resemble those of Tiryns, Argos, and Mycenae,) whose wonderful ruins exhibit walls of equal strength and soli- dity with those of Argolis. The northern point of the hill is less elevated than any other, and its wall is composed of stones of a smaller size than those em- ployed in the galleries. All the exterior walls are composed of rough stones, some of them nine feet four inches in length and four feet thick ; their usual size is from three to seven feet. The wall, when entire, must have been about sixty feet high. On the eastern side the wall has been entirely destroyed, probably by the Ar- gives, about 460 years before Christ, that the city might be left entirely unprotected. There is a small entrance-gate in the pointed form, six feet one inch wide, situated in the recess of the western wall ; it is defended by a wall projecting in a curve. The whole length of the cita- del is about 660 feet, and the breadth about 180 feet, and the walls are constructed upon a straight line, without any refe- rence to the sinuosities of the rock. Pausanias (Corinthiaca, chap, ii.) states a tradition that " the hero, Tirynthius, from whom the city was also denominated, was the son of Argus, and the grand- son of Jupiter ; but the wall, which is all that is left of the ruins, is, according to ttadition, the work of the Cyclops. It was raised from rude stones, each of which is so large, that the least of them cannot be raised out of its place by two oxen yoked together ; but formerly small stones were in- serted, that each of them might 64 harmonize as much as possible with the greater ones." Pliny says that Thrason first construct- ed the walls of cities, — the Cyclo- peans, according to Aristotle, first built towers and forts ; but Theo- phrastus attributes the latter in- vention to the Tirynthii. Tiryns was either built by Prce- tus, or then first became a royal residence. It is mentioned by Homer first amongst the cities of Greece, in possession of the art of conveying thought by letters or symbols. Hercules lived some time at Tiryns; the Tirynthians are mentioned by ancient author* as being immoderately addicted to laughter. The Acropolis of Mycenae ap- pears to have been constructed by the same people who built Tiryn- thus. Homer says, the town was " well built," and its walls " hea- venly." Perseus, according to Apododorus, fortified Tiryns, Mi- deia and Mycenae. Jn the time of Pausanias, a part of the walls was visible, and a gate on which were sculptured two lions ; the same gate now remains nearly in the same state as when he described it, 1600 years ago; the lions over the gate are still in their original position, and are now probably the only specimen of the sculpture of the heroic ages in existence. The gate (fig. JX.) is situated at the end of a recess, about fifty feet deep, commanded by projec- tions of the walls, which are in this part composed of huge blocks of squared stones, but they are often placed exactly one above another, so that the joints of three or four courses are in one perpendicular line, which gives a strange and barbarous appearance to the w hole. The architrave consists of a single stone, fifteen feet Jong, and four feet four inches high. To the south of the gate of the ACROPOLIS. lions, the wall of the citadel is much ruined. In one part, some- thing like a tower is visible, which being perpendicular, while the curtain inclines a little inward from its base, there remained a projection at the top sufficient to enable an archer to defend the wail below. The blocks of the superstructure are in general of great size, while those of the foundation are much smaller. Th;s mode of building is ob- servable in all the very early for- tifications of Greece. With the exception of the gates, the whole circuit of the citadel is built of rough masses of rock, very nicely adjusted and fitted to each other, though the smaller stones, which filled up the interstices, have generally disappeared; this style of building has commonly been called Cyclopean: — it cer- tainly appears that the walls of the most ancient cities of the Pe- loponnesus, whether attributed to the Cyclops or not, were of this construction. Tiryns and My- cenae differ from other acropoles in their galleries and gates, so that, perhaps, the ponderous me- thod, which so nearly resembles the style used by the Egyptians, of which the gate of the lions is the best specimen in Europe, is the real Cyclopean, while the remainder of the circuit is the work of the natives. — These for- tifications were reputed to be im- pregnable, and were so in ancient times. At the siege of Mycenae by the Argives, these warriors found themselves unable to de- stroy the city, but they forced the inhabitants to surrender through famine. Mycenae was demolished by the Argives at the time of the destruction of Tiryns, the buildings were overthrown, and the city for nearly 3000 years has been desolate. I The southern ramparts of the citadel, and all the other walls, follow the natural irregularity ot the precipice on which they are founded. At its eastern point it is attached by a narrow isthmus to the mountain. It is a long irregular triangle, standing nearly east and west; the walls are mostly constructed of the second style of well-jointed polygons, although the rough construction is occasionally seen. So small a fortress appears un- worthy of the Tirynthian hero; but though the space which it occupies is so circumscribed, the walls are truly Herculean; their general thickness is 21 feet, in some places they are 25; their present height, in the most perfect part, is 43 feet. In some places there are square projections from the walls in form of towers, but the projection is very slight; the most perfect of these is at the south-east angle; its breadth is 33 feet, and its height 43 feet. The block on which the lions are sculptured, is 1 1 feet broad at the base, 9 feet high, and about 2 feet thick, of a triangular form, filling the niche made for its re- ception. The construction of the lateral walls is nearly regular, differing from the walls which constitute the peribolus or boundary of the Acropolis, which are irregular polygons; they are of the hard breccia stone, found on the spot; but the block ornamented with the lions resembles in its appear- ance the green basalt of Egypt. The back or inner part of the gate of the lions is highly inte- resting, as it exhibits two styles of construction totally differing from each other; that side which is towards the plain of Argos, is of the rough Cyclopean masonry, while the other side is regularly 65 ACROPOLIS. constructed like the front of the gate, and two lateral walls, which diverge from it. 1 It would appear that the gate had been made some time after the original Cy- clopean structure. Without pre- suming to decide whether the re- gular as well as the irregular, or polygonal construction, were not sometimes employed at the same period, there are indeed reasons for believing, that while the walls of acropoles, or citadels, and other strong places, were com- posed of Cyclopean masonry, the temples, sepulchres, and sacred edifices, were formed of a more regular construction, as the former were principally adapted to resist the impulse of warlike engines, while the sanctuaries of the gods, and the chambers of the dead, were regarded with reverential awe even by enemies. A magnificent wall, composed of irregular polygons, closely united and carefully smoothed, supports the terrace on which the gate of the lions is situated. The area of the Acropolis is a long irregular triangle, standing nearly east and west. On the northern side, the de- clivity is also very steep, and there is a gate which consists of two stones, covered by a third. The opening is five feet eleven inches wide at bottom, and five feet, four inches at top. Above the architrave is a large stone, approaching the form of a tri- angle, with which the ruin is about fourteen feet high. The gates folded, and were secured by bars. The access to this entrance was by an artificial terrace, which was completely commanded by the wall: a curtain, nearly in a right line, extends from this gate to that of the lions ; and it is very probable, that certain holes in the earth above this wall, which are shewn by the natives as cisterns, are actually connected with gal- leries similar to those of Tiryn- thus. After entering the gate there was a road commanded by a wall, which traversed the hill almost to the opposite side before it turned to the summit — so that the Acropolis was de- fended by at least a triple enclo- sure : on the northern side is a small gate, with its lintel entire. The structure is so disposed, that those who entered it would have their left arm, which was guarded by the shield, on the side of the Acropolis, which is a deviation from the common rule followed in constructing ancient Greek fortresses of all ages. The grooves for the bolts in the jambs rf the door, are of large dimensions. A deep rocky glen separates the Acropolis from the neigh- bouring hill: there was anciently a bridge over the ravine — one of the side-walls still remains, con- sisting in well-jointed polygons. The Acropolis of Plateae was placed on an elevation of a mo- derate height, and from the few remains at present existing, these appear to have been constructed in the rude Tirynthian style. There are several remains ol the walls of the ancient acropoles of Argjs, consisting of the se- cond style, or well-jointed poly- gons, but not the slightest traces of the rough Tyrinthian style ; and it is next to impossible that, had any part of the works ever been built in this style, that they should have so completely dis- appeared that not a single stone of it is at present visible : the walls in existence are those which are attributed to the Cy- clopeans. The walls encircle the summit of the Acropolis, and the modern castle, composed of bas- ACiiOPOLIS. tions and towers, built with small stones and mortar, is erected on the ancient remains, in which the lower parts of some round and square towers are visible. Argos had a second citadel or fortress, but of which there are no remains in existence. Of the acropolis of Cyparissiai, two entire gates are remaining, of the common square form. One of them is almost buried under the ruins and earth, which reach nearly to its architrave. The towers are square — one of them is almost entire, and contains a small window or arrow-hole — a transverse wall is carried com- pletely across the Acropolis, by which it was anciently divided into two parts — the foundation of this wall and part of the elevation still remain. Three different styles of build- ing are evident in this fortress — the walls are composed of poly- gons — some of the towers con- sist of irregular, and others of rectangular quadrilaterals. The walls of the Acropolis of Thorikos, are all of an inferior kind of w r hite marble veined with grey — which is found on the spot — though not in the Cyclopean or polygon style; they are, neverthe- less, systematically irregular^ and the stones, though generally qua- drilateral, and placed in horizontal layers, are of various dimensions, and their angles seldom rectan- gular. In the walls of the Acropolis of Akraiphnion, are the remains of a small gate, diminishing slightly towards the top, but without its lintel. The walls of the city were of the third style of construction. The ruins of the strong hold at the pass of Thermopylae, are in the fourth style of Acropolitan building. Their general thick- ness is seven feet ; in some places they are constructed with small stones and mortar, where their thickness is more considerable. The walls and square towers of the Acropolis of Chaeroneia, are in some places well pre* served — and their style, which is nearly regular, renders it pro- bable that they were constructed not long before the invasion of the Macedonians. Within the enclosure, there is a projecting wall which has been built to sup- port a terrace, a singular remain ; as in all other parts of Greece, the terrace walls are straight. At Drymaia, the walls of the citadel are eight feet and a half thick, and in the third style, which is the usual manner in that part of Greece. They are well preserved ; some of the square towers are nearly perfect, and are of a more irregular style of masonry than the other parts of the walls. The lateral walls lead from the base of the hill to the summit of the acropoles, where they almost meet in a point, forming nearly an equila- teral triangle, which is the plan of most Greek cities having an Acropolis. At Panopeus, the walls exhibit the three last styles of Greek ma- sonry, although polygons are seen only in a few places: many of the stones are twelve feet long. The square towers projecting from the walls, are probably of a later date. Several of them are very perfect, and contain doors and windows of the usual form, diminishing towards the top. ■ The Acropolis of Eleutherai is situated upon an insulated rock, steep on all sides, and in some places precipitous ; and appears to have been designed for the pro- tection of the pass between Boeotia and Attica. The form of 67 ACROPOLIS. the enclosure is oblong, and runs nearly east and west ; its entire length is about 360 yards, and its greatest breadth about 110; the walls are very perfect, in the style of those of Mantineaand Messene, fortified with square towers at unequal distances, projecting from the walls — many of them are nearly entire ; they were divided into two stories, each of which had two rooms, at least the upper story, which has two entrances from without, and three small windows ; the lower story has only one door, which is three feet and a half wide at the base, dimi- nishing upwards ; the walls are five feet and a half thick, and the inside space of the towers is fifteen feet square ; the boundary walls are eight feet thick, pierced by several doors ; of one, the pros- tomia, or opening, was four feet two at the base, and three feet eight at top, the lintel was seven feet long ; this fortress had four entrances. The walls of Palaio Kastro at Aito formed an irregular triangle, at one corner of which was placed the Acropolis, a figure preferred, from its convenience, in the con- struction of many Grecian cities, which occupied, like Ithaca, the side of a hill. There are no traces of towers projecting from the curtain of the city walls ; it seems, however, probable, that the walls inclined inwards to- wards the top, leaving towers, as in figure 7, this, however, was only near the gates. The walls of the Acropolis shew some traces of towers on the south side, but they project within, and not in front of the curtain. — (See Cyclo- pean building.) From the preceding enumera- tion of Greek Acropoles, whose walls are partly to be seen, it ap- pears that among their vestiges four different modes of building were practised by the Greeks, at various periods, in military works as in their civil erections — the most ancient and simple being that in which immense masses of rocks, detached from the moun- tains, are piled upon each other ; their shape being uneven, they could not be united so as to form a compact body ; smaller stones were therefore inserted between them, in order that the building might be rendered more solid and secure. The walls at Tiryns are of this class, and also those at Mycenae; but those at Mycena? are probably not quite so an- cient as those of Tiryns, for the sides of the stones with which they are built are in some degree squared and adapted to each other — the masses of both are great, some of them containing 21 C cubic feet ; these walls more re- semble the works of giants than men, they are called Cyclopic, or Pelasgic works, by which we must understand nothing more than that they are constructed of large masses, in reference to the fables of the Cyclops, who were said to hurl rocks instead of stones r This mode of construction is how- ever rare in Greek Acropoles. The second mode of building in the Hellenic fortresses is that wherein smaller stones are used of a very irregular size and figure, and differing from each other, but the surfaces of each grooved and adapted to one another with the greatest nicety and truth — sometimes the pieces had seven or eight sides; in one instance, a piece, having thirteen sides, has been noticed — instead of being placed in their beds in the wall, rough as they came from the quarry, the masons worked the stone according to the shape in which it happened to be detached ACROPOLIS. from its native rock into straight and smooth lines and sides, so that when joined together they pro- duced a mass of masonry of great stability ; perhaps, the polygonal blocks are all posterior to the siege of Troy, and the Cyclopean masonry anterior — the polygons found at Mycenae are owing pro- bably to subsequent repairs. In the third mode of building, the stones were placed in horizontal courses, but occasionally by de- scending below, or projecting above the general line of" the course, they varied from regula- rity. The joints were sometimes at an angle with the horizon, and sometimes perpendicular. The first mode is peculiar to Tiryns and Mycenae. The second and third are observed indiscrimi- nately in the fortified places of Greece Proper, and in the Pelo- ponnesus. In the fourth mode, the stones were parallelopipedons, squared on five sides, and laid in horizontal courses. In these, no cement or any other composition was used to unite the masonry — in the greater number of Greek Acro- poles the stones have no other bond but their own elaborate workmanship ; yet the walls and towers present the firmness and solidity of a rock, three thousand years after their erection. Phyle, in Attica, is mostly built in this manner. It is situated upon a hill inaccessible on two sides, of an oblong form, the narrow sides facing the east and west; its length is about 170 yards, and its breadth nearly ninety, and had two entrances, one on the east and another on the west. At the north east angle is a round tower, on the opposite angle a square one, and another of the same form on the north side, projecting from the walls. Twenty layers, or courses of blocks, are still seen in some parts of the walls ; they are generally parallelogrames, though the system of acute and obtuse angles, which seem to have been disused about the time of Alex- ander, may be occasionally re- marked in this building; the date, however, of the foundation of Phyle is unknown. The walls of Byzantium and Jerusalem are described by Hero- dian and Josephus, as constructed in a similar manner, the stones of a rectangular form were so ad- justed to each other as to present the most regular surface. Very great care was paid by ancient military architects, of almost every country, to erect their Acropoles and city walls in this smooth and firm mode of build- ing — because the fortresses were better able to resist the sharp points of the catapultae and bat- tering engines which were im- pelled on the walls, where a breach was desired by the besieging party. — (See City, Cramps, Cyclo- pean Building, Fortress.) In this style were the fortifica- tions of Plateae. Thucydides says, the fortifications of the Acro- polis were protected by a fosse or ditch. Yet such was the sim- plicity of the means used for securing these ancient strong holds, compared with the compli- cated works of a modern fortress, that when the Thebans, after their vain attempt to surprise the city, were endeavouring to effect their escape, they cut the wooden bolts of the gates asunder — a woman having lent them a hatchet for that purpose. Tithoniai is a square structure built in the Cyclopean style, with large masses of stone, but laid together with great evenness and regularity, although without any cement, the work not being so 69 ACR A C R ancient as that of Argos, of Ti- rvns or Mycena;. The walls of the city, fortified by mural tur- rets, are of the third and fourth styles ; the towers are in good preservation, approaching to the regular construction, and are no douot less ancient than the walls. Each tower has two doors, and two rows of windows of the usual form, diminishing towards the top. The interior of these /s nineteen feet eight inches Square, originally of two stories ; the holes that received the beams are seen in the walls above the lower range of windows. Very few traces remain of the original walls of the city — but some parts of those restored are in good preservation. These parts are composed of regular masonry, with some accidental irregularity in the size of the stones, but which does not appear to be systematical. They are about eight feet thick, fortified by square towers, with a few of a circular form ; they are orna- mented with perpendicular stripes, similar to those of Agia Euphe- mia in Locris, and which occur in most of the walls of this period. In those of Agia Euphemia, equidistant towers extend round the town, the steps up to many of them remain. The blocks composing the walls are orna- mented and cut with parallel perpendicular lines, as in many other parts of Greece ; an orna- ment still used, particularly in Italy ; the lines are sometimes horizontal. Acroterium, (Akroterion, Gr.) the extremity or vertex of any thing. A pedestal, or base placed on the angle, or on the apex of a pediment. The Greeks placed ornaments upon the acroteria of the angles 70 of a pediment, and also figures, generally small, of bronze, or some metal gilt. The Megarenses, who dwelt in Attica, built a treasury, and in it they placed " images made of cedar, and painted with gold, so as to resemble flowers and other ornaments — the battle of Her- cules with Acheloi'is, &c. About the top (or tympan) of the pedi- ment was represented the battle of the gods and giants ; and on the apex, or middle acroterium, they placed a shield, with an in- scription, relating that the build- ing was erected by the Mega- renses, from the spoils taken by them from the Corinthians." Over the Corinthian propylsea were placed two brazen chariots, gilt, one of which " bore Phaeton, the offspring of the Sun — the other, the Sun himself." The Temple of Jupiter, at Olympia, built of the stone of the country, after the Doric manner, under the direction of the archi- tect Lihon, had brazen vases on the lateral acroteria, and the cen- tre one supported a golden statue of Victory, on the shield of which was sculptured the head of the Gorgon Medusa, and also bore an inscription, naming the per- sons who dedicated it, and the occasion of its erection. Acroteria were placed at the angles of the pediments of the Parthenon, and from the remains at this day, exhibiting the marks of cramps in their upper sur- face, it is evident that they must have supported some ornamental termination. " It does not seem improbable, that the ornaments upon the acroteria of the Parthenon might have been vases of a similar de- scription ; the custom of placing them in such situations, appears to have been common amongst ACHOTEKIUM the nations of anti(|uity. In tliis situation, they might probably have had some allusion to the prize bestowed upon the con- querors in the games which took place at the Panathenaic festival. It is not unlikely that the Par- thenon was the temple alluded to in a fragment of Callimachus, to which the scholiast upon Pindar refers. The vases he speaks of, were placed upon the summit of the temple." The acroterium of the propy- laeum of the Agora, at Athens, still remains, and bears an in- scription, implying that it for- merly supported a statue, or some trophy decreed by the Athenians to Lucius Caesar, the adopted son of Augustus, Stuart (Antiquities of Athens, vol. I.) supposed the acroteria usually supported statues; and that, in this instance of the Agora, there was ground for believing that the centre acroterium, from its large size, was adorned with an equestrian statue of Lucius Caesar, and that the lateral acro- teria also supported statues, pro- bably of individuals of the Au- gustan family. This opinion is, however, ques- tioned by some later authors, who have had the means of inspecting the building — and one argument adduced, among others, for Stuart having been mistaken, is the fact, »« that wherever the orna- mental decorations of the acro- teria have been discovered, they are invariably of diminutive pro- portions. And if the trophy is supposed to have been a Victory personified under the figure of a winged genius, drawn in a trium- phal car, it will be more consist- ent with the practice, both of the Greeks and Romans.'' The use of the ornament for tombs is conjectured by Sir William Cell to have had a dif- ferent origin besides that of mere imitation. " The little acroteria, in some instances bearing bassi relievi, and which are so frequent about the tombs of Pompeii, are curious — some tombs remaining in the necropolis, or burial-ground, of the ancient city of Cnidus, are ornamented in a similar manner. Places of sepulture were origi- nally surrounded with a fence or paling of wood ; the standards at intervals, so necessary for its stability, were possibly the proto- types of these pinnacles, and from them were probably suspended the garlands and wreaths, with which, at stated periods, the se- pulchre was adorned." From the pediments of build- ings, the acroterium became a common ornament in altars, fyc, and for decorating the angles of the abacus. The forms given to them were numerous, but it is seldom (not more than three or four examples of exception occur to our recollection) that they ap- pear to have been destined to support any thing. Garlands are often seen suspended between them, which may have an allusion to the custom of adorning the urns or cippi at stated periods, by the relations of the deceased, with wreaths of flowers. In the engravings which illus- trate the word altar, various ex- amples of acroteria are given. Among workmen, decorated acroteria are very generally called asses' -ears, or dogs' -ears, from a supposed resemblance to those parts, in their outline and si tuation. Vitruvius says, that the late- ral acroteria ought to be half the height of the tympanum, and the apex-acroterium should be an eighth part more. In Grecian 71 AC It A D A buildings, any regular proportion is not observable. The word, in old writers, is sometimes used for the ornaments placed on the acroteria; and for the pinnacles, or other ornaments, which stand in ranges on the horizontal cop- ings or parapets of buildings. Acroters. See Acroteria, Acrostolium. {A/crosolia, Gr.) In ancient naval architecture. The ornament of the extremity of the prow, or forecastle of a ship. The entire ornaments of the prow were called solos, acros- tolium being limited to the ter- minating ornament. Corymba designated ornaments of every kind, used in naval decoration. To the acrostolia may be re- ferred those polished steel pieces resembling a duck's neck, used by the Venetians in their gon- dolas. The favourite emblem of each particular people, rarely failed to make its appearance as the acrostolium ornament in vessels, both for commercial and state purposes. The owl was conspi- cuous on Athenian galleys; the cock, emblematical of vigilance, on those of the Phoenicians ; a goose, or a swan's head, was a common termination of the prow; or a shield, or helmet, and an ornamented scroll is often seen to be used for this purpose. The acrostolium was usually made of metal, polished or gilt, in national vessels, and it appears to have been further decorated with paintings, as is common in ships at present. The plate entitled Acrostolium contains a collection of ornamental prows taken from ancient medals; the names under which they are ranged, are those of the countries to which the medal has belonged. Those marked Trajan and An- toiihie, are from the sculptures 72 which adorn the triumphal co- lumns of these emperors, still to be seen at Rome. In the plate, marked Naval Trophies, cthei examples, as parts of architectural decoration, will be found. The acrostolia of vanquished enemies were torn from their prows, and fastened on that of the victor, a- a signal of triumph. Actuarijf Naves. In anciem naval architecture. A description of long light ships, deriving their name from being constructed for the purpose of swift sailing; they answer to what the French call brigantines: they were propelled by oars. Acute-angled Cone, a cone whose axis makes an acute angle with its side. Adam, Hobert — was born at Edinburgh in 1728, and received his education at the University of that city. He was early dis- tinguished for his taste in land- scape drawing and composition, and at one period had devoted himself to that study, with a view of making it his future profession. He travelled to Italy in 1756, and was remarked for his assi- duity in studying after nature, and making measurements of an- cient Roman buildings. When he had visited almost every part of Italy, and drawn, for some years, its most remarkable anti- quities, he felt, as all do, his know- ledge of architecture as still im- perfect, lie found it necessary to add the observation of a pri- vate edifice of the ancients to his study of their public works. This led him to the scheme of visiting the Emperor Diocletian's palace of Spalatro in Dalmatia, that favourite building in which, after resigning the empire, he chose to reside. He knew, from the accounts of former travellers, that the remains of this palace, ADAM. though tolerably entire, had never been observed with any accuracy, or drawn with any taste. He was likewise no stranger to the passion of that Prince for archi- tecture, which prompted him to erect many grand and expensive structures at Rome, Nicomedia, Milan, Palmyra, and other places in his dominions. Adams had studied his public baths at Rome, one of the noblest, as well as the most entire, of all the ancient buildings, with no less admiration than care, which convinced him, notwithstanding the visible de- cline of architecture, as well as of the other arts, before the reign of Dioclesian, that his munificence had revived a taste in architec- ture superior to that of his own times, and had formed artistt** - capable of imitating, with no in- considerable success, the style and manner of a purer age : the names and history of those great masters are now unknown, but their works which remain, merit the highest applause, and the extent and fer- tility of their genius seem to have equalled the magnificence of the monarch by whom they were em- ployed. Induced by these circumstances, he undertook his voyage to Dal- matia, with the most sanguine hopes, and flattered himself that it would be attended, not only with instruction to himself, but might produce entertainment to the public. Having prevailed on Mr. Cle- riseau, a French artist, from whose taste and knowledge of antiquities he was certain of re- ceiving great assistance in the execution of his scheme, to ac- company him in this expedition ; and having engaged two draughts- men, of whose skill and accuracy he had long experience, they set sail from Venice, in July, 1/57, K and in eleven days afterwards reached Spalatro. £ This city, though of no great extent, is so happily situated, that it appears, when viewed from the sea, not only picturesque, but magnificent. As they entered a grand bay, and sailed slowly to- wards the harbour, the marine wall, and long arcades of the pa- lace, one of the ancient temples, and other parts of that building which was the object of his voy- age, presented themselves to their view, and flattered him, from this first prospect, that his labour in visiting it would be amply re- warded. M To these soothing expec- tations of the pleasures of my task," says Adams, " the cer- tain knowledge of its difficulty soon succeeded. The inhabit- ants of Spalatro have destroyed some parts of the palace, in order to procure materials for building, and to this their town owes its name, which is evi- dently a corruption of Pala- tium. In other places, houses are built upon the old founda- tions, and modern works are so intermingled with the ancient, as to be scarcely distinguishable. Assiduity, however, and repeated observation, enabled me to sur- mount these difficulties. Atten- tion to such parts of the palace as were entire, conducted me with certainty to the knowledge of those which were more ruin- ous, and I was proceeding in my work with all the success I could have expected, when 1 was inter- rupted by an unforeseen acci- dent. " The Venetian governor of Spalatro, unaccustomed to such visits of curiosity from strangers, began to conceive unfavourable sentiments of my intentions, and to suspect that, under pretence 73 ADAM. of taking views and plans of the pal a A I was really employed in surveying the state of the forti- fications. An order from the senate to .allow me to carry on my operations, the promise of which 1 had procured at Venice, had not yet arrived, and the go- vernor sent an officer, command- ing me to desist. By good for- tune, General Graeme (also a native of Scotland) commander- in-chief of the Venetian forces, happened at that time to be at Spalatro, on the service of the state: he interposed in my be- half, with the humanity and zeal natural to a polite man, and to a lover of the arts ; and being warmly seconded by Count An- tonio Marcovich, a native of that country, who had applied himself with great success to the study of antiquities, they prevailed on the governor to withdraw, his prohibition, though, by way of precaution, he appointed an offi- cer constantly to attend me. The fear of a second interruption in- creased my industry, and by un- wearied application, we com- pleted, with an accuracy that af- forded them great satisfaction, those parts of our work which it was necessary to execute on the spot." The result of this voyage was his determination to present the details of the palace ofDioclesian to the public ; and before his de- parture from Rome, he had al- ready carried his project partly into execution, by having several of the drawings he had made at Spalatro engraven by some Ro- man artists. On Mr. Adam's return to Eng- land, he was introduced to the court by the Earl of Bute, and, through the influence of that nobleman, he received the ap- pointment of architect to their Majesties. 74 In 176*4 appeared his work on the uuins of Spalatro. which he dedicated to the King. The en- gravings of views, plans, sec- tions, and details, leave nothing to be wished for as architectural studies : and the style of the drawings, which was beautiful, being ably translated by the en- gravers, left every publication which had appeared in England at a great distance behind it. This splendid book placed him at the head of his profession ; an eminence which it was his felicity to preserve to the end of a long and active life. Being elected to represent the county of Kinross in Parliament, he resigned his office of archi- tect to the King, but his prac- tice and his fame continued to increase. His life henceforward offers no incident of importance. His time was fully occupied in the prac- tice of his profession ; and no stu- dent ever laboured with greater ardour to acquire the mastery of his art than Mr. Adam did, from an enthusiastic love of it, after he had achieved both fame and fortune. The year before he died, he designed eight public, and twenty-four private buildings. There are few instances of houses of any magnitude being erected in England, in his time, in which he was not either applied to for his opinion or for his designs. In Scotland he was without a rival in his practice. The architecture of Greece, in his earlier and middle time, was little known, and its beauties were not appreciated. The course of his studies having been turned into the channel of Italian anti- quities, the general style of his works was founded on an imitation of Roman architecture, in its most florid period. Yet, in many ADA A D H of his works, where the taste for exuberance of ornament, which he had imbibed, was checked, either by the means of his clients, or the nature of the building, he produced compositions of great simplicity and elegance — and at almost all times he was happy in his outlines, and particularly in what are technically called his " sky-lines." The facade of the Register Office at Edinburgh is generally esteemed to be his finest public work ; and, considering the date of its erection, and thegeneral current of taste at that period, it is entitled to all praise, and his fame as a classical architect may be fairly and safely rested upon its merits. The Infirmary at Glasgow has also been admired for its elegance, but probably its claims have been greatly over- rated — the whole composition wants breadth. The facade of Edinburgh University is not the most happy of his designs, either for outline, or imitation of the antique, yet some parts of its in- terior are equal to any thing he ever did. Among his mansions, Luton is the finest. Here, the patron and the architect seem to have been guided by one feeling ; and here Adam's fine taste in ornament could be indulged without any violation of propriety. It may rank, even now, as one of the most finished and classical resi- dences of its size in England. He was sometimes called upon to give designs for castellated and abbatial mansions, but they were sad failures. His name must be added to the list of those architects whose fine Roman taste had nothing in common with an imitation of the barbarian struc- tures of the middle ages. Whether we estimate Adam by the number and importance of his works, or the influence which their style had upon the practice an 3 taste of his contemporaries, he was, without question, the most eminent British architect of his time. It is to him we owe the introduction of that light and fanciful style of interior decora- tion which superseded the taste- less and clumsy manner of his predecessors, imitated from the buildings erected by the archi- tects of Louis XIV. and XV. His merit here was the greater, as at this period there were few or no antique examples of ancient domestic Roman ornament, to which an architect could appeal as his authority, or follow as a guide. His style, therefore, ought not, in fairness, to be subjected to a scrutiny or comparison with that founded on an imitation ot Greek buildings, of which little or nothing was then known, but with that of his contemporaries and his models. It will then be found abounding in beauties of a high and original kind, and which, it is hoped, will long preserve them as examples of a style of arrange- ment and decoration to which we would give our unqualified admiration, had they been the production of an architect of the lower Roman empire. Adam, James — was brother to Robert Adam, and his colleague. Whatever merits he possessed as a designer, they are merged in the more brilliant reputation of his brother. He was better cal- culated for a builder than an ar- chitect, and his practice ot* be- coming a contractor for carrying his own designs into execution was an example (among one or two others) which has not only lowered the respectability of the profession, but has been the means of debasing the art itself. Adhesion. A species of at- 75 ADHESION. traction exerted between the sur- faces of bodies, and which has the effect of connecting them together. It is often confounded with cohesion, *or the effect of a force retaining the component parts of the same body together. The mode in which delicate steel ornaments are sometimes fixed on a polished surface by a smart blow, or a great pressure, is an instance of adhesion. Water ad- heres to the fingers, and two pieces of lead or brass to each other. The resistance which is some- times experienced by bringing two highly polished and perfectly flat surfaces together, is familiar to every mechanic. Two leaden balls, not weighing above a pound each, nor touching on more (ac- cording to calculation) than -j^th of a square inch of surface, have lifted upwards of 130 pounds avoirdupois, the balls being first very finely planed by the edge of a sharp penknife, and then equally pressed together with a consi- derable force and gentle turn of the hand. The force of adhesion between two brass plates of about 4± inches diameter, and slightly smeared with fat or grease, is so great, as to resist the force of two strong men to separate them. Two cylinders of glass, about two inches in diameter, heated to the degree of boiling water, and joined together by means of melt- ed tallow lightly put between them, adhered with a force equal to 130 pounds. The adhesion of solids to fluids has been better investigated by experiments, but the details are foreign to the pur- pose of this work. Surfaces of different metals, for instance, ad- here to the same fluid with very different degrees of intensity. Gold adheres to a surface of mer- cury with a force of 4 16, while copper adheres to it with a force of only 142. A remarkable distinction be- tween the effects usually attri- buted to friction and adhesion may be seen from the following experiment : — Two bodies, which adhere together with a force of 132 pounds, when the separating force acts at right angles to the adhering surfaces, may be sepa- rated with a force equal to a few ounces, when the forces act in the same line with the surfaces, or so as to make them slide over each other. Friction and adhesion are both diminished by a motion, however small, communicated to the fibres or particles of the ad- hering surfaces. Two brass cylin- ders, requiring 60 or 70 pounds to separate them, will fall asunder with their own weight, if the edge of a knife is drawn slowly along one of their edges ; in the same manner that a balance will vibrate when it is poised, by communicating a slight tremor to the fulcrum or beam, by draw- ing a sharp edge over it. A bolt or a nail may often be started by a slight blow let fall near it, when no mechanical means could overcome its adhesion by a mere pressure. This adhesion of belts and nails is further influenced by co- hesion and by friction. From some woods a nail may be drawn with a less force than others, — an effect well known to the Romans, who objected to the use of cedar in ship-building, from its not holding well together, and being apt to become what is now called iron-sick. This force does not at all appear to depend on the hardness or gravity of the wood. A nail may be drawn from oak easier than from the abele-tree: the stiffness and strength of the two are very different, and also ADHESION. their gravity; and the cohesion of oak is also the greater. From this effect, which may often be observed in other instances; it would appear that the phenomena can be better understood, by comparing the action to a sort of muscular contraction of the fibres of the wood, and which is greater when the adhesion takes place across the fibres, than in the same direction with them. The fact of particular woods holding nails and bolts much better than others, is familiar to every workman, but the reason of this has never been investi- gated. The only experiments on the subject, at all of a practical nature, or adapted to common purposes, are those by Mr. Bevan, in Gill's Technical Repository for March, 1824. We copy them here, as wishing to draw the at- tention of other experimenters to a subject apparently humble, but of immense importance in every kind of construction. "'The insertion of a nail is ac- complished by destroying the co- hesion of the wood; its extrac- tion, by overcoming the force of adhesion and friction. We will consider it here solely as a case of adhesion; fine sprigs, 4560 of which weighed one pound, T W of an inch long, forced into four lengths of an inch into dry Christiana deals, at right angles to the fibres, required a force of 22 pounds to extract them. " The same description of nail having 3200 in the pound, t VV of an inch long, and forced t V years after the birth of Christ. His ancestors lived at Italica in Spain; at an early age he received the name of the " Young Grecian," from his great proficiency in that language. He distinguished himself as a general under Trajan, and, at the death of that prince, he was proclaimed his successor, by the Roman legions in Syria; and, by his ADR ADR policy and prudence, he suc- ceeded in gaining the confidence and affection of the Roman peo- ple. He visited almost every part of his empire ; and his jour- ney to the Roman province in Britain was distinguished by the erection of a wall, extending from the Solway Firth on the west to Newcastle-upon-Tyne on the east, to secure the southern part which belonged to the Ro- mans from the incursions and in- roads of the Caledonians. See Adrian s Wall. On his return to Gaul, he built a magnificent palace for Plotina, the widow of Trajan. In Spain, he rebuilt the Temple of Augus- tus at Tarragona. At his visit to Athens, he adorned it with so many splendid edifices, that in gratitude the Athenians revered him as the second founder of their city, and called a part of it by his name. He rebuilt the cities of Nica?a, Caesarea, and Nicomedia, which had been des- troyed by earthquakes, and re- paired, among others, the tomb of Pompey the Great and Epami- nondas, and also the city of Alex- andria, and built Antinoe. In the year 135, he returned to Rome, and falling into a lingering disease, he retired to Tibur, and there he erected a magnificent villa. See Adrians Villa. His disorder increasing, he was re- moved to Baiae, in Campania, where he died in the year A.D. 138, after having reigned nearly twenty-two years. His ashes were brought to Rome, and de- posited in a superb mausoleum, which, he had constructed in his life-time on the bank of the Tiber. See Adrians Mausoleum. No prince ever erected so many public and private edifices Adrian. In his plans of pub- lic improvement, he was com- prehensive and liberal, even to the extreme of needless magni- ficence and profusion. There was hardly a province or a city on which he did not confer some substantial mark of his regard, for the convenience and comfort of its inhabitants; in repairing old edifices, building new ones, baths, aqueducts, harbours, and forums; and he expended large sums in renovating and embellishing the monuments whioh had been raised in former times to statesmen and heroes. Adrian was a poet and a phi- losopher, as well as an architect. 11 In him centred the most opposite qualities, the most splendid vir- tues, and the most degrading vices. Profuse and liberal — frugal even to avarice — merciful in many points — but, in others, a monster of cruelty, we shall not be far wrong/' says Crevier, " if we consider his vices as real or constitutional, and his virtues as fictitious, prompted by an un- measurable vanity and deep po- licy. His government, on the whole, was for the good of the people* in general, as this was essential to his safety; but his personal conduct made him the terror and scourge of all who were near him." Adrianeum. The tomb erect- ed by Adrian at Rome. (See Mausoleum.) Adrianople, the second city in the Turkish empire. " We en- tered the city," says Dr. Macmi- chael, " by a long, narrow bridge, built over the Tundsha, which falls into the Mariza at a little distance below the town to the south. Passing along narrow streets, darkened by wooden pro- jections from the opposite houses, we stooped under a very low ruined brick archway, in the wall of the fortress, and alighted at a 79 . ADR ADR place crowded with Albanian troops of the Pasha." The mean- ness of the private buildings are, however, a contrast to the mag- nificence of some of the public edifice?. The mosque of Selim is said to be one of the largest and most beautiful Mohammedan temples in the world. Its four minarets are flutod, and are of a very elegant construction. Mrs. Macmichael was permitted to see the interior. The floor was covered with carpets, and many lamps and ostrich eggs were sus- pended from the ceiling of the immense dome. On one side stood an elevated chair or pulpit, to which a very narrow and steep flight of steps conducted. In the centre of the mosque was a spring, surrounded with a circular screen. The exterior court of the mosque is paved with large slabs of white marble, and the antique columns of the cloisters round it, are of various orders and dimensions, but all of the most costly mate- rials, either verde antique, Egyp- tian granite, or Cipollino marble. The next chief building is the famous mosque of Ali Pacha. It is a brick building, vaulted with arches, consisting of alternate red and white bricks. A gate at each extremity, and four lateral ones, form so many entrances, and its length is about 3U0 paces. Se- pulchral monuments of white marble, many of which were covered with ornamental canopies of the same material, and all having a most splendid appear- ance, line the road on each side for a continual distance from the city. Adrian's Wall. In ancient Military Architecture. A wall, or mound, erected by the Em- peror Adrian, across England, beginning about three miles east- ward of Newcastle, and ending 80 ten miles to the west of Carlisle, measuring in length about seventy miles. This wall has passed by differ- ent names at different times, and in different languages. It was called, by ancient writers, Vallum Barbaricum, Prcelentura, Clusnra Vallum, or Mums; by the Greeks, Xomo, and Diateixisma ; by the English, the Picts Wall, or The Wall; and by the Britons, Gual Sever, Gal Sever, and Mur Sever. The names Pretentura and Clusura being given to it on account of its stretching out against, and excluding the enemy. The material of which it was composed, was earth taken from the ditches, sometimes mixed with stone; but there is no appearance of any timber ever having been used in its con- struction. It was carrjed from town to town, as much in a straight line as a work of this nature and ex- tent could be. Adrian's wall is sometimes con- founded with that of Severus, which was built on nearly the same, line, and which appears to have* been intended for a more permanent defence than that built by his predecessor. The defence consists of the principal agger, or vallum, on the brink of the ditch — the ditch, on the north side of the vallum; another agger on the south side of the vallum, and about five paces distant from it, which may be distinguished from the other by the south agger, and a large agger upon the north side of the ditch, called the north agger. This is supposed to be the mili- tary way to the ancient line of stations. The south agger was an inner defence, in case the enemy might beat them from any part of the principal vallum ADRIAN'S WALL. or to protect the Roman soldiers against any attack from the pro- vincial Britons. It is generally somewhat smaller than the prin- cipal vallum, but in some places it is larger. These four works keep all the way a constant regu- lar parallelism to each other. In one part of this line of Adrian's wall, which is still re- maining, the ditch measured nine feet in depth, and eleven feet over, the top being wider than the bottom, from the sides slop- ing. The north agger was about twenty-four feet north from the ditch, and of the two aggers of the vallum, one is always de- tached about thirty feet to the south of the ditch, and the other upon, or near the very southern edge of it. it is the opinion of some anti- quaries, that Severus's wall was built upon the same foundation with Adrian's, and with regard to some parts of its line, this is a probable conjecture ; for if the north agger has been an old military way, the supposition of a rampart, and a ditch to the north of this way, would remove the difficulty as to the soldiers being exposed to the enemy, whilst they were on their march, since then the way would have been defended on both sides. Again, the stations too, as well as the military way, are generally (though not al- ways) included between the two walls and ditches (or between the works as they are distin- guished, erected by Adrian and Scverus.) The stone wall erected by Severus frequently lulling in with the north rampart of the station, as the turf, or earthen wall of Adrian does with the southern ; besides, this advanta- geous ground is often left on the north side of Adrian s vallum, L which in one place is just carried round the south skirt of a tu- mulus, or small hill, making a sudden turn, seemingly with a design to avoid passing over it. Now it is contended that if this were intended to be the most northerly fortification, and to be a fence against the northern enemies, this conduct seems to offend against right reason, and the rule in ancient military build- ing, that care should be taken to have no neighbouring hill higher than the fortification, which being seized by the enemy, might be turned to the annoyance of those within the line of fortification. The southern prospect of Adrian's work, and the defence on that side, is generally better than on the north; whereas the northern prospect or defence has been principally, or only, taken care of in the wall of Severus. Such considerations have induced some to think that what now goes by the name of Adrian's Wall, was originally designed for a fence against any sudden insurrection of the provincial Britons, and particularly of the Brigantes ; whilst others look upon it as a fossa interior, or inner fortifica- tion, for the soldiers to retire to, after they had been beaten off by the northern enemy from their principal vallum : both agree in this, that Adrian must have built a more northerly vallum than those which now bear his name, and that this must have stood upon the same tract where Severus afterwards erected his wall. This, according to their opinion, would render the whole fortification regular and effective; whereas, without this, it must have been in many places very weak, and open to the inroads of the Caledonians. But, on the ( ther hand, plausi- 81 ADRIAN'S WALL. ble conjectures and speculative arguments, must give way to stronger proofs, though not quite decisive, on the other side ; for at this distance of time we cannot see into the design of the Romans, nor account for every particular part of their system in these erections. It is probable that Adrian's north agger was the most ancient mi- litary way leading from station to station, and that the subse- quent erection was guided and limited by it. as it keeps a con- stant parallelism to it ; the north agger, considered as such a military way, appears to be conducted according to the Roman art and rules, in every part of it. It is carried on in the shortest line from station to sta- tion ; and this, without doubt, is the true reason why it runs so much upon the southern skirts of the northern hills — the shortest line leading that way ; a circum- stance particularly remarkable in the small hill now called Halton Chesters; the direct line would have led over the hid, but to avoid climbing it, a small turn is made to carry it round the skirt, and it passes on the south side rather than on the north, because this is the shorter and more convenient way to the station towards which it is tending. The other parts of Adrian's work keep their due distance and pa- rallelism, bending exactly in the same manner as the north agger does, and so running at a few yards' distance to the south of the hill. In a word, the north agger, or old military way, keeps just such a course, and runs through such grounds as one would ex- pect such a Roman way should do. And had it been determined that Adrian's work should ac- company this, and keep all along an exact parallelism to it, they must then be tied down, and the work at some places would show some irregularities and devia- tions from the usual manner. It may be said that thsy might at least have made the fortification on the north side of the military way, if there was no other more northerly defence; but it will appear that it was hardly prac- ticable to carry on the work on the north side of th> way so as to be near and parallel to it; and such is the situation of the ground, that if the Roman architects had done so, the defence would have been generally weaker than it is, running along the very side of the hills, unless they :i;d made it where Severus's wall stands, and where it h*s been said Adrian's principal vallum stood ; but, in fact, Adrian made no vallum there. Among all the historians who mention the building of iSeverus's wall, there is not the least hint to be met with, of his building it upon the same foundation with Adrian's vallum. Spartian's ex- pression, " apud vallum," looks the likest of it of any, but this may be considered to be " near" to the vallum, with as much reason as upon it ; besides, it would be more laborious and expensive to build such a wall upon a ruinous vallum, than to erect it upon ground that was entirely clear, even supposing that the ideas of stability among Roman architects would have permitted their erecting a stone wall upon the foundation of an artificial earthen one. There is likewise no appearance at present of any such vallum, and it seems difficult to suppose that the agger of earth has been every where so entirely removed, as to leave no visible remains of it any where ADRIAN'S WALL. along the whole tract of the wail. Again, Severus's wall passes over large spaces where the erect- ing of an earthen rampart seems almost impracticable; sometimes k passes for a considerable way along the tops of precipices, and sometimes down the steep decli- vity of a bare rock, and in these places there is no ditch ; in one place it is carried through a small morass, where its foundation may be helped with piles of wood ; but Adrian's work shuns it, and runs at ten chains' distance from it. The constant parallelism of the north aggar — the ditch and the two southern aggars of Adri- an's wall, is a sure indication of their mutual relation ; but this parallelism does not hold in the wall of Severus: where they are most distant, there are no visible branches of any military way leading from the one to the other, whereby the communication be- tween them might be more easily preserved: in some places, as we have seen, there is a morass be- tween the two walls, which must make a retreat from one wall to the other inconvenient, if not impracticable. The military way that now follows Severus's wall is agreed to have been made at the same time with the wall it- self; if, then, Adrian's principal vallum was on the same ground where the wali of Severus has stood, how comes it to pass that there has been no military way accompanying it. If Adrian's work is supposed to have been designed for a de- fence against an attack from the south, difficulties almost insur- mv/jntable are raised, for some- times the advantageous ground is left on the south, where it might easily have been otherwise ordered, if their de- sign had only been to secure themselves against assailants from the south, and the course of their fortifications had not been previously determined by some other rule. In one place, the vallum runs between higher grounds on each side ; besides, if it were designed against an ene- my from the south, the ditch is on the wrong side, being to the north of the two ramparts : and why may it not. be supposed that the most southerly rampart either was a slight fence against an attack from the south, or an in- terior defence to retreat to, if the ditch should be carried by an assault from the north ? There was no occasion to draw such a line of defence, in order to pre- vent an attack being made upon the stations, for they are stronger on all sides than this vallum. As far as the old military way is concerned in the difficulty, it would be better lessened by ob- serving, that there is an inner military way, which is also shorter, that reaches half the length of the wall from Walwick Chesters to Carrvoran in Nor- thumberland, and probably as far as Stanwicks in Cumberland. Each end of Severus's wall is continued beyond Adrian's: this could not be erected on Adrian's vallum, and there is no diffe- rence in the appearance of the work here and in the other parts of it. In one part of the line of defence, between Carraw and Threeppell House, the united mi litary way was eight yards broad and about four feet high ; in tome places it is much higher; farther to the west, nine feet broad or more. The north agger continues after the bepa ration large and high, though neither so large nor so broad as ADRIAN'S WALL. when the two were united. Its remains were mixed with stones, and no regular pavement now appears. Severus's military way, after his parting, appears little raised, but regularly paved: near this separation Adrian's vallum keeps the loiv ground all the way, and far a good space is in a narrow ground between two hills ; while Severus's runs along the very brink of the precipices, which in some places have been made steeper by art, in order to render them more inaccessible. They have made no ditch to Se- verus's wall, when they had the advantage of a precipice, nor was there the least occasion for it, but in the hollow intervals between the rocks, they have often drawn a ditch. Adrian's wall, as well as that of Severus's, would have been incomplete without a chain of forts built at certain distances, so as to preserve the communica- tion throughout its line, both for succour in case of attack, and also to , form a sort of military observatories, in which they could overlook the operations or mo- tions of their antagonists. It is probable that this series of forts called stations, per lineam valli, placed quite across the coun- try, existed before the construc- tion of this wall ; a mode which was used by Julius Agrico- la. " It is probable," says Cam- den, " that in times of peace the frontier garrisons were kept Along the line in castles and cities ; but when they were ap- prehensive of the incursions of their neighbours, part of them, for the defence of their own, pitched their tents in the enemy's country, and made excursions into their quarters, and hence we hear of stationes agrarice." " Agricola," says Tacitus, '« built 84 such a row of forts quite across the country in Scotland, and Antoninus built his wall along the same tract. So Adrian car- ried his wall from fort to fort, which had been erected before his time; and we find the course of the wall directed as much as it well could be from station to station, and making some turns with no other view but to come up to, and fetch in a station. Severus's wall generally falling in with the north rampart, and Adrian's with the south, though sometimes both the one and the other fell in with the middle sta- tion. In some particular cases they both keep on the north side, and touch not the station at alh It is remarkable there is not one of those stations, which is all of it on the north of Severus's wall, though it is sometimes different with Adrian's, and the reason for this peculiar arrangement might be, that the stations were stronger than Adrian's vallum, and so generally left without it. But Severus's wall was made as strong, or stronger than they, and, therefore, was erected more to the north, and included them all within it. For an account of these stations, see Castelium, Castramentation. The objection to the north agger being a military wa}', on account of its laying to the north, or enemies' side, with respect to Adrian's vallum and ditch, may be accounted for, if we consider it to have been in existence before that emperor began his opera- tions, and to have run between station and station: it is, how- ever, within, or on the south side of, this line of stations* Per- haps Adrian's vallum and ditch, at the same time that it joined and strengthened the stations, might also have been designed A D 11 ADR for a place or" retreat for the sol- diers, if they should at any time be suddenly attacked on their march. If the vallum of Adrian had been carried on all the way on the north side of what is here considered to have been the old military way, it would, in the main, have been weaker as a defence than it now is; for. as the north agger runs very often along the south skirt of the hills, so, if the ramparts and ditch had been north of it, they must have gone along the very side, or de- clivity of the hill, leaving the upper part of it on the north : they might, therefore, choose to make the vallum stronger, though this militarv way should be more exposed to the enemy: the vallum was to be a constant fence to the whole province, the military way was only used on occasions, and therefore it was advisable to give the preference to tlie vallum for strength and security, espe- cially, as has been noticed, that this very vallum might also be a security to the soldiers when marching; for, upon the first ap- pearance or intelligence of the enemy, they might retire quickly behind it. There do not, how- ever, appear to be any conve- nient passages for this retreat, except at the stations, — a diffi- culty which is quite as great to get over, on the conjecture that the north agger was a rampart to receive the first assault of the northern enemy; for, if the Ro- mans were beaten off this, they must, of course, be precipitated into the ditch, as they had not means, at least none now appear, for passing it. The north agger generally runs along such ground as is fittest for a military way, and .such as the Romans usually made choice of; for it enters, or keeps the ground that is a little higher than the adjacent, or else the skirt of a hilJ without climbing it ; by this means the way was preserved dry, and the rain ran off as it fell. Adrian's Villa. Though far inferior to his predecessor in vir- tues and great qualities, the Emperor Adrian left, in almost every corner of the empire, splen- did proofs of his knowledge, taste, and love of architecture. 1 1 is villa, three miles from Tivoli, was one of the most extraordinary buildings ever erected. Adrian seems to have intended, to collect, in this spot, all the various excellences of the build- ings of the numerous countries he had visited : — Kgyptian eru- dition, Asiatic magnificence, and Grecian elegance, were here united to recal to his recollection those scenes which had, in his travels, attracted his admiration or wonder. The buildings and plantations appear to have ex- tended over an area about six miles in circumference (Winkel- man says ten) ; there were pro- bably other edifices and gardens in the vicinity, which also be- longed to him, if we may judge by inscriptions found amongst ruins situated at a greater dis- tance. This gorgeous villa was divided into seven parts : the hyceftm* the Academy, Pri/laneum, Egyp- tian Canopus, Pcealc, Valla/ of Tempe, or Kl-ysian Fields — nil the Infernal Regions. The principal gate appears to have been placed towards the Ponte Lucano, whence there was a pav*d road to the villa. On entering the gate, there were numerous buildings, where, it is conjectured, the military guards attending upon the kmper >r were lodged. The Puecile was an J™ Station ADRIAN'S VILLA. of the portico at Athens, so named on account of the nume- rous paintings with which it was adorned. A wall, running east and west, divided this portico, which protected those using it from the heat of the sun at all hours of the day. Adrian was accustomed to assemble learned men in this portico, and several apartments adjoining to it were dedicated to the prosecution of their studies — a temple stood near it. Near this spot was an oval space, surrounded with a portico, and having in the midst an oc- tagon temple with a fountain. The frieze of this building was adorned with elegant bas reliefs of cupids drawn by wolves and swans. At a small distance stood a library, raised on a high wall, with twenty-five niches for sta- tues ; and on an adjoining emi- nence a theatre with porticoes, and numerous dressing-rooms for the actors. In the southern division were the hot and cold baths, with the different apartments usually at- tached to them, dressing-rooms, galleries for v/restling and walk- ing, decorated with sumptuous ornaments of marble, stucco, and painting. Adjoining the academy was a circular temple, dedicated to Apollo and the Muses, with habi- tations for the priests and minis- ters, with numberless schools and houses for the accommodation of the students, with gardens, groves, and great abundance of water, brought from a considera- ble distance. Beside the temple was a menagerie. In the Lyceum were contained numerous restorations of Grecian buildings — here were placed Xys- tus, and porticoes for the Peripa- tetics — temples and groves almost without number. The part called Canopus, had a temple dedicated to Egyptian Canopus. This represented an immense shell, and at the back of it was a gallery, and the abode of the oracle. This temple stood at the end of a valley, which con- tained a naumachia, where the Emperor used to celebrate games in honour of Canopus. The wind- ing stairs, which the different spec- tators ascended and descended without incommoding each other, have been greatly celebrated. At the other end of the valley was a place called the Infernal Regions, where streams were in- troduced, named Lethe, Cocy- tus, and Phlegethon, with nume- rous buildings and paintings, al- luding to similar subjects; and also here were habitations for slaves. Not far from this spot was a division of the villa, called the Valley of Tempe, with the Ely- sian Fields, where every thing the most beautiful was collected, and where nature vied with art in the profusion of her beauties. This part of the villa was emi- nently delightful and attractive. The Prytaneum was at the southern extremity, and was built in imitation of that at Athens, which was a court of justice, with dwelling-houses for the judges and officers belonging to them. When Adrian had completed this wonderful assemblage of riches and magnificence, he cele- brated the Encaenia, and perform- ed a solemn sacrifice to Hercules. These are thought to have been the grand divisions of tins cele- brated villa, which, in less than forty years after it had been com- pleted, began to be dilapidated, iiis successor removed some of the most valuable ornaments, to decorate the baths he erected at Rome. Caracalla also removed ADRIAN'S VILLA. many at the ornaments. Suc- ceeding emperors following his example, the villa was stripped of its decorations, and aban- doned. Of this immense building there are still some considerable parts in existence, and the foundations of the greater part can still be traced on the spot — at one extre- mity are seen two theatres. In one of these buildings the exte- rior portico may be traced — the rooms for the actors, and the stairs by which they ascended to Ihe theatre j the stage-door, the side porticoes of the proscenium, and the orchestra. The palcestrum forms a great court, around which, from the appearance of the ruins, were porticoes and arcades. At the further end is a large recess, in which, it is thought, the em- peror was placed when he re- viewed his troops. A small edi- fice is still nearly entire, conceived to be the remains of a bath. All the apartments of which this building is composed are very small, and are lighted from the top. Their forms differ from each other, and many of them are exceedingly singular. The circular court of the me- nagerie is also visible, and the basin of the naumachia, which is filled with the waters of the Anio. Winkelman says, that the basin has formerly been lined with " Jaune antique" marble. An- other square court may be traced, having a small rotunda at its ex- tremity, of which the circumfer- ence is formed by three concave arches and three convex arches placed alternately. In another ruin are found many parts finely proportioned, and the tornis academically varied. The rums of the Temple of Canopus overlook the naumachia. In this 8pot were found the scci-horse sacred to Neptune, Isis, Osiris, Orus, the Ibis, and other hiero- glyphics, characteristic of an Egyptian building. In Kircher's time the stairs, constructed so as to prevent those who either as- cended or descended from meet- ing each other, could be traced At the bottom are the ruins of a grand niche, ornamented with a number of smaller square niches in its circumference. By what has been found in this spot, it appears that it was a grotto adorned with cascades. The light is admitted into this grotto in a manner very favourable to the general effect. In another quarter, near that which is supposed to have been the Elysian fields, are some halls almost perfect. Above all, one which is called the " Stanza d'Adriano ;" also the ruins of grand staircases, courts, colon- nades, temples, and aqueducts, and a hippodrome, or riding- school. The ruins on the north side consist in a court or square, a circular portico, and a quadrila- teral temple, with a semicircular tribune, containing seven square niches. The most celebrated of all tnese rums, according to Win- kelman, is that portion named the * Hundred Chambers," appropri- ated for the emperor's guard : they had no communication with each other except by an external gallery of wood, of which the communication was interrupted by a single sentinel. There is the remains of a round building, which it is supposed was occu- pied by soldiers of the body-guard. At each rising of the arch were two pannels upon the faces of the projecting stones : on one of Lhcse was observed the initials, or abridged name, of a soldier, AD V A D V written in black, as if with the finger. The plan of the ruins of this villa gives a clear idea of its great extent : the names marked on it are those which are usually given to the various parts by antiqua- ries. The dark shading distin- guishes the portions compara- tively in good preservation, and the lighter shading, or dotted lines, those divisions which are in a more ruinous state. Under the word ceiling will be found some of the remains of the interior decorations of this gorgeous pa- lace. The site of this villa has not ceased, since the revival of the arts, to be a mine, from which its proprietors have extracted im- mense numbers of the finest re- mains of ancient art ; and it is rare that the labour of a new search, or excavation, is not re- warded by the discovery of some of its seemingly inexhaustible treasures. From this spot, the principal European museums and collectors are indebted for many of their most valuable antiques. Aduar, Adouar, Adouard. A kind of ambulatory village among the Arabs, and moved for the con- venience of pasturage and water. It has been estimated that there are upwards of thirty thousand of these aduars in the kingdom of Algiers alone. Advanced-work. In military architecture. A work constructed beyond the covered way, or glacis of a fortress $ but either near to the foot of the glacis, or at a mo- derate distance from it — not ge- nerally exceeding 250 yards, in order that such work laving un- der the protection of the fire of the fortress it may derive aid, in case of being attacked by an enemy. The term is used as opposed to 88 a detached work, or one at such a distance (between 800 or 900 yards) as not to receive effectual support from the fortress. Advance-Fosse. In military architecture. A ditch thrown across the esplanade, or glacis of a place, to prevent its being sur- prised by the besiegers. The ditch sometimes made in that part of the lines or retrenchments nearest to the enemy, to prevent him from attacking them, is also called the advance-fosse. This defence should always be filled with water, otherwise it would serve as a shelter to cover the enemy, if he got possession of it, from the fire of the battery or fortress ; redoubts and other works are usually constructed beyond the advance-fosse. Advanced-Traverse. In mili- tary architecture. See Traverse. Adze, or Addice. A cutting tool, of the axe kind, having its blade made thin, or arching, and set at right angles to the handle. It is chiefly used for taking thin chips off timber or boards, and for paring away those inequalities which the common axe, from its form, cannot touch. The greater proportion of tim- ber used in many ancient build- ings appears to have been fashion- ed with this instrument. It is still employed by carpenters, but its use, from the perfection of other instruments, is on the de- cline : ship-carpenters very gene- rally use it, and in their hands it is an instrument as pliable as it is effective. Coopers find it a con- venient tool for many purposes. It is ground from a base on its inside to its outer edge, and on this account the blade is required to be detached from the handle, previ- ous to having its edge repaired. See Tool. Adytum, (aduton, Gr.) A re- A D y T U JUL tired or sacred place in ancient temples, which no one but the priest was permitted to enter. It was usually dark, except when illuminated with flambeaus, and the statue of the Divinity was placed in it, to prevent its too near inspection by its worship- pers. The adytum was some- times a subterranean chamber. Pausanias, describing a temple of Neptune in the isthmus of Corinth, mentions "a place under ground, called an aduton, where it is reported Portunces lay hid. In which place, if any one, Corinthian or stranger, perjures himself, he will certainly die lor his impiety." At the foot of the hill of the Acropolis of Argos was found one of the most curious tell-tale re- mains yet discovered among the vestiges of Pagan priestcraft. One of the oracular shrines of Argos, alluded to by Pausanias, laid open to inspection, like a toy a child has broken, in order that he may see the contrivance where- by it was made to speak : a more interesting sight for modern cu- riosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Grecian city. In its original state it had been a temple. The farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an excavation from the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, and part of the fictile superstructure ; but the most re- markable part of the whole is a secret subterraneous passage ter- minating behind the altar, its entrance being at a considerable distance towards the right of a person facing the altar, and so cunningly contrived as to have an aperture easily concealed, and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough to admit the. entrance of a single person, who, having de- scended into the narrow passage, might creep along until he ar- rived immediately behind the centre of the altar, where, being hid by some colossal statue, or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce a most im- posing effect among the humble votaries prostrate beneath, who were listening in silence upon the floor of the sanctuary. " We amused ourselves," says the tra- veller, who discovered it, " for a few minutes, by endeavour- ing to mimic the sort of solemn farce acted upon these occasions, and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotundo from the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverbe- ration caused by the sides of the rock, afforded a tolerable spe- cimen of the ' will of the gods,' as it was formerly made known to the credulous votaries of this now-forgotten shrine. There were not fewer than twenty-five of these juggling places in Pelo- ponnesus, and as many in the single province of Boeotia ; and surely it will never become a question among learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the inspiration of evil spirits, or whether they pro- ceeded from the imposture of priests. Neither can it again be urged that they ceased at the birth of Christ, because Pausanias bears testimony to their existence at Argos in the second century after Christ : perhaps it was to this very shrine that his evidence refers." At Delphi there was a supersti- tion that the adytum of five stones of the Temple of Apollo stood in the middle of the earth, and the navel of the world was shown in the shrine, as it was also in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. b9 ADYTUM. Amongst all that now remains rf the Antiquities of Greece, v jnere is nothing better authenti- cated, than the Hieron ofTro- -honius, the site of it being dis- tinctly ascertained by the cavities grooved in the rock, for the re- ception of the votive offerings. 2The only uncertainty respects the adytum, where the oracle was supposed to reside ; for although the mouth of this place seems fery accurately to correspond with the account of it given by Pausanias, the interior has never been explored in modern times. Every thing belonging to the Hieron appears to exist in its original state, except that the vows have been removed from the niches, wherein they were placed; und that the narrow entrance, supposed to lead to the adytum, is now choked with stones and rubbish. The women of Lebadea kindle fires here while washing their linen, and the sides of it are consequently covered with :oot. This aperture in the rock is close to the ground ; immediately below it, in front of the little ter- race, above which the niches were Cut for the dona votiva, a fountain issues from several small pipes, often out of repair, into a bath, the interior of which is faced with 7arge hewn stones and pieces of marble ; here the Lebadean wo- men wash their linen. This bath was used by those who came to consult the oracle ; for these per- sons were obliged to purify them- Eelves, and abstain from the use of hot baths — a few paces from this, is the spot where the river Hercynia bursts forth. It rises, according to Pausanias, within the cavern. It is from this clear, that ".he cavern and adytum were two distinct things • — the first was a xnall aperture within the other, and the appellation was applied to the whole of the chasm, or range of precipitous rocks, around the place which contained not only the sacred aperture but all the source of the Hercynia, and per- haps the grove of Trophonius, with all its temples, statues, and other votive offerings. — Pau- sanias describes the stoma, or mouth of the adytum, as it now appears, to have been a small opening like unto an oven, and i* was near the terrace and floor ; for the votary lying down was thrust into it, with his feet fore- most, the rest of his body being rapidly hauled in afterwards by some person or persons within the adytum. The most sacred part of the Hieron, containing the narrow entrance to the adytum, and tin receptacles for the offerings, is a perpendicular rock of black mar- ble. It faces the east. The niches are above the stoma, or entrance to the adytum, and are 12 ir number — the most capacious U an entire chamber excavated fron the stone, of 12 feet 8 inches long, 11 feet 3 inches wide, and 8 feet 9 inches high ; this con- tains a stone bench 8 feet 9 inchc long, 14 inches wide, and IS inches high ; immediately below the chamber, which is elevated 5 feet 10 inches above the ground is the stoma or sacred aperture ol the adytum. It is small and low and shaped like an oven, and it is * in fact barely capacious enough tc admit the passage of man's body ; the adytum itself could not be explored from the passage being choked with rubbish, w hich the traveller who discovered i' had no means of removing. The small area in front of the sacred aperture was surrounded by a wal of white stone not more than twe cubits high, this being all tlu ADYTUM. elevation necessary to conceal it from sight. In the Parthenon, a peplus, or curtain, was upon ordinary occa- sions interposed between the sta- tue of the goddess and the wor- shippers j " this served to defend the statue from dust and mois- ture, which entered through the hypaethrum ; at the same time that it added to the sanctity of the goddess by preventing her from being seen upon every oc- casional opening of the door. The enclosed space may be con- sidered as the adytum, and the hypaethral part of the chamber the sanctum. This curtain was embroidered with the battles of the gods and giants, the warlike actions of Minerva, chariot-races, and portraits of illustrious Athe- nians. In the temple at Ephesus an ascending curtain was used, but it is probable that in the Par- thenon of the Acropolis, as well as in the temple at Olympia, the curtain was a descending one." On making an excavation in the ancient city of Pompeii, a temple of Isis was discovered. The outward appearance of this building was simplicity itself, its architecture slight, and without any pretensions to the grandeur or solidity of those places of worship which were dedicated to the great national deities. The vo- taries of the Sabine Isis, as she is named in an inscription still fixed in the wall, were ambitious only of erecting a small, neat sanctuary, not a grand fabric, as perhaps the earthquake, which did incredible damage in Cam- pania in the reign of Nero, had affected their fortunes too sen- sibly to allow of a more extensive undertaking. The walls are co- vered with ornaments in stucco executed in a coarse manner : the penetrate, or adytum of the tem- ple, is a small pavilion raised upon steps, under which is a vault, that may have served for the purposes of oracular impo- sition. The statue of the goddess had disappeared before the area was uncovered. The secos of Egyptian temples, described by Strabo, appears to have corresponded with the adu- ton of the Greek shrines. In the secos no representation of the human figure was permitted to be sculptured, but the walls were covered with symbolical re- presentations of the figures of animals. This further appears from a passage in Lucian, where an observation is illustrated by a reference to " Egyptian temples, which are so beautiful on the out- side, but within only contain re- presentations of monsters." The adytum, or holy of holies, or sanctum sanctorum, of the temple at Jerusalem, formed the smaller portion of the tabernacle. Its length, breadth, and height, were each ten cubits, and it was divided from the sanc- tum or holy, by a veil or cur- tain of very rich cloth, which was hung from four pillars of shittim-wood that were covered with plates of gold. In this re- ceptacle was placed the ark of the covenant. The adytum and sanctum together formed the tabernacle, an oblong square 30 cubits long by 10 broad and 10 high. The adytum had no win- dow, the tabernacle was lighted from the spaces between the columns at one end. Its three sides and roof were enclosed by planks of shittim-wood, overlaid or ornamented with plates of gold, — over these were thrown curtains — the first on the inside of a hyacinth colour, with stripes of purple and crimson ; over this curtain was a curtain of goats M D I JR G E Lair, to prevent the splendid co- vering beneath from being injured by the soaking of rain. The whole erection of adytum and sanctum was so contrived as to be easily taken to pieces, and re- erected. The excavations at Elora and Elephanta are also conjectured to shew traces of an adytum j and the temples of almost every Asiatic divinity are furnished with this distinction. t^des. In ancient Roman ar- chitecture. Is distinguished from temple, as being dedicated to the worship of some divinity, without a special consecration by Jhe augurs. They have been compared to chapels. In gene- ral they differed nothing from temples except in their size and less expense of their decorations; and an inscription, placed at the entrance, which announced that they had not been formally consecrated. A great number of these buildings were spread over the different quarters of Rome. The distinction between sedes and temple was observed among the earlier Romans, but it was latterly lost, and it is now difficult to assign a building as belong- ing either to the first or second classes. iEmcuLA. Sometimes ex- presses a low and small house ; at other times, a building dedi- cated to some deity, considered as a diminutive of the building called aides ; a niche, or taber- nacle, or adytum formed in the wall to enclose a small statue of the Lares and Penates ; also a vo- tive offering representing temples, and suspended in temples, and, above all, in that of Diana, at Ephesus. Nothing gives a better idea of Kdioula, considered as a dimi- V2 nutive temple, than the small cir- cular edifice by Bramante in the court of the convent of St. Peter, in Montorio, or the small monu- ment standing in the enclosure of the temple at Pompeii, to- wards the angle on the right hand on entering. Of the same sort were the eediculae of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, in the capitol erected by Tarquin, and standing within the peribolus of the greater temple or in one of its surround- ing courts. Many of the buildings pointed out by antiquaries as examples of aediculae appear to be tombs, of an unknown character ; such as the pretended adicula ridiculi, erected by the Romans, in deri- sion of Hannibal's being pre- vented by the cold weather from advancing upon Rome after the battle of Cannae, which is nothing more than a tomb of the lower ages, indicated by its interior ar- rangement, and the small niches destined for the reception of se- pulchral urns. j^diculus. Among ancient builders, the god who was sup- posed to preside over the erection of buildings, and who was espe- cially diligent in watching over their preservation. iEc.ESTA. Ancient history, says Wilkins in his splendid u Antiqui- ties of Magna GraBcia," refers the origin of the city of iEgesta to a period near that of the Trojan war. Elymus and iEgestus, who abandoned Troy, when taken by the Greeks, planted a colony in Sicily, which was visited by ^Eneas, and joined by the Trojans, who accompanied him. This colony was named after its foun- der, Elymus, and the city received its name from iEgestus. yEgesta remained under the dominion of Carthage until the time of Agathocles, who plun- M G E S T A. dered it, and changed its name to Dieeapolis. After his retreat to Gela it reverted to the Cartha- ginians. Pyrrhus afterwards made himself master of it ; but when he fled from Sicily it again fell into their power. Surviving many vi- cissitudes of fortune, it retained its importance until theSaracenic con- quest, which involving all Sicily in desolation and ruin, extended its fatal consequences toiEgesta; it was then entirely destroyed. A doric temple standing upon the brow of a craggy precipice, to the east of the ancient bound- ary of the city, has survived the overthrow of the city. Any opinion as to the period when this magnificent monument of the taste and piety of the iEgestans was erected must rest upon con- jecture, unless it be allowed to be the temple mentioned by Diony- sius Halicarnas^us as that which was built by the Trojans, who re- mained in Sicily after the depar- ture of iEneas. If solidity of construction, and simplicity of style and design, be considered as marks of antiquity, this temple may be considered as of the ear- liest age. It has six columns in front, and fourteen in the sides, including those at the angles. These columns are unlike every other specimen of Greek archi- tecture in the island, inasmuch as they have no flutings, and it does not appear that there ever was an intention of supplying these or- naments. The diameter of the columns at the b;ise is about 6 feet 7 inches, and below the capital about 4 feet 1 1 inches. A groove is formed at the bottom of every shaft, which is supposed to have been made for the recep- tion of bronze bases. The plat- form, or stylobate, on which the temple stands, is formed of three steps 5 the upper step is sculp- tured in a somewhat singular manner ; each stone having a projecting knob, similar to those on one of the walls of the Pro- pylaea at Athens. Mr. Wjlkins remarks, that it might appear that they were left for the purpose of assisting the raising of the stones, were it not that they ob- serve a certain order of disposi- tion which would indicate that something more than mere con- venience was consulted in form- ing and leaving them. Some of the stones forming the upper step having disappeared from the intervals between the columns, gives them the appearance of standing on square plinths. All the columns remain, and are nearly entire ; the entablature has suffered but little, and, excepting some portions of the cornice, the pediment is almost perfect. All traces of the walls of the cella have vanished, and the floors of the cella, and also those of the peristyles, have been taken up so completely, as to expose the bare rock on which the temple is founded. Fig. I., on the plates marked JEgesta, is apian of the temple. Fig. II., a geometrical elevation of the front of the temple. Fig. III., an elevation of its peristyle. Fig. IV., the capitals and en- tablature to a larger scale. From the similarity of the pro- portions of this temple to those of the temple of Solomon, it is conjectured, that the same prin- ciples of construction were follow- ed in both: and, when we in- vestigate at what period, and under what circumstances they were built, we will find a relation subsisting between them which is too particular and exact to have been the effect of chance. ./Ecus, the supposed founder, lived twen- 93 M GIN A ty-seven years after the founding of Solomon's temple. ^Egina. The gulf included within the two promontories, Sunium and Scyllaeum, contains several islands, of which that called jEgina is more remark- able, as containing some remains of Greek architecture in its best ages. The doric temple, sup- posed to have been dedicated to Venus, is one of the most chaste and pleasing examples of this order, neither partaking of the low and heavy proportions of the temple of Corinth, nor of the tall and slender form of that of Jupi- ter at Nemea. In the time of Chandler, the two columns, which alone re- mained of this edifice, were en- tire, and then supported an archi- trave. The upper half of one of the columns has fallen, and the architrave has disappeared. The stone of which they were com- posed, is of a soft calcareous nature, and the total destruction of the temple may be as much owing to this cause as to that of the concussions of earthquakes. The temple of Jupiter, Pan- hellenius, after that of Corinth, is probably the most ancient temple in Greece. Mount Panhellenion, upon which the temple stands, commands a prospect of a large part of the island : the temple is placed upon a platform, that was, in ancient times, supported or formed by terrace walls, of regu- lar construction, resting upon others, which are composed of polygon stones, and more ancient in appearance than the super- structure. Its situation is now far from any habitation, and sur- rounded with shrubs and small pine trees. No ruin in Greece is more picturesque, and the ap- proach to it is exquisitely at- tractive. 94 The temple originally consisted of 36 columns, exclusive of those within the cella, having 6 at each end, and 12 at each side j being a deviation from the usual rule of doric temples, which general- ly have, at each flank, one more than double the number in front : within the cella were ten smaller columns, 5 on each side, which supported the roof ; the lower parts of these are still in their original position ; 25 columns are still entire. The greater part of the architrave is preserved, but the cornice, metops,and triglyphs have fallen. Many of the columns have been injured, by boring for metal to their very centre. The stone of which the temple is composed, is soft and porous, and was easily worked j it was coated with a thin stucco, which must have given it the appear- ance of marble. The architrave was painted, and the cornice elegantly ornamented in the same manner. Most of the co- lumns are in several layers of stones ; some of them, however, are single blocks, like those of the Temple of Venus, and of the temple at Corinth. In Greece, when the columns are of mar- ble, it is rare that they are of one piece : except the ionic pillars near the monument of Lysikrates, and the two tnpodal columns above the monument of Thra- syllos, and the single column of cipolino, at Athens. In Italian temples the columns are fre- quently in one piece, whether of marble or other stone. When the large blocks of stone were removed, which covered the inside of the temple, the pave- ment of the cella was found to have been covered with a fine stucco, painted of a vermilion colour, and about one-sixth of an inch in thickness. iE G I N A. The architecture of this temple approaches nearly to tnat of the hexastyie hypeethral temple at Paestum : no remains have been found of the covering: of the pro- naos, or of the interior porticoes. The roof was probably worked in marble, cut in the form of tiles, as had been first practised in the temple of Jupiter at Olym- pki ; an invention attributed to Byzes, of Naxos, about 580 years before Christ. The Tower of the Winds and the choragie monument of Lysikrates at Athens, exhibit some specimens of this style, which appears to have been followed by the Greek colonies in Italy, but not to have been practised or understood by the Romans, who used the Etrus- can form of construction ; orna- menting their brick buildings with industations of stucco, painting, and basso-relievos, moulded -in Terra Cotta. The celebrated collection of yEgina marbles, formed part of the decoration of this temple. They were brought to light by Mr. R. Cockerell, and the dis- covery in its importance has not been surpassed by any in modern times. The figures are conjectured to represent the heroes of the Iliad, contending with the Trojans for the body of Patroclus. The bodies of some are naked, while others are represented as clothed with armour, or leather : and their at- titudes are judiciously adapted to the form of the tympanum, and to the places which they oc- cupied. In the opinion of anti- quaries, they were sculptured before the era of the introduction of the beau ideal in Greek sculp- ture : — the muscles and veins, anatomically correct, exhibit the flexible softness of life, and every imitation of movement is in scientific harmony with nature. " The limbs are strong, though not herculean ; elegant, without effeminacy : no preposterous muscular protuberance, no un- natural feminine delicacy offends the eye — they are noble without being harsh, or rigid, and com- posed with doric severity, min- gled with the airy grace of youth- ful forms. The perfection of the finish is quite wonderful ; every part is in a style worthy of the most beautiful cameo." The extremities of the hands and feet merit particular praise. In general, the ancients thought that elegant fingers and nails were essential ingredients of the beautiful. The high finish of the hair is, also, another peculiarity j some of the curls, which hang down in short ringlets, are of lead, and still remain : the hel- mets were ornamented with metal accessories, and the wea- pons were probably of bronze : but these have not been found. All the figures have been painted — the colour is still visible, though nearly effaced — on the segis of Minerva it is still very distinguishable. The ground of the tympanum was painted blue, probably to indicate that the action took place in the open air. One of the most extraordinary circumstances connected with these tympanum ornaments, is the sameness of countenance, and want of expression in the faces — an unmeaning and inani- mate smile prevails in all the faces — even one of the heroes, who is mortally wounded, and supporting himself in a most beautiful attitude, is smiling at death : the conquerors, and the conquered — the dying, and the dead, have all one expression — or, rather, none at all. This identity is conjectured to have 95 M G IS jELU Deen designed on account of some religious prejudice — perhaps some archaic, and much venera- ted, statue served as a model, from which it might have been thought irreverent, or inconsist- ent to deviate — for it can hardly be supposed that artists, capable of giving the greatest animation and character to the limbs, either wanted the observation, to trace the movements of the counten- ance, or the power of fixing them in marble. Candelabra, made at iEgina, were valued, among the an- cients, as highly as those, made at Tarentum. Those of Tarentum were esteemed for their fine forms, of iEgina, for their finished workmanship. Candelabra, com- bining these excellencies, were of the most expensive kind, and it is mentioned by Pliny, to the reproach of Gegania, a rich Ro- man lady, that she had given 50,000 sesterces for a candela- brum, which was the joint pro- duction of both those celebrated manufactories The ceramic vases of the is- land, were in equal estimation, and have a lustre and polish equal to those of Nola. Vases of va- rious colours are often found here, and are interesting, from their fine forms, and great bril- liancy. ^Egis. In decoration. A breast- plate, or shield. The aegis of Jupiter and Minerva, are those most usually seen on ancient sculptures. That of Minerva is thus described by Homer : " Mi- nerva, the daughter of Jupiter iEgiochus, sheathes herself in armour. Her shoulders she co- vers with the aegis, the tremen- dous aegis, encompassed round with terror, discord, force, as- sault. In the middle was the gorgon.'s head, the dire potent 96 of Jupiter, the awful aegis oearer.** The ornament distinguishes kings and military chiefs ; and the em- perors of Rome are sometimes sculptured as wearing the gor- gon's head on the breast of their armour. See Shield. ^Egricanes. Sculptured re- presentations of the heads and skulls of rams, which are used as a decoration on altars, friezes, &c. imitated from the custom of suspending that part of the ani- mals sacrificed in front of the altar ; or from the friezes of temples. iEGYci. Pointed stones, or obelisks consecrated to Apollo, and placed in the vestibules, and outside of houses, for their se- curity. iEgyci were sometimes nothing more than large stones, having a square, or circular basis, ter- minating in a point. Sometimes the head of Apollo, or Mercury, was carved upon them ; or a head of Bacchus, as protector of the highways : according to some authors, they served the same purpose as our direction-posts. ^Egyptian Architecture. See Egyptian. ./Egyptilia. In decoration. A species of Egyptian ornaments, having a light blue figure or device on a dark or black ground. ./Elamoth. (Heb.) A vestibule. tElia Capitolina. A name given by the emperor Adrian to the new city which he caused to be built near the spot where the ancient Jerusalem stood. Here he settled a colony, and con- secrated a temple to Jupiter Ca- pitolinus. ./Elurus. In Egyptian orna- ment. The god cat j represented sometimes in propria personal, and sometimes as a man with a cat's head. iE T R JEmilius Pons. One of the bridges of ancient Rome j called also Sublicius, because it was built on piles. JEne,e. In ancient naval archi- tecture. A ship armed for war- like purposes, with a brazen prow. yEneatores. In decoration. Mi- litary musicians, seen on many ancient monuments, particularly on the Trajan and Antonine co- lumns j they are further distin- guished by the particular name of the instruments they are repre- sented playing upon. iEoLiPiLE. A hollow metal ball, with a small hole perforated in it, or having a slender pipe rising from it. This vessel, filled with water, and placed on the fire, produces a vehement blast of air. The asolipile was applied to a sort of bellows, to blow the fire, where a very intense heat was required ; and which it accom- plishes, not by expelling the water it contains in the form of steam into the fire, but carrying the air between its orifice and the fire into contact with the fuel. It has been proposed to fumi- gate, or scent rooms, by filling it with perfumed, instead of common water. It has been applied as a curer of smoky chimnies : by being hung over the fire, its vapour causes a rapid current of air to be determined up the chimney. Dr. Plott gives an instance where an seolipile is actually made to blow the fire. The lord of the manor of Effington, is bound by his tenure to drive a goose, every new-year's day, three times round the hall of the lord of Hilton, while Jack of Hilton (a brazen image) blows the fire. An antique aeolipile is described in the Archajologia, vol. xiii., p. N 410 : it is made of bronze, in a very rude style of workmanship, and its form is a grotesque imita- tion of a human figure. It has a hole at the back of the neck, to admit the water, and a small hole in the mouth, to occasion the blast. For some other uses of the aeolipile, see Stuart's Descrip- tive History of the Steam Engine. ^quum. An ancient city near Seign, in Morlachia. Pieces of cornices, pillars, and other frag- mants of antique architecture, are occasionally found on its site. ./Erarium. (From ces, ceris, Lat. copper, that being originally the only metal used in Roman mo- ney.) The public treasury of the Roman state. The Temple of Saturn was the great cerarium. When, on account of the in- crease of the Roman empire, the part of the temple appropriated to this purpose was not sufficient to lodge all the money and ar- chives of the state, an appendage was built to it, called aerarium sanctius, because formed in an inner part of the enclosure, and in which was lodged the " twen- tieth," kept as a fund or reserve for the extreme necessity of the government. tEsymnium. A building erect- ed by zEsymnus, the Megarean, upon occasion of consulting the Delphian oracle how the country might prosper, and enjoy the most prosperous government. He re- ceived for answer, that it would be most likely to be great, if it followed the counsel of the most numerous, and, conjecturing that the oracle referred to the dead, he built this monument, and encompassed it with a council- house ; and thus he hoped to obtain for his countrymen wise and prudent counsel. ^Etherius. An architect, who lived at the commencement of 97 AFF AFF the sixth century, under the reign of Anastasius, emperor of the east. He was admitted to the confi- dence of that prince, and held a principal station in his court. He designed a great many palaces for the Greek nobles at Constanti- nople ; and, among other struc- tures, he erected an edifice named Chalcis, within the enclosure of the imperial palace. It is con- jectured that the great wall be- tween the sea to Selimbrya, to hinder the inroads of the Scythi- ans and Bulgarians, was erected under his direction. JEtoma. (Gr.) A pediment j the tympanum of the pediment. It was at first given to the ridge or apex of the roof, and transfer- red to the tympanum. This part was named by the Greeks from cetos, an eagle, from a resem- blance in its outline to an eagle with its wings extended. Some authors confound the cetoma with the acroteria of the pediment ; the setiaioi were the stones forming the facing of the tympanum ; probably, also, the sculptures which adorned it. See Acroterium. JEtos. See JEtoma. Affectation. In architectural composition. An unnatural or over- strained imitation or artifice. A composition or a mansion, consisting of a single mass, may he contrasted with a variety of lines, so as to form a pleasing whole of itself ; but an union, or composition of several masses, where every part is so contrasted, produces an assemblage of artifice as is in the highest degree affect- ed. " It is the peculiar charac- teristic of men of genius to be afraid of coldness and insipidity, and, in their endeavours to give the utmost degree of grace, they thus fall into the most hateful of all hateful qualities, affectation." 98 Poussin, in abhorring this spe- cies of affectation, and that want of simplicity which he observed in his countrymen, has fallen into the contrary extreme of an affect- ation of simplicity. When simplicity 'instead of. being a corrector of affectation) sets up for herself, that is, when an architect values himself on this quality, such an ostentatious display of simplicity becomes as disagreeable as any other kind of affectation. He is, however, in this case, likely enough to sit down contented with his own work j for though he finds the world to look on his productions with indifference, yet he consoles himself that they have simplicity, a beauty of too pure and chaste a nature to be relished by vulgar minds. This simplicity, when so very inartificial as to seem to evade the difficulties of art, is a very suspicious virtue — an affect- ation. The affectation of a literal imitation of buildings, of any style, often leads us into the greatest absurdities. " One build- er smitten, forsooth, with the beauty of the old Roman manner, raises himself a house, having the outward semblance of a temple of some pagan god ; and to ac- complish this whimsy, he shows a door, only, in its best front; and it is well if a pair of windows is to be seen in any of the others; and these, mayhap, so placed, as if he were ashamed to show to the passers by, that he must have the sweet light of heaven to enliven some pendicle of his dwelling. Another, humbler withal, but equally touched with the leprosy of affectation, aping his betters, must needs garnish his thatched grange with battlements. A third will so beplaster his mudwalls with griffins and lions, and stick AG A A G A crockets on pinnacles, and pin- nacles on juttings, that it w ere a hard matter to find a space ample enough to write fool upon, in letters no bigger than those of the good bishop Latimer's bible. And a fourth, who, like the mole, seems to live in the world without eyes, is contented to burrow in a house, so bare of becoming and seemly ornament, that when we behold it, we cannot stay feeling, ' that, in truth, the afFeetedness of plain building is as noisome as any of the others.' " Agalma. (Gr.) The ornaments upon a statue, or within a tem- ple. Agamedes and Trophonius. Two Greeks, who lived in the year of the world 2600, are the first architects mentioned in the history of their country. Some authors feign that Trophonius was the son of the god Apollo ; but those who have searched further into his history, say that he and Agamedes were the sons of Erginus, king of Thebes. It is certain, however, that what- ever were their ties by blood, that they lived in very strict friendship, and acquired great fame by their joint productions. Among these buildings which they erected in different places, two are particularly named. A temple, consecrated to Neptune, near Mantinea, and the famous temple of Apollo, at Delphi. Ci- cero relates that, after they had completed this magnificent build- ing, they prayed to Apollo to grant them, as a reward for their devotion and labour, some gift which he considered was the most useful to man. Three days afterwards, they were found dead. This does not, however, ac- cord with what Pausanias has written on the subject. He says, that after finishing the temple of Apollo they were employed to- gether on various other buildings, and among others, they construct- ed one at Libadea, where Hiero put his treasure, and this was the true cause of their death. Know- ing for what purpose the place was destined, they dexterously adjusted certain stones into the wall in such a manner that they could be easily withdrawn and inserted j and by this means they entered and left the treasury at their pleasure. Hiero, seeing his treasure diminish every day, notwithstanding the great care he had taken to erect a secure place in which to deposit it, laid snares to discover the robbers. Agamedes and Trophonius, not suspecting any thing, entered the treasury as usual ; when Aga- medes thrusting his hand into one of the chests containing the money, he was fixed by the snare. Trophonius, despairing of being able to disentangle his brother, and to save him from a disgrace- ful exposure, and also to extri- cate himself from the danger of being discovered to be an accom- plice, cut off his head. But so horrid a crime, continues the historian, did not go unpunish- ed j for he had no sooner com- mitted it, than the earth opened and swallowed the fratricide alive. Where he perished was found a deep cavern, which, in aftertimes, was much reverenced, and resorted to as the abode of an oracle. Trophonius not only gave his name to this place, but statues, and altars, and temples were raised to his honour, and sacrifices were offered to him. Set Adytum. Pausanias relates, that in his time were seen at Thebes, on the left-hand of the gate which is called Electra, the ruins of a house 09 A G A AGA which they say was inhabited by Amphytrion, when he fled from Argos, on account of the death of Electryon. The bed-chamber of Alcmene in his time was to be seen among these ruins ; which was said to be built for Amphytnon by Trophonius and Agamedes, and that the following inscription was once inscribed upon it : "Amphytrion, when he designed to marry Alc- mene, chose this for his bed- chamber, which was made by Ancasius, Trophonius, and Aga- medes." Agapenor. A Greek archi- tect, who built the famous Temple of Venus, at Paphos. No vestiges of this building are in existence ; but representations of it are to be found on some ancient medals. On one of these pieces s seen a small space, enclosed by a semicircle, which probably re- presents the area mentioned by Pliny, on which no rain ever fell. Agapitus. A Greek architect. Pausanias mentions his having seen a portico built by this artist among the Eliens, and which bore his name : this is all that is known of him. Agate. A precious stone much used in decoration, for enriching cabinets and altars. The inlaid works in agate made in Florence are celebrated throughoutEurope. In a. d. 1500, when the arts of Italy may be considered to have been at their highest point of excellence, several artists had settled at Florence, skilled in fashioning agate and rock crys- tal into cups, vases, and other ornaments, many of which still adorn the rooms and galleries of the Florentine nobles, and which are now highly valued through- out Europe. These artists laid the foundation of another method of employing agate in decoration, 100 which is still practised to a con- siderable extent at Florence. Agate-inlaid-work is made at a manufactory carried on at the expense of the grand duke. Agate, and other hard stones, are cut into various figures, so' as to form, when put together, a flat surface forming a representation of shells, flowers, foliage, and other objects. This sort of pic- ture differs essentially, and in many respects, from mosaic : the pieces of agate have a considerable surface, and are cut into the form of the outline of the object, and the colour of each piece is not uniform over its whole surface. Whereas in mosaic the pieces of enamel of which it is composed are small, and all nearly of one size and form, and generally square on the surface ; and each piece is of one colour, but so placed as to represent the most minute variations of shade ana tint of high-finished pictures. — Agate-work is better adapted for simple designs, composed of out- line and a few colours, without a gradual blending of tints or shades into each other. The stones chiefly employed in agate-work are, agates of a light colour, for the enlightened parts, and darker-coloured agates for the shadows. Sometimes the same piece of agate has a light and dark colour on different parts of its surface, and is used to re- present a form partly in light and partly in shadow. Other stones employed are chalcedony, and jasper of different colours j lapis lazuli, and other stones, suitable from their hardness, colour, and polish : antique red porphyry is often employed for the ground of the tables, or pictures. Some stones of inferior hardness are also occasionally used; such as antique yellow marble, oriental AG A AG G alabaster, besides other substan- ces, not of the mineral class, as mother-of-pearl shell and red coral. Formerly pictures of buildings, such as views of the Pantheon, of the tomb of Cecilia Metella, of about two feet in length, and also human figures, were made in this way; but it was not at all adapted for these sort of sub- jects, from its being impossible to obtain gradation of shade, and the necessary details of out- line ; so that, after much labour and expense, the effect of a pleas- ing imitation is as far from being produced as in the most ordinary and cheapest engraving. The subjects now chosen ad- mit of a better imitation in inlaid- work — shells, Hovvers, vases, and grotesque foliage — they are ge- nerally disposed so as to form tables, and in this way produce a fine effect. Tablets of from four to twelve inches are also manu- factured for ornaments topannels, &c, and sometimes find their way into England, where they have often been pleasingly in- troduced into the decoration of chimney-pieces. A round table of this kind, or- namented with grotesque foliage, in one of the rooms of the Floren- tine gallery, has been much ad- mired : other fine specimens are in the Pitti palace, and others were in the gallery of the Louvre during the reign of Bonaparte. The. agates and other stones are slit by a bow, with an iron wire and emery, into slices about an eighth of an inch thick ; the iron wire effecting the same pur- pose us the thin iron wheel of our lapidaries. The slices are then polished, and afterwards they are ut by the wire into the form re- quired, for the design of which the piece makes a part. The dif- ferent pieces that form the picture are put together, and cemented on a slab of sand-stone half an inch thick, which forms a tem- porary base. When all the orna- ments of a table are done, pieces of antique red porphyry, cut into slices of the same thickness as the agates, are so adjusted as to cover entirely the table or pannel which it is proposed to form. Out of this ground of porphyry pieces are cut by the wire, and taken out exactly of the form of each picture or ornament ; the pieces are then taken from their temporary base, and the por- phyry ground being cemented on a slab of sand-stone, of the size of the table, the pictures or orna- ments are cemented in the vacui- ties of the ground. The cement used is a composition of wax, turpentine, and resins. Agesistratus. An ancient ar- chitect and civil engineer, who wrote upon the construction of machines. Agger. In ancient military architecture. A military road, the middle part of a military road, formed into a ridge, with a gentle slope both ways, to carry off the water. The agger had also paths on each side for foot- passengers, with stones to mount horses placed at every ten feet, the ancients not using stirrups. At Pompeii, there are numerous mounting stones remaining. Where highways were in low grounds, or between small hills, the Romans raised them above the adjacent land, so as almost to bring them on a level with the hills; some in Gaul were raised 10, 15, and <20 feet above the ground, for lengths of 15 and 18 miles ; these were called ag- geres. In the middle ages they were called aggeres calceati, lat- terly causeways. AG G AGO Agger is also used for the works thrown up for the attack or defence of towns or camps. In this acceptation, it is the same as vallum, and corresponds to lines, terrasses, cavaliers, &c. in mo- dern military architecture. The agger was usually a bank of earth, having turrets and towers at certain intervals ; and it was usually accompanied with a ditch. The earth of which it was composed was strengthened «md bound by boughs, fascines, stakes, ropes, variously crossed and interwoven. In the absence of these, stones, bricks, tiles, and sometimes arms, utensils, and packsaddles, were used to fill it up, and give it stability. The besiegers used to carry this work nearer and nearer to the walls of a place, until at length it even reached the wall. On the other hand, the besieged set fire to the materials, if of ivood ; and sapping and under- mining it, if of earth ; and some- times by erecting a counter agger, as was done by the Gazans in the defence of their city against Alex- ander the Great. Vast aggers were constructed by the Romans near towns, and in places on the sea-coast, and fortified by towers and castles. The aggers made by Caesar and Pompey at Brundusium were of this descrip- tion. In fact, aggers were one of the most usual and effective defences in ancient military af- fairs. Tarquin's agger was a fence built by that prince on the east side of Rome, to prevent the incursions of the Latins. Crimi- nals were precipitated from this rampart. Agger. Earth dug out of a ditch, and thrown up on the brink of it. Agger. A wall erected against the sea, or a river, to keep them 102 within bounds ; a dike, dam, sea- wall, &c. Agger. A mound, or funeral burrow raised upon graves j a tu- mulus. Agora. (Gr.) A market, or forum ; technically, the remains of the entrance of an ancient market at Athens. The building, previous to Stuart's time, was considered to have been a temple dedicated to Rome and Augustus. Stuart remarked, that the wall in which the door was placed ex- tended on each side beyond the lateral walls of the portico,where- as the usual plan of temples is, a rectangular parallelogram, and their lateral walls are continued without interruption, from the antae of the posticus, or back front. Besides this, the diameter of these columns are in a smaller proportion to their height, than the diameter of any that are found in the ancient temples of this order now extant ; which cir- cumstance, considering the dis- tinction that Vitruvius makes between the proportion of those columns which are employed in temples, and of those which are placed in buildings of inferior dignity, adds a considerable weight to this opinion. It may likewise be remarked, that there is an appearance of impropriety, in supposing that an edict, relating to the sale of oils, was inscribed on the gate of a temple. Neither, indeed, did Wheeler and Spon, when they conceived this to be a temple, understand that the inscription, which appears to be an edict of the emperor Adrian's, was part of the building, but brought here from some other neighbouring ruin ; whereas in fact, it is in its original situation. The edict, however, could not have been placed in a more appropriate AGR AGR situation than on the jamb of the door-case of an agora. There were two agoras at Athens, the one called the Old, and the other the New ; the first was within the walls, and the second (the one under consideration) was situated in the suburb, called Eretriaj they were ornamented with monuments of the most ce- lebrated actions of the Athenians, and with statues of those persons who had deserved well of the re- public. The first figure on plate marked " Athenian Agora" is a plan of this portico; A, the remaining jamb of the door-case, on which is inscribed the law of Adrian ; B, the transverse wall in which the door is placed, continued on each side, and extending beyond each side of the portico, contrary to the manner observed in temples ; C, lateral walls of portico ; D, the antae. The second figure is an eleva- tion of the doric portico. The apex-acroterium probably sup- ported a statue of Lucius Caesar. The third figure is a side ele- vation of the portico, A, being one of the antae. The fourth figure, the capital and entablature; X, the sofFet of the architrave. The fifth figure, capital of the antae, and section of the entabla- ture, and section of capital of the antae, a section of the cornice of the pediment, in which the mu- tales were omitted. Agra. A sweet-scented wood, found in the island of Hairtau, on the coast of China. It is used by the Chinese cabinet-makers for some kinds of ornamental furniture. Agra Coramba. Another va- riety of sweet-scented wood from the same island, and used for the same purposes. Agrigentum, now called Gir- genti, one of the most celebrated cities in ancient times for the beauty and number of its temples, was originally founded by a co- lony from Gela, 108 years after the building of that city. It is supposed to have derived its name from the river Acragas, which, rising in the neighbour- ing mountains, flowed near the spot on which the city was erect- ed. A century after the migra- tion from Gela, Theron esta- blished himself as king of Agri- gentum, and became independent of Syracuse. The city was besieged by the Carthaginians, under Hamilcar, who was defeated with the loss of the greater part of his army ; and the Agrigentines employed their prisoners in erecting those trophies which remain to this day to perpetuate their glory. Be- fore, however, many of these buildings were completed, a se- cond attack of the Carthaginians laid their city waste ; the sanc- tuaries and temples were de- spoiled of their ornaments, and the citizens were put to the sword. Under Timoleon, who collected the citizens who had fled to other Sicilian cities for refuge, its power again began to revive, but it eventually fell under the dominion of the Car- thaginians, who, in the second punic war made it their principal station. At that time its im- portance was destroyed. The site of the ancient city is well ascertained from its nu- merous ruins still in existence. They are described as laying in one of the most beautiful situa- tions in the island. At the foot of a range of high and pic- turesque mountains which bound the plain, watered by the A t ra- gus, a low ridge of hills stretches 103 AGRIGENTUM. from east to west. The southern sides slope gently towards the river, while the northern and western fall more abruptly to- wards the Hypsa, which here has a very diminished current. The Acragus, after winding in the plain among olive and carob trees, falls into the Mediterra- nean near the site of what is called the ancient Emporium. The still and solemn calm which pervades the extent of the ancient city and its environs, and the olives, whose venerable roots have spread themselves over the prostrate habitations of the an- cient Agrigentines, give an addi- tional air of dignity and grandeur to these noble edifices, whilst their imposing style of architec- ture tends to strengthen the im- pression which a mind of genuine taste must have imbibed of the superior effect of simplicity in buildings devoted to the services of religion. The buildings of Agrigentum were celebrated among the an- cients for their beauty and soli- dity. After the first defeat of the Carthaginians by the Agri- gentines, when the latter, elated by their victory, and the riches which it threw into their power, abandoned themselves to the most effeminate luxury. It was observed of them that they ate as if they feared they had only a day to live, and built as if they intended to live for ever. The finest Agrigentine temple, and which ranked as one of the most splendid in Greece, was that dedicated to Jupiter Olympus; and the site of which is now distin- guished as that of the temple of the Giants ; an appellation not inappropriate, with reference to the immense size of the stones, with which it has been construct- ed, or the basso- relievoes of its 104 fronts, which represented the fall of the Titans. " The temple of Jupiter," says Diodorus Siculus, " is by far the most considerable in the island. The others were either burned or destroyed in the repeated sieges of the city. When the Agrigentines were on the point of putting on the roof, war put an end to their operations, and after that time the city was so far reduced in resources, that the citizens had no longer the means to finish it. The length of the temple is 340 feet, and its breadth 60 j the height exclusive of its basement 120 feet. The temple is the largest in the whole island, and the magnitude of its sub- structure deserves particular notice. Two methods of build- ing are practised by the Greeks. The one allows of making the naos the whole width of the tem- ple, and the other of surrounding it with columns. Either method is adopted in this building for the columns are inserted in the walls of the naos, appearing circular without and square within, their periphery without is 20 feet, within it is 12 feet. The grandeur and height of its porticoes are stupendous, they are embellished with exquisite sculpture , on the east is a representation of the contests of the Giants, and on the west the siege of Troy." The breadth of the temple, as stated by the Sicilian historian, would be very disproportionate to its length, unless its plan were arranged differently from similar structures of the same or previous ages ; the proportions, for in- stance, which at that period were usually observed, and are found in the temple of Concord, and which is supposed to have served as a model in the construction of this temple M. De St. Non at- AGRIGENTUM. tributes the discrepancy to an error of the copyist of Herodotus, and suggests reading 16'0 feet broad, which will make its pro- portions nearly the same as those of the temple of Concord. It has been supposed from the width assigned by Diodorus, that the temple was in antis, or of that kind presenting only two columns between the antae ; but this alteration will not assist in reconciling the want of propor- tion between the breadth, and length. According to the usual proportion, the width of the temple would have been about 94| feet j and the historian would have termed the entrance parastas and not stoa, a word never applied by him in any other sense but that of open porticoes with re- lieved columns. The familiar name of " temple of the Giants" is thought by some writers to have been derived from figures of giants which they sup- pose sustained the capitals, in the manner of caryatidae ; but such an extraordinary deviation from the usual form we can not suppose would have been left unnoticed by so minute and accurate a topogra- pher as Herodotus, and that too in a building with which he must have been well acquainted. The destruction of this colossal building has been complete. " On our approach to the ruins, we see them covered with the produc- tions of the vegetable world, and olive trees the growth of centuries, find nourishment for their roots in the depth of soil, which in so many ages has been accumulat- ing upon them : with difficulty we are persuaded that such an extensive circuit of hill and valley can be formed by the demolition of a mere effort of human exer- tions, and that nature has no part in causing the great inequality of O the ground before us. Where the ruins have fallen more en masse, we still perceive appearing above the soil the ponderous blocks which formed the capitals and theepistylia of this vast build- ing. From these we are enabled to judge of the original size of the building, and to determine that the account given of it by the historian is by no means ex- aggerated." The capitals, of which three are remaining, are each formed of two blocks, jointed vertically. The height of these blocks, compre- hended between the upper part of the ovolo, and 18 inches below the fillets, is about 5 feet 5 J inches j their breadth, which included a portion of the intervallation of about 3 feet 1 inch, is 10 feet 4f- inches, and their length 8 feet 4J inches. The abacus was formed of three pieces, the largest placed directly over the centre of the shaft, and nearly as wide, as the upper diameter of the shaft is 2 feet 8 inches high. The epistylia were formed of three courses of stones, of une- qual height; in the uppermost, the listel and guttae, below the triglyphs, were included : the height of these three courses was nearly 11 feet. A single triglyph was measured with great accu- racy ; it was in one stone, 10 feet inches long, 5 feet 10^ broad, and 4 feet 10 inches thick. Powerful mechanical means must have been resorted to by the Agrigentines to raise so many enormous masses to so great a height. Grooves have been cut in every block, probably to assis.. in the fastening ; the stones which form the capital have each two, 5 inches deep, ex- tending from top to bottom, and continuing under the Capital, and made to issue at the centre of twc 105 AGRIGENTUM. flutings. In addition, each block has four mortise holes, to admit other parts of it. In each side of the block of the triglyph are two parallel grooves of a similar kind, which unite in a semicircular form at the bottom. The Agrigen tines were proba- bly induced to adopt the plan of inserting the columns in the walls from the difficulty of procuring epistylia of sufficient length to reach from the centre to centre of the adjoining columns. By this expedient, the architrave resting partly on the wall might be formed of three pieces of 10 feet each in length, instead of one stone 30 feet long, which appears to have been the distance between the axis of the columns in the north and south fronts. Mr.Wil- kins (Magna Grcecia, p. 38,) did not doubt but that stones even of that magnitude could have been procured, after he had viewed the immense masses, strewn over the tract which the ruins cover, and that such probably were used in the east and west fronts, upon which all the powers of decora- tion seem to have been employed. Diodorus mentions, that a man might be hid in the flutings of the columns. One of these measured by St. Non was 1S|- inches long in the chord of the circle, and about 10j inches deep. If the assertion of Diodorus may be taken as correct, with reference to the two manners adopted by the Greeks in con- structing their temples, the tem- ple of Jupiter may be called a compound of the two, or pseudo- peripteral ; for the peristyle is formed by the columns inserted in the walls of the naos, and the columns of the east and west fronts were insulated. The temple of Hercules is very little less in dimensions than that 106 of Jupiter ; there are parts of the shafts of six columns remaining in their places, and a portion of the wall of the cella, and some fragments of the sub-basement, the other parts present but an im- mense mass of enormous blocks, piled and scattered about in a manner as if the destruction had not proceeded from man, but had been accomplished by the convul- sion of an earthquake. The temple of Juno Lucina, situated at the eastern angle of the south quarter of the ancient city, appears to have been the most beautiful, although not the largect, in Agrigentum. At the commencement of the 17th cen- tury it was very entire, but the different shocks of earthquakes, which have convulsed the island during that period, have thrown down almost half of the columns of which it was composed. In 1779, twelve of its columns were standing. The ruins of this fine building have many enviable facilities for its future restoration, the mate- rials have only to be raised and fixed in their places, for the cor- responding stones could be disco- vered with the greatest ease. The temple is raised on a sty- lobate of three steps, which were continued quite round. On the north, where the ground falls, it was raised upon a plinth, or plain substructure. The re- mains of a court are visible be- fore the eastern portico. The length of the temple is 124 feet, and the breadth 54 feet 7 inches : the cella is 48 feet 11 inches long, and 25 feet 5 inches wide : the columns, including the capi- tal, are 21 feet 2 inches high, and 4 feet 6 inches in diameter. All the columns on the north side, and part of the entablature, are yet remaining entire, as are AGRIGEtfTUM. two at the south-east angle j the rest are more or less dilapidated, and have lost, along with their capitals, some of the courses of which the shafts were composed. Two columns, one in the north and the other in the south front, have entirely disappeared. The longitudinal and transverse walls of the cella are remaining, to a certain height; that dividing the cella from the pronaos seems to have contained staircases, which are sometimes found in great temples for ascending to the rooms over the vestibule. The pronaos and posticum had each two columns intervening between the antae, which terminated the walls of the cella. The order is doric, and the shafts are fluted, and the chord of the flute is about 8^- inches ; the columns are 4 feet 6| inches in diameter, at the base, and 3 feet 4f inches at the necking, under the capital : the echinus is a foot deep, and the abacus 1 foot and f- of an inch. The height of the epistylia, including the guttse and listel, is 4 feet If- inches, and the height of the triglyphs 3 feet 4 \ inches. Among the finest, as it is the best preserved specimen of the taste of the Agrigentines, is the temple of Concord. To the veneration of the body of Saint Gregory, bishop of Agrigen- turn, which is buried in this temple, is owing, in a great measure, its fine preservation : with the exception of a part of the entablature, on one of the sides the building is entire. The order is peripteral and hexastyle —the wall forming the cella, being perforated with six open- ings serving as windows to admit light to the inside. The style is doric, without a base, as in the other doric Agrigentine build- ings, and of somewhat short pro- portion, being 22 feet and f- inch high, including capitals, and 4 feet 7§ inches in diameter at the base The cella was 48 feet 2 inches long, and 24 feet 9 inches wide. In measuring the intercolumna- tions small differences were found, which may have arisen from the position of the flutings, and which might have disap- peared, by a thicker or thinner coat of stucco with which the columns were incrusted. As the stone of which these columns are composed is very porous, it was well adapted to receive this stucco, which was very gene- rally employed in ancient erec- tions, and, above all, in those of this city and its neighbour- hood. Nothing can be more elegant than the general propor- tion, and taste of design of the edifice, notwithstanding the thick proportions of its columns, which are very little more than 4 dia- meters in height. The restoration of this temple to its original design has lately taken place, by order of the late king of Naples ; and very great attention has been bestow- ed upon such repairs as were deemed essential to its better preservation. The temple being originally open, it is conjectured that the entablature over the epistylia of the north and south fronts was removed, for the greater convenience of fixing the timbers of the roof, when it was converted into a church for christian worship. On the west of the temple of Concord, are some remains con- jectured to have formed part oi the temple of Hercules, mentioned by Cicero as being near the forum. Only part of the shafts of one of the columns remains in its original position. It appear 4 ? 107 AGR1GENTUM to have been larger than any other Agrigentine temple, ex- cepting that of Jupiter Olym- pus. The temple of iEsculapius now forms part of a modern farm- house. Of its size, nothing can be clearly ascertained ; from two half columns, and an antae at the west, it is conjectured by Mr. Wilkins, that it was a temple in cutis ; the columns, like the tem- ple of Ju^ter Olympus, forming part of the wall: the entrance appears to have been from the easi, and it is probable that the columns were insulated. From the remains of the cella, at the north-west end, there is every reason for supposing the temple had not a peristyle — and the con- jecture that it was not amph- prostylos is equally plausible, from the steps at the west end, beginning from the base of the columns ; the columns projected rather more than their semidi- ameter from the walls of the cella ; their diameter at a height of 4 feet 6 inches, was about 3 feet b\ inches, the distance be- tween the antae 22 feet 8 inches. That part of the suburb of the an- cient city, where this temple to the God of Medicine stands, was adjoining the burial place of the citizens, while in general, the temple of this divinity was placed without the walls ; it is extraordi- nary that a more appropriate place should not have been found for it, in this instance, than among graves and sepulchres : the tem- ple, in its general appearance, much resembles the " Maison Carre " at Nismes. ^ The temple of Castor and Pol- lux is a small square edifice, hav- ing pilasters at the angles j and called, without any apparent reason, the oratory of Phalaris. According to St. Non it is of a 108 later age than the temples we have described, from the bases, which are indicated as having been added to its doric columns j Mr. Wilkins conjectures that the order was ionic from the bases, and the method of fluting the shaft being similar to that em- ployed in this order. The re- mains, according to him, (and he is at all times the best authority,) consist of two mutilated columns, and a portion of the cella. No portion of a capital could be found, and the mouldings of the cornice were so worn that their forms were not to be distin- guished. Another temple, but of a still more recent date, forms part of the Franciscan convent : besides these, innumerable remains "of columns and entablatures are scattered over the site of the an- cient city, and the labourers are continually discovering vases, paterae, and other ornaments of Greek workmanship, having orange-coloured figures on a black ground, similar to those found at Pompeii and Hercu- laneum. Some remains of the Piscina, constructed by the prisoners taken in the battle of Himera, are still visible, and also of the Cloaca of Pheax, constructed at the same time by the Carthagi- nian captives ; its immense area is now converted into a garden. Other remains, indicate the site of a theatre, and near the temple of Hercules are some traces of a forum. The building commonly called the tomb of Theron, is a small monument, remarkable for se- veral peculiarities, from which it has been conjectured by St. Non to be of a later date than that called the fine age of the Agri- gentine art. A G R AIL Its style is a strange jumble of the ionic and doric. The base is square, and the whole building rises, in a pyramidal form, to the height of 25 feet, that is, from the platform on which it stands, to the top of the frieze — the cor- nice is destroyed, and we have now no means of ascertaining how the building was terminated. The height of what remains is divided into two parts ; the first is a plain base, or stylobate, ter- minating with a cornice, on which is placed the second story, having a fluted column of the ionic order at each angle, and in the space between the columns is a blank window ornamented with a moulded architrave, and filled up with pannels cut into the stone. — The columns incline at the same angle with the walls, and the lines of the triglyphs (for the entablature is doric) con- verge also to a point, which would appear to have been the apex of a pyramid, of which the present remains form a part. The windows, like those of some other Grecian buildings, are wider at bottom than at the top, and in this instance the lines of their jambs coincide with the inclina- tion of the profile of the building. Another peculiarity is the flutings meeting at an angle similar to those cf the doric. — The capitals are very much mouldered, but the volute, and the echinus moulding, have been protected by the pro- jection of the abacus. The cor- nice over the windows is also much decayed ; the building on the whole is in very good pre- servation. — within, it was formed into two stories. It was undoubtedly a place of sepulture, and after the body was deposited, the entrance was shut up, and remained in this state until an antiquary searching for vases had them removed. From the style of its architec- ture, Wilkins (Magna Gratia, p. 36) classes it among the most ancient buildings of the Grecian city, and was probably the tomb of the prince whose name it bears, as his memory was cherished among the Agrigentines, as being the most humane and virtuous of the Sicilian kings. To account for its inconsistencies, he supposes it to have been erected soon after the introduction of the ionic or- der, when an ignorance of its pecu- liarities caused them to overlook the absurdity of placing a doric entablature on ionic columns. St. Non, and some other tra- vellers, whose opportunities of observation were not so favour- able as Mr. Wilkins's, suppose, from these inconsistencies, that it was erected in an age posterior to the siege of Agrigentum by the Carthaginians. The walls of Agrigentum are filled with places of sepulture, excavated in their under part in the tuffa, and even to the depth of the thickness of the wall, which has so weakened them as to hasten their dilapidation : a great number of subterranean chambers and galleries, spread over the site, appear to have had a similar destination. The Laby- rinth was a grand series of secret communications, surrounding the citadel, and was useful in times of warfare. Aile Aisle. Isle. Ile. (Alee, Lat.) wings. L aisle de Veglise, (Fr.) the wings, inward side porti- coes of a church ; the inward lateral corridors, which enclose the choir, the presbytery, and the body of the church along its sides. When a church is divided in its breadth into three parts, the 109 ALABASTER. two extreme outward divisions are called aisles, and the centre division the nave or middle aisle, although the last seems impro- per — and " side aisle' seems a tau- tology. The aisles are also the inside of the penthouse, or lean-to,which is called externally a wing. When a church, in its breadth, is divided into three or five parts, it is termed a three or five aisled church. The generality of Eng- lish churches are, however, three- aisled. The west end of Durham cathedral is the only English ex- ample of a five-aisled church. Air-holes. Holes made for the admission of air, for the pur- pose of ventilating apartments, or for admitting air among the timbers of floors and roofs, for preventing or destroying the dry rot. See Dry rot, Ventilation, Air-trap. An opening for the escape of air from drains or sewers or pipes. Alabaster. Under this name are confounded two minerals, wholly distinct from each other, gypseous alabaster, or compact gypsum, and calcareous alabaster. Gypseous alabaster is found of a white, or yellowish, or greenish colour, semi-transparent, and ca- pable of receiving a polish. Sta- tuaries distinguish this as alabas- ter. When its colours are dis- posed in bands, it is called onyx alabaster ; and when they are disposed in clouds, it is called onyx alabaster. Gypseous alabaster is about twice as heavy as water, its spe- cific gravity being 1*9. In trans- parency it is superior to white wax, allowing the light to pass through it, but not the forms of objects. By a slight calcination or baking, it is converted into plaster of Paris, no It is very easily worked, but not susceptible of a very delicate polish, and is formed by the mason into vases, columns, tables, and other ornamental furniture. In a church at Florence, thin slabs of it are used in the windows, in- stead of glass. Among the ancients, the most esteemed variety came from Car- mania and Upper Egypt. The alabaster used by modern Floren- tine statuaries comes from Vol- terra, and other parts of Tuscany. It is seldom procured in large masses, the largest statues not exceeding two feet in height. It is easier to cut than Carrara marble, but it is not so durable when exposed to the weather j the sulphate of lime, which en- ters into its composition, being more easily dissolved by the rain than carbonate of lime, which constitutes Carrara marble. At Leghorn there is a large establishment, where statues and architectural ornaments of this alabaster are sold ; and from this mart the greater proportion of these productions we see in Eng- land are procured. When a candle or lamp is put into a vase of this alabaster, it diffuses a mild and very pleasing light j and it is conjectured that the ancients lighted their temples in this manner, in order that the softness and weakness of the light might harmonize with the gene- ral character of the building. The Derbyshire alabaster, of which there are splendid inlaid columns in the hall at Kcddle- stone, is of the same kind with the Tuscan, but not so pure. See Gypsum. Mortar. Plaster. Calcareous alabaster, or calc- sinter, is a species of stalactite, composed mostly of carbonate of lime, and is found of a variety of ALABASTER colours, pure white, yellowish, greenish, reddish, bluish grey. It is not quite so hard as Carrara marble, yet it receives a good polish. It is considerably heavier than gypseous alabaster, its specific gravity being from 2.4 to 2.8 times greater than water. Its transparency is about equal to that of white wax, and it burns to lime. Calcareous alabaster is distin- guished into the common and oriental, the last division con- taining the hardest, finest, and best coloured pieces ; other dis- tinctions are sometimes drawn from the colours being in veins, dendritic, or in concentric, undu- lating zones or rings : from the flowery form of its veins, a va- riety is called " Alabastro fiorito." The-specimens from Egypt, Italy, or Spain, are reckoned the finest, the commoner sorts being pro- cured from Germany and France. The Italian variety is drawn from the quarry in blocks, between 6 and 7 feet long, and 3 feet in dia- meter : and there is an Egyptian statue of calcareous alabaster, at Rome, nearly 8 feet high j and two columns of the same sort, 19 feet high,, formerly decorated the vestibule of the Vatican library. Of the Egyptian sort, the finest comes from theThebaid, situated between the Nile and the Red Sea, near to the town of Alabas- tron, and is of a yellowish colour. The Romans used the species of alabaster brought from Egypt and Cyprus, for lighting their conservatories. It was much cm- ployed for cinerary and funereal urns, and for perfume caskets. — Some antique statues have been found composed of calcareous alabaster, except the heads, which are sculptured in marble, and sometimes of bronze. It is not generally agreed upon whether ancient writers did not make a distinction between gyp- seous and calcareous alabaster. Pliny, under the same term, in- cludes both under the same ala- bastrites ; latter authors use the term alabastrum for gypsum, and alabastrites for calc-sinter. Beautiful architectural decora- tions, basso-relievoes of foliage, animals, figures, and even sta- tues, which have all the deli- cacy and high finish of the most elaborate compositions, and with all the appearance of having been produced by the chisel, are form- ed in moulds. The water of many hot, sul- phureous springs rise out of the ground, of a turbid, wheyish colour, from the large quan- tity of chalk and gypsum which is dissolved in it. As the water cools, the earthy particles are deposited, which line the bot- tom and sides of the vessels in which it is contained with com- pact alabaster. The spring sup- plying the baths of St. Philip, in Tuscany, is situated on a moun- tain near Radicofani. This water is very hot when it first issues from the ground, and contains a great quantity of calcareous mat- ter. Here a Dr.Vegni established a manufactory of artificial ala- baster. He procured a collection of plaster casts from the finest Greek and Roman statues and ornaments, from which he made moulds in sulphur, by pouring it, melted in the common manner, over the object from which he wished to take an impression. — The sulphur mould is placed in a kind of wooden tub, open at top and bottom, and made conical, having the lesser end placed below. This tub has a false bottom, made of slips of wood, laid crosswise, in order to detain for a short pe- nt ALA ALB riod the water which dashes upon them. Just above this is a row of wooden pegs, fastened to the tub, around its whole inner cir- cumference ; on these the mould is supported j the whole is then placed under the boiling spring, and enclosed with walls, to pre- vent its being agitated by the wind j the water thus dashing on the moulds, deposits its earth upon them : in the same manner as in the common mode used by plasterers the liquid alabaster is made to lie upon their moulds. The hardness and transparency of the alabaster depends on the degree of obliquity at which the mould is placed, in order to re- ceive the dashing of the water. The more vertical its position, the harder is the alabaster ; but then it is not quite so white as the softer specimens. To im- prove its colour, the water is in some instances made to take a circuitous course, in order to al- low it to deposit its grosser par- ticles before it arrives at the mould. Even the softer casts are, however, as hard as Carrara marble, and surpass it in white- ness. The time required for these productions varies from one to four months, according to the thickness which is required to support the figures or basso-re- lievoes. When this has been at- tained, and the mould sufficiently filled, the mould is detached from the tub, and the incrustation on its outside is removed by gentle strokes with the hammer ; the model is then separated by the usual means from the mould, and the brilliancy of the cast is com- pleted by brushing it with a hair brush, and rubbing it with the palm of the hand. Vegni succeeded in giving a fine black or flesh colour to the figures thus formed, by putting 112 a vessel half full of colouring matter into the water before it arrives at the mould j and the same cast may have different co- lours imparted to it by these means, and protecting the parts so coloured from the other colour- ing matters. A similar process of manufac- turing ornaments and statues (generally for religious purposes) is practised at Guanvaselica, in Peru. Alabastrites. (Alabastrites, Gr.) A box, or a vase, without a handle ; also an unguentary, or vase, for holding perfumes, which, according to Pliny, was so named from the material of which the box was made being favourable for the preservation of perfumes. Pliny compares their form to oblong pearls. They are often seen as orna- ments on tombs and tomb stones. Alabastrites were sometimes made of lead, gold, or beautifully coloured glass and terra-eotta, and common stone of the country. Al^:. In ancient Roman archi- tecture. Recesses or alcoves for conversation or study, surround- ed on three sides by seats ; their thresholds were of mosaic work. According to Vitruvius, when the length of the atrium was from 40 to 50 feet, the alae were to be two-sevenths of this length; their height was equal to their breadth. Alba-longa, (now Albano.) An ancient Italian city, which was destroyed by the Romans about the 88th year of Rome. It rose into some importance in the time of Pompey, from the circum- stance of being the site of a cas- trum prsetorium, and the erec- tion of numerous villas by noble Romans at the last age of the republic, and under the empe- rors. The remains of the Latin city ALB ALB can even now be easily distin- guished from those of the later Roman^edifices. Among the ruins of the former are enumerated a temple of Ju- piter Latialis, erected on the summit of Mount Cavo by Tar- quin, in which were assembled the Latin tribes for the celebra- tion of the festivals. A mass of immense blocks mark the site of this shrine ; the stones of which have holes to receive cramps at their joints : several fragments of cornices are also visible, and parts of two columns, sufficient to show that they belonged to a Tuscan order. The ** Emissario" of the late Albano may also be referred to the Etruscan builders. (See Canal.) And probably also the tomb on the Appian Way, in ap- proaching Alba, called of the Horatii : independently of the manner of its construction, this tomb has a similarity, both in its form and disposition, to that at Clusium, erected by the Etrus- cans to king Porsenna ; it is al- most impossible to mistake the taste of this people in architec- ture. Some antiquaries consi- der it to be the tomb of Pompey ; and it is certain that the urn containing his ashes was brought into Italy by his wife Cornelia, and deposited in a vault in his Alban villa; but it is equally certain that it is impossible to decide on the particular spot which received it. See Mauso- leum. Vestiges of baths, supposed to have formed part of Pompey's superb villa, are also seen in the garden of an order of nuns. In a vineyard of the Vegna Marzelli, are ruins of an aque- dvct, and an ancient tomb, sup- posed to be that of Tullia, daugh- ter of Cicero. It consists of three P stories, and wzs formerly in- crusted with marble. Many frag- ments of the incrustation yet re- main. In the enclosure of the abbey of St. Paul are remains of a wall, built with large blocks of travertino, of the time of Pom- pey, the remains of baths, which are conjectured to have been of great magnitude. In a vineyard is a ruined amphitheatre, of the time of Domitian : the first row of arches is in tolerable preserva- tion j and also a part of an im- mense gallery, which has be- longed to the palace, retaining some of its ornaments, which are in the style of those of the temple of Peace, at Rome, built by his father, Vespasian. At Palazzuola are the remains of a building, in fine preserva- tion, traditionally called the tomb of Tullius Hostilius, under whom the Romans added Alba to their dominion. Albarum Opus. Sometimes written album opus. " A sort of plastering, composed of pure lime, others think that it was a whitewash. That it is a kind of plaster is evident, for Vitruvius speaks of it as the substance with which they make cornices." He says the baths of Agrippa were incrusted with albarum opus, and that its surface would bear a polish almost as perfect as that of marble. See Chunarn. Cement. Stucco. " The albarum opus will be good," says the same author, " if the limestones be of the best kind, and slaked a long time be- fore they are used, so that if some of the stones should be too little burnt in the furnace, by being long macerated in water, they may be dissolved and reduced to one consistence j for should the lime not be thoroughly slaked, *113 ALB ALB but be used fresh, the crude par- ticles it may contain will, when it is laid, occasion it to emit pus- tules ; because these particles, slaking when in the work, dissolve and destroy the smoothness of the stucco. To know when it is sufficiently macerated, and pro- perly prepared for the work, the lime is to be chopped with an axe, in the manner timber is hewn. If the axe meets with lumps, it is not well tempered, and if the iron comes out dry and clean, it shows the lime to be perishing and weak ; for when it is fat and well macerated, it will adhere to the iron like glue, and this will be a proof that it is well tempered." Alberti Aristotle, generally called Ridolfo Fioraventi, an ar- chitect and mechanician, born at Bologna : he nourished in the 16th century, and is considered as the most ingenious mechanician of his age. At Bologna, he is celebrated for having removed a steeple, with all its ornaments and bells, to a distance of 35 feet from its former situation 5 and he removed another in a neighbouring town to the distance of 50 feet. He was invited into Hungary, where he constructed a most ingenious bridge, and nu- merous other works \ and for his merit he was made a knight. His reputation afterwards procured him the patronage of the czar of Muscovy : he erected several churches for that potentate in his capital. Alberti Leoni Baptista, one of the greatest Italian architects, was born at Florence in 1398, and died in the same city about the year 147%. At an early age he was distin- guished for his application to study ; while not yet arrived at the age of 20, he had composed 114 a Latin comedy in so pure a style, that it was considered to have been an antique. At Bologna, he took the degree of doctor of laws, and was ordained priest ; and at his death, he held a canonry in the cathedral at Florence. He, however, devoted himself to the study of architecture, and is with justice considered as one of the great restorers of ancient art, as well by his practice as by his writings ; he was as expert in it as a fine art, as conversant in it as a science. He measured many ancient edifices in various parts of Italy, and was the first who constructed buildings from an imitation of them as models, following the general precepts of Vitruvius. He wrote a treatise on sculp- ture and painting ; but he is most known, as an author, for his book on architecture, which is an admirable commentary on the work of his guide and master. Architecture, however, was only one of the arts in which he ex- celled ; for he was an able sculp- tor and painter ; an expert philo- sopher, a profound mathemati- cian, no mean poet, and an ac- complished antiquary. Generous and disinterested, Alberti lived in harmony with his rivals, and his talents and amiable disposition were celebrated by his contem- poraries and by poets. The works of this great archi- tect adorn many Italian cities ; at Florence he finished the gate and corinthian loggie, the doric facade of the palace Rucellai, the choir and tribune of the church of Delia Nunciata. At Rome, among other things, he repaired the fountain of Acqua Vergine, and the fountain of Trevi. At Mantua the splendid church of St. Andrea, for its duke Lodovico Gonzago ; at ALC ALD Rimini, he ornamented the church of St. Francesco ; and at Urbino, he built a palace for duke Frederic Feltre. Alcove. (El-kauph. Ar.) A re- cess in a bed-room, in which the bed is placed. A recess fitted up with fixed seats in large apart- ments. The word is often used for bay. An ornamental garden- building for shade or rest. Alcoves appear to have been used by the ancients, in the form of niches, such as those described by Winkleman in Adrian's villa. At Pompeii, the front of a tomb, which stands by the road-side, is formed into an alcove Avith stone seats. The use of alcoves, as well as the word, (from alcoba,) seems to have been more imme- diately derived by us from the Spanish builders, and by them from their Arabian conquerors. In the time of Louis XIV. and XV., the French architects almost invariably constructed alcoves for the reception of the state-beds ; and more or less capacious to contain the whole bed, or only to admit of a part of it. Some- times the floor of the alcove was elevated above that of its apart- ment by one or two steps, and its ceiling was not formed quite so lofty as that of the chamber. In rooms "of pretension," the plat- form was enclosed by a ba- lustrade 3 in other cases, the al- cove was nothing more than a portion of the room enclosed by a low balustrade, without any other distinction, within which the bed was placed ; or it was indicated by columns and cur- tains, without any distinction be- ing made in the floor or ceiling. This appears to have been the classical method, which is seen in some antique pictures and basso-relievoes, particularly that called the Aldobrandi Marriage : this arrangement is yet occasion- ally observed in Italian houses, where alcoves are common ; in large rooms it is susceptible of great magnificence. In some early English pala- ces and mansions, (Windsor and Hampton-court), the beds are occasionally placed in alcoves j but in modern erections of almost every dimension they are exclud- ed} not the least objection against their use being the difficulty of properly ventilating the recess. The Turks place their beds in a sort of alcove. The ornaments of alcoves were formerly of the most costly and gorgeous description j generally assimilating to the style of the apartment of which they formed a portion. It has been stated that the French architects have made much use of alcoves ; the best designs for them are found in works written by architects of that nation. Le Pautre's ornaments, in three folio volumes, contains a variety of these subjects, many of them highly magnificent and well composed. Similar de- signs are also to be found in Blondel's treatise on the deco- ration of Buildings. Alder Tree " is of all other the most faithful lover of watery and boggy places, and those most despised weeping parts, or water galls of forests." It is the Betula alnus of botanists, and is a na- tive of Europe, from Lapland to Gibraltar ; and of Asia, from the White Sea to Mount Caucasus. There are several varieties of this tree : the long-leaved Ame- rican alder, the white alder, the black alder the hoary-leaved al- der, the dwarf alder. The dwarf alder is a very hum- ble shrub, seldom rising more than a foot high. The long- ai ALDER TREE. leaved alder rises to 30 feet, and preserves its leaves with us as late as December. The white or common alder grows to the height of 35 or 40 feet. The shadow of these trees does not destroy the herbage beneath it j and the planting of them on the banks of rivers has been re- commended, to fortify, and pre- vent the mouldering of walls, from the violent action of the water, to which they are sub- jected in those situations. From the experience of ages, the wood of the alder is found to resist the action of the water j and in the Netherlands it is generally used for piles for the support of buildings in wet and boggy places. At Venice it is in much request for the same purpose : and the Rialto-bridge, over one of the canals of that city, is founded upon piles of this wood. *" The alder, which grows near the banks of rivers, is a wood not much used, though it has some excellent qualities : piles of this wood being drove in the foundations of edifices which are erected in marshy places, these, imbibing the humid ele- ment, of which their substance least partakes, will endure eter- nally, and support the most pon- derous structures : this wood, therefore, which, out of the earth, can endure but a short time, will, if buried in a watery soil, last for ever. They may be chiefly observed at Ravenna ; for there all buildings, as well public as private, have these kind of piles in their foundations." In another place, where instructions are given about the foundations of buildings, Vitruvius says, that if the site is found to be " in- firm, soft, and marshy to the bot- tom, then it must be dug and 116 emptied, and piles of alder, olive, or oak scorched, are to be driven in by machines very close to- gether, and the intervals of the piles rammed with coal j after which, the substructure is to be completed in the most compact manner.'' It is also valuable for those parts of pumps, sluices, &c. con- tinually under water. It is used for cart-wheels, spinning-wheels, milk vessels, trays, trenchers, and handles of tools. The roots and knots are in great estimation, as furnishing a beautiful wood for cabinets : and the Scottish Highlanders make chairs of it, which are very handsome, and of as rich a colour almost as maho- gany; that which has lain in bogs is as black as ebony : the colour of the wood is that of a burnt sienna yellow, and the grain is very uniform j it has been re- commended for models for cast- ing from j but although its sur- face is favourable, and being easily worked, its other proper- ties unfit it for this purpose. The cohesive force of a square inch is about from 9,000 to 14,000 lbs. ; its modulus of elasticity about 11, 000,000 lbs. j and a cubic foot of it, in a dry state, will weigh from 45 to 50 lbs. The common alder is about as strong as oak, and rather more than -xV as stiff, and as tough as oak. Alder was formerly much used for pipes for the conveyance of water through pipes and dams, and for conveying water from springs. The poles from which they were made, run from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and the bore was from 4 to 4| inches. The boring of these pipes used formerly to be a matter of some consequence. To those accus- tomed to the improved boring ALD ALH machinery of the present time, an account of the mode followed about 100 years ago maybe inter- esting. " The alder poles were laid on ' horses, or tressels,' of a proper height, to rest the augur upon while they are boring \ the lathe was set up to turn the least end of the poles to fit them to the cavities of the great end of the others. The lathe being set up, and the poles cut to the length they will conveniently hold, viz. 8, 10, or 12 feet, they turn the small ends of the poles, about 5 or 6 inches in length, to the size they intend to bore the bigger ends, about the same depths, viz. 5 or 6 inches : this is designed to make a joint, to shut each pair of the poles together, the con- cave part being the female part, and the other part the male of the joint. In turning of the male part, they turn a channel in it, or a small groove, at a certain distance from the end ; and in the female part they bore a small hole to fit over this channel. " This being done, they bore the poles through, and, to prevent them from boring out at the side, they stick great nails at the end, to be a guide to them in boring through, although they usually bore them at both ends, so that if a pole be crooked one way, they can bore it through, and not spoil it. " The poles being bored, they form them into pipes in the ground, in order to which they dig a trench, and prepare it with clay, to ram them in the female part, which is first bound with an iron ring, to prevent its splitting ; afterwards they drive in the male part, till the groove in it is just under the hole, and pour melted pitch hot into the hole in the fe- male part, which will Mow round in the groove which was turned in the male part : by this means the junctures are rendered very staunch and close." Alder-pipes laid in this manner have been taken up in a sound state after having been in use 130 years. Aleatorium. In ancient Ro- man architecture. A rooniin which games at dice were played. Almamra, or Medinat Alhamra, the red city. A fortress and palace built by the Moorish kings of Granada, so termed, according to some Arabian authors, from the colour of the materials with which it is built. By the modern Spaniards it is called La Sierra del Sol, or the mountain of the sun, because by its situation on a high mountain it is exposed to the rising and setting sun. The country surrounding Gra- nada is most delightful, and for the beauty of environs, the salu- brity of its climate, and richness of the country, the Arabs called it the Damascus of Spain. Few places, indeed, offer a more striking assemblage of objects deserving the attention of the antiquary, the naturalist, and the artist. Vestiges of Punic, Ro- man, and Arabian works, moun- tains pregnant with minerals and marbles. Grand romantic scenes which may invite the pencil of a Poussin or Claude. The fruitful vale or paradise, as it has been called, fronting the city, is one of the finest in nature, and is com- puted at 100 miles in circuit. The plain is watered by numerous brooks and rivers, and in every direction there appear villages and gardens, which are adorned by beautiful buildings, trees, and plants, while the circumjacent hills and mountains, for the space of 40 miles, encompass the plain nearly in the form of a semi- 117 A L H AMR A. circle. At the extremity of this plain stands the renowned city of Granada, which, with its elevated suburbs resting on five hills, rises partly on delightful acclivities, and partly extends itself into the plain, covered with buildings oc- cupied by a numerous population Language, indeed, can with diffi- culty describe, how happy, how charming it is rendered, by the softness of the air, the mildness of the climate, the bridges over the river, the splendour of the temples, and the convenience of its market-places. The city is divided by the river Darro, which flows from the east, and forming ajunction with the Singaliswaters the whole plain, and which, like the Nile, after being augmented by numerous tributary rivulets and brooks, swells into a broad stream, and flows on to Seville. In Granada there was a garden attached to every house, and planted with orange, lemon, cit- ron, laurel, myrtle, and other odoriferous trees and plants whose fragrance purified the air, and promoted the health of its inha- bitants. All thehouses were sup- plied with running water, and in every street, through the mu- nificence of successive sovereigns, there were copious fountains for the public convenience, and for the performance of religious ab- lutions ; whatever, in short, could tend to promote the convenience and comfort of life, was here to be found in the richest profusion. The houses in the highest quar- ter of the city, which in the time of the Moors were particularly elegant, being beautifully orna- mented with Damasquina work : the surplus of the abundant crops of corn was deposited in immense granaries excavated in the sides of the mountains. Granada had 20 gates. 118 Enjoying a still more delight- ful prospect, continues the Ara- bian topographer, on the opposite side there rises, as it were, ano- ther city — the Alhamra, contain- ing the royal residence. Here are seen lofty towers, very strongly fortified citadels, superb palaces, and other splendid edifices, the view of which fills the spectator's mind with admiration : here a vast mass of water, whose loud, murmuring noise is heard at a distance, flows from various springs, and irrigates both the fields and meadows : the outer walls of the city of Granada are surrounded by most choice and spacious gardens, where the trees are so thickly set, as to re- semble hedges, yet not so as to obstruct the beautiful towers of the dlhamra, which sparkle among the leaves like stars. No spot, in short, is without its orchards, vineyards, and gardens ; and so abundant is the produce of fruit and vegetables reared on the widely extended plain, that the wealth alone of the first princes can equal their annual value. The Alhamra has been com- pared to Windsor castle, situated upon the northern brow of a steep hill, commanding an ex- tensive prospect over a beautiful country : the sides toward the citadel are so dilapidated, or en- cumbered with modern buildings, that very few traces are visible of the ancient external walls. The interior of the palace is still in good preservation, and attests the romantic splendour of its ancient kings. Even in its pre- sent deserted state we recognise, in its architecture, the rank of the owner, the seat of power, and the gravity of the Arabian character. The distribution of this inter- esting edifice is simple and ALHAMRA. natural 3 the courts, which in mo- dern mansions are dull and un- meaning, are here so contrived as to seem a series of apartments, and the whole upon one plane through- out. Halls and galleries, porti- coes and solumns, arches, mo- saics, viewed through the spray of falling waters, must have formed a view altogether en- chanting j and, although the Arabian architects were alto- gether unacquainted with per- spective, the architectural ar- rangement and address is admi- rably adapted to make a building appear larger in its dimensions than it really is. Instead of the costly works of classic art, the Arabian khalifs adorned their courts, and their haram, with the simple productions of nature, and blessed the God of Mahomet for having given them that purity of taste to enjoy the exquisite pictures presented by nature in all their freshness and beauty, instead of adorning their dwellings with the cold and inanimate copies even from the hands of masters. Water in abundance was distri- buted in every part of the palace, and they were skilled in its ma- nagement : they raised it in jets, which dispersed the floating mias- mata ; or they made it flow from fountains, and tempered the dry- ness and aridity of the atmo- sphere. At other times it was spread out in the middle of a court in a.large sheet, reflecting buildings, fountains, flowers, and the " glorious sky of Granada." The verge was bordered by white marble flags, with long narrow beds of roses ranged on either side, — a constant stream was made to flow in at one side, and out at the other, keeping the sur- face of the water on the same horizontal plane with the floors, "and as smooth and even as the I glass floor of the hall of audience, in which Solomon received the queen of Sheba." The doors are generally very large, and sparingly introduced. Except in the side of the edifice towards the precipice, where the prospect is magnificent, the windows are placed to confine the prospect to the interior of the palace ; and, as if the Arab archi- tect felt the full force of the beauties with which the valley of Granada abounded, he ingenious- ly gave his reason for shutting them out, in an inscription placed in one of the apartments : — " My windows admit the light, and ex- clude the view of external objects, lest the beauties of nature should divert your attention from the beauties of my work." The arabesques, paintings, and mosaics, which are finished with great care and accuracy, give a grace and importance even to the smallest apartment. Instead of being hung with tapestry or paper, or painted, they are covered with arabesques, which appear to have been cast in moulds, and afterwards joined together, although the joint does not appear; the ornaments, which recede from the eye, are illumi- nated in fine gradations with leaf gold, pink, light blue, and dusky purple ; the first colour is the nearest to the eye, and the last at the greatest distance from it,but the general surface is white. A multitude of sculptures of un- equal projection creates confu- sion 3 an error that is avoided throughout this edifice, where the ornaments being produced by incision, the artificial variety, produced by an almost boundless repetition, is not rendered a mass of confusion by the continuity being broken or divided by parts projecting from the general sur- 119 ALHAMRA. face. In the external parts, where projections are necessary for the strength of the fabric, the line of continuity is preserved in each distinct series of parts. The domes and arcades are formed of artificial casts, which are almost as light as wood, and as hard as marble j and so perfect has been the art with which they are com- posed, that, after a lapse of a thousand years, they are as per- fect as they were on the day in which they were constructed. The Arabs, from this specimen, appear to have been well ac- quainted with the properties of the carbonate of selenite. Porcelain mosaics, of various figures and colours, covered the lower part of the walls to the height of 4 feet; and it also ap- pears that the floors and columns were covered with similar mo- saics ; — a refinement unknown to their gothic contemporaries, whose barbarism was contented with halls skirted with mats, and floors strewed with straw or with bulrushes. A most curious and interesting part of this edifice is the baths, which are still almost entire, and are precious as giving us inform- ation of the manner of con- structing these buildings among a luxurious and enlightened people. A drawing of them will be found among the engravings under the word Bath. Pedraza, the historian ofGrana- da, observes, ' ' that no monarch, whether Christian or infidel, ever possessed a more magnificent apartment than the Hall of the Ambassadors j" he might with truth have asserted that it is a most noble hall, "*£ind arched so high that giants might keep their turbans on." The Hall of the Two Sisters, though not so large, displays more ingenuity of con- struction : the domes in particular are admirable specimens of ar- chitecture, and, as it has been stated, are in admirable preser- vation j notwithstanding the ap- parent slightness of the construc- tion, the resistance is adjusted to the thrust with so masterly a tact, that there is not an instance throughout the building of a sinking, or a fracture. The walls remain uninjured, except by the hand of man. The colours of the paintings, in which no oil has been used, on removing the particles of dust, are found to retain all their original freshness and beauty ; the beams, and wood-work of the ceilings, present no signs of decay. The art of rendering timber and paint durable, and of making porcelain mosaics, arabesques, and other ornaments, began, and ended, with the Arabs of the Spanish khalifat ; and spiders, flies, and all other insects, shun their apart- ments at every season. The wood-work of the floor, in many parts of this extraordinary edifice, is of pine ; the veneering work of the ceiling is, for the most part, of the same materials, and several parts of which, that were examined in 1809, were perfectly sound ; not the slightest mark whatever of dry rot, worm, or insect, could be observed in any part. This freshness has been thought to be the effect of the trees being " lanced," or de- prived of their sap at the time of felling; but it also appears pro- bable, that the paint with which it is coated has assisted its pre- servation : the first coat may have been white lead and oil, the se- cond coat brown, composed of red lead and carpenters' glue j upon this are laid other colours, in figures and foliage, which still retain their admirable brilliancy, ALHAMRA. and particularly the white, which is so bright and clear, that the roof of the Sala de Comares is generally supposed to be mother- of-pearl. When bricks or tiles were placed upon the wood-work, the Arabians generally put gyp- sum in contact with the timber. The Spaniards attribute this durability to the timber being coated with a composition con- sisting of Safne glue and garlic, well pounded in a mortar; these being mixed together, with the addition of vermilion, are boiled over a gentle fire, until the glue becomes as thin as water : too much or too little boiling de- prives it of its viscous quality. Planks cemented with this com- position are said to adhere so firmly, as to break at any other part except at the joint. Garlic being noxious to worms, the Moors evidently mixed it with their cement, in order to prevent their depredations : it is not im- probable that it was mixed with the gypsum used in the Alharnra, which may account for the stucco work remaining uninjured either by spiders or insects. The arches of the Alharnra are of a pointed horse-shoe form ; one arch remaining is a parabola. The walls are a mixture of clay and small rubble, and of small rubble stone and gravel, and coated with the same material : they are about 7 feet thick, and flanked by towers of the same material, 18 feet thick, and quite solid. In the walls, braces or ties are placed, chiefly of pine wood, which are buried in the wall, but are perfectly sound, having un- dergone no preparation whatever. Where coarse gravel was em- ployed in the construction of the walls, pieces of pine wuod were inserted at certain intervals ; when soft clay was used, strands or Q twists, made of a species of rush, were put in ; and in both cases they appear to have used the common Milha canes, and also in their ceilings : when they cased timber over with gypsum, they twisted Esparto cords round it, to bind the plaster ; a practice still retained among the Spaniards of Granada, who find it of great ad- vantage to the durability of their walls. The Arabs also appear to have driven nails into their walls to receive the plaster, which are to be seen in the Alharnra, ; but they put gypsum or plaster of Paris (but not lime) in contact with the iron, which has thus been effectually prevented from corrosion. The bricks with which the floors of the more open parts are paved, were 14 inches long and 7j inches wide, and 3 inches deep; the under side was divided in its breadth into three parts ; the middle divi- sion was sunk about an inch, forming a groove about 2| inches wide, 1 inch deep, and 14 inches long. The intention of forming this cavity appears to have been, to give the bricks a bond in the cement, an effect which their pre- sent durability is shown to have completely attained. Where the brick pavement is laid over boarding, a stratum of potters' clay, or bricks laid without mor- tar, or of gypsum, is interposed, but no lime comes in contact with the wood ; over this undeu- layer was spread the cement, in which the bricks, tiles, marbles, flags, &c. were bedded. The entire length of the en- closure of the Alharnra is about 2300 feet, and its breadth, which is nearly the same throughout, is about 600 feet. " The character of the whole," says a modern traveller, "is so 121 ALHAMRA. remote from that of any thing with which we are accustomed, that it produces un mingled sen- sations of pleasure and delight ; and this pleasure would be doubt- less enhanced by reading, and understanding with the fancy of an Arab, the poetry displayed in the friezes, architraves, and bands, in richly illuminated Cufic and Asiatic characters." " We may judge," says the historian of the Arabian king- doms in Spain, what this palace had been in the zenith of the regal power of its possessors, with the courts and halls, baths and fountains, groves and gar- dens, in their perfection. Its in- habitants vere sumptuously robed in fine linen, silks, and embroi- dery, glittering with gold and gems j they had gorgeous furni- ture, of citron, sandal, and aloes wood, ornamented with ivory and mother-of-pearl, intermixed with burnished gold and cerulean blue j vases of curious and costly workmanship, of porcelain, rock- crystal, mosaic, and sardonyx ; rich hangings, flowery carpets, couches, and pillows ; and the whole was perfumed with the precious frankincense of Yamen." But, of all this splendour, no- thing now remains but ruined edifices, uncultivated fields and gardens. Granada, the capital, is the skeleton of a city, where nothing thrives but monasteries, and lawyers surviving the ruin they have created. The Alhamra is deserted, except on the days appropriated to the admission of strangers : the want of repairs, the frequent dilapidations, caused by the admission of rain and the stagnant waters, are accelerating its destruction. Thus dismantled, solitary and neglected, without the interposition of the govern- ment, a few more years may le- 122 vel with the ground the beautiful domes and splendid arcades of the only remaining palace of the western khalifs. The approach is through a narrow street, still retaining its ancient name ; a gate leads into the outward enclosure of the Al- hamra, the road ascending by a winding path, through a wood of venerable elms, interspersed with other handsome trees. Near the summit of the hill are the remains of a large fountain, erected by the emperor Charles V. The prin- cipal entrance to the Alhamra exhibits to great advantage the massive architecture of anArabian citadel. The Gate of Judgment, so named on account of the ancient eastern custom of holding the courts of justice at the gates of the cities, has the horseshoe arch, so characteristic of Arab architecture. The gate was ori- ginally constructed of white marble, which has become in the course of so many years of a grey or yellowish cast. The mosaic tiling which decorates its top is about 3 feet4 inches high; beneath it is an inscription in Cufic cha- racters, consisting of a motto re- peated twice, " There is no con- queror but God!" Under this inscription, upon the key-stone of the arch, a key is sculptured; this was a favourite symbol of the followers of Mahomet, and an- swers to the cross among Chris- tians : among the Arabians its attributes were similar to the key, the symbol of the church of Rome, of opening and shutting the gates of heaven. The door of this gate is of the wood of the palm-tree, with iron bolts. The porch of the Gate of Judgment has arches of the crescent form, and an open hand is sculptured on the key-stone, which was a ALHAMRA. symbol of the omnipotent hand of God, and believed to be a powerful defence against the enemies of the Koran ; and it became the symbol of union among those Arabs who remained in Spain after the conquest of the city by Ferdinand and Isabella. The Square of Cisterns encloses the ancient cisterns which sup- plied the palace and the other buildings with water, which were kept constantly filled by water brought from a hill, a mile distant. The largest of these cisterns is 102 feet long and 56 feet wide, the whole is enclosed by a wall 6 feet thick and arched over : the arch is 47 feet 6 inches high in the centre, and 17 feet 6 inches below the surface of the ground. There are two openings built circularly, 25 feet 6 inches asunder, and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, strongly walled, and the tube is carried up 3 feet 6 inches above the surface of the ground, to admit air and light. The apparatus for discharging the water was extremely simple, a brass cock fixed at the extremity of a narrow subterraneous re- servoir. This reservoir is con- jectured to have been constructed with the intention of keeping the water in a constant state of cool- ness, which, in warm climates, is esteemed a luxury of the greatest consequence : and the ingenious manner in which this is ac- complished, and the water is fil- tered and kept pure, and at the same temperature throughout the year, is worthy of imitation. Advancing towards the interior of the palace, according to the practice of the Moors, the orna- ments become more finished and beautiful ; a custom observable even at this day among Arabs, who bestow but little external ornament on their buildings, but reserve all its riches to those inner apartments. In the Hall of the Baths, the arches spring from very light marble columns, of the same kind with that forming the floor. Mosaic tilings reach up to the ceiling, and the apertures for ventilation are formed of per- forations in the shape of a star, and linpd with green, glazed, baked tiles, aiding the sensation of a diffusion of a refreshing cool- ness. In Moorish palaces, from the frequency of ablution required by the rites of the Koran, the baths became an important part of every erection ; and in their arrangement and decoration the same differences of style are ob- servable. The apartments appro- priated to the ablutions of the khalif and sultana, are finished in a most exquisite style, and the queen's bath is most richly orna- mented with gilding and porce- lain. The basins containing the water are of white marble, and the walls are covered to the height of the cornices with beautiful black and white mosaics. The vaulted stone roof is perforated with ventilators, which admit a soft and bland light into this most voluptuous apartment. The water was heated by copper boilers, and conducted from them between the walls into the dif- ferent baths by means of pipes. The Court of the Lions is con- sidered to be one of the most per- fect specimens of Moorish archi- tecture in the building. It is an oblong quadrangle, 100 feet long, and 50 feet broad, surrounded with a corridor, formed of 12S columns of white marble, from which spring as many arches, supporting the upper apartments of the palace; a portico, not unlike some Gothic portals, projects into this court, with a fine stuccoed Ceiling. The floor of the colon- 123 ALHAMRA. nade is laid with white marble j the columns are disposed irregu- larly, sometimes single, at other parts coupled, and in others in clusters of three : they are 9 feet high, and not more than inches in circumference ; the larger arches which spring from them are 4 feet <2 inches wide, and the smaller about 3 feet. The capi- tals of the pillars vary in their designs, each pattern frequently occurring in the circumference of the court, but not seemingly placed with any design of being opposite to, or at equal distances with, those of the same model. The dado of the walls of this court is formed of a lining 5 feet high, of brilliant yellow and blue mosaic tiling, with a border, con- taining the often repeated sen- tence, " There is no conqueror but God," in blue and gold. The arches are further ornamented with a profusion of high- finished arabesques, having no trace of animal or vegetable forms, and surmounted with the usual in- scription ; a highly-decorated cornice runs round the whole court. In the centre of the court, the celebrated Fountain of the Lions is placed. These animals are twelve in number, and sup- port on their backs an alabaster basin, richly decorated, and from which rises a smaller basin. A great volume of water rose through pipes into the upper basin, which fell into the larger fountain, and was conducted through the lions' mouths into the large reservoir of black mar- ble. From this, as a fountain- head, the water was distributed, by means of marble channels, through various apartments. The ancient work of this court, which is out of reach of hands, is sharp, clean, arid white, and not a spi- der's web, or insect of any kind, 124 could be discovered in it, while some of the stucco work exe- cuted by latter kings was covered with cobwebs in many parts. The wood-work of the Arabs in this court is also in good pre- servation ; while much of that which has been placed here by succeeding kings is fast disap- pearing. From the Lions' Court is a pas- sage to the Hall of the Two Sis- ters, so named from two beauti- ful pieces of white marble forming part of the pavement on each side of the fountain ; they are 15 feet long, and 7 J broad, and quite free from crack or stain. The walls are decorated, from the pavement to the rise of the arches, with the usual elegant mosaics j the pannels between them are filled with a delicate ornament, which, at a little distance, has the appearance of a plain face ; the ceiling is composed of stalac- tites, in stucco, and finished in a style of great elegance. The four balconies of this sumptuous apartment were appropriated to musicians, the women of the ha- ram sat below, and a jet d eau in the middle diffused a refreshing coolness through the hall. The windows look into a little myrtle garden. Opposite to this salais the Sala de los Abencerrages, so named from some noble Arabs, who were put to death in it by one of the kings of Granada. It appears to have been a central saloon, opening a communication to the other parts of the palace. Every possible variety of combination which can be devised by inge- nuity and patience are found on the walls and ceiling; the lines regularly cross each other in a variety of directions, and return again to the point from which they were first projected. The ALH A L I extraordinary designs are thought to have been produced by pour- ing prepared gypsum into moulds, and after it was applied to the walls, by painting them with gold, azure, and purple. The Concert Room of the Baths is a lofty saloon,in which the royal family listened to the concerts of musicians, stationed in an elevated tribune, while the audience sat below on rich carpets. The co- lumns are of white marble, and the mosaics between the columns are black, green, yellow, and white, set in a green border ; the roof is covered with tiles, and the wood-work richly ornament- ed, especially the three lattices or windows. The Hall of the Ambassadors is termed, by the Arabs, the Golden Saloon, and was appropriated to the reception of ambassadors ; it is 64 feet high, and 36 feet square j the materials of the walls are pebbles and red clay, intermixed j they are 15 feet thick on three sides, and on the fourth side 9 feet thick; the ceiling is composed of strong pieces of larch, in admirable preservation, which are keyed and fastened to- gether in such a manner, that, on pressing the feet on the centre of the ceiling, the whole vibrates like a tight rope. The roof is formed of a scantling of 10 inches square deal, and laid close toge- ther, with cross braces at the angles. Bricks are laid on these rafters, and upon them is a coat- ing of lime ; on these are placed the bricks and tiles, forming the exterior covering of the roof. The principal entrance to this noble hall is through an arched door, decorated with a profusion of stucco arabesques, in blue and gold. The floor is inlaid with mosaics, and different patterns of the same kind of work cover every part of the wails in figure* and inscriptions, in Arabic, form- ed with porcelain with admirable skill, and which is made to form a most harmonious combination with the stucco ornaments. On the cornices are fouud the usual inscription. Its bold, arched ceil- ing is adorned with almost innu- merable chiligon mosaics, knots, and other ornaments ; and gold, silver, and azure purple are the colours covering the stuccoed facets. Inscriptions are placed every where ; and, indeed, the Alhamra in general has not improperly been called a collection of " fu- gitive pieces." Over the prin- cipal door of the Hall of Am- bassadors is inscribed : " By the sun, and its rising bright- ness j by the moon, when she followeth him ; by the day, when she showeth her splendour ; by the night, when it covereth him with darkness ; by the heaven, and him who spread it forth, by the soul, and him who com- pletely formed it — there is no other god but God." In an inscription, on a frieze over the upper windows of the grand saloon, the letters are about 16 inches high, and left white j the ornament light blue, and the back -ground vermilion. The foliage is imitated from the small caltrops, indigenous in Spain. Alioti, J. Baptista, an Italian architect, was a native of Fer- rara. In his youth, the poverty of his parents obliged him to follow the employment of a ma- son's labourer. But in this hum- ble situation he was fortunate to attract the notice of a patron by his attempts at architectural composition. He studied geo- metry and the belles lettres, and his subsequent diligence amply supplied the time he lost in nil ALM A L 1 youth. He was a party in the famous hydraulic controversy, which arose on account of the measures for preventing the in- undations of the provinces of Ferrara and Bologna. He erected a fortress at Ferrara, for pope Clement VII. And at Mantua, Modena, Parma, and Venice, he was much employed by the nobles in their palaces, and also in theatres and other public build- ings. He died in 1630. Alipius, an architect who lived in the fourth century, was commissioned by the emperor Julian to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem ; but, according to the Jews, when he was laying the foundation, the earth emitted fire, and destroyed the workmen ! Alipterion. In ancient Roman architecture. A room used by the bathers for anointing themselves. Alkoranes. In Persian archi- tecture. High, slender towers, at- tached to Persian mosques, and surrounded with balconies, in which the priests recite aloud prayers from the Koran at stated times, and announce the hours of devotion to the worshippers. They are often of very fantastic shapes, and generally form the principal embellishments of the mosque. They are beautiful objects in the grouping of Per- sian scenery. Allesi, G., an Italian archi- tect. He was much employed at Genoa; and his designs for the Escurial were preferred to those of all the other artists who were competitors on this occasion. He was born in a. d. 1500, and died in 1572. Alley. (Alice, Fr.) An aisle j any part of a church left open for walking through ; a passage in towns narrower than a street ; a walk in a garden. Almeurabh. In Arabian archi- ll tecture. A niche in a mosque, marking the direction of the temple at Mecca, %) which Mahometans turn their faces in praying. Almonry, Almery, Aumery, Ambrey, Aumbrey. (Almonarium, Almeriola, Lat. Armoire, Fr. a closet.) A cupboard, closet, or re- cess, so called from the hospitable, old custom of setting aside broken victuals in a particular place, to be given as alms to the poor. A pantry ; a place where utensils used for culinary purposes are kept; a stone house near the church, in abbeys, or by its gates, with various offices, for distributing the alms of the con- vent, and for the habitation of the almoner. In Durham abbey, in the wainscot behind the altar, were 4 grand almeries, to preserve the chalices and silver cruets. Alms-house. A house devot- ed to the reception and support of the poor. A house built and endowed for a particular descrip- tion of poor persons, by wealthy and charitable individuals. When our Anglo-Saxon kings dined, the poor sat in the street, expecting the broken meat. Alms-houses were afterwards built at the doors of churches and abbey gates, for the distri- bution of alms. See Almonry. Altar. In ancient Roman ar- chitecture. A place on which of- ferings or sacrifices were made to the gods. It was called bomos by the Greeks, in a general sense ; ar and the three galleries, M N O, are converted into numerous miserable dwell- ings. The houses, stables, shops which are found in the gallery all open on the outside into the town. — Some of the stairs of as- cent into the gallery P remain. This gallery is perfect, unencum- bered, and can be perambulated as in its original state. The stairs Heading to the vomitariaof the upper division of benches, are those by which one ascends at this day. The half gallery W is also in general clear. In some parts seventeen, in others twelve of the benches, reckoned from the top, are complete and clear of build- ings. The next are either broken, or removed, or buried among the buildings. The edifice is formed of immense blocks of stone — in many parts one entire stone runs from arch to arch, and includes not only the impost, but the column, all in one mass, 9 feet long, 7 feet wide, and between *2 and 3 feet high. Some of the stones forming the lintels are 18 feet long. The precise date of its construc- tion is not known. If built, as sup- posed, on the model of the Flavian amphitheatre, it cannot date higher than the age of Titus ; and there is no period between that and the reign of Adrian, that can be fixed upon, in which such buildings were erected. Adrian built the basilica of Flotina, and the tem- ple of Diana, at Nismes, which a French antiquary thinks was pa- tronage enough for Nismes in one reign, and conjectures that the erection of the amphitheatre might have taken place in the reign of Antoninus, about a. d. 138. That we are totally igno- rant of the date of erection of any provincial amphitheatre which has endured to our times, is a circumstance as singular as it is extraordinary. From notices of splendid games having been exhi- bited in this and other amphi- theatres, it has been attempted to limit the date of their erec- tion between certain periods ; but others think this very ab- sence of all historical notice of the buildings themselves, (from their dimensions, not only the largest, but the ornament of the provinces in which they were situated,) cannot be accounted for in any other way, than the buildings from their antiquity were so well known, as to preclude mention on the score of novelty. The style of their construction absolutely forbids entertaining the idea, that they were erected after the eras generally assigned to them, even were the means of later times commensurate to the expenses attending the erection of such gigantic fabrics. The Flavian Amphitheatre oc- cupies an area of nearly six acres, 1J9 AMPHITHEATRE. and from its apparent magnitude may be said to be the grandest building in the world. Its plan is somewhat greater than any of the Egyptian pyramids ; but on the outside, the Coliseum ap- pears of much larger dimension, as it rises perpendicularly nearly 16*0 feet, while the pyramids di- minish from their base. Barthelemy from a measure- ment calculates, that the external wall only of the Coliseum would have cost in his time (1761) a sum equal to £ 680,000 ster- ling : labour was then cheap- er than it is now ; and the exter- nal wall may be only a third or a fourth part of the whole work. It was begun by the emperor Vespasian, and finished by his son Titus, about a. d. 79. Domitian seems to have re- paired the amphitheatre; during the government of Macrinus it was greatly injured by lightning. Some inscriptions lead to the supposition that it was also re- paired by Theodosius and Valen- tinian, about the end of the 4th century. During the persecutions of the early Christians, many of them suffered death on its arena. Aftei the edict of Justinian, which banished all gladiators from the empire, it was neglected ; and afterwards, as the triumph of the christian faith over that of the Pagans introduced a more merciful creed, and more refined feeling, the sports of the amphitheatre, and their magni- ficent arena, fell rapidly into decay, from which they were never again to arise. The Coli- seum thus abandoned was seldom mentioned, until about the 12th century. During the feuds of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, it was converted by the Frangepani 150 family into a fortress ; and here pope Innocent II. took refuge from the revenge of the triumphant party. In this contest the Fran- gipani lost possession, and it fell into the hands of the Anibaldi family, who held it until the year a.u. 1311. Barthelemy {Mem. de VAcademie des Inscrip. vol. xxvii.) speaks of a letter in the Vatican, which treats of an agreement between the Colonna and Ursini families in the 14th century, about the right of taking Travertine stone from the Coliseum, as well for burning into lime as for building. At that period, however, few building materi- als were wanted ; the fabrics erected in those times of anarchy were only a few brick towers, serving as fortresses, and erected upon the solid masonry of the ancient buildings. Rome being then thinly peopled, the inha- bitants poor, having neither arts, commerce, nor a regular govern- ment, and divided into factions at war with each other, the di- lapidations were for a long time inconsiderable, and confined to the interior of the amphitheatre. In 1312, a bull feast was exhi- bited in the Coliseum, in which these families were conspicuous — a circumstance interesting in the history of the building, as it is probable that at that time the stone seats remained, which now are entirely destroyed. In 1332, it again fell into the hands of the government of Rome. The build- ing suffered most after the revival of the arts, when large palaces came to be erected, for which the squared stones of the amphithe- atre afforded a good material, and saved the trouble and great part of the expense of quarrying and bringing the stones from the AMPHITHEATRE. rock twenty miles distant. The nephews of Paul III., Farnese, employed the stones in build- ing their palace, under the direction of the celebrated Mi- chael Angelo : the palace of the Caneellaria, by Bramante, was also built with the Coliseum travertine. With reference to this dilapi- dation, it is a favourite old wo- man's story, on the spot, " that a sufficient quantity of stone was carried away in one night to build the Farnese palace." But a sen- sible antiquary observes, that,, although there is no doubt of the fact of this and many other palaces having been built from its ruins, yet, before this could have taken place, it would be neces- sary to show that all " the carts in Italy, at that moment, were collected at Rome, and employed on this night in this particular business." The Coliseum was henceforth considered but as an immense quarry ; the common people stole, and the grandees obtained, per- mission to carry off its materials, till the interior was dismantled, and the exterior half stripped of its ornaments. It is difficult to say where this system of depre- dation, so sacrilegious in the opi- nion of the antiquary, would have stopped, had not Benedict XIV., a pontiff of great judgment, erected a cross in the centre of the arena, and declared the place sacred, out of respect to the blood of the martyrs, who were butchered there during the persecutions. This declaration, if it had been issued two or three centuries ago, would have preserved the Coli- seum entire — it can now only pro- tect its remains, and transmit them in their present state to posterity. Round the elliptical circumfe- rence of the arena, aitars or sta- tions of the via crucis are placed, and two or three friars now live in one of the damp cells of the ruin, to officiate and to receive the contributions of the charitable. The external wall consists of the calcareous tufa ofTivoli, called travertine stone ; but not more than a part of its circumference remains with the different ranges of orders complete. The exterior wall remained perfect till the middle of the six- teenth century. A strong and lofty buttress was constructed by Pius VII., to support the extre- mity of the remaining part. Of the second wall, dividing the two outer corridors, which were carried round the building, about the same quantity is destroyed. — This, as well as the outside wall, being composed of square blocks, has been more dilapidated than some of the other parts. The in- ner portions of the building, being mostly constructed with brick and tile, ofFering less temptations, and fewer facilities to being car- ried off, are still allowed to re- main. Another source of destruction has arisen, from what its found ers vainly imagined would have made it more durable — the cramps of iron and lead, used to bind the stones together, have been eagerly sought after and extracted, wher- ever accessible, throughout the building. " The perforations," says Sa- lengre, in his " Thesaurus Roma- nus," " which are numerous be- tween the stones of the piers in the outer wall, appear to have been made for taking out the iron pins by which the stones were connected. The stones were laid without mortar, as in the elliptic amphitheatre at Pola, and other Roman fabrics." Maffei observed similar perforations in the stones 151 AMPHITHEATRE. of the Roman arch at Susa, and having made a perforation in one of the stones that was entire, he came to an iron pin, run with lead into a cavity in the bed of the lower stone. The pins are some- times of bronze : these, and the cavities for receiving them, are drawn inPiranesi,tom. iv. tavola6. Some of these perforations seem also to have been made for the insertion of rafters, to support the roofs of booths and small shops, which may have been erected against it during the mid- dle ages. The form of the Coliseum is that of an oval, of which the longer axis is 620 feet, and the shorter 513 feet, having its height decorated by four orders of architecture, the doric, ionic, Corinthian, and composite, in the series as here named. The columns of the three lower orders project nearly half their dia- meter, having the intervals be- tween them formed of arches, of which thereare eighty in the peri- phery of each story. The arched openings of the two upper stories had originally statues placed in them, the upper story being finished with pilasters standing over the columns. The four central openings were the largest ; the only one of these now in existence is placed on the north side, and is said to have been the entrance - for the emperor from his palace. It is about 16 feet 4 inches in width ; the other radiating passages being about 14 feet 6 inches ; a portico is conjectured to have been attached to this principal open- ing, as it is supposed to be indi- cated on some ancient medals. The walls enclosing the stair- cases, and forming the supports to the seats, are carried towards four centres } nineteen on the 152 north and south sides, are direct- ed to points placed on the oppo- site sides, at A A, in the ground plan, in the fourth corridor, and about 19 feet 8 inches from the back of the podium. On the east and west ends, fifteen are directed at each end to a point marked B, about 80 feet from the centre of the arena in each direction, excepting the waMs of the central openings, which are nearly parallel. Five corridors, or passages, were originally carried round the building, one side of the fifth corridor being under the podium. The two outer corridors are composed of open arches ; the piers and arches are of travertine stone. These piers are deco- rated with a pilaster, surmounted with an architrave ; from this spring the vaults of the corridors. The vaults are composed. of rub- ble and cement, and appear to have been turned upon boarded (or floored) centres, the marks of the joints of the boards appear- ing where the thin coat of stucco is destroyed. These corridors were paved with thick travertine stone ; this pavement ran round the building on the outside, and was nearly 6 feet broad, and was lower by two steps than the level of the corridor ; from the second corridor to the third, the pavement rises rapidly; be- tween these passages are placed the staircases to the first story over the two outer corridors. These staircases are of two kinds : in the one the first ascent is by twelve steps to a broad landing, then by other twelve steps to a similar landing lighted by small openings from the third corridor, then turning, two similar flights conduct to the floor of the range of corridors on the first story ; this staircase is shown at number AMPHi T II E A T R E. 40. 52. &c. At number 42, in the ground plan, a staircase com- mences from the third corridor, which rises to the same level as the other with only one broad landing midway. The walls between these staircases are formed by four piers of traver- tine stone, filled in with piperino stones ; but the horizontal joints of the two occasionally do not range. From the third corridor, on the opposite side, a staircase having twenty-five steps conducts to the lower range of vomitories j and occupies the space be- tween the third and fourth corri- dor ; this corridor was paved with travertine. Between these cor- ridors, the walls are faced with tile in regular courses ; the outer pier forms a break, and was left of travertine. The vault of the fourth corridor is quite destroyed ; from part of its pavement remaining, it ap- pears to have been laid with white or veined marble about 5 Inches thick ; the brick wall form- ing the arena has been likewise cased with various kinds of mar- ble ; from this a series of marble steps led to the top of the podium, and it has been suggested that three flights of steps were placed at the centre of the north and south sides, by which the em- peror, and the other distinguish- ed persons, ascended to their eeats in the podium. The open- ing in the wall, within the fourth corridor, at 40, 45, and 52, com- municated with the passage (formed under the podium) by steps ; the three central radiat- ing passages forming the principal north entrance, appear to have been decorated with stucco pan- ne! ornaments, but of clumsy execution. Marble having been used in the walls of this, and in the fourth corridor would indicate U that the podium was in the situa- tion shown in the ground plan. The second story has its cir- cumscribing wall decorated with ionic columns. The corri- dor on the outside is double, corresponding to that on the ground story, and vaulted in the same manner. The inner vaults do not rise so high as the outer ones, and they are groined j the mezzanine story, or entresol over it, ranges in height with the outer series of vaults. The outer corridor is ornamented with pilasters. From the inner corridor there is an ascent of five steps to the second row of vomitories, and from the inner range of arches, forming the outercorridor, twenty- five steps rise to the third row of vomitories. The approach to the mezzanine storyis by twenty-eight steps in the inner corridor. This corridor was paved with very small bricks, laid in the herring- bone fashion ; it had also a drain, or trough, with sinkstones run- ning round its inner edge. The outer corridors, and radiating passages, were also paved with these bricks, some of them had a course of travertine stone pav- ing, about 2 feet wide, on one side. The walls were plastered, and painted of a deep red colour; some pedestals remain in the outer arches, which are conjec- tured to have supported statues. On this story, the staircases are not arranged so regularly as those which are below ; the four stair- cases on the east and west ends being placed differently from the rest. The mezzanine is lighted by a number of slanting apertures made at the side of the vault, which appear to have been filled with iron gratings. The sides and vaults of this story had a 153 AMPHITHEATRE. thick coat of plaster, coloured of a deep red ; the floor was laid with small bricks, also in the herring- bone fashion and the water car- ried off by a stone channel. From this story, stairs conducted to the third range of corridors. Two corridors run round this story, and there are some indi- cations of the outer one having been groined : none of the arches remain. The inner wall is formed of rubble and tiles, and this has been faced with slabs of various coloured marbles. It has doors opening from it, opposite five arches, into as many correspond- ing passages, having recesses be- tween them towards the inside. The flights of steps rising to the seats above are placed in the inner corridor, and in the outer corridor were the stairs to the mezzanine, formed in a conti- nued line, with a broad landing at half the height. These corri- dors were paved with small bricks, laid in with those in the lower corridors, and also having a chan- nel running at their outer edges, which communicated by perpen- dicular tunnels with the horizon- tal tunnels which carried off the water from those beneath. The highest seats in this am- phitheatre were supposed to have been formed of wood, and they were approached by stairs, as- cending against the outer wall. From indications of these, a land- ing is supposed to have been formed by the meeting of two flights placed in opposite direc- tions, and that from this landing a passage or gallery was con- tinued inwards. On the upper range there were staircases lead- ing to the parapet of the build- ing or platform, for fixing and adjusting the velarium or covering of the amphitheatre. In the wall enclosing the upper 154 range of seats were two rows of windows j the under row is placed in the dado of the upper range of pilasters, 4 feet 3£ inches in height, and 4 feet 9| inches in width. The upper row is placed between the pilasters ; each win- dow is 6 feet 4 inches wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high; a window is placed between every second pi- laster, the under range being placed between the plinths or dadoes of the intermediate space, so that the two rows of windows do not range perpendicularly. The horizontal openings of the arches of the first range of cor- ridors are 14 feet 6 inches, from the pavement to the soffet of the arch ; at their middle point 23 feet 8| inches, and 16' feet 3 inches to the upper side of the impost mouldings the pier is 7 feet 1 J inches wide ; the height of the columns of this range, including base and capital, is 27 feet 3 inches, and the entab- lature to the upper side of the cornice is 6 feet 9 inches high j the columns are 2 feet 9 inches in diameter. These columns are of the doric order. The dado of the columns of the second range from the upper side of the cornice of the lower story is 6 feet 7 inches high ; the height of the columns is 25 feet 5 inches, including base and ca- pital, and their lower diameter 2 feet 10 J inches, and their entab- lature and cornice to its upper side 6 feet 6 inches high. The openings of the arches begin from the upper side of the dado j they are 14 feet 7f inches wide, and 21 feet 9 inches high ; the piers are of the same width as those they stand upon ; the ^height of the pier to their impost moulding is 14 feet 8| inches. These co- lumns are of the ionic order. The height of the dado of the AMPHITHEATRE. third tier of columns is 6 feet 7| inches ; the columns, which are of the corinthian order, are 25 feet 8 inches high, base and capital in- clusive, and 2 feet lOj inches in diameter ; the entablature to the upper side of the cornice is 6 feet 6*£ inches high ; the piers are the same width as those in the story beneath, and 14 feet 3 inches high to the springing of the arches j the openings are 14 feet7^ inches wide, and 21 feet 5j inches high. The dado of the range of pi- lasters which crowned the build- ing is 7 feet 9^ inches to the top of its cornice, on which was placed a blocking course j from the upper side of cornice of dado to the under side of the entabla- ture of the pilasters is 31 feet; the pilasters are 2 feet lOj inches on the face : the entablature of this tier was 7 feet 3j inches highj the pilasters ranged perpendicu- larly with the columns of the three under stories. A series of corbels ran all round the building, on which it is sup- posed were placed poles or fast- enings for the velarium, which covered the building j their posi- tion, projection, and use, will be better understood from an inspec- tion of the engraving of the sec- tion and part of the elevation of this amphitheatre, than from any verbal description. In the upper parts of this building particularly, and in ge- neral throughout, the dimensions of the pillars, or openings, or mouldings, are by no means uni- form. In a building of this enor- mous size, it would have been extraordinary had the minutiae accurately corresponded. The proportions stated are those collected from the parts in the best preservation. The style of the mouldings, and their proportions, will be so clearly learnt from the engravings of their sections, that a more de tailed account were superfluous. The section of the outer wall will show the thickness of the piers and walls in the intervals between them in the upper stories. The cornice forming the para- pet of the building is perforated, for the purpose, it is conjectured, of inserting the timbers, which passed into the grooves made in the frieze and architrave. The corbels will be observed to be placed immediately beneath these grooves, on which, as has been stated, the masts rested, from which was stretched the awning, to protect the spectators in the amphitheatre from the sun or rain. The masonry of the lower parts of the building has been finished with greater care than that far- ther removed from the eye. The piers are composed of huge blocks of stone, many of which ex- tend the whole thickness of the pier, and the joints are secured with metallic cramps ; each ot the arches is formed of eleven blocks, the key-stone and many of the others extending the w hole depth. The voussoirs, or arch- stones, are held together by square projecting tenons and mortises in their joint-faces : these are sometimes superseded by metal cramps. The inside of the wall of the upper story, forming the back of the upper range ot seats, was faced with tiles, fixed in horizontal courses, behind which were indents or grooves, containing circular pipes of earth- enware, for conveying the water from the parapet 3 probably also that which ran from the velarium or awning. The building from the level of the pavement on which the bases of the first range of column' 155 AMPHITHEATRE. were placed, an 1 which formed the floor of the first corridor to the top of the parapet of the outer wall, was 157 feet 6 inches high. The letters on the sections re- fer to the details of the orna- ments having the same letters on the accompanying plates : those parts of the sections of the walls shown with a lighter tint, are of piperino or travertine stone ; the darker parts show the rubble filling in. In general, it may be remarked that the vaulting under the seats, and in the staircases,was all formed of rough rubble work. For other details of the construc- tion of this immense building, see Colosseum. The podium was raised about 12 or 15 feet above what is generally considered to be the floor of the arena : on this, as has been already stated at the commencement, were placed the emperor, senators, ambassadors, &c. The throne, or suggestum, or seat appropriated to the em- peror, was decorated like a pa- vilion, lined with rich silks, and gorgeously ornamented. From the podium to the top of the second story, the. seats were made of marble, which were oc- cupied by the knights or persons of the equestrian rank, divided into menianaj or precinctions ; the lower ones being esteemed the places of the greater honour. Some of these seats were covered with cushions, but most usually they were covered with boards. The marble seats were in the form of wedges 17 inches high, and cut out for steps descending at regu- lar intervals. Above the second story is a wall perforated with doors j above this wall the seats are supposed to have been con- structed with wood. The steps to the seats on the ionic range are of travertine 156 stone, laid on tiles bedded in rub- ble ; their thickness is about 9j inches, equal to four courses of tiles, upon which each step rests. The blocks forming the marble seats are 17 inches high^nd 3 feet 3j on their upper side, be- velling on their under side (from a distance of 6 inches from the front or rising) to a thickness of 3j inches ; they were fastened by being joggled to those both under and above them. The method in which the vela- rium was spread, might have been as follows : a cable being placed on the edge of the podium following the curve of the ellip- sis, and strong ropes being attached to it, taking the direc- tion of the radiating walls on the plan, and passing through pullies in the poles at the top of the building, which were two hundred and forty in number, and resting on the corbels, the whole might be raised to any height, but would take the inclination of the seats ; the awning, or covering, being formed in widths equal to the distance of the masts from each other, was probably made to move on these radiating ropes by rings attached to the edges of each width, and it might be ad- justed at pleasure with slighter ropes to move it in either direc- tion by persons stationed on the platform or parapet. The space over the arena was probably left open as well for air as light ; marine soldiers were employed to work the machinery. The material of the velarium, or awning, as has been stated, was sometimes of silk, but it was usually yellow, or iron-red, wool- len cloths. Nero once caused a purple velarium to be stretched across the building representing the heavens, with stars of gold thereon, and his own image AMPHITHEATRE. embroidered in the middle, re- presenting the sun, driving a chariot. Some Roman antiquaries ima- gine that the arena was boarded, and that the boards were covered with sand or earth, a conjecture more than probable, as we know that the arena was removable, and capable of admitting of sud- den and surprising alterations. Titus himself, who erected it, not content with the usual exhi- bition of wild beasts, produced the scenery of the countries whence they were brought, and astonished the Romans with a display of rocks and forests. Domitian covered the arena with water, and exhibited marine shows and naval fights ; and the suddenness of the changes is often noticed by historians and poets. In succeeding ages they appear toliave improved on these exhibitions, and the whole arena suddenly disappeared, and there arose from the chasm, forests, orchards, and wild beasts. These alterations of scene were pro- duced by machines which were called pegmata, which rose and swelled sometimes to a prodigi- ous extent and elevation, and again subsided into a perfect level, or, perhaps sinking still lower, exposed the caverns and subterranean dens of wild beasts, which lay under the arena. Sometimes criminals were raised on these machines, and while engaged with objects calculated to attract the attention, hurled unexpectedly into the dens of wild beasts below and devoured. One of these was in the form ot a ship, which, while floating in the amphitheatre, struck the ground as if wrecked, and, open- ing, let loose some hundreds of wild beasts mixed with aquatic animals, till the water was sud- denly let out, the beasts slain, and the ship restored to its original form 5 exhibitions of flames playing round the ma- chinery, without destroying it, have also been described. It has been stated that in par- ticular parts of the edifice were pipes for the distribution of per- fumes ; it was a common prac- tice to sprinkle them in showers ; but on certain great occasions they were allowed to flow in great quantities down the steps, or rather seats of the amphi- theatre. Seneca informs us that, for this purpose, pipes were con- ducted from the centre of the arena to the summit of the amphi- theatre : from this we may infer that under the arena were dens of wild beasts, reservoirs of water, sewers to carry it off, spaces to contain the machinery, and cellars for perfumes and the wine with which they were mixed ; and also, that the sub- stratum of the arena was mov- able, and, consequently, had a boarded floor. This conjecture has been al- most confirmed by modern dis- coveries. When the French had possession of Rome, the arena was excavated, and vaults and passages were discovered under its whole area ; openings in the boarded floor, in all pro- bability, communicated with the cells beneath. Unfortunately, be- fore the excavations were com- pleted, the waters accumulated, and, as no precaution had been taken for its drainage by the exca- vators, it became stagnant; and rendering the air unwholesome, it was found necessary again to throw in the rubbish above the walls ; and the arena is now, probably, at its ancient level. A fine view of the walls under the arena, as they appeared at 157 AMPHITHEATRE. the time the excavation was most complete, is given in a collection of antiquities, edited by Taylor and Cressy. The details of this amphitheatre are also given at great length, and with much taste and ability, in this public- ation. The drainage of this immense building appears to have had great attention bestowed on it : a large drain was carried round the outside of the building, which received all the water flowing from the interior drains. An- other drain, 30 inches wide, is carried round under the second corridor ; in this are emptied the perpendicular conduits, and the water from the third corridor j its drain is 17 inches wide and 3 feet deep : these tunnels are lined on their sides with tile. Another drain is placed on the outer side of the third corridor of the same width and construction, laid so as to empty itself into that in the third corridor : other drains ex- tend from these in various direc- tions towards the arena. Maffei conjectures that there was a movable altar in the arena. The Coliseum was large enough to contain between se- venty and eighty thousand peo- ple 5 that of Verona twenty-two thousand. Never did human art present to the eye a fabric so well calcu- lated, by its size and form, to surprise and delight. Let the spectator first place himself to the north, and contemplate that side which barbarism and ages have spared, he will behold with admiration its wonderful extent, well-proportioned stories, flying lines, that retire and vanish with- out break or interruption. Next, let him turn to the south, and examine those stupendous arches 158 which, stripped as they are of their external decorations, still astonish us by their solidity and duration : then let him enter, range through the lofty arcades, and ascending the vaulted seats, consider the vast mass of ruin that surrounds him, insulated walls, immense stones suspended in the air, arches covered with weeds and shrubs, vaults open- ing upon other ruins ; in short, above, below, and around, one vast collection of magnificence and devastation ; of grandeur and decay. Yet this stupendous fa- bric was erected from a part only of the materials, and on a por- tion only of Nero's golden house, which had been demolished by Vespasian as too sumptuous even for a Roman emperor. Paoli, an Italian author, who has written on the sub- ject of amphitheatres* suggest- ed the opinion, that, as am- phitheatrical sports were derived from the Etruscans, amphithea- tres had also their origin among that people. That the games were exhibited in narrow vallies, and the audience was ranged on the sides of the surrounding ac- clivities. When these sports were exhibited in cities, an arena was dug into the level ground, and the earth thrown out was formed into a bank, having seats of turf. The greater the number that was to be accommodated, the deeper the excavation was made ; and when the community became rich enough, or the games began to be held in greater es- teem, and to be celebrated more frequently, the entire amphi- theatre was enclosed by a wall, and the seats were formed of wood and stone. Richborough and Caerleon are examples of the earlier mode, although of un- questionably later date j and A M P AMP Paestum of what Paoli considered to be a more improved era, with- out resting his hypothesis on that particular example being of the Etruscan time. Paoli's conjecture, without going the whole length of his in- ference, is exceedingly plausible, and with a greater seeming of consistency than tlkt of his oppo- nent's. It is by no means pro- bable, that Curio's amphitheatre at Rome was the first of its kind, as to a form adopted for amphitheatres ; or that the Fla- vian amphitheatre of stone was the model of all those in the provinces.. In fact, judging from the admir- able arrangement of this latter building, it would appear to have been the last, instead of the first of a series of experiments — to have been the ne plus ultra of scientific arrangement and construction of a kind of edifice, whose uses and decoration had been long familiar, and deeply studied by Roman architects. Whether these studies were made on the Etruscan types, or what has been called a natural amphitheatre, or on those of a more artificial kind, made by ex- cavation, and forming an agger, or on the wooden building under the first Caesars, it is now impos- sible to determine; although all analogies are in favour of the sup- position of an imitation of the Etruscan model. See Baltei, Co- liseum, Corridors, P reductions, Vaults. Amphitheatre. A name some- times given to the area of a modern circus j it is occasionally used, but improperly, for thea- tre j and a lecture room, with seats in its circumference. See Theatre. Amphitheatre. In landscape gar- dening. An elevated terrace, hav- ing steps descending to a series of terraces, formed on the slop- ing sides of a hill. Ampijithete. In decoration. A drinking cup of a large size often seen in Greek sculptures. Amphora. {Amphiphoreus. Am- phoreus. Gr. A vase with two handles.) An earthen jar with two handles, (from this circum- stance also called diotce testa.) often seen on medals, and among the decorations of tombs, &c. 5 they taper outwards from the bottom, which ends in a point. The ancients sometimes built them into the floors of cellars, or grottoes, or surrounded them with a wall, or supported them with frames of wood ; and they were the usual receptacles in which were preserved olives, dried grapes, oil, but especially wine. They were generally placed on their narrow end, but some instances have occurred in which they were laid upon their side. Under every circumstance, their use was exceedingly inconve- nient ; it required considerable care to set them properly ; and nothing could be worse adapted for removal ; but their use was exclusive and general for many centuries ; habit, which ren- dered their use familiar, su- perseded reflection. They were sometimes made of enormous size. Caylus describes one 5 feet 6' inches in diameter, and 5 feet high, which was turned both in- side and outside, with as much precision and delicacy as if it had only been a few inches in di- ameter. At the villa Albano, there was an amphora with a capacity of one hundred and fifty gallons. Amphorae manufactured at Chios and Samos were esteemed of a better quality than the Italian ones, and were reserved for the preservation of the finer and more 159 AMP ANA precious wines. To prevent the dissipat ion of the moisture of the fruits or liquids which they held, it was usual to coat them over on the outside with a composition of pitch, tar, grease, and other substances ; they were closed by a cork, over which was spread a similar composition. These precautions assisted to preserve fluids in them for an amazing length of time. Petronius men- tions some wine which had been kept a hundred years in amphorae glazed, and coated with chalk and plaster of Paris. On many of these vessels which have been discovered were inscriptions of the sort of wine that had been put into them, and the date when they were filled j at Rome this was done by in- scribing the name of the consul ; in the provinces by that of the praetor ; on some found at Her- culaneum and Pompeii, the prae- tor's name was written with a red coloured substance, and the quan- tity of wine which the amphorae contained was likewise marked on them with colour. Amphorae were often appropri- ated to less dignified purposes j they were placed in alleys and by- streets of Rome, that the citi- zens " pussent satisfaire aux be- soins pressans de la nature." Vespasian laid a tax. upon them, and individuals were found to farm these extraordinary sources of the imperial revenue. Amphora is sometimes used for an Asiatic bath ; and was like- wise the name of an ancient mea- sure of capacity. Amphoral. In decoration. A crystal vase, shaped like an am- phora. Ampulla. In decoration. A vase with a long neck, and having its orifice so small as to let out the liquid bv drops ; they were used 160 in sacrifices, and were the orna- ments of buffets and tables. Amula. In decoration. A vase containing lustral water ; a com- mon form in the sculptures on altars and temples ; those of bronze are round, or ornamented with laurel leaves, about 22 inches in diameter, occasionally with handles, standing on a foot j marble ones were grooved, or channeled like some shells, 18 inches in diameter, supported on feet fiuted like columns. Amulet. In decoration. A figure, or character, to which are attached certain marvellous powers. The Egyptian buildings are covered with ornaments of this nature, and among almost every ancient people, their use may be said to have been general ; much of the system of Greek and Roman ornament, and probably every other style of ornament, is but a refined employment of amuletic characters. Anabathra. {Anubathra. Gr. A plank to cross a rivulet ; a ladder.) Steps to ascend the postscenium, or pulpitum in Ro- man theatres : they usually were made of wood, supported by wooden posts, and attached to the walls of the theatre. It is some- times improperly written anaba- thrum. Anabathra. Wrought stones formed like steps, and placed on highways to assist riders in mounting or dismounting, before stirrups were invented. Anaglypha. {Anaglypho. Gr I cut slightly.) Something sculp- tured, cut, or embossed. The word cameo is used for anagly- pha, where the figures protrude ; those stones whose figures are sunk are now called engraved stones. Anaklyntheria. (Gr. Head- board of a bed.) A kind of step ANC A NC to rest the head upon. Verus had a bed, or couch, constructed with four anaklyntheriae. Anclakria. The bronze vases reserved for the sacrifices. Anclabris. A table or small altar on which were set the bronze or other vases for sacri- fice, or that part of the offerings intended for the priests. A small portable altar on which offerings of fruit or cakes were laid. Anchor. In Greek and Roman architecture. An ornament shaped like an anchor or arrow-head,used along with the egg ornament, to decorate or enrich mouldings : by some they are thought to have a reference " to the fire which vivified the mundane egg /' and by others, to be represent- ations of " arrow-heads," alter- nating with the stones or pieces of metal shaped like " almonds," which the ancients discharged from slings, of which the fillet surrounding the "egg" is a re- presentation. The " anchor and egg" orna- ment, as it is called, is peculiar to the ionic and corinthian orders : in two examples of Roman doric, the Trajan and Antonine co- lumns, it is also introduced ; but these are exceptions to all other specimens. Anchor. In decoration. Those which are seen on ancient monu- ments have nearly the same form as modern anchors, only the trans- verse piece of wood, or the stock, is wanting in all of them. They are generally two-Huked. Axcona. An Italian city founder 1 by some Syracusans, who abandoned their country during the reign of Dionysius > I- the tyrant, about four hundred 1 ! years before Christ, was celebrat- ed in the classic ages for a temple to Venus. " In reality, it would f be difficult to find a situation X more conformable to the temper of the ' queen of smiles and sports,' or better adapted to health and enjoyment than An- cona. Seated on the side of a hill forming a semicircular bay, sheltered by its summit from the exhalations of the south, and covered by a bold promontory from the blasts of the north, open only to the breezes of the west, that wanton on the bosom of the waters which bathe its feet, and surrounded by fields of inexhaustible fertility, Ancona seems formed for the abode of mirth and luxury." The Romans made this delight- ful place their principal naval station in the Adriatic, and built a magnificent mole to cover the harbour, and adorned it with a triumphal arch; this grand work was completed by Trajan, and to him the triumphal arch is dedi- cated : it is still entire, though stripped of its metal ornaments. The order is corinthian, and the materials are Parian marble. The form is light, and the whole is esteemed the best, if not the most splendid, or most massive, that remains of similar edifices. It was ornamented with statues, busts, and decorations of bronze j from the first taking of Rome by Alaric, to the revival of the arts, it was certain ruin to an ancient building to be supposed to re- tain any ornament, or even cramp of metal ; not only were the ex- ternal decorations torn off, but the very nails were pulled out, and stones displaced, and columns overturned, to seek for bronze or iron. This arch has only one gate- way, and is ornamented with four half columns on each front, one at each side of the gateway, and one at each angle. The marble, particularly in the front towards 161 ANC the sea, retains its seining white j the capitals of the pillars have suffered much, and lost the pro- minent parts of the acanthus ; but, on the whole, it is in high preser- vation. See Arch of Triumph. The greater part of the mole still remains a solid compact, well formed, of huge blocks of stone, bound together by iron, and rising to a considerable height above the level of the sea. Close to it, but much lower, is the modern mole, adorned in like manner with a triumphal arch of the tuscan order, in itself not beautiful ; and when compared with the corinthian arch that stands almost immediately over it, extremely cumbersome. The architect was Vanvitelli, a name of considerable repute among ar- chitects in the last century. " It is diificult to conceive what mo- tives could have induced him to place an arch of so mixed a com- position, and so heavy a form, near to the simple and airy edifice of Trajan, unless it were to display their opposite qualities by the contrast ; and of course to de- grade and vilify his own produc- tion. But ail modern architects, not excepting the great names of Michael Angelo, Bramante, and Palladio, have had the fever of innovation, and more than ten centuries of unsuccessful experi- ments have not been sufficient to awaken a spirit of diffidence, and to induce them to suspect that, in deviating from the models of antiquity, they have abandoned the rules of symmetry ; and that, in erecting edifices on their own peculiar plans, they have only transmitted their bad taste in stone and marble to posterity." An con. In decoration. A curved drinking-cup or horn. The arm of a chair. Ancones. "The ornaments de- 162 \ AND pending from the corona of ionic doorways against the antepag- ments; they were likewise term- ed prothyrides. The Greek term agkon, from which the Latin ancon is derived, signifies the arm or bend of the arm. Vitruvius calls the sides of aright-angled triangle subtending the right angle — an - cones." The corners or quoins of walls, cross-beams or rafters, trusses or consoles j a sort of brackets and shouldering-pieces, apparently supporting the mould- ings placed over them. Corbels ; consoles, or ornaments, cut on the key-stones of arches, serv- ing to support busts, or other figures. The two parts or branch- es of a square which meet in an angle resembling the letter L. The angles or flexures of rivers. A Carthaginian prison or dungeon. See the engraving of 'f Ancones." Andrea di Cione Orgagna. A poet, painter, sculptor, and ar- chitect, was born at Florence in a. d. 1329 : his designs for the additions to the ducal palace at Florence were preferred to those of all the other artists. Michael Angelo was so much pleased with this building, that when applied to by Cosmo of Medici for a design to improve another part of the ducal palace, he ad- vised that the '< loge" of Andrea should be continued round this portion of it, as he was unable to produce any thing finer. Andrea also revived the ancient practice of joining marble and stones in building with brass cramps in- stead of using cement or mortar. He died in a. d. 1389 The brother of this architect, who practised as a sculptor, built the tower and gate of St. Pietro Gattolini. Andrea da Pisa was born at Pisa m a. d. 1270 . he was AND A N G esteemed one of the greatest ar- chitects of his time. He designed the castle of Searperio at the foot of the Apennines ; and, tradi- tionally, he is said to have de- signed the church of St. John, at Pistoia, in 1337 : this was a sort of rotunda, well built for the age in which it dates its erection. The greater works of Andrea are at Florence, and which he erected under the government of Walter ; he enlarged and fortified the palace of the duke : he sur- rounded Florence by towers placed at equal distances, and constructed magnificent gates : he designed a fortress for the governor, but which his expul- sion from the city prevented be- ing carried into execution. An- drea, however, continued to merit the esteem of the Florentines, who admitted him to the rights of citizenship, and invested him with some honourable offices in its magistracy. It is said he also designed the arsenal at Venice. He had a pupil, whose works are sometimes confounded with his, called Thomas da Pisa, who built the cemetery in that city, called Campo Santo, and the campanile of the cathedral. Andron. (Gr. A hall for men. A dining room.) An apartment in Greek houses, appropriated to the men, which was separated from the gynaecea, or that in- habited by the women and chil- dren. It was usually placed in the outer or lower part of the house j the gynaecea was in the inner or upper part. A portion of the modern Greek churches allotted to the men. Andronicus Cyrrhestus. A Greek architect, born at Cerestus, in Macedonia : the date of his birth Is unknown : he is said by some to have been the first who studied the winds, ana reduced them to eight principal ones. He built a tower at Athens, which is thus noticed by Vitruvius : " Some have chosen to reckon only four winds ; the east blowing from the equinoctial sunrise ; the south from the noon-day sun ; the west from the equinoctial sun-setting; and the north from the polar stars. But those who are more exact, have reckoned eight winds ; particularly Andro- nicus Cyrrhestus, who, on this system, erected an octagon tower of marble at Athens ; and on every side of the octagon he wrought a figure in relievo, re- presenting the wind which blows on that side ; the top of this tower he finished with a conical marble, on which he placed a brazen triton, holding a wand in his right hand j this triton is so contrived that he turns round with the wind, and always stops when he directly faces it, point- ing with his wand over the figure of the wind at that time blow- ing." See Clock, Horologium. From the style of this build- ing it has been supposed to have been erected about a hundred and fifty-nine years before Christ. Androuet du Cerceau, who lived towards the end of the six- teenth century, was architect to Henry III. of France. He built the Pont Neuf at Paris, the Ho- tels de Sully, de Mayenne, and that of the Fermes General, and designed the fine gallery, built by Henry IV., at the Tuilleries. In the latter part of his life, he emigrated from France ; the year, or country, in which he died, is not known. He was the author of several works of great merit ; a " Treatise on Perspective j" a " Description of ancient Roman Buildings,"and some other pieces. Angei.o and August in di Sienna, two brothers, who have AN G ANG left many examples of their fine taste in architecture, at Sienna, Orvietto, and Arezzo ; they were the distinguished pupils of Andrea da Pisa.under whom they studied } the year of their deaths is un- known. Angels. In mediceval archi- tecture. Brackets or corbels, with the figures or heads of angels. They are often repre- sented as holding shields, scrolls, paterae, and playing on musical instruments. Angle. The opening or mu- tual inclination of two lines, or two planes meeting in a point, called the vertex, or angular point. They are classed into rectilinear, curvilinear, and mix- ed, or mixtilinear angles. A rec- tilinear angle has its sides straight lines. In a curvilinear angle, the sides are curved ; and an angle having one side, a right or straight line, and the other a curved line, is called a mixed angle. Angles are also named from their magnitude, into right and oblique angles ; a right angle is formed when the sides are per- pendicular to each other, or equal to the fourth part of a circle, or ninety degrees, as B A C. Oblique angles may be either acute or obtuse, that is greater or less than a right angle j an acute angle, D A B, is less, and an oblique angle, E A B, greater than ninety degrees. With regard to their situation among themselves, they are called adjacent angles, when the leg or side of an angle being produced beyond the vertex, or point of the angle, forms a side of the adjacent angle, as GFH and H F I j hence adjacent an- gles are equal to two right angles, or one hundred and eighty degrees, and are called supple- ments to each other. Contiguous angles have the same vertex, and one leg common to both, as B A D B A C, in which A B is common j the vertical, or opposite angles, are such as have their sides conti- nuations of each other, as OP and Q R. Alternate angles are those made on the opposite por- tions of a line which cuts, or is divided by, two parallel lines, as V and T, and S and U. Internal angles are those w r ithin any figure made by its sides, as n o p y, and external angles are those made, on the outside of the figure by producing its sides, as i k I m. Angle at the centre is that whose vertex is at the centre of the curve, as a b c ; and an angle at the circumference is that whose vertex is in the circum- ference, d e f. The sides of an angle in a segment meet the ex- tremities of the base, as r t, and its vertex s is placed any where in the arch u v. Angle in a semicircle, an angle at the cir- cumference, as w x y, standing on the diameter w y. Angle of a segment is made by the chord of the arc z s, with a tangent at its point of contact, as Z S B. Angle out of the centre is one whose ver- tex is not in the centre, as D. An- gle of a semicircle, the angle made by the diameter with the circum- ference, as rn H a. Angle of con- tact, that made by a curve line and its tangent. Angles are farther classed into solid, plane, and spherical. Plane angles are those formed by the inclination of two lines in a plane meeting in a point. A spherical angle is that formed on the sur- face of a sphere by the inter- section of two great circles, or the inclination of the planes of those circles. Solid angle is the mutual inclination of more than two planes, or plane angles meet- ANG ANG ing m a po nt, and not contained in the same plane Angles. In military architec- ture. Those formed by the several lines used in fortifying a place, or making it defensible ; they are classed into real and imaginary angles. Real angles are those vvhich appear in the construction ; imaginary angles are those which are omy subservient to the pro- cesses of delineation or construc- tion. Angle at the centre, that formed by two radii drawn from the centre to two adjacent angles, as angle A C B. Angle of the poly- gon, that formed by two sides of the polygon, as DAB. Angle of the triangle is half the angle of the polygon, as CAB. Angle of the bastion, that formed by the two faces of the bastion, as FAG j this is sometimes called the flanked angle ; diminished angle, that made by the meeting of the outer side of the polygon with the face A G of the bastion. Angle of the cur- tain, or angle of the flank, in the angle G H I, made between the curtain and the flank. Angle of the shoulder, or angle of the epaule, A G H, made by the flank and face of the bastion ; angle of the tenaille, or exterior flanking angle, A K B, made by the two rasant lines of defence, or faces of the two bastions produced. Angle of the counterscarp, made by the two sides of the counterscarp meeting before middle of curtain. Angle flanking inward, made by the Hanking line with the curtain. Angle forming the face is that composed of one flank and one fare ; angle of the moat is that made before the curtain, where it is intersected. Re-entering, or re-entrant angle, that whose ver- tex is turned inward towards the place, as H or I. Saliant, or sortunt angle, that turned out- wards, advancing its vertex to- wards the field, as A or G. Dead angle, a re-entering angle which is not flanked or defended. Angle-bar. In joinery. An upright bar at the angles of poly- gonal windows: amullion. See Bay-window. Angle-brace. A pieee of timber fixed on two sides of a quadrangular frame, forming the area of the frame into an oc- tagonal opening j the piece of timber B in the engraving, mark- ed "Angle," is the " angle-brace," or angle-tie , or diagonal-tie. Angle-bracket. A bracket placed in the vertex of the angle, and not at right angles with the sides. See Bracket. Angle-bead. See Angle-staff. Angle-capital. In Greek ar- chitecture. Those ionic capitals placed on the flank columns. of a portico, which have one of their vo- lutes placed horizontally at an an- gle of a hundred and thirty-five de- grees with the plane of the frieze. The engraving of the capital of the temple of Minerva Polias, at Athens, shows this angle, or " horn," as it is sometimes called. It has been stated by some writers that this volute was so placed to correspond to the ft other capitals upon the columns ranged in the flank as well as in the front;" but this is errone- ous, for the angle-capital is found on buildings which had no co- lumns in flank. Angle-chimney. A chimney placed in the angle, or in a side formed at an angle of an apart- ment. Angle-modillion. In ancient Roman architecture. A modillion placed in a direction parallel to a diagonal drawn through the mitre of the cornice. This mode of placing modil- lions is never observed, exc pt in buildings erected during the de- A N G ANN eline of the Roman empire. See Cornice, Modillion, Order. Angle of a wall, or angle of a budding, the point, or line, where the lines or planes of any two sides of a building meet. Angle of repose. See Arch. Angle of vision. See Fisual Angle. Angle-rafter. In carpentry. A piece of timber placed between the inclined sides or planes, or in the line of concourse of the in- clined planes forming a hip roof. The angle-rafters are sometimes called hips, or hip-rafters. In the engraving marked " Angle," O is the angle-rafter. Angle-rib. In carpentry. A piece of timber, of a curved form, placed between those parts of an arched ceiling, where the planes, if continued, would form an an- gle, and corresponding with the common ribs, when they are placed in a vertical direction, or to receive or support them when they are in a horizontal direction. Angle-staff. Angle-bead. Staff -bead. A piece of wood placed vertically, and fixed upon the exterior or saliant angles of apartments, having their hori- zontal section about three-fourths of a circle, when they are formed with a single bead ; when formed with a cluster of beads, the centre bead is made some- what the greater, and projects so as to form the angle-bead. The angle-staff is fixed to the bond timbers, wood-bricks, or plug- ging, or quartering j the plaster is floated to them ; their use is to preserve the angles, which are liable to be broken when made of plaster. In apartments of elegance, the angle-staff is some- times dispensed with, or is work- ed to the same face with the face of the wall, showing a rect- 166 angle, when the wall is plastered. — In some cases the angle-staff is carried up to the height of 7 feet only ; and for the ad- ditional height, the aris, or angle of the wall, or break, is of plas- ter j but, from the shrinking or warping of the wood, it is ex- ceedingly difficult to prevent the joint being seen. In some old houses the angle- staffs were of larger dimensions than those now in use, and made of oak, and very carefully finished ; in many instances they were carved to represent a ribbon or a leaf entwining them, and in- stead of being painted over with the colour of the walls, as is the practice at present, they were left of the colour of the wood and varnished ; sometimes they were gilt or stained black to represent ebony j the effect of the two first methods was very handsome. Angle-beads, on arches, at the meeting of the spandril and cir- cular planes, are expensive, and unnecessary 3 it is seldom that they are so truly formed as they ought to be, for ornaments ; and in this situation they are nothing more. Angle- stones. Used by some authors for quoins. Angle-tie. In carpentry. Drag- ging piece. Anglo-saxon Architecture. See Saxon. Angular Capital. The mo- dern ionic capital, having the four sides alike, and showing the volute, placed at an angle of one hundred and thirty-five degrees on all the faces. Annular-mouldings. Gene- rally those having circular hori- zontal sections Annular-vault. A vault rising from two circular walls j the vault of a circular corridor. Annulet. Small fillets having A N T A. a circular horizontal section. The thin fillets, or listels, or bands, which decorate the necks, or under side, of doric capitals. The number of annulets varies in different capitals j according to Vignola there are three in the doric examples of the theatre of Marcellus ; there are four in the capitals of the great terrjple at Pactum ; and in other cases there are five. The proportions also of these ornaments vary in different ex- amples as they form a part of the capital, their profiles will be found, and their peculiarities noticed, under the examples of capitals given throughout the work. List, listel, or cincture, are used by Palladio, and fillet, by some translators of Vitruvius, as synonymous with annulet ; a commentator on Scammozzi uses the word supercilium, and others tinea ; eye-brow ; square and rabbit, or rebate. Anxotin^e. In ancient naval architecture. Store or provision vessels. Ansidonia. An ancient Latin town ; of which a part of the cyclopean walls are still remain- ing. See Cyclopean Buildings. Antta. (Ante, Lat. before.) Properly the jambs of doors, or square posts supporting the lin- tel ; pillars forming the entrances of edifices in general. The Latins called the first row of vines, bordering a vine-plat, antes, and it is probable the word passed from this use into architecture. Authors are not agreed in their definition of anta. Chambers says antae are pilasters attach- ed to a wall j Vitruvius calls them parastatae when insulated ; they are not diminished, and in all the Greek examples, their capitals are different from the columns they accompany. Per- rault considers antae, and paras- tatae. ?ne and the same thing. Quatreme?e -emarks that the word antae better expresses pilasters or pillars showing a small part only of their faces ; and that parastatae are pillars which have a projection of a half of their diameter, or show two complete sides of the square. Wilkins defines them, in general terms, " square pilasters, termi- nating the walls of a temple j the Greeks called the antae parastades" There are, therefore, three kinds of antae, the antae of por- ches., or jamb ornaments, the angular antae, or those showing two faces on the walls of a temple, and the antae on the pro- longed walls of the cella of a temple. " Generally speaking, antae are only found in temples, applied as wings to the ends of the walls of the pronaos ; their use being merely ornamental, and intended to obviate the crude and unfinished appearance which the terminations of these pieces of masonry would otherwise pre- sent. As, therefore, they do not belong to the construction, and have no necessary connection with the original type, there is nothing to fix their form, and none of the permanent and essen- tial rules of the order will be violated, whatever may be their composition. The Greeks, there- fore, strict and systematic in their method of pursuing the arts, rather chose to treat the antae as distinct objects, than _o confound them with columns, to which they have no relation either in origin or destination. But con- sidered separately, it appears to be admitted, that the Grecian 167 ANT A. antae are more beautiful objects than modern pilasters. Much of the beauty of a column consists in its circular form, and the con- trast which that offers to the square figures of the abacus and the superstructure ; but on this account a pilaster is necessarily inferior to a column, and by aping a resemblance, it only challenges a comparison which must be unfavourable. It is said matters of taste do not admit of dispute ; which is so far just, that though one might bring argu- ments to prove to general satis- faction the absurdity of a parti- cular practice, we know not how its ugliness could be concluded with equal force. To the same author, the pilasters of the orders have always appeared decidedly ugly ; and he supposed they are none of them such composi- tions as an artist would adopt by choice, if there had been no rules and prejudices on the subject. The difficulties attending the use of pilasters are still more sensibly felt in the ionic and corinthian orders than in the doric. In those every architect is aware of the obstacles to be surmounted, and the sacrifices to be made in the lame attempt to accommodate the capitals to a square plan. The Greeks applied capitals of light, delicate, and even fanciful mouldings to antae ; and, al- though the differences among these are considerable, they are less than might be expected, where there were no apparent rules to guide or restrain the artist, and do not take away a general resemblance. Except in one instance, that of the Agora, the antae are undiminished • they aie always made less in front than the lower diameter of the column, and the lateral face, which does not range or correspond with any column, is frequently not more in width than half the front; and in other cases not even so wide. It is justly observed by sir Wil- liam Chambers, that pilasters, when undiminished, have in exe- cution an appearance of being larger at top than at bottom. Another architect proposed to obviate this by giving just so much diminution as might counteract the optical deception. It would not be easy to give rules for this slight correction, as it may pro- bably vary with the absolute height of the order ; and in this respect experience must b,e_ the instructor. The antae, however, according to the same architect, ought to be of the same width at the top as the architrave which it receives ; and he proposed a general rule to make the lower part of the anta a medium be- tween the width of the architrave, and the bottom diameter of the column. Sir William Chambers, whose taste was decidedly not Grecian, gave the preference to the Roman practice. The Greeks, according to him, employed antae in their temples to receive the archi- traves, where they entered upon the walls of the cell. These, though they were in one direc- tion of equal diameter with the columns of the front, were in flank extravagantly thin in pro- portion to their height, and neither their bases nor capitals bore any resemblance to those of the columns they accompanied. The Roman artists, if. disgusted probably with the meagre aspect of these antae, and the want of accord in their bases and capitals, substituted pilasters in their places, which, being proportioned and decorated in the same man- ner with columns, are certainly more seemly, and preserve the ANT ANT unity of the composition much better." The pilasters, in Roman architecture, differ only from the column in being square instead of round. Their bases, capitals, and entablatures, have the same parts, with all the same heights and projections as those of columns, and they are distin- guished in the same manner by the names of tuscan, doric, ionic, composite, and corinthian. A rule in the use of antae was that their projection should al- ways be equal to that of what- ever mouldings were placed on them. In a recent beautiful edition of sir William's essay, the editor observes, with great truth, that one of the most objectionable practices of the day, is the ser- vile imitation of the Greek antae, and that it is quite inconsistent with any regard to the primitive types, from which the Grecian architecture is supposed to have originated ; added to this, their application in such very thin laminae against the walls as in some pseudo-Grecian buildings about London, produces a re- markably silly and sheepish effect. In fact he might have said, that all buildings having Gre- cian details, whether the antae have a " pasteboard or a Roman projection," used as ornaments on the face of a wall, (as distin- guished from its end,) are abso- lute absurdities ; and that antae, decked out with capitals having the mouldings or ornaments of those peculiar to columns, are beyond all others the most exe- crable of vandalisms. In the engravings of the va- rious antique Greek capitals of columns throughout this work, the capital of the anta will be found placed opposite to that of the columns ; and the base of the anta also placed opposite the base of the columns. See Parastades. Pilaster. Pillar. Anta. An insulated square pillar, without base or capital, or any other moulding. Antaradus. An ancient Phoe- nician city, of which some re- mains are still in tolerable pre- servation near the modern town of Tortosa, in Syria. These are situated to the south of a sandy vale, and consist in some interest- ing remains of a building, sup- posed to have been dedicated to the worship of a divinity. A court is cut into the rock with a throne in the middle of it, in which there is a seat on each side ; the court is enclosed by the rock on each side, except to the north, where are signs of two entrances j the throne consists of four stones, besides the plain pedestal, which is also cut out of the rock ; one forms the back of it, another the covering, and there is one stone on each side ; the canopy is surmounted by a cornice similar to those of Egyp- tian temples. At the two inner corners of the court there seems to have been a small room j the sides of the entrances still re- main; " these might relate to the superstition of the place, the throne being probably built for an idol worshipped in this court, or open temple, and it is probably one of the greatest and most ex- traordinary pieces of antiquity that is to be seen." On the other side of the vale, (in which this edifice is placed,) a little more to the east, there is a sort of fosse, cut down in the rock with seven steps on each side, extending near a furlong in length ; the steps do not go down to the bottom, and the east end seems to have terminated in a semicircle. 1G9 ANTE-CHAMBER. At the west end, the rock is cut away in such a manner that one may suppose there were formerly some apartments there ; one part is cut into a square area, from which there is a way into the valley directly opposite to the court or temple ; this place probably was a circus. South of the court or temple, the rocks, which rise higher in that part, have been worked like quarries, and sunk down in many places, possibly for reservoirs of water. There are also in "different parts, many walls cut out of the rock, particularly in one place almost an entire house, the rock being cut away from it all round. There are many niches, doors, and windows in this edifice, and a wall of division along the mid- dle, with a door through it. Half a mile to the west are sepulchral towers : — one of these is in three stones, and another is decorated with lions at the corners ; the basement of an- other tomb is described as be- ing formed of a pedestal 20 feet square, and 9 feet high, having an opening about 3 feet from the ground, by which there is an ascent to the top by three or four steps. Ante-chamber. An apart- ment preceded by a vestibule, and from which is approached another room called the inner chamber or cabinet ; the cham- ber that leads to the chief apart- ment. The anti-thalamos among the ancients corresponded exactly with the modern ante-chamber j but among the Greeks it was separated from the thalamos by a passage called prostas. It was the same as that called procaeton by Pliny, or a room before the sleep- ing chamber. Pliny says his bed- room was joined to his ante-cham- 170 berj yet Vitruvius says this was separated from the bed- chamber. It is probably on ac- count of the arrangement being an unusual one, that Pliny men- tions the circumstance of his bed- room adjoining the ante-chamber. In modern buildings, ante- chamber is not confined to that only which precedes a bed-cham- ber, but that which precedes all the rooms of an apartment. In French houses, where the rooms of an apartment enter from an eating room, this forms the ante-chamber. In their mansions, small ante-chambers separate the bedrooms from other rooms ; but it is more usual to call the room through which the apartment, or suite of rooms is entered, the ante-cham- ber. The use of these rooms, and their decorations, vary in dif- ferent countries. In Italian palaces the first ante-chambers are of large dimensions, are almost always arched, and occupy in height two stories. In these rooms the chair of state is usu- ally placed. In French palaces the ante-chambers are smaller ; the first ante-chamber is the space forming the vestibule and landing-place of the stairs ; this is appropriated to the use of the domestics ; its ornaments are simple, expensive finishings being here quite out of place. It is generally heated with a stove placed in a niche made in the thickness of the wall, and the warmth is communi- cated from this into the second ante-chamber j buffets are placed in this room. The second ante- chamber maybe made more orna- mental here those persons wait who have occasion to speak with the master ; this chamber also serves occasionally as a dining ANT ANT room, or for a "salle d'assein- blee;" the style of its decorations is therefore arbitrary. The third variety of ante-chamber is a kind of small saloon, or ante-cabinet, where people of a certain distinc- tion wait on levee or state days until the saloon or cabinet is thrown open j the style of their ornaments may be unobtrusive and simple, but they are some- times constructed in the most gorgeous mode of decoration. Ante -chapel. That part of the chapel through which the passage is to the choir or body of the chapel. Ante-mural. {ante murus, Lat. before a wall.) Used as a noun; an outer wall; a boundary wall ; a palisade. Antepagmenta. The three pieces constituting the frame of a doorway 5 the transverse piece was sometimes called antepag- mentum, superius, and superci- lium. Pegmata has the same meaning; the moulded architrave of a door. The Greek words for the ante- pagmenta were stathmoi and vegmata ; the transverse piece was sometimes distinguished as 'eperthura. Antependium. An awning or veil, which was suspended over, and before the altar in mediaeval churches. Anterides. In ancient archi- tecture. Buttresses, or counter- forts, supporting a wall; arch- butants ; the Italians call them speroni, or spurs. Ante-room. The room through which is the passage to a princi- pal apartment. Antesioma. In Roman furni- ture. A semicircular table-bed, which when joined to another formed a round table. Ante-temple. What is now called the nave of a church. Anthemius. An architect of the sixth century, was born at Lydia, in Asia Minor ; he was selected by the emperor Justi- nian, along with Isodorus, to build the celebrated church of St. Sophia, at Constantinople. A vast building had been con- structed on the spot by Constan- tine, but its roof having been formed of wood it was several times destroyed by fire, and as oiten repaired by succeeding emperors, particularly by Theo- dosius ; Justinian undertook to erect a pile worthy of the seat of empire, and of materials which would ensure its stability. Justinian having lived to finish it, is reported to have said in a transport of joy, " I have sur- passed thee, Solomon." Anthe- mius was a machinist and sculp- tor, as well as an architect, and there still exists a collection of machines which is ascribed to him. " He was celebrated for contrivances to imitate the ap- pearances and effects of thunder, lightning, and earthquakes. His biographers relate an anecdote of the orator Zeno having offered some slight to Anthemius ; the latter, in revenge, constructed an apparatus, which was placed near the walls of Zeno's house, which emitted sounds so like those preceding some earth- quake, that the orator in his fear abandoned his habitation. Anthemius on this occasion is said to have produced the effect by cauldrons of boiling water arranged in a peculiar manner." Antics. In architecture. Fan- cies having no foundation in nature, as sphinxs, centaurs, syrens, representations of dif- ferent sorts of flowers growing on the same stern ; grotesque ornaments of all kinds, as lions, and pards, with acantb'is' tails, 171 ANTICS. "or any other tails but their own proper onesj" human forms with similar ridiculous appendages. Ornaments, although strictly natural, in an unnatural situation; as, caryatidas of all kinds. "Antics, in construction, an absurd and ostentatious display of art, such as the leaning tower of Pisa, built by design to appear as if falling ; an immense tower, or other weight, supported on slen- der pillars: — in this view, the whole system of pointed, or go- thic architecture ; all buildings erected in England, after the gothic fashion, posterior to the revival of Grecian art by Stuart and Revett, except as addi- tions to ancient buildings, in that style." Antics., in plans, sacrificing symmetry, and convenience, to obtain some particular horizontal outline, as the palace of the Escurial, built in imitation of the gridiron on which St. Bartholo- mew suffered martyrdom j and antics in decoration, a cast iron bridge, made like an immense " brobdignag gridiron," on which future saints may be roasted. The villa Palagonia, in Sicily, is an antic, from the entrance gate to the chimney top. ' ' This extraordinary place is ap- proached through a huge gate, on the plinth of which are fixed six colossal white-washed statues of hussards and halberdiers, to dis- pute the entrance of an avenue three hundred yards long, not of cypresses, elms, or orange-trees, but of monsters. "On each hand is a parapet wall loaded with more horrible figures than ever were raised by Armida, and all the enchanters of Ariosto. Busts of punchinellos and harle- quins, with snakes twisted round them, the heads of dwarfs with huge periwigs, of asses and 172 horses with lacea cravats and* rutfs, compose the lower range of this gallery, and at intervals of ten yards are clustered pillars, supporting curious groups of figures : — some are musicians, others pigmies, opera heroes, old women grinning, lions, and other beasts, seated at tables, with napkins under their chins, eating oysters ; princesses with feathers and furbelows, ostriches in hoops, and cats in boots. In short, more unaccountable mix- tures of company, and unnatural representations of creatures, than travellers had patience to note, or memory to record .They are luckily all made of so soft and perishable a stone, that we need be under no apprehension of this collec- tion passing to posterity as a monument of the taste of the eighteenth century , many enor- mous noses, and preposterous limbs, have already crumbled to dust. The stone-cutters, that made those figures, though they could barely trace out a resem- blance of the human form, have shown great dexterity in carving curls, foliage, and flounces, out of such coarse materials. " This avenue of Pandemo- nium, leads to a circular court before the house, crowded with stone and marble beings, not to be found in any books of zoology. Men, monsters, and animals, line the battlements of the mansion, and stand so thick, and in such menacing attitudes, that it would not be safe to approach it in a windy day. The walls are cased with basso-relievoes, masks, medallions, scriptural subjects, heathen gods, emperors, and posture-masters j some of the sculpture is in a good style copied from the antique ; but the greatest part consists of such figures as we meet with in Dutch ANTICS. fairs, representing the seasons and the elements. Within doors the same sort of company pre- sents itself j but the proprietor has for some years past aban- doned this wonderful abode, and many of its beauties feel the wonderful effects of his absence. The ceilings of the rooms are of looking-glass, the walls lined with china, and with delf baubles. Monkies hold up the curtains, horses mount guard, and devils wait at the foot of the stairs ; the ball room remains imperfect, though intended for the chef- cfceuvre ; round it runs a marble bench, which, upon examination, is found to contain a great num- ber of night tables." When the prince of this palace of folly, who squandered 5640,000 in these creations, was asked in what part of the world the originals of his figures and ornaments were to be met with, he answered in Egypt, where, Diodorus Siculus tells us, the rays of the sun act so powerfully on the slime left by the Nile, that it engenders all sorts of uncouth and unknown forms. A learned traveller ob- serves, that from " referring to Egypt for his types, it is quite clear the prince never had visited England." This favoured island yields to no other country whatever in the number and importance of her architectural novelties. The en- tire limits of our dictionary, we believe, would hardly suffice for a bare enumeration of a tithe of the national trophies in this way. The selection of the following example is made more with re- ference to the authority of au- thors on architecture, than from our own opinion ; indeed it were threat presumption in any indivi- dual to place his opinion against that of so numerous, so saga- cious, and so scientific, a body, as that which has adopted Mr. Emlyn's order as its own. "My first notion of the new order," says Mr. Emlyn, a civil engineer, and one of the most influential and distinguished of that pro- fession, " was formed in his Majesty's park and forest at Windsor. On considering the beauty of the single trunks of trees, which are believed to have been the origin of the Grecian columns, my speculations were most agreeably diverted by the frequent views of the twin trees, which nature has distinguished by the most pleasing and regular variety ; and recollecting some lines of Mr. Ware, in which he has observed, ' that there was no reason to say that another order should not be invented, not as being wanted, but as it would farther vary the system, and was worthy to be attempted,' it ap- peared to him that nature had pointed out another kind of column, deserving of imitation, hitherto unnoticed, and which might produce a sixth order of architecture," or the " Civil En- gineer Okder," with new pro- portions. " From hence," con- tinues this scientific engineer, " I began to form such as ap- peared to me the most agree- able to nature, and most suitable to my design. From my different observations and trials, the twin column, and entablature to it, (which appeared to be of equal strength with the columns of the corinthian order of the same height,) from its form and light- ness., I conceived might be adopted with advantage in build- ing, as it appeared sufficiently solid and durable, and I trust it ft ANTICS. will not be thought to carry with it any gothic indecorum. " As Windsor," continues this accomplished civil engineer, " had the honour of an order established there, the most noble order of St. George, and as its forest had given me the first idea of the proposed column, I was ambitious to wish to complete an order in architecture in confor- mity to the hints received, and the nature of that honourable institution. As the doric order was composed on the system of manly figure and strength of ro- bust and Herculean proportions ; the ionic on the model of the easy, delicate, and simple graces of female beauty, to which the corinthian, on a similar design, adapted a symmetry of more arti- ficial and complicated elegance $ this column is composed on the plan of representing the particu- lar character of our ancient Eng- lish chivalry in its most illus- trious order, which, as a distinc- tion of peculiar eminence, has not become obsolete, but is still considered as an ornament that adds splendour to the highest rank, and an honour suitable to the most eminent desert. Its knights and companions, united by the nearest tie of equal and honourable confraternity, deriving from the same source their conjoint dignity, the basis of which is the sovereign of the garter. " In pursuance of this double idea, the conformity to the natural object which first occa- sioned the design, and the allu- sion to that order of knighthood, the columns are imitations of nature, often taken from the twin trees, as the capitals are from the 'plumage of the caps of the heights, with the ionic volutes interwoven 174 and bound together in the front, with the star of the order between them, and the supporters of the arms of England issuing out of the foliage of the volute ; and in the profile of the capital is a ' lion's snout,' rising out of a rose. In the cleft between the two stems, where they divide from the lower trunk, there is an ornament introduced, instead of the protuberant bark, which some- times naturally forms a festoon, viz. the knight's shield and armour, with the skin of a wolf hanging down on each side, and bending down the twigs of the tree, all which together cap the centre of the trunk on both sides : although this animal was exterminated from our island before the insti- tution of the order designed to be the subject of the leading ornaments of the column, it will not appear to be unsuitably introduced, as pointing to the love of exercise and public utility combined with their diversions, which distinguished the ancestors of the knights. The upper mem- ber of the base is enriched with the claws of that animal rising out among the leaves. The fluting of the trunk is cabled, and the cables hollow, and fitted with the English arrow, the feathered end rising out of each of them. The ornament of the frieze, over the columns, is a plume of the ostrich feathers, a distinguishing mark of honour peculiar to the prince of Wales ; the bottom of them comes through the upper member of the architrave, and is mixed with acorns, and tied with a ribbon. In the metopes are placed the great George and collar, and in a continued frieze, other symbolical ornaments, as naval and military trophies ; the mo- dillions are enriched on the sides ANT ANT with oak leaves and acorns, arid on the bottom with mosaic work. The pannels in the soffet of the corona, are filled with helmets, stars, and roses. As a finish to the column, I have crowned it with the sovereign of the order of St. George." * As modern architects," says another civil engineer of great eminence, " imitate, without reason or an appeal to experi- ment, the columns left by Greeks, who constructed them some thousands of years ago, or by Romans, who lived nearly at the same time, and who were unacquainted with the ( refine- ments of modern analysis ;' it is no wonder that their productions are not * scientific,' and that the quantity of materials they con- tain far exceed the values indi- cated by the latest ' formula.' In the ' civil engineer order,' this defect has been obviated, by making the entire height of the order equal to twenty-five dia- meters ; the pedestal is a fourth of the height ; the height of the column is seventeen diameters and two fifths; and the height of the entablature is three diameters and four tenths : thus forming a com- position admirably adapted to every useful and ornamental pur- pose, and peculiarly fit for being formed of cast-iron ; that won- derful material, whose use seems destined shortly to supersede the stone and marble absurdities of the antique, and thus to form a new era in the history of ' scientific construction.' " A xti -cabinet. In French houses. A larg^ apartment plac- ed between tne hall and the cabinet ; usually called the g Roman feet, and the walls l\ feet thick on each side; the outer face of the wall marked B is in col- latino stone of a red colour, the part marked C of stone from Tivoli, the rest of the work being formed of the stone called " di- gabino." Figures 10 and 11 are a plan and section of an ancient reser- voir, attached to a cistern near Rome of rubble masonry faced on the outside with small un- hewn masses of tufFa, and lined on the inside with a very hard cement, with the angles rounded, both at the sides and bottom. Its dimensions are 29 feet l£ inches, Fr. by 28 feet 8§ inches, Fr.; the water flows into it through a pipe at x y, and passes into a cistern W. In order to strength- en the walls of the reservoir and to counteract the pressure of the water, counterforts, of a length proportioned to the height of the walls, have been formed on three sides, having the intervals on the horizontal section formed of a portion of a circle. The figures 12 and 13 represent the plan and section of another reservoir, covered by a semicir- cular arch, supported on three sides by walls strengthened by counterforts formed like niches; this was also formed as repre- sented by the former figure, with revetments of rough stones, and coated with cement on the inside ; a semicircular hole was made in the centre of one of the niches, to give light to the reservoir. The water entered through a 106 leaden pipe at C. As the use of these reservoirs was to purify the water, it is probable that orifice of the pipe by which it entered was placed near the bottom of the cistern, so that the intro- duction of the impure water would not affect that on the surface, from which part it was proba- bly drawn off by the opening D. Figure 14, a section of thelower part of a cistern of two stages. It is divided into three com- partments separated by reticu- lated masonry and banded by long bricks. H an opening about 2 feet wide, faced with brick, by which the water rose to the upper stage. F F, open- ings for the purified water to flow into the canal of the aque- duct; the bottom of this channel is 6 French feet above the pave- ment, the opening in the com- partment, g.As on a lower level than that of the centre. The figure 15 represents a pu- rifying reservoir formed in two stages, which is conjectured to have served for the Aqua Virgo by Fabretti, although Frontinus remarked, that in his time this water had no piscinas. A, the aqueduct, which conveys the stream into the upper channel C, the opening by which it descend- ed to the under chamber. E an opening communicating with the compartment, G an opening through which the water ascend- ed to the chamber H, and L the opening by which it again entered the water channel. K is an orifice through which the sediment was abstracted. These useful and stupendous erections were not solely con- fined to the capitol ; few cities of any note in the Roman provinces appear to have been without one or more aqueducts. Among those important from their magnitude AQUEDUCT. and fine state of preservation, may be reckoned those erected in Gaul. The aqueduct at Nismes is pro- bably one of the earliest that was constructed by the Romans out of Italy. Its origin is attributed to Agrippa, who was invested by Augustus with the government of this city, which had become a Roman colony. Flattered by the attentions of the citizens, Agrippa made their city his place of re- sidence, and which he adorned with new city walls and magni- ficent baths. Those who sup- pose that the object of the aque- duct was to conduct water to the amphitheatre only, instead of being appropriated to the domes- tic uses of the inhabitants, have not regarded with attention the peculiarities of its construction. The simplicity and unornamented style of its architecture, perfect, however, in its proportions, and just in every point of its design, marks the very character of these works of Agrippa. The waters about the colony of Nemausus from the disturbed state of the springs in winter and spring, from the muddied flow of the torrents in times of flood, and the deficiency of the streams in times -"of drought and summer, were precarious, unhealthy, and in- sufficient ; a colony so placed would be left very imperfect, nay defective, without the means of obtaining salubrious water j accordingly we find an aqueduct and fountain at Nisrnes, bringing a constant and copious supply unmixed with any of the streams or rivers that might spoil it. To avoid this it was brought from the mountains, excluding all communication with the waters of the country through which it passed, and where it became necessary to pass the deep valley in which the river Gardon runs, it was conducted across that valley by a bridge of two stages of arcades at a height of 150 feet above the ordinary level of the river, that is, measuring to the top of the second range of ar- cades, which perfected Agrippa' s erection, the water being con- ducted on the top of the second arcade. The third story, part of which is now remaining raised upon a range of arcades, has been thought to be a building of a very different age from the two main ranges both in its materials, in its structure, and proportions ; and even in the placing of its parts, it does not correspond with the old original bridge on which it was erected. The style of the archi- tecture is also said to be very different, and very inferior to the rest. Although an adventitious addition, it is cleai ly Roman work, probably cf a much later age. The length of this aqueduct, as far as discovered, is about six French "lieues de poste," in a direction resembling a horse- shoe, and derives its water from the springs of Eure and Airau, near the village of Uzes. The Pont du Garde is in the middle of its course ; the greater part of the ancient line can now be traced, and much of what remains is in a fine state of preservation. The observation made with regard to the parts of the aqueducts of Rome which were underground, being in the best state of repair, applies with still greater force to the aqueduct at Nismes — the sub- terranean parts being even now in perfect preservation. The line was carried along the sides of the hills, which were occasionally perforated to shorten the distance and, where necessary, the lesser vallies were crossed by the erec- tion of small bridges, or arcades 197 AQUEDUCT. preserving the level of the aque- duct. The greater portion of the excavated part has been cut through the stone strata of which the hills are composed, in some pkees at a distance of about 13 feet beneath the surface. The Pont du Garde is that part of the aqueduct of Nismes which traverses the deep valley in which runs the Gardon or Garde be- tween the mountains near Vers and St. Bennet. This part, considered even alone, is one of the grandest erec- tions made by the Romans in Gaul. The first row of arcades, beneath which runs the Gardon, is composed of six arches, the second row has eleven arches, and the third range has thirty- five ; all these arches are semi- circular, springing from piers, more or less high : — it was upon the third range that the water channel was formed according to some antiquaries, and we have adopted their suggestion in the figure. According to the measure- ments of a French engineer, the height of this aqueduct- bridge is about 48 metres above the low water level of the river. Its length on the level of the moulding, terminating the first range of arcades, is 171'%% metres, and 269'\ metres on the level of the moulding terminating the second story. The total height, according to the same author, is 48*77 metres, namely, 20*12 metres for the first range, 2015 metres for the second range, and 8 23 metres for the third range to the top of the flags covering the water channel; the width of the bridge is 636 metres at the first range, 4*56 meties on the second, 3'6 metres on the third, forms a con- siderable offset on each stage ; the 198 five piers of the first range of ar- cades were formed with salient angles or bees. The division of the arches on the first and second stories is the same ; the middle arch of the first range, under which the river passes, is the centre of the entire aqueduct, is 24*52 metres in diameter, three on each side are 19 20 metres, and the others 15*55 metres. All the arches on the third range or story are equal, being 4 55 metres in diameter ; the piers of the first and second series of arches are 4 55 metres in front j those of the third range vary according to the diameter of the arches of the range beneath them • four arches of the third range cor- responding with the middle or water way of the lower story. As the two mountains forming the valley of Gardon are not of equal height at the points in the line of the aqueduct, that on the left side of the river being lower than the level of the aqueduct, while the right side is more ele- vated, the conduit on one side is carried onwards by continuing the third range of arches, and on the other side, the range termi- nates in the side of the moun- tain. The Pont du Garde is con- structed entirely with hewn stone: no rubble work is introduced even into the filling up of the piers or spandrils of the arches. The masonry has been finished and put together without lime, or any other kind of cement, and owes its stability to the -mass of each block, and the precision of the faces in their beds and joints. The canal of the aqueduct is in fact the only part which is not constructed with hewn stones — being made with a sort of jointed rubble on the outer and r.nner faces of the canal, but of the com- t AQUEDUCT. jnon rubble in the filling up. This work, where the cement has not been sparingly used, forms a mass absolutely impenetrable to any passage of the water. The in- side facings of the walls, and the bottom hollowed in the form of an arc of a circle, were covered with a coat of cement of 5 centi- metres in thickness, composed of quicklime, fine sand, and pulve- rized bricks. This cement is at the present day of a consistence equal to that of the hardest and most compact stone, and without the slightest crevice or flaw to be any where seen in it. — This first coat of cement was covered with a second layer of mastic very fine, of a millimetre in thickness, and of a deep, dark, red colour. The width of the canal between the outer coats was 1 metre 22 centi- metres, and its height, 1 metre 22 centimetres. The general declivity of the bed of the aqueduct was about 4 cen- timetres for 100 metres. The aqueduct has been con- structed with the same care throughout its great length, the only difference being that, in the parts exposed, the aqueduct was covered with slabs, and in the subterranean it was covered with a semicircular arch, of a species of rubble roughly squared in the joints, of 60 centimetres in thick- ness. In examining the water chan- nel, a stony concretion is observ- able, adhering to the cement on the sides and bottom. This pe- trifaction is nearly 29 centime- tres thick, and from this it ap- pears, that the general height of the stream of water in the chan- nel was about 1 metre and 40 centimetres. This interesting monument of ancient Roman magnificence, was demolished at its two ends some time about the beginning of the fifth century by the barba- rians who then besieged Nismes j and who, by this means, endea- voured to force the citizens to sur- render. It remained in this state until the beginning of the eight- eenth century, when the due de Rohan, in order to make a pas- sage for his artillery, perforated the piers of the second arcade, and by some other operations di- rected to the same end, the Pont du Garde was rapidly falling to pieces. Considerable rents in the walls, and deviations from the perpendicular, exciting public at- tention, the provincial states took the matter into consideration, and by aseries of judicious repairs, they succeeded in restoring this orna- ment of Lana uedoc to the state in which it was before the dilapida- tions of the due de Rohan. In 1/46, the project of building abridge near the site of this aque- duct was, fortunately for its fur- ther stability, modified so as to be built adjoining to it. M. Pe- tot proposed to form this bridge on the eastern face of the Pont du Garde, and rigorously following the dimensions of the piers and arches of the ancient aqueduct, this was shortly afterwards erect- ed, and the part marked A, on the section across the Pont du Garde in the plate marked Aqueduct, shows it. Fig. 2, a section taken in the length of the aqueduct. Fig. 3, its plan. Fig. 6, a small plan of the bridge ; and fig. 7 represents on a larger scale the details of the water way, or canal of the aque- duct : a is squared rubble stones. b b, two courses in hewn stone, forming a plinth or bed for the slabs, c, which were laid on them. The dotted lines, d d, show the petrifaction adhering to the side of the water channel. AQUEDUCT. Aqueduct at Lyon. Nothing gives us a higher idea of the an- cient splendour of the city of Lyon {Lugdunum) under the em- perors, than the remains of its ancient buildings, temples, pa- _aces, amphitheatres, nauma- chias, baths, and, above all, its aqueducts, erected during the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius, to supply that part of the ancient city with water which was situated on the heights. The most ancient, that erected by the troops of Marcus Antoninus, drew Us waters by two branches, from the group of hills called in modern times Mont d'Or : this stream having been found inad- equate for the proper supply of even the highest division of the city, a second aqueduct was constructed, which drew its water from the Loire. The third aque- duct was formed under, to con- duct water to the highest part of the city, on which was erected the palace built by the empe- ror Claudius. Remains of other minor aqueducts built in the same age are on the same construction, the arches and parts apparent being of the masonry called by the ancients opus reticulatum. A fourth aqueduct, formed along the bank of the Rhone, appears to have been the source from which the lower city received its supply of water ; and from its re- mains there is little question but that it also was constructed by the Romans. The Claudian aque- duct, being that which has most attracted the attention of anti- quaries, will be described more in detail. The body of the work, that is, the arcades that carried the aque- duct across the vallies, is built of masses of rubble stone and ce- ment, faced, as has been stated, with the opus reticulatum. In this 200 instance, this kind of work is sup- posed to have been formed by laying a bottom of brick, of two, three, or four layers, then a cais- son of wooden sides was applied to it, and fixed thereon. The cais- son was first lined w ith the squared stones which were to form the face ; the middle was then filled with rubble stones, into which a liquid cement of lime, fine gravel, and water, beaten up to a perfect degree of incorporation in its liquidness, so as to become a binding cement, was poured, and in that state entered into every interstice of the rubble work. This operation being repeated, the whole was wrought into one incrusted rock, harder than either of the materials themselves sepa- rately were. One can conceive, says a learned antiquary, how a careful beating together of these materials had the effect of creat- ing so binding a cement, since we know from our own practice that puddling earth, fine gravel, and water together, form a lining for a canal that becomes imper- vious to water when once settled j and it was probably from this puddling, and not from any secret as to the materials of the mortar not now known, that this an- cient cement owed its cohesive strength. When this square was set, the sides of the caisson were tfiken off, and another layer of bricks was then laid, and so ano- ther caisson, and so on. The bricks used in this construction were 1 foot 9 inches long, 1 foot broad, and 1| inches thick ; the cement of one of the aqueducts at the bottom is 6 inches thick, and 1| thick on the sides : about 2 feet above the floor of the canal were fixed on each side cramps of three lines square, at Q\ feet distance from each other. The utmost breadth of the piers AQUEDUCT. of the aqueduct of Chaponost, which carried a canal of 8 feet tfroad by 6 feet high, is not more than 6 feet, while the breadth of the aqueduct which passed over the river Baunan, and which has no canal, is L Z4 feet broad, con- sisting of two piers, each 5 feet, supporting an arch 14 feet in diameter. M. Delorme, in his account, (Seances de CAcademle, 1759,) traced three of the aqueducts of ancient Lugdunum to their source, in three several tracks of many miles each. He examined their general level, and the level of each part, as they ran above and under ground, along the sides of the mountains and sides of vallies ; and over the bridges where they passed the vallies, he observed the apparent care which the archi- tects of these edifices took to avoid the building of works enor- mous in bulk, height, and expense, by carrying the walls up into the narrower and shallower parts of the vallies. Where smaller bridges would serve, and where they could carry the waters over a bridge by a rectilinear canal, they always built up bridges to that level ; but where that would be- come too high, and yet where a bridge was necessary, they built bridges of a height sufficient to carry the water over in syphons of easy curvature. The sources of supply of the aqueduct of Mont de Pile, were from the waters of the river Gierre, from the rivulet of Sauon, and pro- bably from the river Tanon, to which were joined those of the rivulet Laugoneau ; after these waters were united in one stream at the aqueduct bridge of the little Varizelle, they make a long detour on the side* of the mountains and hills, till they arrive at the vallies which they must pass ; vet here 2C they are seen trained along the sides of these vallies, until they come to situations which aie not so deep or so wide. It is then that the architects built bridges across the vallies, over which to con- duct the waters, either in recti- linear canals, or in syphons ; had this latter precaution not been taken, the construction of such bridges would have been of necessity so high as to become enormous both in work and ex- pense j yet, notwithstanding all these precautions, there were in the aqueduct which takes its sources in Mont Pile, and deter- mines at the gate St. Irenee, nine bridges earning aqueducts, and three calculated to carry syphons. The ninth is in a very deep and wide bottom, on the heights of Soncieu. The aqueduct, when it arrives at this bottom, is ter- minated with a reservoir at the south edge of the valley of the river Garon. The mode by which the water passed this pro- found chasm, was by causing it to flow from a reservoir on the one side, in leaden pipes bedded in the sides of the valley along part of the descent; it then flowed in continued pipes of the same sort, bedded on a bridge, whose top course was built in a descend- ing or reversed curve ; having thus passed over this bridge, when they came at a certain height, on the opposite side of the valley, they were protruded up in pipes bedded as before on the opposite sides of the valley, and the water was delivered into another reservoir on the top of this opposite hill, called the reser- voir of Chaponost. From *t his re- servoir the water entered into the aqueduct of Chaponost, whlck runs under ground along the wes£ side of the village. It emerges 201 AQUEDUCT. on the north, and flows over a bridge composed of ninety arches, of which more than sixty, in De- lorme's time, were remaining ; this was terminated by a reservoir, whence the water, in like manner as before, descended by pipes into another valley, and in part passed it and the river Baunan over a bridge of a reversed curvature, and mounted again on the oppo- site side, there entering a second reservoir at St. Foi. The waters flowed hence in a canal, carried by a bridge for some way above ground, and then became subterraneous, and con- tinued thus along the heights to a point near the gate of St.Irenee. Here another reservoir was situ- ated ; hence the waters flowed in leaden pipes, which descended into the fosse of St. Irenee, and passing along the bottom of it, rose again, and emptied them- selves into a reservoir, built near a spot which can be traced in the walls of the city, at the Mall of Fourviere, ahove the gate of Trion, On the south side of a square tower. These pipes were not carried across this ditch and vaP.ey upon a bridge, as has been stated by some authors ; there are not the least vestiges of such j but they were bedded on a massive course of masonry. This aque- duct has a course of more than thirteen leagues j its distance, in a right line, is about eight leagues, and its descent from the bridge of the little Varizelle to the Fouviere, is 3**Q feet. Delorme next describes the nature of these reservoirs placed on each side of those vallies, across which the waters were passed* in syphons over a bridge of reversed curvature. The one is for holding up, or receiving, and thence emitting, the waters which are to be conveyed in pipes ; and the other is to receive a sufficient quantity of water for distribution to the succeeding canal. The emitting reservoir of the Garon aqueduct bridge is placed upon a quadrangular tower 14 feet long, and A\ feet broad. The wall of the side next the valley is pierced at 9 feet above the bottom of the reservoir, with nine overtures, nearly oval, of 12 inches in height, and 10 in width. The piers of the walls, between these openings, were 7 inches thick. It was through these openings that the waters passed out of the reservoir by as many leaden pipes, which descended into the valley in part along the sides, and in part over arches rampant, that is, arches whose successive tops formed an inclin- ed plane, which declivity was so regulated as not to have too sud- den a descent. Hence they passed to, and over the bridge, and rose again on the opposite side in the same manner, and were inserted in the wall of another receiving reservoir. This receiving reser- voir differed from the emittmg one only in this, that M; held the waters flowing towards the bottom of its basin, and the emitting one poured them out from the upper part, about 3 feet from the bottom, so that while the water rose in the emitting reser- voir to 3 or 4 feet, that in the re- ceiving one would not rise more than 2 feet. The nine leaden pipes, through which the water flowed, had each S inches dia- meter in the clear ; the thickness of the lead, of which they were composed, was about 1 inch. Delorme also mentions a cir- cumstance in this syphon-aque- duct, which has given rise to much discussion among those who have examined the subject - f he AQUEDUCT. states that these syrhon pipes, after having descended about 75 feet, each divided itself into two branches, and that thus the waters are carried ttte rest of the course over the bridge in eighteen pipes, and until they rise again, on the opposite side, to a height of about 70 feet, at which point they are again united, and the waters pass on, and enter the receiving reser- voir in nine pipes. In opposition to this opinion of Delorme, another eminent archi- tect, who examined the aqueduct, thought that the receiving and emitting reservoirs had the same number of pipes ; and that the nine pipes which proceeded from the one to the other, preserved the same dimension throughout. Delorme also says, that the water in the emitting reservoir, was higher by 1 foot than that in the receiving one ; bubM. Villar, a man of science resident at Lyon, took the level and found, as might have been expected, that the water in the receiving re- servoir was higher by at least 12 inches than that in the emitting reservoir. 'To construct these individual aqueducts, says another architect, the Roman architects began by forming a trench 5 feet wide, and 10 feet deep, having a uniform slope of one foot (Fr.) for a hun- dred toises. In this trench they formed the aqueduct or water channel of masonry, keeping the same dimensions in the parts ex- cavated from the rock, as in those which were cut into the clay or gravel soil. The bottom of this trench was laid with masonry, a foot (Fr.) thick ; on this, two walls were erected, each \\ feet thick, and 5 feet high, and leaving a space be- tween them of 2 feet, which form- ed the canal for the passage of the water 5 this space wan enclosed on the top by a semicircular arch a foot thick, and then covered with a layer 2 feet thick of earth. The bottom of the canal had a coat of cement 6 inches thick, and a coat of 1^ inches on the sides, which reduced the intervals between the walls to 21 inches. The angles were formed by the sides and bottom rounded by ce- ment. The walls were construct- ed with small rough stones, from 3 to 6 inches in thickness, laid in a bed of mortar, so that no void was left between the pieces. It would appear that the use of stones larger than 6 inches was avoided, as the walls formed of small stones, well bedded in mor- tar, formed, in the estimation of the ancient Lyonese architects, masses of greater compactness, than those built with larger pieces. The builders also used gravelly sand for this kind of masonry in preference to fine sand, which is proper only for the cement j and when they were obliged to use the finer sand, they took care to mix it with pulverized bricks, a practice adopted also in cases where coarse sand was mixed in abundance: lime burnt from good stones was used with unsparing profusion. The cement employed for the sides and bottom of the aqueduct was composed of pieces of brick the size of peas for the first coats, and somewhat finer for the finish- ing plaster. That on the bottom of the canal is made of pieces as large as nuts, and in many places the size of eggs ; the composi- tion was made with lime fresh slaked. That which contributed to make good cement, as well as good mortar, in their opinion, both in the one and the othrr was the effectual mixing of the 203 AQUEDUCT. ingredients, so as that the mass should be all of the same temper, which is known when the com- position was of the same colour throughout. In the aqueducts not built in the earth, the walls are from 22 to 24 inches thick, the exterior faces formed of reticulated work, the lozenges being from 3 to 6 inch.es square, without any course of bricks. The arch of the water channel, where it was not covered with earth, was somewhat curved to throw off the rain, but yet so flat as to serve for a road of com- munication between the reser- voirs, and within the aqueduct, and w r hich was entered through iron doors placed in the arch of the reservoir, and also in that of the one or two places of the arch channel aqueduct bridge. The subterranean channels had similar entrances like square pits, the mouths of which were elevated 2 or 3 feet above the surface of the ground they were driven into. The entrance of the water into the aqueduct was regulated by a vane, or sliding valve of a certain dimension, as only a certain quan- tity was allowed to flow into each branch. This does not appear ever to have exceeded 21 inches of elevation, which was sufficient to fill all the syphons ; without this precaution the volume of water, which might have risen to 4 feet, would have been too great. It is probable that the regulating vane or sluice could be raised or lower- ed at pleasure to allow for the increase of head, and that the superfluous quantity was at times permitted to flow into some other channel. Where the aqueduct was carried above ground, it was built on a footing of masonry 6 feet thick, even where the elevation above 204 the surface did not exceed 6 or 7 feet ; but when it was greater, arches were formed, and also piers, when the elevation was considerable ; on this elevation depended the span of the arches, the thickness of the pi^rs, and their height. For an opening of 18 feet in height the width is 12 feet, and the piers 6 feet, sustain- ing a semicircular arch ; when the inequality of the surface did not allow the piers to have an equal height of 18 feet to each opening, the piers were shortened, and the other parts remained of the same general dimensions. The piers of the arches in some places are rather less on the face than 6 feet, varying from 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet j and in other cases they are 7 feet 9 inches. The arcade which conducts the i water into the reservoir called St. Irenee, is £1 feet high, its width is the half of this, and the faces of the piers are 7 feet 9 inches. As the upper part containing the canal is only 6 feet thick, there is an offset of 6 inches on each face at the impost of the arches. (See I engraving of "Aqueduct at Lyon," fig. 1.) On this offset there is a projection, or pilaster, 10 inches thick, and 3 feet wide, which acts as a counterfort, to strengthen the sides of the water channel. The foundations of the piers having the smallest elevation are sunk between 3 and 4 feet below the surface of the ground, and between 6 and S feet for those of the greatest height. All the different supports of the aqueduct are of the same kind of masonry, formed of small rough squared stones, laid in a thick bed of mortar, with the apparent faceJ of reticulated work. This kind of masonry was bound at every 4 j feet of its height by two courses of " great bricks," each bncK AQUEDU C T. being 22 inches square, and 2 inches thick. The angles of the piers formed of small square slabs of stone offered, in many in- stances, an insufficient resistance to the lozenge masses which they terminated, and their displace- ment has been apparently the main cause of the ruin of the greater number of the piers ; for these have been formed by a sort of encasements of the thicknesses of 4 feet of the opus reticulatum, without being properly bonded by stones large enough at the quoins. The arches are semicir- cular, the arch-stones are slabs (thick slates) of stone, 3 inches thick, alternating with a " great brick j" the extrados of the arch is finished by a row of bricks, which forms a fillet. On this fillet is laid a double horizontal row of bricks, which runs through the entire length of the aqueduct, without, however, forming any projection. It is upon these bricks, as a pavement, that the water channel is laid or bedded. Of the arcades forming that part of the aqueduct called Lan- goneau, only seven piers remain, and these of the common reticu- lated masonry. The valley be- tween Soucieu and Chaponost is about 200 feet deep. Five ranges of arcades, placed one over the other for a length of 400 toises, conducted the water across the valley ; the valley through which the river D'Izeron flows, between Chaponost and St. Foi, is nearly 300 feet deep, and was crossed by ' a series of arcades having eight ranges in height. The third valley, formed by the small hill of St. Foi and that of Fourvieres, had three ranges of arcades. These prodigious substructions j must have occasioned an outlay i so enormous, as under almost any ; circumstances would have com- pletely arrested the completion of the undertaking ; and the more so, as these vallies were neither all, nor the greatest, across which the water had to be conducted. The resources of the architects here become conspicuous in their substitution of leaden pipes form- ing syphons already described, which were laid at an expense comparatively trifling to what must have been incurred by fol- lowing the other, and more usual method. In describing the passage of the valley of the Garon, the aqueduct arriving at the summit of the hill, was stated to deliver its water into a tank or reservoir placed in a square tower. This reservoir, 14 feet long by 4-J- feet wide, is 7 feet high to the summit of its arch ; the walls are 4-J- feet high to the springing of the arch, and 2 feet 3 inches thick. The arch is pierced in the centre by an opening 2 feet square, which serves as a passage into the re- servoir. The bottom is lined with a coat of cement 6" inches thick, with a curve at the angles of con- course of the sides and bottom ; there were two ranges of iron rods about -i- inch in diameter, to strengthen the walls, and probably also to serve as a kind of stair by which to descend into the reser- voir. This syphon bridge (see en- graving) is disposed in the same manner, and has the same pio- portions as the other arcades ; the width of the arches being 18 feet, and the height of their opening 36 feet; but this part is somewhat different from the others from its width, which is 24 feet, and by its piers appa- rently terminating at the impost or springing of the arches, form- ing an elevation of considerable elegance, and a covered passage 205 AQUEDUCT. under the bridge. The arcades pierced in the piers for this road or gallery, are 4 feet wide, and 21 feet high, their arches being formed of vou3Soirs of thin stone, alternating with great bricks j the facing is of reticulated masonry, and being built with black and grey pieces, has much the ap- pearance of a chess board. How- ever, these openings having weak- ened too much the higher piers, the builders were under the necessity of strengthening some of them by counterforts of the same sort of masonry. Two arcades in the valley of Baunau fell in 1757, from this precaution not having been taken; from these piers, after their fall, it was observed that the arches were divided into compart- ments in their depth by voussoirs formed of a double row of great bricks. The cpiantity of water, accord- ing to Delorme, which was fur- nished by this aqueduct in twenty- four hours, was 1,323,000 cubic feet. (Fr.) This author, how- ever, did not appear to have made any corrections for the diminution of velocity on account of friction, and other circumstances affecting the motion of fluids ; after these have been made to bear on his calculation, the quantity has been estimated as not being greater than about 172,800 cubic feet. The receiving reservoir for the valley of Baunau is 18 feet long, and 6 feet wide. It was pierced, according to Delorme, with twelve openings for as many syphons ; this increase in the number of pipes being made on account of the valley being deeper than that of the Garon; and, as he thinks, that as the pressure increases, while the depth is augmented, that the architects multiplied the number of syphons to divide this force by diminishing their diame- 206 ter in proportion. A circum- stance which, if accurate, would clearly decide that the difference between the weight and the pres- sure of water was unknown to the Roman architect. The rest of the syphon bridges are similar to that of the Garon. There is now no vestige of the emitting reservoir of St. Foi. The receiving reser- voir of St. Irenee is also much di- lapidated, and also that of Sou- cieu. Delorme conjectured that its side was pierced for a smaller number of syphons than that of Soucieu ; but these pipes were of a greater diameter than those of the others, as appears by the parts at present in existence ; and De- lorme thinks that the emitting reservoir was like the receiving tanks which are seen near the wall of the city of Lyon, and conduct- ed the water by an aqueduct to the reservoir now called the Mai- son Angelique. This reservoir was also furnished with the usual opening. Delorme further ob- served, that the emitting reser- voirs had an opening at a height of 4j- feet above the level of the pavement, to turn, if required, the flowing water to the bottom of the tower, and to facilitate their cleanings and reparations. The great reservoir of the Mai- son Angelique, the bottom of which is now buried in the ground, was supported by a series of vaults separated by partition walls 2-Jr feet thick. Five of these vaults are still entire. They are semi- circular, built of small rough squared stones, with courses of bricks in the voussoirs in each 10* inches ; and they appear to have been laid without mortar. A fall or step of H feet, arched to a height of 4 feet, is still seen in a wall 7-r feet thick. The water here descended by a well or tank H feet square, which joins the AQUEDUCT. south side, where it has a thick- ness of more than 10 feet. Decolonia (in his Histoire Lit- teraire tie la Ville de Lyon,) says, that thirty leaden pipes, of from 15 to 20 feet in length, marked by the initials TI.CL.CAES.(Tibe- rius Claudius Caesar,) were found in this part. He had no know- ledge of the reservoir discovered bv Delorme, to which it is pro- bable these pipes belonged, and in which they were used for dis- tributing the water to the build- ings and gardens of the palace of the emperor Claudius. The fig. 1, in the engravings marked " Aqueduct of Lyon," is an elevation of one of the syphon bridges. Fig. 2, its plan. Fig. 3, part of one of the arcades on a larger scale. Fig. 4, an exterior view of the perforations in the re- servoir for the syphon pipes. Fig. 5, the plan of the reservoir ; and fig. b\ its section and fig. 7, a section of one of the ancient lead pipes, showing the thickness of the stony incrustation on the in- side. A, is the solder which se- cured the joint. The Aqueduct at Metz was also built by the Romans when this city was included in their domi- nion ; but it is impossible to decide what epoch should be as- signed for its erection. We read in the " History of the City of Metz," that the Roman legions were ex- pelled from it, about the year of Christ 70. As the retreat of the Romans was succeeded by trou- bled and hostile periods, it ap- pears probable that the date of the construction of the aqueduct, as well as that of the other grand ! buildings of the Romans in this neighbourhood, reached to a re- mote period — probably that of the reign of the first emperors — per- haps to that period when the le- gions of Caesar held possession of Gaul. The chief water which this aqueduct conducted into Metz, was taken from the valley above Gorze, now named les Bouillons. It is conjectured that the waters of the valley were collected into a basin, from which it flowed into the aqueduct in this spot con- structed under ground. The water channel in general was 6 feet deep, and 3 wide, and laid on a course of masonry of small unhewn stones laid in a bed of mortar. Its thickness was pro- portioned to the solidity of the ground over which it was carried. In those parts where the bottom was considered to be sound and firm, it was not made more than a foot thick. The inner faces of the walls forming the water chan- nel, were built of small wrought stones, nearly of the same size, and placed in regular courses. These stones were about 7 or 8 inches on the side, and 3 inches high in front, and about a foot long. Those on the outer face were rough chiselled. The wall on the side of the mountain had a greater or less thickness, as it had to support a greater or less thrust of the earth. In portions of it where this thrust was trifling, its thickness varied from 1 to 2 feet. The arch which encloses the water channel was semicircu- lar. The voussoirs were about a foot square in the joints, and 2 inches thick towards the intrados, and three inches at the extrados. The arch was covered with a course of common rough mason- ry 7 or 8 inches thick. To pre- vent the percolation of the water into the piers or substructure, the inside was lined with cement 2 inches thick on the sides, and ?» inches on the bottom. 207 AQUEDUCT The water channel is still pre- served entire between the "Mou- lin de Gorze" and that town, pass- ing under the houses forming its principal street for a length of 150 toises. At leaving Gorze, its di- rection is along the top of a hill, until it meets the highway to Metz, a distance of 350 toises. From that, to procure a uniform slope, the Roman architect was obliged to follow the windings of a small valley for 48S toises. Here it was conducted across by a small aqueduct bridge. After making another quick bend, it keeps the slope of another part of the hill, occasionally appearing above the surface. Here are traced the remains of a foun- tain, which is supposed to have collected some subsidiary stream 5 its further course till it reaches Metz, is somewhat more di- rect. In following its course for 6,286 toises, (the distance between its summit, and where it meets the river Moselle,) it has a fall of 29 feet 6 inches, which gives a de- clivity of two-thirds of a line for each toise of length. At the ex- tremity of the aqueduct is a cis- tern, (rig. 1, on engraving marked "Aqueduct of Metz,") 28* feet long, by 21* wide, into which the water is conducted from the wa- ter channel. The part BED is backed by the mountain, and forms an arc of a circle of which the cord is 2U-, and the sine 7* feet. The opposite side is square. The walls are 3* feet thick on the sides BC, and 3 feet on the other parts. They are built of small stones laid in mortar mixed with cement. The outside and inside faces are of stones of the same size, but roughly wrought on their faces and beds, and laid in regular courses ; the inside face having a coat of cement about half an inch thick. In the centre of the reservoir is a basin 14 feet long, by 9* feet wide, and 1 foot deep, surrounded by a banquette 6 feet broad on three sides, and 9 feet broad on the other. This banquette is formed with large wrought stones, and finished towards the basin by triangular bricks from 8 to 10 inches on the face, and 6 inches at the end. In the centre of the circular part of the reservoir is placed the opening of the aqueduct. Its height from the under side of the arch to the bottom is 5 feet 8 inches, and 3 feet wide. Ataheight of about 8 feet in the angle, is another opening of a canal of dis- charge, 5 feet 1 inch by 2 feet 10 inches. It forms an angle with the wall of about 80°. On the side opposite to the cir- j cular wall of the reservoir, and rising from the bottom of the ba- sin, is this wall, dividingthe water channel through the length of the bridge, about 12 inches thick. This wall would appear to have been entirely composed of trian- gular bricks, coated on two sides with cement an inch in thickness. The water channels are not quite equal, one being 2 feet 8 inches wide, and the other 2 feet 4 inches. The reservoir was pro- bably covered by an arch, having voussoirs of stone placed in the herring-bone fashion, the upper ends of which were about 4 feet square. The intrados was coated with a thickness of 3 inches of ce- ment, and painted in fresco. On the outside it was covered with a roof, constructed with two sorts of tiles ; those now called antique tiles, made flat with ledges, and the others circular, to cover the joints of the former. AQUEDUCT. Part of a base of a column, in which was a niche containing a figure much mutilated, was found near this spot, which is conjec- tured to have been a nymph — probably that to which the water was dedicated, and placed in the reservoir. The basin in the bottom of the reservoir is supposed to have been formed for the purpose of pre- venting the greater part of the sediment of the water which might be deposited, from find- ing its way into the aqueduct j and that it was withdrawn from this part from time to time, as it accumulated. The remains on the side of Ars, approaching the Moselle, are much more dilapidated than that part on the other side, near the village of Jouy. At some distance from the reservoir are two arches much ruined ; a little further on a 1 part of a pier and five arches. 1 The remains at Jouy consist of ;: seventeen arches. The first seven i! are entire : the remainder are t more dilapidated. This bridge, " joining the two mountains, sepa- * rated by a valley of 560 toises, lfi had a declivity of 12 feet, 10 a inches, and 7 lines, which gives a lit! fall of nearly 3 lines for each toise to in length. The channel at the i ! top was 10 feet 10 inches wide, di- m vided, as has been already stated, % by a wall of triangular bricks 18 til inches thick, (see figure 7in Metz jiff! aqueduct j) thus forming a double k canal, apparently for the pur- atfi pose of allowing the water t j flow fct into one, while the other might Oi i be repairing. iltii 1 All the inside work is of com- sort I mon small stones bedded in ifyf I mortar. The facing stones are ail f wrought in their beds, and chi- f tt! 1 seiled on their faces, placed in re- gular courses : the one 3 and 4 inches high alternately. All the 2D arches are of the same construc- tion, and of the same proportions. The opening of the one on the side of Jouy is 57 feet high, the diameter of the arch 17| feet, and each face of its pier 14 feet. The prodigious height to which these arcades must have been car- ried, if the aqueduct bridge con- sisted of only one range of ar- cades, has given rise to an opi- nion, that it was composed of two ranges of arcades, like the Pont du Garde. At the extremity of this bridge on the side of Jouy, a second re- servoir was found, constructed in a very different manner from that shown in the former figures. It is completely circular, forming a kind of well, having a diameter 12f feet. The outside walls are 3 feet thick. In the middle is a basin 6^ feet in diameter, having a banquette, 3 feet broad, and 4 feet 10 inches in height, running round it. This banquette is built of squared masonry, to a height of 4 feet 10 inches above the bot- tom of the basin. The remain- ing height is of the usual mason- ry, coated with cement 2 inches thick. The double water-duct is formed by dividing the channel by an lS-inch wall, as in the other reservoir. The bottom of both of the channels is 1 foot 4 inches above the bottom of the basin. The height of the arch is 5 feet 6 inches, and the channels are coated in the inside with cement to the height of 2£ feet. In the upper part of the banquette, op- posite the openings into the aque- duct, is another banquette, 1 foot 9 inches deep, and 13 inches broad. It is conjectured to have conducted some neighbouring stream into the reservoir. Its sides and bottom are coated -with cement 2 inches thick. The water-duct, through which the AQUEDUCT. water flows to the city of Metz, is 5 feet 3 inches high, and 3 feet 2 inches wide: its pavement is not more than 9 inches above the level of the banquette. Opposite to this passage is another, by which to descend into the reser- voir. See fig. 5, which is a plan, and fig. 6*, which is a section of this reservoir. The total length of this aque- duct, reckoning from the "Mou- lin de Gorze" to its point of dis- tribution, is 11,373 toises. The total declivity is 68 feet 5^ inches, giving a fall of nearly •§- of a line for each toise in length. It is thought that the aqueduct was carried along the summit of the hill on which the citadel was placed, and that there it flowed into a cistern, from which it was distributed according to the mode in use among the Romans. A part being appropriated for the supply of the public fountains, another for the baths, and a third portion was conducted into the houses of individuals, who paid a certain rate, which was devoted to the repair of the aqueduct. M. Lebrun made some experi- ments to ascertain the velocity of water in this channel, the mean of which gave a current flowing 156 feet 8 inches each minute : and he estimated that 1,067| cubic feet of water were furnished every minute. Another series of experiments, made by the same military archi- tect, when the stream was much re- duced by the great drought of the preceding summer, gave 684 cu- bic feet per minute. — The mean of the two is nearly 876 feet, equal to 1,259,000 cubic feet each day, a quantity sufficient for the supply of a much greater popula- tion than we can imagine ever to have been collected at Metz. The Aqueduct at Evora was among the public buildings raised 210 by Quintus Sertorms, when he made himself master of this dis- trict about eighty years before Christ. It is still in excellent pre- servation, and the piers are 9 feet broad by 4| feet thick j the arched space is 13j feet wide, being equal to the breadth and thick- ness of the pier added together : at intervals, buttresses are super- added to the piers, " the better to secure the arcuation.' The whole is formed of irregular stone, except the arches, which are of brick. The castellum is the most per- fect of the kind existing, and remarkable for its fine propor- tions, and elegant decoration j its plan is circular, and its greater diameter 12| feet, independent of the surrounding columns, which are eight in number, of the ionic order. In each intercolumniation is a niche with a striated or con- chal head, and an aperture is formed in one of them to give access to the inside of the struc- ture. The second story is de- corated with ionic pilasters, be- tween which are apertures for ventilation 5 the top is crowned with a hemispherical dome. In the centre of the building is a small reservoir, from whence tubes were conveyed to the different fountains and cisterns. The acroteria and depressed parapet of this monument, are singular deviations from the usual employment of these members. It is probable that each acroterium was formerly crowned with a vase, the remains of one being still visible ; and from the fragment of a pedestal, to be seen in one of the niches, it is probable either a statue or a vase decorated each aperture. The whole is constructed of brick, incrustfcd wit h cement of so hard and durable a subfita-^e, that AQUEDUCT. few parts of it appear to have failed by the natural decay through age ; and considering that it was built seventy years before the Christian era, it may be considered one ot the most interesting monu- ments of Roman art in existence. See Castellum. The Aqueduct at Carthage, con- structed by the Carthaginians during their prosperity, was con- ducted for a length of seventy miles, over mountains, and through vallies ; considerable re- mains of it are still seen. Near Udena, there is an arcade consist- ing of above a thousand arches, where it had been conveyed across a valley ; some of these arches in the middle of the valley are above 100 feet high. In building this work, they made use of a strong cement, which is as durable as the stones themselves, though these are of a harder nature than our English limestone of a yellow colour. The water channel is coated with cement of such ex- traordinary tenacity, that in some places, flakes of it have fallen from the wall in lengths of up- wards of 100 feet, yet still adher- ing together ; the conduit is 6 feet high within, and 4 feet wide, arched to a point. At Ariana, a village four miles from Tunis, other remains of this structure are found, but not in quite so perfect a condition ; where the channel was conveyed through a mountain, at every sixty yards, vertical tunnels have been made from the channel to the surface of the mountain ; these arc 4 feet in diameter, and very neatly walled with hewn stone, and the wall is continued to a height of 4 feet above the surface, and to prevent any thing falling in, the stones are very neatly rounded at top. The masonry of the aqueduct throughout is of beautiful execution, and in some places still remains as perfect as when it was erected ; from some marks, it is conjectured that a part of it had been repaired by the Romans. A subterraneous aqueduct sur- rounds the town of Morocco, 20 feet below the surface, and from which, at every hundred yards, pipes of brick -work branch off, and convey the water into the wells of the different houses. Over each of these branches are excavations from the surface, through which persons descend to repair any injuries below ■ this aqueduct is now much out of re- pair, and neglected. The Aqueduct at Bourgas. There remains in the valley of Bourgas, near Constantinople, three aque- ducts, which conduct the water destined for the supply of that ca- pital. The most remarkable, as well for its fine proportions as for the solidity of its construc- tion, is traditionally asserted on the spot to have been built during the reign of the emperor Justi- nian. This aqueduct bridge traverses a strait and deep valley. Its height is about 108 feet at its base. Its length does not ex- ceed 70 toises or 420 feet ■ but at the level of the water channel it is nearly 120 toises. The part forming the centre of the aqueduct is composed of two stages or ranges of arcades, each of four great pointed or gothic arches. Those of the lower range are 8 toises and 4 feet in diameter, and 7t toises high : the arches of the second range are narrower, their width not exceeding 64- toises, and 6 toises and 1 foot high. The piers separating the lower arches are 6 >3 r toises on the face. Those forming the lower series are pierced at o height a AQUEDUCT. little above the impost of the arches, by small arcades 1 toise and 5 feet wide j the piers of the second range having similar open- ings placed over those of the lower range, 2£ toises wide. In the elevation, the piers are strengthened by counterforts on a triangular basis, so as to form a salient angle or bee. These are further scarfed in their height so as to terminate on the face of the Avail on each range, and to reduce the thickness of the wall to 3 feet 6 inches instead of 3 toises. Above the first range of arcades the aqueduct is formed through- out its length into a passage, hav- ing an opening of 4 feet, which serves as a gallery of communi- cation between one side of the valley and the other. This is connected to the roads by stairs or inclined planes, which termi- nate the inner passage at both ends. The aqueduct is prolonged to the right and left by small ar- cades, which carry the water along the crest of the eminences. In the engravings marked "Aque- duct at Constantinople," fig. 1 is an elevation of the aqueduct at Bourgas. Fig. A, part of the same on a larger scale, is a section of the bridge through the key-stone of the large arches j and fig. B, is a section through the key-stones of the small arches formed in the piers. Near Santa Maura, in the Ionian islands,there are remains of an aqueduct of 2§ feet wide, and nearly a mile long, from which it was conducted by earthen pipes into the fortress. It is tradition- ally ascribed to Bajazet : it is now applied to the purpose of a bridge. The Aqueduct of Spoletto was built about the year 741 by Theo- doric, king of the Goths, to form a communication with Spoletto, which stands on the top of a 212 mountain. It is formed of ten grand arches, each 66 feet 10| inches diameter, supported on piers 10 feet thick ; the middle arches, under which flow the rivulet of Maragia, are about 308 feet high j about the bridge is the aqueduct for supplying Spo- letto with water. This monu- ment is admirable from the skill shown in its construction, and the boldness of its design. It is built of a very hard and durable stone, and is now in excellent preserva- tion : its length is 6714- feet, and its width 41 feet. It may also be given as an instance of the use of pointed arches nearly five hundred years before their appearance in English building, and which, in lightness of proportion, exceeds any example of gothic building which could be pointed out in the most delicate tabernacle work of the highest and most florid period of the gothic style. It is further remarkable as an instance of pointed arches constructed by the Goths, who have been considered, by many antiquaries, to have no claim to their invention, or even to their use. See Gothic Archi- tecture. The prince Biscaris Aqueduct in Sicily, was constructed at the sole expense of a nobleman of that name, over the river St. Paul. The aqueduct, which conveys a salubrious water into the domains of this family, also serves as a road across the valley. ,It is composed of thirty-one arcades ; the largest one is formed in the gothic manner, 84 feet wide, or 120 Sicilian palins, under which passes the river. The length of the bridge is nearly 254 feet long, and its height 112 feet; the passage, ot road, is formed on the top of the first row of arches, and the water- duct is placed on the upper tier. AQUEDUCT. The Aqueduct of Segovia con- tains one hundred and fifty-nine arch e 3, and extends about 740 yards 3 where it crosses the val- ley it is somewhat more than 94 feet high. The city is built upon two hills, and in the valley which separates them, a great part of the inhabitants would be deprived of water but for this edifice. This boon was conferred, according to the local antiquaries, by Trajan, who erected the aqueduct, and which is still in excellent preser- vation. Upon a level at its origin with the rivulet which it receives, and supported at first by a single stage of arcades, which are not more than three feet high, it pro- ceeds to the summit of a hill at the other extremity of the city, and gradually increases in height in proportion to the declivity of the ground. In its highest part, a bridge has been thrown across an abyss. It has two branches, which form an obtuse angle with the city. At the commencement of this angle, it becomes a grand object — its two rows of arcades rise ma- jestically above each other, and the spectator is surprised at its gigantic height with the light- ness of its piers. It has stood six- teen hundred years, and its solidity seems inexplicable, when the sim- plicity of its construction is more closely examined, It is built of square stones, laid in courses, without external appearance of mortar ; and some of its arches are built in the pointed form. Probably these have undergone repair, either by the Goths or Moors, when they had possession of the country. " Miserable mo- dern houses are fixed against some of the pillars of the aque- duct, seeking a support in these proud remains for their own weak- ness, and degrade the monument which supports them. A small convent, exhibiting some pitiful architecture, is placed at the an- gle formed by its two branches." The Aqueduct of Los Canos de Carmona conveys water from a hill where it rises in springs near the town of Alcala, at a distance of about eight miles from Seville. It is a matter of dispute whether this be a Roman or Spanish-Ara- bian work, but to an accurate ob- server, it appeared to contain a mixture of both styles j probably originally constructed by the Ro- mans, and afterwards, as the works decayed, repaired by the Moors. The arches composing it are of a different construction, some re- sembling the Roman, and some the Moorish, which last approach to the horse-shoe form, and ter- minate within the perpendicular that supports them. The arches are 12 feet in diameter, and the arched opening 30 feet high. These varying in height accord- ing to the level of the ground over which the aqueduct is carried, the water is conducted in an open ca- nal on the top of the arches, and forms a constant stream 3 feet wide, and 2 feet deep, and is es- teemed excellent. A part of it is received into a large reservoir near the gate, and the remainder is conveyed by pipes to the Al- cazer, public fountains, and the houses of individuals. The entire length of the aqueduct is com- posed of brick and mortar. Re- mains of a similar erection of great extentare still existingnearToledo. Many of the arcnes of the aque- duct which conveyed water to the ancient city of Acipinio, are also remaining near old Ronda, with- out any mixture of Moorish addi- tions. They are about 16* feet in diameter, and 28 feet high, and the water channel was formed on the top. The reservoir at Ronda under the Dominican convent 213 AQUEDUCT. was supplied with its water by the aqueduct. The reservoir is on a level with the Guadiaro. It is descended by means of three hundred aad fifty steps. The ca- vern is hollowed into spacious saloons, the roofs of which are formed into domes of prodigious height; formerly the whole was filled with water. There having been no necessity of late years to resort to this resource, the ca- verns are neglected, and are go- ing so fast to decay, that, in a few years, they will be filled with the rubbish which falls from the roofs. The Aqueduct of Tarragona brings water to the city from a distance of seven leagues, and in its route traverses a deep ravine, which is 700 feet wide, and 100 feet high. — The aqueduct bridge has tw T o ranges of arcades, the lowest consisting of eleven arches, and the upper of twenty-five. It is not considered to be of a higher era than that of the occupation of the country by the Moors. The Aqueduct in the Plain of Anover, formed by Philip V., is seven leagues long : it derives its water from the river Jamara, and was constructed for the purpose of irrigation. Within the last thirty years it has been suffered to fall into decay, and is now so ruined as to have become useless. The Aqueduct of Almasora con- ducts water, for the same purpose as that of Anover, into the plain of Castellon, from the river Mi- jures. It is a tunnel, almost the whole distance from S. Quieteria to Almasora, cut through a lime- stone rock. Its formation has been attributed to the Ro- mans and Carthaginians, and to the Moors ; but the opinion of an able Spanish antiquary, assigns it with great probability to a later period ; it having been, in his opinion, constructed by Jayme el Conquistador, about a. d, 1240 "In comparison with this magni- ficent work, how contemptible is the Mountain Percee, in Langue- doc, for which Louis XIV. re- ceived so much fulsome adula- tion »!'■ In many other parts of Spain, especially the southern provinces, are found numerous fountains and reservoirs of water, covered with arches, and conducted in chan- nels to distant points, as well for the supply of the inhabitants as for irrigation, attributed to the patient industry of the Morescoes, when, with equal probability, they might be ascribed to the Romans — to the Carthaginians — or to the more ancient inaabitants of the Peninsula. The Aqueduct of Lisbon has been long admired for the excellence of its construction, and, in point of magnitude, is not inferior to any similar edifice which the an- cients have left us. That part of it situated in the valley of Alcan- tara, about a mile from Lisbon, consists of thirty-five arches, by which the water is conveyed over a deep vale formed by two oppo- site mountains. The dimensions of it in the deepest part of the valley are as follows : height of the arch from the ground to the intrados, 230 feet 10 inches ; from the vortex of the arch to the ex- trados, exclusive of the parapet, 9 feet 8 inches ; from the extra- dos to the top of the ventilator, 23 feet 4 inches ; making a total height from the ground of 263 feet. Span of the principal arch 107 feet 8 inches; breadth of piers of the principal arch 28 feet; and thickness of the piers in general 23 feet S inches. The arches on each side of the principal one diminish in breadth as the piers, whereon they rest, AQUEDUCT. decrease in height with the decli- vity of the ground ; they do not, however, decrease by any regular progression, neither are the curves employed in the arches of one kind ; ' fourteen of them being in the gothic, or pointed style, the rest are semicircular ; a variation adopted by the architect, Manuel dal Maga, from an apprehension, that making the five principal arches semicircular, he would considerably add to the expense. In the rest of the edifice much judgment has been displayed j no part of it has failed, or appears to have received the least injury from earthquakes. Over the arches there runs a vaulted corridor 9 feet 6 inches high, by 5 feet broad internally. A continued passage runs through the centre of it, for the people who constantly attend to keep it in order, and a semicircular channel, or conduit of 13 inches diameter, at each side, through which the water is conveyed. It is worthy of remark, that these channels are laid, not in an inclin ed direction, as in other aque- ducts, but horizontally ; to com- pensate for this, a small depres- sion is made at certain intervals, by which the water is impelled along the horizontal line ; a manner supposed by the natives to require less declension in con- veying water, than an inclined line. There are two thorough- fares for foot passengers along the aqueduct, one at each side of the corridor, which is 5 feet wide, defended by a stone parapet. From some remains of the Ro- mans on this spot, it is supposed they either had, or attempted to construct, an aqueduct in this situation. The modern Romans are partly indebted for their profuse supply of water to the magnificence of their renowned ancestors. Dur- ing the anarchy of the middle ages, when the most estimable works of antiquity were dilapi- dated by the wantonness of barba- rians, the aqueducts did not es- cape the general destruction ; and Rome which a few centuries before had rivers of water flowing in her streets, drew her supply from unwholesome springs, or marshes. A precarious supply had at times been occasionally derived by repairing an ancient conduit, but neither the re- sources of the state, nor the skill of individuals, were equal to the undertaking of a permanent repa- ration. It was not until the pon- tificate of Nicolas V., that a re- storation of an ancient aqueduct was attempted : the Aqua Appia was then begun, and the work continued by Sextus IV. was com- pleted by Pius IV. in 1568. At this period the three chan- nels by which water of the re- stored conduit arrived at Rome, were conducted into, and distri- buted from, a reservoir without any architectural ornaments. Cle- ment XII. began its decoration on the side of the modern Palais Conti from the designs of Nicolo Salvi. This beautiful monument and masterpiece of its author was finished under Benedict XIV. and received the name of Trevi, from the water being conducted into its basin by three channels, and also from its position at the meeting of three streets. Of the three modern aqueducts the Aqua Virgine is accounted the most salubrious, and best adapted for culinary purposes. The pipes of this water are, on this account, sold at a higher price than the others, by the apostolic charac- ters. The aqueduct which furnished in the time of Frontinus 2,504 215 AQUE : quinaires, now furnishes nearly 65,782 cubic metres in twenty-four hours, and this quantity is distri- buted by seven principal conduits into thirteen public and thirty- seven common fountains. The present Aqua Felice is part of the water of the ancient Aqua Claudia and Aqua Marcia, united with some other springs collected under the pontificate of Sextus V. The stream begins from the Campo Colonna, situated to the left of the Palestrina road, four- teen Roman miles from Rome, and enters the city through that remarkable ancient remain, called the monument of the Aqua Clau- dia. This water follows a course approaching to that of the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Claudia, but is on a lower level than either, as its sources are not so high up the Anio. All the waters of which the Aqua Felice is composed, were united by Urban VII. in one immense reservoir, and several smaller ones, whence they were conducted into the conduit by an aperture named fistola urbana, formed in a block of marble. Ac- cording to Fontana this stream is equal to a hundred superficial fvr n « f" the iira'o- ARiE ARC style in terms of the diameter of the column, which has led various of his commentators to supply the deficiency or omission. Follow- ing the same progression ob- served in the other intervals, which increase each a semidia- meter, the araeostyle should be equal to three and a half dia- meters. Perrault, in his transla- tion of Vitruvius, proposes that the interval be made equal to four diameters. Another author thinks that Vitruvius alluded to a much wider space than even that as- signed by Perrault, and he makes it five diameters. In modern practice the word denotes the in- tercolumnar space of four dia- meters. Its use is restricted to apertures decorated with the tuscan order. Ar^eosystyle. Among French architects, a manner of propor- tioning the intervals between columns ranged in pairs, invented by Perrault, and introduced in his most celebrated work — the " River Front of the Louvre." The same arrangement has also been followed by sir Christopher Wren in the west front of St. Paul's. This kind of disposition is com- posed of two systyle intercolum- niations the column that sepa- rates them being approached towards one of those at the ex- tremities, leaving sufficient room for the projection of the capitals, so that the great space is three and a half diameters wide, and the small one only half a diameter. Blondel objects to this innova- tion on account of its want of solidity, and its great expense; since almost double the number of columns is required that would be sufficient in the diastyle in- terval, and great irregularities that its adoption occasions in the ornaments of the entablatures of the various orders. Notwith- standing one or two examples of coupled columns in antique build- ings, the arseosystyle invention may be safely considered to be a barbarism. Arbalestena. See Archeria. Arbores. Large bronze can- delabra, in the shape of a tree, placed on the floor of ancient churches, so as to appear growing out of it. They were usually of exquisite workmanship, and often sumptuously adorned with silver, and gold, and gems. Arc. fArcus, a bow.J In co«- structive geometry. Any part of a curve line which does not consist of contrary curvatures. It is by means of circular arcs that all angles are measured, the arc being described from the an- gular point as a centre. For this purpose every circle is divided into three hundred and sixty equal parts or degrees, and the number of these parts included in the curved line, is the measure of the arc, or of the angle. Con- centric arcs have the same centre. Similar arcs bear the same pro- I portion to their respective but different circles. Equal arcs have the same length, or contain the same number of degrees of the same, or an equal circle. The length of circular arcs may be found and expressed by the following series, where the radius is made unity ; and of any arc a, ! if the tangent be t, the sine s, and the co-sine c, and the versed sine v f then the arc a will be truly expressed by the several series — ! a=t— JL t> + i_ t* — +— 1> 3 5 7 9 &c. s Is 5 1 s b a ~ ~c 3"' ~& + lf "c 7 — .— &c. 7 c 7 ARC ARC 3^14109 rf=0 Q 29 180 where d denotes number of de- grees in the given arc, and a== ~^~ c nearly ; c being the chord of the arc, and c chord of 1 half the arc, whatever the radius ; is. Arca custodies. In Roman architecture. A kind of cage or [cell, with bars of oak for confin- ing criminals. They were made of lattice-work, with a privy for prisoners of war. It is also the name of a land-mark, formed square and hollow like a chest; inscribed stones. , Arcade. (Fr.) A series of apertures or recesses with arched jCeilings or soffets. The use of :his word is very vague and in- definite. By some authors it is ised for a single arched aperture, >r enclosure, instead of vault ; or 'or the space covered by a con- inued vault, or arch supported on ;>iers or columns, instead of gallery >r corridor; and by others for the pace enclosed by two or more rcades, or a wall and an arcade, istead of piazza or ambulatory. A series of arched openings, lough not so magnificent as a inge of lintelled apertures, is iore solid, stronger, and less tpensive, They are, therefore, n ployed with advantage instead colonnades round public squares, arkets, large courts, and, in pneral, in all situations where ide spaces are desirable. In some modern Italian towns e streets on each side are lined th arcades like those of Covent- ; rden and the Royal Exchange jjtrieh add greatly to their mag- ficence. In rainy climates these 'cades opening into a piazza are 2H exceedingly convenient, form- ing a sheltered walk in all weathers^ and in oriental build- ings of all kinds their use is general for their grateful shade. They are sometimes introduced on a small scale in English build- ings to form corridors, but as a street decoration they are seldom used. The English mode ot building seldom admitting of very lofty stories, they are objected to as darkening the apartments to a degree inconvenient in ourgloomy climate ; besides, (though without sufficient reason,) being consi- dered as impeding the free cir- culation of air. "At Rome, the courts of the Vatican, those of Monte Cavallo, and of the Borghese, and many other places, are surrounded with arcades," forming piazzas, " under which the carriages and domestics wait under cover, some of them being sufficiently capacious to ad- mit two or three coaches abreast. Such conveniences would be very useful in this country contiguous to the courts of law, churches, places of public amusement, and even to most houses of the no- bility and gentry, where numer- ous fine equipages and valuable horses stand half the night ex- posed to all weathers." "The void or aperture of the arcade," says the same author, " should never be more in height, nor much less than double their width. The breadth of the pier should seldom exceed two-thirds, nor be less than one-third of the width of the arch, according to the character of the composition; and the piers at the angles should be broader than the next by one- half, one-third, or one-fourth." "The thickness of the piers de- pends on the width of the portico, and the weight which the arcade has to carry above ; for they must 241 ARCADE. be strong enough to bear the burden and to resist the pressure of the vault of the portico. With regard to the beauty of the build- ing, Chambers says, the pier should not be less than one quarter of the width of the arch, nor more than one-third ; and when arches are closed up to receive doors, windows, orniches, the recesses should be deep enough at least to contain the most pro- minent parts of what is placed in them ; otherwise the style of archi- tecture will appear flat, and the cornices of the niches or windows projecting before the fronts of the arcades, will become too power- ful and striking in the composi- tion." " The area, enclosed by arcades, or by a wall and an arcade, may have a flat ceiling, or may be arched in various manners. When the ceiling is flat, the correspond- ing inside faces of the piers may be ornamented with pilasters, or the pier may have this ornament corresponding to another placed on the wall, forming the outer boundary of the corridor. Their projection may be from a sixth to aquarterof their diameter. These pilasters may support a continued entablature, or one interrupted and running across the portico over every two pilasters, in order to form coffers ; or the architrave and frieze may be continued while the cornice only is carried across the portico, over the pilasters as before, and serves to form com- partments in the ceiling." " Where the portico is arched with a semicircular, or elliptical vault, the backs of the piers and inner wall of the portico may be decorated with pilasters, as already described, supporting a regular continued entablature ; from a little above which the arch should take its spring, that no part of it may be hid by the projection of the cornice." "The vaultmaybeenriched with compartments of various regular polygonal figures, enclosing other decorations which are peculiar to ceilings, (which see.) But when the vault is groined or composed of flat, circular, or domical coves, sustained on pendentives, the pilasters must be as broad as are the columns in front of the piers; but they must rise no higher than the top of the impost, the mould- ings of which must finish and | serve them, instead of a capital from whence the groins and pen- dentives are to spring, as also the bands, or arcs doubleaux, which divide the vault." " There are various modes of de- corating an arcade externally ; sometimes the pier is rusticated, at others a pilaster is placed on it, or a column, or a terminus, or caryatides; and on some occasions the piers are made broad enough to admit a niche or window." '* The circular part of the aper- ture is either surrounded with rustic archstones, or with an archivolt enriched with mould- ings ; which, in the centre, is generally interrupted by a key- stone in the form of a console, a mask, or some other proper or- nament of sculpture, serving at the same time as a key to the arch, and as a seemingly necessary support to the architrave of the order. Sometimes the archivoll springs from an impost placed a! the top of the pier, and at other? from columns, with their regulai entablature or architrave cornice placed on each side of the arch and there are some instances o arcades without any piers, thearcl of their ceiling springing fron single or coupled columns, some times with and sometimes with! L out entablatures, as in the tempi ARC ARC of Faunus, at Rome, a practice seldom to be imitated, being neither solid nor handsome." , " When the arched openings of the arcade are wide, the key-stone , should never be omitted, but cut into the form of a console, and i carried close up under the sofFet I of the architrave, which, by rea- , son of its extraordinary length of bearing, requires a support in the middle. And if the columns that : adorn the piers are detached, as \ in the triumphal arches at Rome, lit is necessary to break the entab- lature over them, making its pro- jection, in the interval, no more than if there were no columns at Sail ; for though the architrave might be made sufficiently solid, yet it would be disagreeable to see so great a length of entabla- ture hanging in the air without any prop or apparent support." " It is, however, to be remem- ibered, that these breaks in en- tablatures should be verysparingly employed, never indeed but to nvoid some considerable incon- venience or deformity, for they are unnatural, render the columns >r other supports apparently use- ess, destroy in a great measure he simplicity of the composition, ,nd can seldom be contrived vithout some mutilations, or triking irregularities in the cap- tals. The imposts of arches hould never be omitted, unless latbands supply their place. In 11 arcades the arches must not Ipring immediately from the im- iost, but take its rise at such a istance above it, as may be ne- 2ssary to have the whole curve ,j ;en at the proper point of view. hen archivolts are employed 6 fithout a key or a console in leir middle, the same distance ?j just be preserved between the >p of the archivolt and the arch- rave of the order, (if one is used,) as when there is a key, or at least half that distance j for when they are close to each other their junction forms an acute and disagreeable angle." ARCiE. (Lat.) In Roman archi- tecture. The gutters of the cavae- dium. The word area is used to signify a beam of wood, which has a groove or channel hollowed in it from one end to the other. Arce arcul^. In square sarcophagi, with the sides expand- ing and generally resting upon feet, imitating those of a lion or other beast. Arca pollinarta. A mill- trough. Arc-boutant. (Fr.) An arched buttress formed of a flat arch, or part of an arch, abutting against the feet or sides of another arch or vault to support them, and prevent their giving way in that direction. " Arch-formed props employed in the pointed style for sustaining the vaults of the nave, their lower ends resting on the pilastered buttresses of the aisles, and their upper ends resisting the pressure of the middle vault against the several springing points of the groins. They are sometimes called flying buttresses, arched buttresses, arch butments." Arcella. In mediceval archi- tecture. A cheese-room. Arch. In geometry. Part of a circle, not more than a half. Amongst modern mathematical writers the term is disused, ex- cept as restricted to its usual acceptation among builders and mechanics. Arch. In building. A me- chanical arrangement of separate inelastic bodies in the line of a curve, which preserve a given form when resisting pressure. A part of a building suspended over, or from, a given plan, and sup- ported or resisted at its cx- 243 ARCH. tremities, and concave towards the plan. A concave structure raised or turned upon a mould, called its centering, in the form of an arc of a curve, and serving as the inward support of some superstructure. A building open below and closed above, standing by the form of its own curve. A ceiling composed of stones, which, by acting against each other, are supported by the same force by which they would otherwise fall. An aperture formed of bricks or stones of a wedge or like ten- dency, by which it is adapted to resist perpendicular and lateral pressure, so as to support the edifice built over it. An opening in a bridge through, or under, which the water and vessels pass. A concave ceiling, or floor, of any material, or on any principle of construction. A tunnel. An excavation. An arch, says sir Henry Wot- ton, is a narrow contracted vault, and a vault is a dilated arch. The supports of an arch are pillars or walls, called abutments, butments, or piers. The first, or lowest stones, or courses of stones, that form part of the arch, are called springers ; and the line on which they are placed, or from which the arch begins to rise or spring, is the springing line, or reins of the arch. The impost, or platband, is the upper end of the pier on which the arch rests. The stones ranged in the curved line are called archstones, or vous- soirs j the lower end of the stones form the interior, or curve of the arch, the whole of which concave surface is called the intrados by geometers, or soffet among architects. The cxtrados is the upper or opposite convex surface of the archstones. The span, or chord of the arch, is mea- sured from the points or lines, where the intrados rises from the impost. The rise of the arch, or its versed sine, is the distance of the highest point of the intrados above the chord line. This high- est point being by some geo- meters called the vertex of the arch, sometimes the crown ,• but among workmen and builders, the highest point of the intrados, or vertex, is called the under side of the crown, the crown being the upper end of the stones highest in the arch. The upper or centre stone of the series of archstones, or voussoirs, which connects the opposite portions of the arch, and binds them together, is the key- stone or key,. The haunches, or hances, or flanks, among geo- meters, are the spaces included between a horizontal line drawn j from the vertex of the arch, and a perpendicular touching the ' springing line of the intrados; but among masons, the hances. Flanks are the spaces included between the extrados, and a horizontal line j from the crown of the arch, and a vertical line from the springing of the extrados. When this space is not built up with solid masonry throughout the breadth of the arch, the walls built upon the voussoirs to the same height, are called hance or flank walls ; the outer wall forming the elevation of the arch is the spandrel wall. Sometimes a circle-arch is con- structed through the spandrel and haunch walls, which work- men designate an ox-eye, — the extrados prolonged by an arch of a reversed curvature passing over the pier, and connected with a similar prolongation of the opposite arch, is called a strati arch, or strutt course. In the decoration of arches, the archivolt is a collection of mould- ings, on the face of the arch- stones, concentric with the in-i ARCH trades. The key-stone, when ornamented, is sometimes named from its ornament, as a console, or an arcane. Some of the mediae- val bridges have the intrados formed into pannels, by hollowing each alternate row of archstones I to a certain depth parallel with : the intrados ; the projecting row or voussoirs are then called ribs, t and in arches generally the same ■ name is given to any single course 1 of stones forming an arch. The outside face, or elevation of the spandrel wall, is called the spandrel ; this, when the arch has an archivolt, is included in the space between the outer mould- ing of the archivolt, and a per- pendicular from the springing of 'this moulding, from the impost and the horizontal moulding or 'projection surmounting the arch. Arches are also denominated, 'from the similarity of their intra- dos to the periphery of the sec- tions of various geometrical solids, 'as semicircular, elliptical, para- bolical, cycloidal, catenarian, &c. j Circular arches are called by 'the earlier architectural authors '.arches, by way of eminence. Their perfect arch, being a semicircle, the imperfect, scheme, skeen, '•ikene, surbassed, or diminished arch, being formed of a portion 'less than a semicircle. A rampant pcA rises from imposts of different heights, or has its chord inclined BO the horizon. An arabesque, noresque, or saracenic arch, has ts chord line less than other Parallel lines, which may be llrawn between it and the vertex )f the arch ; and this species is ometimes named a horse-shoe trch from its fancied resemblance o that form. When the extrudes »f an arch, or the upper line of he voussoirs, is concentric with he intrados, (that is, the arch- tones being all of the same length,) the arch is then said to be extradosed. Straight Arch. An arch of an intermediate form between the semicircular and gothic arch, consisting of straight lines and a pointed top, comprising two sides of an equilateral triangle : this was in use in Italy in the ninth and tenth centuries, and appears on the coins of Berenga- rius. Gothic or Pointed Arch. That formed by the intersection of two arcs, and used in the buildings of the latter period of what is ge- nerally called the middle ages. It had a great variety of pro- portions, as it is found to have been struck on different occasions — from a third of its width, — from one-fourth — one-fifth — two-fifths —one-sixth — one-seventh — two- sevenths — three-sevenths — one- eighth — one-ninth — two-ninths and five-twelfths — but that con- structed on an equilateral triangle is the most usual. " By tuscan w riters," says sir Henry Wotton, "they are called di terzo, and quarto accuto, because they always concur in an acute angle, and do spring from a divi- sion of the diameter into three, four, or more parts at pleasure : such as these, both for the natural imbecility of the sharp angle it- self, and likewise for their very uncomeliness, ought to be exiled from judicious eyes, and left to their first inventors — the Goths or Lombards, among other relics of that barbarous age." Evelyn calls them gotiq. Modern archi- tects have classed their varieties chronologically, according to the period in which they were first used in mediaeval buildings. Romanesque Arch. In decora- tion. A semicircular or a sur- bassed arch removed from its native position between the co- 245 ARCH. lumns, and raised above them, or upon them — sometimes spring- ing from the abacus of the capital, or from the cornice of the entab- lature. History of the Arch. Notwith- standing the great importance of the arch in building, and the changes which its use has intro- duced, as well in the style and taste of decoration as in construc- tion, the era of its invention, its original form, the name or coun- try of its inventor, are involved in the deepest obscurity. The shadowing wings of the cherubim meeting over the ark of the covenant, and the meeting of the branches of the palm-trees, with carved and gilded represent- ations of which the walls of the temple of Solomon were adorned, have been cited by some authors of warm imaginations, and fa- miliar with the mediaeval struc- tures, as suggesting the idea of a got hie arch. Yet it is remark- able that in the detailed descrip- tion of this magnificent fane, no contrivance similar to the arch appears to have been employed in its construction. In the im- mense palaces built by the same prince in Jerusalem, and in the forest of Lebanon, (which re- quired thirteen years to complete them,) the walls were formed of immensely large stones, generally 12 to 15 feet long, the covering above being of cedar beams, upon rows of cedar pillars. In the account of these buildings we find staircases regularly formed, •jut no indications of arches. In the second temple built by Esdras, the temple itself, as well as the stately cloisters surround- ing it, the apertures were of the lintelled kind ; and when it was re-edified by Herod, the greatest part of these ambulatories are again described to have been roofed with beams of wood laid across, and resting upon massy stone pillars. And it is not a little extraordi- nary circumstance, that there is no word at all of a similar import with the word arch, or its forma- tion, from one end of the scrip- tures to the other, except in Eze- kiel, where it is said, and " there were narrow windows to the little chambers, and to their posts within the gate round about, and likewise to the arches, and wia- dows were round about inward, and upon each post were palm- trees" — which in the marginal emendation is made galleries; and where the same word which is here translated arches occurs in two other places, it is there translated post. In Homer's description of the palace of Priam, a square court is surrounded by a portico with pillars and (rude) entablatures all round it, much like those ancient remains lately described as exist- < ing in Egypt, behind these were ranges of chambers 10 or 12 feet wide j but no mention is made of vaulted apartments, nor does the word occur in his poems. He mentions the hundred gates of Thebes, which may probably be the identical structures re- 1 ll maining to this day. Each gate we find is generally composed of j p two great towers, like truncated! t pyramids, with their bases widely] c extended in proportion to their t summits, standing at a little dis- a tance from each other, whilst c the space between the portal is i r formed of a vast lintel, placed at m a considerable height above the lo ground, from pyramid to pyramid, and covering a passage of suf- b ficient height and width to form a magnificent gate. Each of these pyramidal towers contained se-| q veral small apartments in each] i ARCH. story, and piled on each' other sometimes to the height of five or six stories : some of these towers are also filled up solid ; but the opening between them is always covered over in the same manner. The palaces and temples are constructed of vast pillars of granite or marble, on which rested enormous imposts ; these served as a sort of beams, upon which other great stones were placed like rafters, side by side, and which formed the roof, and occasionally the floors, of other superstructures : some of these stones, still to be seen, are 40 feet long. In the pyramid of Sahara, a chamber 22| feet long, and 12 feet wide, has the appearance of a high arched vaulted ceil- ing j yet, in reality, nothing can be further removed than this inclined roof from the construc- tion of an arch of any kind > all the stones are laid in horizontal courses, each course projecting about 5 inches beyond that be- neath it, until the two sides nearly meet, when the ceiling is com- I pleted by being covered with a flat stone. The great gallery of the : pyramids at Memphis is 154 feet i long, 26 feet high, and not more ; than 6* feet wide ; its ceiling is ; formed by seven tiers of stones projecting in the same manner, ; each course 3 inches beyond that e on which it is incumbent, till the two sides approach to within | about 3 feet at top, and then it is : covered with a flat stone. The great chamber in which the sar- | cophagus was placed, is 34 feet long, 17 feet broad, and 19 feet i high : here a vault or arch would have been particularly beautiful i as well as convenient. It is, i however, roofed in the manner of one or two very narrow galleries in the same building, by nine immense stones laid from side side, and flat ceiled. — This was built twelve hundred years before the birth of Christ. Herodotus, in describing the celebrated labyrinth, says it en- closed twelve courts, all of which were covered, or rather the por- ticoes, or ambulatories, which surrounded them, as he says far- ther on, that to each court was a peristyle (or space enclosed by pillars) of white stone very nicely adjusted, and the covering of every one of them was of stone, and considering the meaning of the word forophej he employs on this occasion, this covering was flat, like that in the great cham- ber of the Memphian pyramid. In part of this labyrinth, still re- maining, the outward wall is built sloping (or battering) inwards like a pyramid ; and also one of the larger and better rooms is actually covered with large stones laid from wall to wall as in the chamber of the pyramid. The sckos, or interior of the temple of Isis, consists of several apartments, all the walls and ceil- ings of which are in the same way covered with religious and astronomical representations ; the roofs are, like the rest remaining in Egypt, flat, having oblong masses of stone resting on side walls, and when the distance of these is too great, one or two rows of columns are carried down the middle of the apartment by which the roof is supported. These apartments are lighted by small perpendicular holes cut in the ceiling, and where it was possible to introduce the-m by oblique ones in the sides ; these are very small on the outside, and gradually di- verge for the purpose of dispers- ing the light over the apartment. The conclusion is obvious, that the Egyptians, if not ignorant of 247 A R C H. the mode of covering a space by an arch, at least they did not I resort Jo it ; in fact, the know- ledge or practice was unnecessary, wiien they possessed quarries capable of furnishing such enor- mous masses, and the means, both mechanical and economical, of Raising them, seemingly of any •.dimension they wanted 5 that ' which is in a great measure a sub- stitute for the insufficiency and Imperfection of materials, would •7be to them an useless art. An architect who had the means of "covering a room with nine large :stones, would not surely employ avhundred for that purpose. i In this step of the inquiry, however, there is no historical data to go upon, as to whether .buildings of less pretension than pyramids, and temples, and palaces v\yere constructed with a similar .Tegard (comparatively) to dura- tion or stability j or whether that if an Egyptian gentleman con- structed a dining room, or bed- xhamber of an equal dimension ■with that of the sarcophagus chamber in the pyramid at Mem- phis, that he would cover it with "granite 5 the probability is *against the conjecture that he would. But the general wants of the climate point out the use of -pflat . roofs, or terraces. No re- rmains of ancient Egyptian do- mestic architecture are extant, to enable us to decide, whether that invention which does- not appear in any of the public buildings, ■Snight have been found in those edifices, where economy was a primary consideration. It is some- what out of the proper place, jbut it is worthy of remark, that in a much later age, (that of Hadrian,) lintelled apertures in buildings, under circumstances in "which we would the least of all expect to find them, were used by the Egyptian architects. In one of the gates to Antinopolis, composed of a centre apartment and two side ones, all three of con- siderable elevation and width, and decorated in the Greek style, the apertures are lintelled. The corn- position, though characteristic, and probably pleasing to an Egyptian eye, could not have been the production of a Greek or Roman artist. It is on account of the absence of the arch in these buildings, that its existence in upper Egypt before the time of the Ptolemiea has been questioned. The ancient buildings of India bear a striking resemblance, in their general form, as well as in their solidity, with those of Egypt. The pyramidal gates of the latter bear a striking affinity to those remarkable erections oyer the gates of some of the more ancient pagodas and choultries particularly those constructed over one lofty pyramidal tower. In the ancient Hindoo choultries, the massy roofs of stone are quite flat, and supported upon vast pillars, and very nearly in the same manner with the ancient Thebaic temples, ; and in some ancient Indian pagodas, the at- tempt to procure an inclined ceiling has been made by making one course project over the other, as in the gallery of the pyramid, and the space at the apex is covered with a single flat stone. The Babylonian builders have also been considered to have been acquainted with the properties, and to have availed themselves of the use of, arches in their edifices. The bridge over the Euphrates, the hanging gardens, and the subterranean passage made by queen Semiramis under the bed of the Euphrates, are cited in support of the conjecture. ARCH. Herodotus describes the great bridge across the Euphrates to have been built with stone piers, (the stones being bound together i with lead and iron,) upon which were laid, (eula pepragonaj squared beams, so that it was a wooden : framing on stone piers. The sub- ■ terranean passage by which this queen passed from the old to the ; new palace, differed nothing in the construction of its ceiling : from Egyptian practice. " Hav- ing turned the river," says Dio- dorus, " she formed from the ' palaces on each side a great trench, and built (tas kameras) ; covered ways of dried brick ; on each part, she placed melted bi- \ tumen, till on each side the thick- ness of the layer w as equal to four 1 cubits. The walls of the breach on the sides were of the breadth of 20 feet, (i.e. thick,) and the height, : exclusive fkamphtheises psalidos) of the inclined forceps part, (or 1 of the sloping sides of the vault- ing,) was 12 feet, and of the clear passage 15 feet." The investiga- tions of recent travellers almost ! put the matter beyond a doubt, as to the mode of covering sub- 1 terranean ways among this people. 1 Rennel mentions a fragment of a subterranean canal, which, instead of being arched over, was covered ■ with flat pieces of sand-stone, 6 or 7 feet long, by 3 feet wide • and Rich (Ruins of Babylon) 1 explored a subterranean passage " walled with large bricks laid in bitumen, and covered over with pieces of sand-stone a yard ■ thick, and several yards long." ■ In another place he dug into a : shaft, or hollow pier, 60 feet square, lined with fine brick, laid in bitumen, and made a way into a passage 10 feet high, flat on the 1 top, and exhibiting both burnt and unburnt bricks, the former with inscriptions on them, and the 21 latter as usual laid with a layer of reeds between every row, except in one or two courses near the bottom, where they were ce- mented with bitumen. And in another part, where an excavat ion was made, " a subterranean pas- sage was found floored and walled with large bricks laid in bitumen, and covered over with pieces of sand-stone a yard thick, and several yards long ; the weight on which being so great as to have given a considerable degree of obliquity to the passage." This is the same as described by Rennel, and the addition by Mr. Rich is curious, the obliquity being pro- bably the original, instead of an accidental form, given to shorten the bearing of the ceiling stone. At the spot he examined it, the passage was only 7 feet high ; but, a little farther on, the Arab guide informed him a horseman could ride upright in it. From an attentive examination of these remains, he concludes that there are the strongest grounds for supposing that the Babylonians were entirely unacquainted with the arch, of which he could not find the slightest trace among the ruins ; and that the place of the column in their buildings appear to have been supplied by thick piers, buttresses, and pilasters. That which has been described as a surprising' and laborious experi- ment, was a strain of complaisance in king Nebuchadnezzar to his Medean queen, who could never be reconciled to the flat and naked appearance of the province ot Babylon, but frequently regretted each rising hill and scattered forest she had formerly delighted in, with all the charms they had presented to her youthf ul imagin- ation. The king, who thought nothing impossible for his power to execute, and that nothing ought 249 A R to be unattempted for the gratifi- cation of his beloved consort,deter- mined to raise woods and terraces, even within the precincts of the city, equal to those by which her native country was diversified. The great gates of Babylon we may also consider to have been square headed, for Diodorus describes them to be all of brass, even their posts and upper lintels also." " The whole pile," says Diodorus when describing the celebrated hanging gardens, M are of a square form ; the roofs (or floors) or tops of the cavities in the mass were covered with beams of stone, whose length, including that part resting on the side walls, was 16 feet, and their breadth 4 feet. The structure resting upon these stones was composed, first of a layer of reeds mixed with much bitumen, then with a double layer of bricks, cemented together by plaster j and thirdly, of a cover of thick sheets of lead that no moisture might penetrate, and over these was laid such a thickness of earth as should be sufficient for the roots of the largest trees. And Strabo's account is essentially the same. The whole surface so elevated, was not of very great extent — not more than the area within the rails of Lincoln's Inn Fields, and less than that covered by the base of one of the pyra- mids ; and about equal to that of the Isola Bella, in the Laggio Maggiore, to the arrangement of which these gardens have been likened. The bridge over the Euphrates had the intervals between the piers covered with planks with squared beams. " The constructor of it," according to the same ancient historian, " hewed out very long stones ; and about the middle part of the city, with those 250 C H. stones which he had dug out, he built a bridge, binding the stone together with iron and lead, and upon it he laid squared beams of timber, on which the Baby- lonians had a means of passing over. But in the nighttime these beams were taken away, and on this account, that persons wander- ing in the night might not steal from others on the opposite side." This offers no example of the arch, although it certainly maybe considered as one of the earliest instances of a permanent draw- bridge, from the breadth of the j Euphrates at Babylon, it is un- likely that all the flooring was taken up : probably, only over an interval of each end. In the ruins of Persepolis, con- jectured to have been part of the magnificent edifice that was de- stroyed by Alexander the Great, there is no indication of the springing of an arch, nor so much | as an arched doorway, or win- dow, or portal, in the whole edi- j fice, nor even an arched niche. They are all, whether of larger or smaller dimensions, covered flat at top by imposts and architraves, or transom stones, or else hewn out of one single stone, but still of the square or oblong form. The peristyles of its rows consist | of massy stone pillars, supporting I architraves, or transom stones, and obviously intended to support only beams of timber. The grand false portals of the excavated tombs next Nazi Tus- tan, are formed at top with flat i lintels, and the pillars in front of the whole, though merely hewn j out of the face of the solid rock, are purposely made to appear as if they supported great projecting j imposts, with a long architrave ; and frieze above, adorned with j sculptured figures. The gene- ral style of these productions j ARCH. nearly resembles that of Egyptian buildings. If this resemblance, added to the account of Diodorus, that they were erected by Egyp- tian artists, be received, it is pro- bable that they were begun soon after the return of the army of Cambyses, probably by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and finished by Artaxerxes, about the period of rebuilding the second temple of Jerusalem. The remains of ancient build- ings at Paestrum, are constructed in a manner precisely similar ; immense stones are laid on pillars, and over these others are placed to form the ceiling of the peri- styles. There are no arches to be found throughout, nor any signs for the springing of an arch. The use of the arch in Greek building, has been inferred from some descriptions (by Pausanias) of buildings of acknowledged antiquity. In particular, the mode in which he says the treasury of Mengas was constructed. It is probable, however, that he did not understand the principle on which they were reared : from his account of that at Orchomenas, he conceived they were built upon the principle of an arch. The remains of it, however, still exist- ing, show it to have been formed by projecting horizontal courses, (not radiating ones,) having had their lower angles cut off, giving the structure an appearance of a gothic dome. The whole of the Mengasian treasury has fallen into the level of the entrance 5 of this the entire height is about 7£ feet above the present level of the grounds j its breadth at top is 8 feet, and widens towards the bottom to about 9 feet ; but the entire height of the opening is about 19 feet. The whole build- ing is of white marble. Its lintel, orarchitrave, is Hat, and composed of a single block 15 feet 4 inches long, 6 feet 3 inches broad, and 3 feet 3 inches thick, weighing nearly 24 tons. It must have been brought from a great dis- tance, as the nearest quarries of white marble are those of Peut- cliton ; it has been about 65 feet in diameter. In the island of Sardinia there are several edifices of the highest antiquity, called Noragis, which are constructed on the same plan, and in the same form with the ancient Greek treasuries, but they are not so large. According to Pausanias, Norax, with a colony of Iberians, built a town in Sar- dinia called Nora. These buildings may have been so named from this leader. The treasury of Atreus, near Mycenae, is still perfect, and may be considered as probably the most ancient Greek building in existence it is only slightly mentioned by Pausanias, and it accords perfectly with his descrip- tion of that of Minyas. A space of "20 feet in width between two walls leads to the entrance^ which is 9| feet wide at the base, and 7 feet 10 inches at the top, and about 19 feet in height, and leads by a passage of 18 feet in depth to a subterraneous circular cham- ber, built in the form of a gothic dome, terminating at the top in a point or key-stone. The cavity of the apartment is similar to that of a bee-hive. There was an ancient temple of Apollo, at Delphos, which was said to have been built by bees, probably in allusion to the form of the hive in which it was con- structed, like that which we are now describing. The stones are of the hard and beautiful breccia, of which the neighbouring rocks, and the con . 251 ARCH. tiguous three-topped Mount Eu- bora consists. It is the hardest and most compact breccia in Greece, and resembles the rare antique marble called breccia tracagnina antica, which is some- times found among the ruins of Rome. The present height of the treasury is 49 feet, (50 feet, Gell.) from the present ground, level to the apex ; as the floor is raised above its original line, the entire height is somewhat more. Its present diameter is 48 feet, (47 feet 6 inches, Gell.) which at the original level of floor, will of course be somewhat more. The blocks are placed in parallelograms, and regular layers, thirty-four ranges being at preseut visible. They are united with the greatest pre- cision, without the aid of cement, and the stones are not all of equal dimensions j but the courses are generally about two feet in thick- ness, though they have the ap- pearance, to a spectator, on the floor of diminishing towards the vertex, which may be the effect of the perspective. This treasury, see engraving marked " History of Arch," had two chambers ; a door leads from the first into the second, which is a square of about 27 feet, and about 19 in height in its present state, but its walls are not visible from being obstructed with earth. The door is only 9| feet high, the base 4 feet 7 inches, and 4 feet 3 inches at top. It has a triangu- lar cavity over its lintel, similar to that over the entrance to the great chamber. These triangular stones were of enormous dimensions. The trian- gular stone on which are sculp- tured the " Lions" over the gate of Mycenae, is 11 feet broad at the base, 9 feet high, and about 2 feet thick. 252 The outside front of the great chamber, which is the only part not covered with earth, faces the Acropolis. Over the lintel of the entrance is a triangular niche, at ! present open and unadorned, but which, in a more ancient period, was occupied by some embellish- ment. Its height is 12 feet, and breadth 7 feet 8 inches. Some masses of rosso antico, covered with spiral ornaments, and a columnar pilaster and its base, are seen lying near the gate, which may have been placed as a sepulchral stelo in the middle of the triangular cavity, and the sides filled with other ornamental or allegorical subjects. The pilaster and base are of a soft green stone, singularly enriched with spiral and zig-zag ornaments of an Egyptian rather than Gre- cian character : indeed the whole edifice has so much the appear- ance of Egyptian origin, that it was very probably constructed by the colony of the Belides, after the expulsion of the Inachidae from the Argolic territory. The thickness of the wall of this extraordinary structure has not been ascertained. The con- cave surface has been formerly ornamented with some interior decorations, as a great many long bronze nails are found fixed in the stones, even up to the summit of the building ; they have large heads, and project about a third of their length beyond the sur- face. The lintel of the door is composed of two masses of stone, the largest of which is 27 feet long, 17 broad, and 3 feet 9 inches thick ; the weight of which must be equal to one hundred and thirty-three tons. No masses, except those of Egypt and Balbec, can be com- pared with this gigantic lintel, which is, however, of the same ARCH. stone with the other parts of the building. The second lintel is of the same height, and probably of the same length, as the other; but as it is on the outer part of the edifice, and its extremities covered with earth, its length has not been ascertained j its breadth is only one foot. The exterior of the lintel is orna- mented with two parallel mould- ings, which are continued down the jambs of the door, in a similar manner to the portal of the tem- ple of Bacchus, at Nasos. All these subterranean cham- bers in Greece, Italy, and Sicily, were probably constructed upon the principle of the pyramids to which they have a considerable approximation, and have formed the primitive cryptae of the chiefs of the people of antiquity. The triangular space over the lintels in these buildings, has been thought to indicate a rude attempt to relieve the centre of the stone from the inserted weight, and to throw it upon the ends. The con- jecture is ingenious, and also an extension of it, as accounting for the employment of two stones spanning the opening over a lintel and meeting in a point, (see jig. c.,) and seen in the pyramids, and which are thought to be the origin of the pointed arch at least, but it is obviously without much foundation. That some sort of orna- ment was placed in their situations many ancient remains still testify ; the gate of the lions, within a few hundred yards of this building, which bears marks of being of the same age, is an example. Here ornaments, conjectured to have alluded to the solar worship of the Persians, are placed in a similar pointed aperture ; the triangular form, therefore, which was given to the entire ornament, fitting into the triangular niche, may have been in allusion to the (mudros) conic emblem of the sun. It was certainly a mysterious figure among the Egyptians. This species of adoration was possibly introduced into Argolis by the early Egyptian colonists, and an aperture in this form may therefore be considered rather as having been made from religious or mythological custom, than from anykno wledge of the use or attempt at forming an arch ; and in situ- ations where it does not appear to have been intended to receive any embellishment, the same space was filled up by stones having an inclined position, and enclosing others fashioned in the triangular form. The galleries in the walls, which anciently enclosed the Acropolis of Tiryns, otfer other remarkable points in the history of the arch. The enclosure has already been described. (See Acropolis.) Here the vaulting only of the gallery need be noticed : — the gallery is 5 feet wide, the sides of it are formed by two courses of stone, and the ceiling by two other courses, on each side each project till they meet ; the roof is pointed when seen from below, the lower end surfaces being cut in an angle of forty-hve degrees ; towards the east, that part of the gallery at present accessible, has six aper- tures opening towards the gal- lery. These openings are also in the pointed form, and formed by the horizontal row of stones on which the two courses forming the roof rest, being rudely cut into the form of a pointed arch, each stone meeting in the centre. This is unquestionably the nearest approach to an arch which has been noticed, and the difference in the construction between the so flits of this Cyclopean arcade, ARCH. consists in the opening of the arcade, (if this term is allowable,) being formed by cutting the stone at each side, as per figure, and the angles of the two projecting courses in the other. The gallery, it has been stated, is not more than 5 feet wide ; and many of the stones which form its walls are of that form, for in- stance, which is described by Tacitus, as being in use in his time for the tents of the inhabit- ants of Arabia. It was not, therefore, from a want of materials to form a fiat roof to the gallery, or lintels to the apertures of the arcade. Some of the stones of the latter, which are cut to form the opening, would be more than efficient foralintelj and the same thing is the case with the stones of the ceiling of the gallery j yet the enclosure is made by projecting stones, instead of by a stone rafter or beam j while the simpler mode was not only more convenient, easier in execution, and, of course, less ex- pensive ; and it must have oc- curred to the experience of those who appear to have built so much and so well, that lintels would have been equally strong, if not more so. This is a remarkable series of circumstances. The arrangement cannot by any pos- sibility be considered as forming an arch, or as an attempt even at its construction, by those whose practice might have given them an indistinct glimpse of some of its more obvious properties. Was it therefore mere imitation that prompted its adoption in the walls of this fortress, and if it were, could its type be seen any where except in Egyptian buildings, in the gallery of the pyramids ? or was it introduced with a reference to some mythological rite, or some religious observance ? 254 The ancient buildings of Paes- tum are probably of a somewhat later age than those which have just been described : they are, without an exception, constructed without any use of the arch, or knowledge of it. In the city walls, as drawn in Mayor's book, there appears an arched gateway ; but an accurate examination has shown that this aperture was an alteration in a much later age. In the ruins of the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, built after the time of Alexander, some remains of arches have been discovered by recent travellers j but we know that this edifice was repaired by both Trajan and Adrian, from inscriptions remaining on the building itself ; and it is not pro- bable that Pliny, who expressed both wonder and admiration at other parts of this wonderful structure, should have omitted all notice of an invention which would have made it still more so. The foundation of this building was laid in a marshy soil, by means of layers of pounded char- coal, and alternate pieces of wool, and on this was placed a most solid basement, a construction which manifestly precludes all idea of arches being used by the builders. " Just," says Pliny, " is the admiration of the magnificence that the temple of Diana at Ephesus excites, which was two hundred and twenty years in building, at the expense of all Asia Minor. In a marshy soil they placed it, that it might not be affected by earthquakes, or subject to any rendings ; and further, that they might not lay the foundations of such a vast pile upon a yielding unstable bottom, they formed a stratum of pounded charcoal, covered with fleeces of wool j the ARCH. length of the whole temple was 425 feet, the breadth 220 feet, the columns one hundred and twenty- seven, made at the expense of individual kings ; the height of them 6*0 feet, and thirty-seven of them sculptured, oiie by Sco- pes. Chersephron, the architect, presided over the work." It wns most miraculous that architraves of such immense bulk could be raised up to their places. This he accomplished by means of bags full of sand piled up, forming a gentle ascent, rising higher than the capitals of the columns, and then by gradually emptying the lower ones in order that the work in hand, the pon- derous mass, might slowly, by little and little, settle on its pro- per support. This was brought to pass with the utmost difficulty, with regard to the very lintel which he was placing upon the portal, for its bulk was most pro- digious, and it did not settle pro- perly on its support or bed, in consequence of which, the archi- tect, full of anxiety, was ready to doom himself to death. Tradition says, that wearying himself out with such thoughts in the night he saw in his sleep the goddess whose temple he was building, appearing to him, and exhorting him to live, for that she had set the stone right ; and so it appeared the next day, seeming to have been brought to its correct position by its own weight. The anxiety of the architect, and the interposition of the goddess would neither have occurred, had the simple means of suspending an architrave, now employed, been < known at Ephesus. The earlier temple may also be 1 considered to have been likewise a lintelled structure. The first positive information that occurs in historians regarding the use of arches is given by Livy, who informs us that Scipio Africanus, and Lucius Mummius, placed arches on piers, which had been formed by M. Fulvius some years before that period, about one hundred years before Augus- tus Caesar was placed in the em- pire. And Cicero, in his oration against Verres, mentions an arch, erected in honour of Verres, at Syracuse, " and so early an exist- ence of such a kind of structure there, before we read of any thing like it any where else, may fairly lead us to suspect that Sicily was the country where this noble kind of ornament first appeared, and that, indeed, Archimedes was the inventor of it." Hirtius describes arches at Alexandria j Livy also particular- izes a street called the archway at Rome ; and Virgil has a plain reference to arches in some of his ideal descriptions and similes ; yet all these were after the era of Archimedes. Aristotle's simile of the works of God to the stones of a vault, (peri kosmouj is said to be spu- rious. The words of Plato, re- commending a long vault as a monument to the chief magis- trate, may be translated as a vault similar to that of the treasury, so called, of Atreus. The arches of the aqueduct of Aqua Martia were constructed by the consul, and the aqueduct first begun by Ancus Marcus, cannot be shown to have been other than a water course, at most an exca- vated tunnel. Dr. Clarke mentions an ancient barrow at Temrook, which en- closes a large arched vault. The stones of the sides are all square, perfect in their form, and put to- gether without cement, and the roof exhibits a fine turned arch having the whiteness of the pur- 255 A R est marble. An interior vaulted chamber is separated from the outer, by means of two pilasters swelling; out towards their bases, and placed one on each side of the entrance, the inner chamber being the larger of the two. He also mentions an arched passage annexed to the fountain of Hip- pocrates, near Cos, which he sup- poses may be of the age of that physician, and likewise a tomb at Telmessus, which he thinks affords a satisfactory proof of the ex- istence of arches before the chris- tian era. Of any of these speci- mens the age is purely con- jectural. The Cloaca Maxima in Rome, from the express testimony of ancient writers, was constructed byTarquinus Priscus, and perhaps completed by Tarquinus Superbus. There is no allusion to this work until after the Gauls were expelled from the city, when Rome was reduced to a deplorable and ruin- ous condition. Materials for its reedification were gratuitously furnished by the people, and the city suddenly again rose into im- portance, each choosing the spot for his habitation that he fancied without any reference to a uniform plan. During the time of Cato the Censor, they are again noticed. Others were formed in the Aven- tine and other places where they had never been before, but these never could have been connerted with the more ancient ones. This repair was done at ths expense of a thousand talents. Hence, to the reign of Augustus, a period to which many of the most dis- tinguished works of Rome may be referred, the Cloaca Maxima is not again mentioned until it was cleansed and repaired by M. Agrippa, who, besides, con- structed others, and connected 256 C H. them by means of lateral pipes, which he laid into the houses of individuals for the purpose of taking off the waste water. And Aedile, as we are told by Strabo, caused seven rivers, by guiding j their streams, to run through the Cloaca into the Tiber, so ! that Rome was said to be 1 pensile and navigable under- j neath. Strabo says, as to the sewers, covering them over arch-wise with stone squared and well fitted, i they left ways therein, some of them sufficient for the passing of carriages laden with hay ; and he adds, after an enumeration of other particulars in these things, the chief care was bestowed by M. Agrippa j and it is curious to observe the feelings of the horror of such an employment. The draining of the marsh, now known by the name of Velabro, appears to have been the inten- ! tion of Tarquin, and keeping the j river within certain limits by a j massive quay of stone, through which the water was conducted. This sewer served not merely for the purpose of carrying away the filth of the city, but to collect and cut off the springs which percolated from the interior of the Palatine hill, and the equally important j office of conveying the rain from the heights, which, in that part of i Italy, frequently for days together i falls in torrents, and which, by flooding the plain below, would have caused a morass. The Cloacae were, at the period of the expulsion of the Gauls, led through public places, but after that period houses were built upon them. Livy resided many years at Rome during the reign of Au- gustus ; he was then employed in j the composition of his history, which he occasionally read to the ARCH. emperor, who was anxiously so- licitous about the decoration of ; the capital. From the well-known jealousy of his character, Livy durst not have assigned a work I like the Cloaca Maxima to Tar- quiti, which he declared yielded not in point of magnificence to any of recent construction, could he have given the merit of it to the son-in-law of his patron. Besides, could Agrippa have un- covered this ancient channel, and closed itwith arched masonryforty- ■ three palms in width? an undertak- ing, which implies the removal of all houses over it, through one of the most populous districts of the city ? Nor would Pliny, when contemplating the wonders of the city, the agger of Tarquin, have pronounced that the Cloaca had continued eight hundred years, " prope inexpugnabiles," had they been formed within a century of his time. The actual commencement, and the course and termination of the Cloaca Maxima, correspond nearly with what has been con- sidered to be the mo«=t ancient limits of the city. It had its origin very near to the site of the jarch of Severus, then under the pia Sacra, to the temple of Julius, md turned under the Bia Nova, by the side of the Palatine hill, ;o the Forum Boarium, which it tossed, and, proceeding in a t might line, reached the Tiber, >pposite the temple of Vesta, a listance of not more than two thou- sand five hundred palms, or about i third of an English mile : — it is iboutlo' feet broad and 30 high. In opposition to this opinion, t has been urged that we have no jositive testimony of the Cloaca Vlaxima having been provided vith a covering of any kind. Be- ore the period of the expulsion >f the Gauls, the Cloaca was led 2K through the public places j but when the city was restored and rebuilt by Camillus, and each citizen chose the spot most agreeable to himself, the houses were crowded together in narrow crooked streets, and some of them were even built upon the Cloaca Maxima Livy says, " this is the cause that the ancient sewers first carried along the public ways, now pass under private houses." But it would be too much to ex- pect, that had the sewers been covered before that event, that a similar appropriation would not have been made. In fact, the expression of Livy when describing the labours of Tarquin, evidently refer to mining rather than masonic operations. His account of the aversion of the Romans to the employment, may have been derived from tra- dition, and is curious as a picture of the difficulties of ancient builders. When Tarquinus Priscus was performing that work by the hands of the people, and it was uncertain whether the excessive danger or the length of the labour would be greatest ; and where here and there Romans were found avoid- ing the dreadful toil by voluntary death, that king found a new remedy unthought of either in preceding or after times, which was to fix the bodies of all who so died upon the cross, as spectacles to the citizens, and at the same time to be torn by wild beasts and birds, by which means the proper revering of the Roman name, that so often has saved lost affairs in battle, came in aid, while more- over at that time he imposed the effect of now, as it were, blushing for them, as shaming only the dead, when in reality he shamed only the living. 257 ARCH. The re-covering of the sewers in these eases, was probably the same as the superstructure, wood. That part of the city through which the ?ewer was led, it is ad- mitted, was among the most po- pulous in Rome, and it is exceed- ingly improbable that Agrippa did remove all the buildings with which it might be covered in order to repair it. Yet it is equally improbable that all the buildings so placed in his time, were the erections of the age of Camillus. Portions of these might have been covered with stone before his time, in the process of reedifying the superstructure. It was the boast of Augustus that he found Rome of wood, but he would leave it of marble ; and if any part of the city over the Cloaca was included in his magnificent antithesis, the sewer on which the house stood, it might have been found necessary, even during that period, to make of corres- ponding stability with the house of marble, to arch instead of flooring it. The Cloaca Maxima, for example, was carried under the Pantheon, built by Agrippa. Could its magnificent builder avoid reconstructing it in that part which he had selected for the site of this immense edifice ? yet this was nearly an eighth part of the whole length of Tarquin's built work. When the city was destroyed by Nero, many other parts must have been subjected to the same sort of reparation. As to the expressions of Ro- man and Greek historians regard- ing the magnificence of Tarquin's work, they can be reconciled to probability, if not to truth, with- out at all implying a knowledge existing in those remote times of the construction of an arch. The style of Etruscan building 258 is that of massive greatness, often surpassing apparent necessity, and so compact that it might some- times be mistaken for a uniform substance. The sides and bottom may have been in this style, and merit all the encomiums which have been heaped on the ex- cellence and durability ; while the mere connecting of the side walls by an arch of equal or greater solidity, could not be considered, in aftertimes, a work of that magnitude and importance as to have preserved the name of the builder who constructed it, even supposing, that the whole length had been so enclosed at one time; for in fact, considered with reference to its size, when compared with the Pantheon, to the Coliseum, and many other buildings, the Cloaca Maxima was an insignificant work. An arch 1400, or 1500 feet long, 16 feet wide, and 30 feet high, was not more than equal to the one of the arcade of the Coliseum. On the antiquity of the Cloaca Maxima, the opinion of authors, drawn from a careful examination of their style, ought not to be dis- regarded; and the present sewer, acknowledged to be of the Roman, bears manifest marks of its having been the work of a period much later than the time even of Camillus. The more ancient Roman build- ings have no indication of arches. The temple of Vesta shows none even in its windows. The temple of Hercules and of Concord, both of high antiquity, do not enter into the construction. The emissaries of the lake Albano, built during the siege of Veii, three hundred and ninety- four years before Christ, have stones projecting as in the earlier Grecian Egyptian examples. The sepulchral tomb, called the Horatii, had no arch ; nor that of Plautius. Of other Roman buildings referred to as exhibiting arches, the temple of Jupiter , Tonans was rebuilt by Augustus, that of Romulus by Adrian, of Minerva by Pompey. The temple of Saturn, which existed in the time of Publicola, has been con- sidered from the style of its orna- ments to have been rebuilt at various times : the tern pie of Juno was restored by S. Severus. | The best authorities do not therefore trace the period of the . introduction of the arch in Ro- man buildings higher than the time of Scipio Africanus ; and that as there must have been some degree of contemporary know- ledge existing among the Italians, from the intercourse of Greece . with its colonies, it is probable that their knowledge of this in- vention was derived from this people, for arches do not appear to have been unknown in Greek ( buildings at the time of Alexander the Great, though very little use was made of them in the building r of temples. " The Greeks only," i says Visconti, " employed them in edifices of a certain kind, to which this form seemed indis- ; pensable. Such were the aque- ducts, of which the arches (pha- lides) near to Argos were cut by Cleomenes ; such was the theatre , of Mitylene, the exterior arcades of which were probably imitated at Rome in the theatre of Pompey, i which served in its turn as a I model for that of Marcellus. It , is not therefore impossible, that arches may have been employed I about the time of Alexander the Great in the construction of a ; theatre, the first, perhaps, that was built of solid materials at Athens, for the purpose of enter- taining the Greeks with the I masterpieces of Sophocles and Euripides, and with the come- A R C dies of Aristophanes and Me- nancier. In coming to the same conclu- sion of the tirst appearance of the use of arch bulging oeing among the Greeks, otner antiquaries lix the era somewhat later than Visconti. That it was then and there in- vented we have, however, no means of ascertaining or deciding, or even that its properties were understood ; for in this, as in other objects of human contrivance, from the most elevated to the most humble degree of practice, it is always found to precede theory ; and the arch, originally the result of chance, might have been used without knowledge, and imitated without reflection. Till after the reign of Alexander, it has been remarked, there are no authors who use the words, afterwards employed, to signify the form of arch, in a sense, w hich can lead us to consider them as signifying an arch constructed on scientific principles ; this has been em- ployed when investigating its rise in other countries, but the infer- ences ought to be received with some caution. There are number- less operations and inventionswhen the science of definition is so well understood, and materials so abundant, almost of equal im- portance even in our own times, which have no equivalent expres- sion in English, and which, as far as their descriptions in books might be adduced for their exist ence, have certainly no local habitation or a name. Wecannot, therefore, expect to find in those ages a correct knowledge of its scientific principles, while in our own times the subject rests in all its original obscurity and uncer- tainty. Alien ed. adj. Vaulted. Arciied-schene, or scheme. A 259 ARC ARC flat arch, less than a semi-circular one. Arch-monastery. A name sometimes given to the greater monasteries and abbeys. Arch-pillar. The main or principal pillar. A pier, which, among others, more immediately supports an arch or vault. Arch-way. An aperture in a building covered with a vault. Usually an arched passage or gate, wide enough to admit carriages to pass under. Arch,tcographia. The art of describing or explaining antiqui- ties. Archeion. The most retired and secret place in Grecian tem- ples, used as a treasury, wherein were deposited the richest trea- sures pertaining to the deity to whom the temple w^as dedicated j and also other valuable articles which the people of the city wished to preserve secure. The Romans, in imitation of the Greeks, lodged their public trea- sure in the temple of Saturn. Archelaus. A famous sculp- tor, the son of Apollonius, born at Priaene, a town of Ionia. The celebrated marble monument of the Apotheosis of Homer is as- cribed to him. It was dug up a. d. 1658, in a field belonging to the princes of Colonna, where, it is said, the emperor Claudius, in whose reign it was executed, had a house of pleasure. Archeria. In mediceval archi- tecture. Long narrow openings in city and castle walls, through which the archers shot stones and arrows upon the assailants. Archibancus. In mediceval architecture. A cabinet. A ward- robe. A cupboard. Archimedes. One of the most celebrated mathematicians of an- tiquity. He was born at Syra- cuse, according to Torelli two 260 hundred and eighty-seven years, but according to Rivaltus, who has taken considerable pains in ascertaining the true eera of his birth, two hundred and ninety-one years, before the birth of Christ. Though living in habits of the most intimate friendship with Hiero, the Syracusan king, he prosecuted his studies with un- remitting assiduity j and amongst various objects of mathematical speculation, to which his atten- tion and inventive faculties were directed, one of the principal was the mensuration of the conic sec- tions. " Unless," says the writer of this article, in Br. Reess Cy- clopaedia, "we except the lunes of Hippocrates of Chios, he was the first who squared a curvilineal space 5 he also reduced the quad- rature of the circle to the deter- mination of the ratio between the diameter and the circumference j and though unable to obtain the precise value of it, he assigned a useful approximation to it by the numerical calculation of the peri- meters of the inscribed and cir- cumscribed polygons. He deter- mined the relation between the circle and ellipse ; and likewise attempted the hyperbola, though from the nature of the case he was not likely to succeed. He also found the proportion of the area of the spiral to that of the circumscribed circle, and that of their sectors ; he determined the relations of spheres, spheroids, and conoids, to cylinders and cones j and of parabolas to rectilineal planes, whose quadratures were already known. In all his mathe- matical investigations, he imi- tated the example of his prede- cessor Euclid ; and, like him, he was cautious in admitting any principles that were not strictly geometrical and unexception- able." Such was the pleasure he ARC ARC derived from having discovered the proportion between the sphere and its circumscribed cylinder, that, as a memorial of this dis- covery, he requested his friends to place upon his tomb a cylinder containing a sphere, with an in- scription expressing the propor- tion of the one to the other. The mechanical skill of this great man was, during the last eight months of his life, applied to the protection of his fellow- citizens. Syracuse being be- sieged by Marcellus, Archimedes devoted his time to the construc- tion of such engines as would arrest his operations ; and, ac- cording to Plutarch, whether the vessels of the enemy were nearer to the walls of the city, or more distant from them, Archimedes was sure to annoy them. When they approached the ramparts, he suspended long beams, (which probably acted like levers,) and struck the galleys with a force that sunk them ; and by means of grappling hooks at the extre- mities of other levers, he raised \ up vessels in the air, and then dashed them to pieces against the walls, or projecting rocks. Inde- pendently of these, he used instru- ments which threw large stones, that demolished the ships or ma- chines employed in the siege ; and burning glasses, which set ; the ships on fire at a great dis- 1 tance from the city. Syracuse, however, was eventually taken ; and though Marcellus had given strict orders that the house and • person of Archimedes should be inviolate, he was surprised and ■ put to death. Marcellus paid > respect to his memory, by direct- : ing and superintending his fune- \ ral, and restrained the victorious . army from offering any violence to his relations. ' Arcijixale. See Arsenal. Architect. One who designs and superintends the erection of buildings. It is within the province of the architect to examine and see that the materials used by the different artificers in the construction of an edifice be of good quality ; that the workmen proceed in their several departments, accord- ing to the plan he has given to them ; and, when the work is completed, to measure and value the whole. The qualifications necessary to constitute a good architect are many, and for the most part dif- ficult of acquirement. He should conjoin practice and theory. Prac- tice is the constant and accus- tomed attention to the manual operations, and to the several kinds of materials of which a work may be constructed : and theory is the ability to demon- strate and explain the rules and reasons of the proportions of buildings. Architects who have practised without theory, and who have been only experienced in the manual part, have never been able to acquire any reputa- tion by their works ; and those who have trusted to theory and speculation only, have followed the shadow and not the substance. An architect should be ingenious and ready to receive instruction ; for neither ingenuity without education, or education without ingenuity, can render him a com- plete artist. He should have a knowledge of letters, that he may be able to ensure the remembrance of his observations ; be expert in drawing, that he may be en- abled to form the representation or the work he would execute ; have a thorough knowledge of arith- metic and mensuration, by means of which the expense of an edifice is calculated, the measures ad- 261 ARCH justed, and the difficult questions of the symmetry solved ; be learned in geometry, which greatly facilitates the delineation of the plans of buildings, and the management of squares, levels, and lines ; be well acquainted with projection and perspective, that he may anticipate the ap- pearance of the building he is about to erect, in one or more points of view 5 have some know- ledge of trigonometry, which is useful in ascertaining the heights and distances of objects j be inti- mate with those departments of the mathematics which relate to gravitation, the composition and resolution of forces, and the pro- perties of the lever ; and know so much of chemistry as will ensure him a proficiency in the knowledge of the strength and properties of materials, and the best methods of connecting them together. Besides these, he should study the aspects of the heavens, that he may admit the light to the best advantage ; and so regulate the apertures of a building that the inhabitants shall be incom- moded as little as possible by the extremes of either heat or cold. He should be well read in history, and conversant with the laws, at the least so far as relates to the rights and divisions of property, and the restrictions under which he is permitted to build. A knowledge of history- is indispensable, that he may not make an improper choice in the selection of ornaments. For ex- ample, statues of women in gar- ments, called Caryatides, are sometimes introduced in a build- ing, supporting the mutules and cornice, instead of columns. If the reason for this be demanded, it may thus be given. Carya, a city of Peloponnesus, having 262 I T E C T. joined with the Persians against the Grecian States, and the Greeks having put an end to the war by a glorious victory, with one consent declared war against the Caryatides. They took the j city, destroyed it, slew the men, and led the matrons into capti- 1 vity, not permitting them to wear the habits and ornaments of their ! sex j and they were not once only led in triumph, but were loaded with scorn, and kept in continual servitude, thus suffer- ing for the crime of their city. The architects, therefore, of those days, introduced their effigies sustaining weights, in the public buildings, that the remembrance of the crime of the Caryatides might be transmitted to posterity. The Lacedemonians, likewise, under the command of Pausanias, the son of Cleombrotus, having, at the battle of Platea, vanquished, with a small number, a numerous army of Persians, in order to solemnize the triumph, erected, with the spoils and plunder, the Persian portico, as a trophy to transmit to posterity the valour and honour of the citizens in- troducing therein the statues of the captives, adorned with habits in the barbarian manner, support- ing the roof. Hence it is, that Persian statues are sometimes in- troduced sustainingtheepistylium and its ornaments. There are also many other historical facts, with which it behoves an architect to be well acquainted. " Proficiency," says sir William Chambers, " in the French and Italian languages is also requisite to him ; not only that he may be enabled to travel with advantage, and converse without difficulty, in countries where the chief part of his knowledge is to be col- lected, but almost to understand the many and almost only valu- ARC ARC able books treating on his profes- sion : the greater part of which I have never been translated. And i as among sea-faring men there is a technical language, of which no admiral could be ignorant without appearing ridiculous ; so in archi- tecture, and the professions con- nected therewith, there are pecu- liar modes of expression, and terms of art, of which no archi- tect must by any means be igno- , rant ; as that knowledge impresses upon the minds of the workmen a respectable idea of his abilities, , consequently a deference for his opinions ; and, furthermore, en- ables him to explain to them in- telligibly, what he intends or j wishes to be performed." Having thus enumerated the principal qualifications necessary to constitute a good architect, it i is very easy to conceive, that any one who wishes to excel in this , profession must apply himself to study with the greatest diligence and attention ; that he must learn to become a quick draughtsman, and to acquire taste in the selec- tion of appropriate ornaments. The most celebrated architects , and writers on architecture, are Vitruvius, Bruneliske, Alberti, Bernini, Serlio, Scamozzi, Palla- dio, Vignola, Barbaro, Catano, Viola, lnigo Jones, De Lolme, Perrault, S. le Clare, Sir Chris- ; topher Wren, the Earl of Bur- . lington, Sir William Chambers, and Peter Nicholson. Arciiitective. adj. That per- i forms the work of architecture. . Architectonick. That which has the power or skill of an arehi- | tect. Arciiitectonical. adj. Skilled in architecture. Arciiitectonieal. That which forms or builds any thing. Architectob. A builder. Architectress. She who builds. Architectural, adj. Concern- ing, or relating to, architecture as a decorative art. Architecture. The art of forming dwellings, or buildings of any kind. It may be divided into two parts; the essential, and the orna- mental. The first regards the real qualities of buildings, their con- venience, strength, &c. ; the other has relation only to their outward appearance, or effect. In the for- mer respect, architecture ranks with those arts which relate to the necessaries and conveniences of life ; in the latter, with the arts of entertainment, as poetry, paint- ing, and music. The history of architecture, like that of most other arts, is involved in obscurity. Nevertheless we may, by comparing the accredited histories of enlightened nations with the actually rude state in which some of the existing tribes of men are but too well known to be, draw a conclusion, that it originated from necessity, and has advanced towards perfection through a series of progressively improving stages. In the earliest ages of the world, while as yet the earth was but thinly populated, it seems more than probable, that mankind dwelt in natural caverns in the earth, and in the hollows of the trunks of trees. As population began to increase, man, gifted with facul- ties susceptible of improvement, and possessed of a fondness for the companionship of his fellows, would mingle with them, and add some portion of their knowledge to his own experience. The plea- sures he thus derived from the interchange of sentiment, con- joined to the strongest of all the impulses, that of self-preservation from the attacks of the larger kinds of animals, and from the 263 ARCHITECTURE. villainous of his own species, might induce him to feel disgusted with those dark and miserable habitations, and influence a wish to adopt some mode by which he might remediate the evil. Un- skilled as he then was, without tools to assist him in his labours, his first essay in architecture must have been extremely rude ; and his hut, from our knowledge of the earliest attempts towards con- struction, as displayed in the com- fortless habitations of many of the Indian tribes, doubtless must have been somewhat similar to the wigwams of the North Ame- rican Indians, and kraals of the Hottentots and Caffres, of the present day. Huts of this description are very easily constructed. A few boughs of trees, collected to- gether and broken of a determi- nate length, are placed in a slant- ing position, resting against, and supporting each other at the top. The bottom, or lower part, of the boughs are then spread out, to admit the interior of the hut to be of sufficient capacity for the purposes of the intended occu- pant ; and an aperture is left for entrance. Between the interstices of the boughs smaller branches, or twigs, are interwoven ; and the whole is covered with clay, slime, or mud, to render it impervious to the weather, and to secure, as near as possible, an even temper- ature. As ages continued to roll away, and mankind to increase and mul- tiply, dissensions arose between different families, and sometimes between the members of the same family. The bond of amity being dis- solved, men separated into dis- tinct tribes. Hence arose rapine, and violence, and murder. The people of the one tribe, anxious to preserve themselves from the depredations of the other, would seriously turn their attention to the erection of more stable edi- fices ; and having observed, per- haps, the sharpness of a broken wedge-shaped piece of flint, would learn to make tools, cut down trees, and drive the lower parts of the trees, thus cut down, into the earth, to make themselves strong, convenient, square-shaped buildings, in lieu of those of a conic figure, which would not permit them to stand upright. Thus, from the primitive hut, or wigwam, civil architecture has, from various influential causes, advanced progressively to its pre- sent state of improvement. Vitruvius, the most ancient writer on architecture, after a somewhat fanciful description of the first cause which brought mankind into a social state, in- forms us nearly as above, in the following words : " Mankind began to make themselves coverings with the boughs of trees ; some dug caves in the mountains ; and others, in imitation of the nests of swallows, ; with sprigs and loam made shel- ters which they might lie under ; and by observing each other's work, and turning their thoughts to discover something new, they by degrees improved, and made better kinds of habitations; but men being of an imitative and do- cile nature, glorying in their daily inventions, and showing one ano- \ ther the houses they had made, they, by these endeavours and ex- ertions of their faculties, became in time more skilful. " At first, for the walls they erected forked stakes, and, dis- posing twigs between them, co- vered them with loam ; others piled up dry clods of clay, bind- ing them together with wood ; ARCHITECTURE. and to avoid rain and heat they made a covering with reeds and 'boughs ; but finding this roof could not resist the winter rains, they made it sloping and pointing 'at the top, plastering it over with clay, and by that means discharged 'the rain water. ' "That the origin of things was as above written, may be con- cluded from observing, that to this day some foreign nations con- struct their dwellings of the same kind of materials ; as in Gaul, Spain, Lusitania, and Aquitain, they use oak, shingles, or straw. The Colchians, in the kingdom of 'Pontus, where they abound in fo- rests, fix trees in the earth, close together, in ranks to the right and left, leaving as much space 'between them as the length of ! the trees will permit; upon the ends others are laid transversely,which circumclude the place of the habi- tation in the middle ; then at the top the four angles are braced together with alternate beams ; and thus the walls, by fixing other trees perpendicularly on those be- low, may be raised to the height of towers ; the interstices, which "on account of the coarseness of the materials remain, ase stopped with chips and loam. The roof is also raised by beams laid across ifrom the extreme angles, gradu- ally converging and rising from 'the four sides to the middle point at the top, and then covered with ; boughs and loam. In this man- "ner, the barbarians made the tes- tudinal roofs of their towers. The ' Phrygians, who inhabit a cham- : paign country, being destitute of timber, by reason of the want of forests, select little natural hills, excavate them in the middle, dig ' an entrance, and widen the space within as much as the nature of ' the place will permit : above, they fix stakes in a pyramidal form, 2L bind them together, and cover them with reeds or straw, heaping thereon great piles of earth. This kind of covering renders them very warm in winter, and cool in summer. Some also cover the roofs of their huts with the weeds of lakes ; and thus, in all nations and countries, the dwellings are formed upon similar principles. At Marseilles we may observe the roofs without tiles, and covered with earth and straw. At Athens the Areopagus is an example of ancient roofs of loam : at the Ca- pitol also, the house of Romulus, in the sacred citadel, may remind us of the ancient manner of cover- ing our roofs with straw. "By these examples, therefore, we may be assured that the first inventions of building happened in the manner we have related. But at length mankind by daily prac- tice improved, and by repeatedly exercising their faculties and ta- lents, arrived at the full know- ledge of the art ; those who were the most experienced professing themselves artificers. When, therefore, these things were thus far advanced, as nature had not only given to mankind sense, in common with other animals, but had also furnished their minds with judgment and foresight, and had subjected other animals to their power, they from the art of building gradually proceeded to other arts and sciences, and from a savage and rustic way of life became humane and civilized. Then, when their minds were thus enlightened, and they became more judicious by experience and the advancement of the various arts and sciences, they no longer built huts, but founded houses with walls constructed of bricks, stones, or other materials cover- ing the roofs with tiles." Having thus furnished the 2G5 ARCHITECTURE. reader with the probable causes which led mankind to pursue the art of architecture, it is not our intention, in this place, to endea- vour to trace it through its suc- cessive changes, in the lapse of ages, or to delineate those events which have led to its rise and de- clension in various parts of the globe. That information will for the most part be given to him while describing the architecture of the various nations. Never- theless, we shall here present him with a table, chronologically ar- ranged, of the foundation of most of the principal cities and king- doms of the postdiluvian world ; as also of some of their most fa- mous structures ; and then pro- ceed to investigate the principles of architecture, to which we wish particularly to draw the reader's attention. b. c. 2247. The Tower of Babel built by Noah's posterity, in the plains of Shinah. 2221. Nimrod founds the Chal- daean monarchy. 2188. Menes or Mizraim, the son of Ham, lays the foundation of the Egyptian kingdom, which lasted 1663 years, to the conquest of Cambyses, 525 years before Christ. 2089. The kingdom of Sicyon esta- blished, which lasted 1000 years, terminating inlOSSB.c. 2059. The kingdom of Assyria begins : terminates 900 P». C. 1856. Commencement of the king- dom of Argos. 1718. Sparta built. 1575. Pyramids of Egypt built. 1556. Cecrops founds Athens. 1546. Scamander, from Crete, founds Troy, which was burned by the Greeks, on the 11th of June, 1184 B. C. 1344. The kingdom of Mycenae begins : ends in 1104. 266 1252. The city of Tyre built. 1233. Carthage founded by a co- lony of Tyrians. 1182. The kingdom of the Latins begins under ^Eneas. 1176. Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer. 1152. Ascanius builds the city of Alba Longa. 1141. The temple of Ephesus destroyed by the Amazons. 1124. Thebes built by the Boeo- tians. 1104. Kingdom of Lacedaemon begins. 1044. The Ionian colonies mi- grate from Greece. lOl'-i. Solomon begins the tem- ple of Jerusalem : 974, plun- dered by Sesac, king of Egypt : 586, destroyed by fire: 515, rebuilt : 170, plun- dered by Antiochus : 19, re- built by Herod. A. D. 70, Jerusalem destroyed : 130, rebuilt, and a temple dedi- cated to Jupiter : 1023, the temple plundered by the Ca- liph of Egypt : 1031, began to be rebuilt by Romanus : 1187, Jerusalem finally de- stroyed by Saladin. 992. Solomon's palace finished. 986. Samas and Utica built. 974. Jerusalem taken, and the temple plundered by Sesac, king of Egypt. 869. The city of Carthage sup- posed to be built by Dido : destroyed by P. Scipio, 146 : rebuilt by order of the Ro- man senate, 123. 814. The kingdom of Macedon begins : continues 646 years. 801. Capua, in Campania, built, 797. Commencement of the king- dom of Lydia: ended, 550 B.C. 753. Rome built : plundered by Alaric, A. D. 410. 732. Syracuse supposed to be built about this time by a ARCHITECTURE. B. C. colony of Corinthians under Archias. 713. Gelas, in Sicily, founded. 70S. Ecbatana built by Dejoces. 707. The Parthians, on being expelled from Sparta, build Tarentum. 703. Corcyra built by the Co- rinthians. 665. The city of Alba destroyed. 658. Byzantium built about this time by a colony of Argives. 549. The temple of Apollo, at Delphos, destroyed by Pisis- tratidae. 630. Cyrene built by Battus,who begins that kingdom. 538. Babylon taken by Cyrus, which terminates the king- dom. 539. Marseilles built by the Phocaeans. 504. Sardis burned by the Athe- nians. 493. The Athenians built the port of Piraeus. 351. The Sidonians, being be- sieged by the Persian army, burn their city. The monu- ment of Mausolus erected. 315. Cassander rebuilds Thebes, and founds Cassandria. 304. Antioch, Edessa, Laodicea, &c. founded by Seleucus. Antioch destroyed by the king of Persia, A. D. 540 : rebuilt, 542. The city of Antioch destroyed by an earthquake, 580. 291. Seleucus builds and peoples about forty new cities in Asia. 284. The Achaean republic founded. 283. The college and library of Alexandria founded. 267- A canal made by Ptolemy from the Nile to the Red Sea. 83. Sylla destroys the Roman cap'itol : 69 B. C. rebuilt : B. C. A. D. 80 destroyed by fire: it was again rebuilt and de- stroyed by lightning, A. D. 1S8. 55. Pompey builds a stone theatre for public amuse- ments : destroyed by fire, A. D. 21. 27. The Pantheon, at Rome, built : destroyed by fire, A. D. 80. 19. The aqueducts, at Rome, constructed by Agrippa. 10. The city of Caesarea built by Herod : destroyed by an earthquake, A. D. 12S. A. D. 18. Tiberius built by Herod. 50. London built about this time by the Romans. 56. Rotterdam built about this time 70. Jerusalem destroyed by Titus. 79. Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an eruption of Mount Vesuvius. 80. Titus builds the hot baths and amphitheatre at Rome. 93. The empire of the Huns, in Tartary, destroyed by the Chinese. 114. Trajan erects his column at Home. 121. A wall built by Adrian be- tween Carlisle and Newcas- tle. 130. Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a temple to Jupi- ter. » 134. Urbicus's wall built be- tween Edinburgh and the Firth of Clyde. 209. Severus builds his wall across Britain. 260. The temple of Diana burnt. 274. The temple of the sun built at Rome. 412. The kingdom of the Van- dals begun in Spain j and in Africa, 439. 267 ARCHITECTURE. A. D. 420. The kingdom of the French begins on the Lower Rhine. 449. The Saxons arrive in Bri- tain. Ella founds the second Saxon kingdom in Sussex, 491. 45*2. The city of Venice founded about this time. 476. The kingdom of Italy be- gins. 510. Paris becomes the capital of the French dominions. 567- The kingdom of the Visi- goths founded in Spain, 575. The first monastery found- ed in Bavaria. 604. St. Paul's church founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent. 605. Bells introduced into churches. 611. Westminster Abbey found- ed by Sibert, king of the East Saxons. Henry the Seventh's chapel built in 1504. 644. Cambridge University, or rather an academic institu- tion, founded by Sigebert, king of East Anglia : the present University appears to have been founded in 915. 660. Organs introduced into churches. 718. The kingdom of the Astu- rias founded byPelagio. 744. Monastery of Fulda, in Germany, founded. 762. Bagdad built by Almansor. 829. St. Marks, at Venice, built. 886. Alfred founds the Univer- sity of Oxford. 895. The monastery of Clune founded. 1035. The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon begin. 1036. Commencement of the kingdom of Norway. 1119. Bohemia formed into a kingdom. 1156. The city of Moscow found- ed. 26S A. D. 1179. The University of Padua founded : enlarged, 1221. 1200. The University of Sala- manca, founded by Alphon- so IX. 1201. City of Riga founded. 1228. The University of Thou- louse founded. 1238. The University of Vienna founded. 1250. The Sorbonne founded in Paris. 1272. The Academy of Florence founded. 1273. Commencement of the Aus- trian empire. 1281. Marienburgh built by the Teutonic knights. 1282. The Academy of Delia Crusca founded. 1290. University of Lisbon found- ed : removed to Coimbra, 1308. 1298. Foundation of the Ottoman empire. 1302- The University of Avignon founded. 1312. The University of Orleans founded. 1339- The Academy of Pisa esta- blished. 1347- The University of Cracow founded. 1348. The University of Prague founded. 1365. The Geneva and Vienna Universities founded. 1411. The University of St. An- drews founded. 1427- The Academy of Louvain founded. 1448. The Vatican founded at Rome. 1450. The University of Glas- gow founded. 1470. Plaster casts invented by Verochio. 1479. The University of Upsal founded. 1494. The University of Aber- deen, king's college, founded. ARCHITECTURE. A. D. 1504. King Henry the Seventh built a chapel at Westmin- ster Abbey. 1543. The Academy of Verona founded. 1575. The University of Leyden founded. 1581. The University of Edin- burgh founded. 1591. The University of Dublin founded. 1593. Marischal College, Aber- deen, founded. 1635. The French Academy esta- blished in Paris. ^643. The Royal Academy of Painting founded by Louis XIV. .662. The Royal Society esta- blished. 1 663. The Royal Academy of In- scriptions and Belles Lettres established. 664. The Academy for Sculp- ture established in France. 666. The Fire of London, which destroyed thirteen thousand two hundred houses. 674. The Academy of Soissons i established. 701. Academy of Sciences found- ed at Berlin. 750. Academy of Sciences found- ed at Stockholm. 768. The Royal Academy of Arts established in London. The reader being thus enabled » furnish himself with every in- irmation relative to the time lien the different states were landed, and, consequently, by •ference to the articles, Egyp- an Archi'icture, Roman Archi- cture, Grecian Architecture, 5fC. b. 8fc. of the rise and declension f the art in the different ages and itions of the world, we shall >W proceed to detail such parti- ilars as we conceive will be ghly beneficial to the student, and even to those more advanced in the art. This information will relate to the principles of archi- tecture. For, from the time of Vitruvius till very recently, we have been told of grandeur, order, proportions, harmony, &c. ; but it has never been distinctly stated upon what principles these are founded, nor by what means they are to be attained. This very necessary and im- portant art has, therefore, hitherto been too frequently directed by capricious fancy ; and the expense and durability of its works have alone prevented it from experi- encing changes equally rapid with those of furniture and dress. This information, according to the opinion of professor Stewart, (with which we accord,) is to be found only in Mr. Alison's Essay on the Principles of Taste. We shall therefore endeavour, in the first place, to give Mr. Alison's opinion of the principles of taste, and of the proportion or fitness of the general outline of buildings j and then proceed, with the same au- thor, to treat of the orders of ar- chitecture, and to show that their proportions instead of being in- trinsically beautiful of themselves, are regulated by those general principles which we are now about to elucidate, and that they derive their merit solely from the expressions of fitness for their several purposes. In treating of the sublimity and beauty of the material world, Mr. Alison observes, " It cannot be doubted that many objects of the material world are produc- tive of the emotions of sublimity and beauty. Some of the fine arts are altogether employed about material objects ; and by far the greater part of the instan- ces of beauty and sublimity which occur in any man's experience. ARCHITECTURE. are found in matter, or some of its qualities ; on the other hand, it must be allowed, that matter in itself is unfitted to produce any kind of emotion." And again, " But although the qualities of matter are in themselves incapa- ble of producing emotion or the exercise of any affection ; yet, it is obvious, that they produce this effect from their associations with other qualities." And, " in works of art, particular forms are signs of dexterity, of convenience, of utility;" and, " in such cases, the constant connections we discover between the sign and thing signi- fied, between the material quality and the quality productive of emotion, renders the one expres- sive to us of the other, and very often disposes us to attribute to the sign that effect which is pro- duced by the thing signified." As architecture is much affected by all that relates to form, we would strongly urge young archi- tects to pay attention to what this enlightened philosopher has ad- vanced respecting it. He states, " of all the material qualities, that which is most generally and naturally productive of the emo- tions of sublimity and beauty, is form ; other qualities may be se- parated from most objects with- out destroying their nature ; but the form of every material object, in a great measure constitutes its nature and essence, and cannot be destroyed without destroying the individual subject to which it be- longs. From whatever cause, therefore, the beauty of any ma- terial object proceeds, it is natu- ral to ascribe it to the form, or to that quality which most intimately belongs to the object, and consti- tutes its essence to our senses ; the common opinion, therefore, undoubtedly is, that forms, in themselves, are beautiful j that 270 there is an original and essential i beauty in some particular forms, and that this quality is as imme- diately discernable as the forms themselves." Having premised thus much, he proceeds to state, that the sublimity or beauty of forms arises altogether from the asso- ciations we connect with them, or the qualities of which they are expressive to us : and he soon i afterwards teaches us, that the sublimity of inanimate forms ari- ses chiefly from two sources ; 1st, from the nature of the objects distinguished by that form ; and 2ndly, from the quantity or magnitude of the form itself. Thus forms which distinguish bodies that are connected in our minds with ideas of danger, power, strength, splendour or magnificence, awe or solemnity, are in general sublime. Magni- tude is sublime as associated with power or strength j with height, it is expressive to us of elevation and magnanimity ; with depth, of danger or terror with length, of vastness, and when apparently unbounded, of infinity ; and with breadth, of stability, of duration, of superiority to destruction. That magnitude is only sublime in consequence of these associa- tions is shown by many illustra- tions ; and from the whole he de- ; duces the following conclusions : 1st, that there is no determinate magnitude, which is solely or pe- ^ culiarly sublime, as would neces- sarily be the case, were magnitude itself the cause of this emotion ; 2ndly, that the same visible mag- nitude which is sublime in one subject, is often very far from be- ing sublime in another ; and 3dly, that magnitude, according to its different appearances, has s different characters of sublimity corresponding to the different ex- fJ ARCHITECTURE. sessions which such appearances lave ; whereas, if it were in itself ublime, independently of all ex- >ression, it would in all cases lave the same degree, and the ame character of sublimity. With respect to the natural >eauty of forms, it is stated, that ■natter is circumscribed by either ngular lines, or by curved or binding lines : and that the greatest part of those bodies in 'ature which possess hardness, urability, and strength, are dis- inguished by angular forms 5 vhile those, on the contrary, vhich possess weakness, fragility, r delicacy, are distinguished by binding or curvilineal forms. ■Anes differ in regard to their na- are, according to the different ! egrees of their consistence or trength. Strong and vigorous \nes, when perpendicular, are ex- ressive to us of strength and tability ; and when horizontal, 'r in an oblique direction, of some egree of harshness or roughness. Fine and faint lines are expres- ive to us of fineness, smoothness, nd delicacy. In any given num- !er of straight lines, that is al- ays the most beautiful which is nest, or which, while it preserves Is continuity, has the appearance I the smallest quantity of matter jnployed in the formation of ' Strong and even lines express length and smoothness. They u e therefore a degree of beauty. hie and even lines express deli- icy and smoothness. They are ;cordingly more beautiful than ■ie former. Strong and angular lines ex- "ess strength and harshness, hey are therefore very seldom puatiful. Fine and angular lines cpress delicacy together with (Ughness. They are therefore fily beautiful when the expres- sion of delicacy prevails over the other. Strong and winding lines ex- press strength and gentleness, or delicacy. Their effect is there- fore mutually destroyed, and they become indifferent, if not un pleas- ing. Fine and winding lines ex- press delicacy and ease ; and are accordingly peculiarly beautiful. The least beautiful lines are strong and angular lines. The most beautiful, fine and winding lines. In architecture the great con- stituent parts require direct and angular lines, in order to convey the expression of stability and strength ; and no ornament can with propriety be introduced, ex- cepting in the minute and delicate parts of the work ; and if those ornaments,even in such situations, exceed in size or relief that pro- portion in point of delicacy we expect them to hold with respect to the whole of the building, the imitation of the most beautiful forms does not preserve them from censure of clumsiness or deformity. From a variety of considera- tions, Mr. Alison then deduces the following conclusions : 1. that wherever natural forms are imitated, those will be the most beautiful which are most expres- sive of delicacy and ease ; 2. that wherever new or arbitrary forms are invented, that form will be the most beautiful which is com- posed of the most beautiful lines ; or, in other words, by lines which have the most pleasing expres- sion ; 3. that wherever the sub- ject of the form is of a hard or durable nature, that form will be the most beautiful in which the smallest quantity of matter is em- ployed, and the greatest delicacy of execution exerted ; 4. that whenever beautiful form is in- 271 ARCHITECTURE. tended, in complex forms, some character or expressive form should be selected, as the ground or subject of the composition ; and 5. that the variety, whether in the form, the number, or the proportion of the parts, should be adapted to the peculiar nature of this expression, or of that emotion which this expression is fitted to excite. Forms of this kind, are either simple or dependent. In simple or independent forms their cha- racter is at the pleasure of the ar- tist 5 and that will always be the most beautiful, in which the cha- racter is best preserved. In de- pendent forms, on the contrary, or those which are designed for particular scenes or situations, their character must be determin- ed by that of the scene or situa- tion and that also will be the most beautiful form, in the com- position of which the alliance to the general character is most pre- cise and delicate. Having dicussed what relates to simple and composed forms, or what constitutes their natural beauty, Mr. Alison next proceeds to examine into the qualities w r hich constitute their relative beauty. From the discovery of fitness or utility, we infer the existence of design. In forms distinguish- ed by such qualities, the discovery of an end suggests intention or design j and the qualities of form, which signify this fitness or use- fulness, are signs of the design or thought which produce them. The natural quality most power- fully expressive of design is uni- formity or regularity. In every form where this quality is observ- ed, we infer design ; and from the absence of it, we consider the production the work of chance. Vegetable forms which ap- 272 proach to the resemblance of ani- mals, and minerals that have a resemblance to vegetables or ani- mals, are reckoned curious, but are never considered as possessing that beauty which excites the emotion of delight. Uniformity and regularity, therefore, are only beautiful when associated with intention or design. Uniformity being expressive of design, and variety of embel- j lished design, the beauty of forms will be most perfect when these two are duly proportioned ; that is, when the unity of design is equal, the beauty of forms will be in proportion to their embel- lishment ; and when the embel- lishment is equal, their beauty will be in proportion to the unity of design. To these we may add, as a fundamental principle, that the expression of design should be subject to the expression of cha- racter ; and that in every form, the proportion of uniformity and variety which the artist should '■ study, ought to be that which is accommodated to the nature of this character, and not to the ex- pression of his own dexteritv and skill. Mr. Alison considers next, that fitness and proportion constitute relative beauty ; and then pro- ceeds to show, that the beauty of the proportion of this art is re- solvable into the principles which have been established ; and that they please us, not from any ori- ginal law of our nature,* but as expressive of fitness. The pro- portions of architecture relate either to its external or internal members. The beauty of the ex- ternal appearance arises from its apparent fitness for the habitation of man ; and consists in stability and sufficiency for the support of the roof. Walls, in every coun-j A 11 C H ITECTURE. try, are, at the same period of time, nearly of an equal thickness, it is therefore easy for the specta tor to judge whether they are, or tre not, sufficient for these two purposes. When the walls are of ;uch a height as seems sufficient joth for their own stability, and or the support of the weight which is imposed upon them ; ind when the distance between hem is such, as appears sufficient or supporting the weight of the *oof, we consider the house well )r properly proportioned. When iny of these circumstances, on he contrary, are different — when he walls are either so high as to eem insecure, the roof so large cs to seem too heavy for its sup- >ort, or the side walls so distant \s to beget an opinion of its in- ecurity, we say, that the build- ng, in such particulars, is ill-pro- •ortioned. Proportion, therefore, a those cases, is merely fitness, nd this has never been very pre- isely determined j we are guided ntirely by experience, and our entinients respecting proportions re influenced by the nature of the uildings, and the materials of Inch they are composed. For xample, a house built of brick r wood does not admit of the 'xme height of wall as if built ith stone. A house which is nited with others, admits of a pater height than if it stood ii .one, because we conceive it to supported by the adjoining p buses. And a building which has ( p roof, or nothing that it appears ) support, as a tower or spire, t limits of a much greater height l ban any other species of build- ! fg. These principles are all that j |;em to regulate the external j-o port ions of simple buildings, nd all of them are obviously ■pendent upon fitness. Having discussed what relates 2M to the proportion or fitness of the general outline of buildings, Mr. Alison proceeds to treat of the orders of architecture, and to show that their proportions, in- stead of being intrinsically beau- tiful of themselves, are regulated by the general principles which have been established in his essay, and derive their merit solely from the expressions of fitness for their several purposes. We shall here quote the precise words of the author : — " It is not in such (simple) buildings, accordingly, that any accurate external proportions have ever been settled. This is pecu- liar to what are called the orders of architecture, in which the whole genius of art has been dis- played, and in which their pro- portions are settled with a cer- tainty so absolute, as to forbid almost the attempt at innovation. " There are generally said to be five orders of architecture, viz. the Tuscan, the Doric, the Ionic, the Corinthian, and the Compo- site. There are, however, pro- perly only four, and some writers have farther reduced them to three. What constitutes an order, is its proportions, not its orna- ments. The Composite having the same proportions as the Co- rinthian, though very different with respect to its ornaments, is properly, therefore, considered a corrupted Corinthian. " Every order consists of three great parts, or divisions ; the base, the column, and the entablature - y and the governing proportions re- late to this division. The whole of them compose the wall, or what answers to the wall of a common building, and supports the roof. u There is one great difference, however, to be observed between a common wall, and that assem- 273 ARCHITECTURE. blage of parts which constitutes an order. A common wall is in- tended to support a roof, and de- rives its proportions, in a great measure, from its destination. To an order, the consideration of a roof is unnecessary j it is gene- rally so contrived as not to ap- pear ; the weight which is sup- ported, or appears to be support- ed, in an order, is the entablature. The fitness of a wall consists in appearing adequate for support- ing the roof. The fitness of an order, or of the proportions of an order, it should seem also from analogy, reasonable to conclude, consists in their appearing ade- quate to the support of the entab- lature, or the weight which is imposed on them. " That this is really the case, and that it is their being expres- sive to us of their fitness, that the proportions of these different orders appear beautiful, may per- haps seem probable from the fol- lowing observations : — " 1. The appearance of the proportions themselves seems very naturally to lead us to the conclusion. In all the orders, the fitness of the parts to the sup- port of their peculiar weight, or appearance of weight of entabla- ture, is apparent to every person, and constitutes an undoubted part of the pleasure we receive from them. In the Tuscan, where the entablature is heavier than in the rest, the column and base are proportionably stronger. In the Corinthian, where the entablature is lightest, the column and base are proportionably slighter. In the Doric and Ionic, whichare between these extremes, the forms of the column and base are in the same manner proportioned to the re- ciprocal weights of their entabla- ture j being neither so strong as the one, nor so light as the other. " If the beauty of such pro- portions is altogether independ- ent of fitness, and derived from the immediate constitution of our nature, it is difficult to account for this coincidence ; and as the beauty of fitness, in these several cases, is universally allowed, it is altogether unphilosophical to substitute other causes of the same effect, until the insuffi- ciency of this is clearly pointed out. " 2. The language of mankind upon this subject, seems to con- firm the same opinion. When- ever we either speak or think of the proportions of these different orders, the circumstances of weight and support enter both into our consideration and our j expression. The term propor- tion, in its general acceptation, implies them ; and if this term is not used, the same idea, and the same pleasure, may be com- municated by terms expressive of the support for weight. Heavi- ness, and slightness, or insuffi- ciency, are the terms most gene- rally used to express a deviation on either side from the proper relation j both of them obviously including the consideration of support, and expressing the want of proportion. When it is said, that a base, or column, or entab- lature, is disproportioned, it is the same thing as saying, tha this part is unfitted to the rest and inadequate to the proper em of the building. When it is said on the other hand, that all th« several parts are properly adjust ed to their end, and that the bas appears just sufficient for th support of the column, and hot for that of the entablature, ever person immediately conclude.' that the parts are perfectly pre portioned ; and I apprehend, it very possible, to give a man ARCHITECTURE. , very perfect conception of the beauty of these proportions, and to make him feel it in the strong- est manner, without ever men- tioning to him the name of pro- portion, merely by explaining them to him under the consider- ation of fitness, and by showing him from example, that these ; forms are the most proper which i can be devised for the end to which they are destined. If our perception of the beauty of pro- portion, in such cases, were alto- gether independent of any such considerations, I think that these i circumstances in language could ,not possibly take place, and that it would be as possible to explain the nature and beauty of propor- tions by terms expressive of sound : or colour, as by terms expressive of fitness of propriety. " 3. The natural sentiments of mankind on this subject, seem to •have a different progress from what they could naturally have, if there were any absolute beauty in such proportions discoverable by the eye. It cannot surely be 'imagined that an infant will per- ceive, or does perceive, the beau- ty of such proportions in the same manner as he perceives the ;>bject of any other external sense. It is not found either that the ge- nerality of mankind, even when •nine to mature age, express any f fitness alone seems to account >oth for the origin of such pro- nations in architecture, and for 1 he pleasure which attends the , observation of them. " But granting that the doc- rine of original beauty of propor- tion be abandoned as inconsistent kith experience, and that of the influence of the expression of fit- iess be adopted, yet it may still >e doubted if this is sufficient to iccount for the delight felt from i he orders of architecture, or the uniform adherence to the estab- lished proportions. " It is acknowledged that the mere consideration of fitness is insufficient to account for the pleasure derived from the estab- lished orders. But it is observed, that this pleasure arises from their proportions ; and that, in fact, when these proportions only are considered, the pleasure that is generally felt is not greater than that which we experience, when we perceive in any great work the proper relation of means to an end. " The proportions of these or- ders it is to be remembered, are distinct subjects of beauty, from the ornaments with which they are embellished, from the magni- ficence with which they are ex- ecuted, from the purposes of ele- gance they are intended to serve, or the scenes of grandeur they are destined to adorn. It is in such scenes however, and with such additions, that we are ac- customed to observe them j and while we feel the effect of these accidental associations we are sel- dom willing to examine what are the causes of the complex emo- tion we feel, and readily attri- bute to the nature of architec- ture itself the whole pleasure which we enjoy. But besides these, there are other associations we have with these forms, that still more powerfully serve to command our admiration, for they are the Grecian orders j they de- rive their origin from those times, and were the ornament of those countries which are most hallowed in our imaginations j and it is difficult for us to see them, even in our modern copies without feeling them to operate upon our minds as relics of those polished nations where they first arose, and of that greater people by whom 277 ARCHITECTURE. they were borrowed. While this species of architecture is attended with so many and so pleasing as- sociations, it is difficult for even a man of reflection to distinguish between the different sources of this emotion ; or in the moments when this delight is felt, to ascer- tain what is the exact proportion of his pleasure which is to be attributed to these proportions alone ; and two different causes combine to lead us to attribute to the style of architecture itself, the beauty which arises from many other associations." Independently of what Mr. Ali- son has here advanced, it may not be altogether useless to detail to the reader the opinion he has given of the different orders, in the ear- lier part of his work. " The or- ders of architecture," he states, "'have different characters from several causes, and chiefly from the different quantity of matter in their entablatures. The Tuscan is distinguished by its severity j the Doric by its simplicity ; the Ionic by its elegance ; the Corin- thian and Composite by their lightness and gaiety. To these characters, their several orna- ments are suited with consummate taste. Change these ornaments, give to the Tuscan the Corinthian capital, or to the Corinthian the Tuscan, and every person would feel not only a disappointment from this unexpected composi- tion, but a sentiment also of im- propriety from the appropria- tion of a grave or sober ornament to a subject of splendour, and of a rich or gaudy ornament to a sub- ject of severity." The preceding observations re- late wholly to the external parts of architecture ; but as the inter- nal proportions are guided by the same principles, we shall merely state, that the observations offered 278 by Mr. Alison on the beauty of the internal proportions of archi- tecture, afford sufficient evidence for concluding, in general, that the beauty of these proportions is not original and independent, but that it arises, in all cases, from the expression of some spe- i cies of fitness. The fitness which such proportions may express, is ! of different kinds : " 1. One beauty of these pro- portions, arises from their expres- sion of fitness for the support of the weight imposed. " <2. A second source of their ! beauty,consists in their expression of fitness for the preservation of the character of the apartment. " 3. A third source of their beauty, consists in their expres- sion of fitness, in the general form, for its peculiar purpose or end. "The two first constitute the permanent beauty, and the third the accidental beauty of an apart- 1 ment. " The most perfect beauty that the proportions of an apartment can exhibit, will be when all these expressions unite ; or when the same relations of dimensions which are productive of the expres- 1 sions of sufficiency, agree also in the preservation of character, and! in the indication of use." From the whole of the forego- ing discussions and illustrations,; Mr. Alison has drawn the follow- ing conclusions : — " That the principal sources ol the beauty of forms are : 1st, the expression which we connect witfc peculiar forms, either from the form itself, or the nature of the subject formed ; 2dly, the qua- lities of design, and fitness, anc utility, which they indicate ; ant 3dly, the accidental association;; which we happen to connect vvitl; them. ARC ARC " All forms are either orna- mental or useful. " The beauty of merely orna- . mental forms appears to arise from three sources : " 1. The expression of the form 1 itself. " L Z. The expression of design. " 3. Accidental expression. " The real and positive beauty, therefore, of every ornamental form, will be in proportion to the nature and the permanence of the expression by which it is distin- guished. The strongest and most permanent emotion, however, we can receive from such expressions, lis that which arises from the na- ture of the form itself. The emo- tion we receive from the expres- sion of design, is neither so strong nor so permanent ; and that which accidental associations produce, perishes often with the year which ,gave it birth. The beauty of ac- cidental expression is as variable ,as the caprice or fancy of man- kind. The beauty of expression r of design varies with every period of the art. The beauty which arises from the form itself is alone permanent, as founded on the uni- form constitution of the human mind. Considering, therefore, the beauty of forms, as constituted by the degree and permanence of their expression, the following conclu- sions seem immediately to sug- gest themselves. , " 1. That the greatest beauty which ornamental forms can re- ceive, will be that which arises r rom the expression of the form tself. " 2. That the next, will be that which arises from the expression f jf design or skill. And " 3. That the least will be that which arises from accidental or jiemporary expression. " In all those arts, therefore, that respect the beauty of form, it ought to be the unceasing study of the artist to disengage his mind from the accidental associations of his age, as well as the common prejudices of his art; to labour to distinguish his productions by that pure and permanent expression, which may be felt in every age, and to disdain to borrow a transi- tory fame, by yielding to the tem- porary caprices of his time, or by exhibiting only the display of his own dexterity and skill." The reader who has attentively perused this slight sketch of Mr. Alison's valuable investigations, will, we doubt not, agree with us, that he has distinctly established the true principles of architec- ture ; and we trust that the liberal- minded artist will perceive, that the direct path to eminence in his profession is precisely marked out, and that he has no longer cause to dread being entangled in uncertainty and confusion. Architrave. This word is de- rived from the Greek " apx^" chief, and the Latin, " trabs," a beam : and signifies that part of the entablature which rests imme- diately upon the columns. See PI. M 3 , Mouldings. In vestiges of ancient Grecian . temples at Athens and Corinth, as also at Paestum in Sicily, the architrave of the doric order is of very great height, being nearly equal to the diameter of the co- lumn, and has but one facia ; but in the doric order of the theatre of Marcellus, at Rome, where it has also but one facia, the archi- trave is much lower, being only equal to half of the diameter of the column. The moderns, in re- storing ancient architecture, have generally followed the last of these proportions; but have given to the architrave two facias j tak- A R C ARC ing the idea from some ancient examples of the doric order still existing in Italy. In the ionic order, the Gre- cians varied the number of their facias from one to three, some- times making them quite plain, and at other times enriching the upper mouldings. The moderns, however, confine this order to two facias. In the corinthian and compo- site, the ancients gave to the first three, and to the last two facias ; but the moderns give three facias to each of these orders. In gothic architecture there is no architrave, and the arches spring immediately from the tops of the columns. This forms the most striking characteristic dif- ference between the architecture of the ancients and that of the middle ages. Architrave of a door. A col- lection of members surrounding the aperture of a section similarly to the architraves of the ionic and corinthian orders, &c. The upper part or lintel is called the traverse; and the sides, the jambs. For further information, see Door. Architrave cornice. An enta- blature consisting of an architrave and cornice without the interven- tion of the frieze. Architrave cor- nices are introduced when it is in- convenient to give the entablature its usual height. An example of this kind among the ancients may be seen in the Caryatic portico, at Athens. Vide PI. Pandroseion. Archivault. Vide Archivolt. Archives. A repository or closet for the preservation of writings or records. A secret closet. Archivolt. This word is de- rived from the French " archi- volte" and is the same as the La- 2S0 tin "areas volutus." The archi- volt is a collection of members forming the inner contour of an arch, or a band or frame adorned with mouldings, running over the faces of the arch-stones and bear- ing upon the imposts. The archivolt differs in the dif- ferent orders. In the tuscan it has only a single face ; it has two faces crowned in the doric and ionic ; and in the corinthian and composite it has the same mould- ings with the architrave. Archivoltum. In mediaval architecture. An arched recepta- cle for filth. A cesspool or com- mon sewer. Archivum. Arceps. Archarium. In mediceval architecture. Archives. Archoid. If the ends of a prism be a conic section, contained by a portion of the curve next to a vertex, and double ordinate to the axis, and not exceeding the half of the entire figure ; when the curve is an ellipse, the prism is called an archoid. This geo- metrical solid is denominated a circular, an elliptic, hyperbolic, or parabolic archoid, as its ends are portions of these curves. The circular, or elliptic, archoid, is also denominated a cylindric, or cylindroidic archoid. When ap- plied to building, the space it occupies is called an arch vault, or a vault, the line of its surface forming the intrados of the vault. The part of an inverted arch opposite to the ceiling of the vault, or arch, is sometimes called the floor of the arch. Archwise, adj. In the form or shape of an arch. Arcs doubleaux. The soffits of arches. Arcuature. The bending or curvature of an arch. The in- trados. Arcus. The avenue, or area, AREA. which was usually formed in front the triumph of religion over the of the ancient Basilicae. grave, were among the subjects Arcus ECCLESiiE. In mediceval displayed in mosaic in these situ- architecture. The arch by which ations. the nave of the church was di- Arcus presbyterii. In medice- vided from the choir or chancel, vol architecture. The arch over This arch, among ecclesiastical the tribune marking the boundaries authors of the middle ages, is of the recess which composed it. often called arcus triumphalis. As Its decorations were similar to the triumphal arches in heathen those of the arcus ecclesia. . Rome were adorned with military Arcus toralis. The lattice trophies, and the deeds of the separating the choir from the nave emperors to whose honour they in the Basilicae. were raised ; so the arcus ecclesiae Area. In architecture. A small I and also the arcus presbyterii court or place sunk below the were decorated with ornaments general surface of the ground, • allusive to the christian faith. The before and level with the floor holy sign of the cross, the suffer- of the basement story of a build- ings of the martyrs, emblems of ing. Area. In geometry. The superficial content of any figure. For example : PI M 1 , " Mensuration of Superficies." Prob. 1. To find the area of a parallelogram : whether it be a square, a rectangle, a rhombus, or a rhomboid. Multiply the length by the breadth, or perpendicular height, and the product will be the area. 1 Ex. 1. To find the area of a square, whose side is 6 inches, or 6 feet, &c. 6 ; _6 Answer 36 <2. To find the area of a rectangle, whose length is 9, and breadth 4 inches, or feet, &c. 9 _4 Answer 36 3. To find the area of a rhombus, whose length is 6 chains, and perpendicular height 5. 6 J> Answer 30 Prob. 2. To find the area of a triangle. Rule 1. Multiply the base by the perpendicular height, and half the , product will be the area. , Rule 2, When the three sides only are given : add the three sides together, and take half the sum ; from the half sum substract each side separately; multiply the half sum and the three remainders continually together ; and the square root of the last product wili be the area of the triangle. 2N 281 AREA. Ex. Required the area of the triangle whose base is 6 feet, and perpendicular height 5 feet. 6 ±± 2)30(15 answer. Prob. 3. To find one side of a right-angled triangle, having the other two sides given. The square of the hypothenuse is equal to both the squares of the two legs. Therefore, 1. To find the hypothenuse; add the squares of two legs together, and extract the square root of the sum. 2. To find one leg ; subtract the square of the other leg from the square of the hypothenuse, and extract the root of the difference. Ex. 1. Required the hypothenuse of aright-angled triangle, whose base AB is 40, and perpendicular BC 30. 4 3 4 3 ~16 1) 9 25(5 the square root of the sum of the 25 two squares, being the hypo- thenuse AC. 2. What is the perpendicular of a right-angled triangle, whose base AB is 56, and hypothenuse, AC 65 ? 56 65 56 65 "336 325 280 390 3136 4225 3136 1089(33 the perpendicular which is the root of 9 the remainder of the square of the . . hypothenuse AC, when the square of 63 189 AB has been subtracted. 3 J 189 Prob. 4. To find the area of a trapezoid. Multiply the sum of the two parallel sides by the perpendicular distance between them, and half the product will be the area. Ex. In a trapezoid, the parallel sides are AB 7, and CD 12, and the j perpendicular distance AP or CN is 9 : required the area. 7 12 19 9 85 \ area. Prob. 5. To find the area of a trapezium. 282 ARE A. Case for any trapezium. — Divide it into two triangles by a diagonal j then find the areas of these triangles, and add them together. Note. If two perpendiculars be let fall on the diagonal, from the other two opposite angles, the sum of these perpendiculars being multiplied by the diagonal, half the product will be the area of the trapezium Ex. To find the area of the trapezium ABCD, the diagonal AC being 42, the perpendicular BF 18, and the perpendicular DE 16. ' 18 16 34 42 68 136 2 )1428 714 answer. Prob 6. To find the area of an irregular polygon. Draw diagonals dividing the figure into trapeziums and triangles. Then find the areas of all these separately, and their sum will be the content of the whole irregular figure. Ex. To find the content of the irregular figure ABCDEF, in which are given the following diagonals and perpendiculars : namely, c. a = 10 d. f = 6 ci = 4 k.e = 2 m.f= 3 n.b — 4 For trapez. d. c. f. e. For trapez. c. f. a. b. ci. 4 n.b. 4 ke. _2 m.f. _3 ~6 7 df._6 c.a. _10 2)36 2 )70 18 content. 35 content. 18 content d. c. f. e. 35 content c. f. a. b. 53 content of the irregular polygon. Prob. 7. To find the area of a regular polygon. Rule Multiply the perimeter of the figure, or sum of its sides, by the perpendicular falling from its centre upon one of its sides, and half the product will be the area. Prob. 8. In a circular arc, having any two of the following lines viz. the chord AB, the versed sine DP, the chord of half the arc AD and the diameter, or the radius AC or CD given, to find the others. If any two of these lines be given, two sides of one of the right- angled triangles, APC or APD, will be known, and from them the remaining side, and other lines in the arc, may be found by Prob. 3. Suppose AB and PD be given, then, by Prob. 3, the half of AB, or 283 AREA. AP is a mean proportional between DP and PC + CD ; for PC + CD -f- PD is the diameter of the circle, half of which is the radius, or CA, and by Prob. 3, AC 2 — AP 2 = CP 2 , and AP 2 -f PD 2 = AD 2 . Suppose CD and AB be given, then half of AB = AP, anu C D = AC ; the refore V CD 2 — AP 2 = CP, and CD — CP = PD VPD 2 + AP 2 = AD. Prob. 9. To find the diameter and circumference of a circle, the one from the other. » Rule 1. As 7 is to 22, so is the diameter to the circumference. As 22 is to 7, so is the circumference to the diameter. Rule 2. As 113 is to 355, so is the diameter to the circumference. As 355 is to 113, so is the circumference to the diameter. Rule 3. As 1 is r to 3*1416, so is the diameter to the circumference. As 3"1416 is to 1, so is the circumference to the diameter. Ex. I. To find the circumference of a circle, whose diameter A B is 10. By Rule 1. 7 : 22 : : 10 : 3142857 10 7)220 Sli- er 31*42357 answer. By Rule 2. By Rule 3. 113 : 355 : : 10 : 31 T Vr 1 : 3*1416 : : 10 : 31416 10 the circumference nearly, 113)3550(31*41593 answer. • the true circumference 160 being 470 180 31-4159265358979, &c 670 1050 330 So that Rule 2, is nearest the truth. Ex. 2. To find the diameter when the circumference is 100. By Rule 1. 22 : 7 : : 50 : 7 + 2 ° = — = 15 -H- = 15.9090 answer. 11 = 11 By Rule 2. By Rule 3. 355 : 113 : : 50 : 15 ffr 3*1416 : 1 : : 50 : 15 9156 50 50 355 )5650 3*1416 )50 000 (15-9156 71)H30(15-9155 ) 18584 420 ~ 2876 650 49 110 JL8 390 « 284 AREA. Prob. 10. To find the length of any arc of a circle. Rule 1. As ISO is to the number of degrees in the arc, So is 3*1416 times the radius, to its length. Or as 3 is to the number of degrees in the arc, So is '05236 times the radius, to its length. Ex. 1. To find the length of an arc ADB (Prob. S,) of 30 degrees, the radius being 9 feet. 3-1416 9 As 180: 30 Or 6 : 1 : : 2S2744 : 47124 Or 3 : 30 : : '05236 X 9 : 4 '71 24 90 4*7124 answer. Rule 2. From 8 times the chord of half the arc subtract the chord of the whole arc, and i- of the remainder will be the length of the arc nearly. Ex. 2. The chord AB (Prob. 8,) of the whole arc being 4*65874, and the chord AD of the half arc 2'34947 j required the length of the arc. 2*34947 8 1S795/6 4*65874 3 )14-13702 4*71234 answer. Prob. 11. To find the area of a circle, the diameter or circumfer- ence being given. Rule 1. Multiply half the circumference by half the diameter, or take \ of the product of the whole circumference and diameter. Rule 2. Multiply the square of the diameter by *7S54. Rule 3. Multiply the square of the circumference by -0795S. Rule 4. As 14 is to 11, so is the square of the diameter to the area. Rule 5. As 88 is to 7, so is the square of the circumference to the area. Ex. To find the area of a circle whose diameter is 10, and circum- ference 314-159265 By Rule 1. 314159265 10 4)314- 159265 area 78 539816 By Hvl* 2. ""854 luO area 78 54 By Rule 3. sq. circ. 986*96044 invert. 85970 6908/23 888264 49348 7896 78-54231 285 area. AREA, By Rule 4. 14 : 11 : : 100 11 area By Rule 5. 31.4159265 circutn 56.2951413 invert. 14)1100(78.57 answer. 80 70 100 98 2 98 20 112 94247779 3141593 1256637 31416 15708 2827 63 19 2 88 : 7 * : 986*96044 7 8)690872308 11)863-59038 78-50821 answer. Prob. 12. To find the area of the sector of a circle. Rule 1. Multiply the radius, or half the diameter, by half the arc of the sector, for the area. Or take \ of the product of the diameter and arc of the sector. Note. The arc may be found by problem 10. Rule 2. As 360 is to the degrees in the arc of the sector, so is the whole area of the circle to the area of the sector. Ex. What is the area of the sector CAB, the radius being xO, and the chord AB 16. 100=AO 64=AE» 36 (6=CE 10= CD 4=DE "~16~=DE» 64=AE» 80~(8-9442719=AD. 8 715541752 16 3)55-5541752 gjl^S 1 80581 arc ADB 9-2590297 ~ half arc 10 — radius 92*590297 answer. Prob. 13. To find the area of a segment of a circle. Rule. Find the area of the sector having the same arc with the segment, by the last problem. 286 AREA. Find the area of the triangle, formed by the chord of tne segment ind the two radii of the sector. Then the sum of these two will be the answer when the segment s greater than a semicircle : but the difference will be the answer >vhen it is less than a semicircle. Ex. Required the area of the segment ABCD, its chord AB being 12, md the radius EA or CE 10. 100 AE 2 36 AD 3 ~~64 DE 2 its root 8 DE from JO CE J2CD 4 CD 2 36^ AD 2 40 chord AC, 6 AD S DE its root 6-324555 chord AC — 8 48 area of A EAB. 50-596440 12- 3)3S-59644 2)12-8 6548 arc ACB 6 43274 4. arc 10 radius 64-3274 area of sect. EACB 4S-0000 area of triangle EAB Answer 16'3274 area of segm. ACBA Prob. 14. To find the area of a circular zone ADCBA. Rule 1. Find the areas of the two segments AEB, DEC, and their iifference will be the zone ADCB. Rule 2. To the area of the trapezoid DQP add the area of the small segment ADR; and double the sum of the area of the zone ^DCB. Prob. 15. To find the area of a circular ring, or space included between two concentric circles. The difference between the two circles will be the ring. Or, multi- ply the sum of the diameters by their difference, and multiply the product by '7854 for the answer. Ex. The diameters of the two concentric circles being AB 10 and 3G 6, required the area of the ring contained between their circum- erences AEBA, and BFGD. 10 -7854 _6 64 Sum 16 31416 Dif. _4 47*124 64 50 2656 answer. 287 ARE ARR Prob. 16. To measure long irregular figures. Take the breadth in several places at equal distances. Add all the breadths together, and divide the sum by the number of them, for the mean breadth j which multiply by the length for the area. Ex. The breadths of an irregular figure, at five equi-distant places, being AD 81, m P 74, nq 9 2, or 10 1, BC 8 6 ; and the length AB 39 ; required the area. 81 74 92 10- 1 8-6 5 )434 868" 39 78' 12 ^60- 4 33S 5 L 2 answer Arena. The plain space in the middle of the amphitheatre, or other places of public resort amongst the Romans, where the gladiators had their combats. The word is Latin, and signifies sand. The place most probably derived its name from the ground being strewed with sand or sawdust, to prevent the combatants from sliding; as also to hide the blood spilt in the contests from the view of the spectators. Arena. In architecture. The middle or body of a temple ; com- prehending the whole space be- tween the antae and extreme wall of the building. Arenaria. A word used by the ancient writers in a sense ana- logous to the English "sand-pit" A pit out of which sand is dug. Arenarii. Gladiators, and slaves of the lowest rank, who combated with beasts in the arena. Arknatum, is used by Vitruvius for a kind of plaster; mortar com- posed of sand and lime. Areopagus. A place near Athens, where the Athenians held their court of justice. Areostyle. Vide Arceostyle. Arris. This word is very much used by all who are connected; with the art of building; and though, in general language, it! implies the same thing as edge, the workmen use those two words in a very different sense. Arris is used! by them to denote the intersec- tion, or lines on which two sur-J faces of a body forming an exte- rior angle meet ; and edge is only applied to those two surfaces of a rectangular parallelopipedal body, on which the length and thickness; may be measured, as in boards,; planks, shutters, &c. Arris fillet. A slight piece of timber of a triangular section, used in raising slates against the shafts of chimneys, or against a wall that cuts across the roof in an oblique direction. It is also used in forming gutters at the upper, ends and sides of skylights that have their plane coinciding with that of the roof. When used in! raising the slates at the eaves oi; a building the arris fillet is called eaves-board, eaves-lath, or eaves- catch. ASH ASS Arsenal. A public storehouse for arms and warlike ammunition, Artifickrs. Persons who work with their hands, and manufac- ture any commodity in iron, brass, wood, &c. Artisan. Vide Artificer. Akx. A consecrated place on the Palatine mount where the augurs publicly performed their office: also a public place in Rome, set apart for the operations of the augurs. Arx. In ancient military art. A town, fort, or castle, for the de- fence of a place. Some writers have supposed that the arx and capitol of Rome were the same thing ; but they were two distinct I'difices. The arx, according to tlyckius, was a place on the high- est part of the Capitoline mount, •tronger and much better fortified 1 'han the rest, having towers and >innated walls, and in which was he temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. \ Asarotum. A kind of painted 1 'avement used by the Romans be- >re the invention of mosaic work, to "he most celebrated was that tinted by Sesus, at Pergamus, hich exhibited the appearance of rumbs, as thrugh the floor had ot been swept after meals, lal 1 Asbam,ea. A fountain dedicated • Jupiter, near Tyana, in Cappo- ito pcia. Ashlar. Common, or free, ones, as they are brought from e quarry, of different lengths p 'id thicknesses. Ashlar. The facing of squared tool )nes on the front of a building, hen the stones which compose ■ ashlar facing are quite smooth, jcj; Id exhibit none of the marks of 1 i tools by which the stones were ft, it is called plane ashlar. When ^ ought in a regular manner, so tit the surface has the appear- I e of parallel flutes, placed per J idicularly in the building, it is 20 called tooled ashlar. When the surfaces of the stones are cut with a broad tool, without care or re- gularity, it is said to be random' tooled. When wrought with a narrow tool, chiselled or boasted : when cut with very narrow tools it is said to be pointed : and when the stones project from the joints, with either smooth or broken surfaces, the ashlar is said t> be rusticated. Neither pointed, chi- selled nor random-tooled ashlar can be admitted in good work. In the country, herring-bone ashlar, and herring-random-tooled ashlar are some times used. Ashlaring. The act of setting an ashlar facing. Ashlering. In carpentry. The fixing of short upright quar- terings in garrets, about two feet and a half or three feet high, be- tween the rafters and the floor, in order to make more convenient rooms, by cutting off the acute angles at the bottom. Asiminthos. A kind of large vessel in which the Greeks used to bathe. Asphaltum. A kind of bitu- minous stone, found near the an- cient Babylon, and lately in the province of Neufchatel. When this stone is mixed with some other materials, it forms an ex- cellent cement, which is incor- ruptible by air, and impenetrable by water. It is supposed to be the mortar so much celebrated among the ancients, and used in cementing the walls of Babylon, and the temple of Jerusalem. Assemblage. The joining, or uniting, of several things together ; or the things themselves so joined or united. Carpenters and joiners have various kinds and forms of assemblage, as by mortise and tenon, dove-tailing, &c. Assemblage of the Orders. The placing of the columns upon one 289 AST AST another in the several *anges, so that their axes be in the same straight line. Assers. A term used in an- cient carpentry, signifying the laths which supported the tiles of the roof. The denticulated cor- nice is supposed to have origi- nated from these ; and, as they were not disposed horizontally, but according to the inclination of the roof, Vitruvius forbids the use of dentils in pediments. As- sers, among the ancients, also im- plied the ribs or brackets of an arched ceiling. Association of Orders. Vide Assemblage. Astragal. This word is de- rived from the Greek a Athenian Architecture. Athens, the capital of Attica, was founded by Cecrops, about 1556 years before Christ, and by him lamed Cecrppia. Before the ex- uiration of two centuries, the lame was changed into Athens, ;n honour of Minerva, called by ■he Greeks AOrjvw, who was con- sidered the protectress of the city. Athens, once enriched with the inest structures, of which even iow there are some vestiges, has 3ng engaged the attention of hose who apply themselves to the study of architecture. In- deed, those ruins are highly interesting, and generally have been considered the models and standard of regular and orna- mental building. Many repre- sentations of them, drawn and en- graved by skilful artists, have been published ; but of those publica- tions none have risen higher in the public estimation than that by the late Messrs. James Stuart and Nicholas Revett. Availing our- selves, therefore, of the informa- tion furnished by those gentlemen, we purpose, in this place, to give a very full account of the anti- quities of Athens ; in fact, a faith- ful abstract of most of the valu- able information comprised in the work generally known by the name of Stuart's "Athens/' 1. The building of which we shall first treat, is a doric, portico of four fluted columns ; generally supposed to be a temple dedicated to Rome and Augustus. The co- lumns, entablature, and pediment, as also one of the antae, are all sufficiently entire to give an exact idea of its original form and pro- portion, which is represented in Plate A 1 . The inscription on the acrote- rium which is placed over the middle of the pediment, and which probably supported a statue of Lu- cius Caesar, may be thus translated : Thepeople (of Athens honour) Lu- cius Ccesar, the son of the emperor Augustus Ccesar, the son of the god, (with this statue. J And that on the architrave, thus : — The people (of Athens) out of the donations bestowed (on them) by Caius Julius Ccesar the god ; and by the emperor Augustus Carts. First, a quadrangular rasement. Secondly, a circular colonnade, of which the interco- umniations were entirely closed : ind, thirdly, ntholus or cupola with he ornament that^is on it. There is no kind of entrance or iperture in the quadrangular base- nent, which is entirely closed on •very side. On breaking through 'me of the sides, Stuart and Revett ound that it is not quite solid ; Ittt the vacant space is so small, nd so irregular, that a man can lardly stand upright in it. The basement supports the cir- :ular colonnade, and was con- 2P structed in the following manner. Six equal panels of white marble, placed contiguous to each other, on a circular plan, formed a con- tinued cylindrical wall, which was divided from top to bottom into six equal parts by the junction of the panels. On the whole length of each juncture was cut a semi- circular groove, into which a corinthian column was fitted with great exactness, so as effectually to conceal the junctures of the panels. These columns projected somewhat more than half their diameters from the surface of the cylindrical wall, and the wall en- tirely closed up the intercolumnia- tion. Over this were placed the entablature and the cupola, in neither of which was any aperture, so that there was no admission of light to the interior j indeed, it is only 5 feet llj inches in the clear, and was therefore never intended for a habitation, or even for a repository of any,kind. An entrance has been since forced into it, by breaking in one of the panels, probably in the ex- pectation of finding treasure. For many of the inhabitants of those countries are reduced to such a state of barbarism, as to imagine, that every work, which is great or beautiful beyond their conception, must be the work of magic, and the repository of hidden treasures. Three of the marble panels being now destroyed, their places are supplied by a door and two brick walls, and the monument is con- verted into a closet. It should be observed, that on each of the three panels still re- maining, two tripods with handles to them are wrought in basso- relievo : they are, perhaps, of that species which Flomer and Hesiod describe by the name jf rp&roBet lOTwevTa, or eared-tri- pods. 297 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. The architrave and frieze of the circular colonnade are formed of one block of marble 5 and on the architrave is an inscription to the following effect : — Lysicrates, of Kikyna, the son of Lisitheidcs, was choragus, (or gave the chorus at his own ex- pense.) The tribe of Akamantis obtained the victory in the chorus of boys. Theon was the performer on the jlute. Lysiades, an Athenian, was the teacher of the chorus. Evaen- etus was archon. From this we may conclude, that, on some solemn festival, which was celebrated with games and plays, Lysicrates, of Kikyna, a demos, or borough town, of the tribe of Akamantis, exhibited, at his own expense, on behalf of the tribe to which he did belong, a musical or theatrical entertain- ment, in which the boys of Aka- mantis obtained the victory ; also that, in commemoration of the victory, this monument was erect- ed to perpetuate the same to pos- terity. By the name of the archon, or magistrate, in whose time this took place, it appears that the building was erected about three hundred and thirty years before the christian era, in the time of Demosthenes, Apelles, Lysippus, and Alexander the Great. Round the frieze is represented the story of Bacchus and the Tyrr- henian pirates. The figure of Bacchus, and of the several fauns and satyrs who attend him on the manifestation of his divinity, as also the chastisement of the pi- rates, and their terror at being transformed into dolphins, are ex- pressed in this basso-relievo with the greatest spirit and elegance. The cornice, which is composed of several pieces of marble, bound together by the cupola, which is of one entire piece, is crowned 298 with a sort of Vitruvian scroll in- stead of a cymatium. The outside of the cupola is wrought with much delicacy. It imitates a thatch or covering of laurel leaves, edged with a Vitru- vian scroll, and enriched with or- naments. The flower on the top of the cupola is a very graceful composition ; and from the form of the upper surface, and disposi- tion of four remarkable cavities in it, it is probable that it formerly supported the tripod gained as the prize. Three of the cavities are cut on the three principal projections of the upper surface, their disposition being that of the angles of an equi -lateral triangle, in which the feet of the tripod were probably fixed. In the fourth cavity, which is much the largest, and is in the centre of the upper surface, a baluster was in all likelihood inserted to support the tripod and give it that stability and strength which its situation j required. The tripod seems to have been the peculiar reward bestowed by the people of Athens on that cho- ragus, who exhibited the best mu- sical or theatrical entertainment; and we find that this particular custom obtained for these tripods the name of choragic tripods. It; was customary for the victor to; dedicate the tripod he had won to some divinity, and to place it either on one of the temples already built, or on the top of some edi- fice erected and consecrated by him for the purpose. Thus they participated of the sanctity of the place, and were secured from in- jury or violence. A tripod thus dedicated was always accompanied! with an inscription ; so that it; became a permanent, authentic, and public monument of the vic- tory, and of the person who hac obtained it. ! ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. There were formerly many temples and edifices of this sort in Athens. One is mentioned by Plutarch, as being built by Nicias within the place consecrated to Bacchus and Pausanius makes nention of a street, leading from he Prytraneum, which took its lame from the number of tripods hat were in it. Stuart and Revett conclude their lescription of the building under Consideration, by adducing many nrcumstances to prove that it was rected for the above purpose j nit as these are somewhat irrele- ant to the subject for which this )ook is expressly dedicated, we hall pass them in silence. Plate A 5 , represents the eleva- ion of this building, restored as I ar as the remains found on the 'pot authorize, and no farther. In )late Athenian Order, (given in s T o. 13,) the upper part of this nonument is shown on a larger II 'cale : and in plate Athenian ~)rder, (given in Part 3,) the exter- lal face of the capital is also hown on a larger scale. Among 1 he many peculiarities of this sin- ;ular edifice, the manner of flut- ng the columns deserves some 1 ttention. The lower extremities f these flutings descend below heir usual limits, and are cut into he apophyges, or scape of the co- nnn, and the upper extremities -rminate in the form of leaves, he annular channel immediately hove them, which divides the haft of the column from the capi- d, was probably filled with an stragal, or collarino of bronze. 5. A stoa, or temple, common- ' supposed to be the remains of ie temple of Jupiter Olyrnpius, one of the most considerable imains of Athenian magnificence, has, even in its present ruinous mdition, so striking an effect, latmost travellers have mistaken it for the temple of Jupiter Olyrn- pius, which, in splendour and majesty, surpassed every other structure in Athens. What the ancient name of this building was, appears extremely difficult to ascertain ; nor will the traditions of the present Athenians assist us in the disquisition, for they call it indifferently, the palace of Pericles, or of Themistocles. It is, however, extremely impro- bable that any citizen, among those jealous republicans, would venture to erect so splendid a house for his own private habita- tion. No sculptures or inscrip- tions were found to throw light upon the inquiry ; but the general plan of the external walls may be traced. This, with some other circumstances, render it probable that these ruins are the remains of a stoa or portico, and not of a palace or temple. The external walls enclose a large quadrangular space, 376 feet 1 inch in length, and 252 feet in breadth. The front looks nearly west-north-west, or, to be more exact, 28° 20' east of north, and west of south. In the middle are the remains of a gate or en- trance, which had formerly an ascension to it of six steps. The whole extent of the front is orna- mented with corinthian columns, and is terminated at each extre- mity by a pteroma, or projecting wall, faced with a corinthian pilaster. The columns were originally eighteen in number, and were thus disposed : four, being fluted, were placed on the uppermost step in the middle of the front, to support an entablature and pediment, which formed the por- tal or portico of the gate j and on each side of this portico was a range of seven columns, without flutes, the top of whose pedestals 299 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. were exactly level with the upper- most step of the portal. The north-easterly half of the front, with its columns, pedestals, and entablature, js not much de- faced j but the south-western column of the portico, together with the entablature which it sup- ported, are wanting. Besides these, there are no remains of the cornice which was over the tym- panum of the pediment. The south-westerly half of the front is much ruined j but great part of the wall, together with seven pedestals, and some fragments of the columns that were placed on them, still remain in their original situations. The antae or pilasters of the portals are entire, as also are those pteroma or wings which limit the extremity, and determine the utmost length, of this front. The two lateral walls were probably similar to each other: and that on the north-east side of the quadrangle is in a tolerable state of preservation. The out- side of this wall has three remark- able projections. The one in the middle, which is rectangular, has probably been an entrance j and those, which are situate one on each side of it, of a semi-circular form, appear to have been what Vitruvius calls exhedrae. They form recesses in the inside of the quadrangle, like those on each side of Westminster-bridge, and doubtless were designed to ac- commodate such persons as were disposed to sit and converse with- out interruption. The back- front part of the build- ing likewise remains in a fair state of preservation ; and is supported on the outside by six large plain parastata, or buttresses. There are some traces of a peristyle or continued colonnade which en- compassed, on the inside of the walls, the quadrangular space before mentioned. This peristyle was composed of a double range of columns, agreeing in this par- ticular with Vitruvius's description of porticoes. Notwithstanding that a great number of columns were necessary to form such a peristyle, only one remains in its original place, which appears to have been of that range which was farthest from the wall. About 250 feet distant from the front wall, and exactly facing the gate or entrance, are some old foundations, on which a church, the work of a most barbarous age, has been erected. It is called " ee Megdle Panagia" or Great St. Mary's. In these walls are still to be seen an ancient arch, with some other remains of excellent masonry ; and conti- guous to the church are three columns supporting an architrave, which probably belonged to the same edifice as the arch. Whatever difficulties may attend the disquisition concerning this building, it is most evident, that it was not, as some have supposed, the temple of Jupiter Olympins. That temple was situate in the southern part of the city, near the fountain Calirrhoe ; whereas this building stands to the north of the Areopolis. Those stately ruins, vulgarly called the columns of Adrian, and by some supposed to be the remains of that em- peror's palace, stand exactly on the spot assigned by the ancients for the temple of Jupiter Olym- pius. This, conjoined to many other circumstances which Stuart and Revett have pointed out, prove that those ruins are not the columns of Adrian, but of the temple of Jupiter Olympius. Wheler and Spon, deluded by the common opinion, supposed that these columns were the re- ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. nains of one hundred and twenty columns of Phrygian marble, with vhich the emperor Adrian had, Recording to Pausanius, adorned in edifice he had erected at ithens ; and they suppose this Phrygian marble to be whiter than he marble of Pentelicus. But ?hrygian marble is a species of ilabaster variegated with beauti- ul veins and spots. Stephanus 3yzantinus states, that Alabastra s a city of Phrygia, in which an ;xcellent species of marble was bund : and this is further con- irmed by Strabo, who tells us hat there were quarries near Syn- lada, a city, of Phrygia, that af- orded a sort of stone, variegated iiearly in the manner of alabas- ,rites j and that columns and slabs •fit, wonderful for their dimen- sions and beauty, were carried to ,lome. Now, it is evident from 'liny, that the alabastrites which he Phrygian marble resembled, vere diversified with various co- lours ; so that Wheler and Spon vere undoubtedly mistaken when hey supposed that the said co- umns of Adrian, or, more properly peaking, of Jupiter Olympius, vhich are white, are of Phrygian i-arble, and that Phrygian is whiter than Pentelic marble. On he strictest examination, no dif- rence could be discerned be- ween the marble of these columns nd that of the other buildings at kthens ; we may therefore be ertain that they were brought rom Pentelicus, and not from 'hrygia. For it is not credible iiat Adrian would have been at ie expense of transporting from distant country to Athens, a Garble which the quarries of At- ' ca afforded in great plenty and erfection. Having thus proved that these olumns could not be part of the Jmple of Jupiter Olympius, Stu- art and Revett proceeded to in- quire to what building they did really belong. Pausanius afforded them some assistance in this inquiry : and by his description it should seem that the building in question can be no other than the celebrated portico called the Poikile. In his way from the Ceramicus and the tem- ple of Vulcan to the Poikile, he passes near the Hermes Agorseus, or Mercury of the Agora ; he then enters the Poikile, which he de- scribes, and having finished his ac- count of it, returns to the Agora, and enumerates various particu- lars he observed in that place. The manner in which Pausanius speaks of these buildings, and the transi- tions he makes from one to the other of them are such, that we must necessarily conclude them to be almost contiguous to each other. He then proceeds to the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, which he tells us, is not far from the Agora ; and to the temple of Theseus, not far from the Gymna- sium. Hence it appears that these three buildings, the Agora, the Poikile, and the Gymnasium of Ptolemy, stood near each other j and that the Agora was nearer than the Poikile both to the Cera- micus and to the Gymnasium ; and that the Gymnasium lay between the Agora and the temple of The- seus. Now the temple of Theseus still remains at Athens, and the sculptures on it are sufficient war- rant for the name universally given to it. That temple therefore is a fixed and certain spot, concerning the situation of which there can be no dispute. Not far from this temple of Theseus, are three of the most considerable ruins in Ather.s, standing together, and as it were in one group. One of these is 301 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. the building under consideration, which, from the disposition of its plan, as we have already observed, appears to have been a stoa, or portico. Another is the doric por- tal, treated of in the first section, where it is proved to be, most probably, the Agora : and the third may be supposed, both on account of its situation and ex- tent, to be the remains of the Gymnasium of Ptolemy ; for it is the nearest of the three to the temple of Theseus, being, in fact, scarcely 700 feet distant from it. It lies between that building and the Agora, from which it is only 200 feet distant. Its plan, moreover, is a quadrangle, whose longest sides extended about 400, and its shortest sides 300 feet, a space well adapted to the uses of a Gymnasium. To this circumstance of their vicinity may be added, that the re- spective situations of these ruins correspond with each other, and with the temple of Theseus,exactly in the manner that the Agora, Poikile, and the Gymnasium, cor- respond in Pausanius's description of them. For, going the nearest way from that part of the city, in which the Ceramicus stood, to the ruin here supposed to be the Poi- kile, the doric portico, which was shown to be most probably the Agora, is on the right hand j the ruin supposed to be the Gymna- sium is on the left ; and a little farther, but on the same side with the Agora, is that which is the subject of our present consider- ation. Again, if from the Agora, you go to the temple of Theseus, it is necessary to pass by the ruin here supposed to be the Gymna- sium of Ptolemy. We may there- fore conclude, that whatever proves any one of these ruins to be the remains of the building corresponding to it in Pausanius's 302 description, will show, with the same degree of evidence, that the other two likewise correspond. For instance, the reasons alleged in the first section, to prove that the building there treated of was part of the Agora, prove equally that the other two are the re- mains of the Poikile and Gymna- sium. Hence we may infer, that the ruin which is here the parti- cular subject of our consideration, and which, from the disposition of its plan, appears to have been a stoa, or portico, was from its situation, and the richness of the architecture, that principal stoa called the Poikile. Plate A 6 , is a section of the front wall, with a profile of the portal, and of the southern pteroma, likewise one of the seven columns which are placed between the portal and the northern pteroma. The numbers, accompanied with asterisms, denote the depth of the channels of the rustic, and the projection of the different orna- ments of the front wall. The column nearest to the wall, is one of the seven which are placed between the portal and the northern pteroma j the Corinthian pilaster, next it, is one of the antae of the portal ; the other Co- rinthian pilaster, is that of the southern pteroma ; and the co- 1 lumn farthest distant from the wall, is one of the columns of the portal. The abacus of this capi- tal, like that of the temple of Vesta, at Rome, has its angles acute, that is, they are not cut off as is generally practised There is a small fillet immediately above the astragal of the column, and eight short plain leaves, fromi which the usual leaves of the second range seem to spring. The profile of this entablature resem- bles that of the frontispiece ofj Nero at Rome. But no part of i ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. ;he mouldings are enriched, ex- :ept the soffit of the corona. 6. The temple of Minerva called Parthenon, and Hecatom- Dedon, was built during the ad- ninistration of Pericles, who em- >loyed Callicrates and Ictinus as .rchitects, under Phidias, to whom le committed the direction of all vorks of elegance and magnifi- ence. It has been celebrated by ome of the most eminent writers »f antiquity, whose accounts are onh'rmed and illustrated in the iescriptions given us by those ravellers who saw it almost en- 'ire in the last century. Even in ts present state, the spectator, on pproaching it, will find himself mt a little affected by so solemn 'n appearance of ruined grandeur, ccustomed as Stuart and Revett ere to the ancient and modern agnificence of Rome, and by hat they had heard and read, as Iso impressed with an advan- ageous opinion of what they had '.one to see, they nevertheless ound the image their fancy had 'preconceived, greatly inferior to ; he real object. When sir George Wheler and Jr. Spon visited Athens, in the ear 1676, this temple was entire ; nd the former has given the fol- ding description of it : — " It is situated about the mid- dle of the citadel, and consists ltogetherof admirable white mar- ie. The plane of it is above wice as long as it is broad, being 17 feet 9 inches long, and 98 feet inches broad. It hath an ascent very way of five degrees, or teps, which seem to be so con- nived as to serve as a basis for the ortico, which is supported by hannelled pillars of the doric rder, erected round upon them ''ithout any other basis. These pil- irs are forty-six in number, being ight to the front and as many be- hind, and seventeen on each side, counting the four corner ones twice over to be deducted. They are 42 feet high, and 17| feet about. The distance from pillar to pillar is 7 feet 4 inches. This portico beareth up a front, and frieze round about the temple, charged with histo- rical figures of admirable beauty and work. The figures of the front, which the ancients called the eagle, appear, though from that height, of the natural bigness, being in entire relievo, and won- derfully well carved. Pausanius saith no more of them, than that they concern the birth of the goddess Minerva. What I ob- served, and remembered of them, is this : — " There is a figure that stands in the middle of it, having its right arm broken, which probably held the thunder. Its legs strad- dle at some distance from each other, where, without doubt, was placed the eagle : for his beard, and the majesty which the sculptor has expressed in his countenance, although those other usual cha- racters be wanting here, do suffi- ciently show it to have been made for Jupiter. He stands naked, for so he was usually represented, es- pecially by the Greeks. At his right hand is another figure, with its hands and arms broken off, co- vered half way, the legs in a pos- ture as coming towards Jupiter which, perhaps, was Victory, lead- ing the horses of the triumphant chariot of Minerva, which follows it. The horses are made with such great art, that the sculptor seems to have outdone himself, by giving them a more than seeming life, such a vigour is expressed in each posture of their prancing and stamping, natural to generous horses. Minerva is next repre- sented in the chariot, rather as the goddess of learning than of war 303 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. without buckler, helmet, or a Medusa's head on her breast. Next behind her is another figure of a woman si tting with her head broken off : who it was is not cer- tain ) but my companion made me observe the next two figures, sitting in the corner, to be the em- peror Adrian, and his empress Sa- bina j whom I easily knew to be so, by the many medals and sta- tues I have seen of them. At the left hand of Jupiter are five or six other figures : my companion tak- eth them to be an assembly of the gods, where Jupiter intro- duced Minerva, and owneth her for his daughter. " The postick, or hind -front, was adorned with figures, expressing Minerva's contest with Neptune, about naming the city of Athens ; but now all of them are fallen down, only a part of a sea-horse excepted. The architrave is also charged with a basso-relievo at several distances, divided into squares of about 2 or 3 feet broad, and 3 or 4 feet high. With- in the portico on high, and on the outside of the cella of the temple itself, is another border of basso-relievo round about it, or, at least, on the north and south sides, which, without doubt, is as ancient as the temple, and of ad- mirable work, but not so high a relievo as the other. Thereon are represented sacrifices, processions, and ether ceremonies of the hea- then worship. Most of them were designed by the marquis de Nan tell, who employed >\ painter to do it two months together, and showed them to us when we waited on him at Constantinople. " The cella of the temple without is 658 feet long, and broad 67 feet. Before you enter into the body of the temple from the front is the proniios, whose roof is sus- tained by six channelled pillars of the same order and bigness with those of the portico, and contains near the third part of tne cella j to wit, 44 feet of the length. We observed in place of one of the pillars, a great pile of stone and lime of most rude work) which, they told us, theKis- la Haga had ordered to be so done, to help to support the roof 3 be- cause he could never find a stone big enough to supply the place of the old pillar broken down, although he had spent two thou- sand crowns to do it. From the pronaos we entered into the tem- ple by a long door in the middle of the front. But my companion and I were not so much surprised with the obscurity of it as Mon- sieur Guiliter ; because the obser- vations we had made on other heathen temples did make it no ( new thing to us. When the chris- tians consecrated it as a place of! worship, they admitted light at the east end, which is all that it yet hath, and made a semi-circle for the holy place, according to their rites, which the Turks had not yet much altered. This was se- parated from the rest by jasper pillars j two of which on each side remain. Within this channel is a canopy sustained by four por- phyry pillars, with beautiful white marble chapters of the corinthian: order, but the holy table under; it is removed. Beyond the canopy: are two or three degrees one above another in a semi-circle, where the bishop and presbyters used to sit in time of communion, upon certain solemn days. The bishop sat in a marble chair above the rest ; which yet remaineth above the degrees against the window On both sides, and towards the door, is a kind of gallery, made with two ranks of pillars, twenty-i two below, and twen'Y-three above 5 the odd pillar is over th« ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. arch of the entrance, which was left for the passage. They showed is the place where two orange- rees of marble had stood, which jeing taken thence to be carried o Constantinople, the vessel mis- carried with them. The roof over be altar and choir, added to the ernple by the Greeks, hath the icture of the Holy Virgin on it, f mosaic work, left yet by the urks. This temple was covered utwardly with great planks of tone, of which some have fallen own and are to be seen in the losque." Sir George Wheler copied this :count from Dr. Spon, and ad- ed to it some mistakes of his wn, which we have here omitted, r. Spon states, that the measures ere taken in French feet ; there- ire, reckoning the diameters of ;e columns 5-rVV such feet, the ;tent of the front between the iter surfaces of the angular co- mns reduced to English mea- re will be found to be nearly iH feet 2 inches ; and that of 11 e side 225 feet 10J inches. But easures obtained by girting the rcumferences of columns is little be depended on. In the year 1687, when Athens is besieged by theVenetians, un- 1 |r the command of the provedi- re Morosini and count Konings- lirk, an unlucky bomb fell on lis admirable structure, and re- < ced it to the state in which it 1 l is seen by Stuart and Revett. On their way from the city to [■ t s building, they passed by the t atre of Bacchus, and came to 1 Propyloea, which are miser- s» a y ruined: then, passing through Street of scattered houses, came i t the western front of this temple, »ait >|ose majestic apj)earance cannot e ily be described. On this front, t walls with their antae, and all ti columns of the portico, with sort 2Q the entablature and pediment are still standing ; and. though the sculpture in the metopes, and figures in the pediment are defaced and ruined, the architecture seems to have suffered but little. The columns of the portico stand on a pavement raised three steps above the ground ; and there are two more from the portico to the pronaos, or rather posticus, for the pronaos was in reality at the opposite front ; and from thi3 there is another little step, of lit- tle more than an inch in height, into the temple. The inside of the temple was divided by a cross wall ; and the smaller division, (the pavement of which is on a level with the little step last mentioned,) is the part into which a person first enters. Wheler and Spon have improperly called it the pronaos. This was undoubtedly the opis- thodomus where the public trea- sure was kept ; there the columns mentioned by those travellers are no longer standing; but part of the rude mass said to have been erected by Kisla Aga is 1 still to be seen. Hence the traveller passes into the greater division. At the western end of this, and on both the sides, the pavement of the opisthodomus is continued on the same level, to about 15 feet from the walls, and enclose an area, sunk a little more than an inch below it. In the area, and near the edge of this little step, are still to be seen certain circles, distinctly traced. On these, the columns of the peristyle that sup- ported the galleries, mentioned by Wheler, were most likely placed: but these galleries, together with the walls of that part, and fourteen of the columns of the peripteros, are now no longer standing. The pavement is shown with pieces of sculpture, some of which are very ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. large, and the whole of them are of excellent workmanship. In this division stood the fa- mous statue of Minerva, of ivory and gold, the work of Phidias. Pausanius states, that Minerva stood erect, with her garments reaching to her feet, a helmet on her head, and a Medusa's head on her breast j that in one hand she held a space, and on the other a figure of Victory, of about 4 cu- bits high. According to Pliny, the statue of Minerva was 26 cubits high : but in this account he probably included the pedestal, on which, according to the state- ments of both these authors, the birth of Pandora was represented. We are not informed that the ivory was painted ; though, from an observation of Strabo, that Pantanus, the brother or nephew of Pbidias ; assisted him in the colouring of the statue of Jupiter, at Elis which was likewise of ivory and gold, it is reasonable to conclude that it was. Ivory was used in statues of this kind, not so much on account of the colour, as from its being less liable to split and be destroyed by worms. For ivory is not of a uniform colour, being yellow near the outside and white in the middle ; conse- quently, it requires to be painted on that account, as also to hide the joinings of the pieces. Ihucydides states that the gold about this statue weighed 40 ta- lents, which, according to the value of gold at the present day, is equal to i£ 120,000 sterling. Lachares stripped it off about one hundred and thirty years after the death of Pericles ; and we do not read of its ever being replaced. The eastern front of this temple hath suffered more than the west- ern ; as all the walls, and five of the columns of the pronaos are down : but the eight columns in 306 front, with their entablature, re- main pretty entire in their ori- ! ginal situation, though much the greater part of the pediment is wanting. The metopes on the south side were adorned with sculpture in alto-relievo of centaurs and lapi- thae, some of which are not en- tirely defaced. The outside of the cell was surrounded at the top with a con- tinued frieze of about 3 feet 4 inches deep, representing the Panathenaie pomp or procession in basso-relievo. In the year 16*74, the marquis de Nointel employed a young Flemish pain- ter to copy this ; two or three of whose drawings are represented in Montfaucon's " Antiquities." Pausanius gives but a transient account of this temple, nor does he state whether Adrian repaired it, though the statue of that empe- ror, as also of his empress Sa- bina, are in the western pediment. This has occasioned a doubt whe- ther the sculptures in both were not put up by him. Wheler and Spon were of this opinion, and state that they were whiter thar the rest of the building; the sta- tue of Antinous, also, still remain- ing at Rome, may be thought ? proof that there were artists ir his time capable of executing them. The whiteness of the mar ble, however, is no proof that the; were more modern than the tern pie, for they might be made of whiter marble: nor is the circum stance of the heads of Adrian an Sabina being there, any corrobo ration of the supposition, as it \va not an uncommon practice amon the Romans, and might have bee practised in the present case, t affix heads to ancient figures. I addition to this, we may stal from Plutarch, that the building of Pericles were not in the lea ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. impaired by age in bis time ; therefore, this temple could not want any material repairs in the reign of Adrian ; unless, indeed, which is not probable, that the damage once sustained by the opisthodomus by fire, had re- mained unrepaired for so long a time. Mr. Stuart has said that the lesser division of the temple was called the opisthodomus, where the public treasure was kept. Thu- :ydides tells us, that it was kept in ;he Acropolis ; and, having reck- oned up what it amounted to, says, the riches out of the other emples may likewise be used, vhich implies, that the treasure, >f which he had been speaking, vas kept in a temple. Aristo- )hanes places Plutus, the god of iches, in the opisthodomus of he temple of Minerva. His choliast says, that this was the emple of Minerva Polias, which 3 a mistake, for that temple iad only a single cH! as will 'ppear hereafter: nor could it be he temple meant by Thucydides, ince it was not finished till after he death of Pericles, as appears y the inscription brought from thens at the expense of the so- ety of the dilettanti. Demos- lenes calls the treasury opistho- nmus. which properly signified le back of a temple ; and Hesy- lius, Harpocration, Suidas, and le etymologist, agree that the thenian treasury was in the opis- mdomus of the temple of Mi- ?rva, which could be no other ian this. The third, fourth, and fifth mar- es in the second part of Dr. lialmers's " Inscriptions" are Te- sters of the delivery of donations this temple by the treasurers, their successors in office. The ird and fourth were found among i ruins. It is called Ilecatom- pedon in both, and its opisthodo- mus is expressly mentioned in the latter. The fifth calls it Par- thenon. There is a passage in Vi truvius which most probably relates to this temple, and which proves it to have been an hypaethros. Vi- truvius states, " that the hypae- thros has ten columns in the pro- naos and posticus, in all other respects it is like the dipteros j within, it has two rows of co- lumns, one above the other, at a distance from the wall; so that you may pass round it as in the portico of peristyles ; but in tine middle it is open to the sky without a roof. The entrance is at each end, by doors in the pro- naos and posticus. There is no example of this at Rome ; but at Athens an octostyle in the Olym- pian temple." From our quotation from Whe- ler it should appear, that when he saw the temple, it had within the cell on each side, two rows of columns, the one above the other, and standing at a distance from the wall. And by the decorations on the eastern front, it should fur- ther appear, that the principal en- trance was originally placed there, though it has been since closed up, probably by the Greek chris- tians, who could not otherwise have placed their communion ta- ble at the east end of the temple, which is a custom religiously observed by them : the door also in the western frontwas originally in that place, as is evident from the threshold or step leading into it still remaining. P>y this, there- fore, the reader will perceive, that this temple agrees with what Vi- truvius has delivered, and coin- cides with Mr. Stuart's opinion. The roof with which it was com- pletely covered when Wheler and Spon, and other travellers, exa- ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. mined it, may seem to furnish a plausible objection to what has been here advanced j but as great additions and alterations have cer- tainly been made, with a view to adapt it to the numerous cere- monies of the Greek ritual, and to the pompous functions of the archbishop and his attendant clergy, it is very probable that the root was constructed at that time. This supposition acquires addi- tional support, when we consider that the space between the co- lumns did not much exceed 30 feet ; and that it was necessary that this space should be covered in, before it could be fit for the reception of a christian congrega- tion. The roofing it in would not have been more expensive, or have required greater skill in the execution, than the alterations which Wheler and Spon inform us were made in the eastern end. From what Vitruvius has said, when speaking of the several de- viations from the usual form of temples, another objection might be deduced. f f Temples," says he, " are also built of other kinds, ordered with the same propor- tions, but differently disposed, as that of Castor in the Circus Fla- minius, and that of Vejovis, be- tween the two groves : ut, more ingeniously, that of Diana Memo- rensis, with columns added to the right and left on the shoulders of the ponaos ; but this kind of tem- ple, like that of Castor in the Cir- cus, was first erected in the fortress of Athens to Minerva." The reader may, perhaps, by remarking the similarity between the temples Vitruvius has here enumerated and that of the Mi- nerva in the Acropolis, and by comparing it with what he has previously told us, that there was no hypaethros at Rome, suppose, that the temple of Minerva was 303 not an hypaethros j but it should be remembered that he is in this place treating only of the dispo- sition of the external columns. It appears extraordinary, that in the account he has given of the hypaethros, the examples he pro- duces should be exceptions to his doctrine ; but we may be the less surprised at it, as the same un- usual proceeding occurs in his ac- count of the peripteros { and it is obvious, that an hypaethros hav- ing eight columns in front differs from one having ten only in this particular, that the exterior co- lumns form a peripteros, instead of a dipteros, round the cell of the temple, as the marquis Galiani has observed in his comment on this place. Plate A 7 , is an elevation of the portico of the Parthenon. The dimensions marked on this plate were all taken on the western front, which is similar to the front facing the east, except only, that, on the eastern architrave certain triangular holes are cut at regular distances, which are not repeated on the sides of the building, or on the front facing the west. It is difficult to assign any use for these holes, unless we suppose that cramps were fixed in them, to support some kind of ornament, probably festoons with which the eastern front, and that only, had been decorated. Plate A 8 . The capital and en- tablature of the columns of the portico. 7. The temple of Jupiter Olym- pius of which we have already spoken, in the fifth section, shall next claim our attention. A plan of it is inserted in plate A 9 . In the year 1753, when Stuart and Revett visited Athens, there remained but seventeen columns i thirteen of which, standing toge- ther in one group, without any in ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. tervenmg chasm, and connected together by their architraves, ap- pear to have formed the southern angle of the front which faced the east ; and furnished an unequivo- cal proof, that this temple was a dipteros, that is, the cell was sur- rounded by two rows of columns. These columns exceed 6 feet in diameter, and appear to be near 60 feet high. They are of Pen- telic marble, fluted, with beauti- ful corinthian capitals, and attic bases, the outward row of which ire distinguishable from those columns next the cell. Three other columns, belong- ing to the inner row of the south- ern flank of the temple, were standing some distance from those lbove mentioned ; and there re- named one, marked F in the jlan, which stood originally in the .vestern portico. This last men- tioned column proves that the emple, when entire, had one and wenty columns on its flank : for, f a right line be drawn from r 'east to west, through the centres )f the outward columns, it will ;ut exactly in the centre of the wentieth column of that row, by mother line drawn at right angles o it from the centre of the column ; , the base of which proves it vas not in the front of the portico, nit had another row of columns tanding before it. There will herefore have been one and wenty columns on the flank of his magnificent temple; and onsequently it was a decastyle, or ad ten columns both in the por- ico and the posticus, which is the umber Vitruvius has assigned to he complete hypaethros. On this supposition, the front i nst have extended at least 167 let, and the length from east to est have been 372 feet and some fdd inches. The peribolas, or wall, which enclosed the consecrated ground was, according to Pausanius, about four stadia, or half a mile in circumference ; but Stuart and Revett could not entirely verify the statement. Stuart and Revett state, that their admeasurements were, for the extent from east to west, 682 feet 9 inches ; and for the distance from the outward face of the southern wall of the peribolus to the basement on which the columns of the dipteros are set, 146 feet 2 inches ; but that they were unable to ascer- tain its extent towards the north, as there was not on that side the least visible trace of the building. Pausanius enumerates other tem- ples, statues, and monuments, that were within this peribolus, some of them accounted of great antiquity even in his time ; and it can hardly be doubted but that the inside of this wall was adorned with a peristyle, or continued colonnade, with porticoes and other ornaments, so that the bare wall did not appear. 8. Of the temples of Erechtheus, Minerva Polias, and Pandrosus. To the north of the Parthenon, at the distance of about 150 feet, are the remains cf three contiguous temples. That towards the east was called the Erechtheum : to the westward of this, but under the same roof, was the temple of Minerva, with the title Polias, as protectress of the city : and ad- joining to it, on the south side, is the Pandrosium, so named he- cause it was dedicated to the nymph Pandrosus, one of the daughters of Cecrops. Pausanius has not given a more particular description of this building than he has of the Par- thenon. He tells us that it was a double temple, and that in the Erechtheum was the spring of sea- water produced by the stroke 309 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. of Neptune's trident, when he contended with Minerva for the patronage of the city. Before the entrance was an altar of Jupiter the Supreme ; and within the temple an altar of Neptune, on which, by the command of an oracle, sacrifices were likewise made to Erechtheus. By this we may conclude that the temple was not originally dedicated to Erech- theus, but to Neptune. Besides these, there was an altar of the hero Butes, the brother of Erech- theus j and another on which sacrifices were made to Vulcan. On the wall were paintings, or inscriptions, relating to the family of Butes, in which family the priesthood was hereditary. In the temple of Minerva Polias was an ancient statue of the god- dess. It was of wood, and was said to have fallen from heaven. Stuart supposed it to have been one of those ancient statues which Pausanius mentions as being black, and, though entire, so scorched with the flames when Xerxes burnt the temple, that it could not resist a blow. In the temple was likewise a Hermes, or statue of Mercury, dedicated by Cecrops. It was almost hid from the sight by branches of myrtle, on account, it should seem, of the absurdity and indecency of such an image in the temple of a virgin. Superstition alone could have pre- vented the Athenians from remov- ing it ; for a Hermes appears to have been as obscene a figure as a Priapus. In this temple was likewise placed the golden lamp made by Callimachus, the inventor of the corinthian capital. This lamp, which was said to burn a whole year without a fresh sup- ply of oil, was placed under a bra- zen palm-tree, the branches of which extended up to the roof, and conveyed away the smoke. The Pandrosium is the only an- cient example, with which we are acquainted, in which the entabla- ture and roof are supported by! caryatides. A plate of this beau- tiful portico has been given in' Part 3. Within the Pandrosium was an olive-tree, said to have been pro- duced by Minerva, in the above cited contest with Neptune. It was called pankyphos, that is, incur- vated, from its branches bending downwards after it had reached the roof. Under this tree stood an altar of Jupiter Herceus. Some have imagined that the olive-tree grew in the temple of Minerva Polias j but it is quite improba- ble that a tree should grow in a place so unfavourable to vegeta- tion. The. temple of Minerva Po- lias appears to have been a close room, illuminated only by a single lamp ; whereas in that of the Pandrosium the spaces between the caryatides was left open, for the free admission of light and air. The olive-tree and the spring o! sea-water prove this to be the fa- bulous scene of contention betweei the two divinities : as also tha 1 these temples were erected on tin precise spot as that on which th< temples burned by Xerxes ha( originally stood. The origina temples were of great antiquity probably the most ancient ii Athens : for Homer mentions tha of Minerva, under which name h seems to include the three, as He rodotus afterwards similarly in eludes them under the name o Erechtheus. An inscription brought fron Athens, at the expense of the so ciety of dilettanti, and publishei by Dr. Chandler, contains a sur vey of such parts of these tern pies as were at that time unfi nished, with what seems to be ai ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. estimate in attic minas of the expense of completing them, amounting to between three and four hundred pounds sterling. This survey was taken by order of the people of Athens when Diocles was archon, which was in the twenty- third year of the Pele- ponnesian war. Hence it is not improbable, that this building was begun during the administration of Pericles, and that a stop was put to it either through his death, or the calamities and expenses of that war. By the grammatical inaccura- cies in this description, it seems to have been drawn up by the mason employed in the survey. And as many of the architectural terms used in the inscription are (not to be found in any writer now remaining, together with our ig- norance of the manner in which the survey was taken, whether it •were by going round the build- ing, or classing similar deficien- cies together, render it now very obscure, and in a great measure unintelligible. The situation of some of the •most unfinished parts is described as being near the Cecropium ; of others near the Pandrosium ; some )n the south wall : others on the sast. By the Cecropium, it is supposed, is meant the temple of Minerva Polias, which might have leen so called, from the opinion hat Cecrops was buried there ; is the contiguous temple of Nep- une, probably for a like reason, vas called theErechtheum. We ead of no other building being ailed Cecropium. The Acropo- Bj which was the ancient city, and aid to have been built by Ce- rops, was called Cecropia. In this survey no part of the 'ecropium, or of the Pandrosium, said to be unfinished. In the jrty-fourth line, it mentions co- lumns on the wall next the Pan- drosium ; and in the sixty-second, pilasters next to the Cecropium j and some other particulars are also mentioned which seem to belong to the present building, but the measures assigned to them prove the contrary. This circumstance is a confir- mation of a passage in Xenophon, which states, that this temple was burnt ^ahout three years after the survey was taken, though the names of the archon and epho- rus are generally believed to be interpolated. These temples are now in a very ruinous condition. Those of Erechtheus and Minerva have no roof or covering of any kind. The wall which separated them, as also that by which the pronaos or passage to the Pandrosium was parted off from the temple of Minerva, are so demolished, that scarcely any traces of them re- main, excepting where they join the side walls. The pavements are so encumbered with large blocks of marble and rubbish, as to render the inside almost impas- sable. The Pandrosium, though it has suffered the least, is filled up to a great height in the same manner, and one of the caryatides is wanting. Stuart and Revett found the portico of Minerva Po- lias walled up ; and being a ma- gazine of military stores, admit- tance was denied them. Although these three temples compose one body, they are not on the same level ; for the pave- ment of the temple of Erech- theus is about 8 feet higher than that of the rest of the building. Neither has the architect at- tempted to form them into one regular whole, but seems pur- posely to have kept them, as we now see them, in three distinct forms. 311 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. In Plate A'°. is represented the plan of the three contiguous tem- ples. A, the temple of Erechtheus, or of Neptune, in which was a well of salt water, and the altars of Neptune, Vulcan, and the hero Butes. Before it stood the altar of Jupiter the Supreme. B, the temple of Minerva Po- lias ; perhaps the Cecropium of the dilettanti inscription. a a, the wall which separated the two temples j distinctly visible where it joined the lateral walls. C, the temple ofPandrosus ; in which was the olive-tree said to be produced by Minerva, and the altar of Jupiter Herceus. D, the portico, common to the temple of Minerva and to that of Pandrosus. EE, a kind of vestibule, or pro- niios, which likewise was com- mon to the two last mentioned temples, and the only approach by which either of them could be visited. bb, vestiges of the wall which separated the vestibule from the temple of Minerva. The part shadowed with dia- gonal lines lies about S feet lower than the unshadowed part, and distinguishes the level on which the temple of Minerva Polias is built from the higher ground on which the Erechtheum stands. FF, foundations of a wall con- tinued from the basement of the Pandrosium to some distance westward. It stood on the ex- treme edge of a little precipice, which in this part separates the upper level from the lower. d d, vestiges near the portico of the Erechtheum of a division between the upper and lower ground, similar to that mentioned in the preceding reference. Plate A 11 , elevation of the por- tico of the temple of Erechtheus. 312 On the left hand is the flank of the portico of Minerva Polias : the dotted line, aa, marks the le- vel on which that portico is built. On the left hand is the flank of the Pandrosium. Plate A 12 , the capital base and entablature of the portico of Minerva Polias. Plate A 13 . Fig 1 and % the ca- pital and base of the antae. Fig. 3, profile of the moulding under the corona. Fig. 4, the .same viewed from below, to show the effect of the flower on the angle. The other figures represent the plan reversed and the necessary sections of the capital. Plate A 14 , the ionic volute of the temple of Minerva Polias described. In Part 3, has been given under the word Pandrosium the eleva- tion of the front of the temple of Pandrosus adorned with cary- atides : and in Part 2 and 3, three plates have been given, showing the caryatides on a larger scale. 9. Of the choragic monument of Thrasyllus. Just above the place on which Mr. Stuart has supposed the odeum of Pericles to have been built, there is in the rock of Acropolis a cavern or grotto, the entrance to which is completely fronted and closed by the choragic monument of Lysi- crates. This cavern is now con- verted into a christian church, called "Panagia SpUiotissa,' , or the blessed lady of the grotto. On the front of the building are three inscriptions, recording vic- tories obtained in the odeum or the theatre, which prove it to be a choragic monument ; not indeed so highly ornamented as the mo- nument of Lysicrates, but ne- vertheless wrought with great accuracy, and deserving of our no- tice, both for the singularity of the. ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. composition and the form of the mouldings. There is an inscription on the architrave to the following effect : "Thrasyllus, the son of Thrasyl- lus of Cecelia (a demos or bo- rough town of the tribe of Hippo- thoon), dedicates this building, having been at the expense of ex- hibiting the games in which he, : with the men of his own tribe, obtained the victory. Evius, of 'Chalcis, was the musician j and Karchidamus, the son of Sotis, 'composed the piece; Nechaemus 'being archon." This was in the first year of the hundred and fif- teenth olympiad, or about three hundred and eighteen years before the christian era j so that this building was erected above two 'thousand years ago. The other two inscriptions, which may be thus translated, u The people gave the games ; Pytkaratus was archon ; Thrasycles, the son ofThrasyllus, a Dece- liaii, was agonothetes ; The boys of the tribe of Hippothoon gained the victory ; Theon.the Theban, performed on the flute ; Pronomus, the Theban, composed the piece. and " The people gave the games ; Pytharatus , was archon; Thrasycles, the son of Thrasyllus, a De- celian, was agonothetes j The men of the tribe of Pandion gained the victory ; ■ Nicocles, the Ambracian^ performed on the flute ; Lysippus, the Arcadian, composed the piece." record victories of the same kind as the former, obtained about fifty years afterwards, when Pythara- tus was archon. Over this building, but higher ,up the rock, stand two columns of different heights. The diame- ter of the tallest measures about 4 feet 2 inches and 2-10ths 5 and that of the other, 3 feet 4-10ths of an inch. They have never be- longed to the building, and are 2R each of them insulated, being erected for the sole purpose of supporting a tripod, as is evident from the form of their capitals. They are of a triangular shape, like that of the flower on the dome of the monument of Lysi- crates, and like that, have cavities sunk in their upper surfaces at each of their angles. In these ca- vities were doubtless fixed the feet of the tripods. The capitals are of uncommon forms ; but, though adorned with foliage and volutes, are not to be admired for any elegance of invention, or de- licacy of workmanship. On the plinth of the eastern, and tallest of these columns is in- scribed 2TPAT0NEIK02, proba- bly the name of the person who de- dicated the tripod ; but, as the name of the archon is wanting, the date cannot be ascertained, unless we suppose it to have been erected in the year of anarchy, that is, in the first of the ninety-fourth olympiad ; for even at that disas- trous period, the Athenians seem to have solemnized their festivals, and to have indulged themselves in their accustomed amusements. In Plate A 15 , is represented the elevation of the front of this mo- nument ; and in Part 3, the capi- tal and entablature have been given on a larger scale. 10. Of the temple of Theseus. The travellers who have visited the city of Athens, and the au- thors who have described its an- tiquities, agree, that this doric temple, which is one of the noblest remains of ancient magnificence, and at present the most entire, was built in honour of Theseus. This opinion is juFtificd by the sculptures in the metopes, several of which, though mutilated, re- present the exploits of that hero. The circumstances which led to the construction of this building 313 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. took place, according to Plutarch, in the year that Aphepsion was archon ; which was about the fourth year of the seventy-seventh olympiad, or four hundred and sixty-seven years before Christ ; consequently, this temple may be accounted one of the works of the age of Pericles. It is built of pentelic marble ; and. in the language of Vitruvius, is a peripteros ; that is, it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a range of eleven columns, exclusive indeed of the columns on the angles, in which particular the Greeks dif- fered from the Romans, who in- cluded the columns on the angles in the number eleven. The dis- tance of the lateral columns from the wall of the cell, is somewhat more than the space of one inter- columniation ; they connect the two porticoes, and by that means complete a covered walk round the cell of the temple. The principal front faces the east ; and the pediment of the front appears to have been adorn- ed, like the Parthenon, with figures of entire relief, fixed simi- larly in their places by cramps of metal. Several holes, in which the cramps were inserted, remain in the face of the pediment, though the figures which they h atl sup- ported are entirely destroyed. On the metopes of this front are represented ten of the labours of Hercules : and on the four me- topes next this front, on the northern and southern sides, are represented eight of the achieve- ments of Theseus. It may at first appear somewhat extraordinary, that the labours of Hercules should make so considerable a part of the ornaments of this tem- ple ; but when we consider the respect and gratitude professed by Theseus for that hero, who was 314 his kinsman, and had restored him from a tedious captivity to his friends and country • as also, that Theseus, on his return, did con- secrate to Hercules, with the ex- ception of four, all the places which the gratitude of the citizens had formerly dedicated to himself, the impression will wear off. Nor could it have been esteemed a slight honour to Theseus, to have his labours placed in conjunction with those of Hercules. The remainder of the metopes, and the pediment of the posticus, or western front, have never been adorned with sculptures. This temple is now converted into a church, and dedicated to St. George ; for whom the pre- sent Athenians seem to have as high a veneration, as their ances- tors had for Theseus. The sculpture on the frieze over the antae of the proniios represents a battle and a victory. It seems to record an action of great im- portance, for it is honoured with the presence of six divinities ; three of whom, though somewhat de- faced, are yet to be distinguished for Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. Amongst the combatants there is one of superior dignity, more vigorous exertion, and of more ample stature, arrayed in a long robe, which trails behind him, ; and in the act of hurling a stone of a prodigious size at his adver- saries : this, probably, represents the phantom of Theseus rushing impetuously on the Persians at the battle of Marathon. His mi- raculous apparition and interpo- sition at that battle was firmly believed by the Athenians, and was one inducement to the build- ing of this temple. The victory of Marathon was certainly one of; the most glorious of the Athenian achievements ; and there is a sort of modesty as well as piety, in their ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. attributing to the gods and the assistance of their hero this amaz- ing victory, rather than to their own valour. The last figure on the frieze was evidently employed in erecting a trophy. The sculpture on the frieze over the antae of the posticus re- presents the battle of the centaurs and lapithae. Amongst the com- batants one hero alone has thrown a centaur to the ground, and is in the act of killing him. This hero is probably intended for Theseus. In the middle of this piece of sculpture is Caneus, who, being invulnerable by weapons, is over- whelmed by a huge piece of rock, with which two centaurs are about to crush him. This circumstance lis introduced by Ovid, in the de- scription he makes Nestor give of the centaurs and lapithae. It may be proper to observe, 'that the sculpture on this temple is very fine and much relieved, the limbs being in many places en- tirely detached, which is, perhaps, one reason that they are so much damaged. Plate A 16 , represents an eleva- tion of the eastern front. 11. Of the arch of Theseus, or of Hadrian. This arch stands nearly lorth-east and south-west, and is about a quarter of a mile south- •astward from the Acropolis. The 'root facing that building has an ascription to the following effect : " This >s Athens, formerly the city of Theseus." And that next to the Ilissus, he channel of which lies to the out h of it, at less than a quarter f a mile distance, is another in- cription to this effect : This is the city of Hadrian, and not of 2 heseus." Both fronts are adorned with orinthian columns, and are, in all arts, perfectly similar. It is of entelic marble, and, like the other ancient edifices of Athens is built without the aid of mortar or cement, the blocks of marble being connected together by cramps of metal. This arch evi- dently appears neither to have been connected with, or to have belonged to, any other building j and to have been originally in- tended to remain insulated. It appears, however, extraordinary, that it should stand so near, and be situated so obliquely to the re- mains of the peribolus, or wall, that encompassed the temple of Olympium ; and it is difficult to reconcile its situation to any idea of beauty or convenience, or to conceive the motive that induced the Athenians to place it here. Notwithstanding that the in- scription states the emperor Ha- drian to be the founder of at least the southern part of Athens, it should seem, from arguments fur- nished by Mr. Stuart, that it is ra- ther a complimentary effusion of Athenian gratitude to so liberal a benefactor than an absolute truth, or the record of an historical fact. The situation of the arch of iEgeus and that of Hadrian ap- pearing to coincide, Mr. Stuart has supposed that the subject of the present section is, in fact, no other than the arch of JEgeus, probably rebuilt by Hadrian on the identical spot on which the former, venerable for its antiquity, had stood. Mr. Stuart has also supposed, that the north-western angle of the peribolus of the Olympium has been cut off by a wall running parallel to this arch, which, by that means, became an additional ornament to the enclo- sure, in which, not only the mag- nificent temple of Jupiter Olym- pius, built by Hadrian, but many other monuments of much higher antiquity were contained. This opinion is strengthened by the ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. unconnected state of the arch, and the obliquity of its position. Plate A 17 , is an elevation of the front facing the south-east. The preceding information re- lates to the state of Athens at the time that Messrs. Stuart and Re- vett visited it in the year 1759 j but considerable alterations hav- ing taken place since that period, particularly the transportation of some of the most beautiful parts of those edifices to the British metropolis, we consider it our duty to detail to the reader the particulars which led to the depo- sit of those works in the British Museum. In the year 1799, lord Elgin was appointed his majesty's am- bassador extraordinary to the Ot- toman Porte ; and being sensible that the artists of this country would derive material improve- ment from the study of the most celebrated works of antiquity, he proposed to his majesty's govern- ment, that they should send out persons of acknowledged emi- nence, to make exact measure- ments and designs of the build- ings at Athens. This being ob- jected to, partly from the doubtful issue of the undertaking, and partly from the expense attending it, his lordship endeavoured to procure, at his own charge, some artists from this country j but finding the value of their time far beyond his means of liquidation, he found himself reduced to the necessity of having recourse to the artists of other countries. These were Don Tita Lusieri, of Sicily, one of the best general painters in Europe, to undertake the execution of the plan; Signor Balestra, a distinguished archi- tect, and It tar, a young man of promising talents, both of Rome, to undertake the architectural part 5 Theodore, aCalmouk, who, during several years' stay at Rome, had shown himself equal to the first masters in the design of the human figure j and two Italian for ma tori, to make the madre- formi for the casts. These artists prosecuted the undertaking with the greatest diligence and skill, so that in the course of three years every mo- nument of which there were any remains to be found was mea- sured with the utmost precision ; and from the rough draughts of the architects, finished drawings have been made by them of the plans, elevations, and details of the most remarkable objects ; in which the Calmouk has restored and inserted all the sculpture, with exquisite taste and ability. He has, besides, made accurate drawings of the bas-reliefs on the several temples, in the precise state of decay and mutilation in which they at present exist. Most of the bas-reliefs, and nearly all the characteristic features of ar- chitecture, in the various monu- ments at Athens, have been mould- ed, and the moulds brought to London. Besides the- architecture and sculpture at Athens, all similar remains which could be traced through several other parts of Greece, have been measured and delineated with the most scru- pulous exactness by the second architect, Ittar. And picturesque views of Athens, of Constan- tinople, of various parts of Greece, and of the islands of the Archi- pelago, have been executed by Don Tita Lusieri. In the prosecution of this un- dertaking, the artists had the mortification of witnessing the very wilful devastation to which all the sculpture, and even the ar- chitecture, was daily exposed, on the part of the Turks, and tra- ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. vellers. The former influenced by mischief and avarice ; the latter from an anxious desire to become possessed, each according to his means, of some relic, however small, of buildings or statues which had formed the pride of Greece. Many of the buildings which were in Stuart's time in a state of tolera- ble preservation had so entirely disappeared, that their founda- tions were no longer visible. This induced lord Elgin to endeavour to preserve, by removal from Athens, as many of the specimens of architecture and sculpture as he could without injury rescue from such impending ruin. The removal of them from Athens to London cost his lordship no less a sum, including the interest of money ; than one hundred and hirty-five thousand pounds. They ire now deposited in the gallery >f antiquities in the British Mu- seum j and consist principally of '.he undermentioned : — Fifteen of the metopes belong- ng to the Parthenon, which, al- ernately with the triglyphs, or- lamented the frieze of the entab- r 'ature surmounting the colon- )ade, representing the battle be- ween the centaurs and lapithae. The exterior frieze of the cella of he Parthenon, which embellished he upper part of the walls, with- 1 the colonnade, at the height of he frieze of the pronaos, and v hich was continued in an uninter- upted series of sculpture entirely ound the temple, representing he • sacred procession which >ok place at Athens every fifth ear, at the festival of the great 'anathenaea, in honour of Miner- a ; and that portion of the above- lentioned frieze, which occupied ie east end of the temple, repre- enting divinities and deified he- >es. Also a portion of the same ieze, taken from the north side of ie temple, representing two of the metceci, or strangers, who settled at Athens, and were allowed to take part in the procession, toge- ther with charioteers and horse- men. Other slabs of the frieze, from the south and west sides, representing a procession of vic- tims, charioteers, and horsemen j that of the south side being very similar in its general character and appearance to the frieze on the op posite or north side. From the pe- diment of the Parthenon, on which was represented the birth of Mi- nerva, and the supposed contest between Minerva and Neptune for the honour of naming the city, there are many very excellent figures, particularly the recum- bent statue of the river god Ilys- sus, and that of Theseus the Athenian hero. There are also casts in plaster from the frieze of the pronaos and posticus of the temple of Theseus j and from the choragic monument of Lysicrates. Also the capital of an ionic column from the portico of the Erechthe- um ; pieces of the architrave, a portion of the cornice, and four pieces of the frieze, all from the same temple of Erechtheus. Also various pieces of the shafts and capitals of doric and ionic co- lumns ; and one of the caryatides which supported the roof, under which the olive-tree of Minerva was sheltered, in the temple of Pandrosus. These excellent remains of an- tiquity, of which we cannot speak too highly, have been very differ- ently valued by the gentlemen who had to give in their estimates to parliament j Mr. Knight valued them at £25,000 ; Mr. Hamilton at <£60,800; and the earl of Aber- deen named ,£35,000, as a sort of conjectural estimate of the whole. The various items of those estimates we here subjoin : yi7 ATHENIAN ARCHITECTURE. Mr. Knight's Valuation. Recumbent statue of Hercules, as on the coins of brass, with little of the surface remaining, 1,500 Trunk of a male statue recumbent, 1,500 Back and shoulders of a trunk on which the head of Hadrian appears to have been, 1,200 Fragment of a horse, very fine, 250 Fragments of about ten draped trunks from the pediment of the Parthenon, most of which appear to be of the age of Hadrian, 2,000 Fourteen metopes, of various degrees of merit, all corroded, and mostly much mutilated, % 7,000 Twelve pieces of the frieze of the cell with parts entire, 3,600 About thirty-five more, completely ruined, 1,400 Plaster casts from ditto, and other temples, 2,500 A granite scarabaeus, 300 A white marble soras, complete and entire, but coarse, .... 500 Various shafts and blocks of marble, 350 Ditto of porphyry, 350 Various fragments of statuary and relief, 500 Ditto architecture, 300 Caryatides from the propylaea, much injured, 200 Nine broken marble urns, 450 One wrought brass ditto, 150 One inscribed earthen ditto, 150 Inscriptions on marble, 300 Medals 1,000 £25,500 Mr. Hamilton's Valuation. Theseus, . * 4,000 Ilyssus, 4,000 Female group, 4.000 Ditto, 4,000 Iris, 2,000 Three horses' heads 2,000 Torso of Neptune, 500 Remainder of the pediment, 2,000 For the pediment, £22,500 Metopes (nineteen), 10,000 Fifty-three pieces, at £400 20,300 Bacchus, 1,000 Cariates, 700 Casts from the Parthenon, . . 1.000 Carried forward £55,500 18 A T It ATR Doric columns and architecture, onic ditto, Brought forward ( nscnptions, Etruscan bas-relievoes,, /ases from Athens, . . 3ronze vase, dedals, Drawings, 55,500 400 800 2,000 200 400 200 800 500 Atlases, or atlantides. The lame given by the Greeks to the !tatues of men which supported entablatures with mutules : they vere otherwise called by the greeks, "Persians," and by the 'lomans, "Telamones." Plate P 2 . These three figures are from de- igns by Michael Angelo Buona- (otti. The middle figure may be 'mployed in buildings j the other wo in the angles of coved ceilings. ' Atrium. A court surrounded »y porticoes in the interior divi- sion of ancient Roman houses. According to Vitruvius, the pro- )ortions of the Atrium were de- ermined in three several ways : irst, in some the width was three- ifths of the length ; secondly/ in ithers, it was but two-thirds of he length ; and thirdly, in others, he width was proportioned to the ength, by describing a square, jdch of whose sides was equal to Jie width, and the diagonal of hat square determined the length f the atrium. That side of the ( triuni opposite to the gate was (idled tablinum ; and the other two , des alee, or wings. , The width of the alae, or wings, n the right and left, was propor- ,oned to the length of the atrium, f the length was from 30 to 40 ;et, the width of the alae was one- iird ; if from 40 to 50 feet, the ngth was divided into three parts id a half, of which one part gave ie width for the alae ; if from 50 ) 60 feet the alae was a fourth part £60,800 of the length ; if from 60 to SO feet, the length was divided into four parts and a half, of which the width of the alee was equal to one part or two-ninths of the whole ; and if the length of the atrium was from SO to 1 00 feet, the width of the alee on the right and left was just one-fifth of that extent. The trabes, or lintel-beams, ex- tending from column to column of the alae, were made as high as they were wide. When the atrium was 20 feet wide, the tablinum, or place ap- propriated for the preservation of the family records, was made two- thirds of it ; when from 30 to 40 feet, the tablinum was half the width ; and when from 40 to 60, the width was divided into five parts, two parts being given to the tabli- num. Atria of small dimensions could not with propriety have the same proportions as those which were more spacious ; because if the proportions of the greater be used in the less, neither the tabli- num nor alae could be convenient ; and if the proportions assigned to the less be used for the greater, the members would be huge and enormous. Vitruvius has, there- fore, in the above, assigned to each their respective proportions, both as regards their utility and appearance. The height of the beams of the tablinum was one-eighth, and that of the lacanariae one-third more than the breadth. The fauces, or 319* ATT entrance, in atria, of small dimen- sions was one-third, and in atria of large dimensions one-half, of the width of the tablinum ; -and the height of the images, with their ornaments, was determined by the breadth of the alae. The proportions of the height and width of the doorways de- pended upon the order of archi- tecture, whether doric or ionic, and was regulated by the estab- lished proportions of that particu- lar order of which the doorway was constructed As many persons have con- founded together the terms atri- um and vestibulum, supposing them to be one and the same place, we have given a plan of an an- cient Roman magistrate's house, by reference to which the reader will perceive, that the vestibulum was not a part of the interior of the house, but a large recess at the principal entrance, analogous, perhaps, to the loggias of modern Italy. See Plate P 3 , a, the vesti- bulum ; b, the atrium ; c, the tab- linum ; dd, alae ; ee, domestic offices ; f, the cavaedium ; g, the triclinium ; h, the procceton ; i, bathing apartments ; k, the cubi- culi : /, the basilica; m, the pin- acotheca -, n 9 the libraries ; o, the peristylium ; p, servants' rooms j q, the Egyptian cecus ; r, the Co- rinthian cecus ; s, the tetrastyle cecus ; and t, the cyzicene cecus. Atrium. In ecclesiastical anti- quity. An open space or court before a church, making part of what was called the narthex, or anti-temple. It was surrounded by a portico or cloister, and was situate between the porch and body of the church. In the atrium stood the first class of pe- nitents, to beg the prayers of the faithful as they went into the church. '• Attic. A term that expresses 320 ATT any thing invented or much used in Attica, or the city of Athens. Attic. A low story erected over an order of architecture, to finish the upper part of the build- ing, being chiefly used to conceal the roof, and give greater dignity to the design. The rules assigned by archi- tects for the proportions of the attic are various. Some make the height equal to one-half, and others only to one-third of the principal order. It is usually de- corated with pilasters, which are sometimes plain, and at other times panelled. They have no di- minution, nor have they any pe- culiar base or capital. Attics are much used by modern architects, particularly by the Italians ; and when applied to modern buildings frequently have windows in the podium or dado. Attic, or atticurgic base. Consists of an upper and lower torus, a scotia, and fillets between them. Vitruvius, speaking of the bases of columns, says, "the bases are fixed in their places, and are so proportioned, that, including their plinth, they have in height half the thickness of the column; and in projection, which the Greeks call eic(fiopav, ekphoran. They should have one quarter of the thickness of the column ; so that their breadth and length will be once and a half the thickness of the column. Their height, if they are to be in the attic mode, is so divided that the upper part is one- third of the thickness of the eo- lumn, and the remainder is left for the plinth. The plinth being excluded, the remaining part is divided into four parts, and the upper torus has one of them ; the remaining three parts are equally halved, and one-half makes the lower torus, and the other the scotia, which the Greeks call, I AUG AX I ■po%i\ov, trochilon, with its iquares." In ancient examples of the ionic >nd corinthian orders, both among he Greeks and Romans, the attic •ase is frequently to be found 5 •ut the proportions of its parts aries in almost every example, "he attic base is extremely beau- iful, and is as much the favourite f the moderns as it was of the ncients. See Plate B 1 . Bases. Attic, or atticurgic door. ee Door. Attic order. A term used by )me authors to denote the pilas- >rs employed in the decoration F an attic story. It appears, Dwever, to be used improperly, 1 it wants the parts that are es- ntially necessary to constitute p order, such as the capital, base, itablature, &c. Attic story. A term frequent- applied to the upper story of a ( )use. Attributes. In Painting and mlpture. Symbols given to ;ures and statues to indicate jeir office and character. For ample, the palm is an attribute , victory ; the trident, of Nep- ne j the olive branch, of peace ; i d the club is an attribute of hrcules. Auditory. A seat or bench ^ iere a magistrate or judge hears uses. Auditory. In ancient churches. 1 at part of a church where the ] )ple usually stood to be in- ducted in the gospel ; it is now c led the nave. Vuger. A tool used by carpcn- tf these two last mentioned is used, I is usual to allow it to remain till is quite hard, before it is sub- litted to the operation of planing r smoothing ; as, otherwise, it apt to shrink below the surface f the work. Bagxio. An Italian term for a jath. The English apply this term p a house which hath conveni- nces for bathing, sweating, and therwise cleansing the body ; the urks apply it to the prisons where leir slaves are confined, in which risons it is customary to have aths. Baguette. A small astragal oulding, sometimes carved and riched with pearls, ribands, urels, &c. According to M. ! Clerc, when the baguette is niched with ornaments it is call- 1 a chaplet ; and when plain, it is bead. Bakehouse. A house, or apart- ment, for baking. See Oven. Balaxeia. A Greek term for a (atfe- !U l, !'.K( OR BAALBECK. A fa- ,)ous ( rv of Syria ; implying in re Syrian language, the city Bit'tl or the Sun. It was also plebrated by the Greeks and rttin$ under the term Heliopolis, inch word is analogous to the rian " Balbec." It is pleasantly tuate near the north-east extre- ity of the valley of Bocat, or fkna, at the foot of mount iti-Libanus, on the last rising Jbimd where the mountain ter- • inates in the plain. It is well itered by the Litane, rising Dm Anti-Libanus, and the Bar- 1 uni from the foot of Libanus ; «'d it abounds in gardens. It is < tant from Damascus about fifty ) lea to the north-west ; and it is «' out thirty miles from the nearest M-coast, which is the site of the Jcient Byblus. Balbec has long been failed for her architectural antiquities. Pur- suing the plan, therefore, which we have adopted with respect to Athenian architecture, we purpose, in this place, to detail to the reader some of the most valuable infor- mation relating to this city, de- pending principally upon the ac- credited accounts of Mr. Robert Wood, which were published through the liberality of Mr. Daw- kins, who visited Balbec in 1/51 j and those of Mi Volney, in his travels in Egypt and Syria. " As we arrive," says Volney, " from the south, we discover the city at the distance of only a league and a half, behind a hedge of trees, over the verdant tops of which appears a white edging of domes and minarets. After an hour's journey we reach these trees, which are fine walnuts ; and soon after, crossing some ill-cultivated gar- dens, by winding paths arrive at the entrance of the city. We there perceived a ruined wall, flanked with square towers, which ascends the acclivity to the right, and traces the precincts of the ancient city. This wall, which is only 10 or 12 feet high, permits us to have a view of those void spaces, and heaps of ruins which are the invariable appendage of every Turkish city : but what principally attracts our attention, is a large edifice on the left, which, by its lofty walls and rich columns, manifestly appears to be one of those temples which antiquity has left for our admiration. These ruins, which are some of the most beautiful and best preserved in Asia, merit a particular descrip- tion. "To give a just idea of them, we must suppose ourselves descend- ing from the interior of the town. After having crossed the rubbish and huts with which it is filled we arrive at a vacant place, which H'2'3 B A L B E C. appears , to have been a square j there, in front towards the west, we perceive a grand ruin, which consists of two pavilions orna- mented with pilasters, joined at their bottom angles by a wall 160 feet in length. This front com- mands the open country from a sort of terrace, on the edge of which we distinguish with diffi- culty the bases of twelve columns, which formerly extended from one pavilion to the other, and formed a portico. The principal gate is obstructed by heaps of stones j but that obstacle surmounted, we enter an empty space, which is a hexagonal court of 180 feet diameter. This court is strewed with broken columns, mutilated capitals, and the remains of pilas- ters, entablatures, and cornices - } around is a row of ruined edifices, which display all the ornaments of the richest architecture. At the end of this court, opposite the west, is an outlet which formerly was a gate, through which we per- ceive a still more extensive range of ruins, whose magnificence strongly excites curiosity. To have a full prospect of these we must ascend a slope, up which were the steps to this gate, and we then arrive at the entrance of a square court, much more spaci- ous than the former. The eye is first attracted by the end of this court, where six enormous and majestic columns render the scene astonishingly grand and pictur- esque. Another object not less interesting is a second range of columns to the left, which appear to have been part of the peristyle of a temple 5 but before we pass hither we cannot refuse particular attention to the edifices, which enclose this court on each side. They form a sort of gallery which contains various chambers, seven of which may be reckoned in each 324 of the principal wings j viz. two in a semicircle, and five in an oblong square. The bottom of these apartments still retains pedi- ments of niches and tabernacles, the supporters of which are de- stroyed. On the side of the court they are open, and present only four and six columns totally de- stroyed. It is not easy to con- ceive the use of these apartments ; but this does not diminish our admiration at the beauty of their pilasters, and the richness of the frieze and of the entablature. Nei- ther is it possible to avoid remark- ing the singular effect which re- sults from the mixture of the garlands, the large foliage of the capitals, and the sculpture of wild plants with which they are every where ornamented. In traversing the length of the court, we find in the middle a little square espla- nade, where was a pavilion, of which nothing remains but the foundation. At length we arrive at the foot of the six columns j and then first conceive all the boldness of their elevation, and the richness of their workman- ship. Their shafts are 21 feet 8 inches in circumference, and 58 high ; so that the total height, including the entablature, is from 71 to 72 feet. The sight of this superb ruin, thus solitary and unaccompanied, at first strikes us with astonishment ; but on a more attentive examination, we dis- cover a series of foundations, which mark an oblong square of 268 feet in length, and 146 wide; and which, it seems probable, was the peristyle of a grand temple, the primary purpose of this whole structure. It presented to the great court, that is to the east, a front of ten columns, with nine- teen on each side, which with the other six make in all fifty-four. The ground on which it stood BALBEC. was an oblong square, on a level with this court, but narrower than it j so that there was only a terrace of 27 feet wide round the colon- nade. The esplanade this pro- duces fronts the open country toward the west, by a sloping wall of about 30 feet. This de- scent, as you approach the city, becomes less steep - f so that the foundation of the pavilion is on a level with the termination of the hill, whence it is evident that the whole ground of the courts has been artificially raised. " Such was the former state of this edifice j but the southern side of the grand temple was after- wards blocked up to build a small- er one, the peristyle and wall of which are still remaining. This temple, situated some feet lower than the other, presents a side of thirteen columns, by eight in front ' (in all thirty-four), which are 1 likewise of the Corinthian order ; their shafts are 15 feet 8 inches in circumference, and 44 in height. 1 'The building they surround is an 1 1 oblong square, the front of which, facing the east, is out of the line of the left wing of the great court. To reach it you must cross trunks of columns, heaps of stones, and a ruinous wall by which it is now hid. After surmounting these ob- [ 'stacles, you arrive at the gate, 'where you may survey the enclo- ii sure which was once the habita- tion of a god; but instead of the awful scene of a prostrate people, uid sacrifices offered by a multi- :ude of priests, the sky, which s open from the falling in of the oof, only lets in light to show a haos of ruins covered with dust ind weeds. The walls formerly nriched with all the ornaments )f the corinthian order, now pre- ient nothing but pediments of v liches, and tabernacles, of which dmost all the supporters have fallen to the ground. Between these niches is a range of fluted pilasters, whose capitals support a broken entablature j but what remains of it display a rich frieze of foliage, resting on the heads of satyrs, horses, bulls, &c. Over this entablature was the ancient roof, which was 5* feet wide, and 1 10 in length. The walls which supported it are 31 feet high, and without a window. It is impos- sible to form any idea of the or- naments of this roof, except from the fragments lying on the ground ; but it could not have been richer than the gallery of the peristyle : the principal remaining parts contain tablets in the form of lozenges, on which are repre- sented Jupiter seated on his eagle : Leda caressed by the swan Diana with her bow and crescent j and several busts, which seem to be fi- gures ofemperors and empresses." Several changes, however, have taken place since their journey ; for example, they found nine large columns standing ; and in 1784, there were but six. They reck- oned nine and twenty at the lesser temple, but there now remain but twenty ; the others have been overthrown by the earthquake of 1759. It has likewise so shaken the stone walls of the smaller tem- ple, that the stone of the soffit of the gate has slid between the two adjoining ones, and descended 8 inches ; by which means the body of the bird, sculptured on that stone, is suspended, detach- ed from its wings and the two garlands which hung from its beak and terminated in the two genii. Nature alone has not af- fected this devastation j the Turks have had their share in the de- struction of these columns. Their motive is to procure the iron cramps, which serve to join the several blocks of which each co- 325 ( BALBEC. lumn is composed. These cramps answer so well the end intended, that several of the columns are not even disjointed by the fall ; one among others, as Mr. Wood observed, has penetrated a stone of the temple wall without giving- way. Nothing can surpass the workmanship of these co- lumns; they are joined without any cement, yet there is not room for the blade of a knife between their interstices. After so many ages, they in general retain their original whiteness. But what is still more astonishing, is the enormous stones which compose the sloping wall. To the west, the second layer is formed of stones which are from 28 to 35 feet long, by about 9 in height. Over this layer at the north-west angle, « there are three stones which alone occupy a space of 175 feet and a half j viz. the first, 58 feet 7 inches ; the second, 58 feet 11 * and the third, 58 ; and each of these are 12 feet thick. These stones are of a white granite, with large shining flakes like gypse j there is a quarry of this kind of stone under the whole city, and in the adjacent mountain, which is open in several places, and, among others, on the right as we approach the city. There is still lying there a stone, hewn on three sides, which is 69 feet 2 inches long, 12 feet 10 inches broad, and 13 feet 3 inches in thickness. The tradition which ascribes the buildings at Balbec, and also Palmyra, to Solomon, and on which the inhabitants of the coun- try confidently rely, is founded on an opinion generally prevalent of his wisdom and love of pleasure, with both of which the magnifi- cence, beauty, and disposition of these buildings perfectly agree ; and on the mention of "Tadmor in the wilderness, and the tower of 326 Lebanon looking toward Damas- cus," which are said in the Old Testament to have been built by his direction. Some have supposed that these are the ruins of a temple of the sun built by the Phoenicians, be- cause it is certain that the suns was worshipped at this place when the Phoenicians were in their most flourishing state. Others have thought, that these buildings were erected by theGreeks,who succeed- ed the Phoenicians in this country, because they are of the corinthian and ionic order , but as they are' not mentioned from the time of Alexander's conquest to that of Pompey, there is great reason to suppose they are of later date. When we consider the extraor- dinary magnificence of the temple of Balbec, we cannot but be as- tonished at the silence of the Greek and Roman authors. Mr. Wood, who has carefully examin- ed all the ancient writers, has] found no mention of it, except in a fragment of " John of Antioch," surnamed Malala, who attributes the building of this edifice to Antoninus Pius. He says, that; this Emperor " built a great tem- ple to Jupiter at Heliopolis, near Libanus, in Phoenicia, which was one of the wonders of the world." This is the only historical autho- rity that has yet been discovered relating to this subject. As these buildings seem to have been erect-J ed between the time of Pompey and Caracalla, it is very probable they were the work of Antoninusi Pius. The inscriptions that re- main corroborate this opinion, which perfectly accounts for the constant use of the corinthian or-; der, since that order was not ic general use before the third age of Rome ; but we ought by ncj means to allege as an additional proof, the bird sculptured ovei< B A L B E C. the gate ; for if his crooked beak, large claws, and the caduceus he bears, give him the appearance of an eagle, the tuft of feathers on his head, like that of certain pigeons, proves that he is not the Roman eagle : besides that, the same bird is found in the temple of Palmyra, and is, therefore, evidently an oriental eagle, con- secrated to the sun, who was the divinity adored in both these tem- ples. His worship existed at Bal- bec in the most remote antiquity. ; His statue, which resembled that of Osiris, had been brought thither from the Heliopolis of Egypt, and ll the ceremonies with which he was worshipped there, have been described by Macrobius in his curious work, entitled " Satur- nalia.*' Mr Wood supposes, with tl reason, that the name of Balbec, 5 j | which in Syriac signifies city of : Baal, or of the sun, originated e j ! in this worship. The Greeks by naming it Heliopolis have, in this s i instance, only given a literal trans- lation of the oriental words, a practice to which they have not I always adhered. We are ignorant of the state of this city in remote antiquity ; but I , it is to be presumed, that its situ* , ation on the road from Tyre to i Palmyra, gave it some part of the commerce of those opulent cap- itals. Under the Romans, Heliopolis was constituted a colony by Julius Caesar j and in the time of Au- gustus, it is mentioned as a gar- rison town, for it received part of the veterans of the fifth and I eighth legions ; and there is still remaining on the wall of the southern gate, to the right as we enter, an inscription which proves the truth of this, the words Ken- turla Prima, in Greek characters, being very legible. One hundred and forty years after, Antoninus built there the present temple, in place of the ancient one, which, doubtless, was falling into ruins. Christianity, however, having gained the ascendancy under Constantine, the modern temple was neglected, and afterwards converted into a church, a wall of which, that hid the sanctuary of the idols, is still remaining. It continued thus until the invasion of the Arabs, when it is proba- ble they envied the christians so beautiful a building. The church being less frequented, fell to de- cay 5 wars succeeded, and it was converted into a place of defence ; battlements were built on the wall which surrounded it, on the pa- vilions, and at the angles, which still subsist j and from that time, the temple, exposed to the rava- ges of war, fell rapidly to ruin." Mr. Wood's book, entitled Les Ruines de Balbec, contains forty-six folio plates, illustrative of the state of the ancient build- ings in Balbec, at the time that he and Mr. Dawk ins visited it in the year 1751. But as the limits of this work will not admit of our giving more than a small portion of these plates, we have endeavour- ed to select such as will be the most useful to our readers. Plate B 2 , Balbec, is a plan and elevation of the semicircular exedrae of the great temple. A, niche ; enlarged in plate B 3 . B, tabernacle above the niche ; enlarged in plate B 5 . C, entablature ; enlarged in plate B\ D, soffit of the arched roof. Plate B 3 , Balbec. Elevation of the niche in the semicircular exedra ; and between the pilas- ters of the quadrangular court, with a part of the tabernacle above. A, end of the niche. B, pilaster of the niche, of the 327 B A L composite order, ornamented with oak-leaves. C, great pilaster of the court. See this order entire in plate B 5 . D, frieze within the niche, of a size equal to the height of the capitals of the pilasters. E, shell, which forms the upper part of the niche. F, pedestal for a statue. G, columns of the tabernacle above the niche. Plate B 4 , Balbec. Plan and elevation of the tabernacle, above the niche,as shown in the last plate. A, plan of the tabernacle. B, C, its depth in the wall. D, plan of the composite co- lumns. E, plan of the pilasters of the courts. Plate B 5 , will show the order. Plate B 5 , a column and entab- lature of the two courts. The shaft of the column consists of a single block of granite, and the vase and capitals were of the same materials as the rest of the edifice. The shafts of the columns of the great temple were composed of three pieces, very closely join- ed without the aid of cement, and fastened together by clamps of iron. For the reception of these bars of iron, holes were made in each of the stones. Most of the bases have two of these holes, the one circular, the other square, which correspond with two holes of the same form and dimensions in the in- ferior parts of the shafts. On measuring some of the largest of the circular holes, it appeared to Mr. Wood, that the rods of iron that had been inserted in them must have been a foot long, and more than a foot in diameter j the whole of the ruins which he saw had similar holes, hence he con- cluded that each of the stones had been secured in the manner 328 B A L above described. This diminished his surprise of the quantity of iron, which the inhabitants in- formed him had been taken ' from the ruins by the bashaws of I Damascus ; and the marks of their violent though vain, efforts to take the iron from the columns still standing were very evident. Plate B 6 , elevation of the front of the most entire temple re- stored. Plate B 7 , side elevation of the same temple, Plate B 8 , order of the peristyle of the same temple. Most of the columns are composed of three, though some of them are only of two pieces. Plate B 9 , column in the interior of the temple ; the shaft of which is composed of several pieces. Plate B 10 , view of the circular temple, in the state in which it was found by Mr. Wood. The outside of this temple was of the Corinthian order, the inside of the Corinthian and ionic : the shafts of the columns, both exterior and interior, are of a single piece. Balcony. From the French balcon, a kind of open gallery, projecting from the walls of build- ings, contrived chiefly for the convenience of looking around, seeing processions, cavalcades, and the like. When there is but one balcony to a house, it is usu- ! ally placed on a level with, and extending the whole length of the first floor. Balconies are some- times made of wood, and some- times of cast-iron ; they are j also made of wrou£?ht-iron, fashioned into various fanciful figures ; and sometimes of stone. A separate balcony is sometimes placed to each window ; and are usually made convex to the street. Where balconies are placed, it is customary to extend the windows to the floor, or very B A L BAL iear to it, without giving the perture any additional breadth. Balcony. In Naval Architecture. \ gallery, either covered or open, nade abaft, for convenience r ornament of the captain's abin. Baldachin, or baldaquin. This ,-ord is derived from the Italian aldackino, and implies a build- hg in the form of a canopy, sup- orted with columns, and serving s a crown or covering to an ■ ltar. Balection mouldings. See {election Mouldings. Balks. Large pieces of tim- er brought from abroad in floats ; r a sort of beams imported, from to 12 inches square. The greater ilks are accounted timber if jove 8 inches square. Balk is so used in some parts of Eng- nd for the summer-beam of a Hiding, as also for the poles or ifters laid over outhouses or irns. It is used among brick- yers, for the pieces of timber fed in making scaffolds. * Balloon. A round ball or globe aced at the top of a pillar, or f |e like, by way of acroter or owning. That on the top of Peter's, at Rome, is of brass, stained by an iron arming with- ; and being at the height of vty-seven fathoms, is above 8 ; ! et in diameter. Balneum. A bath. ' Balthei. A word used by truvius for some part of the i iic volute, generally supposed I be the mouldings that encom- ia i ( ssed the bolsters. Baluster. A small kind of t (lumn, or pillar, belonging to I alustrade. Baluster. The lateral part of t; volute of the ionic capital, v ruvius calls it pulvinata, on I jount of its resemblance to a v f'low. 2T Balustrade. This word is de- rived from the Latin balustrum, or balustrium ; a space in the ancient baths that was railed in. Balus- trades are sometimes of real use in buildings, and at other times they are merely ornamental. Such as are intended for use, as when they are employed in stair-cases, before windows, to enclose terra- ces, &c. must always be nearly of the same height, never exceeding 3 feet and a half, nor ever less than 3 feet, so that a person of ordinary size may, with ease, lean over them, without being, at the same time, in danger of falling. But those that are principally designed for ornament, as when they finish a building, should be proportioned to the architecture they accompany. Palladio, in some of his works, has made the height of the balustrade equal to that of the whole entablature ; and Inigo Jones, in many of his buildings, has followed his ex- ample, particularly at the ban- queting-house, Whitehall, or, as it is now most generally called, Whitehall chapel. Sir William Chambers objects to this great height being given to the balus- trade, and states that it should never exceed four-fifths, nor be less than two-thirds of the height of the entablature on which it is placed. There are various figures of balusters ; the most regular of which are delineated in plate B 11 , Balusters. The handsomest are the three in the first row : the profiles and dimensions of which all diner. The simplest of them may serve to finish a tuscan or- der ; and the others may be em- ployed in the doric, ionic, Corin- thian, and composite orders, ac- cording to their degrees of rich- ness. The best proportion for balustrades of this kind is, to 329 B ALUS divide the whole given height into thirteen equal parts j and to make the height of the baluster equal to eight, the height of the base to three, and that of the cor- nice or rail to two, of those parts ; and if it be required to make the baluster less, to divide the height of the balustrade into fourteen parts, giving eight parts to the baluster, four to the base, and two to the rail. One of these parts may be called a module j and being divided into nine mi- nutes, may serve to determine the dimensions of the particular mem- bers, as in plate B 11 . The other designs of balusters exhibited in the same plate, are likewise very perfect in their kinds, and are collected from the works of Palladio and other great masters. The double-bellied ones, being the highest, are most proper to accompany windows, or other compositions, whose parts are small, and whose profiles are delicate. The base and rail of these balusters may be of the same profile as the single-bellied; but they must not be quite so large. Two-ninths of the baluster will be a proper height for the rail, and three for the base. The pro- portions of the balusters may easily be found by reference to the plate, where the height of each is divided into such a num- ber of parts as is most convenient for the distribution of the inferior divisions ; one of which parts is the module divided into nine minutes. In balustrades, the distance be- tween two balusters should not exceed half the diameter of the baluster, measured in its thickest part 3 nor be less than one-third of it. The pedestals which sup- port the rails should be kept at such a distance, that the balus- trades have not a heavy look by TRADE. their being too frequent, nor weak appearance by their bein too far asunder. The most eligi ble distance between them i< when room is left in each intern for eight or nine whole baluster; besides the two half ones engage in the flanks of the pedestal.'. But as the disposition of the pej destals depends on the situatio; of the piers, pilasters, or column; in the front, it being customar; to place a pedestal directly ov(i the middle of each of these, frequently happens that the inter vals are sufficient to contain si> teen or eighteen balusters. I this case, each range may be d vided into two, by placing a d: in the middle, flanked with tvv half balusters. The breadth < this die may be from one-half! two-thirds of the breadth of a p< destal ; and it will be best to coi tinue the rail and base in a straigl line, without having a bre; round it : for frequent breaks any kind are defective j and raui more so when they are of differe dimensions, because they thi render the confusion greater. The breadth of the pedesta when they are placed on colum or pilasters is regulated by then the die never being made broad than the top of the shaft, nor much narrower dimensions. Wh there are neither columns n pilasters in the front, the ( should never be much lower, a seldom higher than a square. On stairs, or any other inclin planes, the same proportions i to be observed as on horizon ones. Sometimes it is custom; to make the mouldings of t balusters follow the inclination the plane ; but this is difficult execute, and not very handsoi when done ; consequently it I better to keep them horizon*, and to make the abacus and plijl B A L BAN in the form of wedges, making the height at the axis of the ba- luster the same as usual. See fig. D, plate B 11 . The distance be- tween two balusters on inclined planes, must not be so much as when they are on a horizontal situation j because the thickest parts do not then come on the same level. Le Clerc thinks it best ,o finish the inclined balustrades )f stairs, or steps, with horizontal bedestals, placed on the floor or pavement to which they descend. The method of joining the hori- zontal mouldings of these to the nclined ones of the rail and base of the pedestal is shown in fig. D, tfateB 11 . As the intention of balustrades s to enclose terraces, and other ieights, where persons walk, with '. vfew to prevent accidents, it is, s D'Avila observes, an impro- priety to place them on the in- lined cornices of pediments, as t Santa Susanna and Santa Maria ella Vittoria, near Dioclesian's aths, at Rome j or in any other laces where it is not apparently racticable for men to walk. V hen balustrades are used in in- >rior decoration, as on stairs, or > enclose altars, thrones, tribu- als, alcoves, &c. ; or are used i gardens, to enclose basins of ater, fountains, or any other jcoration, the figures of the 'dusters may be varied and en- ched with suitable ornaments. If statues are to be placed on a dustrade, their height must not :ceed one quarter of the column id entablature on which the ba- strade stands. Their attitude ust be upright, or, if any thing, 'tiding a little forward ; but must ver incline to either side. Their *s must be close to each other, (1 the drapery close to their dies ; for when they stand ■ addling, with their bodies tor- tured into half a dozen bends, and their draperies waving in the wind, as on the colonnades of St. Peter's, they have a most disagreeable effect, especially at a distance, from whence they appear like lumps of unformed materials, ready to drop upon the heads of the passengers. Band. A flat member, or moulding, smaller than the facia. The face of the band is in a verti- cal plane, as also is that of the facia : but the word band is ap- plied to narrow members* some- what wider than fillets j and the word facia to broad members, as the facia of an architrave. The cincture round the shaft of a rus- ticated column is called the band. Banded column. A column encircled with bands, or annular rustics. Bandelet, bandlet, or band. Any little band, or flat moulding, that encompasses a column like a ring. Banister. A vulgar term for baluster. Banker. A stone bench on which masons cut and square their work. Banquet. The foot-way of a bridge, raised above the carriage- way. Banqueting - room. In the early ages of Rome, the inhab- itants supped in the atrium or ves- tibule of their houses ; but in after times, magnificent saloons, or banqueting-rooms, were built for the more commodious and splen- did entertainment of their guests. Lucullus had several of these, each distinguished by the name of some god ; and there was a par- ticular rate of expense appropri- ated to each. Plutarch relates with what magnificence he enter- tained Cicero and Pompey, who went with the design to surprise him, by his telling the slave in 331 BAR BAR waiting, that the cloth should be laid in the Apollo. The emperor Claudius, among others, had a splendid banqueting-room named Mercury j but every thing of the kind was outdone by the lustre of that celebrated banqueting- house of Nero, call domus aurea, the house of gold ; which by the circular motion of its ceilings and partitions, imitated the revolu- tions of the heavenly bodies, and represented the different seasons of the year, which changed at every service, and showered down flowers, essences, and perfumes, on the guests. Heliogabalus, however, is said to have improv- ed as much upon Nero, as the latter had done upon Lucullus. Baptismal-font. The vessel which contains the water used in the administration of baptism. Baptistry. An apartment or edifice where baptism is adminis- tered. Bar. This word is used in courts of justice to denote an en- closure made with a strong parti- tion of timber, 3 or 4 feet high, where the counsel are placed to plead causes. The same term is also given to the benches where the lawyers or advocates are seated j hence the lawyers who are licensed to plead are called barristers. Bar. A piece of wood or iron used for fastening doors, window- shutters, &c. Bars for the shutters of windows. See Shutters. Bars of a boarded door. See Ledges. Bars of a sash. Light pieces of wood or metal which divide the window-sash into several compart- ments for the admission of the several panes of glass. Angle-bars are those which stand in the in- tersection of two vertical planes. Bar-iron. Iron-ore, when 332 first dug from the pits, is found to consist of iron united with oxy- gen, and various proportions of earthy matter. The earthy mat- ter when abounding in alumine,or clay, is called argillaceous; and | when abounding in lime, calcare- ous. Iron-ore is first subjected to a process called roasting, in order to extract the arsenic and sulphur. This process consists in laying the iron-stone in strata, with re- fuse pit-coal, or, as it is called in Staffordshire, slack, and, setting fire to it on the windward side, burning it in large heaps in the open air. When it has been roast- ed, it is taken to the smelting oi blast-furnace, the lower part of which is filled with either char- coal or coke : the coke is always a fixed quantity, and the propor- tion of limestone or clay added to the ore is according to the quantity of heterogeneous matter with which the metal is combined. If the ore abound with calcare- ous ingredients, clay is added as flux j but if it abound in argilla- ceous matter, the flux is lime- stone. The materials in the furnact are, previously to the introduc- tion of the blast, heated simplj by the draught of the atmosphere the coke and limestone to ; bright red or white heat, and th< iron-ore to a melting heat. Th( blast is then introduced, and tht ore is soon brought into a state fusion. It is then tapped, aiu run into moulds made in sand and when cold is called pig-iron The pig-iron which has th( smallest portion of carbon is th( best adapted for conversion int( malleable iron : and, as a proo that pig-iron has only to lose it carbon to become wrought malleable iron we shall state thi fact, that we have in this country; at this present time, many manu BAR-IRON. ictories upon a large scale, for le express purpose of convert- •g articles made of cast-iron, as ills, cutlery, &c. into iron per- ctly malleable, without altering the slightest degree the figure ven to them in casting. We ive even seen nails made in this ay, welded together, and when ild bent at right angles in a ce. The method of releasing the g-iron of its carbon, or of con- rting it into what is called -ought or malleable iron, is by facing it in any open furnace, ymed a refinery, and by some a m-out furnace, heated by coke, id subjected to the operation of a Jry powerful blast. The pig- Mi is laid upon cakes, and is sjn melted, leaving much of its i purity behind. This is termed lining it. The metal when melt- ( is run into plates, about 4 i|hes thick, and as soon as it homes set is thrown into water, Mich makes it more frangible rd easier to be broken. Che cake of metal is then broken i o lumps of a convenient size, m taken to the puddling-furnace 'v ere it is heated with coals, with- djt the aid of an artificial blast. A soon as the metal becomes 1 ited and begins to melt, c has a frosty appearance, the f nace-man throws in a small cj mtity of water to keep it at a roper temperature, and keeps B ring and moving it about, so t it the carbon makes its escape, le water that is thrown in to p serve the temperature, also aists in some degree the decar- bonization. The quality of iron depends much upon the attention that is paid to it during this pro- cess. When the iron is deprived of the carbon, or fusible property that it before possessed, the fur- nace-man rolls it up into balls of one-half or three-quarters of a hundred-weight each. It is then brought out of the furnace and placed under a tilt-hammer, or passed through rollers, which consolidates it, and forces out more of the impure parts. A con- siderable loss in weight is sustain- ed in this process, not only from the iron losing its impurities, but also from the surface of the bloom or bar oxydizing and falling off in scales whilst being worked. The loss which is thus sustained in weight is generally estimated at one-sixth, or one-seventh, of the whole. Having undergone this process, the iron is taken to the shears, and cut into lengths of about 1 or 2 feet, and in order to impart closeness and solidity is piled into pieces of seven or eight together, and heated in another furnace. There is no occasion this time to remove the iron about, for, hav- ing lost its carbon, it is infusible. When it is of sufficient heat, which, from practice, the furnace- man can easily tell by his eye, it is again carried to either the ham- mer or rollers, and is worked into a bar; this is called bar-iron. Iron thus made is called No. 2 j but being cut up, piled and worked over again, it is denominated No. 3, or best iron. 333 BAR-IRON. Tables of the average weight of Bars, Squares, and Bolts, 10 feet in length. BARS. Inches. Cwt. qr. lbs. T 1 Inches. Cwt. qr. lbs. Inches. Cwt. qr. lbs 6 + 4 x 1 10 3 4+4 *-> 12 24 + 4 1 4 1 n V7 xo 4 v/ 2 24 4 1 X in * Q 1 Q Xi7 1 ~T ft V/ M Q 4 1 1 X 51+4 1 1 X 3 O \ 20 24 + 4 2 9 A _s_ i 1 (\ 34+4 n V/ K «J 4 1 X 1ft 1 T Q IO XV/ 4 2 18 1 14. XI 5+4 13 4 2 4 4 1 Q 4 yj 2S 3 1 16 3 •5- 1 4 Q O 2 3^ + 4 2 27 2 + 4 1 24 44 + 4 1 10 5 "8" 2 14 4 1 JiO 5 "B" 3 19 4 1 27 ■A 1 1 1 X x 4 9 it 25 4 14 1 T ] ft 3 n 9 K 3+4 2 3 ■8" 9fi 4 + 4 i X O yj 4 4 2 g 14 + 4 X 90 5 "S \J Q O 13 1 T 2S 5 q 1 X 19 X (1 4 2 21 3 1 10 1 9 3 T3T 2 11 24 + 4 2 14 1 T 1 5 3 25 TT 2 2 3 24 4 3 7 1 20 H + 4 1 17 4 2 17 4 1 7 4 1 10 3 -g 2 24 + 4 2 8 tV 1 5 4+4 3 19 4 1 25 1 ■2" 1 2 5 "8" 3 1 h 1 15 3 23 T 2 12 3 1 4 H + 4 1 11 3 1 24 24+4 2 5 4 1 3 1 SQUARES. BOLTS. Inches Cwt. qr. lbs. Inches Cwt. q r . lbs. Inches Cwt. qr lbs. Inches Cwt. qr. lbs. h 2 3 14 3 2 3 2 IS H 2 16 2 2 3 14 2 21 24 1 3 22 1 1 A T 2 3 24 2 1 8 14 2 11 24 1 3 6 1 3 *TT 1 24 £i 2 11 H 1 25 24 1 2 17 1 ! 1 14 24 1 3 18 H 1 15 24 1 1 23 i 1 1 5 21- 1 2 24 1 1 6 24 1 1 11 27 24 1 2 5 7 •g- 26 24 1 24 4 20 24 1 1 14 3 T 19 24 1 9 3 T 15 2 1 25 4 13 2 3 24 4 10 1 8 1 8 H 3 9 1 T 7 U 3 21 H 2 26 334 BAR BAR Bar-posts. Posts driven into \\e ground to form the sides of a •ld-gate. These posts are mor- ;ed, to admit of horizontal bars ting placed in, or taken out, at easure. Babbacan. A long narrow ca- ll, or opening, left in the walls a building, erected on a place Jat is liable to be overflowed, to low the water to flow through : 1 L to drain off the water from a 1 trace, or the like. 1 Barbacan, or barbican. In 1 jcient Fortification. An outer 1 « fence, or fortification to a city, 1 J castle j used especially as a 1 nee to the gates or walls. In J -is sense, barbacan amounts to 1 |e same thing with what is other- I jse called ante-murale, pro-mu- 1 -de, murus exterior, or outer wall. 1 |e same word also expresses a jlrt at the entrance of a bridge, 1 « : in the outlet of a city, having a ! i uble wall with towers ; also an 1 ; erture in the wall of a city, rough which muskets were >inted at the enemy. See Em- 1 mure. ! Barge-course. That part of e tiling which projects over the - |-bleofa building, and is made i below with mortar. IUrkary. A tan-house, or house i which tanners keep their bark. Barn. A covered building used I d agriculturists, for laying up ; 1 preserving all sorts of grain, ; 1 v', straw, &c. Barns should be erected on a and rather elevated situation; c the north or north-east side of t : farm-yard ; and the barns, j c;houses, and stables, should be Bpate near to each other. Barns * D^y be constructed on wooden fmes with weather boarding, or b It of stone and brick, and the r f may be thatched or tiled, ac- c ding as either of these mate- r s are the easiest to be pro- cured. With the view of keeping the grain as dry as possible, and prevent it from moulding, the gable ends should be constructed of brick, and apertures should be left in the walls for the free ad- mission of air. Two pair of fold- ing doors, exactly opposite to each other, must also be made to the barn, for the convenience of carrying in and out a cart or waggon load of corn in sheaves, or any other sort of bulky pro- duce. These doors should be of the same breadth as the threshing floor, to afford light to the thresh- ers, and air for winnowing the grain. A barn has sometimes a large penthouse over the great doors, which is made to project sufficiently to cover a load of corn or hay, in case a sudden storm should come on before it can be housed j and also to shelter the poultry from the effects of the weather. Hay-barns should always be constructed of wood, and not be placed too close to each other. They are sometimes built on rollers, which admit of their being removed from one place to another. It is observed in the sixteenth volume of the "Annals of Agricul- ture," in speaking of the construc- tion of barns, that the under-pin- ning should be of brick or stone, 2 feet high above the ground, and the sides boarded ; the roof of the barn is best covered with reed or straw, and those of the stables on its sides with slate or glazed tile because they must be more flat, and the water which runs from the roof of the barn would injure most other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the back door, small doors, 4 feet square, should be fixed at the height of 12 feet from the ground ; the two former for put- BAR ting corn in at the ends, and the latter for filling the middle of the barn after the bays are full. All the bays should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing floor be made with hard bricks, which will be sufficient for all sorts of grain except wheat and rye ; and for threshing them, it will be good economy to have planks of oak or red deal well fit- ted together and numbered, to be laid down occasionally, and con- fined by a frame at their ends. A barn built on such a plan would hold a great deal of corn, and be filled most conveniently ; and if the stacks of corn were built at each end, they might be taken in without any carting. If more buildings are requisite, two may be added on the back side, like the stables in front ; otherwise if doors be made under the eaves on the back side, as directed at the ends, and stacks be placed oppo- site to them, just far enough to avoid the eaves dropping, by placing a waggon between them and the barn by way of a stage, these stacks may be taken in without carting ; which method spares a great waste of corn and much trouble. The spars of the roofs of the stables rest upon the upper cills of the sides of the barn, and the outside wall of the stables is 8 feet high j the barn supplying the highest side and one end of each stable, and the stables in return are buttresses to the barn and strengthen it greatly. It is remarked by the author of the "Agricultural Survey of the County of Somerset," that the practice lately introduced of pla- cing barns on a declivity cannot be too much recommended • as a warm and commodious range of stalls for cattle, covered by the same roof, is by that means ob- 336 B AS tained. Besides, the barn floor, by being thus elevated, is ren- dered more durable, and less sub- ject to vermin ; the grain is kept more dry and sweet than on a ground floor, and cannot slip through it without discovery. The plan, indeed, is, in his opinion, almost unexceptionable. Barns when built in this way should have a southern aspect, the arches of the cattle stalls facing that way. In respect to the size of barns in Gloucestershire, 52 feet by 24 feet in the clear, and fronr 16 to 20 feet in height to the plate, is considered a good barn : these dimensions admitting of four bays of 10 feet each, with a floor in the middle. The invention of threshing machines has, in some measure, varied the construction of barns, as where they are made use of, they should be contrived chiefly with a view to the distribution of the straw. The machines being built in the centre, with the grain stacks adjoining them, in such manner, that they may be supplied without the assistance of carts and horses. The barns in these cases need not be so large, but they should have granaries provi- ded in them, which, probably, may be most conveniently placed over the floors. In most of the old barns, threshing machines may be erected without much in- convenience or trouble. Barrel-drain. A drain of the form of a hollow cylinder. BaRYCE, OR BARYCEPHALiE. From /3a/3W, low, Or flat, and Ke(pa\r). a head ; the Greek name for thel temple in Araeastyles. Bas-relief. See Basso-relievo, Basalt. A stratified rock ; very useful in building, paving. &c. When calcined and pulver- ized, it forms an excellent substi- tute for puzzolana, in the compo B A S B AS sition of mortar ; and has the property of hardening under water. Base. In Geometry. The low- est part of a figure or body. Base of a solid. The surface on which it rests. Base of a column. That part which is between the shaft and the pedestal ; or, if there be no pedestal, between the shaft and he zocle, or plinth. Each column has its particular )ase. The tuscan base is the nost simple, having only a torus ind a plinth. The doric base has in astragal more than the tuscan ; >ut this was introduced by the noderns, as the ancients gave no >ase to the doric order. In the onic base there is, according to itruvius, a torus and fillet, rest- ag upon two scotias, divided by stragals and fillets ; but both ncient and modern architects ave, with very few exceptions, hen to this order the attic base, the attic base consists of two oruses, or tori, and a scotia, and 3 applicable to every order except | he tuscan. The corinthian base I, as two toruses, two scotias, and . wo astragals. And the compo- te base has one astragal less iau the corinthian ; but in this ,*(ler, the ionic and corinthian t ises are used indifferently. See Jtic, or Atticurgic Base, and plate j f, Bases. When a column and its base |e required to be of wood, it is st to make the base of several fetinct ])ieces, joined together by lue, so that the grain of the )od may be in a horizontal, in- ' ad of a vertical, direction, •e best mode of forming bases ( this kind is as follows : let ! \ fj'eral pieces of wood, of equal 1 gth, be closely jointed together b Ipn a perfectly flat surface, or Urd, so that the diameter of ; 2U these several pieces when united make somewhat more than the intended diameter of the base of the column let them be firmly united by glue, and, when dry, let the upper surface be planed smooth, in a line exactly parallel with the flat surface of the board on which they rest. Upon this course let a second course of the same number of pieces be placed, taking care that the centres of the several pieces, of which this second course is composed, rest exactly on the division line of every two pieces of the course below j and let them be glued to- gether, and to the upper surface of the said course below. When the glue of this second course is dry, its surface may be planed similarly to the first, and a third course, in like manner, may be added. The horizontal joints of these courses must be so regula- ted as to fall at the junction of two mouldings, forming an in- terior, or a re-entering angle. When the glue is become thoroughly hard, the base may be sent to be turned. Base of a room. The lower projecting part of a room, con- sisting of a plain board, which adjoins the floor, called the plinth, and one or two mouldings above it, called the base-mouldings. In the best work, the plinth is tongued into a groove in the floor, with a view to prevent any crevice appearing between the bottom of the plinth and the surface of the floor, which, in works where this precaution has not been taken, is frequently the case, from the shrinkage of the wood. The up- per part of the plinth is rebated upon the base. In rooms with pavement floors, the plinth of the base is generally of stone, and the mouldings are of wood, which is not so liable to be injured as stone 337 B A S B AS mouldings. Bed-rooms, passages, lobbies, stair-cases, and some- times vestibules and halls are finished without the dado and surbase. Basement. The lower part or story of a building, on which an order is placed, with a base or plinth, die, and cornice. The height of the basement varies in modern buildings, ac- cording as it is the cellar or ground story j and wh n it is the ground story, according to the nature or destination of the rooms on that floor. In Italy, where the sum- mer apartments are frequently on the ground floor, the basements are sometimes very high. At the palace of the Porti, in Vicenza, the height of the basement is equal to that of the order 5 and at the Thieni, in the same city, its height exceeds two-thirds of that of the order, which, nevertheless, is almost of a sufficient size to comprehend two stories : but at the Villa Capra, and at the Loco Arsieri, both near Vicenza, the basement is only half the height of the order ; because the ground floor consists of nothing but offi- ces. These four examples are from the works of the great Pal- ladio, and sufficiently authorize any variations that it may be necessary to make in basements. It will not, however, be advisa- ble ever to make the basement higher than the order it supports ; for the order being the richest part in the composition, and in- dicating the principal part in the fabric, ought to be predominant : nor ought it to be lower than half the height of the order, as other- wise the rooms will be low, and the windows ill-proportioned. But if the only use of the basement be to raise the ground floor, it need not be above 3, 4, or at most 5, feet high If the cellar story be the base- ment, and the height does not ex- ceed 5 or 6 feet, it may be made quite plain, or with rustics, or formed into a continued pedestal j but when it is on the ground floor, it is usual to decorate it with rustics, supported on a base, and supported with a crowning string- course. The rustics best appro- priated tobuildings where neatness and finishing are aimed at, are such as have a smooth surface. Their height including the joint, should never be less than one module of the order placed upon the build- ing, nor much more. They arei made either of a rectangular or triangular section, by imagining one of the sides of these sections to be a line extending across the front of the joints : and these joints may be either square or chamfered. The square joints should not be broader than one- eighth of the height of the rustic, nor narrower than one-tenth ; and their depth must be equal to their breadth. Those that are chamfer- ed must form a rectangle; and thf breadth of the whole joint maj be from one-fourth to one-thin of the height of the flat surface the rustic. Sometimes the verti cal joints are omitted ; but thi; has a very bad effect, and give: the building more the appearand of being constructed of planks wood, than of stones. PalUdic in imitation of the ancients, al ways marked both the vertical an the horizontal joints. When th former of these are regularly an artfully disposed, the rustic worl hath a very beautiful appearance. The basement when high j sometimes finished with a cornice but the usual method is only t crown it with a plat-band, whos height should not exceed th height of a rustic with its joint, nor ever be lower than the rusti 1 BAS B AS exclusive of the joint. The zocle, >r plinth, at the foot of the base- nent, may be of the same height pith the plat-band, or a trifle igherj and when there are arches, be plat-band, which supplies the lace of the impost, must be of ■ie height of a rustic, exclusive f the joint. Basil. A word used by car- enters and joiners, to denote the igle to which the edge of an iron >ol is ground. To work on soft ood, they usually make the basil velve degrees : for hard wood, irhteen degrees : it being ob- rved that the more acute or in the basil is, the better and aoother it cuts ; and the more >tuse, the stronger and fitter it for service. "Basilic, or basilica. Denotes ancient architecture a kind of ! iblic hall, or court of judicature, ■iere the princes or magistrates t to administer justice. The silica consisted of a great hall, t t th aisles,porticoes, tribunes, and burials. With us, Westminster- s' III is properly a basilica ; but ;chitects generally apply this )rd to any spacious building, as - Kill or church. When applied t a church, it conveys an idea of iJ £.2at magnificence. Among the Romans, the basi- lp was a large hall adjoined to t forum, and is thus described (J1 I Vitruvius : " The basilica s'mld be adjoined to the forum c the warmest side, that the n/ociants may confer together, v.hout being incommoded by the v-ither. The breadth is not made h than the third, nor more than tl half of the length, unless the n ure of the place opposes the p portions and obliges the sym- , nr ry to be different. But if 'the bjilica have too much length, d 'cidicce (supposed to be some kil of apartments separated by a partition at the ends of the basilica,) as is t he case in the basil ica of Julia Aquilina. The columns of the basilica are made as high as the posticus is broad. The posticus is the third part of the space in the middle. The upper columns are less than the lower, as above writ- ten. The pluteumca podium, or continued pedestal) which is be- tween the upper columns, should also be made a fourth part less than the same columns, that those who walk in the floor above may not be seen by the negociators below." The epistylium, zophorus, and coronas, are proportioned to the columns as explained in the third book of the architecture of Vitruvius. " Nor will basilicas of the kind of that at the colony of Julia of Fanurn, which I designed and conducted, have less dignity and beauty ; the proportions and sym- metry of which are as follows. The middle testudo (the middle part or nave) between the columns is 120 feet long, and 60 feet broad. The posticus around the testudo, between the walls and columns, is 20 feet broad. The height of the continued columns, including their capitals, is 50 feet, and the thickness 5, having behind them parastatae (attached pilas- ters) 20 feet high, 2 feet and a half broad, and 1 foot and a half thick, which sustain the beams that support the floors of the porticoes. Above these are other para(*tatae, 18 feet high, 2 feet broad, and 1 foot thick, which also receive beams sustaining the canthers of the porticoes, which are laid below the roof of the tes- tudo. The remaining space left between the beams that lay over the parastatae, and those which lay over the columns, is left open in the intercolumns, in order to give light. The columns in the 33a BASILICA. breadth of the testudo, including those of the angles to the right and left, are four ; and in the length, on that side which is next the forum, including the same angle columns, eight. On the other side there are but six columns, including those of the angles, because the middle two on this side are omitted, that they may not obstruct the view of the pronaos of the temple of Augustus, which is situate in the middle of the side wall of the basilica, look- ing towards the centre of the fo- rum and temple of Jupiter. The tribunal in this building is formed in the figure of a hemicycle j the extent of this hemicycle in front is 46 feet, and the recess of the curvature inward 15 feet, so that those who attend the magistrates obstruct not the negociants in the basilica. " Upon the columns, the com- pacted beams, made from three timbers of c 2 feet, are placed around ; and these, from the third columns, which are the interior part, are returned to the antae that procur from the pronaos, and on the right and left touch the hemicycle. " Upon the beams, perpendicu- larly to the capitals, the pike (a kind of blocking for supporting the plates) are placed, 3 feet high and 4 feet broad, on every side. Over these other beams, well- wrought from timbers of 2 feet, are placed around ; upon which the transtrse and capreols, Qhe principal rafters and braces,) being placed coincident with the zopho- rus, antse, and walls of the pro- naos, sustain one culmen (the horizontal piece of timber in the ridge of the roof) the whole length of the basilica, and another trans- versely from the middle over the pronaos of the temple : so that it causes a double disposition of the 340 fastigium (the triangle, or pedi- ment of the roof), and gives a handsome appearance to the roof on the outside, and to the lofty testudo within. The omission of the ornaments of the epistylium, and of the upper columns and plutei, diminishes the labour of the work, and saves great part of the expense. The columns like- wise being carried in one con- tinued height up to the beams of the testudo, increases the magni- ficence and dignity of the work." From the preceding descrip^ tions it should appear, that the ancient basilicas consisted of a great nave in the middle, sur- rounded with only one range of porticoes and it is thus that it has been represented in the designs of all who have restored it from the words of Vitruvius. " It is not probable/' says the author of this article in Dr. Rees's " Cylopeedia," " that the ancient basilicas were ever con- verted into christian churches j as i in that case, we should still be in possession of some of these monu- ments of antiquity. The most ancient basilicas of the christians, those which date from the first centuries of the public exercise of our religion, were built expressly for their use ; and the details of their architecture, announce but! too clearly the time of their con-: struction. But these new temples resembled so much the antique basilicas, that they retained their name ; and indeed if we examine the buildings of antiquity, we shall find no other so well calcu- lated for the purposes of our reli- gion. These edifices, at once sim- ple in plan and magnificent in decoration, were of form and dis- position the most advantageous that can be imagined for large halls, and their construction com- bined solidity with economy! BASILICA. Their solidity is proved by the duration of fourteen centuries of some of their buildings ; and their economy consists in the lightness of the points of support, and in that of the covering which was only of carpentry. In most of the basilicas, the walls and points of support only occupy one-tenth of the total space ; which, in buildings vaulted and supported with arcades, like many modern churches, take up at least twice that superficies, and require be- sides materials and modes of con- struction which quadruple the ex- pense. " It is to Constantine that the first christian churches known by the name of basilicas may be re- ferred. This prince signalized his zeal by the erection of monu- ments which announced the tri- umph of the religion which he 1 had embraced. He gave his own 1 'palace on the Coelian mount to ! 'construct on its site a church which is recognised for the most 1 ancient christian basilica. A mo- ] dern building has so much marked and disfigured the ancient, that only the situation and plan of this monument can be discovered. " Soon after, he erected the basilica of St. Peter of the Vatican. This magnificent edifice was con- structed about the year 3*24, upon the site of the circus of Nero, md the temples of Apollo and Mars, which were destroyed for hat purpose. It was divided in- ernally into five aisles from east west, which terminated at the nd in another aisle from north to louth, in the centre of which was 1 large niche or tribunal, giving lie whole the form of a cross. The largest aisle was enclosed by orty-eight columns of precious '"narble and the lateral aisles had orty-eight columns of smaller limensions ; two columns were placed in each wing of the termi- nating aisle. The whole was co- vered with a flat ceiling, compo- sed of immense beams which were cased with gilt metal, and Corin- thian brass taken from the tem- ples of Romulus and Jupiter Capitolinus. A hundred smaller columns ornamented the shrines and chapels. The walls were covered with paintings of reli- gious subjects, and the tribunal was enriched with elaborate mo- saics. An incredible number of lamps illuminated this temple ; in the greater solemnities two thou- sand four hundred were reckoned, of which one enormous candela- brum contained one thousand three hundred and sixty. The tombs of pontiffs, kings, cardinals, and princes, were reared against the walls, or insulated in the ample porticoes. " This superb temple was re- spected by Alaric and Totila, and remained uninjured in the various fortunes of Rome, during the lapse of twelve centuries ; but crumbling with age, it was at last pulled down by Julius IL and upon its site has arisen the famous basilica the pride of modernRome. " The third great basilica built by Constantine, that of St. Paul, on the road to Ostia, still exists. The interior of this building resembles precisely that of St. Peter which has just been described. Of the forty columns enclosing the great aisle, twenty-four are supposed to have been taken from the mauso- leum of Adrian ; they are Corin- thian, about 3 feet in diameter, fluted their whole length, and cabled to one-third ; the columns are of blue and white marble, and antiquity presents nothing in this kind more precious for the ma- terials and workmanship. But these beautiful remains seem only to be placed there to the disgrace 341 BASILICA. of the rest of the construction, which is of the age of Constantine and Theodosius, and which most strikingly exemplifies the rapid decline of the arts. " The churches we have hither- to described bear a complete re- semblance to the antique basilica in plan and proportion. The only remarkable difference is, that the superior galleries are suppressed, in the place of which a wall is raised upon the columns of the great aisle, which is pierced with windows, and supports the roof. *' The church of St. Agnese out of the walls, though not one of the seven churches of Home, which retain the title, is however a perfect imitation of the antique basilica. This resemblance is so complete, that without the testi- mony of writers who tell us it was built by Constantine, at the request of Constantia his sister or daughter, and without the de- tails of its architecture which for- bid us to date it higher, it might be taken rather for an ancient tribunal of justice than a modern church. It forms an oblong in- ternally, three sides of which are surrounded with columns forming the porticoes ; the fourth side op- posite the entrance is recessed in a semicircle ; this is the tribunal. The first order of columns carries a second, forming an upper gal- lery, above which begins the ceiling of the edifice. The short- ning of the columns, recommend- ed by Vitruvius, is observed in the upper order. <4 We have hitherto observed in the christian basilicas but small variations from the antique construction : they were still sim- ple quadrilateral halls divided into three or five aisles, the numerous columns of which support the flat ceiling ; but the cross form, the emblem of Christianity, which 342 began to be adopted in these buildings, operated the most es- sential changes in their shape. The intersection of the crossing aisles produced a centre, which it was natural to enlarge and make principal in the composi- tion ; and the invention of domes supported on pendentives enabled the architects to give size and dignity to the centre, without in- terrupting the vista of the aisles. The church of St. Sophia at Con- stantinople was the first example of this form. " The seat of the Roman Em- pire being transferred to Con-i stantinople, it is natural to sup- pose that the disposition of the ancient St. Peter's of Rome, es- teemed at that time the most magnificent church in the world, was imitated in that which Con- stantine erected for his new capi- tal under the name of St. Sophia. This last did not exist long: Constantius the son of Constan- tine, raised a new one which ex- perienced many disasters. De- stroyed in part, and rebuilt under the reign of Arcadius, it was burnt under Honorius, and re- established by Theodosius the younger ; but a furious sedition having arisen under Justinian, it was reduced to ashes. This em- peror having appeased the tumult; and wishing to immortalize his name by the edifice he was about to erect, assembled from various! parts the most famous architects,! Anthemius, of Tralles, and Isidore, of Miletus, were chosen ; and as they had the boldness to attempt a novel construction, they ex- perienced many difficulties and disasters : but at last they had the glory of finishing their design. " The plan of this basilica is a square of about 250 feet. The interior forms a Greek cross, that is, a cross with equal arms j the BASILICA. aisles are terminated at two ends by semicircles, and at the other two by square recesses, in which are placed two ranges of tribunals. The aisles are vaulted, and the centre, where they intersect, forms a large square, upon which is raised the dome, of about 1 10 feet diameter. The dome, there- fore, is supported upon the four arches of the naves, and the pen- dentives or spandrels which con- nect the square plan of the centre with the circle of the dome. " The general effect of the in- terior is grand ; but whatever praises the bold invention of this immense dome may merit, it must be confessed that there are times in which princes, however great and liberal, can only pro- duce imperfect monuments, of which this edifice is a striking example. All the details of its architecture are defective and barbarous. 1 " However, from the com- munication established between 'Greece and Italy at the revival of 'letters, this basilica, the last, as well as the most magnificent of the lower empire, was that which i influenced most the form and i r chitecture of the new temples. The Venetians, in the tenth :entury, copied with success the >est parts of the disposition of >t. Sophia in the church of St. \h\vk. This is the first in Italy vhich was constructed with a lome supported on pendentives - } ntl it is also this which gave the 'irst idea, which has been imitated n St. Peter's, of the Vatican, of ccompanying the great dome of church with smaller and lower omes, to give it a pyramidal fleet." ti 1 From this time to the erection f the basilica of St. Peter's, we nd the churches approach, more i r leas, to the form of the ancient basilica, or the new construction. The church of Santa Maria del Fiore of Florence, from the mag- nitude of its dome, and the skill which Brunelleschi displayed in its construction, acquired a cele- brity which made the system of domes prevail J and this system was finally established in the noble basilica of the Vatican, which has become the type and example of later ones. The form of the an- tique basilica was entirely lost, and the name, which has been retained, is the only remains of their ancient resemblance. " In the pontificate of Julius II. the beginning of the sixteenth century, the basilica of St. Peter's was begun from the designs of Bramante. This great man form- ed the idea of suspending in the centre of the building a circular temple, as large as the Pantheon, or, as he expressed it, to raise the Pantheon on the temple of Peace ; and, in fact, we find great resemblance in size and disposi- tion between these two edifices and the design of Bramante. He was succeeded in his office by San Gallo, who almost entirely lost sight of the original plan j but Michael Angelo, to whom at his death the undertaking was com- mitted, concentered the discord- ant parts, and contracted the whole into the form of a Greek cross. Michael Angelo died in 1563, while he was engaged in erecting the dome ; but he left plans and models, which were strictly adhered to by his suc- cessors, Vignola, J del Porte, and Fontana, who terminated the dome. The building was carried on under many succeeding pon- tiffs ; and at last, by lengthening the longitudinal naves, it acquired the form of a lantern cross j in that particular, approaching to the original design of Bramante. 13 A S B A S C{ The general form of this edifice externally is an oblong, with circular projections in thcee of the sides j the plan of the in- terior consists of a Latin cross ; the intersection of the arcus of which is enlarged and formed into an octagon ; the head of the long aisles, and the ends of the cross aisles are terminated in hemicycles, and the great naves are accompanied with lateral aisles, and with several enclosed chapels. The octagon centre sup- ports a circular wall, enriched with pilasters, and pierced with windows, above which rises the magnificent dome. " Thus we have traced the pro- gress of the basilica from the quadrilateral hall of the ancients, with its single roof and flat ceiling supported on ranges of columns, to the cross-shaped plan, central dome, and vaulted aisles, sup- ported on piers of the modern cathedral. It only remains to treat of the modern basilica. " Modern basilica. We give this name wiih Palladio to the civil edifices which are found in many Italian cities, and the destination of which is entirely similar to the antique basilica. " In imitation of the ancients," says this celebrated architect, "the cities of Italy construct public halls, which may be rightly called basilicas, as they form part of the habitation of the. supreme magis- trate, and in them the judges administer justice. The basilicas of our time (he continues) differ in this from the ancients ; that those were level with the ground, while ours are raised upon arches, in which are shops for various arts, and the merchandize of the city. There are prisons also placed, and other buildings belong- ing to public business. Another difference is that the modern ba- 344 silicas have their porticoes on the outside, while in the ancient they were only in the interior. Of these halls there is a very noble one at ! Padua, and another at Brescia, remarkable for its size and orna- ments. " But the most celebrated is that of Vicenza ; the exterior part of which was built by Palladio, and the whole so much altered that it may pass for his work. The body of the building is of much greater antiquity, though the date of it is unknown. " Time and various accidents had reduced this building to such a state of decay, that it was ne- cessary to think seriously of pre- venting its total ruin ; for this purpose the most eminent archi- tects were consulted, and the de- sign of Palladio was approved. He removed the ancient loggias, and substituted new porticoes of very beautiful invention. These form two galleries in height, the; lower order of which is ornament-! ed with doric engaged columns, ! at very wide intervals, to answer to the internal pillars of the old building ; the space between each column is occupied by an archi resting on two small columns of the same order, and a pilaster atj each side against the large co- lumns, which leaves a space he-j tween it and the small columns of two diameters. The upper porti- co of ionic columns is disposed in! the same manner, and a balustrade is placed in the archways. The entablature of the large orders is profiled over each column. " This edifice is about 150 feet long, and 60 feet broad j the hall is raised above the ground 26 feet : it is formed by vaults supported on pillars, and the whole is cover- ed with a wooden dome." Basis. See Base. Basin. A small reservatory oi BASIN. vater , as the basin of a jet d'eau, r fountain j the basin of a port, f a bath, &c. which last Vitru- iius calls labrum. Basins are made either with [ay, cement, or lead ; but they re most usually made with clay. i the making of them this way, ie diameter must be made 4 feet >nger on each side than the ba- il is to be. This will be taken p by the walls of clay. For ie same reason, it must be dug 1 feet deeper than the intended ?pth of the water ; because it is » be laid over 18 inches thick ith clay, and 6 inches with ravel and paving. The wall is t be made with shards, rubbish, r flints, with the natural earth r mortar; and the clay must be 'ell worked, and trod firmly )wn with the naked feet. The way of making them with mient is, to allow 1 foot 9 in- les every way for the work then !it the banks perpendicularly, id raise a wall of masonry a foot lick, made of pebble stones, or ie like, laid in mortar of lime id sand. The bottom is then to e covered to the same thickness id the solid lining of the cement to be backed up against the alls, and over the bottom. This ' to be made of small flints in ?ds of mortar made of lime and ment. When this solid is 8 ches thick, it must be plastered her the whole surface with ce- cnt well sifted, before it be ixed with the lime ; with this it to be wrought over smooth ith a trowel. The proportion of is cement should be two-thirds the cement, or powdered tile, ■ one-third of lime. This cement Is the property of becoming hard Kler water, like stone or marble, d it will not be subject to decay r a long time. After the finish- 5, the basin should, for four or 2X five days, be anointed over very often with oil or bullocks' blood to keep it from cracking in the drying ; and after this the water may be let in. In selecting the materials, the builder should make choice of the best stone lime, such as that of Dorking, Bristol, or DudleyCastle, &c. j and the clay should be well mixed and kneaded before it be used. Parker's cement may also be very beneficially employed in the lining of basins, tanks, reser- voirs, &c. The leaded basins are made with walls a foot thick, and with a bottom of half that thickness. These walls should be of rubble stones, cemented with plaster j for lime would injure and eat the lead. The sheets of lead are to be spread over these walls and bot- tom, and seamed with solder. Leaded basins are now but seldom used ; partly from the expense of making them, and partly from the danger of the lead being stolen. The waste pipes of fountains should always be made of suffici- ent diameter for the water to pass off freely. When the waste water is to pass off into common sewers, or drains, earthen pipes will answer the purpose : but when it is to pass into basins that lie below it, it should be conveyed through leaden pipes. There are divers sorts of ba- sins ; as Basin figured. That whose plan or circumference makes several turns and returns, either straight, circular, or the like. Such are most of the basins and fountains at Rome. Basin with a balustrade. That whose cavity is surrounded with a balustrade of brass, stone, or marble, &c. Basin with a trench, or bassin hrigole. That which hath a border 345 BAT BAT of marble, or other ctone, with a trench cut in it, from whence, at certain distances, springs out a thread of water, which lines the trench, and forms a kind of nape or gargle around the balustrade. Such is that of the fountain of the rock of the Belvidere at Rome. Basin en Coquille. That shaped like a shell. Basin is likewise used for a dock. Basket. A kind of vase, in the form of a basket filled with flow- ers or fruits, serving to termi- nate some decoration. Basse-covr. A court separated from the principal one, and des- tined for the stables, coach-houses, and livery servants. In a country- seat, it is the yard, or place, where the cattle, fowls, &c. are kept. Basso-relievo, or bas-relief. The representation of figures, pro- jecting from a back ground, with- out being detached from it. Though this word, in general lan- guage, implies all kinds of re- lievos, scientific men have divided the relievos into three classes, namely : alto-relievo, that in which the figure projects more than one-half from the back ground ; mezzo-relievo, that in which the figure projects one-half j and basso-relievo, that in which the projection of the figure is less than one-half, as in coins. Some very beautiful specimens of relievo, the works of Phidias, are to be seen in the British Museum. Vide Athenian Architecture. Bastile. A small antique cas- tle fortified with turrets. Bastion, or batoon. See Torus. Bat. A part of a brick. Bath. A receptacle of water, appropriated for the purpose of bathing. Batten. A scantling of stuff from 2 to 6 inches broad, and from five-eights to 2 inches 346 thick, used in the boarding o floors ; also upon walls, in orde to secure the lath on which th plaster is laid. Battening. The act of fixing battens to a wall, with a view ti secure the laths on which plaster i to be laid, or canvass fastened fo papering. To prepare a wall to battening, the height of the roorj must be divided into equidistan parts, of from about 2 feet 6 in ches to 3 feet, at which place bond timbers or plugs must b placed. On these bond timber or plugs, the battens are fastene in a vertical direction. The dis tance from one plug to another i the horizontal course, or fror one batten to another, is from Y to 14 inches. The battens em ployed are commonly about a inch and a quarter thick, and inches and a half, or 3 inche wide. The plugs on which th battens are fixed, are generall made flush with the wall ; but i some cases, such as where th walls are damp, from the inorta being composed of sea-sand, it: necessary for the plugs to projec an inch, that the damps may nc affect either the plastering or pa pering. Batter. When a wall is buil in a direction that is not perpen dicular to its base, it is said t batter. Walls are made to batter in order to resist the weight of body of water, mound of earth c any other pressure, that may res against it. It must not, howeve: be understood that both sides t the wall are made to batter : thf side on which the pressure is in mediately acting, is made perper dicular above the footing ; and is the opposite side only that made to batter. The exact batte that a wall should have niu.' depend on local circumstances and the architect in planning ! B A 2 BE A should well consider the weight it has to resist. Battlements. Indentations on :he top of a parapet or wall, first jsed in ancient fortifications : and lfterwards applied to churches ind other buildings for ornament. Fatten door. See Door. Batten floor. See Boarded ?loor. Battifolium, or battifollum. kind of tower or defence, fre- uently mentionetl by Latin histo- ians of the middle age. It seems have been of wood, and to lave been erected on sudden and t asty occasions. Baufrey. An old word for earn. Baulk. A piece of timber from to 10 inches square. Baulk-roofing. This word is pplied to roofing, when the •aming is constructed of baulk niber. Bay. Any kind of opening in building, as a door, window, or iumney. , Bay of joists, The joisting etween two binding joists, or ,ct\veen two girders, when there re no binding joists. , Bay of roofing. The small ifters and purlins between prin- pal rafters. Bay window. See Bow Window, j Bazar. A kind of mart, or ex- buige, for the sale of divers tides of merchandize. The word ems to be of Arabic origin, and that language implies sale or i change of goods. Sosae of the eastern bazars are < en, like the market-places in J rope, and serve for the same lp, more particularly for the eje of more bulky and less valu- ile commodities. Others are 1 cred with lofty ceilings, or even < nes, which are pierced to give lht : and it is in these that the j sellers, goldsmiths, and other dealers in rich wares, have their shops. The bazar, or maidan, of Ispahan is one of the finest places in all Persia, and even surpasses all the exchanges in Europe : yet, not- withstanding its magnificence, it is excelled by the bazar of Tauris, which is the largest that is known, having several times held thirty thousand men, arranged in order of battle. At Constantinople there are two bazars, which are large square buildings, covered with domes, and sustained by arches and pilas- ters : one is appropriated for the sale of arms, harness, and the like j in the other, the goldsmiths, jewellers, furriers, and all sorts of manufacturers, have their shops. Bead. A moulding of a circu- lar section, frequently set on the edge of each fascia of an architrave, a^go used as the mouldings of doors, shutters, skirtings, im- posts and cornices. When the bead is flush with the surface, it is called quirk- bead ; and when raised, cock- bead. Bead and butt work. A piece of framing in which the panels are flush, having beads stuck or run upon the two edges, having the grain of wood in their direction. Bead butt and square work. Framing with bead and butt on one side, and square on the other, used chiefly in doors. The fram- ing of bead, butt, and square work is put together square, and the bead is stuck on the edges of the rising sides of the panel. Bead and flush work. A piece of framed work, with beads run on each edge of the included panel. Bead, flush, and square work. Framing with bead and flush on one side, and square on the other, used chiefly in doors. 317 BE A Bead and quirk. A bead stuck on the edge of a piece of stuff, flush with its surface, with only one quirk, or without being returned on the other surface. Bead and double quirk. See Return Bead. Beak. A small fillet left on the edge of a larmier, which forms a canal, and makes a kind of pendant chin, answering to what Vitruvius calls the mention. The beak is sometimes formed by a channel or groove, recessed on the foffit of the larmier upwards : aid is used to prevent the water from running down the lower bed of the cornice. Bkam. A piece of timber or metal of a rectangular section, used in buildings for sustaining a weight, or resisting some strain, either in a longitudinal or trans- verse direction. The word beam, however, is but seldom techni- cally used, unless it be subjoined to, or compounded with, another word, used adjectively, as tie- beam, collar- beam, camber-beam, &c. &c. when it is in frequent use. See Building of Beams, Scarf- ing, and Truss Beams. Beam compasses. See Mathe- matical Instruments. Beam-filling. The building of masonry, or brickwork, from the level of the under edges to that of the upper edges of beams : also the filling up of the space from the top ot the wall plate between the rafters, to the under side of the slating board, or other covering. Bearer. Any thing which sup- ports a body in its place, as a wall, post, strut, 8tc. Bearers, in guttering, are the short pieces of timber which support the boarding. Bearing of a piece of timber. That part of a piece of timber which is unsupported, or is be- tween two or more props or sup- 348 BED ports. For example, a piece of timber extending over two rooms is supported at each of its extre- mities by a wall, and in or near the centre, accordingly as the! rooms be of equal or unequal breadth, by a partition those parts of the piece of timber, there- fore, which are unsupported, and which are of course equal to the breadth of the respective rooms, are called the bearers. Bearing. The ends of a piece of timber inserted into walls, piers, &c. Bearing wall, or partition. A wall which is built upon the solid, and is made to support an- other wall or partition, either in the same, or in a transverse, direc- tion. When the supported wall is built in the same direction as the wall which supports it, it is said to have a solid bearing ; but when it is built in a transverse direction, or not supported throughout its length, it is said to have a false bearing; or as many false bear- ings as there are intervals below the wall or partition. Beater. An implement usee by plasterers for tempering, or incorporating lime, sand, and hair together, to make the composi- tion called lime and hair. Beaufet, buffet, or bufet. A small cupboard, or cabinet, tc contain china ware, &c. For merly buffets were much orna mented, and were left open, 01 had glass doors to them; but nov doors are made to conceal tht articles that are inside from th< eye of the spectator. Bed-chamber, or bed-room. I room in which a bed is placed In bed-rooms, the finishing of th joinery and plaster work is not s good as those of the drawing rooms, parlours, &c.j and the bed rooms of good houses are frequent ly finished without the surbase. BEL BEN Beds of a stone. The horizontal ourses of a wall of masonry ; that t the under surface of any parti- ular stone is called the under-bed; nd that of the upper surface, the pper bed. The beds of a stone, i general language, are where wo stones meet, without any re- ► ard to their direction. The bed of every stone should e worked quite straight, and not ished or hollowed out, which lasons are but too apt to do, ith the view of making a fine )int. This practice cannot be )o severely deprecated, as stones hich have been thus worked, or ished out, are liable to flush or teak off at the angles. Several (stances of this kind have oc- irred at Blackfriars-bridge. Bed of a slate. The under side fa slate, or that part which is laced in contiguity with the oarding or rafters. Bedding of a templet. See ■'emplet. Beetle. A large mallet, used >r the cleaving of wood, and riving of piles. Large beetles ;ive two handles inserted about lirty degrees apart, to admit of ieir being lifted by two men. i Selection mouldings. Mould- gs which project around the mels of a framing. Belection ouklings are never stuck on ; d are now but seldom used, ex- pt in external decoration, and the finishings of very grand >uses. Belfry. That part of a steeple which the bells are hung. It sometimes called by writers : the middle ages, campanile. Bell of the corinthian and MPOSITE ORDERS. Is USed to • note the body of the capital, 1 reason of its resemblance to li figure of a bell inverted. In if l'is sense, bell is the same with what we otherwise call vase and tambour ; sometimes also corbeil. Bell-roof. A roof shaped somewhat similarly to a bell ; its vertical section, perpendicular to the wall, being a curve of con- trary flexure, convex at the top, and concave at the bottom, simi- lar to an ogee, or cima recta roof. Belt. A course of stones pro- jecting from a brick or stone wall, generally placed in a line with the cills of the first floor windows ; it is either moulded, fluted, plane, or enriched with patras at regular intervals, which may be either plain or fluted. It is commonly weathered on the upper side, from the face of the brick or stone work ; and is throated on the under side to form a drip. It is sometimes called stone string. Belvedere, or look-out. A turret, or lantern, raised above the roof as an observatory, or for the purpose of enjoying a "fine prospect. Also a small edifice or temple, erected in gardens for a similar purpose. Belvederes are very common both in France and in Italy. See Turret. Bench. A horizontal surface, supported about 2 feet 8 inches from the ground, on which joiners and cabinet-makers prepare and fashion their work. Bench-hook. A pin affixed to the bench for the purpose of pre- venting the stuff that is being wrought from sliding. Bend. See Bending. Benda. See Fascia. Bending. The act of the In- curvation of a body from a straight to a crooked form. One of the best modes of bending a plank is, by enclosing it within a hollow prismatic trunk, and exposing it while in that situation to the ac- tion of steam, by means of a pipe, having a communication with BER BER a boiler, and with one of the ends or sides of the trunk. When the plank has been sufficiently exposed to the action of the steam, it is taken out of the trunk, and im- mediately bent round the convex surface of an inflexible body, prepared for the purpose. In this situation it is fastened, and allow- ed to remain till quite cold. Planks thus bent will retain the degree of curvature given them ; and the practice of ship-building proves that planks of almost any thick- ness may be bent to any requisite curve, by the application of heat, or heated water, or by steam. A plank may be bent, by affix- ing one of its ends to a stage erected for the purpose, so as to sustain it some height from the ground, in a horizontal direction, or in a direction as nearly hori- zontal as the weight of the other end of the plank, which is un- supported, will admit. A fire is then to be kindled beneath it : and while the under side of the plank is thus exposed to the heat of the fire, which will have a ten- dency to incurvate it, the upper side is supplied with cold water. In this operation, it is difficult to introduce a uniform temperature throughout the body to be bent; consequently, the other mode should, if possible, be resorted to. Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, was born at Naples in 1598, and died November, 16SO. His father, Peter Bernini, was a native of Tuscany, and practised sculpture with some distinction in his native place j but repairing thence to Naples, he married Angelica Galante, who gave birth to the subject of our present memoir Soon after his marriage, Peter Bernini was ordered to Rome by pope Paul V., to decorate the Paulina chapel, Santa Maria Mag- giore. It was in this place, and while yet in his infancy, that the genius of Giovanni began to de- velope itself. Paul V., astonished to find a skilful artist in a child but ten years old, recommended him to the care of cardinal Maffei Barberini, as one who was likely to become the Michael Angelo of his age. Encouraged by the praises that he had received, he applied himself to his studies withi the greatest diligence and atten- tion ; and before he had attained his eighteenth year, gave manifest proofs of his abilities. Among the productions of his youth, we may mention his statues of St. Laurence, and of iEneas carrying ofFhis father at the siege of Troy; and more particularly his David and Goliah, which some have! reckoned among his best works.; To these may be added, his groupe of Apollo and Daphne, cut from a single block of marble , and the second not more than half a foot from the first, executed for eardi- cal Borghese, which has been regarded as the chef d'ceuvre of sculpture. During the pontificate of Gre- gory XV., Bernini was created a knight of the order of Christ, whence he has been commonly distinguished by the appellation of chevalier Bernini. Upon the death of Gregory XV., his patron Barbe- rini ascended the papal chair, under the title of pope Urban VIII.; and Bernini was appointed by him to carry into execution the projects he had formed for the embellishment of Rome. His first work was the decoration of the place called the " confession," in, St. Peter's ; and during the nine years that he was employed on it, he was very liberally rewarded, He also constructed a fountain, displaying the richness of his BER BE V i 'ention in the piazza d'Espagna; t :orated the great niches of the I lars that support the dome of < Peter's ; and constructed a £ind mausoleum for the pope, ^ ich is considered one of the f est ornaments of that cathedral. Louis XIII. of France, hav- i ; made some tempting offers t Bernini to induce him to go t Paris, pope Urban VIII. t d him, that he was made for I me, and that Rome was made f him ; and, with a view to keep m in Rome, prevailed on him t< marry. This union lasted t rty-five years, and produced a n.nerous offspring. The grand fountain of the p2za Navona was constructed b Bernini, under the pontificate o, Innocent X. ; and the fine prtieo of St. Peter's was erected . t him under the pontificate of /pander VII. In 1664, he was s cisulted by Louis XIV. of lince, in consequence of the r nmmendation of Colbert, con- rining the improvement of the ut I uvre; and at the age of sixty-eight )irs, he yielded to an urgent in- vaiion to visit Paris for that pur- Hpe. In his journey thither, he i vh honoured in various places tmugh which he passed by the id rust respectful attention ; and v en he arrived in Paris and saw tl front of the Louvre bv Per- r;lt, he said publicly, that his ciing to France was useless, vore there were artists of the fi| class. This trait does much ( n -e honour to Bernini, than all i h abilities as an architect. His d< gn for the completion of the Livre was not executed. He mle the king's bust ; and dur- in the eight months that he staid inr Vance, he was paid at the rate of ve pounds a day, and received at ast a gift of fifty thousand cr vns, and an annual pension of two thousand, and a pension for his son, whom he took with him, of five hundred. He returned to Rome before winter, and as an acknowledge- ment of his obligation, for the civility and munificence with which he was treated by Louis, he formed a colossal equestrian statue, representing the king as supported by a rock. Upon its removal to Paris, Girarden changed it, on account of its want of sufficient resemblance to that monarch, into a Curtius leaping into a fiery gulph. Among the remaining works in which Ber- nini employed himself, the most considerable was the tomb of Alexander VII., in St. Peter's. Whilst he was repairing the old chancery palace, by order of In- nocent XL, he was seized with a fever, which terminated in an apoplexy, that closed his life in 16SO, in the eighty-second year of his age. Bevel. In masonry, and among joiners, a kind of square j one leg whereof is frequently straight, and the other curved, according to the s weep of an arch or vault j being also movable on a point, or centre, so that it may be set to any angle. The make and use of the bevel are pretty much the same as those of the common square or mitre, except that these latter are fixed ; the first at an angle of ninety degrees, and the second at forty-five ; whereas the bevel being movable, may, in some measure, supply the office of both 5 and yet, which it is chiefly intended for, supply their defici- encies, serving to set off or trans- fer angles, either greater or less than ninety or forty-five degrees. Bricklayers have also a bevel, by which they cut the under sides of the bricks of arches, straight or circular, to such oblique angles 351 BEVEL. as the arches require, and also for other uses. Bevel Angle is used among the workmen, to denote any other angle besides those of ninety or forty -five degrees. The simple bevel, Plate G 4 , Geometry, Jig 1, consists of two rulers movable on a com- mon centre, like a carpenter's rule, with a contrivance to keep them fixed at any required angle. The centre C must move on a very fine axis, so as to lie in a line with the fiducial edges CB, CD of the rulers, and projects as little as possible before them. The fiducial edges of the legs repre- sent the sides of any given angle, and their intersection or centre C, its angular point. A pin, fixed in the lower ruler, and passing through a semicircular groove in the up- per, serves, by a nut A, which screws upon it, to fix the rulers, or legs, when they are placed at the desired angle. The use of this instrument may be illustrated in the following examples : 1. Let three points A, B, C, be in the circumference of a circle, which is too large to be described by a pair of compasses ; and let it be required to find any other number of points in the same cir- cumference. Bring the centre of the bevel to B (fig. <2.), the mid- dle point of the three given ones A, B, and C, and holding it there, open or shut the instrument till the fiducial edges of the legs lie upon the other two points, and fix them there by means of the screw A (Jig. 1.) : this operation is called setting the bevel to the given points. Then removing the centre of the bevel to any part be- tween B and A or C, the legs being at the same time kept upon A and C, that centre will describe, or be always found in, the arc 352 which passes through the givei points, and will thus ascertain as many others as may be requirec between the limits of A and C| In order to find points without those limits, proceed in the fol- lowing manner : the bevel bein£ set, bring the centre to C, am! mark the distance CB upon th( left leg ; remove the centre to B and mark the distance BA upor the same leg ; then placing thi centre on A, bring the right le£ upon B, and the first mark wil fall upon a, a point in the circum ference of the circle, passing through A, B, and C, whose dis tance from A is equal to the (lis tance BC. Removing the centr of the bevel to the point, a, las found, and bringing the right lef to A, the second mark will fin another point, a" ', in the same cir cumference, whose distance aa is equal to AB. By proceedin, in this manner, any number c points may be found, whose dis tances on the circumference ar alternately BC and BA. In th same manner, by making simik marks on the right leg, points o the other side as at c and c" ar found, whose distances Cc', tfd are equal to BA, BC respective! Intermediate points between ar, of the above are given by ti bevel in the same manner wil those between the original point 2. Three points, A,B,andC, heir given, to draw a line from any them, tending to the centre of tl circle, which passes through the all. Set the bevel to the thn given points A, B, and C, (Jig. 3 lay the centre on A, and the rig leg to the point C, and the oth leg will give the tangent A" Draw AD perpendicular to AC for the line required. For BA being = BCA, the angle EAC the supplement to the angle AB or that to which the bevel is se BEVEL. hence, when one leg is applied to C, and the centre brought to A, the direction of the other leg mast be in that of the tangent G'E. 3. Three points being given as before, let it be required to draw from a fourth given point, D, a line tending to the centre of a circle passing through the first three points. On D, {jig. 4.) with :he radius DA describe an arc AK ; *et the bevel to the three given joints A, B, and C, and bring its centre, always keeping the legs on V and C, to fall on the arc AK, as it H on A and H severally, with any •onvenient radius, strike two arcs, rossing each other at I j and the equired lineDd will pass through he points I and D. For a line ravvn from A to H will be a omrnon chord to the circles AHK nd ABC ; and the line ID bi- ecting it at right angles, must ass through both their centres. 4. Three points being given as efore, together with a fourth oint, to find two other points, ich, that a circle passing through " jiem and the fourth point, shall e concentric to that passing i rough three given points. Draw c and Cc tending to the centre, ' a former problem ; set the ;vel to the three given points B, and C j bring the centre of e bevel to D, and move it upon at point till its legs cut off equal rf* AN, CQ, of the lines Aa and and N and Q will be the j ints required. For, supposing ) os drawn from A to C, and from 1 to Q, the segments ABC and will be similar ones ; and ( isequently, the angles contained 111 ijthem will be equal. >. Two lines tending to a distant I, nt being given, and also a point i one of them ; to find two other p nts (one of which must be in t other given line), such, that [(!' ' 2Y a circle passing through these three points may have its centre at the point of intersection of the given lines. Draw EH (fig. 5.) at right angles to AB, and make FH = FE : set the bevel to the angle GDO, and keeping its legs on the points H and E, bring its centre to the line AB, which will give the point 1. An improved bevel is exhibited in Jig. 6. by which the ares of cir- cles of any radius, without the limits attainable by a common pair of compasses, may be de- scribed. It consists of a ruler AB, composed of two pieces ri- vetted together near C, the centre or axis, and of a triangular part CFED. The axis is a hollow socket fixed to the triangular part, about which another socket, fixed to the arm CB of the ruler AB, turns. These sockets are open in the front for part of their length upwards, as represented in the section at I, which shows the point of a tracer, or pin, fitted for sliding in the socket. The triangular part is furnished with a graduated arc DE, by which and the vernier at B, the angle DcB may be determined to a minute. In this arc is a groove, by means of which, as well as by the nut and screw at B, or some similar contrivance, the ruler AB may be fixed in any required position , A scale of radii is put on the arm CB, by which the instrument may be set to describe arcs of given circles, not less than 20 inches in diameter. In order to set the in- strument to any given radius, the number expressing it in inches on CB, is brought to cut a fine line drawn on CD, parallel and near to the fiducial edge of it, and the arms are fastened in that position by the screw at B. Two heavy pieces of lead or brass, G, G, made in form of the sector of a circle, 353 h jS V E L. the angular parts being of steel, and wrought to a true upright edge, as shown at H, are used with this instrument, whose arms are made to bear against those edges when the arcs are drawn. The under sides of these sectors are furnished with fine short points to prevent them from sliding. The fiducial edges of the arms CA and CD, are each divided from the centre C into two hundred equal parts. This instrument might be furnished with small castors, like thepentagraph ; but little buttons, fixed on its under side, near A, E, and D, will enable it to slide with sufficient ease. The use of this instrument may be exemplified in the following problems : It To describe an arc, which shall pass through three given points. — Place the sectors G, G', with their regular edges over the two extreme points ; apply the arms of the bevel to them, and bring at the same time its centre C, that is, the point of the tracer, or pen, put into the soc- ket, to the third point, and there fix the arm CB ; then, bringing the tracer to the left hand sector, slide the bevel, keeping the arms constantly bearing against the two sectors, till it comes to the right hand sector, by which the required arc will be described by the mo- tion of its centre C. If the arc be wanted in some part of the drawing without the given points, find by case 1. under simple bevel, other points in those parts where the arc is required ; and thus a given arc may be lengthened as far as is necessary. 2. To describe an arc of a given radius, not less than 10 inches. — Fix the arm CB so that the part of its edge corresponding to the given radius, always reckoned in inches, may lie over the fine line 354 drawn on CD for that purpose , bring the centre to the point through which the arc is required to pass, and dispose the bevel in the direction in which it is intend- ed to be drawn ; place the sectors G, G, exactly to the divisions one hundred in each arm, and strike the arc as above described. 3. The bevel being set to strike arcs of a given radius, as in the last instance, let it be required to draw other arcs, whose radii shall have a given proportion to that of the fir«t arc. Suppose the bevel to be set for describing arc? of fiftv inches radius, and it be re- quired to draw arcs of 60 inches radius, with the bevel so set. Say as 50 is to 60, so is the constant number 100 to 120, the number on the arms CA and CD, to which the sectors must be placed, ir! order to describe arcs of 60 inche: radius. When it is said that th( bevel is set to draw arcs of a par ticular radius, it is always under stood that the sectors G, G, an to be placed at N°. 100 onCA am CD, when those arcs are drawn 4. An arc ACB (Jig. 7.) beinj given, let it be required to dra\ other arcs concentric to it, whic shall pass through given point: e. g. P. Through the extremitie A and B of the given arc, drd which are mitred together r< id the slab of a fire-place are ci } ed the border. Boring. The act of perforating a solid. For the tools used in the boring of wood, see Slock and Bit. Borromini, Francis. An Ita- lian architect, was born, in 1599, at Bissona, in the diocese of Como. In his seventeenth year, he repaired to Rome, and Carlo Maderno, who was his rela- tion, and the architect of St. Peter's, perceiving that he had talents and perseverance, had him instructed in geometry. Borro- mini's progress was such, that Maderno employed him in the making of fair copies from his designs, and also employed him in some works that he had to ex- ecute for pope Urban VIII. Amidst these occupations, Borromini found time to execute in sculp- ture the cherubim on either side of the small door of St. Peter's, which, with the drapery and festoons over the arches, are the only works of his chisel. On Maderno's death, in 1629, Bernini was appointed the architect of St. Peters, and Borromini worked under him ; but the latter, be- coming first emulous, then envi- ous, and finally the enemy of Bernini, endeavoured to get other commissions ; and, in fact, was employed about the church of Sapienza, and the Barbarini palace, the convent of St. Philippe de Neri, the churches of the college Propaganda, and of St. Agnes, and in decorating St. Jean-de- Latran. The reputation he ac- quired by these works induced the king of Spain to engage him to furnish a design for the enlarge- ment of his palace at Rome ; and though it was never executed, he received the liberal recompense of a thousand pistoles, and was ho- noured with the order of St. James. The pope also bestowed upon him the order of Christ, and a pension. He was now intrusted with the 305 BOR BOS building of St. Andrew, the resto- ration of the palace of the Falco- nieri at Rome, and those of Delia Ruffini and of the prince Scavolina, with numerous other works ; but in this career of prosperity, his jealousy of Bernini was such, that, vith an attempt to surpass him in novelties, he laid aside the com- mon rules, and bewildered his imagination and talents in a laby- rinth of extravagances. He, by these means incurred the censure of several critics ; and he was charged, by Bernini, with corrupt- ing the sound principles of the art. The clamour against him prevailed, and his rival obtained the direction of a building, for which he had prepared the de- signs ; upon which he retired in disgust into Lombardy. On his return, he employed himself in preparing a set of grotesques for engraving • but the mortification he had experienced preyed upon his spirits, and produced occasional derangement of mind ; and in one of his paroxysms, he seized a sword and gave himself a mortal wound, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Borromini affected singularity, and indulged a capricious and fantastic taste in his designs and decorations, which was utterly inconsistent with simplicity and propriety. Accordingly, some have represented his style in archi- tecture as resembling the literary style of Seneca, and the poet Marino. Vain of his own imagined superiority, and jealous of his brethren, he declined to concur with them ; and before his death, destroyed all his designs, lest any other architect should pass them off as his own. His best work, among many performances, in churches and palaces at Rome, which blend striking beauties with singularity, is accounted to be the college of the Propaganda, oratory of the Chiesa Nuova, n withstanding that it has undu ting coronas, delicate mouldii under great weights, mouldings a strange and new form, bre; in the architrave of the entab ture only, with prominences, cc tortions, and every kind of absi dity, has a something that is h| monious and handsome j but, Bernini has very justly obsei ed, it is more adapted to a coun house, or villa, than to the seco edifice of a city. The house the fathers has also been admir Bosphoricum marmor. Ana given by the ancients to a si cies of marble, of a yellow white colour, with beautiful ve of a somewhat darker hue ; cal also, from its transparency, ph gites. Boss, or bosse. In Sculpti. Signifies relievo, or prominen. The word is French, bosse, wbji signifies the same; whence also > emboss. Boss, among Bricklayers. L hod without a staff, wherein the • bourers put the mortar to be u l in tiling. It has an iron ho , by which it may be hung on laths, or on a ladder. Bossage. A projecting sto, laid rough in building, to be aft- wards carved into moulding capitals, arms, or the like. B- sages also denote rustic wo, which seems to advance bef|3 the naked of a building, by rea .1 of indentures, or channels, lefn the joinings ; used chiefly in 2 corners of buildings, and the e called rustic coins. The cavit , or indentures, are sometirs square, sometimes chamfered r bevelled, sometimes circular, |i sometimes in the diamond for : sometimes they are enclosed w a cavetto, and sometimes wit a listel. BOU BOW Bott, Jean de. An architect, \cn in France, in 1674, and died i Dresden, in 1745. He accom- pied William, prince of Orange, aerwards king of England, to ts country ; and after that jnce's death, repaired to Bran- dburgh, where he was made otain of the guards, and built s eral structures, particularly the c ebrated arsenals at Berlin. He \ s afterwards raised to the rank ( major-general, and displayed 1 skill in the construction of the f tifications ofWeissel, of which } was commandant. In 1728, 1 entered into the service of the lig of Poland, as lieutenant- £ ieral, and chief of the engineers. BOUCIJARDON, EDMOND. A Ibnch sculptor and architect, ^ s born in 1698, at Chaumont, i Bassigny, where his father ex- cised those arts, and was edu- ( ed in Paris, in the school of ( uston the younger. He erected weral fine buildings in Paris; id having acquired a decent for- '■ne by his industry and regu- jrity, and attained high eminence Shis profession, he died in 1762. BoULANGER, NICHOLAS AnTHO- |. An architect and a mathe- ikician, was born in Paris in 1% and died in 1759. He ac- ompanied the baron de Thiers to m army, as engineer ; and, on | return, was employed in the ( istruction of bridges and cause- 1 ys and executed various public wrks in Champagne, Burgundy, * 1 Lorraine. He was a good 5 lolar, wrote several works, and c Uributed the articles, " De- %e," — " Carvee," and " So- fty," to the "Encyclopaedia." 'Boulder- walls, are those built ( round flints or pebbles, laid in a trong mortar. Walls of this lid are usually built where the 4 haa n beach cast up, or where t re is plenty of Hints. BOULTINE, OR BOLTEL. The workmen's term for a convex moulding, whose periphery is just a quarter of a circle next below the plinth, in the tuscan and doric capitals. This moulding is not at present in use. Bound masonry. See Masonry. Boutant. An arc boutant is an arch or buttress, serving to sustain a vault ; and which is itself sustained by some strong wall, or massive pile. The word is French, and comes from the verb bouter, to but, or abut. A pillar boutant is a large chain or pile of stone, made to support a wall, terrace, or vault. Bow. That part of a building which projects from a straight wall, most commonly of the form of a segment of a cylinder, though sometimes it is built on a plan consisting of three sides. In the first, the plan is the arc of a circle j and in the second, it is two exter- nal obtuse angles, formed by the two projecting walls and the wall which unites them, and two inter- nal obtuse angles, formed by the two projecting walls and the straight wall of the building from which they project. Sometimes the bow is carried the whole height of a building, and some- times it is carried no higher than to the first or second stories. Bow. Canted, or polygonal. A bow which has three, four, or five vertical sides, raised from a polygonal plan ; or from a prism, so disposed. Bow. A beam of wood, or brass, with three long screws, that governs or directs a lath of wood or steel to any arch ; chiefly used in drawing draughts of ships, and projections of the sphere, or wherever it is requisite to draw large arches. Bow. See Drill-bow. Bow- com pass. See Mathema- tical Instruments. 367 BOX Bow-room. A room that in- cludes part of the bow of a build- ing. Bow-saw. See Saw. Bow-window. A window placed in the bow of a building. (See Oral Window.) The building act requires, that no bow-window, or other projection shall be built to any building of first, second, third, or fourth rate, except such projection or bow-window was originally built with the house or building to which the same be- longs, or unless such bow-window or other projection be within the original line of the street, square, place, court, or way, in which it is erected. And none shall be built with, or added to, any first, second, third, or fourth rate build- ing, unless the same, and the columns and pilasters, if any, be- longing to the same, be built of the materials directed for external enclosures. Box. This word, in its most general acceptation, denotes a case for holding things. Box of a rib-saw. Two thin iron plates fixed to a handle. In one of these iron plates is an open- ing to receive a wedge by which it is fixed to the saw. Boxings of a window. Two cases, one on each side of a win- dow, and opposite to each other, into which the shutters are folded, or fall back. Shutters of princi- pal rooms are most commonly made in two distinct divisions or halves, each of these divisions having as many subdivisions or leaves, as are requisite for their being folded within the boxings. These subdivisions or leaves rarely exceed three in number : and are so arranged, that that subdivision, or leaf, whose face is visible, term- ed the front-shutter, is flush with, and of, the exact breadth of the boxings ) that the second, which BOX is hidden in the boxing, is less i breadth than the first ; and tl third less in breadth than the s( cond. For example, suppose window 4 feet wide be placed i a wall that is two bricks, or 1 inches thick : then, with a vie to ascertain the number of sul divisions or leaves, each of tl principal divisions of a shutti should have add to the thickne of the wall that of the lath ai plaster, say 2 inches : thus 18 2 = 20 inches ; and from tl thickness of the sash-frame, inches, and the distance of tl sash-frame from the face of t! building, 4\ inches, thus 20 — — A\ = 9\ inches. Thiswillgi three leaves, or subdivisions ; an as it is customary to make t back-flaps, or those which fo back completely within the bo ings, less than the front-shuti* or that whose face is visible, (b ing flush with, and of the ex; breadth of, the boxings,) theym be arranged thus, — front shutti or first leaf, 9\ inches, seco leaf S inches, and third leaf ( which gives 24 inches, the si of each of the principal divisio: In this calculation, the reader u perceive that we have made allowance for the shutters bei rebated into each other, as frequently the case ; when sh ters are therefore rebated ir each we must allow four-eighi of an inch more for the two bates of the three leaves, m one-eighth of an inch for the bate at the meeting of the t» principal divisions in the mid of the window, making with B breadth of the three subdivisk' 24 -f- -f- = 24 1- inches j the fljl may therefore be arranged th» first leaf 9 \ inches, the second B 8J, and the third leaf 6*1 wM is equal to 24f inches, the i extent of each principal divisit BRA BRA To ascertain the depth of the Ixings, add to the thickness of he south side of the church of o Lady and St. George, in the c«' le of Windsor, which had brts are used in the buildings of ie Greeks, one of which they call mtadoron, and the other tetra- gon; for the Greeks call the palm ran, because a gift which is ways presented with the palm the hand is, in Greek, called ron : those bricks, therefore, ii ch have on every side five lms are called pentadoron, and ose which have four tetradoron ; public works they use the for- r, and in private works the ter. Of these bricks they also ike half-bricks ; and in work- .:, the whole bricks are placed <wed to remain one winter, that he frost may mellow and pulver- • e it sufficiently to facilitate the peration of tempering. As the uality of the brick is greatly ependant upon the tempering of le clay, great care should be nken to have this part of the pro- ess well done. Formerly the tanner of performing it consisted p throwing the clay into shallow its, and subjecting it to the tread f men and oxen ; but this method as of late been superseded by the lay or pug mill, for which, see le respective articles. When the clay has been suffi- ently tempered by either of the ii )ove modes, it is taken to the ; loulder's bench, and is, either y a lad or a woman, cut into i ieces somewhat larger than the umld, and passed on to the mould- r ; who throws it smartly into a i lould, which has been previously ipped in sand, then presses it down i fill all the cavity, and strikes off le overplus with a flat smooth iece of wood. He then turns the wly formed brick from the ould on to a thin board, somewhat rger than the brick, which is re- oved by a boy to a light latticed heelbarrow, and is thus con- yed, covered slightly with fine y sand, to the hack. In the hack, the bricks are ar- inged somewhat diagonally one ove the other, and two edgewise ross, with a passage between ch for the admission of air, till y be eight bricks in height, ley are then left to dry. The ne they take ere they require ifting depends entirely upon the rather, which, when fine, will but a few days : they are then CK. turned, and reset wider apart, and in six or eight days are ready for the clamp or kiln. In showery weather, care should be taken to cover the bricks in the hack with wheat or rye straw, to keep them dry : and, as it is of consequence that the bricks should be thoroughly dried before they are set in the clamp or kiln, a few bricks should be selected from various parts of the hack and broken in half, in order to ascer- tain whether the operation of drying has been properly per- formed j for, if this be not attend- ed to, the moisture ascending from them, in the form of vapour, will render the bricks very un- sound. In the vicinity of London, bricks are generally burned in clamps, which are of an oblong form. The foundation is made either with the driest of the bricks just made, or with the commonest kind of bricks, called place bricks. The bricks to be burnt are arranged tier upon tier, as high as the clamp is intended to be, and a stratum of breeze or cinders, to the depth of 2 or 3 inches, is strewed between each layer of bricks, and the whole is finally covered with a thick stratum of breeze. At the west end of the clamp, a perpendicular fireplace, about 3 feet in height, is con- structed, and flues are formed by arching the bricks over so as to leave a space of about a brick in width. The flues run straight through the clamp, and are filled with a mixture of coals, wood, and breeze, which are pressed closely together. If the bricks are re- quired to be burnt off quickly, (which can be accomplished in the space of from twenty to thirty days, according to the state of the weather,) the flues must not exceed 6 feet distance apart j but 375 BR if there is no urgent demand, the flues need not be nearer than 9 feet, and the clamp may be allowed to burn slowly. Kilns are also used : in these, twenty thousand bricks can be burned at a time. The walls of a kiln are about a brick and a half thick, and incline inwards towards the top, so that the area of the upper part is not more than 114 square feet. The bricks are set on flat arches, with holes left between them, resembling lattice- work ; and when the kiln is com- pleted, they are covered with pieces of broken bricks and tiles, and some wood is put in and kindled, to dry them gradually. When sufficiently dried, which is known by the smoke changing from a dark to a light transparent colour, the mouths of the kiln are stopped with pieces of brick, called shinlog, piled one upon another, and closed over with wet brick earth. The shinlog s are carried so high as just to leave room for one faggot to be thrust into the kiln at a time; and when the brush-wood, furze, heath, faggots, &c. are put in, the tire is kindled, and the burning of the kiln com- mences. The fire is kept up till the arches assume a white appear- ance, and the flames appear through the top of the kiln ; upon which the lire is allowed to slacken, and the kiln to cool by degrees. This process of alter- nately heating and slacking the kiln is continued till the bricks are thoroughly burnt, which is, in general, in the space of forty- eight hours. The practice of steeping bricks in water after they have been burnt, and burning them again, has the effect of considerably im- proving the quality. Bricks are of several kinds, the most usual of which are malm- 376 C K. stocks, and place bricks ; but ther is little difference in the mode o manufacturing them, except thai great care is taken in preparing and tempering the first mentioned As marl is not always to b found where malm-stock brick are required, the mode of manu facture as adopted by Mr. Lee, o t Lewisham, is well worth the at tention of builders, who may wis] to manufacture these beautiful bricks without marl. After man ! experiments, occasioned by th paucity of marl in the Londo: districts, Mr. Lee discovered tha chalk, mixed in certain propor tions with loam, and treated in th usual manner, produced an ex cellent substitute. For this dis covery he took out a patent, whicl having now expired, his mode o mixing a small quantity of ehall with the brick earth, is generall adopted round London, for th purpose of giving colour am soundness to the brick. At Ems worth, in Hampshire, and a, Southampton, ooze, or sludg from the sea-shore, which con tains much saline matter, is use for a similar purpose ; but how ever sound those bricks are, the have neither the rich brimston colour of the London malm-stocl nor the regular stone-coloure creamy hue of the Ipswich brick; The finest marls, called first: are selected for the arches ( doorways, &c, and are rubbed t their proper form and dimension? and the next best, called second for the principal fronts. Tl colour, a light yellow, added 1 the smooth texture and superic durability of the marls, give thei the precedence of ihe other M scriptions of brick. Grey stocks are somewhat lil the seconds ; but are of inferh quality, Place bricks, sometimes calk BRICK. andal, pickings, or samel bricks, re soft, of uneven texture, and of red colour, arising from their icing the outermost in the clamp Ir kiln, and not having been suffi- ciently burned. Burrs and clinkers are such ►ricks as have been violently turned j and sometimes several •ricks are found run together, or mited in the kiln. The red bricks derive their co- our from the nature of the soil, >f which they are composed, and vhich in general is very pure, .'he best are used for cutting tricks, and are called red rubbers, n old buildings they are very requently to be seen set in putty, nd used as ornaments over rches, windows, doorways, &c. Fire-bricks are made at the vil- age of Hedgerly, near Windsor, t Stourbridge, at Nonsuch, and n various parts of Wales. These ast are called Welsh lumps. ! In some experiments made by Air. Adcock, to ascertain the .omparative value of west and lorth country coals, a very cu- ious fact was elicited relative to he Stourbridge and Nonsuch )ricks, which is well worthy the ttention of all connected with he construction of furnaces. By those experiments it ap- ears, that the Nonsuch bricks nil not resist the action of fire of lie Staffordshire coal so well as he bricks made at Stourbridge $ ut that the best of the Nonsuch : i icks will resist the action of the rc of the north country coal mch better than those made at 1 >e latter place. By this, therefore, appears, that in the erection of irnaces, where the Staffordshire oal is to be used, the Stourbridge 'ricks should be employed j but 1 erecting such furnaces as arc 3 consume the north country oal, as, for examole, those near 3B London, where the excessive duty on the Staffordshire coal amounts to a prohibition of its use, prefer- ence should be given to the Non- such. These experiments were tried in a reverberatory welding fur- nace, having a stack (chimney) 40 feet high j and the utility of the Nonsuch for these purposes has been proved by a trial of several years. Besides the bricks above enu- merated, there are paving-bricks, which are generally about 1 J inch in breadth j and paving-tiles, which are made of a stronger clay, and are of a red colour. The largest are about 12 inches square, and l£ inch thick : the next, though call- ed 10-inch tiles, are about 9 inches square, and lj inch thick. About the year 1?95, Mr. Cart- wright obtained a patent for an improved system of making bricks, of which the following extract will furnish the reader with every ne- cessary information: — " Imagine a common brick, with a groove or rabate on each side down the middle, rather more than half the width of the side of the brick ; a shoulder will thus be left on either side of the groove, each of which will be nearly equal to one quarter of the width of the side of the brick, or to one-half of the groove or rabate. A course of these bricks being laid shoulder to shoulder, they will form an indented line of nearly equal divi- sions, the grooves or rabates being somewhat wider than the adjoin- ing shoulders, to allow for the mortar or cement. When the course is laid on, the shoulders of the bricks, which compose it, will fall into grooves of the lirst course, and the shoulders of the first course will fit into the grooves or rabates of the second ; and so with every succeeding 377 BRICK. course. Buildings constructed with this kind of brick will re- quire no bond timbers, as a uni- versal bond runs through the whole building, and holds all the parts together, the walls of which will neither crack nor bilge with- out breaking through themselves. When bricks of this construction are used for arches, the sides of the grooves should form the radii of the circle, of which the in- tended arch is a segment ; yet if the circle be very large, the differ- ence of the width at the top and bottom will be very trifling, as to render a minute attention to this scarcely, if at all, necessary. In archwork, the bricks may either be laid in mortar, or dry, and the interstices afterwards filled up by pouring in lime, putty, plaster of Paris, &c. Arches upon this prin- ciple, having any lateral pressure, can neither expand at the foot, nor spring at the crown j conse- sequently they want no abut- ments, requiring only perpendi- cular walls to be let into, or to rest upon ; neither will they want any superincumbent weight on the crown to prevent their spring- ing up. The centres may also be struck immediately, so that the same centre, which never need be many feet wide, may be regularly shifted as the work proceeds. But the most striking advantage at- tending this invention is, the security it affords against the ravages of fire ; for, from the peculiar properties of this kind of arch, requiring no abutments, it may be laid upon, or let into com- mon walls, no stronger than what is required for timbers so as to admit of brick floorings." Bricks are subject to a duty ; and the first rise of materials com- menced in 1784, when the first duties were laid on bricks and tiles, and additional duties on 378 timber and deals. The duties on bricks and tiles have been twice augmented since that time. The first duties laid on, as extracted from the act, were as follow; and were to be paid by the ma- ker. For and upon all bricks, by whatsoever name or names they now are, or hereafter mayi be called or known, a duty of two shillings and sixpence for every thousand j and so in proportion for any greater or less quantity. For and upon all tiles, com- monly called or known by the! name of plain tiles, a duty of three shillings for every thousand j and so in proportion for any greater or less quantity. For and upon all tiles, com- monly called or known by the name of pan or ridge-tiles, a duty of eight shillings for every thou- sand j and so in proportion for any greater or less quantity. For and upon all tiles, com- monly called or known by the name of paving-tiles, not exceed- ing 10 inches square, a duty oi one shilling and sixpence for everj hundred ; and so in proportion for any greater or less quantity. ! For and upon all tiles, com- monly called or known by the, name of paving-tiles, exceeding 10 inches square, a duty of thret shillings for every hundred j anc! so in proportion for any greater oi less quantity. For and upon all tiles, othe: than such as are herein-befon enumerated and described, m whatever name or names sucl tiles now are, or hereafter may b< called or known, a duty of thre< shillings for every thousand j anc so in proportion for any greater o ; less quantity, The next duty, being additional; took place in March, 1794, o, bricks and tiles, and is extracted from the act, as follows : — BRICK. For every thousand of bricks, which shall be made in Great Bri- tain, and so in proportion for any o-reater or less quantity, one shil- ling and sixpence ; making toge- ther with the former duty of two shillings and sixpence, four shil- lings per thousand. For every thousand of plain iles, which shall be made in Great Britain, and so in proportion for my greater or less quantity, one Shilling and tenpence ; making, ;ogether with the former duty of hree shillings, four shillings and enpence per thousand. For every thousand of pantiles, >r ridge-tiles, which shall be made n Great Britain, and so in propor- ion for any greater or less quanti- y, four shillings and tenpence j 'naking with the former duty of iight shillings, twelve shillings ind tenpence per thousand. For every hundred of paving iles, which shall be made in Great kitain, not exceeding 10 inches square, and so in proportion for iny greater or less quantity, Eleven-pence 3 making together vith the former duty of one shil- ing and sixpence, two shillings ind rivepence per hundred. For every hundred of paving- 'iles which shall be made in Great iritain, exceeding 10 inches quare, and so in proportion for ny greater or less quantity, one nilling and tenpence ; making ')gether with the former duty of 'iree shillings, four shillings and :npence per hundred. For every thousand of tiles hich shall be made in Great ritain, other than such as are rein-before enumerated or de- ribed, by whatsoever name or ,imes such tiles are, or may be died or known, and so in pro- >rtion for any greater or less lantity, one shilling and ten- ence ; making together with the former duty of three shillings, four shillings and tenpence per thousand. The said duties on bricks and tiles respectively to be paid by the maker thereof. And in May, 1794, a duty ot twenty per cent ad valorem, was laid on all stone for building, coming coastways. And by an act passed the 4th day of July, 1S03, to consolidate the duties of excise in Great Britain, certain additions were laid on bricks, leaving the duties on tiles as before. The whole of which duties are as follows : — For every thousand of bricks made in Great Britain, not exceeding 10 inches long, 3 inches thick, and 5 inches wide, five shillings. Exceeding the foregoing dimensions, ten shil- lings. For every thousand of bricks made in great Britain, and smooth- ed or polished on one or more sides, not exceeding the superfi- cial dimensions of 10 inches long, by 5 inches wide, twelve shil- lings. For every hundred of such last mentioned bricks, exceeding the aforesaid superficial dimensions, the duties the same as on paving- tiles. For every thousand of plain tiles, four shillings and tenpence. F'or every hundred of paving- tiles, not exceeding 10 inches square, two shillings and five- pence. For every hundred of paving- tiles, exceeding 10 inches square, four shillings and tenpence. For every thousand of tiles, other than such as are herein- before enumerated, four shillings and tenpence. The said duties to be paid by the makers. In June, 1804, an additional duty 379 BRI BRI was laid of twelve per cent, on all stone for building, coming coastvvays. An act for granting to his ma- jesty additional duties within Great Britain, on certain goods, wares, and merchandize, imported into, or carried coastwise, 5th of April, 1805. For every hundred pounds of the produce, and amount of duties of customs due and payable on slate and stone of all sorts, an additional duty of twenty pounds. N.B. Three shillings per thou- sand extra were laid on all kinds of bricks by the brickmakers, 1st of January, 1805, although no act of parliament for advance had pass- ed ; but an act passed in March, 1805, laying a further duty on bricks and tiles of tenpence per thousand, which makes an ad- vance in general on all brickwork, with the above three shillings, of eighteen shillings per rod prime cost. Brick-kiln. A kiln in the form of a frustum of a cone, in which bricks are burnt. See Brick. Bricklayer. A workman who builds with bricks. The brick- layers in London are, by a charter, granted in 156'8, a corporate com- pany, consisting of a master, two wardens, twenty assistants, and seventy-eight on the livery. As the building act relates more particularly to bricklayers, than to any other class of artificers connected with building, we shall in this place, present the reader with an abstract of it. By this act, passed in the 14 Geo. III., all buildings within the cities of London and Westminster, the liberties thereof, the bills of mor- tality, the parishes of St. Mary- la-bonne, Haddington, St. Pancras, and St. Luke at Chelsea, in the county of Middlesex, are divided into seven several rates or classes, and such several rates or classes of buildings are under the follow- ing rules and regulations. First rate building. — Every church, chapel, meeting-house, and other place of public worship j and every house or building for distilling and brewing of liquors for sale ; for making of soap, for melting of tallow, for dyeing, for boiling or distilling turpentine, for casting brass or iron, for refining of sugar, for making of glass for chemical works for sale, of what dimension soever the same respec- tively are or may be j and also every warehouse and other build- ing whatsoever, not being a dwell- ing-house now built, or hereafter to be built, (except such buildings as are herein-after particularly declared to be of the fifth, sixth, or seventh rate or class of build- ing,) which does or shall exceed three clear stories above ground, exclusive of the rooms ( if any) in the roof thereof, or which is or shall be of the height of 31 feet from the surface of the pavement, ground, or way, above the area before either of the fronts thereof, to the top of the blocking-course or the coping on the parapet thereof j and every dwelling- house, now built, or hereafter to be built, which, with the offices thereto belonging and adjoining, or connected otherwise than by a fence or fence-wall, or covered passage open on one or both sides, when finished, does or shall ex- ceed the value of eight hundred and fifty pounds ; and also every dwelling-house, which does or shall exceed nine squares of build- ing on the ground-floor, each square containing 100 superficial feet, shall be deemed the first rate or class of building; and must be built as follows, viz. The thickness of external walls, not being a party-wall to any first BRICKLAYER. •ate building, or to any addition >r enlargement, shall be built and •emain, at the foundation thereof, >f the thickness of two bricks and i half in length, or 1 foot 9j in- :hes at the least ; and shall from hence regularly and gradually liuiinish on each side of the wall |i inches to the top of the footing »f every such wall, except where ,ny immediate adjoining building rill not admit of such footing >eing made on the side of such vail next such adjoining building; ;n which case such footing shall ;>e made as near to the dimensions ierein directed as the case will dtnit ; which footing shall be 9 nches high at the least, and Vholly below the upper surface If the pavement and flooring- Idards of the cellar story, 2 in- ches at the least ; and every such vail shall, from the top of such ooting, be of the thickness of wo bricks in length, or 1 foot J inches at the least, up to the tnder siue of the one pair of pairs' floor j and from thence of |he thickness of one brick and a ualf in length, or 13 inches at the east, up to the under side of the 'late under the roof or gutter of very such building j and from hence of the thickness of one rick in length, or 8j inches at ie least up to the under side of ie blocking-course or coping on ie parapet of every such first ite building ; except such parts If every such wall as shall be holly of stone, which parts, so eing of stone, shall be of the lickness of 14 inches at the least elOw the ground-floor, and of ; inches at the least above the round-floor j and except all re- uses above the ground-floor in >e said walls, which shall be ,'ched over in every story, so ivertheless as that the arch and ie back of such recess shall be respectively of the thickness of one brick in length, or 8j inches at the least. The thickness of party-walls to any first rate building, or to any addition or enlargement shall be built and remain, at the founda- tion thereof, of the thickness of three bricks and a half in length, or 2 feet 6j inches at the least ; and shall, from thence, regularly and gradually diminish on each side of the wall 4 J inches to the top of the footing of every such wall, which footing shall be 1 foot high at the least,and wholly below the upper surface of the pavement and flooringboards of the cellar story 2 inches at the least j and every such party-wall shall, from the top of such footing, be of the thickness of two bricks and a half in length, or 1 foot 9j inches at the least, up to the under side of the ground-floor ; and from thence of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5j inches at the least, up to the under side of the floor of the rooms (if any) in the roof of the highest building adjoin- ing to such party-wall, and from thence of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches at the least, up to the top of every such party-wail. Second rate building. Every warehouse, stable, and other build- ing, not being a dwelling-house, except such buildings as are here- in particularly declared to be of the first, fifth, sixth, or seventh rate or class of building, now built, or hereafter to be built, which does or shall exceed two clear stories, and shall not contain more than three clear stories above ground, exclusive of the rooms (if any) in the roof thereof, or which is, or shall be, of the height of 22 feet, and shall not be of the height of 31 feet from the surface of the pavement, ground, 381 BRICKLAYER. way, above the area before either of the fronts thereof, to the top of the blocking-course or coping on the parapet thereof ; and every dwelling-house now built, or hereafter to be built, which, with the offices thereto ' elonging and adjoining, or con- nected otherwise than by a fence or fence-wall, or covered passage open on one or both sides when finished, does or shall exceed the value of three hundred pounds, and shall not amount to more than the value of eight hundred and fifty pounds; and also every dwell- ing-house, which does or shall exceed five squares of building on the ground plan, and shall not amount to more than nine squares of building on the ground plan thereof, shall be deemed the second rate or class of building ; and must be built as follows, viz. The thickness of external walls, (not being a party-wall,) to any second rate building, or to any addition or enlargement, shall be built and remain, at the founda- tion thereof, of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5j inches at the least, and shall from thence regularly and gradually diminish on each side of the wall 2| inches to the top of the footing of every such wall, except where any immediate adjoining building will not admit of such footing being made on the side of such wall next such adjoining building; in which case such footing shall be made as near to the dimensions herein directed as the case will admit ; which footing shall be 9 inches high at the least, and wholly below the upper surface of the pavement and flooring-boards of the cellar story c 2 inches at the least ; and every such wall shall, from the top of such footing, be of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches at the least up to the under side of the one pair of stairs floor ; and from thence of the thickness of! one brick in length, or 8J inches 1 at the least, up to the under side • of the blocking-course or the co- ping on the parapet of every such second rate building; except such parts of every such wall, being above the ground-floor, as shall be wholly of stone, which parts, so j being of stone, shall be of the thickness of 9 inches at the least, and except all recesses above the ground-floor in the said walls, which shall be arched over, so ! nevertheless as that the arch, and the back of each such recess, shall respectively be of the thickness of one brick in length, or inches at the least. The thickness of party-walls to any second rate building, or to any addition or enlargement, shall be built and remain, at the foun- dation thereof, of the thickness of three bricks and a half in length, or 2 feet 6j inches at the least, and shall from thence regularly and gradually diminish on each side of the wall 4j inches to the top of the footing of every such wall ; which footing shall be 9 inches high at the least, and wholly below the upper surface of the pavement and flooring-boards of the cellar story 2 inches at the least, and every such party-wall shall, from the top of such foot- ing, be of the thickness of two bricks and a half in length, or 1 foot 9j inches at the least, up to the under side of the ground-floor; and from thence of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5J inches at the least, up to the under side of the floor of the two pair of stairs story ; and from thence of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or I3i inches at the least, up to the top of every such party- wall. BRICKLAYER. Third rate building. Every urehouse, stable, and other build- jr, not being a dwelling-house, (cept such buildings as are herein jrticularly declared to be of the Ut, fifth, sixth, or seventh rate <■ class of building, now built, ( hereafter to be built, which (?s or shall exceed one clear Jry, and shall not contain more tin two clear stories above dmnd, exclusive of the rooms (i any) in the roof thereof, or Vich is or shall be of the height c'more than 13 feet, and shall not t of the height of 22 feet from t| surface of the pavement, g mnd, or way above the area be- te either of the fronts thereof, t the top of the blocking-course c the coping on the parapet t reof ; and every dwelling-house n.v built, or hereafter to be built, vich, with the offices thereto h'onging, and adjoining or con- i ted, otherwise than by a fence < fence-wall, or covered passage on one or both sides, when ! shedi does or shall exceed the «ue of one hundred and fifty dpnds, and shall not amount to r re than the value of three h'idred pounds ; and also every (i'clling-house, which does or s 11 exceed three squares and a i hf of building on the ground p l, and shall not amount to more if tin five squares of building on tl ground plan thereof, shall be d ined the third rate or class of b cling, and must be built as f< .":>\vs, viz. V/e thickness of external walls, (it being a party-wall) to any d rate building, or to any action or enlargement, shall be " ' t and remain, at the foundation tH'eof, of the thickness of two biks in length, or 1 foot 5 J i» es at the least, and shall from ^hice regularly and gradually di inish, cn each side of the wall, 2J inches, to the top of the foot- ing of every such wall, except where any immediate adjoining building will not admit of such footing being made on the side of such wall next such adjoining building ; in which case such foot- ing shall be made as near to the dimensions herein directed as the case will admit ; which footing shall be 6 inches high at the least, and wholly below the upper sur- face of the pavement and flooring- boards of the cellar story 2 inches at the least, and every such wall shall, from the top of such footing, be of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches at the least, up to the under side of the ground-floor j and from thence of the thickness of one brick in length, or 8| inches at the least, up to the under side of the block- ing course or coping, on the parapet of every such third rate building. The thickness of party walls, to any third rate building, or to any addition or enlargement, shall be built and remain, at the foundation thereof, of the thickness of three bricks in length, or 2 feet 2 inches at the least, and shall from thence regularly and gradually diminish on each side of the wall, 4j inches to the top of the footing of every such wall, which footing shall be 9 inches high at the least, and wholly below the upper surface of the pavement and flooring-boards of the cellar story, 2 inches at the least ; and every such party-wall shall, from the to}) of such footing, be of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5 J inches at the least, up to the under side of the ground-Moor j and from thence of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches at the least, up to the top of every such party-wall. Fourth rate building. Every 383 BRICKLAYER. warehouse, stable, and other build- ing not being a dwelling-house, except such buildings as are herein particularly declared to be of the first, fifth, sixth,, or seventh rate or class of building, now built, or hereafter to be built, which does not or shall not exceed one clear story above ground, exclusive of the rooms (if any) in the roof thereof, or which is not or shall not be of the height of more than 13 feet from the surface of the pavement, ground, or way, above the area before either of the fronts thereof to the top of the blocking- course or coping on the parapet thereof ; and every dwelling-house now built, or hereafter to be built, which, with the offices thereto belonging and adjoining, or con- nected otherwise than by a fence or fence-wall, or covered passage open on one or both sides, when finished, does not, or shall not exceed the value of one hundred and fifty pounds j and also every dwelling-house which does not or shall not exceed three squares and a half of building on the ground plan thereof, shall be deem- ed to be of the fourth rate or class of building ; and must be built as follows, viz. The thickness of external walls to any fourth rate building, or to any addition or enlargement, shall be built and remain at the foun- dation thereof, of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5j inches at the least, and shall from thence regularly and gradually diminish on each side of the wall 2j to the top of the footing of every such wall, except where any immediate adjoining building will not admit of such footing being made on the side of such wall next such adjoining building ; in which case such footing shall be made as near to the dimensions herein directed as the case will admit, 384 which footing shall be 6 inch high at the least, and wholly bek the upper surface of the paveme and flooring-boards of the eel! story 2 inches at the least ; a every such wall shall, from the t of such footing, be of the thic ness of one brick and a half length, or 13 inches at the lea' up to the under side of the groui floor j and from thence of t thickness of one brick in leng- or 8 J inches at the least, up to t under side of the blocking-corn or coping on the parapet of ev( such fourth rate building. The thickness of party-walls, any fourth rate building, or to i addition or enlargement, shall built and remain at the foundat' thereof, of the thickness of t bricks in length, or 1 foot 5jinc ] at the least ; and shall from thei regularly and gradually dimin on each side of the wall 9,\ incl to the top of the footing of eve such wall, which footing shall : 9 inches high at the least, d wholly below the upper surfaced the pavement and flooring-boa i of the cellar story 2 inches at s least j and every such party-vl shall, from the top of such footi , be of the thickness of one br; and a half in length, or 13 inc > at the least, up to the under side f the ground-floor; and from the i of the thickness of one brick l length, or 8j inches at the let up to the top of every such par - wall. Further regulations of fi, second, third, and fourth it buildings. Jt is also further r acted, that every house or bu - ing of the first, second, third, f fourth rate or class of build : herein-before directed, and p having each of them a sepaie and distinct side-wall on the j t or parts where they are or sP be contiguous, shall have pai ■ BRICKLAYER. alls between house ana nouse, r other buildings, or between so uch of such house and house, or her buildings, as shall not re- >ectively have such separate and stinct walls as aforesaid ; and ch party-walls shall extend to e outer surfaces of external closures of each of the adjoin- g houses or buildings : and all rty-walls, and also all chimneys , d chimney-shafts, hereafter to built, shall be built wholly of j iod sound bricks or stone, or of j od sound brick and stone to- jther, except such timber, wood, M, or iron work, as shall or *y be laid therein, according to t directions herein-after contain- ( and also except such piling, 1 dging, or planking, as may be 1 :essary for the foundation there- O; and every such party-wall stll be topped or coped with s ne, tile, or brick, and shall be c the dimensions herein-before elected; and one-half of every abh party-wall between house I eu house, or between other build- i ;Sj shall be built on the ground site of one of the adjoining 1 ises or buildings, and the other h f thereof shall be built on the ,, giund or site of the other of the || a«|pining houses or buildings ; and j? it|hall be lawful for the first n bijder of any such party-wall, ( t air, for the workmen employed i unbuilding the same, to enter ujin the ground adjoining thereto, morder to the building such p; y-wall in manner aforesaid. 'Provided, nevertheless, that f evly party-wall which shall be (ii ouff to any dwelling-house, ex- celing four stories in height fr be built, on any wharf or quay, id every shamble, windmill, or atermill, and also every build- g which is or shall be situated ithout the cities of London and 'eslminster, and the liberties ereof, used for workshops or ving-places for tanners, fell- ongers, glue-makers, size-ma- rs, calico-printers, whisters, hiting-makers, curriers, leather lessers, buckram-stifFeners, oil- ;)th painters, wool-staplers,throw- , >rs, parchment- makers, and pa- ir -makers, so long and at such nes as they are or shall be used r some or one of those purposes Id no longer, shall be deemed e seventh rate or class of build- and may be built of any i nensions whatever. Every cranehouse, and every ;dition to, or enlargement there- ( shall be of stone, brick, slate, t i, oak, elm, steel, iron, or brass ; 1 1 every other building of the s enth rate or class of building i y be erected of any materials v,atever. No cranehouse or other raiding of the seventh rate or c ss of building, or any external p t thereof, shall be covered with P h, tar, or any other inflamma- b composition or material what- e,r, nor shall be converted to a other use than as aforesaid. aid, in order to prevent doubts n ch may arise concerning the or class of building of any ol :e or offices now built, or here- li r to be built, belonging to any A YER, building herein before declared to be of the first, second, third, or fourth rate or class of building, it is further enacted and declared, that every such office which shall be entirely free and detached from such building to which the same belongs, or shall be connected therewith only by a fence or fence- wall, or covered passage open on one or both sides, shall be deemed to be of the rate or class of build- ing such office would be of, if the same did not appertain to any dwelling-house or other building. Particulars relative to old party- walls. And whereas some houses or other buildings, erected pre- viously to the passing of this act, may have one or more good sound party-wall or party-walls, although not built agreeably to the several rules herein-before directed, and in such case it may happen that one of the adjoining houses may have been, or may hereafter be built, without making use of such party-wall or party- walls : it is therefore enacted, that •very such w r all may remain as a party-wall, until both the houses or buildings to which the same belongs, shall be built (if such wall shall so long continue sound,) and that in case either of the houses or buildings to which any such party- wall does belong, has been, or shall hereafter be rebuilt with a wall against such party- wall, (without making use of such party-wall,) of the heights and thicknesses herein-before prescrib- ed for side-walls, the proprietor of such remaining house or build- ing shall not, when such remain- ing house or building, or when such old party-wall shall be taken down, be entitled to more than one-half of the materials of such old party-wall, nor to more than one-half of the ground on which such old party-wall was erected ; BRICKLAYER. nor shall such proprietor build on more than one-half of the said ground, unless he shall have agreed with and satisfied the owner or owners of such adjoin- ing rebuilt house, for the other half thereof - f and in case the parties cannot agree concerning the same, and both or either of them shall be desirous of buying or selling, the price and the mat- ters in difference, shall be settled by a jury j but if such remaining house or building be of the first, second, or third rate or class of building, or be four stories high from the foundation, exclusive of the rooms (if any) in the roof, and if in that case, such old party- wall shall not be of the thickness of two bricks in length, or 1 foot 5j inches from the foundation to the under side of the ground- floor, and from thence upwards to the top, of the thickness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches, then such old party-wall shall, when either of the houses or buildings to which the same belongs be rebuilt, be considered as if the same had been condemn- ed, or adjudged ruinous, pursuant to the directions herein-after contained for condemning or ad- judging ruinous, any unsound party-wall j or if such old party- wall shall have any timber or timbers of any adjoining building lying through the same, and if, when either of the houses or build- ings to which the same belongs, shall be rebuilt, the owner or owners of such adjoining or re- maining house or building, will not permit so much of such tim- ber to be cut off as shall leave full 6 inches of clear brickwork beyond the end of every such tim- ber, then every such wall shall be considered as if the same had been condemned, or adjudged ruinous, pursuant to this act, and the same 338 shall be taken down and rebuih in such manner as is herein-afte directed concerning party-walls which shall be so condemned, c adjudged ruinous. And whereas some houses c other buildings erected previousl to the passing of this act, ma have one or more good and soun timber partition or timber part tions between the same and tr adjoining house or building, it further enacted, that every sue timber partition may remain unt one of the adjoining houses, J buildings to which the same hi longs shall be rebuilt, or sha have one of the fronts which sha abutt on such timber partition, ( two-third parts of one of sue fronts, taken down to the bressun mer, or one pair of stairs floo and rebuilt ; or until such tifiibl partition shall be condemns pursuant to the directions hen in-after contained, concernin ruinous or defective party-wall and party-partitions. External walls shall not bf come party-walls ; and eve. party-wall, addition or enlary ment shall be carried up, at remain 1 foot 6 inches at \ ] least above the roof of the higl est building which shall gab against such party-wall, in eve part where such building sh; gable or adjoin thereto, measurii at a right angle with the back the rafters of such roof ; and eve such party-wall shall be carri- up and remain 1 foot at the le;i| above the gutters of the highest such buildings, except the heig' of such party-wall, where carried up, shall exceed the heig of the blocking-course or para}, of either of the fronts, abuttii on the same of the highest huil ing adjoining thereto j in whi case, the end only of every su party-wall next such blockin BRICKLAYER. jursc or parapet may be less urn 1 foot above the gutter, for ie distance of 2 feet 6* inches om the front of such blocking- >urse or parapet ; and in case iv dormer or other erection is or all be fixed in the flat or roof of iv building within 4 feet of any irty-wall, then every such party- all' shall be carried up against ery such dormer or other erec- >d, and shall extend for the eadth of at least 2 feet wider, d to the full height of every rt of every such dormer or her erection as shall be within feet of such party-wall. No recess shall be made in any rty-wall hereafter to be built any building of the first, second, ird, or fourth rate, or class of ilding, (except for chimneys, es, girders, and beams, and other ,nbers, and for the ends of walls piers, as herein-after is direct- ,) so as to reduce such wall in v part thereof under the thick- ss by this act required for the rty-wall to the highest rate or iss of building to which such rty-wall belongs : and there all not be any opening made in v party-wall, except for com- iik'ation from one stack of nrehouses to another, and from (e stable building to another; i which communications shall l ; ve thereto iron doors, in such i inner as is herein-after directed, ; <>. except such passages or ways ( the ground, for foot passengers, title, or carriages, as may be rpessary ; all which passages or i ys shall be arched over with Ick or stone, or brick and stone t ,ether throughout, of the thick - ' s of 13 inches at the least, in cry building of the first and 8 ond rate or class of building, al of the thickness of S£ inches athe least, in every building of t third or fourth rate or class of building ; and if there be any cel- lar, or vacuity, under any such passage, every such cellar or va- cuity shall be arched over through- out with brick or stone, or brick and stone together, in the same manner as the passage or way over such cellar or vacuity is here- by directed to be arched. And it is also further enacted, that no timbers shall be laid into any party-arch, except for bond to the same, nor into any party- wall, other than such templets, chains, and bond timbers, as shall be necessary for the same ; and other than the ends of girders, beams, purlins, and of binding or trimming joists, or of other prin- cipal timbers j all which timbers shall have at least 8j inches of solid brickwork between the ends and sides of every such piece of timber, and the timber of any building adjoining thereto : and the end of every girder, beam, purlin, binding or trimming joist, and of every other piece of princi- pal timber, may be laid beyond the centre of any party-wall here- after to be built, so nevertheless as that there be left 8j inches at the least, of solid brick or stone work at the end of every such piece of timber, except in places where any part of the ends of any such timber shall lie opposite to, and level with, any part of the end of any timber of any adjoin- ing building or buildings, in which case no part of such timbers shall approach nearer than 4 inches to the centre of the said wall. And it is further enacted, that no person shall cut or maim any party-arch, nor the shaft of any chimney now built, or hereafter to be built, on any party-wall, for any purpose whatsoever and that no person shall cut or main any party-wall now built or here- after to be built, other than for 3S9 BRJCKLA YER. the purposes and in the manner herein-after mentioned ; that is to say, when the front or back wall of any house or building, being in a line with the front or back wall of the house or building adjoining thereto, shall at any time hereafter be built, it shall be lawful to cut a break not more than 9 inches deep from the ex- ternal face of such front or back wall and to the centre of such party-wall, for the purpose of in- serting therein the end of such new front or back wall ; and in every such case where a bressum- mer and story-post shall be fixed in the ground story of such new front or back wall, such break may be cut from the foundation of such new front or back wall, to the top of such bressummer, 14 inches deep from the external face of such front of back wall, and the same may be 4 inches wide in the cellar story, and 2 inches wide in the ground story, for the purpose of placing therein such story-posts and bressum- mers agreeably to the directions of this act : And it shall be lawful to cut into any party-wall for the purpose of tailing in stone steps, or stone landings, or for placing in such party-wall timber for bearers to wood stairs, so as no timber bearer be laid into any party- wall nearer than 8 J inches to any chimney or flue whatever, or to any timber of the adjoining house or building, or nearer than 4 inches to the internal finishing of such adjoining house or build- ing, and for the purpose of laying therein stone corbels for the sup- port of chimney jambs, girders, beams, purlins, binding or trim- ming joists, or of other principal timbers ; and it shall also be law- ful to cut perpendicular recesses into any party-wall, not being less than 13 inches thick, for the pur- 390 pose of inserting walls and pier therein, so nevertheless as that n such recess be more than 15 inche wide, or more than 4 inches deej and that no such recess be neare than 10 feet to any other recess and it shall be lawful to cut o the footing on the side of an party-wall where either of th adjoining buildings shall be rebui with a wall against such party wall 5 but every person who sha cut into any party-wall for any ( the purposes aforesaid, shall irr mediately make good, and we and effectually pin up with bricl stone, slate, tile, shell, or iroi bedded in mortar, every defd which shall be occasioned by tr cutting of any such party-wall and no party-wall shall be cut f( any of the purposes aforesaid, the cutting thereof will injur displace, or endanger the timber chimneys, flues, or internal finisl ings of the adjoining buildings. Chimneys in party-walls. Tl back of every chimney shall I at least 13 inches thick in tl cellar story, and 8j inches thick every other story from the hear of ever ysuch chimney to the heig ! of 12 inches above the mantl and no chimney in any party-wai where either of the buildings a joining thereto is of the first rat or class of building, shall be bu with the back thereof against tl back of any other chimney, unle the back of each chimney in tl cellar story be at least 8j inciu and the back of each chimney any of the upper stories, at lei 4 J inches from the centre of su party-wall : and no chimney any party-wall, where either the buildings adjoining thereto of the second, third, or fourth r; or class of building, shall be bu with the back thereof against t back of any other chimney, unl< the back of each chimnev in I BRICKLAYER. cellar story be at least 6| inches, and the back of each chimney in any of the upper stories at least *J inches from the centre of such wall : and no flue shall be built Opposite to another flue in any mrty-wall, unless the back of •acb flue be at least 2 inches from he centre of such party-wall ; he breast of every flue, whether uch flue be in a party- wall or Lot, shall be of brick or stone at east S| inches thick in every cel- ar story, and at least 4 inches hick in every other story. All he withs or partitions between ues shall be of brick or stone, [nd every such with or partition f brick shall be at least half a rick thick : and every breast and jack of every chimney, and every reast, back, and with or partition f any flue shall be tendered or iargetted within and without, xcept the outside thereof which pall be next to vacant ground, 1 which case the back of every himney and flue next such vacant round shall be by lime or in pme durable manner marked and islinguished, except in a four- ont, back-front, or side-front of iy building not likely hereafter ) be built against 3 and every tck of every such chimney and le so being against such vacant ound shall be rendered or par- tted as soon as any building all be erected to such wall. Provided always, and be it en- ted, that if any person or persons, ling possessed of, or entitled to, any part of the ground , icreon a party-wall is intended be built, shall be desirous of ving chimney- jambs, breasts, |d flues of chimneys, made in iy such party-wall on his, her, or ir part thereof, or shall be • sirous of having a recess or '•esses left in the said party- all, for the purpose of insert- ing external or internal walls or piers, or for any other pur- pose allowed by this act, and shall give notice of such desire in writing under his, her, or their hands, particularly describing every such chimney-jamb, breast, and flue, and every such recess, to the builder or builders of such party- wall, or any one of them, at any time before such party- wall shall be begun to be built, then such builder or builders of such party-wall shall, after such notice so given, erect in a proper, substantial, and work- manlike manner, such and so many chimney-jambs, breasts, and flues of chimneys, in all such parts of every such party- wall as shall be by the person or persons giving such notice re- quired ; and shall also leave such recesses in every such party-wall, not being in any respect contrary to the rules, regulations, and restrictions in and by this act prescribed ; and from and after the erecting such jambs, breasts, and flues of chimneys so required, the person or persons giving such notice, his, her, or their executors and administrators, shall be deemed to have made use of such party-wall, and shall from thence- forth be liable to pay the whole expense of erecting and setting up all such jambs, breasts, and flues of chimneys erected in pur- suance of such notice, and also such proportional part of the expense of erecting such wall as is herein-after directed concerning party-walls. And whereas several houses and other buildings are built within the aforesaid limits, over a public way, and several of the rooms or floors of such houses or buildings are the property of different owners, and lie inter- mixed without being separated BRICK by any party-wall, and without being arched over and under each other with brick or stone, or brick and stone throughout ; be it therefore enacted, that when any house or other building, ex- cept as herein-after is excepted, so built, in any part thereof, over a public way or any house or building, except as herein-after is excepted, having any rooms the property of different persons, and intermixed as aforesaid, shall be rebuilt, there shall be a party- wall, according to the directions herein-before contained for the highest rate or class of building adjoining thereto, with a party- arch or party-arches^pf the thick- ness of one brick and a half in length, or 13 inches at the least, in every building of the first and second rate, and of the thickness of one brick in length, or 8^ in- ches at the least in every build- ing of the third and fourth rate, between house and house, or other building, or between the different rooms or floors, being the property of different persons as aforesaid. This last mentioned clause does not extend to any of the four inns of court, or to any of the inns of chancery, or any other inns set apart for the study or practice of the law j except that the walls or divisions between the several rooms and chambers, be- longing to, and communicating with, each separate and distinct staircase of such inns shall be deemed and taken to be party- walls within this act, and subject to the regulations and clauses herein contained relating to other party-wails within the aforesaid limits. And whereas it may sometimes happen, that no party-wall, or party-arch, can be built upon proper foundations between such 392 LAYER. houses and other buildings, ovei public ways, or having rooms anc floors the property of different persons, lying intermixed, with-! out pulling down such houses ant buildings ; it is enacted, that! when any owner of a house oi building, that is intermixed, 01 built over a public way, shall b( desirous of rebuilding the same and the owner of the adjoining bouse or building shall not b( willing, or shall not, by reason o some legal disability, or other wise, be able to join in such re ! buildings, then the party desirou; of rebuilding, shall give notice ii: writing to the owner of the ad joining house, of his intention t( apply to the court of mayor anc aldermen of the city of London or to the justices of peace for tht counties of Middlesex or Surrey or of the liberties of Westminster as the case may be, at the gen eral or quarter sessions, to be nex holden, after fourteen days fron, the delivery of such notice; ii order to obtain judgment and determination touching the re building of such house or houses or other buildings, or of ascer taining the site of a par ty-wall o party-walls, or of the situatioi ( of any party-arches to be buil according to the directions anil restrictions contained in this act; by delivering a true copy of sucij notice to the owner of such ad joining house, or other part o such intermixed house or build ing ; or in case the adjoining house be uninhabited by fixing such copy, wrote fair and in legible hand, to or upon the door or some other notorious part o such adjoining or intermixe) house 5 and by this act, jury ar to determine the expense to b paid by the owner or owners c the adjoining house or houses and after the expiration of four BRICKLAYER. ;en davs from and after the ob- ainittg such judgment, and pay- ment or tender of the money warded, the owner of the inter- mediate house may pull it down ; nd to that end shall and may, in ie presence of a constable or ead- borough, or other officer of lie peace, enter upon the site of ie ground, and into the house or ther building adjoining to the art v- wall, &c. intended to be 3built, at any time between the ours of six in the morning and »ven in the afternoon, (Sundays xcepted ;) and if the outer door f such house, or other building e shut, and the occupier or any ther person therein refuse to pen the same ; or if such house r other building be empty and noccupied, he shall and may break pen such outer door, and remove p some other part of the same demises, or in case there be not efficient room on the premises )r that purpose, to remove to ny other place, any goods, fur- iture, shelves, or other thing Instructing the building of such ptended party-wall or party- Valls, party-arch or party-arches, r the pulling down any wall, lartition, or other thing necessary ) be pulled down and removed, 1 order to the building such in- pnded party-wall or party-walls, arty-arch or party-arches, and om and after such entry, and at 1 usual times of working, it shall 2 lawful for the builder or build - n employed to erect such in- nded party-wall or party-walls, irty-arch or party-arches, and his id their servants, and all others nployed by him or them, to enter to and upon the premises, and Side therein the usual times of orking, for the shoring up the lid house or other building so 'roke into or entered upon, and >r taking down and removing 3D any party-wall or party-walls, partition, wainscot, or other thing necessary to be taken down and removed for the purpose aforesaid, and to build such intended party- wall or party-walls, party-arch or party arches : and if any such owner or occupier or other per- son or persons, shall in any man- ner hinder or obstruct any work- man or workmen employed for any of the purposes aforesaid, or wilfully damage or injure the said works, every such owner or occupier, or other person so offending, shall, for every such offence, forfeit and pay the sum of ten pounds. Provided also, and it is hereby further enacted, that within ten days after such party-wall or party-walls, party-arch or party- arches, shall be so built, the per- son who shall have rebuilt the same shall leave a true account in writing of the expense of re- building with the party or parties so awarded by the jury as afore- said to contribute to the expense, or at his, or their last or usual place of abode j who shall pay to the person or persons who shall have rebuilt such party-wall or party-walls, party-arch or party- arches, the proportion of the expense of building the same as awarded by the jury, within twenty-one days after demand, or, in case the same be not so paid, it shall be lawful for the tenant or occupier of the house or build- ing so chargeable therewith, to pay the same, and to deduct the money so paid out of the next rent which shall become due to the owner or owners of such house or building ; or the same may be recovered from the party or parties so awarded to pay the same by action of debt, bill, plaint, or information, in any of his majesty's courts of record BRICKLAYER. at Westminster, with double costs of suit. And whereas it may happen, that party- walls, or party-arches, or party fence-walls, may be de- fective, or so far out of repair, as to render it necessary to pull down and rebuild the same, or some part or parts thereof ; it is enacted, that every owner of any building within the limits of this act, who may think it necessary to repair or rebuild the party-wall between his and the adjoining premises, is to give three month! notice in writing, to the owner o the adjoining building, appoint- ing a survey to be made of the said wall, and naming two sur- veyors, or able workmen, on hie part, and requiring the other, party also to name two surveyors to meet at an appointed place, te view and certify the state of the wall. This notice must be in the form or to the effect following, Apprehending the party-wall, party-arch, or party fence-wall, 01 some part thereof (as the case shall be,) between the house or building or ground (as the case shall be,) thereto adjoining, situate inhabited or occupied by and my house or building, or ground (as the case shall be,) adjoining thereto, to be so far out of repair as to render it necessary to repair or pull down and rebuild the same, or some part thereof : take notice that I intend to have the said party-wall, party-arch, or party fence wall (as the case shall be) surveyed, pursuant to an act of parliament made in the fourteenth year of the reign of king George the third and that I have appointed of am of my surveyors, to meet a in (being at some place within the limit, aforesaid,) on my behalf, on the day of next, a; 1 of the clock in the of the same day (being between the hours of six in the morning and six in the afternoon :) and I d( hereby require and call upon you to appoint two other surveyors or abk workmen on your part, to meet them at the time and place aforesaid to view the said party-wall, party-arch, or party fence-wall, (as thi, case shall be,) and to certify the state and condition thereof, and whethei the same, or any part thereof, ought to be repaired or pulled dowr and rebuilt. Dated this If the owner of the adjoining premises shall neglect to appoint two surveyors on his part, accord- ing to notice, then the two sur- veyors first named, together with two other surveyors, to be named by the party giving notice, may, within six days after the time appointed in the notice, view the party-wall, and certify in writing, under their hands, to the court of mayor and alderman, or to the justices of the peace, in their next quarter or general sessions, as the case mav be, the 394 day of A. B. condition of the party-wall, ancj whether the same, or any pan thereof, ought to be repaired and rebuilt, and in case the major par! of the surveyors shall not, withifl the space of a month from thvn and rebuilding such house, c so much of the same as may S)ject the party-walls to the res and regulations contained U this act, and of such desire SMI give three months' notice in Viting to the owner or occupier of the next adjoining house or building, then and in that case, from and after the expiration of the three months expressed in such notice, it shall be lawful for the owner of such house or build- ing so intended to be rebuilt, to pull down the said party-wall, and to have and exercise the like power of entering into and upon the said adjoining house or build- ing, or of breaking open the same, in the presence of a peace officer, in case the same be unoccupied, or be refused to be opened, and of removing any wainscot, shelves, furniture, or other things, and of shoring up the said adjoining house or building, as by this act is given and allowed to the owners of intermixed houses cr buildings, and shall and may, in the place and stead pf every such old party-wall, build a new party- wall of such materials, thickness, and height, and in such manner, and subject to such restrictions and directions, as are in and by this act prescribed. And whereas several old houses or other buildings within the limits of the act, have instead of a party-wall, one timber or wood partition, or two old timber or wood partitions, with or without brick nogging, it is enacted that, whenever it may be expedient to rebuild any such house or build- iug, or so much thereof as may subject the same, and the parti- tions abutting on the same, to the rules and regulations contained in this act j the owner shall in like manner, give three months' notice, and proceed as directed above. And it is further enacted, that the person, at whose expense a party-wall or party-arch is built, shall be reimbursed by the owner of the adjoining premises, who makes use of the wall a part of 395 BRICKLAYER. the expense in the following pro- portion. If the adjoining build- ing be of the same, or of a supe- rior class, to the building belong- ing to the person at whose expense the party-wall was con- structed, the owner of such adjoining building shall pay one moiety of the expense of so much of the party-wall as he shall make use of : but if the adjoining build- ing be of an inferior rate, the owner shall pay a sum equal to a moiety of the expense in building a party- wall, as required by this act for such class of building : and in the mean time, and until such moiety or other proportionate part of the expense of building such party-wall or party-arch be paid, the sole property of the party-wall or party-arch, and the ground on which it stands, is to be vested entirely in the person or persons at whose expense the same has been built. And with respect to the mode of payment, it is directed, that the party, at whose expense the party-wall has been built, shall be paid by the owner of the adjoining premises, who makes use of the said party- wall, as follows ; first, if such party-wall were built before any other house adjoined it, the owner of the adjoining ground shall pay his portion of the expense before he begins to cut into or make use of such party-wall ; and secondly, if such party-wall or party-arch be built against or adjoining to any other house or building, then the owner of such adjoining house or building shall pay his proportion of the expense of building such party-wall, as also a proportional part of all other expenses which shall have been necessary to the pulling down the old party-wall, or tim- ber or wood partition, the shor- ing up of the adjoining building, 396 the pulling down of wainscot ot partition, &c, but not the expense of pulling down and clearing away such party-wall, &c, immediately that the said party-arch or party- wall be completely built and finished. It is also directed by the act, that the expense of building such party- wall or party- arch shall be estimated after the rate of seven pounds fifteen shillings by the rod for the new brickwork, de- ducting therefrom after the rate of twenty-eight shillings by the rod of 9,72 feet for the materials (if any) of so much of the old wall or arch as did belong to such adjoining building or ground, and also after the rate of two- pence by the cubical foot for the materials of so much of the old timber partition as may have be- longed to the adjoining ground or building j but as materials and labour have greatly advanced since the act was passed, it is usual to allow an extra priee ac- cording to the work, by survey- ors ; and an extra for the old brickwork, as also for the old sound timber. It is also further enacted, that; within ten days after such party- wall or party-arch has been built, the builder shall leave at the ad- joining house a true account in writing of the number of rods in such party-wall or party-arch and of the deductions to which such owner is entitled ; where- upon it is lawful for the tenant 01 occupier of the adjoining building or ground to pay one moiety, 01 other proportional part, to the builder of the party-wall, as alsc all such other expenses as art, herein-before directed, and to de duct the same out of the rent In case the same be not pak within twenty-one days, it paj be recovered with full costs of sui BRICKLAYER. f action of debt ; and if the aintiff give three months' notice the defendant before he brings e action, and recover the whole nount of charge, he is entitled double costs. Every party-wall or addition ule thereto, shall be built ; reeably to the directions con- ned in the act concerning the rtv-wall of the highest rate or (iss of building to which such jrty-wall adjoins ; and no party- Mil shall, after the same and the 1 ildings adjoining thereto is and i completed, be raised, unless ip same when raised be of the i \ thickness such party-wall is < in the story next under the i >f of the highest adjoining 1 ilding ; nor shall any party-wall 1 raised, unless the same can be one with safety to such wall, and tie several buildings adjoining l2reto ; but all such party- walls will, when n.ised, be of the iterials, heights, and thick- sses required by the act, or as n be safely raised, may, toge- er with the shaft or shafts of e chimneys, be raised, by and the expense of the proprietor i occupier of any building to lich the same belong, to any i psired height ; but if the pro- ipet-or or 1 occupier of any build- K adjoining to the said party- dl and chimney shafts, shall ike use of any part of such ny-wall and chimney shaft, uer than the use he makes of jp chimney flues, then such per- m shall be chargeable with a Import ion able share of the ex- ]nse of raising such party-wall i d chimney shafts j and in com- 1'ting such charge the same shall 1 rated in manner herein-before J'ntioned, and the proportion ich person shall be liable to pay I ill be recovered in such man- W as is herein-before particu- larly declared concerning the first building of a party-wall. Any party fence-wail may be raised by, and at the expense of, the proprietor or occupier of the ground on either side of it ; but no party fence-wall is to be built upon, or against, or used as a party-wall, unless the same be of materials, height, and thickness herein-before directed for party- walls to the rate or class of build- ing so to be erected against or upon the same : and in case of the insufficiency of such wall for the aforesaid purpose, or if in- stead of such party fence-wall there be only a wooden fence, the proprietor or occupier of either of the adjoining premises shall be at liberty, at his own expense, to take down such wall or fence, and erect a new party- wall in lieu of it, provided he makes good every damage that may accrue to the adjoining premises by such rebuilding, and that the new party-wall does not extend on the surface of such adjoining ground more than 7 inches beyond the centre line of such party fence- wall, but no proprietor or occu- pier of such adjoining premises is to make use of such party- wall, otherwise than as a party fence- wall, unless he pay a proportion- able share of the whole expense of erecting such parts of such wall according to the use he shall make of the same. If any party-wall extend fur- ther upon the ground of the party building the same than the party fence-wall did, the party rebuilding the same are not to lose any part of the soil whereon such party- wall be built, nor shall the owner or owners of the other part of such party-wall claim or be entitled to any right or soil more than what he was before en- titled to. 3i>7 BRICK If the fore or back front of any building now built shall hereafter be rebuilt as low as the bressum- mer, or one pair of stairs floor, within the space of five years from each other, then the party- walls shall, in all respects be subject to the several regulations of the act. Regulations respecting chimneys that are not in party -walls. The back of every chimney from the hearth to the height of 12 inches above the mantle, in every first rate or class of building, not being in a party-wall, shall in the cellar story be at the least 13 inches thick, and in every other story 8j inches ; and in every second, third, or fourth rate or class of building, Sj inches thick in every story j excepting where any such chimney shall, in either case be built against a wall j in which case the back of every such chim- ney from the hearth to the height of 12 inches above the mantle may be half a brick thinner. It is also directed that no timber whatever shall be placed over the opening of any chimney to sup- port the breast j but that the breast shall be supported by an iron bar, or by an arch of brick or stone : and that no timber shall be laid in any wall under the hearth of any chimney, unless the same be at the least, 18 inches be- low the surface of such hearth. The hearth of every chimney shall be laid wholly on brick or stone, except the same be in a cellar or ground story, and be laid and bedded on the solid earth ; and every such chimney shall have a slab or slabs, or foot paces before the same, of tile, stone, marble, or iron, at least 18 inches broad, and 1 foot longer than the opening of every such chimney when finished ; and such slab or slabs, or foot paces, shall be laid 393 jAYE R. on brick or stone trimmers, a: least 18 inches broad from tht opening of such chimney, or fron the perpendicular face of the arc! over the opening which support; the breast, except the same be ir a cellar or ground floor, and b( laid and bedded on the solic earth. No timber or wood-worl whatever shall be laid in the! brickwork of any oven, stove copper, still, boiler, or furnace nor within 2 feet of the inside o any such oven, stove, copper still, boiler, or furnace ; nor shal any timber whatever be laid \i the brickwork of any chimney nearer than 9 inches to the open ing of such chimney, or than ; inches to the inside of the flue o any chimney, oven, stove, copper still, boiler, or furnace, or than \ inches to the inside of the fiu« where any such timber shall lie j 0| be placed nearer than 5 feet abov< the mouth of the same. No worn work whatever shall be affixed t( the front of any jamb or mantle or to the front or back of an; chimney or flue, except sue! wood work be affixed by iroi nails or holdfasts, or other iror fastenings ; which fastenings shal; not be driven more than 3 inche into the wall, or nearer than inches to the inside of the open ing of any chimney : And nj chimney shall be erected on an timber-work whatever, except o such piling, bridging, or plank ing, as may be necessary belov the foundation of the building but shall be erected on sue piling, bridging, or planking, o on solid ground, or on a brick o stone foundation, or shall be se upon brick or stone corbels, o iron brackets, or upon iron shore.' which iron shores shall be sup ported by brick or stone founda tions. Materials of external vail BRICKLAYER. very external wall or external ldosure of every building of the •st, second, third, fourth, or fifth te or class of building, and of ery addition or enlargement all be of brick, stone, artificial one, lead, copper, tin, slate, e, or iron, or of brick, stone, tificial stone, lead, copper, tin, ite, tile, and iron together, ex- Ipt the necessary piling, bridg- kr, and planking for the foun- tion, and also except the ne- ssary templets, chains, bond 'nbers, doors, sashes, window utters, and door and window ames to such buildings, and the :rs or stories of door cases and tors to all such warehouses as e or shall be of the first, second, ird, or fourth rate or class of aiding; all which window and or frames with the exception those belonging to warehouses all be let in reveals, and recess- at least 4 inches from the front the building. Also except all "all boards, bressummers, story >sts, and plates on the ground cry, which bressummers and ory plates shall not be fixed ore than c z inches deep, in y party- wall, nor placed in any pnt nearer than 7 inches to the ntre line of the party-wall, when ch party-wall is of the thick- sa of two bricks, or nearer than inches to the centre of such ity-wall, when it does not •'ceed one brick and a half in ickness j but no timber work iatever, other than and except :ch bressummer, story posts, :d plates, and such tiers or i >ries of door cases and doors, wall be laid in any such external mil nearer than 4 inches to the ' ternal surface ; and every such try post which shall be fixed as Support to two fronts, being the • rner of any street, square, pee, court, or way, shall be of oak or stone, and at least 12 in- ches square. It is also further directed, that every flat, gutter, and roof of every building of the first, second, third, fourth, or fifth rate or class of building, and every turret, dormer, and lantern light, or other erection, which shall be placed in the flat or roof, and which shall, at any time, be ripped or uncovered, shall be covered with glass, copper, lead, tin, slate, tile, or artificial stone ; with the exception of the doors, door frames, windows, and win- dow frames. Materials of external decorations. Every coping, cornice, facia, win- dow dressing, portico, balcony, balustrade, or other external de- coration or projection to any build infer of the first, second, third, or fourih rate j and also every frontispiece to any building of the first rate or class of building, or to any addition or enlargement of such building, shall externally be of brick, stone, burnt clay, or artificial stone, stucco, lead, or iron j except the cornices and dressings to shop windows 5 and also except such covered ways as may hereafter be made to any building, so, nevertheless, as that the said covered way, or any part thereof, shall not extend beyond the original line of the houses in the street or way in which the same shall be or is erected, and such covered way shall be cover- ed with stone, lead, copper, slate, tile, or tin ; and neither the said covered way, nor the cornice, or dressings to any shop window, nor the roof of any such portico, shall be higher than the under side of the cill of the window frame of the one pair of stairs window. It is also directed that no water shall be suffered to drip next to any public way, from tho BRICKLAYER. roof of any building of the first, second, third, or fourth rate or class of building, except from the roofs of porticoes or other en- trances ; but that all water from such roofs shall be conveyed by lead, copper, tin, or iron gutters or pipes, or by wooden trunks, or by brick or stone funnels, to the drains or channel stones, on or below the surface of the ground, or to some cistern or other reservoir made to receive the same. And no bow- window or other projection shall be built with, or added to any first, second, third, or fourth rate building next to any public street or way, so as to extend beyond the general line of the fronts of the houses in the said street, except such projec- tions as may be necessary for copings, cornices, facias! door and Avindow dressings, omor por- ticoes, steps, or iron palisades ; and also except such window to any shop or shops on the ground floor story ; the stall boards of which windows shall not, in any street or way that is less than 30 feet wide or more, project above 10 inches, nor in any street or way that is less than 30 feet wide, above 5 inches from the upright line of building in such street or way respectively : and no cornice or covering to any such shop win- dow, shall, in any street or way that is 30 feet wide or more, pro- ject more than IS inches, nor in any street or way that is less than 30 feet wide, more than 13 inches from the upright line of the build- ing to which such shop window belongs : and no bow-window or other projection, except as before excepted, shall be built with or added to the front of any building of the first, second, third, or fourth rate or class of building, unless the same, and the columns and pilasters (if any) which sup- 400 port the same, be built of thi several materials herein-befon directed to be used in all externa walls or external enclosures. Repair of old external walls Every external wall, or other ex ternal enclosure, to any building which was built before the passing of this act, and which is notoi the several materials therein re - quired may at all times be repair ed with the same sort or sorts o materials as the materials o which such external wall c other external enclosure i; erected, (except the external en closures of roofs, flats, gutters and of the dormers, turrets, am lantern lights, or other erection; on the same, which shall be re paired with the materials herein before directed for the same; but in case any such external wall or other external enclosure, be a any time hereafter taken down o otherwise demolished to the bres summer or one pair of stair floor, or the place where the bres summer is usually fixed, thei every part of the same, not beinj built of the several materials i and by this act required for ex ternal walls or other externa enclosures, shall be taken dam and the same shall be entirel rebuilt of such materials, and i such manner, in all respects, as i by this act required for all extern; walls, or other external enclosure; according to the rate or clas of building to which such wall e other external enclosure belong And no bow-window or otht projection shall be rebuilt, execj such projections as are in and b this act allowed, unless such bov window or other projection w; built at the same time the hou: or building to which the same br longs was built, or unless sue bow-window, or other projectir be within the original line of tl BRICKLAYER. reet, square, place, court, or ay, in which the same is ccted. Sundry particulars relative to Mings. No stack of ware- uses shall contain more than urty-five squares, and no stables pre than twenty-^: squares, of Hiding on the g^lnd plan, in- Iding all the external and in- t nal walls, and so much of the j.ty- walls (if any) as belong (tench stack of warehouses or Hiding for stables j and no e argument shall be made, so as t increase the same beyond the Bp number of squares on the gmnd plan, except such stack o warehouses or stables be sepa- r L'd and divided by one or more pity-wall or party-walls, built itpery respect according to the dictions herein-before contained c cerning party-walls, into divi- si is of not more than the said njnber of squares each, including B li walls as aforesaid on the gfund plan ; and no stack of w -chouses or building for stables communicate with any other u chouse, stable, or building tl tugh a party-wall, unless the d(,r case and cill of every such cqmunication be of stone, and ui .ss there be to every such c< munication a door of wrought ir< , of the thickness of a quarter of|n inch at least in the panels ; ar< no timber, bond, or lintel, shjl be laid into the brickwork of an wall in any such stack of w; 'houses or building for sta- bly nearer than 18 inches to tht opening of such communi- ca m. any building of the first, Be«[nd, third, or fourth rate or cla of building, (except the se^ral inns of court or chancery, the. royal exchange, companies haj |t and warehouses and dwell- ing mouses let at a rack rent for 3E not more than twenty-five-pounds per annum,) be at any time here- after converted into two or more dwelling-houses, workshops, sta- bles, or other buildings, which shall be in distinct tenures on the ground floor, then each tenement shall be considered as a separate building, and the same shall be divided from each other by a party-wall or party-walls ; and every such party-wall shall be of the materials, height, and thick- ness, and shall be from time to time under the several regulations respecting party-walls herein di- rected to be observed with re- spect to the party-wall of the highest rate or class of building adjoining to such party-wall. Provided, nevertheless, that no- thing which this act contains shall prevent any person, being the proprietor or leaseholder of any stack of warehouses or building for stables from dividing the said warehouses or stables from time to time into divisions, for the conveniency of letting the same to under tenants. Jf any building of the fifth or sixth rate or class of building be divided into two or more dis- tinct tenures, and the several parts of such building in such separate tenures be not at the several distances from each other herein-before particularly direct- ed for every such fifth or sixth rate building ; then every such several part of such building in every such separate and distinct tenure, being nearer to each other than the said several distances, shall be deemed a public nuisance, and shall be immediately taken down. And no pipe or funnel, for con- veying smoke or steam, shall be fixed next any public street, square, court, or way, on the front of any building of the first, second, 4U1 BRICKLAYER. third, or fourth rate or class of building ; nor shall any such pipe or funnel be fixed on the inside of any such building nearer than 14 inches to any timber or other combustible material what- ever ; nor shall any brick funnel be placed on the outside of any front, next to the public way, of any building of the first, second, third, or fourth rate or class of building, so as to extend beyond the general line of the houses in the public way in which the same is erected. Every church, chapel, meeting- house, dwelling-house, or other building, and every party-wall and other wall within the limits of this act, shall be built pursuant to such rules and regulations, and with such materials, as are here- in-before particularly appointed ; and if any person presume to build contrary to these regulations, and be convicted within three months after the building is finish- ed, by the oaths of two or more credible witnesses before the magistrate in whose jurisdiction such may be, then the said house, building, or wall, so irregularly built or begun to be built, or altered, shall be deemed a com- mon nuisance j and the builder shall enter into a recognizance, in such sum as the magistrate shall appoint, for abating and demolishing the same within a convenient time, or otherwise to amend the same according to such rules and regulations as are herein-before contained j and in default of entering into such re- cognizance, he shall be com- mitted to the common goal, there to remain without bail or main- prize until he shall have abated, demolished, or otherwise amend- ed the same. The magistrates are empowered to order every house or building 402 so irregularly built or begun t( be built, or altered as is by thi act declared to be a commoij nuisance, to be abated or takei down, by the person or person authorized to abate or take (low the same, and to order the sal and disposal the materials t pay the chai^^ of so abating c taking it down, and if there b any surplus of moneys arisin from such sale, it is to be paid t the owner or owners of the mate rials ; but if the moneys arisin from such sale be not sufficient t pay the charges, the defieienc shall be made good by the own. or owners, and may be levied as herein-after directed concerniti the expense of taking dov ruinous buildings and puttii up hoards for the safety of pa sengers. The mayor and aldermen London, the justices of the pea for the county of Middlesex, Surrey, the city and liberty Westminster, and the liberty his majesty's tower of Londo may nominate and appoint pt sons, skilled in the rt of buil ing, to be surveyors or supt visors to see the said rules a regulations well and truly c served. And the said justices their respective quarter sessic ' shall administer to the said si veyors and supervisors by thj respectively appointed, an o; for the true and impartial exe< tion of their office, and win oath shall be in the form, on the effect following ; that isJ say : — " I, A. B. being one of the a- veyors or supervisors appoint in pursuance of an act of par - mant, passed in the fourteen year of the reign of king dm the third, for the further and - ter regulation of buildings and pall- malls ; and for the more effectv'H BRICKLAYER. I ctenting mischiefs by fire within e cities of London and Westmin- er, and the liberties thereof, and her the parishes, precincts, and aces, wiihin the weekly bills of ortality, the parishes of St. Mary- -bonne, Paddington, St. Pancras, d St. Luke at .-Chelsea, in the unhj of Middles©!*?; and for in- , /unifying, under certain conditions, tUkrs, and other persons, against j? penalties to which they are or iy be liable for erecting buildings khtn the limits aforesaid, contrary i law, do swear, that upon receiv- ibj notice of any building or wall l>be built, or other builders' work i be done, within the district ider my inspection, not being by i less or otherwise lawfully pre- vited, I will diligently and faith- flly survey the same, and to the most of my abilities endeavour t cause the rules and regulations, i the said act prescribed, to be s icily observed ; and that with- ( . favour or affection, prejudice (malice. " So help me God." And such surveyor or supervisor sill, from time to time, leave n; ice in writing with the clerk of t peace for the county, city, or Inrty, in which his district shall b; situated, of the place of his al residence or abode, t is also hereby further enact- that before any building or wall, or new or old foun- on^, or foundations partly and partly old, within the hi ts of this act, shall be begun toie built, the master workman, ortherperson causing such build- in.'or wall to be built, shall give t\Mty-four hours' notice thereof to he surveyor or supervisor, wi in whose district the same be ; and such surveyor or rvisor shall view the said bufiing or wall, and see that all thrrules and regulations in this act contained are well and truly observed 3 and such surveyor or supervisor, for his trouble therein, shall be paid by such master work- man, or other person causing such building or wall to be built, such sum of money as a satisfaction for his trouble therein, as any two* or more of his majesty's justices of the peace for the city, county, or liberty in which such building or wall is situate, shall, by any writing under their hands, order or appoint, not exceeding three pounds ten shillings for every new building of the first rate or class of building, or one pound fifteen shillings for every first rate build- ing to which any alteration or addition shall be made, and not exceeding three pounds three shil- lings for every new building of the second rate or class of building, or one pound ten shillings for every second rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made ; and not exceeding two pounds ten shillings for every new building of the third rate or class of building, or one pound five shillings for every third rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made ; and not exceeding two pounds two shillings for every new building of the fourth rate or class of build- ing ; or one pound one shilling for every fourth rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made ; and not exceeding one pound ten shillings for every new building of the fifth rate or class of building, or fifteen shillings for every fifth rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made ; and not exceeding one pound one shilling for every new building of the sixth rate or class of building, or ten shillings and sixpence for every sixth rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made 5 and 403 BRICKLAYER. not exceeding* ten shillings and sixpence for every new building of the seventh rate or class of building, or five shillings for every seventh rate building to which any alteration or addition shall be made j and, in default of payment of any of the said several sums of money, or such other sums as the said justices shall appoint, the same shall, by warrant of one or more of such justice or justices as aforesaid, be levied by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of such master workman, or other person as aforesaid, together with the reasonable costs and charges of such distress and sale. And if any person shall begin any building, or wall, or shall presume to cut into any party- wall, without first giving notice to the surveyor, or supervisor, within whose district the same is situate, or shall refuse such sur- veyor or supervisor admittance from time to time, at reasonable hours, for the purpose of viewing the same j then every person so neglecting to give such notice, or so refusing such admittance, shall, for every default therein, forfeit and pay to the said surveyor or supervisor treble the satisfaction which such surveyor or supervisor would have been entitled to re- ceive for his trouble in viewing such building or wall, in case such notice had been given ; and shall also, for every such default, forfeit the sum of twenty pounds, to any person or persons who shall sue for the same. And if any workmen shall wil- fully, carelessly, or negligently, and without the direction, privity, or consent of his master do any thing in or about such building or wall contrary to the directions of this act, every such workman or servant so offending, shall, upon conviction, forfeit the sum of fifty shillings • one moiety thereof t be paid to the overseers of th poor of the parish, precinct, c place, wherein the offence w; committed, for the use of the poc only, and the other moiety therei to the informer ; and if such foj feiture be not paid upon, and irr mediately after, such convictioi then the offenders shall be con mitted to the house of correctioi there to remain, without bail ( mainprize, for any time not e? ceeding three months, nor le: than one month, unless the penali be sooner paid. Every master workman wl shall build any house or oth building, or any addition theret or any party or other wall, or \vl shall be employed to cut into ar party-wall within the limits of tb act, shall cause the same to 1 surveyed within fourteen da after the same is completed H the surveyor or supervisor with whose district the same is situati and, in case the said survey shall refuse, neglect, or shall, 1 illness or otherwise, be prevent* surveying such building, wall, other work, then the same sh; be surveyed by any other survey or supervisor appointed and swo within the city, county, or libert wherein the work is situate j ai if such surveyor or supervis shall, upon such survey, find th the same is, to the best of 1 judgment and belief, built or ma good, agreeably to the seve; directions contained in the a then such surveyor or supervis shall, within fourteen days aft surveying the same, make on thereof, by affidavit in writin before the magistrate within who jurisdiction the same is situati which affidavit shall be filed vvi the clerk of the peace for t county, city, or liberty in whi the said building or wall is situa BRICKLAYER. ithin ten days, and the said erk of the peace shall, for his uble therein, be entitled to receive the sum of one shil- and no more : and if any rson make default in the pre- ses, by neglecting to cause ch survey to be made, or such idavit to be made and filed, he iall for such neglect forfeit the , m of ten pounds ; and if such ;idavit be not made and filed thin the space of one month xt after the recovery of such inalty, such master workman, < other person as aforesaid, shall i-feit the further sum of ten |unds per month, until such Hiding be certified. It is further enacted, that if any rveyor, or supervisor, appointed id sworn in manner herein-be- l e directed, shall at any time > It'ully neglect his duty, or he- lve himself negligently or un- f'chfull v in the discharge thereof, 1 shall be forthwith discharged, ; 1 shall for ever afterwards be i apable of being again appoint- t a surveyor, or supervisor, for aforesaid purposes. \rit] whereas houses and build- ii s within the limits of the act, often, either from litigated 68, or the obstinacy, neglect, poverty of the owners in so mous a condition, that the li s of passengers are thereby eiangered ; it is further enacted, th if any presentment be made b an inquest or grand jury in LJidon, or by an annoyance ju r within the city and liberty otWestminster, or by the jury s*'m at the court le'et held by th sheriff in his turn for any hun- drl or place, or by any other ju or inquest sworn within any ot^r part of the limits aforesaid, th any house or building within th same limits, or any part there- of is in a ruinous condition, it shall be lawful for the court of mayor and aldermen, in respect of any such house or building within the said city of London, and the liberties thereof, or for the churchwardens or overseers of the poor for the time being of such parish, precinct, or place not being in the city of London, or the liberties thereof, in which such house or building is situate, to cause, with all convenient speed, a proper and sufficient hoard to be put up for the safety of passengers, and to cause no- tice in writing to be given to the owner, or other person interested therein, and if such owner cannot be found, to cause notice in writing to be affixed to or upon the door or other notorious part of such house or building, to repair the same, or to pull down such building, as the case may require, within fourteen days then next ensuing : and if such owner or other interested person do not begin to repair or take down the same within the said fourteen days, the said court of mayor and aldermen, by and out of the cash in the chamber of London, and also every such churchwarden and overseer of the poor, by and out of the moneys in his hands, are hereby severally authorized and required, with all convenient speed, to order and cause such house or building or so much thereof as the said court, or the said churchwardens or overseers of the poor, find necessary for the safety of passengers, to be taken down and secured, in such manner as shall from time to time be requisite ; and to sell and dispose of such of the materials as they shall judge necessary and expedient to reimburse, repay, and satisfy to themselves, and every person by them respectively em- ployed, the charges of putting up 405 BRI BRI such hoard, and of taking down aud securing- all or any part of every such house or building. The surplus of the moneys arising from such sale (if any there be) is to be paid to the owner of every such house or building, upon per- sonal demand, and if no such demand be made before another or other overseer or overseers of the poor of the said parish, pre- cinct, or place be appointed, then such overplus shall be added to the moneys raised and collected by virtue of the rates made for the relief of the poor of the said parish, precinct, or place, and shall be accounted for as such. Provided, nevertheless, that if any owner, or his executors or admin- istrators, shall and may, at any ti me within the term of six years be entitled to receive such overplus j then every such churchwarden or overseer for the time being is required to pay the same within ten days after personal demand out of any moneys raised by any rate or rates for the relief of the poor ; but, if it happen that the moneys arising from such sale shall fall short and are deficient to repay and satisfy all such charges, then such deficiency shall be paid by the owner or owners of every such house or building, if known, and to be met with j and if such owner or owners, on demand, neglect or refuse to pay the same, then such deficiency may be levied by distress and sale of the goods and chattels of such owner or owners, if any such can be found : and if no such owner or owners can be met with, or, being met with, shall not on demand pay the said deficiency, and no suffi- cient distress of his goods and chattels can be met with, where- from such deficiency of costs and charges may be levied and rexovered, then the person or 406 person who shall at any time afterwards occupy any sue! house or building, or the grounc whereon the same stood, is re quired and authorized to pav ant deduct the same out of the ren thereof j and if the occupiei neglect or refuse to pay sue! deficiency of charges, then th< same shall be levied by distres: and sale of the goods and chattel of such occupier of the premises together with the costs of sue! distress and sale. Having, in this place, furnisliet the reader with a faithful abstrac of such parts of the buildin< act as relate particularly to th erection of edifices, we shall fo further information relative to th business of the bricklayer, refe him to the next article. Bricklaying. The art of erect ing edifices or walls with brick cemented together with mortar. For the materials, tools, &c used in bricklaying, see the arti cles brick, tile, mortar, tools, &( also the mensuration of brick work. When an edifice is to be ereci ed, the first thing to be attende to is the setting out of the groum and the digging of the trencht for the foundation. If the intent ed building is to have no bas< ment story, the trenches nee not be of greater width than tl intended width of the footings but if there is to be a baseme story, it will be necessary to mai the excavations about <2j feet j 3 feet wider than the intend thickness of the walls, to allow room, not only for the footins but for the workmen to perfori their respective duties. The fod ings vary in thickness, accordi to the magnitude of the buildin and usually project from 9 to inches beyond the surfaces of i walls. BRICKLAYING. When the excavations have >een made, the ground must be ried by repeated blows of a ram- ner, or by driving- into it an iron pit, and working it backwards nd forwards, in order to ascer- ain whether it be sufficiently inn to sustain the proposed freight of the building. If it be ot suffie ; ently firm, it must be aled and planked, or sleepered nd planked, as the case may re- uire. The operation of piling nd planking consists in driving irge piles of wood, tapered at ne end, and shod with iron, into he earth, till they extend the /hole width of the footings j and ben, at any distance, not exceed- ng 5 feet, driving another course j nd so in continuation throughout tie length of the walling. This peration being completed, the round between the different ourses of piles, in the longitudi- al direction of the wall, is well jammed and made good. Planks f wood called sleepers, are then kid on the heads of the piles, in transverse direction to the ength of the building ; and other blanks are laid in the opposite . irection, that is, with their length xtending in the direction of the ;ngth of the wall, resting partly n the sleepers, and partly on ie ground which has been made ood, Sleepered and planked con- Ms in placing planks of wood in similar direction to the above, rithout having recourse to piling, v hen the intended walling is to e three bricks thick, the sleepers nd planks should extend about feet on each side of the wall, pat is, the sleepers should be 6 let in length. When the soil in general proves r m, but hath in one or more laces loose earth, the parts that -e loose must be excavated, ptU the bricklayer arrives at a part that is sufficiently firm tc sustain a pier or piers. These piers, similarly to the walls of a building, must have footings ; and must be carried up till they are on an exact level with the first course of the footings of the wall, of which thickness the piers must terminate at the top. Some- times, when not very loose, the ground may be made firm, by ramming into it large stones, after the manner of the paviors, which stones are close packed together, and are of a breadth at the bottom proportioned to the intended insisting weight. In buildings where wells or cesspools are to be sunk, it would be advisable to have them made previously to the sinking of the foundations, as they answer two purposes : first, that of ascertain- ing the nature of the ground on which the building is to be erect- ed j and secondly, that of supply- ing water for the bricklayers to slacken their lime. In building upon an inclined plane, where the length of the wall is to be very great, and the inclination of the plane is very rapid, the bottoms of the trenches for the foundations should form a series of level steps ; the extent of each of the levels being decided by the number of courses of brickwork that is necessary to bring the first level to a height with that of the second, and that of the second to a height with that of the third, and so on pro- gressively. The number of courses of brickwork necessary to this purpose should never exceed four ; consequently, when, for example, a wall is to be 100 feet in length, and the inclination of the ground on which it is to oe built is 10 feet, the distance from one step to another, or the length of each level, will be 10 feet 3 407 BRICKLAYING. because 10 feet, the tenth part of 100 feet, or the length of the wall, as also the tenth part of the amount of inclination, will give 10 feet, (the amount of in- clination,) divided by 10 feet, (the number of levels,) 1 foot, which is equal to four courses of brickwork. In building upon an inclined plane, when there is to be a long range of buildings sepa- rated by party-walls into distinct tenures, or houses, as is fre- quently the case in forming the streets of large towns and cities, it would be as well, and perhaps better, to make the steps extend from party-wall to party-wall, which will make the distance from step to step 15 feet, and upwards, according to the extent of the frontage of each house. In places where the soil is loose to any great depth, over which it is intended to place the apertures of the intended building, as the doors, windows, &c, while the parts on which the piers are to be erected are firm, the best plan is to turn an inverted arch under each of the intended apertures, as then the piers in sinking will carry with them the inverted arch, and by compressing the ground com- pel it to act against the under sides of the arch, which, if closely jointed, so far from yielding will, with the abutting piers, operate as one solid body. But on the contrary, if this expedient of the inverted arch be not adopted, the part of the wall which is under the aperture, being of less height, and consequently of less weight, than the piers, will give way to the resistance of the 6oil acting on its base, and not only injure the brickwork between the aper- tures, but fracture the window heads and cills. In constructing so essential a part as the arch, great attention • 40S must be paid to its curvature, and we strongly recommend the para- bolic curve as the best adapted for this purpose ; but if, in conse- quence of its depth, this cannot be conveniently introduced, the arch should never be made less than a semicircle. The bed of the piers should be as uniform as possible j for, though the bottom of the trench be very firm, it will, in some degree, yield to the great weight that is upon it ; and if the soil be softer in one part than in another, that part which is the softest will of course yield more to the pressure, and cause a fracture.! If the solid parts of the trench happen to be under the intended apertures, and the softer parts where the piers are wanted, the reverse of the above practice must be resorted to ; that is, the piersj must be built on the firm parts, and have an arch that is not inverted between them. In per- forming this, attention must be paid to ascertain whether the in- sisting pier will cover the arch s for if the middle of the pier rest over the middle of the summit oi the arch, the narrower the piei is, the greater should be the cur- vature of the arch at its apex When suspended arches are used the intrados should be kept clea of the ground, that the arch maj have its due effect. The trenches for the founda tions being completed, the brick layer commences to lay the brick' In walling in dry weather, whei the work is required to be finr the best mortar must be used and the bricks must be wette or dipped in water, as they ar laid, to cause them to adhere t the mortar, which they would nc do if laid dry ; for the dry sand nature of the brick would absor the moisture from the mortar, an prevent adhesion. BRICKLAYING. If very heavy walling is to be ected on ground whose stability in the least doubtful, it is advis- le to lay chain-timbers on the I) of the footings. The utility /this measure has been proved the erection of the military ; spital at Gosport, where this aetice was carried into effect, ;d which hospital has not sus- i ned a fracture ; whereas many «:ier military hospitals, erected i precisely the same principles, It without chain-timbers being iced on the footings, have not en so fortunate. The thickness J the first course of footings to : ese walls is seven bricks ; and e first course of bricks above 1 chain-timbers four bricks and lhalf. These chain -timbers con- t of pieces of stuff called flitches, ing timber of 14 inches square Vitled down the middle. In carrying up a building, the .ailing should be carried up as 'gular as convenience will per- it, and ought never to be carried ore than 4 feet out of level at a ne, without having its contin- :nt parts added to it. This is a ?ry necessary precaution, for as 1 walls shrink immediately after ulding, the part which is first ought up will settle before the jacent part is brought up to This is not sufficiently attended by the London builders, whose ildings, by consequence, fre- /ently sustain fractures. When the walling has been rried up to about half the height the windows, chain-timbers ouW be introduced throughout, , keep the piers steady. In heavy .dling, these chain-timbers may I 6 inches by 9 inches, but in nimon buildings bond-timbers ill answer the required purpose. When there is a continuation walling, or great weight of ickwork over a window or other 3F aperture, it is a good practice to turn an arch above the lintel in the interior face of the wall, corres- pondent to that in the exterior face. Arches may also be advantageous- ly turned above the lintels of doors in partition walls, as also above the lintels of the chimney breasts. Each of these arches should con- sist of three distinct courses of bricks, by means of which two ad- vantages will be gained ; first, less mortar will be used j and second- ly, should at any time the door or the chimney breast be required to be raised, it can very easily be effected by taking away the first and second courses. In bricklaying there are two descriptions of bond ; the English bond, and the Flemish bond. In the English bond a row of bricks is laid lengthwise in the direction of the length of the wall, and is crossed by another row which has its length in the breadth of the wall, and so on alternately. Those courses which bind the parts of the wall together in the longitudinal direction are termed stretching courses, and the bricks stretchers ; and those which bind them in the transverse direction heading courses, and the bricks headers. The Flemish bond consists in the disposition of the bricks on the outside, or face-work, so that in the same course there shall be alternately a stretcher and a head- er. This latter description of bond is deemed the neatest and most elegant j but in the execu- tion is attended with great incon- venience, and, in most cases, does not unite the parts of a wall with the same degree of firmness as the English bond. It is very easy to conceive that a wall constructed after the man- ner of the English bond must have considerable strength ; for 409 BRI BRI the parts of a wall are less liable to separate the longer the bonds are : the bonds are greatest in the longitudinal direction of the bricks, for then one brick may be 4 inches in length against each of two others in the same course 3 which is the length that must be moved before they can separate without breaking. In the introduction of the Flemish bond, strength has been sacrificed to a minute difference in the outside appearance. The defects of the Flemish bond are, in one or both faces, bilging away from the interior substance 5 or the failure of the wall, by its sepa- rating into two thicknesses along the middle, which sometimes takes place when there is a great superincumbent weight on it, and is called splitting. To prevent this evil, some bricklayers place laths, or the iron of hoops occa- sionally, in the horizontal joints between two courses : others lay diagonal courses of bricks at cer- tain heights from each other ; but the good effects of this last mode is much doubted, as in the diago- nal course, by not being continued on the outside, the bricks are much mangled where strength is wanted. Others again lay all head- ing courses within the outside Flemish bond, making the face alternately of 9 and of 4 inches in thickness. This, as far as re- lates to the splitting of the wall is an effectual preventative. But curing one evil another is increas- ed, for here is no stretching btmd, as the little that occurs in Flemish bond face-work is too trifling to be of any avail ; so that the least inequality of settlement, or weight in the longitudinal direction of the wall, occasions a separation in the vertical joints, as may be often seen in the fronts of build- ings. Even if longitudinal courses should be directed to be alter- nately laid in the interior of the wall, there is little chance of suc- ceeding better. The advantages of the old English over the Flem- ish bond is very satisfactorily pointed out in a small pamphlet, entitled " Observations on Brick Bond," to which we must refei the reader for further information on the subject. In the winter it is very neces- sary to preserve the unfinishec wall from the alternate effects oi rain and frost ; for if it be ex- posed, the rain will penetrate intc the bricks and mortar,and by being converted into ice will expand and burst, or crumble the mate- rials in which it is contained : con sequently, as soon as the storm} weather and frost set in, the un finished walls should be coveret either with straw or weathe: boarding. When weather board ing is employed, it is advisable t< have a good layer of straw be tween the work and the weathe boarding ; and to place the board ing in the form of stone coping to throw the water off equally 01 both sides. Bridge. A structure of car pentry, masonry, or iron-work built over a river, canal, or valley for the convenience of passim from one side to the other, bridge may therefore be consider ed as a road suspended in the ai by arches or lintels, which areht or lintels are supported by pier or abutments. The extreme supports of bridge, whether it have but on transverse aperture or a series transverse apertures or archei are called the hutments, or abut merits ; the parts between th apertures, which sustain the lintel or arches, the piers, or pillars and the fences on the sides of th bridge- way, for preventing th It BRIDGE. assengers from falling into the rater or valley below, the par- pets. When a bridge is intended >r both foot passengers and car- ages, the middle part is appro- bated to the road, or carriage- ay ; and on each side of this, a ith is in general raised, and imetimes paved with flag-stones, >r the foot passengers — these re called the footpaths, or ban- tettes. The invention of bridges is mbtless of the highest anti- inty ; but there are no records 3\v left that will enable us to ace it through its successive ages of improvement. In the ulest ages, bridges were proba- v formed by throwing single ees across small streams ; and i case or broader streams, by [sterling the roots of a tree on ich bank, and twisting together leir branches in the middle of le stream. Bridges of this kind mst have frequently occurred y chance; and mankind by ob- :rving them may have been simulated to adopt the same lode for their mutual accommo- ation ; accordingly we find that fr. Park found even the latter ode practised on rivers in the terior of Africa. Bridges of this nd will only answer for rivers a limited width ; consequently, broader streams it became cessary to have recourse to her modes. One of these, for })id streams, was, perhaps, the rming of ropes of rushes or the des of cattle, and stretching , cm between trees or posts on ' opposite banks. The follow- accounts, given by Don Anto- » de Ulloa, w ill afford a distinct •tion how these sort of bridges ere constructed and used in the 'ountainous parts of South 'merica. (See vol. ii. p. 164. kffldon, 4th edition, Svo.) " Over the river Desaguadero is still remaining the bridire of rushes, invented by Capac Yupan- qui, the fifth ynca, for transport- ing his army to the other side, in order to conquer the provinces of Collasuyo. The Desaguadero is here between eighty and a hun- dred yards in breadth, flowing with a very impetuous current, under a smooth, and as it were a sleeping surface. The ynca, to overcome this difficulty, ordered four very large cables to be made of a kind of grass which covers the lofty heaths and mountains of that country, and called by the Ind- ians, icku ; and these cables were the foundation of the whole struc- ture. Two of these being laid across the water, fascines of dry juncia and tortora, species of rushes, were fastened together and laid across them. On these the two other cables were laid, and again covered with the other fascines securely fastened, but smaller than the first, and arrang- ed in such a manner as to form a level surface j and by this means he procured a safe passage for his army. This bridge, which is about five yards in breadth, and one yard and a half above the surface of the water, is carefully repaired or re- built every six months, by the neighbouring provinces, in pursu- ance of a law made by that ynca, and since often confirmed by the kings of Spain, on account of itr prodigious use ; it being the chan- nel of intercourse between those provinces separated by the De- saguadero." Again : (vol. i. page 430.) " When the rivers are too deep to be forded, bridges are made at the most frequented places. Of these there are two kinds besides those made of stone, which are very few : the former of wood, which are most common, and the 411 BRIDGE. latter of bujucos. With regard to the first, they choose a place where the river is very narrow, and has on each side high rocks. They consist of only four long beams laid close together over the precipice, and form a path about a yard and a half in breadth, being just sufficient for a man to pass over on horseback ; and custom has rendered these bridges so natural to them, that they pass them without any apprehension. The second, or those formed of bujucos, are only used where the breadth of the river will not ad- mit of any beams to be laid across. In the construction of these, several bujucos are twisted toge- ther; so as to form a kind of large cable of the length required. Six of these are carried from one side of the river to the other, two of which are considerably higher than the other four - } on the latter are laid sticks in a transverse direction, and over these branches of trees as a flooring ; the former are fastened to the four which form the bridge, and by that means serve as rails for the secu- rity of the passengers, who would otherwise be in no small degree of danger from the continual oscillation. The bujuco bridges in this country are only for men, the mules swim over the rivers j in order to which, when their loading is taken off, they are drove into the water nearly half a league above the bridge that they may reach the opposite shore near it, the rapidity of the stream carrying them so great a distance. In the mean time, the Indians carry over the loading on their shoulders. On some rivers in Peru there are bujuco bridges so large, that droves of loaded mules pass over them ; particularly the river Apurimac, which is the thoroughfare of all the commerce 412 carried on between Lima, Cuzco, La Plata, and other parts to the southward. " Some rivers instead of a bujuco bridge, are passed by means of a tarabita; as is the case with re- gard to that of Alchipichi. This machine serves not only to carry over persons and loads, but also the beasts themselves ; the rapi- dity of the stream, and the mon- strous stones continually rolling along it, render it impracticable for them to swim over it. " The tarabita is only a single rope made of bujuco, or thongs of an ox's hide, and consisting of several strands, and about 6 or 8 inches in the thickness. This rope is extended from one side of the river to the other, and fasten- ed on each bank to strong posts. 'On one side is a kind of wheel to straighten or slacken the tarabita to the degree required. From the tarabita hangs a kind of ham- mock, capable of holding a man; and is suspended by a clue at each end. A rope is also fastened to either clue, and extended to each side of the river, for draw- ing the hammock to the side in- tended. A push at its first setting off sends it quickly to the other side. " For carrying over the mules, two tarabitas are necessary, one for each side of the river, and the ropes are much thicker and slack- er. On this rope is only one clue, which is of wood, and by which the beast is suspended, being secured by girths round the belly, neck and legs. When this is per- formed, the creature is shoved off, and immediately landed on the opposite side. Sucli as are accustomed to be carried over in this manner, never make the least motion, and even come ol themselves to have the girths fas- tened round them j buf it is with BRIBG K. •eat difficulty they are at first •ough to suffer the girths to be it round their bodies, and when ey find themselves suspended, ck and fling, during their ort passage, in a most terrible anner. The river of Alchipichi ay well excite terror in a young; iveller, being between thirty id forty fathoms from shore shore ; and its perpendicular tight above the surface of the iter twenty-five fathoms." Bridges of this description are mbtless the most simple, as also e best that men in an uncivilized ite can construct for deep and pid streams : but when the reams, though broad, are neither |ep nor rapid, one still more nple may be contrived, by acing large stones in the water, suitable distances apart, and ving other stones or beams of uber on them, so as to form continued pathway over the earn. To these kinds of bridges, hers of a similar nature but of ; eater utility succeeded when e arts began to be studied and jiovvn, consisting of piers com- »sed of hewn stone, laid with or thout mortar, and single stones | beams of timber stretched from jr to pier after the manner of h last mentioned. The bridge |er the Euphrates at Babylon, spears to have been constructed i this manner ; and there are i ary of a similar nature in dif- f ent parts of China. With respect to the next, and ^ind mode, that of constructing i 'lies between the piers, it ap- } irs that the Chinese, (if we may c dit their accounts,) contrived t.form bridges in this manner, Hpy centuries before arches were I nvn to the inhabitants of the ^stern world. Vom the accounts generally £ en, it is not easy to form dis- tinct ideas of the dimensions or constructions of tiie Chinese bridges, or to what extent they merit the appellation bestowed by travellers of being great and magnificent. Duhalde informs us, that " the stone bridges are commonly built like ours, on large piers of stone capable of re- sisting the rapidity of the stream, and sustaining the weight of the arches, wide enough for the pas- sage of large vessels. They are exceedingly numerous, and the e^flfjperor spares no expense when the public good requires them to be built. " Of these, there is one very remarkable at Foutchcou-fou, the capital of Toukien. The river over which it is built is half a league in breadth ; it is sometimes divid* ed into small arms, and some- times separated by small islands j these are united in joining the islands by bridges, which make altogether eight furlongs, or Chi- nese lys, and seventy-six toises. The principal of these has alone above one hundred arches built of white stone, with bannisters on each side handsomely carved, upon which, at the distance of every 10 feet, are placed square pilasters, whose bases are very large, resembling hollow barks. " But that which excels the rest is at Suentchcou-fou, built over the point of an arm of the sea, without which, the passage would be sometimes dangerous, even in a boat. It is 2500 Chinese feet in length, and 20 in breadth j it is supported by two hundred and fifty-two strong piers, one hundred and twenty-six on each side. All the stones are of the same bigness as well those which are laid from pier to pier, as those which are laid crosswise, inso- much that it is difficult to com- prehend how stones of such an 413 BRIDGE enormous size could be placed in such a regular manner, or even raised on the high piers on which they lie. After this there is nothing of the kind worth men- tioning." The only conclusion to be drawn from the foregoing de- scription of this work, which excels all the rest, is, that two rows of large stones or piers (each row consisting of one hundred and twenty-six,) have been setup across the shallow mouth of a river or arm of the sea ; thus along the top of these, other long stones have been laid horizon- tally, like wooden beams ; and lastly that long stones have been laid crosswise upon these longi- tudinal beams, in the manner of joists in carpentry, or, more pro- bably close together, composing a compact bed or roadway. By dividing 2500, the total length in Chinese feet, by 127, the num- ber of openings, it gives nearly 20 feet between centre and centre of the piers, — so that after the thickness of the pier is taken away from the 20 feet, a moder- ate opening is left for the lintel to cover. The dimensions cross- wise, correspond with the descrip- tion as to the stones being the same size, (at least as to length ;) for the breadth of the bridge is said to be 20 feet, and taking away the thickness of the two longitudinal beams, leaves the dimensions of the opening to be covered by the stones lying cross- wise. It is therefore to the carry- ing from the quarry and raising stones of this magnitude, that the praise of ingenuity must be attri- buted j there being nothing else in the mode of construction which has a claim to refined science, or great progress in the mechanical arts. The danger to boats passing must no doubt have arisen from the shallowness of the water, and the frequency and violence of the surfs. From the following relation, extracted from flie same work, there is reason to expect correct information. It is entitled, " An account of the Journey of the Fathers Boures, Fontenay, Gor- bellou le Compte, and Vesdelore, from the port of Ning Po to Pe- kin, with a very exact and parti- cular description of all the places throughout which they passed, in the provinces of Tche-kiang, Kiang-nan, Chan-tong and Pe- tcheli. " It is in this agreeable place that the city of Chao-king has its situation. In the streets are a great number of canals, which give occasion for a great numbei of bridges. They are very high, and have generally but one arch, which is so slightly built towards the top, that carriages never past over them, which makes a grea number of porters necessary They pass over these bridges bv a kind of stairs, of very eas> ascent, whose steps are not mon than 3 inches in thickness. Then are other sorts of bridges, madj of stones 18 feet long, laid upoi piles in the manner of planks There are many of these over th great canal very handsomel built. Again, "about four leagues froii Hang-tcheou we crossed a villag called Tan-si. It is built on boti sides of the canal, on which ar also two quays, about four hun dred or five hundred geometric; paces in length. They are forme of the same freestone which line the sides of the canal. There ar stairs for the conveniency of ever house, which are much bette built, and more uniform tha those in the city. In the mid. of the village is a fine bridge I BRIDGE. s^en large arches that in the rddle is 45 French feet wide j t: rest diminish in proportion t the descent of the bridge. Tere are two or three great I (iges of one arch only. ' We crossed a great village or cintry town, called Ovan-kiang- hg of large extent. One part cnmunicates with the other by Jans of a bridge of three great ajhes very curiously built : the r : ddle arch is 45 French feet vie, and 20 feet high." Of these arches, which are here t med large and great, we find t ; span to be only 45 feet j an e'ent which, in Europe, would it be honoured with those ap- t lations. The Chinese arches a of various forms, pointed semi- c'cular, semi-elliptical, &c, and Air construction, as described I I Mr. Barrow, is very curious. " Each stone, from 5 to 10 feet i length, is cut so as to form the e-, r ment of the arch, and in sen cases there is no keystone ; m of wood fitted to the convex- i ' of the arch and bolted through 1.3 stones by iron bars, fixed fast i :o the solid parts of the bridge ; fljmetimes, how r ever, they are mhout wood, and the curved s'»nes are mortised into long t'nsverse blocks of stone." Mr. 1 rrow proceeds to observe, "here are, however, arches therein the stones are smaller, £*1 pointed to a centre as in ours, lave understood from the late )tain Parish, that no masonry dd be superior to that of the l sat wall, and that all the arched m vaulted work in the old t'vers was exceedingly well tlned." inongthe ancients, the arch does r : appear to have been known (her in Egypt or India j nor is 8'' trace o*' it to be met with in t ; ancient works of Persia or Phoenicia; the Greeks also have a very doubtful claim to the knowledge of the arch. The first positive information that occurs in historians regarding the use of arches is given by Livy, who in- forms us that Scipio Africanus, and Lucius Mummius, placed ar- ches on piers, which had been formed by M. Fulvius some years before that period, about one hun- dred years before Augustus Caesar was placed in the empire. And Cicero, in his oration against Verres, mentions an arch, erected in honour of Verres, at Syracuse, and on each side, footpaths or ban- quettes for the accommodation of passengers. The footpaths BRIDGE, were raised above the carriage- way, and were divided from it by a railing ; and sometimes were covered over, as in the Pons iElius, to shelter the passengers from the rain. The ancient bridges of Rome, as described by Gautier, were eight in number. 1. Pons iElius, built by the'emperor Adrian, and named after him. It is said to have once had a cover -of bronze supported by forty-two columns. It is now called Sancto Angelo. 2. A triumphal bridge, the ruins of which are now seen in the Tiber. Over this bridge the em- perors and consuls passed when they were decreed a triumph. 3. Pons Janiculenses, now Pon- to Sixtus, it having been rebuilt by pope Sixtus IV. in 1745. 4. Pons Cestius, at present St. Bartholomew. It was rebuilt by the emperor Valentinian. 5. Pons Fabricius, now Ponto Caspi. 6. Pons Senatorius, at present Sancta Maria. 7. Pons Horatius formerly Sub- licius, built of stone by Horatius Cocles, and rebuilt by Emilius Lepidus. The ruins of this bridge are still to be seen in the Tiber. 8. Pons Milvius, which is about two miles out of Rome upon the Flaminian way. Besides these, the Romans constructed many other bridges, some of which were very magni- ficent. One built by Augustus, near Narni, on the road from Rome to Loretto, consisted of four arches, the span of the first being 75 feet and 102 feet high, and the spans of the others 135, 114, and 142 feet: another, that of Merida, upon the river Guadi- ana, is, according to don Antonio Pouz, 1300 paces in length, and according to Vargas, contained sixty-four arches ; but, in the 416 time of Philip III., one of the large arches towards the middk was destroyed by an • inundation on which account three or foui adjoining were rebuilt in 1610 The most magnificent of all th< Roman bridges is, perhaps, tha of Alcantara upon the Tagus. I consists of six arches : its wholi length is 670 Spanish feet, an', from the bottom of the river t( the roadway the height is 20; feet. Beside the bridges we have en umerated, the Romans construct ed many others which are eithe still existing, or have been cor rectly described to us. Account also have been handed down t us of other bridges, constructe for the temporary purposes c war, as that of Darius upon th Thracian Bosphorus, Xerxc- upon the Hellespont, Pyrrhii upon the Adriatic Gulph, Caeso upon the Rhine, and Trajan upo the Danube. The building and repairing ( the Roman bridges was intruste first to the priests, who wo named pontijices, then to the cer sors and curators of the road and lastly, the emperors took tl management of the bridges inl their own hands. After the destruction of tl Roman empire, and when the ar began to revive in Europe, a n gular order of hospitallers Wi founded by St. Benezet, an ei thusiast, under the denominatic of pontifices or bridge-builder St. Benezet and his brethren coi structed the bridge of Avigno composed of eighteen arches, ar about 1000 yards in length, was begun in the year 1176, at finished in 1188. During tl contentions of the popes, in 138 some of the arches were destro ed ; three others fell, for want repairs, in 1602 ; and the destru BRIDGE ion of the bridge was completed n 1670, by large masses of ice, vhich floated down the river after severe frost. The city of Venice has nearly ye hundred handsome bridges f stone of one arch, and of var- ms sizes, over the canals, 8cc. he chief of these, called the lalto, erected after a design of lichael Angelo Buonarrotti, was insidered at the time of its erec- on a masterpiece of art. It msists of a bold flat arch, nearly X) feet in span, and only 23 feet o-h above the water ; and was instructed in 1588 to 1591. ,he breadth of the bridge, which ; 43 feet, is divided by two rows ,* shops into three narrow streets, at in the middle being the klest ; and there is in the centre i open archway, by which the ree streets communicate with le another. At each end of the lidge is an ascent of 56 feet, and e prospect from its summit is th lively and magnificent. The hole exterior of the shops and the bridge is marble. The undation extends 90 feet, and sts upon twelve hundred elm les. This structure cost the public two hundred and fifty fpusaod ducats. One of the most magnificent of B aqueduct bridges hitherto cistructed is that of Alcantara, air the city of Lisbon. It was commenced in the reign of John \ king of Portugal, in the year 113, and was finished the 6th of gust, 1*32, under the super- i endence of the brigadier Man- s. de Maya. The aqueduct com- n nces at a spring; near the I m ria de Caranque, about three 1< rues and a half from Lisbon; ft I the water is conveyed thence tjjough subterraneous passages in tl lulls, and through a magnificent t ge of arches suspended over the vallies by means of very high piers, for the use of the inhabi- tants of the city of Lisbon, and those of the villages adjacent. When the water emerges from its subterraneous passage, it is conveyed along the top of the arches by two channels, of the depth of 12 inches each ; but it generally flows at a depth of about 7 inches, yielding an abundant and never-failing supply. The interior height of this ljuilding is about 13 feet ; and through the centre, between the streams, is a wide handsome footpath, paved with freestone. The building is continued the same height and width through the whole of the aqueduct from the spring to Lis- bon ; so that if by accident any part becomes out of repair, the workmen can have easy access to it. The subterraneous passages are lighted and ventilated by ex- cavations made from the surface of the hills, through which they pass to the aqueduct j and over each of the openings thus made, turrets or square towers are erect- ed, having apertures, latticed with iron bars, to admit the light and air, and at the same time to prevent mischievous persons from throw- ing any thing into the aqueduct to injure it. These turrets are sixteen in number, and 16 feet square, and rise 23 feet 6 inches above the roof. The windows, or apertures, for the admission of light and air, are 3 feet 7 inches long, by 13 inches wide. Beneath every second turret is an arched doorway into the aqueduct, on each side of the building wherein the water flows, and between that building and the parapet wall is a footpath, leading from Lisbon towards the very pleasant village of Bemsique, about four miles distant, where several gentlemen have their quintas, or country- 417 BRIDGE seats. The water channel under the grand arch is 24 feet m width, and 7 feet in depth , but no water passes through it, except in very rainy seasons: the small stream, continually passing through the vale of Alcantara, is conveyed by means of a very narrow channel, under the pave- ment beneath the grand arch, and then continues its course through the valley, in a stream between 2 and 3 feet wide, until it empties itself into the Tagus at Alcantara bridge, at the distance of about two miles from the aqueduct. This remarkable struc- ture consists of thirty-five ar- ches, of various dimensions. The eighth, which is the grand arch, is 108 feet 5 inches wide, and 227 feet high s and the total length of the piers and arches is 2464 feet. The expense attending the ex- ecution of so magnificent a work, and keeping the same in repair, though immense, has hitherto been defrayed by the small tax of a single rey on every pound of butcher's meat sold in the mar- kets of Lisbon. In France, besides the bridges of Pont du Garde, near Nismes, and St. Esprit, near Lyons, construct- ed by the ancient Romans, there are several remarkable for their size and boldness of construction. Among these may be mentioned the bridge of Neuilly, built by M. Perron et, over the Seine, on the alignment of the grand avenue of the Champs Elysees, in front of the palace of the Thuilleries. This bridge, which is level on the top, consists of five equal arches, of 120 feet French, which is equal to 12S English feet, in the span, and 30 feet French, which is equal to 32 feet English in the rise. The arches are elliptical, composed of eleven arcs of circles of different diameters j 418 thus tne upper portion of the arch was formed with a circle of 160 feet radius, which, by its settle- ment during the building and after the striking of the centres, was flattened, till it became an arc of a circle of 259 feet radius, dtfFering so little from a platband, that, as Perronet observes, the rise of the curve in a length of 33 feet, amounted only to 6 j inches 9 lines. The piers are 14 feet wide, and the breadth of the bridge is 48 feet. It was begun in the year 1768, and finished in 17S0. At Nantes is a bridge over the i Seine, consisting of three arches, that in the centre having an open- ing of 120 feet French, which is, as we have stated above, equal to 12S feet English ; and that on each side 108 feet French, which is equal to 116 feet English. The piers of this bridge are 25 feet 6 inches wide, and the abutments; 29 feet. It was begun by Mj Hupeau in 1757, and completed; by Perronet. On the river Oise, on the grea* road from Paris into Flanders, u the bridge of Pont-Sainte-Maix ence, which is also the work o Perronet. It is 41 feet wide and has three arches of 77 fee opening, each being a segment o a circle described with a radius o 118 feet. Each pier is singulurl; composed of four cylindrical pil lars 9 feet diameter, leaving therefore, three spaces of in- ter columniations between then; which are arched over, the fcv external ones closed with a thi walling, and the middle one lei open. The bridge over the Loire, a Orleans, is composed of nin| arches, which spring at 12 inchc above low water. The uiiddl arch is 106 feet in span, with I rise of 30 feet, the two arches . BRIDGE. the extremities 98 feet wide and 26 feet high ; and the others in proportion. The four middle piers are 19 feet, the four others 18 feet, and the abutments 23 feet 6 inches thick, making the whole length 1100 feet ; the arches are oval, described from three centres. This bridge was built by tl. Hu- peau, and was begun in 1750 and finished in 1760. There is another bridge built upon one of the arms of the Loire, at Saumar. It was design- ed byM.de Voglio, and executed by L. A. de Cessart. This bridge consists of twel ve elliptical arches, each having a span of 60 feet, and a rise of 21 feet : the piers are 12 feet thick, and the breadth 'of the bridge, including the para- pets, is 42 feet French, or 42 feet 9 inches English. It was begun in 1756', and finished in 1770. The progress of bridge build- ing in England seems to have kept pace with the same art on the continent. The most ancient structure of this kind now re- raaining entire is the triangular •rothic bridge atCroyland, in Lin- colnshire. It is said to have been built in the year 860, which date - most likely correct, for Croyland ihbey was founded in 716, and the ibhey of Rumsey, in Huntingdon- hire, in 974. It is formed by iiree semi-arches, whose bases tand in the circumference of a ircle, equidistant from each other, ml uniting at the top. The liune nature of the structure as led some to suppose that it • as intended as an emblem of tie trinity, which is not impro- ahle, considering the age in liich it was constructed. The scent on either side of the semi- •rches i-; by steps, paved with mall stones, and is so steep that one but foot passengers can go ver the bridge ; horsemen and carriages frequently pass under it, as the river is but shallow. This singular structure which ap- pears to have been built less with a view to utility than to that of boldness and originality of design, still exhibits no symptoms of decay. London-bridge was first built with timber in the reign ofEthelred, between the years 993 and 1010 ; and it was repaired, or rather re- built, in 1163. The present stone bridge was begun in 1 176, under king Henry II., and finished un- der king John in the year 1209 : and it is worthy of remark, that the bridge of Avignon was begun by St. Benezet in the same year that Peter of Colchester, a priest, began to build London-bridge of stone. This bridge, which is in the old gothic style, had formerly twenty small locks or arches $ but there are now only nineteen, as two arches have been convert- ed into one in the centre. The length of this bridge is 940 feet, its height 44 feet, and there is a clear width of 47 feet between the parapets. The piers are from 15 to 35 feet thick, with enor- mous sterlings projecting at each side j so that when the tide is above the sterlings the greatest water-way is but 545 feet, scarce- ly half the breadth of the river j and when the tide is below the sterlings, the water-way is re- duced to 204 feet, which causes a dangerous fall of water. During many centuries, houses were on each side of the bridge ; but these were removed, the avenues to the bridge were enlarged, and two arches were thrown into one, in 175S. The repairs amounted to upwards of eighty thousand pounds ; but, notwithstanding this expenditure, the bridge is in so dilapidated a condition that a new bridge has been resolved on, 419 bridge. and is now in the progress of construction under the inspection of the Messrs. John and George Rerinie. Of this we shall speak more at large under the subhead. Practice. Other bridges in England were built in the manner of London- bridge ; as that of Rochester, which is 550 feet long, and has eleven arches ; and that till lately at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, which was broken down by a great flood in the year 1771. The longest bridge in England is that built by Bernard, abbot of Burton, over the Trent, at Burton, in the twelfth century. It is all of squared freestone, and is strong and lofty, 1545 feet in lengthy and consists of thirty-four ar- ches. In 1636, Inigo Jones gave a design for a bridge, which was afterwards erected at Llanwst, in Denbighshire. It consists of three arches, segments of circles. The middle arch is 58 feet span, and has a rise of 17 feet. The piers are 10 feet thick ; and the breadth of the soffit of the middle arch is 14 feet. This bridge has a very light appearance. One of the most extraordinary of the bridges in Great Britain is that over the river Taaf, near Llantrissent, in Glamorganshire, called in Welsh, Pont y ty Pry del. It is the work of William Ed- wards, an uneducated mason of the country, who was only in- debted for his skill to his own industry and the power of his genius. He had engaged, in 1746, to build a new bridge at this place, which he executed in a style superior to any thing of the kind in this or any other part of Wales, for neatness of work- manship and elegance of design. " It consisted," says Malkin, in his " To u r in South Wales," " of three arches, elegantly light in their construction. The hewn stones were excellently well dress- ed and closely jointed. It was admired by all who saw it. But this river runs through a very deep vale that is more than usually woody, and crowded about with mountains. It is also to be considered, that many other rivers of no mean capacity, as the Crue, the Bargoed Taaf, and the Cunno, besides almost numberless brooks that run through long, deep, and well wooded vales or glens, fall into the Taaf in its progress. The descents into these vales from the mountains being in general very steep, the water in long and heavy rains collects into these rivers with great rapi- dity and force, raising floods, that in their descriptions would appear absolutely incredible to the inhabitants of open and flat countries, where the rivers are neither so precipitate in their courses, nor have such hills on each side to swell them into tor- rents. Such a flood unfortunately occurred after the completion of this undertaking, which tore up the largest trees by the roots, and carried them down the river to the bridge, where the arches were not sufficiently large to ad- mit of their passage. Here, there- fore, they were detained. Brush- wood, weeds, hay, straw, and whatever lay in the way of the ! flood, came down and collected 1 about the branches of the trees that stuck fast in the arches, and choked the free current of the i water. In consequence of this obstruction to the flood, a strong ! and thick dam, as it were, was thus formed. The aggregate of j so many collected streams being i unable to get any further, rose here to a prodigious height, and with the force of its pressure, car- J BRIDGE. ried the bridge entirely away be- fore it. William Edwards had given security for the stability of The bridge during the space of seven years ; of course he was obliged to erect another, and he proceeded on his duty with all possible speed. The bridge had only stood about two years and a halt*. The second bridge was of one arch, for the purpose of ad- mitting freely under it whatever encumbrances the floods might bring down. The span or chord of this arch was 140 feet, its alti- tude 35 feet, the segment of a circle whose diameter was 170 feet. The arch was finished, but the parapets not yet erected, when such was the pressure of the un- ' avoidable ponderous work over the haunches, that it sprung in the middle, and the keystones were forced out. This was a severe blow to a man who had hitherto met with nothing but misfortune in an enterprise which was to establish or ruin him in his profession. William Edwards, however, possessed a courage ' which did not easily forsake him ; he engaged in it a third time, and by means of cylindrical holes ' through the haunches, so re- 'duced their weight, that there was no longer any danger from it. The second bridge fell in T/51 • the third which has stood 'ever since, was completed in 1755." The present arch is 140 feet in span, and 35 feet high, being a segment of a circle of 1 75 feet diameter. In each haunch there are three cylindrical open- ings running through from side to side; the diameter of the low- est is 9 feet, of the next G feet, and of the uppermost 3 feet. The width of the bridge is about 11 feet* To strengthen it horizon- tally it is made widest at the abut- ments, from which it contracts towards the centre by seven off- sets, so that the roadway is 1 foot 9 inches wider at the extre- mities than at the middle. The bridge over the river Thames, at Westminster, was con- structed by Mr. Labalye. It is 1220 feet long and 4 4 feet wide, having a commodious footpath, 7 feet broad, on each side. It con- sists of thirteen large and two small arches, fourteen interme- diate piers, and two abutments. The length of each abutment is 76 feet ; the opening of each of the smaller arches is 25 feet ; the span of the first of the larger arches, one being at each end, ad- joining the smaller arches, is 52 feet ; of the next, 56* feet ; and so on progressively, increasing 4 feet at a time, to the centre arch of which the span is 76 feet. The piers of the middle arch contain each 3000 cubic feet, or near two hundred tons of solid stone, and are each 17 feet thick ; the others decrease equally 1 foot on each side ; every pier terminating with a gallant right angle against the stream. The arches are semi- circular, and spring from about the height of 2 feet above low water mark, leaving a free water- way of 870 feet. The footway is adorned with semi-octangular towers over every pier, which afford passengers commodious shelter from a shower of rain. This bridge was begun in 1/36, the centre of the last arch was struck on the 25th of July, 1/47, and on the 14th day of Novem- ber of the same year the roads and streets were finished. A cir- cumstance, however, occurred, which prevented the bridge from being opened to the public till the expiration of three years. Some workmen, who were em- ployed to get gravel out of the bed of the river to cover the 4*1 BRIDGE. roadway of the bridge, finding some very suitable near the third pier on the western side of the centre arch, excavated consider- ably lower than the foundation of the pier, and too near it ; the consequence was, that gravel run from under the platform, and the pier sunk so much as to render it necessary to take down the two arches that rested upon it. The securing the foundation, rebuild- ing the pier and two arches, and replacing the parapets, pavements, and roadways, occupied the space we have mentioned, and the bridge was not opened to the public till the 1 8th of November, 1750. By some this bridge has been spoken of in terms of the highest praise ; but others com- plain that the arches are too small in proportion to the quantity of masonry. The piers of Westminster- bridge were laid by means of caissons, of which we shall take notice under the subhead, Prac- tice. The building of the bridge, &c. amounted to the net expense of ^62 18,800. About ten years after the com- pletion of Westminster-bridge, another handsome stone structure was thrown over the Thames, near the centre of the city of London. This structure, now generally known by the name of Blackfriars-b ridge, was plan- ed and built by the late Mr. Robert Mylne, between 1760 and I77I, the building occupying a term of ten years and three quar- ters. This bridge is from shore to shore, 995 feet in length, and 43 feet 6 inches in width, and has nine elliptical arches. The centre arch is 100 feet in width, and the four arches on either side de- crease gradually towards the shore, being 98, 93, 83, and 70 feet res- pectively, leaving a clear water- 422 way of 788 feet. The upper sur- face of the bridge forms the seg- ment of a very large circle, guard- ed on each side with an elegant open stone balustrade j and, whe- ther viewed from the water or from the shore, has a very fine appearance. Over each pier is an open recess or balcony supported by two slender ionic columns and pilasters, which rest on a circular projection from the pier, above high water mark. Each extre- mity of the bridge is rounded off to the right and left, in form of the quadrant of a circle, which renders the access commodious and agreeable. The cost of erec- tion amounted to «£l5^,S40. In erecting this edifice Mr. Mylne benefited by the example of Labalye ; and the general de- sign of the bridge bespeaks a mind emboldened by the success of his predecessor, to advance, though very cautiously, a step further in the practice of bridge- building. The piers being pro- portionally less thick, and the arches wider and of an elliptical form, with less masonry upon them, give this bridge a much lighter appearance than that of Westminster, though it has been doubted, whether the slender de- tached ionic columns are a proper accompaniment to such a work, and whether the divisions of the length of the rusticated headers of the arches are any improve- ment. In the interval between the completion of Blackfriars-bridge and the commencement of that noblest of structures, Waterloo- bridge, many very neat and ele- gant bridges have been erected; in different parts of Great Britain and Ireland. Of these we shall briefly mention the Tees, at Win- ston, in Yorkshire, consisting of a single arch of 108 feet 9 inches! BRIDGE. span, designed by sir Thomas Ro- binson ; one over the Tweed at Kelso, consisting of five elliptical i arches, each of 72 feet span, ) erected under the direction of Mr. John Hennie ; the aqueduct i bridge on the river Lune, at Lancaster, consisting of five ar- l ches, each of 70 feet span ; de- signed by the same eminent en- gineer. Essex-bridge over the iLiffey, designed and built by Mr. George Sempie, consisting of five arches; one of the span of , 58 feet, another of 37 feet, and i three of 45 feet. Sarah's-bridge, constructed by Mr. Stevens, hav- ing an arch of 1 JO feet span, with a rise of 22 feet, also over the river Liffey. Another bridge over i tiie same river, called Carlisle- I bridge, consisting of three arches, the middle being 50 feet in span, and the other two 40 feet each* one of a single arch of 130 feet span, built at Aberdeen, from a idesign by Mr. Telford : another by the same eminent engineer, upon the river Dee, having an arch of the span of 1 18 feet, and the rise or versed sine 38 feet; one by Mr. G. Burn, over the river Spey, near Gordon Castle, at Fochabars, consisting of four arches, the two middle ones being 95 feet span, and the breadth over the parapets 2 I feet 6 inches : and that built by the duke of Athol over the river Tay at Dun- keld, from a design by Mr. Tel- ford, consisting of five large ar- ches, and two smaller land arches, the middle arch being 90 feet man, with a rise of 30 feet, and |he width over the parapets 27 feet 6 inches. , Waterloo-bridge, thrown over ,the river Thames, at London, was -projected by Mr. George Dodd, .about the year 1805. Consider- able time, however, elapsed be- fore the ultimate arrangement! necessary to carry it into execra- tion were made. The first act was obtained in the month of June, 1809, and incorporated the proprietors under the name of the " Strand-bridge Company," empowering them to raise the sum of 500,000/. in transferable shares of 100/. each; and the further sum of 300,000/.. by the issuing new shares, or by mort- gage, in case it should be found necessary, in July, 1 8 1 3, a second act was passed, enabling them to raise an additional sum of 200,000/.; and in July, 18 1G, a third act was obtained, granting the company further powers, and changing the name from the Strand -bridge to Waterloo-bridge, which name it now bears. Mr. Ilennie, having been ap- pointed engineer to the company, on the 23d day of June, 1810, furnished two designs, one ot seven and the other of nine arches, the latter of which was finally approved by the commit- tee, and ordered to be put in execution. This noble bridge is situate about half way between the bridges of Blackfriars and West- minster. The river at this place is about 1,326 feet wide at high water ; and ordinary spring tides rise about 13 feet, and ordi- nary neap tides about 9 feet 6 inches. The greatest depth at low water is about 9 feet. The bed of the river is composed prin- cipally of a stratum of sand and gravel resting upon clay. The bridge is level, and con- sists of nine semi-elliptical arches, each having a span of 120 feet, and a rise of 35 feet ; thus leav- ing for the navigation 30 feet of clear height above the high water of spring tides, and forming an ample water-way of 1,080 feet. The abutmants are 40 feet thick 423 BRIDGE. at the bases, and diminish to 30 feet at the springing of the ar- ches. Their lengths, including the stairs, are 140 feet. The piers are 30 feet broad at the base, and diminish to two-thirds at the springing of the arches. Their lengths at the bases are 87 feet. The points, or saliant angle-, of the piers are in the form of a gothic arch, and are terminated above by two three- quarter columns supporting an entablature which forms a recess. The whole is surmounted with a balluster, and a frieze and cor- nice of the Grecian doric. The columns are doric also, and were selected on account of the extra- ordinary strength of their pro- portions, as being best suited to a structure of this magnitude ; they are 23 feet 9 inches high, or rather more than four diame- ters. The clear width between the parapets is 42 feet 4 inches ; allowing 23 feet 4 inches for the carriage-way, and 7 feet for each of the footpaths. Four plying places, or stairs, for watermen, are formed by circular wings, projecting at right angles to the bridge, with arch- ways leading to the roadway. These wings are ornamented with columns, entablatures, &c. as be- fore described. The bridge being level, and of so great a length, it became ne- cessary to provide means for car- rying off the rain-water. This is effected by having circular open- ings in the centre of each pier, which enter the river immediately below low- water mark: these openings are connected with iron branch pipes up to the level of the roadway, where gratings are placed to receive the water. The roads or approaches to each end of the pier are 70 feet 424 wide throughout, except just at the entrance into the Strand, and are carried over a series of semi- circular brick arches of 16 feet span each. The Surrey or sou- thern approach is formed by thirty-nine of these, besides an elliptical arch of 26 feet span, over the narrow wall road, and a small embankment about one hundred and sixty-five yards long, having an easy and gradual ascent of not more than 1 foot in 34 feet. The length of the brick arches in the Surrey approach is 766 feet. Ditto of those in the Strand approach . . 310 feet. Total length of the bridge from the ends of abutments . . . 1,380 feet. Total length of the bridge and brick ar- ches 2,456 feet. The bridge now being con- structed over the Thames, in lieu of the old London-bridge, is under the direction of Messrs.' Rennie, and will consist of five arches. See the sub-head Prac- tice* Iron bridges appear to be the exclusive invention of British artists. The first bridge of this kind upon a large scale is that erected by Mr. Abraham Darby,; in the year 1779, over the river Severn, at Coaibrookdale. It consists of a single arch of 100j feet 6 inches span, and the wholej of the iron in it weighed one; hundred seventy-eight and a half tons. The second iron bridge was constructed by Messrs. Walker ot Hotherham, for Mr. Thomas Paine, of political notoriety, and was intended by him to be sent to America; but he being unable to defray the expense, Messrs. Walker took the arch to pieces, and afterwards employed some of BRIDGE. he materials in the bridge of hicl) we shall next take note, 'he iliitcl iron bridge, and that i which some of the materials bove alluded to were used, was xecuted on the river Wear, at underland, by Rowland Bur- on, Esq. M. p. for the county f Durham, by the assistance of Iessrs. Walker, the founders, [r. W ilson, and several other ersons. Tin's bridge was begun i the year J 793, and completed i August, 1796. The stone piitments are JO feet high, above le ordinary surface of low water | Sunderland harbour, to the ,)ring of the arch. The iron ch is 236 feet span ; and the )ringing stones project about two Set beyond the face of the ma- >nry : so that the whole span, ora abutment to abutment, is 10 feet. The versed sine of this ch is 30 feet : its soffit is there- ire 100 feet from the surface a" low water in Sunderland har- our. The weight of iron in this ridge is two hundred and fifty >ns ; two hundred and ten tons f cast, and forty tons of wrought on. The fourth iron bridge that as been executed, is that over he river Severn, at Buildwas, Jout two miles distant from 'oalbrookdale. It was begun in ie year 1 7 ( J o , and finished in r *9G, under the direction of Mr. liomas Telford. The arch of is bridge is 130 feet span, with versed sine of only 17 feet; >d its width is but 18 feet to e outside. About the same time as the ' idge at Build was v/as erected, I hon bridge was thrown over le river Teme in Herefordshire; it its parts were so .slender, and I ill-disposed, that, when the ooden centering was taken from ider it, the whole gave way, id tumbled into the river. In the same year also as the bridge at Buildwas was begun, another was erected over the river Parret, at Bridgewater, by the Coal- brookdale company. The arch of this bridge is an ellipsis of 75 feet span, with a rise of 23 feet. From this period till about the year 1808, few iron bridges of note were constructed, in the latter period, however, the stone bridge erected over the Thames, at Staines, gave way ; and the magistrates of Middlesex and Surrey came to a resolution to have an iron bridge erected there, on the abutments of the late stone bridge, the piers of which only had given way. Mr. Wilson, who was the agent of Mr. Bur- don, and employed for the pur- pose, undertook the construction of an iron arch of 181 feet span, with 164 feet rise or versed sine: the arch being the segment of a circle. We must here observe, that an iron arch in small blocks, is not set up after the manner of a stone one, by beginning at the abutments, and building upwards, but is begun at the top, and con- tinued downwards ; it being easier to join the stone to the iron, than to cut the iron at the top, if it should not fit. It is therefore somewhat remarkable, that when these ribs were put together, and before they joined the ma- sonry, it. was so nicely balanced, and its parts were so firmly lock- ed together, that after all the supports were taken out, except those next the abutment, the whole was moved by a man, by applying a crow-bar under the top ; and it seemed to have but little tendency to push the abut- ments asunder. This, however, turned out unfortunately not to be the case. The centering was taken away, and the bridge was opened for the use of the public, BRIDGE. about the end of the year I 801, or beginning of 1 802. The bridge at first seemed to stand firm, and the public were delighted with its light and elegant appearance. But in a short time it was found that the arch was sinking ; and soon afterwards it went so much, that it was found necessary to shut the new bridge up, and . open the old one again. The sinking of the arch broke several of the transverse frames, and many of the radii at the haunches, which left no doubt that the abutments had given way. But on examina- tion there appeared no visible sign of such fracture : there was not a crack in the masonry, nor had either of the abutments gone out of upright. After much in- vestigation it was discovered, that the whole of the masonry of the abutments, to the very founda- tions, had slidden horizontally backwards, still preserving the perpendicular or upright position. The failure took place in the south abutment, which was sup- posed to be owing to a cellar that had been made in it. The inha- bitants of Staines, therefore, bv the advice of an engineer, whom they had consulted, had this abut- ment strengthened ; but no sooner was this accomplished than the north one failed : this, also, it was their intention to have strengthened, but their funds be- ing nearly exhausted, they finally resolved to take a considerable portion of the iron-work away, and to support the remainder by wooden piers. Before this bridge was completed, another was be- gun on the same principle, and of the same dimensions, over the river Tees, at Yarm. When finished, this bridge, instead of gradually yielding, as Staines had done, suddenly gave way, and tumbled into the river. 426 These disastrous circumstai ces may be principally attribute to the injudicious manner which those bridges were co structed ; and not to any del ciency in the material. An idi having gone forth among prat tical builders, that the later pressure of iron bridges, in coi sequence of their parts being firmly bound together, is comp ratively small to that of stot arches. On due consideratio however, Dr. Button suppos that this opinion will be foui erroneous, and that an iron arc of the same weight as one stone, requires much strong abutments to resist its latei pressure and push, than the sto arch does. He accounts for thus : — stone may, in a gre measure, be considered as an u elastic substance, being very lit! subject to expansion or contra tion. When, therefore, an ar is composed of this material, ai the abutments are sufficient strong to support it, when left itself, there is little probability its failure. No ordinary load up it will excite a tremulous m tion, nor will it' change by Ik! or cold. The lateral pressure the piers or abutments is therefc uniform. But iron is an elastic substam! and is greatly affected by heat 1 cold, expanding with the or and contracting by the oth When, therefore, a heavy \M acts upon an iron bridge, suchj a loaded waggon, the whole put in motion, and the arch 1 brates like the string of a violi contracting and expanding wlv its parts are in the act of viba tion. Thus at one part of lj ! vibration it pulls the abutmejl together, and at the other it pus!;; them asunder, with a force co pounded of the quantity of mat" BRIDGE. iimotion, and the velocity with Jch it moves. When it ex- p ds, the whole weight of the Jh is raised, and the pressure Oi the abutments is compounded :he velocity and matter of the wght raised. No such pressure, 01 rather impulsive momentum, ta j s place in a stone bridge: tlrefore the strength of the abut- nuts of an iron bridge should bt'such as not only to sustain till weight of the arch, but also tli additional push arising from th) causes above stated. Tiie ahments of Staines-bridge were or 14 feet thick; whereas they oi lit to have been at least _'5 There were also other ca;es which contributed to the ( e of tins bridge, such as the in roper manner in which the fo'idations were made. The ab.ments of Varm -bridge were nve still weaker than those of )l es: no wonder, therefore, tli its failure was more sudden. nother cast-iron bridge, de- si; ed by Mr. Rennie, has been thlwn over the Witham, at Bos- to in Lincolnshire. Its span is SQfeet, and its versed sine only S^jeet. Two others have been erjted over the river Avon, at Bwol.in theyears IMIoand 1806, una- the direction of the Messrs. Je >p. These two bridges are fac- sirlesof each other; the arch of ea)j being IiH) feec span, the veijiid sine 15 feet, and the width o£ ach bridge about 31 feet. 11 whole is of cast-iron, of the »tr gest grey metal, and each Walis one hundred and fifty tons. jb iron bridge has been erected by« Ir. Telford over an arm of tiu'.ea at Bonar, in Sutherland- ihi, North Britain. It presents ID eh whose chord is 150 feet, »n (It 8 versed sine 20 feet. The Untn-bridge, over the river Con- wa between Pentre Foelas and Bettws, in Denbighshire, is a handsome iron bridge, of one arch, the curve of which is the segment of a circle. It was constructed in 1815. The iron bridge thrown over the Thames at Vauxhall, London, consists of nine arches of equal span, raised upon stone piers that were originally intended to sup- port stone arches. It was executed under the direction of Mr. James Walker, the engineer. But the most splendid cast-iron bridge that has yet been erected, is that thrown over the Thames, at the bottom of Queen street, Cheap- side, London, and known gene- rally by the name of Southvvark- bridge. It was designed and exe- cuted by that able and scientific engineer, Mr. Rennie, of whom we have had occasion to speak more than once; and consists of three arches, the chord of the middle arch being 210 feet, its versed sine 24 feet, and the height of the frame- work of the arch at the vertex 6 feet. The iron-work was cast by Messrs. Walker and Yates, late of Rotherham, in Yorkshire, and is supported by piers of granite. The bridge of Austerlitz, over the Seine, at Paris, is also a much admired specimen of the science. The length of its chord is I0G feet, its versed sine only 10 feet f> inches, and the height of the frame- work of the arch at the vertex, 4 feet 10 inches. It is the work of M. La Maude. Two other arches of much larger dimensions have bee n pro- posed, but not executed. The boldest was projected by Mr. Telford, about the year 1800, and was intended to have sup- plied the place of the old London- bridge. The length of the chord of this immense arch was (>00 feet, and its versed sine 65 feet. 427 BRIDGE. The other proposed large iron bridge was by Wiebeking; the chord of which measures 292 feet, its versed sine '20 feet, and the height of the frame- work of the arch at the vertex, 3 feet 9 inches. Iron suspension bridges were in use in Europe at the time of Scamozzi, as may be seen in his Del Idea Archi, 1615; but the knowledge requisite to determine the properties of this kind of bridge was not published till the time of Bernouilli. Ware, in his excellent tracts on vaults and bridges, says, that* the pendent bridges mentioned by Scamozzi, were probably constructed on false principles, and consequently being of short duration, the in- vention fell into disrepute. Suspension bridges are describ- ed as existing in various parts of Asia, Africa, and America, before this species of construction began to be practised in Europe. The first chain-bridge erected in Eng- land is supposed to be that over the Tees, forming a communica- tion between the counties of Dur- ham and York; but the descrip- tion of this, as also of several others, we shall take leave to transcribe, from a very able ar- ticle, by Robert Stevenson, Esq. F. R. S. E. and civil engineer, as inserted in the " Edinburgh Philosophical Journal," October, 1821. The Winch-bridge, says Mr. Stevenson is noticed, and an elevation of it given in the third volume of Hutchinson's " Antiqui- ties of Durham," printed at Car- lisle, in 1791. As this volume is extremely scarce, owing to the greater part of the impression having been accidentally destroy- ed by fire, the writer of this arti- cle applied for a sight of it from the library of his friend, Mr. 423 Isaac Cookson, of Newcast upon-Tyne. The following count is given by Hutchinson ! p. 2/9. 44 The environs of ; river Tees abound with the m picturesque and romantic seen beautiful falls of water, rocks, £ grotesque caverns. About t miles above Middleton, where river falls in repeated cascaci a bridge, suspended on ii chains, is stretched from rock rock, over a chasm near GO f deep, for the passage of travelh but particularly of miners: bridge is 7< x feet in length, | little more than 2 feet broad, u a handrail on one side, and plan! in such a manner, that the t veller experiences all the tren lous motion of the chain, and s himself suspended over a roar gulf, on an agitated and restl, gangway, to which few Strang; dare trust themselves." We • gret that we have not been a: to learn the precise date of I erection of this bridge, but, fill good authority, we have asc tained that it was erected ab ; the year 1/41. It appears, from a treatise i bridges by Mr. Thomas Pol architect of New York, pi lished in that city in the yl 1811, that eight chain-britf; have been erected upon the caj narian principle, in different p;s of America. It here deserves f particular notice, however, in si claim for priority of inven'n with our transatlantic friei | that the chain -bridge over i Tees was known in Americajs Pope quotes Hutchinson's | iii., and gives a description, f Winch-bridge. It further - pears from this work, tliat a patent was granted by the Am • can government, for the ereci of bridges of suspension, in e year i 808. Our American W BRIDGE. sta of spa . th( also describes a bridge of this coitruction, which seems to have bet erected about the year 1809, ovt the river Merrimack, in the of Massachusets, consisting catenarian arch of 244 feet The roadway of this bridge i. ispended between two abut- mes or towers of masonry, 37 e n height, on which piers of car n try are erected, which are 35 eet in height. Over these tenfchains are suspended, each mejuring 5 1 6 feet in length, the ends being sunk into deep pition both sides of the river, whpon dii ide r of chains top of their rails 4.'?1 BRIDGE. links of the catenarian chains are formed of rods of bar-iron, measur- ing If inches in diameter, con- structed in lengths of about 10 feet each. The eyes at each end of these long rods are connected by short links of an oval form, measuring about 9 inches in length. I he platform or roadway is suspended from the catenarian chains, by perpendicular rods of iron, of the strength of half an inch in diameter, which are attached at their upper ends to the short links above described, by a kind of cross head, while the under ends of these perpendicular rods, forming a screw-bolt, pass through the side-beams of the platform, and are attached to them with screw-nuts, resting upon corres- ponding washers, or plates of iron. The points of suspension of this bridge rest upon upright posts, and are elevated 28 feet above the level of the roadway, on each side of the river. Each pair of chains are 12 feet apart at the approaches of the bridge, but they are made to converge to- wards its centre, where they are attached to the side-rails, and measure only 4^ feet apart, being the breadth of the roadway be- tween the side-rails. By this con- verging form, the chains answer in some measure the purpose of guys to the roadway. It is, how- ever, questionable, how far it is proper to give an oblique direc- tion to the main chains ; indeed we are rather inclined to think, that the main chains of bridges of suspension should be kept parallel to the direction of the strain. The platform or roadway of Dry burgh-bridge is elevated about 1 8 feet above the surface of the river, when in its state of sum- mer water. It consists of two beams of fir-timber, which run 432 along the extent of the bridge and are connected to each other with rails, or pieces of timbe; mortised into them. The side- rails, answering the purposes o hand-rails, are formed with dia- gonal braces and cross ties. Tht roadway is finished with a dead ing of boards laid across tin direction of the roadway, leaving openings of about five-fourths o an inch between each of th< boards, to let off the moisture ir wet weather. Under the plat- form, two chains made of circula rods, 1 inch in diameter, an stretched beneath the beams, am connected with the abutments o masonry on each side, as an ad ditional security. The back braces or landwart chains employed for keeping thi upright posts erect, and for coun teracting the weight of the bridge are made of rod-iron, 1 inch ii diameter, which are sunk a con siderable way into the ground and pass through large flat stones which are loaded with a mass o masonry, built in an arched form and acting as ballast. An occurrence took place, du ring the erection of Dryburgh; bridge, which deserves to be par ticularly noticed. It was observed! that the catenarian curve \va not the same when the main chain were simply suspended with theij own weight, as when they cam! to be loaded with the roadway At the extremity of the chains o each side, and the centre of th; bridge, the points of attachmer remained stationary after th catenarian chains were loaded, In between the centre and eithe abutment, the roadway made tffl distinct curves, the versed sine fl which measured about 7 inche This defect was easily rectifiet by shortening the suspendin chains ; but it serves to show tl BRIDGE. Jbih'ty of the catenarian curve l alter, when loaded in the di- lution of the horizontal plane of |r connecting roadway. For the erection of a bridge at ] - burgh, on a ferry of compara- t ely small importance, the public e| under no small obligations to n earl of Buchan : and the ekerprise which marks the de- sin and execution of it, confers Hour on the architects. The work to which we shall met direct the attention of t reader, is the Union -bridge a oss the river Tweed at Nor- hn Ford, about five miles from 1 rwick. The work here was b run in the month of August, 1 9, and the bridge was opened o the '.'ah of July, 1820, having n-uired only a period of about tvlve months for its erection; w le a stone-bridge must have b^n the work of about three yrs. This work was designed a| executed by captain Samuel Bfrwn of the royal navy, who h so successfully introduced tl use of the chain-cable into tl navy and mercantile marine. lie roadway of this bold de- Bib is made of timber, on which iri cart-tracks ere laid for car- ri e wheels. It is 18 feet in w|h, and is no less than 361 fe' in length. The main beams or listing measure 15 inches in dtlli, and 7 inches in thickness. T timber cleading or planks ar 12 inches in breadth, and .3 infes in thickness. This great pl. r orm is suspended at" the he ht of 27 feet above the sur- faif of the summer water of the n J- It is also made to rise ab.it 2 feet in the centre, and is fin' ied on each side with a cor- n << of 15 inches in depth, which a( lf to its ornament, and gives additional appearance of btr.gth. 31 The roadway is suspended from the catenarian or main chains by circular rods of iron, which mea- sure 1 inch in diameter. These perpendicular rods are wedged into caps or pieces of cast-iron, called saddles, which are placed at the distance of 5 feet apart, and made to rest upon the shackles or joints of the catenarian chains. The attachment of the lower ends of these rods to the beams of the platform which they pass through, is by their embracing a bar of iron which runs along the whole extent of the bridge under the beams of the roadway, on each side. These bars measure 3 in- ches in depth, and they are con- nected with the suspending rods by a spear or bolt, which, in a very simple manner, completes the connexion of the roadway with the perpendicular suspend- ing rods, and catenarian chains. The catenarian chains of this bridge are twelve in number, ranged in pairs ; the one pair being placed over the other, be- tween the points of suspension on each side of the bridge. These chains, and indeed the whole of the iron- work, is made of the very best Welsh iron. The chains are worked into a circular form, and measure about 2 inches in diameter. The links, as they may be termed, consist of rods of 15 feet in length, and have bolt- holes, which are strongly welded, and neatly finished, at each end. These links or rods are connected together by strong shackles, and a bolt is passed through them, which is of an oval form, measur- ing 2\- by 2\ inches. At each joint of the three ties of the catenarian chains respectively, one of the saddlepieces of cast- iron, formerly alluded to, are in- troduced. The first saddlepiece, with its suspended rod, for ex- 433 BRIDGE. ample, on eitherside of thebridge, may be conceived as resting on the upper pair of chains, the next saddlepiece in the longitudinal direction of the roadway, rests upon the middle pair of chains, and the third upon the lower pair, and so on alternately, throughout the whole extent of the bridge. By this means all the chains bear an equal strain, and the joints are arranged in so precise and orderly a manner, that a saddlepiece and perpendicular suspending rod oc- curs at every 5 feet, so that the distance between each pair of suspending- rods forms a space of 5 feet. By (his beautiful and simple arrangement, the suspend- ing -rods are made to rest upon the joints of the catenarian chains, so that the links or rods of which they are composed, are kept free of distortion, when loaded with the weight of the suspended road- way. The spaces of 5 feet between the suspending rods above alluded to, are formed into meshes of 6 inches square, to the height of 5 feet on each side of the bridge, and answer the purposes of a para- pet wall for the safety of passen- gers. Though the timber roadway is only about 361 feet in length, yet the chord line of the main chains measures no less than 432 feet between the points of suspension, with which they make an angle of about twelve, and forming the catenarian curve -drop, at the rate of one perpendicular to about 7 feet in the length of chain, the versed sine of the middle pair of chains being about 26 feet. The twelve main chains, with their apparatus, weigh about five tons each, and the weight of the whole bridge, between the points of suspension, has been estimated at one hundred tons. 434 On the Scotch side of the river the catenarian chains pass over pillar of aisler masonry, vvhicl measures 60 feet in height, i about 36 feet in its medium width and I 74 feet in thickness. Th sides of the lower 10 feet of th walls of this pillar are square, bu at this height the walls begin t slope at the rate of one perpendi cular to twelve horizontal. Th archway in the masonry of tin pillar, which forms the imme diate approach to the roadv/aj measures 12 feet in width, an 17 feet in height. Each pa of main chains being suspend'e; horizontally, pass through cor responding apertures in the ma sonry, at the distance of about feet from one another, and g over rollers connected with tl building. The links of the ma : chains at these points are mat as short as the strength or thicl ness of the iron will permit their being welded, in order th they may pass over the roller without distorting or undu straining the iron. After goh through the masonry of the pilla the chains are continued in sloping direction to the groun Here they are sunk to the dep of 24 feet, where they pa through great ballast plates cast-iron, into which they a stopped by a strong iron spear bolt, of an oval form, measuring inches by '3± inches in thickne The cast - iron ballast plat measure 6 feet in length, 5 ft in breadth, and 5 inches in thic ness in the central parts; b| towards the edge, they dimin: in thickness to 2\ inches. 1 ends of the chains thus fixed, ; loaded with mound-stones a earthy matters, to the level of t roadway of the bridge. On the English side of t Tweed, the pillar or tower BRIDGE. masonry forming the abutment or point of suspension, is built upon a bench or foundation, cx- icavated in the face of a precipi- tous sandstone rock, and is only about 20 feet in height, but its other dimensions correspond with the upper part of the masonry on the Scotch side. The chains on the English side are made to rest upon plates of cast-iron, included in the masonry, instead of rollers, as on the opposite side. Here the ballast-plates are of the same dimensions as those already de- scribed, but instead of being sunk into the ground, as on the Scotch iside, their position is rather above the foundation of the pillar, where they are set nearly perpendicular, out are placed so as to correspond with the direction of the strain or weight of the bridge. For the greater security of the position of hese ballast-plates on the English nide, they are connected with a lorizontal arch of masonry, which s dovetailed into the rock. This bart of the work, however, was lot in a finished state when Mr. Stevenson saw it, at the ceremony >f opening the bridge on the 26th >f July, 1820. Upon this side, he approach to the roadway forms curve in front of the pillar, in- tead of passing through an arch- • ty, as on the Scotch side, i I he general effect of the Union- ■ ridge, which we have now en- eavoured to describe, is interest- ig and curious; and such is the xtent, and its light and elegant ippearance, that it has not inaptly pen compared to an inverted i nbow. Those who visit this undertaking, as affording much '"vtlty to the scenery of this part I the banks of the Tweed, will ot be disappointed in their cx- t'ftation* ; while in a national oinl of view, as a great improve- lent, it deserves the most parti- cular consideration of the country at large. It is also of much in- terest to the professional engi- neer, especially as being the first bridge of suspension erected in Great Britain, calculated for the passage of loaded carriages. Nor ought the enterprising efforts of Mr. Molle, and the gentlemen of the adjoining shires of Berwick and Northumberland, to be over- looked in the prosecuting of this design, as affording a great prac- tical lesson for the application of bridges of this construction to various parts of the United King- dom, where stone or even cast- iron would be found impractica- ble, both on account of the ex- tent of the situation, and the un- avoidable expense of the works. The fastidious, upon examining this work, may perhaps find some parts of the general design capa- ble of improvement, and when a second work of a similar or a greater extent comes to be exe- cuted, there is little doubt that experience will, in the usual course of things, lead to alterations for the better. We, however, think that the design and execution of the Union-bridge does the highest credit to captain Brown, in the construction of bridges on the catenarian principle. Although Mr. Stevenson has stated above that theUnion-bridge was the first bridge of suspension erected in Great Britain, yet the first proposal for a bridge of this kind was that by Mr. Telford, in IS 10, for passing the straits of Menai, which separate the island of Anglesea from Caernarvonshire These straits have long formed a troublesome obstruction upon the great road from London to Dublin, by Holyhead ; and it has hitherto been customary for tra- vellers to cross in a ferry boat at Bangor. The inconvenience and 435 BRIDGE. risk attending this mode, has led to speculations of improvement for half a century past ; but none of the plans that were proposed to government previously to the month of May, 1810, were con- sidered of sufficient practical utility to warrant their being car- ried into execution. From a report of a committee of the house of commons in June, 1811, it appears, that in May, 1810, Mr. Telford was instructed by the lords of the treasury, to survey and report upon the best method of improving the lines of communication between Holy- head and Shrewsbury, and also between Holyhead and Chester ; and to consider and give plans for passing the Menai. Jn the aforesaid report (of 1811) we have his plans and estimate. His explanations we shall give in his own words. " The duty assigned me being to consider and report respecting a bridge across the Menai, I shall confine myself to this object. Admitting the importance of the communication to justify acting on a large scale, I not only con- sider the constructing a bridge practicable, but that two situa- tions are remarkably favourable. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that one of these situations is at the Swilley rocks, and the other atYnys-y-Moch. These two being so evidently the best, the only question that can arise is, to which of them preference ought to be given. " From the appendix to the second report to the Holyhead roads and harbour, it appears, that a considerable number of small coasting-vessels, viz. from sixteen to one hundred tons, navigate the Menai, and that there have been a few from one hundred to one hundred and fifty 436 tons. By statements from the principal shipbuilders in the river, made in the year 1800, to the committee for improving the port of London, it also appears., that vessels of one hundred and fifty tons, when they have all on end, are only 88 feet in height above the water-line; and further, that even ships of three hundred tons, with their topgallant-masts struck, are nearly the same height ; these, in the Menai, are extreme cases, and, if provided for, ought, as to navigation, to satisfy every reasonable person ; it may, indeed, rather be a ques- tion, whether the height should not be limited to vessels under one hundred tons, by which the expense of a bridge would be considerably diminished. " In the plans I have formed, provision is made for admitting vessels of one hundred and fifty tons to pass with all on end ; that is, in one design preserving 90 feet, and in the other 100 feet between the line of high water and the lower side of the soffit of the arch. The first design is adapted for passing across the three rocks, named the Swilley, Bendlass, and Ynys-y-well-dog; for which, their shape and position are singularly suitable. To embrace the situa- tion most perfectly, I have di- j vided the space into three open- ings of 2G0 feet, and two of 100 ; feet each ; making piers each 30 J feet in thickness. Over the three large openings, the arches are made of cast - iron ; over the smaller spaces, in order to add weight and stability to the piers, semicircular arches of stone are introduced; but over these, as well as the larger openings, the spandrels, roadway, and railing, are constructed ofcast-iion. In this way the navigation is not impeded, because the piers stand- BRIDGE. ng near the outer edges, are guards for preventing the vessels triking upon the rocks; while he whole structure presents very ittie obstruction to the wind. Vom the extremity of the abut- ments, after building rubble walls bove the level of the tideway, I ropose carrying embankments ntil the roadway reaches the atural ground. The annexed rawing will sufficiently explain ie nature of the design. I pro- ose the bridge to be 32 feet in readth ; and, from minute cal- Lilations, made from detailed rowings, 1 find the expense of Kecuting the whole, in a perfect lanner, amounts to 158,65-1/. 41 The other design is for the irrower strait called Ynys-y. foch. Here the situation is par- cularly favourable for construct- g a bridge of one arch ; and aking that 500 feet span, leaves Ie navigation as free as at pre- nt. In this I have made the sight 100 feet in the clear at igh water spring tides ; and I ropose this bridge to be 40 feet i breadth. Estimating from rawings, as already described, I id the expense to be 127,331/., ' 31,323/. less than the former, rom leaving the whole channel umpeded, it is certainly the ost perfect scheme of passing Menai; and it would, in my >inion, be attended with the ast inconvenience and risk in e execution. ' In order to render this evi- nt, I have made a drawing, ee Plate C,) to show in what anner the centering or frame, W an arch of this magnitude, Jay be constructed. Hitherto, 'e centering has been made by dicing supports and working from low; but in the case of the enai, from the nature of the >ttom of the channel, the depth at low water, and the great rise and rapidity of the tides, this would be very difficult, if not impracticable. 1 therefore pro- pose changing the mode, and working entirely from above; that is to say, instead of supporting, I mean to suspend the centering. By inspecting the drawing, the general principle of this will be readily conceived. *.' I propose, in the first place, to build the masonry of the abut* ments as far as the lines A 13, CD, and in the particular manner shown in the section. Having carried up the masonry to the level of the roadway, 1 propose upon the top of the abutments to construct as many frames as there are to be ribs in the centre; and of at least an equal breadth with the top of each rib. These frames to be about 50 feet high above the top of the masonry; and to be rendered perfectly firm and se- cure. That this can be done is so evident, that I avoid entering into details respecting the mode. These frames are for the purpose of receiving strong blocks, or rollers and chains, and to be acted upon by windlasses or other powers. " I next proceed to construct the centre itself: it is proposed to be made of deal bulk, and to consist of four separate ribs ; each rib being a continuation of timber frames, 5 feet in width at the top and bottom, varying in depth from 25 feet near the abutments to 7 feet 6 inches at the middle or crown. Next to the face of the abutments, one set of frames, about 50 feet in length, can, by means of temporary scaffolding, and iron chain bars from the be- fore-mentioned frames, be readily constructed, and fixed upon the offsets of the abutments, and to horizontal iron ties laid in the 437 BRIDGE. masonry for this purpose. A set of these frames, (four in number,) having been fixed against the face of each abutment, they are to be secured together by cross and diagonal braces ; and there being only spaces of 6" feet 8 in- ches left between the ribs, (of which these frames are the com- mencement,) they are to be co- vered with planking, and the whole converted into a platform 50 feet by 40. By the nature of the framing, and being secured by horizontal and suspending bars, I presume every person ac- customed to practical operations will admit, that these platforms may be rendered perfectly firm and secure. " The second portion of the centre frames, having been pre- viously prepared and fitted in the carpenter's yard, are brought, in separate pieces, through passages purposely left in the masonry, to the before- mentioned platforms. They are here put together, and each frame raised by the suspend- ing bars and other means, so that the end which is to be joined to the frame already fixed, shall rest upon a small moveable carriage. It is then to be pushed forward, perhaps upon an iron rail -road, until the strong iron forks, which are fixed on its edge, shall fall upon a round iron bar, which forms the outer edge of the first, or abutment frames. When this has been done, strong iron bolts are put through eyes in the forks, and the aforesaid second portion of the frame- work is suffered to descend to its intended position, by means of the suspending chain bars, until it closes with the end of the previously fixed frame, like a rule joint. Admitting the first frames were firmly fixed, and that the hinge part of this joint is sufficiently strong, and the joint 433 itself 20 feet deep, I conceive, that even without the aid of the suspending bars, that this second portion of the centering would be supported ; but we will for a moment suppose that it is to be wholly suspended. It is known, by experiment, that a bar of good malleable iron, 1 inch square, will suspend eighty thousand pounds, and that the powers of suspension are as the sections; consequently, a bar ]{ inch square, will suspend one hundred and eighty thousand pounds; but the whole weight of this portion of the rib, including the weight of the suspending bar, is only about thirty thousand pounds, or one-sixth of the weight that might safely be suspended; and as I propose two suspending chain bars to each portion of rib, if they had the whole to support, they would only be exerting about one-twelfth of their power; and considering the proportion of the weight which rests upon the abut- ments, they are equal also to support all the iron -work of the bridge, and be still far within their power. *' Having thus provided, for the second portion of the centering, a degree of security far beyond what can be required, similar operations are carried on from each abutment until the parts arc joined in the middle, and form a complete centering ; and being then braced together, and covered with planking where necessary the whole becomes one genera platform or wooden bridge, t(f receive the iron -work. " It is, 1 presume, needless t( observe, that upon such a center ing or platform, the iron -work which, it is understood, has beei previously fitted, can be put. to gether with the utmost correct ness and facility; the communi cation from the shores to th BRI B R I centering will be through the be- fore-mentioned passages left in : the masonry." " The form of the iron-work of the main ribs will be seen, by the Drawings, to compose a system of triangles, preserving the prin- cipal points of bearing in the direction of the radius. It is proposed in the breadth of the bridge, (i. e. forty feet,) to have 'nine ribs, each cast in twenty- three pieces, and these connected by a cross-grated plate, nearly in the same manner as in the 'great aqueduct of Pontcysylte over the valley of the Dee, near Llangollen ; the fixation of the several ribs in a vertical plane appearing (after the abutments) to be the most important object in iron bridges. I propose to ac- complish this by covering the several parts, as they are pro- gressively fixed, with grated or reticulated and flanched plates across the top of the ribs. This wow d keep the tops of the ribs im moveable, and convert the whole breadth of the bridge into one frame; besides thus securing the top, I propose also having cross braces near the bottom of the ribs. u The main ribs being thus fixed, Covered, and connected together, 4 .he great feature of the bridge is 'completed; and as, from the Accurate experiments made and Communicated to me by my friend, the late William Rey- nolds, of Coalbrook Dale, it ' equires 448,000 lbs. to crush cube of i inch of cast iron of Mie quality called gun-metal, it * s clear, that while the ribs are ' ept in their true position, the 1 trength provided is more than 1 imple. ,i4 When advanced thus far, I 1 >ropose, (though not to remove,) yet to ease the timber centering, by having the feet of the center- ing ribs, (which are supported by offsets in the masonry of the front abutment,) placed upon proper wedges ; the rest of the centering to be eased at the same time by means of the chain-bars. Thus, the hitherto dangerous operation of striking the center- ing, will be rendered gradual, and perfectly safe : insomuch, that this new mode of suspe?iding the centering instead of support- ing it from below, may, perhaps, hereafter be adopted as an im- provement in constructing iron bridges, even in places not cir- cumstanced as are the Menai Straits. • Although the span of the arch is unusually great, yet by using iron as a material, the weight upon the centre, when compared with large stone arches, is very small ; taking the mere arch stones of the centre arch of Blackfriars' Bridge at 156 X 43 X 5 equal to 33,540 cubic feet of stone, it amounts to 2,236 tons ; whereas the whole of the iron work in the main ribs, cross plates and ties, and grated covering plates, that is to say, all that is lying on the centering at the time it is to be eased, weighs only 1,791 tons; it is true, that from the flatness of the iron arch, if left unguarded, a great propor- tion of this weight would rest upon the centering ; but this is counterbalanced by the operation of the iron ties in the abutments, and wholly commanded by the suspending chain-bars. " When the main iron ribs have been completed, the next step is to proceed with the iron supporters of the roadway; and these, in- stead of being constructed in the form of circles, or that of per- pendicular pillars, as hitherto, BRI " arc here a series of triangles, " thus including the true line of " bearing. These triangles are, " of course, preserved in a vertical " plane by cross-ties and braces : " iron bearers are supported by " these triangles, and upon the " bearers are laid the covering H plates under the road -way, which, " instead of being solid, are (in " order to lessen the weight) pro- " posed to be reticulated." Mr. Telford's idea of suspending the centering led to the proposal of a suspension bridge, which was approved of by a select committee of the House of Commons (see the Third Report from the Select Com- mittee on the Road from London to Holyhead, &c. 29 Ap. 1819.) On a report being made to parlia- ment, the necessary funds were granted, and the work was soon after commenced at Ynys y Moch, on the Anglesea shore. The bridge consists of one opening of five hun- dred and sixty feet between the points of suspension, and one hun- dred feet in height between the high-water line and the lower side of the road -way ; and the road- way being horizontal, this height is uninterrupted for the whole five hundred feet between the piers, except where the natural rock (which forms the western abut- ment) now interposes. But in addition to these rive hundred feet, there are four arches on the west- ern side, and three on the eastern of the main opening, each fifty feet span, composed of stone, mak- ing in all eight hundred and fifty feet of opening. The road-way will consist of two carriage-ways, each twelve feet in breadth, with a foot path of four feet between them, so that the platform is about thirty feet in breadth : the whole suspended from four lines of strong cables of malleable iron, by perpendicular '440 BRI iron rods placed five feet apart, these rods supporting the road-way framing. The suspending power was calculated at two thousand and sixteen tons, and the weight to be suspended, exclusive of the cables, at three hundred and forty- two tons, leaving a disposable powei of one thousand six hundred and seventy-four tons. The four sides of the road-ways are made oi framed iron work, firmly bounc together, for seven feet in height with a similar work for five fee below the cables: the weight o the whole bridge, between tht points of suspension, was efXimatec at four hundred and eighty-nim tons.' It was calculated that th<: contraction and expansion of thi iron cables' might occasion a risi or fall to the extent of four or fivj inches; but the variations of thj temperature of the atmosphere would not derange the bridge The abutments consist of ston> work, and each of the two piers i sixty feet by forty-two and a hall wide, at high-water mark, having foundation of rock. Those pier (connected with the whole of th remainder of the masonry) form mass constructed with blocks c hard limestone, of much greate weight than is necessary for sup; porting a bridge of this kind. Tw main pillars, or piers, also of th most substantial masonry, wer constructed for the purpose c raising the cables from which tu bridge is suspended. As the cable are carried over the top of thes pyramids, so as to form nearl similar angles on each side, th pressure is almost perpendicular. Mr. Telford proposed to hav four lines of suspension in th breadth of the bridge, and in ear line four cables, making in tn whole sixteen ; these cables pa^ oyer rollers fixed on the summit t B R I t > pyramids, and are fastened at i extremities to an iron frame, 1 ig horizontally over the top of t • srtiall arches, and under a n ss of masonry. From these c)les the road-way is suspended b vertical iron rods, connected at t ir lower extremities with wrought in bars, both transversely and ligitudinalty ; thus forming a fine on which to lay timber for t! road-way. The distance of ft feet is kept between the rods, ii order that the suspending pver may be equally distributed idoughout the whole length of the bpge. The suspending rods pass bween the cables, and depend lc " u)n each two of them, so that the '* g eral strength of the bridge o id not materially be affected by t.'ing one away. fhe cables and the flooring, as v 1 as the suspending rods, are « c structed and united in such a n nner, that each of the parts may 1 b taken out and replaced sepa- 0!i rely; so that there can be no qficulty in repairing any part of I t bridge whenever required. lU Mr. Telford, in his evidence Ml b'ore the Select Committee, says, " lie distance between the points in o suspension being five hundred airi at sixty feet, and the versed sine tl ty-seven feet, or about one- filenth of the chord line ; by emulation, I find that the weight tc be suspended is three hundred a forty-two tons ; and by nume- \i n$ experiments made to ascer- U the strength of malleable iron, it appears, that with a chord line olive hundred and sixty feet, and aiersed sine of thirty-seven, a Wp bar of iron, one inch square, W (besides its own weight) carry te tons and a half, and about one h;' that weight, before it begins tc stretch (permanently.) The ^iai bridge contains a section B R I of one hundred and ninety-two square inches, which, at five and a quarter tons to each square inch, will support one thousand and eight tons, being a surplus of six hundred and sixty-six tons above the real weight of the bridge ; and there would be re- quired a further weight of one thousand and eight tons to break down the bridge, which may be deemed more than sufficient against any probable trial to which the bridge can be exposed. The cables passing over the stone piers constructed of the most solid ma- sonry, will then pass down to the cast-iron frame before described, thereby embracing the whole mass of masonry and spandrils, making in all about twelve thousand tons at each end of the bridge, exclu- sive of the great pyramids. The weight of the bridge between the points of suspension, including cables, being only four hundred and eighty-nine tons, there is not much reason to expect undulation, from any weight which will be laid on any particular part ; but to guard against any effect of that sort, four sides of the road- ways, of framed iron-work firmly bo md together for seven feet in height, and similar work for five feet in depth below the cables, which, when they meet together in the centre of the bridge, will con- stitute a frame- work twelve feet deep, with a bridge of thirty feet in breadth, and five hundred and thirty-two in length, there is not much to be apprehended from side vibration ; but in order to provide against this possibility, two hori- zontal cables crossing the bridge diagonally, each of which laying hold of the middle of its length, and passing round a cast-iron frame projecting from the oppo- site sides of the great pyramids #4 B R I BRI and from thence carried to the masonry of the abutments ; thus creating a diagonal stay upon seventy feet in breadth." The weight of the bridge is four hundred and eighty-nine tons ; upon which, if three hundred tons are placed, they make seven hun- dred and eighty-nine tons : the pull of this weight at the abut- ments, upon a curvature of l-15th, is found by experiment, over a pulley with a perpendicular weight, to be equal to about two and half times the weight of the other side, or one thousand nine hundred and seventy-two tons; to coun- teract this, the cables are con- tinued at nearly the same angles as those of the bridge, to the cast iron frame, which embraces about twelve thousand tons of masonry. The cables are formed of a num- ber of straight half-inch bars, con- nected at different lengths. On the square sides of these bars are laid segments of circles, of a pro- per size for making the cables of a cylindrical form ; the bars, as well as segments, joined longitu- dinally to the whole of the required length, and secured by buddings every five feet, and then enveloped in flannel, well saturated with a composition of rosin and bees' wax, to preserve them from the weather, and the whole encircled with wire. The weight of each separate cable, from the points of suspension, is nine tons and three quarters, or one hundred and se- venteen pounds per yard. The weight of a drove of oxen is cal- culated at about three hundred tons, supposing them to amount to two hundred head, all closely huddled together, and the estimated weight necessary to tear the cables asun- der is upwards of two thousand tons, which is about four times the weight of the entire bridge. 442 The passing of a mail coach ove the bridge was not expected I produce any undulation, or sensj ble perpendicular vibration; nc was any lateral vibration apprt hended from the most violent gal of wind, by reason of the propoi tion that the breadth of the bridg bears as a frame to its extreni length. The committee of the House J Commons appointed to inquii into the state of the Chester an Holyhead road, found that gre; delays occurred in the arrival i the mails from Chester at Hoi head, which were owing partly the bad state of the roads, but a still gieater measure to the fen at Conway, which was attends with serious inconvenience, miu delay, occasional danger, ar even actual loss of lives. Tv plans were proposed by Mr. Re nie, who was of opinon, that 1 situation was so well adapted f the purposes of a bridge as th opposite the castle ; but which i considered would be an expensi undertaking ; the channel beii wide, and great part of it of loose moving sand. A grant £40,000 was obtained from parli ment towards defraying the expen of erecting a suspension bridge. According to one of Mr. Rennii designs, he proposed to build bridge opposite to the east end the castle, having its approa through the middle of the cast which could easily be effect without injuring its beauty; a at the west end of the castle bank of earth, to make the a proach, either to the market-pta or lower down, easy and con- nient, for the town itself, as well the public. At the east end of I castle he proposed to raise t towers, corresponding with those: the castle, to serve as an ab B It I BRI rI) t; and four towers on the i ind, connected together by rub- wails ; between these he pro- ved a cast-iron arch of three lndred and fifty feet span, and o: hundred feet from the water a an ordinary spring-tide, to its c wn, which was more than suffi- efit for the navigation of any v sel trading in that river. From tl< abutment on the island, a c seway of rubble-stone, fifty feet bad at the top, and sloping about the to one on each side: this c;seway was to be sunk in the Scti four feet, and its top higher thi low-water mark, the stones w I rammed together, and guarded b -sills with sheeting piles driven U'nty feet into the sand, and con- nced by cross sills. This cause- w was to extend as far as the do water, about two hundred and tmy yards, and on it piers and tv ve arches, and between the piers in rted arches.to equalize the weight of he structure; from the end of th causeway an embankment of e; h to extend to the shore; the brtdth of the road was to be tmy- two feet within the parapet. B this plan, the strength of the tit would, in some respect, be coined to the Conway shore, but all ved to pass through the arch- ing on the opposite side of the isl d, considerably below high wa- ter consequently not likely to ch k the tide, or be injurious to thrown of Conway. Another de- sigof Mr. Rennie's was, to dispense wil any stone arches, and continue the mbankrnent to the island. lis last plan, in many respects, coi sponds with the one proposed, anicarried into execution, by Mr. Tel rd, which consists of one open- ing r suspension bridge, from the casj to the island, comprising a ■p£ of three hundred and fifty fe* The communication between the island and eastern shore is by an embankment of earth, cased with a thick coating of stones, which counteracts the operation of the tide upon the eastern embank- ment. The road-way of the bridge is suspended from cables, similar to the Menai, carried over towers at the points of suspension. Here, however, there is only one road- way, with foot-paths on each side; in other respects, the construction of this bridge, in minute particulars, so closely corresponds with the one over the Menai, that, a length- ened detail would be tedious and uninteresting. The pillars sup- porting the cables are about twenty- four feet high from the road-way, and the distance from high- water mark to the road-way is about eighteen feet. The depth of water under the bridge at high-water is generally from twenty-three to twenty-six feet, and at low water from twelve to fifteen feet. A bridge was proposed to be erected over the estuary of the Mersey at Runcorn Gap, about twenty miles from Liverpool, at the suggestion of some highly patriotic gentleman of Liverpool. The specification for this work pro- vided, that the span of the bridge should measure, at least, one thou- sand feet, and that its height above the surface of the water should not be less than sixty feet, so as to admit of the free navigation of this great commercial river. A variety of designs for this bridge were pro- cured by a select committee of the gentlemen who took an interest in this great undertaking. The plan most approved of, however, was the design of a bridge of suspen- sion ; and Mr. Telford, the en- gineer, and Captain Brown, of the royal navy, are understood pretty nearly to have concurred in opinion as to the practicability of such a 443 B R 1 BRI work. Mr. Telford reported fully on the subject, and estimated the expense of his design at from £63,000 to £85,000, according to the different modes of execution. An act of parliament was ob- tained in 18'24, incorporating cer- tain individuals who had agreed to subscribe £80,000 for defraying the expense of building a suspension bridge over the Thames, at Ham- mersmith, which was opened for the use of the public on the twenty- third of August, 1827. This bridge consists of two suspension piers or towers, built in the river, having an opening of four hundred feet be- tween them. On the opposite shores are two strong abutments, over which, a nearly level roadway passes through archways in the suspension towers. It is suspended by four lines of strong chains, hanging in curves from the abut- ments over the towers, and down between them ; the roadway being suspended from them by vertical rods. The total length of the bridge, consisting of ft. ID. The central opening .... 400 3 The two suspension towers (22 feet each) .... 44 The distance between the towers and abutment on the Middlesex side 142 11 The distance between the towers and abutment on the Surrey .side . . 145 6 The two abutments (45 feet each) 90 is .... 822 8 The width of the water-wav is Middle opening 400 3 Surrey side 145 6 Middlesex side 142 11 Total width C88 8 444 The suspension towers are In height above the level of the roadway, 48 Width 22 Breadth 42 The road for carriages is in width 20 Through the towers of the archways it is in width 14 The two footpaths are eacli 4 The height of the road above high water is . . 10 The span supported by the central parts of the chains is 400 3 The depression of the middle of the curve below the level of the points of suspension . 29 6 The four lines of chains are eat composed of two sets of bars, o set immediately over the otht and about one foot higher. T principal chains, forming the sid of the roadway, are composed six bars or links, eight feet nil inches three-quarters from cent to centre of the bolt holes, ti inches deep, and one inch tliic are olaced side by side, with intt mediate connecting plates of o inch thick, and eight and a h;l deep, making together seven plal to connect the six bars or links. In America, the application suspension bridges has of late ye; been very frequent, but they a not of such great dimensions I tween the points of suspension in great Britain. That over t Merrimack, at Newbury Port, whr was built by Mr. Templeman, an expense of twenty-five the sand dollars, is a curve, wh< chord measures two hundred a forty- four feet. There are t other chain bridges, of one in and a quarter iron bars, both mt suring one hundred and thirty-f feet between their points of s pension. The one, called Cir B R I B R I b^and bridge, is at Maryland, ai the other at Federal city: bo are described by Pope in his " ridge Architecture," published at'sew York in 1811. The chain n ze over the river Brandywine, atvVilmington, is constructed of n bars, measuring one inch and the-eighths, and its chord one hidred and forty-five feet. That at'irownsville, in Fayette county, ov the Monongahela, is of inch- ai -quarter bars, measuring one hidred and twenty feet between th points of suspension : and ar.her in its vicinity, of the same tliKness of metal, forms an in- veed suspended arch, with a 1 d of one hundred and twelve fei between the rebutments. That he Schuylkill at Philadelphia, r> of chains formed of iron ba,one inch and a half square, be,g a catenary of one hundred ar. forty feet between the points of uspension. he readiest, and probably the mft ancient, material for the con- st ction of bridges, is timber. Pladio has given several designs of 1 is own invention for wooden br ges, some of which we have gi n in our plates to the present ar le. One, which he built over th Cismone, at the foot of the Ah, between Trent and Bassano ID ply, is simple and ingenious, th,»vhole being suspended by the frying which forms the sides. Itn faction, and aserted, that it ^impossible to make a dam sufficiently stanch for the work. Semple, however, persevered in his enclosure of battredeau, having acquired great confidence in his scheme, and firmly believing that of all methods that had been in- vented, none were so secure, or so pleasant to execute, as that of build- ing and laying foundations of bridges on terra firma. He, therefore, began in January, 1753, to stop up and demolish the old bridge, and to remove the equestrian statue of George the First, which had been erected in 1722; previously mak- ing an estimate of the expense, which he had calculated at twenty thousand pounds, and promised that he would not exceed twenty thousand five hundred pounds. In February of the same year he drove the first pile of his much discussed coffer-dam, and having passed the rubicon of caissons and battredeaux, he continued his ope- rations, and finished his dam. He was proceeding very successfully, till, on the 28th of April, a violent land-flood came down from the mountain streams that run into the Liffey, which drove the men from their work; and while he was on the top of the dam, he felt the whole rise, and it was immediately torn up, and scattered all over the river. Not to be disconcerted, he recommenced, and completed in a secure manner, his coffer-dam across half the river, by the fourth of June, and built the foundations of the bridge, and the piers within it, in the following manner. He first constructed frames of oak timber of ten inch scantling, the exact shape of the pier, with rough two- inch oak planks dove-tailed across it, in every three or four feet, and pinned to the frame ; and on these planks he stretched other planks lengthways, but not so thick. These frames, so made, he had dragged 447 B R I B R I to their proper situations, and let them rest upon the natural bed of the river. He next proceeded to the north abutment, which was an operation which he justly feared would be attended with very great danger, because he had a great depth to sink, and very little room to sink upon, without depriving the public of the carriage-way upon the north quay. He succeeded in combating the difficulties, and keeping up the breast of the bank or quay. He then strained a line, crossing the site of the proposed bridge at right angles, and ten feet from the back of the abutment, sinking about three feet, and driv- ing in a row of piles close to the bank, which he pared so as just to admit the sheeting between the bank and the piles ; and when they had sunk eight feet in this manner, he made his first effort, and so proceeded downwards. He then went on with his masonry for the continued foundation through the whole length of the bridge ; and after many experiments found his coffer-dam to answer all his expec- tations. He thus proceeded care- fully and judiciously, till he opened the bridge to the public in general, on the tenth of April, 1755, two years and eighty days after they were deprived of the use of the old bridge." The usual way in which the foundations of Waterloo bridge, Southwark bridge, and Vauxhall bridge, have been laid, was by driving piles of Memel logs, four- teen or fifteen inches square, for the construction of the coffer-dams, which was cleared of water by means of pumps. See Coffer- darn, and Caisson. Different writers have had very different opinions on the curve most convenient for the arches of a bridge. Dr. Hutton's arch of 448 / equilibration, which admits of horizontal line at the top, accord ing to his example in proposition i is of a graceful and convenier form, as it may be made higher c lower at pleasure, with the sam opening. However, the result < pure theory was generally not su< cessful in practice, owing to variety of accidental circumstance which cannot be taken into accoun The best practical arch appears be the elliptical, as it can be mat of any height to the same span, - of any span to the same heigh This form of arch has a bold look, is stronger, and requires le materials, than any other. Next this, perhaps, is the cycloidal, at next the circular. Of the cycloid there is a handsome example the bridge of Trinity college, Cai bridge. The following observations ? from the Tract of Seaward, the rebuilding of London Bridj — There are three several curv which appear to combine in essential manner, the advantages beauty, and convenience of for and which, from their decid superiority in this respect over other curves, appear to be aim exclusively adopted for arcl by the practical bridge-build These are the circular, the eii tical, and the cycloidal curvf which, with their infinite segmer present to our choice an endl variety of arches. The ellipse most particularly advantageous forming the intrados of an ar. At the springing of an elliptl arch, the curvature is considerab; and, as it rises perpendicularly affords the commodious openi , both as a water-way and as a | sage for craft. Proceeding tows |J the crown of the arch, the cul t ture continually decreases, til 1 approaches almost to a parallel BRI BR I wi the horizontal lines of the brge, by this means uniting all th boldness of the semicircle, with a ght airy gracefulness of figure, wfh gives great relief to the more m sy parts of the structure. The m< ; t admired bridges are generally h e in which the springings of inarches commence immediately at ie surface of the water. For it rally happens that piers of any coiclerable altitude, as compared to eir own bulk, or that of the ad- joi rig masses, can be introduced to Biifort the arches of a bridge; D< consequently, when they are emoyed, they generally fail of prqucing a good architectural ef- i r while, at the same time, they inv ic.bly tend to injure the ap- i eince of the curve of the intra- do< In cast-iron bridges, in which r rial ircular segments are generally em ; oyed for the arches, high piers are enerally necessary to keep the ipi gings of the iron voussoirs ab instance on record of an arch fl- ing by the absolute crushing of I materials." Mr. Ware, in his " Treatise i the Properties of Arches/' recc mends the catenary as the It form. Dr. David Gregory, ii a paper on the catenary in the PI - sophical Transactions, 1697, ass s that none but the catenary is e figure of a true legitimate arch ; d when an arch of any other fife is supported, it is because thickness some catenary is inc. I- ed. The catenary is the cm formed by a chain composed links connected together, havii a free motion in any directioiat such connection, but insepane. Mr. Ware has given a geomet al method of constructing the can- ary. See Fig. x. plate Aquei^t or Nismes. " To describ a catenary. From any points a> BRI B It J oa curve AB, erect any equal vtical lines a e, a e, and draw t indefinite horizontal lines e c, e , which intersect a b 6, by the lilts a b, ab, at right angles to tl tangents at those points. Make c equal to the line e 6, and con- si ict the similar triangles c b d. Tough d d, draw the line requir- es Catenaries may be of as many fen s as the gravities and shapes okhe links in a chain may be vred. The catenary formed by siilar and equal links will be fo led from the circle, as in this prbosition." [r. Ware makes the following Delusions at the end of the se- section of his book. " When thi ;xtrados and intrados of a com- po ion of lubricous forces in equi- lib> in the same plane, are pa- a rail, they must be right lines ; as tht Jirection of each of the forces : mi 1 , form the same angle with a i ho ontal line: no arch of equili- | oa, therefore, can have its 11 intdos and extrados parallel. Fr|i this section it will be seen, the the extradoses of equihbra- »|, tio,: of circular, elliptical, and idal arches, are the most con- vennt forms for the entradoses r of ,idges: and thus nature, in this istance, has not been so much at \ iance with herself, as by her mMo prescribe a form to the trios of a perfect arch, which is |>f thecatenary is mentioned in ' 1 y :lopedia Metropolitana. A scjen ic gentleman of Birmingham having occasion for a close factory for the manufacture of the article called Roman vitriol, set out a piece of ground to be covered by a brick arch of considerable length, the chord of which was eighteen or twenty feet, and its versed sine about twelve. He suspended a chain against a wall, the points of suspension being equal to the chord of his intended arch, and its depth equal to its versed sine. From a line traced from the chain, his car- penters made a centre, over which the bricklayers turned a single arch of nine inches only in thick- ness, without spandrels or other external support, its extrados being a curve parallel to its intrados, at a distance of only nine inches. It is a perfectly round and beautiful piece of construction. During an* absence from home, he desired another to be built like it ; the self-sufficient workmen varied the curve, to give it more room in its haunches, or a more graceful curve, and on striking the centre it fell. The spandrels of the arch, or the spaces beween the haunches and road-way, are very commonly filled up with rubbish, or with masonry, which adds an unnecessary weight to the arch. Some, as in the Pont y Prydd, fill up the spandrels with apertures carried quite through, and kept open. Others turn coun- ter arches, or tunnels, on and be- tween the main arches, and con- ceal them by external masonry. In the common bridge, where the weight tends to compress the arch ; if the arch were only of a small depth, a slight force would derange it, and once deranged in a certain degree, it would fall. Hence, the arch must necessarily have a considerable depth to render it stable, and sufficiently firm for resisting the stress of a loaded waggon ; but this increase of the 451 BRI BRI depth of the arch, also increases the load to be supported, and, conse- quently, a much greater quantity of material must be employed than is necessary to resist the pressure in the direction of the arch. In a suspension bridge it is different, for to whatever degree the equilibrium of the chain be disturbed, it re- sumes its natural state as soon as the disturbing force ceases to ope- rate. That is, it is endowed with the power of resisting any change of form by its arrangement, and no excess of material is necessary to preserve that arrangement. This is the chief advantage of a suspen- sion bridge, and it is one of im- mense importance in construction of bridges of large span. It has been remarked, that the suspension bridge is easily put together in model ; it is joined with comparative simplicity of means on the large scale; and hence only a small expense is necessary for scaf- folding in its first erection, and scarcely any is required for repairs. But for a common bridge, on the principle of compression, a very strong and accurate centre is ne- cessary, to construct an arch upon ; and the expense of centering and scaffolding is often greater than the whole expense of a suspension bridge for the same situation. With a suspension bridge we can give an equally free space for the passage of vessels in every part of the width between the piers ; for the road-way may be level, and all the space left clear between it and the water line ; and hence it is bet- ter for a navigable river, than a common bridge where vessels are confined to the middle of the arch. At Vienna, there has been erected a steel suspension bridge over the Danube. All the steel used in this bridge was manufactured immedi- 452 ately from decarbonated cast-iro in Styria. The span is 234 feet, ar the versed sine 15 feet. It is tl work of M. Ignace von Mitis, wl calculates the total weight of ste at less than half the weight of in that would be necessary; or, tli a steel bridge of half the weight an iron one, would be the strong of the two. The general principles of equi brium and stress are the same suspension as in other bridges ; ordinary cases the load is ve nearly uniformly distributed ov the length of the bridge ; and co sequently, the curve assumed the suspending chains will be neai the same as the parahola. T stress in the different parts of t chains may be more accurate computed by a formula in Trc gold's Carpentry, art. 61 ; but all practical purposes it will sufficiently accurate to consider t curve a parabola, and compi them accordingly. The cha assume the form of the comm catenary, only in the case \vh the road-way rests upon, and is the same length as, the chai which is a case of rare occurren Winch Bridge, across the Tees, however, one example. It appe to have been the common mist; of both scientific and practical m to imagine, that the curve assun by the chains of a suspension brie is, in all cases, the common cat - ary ; and it has caused the ji class to embarrass themselves I complicated and useless investor tions ; while the other have 3 occasion to express their surp e at " the liability of the catena " curve to alter, when loaded in e direction of the horizontal plan ^ the connecting road-way." Other bridges have been eredl in which both the extending W compressing strains occur; as w B R I BRI c in the common drawbridge. Te wire bridges of Galashiels and Iig's Meadows, in Scotland, are eimples. In these the wires radi- a; from the points of suspension to eiidistant points in the road-way. lise radiating wires have to resist t sion, while the sides of the road- i are compressed in the direction o abutments. This mode of con- s iction has some good properties; ft each half of a bridge may be erect- e independently of the other, and a ortion to act as a drawbridge in tl centre, might connect them as aoad-way, or open, as occasion riu i red, to give passage to masted V sels. On this principle, we shall fii no difficulty in extending a (Bin pier from one to two hundred fc over the sea, without being o' ^ed to form a support at the eternity. put, for a continuous bridge, it m more simple and easy method tcemploy chains collected into iv,ses of the form of the curve of ewilibrium; the same strength is g.ned with the same quantity of n,terial; and the bridge forms a rr e chaste and beautiful object. Tom the valuable and highly in resting reports which were made b; he Committee of the House of C imons appointed for inquiring m the practicability of erecting a bi ge over the straights of Menai, th most important additions were m,e to our knowledge regarding th strength of materials in this durtment of bridge - building. Wh machines at the works of C; tain Brown, and Messrs. Brun- to in London, a force of upwards of i hundred tons was exerted w i. the greatest ease and facility, an with an exactness and precision wl"h was altogether astonishing m (periments of such magnitude. In ne of these interesting trials at M >rs. Brunton's work on the Commercial Road, a strainwas pro- gressively applied to circular bolts of iron, till the machinery indi- cated a maximum of ninety-two tons. In this experiment, when the strain had amounted to sixty tons, it was observable that small particles of the oxide of iron began to separate on the surface, and when the hydraulic machine was wrought up to a pressure of se- venty-five tons, the part which ultimately separated and gave way, became sensibly smaller, its tem- perature was also somewhat in- creased ; and when the register of the machine indicated ninety-two tons, it suddenly parted, or broke asunder. This trial was made with a rod of Welsh iron, which, on examination, appeared not to be of the first quality. In chain bridges of great extent, no danger is to be apprehended from the ordinary weight of the passing load. But in projects of this kind, it becomes necessary to consult the safety of the fabric in extensive cases, by taking into cal- culation the crowded state of the road-way, when a multitude of people, or a drove of cattle, passes it. We find that a given area closely covered with men, will have a greater weight than the same space closely occupied by cattle in the proportion of about nine to seven : and every one knows that a drove of cattle is more likely to be gradually admitted upon the road-way of such a bridge than a mob of people whom objects of interest attract to a particular spot. Cf this a remarkable instance oc- curred at the opening of Captain Brown's bridge over the Tweed in July, 1820, when it was intended to keep the road-way clear for the ceremony of the day; a crowd of people broke through every obstruc- tion, and forced their way upon the 453 BRI BRI bridge, and it was estimated that pie, which the timber bridge at one time there were about seven Montrose, about five hundred fe hundred people upon the road-way. in extent, has been considered Now, taking each person of this withstand, is the weight of a re& The main chains of the Union observations apply to a crowd bridge are formed of circular rods persons walking promiscuously, of iron, measuring about two inches to a drove of cattle, which countt in diameter; and a bar of that act the undulating and rocki; strength, which was not considered motion, observed on some oec of the first quality, sustained a sions at the bridge of Montro; force equal to ninety-two tons, when infantry has been passi As the number of catenarian chains along it. Hence, also, the efi'ec in the Union bridge are twelve, if of gusts of wind, often and violeni we estimate the strength of each repeated, which destroy the equi rod with its shackle at ninety-two brium of the parts of a bridge tons, we shall have the aggregate suspension ; and the importance strength of the whole to be 92 x 12 having the whole road-way a = 1104 tons. We have already side-rails framed in the strong) supposed the weight of the bridge, possible manner, between the points of suspension, Among the finest of the mode to be one hundred tons, and if to stone bridges may be reckoned t this we add forty-seven tons as the New London Bridge across t greatest load which is likely to be Thames, of five elliptical arch ever brought upon it at once, these The design was given by the 1; together give 100+47= 147, or say, Mr. John Rennie, and it was bi one hundred and fifty tons. As- under the direction of his so suming the angle of suspension at John and George Rennie. 1 twelve degrees, we find that the materials are principally Scol real weight is increased to about granite. Our plate will give three hundred and seventy tons of better idea of it than any descr tension on the catenarian chains, tion that we could give. 1 But as we find the strength of these dimensions are as follows, chains to be one thousand one hun- ft dred and four tons, there remains a number at one hundred and fifty pounds, it would give about forty- seven tons, besides its own weight, which it sustained, without any ap- parent derangement. ment of foot, passing in regui time. A troop of cavalry, on t contrary, does not produce corr sponding effects, owing to the in gular step of the horses. The sar surplus strength of about seven hundred and thirty-four, or, in round numbers, seven hundred tons, to resist any emergency beyond a weight of fifty tons. Span of the centre arch ..... 1 Rise (above the level of tlie high- Piers adjoining the central arch, each Span of the arches next the centre one 1 Rise || Piers, each water mark of the Trinity house) But the effect we have to pro- vide against in bridges of suspen- sion is not merely what is techni- cally termed dead-weight. A more powerful agent exists, in the sudden impulses, or jerking motion, of the load. The greatest trial, for exam- 454 Span of the arch next to the abutments 1 Rise Abutments , Total length of the water-wa)' .... 6i Length between the abutment .... 7j Total length, including the abutments 9 Width of the carriage-way • j Width of the bridge ' * See Supplement. B R T 15 R O Bri doe-board. See Notch oard. Bridge-over. When any Jimber of parallel timbers have ; other piece of timber fixed over Jettl, in a transverse direction, ltd the transverse piece is said I bridge- over the pieces which jte parallel. The common rafters i framed roofing, for example, 1 dge over the purlins ; and, in rfked flooring, the upper joists to \ ich the flooring boards are fed, bridge over the binding jjsts, and, therefore, are called Edging-joists. Bridge stone. A stone laid i a horizontal direction over an a a, extending from the pave- r nt to the entrance door of a rase, and not supported by an ; A Bridge-gutters. Gutters r de with boards, supported be- rith with bearers, and covered ! aove with lead. Bridging-floors. Floors in rich bridging-joists are used. , l e Naked Flooring. ! 'Bridging- joists. Pieces of J fiber, or joists, in naked floor- i extending in a direction pa- 1 rlel with the girder, and sup- iptl r -fed by beams called binding- }erly scarfed at the □eetings, securely halv- ed and pinned at the ingles, the ends to tail »n the wall within 2£ riches of the external ace ------ pncipal rafters, average fcigpost J tees ------ 13 beams in one piece, o camber 2 inches -12x6 E ders to ceilings - - 6x4 Cling joists - - - - 4X2 .^rovide for 10 feet cube of fined fir in roof for ventilators al chandelier, where will be di- ned. The carpenter is to assist t smith in fixing the ventilators. 1 wide and fix wrought-iron sups, bolts, &c. to bottom of k js, and feet of principal rafters, ajpefore described for the roof of p tico. Provide and lay inch d| battens, 2\ inches wide, to a g ge for countess slating, with paper featheredge eaves boards, yi,ty pieces, and three quarter ini tilting fillets, 3 inches wide, fo>laters. repare and fix rounded rolls, %hy 2 inches, to ridge and hips, Wm proper irons for the same. rovide and fix bracketting for pi Iter cornice in court room, ruride and fix a chain plate at th, impost moulding of the court mn, G inches by 4{- inches, pro- pcy scarfed at the meetings, and three tier of bond, 4 inches by 2~ inches, where will be directed by the architect. Frame and fix a 4 -inch quarter partition at the back of the spec- tators' seat, forming a passage, with head and sill 4 inches by 3 inches; principal posts 4 inches by 3% inches ; braces 4 inches by 2~ inches ; and common quarter! 4 inches by 2 inches ; the quarters 1 foot from centre to centre. Frame and fix ceiling joists over ditto, 4 inches by 2 inches, with three-quarter inch ploughed and tongued boarding, planed one side. Frame and fix joists from 8 in- ches to 6 inches, by 2\ inches, with plates 4 inches by 3 inches, in the court room to the neces- sary heights shown on the draw- ings, except the passages and spectators' seats, which are to be paved with stone, and are distin- guished by a blue tint on the drawings. Frame and fix lean-to roofs and ceiling joists over the lobbies to the side entrances leading to the officers' apartments adjoining the courts, according to the draw- ings, with timbers of the follow- ing scantlings: — Common rafters, with feet notched - - - - -4x2 Plate 4X3 Pitching piece - - - 4x3 Purlin 5x4 Ceiling joists - - - - 4x2 Wall plate - - - - 4X2| Cover the aforesaid roofs with inch deal battens and tilting fillets, as before described for the other roofs. Provide and lay two tiers of bonds 4 inches by 2£ inches, round each of the said lobbies. Frame and fix the roofs to the side-wings adjoining the court room, and forming the officers' apartments, according to the 4G1 BUILDING. drawings, with timbers of the following scantlings : — Ridge piece - - - - 9X2 Common rafters, with feet notched on pole plate, &c. as before - 5x2 Trimming ditto to sky- lights 5X3 Purlins - - - - - 6x4 Pole plate with blockings 4x3 Wall plates, as described for the court roof - - 6x4 Principal rafters, average 8X6 King posts - - - - 8x6 Braces - - - - - 6x4 Tye beams, in one piece 10x6 Angle tyes and dragon pieces - - - - - 6x4 Binders to ceiling - - 6X4 Ceiling joists - - - 4X2 Trimming ditto - - - 4x3 Provide and fix wrought- iron straps, bolts, &c. to bottom of kings and feet of principal rafters as before described. Cover the roofs last described with inch deal battens, 2{ inches wide, to a gauge for countess slating, with proper featheredge eaves board and tilting fillets, 3 inches wide for slaters. Prepare and fix round- ed rolls 2^ inches by 2 inches, to ridge and hips with proper irons for the same. Provide and lay inch deal gut- ters, with edges shot, and proper bearers for the same. Prepare and fix |i-inch deal ovolo sashes, and I i-inch wrought one side, and start' beaded linings to the ceiling ; and 2-inch square, straight, bar skylights, with one quarter wrought linings to the roofs, where shown on the draw- ings, with fillets and fastenings to same, the sashes in the ceiling to be hung on pivots, and to have a moulded stop. Frame and fix 6-inch quarter partitions to grand jury room, with heads and sills 6 inches by 34- inches; principal posts and 462 quarters, 6 inches by 4 inches braces and door-heads, 6 incht by 3 inches ; and common quai ters, 6 inches by 2\ inches. The remaining rooms to tl side wings to have 4-inch quarte partitions, with heads and si) 4 inches by '6 inches ; princip; posts and quarters, 4 inches b 3^ inches ; braces and door-head. 4 inches by 2\ inches ; and com mon quarters, 4 inches by inches ; the quarters, 1 foot froi centre to centre. Frame the floors of the sid wings adjoining the court as be fore described, with joists 7 inche by 2{ inches, and oak sleepe; and plates 4 inches by 3 inchei. Provide for two tier of bone laid complete throughout th rooms of the wings last de scribed, exclusive of the woo bricks required for the \vindo\ skirting, &c. Frame and fix the roof overth hospital, bath, and receiving rooms, &c. according to tli drawings, with timbers of the fol lowing scantlings : — Ridge piece - - - - 9X2 Common rafters, with feet notched on pole plate, as before described - 5x2 Purlins 6x4- Templates to ditto - - 4X4 Struts to ditto - - - 4x3 Pole plate with blockings 4 X 3 Wall plate, as described for the court roof - - 6x4 Principal rafters, average 8x6 King post - 8X6 Braces - - - - - 6x4 Tye beams in one piece - 10x6 Binders to ceiling - - 6X-4 Ceiling joists - 4x2 Trimming ditto - - 4X3 Provide and fix wrought-iroi straps, bolts, &c. to bottom o king and feet of principal rafters as before described; cover th roofs last described with inc BUILDING. eal battens 2| inches wide, to a luge for countess slating, with oper featheredge eaves boards, id tilting fillets, 3 inches wide r slaters. Prepare and fix a unded ridge roll 2\ inches by inches, with proper irons to the me. Frame the floors of the infirm- . ;ies and rooms adjoining, with ; sts 7 inches by 2\- inches, and miming ditto 7 inches by 3 ches, and wall plates all round e walls 6 inches by 4 inches, surely spiked at the angles. ovide for one tier of bond, laid i mpletely round the last named oms, exclusive of wood bricks iquired for skirtings, windows, L Frame and fix 4-inch quarter irtitions, forming passages as iown in drawings, with heads nil sills 4 inches by 3 inches ; 1 incipal posts and door posts, • inches by 3 inches ; braces, 4 :hes by 2\ inches; and com- jn quarters, 4 inches by 2 ches ; the quarters 1 foot from Intra to centre. Frame and fix: lean-to roofs to e privies in the yards adjoining e bath and receiving rooms, th rafters 4 inches by 2 inches, fiog plates 4 inches by 2\ inches, Jd pitching pieces 3 inches by '. inches. Cover the same with ch deal battens 2\ inches wide, Id to a guage for countess slat- ij, with proper featheredge il our.de face of the external walls, li tn evcpt where intercepted by stone hew, described in the drawings. I filling in lintels, or where red; red by the architect, the lin- Mf tel;to lay on the walls not less nlil ibm inches at each end, and to aj „ he inches thick. Provide and fix |>od blockings for hinges and :1 where required. 1 >vide and fix wrought-iron ir>J inches by \ inch, con- c L r the plates in a secure mai/ier where the flues intercept ie :me throughout the different \ bui li n j| Binders over back rooms to be planed three sides and chase-mortised for joists - - - - - 12/ Plates on cross walls - 4> Wall plates all round, halved and spiked at the angles, and to tail on the wall within 4r« BUILDING. inches of the external face />X4 Provide and lay two tier of bond round the sides of the rooms in the one-pair story last named, where will be directed, exclusive of wood bricks required for fixing skirting, windows, &c. Frame and fix the floors of the front rooms and entrance in the ground -floors of the keeper's house according to the drawings, and with timbers of the following scantlings : — Joists 9X2* .Trimming ditto - - - 9x3 Plates on cross-walls - - 4X4 Wail plates as last de- scribed ----- 6 4 Provide and lay two tier of )ond 4 inches by 2^ inches all . ound the rooms of the ground tory in the keeper's house, ex- clusive of wood bricks required fix the skirting, windows, &c. 1 Frame and fix the roofs of the prisoners' privies in the airing .ourts with rafters 4 inches by 2 nches, rising plates 4 inches by ! inches, and pitching pieces 3 nches by 2 inches. Cover the ame with inch deal battens 2\ nches wide, laid to a gauge for ountess slating, with proper atheredge eaves boards, and Iting fillets, 3 inches wide. Pro- ide and fix wrought and rounded nb 4 inches by 3 inches, on the >p the stone pieces as shown in pe drawing. Frame and fix the roof over ie wash-house and laundry ac- prding to the drawings, with mbers of the following scant- : 'gs:— ips rounded for lead - 8x2 ommon rafters as before (1 c-scribed - - - - 3x2 .ariins - - - - -5x4 lie plate with blockings 4x3 ail plates as before de- scribed 5X4 Angle tyes and dragon pieces 4x4 Principal rafters - - - 6x6 Tye beam - -lOxtf King posts - - - - 6X0* Struts - - - - .4x3 Provide and fix wrought-iron straps witli bolts, &c. to feet of principal rafters and bottom of king, as shown on drawing. Cover the roof with inch deal battens 2\ inches wide, laid to a gauge for countess slating, with proper featheredge eaves boards, and three quarter inch tilting fillets, 3 inches wide for slaters, and inch deal gutters and bearers adjoining the chimney shaft. Frame and fix a quarter parti- tion in the laundry enclosing staircase, with heads and sills 4 inches by 3 inches, door-posts and principal quarters 4 inches by 3| inches, braces 4 inches by 1\ inches, and common quarters 4 inches by 2 inches. Frame and fix a floor of joists to the laundry, according to draw- ings, and with timbers as fol- low : — Joists 7X2J- Trimming ditto - - - 7x3 Binder chase-mortised for joists ]2x6 Wall plate halved and spik- ed at the angle and to tail, &c. as before de- scribed - - - - 6X4 Plate on partition wall 4x4 Provide and lay one tier of bond 4 inches by 2| inches in each of the stories of the last named building, where will be directed, exclusive of wood bricks required for fixing the windows, kc. Frame and fix the open front and roof of the wheel -wings ac- cording to the drawings, and with timbers of the following scantlings : — Round ridge - - - - 8X2 Common rafters with feet 4G7 BUILDING. notched and tailed on wall plates and front plate, &c. - - - - 3x2 Principal rafters and bra- ces forming five trus- ses to each of the mill- wings, dovetailed, and pinned together — the rafters to be notched and tailed on wall plate and front plate - - - 5x3 Purlins 3{x3 Wall plate as before de- scribed - - - 5x4 Front plate or bressum- mer wrought all round and mortised for posts, and firmly secured to wall plate - - - - 8x8 Posts under ditto, wrought all round with tenons in bressummer and stone plinth - - - 8x6 Cover the roofs last described with inch deal battens 2^ inches wide, laid to a gauge for countess slating, with proper featheredge eaves boards, and three quarter inch tilting fillets, 3 inches wide for slaters. Provide for one tier of bond 4 inches by 1\ inches, laid com- plete round the walls of each of the mill -wings. Frame and fix the roof of the mill -house according to the draw- ings, and with timbers of the fol- lowing scantlings : — Rounded hips - - - 8x2 Common rafters - - - 3x2 Purlins - - - - -5x4 Pole plate with blockings 3x3 Wall^plates as before de- scribed - - - - -5X4 Struts to purlins from truss where necessary 4x3 Principal rafters - - - 6x6 Tye beam - - - -10x6 King post - - - - 6X6 Braces or struts - - - 4 X 3 Cover the roof last described with inch deal battens 2\ inches wide, laid to a guage for countess slating, with proper featheredge eaves boards, and three quarter inch tilting fillets, 3 inches wide for slater. Frame and fix floors of joists to the two stories of the null, house, according to the drawings, with a well hole trimmed to each fcr a ladder, the whole of the timbers, and the front of the plates and bond to be planed; the timbers of the following scant- lings:— Joists framed to girders 5x2i Girders chase-mortised for joists - - - - 14X8 Templates to ditto, with fronts planed - - - 5x4 Wall plates as before de- scribed - - - - 5x4 Provide for one tier of bond 4 inches by 2\ inches, laid complete in each of the three stories of the mill-house before described, ex- clusive of wood bricks which may be required for fixing the windows, doors, &c. All the joists throughout the different buildings are to be notch- ed down 1 inch upon the plates, and to be spiked thereto. All the door-cases are to have tenons, and to be let into the'stone steps or paving. All the iron straps or other iron-work necessary to fix the framing of the pews in the! chapel, or divisions in the court, or other work throughout the different buildings required to be securely fixed, must be secured and screwed to the floor of joists and carcass timbers, independent of the floors. Prepare and hang 3-inch six panel folding doors to the en- trance under the portico, moulded \ and bead flush, with extra wide styles and rails, and double-mar- gined centre stile, the upper pa- i nels fixed, the doors hung with two pair of weighty forked hinges, BUILDING. with proper screw-bolts and nuts, the whole according to the draw- ings at large. Provide for the necessary wood bricks to fix the upper part of the doors. Provide and fix a lock, bolts, and other fastenings of the value of two pounds ten shillings, as will be hereafter directed by the architect. Prepare and hang |i.-inch deal, our panel, bead, flush, and square Joors, leading from the entrance Passage to the spectators' seats, lung with 3-inch wrought butts, W a 9-inch drawback lock to ?ach, with I J -inch wrought and febated jaumb lining and soffit to he same. Prepare and fix inch leal square skirting, 8| inches ligh round the entrance passage eading to spectators' seats. Prepare and fix deal cased "rames, oak sunk sills, with 2-inch leal astragal and hollow sashes, ingle hung, with 2-inch brass txle pulleys, patent lines, iron veights, and sash fastenings. Pro- ;ide and fix pulleys, and patent ines to open top sashes, with looks to same. Prepare and fix 'l \ -inch deal wrought and splayed window hoard, with proper bear- is to the windows of the court oom. Prepare and hang 2- inch liree panel wainscot, moulded >oth sides; folding doors leading the passages in the court, with 1 inch three quarter inch, half chared two bolt mortised locks, ind plain furniture; two pair of •inch wrought butts, one 9-inch, nd one IS-inch barrel, bolts to ach ; with I J -inch wainscot, eyed and double rebated, jaumbs ml soffit properly backed; three barter inch wainscot, wrought Ind beaded grounds, and moulded rchitrave one side, and wainscot talf bead the other side. Prepare -inch >ix pane! wainscot moulded loth sides; doors leading to ma- istrates' bench, and jury boxes, with jaumbs, and soffit, and moulded architrave, and staffbead, as last described, but not folding; with 6-inch three bolt mortise locks, and 3-inch wrought butts. Prepare and lay l*--inch yellow deal wrought, ploughed, and tongued floor, and inch deal wrought steps, risers, and proper bearers, in court room, where shown on the drawings. Prepare and fix 2- inch wainscot, one panel high, bead, flush, and square fram- ing, in front of magistrates' bench, part circular on plan. The re- mainder of the partitions in front of spectators' seats, and forming the divisions in the court, to be of I^-inch wainscot, one panel high, bead, flush, and -square framing ; the doors hung with 2\- inch projecting butts, and a brass pulpit latch to each ; the whole of the framing to be firmly secured by iron knee straps to the joists under the floor, the said straps to be provided and fixed by the carpenter. Prepare and fix inch wainscot, chamfered and groved capping to partition in front of magistrates' bench, 3 inches wide, and ditto, 2^ inches wide to the remaining partitions in the courts. The capping to be firmly screwed to the framing, and the whole of the screws in the capping and the wainscot framing, before described, to be counter- sunk, and carefully covered with wainscot. Prepare and fix inch deal wrought and cut bearers, and 1^-inch wrought and rounded seats, from 12 to 14 inches wide, with groves stopped short, the flaps rebated, and hung with hinges. Inch wrought rounded, and splayed book-board, 10 inch.es wide, with wrought, splayed, and cut brackets, where shown on drawings. Prepare and fix 2-inch deal ploughed, feathcr- tongued, and blocked, cut circa- BUILDING. Jar, anil edges rounded, for top of counsel's table, with wrought all round, framed and splayed top rail, 4£ inches by 3 inches ditto, bearers 5 inches by 2 inches ditto, bottom rail 3 inches by 2 inches ditto, legs 3 inches square, let into the floor, and firmly secured to the joists ; the whole of the seats, book-board, counsel's table, &c. to be rounded at the ends, and the whole of the fittings in the court to be in every respect as shown or described upon the drawings. Prepare and fix a desk for the chairman, with ]i-inch ploughed, tongued, and rounded top, with a dovetailed wainscot drawer and frame, the drawer 16 inches by 12 inches, and 3 inches deep, with a good lock a-nd key, and two drawer knobs. Prepare and fix inch wainscot, keyed and feather-tongued wall lining, with upright beads, as shown in the drawings, to the wall all round the court, except- ing the space occupied by the passage leading to the spectators' seats, with a wainscot groved bead, i » inch thick, and 3 inches wide, as a capping to the same. Prepare and fix 1 J -inch deal, wrought and splayed, capping top of plaster, impost moulding, forming the top fillet of the same, securely fixed to the chain plate. Prepare and fix three-quarter inch ploughed and tongued and beaded boarding to the court side of the partition, enclosing the passage leading to the spectators' seats. Prepare and hang 2-inch deal six panel bead, flush, and square doors to lobbies of side entrances leading to officers' apartments, adjoining the court, hung with 3 -inch wrought butts, a strong drawback lock, a 9-inch and an J 8-inch bright barrel bolts to each. 470 Frame and fix proper door- cases, 4 inches square, to the same. Prepare and lay I }-inch yellow deal straight joint floors, with borders to slabs, in the magis-j trate's grand jury, and counsel's rooms; and inch yellow deal straight joint floors, with border to slabs, to the remaining rooms! and passages of the wings adjoin- ing the court, excepting the spaces shown or described to be paved with stone. Prepare and lay inch steps, risers, and proper bearers, leading to magistrates' bench. Prepare and fix three quarter inch wrought and framed grounds, 2 l inches wide, with torus skirt- ing, 8 j inches high, to the afore- said wings, excepting the magis. trates', counsel's, and grand jury rooms, and passages adjoining, which are to have inch wrought and framed grounds, 2\ inches wide, and inch wrought, rebated, and blacked plinth, 8| inches high, j with base moulding, 3 inches girt, on same. The sides of the magis- trates' room to be lined with three- quarter inch battening, 2{ inches wide, for lathing; the battens, 1 foot from centre to centre, se- curely fixed with wall hooks where necessary. Prepare and fix deal- cased sash frames, oak sunk sills, I J -inches ovolo sashes, double hung with patent lines, brass pulleys, patent sash fastenings, and iron weights complete, and inch wrought linings and soffits, with ogee round same to all the windows of the wings before de- scribed. The four windows to the counsel's and petty jury, and clerks' rooms, in front of the building, are to have I]- inch four panel moulded, and square shut- ters ; and inch deal four panel square back flaps hung with hinges, and with proper boxings • BUILDING. sidelining, and ogee architrave, th a strong iron shutter bar, and 10 brass shutter knobs to each, jepare and hang l{-inch deal i Jolo moulded and square doors, jjng with 2y-inch wrought butts, i A 6-inch iron rim three bolt locks, |h brass knobs ; and inch re- lied and beaded linings and sof- j|, with an ogee architrave on J|e side to all the rooms of the Ik v/)gs before described, excepting t; magistrates' and grand jury i4ms, which are to have 2- inch t il four panel doors, moulded both ti ses, hung with 3 -inch wrought Itts, 6 -inch three bolt mortise I ks, and plain brass furniture; ] double rebated linings and slit, inctk wrought framed and bided grounds, with a moulded £. .hitrave on one side. The door- v v in the passage leading to l^gistrates' bench, and adjoining c |, And jury room, is to have a 2- ,][; M\ lour panel door, moulded l.th sides, hung with 3-inch butts, i > - inch iron rim, three bolt lock, iftd I |-inch rebated, and double laded jaumb linings and soffit, tpare and fix proper deal square i gle staff beads to the chimney Lasts of the magistrates' and find jury rooms. The external ( )is to the magistrates' room, i J passage leading to privies, to lVe 2- inch deal four panel i ulded and bead flush doors, Hpg with 3-inch wrought butts, \ h a strong drawback lock, a Inch and an IS inch bright bar- f rf bolt to each ; frame and fix I »per door-cases 4 inches square t the same. Prepare and fix deal cased f.nies, oak sunk sills, 1^-inch i i! ovolo sashes, single hung v I) lines, iron pulleys and weights a I sash fastenings complete, a I inch wrought and beaded ji'ngs and soffits, and 1|- lih rounded window boards and bearers to the infirmaries and rooms adjoining, and two wrought ventilators to the ceil- ing in each of the infirmaries. Prepare and lay inch yellow deal folding floors to the rooms last described, and passages adjoining, with borders to slabs. Prepare and fix inch square skirting, 8y inches high, to the rooms and passages last described. Prepare and hang I {-inch deal, bead, flush, and square doors, hung with 2{-inch wrought iron butts, 6-inch iron rim three bolt locks, with brass knobs, and inch wrought rebated and rounded lin- ings and soffits to the small rooms, and 2-inch deal, bead, flush, and square doors, hung with 3-inch wrought iron butts, and strong drawback locks, with brass knobs, a strong 1 8-inch bolt, and 1 1 -inch deal wrought, rebated, and rounded linings and soffit to the infirmaries. Prepare and fix deal cased frames, oak sunk sills, 1^-inch ovolo sashes, single hung with lines, iron pulleys and weights, and sash fastenings complete, and inch deal wrought and beaded linings and soffit, with 1 ^-inch window board and bearers to the receiving and fumigating room, lock up room, bath room, surgery, and staircases. Prepare and hang 2-inch four panel, bead, flush, and square external doors to receiv- ing and fumigating room, bath room, and staircases, with 3 inch wrought butts, a strong drawback lock, a 9-inch, and an 18-inch bright barrel bolts to each. Frame and fix proper door-cases, 1-inches square, to the same. Prepare and hang 1-t-inch four panel, bead, flush, square doors to the four openings of lock-up room, sur- gery, and passage adjoining, as shown on plan, hung with 2{-inch wrought butts, with locks and 471 BUILDING. bolts, and fastenings, as last de- scribed, with inch deal wrought, rebated, and rounded linings to the same. Prepare and fix a closet in the surgery, 4 feet wide, and 18 inches deep, the whole height of the room, with inch deal framed and beaded front and side, and inch deal four panel square door, hung with hinges, and a good brass cupboard lock; 3-inch deal wrought shelves and bearers to be provided and fixed in the same, with a dwarf door, shelf and bottom, and brass button in the upper part. Prepare and hang a 2 -inch deal four panel bead flush and square door, divid- ing the two staircases adjoining, hung with 3-inch wrought butts, and a lock, as last described, with 1 1 -inch deal, wrought, rebated, and rounded jaumb lining and soffit. Prepare and hang l|-inch deal wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged doors, leading from yards of receiving and bath rooms, with cross garnets, and 10-inch stock lock, and proper door-cases, 4 in- ches by 3 inches to each. Prepare and hang two three-quarter inch deal, wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged doors to coal vaults, un- der the last-named rooms, and one ditto to the coal-hole adjoining counsel's privy, with cross garnets, padlock, hasp, and staple to each. Prepare and hang inch, plough- ed, wrought, tongued, and ledged doors, with a hole cut in each ; 16 -inch cross garnets and a thumb- latch and catch to each of the privies in the yard, adjoining the receiving and bath rooms. Prepare and fix proper door- cases 4-inches by 2|-inches, and inch deal rounded seat and riser, with proper bearer, and hole cut and rounded to the same. Prepare and hang ledged door and frame with fastenings and 472 seat -riser and bearers, as last i scribed, to the privy adjoining counsel's room. Prepare and deal-cased frame oak sunk si l|-inch ovolo sashes, single hui with pulleys, lines, weights, a sash fastenings complete, and in deal wrought and beaded linir and soffit, and I ^ - inch gjj wrought and rounded wind board and bearers ; and prep; and hang li-incii deal, four pan bead, flush, and square door, J 2{-inch wrought butts, with inch iron rim, three bolt lock ; a prepare and fix proper door-ca 4 inches by 3 inches, to 1 store-room adjoining pnsow entrance. Prepare and fix 'hi quarter inch deal square skirtii A\ inches high in ditto. Prepare and hang 3-inch de six panel, bead, flush, and squ; doors, to prisoners' entrance front, as also to entrance at bo of prisons, with deal trunnels, t cular head, and extra wide sty and rails, hung with strong fork hinges, the carriages of which j to be securely let into the vva the whole to be provided a fixed, or hung, by the carpent in the manner shown or describ upon the drawings. The hi and other fastenings to this g: (excepting the hinges before i scribed) will be provided by l smith, but the carpenter is assist in fixing the same. Prepi and hang 2-inch deal six pan bead, flush, and square door, a joining the last at the front e trance for prisoners, with an i spection hole, to be provided the smith, but fixed by the ca penter ; 4-inch wrought butts> strong drawback lock, and otl: fastenings, which may be direct* to the value of three guineas. Prepare and fix a proper do<: case, 4-inches square, to t same. BUILDING. ar in i Vepare and fix deal -cased frnes, oak sunk sills, I {-inch oiio sashes, single hung with liis. iron pulleys, and weights, sash fastenings complete, and deal wrought and beaded iings and soffit, and l|-inch k wrought and rounded window bed and bearers to keeper's e and bed -room. renare and fix three-quarter in deal square skirting, 6 inches hi 1 ; in ditto, and prepare and lay ni vellow deal wrought folding flu to the bed-room. Prepare an hang 1 \-\i\ch deal four panel, Del, flush, and square door to keler's lodge, with 2~inch (might butts, a drawback lock, uo two 9 inch bolts. Prepare an fix a proper door-case, 4 hues by 2{ inches to the same. repare and hang 1 |-inch, four pa^, square, internal doors of wai-house and bed-room, with 2{i\ch wrought butts, and a 6- iii< three bolt, iron-rim, lock, an inch deal wrought rebated am double-beaded jaumbs, and so;; to each. Prepare and hang 1 {inch deal ovolo, sunk door to wat home, bead, flush, and e bottom, with 2j-inch butts, Bn a o'-inch, iron-rim, two bolt Joe with brass knobs. repare and fix a proper door- cas 1 inches by 2{ inches for tlit same. Prepare and hang dj d door and frame to the pri- vy, with fastenings, seat-riser, bearers, as before desciibed lor,ie privies. Itepare and fix deal-cased frai,;, oak sunk sill, l{-inch ovc, sashes, single hung with pulleys and weights, lint' anii sash- fastenings complete, vm,ogee moulding round same, in utgistrates' privy. Prepare tndiang I i- inch deal four panel, uea, flush, and square door, with 30 2[-inch wrought butts, a thumb- latch, and a small brass bolt. Prepare and fix a proper door- case, 4 inches by 2\ inches to the same. Prepare and fix inch deal wrought and rounded seat- riser, with proper bearers, and a hole cut and rounded in the seat. Inch square skirting in ditto. Prepare and hang I 2-inch ovolo folding sashes to stable, with 2- inch butts, a brass button, and two small bolts with solid wrought, framed, rebated, and beaded frame, 4 inches by 2\ inches, oak wrought, framed, rebated, and weathered sill, l{-inch deal win- dow-board, and proper bearers. Prepare and hang 1 j-inch wrought, ploughed, tongued, beaded, and ledged door, with cross garnets, a sunk stable latch, and a 10-inch stock lock with two keys. Prepare and fix a wrought pro- per doorcase, 4 inches by 3 inches for the same. Prepare and fix a stall -post, 6 inches by 5 inches, wrought and framed into an oak sleeper, and the ceiling binder before described. Prepare and fix a wrought and framed oak bottom rail, A\ inches by 4 inches. Fir wrought and framed middle rail 4 inches by 3 inches, and top rail wrought, framed, and rounded, 4 inches by 3 inches. Prepare and fix \\- inch deal, wrought, ploughed, tongued, and beaded boarding, let into a groove made into the rails and posts for the same. Pre- pare and fix a wrought, framed, and cut-post at end of partition, to support manger, and grooved to receive the boarding last de- scribed. Prepare and fix wrought, splayed, and rebated front, and bottom of manger with wrought, splayed, and rounded nosing. Provide for all proper and suffi- cient wrought and framed struu, 473 BUILDING. bearers, and templates under the manger. Prepare and fix three-quarter inch deal, wrought, ploughed, tongued, and beaded boarding over manger at back and against side-wall of stalls, and assist the smith in fixing the iron rack. Provide and fix two manger-rings to each of the stalls, with lines and weights. Provide for four rings to posts and wall, and also two harness pegs- to each of the posts. Prepare and fix 1 |-inch deal, wrought and chamfered rail, 4.} inches wide, and 5 feet long, with four wrought dovetailed and cut- harness brackets, 10 inches projection, and inch wrought and splayed rail, 3 inches wide and 4 feet long, with nine framed and turned pegs. G inches projection, to be fixed where will be direct- ed. Provide also for a corn-bin, 5 feet by 3 feet, and 3 feet 6 in- ches high, with inch round sides and top with tongued joints, and two flaps hung with 12-inch cross garnets, and a padlock, hasp, and staple to each ; two divisions are to be formed under the flaps, the whole of the outside is to have proper framed and skeleton grounds or bearers, to receive the sides, top, &c. before described, and to be fixed where will be directed by the architect, or his clerk of the works. Prepare and fix also 2-inch wrought shelves in the stable, 5 feet long and 8y inches wide, with brackets, where will be directed. Provide and fix inch deal rough front, with ske- leton grounds for hay in the angle of stable, as shown on plan. Pro- vide and fix wheel-boards, 8f inches wide at each side of the chaise- house. Prepare and fix deal -cased frames, oak sunk sills, l{-inch 474 ovolo sashes, single hung *;j lines, iron pulleys and weigj and sash fastenings complete,) the dead-house. Prepare il frame a deal table about 8 ft by 4 feet, and 3 feet high, vj proper, strong, and suffici t wrought and framed legs, n, &c. Prepare and hang inch wrouj . ploughed, tongued, beaded, j ledged doors to the doorway: f the dead-house, and hay andst r room, with cross garnets an a stock -lock to each. Prepare i fix wrought proper door-c s to the same, 4 inches by I inches. Provide and lay 1] -inch yell deal folding floor to the chap passage, &c. with risers as sh BUILDING. jnr wrought and rounded lin. ir, y and soffit, and 1^-inch fright and rounded window bo; 1 and bearers. Provide also pat't lines, pulleys life twc i ecl ,.j late des , and hooks ch of the chapel windows, )en same. Prepare and fix ch square framing and doors, anels high, with 27-inch pro- g butts, and brass pulpit is to reading and clerk's pulpit, and pews adjoin - kfthe whole of the framing to be mlv secured by iron knee- atral to the joists under the floor, ' and an iron stud fixed to the mng style of each door, the said-traps and studs to be pro- it and fixed by the carpenter. F pare and fix l^-inch wrought chaired and grooved capping accdinjr to frar last drawing, over the described, and lf,! curt 1, screwed to the same. The cart iter is to assist the smith in ti ng the iron rails and spikes ™ ovei he partitions of debtors' and ^femffi prisoners' pew. Prepare and x proper book and kneeling ; boa>s, and three stools for pul- pit, pding and clerk's desks. 3 » Ppare and fix a pair of move- able ips to keeper's pew in the • chajl, with 4 -inch wrought and id treads, 8 inches wide, 1 i ' inch wrought sides, 9 fa inch 1 wide, grooved for treads ; in the iole to be framed together, nd be made to let down into lapel, and hung with butt g ■ Pre pare and fix four rtflargf entilators in ceiling of cha- in pel. pon the same principle as in dins before described for the f, Hi Kireandfix 1 1 -inch wrought and i unded seats and bearers to debt's' and female prisoners' pewrfwith flaps hung with hinges ,: wlier shown on the drawings; ji { i h wrought and rounded Ltd vith bearers, for the re- mainder of the prisoners. Prepare and fix 2-inch flush -framed parti- tions dividing prisoners' seats, with a strong capping to the same; the whole secured to the open railing and floor, and to the wall, by iron tyes with screws which are to be provided and fixed* by the carpenter. The carpenter is also to assist the smith in fixing the iron rails and spikes over the said partitions. Prepare and hang J|-inch four panel square doors to the partition enclosing stair- case, hung with 24-inch wrought butts, and 6-inch three- bolt iron- rim locks, with brass knobs, and inch wrought rebated and double- beaded jaumb linings and soffits to each. Prepare and fix inch yellow deal steps risers, with rounded nosings and proper car- riages, from the keeper s rooms to the chapel; with Jy-inch wrought, framed, and beaded stringboard, three-quarter inch deal square skirting cut to steps, 2f-inch deal square-framed new- els, and inch deal square bar ba- lusters and deal moulded hand- rail. Prepare and lay inch yellow deal wrought straight joint floor, with borders to slabs, and three- quarter inch deal square skirting, 6 inches high, to the rooms and passages of the one -pair story in the keeper's house. Prepare and fix deal -cased frames, oak sunk sills, ly-inch ovolo sashes, single hung, with lines, iron pulleys* and weights, and sash fastenings; inch deal wrought and rounded linings and soffits, and 1 j - inch deal wrought and rounded win- dow board and bearers to the front and back rooms and back windows of prisoners' stairs. Prepare and hang I j -inch four panel square doors to the front and back rooms, with 2\ inch wrought butts, a G-inch iron rim 475 BUILDING. three bolt lock, with brass knobs and inch wrought rebated and double-beaded jaumb linings and soffit to each. Prepare and lay ) | - inch yellow deal wrought straight joint floor, with borders to slabs, to the front rooms and entrance on the ground floor of the keeper's house. Pre- pare and fix three-quarter inch deal square skirting, 8} inches high, all round the rooms, pas- sages, entrance, and staircase. Prepare and fix deal -cased frames, oak sunk sills, If -inch deal ovolo sashes, double hung, with lines, iron pulleys and weights, and sash fastenings complete, to the windows of the front and back rooms and entrance, with inch deal wrought and rounded linings and soffits, and If -inch deal wrought and rounded window boards and bearers. Prepare and hang six l|-inch deal bead and flush and square doors to the front and back rooms, with 2f-inch wrought butts, a 6- inch iron rim three bolt lock, with brass knobs, and inch deal wrought rebated and double- beaded jaumb linings and soffit to each. Prepare and hang 2-inch deal six panel bead flush and square door to entrance, with 3-inch wrought butts, an 8- inch drawback lock with brass knobs, and one 9-inch and one 18- inch bright barrel bolts. Prepare and fix a proper door-case, 5 inches by 4 inches, to the same, and inch wrought and beaded jaumb lin- ings and soffit. Prepare and hang 1 1 -inch deal wrought, ploughed, tongued, beaded, and ledged doors to pri- soners' staircases and day rooms, leading to airing courts, with cross garnets, an 8- inch drawback lock, with brass knob, and such other fastenings as shall hereafter be described. Prepare and fix 476 proper door-cases, 5 inches b 4 inches, to the same. Prepare fix deal -cased frames, oak s sills, l|-inch ovolo sashes, sii hung, with lines, iron pulleys weights, and sash fastening) the window adjoining the st case doors last described. Prej and fix inch deal wrought rounded linings and soffit, If -inch deal wrought and rot . ed window-boards to the same Prepare and fix four deal-c;l frames, oak sunk sills, and | inch ovolo sashes, single lu| with lines, iron pulleys and weigj, and sash-fastenings, inch lin ;s and soffit, and 1 ^ - inch win n board and bearers in the b ment under the keeper's bo Prepare and hang inch deal, j per ledged doors, with cross , nets, and a 6-inch iron-rim to each of the rooms in the b ment. Prepare and fix pn door-cases, 4 inches by 2\ incj, to the same. * Prepare and fix fir solid wrout rebated frames and sunk sill all the day rooms and passage n the prisoners', turnkeys', and 1 vants' rooms, and window )f prisoners' staircases, with U- h deal ovolo sashes, hung with!- inch butts and fastenings to e 1, as per drawing. Prepare and fix fir solid wrout and rebated frames and sunk Is for iron shutters, where descri I for the cells of the prison. Prepare and hang If -inch 1 wrought, ploughed, tongued, d ledged doors between the I airing courts opposite to the m wheels, with strong cross garr8» and an 8-inch drawback lock I brass knob; fir wrought yrm door-cases, 4 inches by 3 inc;«> to the same. Prepare and fix three wiont and framed deal pump-cases, I 2-inch sides, &c. complete* BUILDIN& the mrt-yards, where described on i drawings, as will be di- rect by the architect, or his clei i!)f the works. Prlare and fix wrought, cham- fere< and framed skeleton -bear- is. and styles to two cis- ilin prisoners' airing courts, boctd bearers 8 inches by 6 in- , s ind the remaining rails, &c. s square ; the sides to be J with inch deal, wrought hLides, ploughed, tongued, and Haded boarding ; the bottom ,n deal ditto. Rebate the s for, and prepare and fix ought both sides, plough- tjigued, and ledged flaps. iiiThe|iole of the aforesaid cis- is o be in every respect ac- dij; to the drawings, and to i tl in the prisoners' airing irlias shown on the drawings. I ; pare and fix deal-cased ram< oak sunk sills, l{-inch ti r >volc>sashes, single hung, with nes,jron pulleys, and weights, ind s|:h fastenings complete, and i ought and rounded linings, ii d -inch wroughtand rounded '.-boards and bearers to dows of laundry, and l|- nch ,/al wrought ironing-board, i "Mi i feet long and 3 feet wide, tfith ,oper bearers to same. Fre- ud lay inch yellow deal ■ ■ 'ii t folding floor, and three- |uart) inch square skirting, 4| chejiigh, to the same. Prepare ing l|-inch four panel uarjidoor to top of stairs, with i butts, and a G-inch two- •n-rim lock, and inch re- lated nd rounded linings to the same.} Prepare and fix window- frame sashes, linings, and win- now-lbrds, and skirting to wash- Jhouieis described for the laun- : dry. lepareand fix three-quarter inch vbught, ploughed, tongued, and bded enclosure to closet Tand ijj.rs, with proper grounds or bearers for the same. Prepare and hang three-quarter inch wrought, ploughed, tongued, beaded, and ledged door to ditto, with cross garnets, a lock, and thumb latch, and a proper door- case, 3 inches by 2 \ inches, to the same. Prepare and hang l|-inch wrought, ploughed,tongued,bead ed, and ledged external doors to entrance of wash-house, and stairs leading to laundry, with cross garnets, and 8-inch drawback lock, and two 9-inch rough bolts to each. Prepare and fix proper door-cases, 4 inches by 2* inches, to the same. Prepare and fix deal- cased frames, oak sunk sills, 1{- inch deal ovolo sashes, single hung, with lines, iron pulleys and weights, sash- fastenings, with inch deal, wrought and rounded linings, and 1 |-inch deal wrought and rounded window-board and bearers to the window-openings in the three stories of the mill- house. Prepare and hang 1 |-inch deal wrought, ploughed, tongued, beaded, and ledged door to lower story, hung with cross garnets, and an 8-inch drawback lock. Prepare and fix proper wrought door-cases, 4 inches by 2\ inches, to the same. Prepare and lay 1 |-inch yellow deal folding floors, wrought both sides with wrought, ledged flaps, and iron rings to well-holes, and three-quarter inch deal square skirting, 4| inches high, to the first and second stories of the mill-house. Prepare wrought and framed ladders to the ground and one-pair stories, with 1 j-.inch deal sides, 9 inches wide, and 1^ inch deal treads, 8 inches wide. Ail the ironmongery and smith's work described or required for the carpenter's and joiner's work, is to be provided by the carpenter. All the butt and other hinges are 477 BUILDING. to be of well hammered wrought iron. It is to be observed in re- spect to the locks throughout the buildings, that a master-key, or key to pass, must be provided by the carpenter, where required by the magistrates. All the fir is to be of the best Memel, or other timber equally approved by the architect, to be sawn die square, and free from sap or shakes. The oak is to be of English growth, of the best quality, and of trees that have been cut down at least two years from the time of signing the con- tract ; to be sawn die square, and free from sap or shakes. The deals to be of the best yellow Christiana, or other deals equally approved by the architect, and free from sap or large or loose knots. Mason. The stone to be used for the masonry throughout the different buildings, is to be from excepting those parts which are otherwise described. Provide and set 4-inch York- shire landings under the footings of the brickwork under the co- lumns and pilasters of the portico, in lengths of 4 feet each. Provide and set Yorkshire springing-stones under the columns and pilasters, with top beds rubbed, and skew- backs worked for the inverted arches, as shown upon the draw- ings. Provide and set rubbed York- shire steps, of the best quality, to the portico ; also to the two side entrance doorways, of the sizes and dimensions figured, and in the manner shown upon the draw- ings ; each stone to be secured together by stone plugs, 4 inches long and 2 inches square. Rubbed \orkshire paving, in regular courses, under the portico, not less than 3 inches thick, nor less than 6 superficial feet in size; the 47S whole to be well set in mi upon the sleeper walls, and joints pointed with cement, steps and paving last descr are to have a rubbed circular * edge, well fitted to the colm and notched where required. The shafts of the columns ai be carried up with in si q stones, including the capital: is shown in the drawings ; the jt s to be rubbed, and to have s ie joggles, 8 inches long, and 4 1- ches square, let in, and beddt n cement, with milled lead, i pounds to the foot superficial > tween each joint, and with 1 inch of the flutes all round :ie remaining space of 1 inch Me filled up with a compositioof stone-dust, rosin, and bees'-i the shafts to be fluted after are fixed, and the caps mou and to be in every respect ac( J- ing to the drawings. Iron jog s, 8 inches long, and 2 ii es square, are to be provided b l£ mason, and let in and run h lead over the capitals of th o- lumns and pilasters. The pilaster-caps and ise stones below, indicated b'he joints shown in drawings, r be in single stones, worked in lay respect as shown in the draw :\ with an iron joggle as lasle- scribed let in and run with ad at the top of each. The architrave over the col MM and pilasters, including the nd or fillet, are to be of stoi ; hi single pieces, between the ctre of each of the columns and Mi- ters, and to extend within in- ches of the internal face ttlie court-room wall, to be in every respect according IjUW drawings, with rubbed joint md large double plugs run witl near the soffit, and dove led iron cramps at the top, the m* joints to be sunk and rubb at BUILDING. t\ mitres so as to meet at the ]r?rnal angle of the portico, and toave stone dovetailed joggles ai plugged, according to draw- in- The internal part of the archi- tr e is to be rough, sunk above thfillet to receive the stucco, an in chain-bar to be provided by tb mason, and to be let into and ru with lead at the top of the arfiitrave, extending to the in- teial part of the court- wall, with cs lings to the same, an iron rir is to be let in at the angles ot'ie portico to receive the calk- in provided in the chain-bar. [he frieze to be also of stone, 9 iches thick, exclusive of the pr ections for triglyphs, worked infvery respect according to the divings, with concealed sunk jots, and lead plugs to each. T external angle-stones to be in olid blocks, and to bed the fu width of the triglyphs. Iron pits are to be provided by the m on, and let into the architrave an cornice, not more than 3 feet at ft, where will be directed. he cornice and pediment is to h( : )l the sizes marked or figured, ai worked in every respect ac- ccfling to the drawings, with d< tailed stone joggles, 8 inches !o and A inches square, let in tin, and the joints grooved and ru with lead. he springing and saddle-stones to e in solid blocks, as indicated by he joints marked upon the dryings; and each stone of the ra ig cornice and upper part of th cornice at the side to be se- cu d to the stone below by iron pi's (to be provided by the m;'>n) run with lead, and to have tw strong 12-inch iron cramps, I bh wide and 2\ inches thick, wi cokings let into top, and w< run and covered with lead. he tympanum of the pediment to be 5 inches thick, rubbed, with bond-stones, the whole properly cramped, The front under portico, and the inside and outside returns ad- joining the pilasters, are to be 6 inches thick, rubbed, and the pilaster-shafts 9 inches thick, (ex- cepting the solid stones at the top before described,) and of the sizes indicated, and in every respect according to the drawing, and the whole properly cramped, the pilaster-shafts to be plugged with lead at every joint. The remaining part of the ar- chitrave inside of the portico to be rubbed, 8 inches thick, of the size indicated, and in every re- spect as shown upon the drawings, the whole properly cramped, and to be plugged with lead at every joint. Provide for sufficient bond- stones behind the tympanum ot the pediment, the frieze of the en- tablature, and the ashlering to the inside of the portico, archi- trave, &c. before described, to be composed of (i-inch York land- ing, secured to the same by iron cramps 12 inches long, in cement. The courses of ashler which come over openings, and in all other cases where necessary, to have concealed arch-joints. The cornice of the portico to continue round the wings and returns adjoining to bed, the full width of the wail, and to be work- ed and set in the manner shown on the drawings, with all proper and sufficient cramps and lead plugs well run and covered with lead, stone blocking course over same, with joints plugged and strong 12-inch cramps, well run and covered with lead, and in every respect as shown upon drawings. The impost moulding adjoining the portico to be in two heights, 479 BUILDING. to bed 9 inches in the wall, and be plugged with lead and cramp- ed at every joint, the whole to be worked and set according to the drawings. The architrave round the front- entrance door under the portico, and the side-entrances adjoining, to be of the sizes and in the man- ner shown upon the drawings, with all proper and sufficient bond-stones, cramps, and plugs, run with lead. Larger stones to be provided and set for the forked hinges to the entrance- door under the portico, which are to be care- fully let in and run with lead by the mason, who is to assist the carpenter in hanging the doors. The cornices and blocking courses over architraves, friezes, and cornices, and sills to windows of the magistrates' and grand-jury wings, with the returns, to be worked and set in every respect according to the drawings, with sunk duffils to the windows, and the whole to be securely plugged with lead, and to have iron cramps well run and covered with lead where necessary. The cornices anjl blocking- courses over, and the rusticks to the doorways under the same in the prisoners' entrances, and blank one corresponding, to be worked and set in every respect according to the drawings; the rusticks and spaces between to be tool-stroked, and the whole to be securely plugged with lead, and to have iron cramps well run and covered with lead where thought neces- sary. The plinth to the whole of the front-buildings, including the se- veral returns, and prisoners' en- trance-porch, and corresponding blank ditto, to be 6 inches thick, tool -stroked, weathered at top, and worked according to draw- ings, with proper bond-stones not less than 15 inches thick at ever fourth stone, the whole to I plugged at every joint, and cramp ed where thought necessary. Proper Yorkshire stones are t be provided, worked, and set fo the hinges and bolts of the pri soners' entrance-gates, and iro gates to the same, and the stable court, also for the wood gates t the entrance at the back of th prisons, including the key-stone for the top of bolts and circula wheel-stones, the whole well ru with lead, and cramped wher necessary. The mason is to as sist the carpenter and smith i fixing the said gates, and to fin all the requisite labour thereto. Rough York stone blocks ar to be provided, worked, and s( for the iron hooks to hinges i the said gates, with iron ring: to be provided by the mason, an securely fixed to the same. Plain Yorkshire chimney-piece rubbed, cramped, and set wu rubbed slabs and rough bad hearths to all the chimneys of th front and infirmary building keeper's house and laundry, a< cording to drawings ; that to tl grand-jury room to be of abettt description, according to draw ing, and that to the magistrate room to be of polished dove ma ble, with polished dove marb slab, worked, cramped, and s< according to drawing, and with rubbed York back hearth. The whole of the coping to tl front-buildings, including thoi over the back -wall of court, ar over the arches of prisoners' opt| entrance-gates, and where shou on the drawings, to be rubbe weathered, and throated accort ing to drawings, or as shall 1 directed. Provide and set 3-inch s( faced Yorkshire landings over t! cells, day rooms, and passages BUILDING. th< prisons in the upper story, in >ng lengths the whole width ; tin joints properly splayed as Jhfn in the drawings, and set in braent, to lay A \ inches upon tiio alls, and to be cut out where int cep-ted by the flues of their size, the spaces between the brings in the walls to be filled lp villi brickwork in cement; ;:it andings to be cramped and iiefvhere necessary. jovide and set rubbed York- |hi heads, and weathered and jhiited siils to the windows of f] day rooms, passages, and farilhers' staircases throughout thepper story, rebated and work- ed f the sizes and dimensions ton upon the drawings. Rough jmu Yorkshire stone jaumbs ftn c leads to be provided and set for 11 the iron doors to the cells r I ay rooms, rebated and work- ed 7 the sizes and dimensions upon the drawings; also is heads to all the open iron gat in the passages, &c, as Miojb upon the drawings. 1 ^ide and set 6-inch proper o stone sinks, with washers - d, at the end of the prison- issages, as shown upon the drafngs. Epvide and set 5-inch self- face York landings to the floors of te cells, day rooms, and pas- fcgj adjoining, on the upper ■or of the prisons, the joints pi (»| fly joggled and set in cement, to | a\ inches upon the walls, ■I 1 cut out where intercepted hv e flues of their clear size, Pe ace between the landings to wt led up with brickwork in ecmi.t, the landings to be cramp- ed a ll tied where thought neces- iiry|ind to be in every respect as si wn and described upon the dravi divide and set rubbed York- durqheftds, and weathered and 3P throated sills to the windows of the cells, day rooms, passages, and prisoners' staircases, on the one pair story, as before described for the upper story. Provide and set rough tooled Yorkshire stone jaumbs and heads to all the iron doors on this story, as before de- scribed for the upper story ; also stone heads to the open iron gates, as before described ; also stone sinks at the end of the passages on this story, as before described for the upper story. Provide and set 5 -inch self- faced York landings to the floors of the cells, day rooms, and pas- sages, on the one pair story of the prisons, as before described for the floors above. Provide and set rubbed Yorkshire heads, wea- thered and throated sills to the windows of the cells, day rooms, passages on the ground story, and to the different stories of the keeper's house, and where other- wise shown upon the drawings, and as before described for the upper story. Provide and set rough tooled Yorkshire stone jaumbs and heads to all the iron* doors, and heads to the open iron gates, including the one at the prisoners' passage leading to the court, and to the cell at the prisoners' entrance gate, on this story, as before de- scribed for the upper stories ; also stone sinks at the ends of the pas- sage, on this story, as before de- scribed for the upper stories. Pro- vide and set also proper 5- inch York stone sinks, with washers dished, in the two kitchens of the keeper's house, prisoners' wash-house, and wash-house ad- joining prisoners' entrance gate, also to each of the three pumps. \ oi k stone bearers under all the sinks before described. Provide and lay self-faced York paving, with splayed joints set in 481 B U I L D I N G. cement and not less than 2* in- ches in thickness, to all the cells, passages, and staircases of pri- sons on the ground floor, and all other internal parts throughout the different buildings, distin- guished by a blue tint upon the plans. The external paving to the different courts, yards, &c, also distinguished by a blue tint upon the plans, are to be paved with Yorkshire paving, at least 2\ inches thick, laid to a proper current, and fitted to the iron gratings, &c., as will be directed. Provide and set proper York steps, and 5 -inch self- faced and joggled landings, securely let in at least 9 inches, and pinned to the walls of the prisoners' staircases and all the staircases of the different buildings, excepting the wood stairs before described in the car- penter's work, and leading from the one pair story of the keeper's pulpit, &c. in the chapel. Provide also proper York steps to all the doorways throughout the differ- ent buildings, to the prisoners' stairs leading to courts, and also those leading to vaults and coal cellars, and where otherwise shown upon the drawings. Twenty-four circular holes are to be worked and rebated, 12 in- ches in diameter, in the 5 -inch York floors of the different stories in the prisons, with an iron grat- ing in each, (to be provided by the mason,) and let in flush, and well run with lead. Provide and set stone jaumbs i nd dressings, with -projecting soffit and cantilivers, to the door- way of the keeper's house, accord- ing to drawing, the whole to be properly plugged, and cramps run with lead where necessary. Rubbed Y orkshire steps and pe- destals in front of same. Provide York riser and bottom, a } sustain during the executi the work, from whatever cm ^ BUILDING, ny arise, so that it may be de- liired up in a complete state in the building is finished. he whole of the masonry, and jjthe beds, joints, faces, mould- i i", • , and drips, to be worked in cl best and most careful manner, ai put together according to the di ctions of the architect, or his cl k of the works, with the re- ly cd joggling, sinkings, and I to all projections and upper palaces ; the cornices, and all hczontal mouldings, projections, an blocking courses, are to be raced with water joints. The is, r to be in regular courses, thcaces, joints, and beds, to be ■wed fair, each stone of w hich is L cramped with strong copper Ups ; and the bed of every asl-r stone to be joggled into the ■de below it with strong copper Pfpes, and cramped to bond- mSks with strong copper cramps. le whole of the masonry to be it in the best manner, and bedded in fine mortar, and craped together to bond-stones wil strong iron cramps, (ex- ce] where described to be of co) er.) 1 the iron cramps and chain banco be well covered with rosin wh t hot. te mason is also to cut the neci,sary grooves for iron- work, mo >es for door-cases, holes for ars, balusters, iron guards, and'every other description of Hrorbr other work, which is de- icnM in the specification, or oho M in the drawings, as being con cted with the masonry. A joints marked on the draw- MgHre to be strictly adhered to, and 3 more to be made, unless ordt'd by the architect. I|! contractor for the mason's worts to send a sample of the Wrelnt Qualities of stone intend- ed ti.be used, to the architect, previous to their being worked in the buildings. All the stone described as self- faced Yorkshire must have an even face, but need not be tooled Smith and Iron- founder. Pro- vide and fix cast-iron raiting, and iron kirb, enclosing the front court, with two pair of folding gates, and one side giite, with brass joint hinges, and brass warded locks and bolts of unex- ceptionable quality, each of the locks to be not less than twenty- one shillings value ; the whole to be put together and run with lead where necessary, and cast and put up with the several orna- ments, and in every respect ac- cording to the drawings. Provide and fix cast-iron grat- ings to passage in court-room, to give light and ventilation to the prisoners' passage under ; and two cast-iron ornamental venti- lators, with wrought-iron straps, securely screwed to the woodwork, in the manner shown, and in every respect according to the drawings. Provide and fix wrought-iron ornamental dwarf folding gates, as per drawing, enclosing the recesses at the prisoners' front entrance, and corresponding blank entrance ; the said gates to have a good latch and stay-bars, as will be directed. Provide and fix locks, bolts, and other fastenings, excepting the hinges, to the large wood gates for prisoners' entrance, as also to the wood gates to the entrance at the back of prisons, as will be hereafter described, to the value of not less than five pounds sterling to each. Provide, hang, and fix two pair of open cast-iron folding gates, with fixed top and wicket gate to prisoners' entrance, and corresponding en- trance to stable-court, with iron 483 BUILDING. rollers and kirb, and to be in every respect as shown upon the draw- ings. Provide for locks, bolts, and other fastenings to these gates which will be hereafter described, to the value of not less than five pounds sterling to each gate. Provide and hang an open iron gate, with proper locks and fastenings, to the doorway of the passage leading to prisoners' box in court, according to the draw- ing for the open iron gate, fasten- ings, &c. for the passages in the prisons. Provide and fix an iron door, and fastenings to the doorway of the lock-up room adjoining the prisoners' entrance, as described for the cells in the prisons. Provide and fix wrought- iron rail and spikes, screwed to the partitions of prisoners' box, and in front of spectators' seats in court ; also to the divisions of the prisoners' seats, and to the partitions of the debtors' and female prisoners' pews in the chapel, according to a drawing full size for the same. Provide and fix two circular cast-iron racks in the stable, with bars and rims, forming a quarter sphere 2 feet 6 inches diameter. Provide and fix cast-iron open enclosure to prisoners' seats in the chapel, with iron gates and locks, of the value of twenty-one shillings, to each division ; and wrought-iron horizontal bar at top and bottom, as shown in drawing of iron railing and gates for prisoners' airing courts. The bottom bar to be securely fixed to the floor timbers, and the whole securely fixed to the wood partitions and side walls, also rivetted to the iron columns. Provide and fix two cast-iron columns, with caps and shoes, in the chapel, firmly screwed and secured to the carcass timbers. 4»4 Provide and fix doors, wi ventilators, to cells, iron gat and bars to the passages, sta cases, and lobbies, in the upp story of the prison building, the sizes and dimensions shoi and described upon the drawinj Provide and fix also cast-ir i girders and shoes over the d rooms in this story, according a drawing at large for the san Provide and fix cast-iron gratir and shutters to windows, w one square of glass to each shi ter, to the cells, described plans, on this story, according drawings ; and cast-iron gratii of a different pattern to the w dows of the keeper's, and back prisoners' staircases, and whi otherwise shown or descrit upon the drawings. Provide and fix on the ( pair story of the prisons, i keeper's house, doors with vei lators to cells, iron gates, £. bars to the passages, staircas i and lobbies, cast-iron gratin, and shutters to windows. Ca» iron girders and shoes over i day rooms, as last described, I the upper story, varying in nu ber and sizes, as shown or I scribed on the drawings. Provide and fix on the groi I story of the prisons, gratings jl shutters to windows, doors vi ventilators, &c. to cells. 1 1 gates and bars to the passa; | staircases, and lobbies, girts and shoes to day rooms, as MS described, for the upper st< , varying in number and sizes, s shown and described upon e drawings. Provide and fix wrought- n hand-rails, 2 inches wide, and If an inch thick, properly ramp wreathed, and twisted, where • cessary, with wrought-iron bi- ters, I inch square to each m to be let into tne steps and lip BUILDING. jrs, and well run with lead, and s£rely rivetted to the hand-rail, ai wrought -iron newels, 1| iri square, to the bottom steps, tl whole fixed in a secure man- ni to the staircases in the pri- st,, and keeper's house, and the kv staircases leading to the in- fiiaries. Wide and fix cast-iron grat- ins to the windows, and over the dirs, in the other parts of the dierent buildings, where shown, ai as described on the draw- n : also to the stone kirb of tli basement windows in front of tl k keeper's house, and where ot:rwise required. [rovide and fix small cast-iron gi ings in the external walls nJer the ground -floor of the di.Tent buildings, for the free ci ulation of air, as indicated by th' openings made in the plan ; living the drains, &c, also may be directed, rovide and fix iron linings, 9 dies by 3 inches, and 14 in- cls deep, in the walls of each md day rooms, for ventilation, wording to drawing at large, Stjjrely let in and tailed in brick- w k. where may be directed. 'rovide and fix cast-iron in- j (ion holes in each of the day rojns, according to a drawing at irge, securely let in and tailed in he brickwork, where shown uni the drawings. rovide iron railing and kirb, l|i gates, locks ; and fastenings, ;iii ; itav-bars, with kirbs to same, leading to drawing at large, Bojainiitg also farther description or' one, to the front of the pri- incluuing as shown m e to the infirmaries up » the draw ings. > ovide iron railing and kirb, p| stay-bars and kirbs to same, to ICjjrdiDg aforesaid drawing, h ; without gates or fastenings,) to be securely fixed between the piers, &c., of the boundary of prisoners' airing courts, as shown on the drawings. Provide and fix small cast-iron grating over the drains through- out the different buildings, as shown on the drawing of the drains. Provide and fix two cast-iron girders, with shoes IS inches long and 1 inch thick, under each of the two cisterns in the prisoners' airing courts, according to draw- ings. Provide and fix cast-iron trough gutters, with ovolo moulded fronts and iron brackets every 3 feet apart, securely fixed in brick- work throughout the different buildings, according to a drawing full size, excepting the roofs of the different buildings which are only one story in height. Provide and fix iron troughs according to a drawing full size for the same, with iron brackets every 3 feet apart, securely fixed in brickwork to the different roofs before referred to as being only one story in height. Provide and fix also stacks of cast-iron rain-water pipes, 4 in- ches diameter, with joints made perfectly water tight, and with dragon spikes in the prisoners* airing courts, and where other- wise shown, and rain-water heads with overflow pipe at top pro- jecting 4 inches with convex grat- ings in each ; the whole to be se- curely fixed to the walls through- out the different buildings, where shown or described upon the d ra wings. Provide and fix 3-inch cast- iron service pipes from cisterns in prisoners' airing courts, properly turned for the plumber's lead pipes, and fixed complete where shown on the drawing of the drains. 485 BUILDING. Provide and fix cast-iron scra- pers, value three shillings and six- pence each, let in at the sides of each of the external doors. Provide also five box ornamen- tal scrapers, value seven shillings each, to the entrance door under portico and the side entrances adjoining, to be let in and leaded into the stone-work. The contractor for the iron- work and smith-work must pro- vide all the lead and coals requir- ed for fixing his own work ; he must also provide all moulds and patterns required for the execu- tion of his work (which are to be submitted to the architect before cast or worked) according to the aforesaid particulars, and in the manner shown or described upon the drawings. All the iron- work is to be secured from rust by a strong coat of anticorrosive paint applied as soon as possible, and before exposed to the open air. All the wrought iron-work is to be of the best English charcoal iron-work; all the castings to be of the best quality and perfectly sound, and the quality and strength of every article must be submit- ed to a full proof before it is used, at the expense of the contractor. Slater. The roofs of the dif- ferent buildings shown or describ- ed in the drawings, excepting the roof of the portico, are to be covered with sound countess' slates of the best quality, laid on battens with three strong copper nails to each slate, the third slate over- lapping by 2\ inches the head of the first, the course under t'ne eaves to be solid throughout; the battens will be provided by the carpenter, but the slater is to at- tend him in setting out the same. The whole of the slating is to be left by the contractor for the same, complete and perfect in every re- spect at the completion of all j works. Plumber. Cover the roof ; the portico with cast-lead, ei , pounds to the foot superficial, . joints to be well dressed roi| the rolls provided for them, wh , will be fixed 3 feet apart, the 1 I at the valley to turn up under \ slates at least 9 inches; form l\ gutters, as shown in the draw hi with proper laps and flashings » convey the water through i blocking-course to the roof | low. Provide and lay cast-lead g ters, eight pounds to the foot ■ perficial, over the magistral and grand -jury buildings, wra shown upon the drawings; i head to turn up under the si s at least 9 inches, with proper 1 sufficient drips to the same, 1 cesspools at each rain-water hi , the whole as shown upon e drawings. Cover the ridge and hips < r the court-room, keeper's ho (, and prison buildings, with mi'd lead, six pounds to the footsu • ficial, and 22 inches wide, dre d down upon the slates, and I secured to the roll, and to laj* the meetings at least 6 inc 3. Cover the remaining hips d ridges throughout thj* diffeit roofs with milled lead, six poijls to the foot superficial, and In - ches wide, well dressed dow n the slates and secured to the rip and hips, to lap at the meet i* at least 6 inches. Put flashinll the top and sides of lean-til shed roofs, with milled k»dJN pounds to the foot superficial, H dressed down upon the slate to lay upon the slates 6 incheP turn up 3j inches, and let i|f groove 1 \ inch. Put flashings of the same de- scription round the skylights P chimney-shafts, with gutte: oi BUILDING. ( gt-Iead, eight pounds to the foot sierficial, where necessary. Lay , leys where shown on the draw* i s, wit.li milled lead, six pounds t tiie foot superficial, to turn up tier the slates at least 9 inches, al to be 2 feet wide. Provide and fix three two and Mf pumps, with proper lead bckets and suckers, iron handles, Sich pipe from bottom ot wells, ah all apparatus complete, ex- citing the wood-work. i lie two pumps in the prisoners' a ng courts to be made so as to Hce the water into the cisterns, will two handles to each, in order t t the prisoners may work the sle, in each of the mill airing cuts, without communication \m!i either. Jne the cisterns in the prison- e airing courts with milled I K the sides to be six pounds, al the bottoms eight pounds, to tl foot superficial, well soldered t( ether. Provide and fix inch bl-cock and service-pipe to the s:ne, with 2-inch waste-pipe, 1 fit below bottom of cistern, and s urely soldered thereto. Provide and fix lj-inch pipe fi n iron services, shown on d wings, to all the privies, and 1 inch brass cocks to each as sl'wn on drawings ; those to the fV'it buildings, including the pri- vi adjoining the hospital wing, tclhave an iron pan and trap • r each, with the cocks fixed iwer the seat, as will be directed ; at those to the remaining pri- scirs' airing courts at the back, or ail building, to have the cocks m|e without handles, for a key, w :h is to be provided for each. rovide and fix three-quarter in service- pipes, with three- qi 'ter inch brass cocks, securely soiered to the nearest junction of ie iron services from cisterns, to upply each of the sinks at the end of the prison passages, also in the prisoners' wash-house, kitch- ens of the keeper's house, wash- house adjoining prisoners' en- trance, and to each of the prison- ers' airing courts, as shown and described upon the drawings. Provide and fix 2-inch washers and wastes and plugs to all the sinks shown in the drawings or described in the mason s particu- lars, with 2- inch lead pipes and a stink trap from the same into the drains outside the external walls, those at the end of the passages to turn into the rain-water pipes, a hole to be made in the same to receive the said pipes. All the lead or plumber's work to be provided by the contractor, to be of the best quality, and to be weighed in the presence of the architect, or his clerk of the works, proper notice being given for that purpose. Plasterer. The stiles, rails, and panels to the ceiling of the por- tico to be lathed with stout laths, floated, and rough stuccoed, joint- ed, coloured, and tinted to imitate stone-work ; the frieze under the same to be rendered, floated, and set with rough stucco, jointed, coloured, and tinted as before. Run a moulding in panels and cornice top of frieze, as shown in the drawing. Render, float, and set the sides of the four chimney- shafts in the front buildings with Roman cement stucco, (not less than three-quarter inch thick at any part,) jointed, coloured, and tinted, to imitate stone-work, and run a moulding round same as per drawing ; the joints to be from 18 to 24- inches apart. Lath with stout laths, float, plaster, and set, and whiten the ceiling of the court-room and en« trance passages, and run a cor« nice round the court according to drawings. 437 BUILDING. Render, float, and set the sides of the court-room and entrance passage with rough stucco, joint- ed, coloured, and tinted according to drawing ; and lath, float, and stucco, as before described, the passage side of partition in same. Run a stucco moulded impost round the sides of the court-room, as shown upon the drawing. Lath, plaster, float, set, and whiten the ceilings of the rooms and passages of the grand jury and magistrates' wings, and run cornices round same, as per draw- ings. Lath, plaster, float, set, and colour the partitions or bat- tening ; and render, float, set, and colour the sides of the rooms be- fore described, except the sides of the magistrates' room, which are to be trowelled stucco ; and lath, plaster, float, and stucco the partitions ; and render, float, and stucco the partitions ; and render, float, and stucco the walls of the passages and lobbies in the afore- said wings ; to be coloured, joint- ed, and tinted as before described for the court. Lath, plaster, set, and whiten the ceilings of the privies and rooms adjoining the wings last described. Also of the rooms, passages, and staircases of the infirmary wing, the wash-house, sitting-room, and lobbies for the gate-keeper, at the prisoners' en- trance ; also of the rooms, passa- ges, staircases, and chapel of the keeper's house, and prisoners' staircases adjoining end of the prisoners' wash-house. Lath, plaster, set, and colour the parti- tions ; and render, set, and colour the sides of the privies and rooms adjoining the grand jury and ma- gistrates' wings, and the rooms, entrance- hall, passages, and stair- cases of the keeper's house. Lath, piaster, set, and whiten the parti- tions in the infirmary building 48S and prisoners' wash-house, J all partitions where the walls a not described to be plastered. The whole of the remain!) walls internally, to the cells, p a ! sages, and staircases in the m sons, and all the room*,, passage lobbies, entrances, and staircase and cellars throughout the di ferent buildings, excepting t| walls before described to be pla tered, are to be lime-whited twi with hot lime, excepting the ch. pel walls, which are to be colou ed twice with lime and ochre, ! imitate light wainscot. The plasterer is to make ; quirks and arrises where neces ary ; and is to find and prpvii himself with all copper-mouk floating rules, and other impl ments necessary for completii his work ; and whatever damaj is done, by any other woikme to the plastering, during the pr gress of the works, must be r paired by, and at the expense J the contractor for the plastere work. He is also to make go after all workmen, when a where required. And all oth defects in the plastering, arisij from blisters, or any other ir proper workmanship, must be i paired, and the work made go at his expense. Painter. The whole of the i ternal door and window fram shutters, sashes, railing, wo and iron doors, pewing, wainscc ting, skirting, and other foten wood or iron work, described the before-mentioned particula or shown in the drawings, usually painted, is to be prope; oil knotted, brought forward, a painted three times in good colour. The wood partition a doors at back of spectators' g; lery, sashes and frames, and otl deal work in the court- room, be finished and grained Dm BUILDING. ^inscot, and varnished. Trie J Is of the magistrates' room a to be painted four times in oil, b'C colour. hie whole of the external wood a| iron work throughout the dif- RMit buildings, including the fru iron railing, usually painted, ar not otherwise described, is to ) properly oil knotted, brought fcvard, and painted four times in g<)d oil colour, to be finished of si 1 common colours as the ar- cl ect shall direct. The doors at frames of the side entrance ii under portico to be finished ar grained Dutch wainscot, and vnished. 'he iron gutters and cisfern- lu Is to be finished stone colour. ■lazier. The whole ofthesky- lijfts, lights over doors, windows, H es, borrowed lights, &c. Awn or described upon the dr'vings, or in these particulars, arto be glazed with second New- cale crown glass ; the borrowed li{.ts in ceiling of grand jury ar magistrates' wings, to be of grand glass. The iron shutters tohe cells are to be glazed with ki ts ; and the whole of the glaz- to be left whole, clean, and peject, by the glazier, at the completion of the works; and to be,)erformed in the most com- ply and workmanlike manner. emral conditions. The fol- lowing conditions and observa- are to apply, and to be strtly attended to, in all pro- po Is which may be made for the -ion of any of the foregoing wc|;s : — Bie contracts are to be entered inr with ie whole of the materials he in provided, are to be of the be in quality of their several kiis, sound, and well seasoned, an to be applied in the most 3Q substantial and workmanlike man- ner, under the direction, and to the entire satisfaction, of the architect. The drawings are to be equally binding with the specification ; and shpuld any thing appear to have been omitted in either, or both, which is usually considered necessary for the completion of the several works, the contractor is to execute the same, as if they had been particularly specified, and is to obtain no advantage by such omissions, but shall supply whatever may be wanting to com- plete the whole : and all the build- ings are to be left in a complete state, according to the true intent and meaning of the drawings and specification; and the directions for their correct performance, as given from time to time by the architect, or through his clerk of the works, are in all cases to be strictly adhered to. The whole of the bricks, lime, stone, timber, slate, iron, lead, or other materials, to be delivered on the premises ; and to be ex- amined by the architect, or his clerk of the works, previous to their being worked or used in the building. No contractor is to suffer any part of his work to be underlet, or let at task-work ; but all the labour is to be done by his own workmen, and paid for by him in days' wages. i* shall be in the power of the architect to reject any part of the materials which he may think unfit for the work, or to cause any part of the work to be altered, which is, in his opinion, unsound or unworkmanlike, and not ac- cording to the contract, upon three days' notice having been given in writing for that purpose, by the architect, or his clerk of the works ; and in case any con- 4S9 BUILDING. tractor shall refuse or delay to rectify the same, or comply with the orders that may be so given to him in writing, or shall per- form all or any part of the works in an improper manner, or in case the works do not proceed with proper despatch, the magistrates shall have power, and be at full liberty, to suspend the further ex- ecution of the works by the said contractor, to take it out of his hands, and employ or engage any other person or persons to per- form and execute, and to find proper materials for the same ; in which case, the costs and charges thereof shall be paid or allowed to the magistrates, by the con- tractor or his sureties, or retained or deducted out of the moneys which may be then due, or be- come due to the said contractor ; the amount of which shall be valued and decided by the archi- tect, whose award in this, and in all cases respecting the works, shall be final. It is also to be in the power of the architect to direct such alter- ations to be made in the work during its progress, as may be foundexpedient ; whichalterations shall not vitiate or make void any' of the contracts, but shall be per- formed by the contractors accord- ing to the directions they may receive ; and the value of the same, whether an addition or de- duction, is to be ascertained by the said architect, and to be added to, or deducted from, the amount of each contract, accord- ing to the rate at which the work was undertaken ; the award of the architect in such case to be final. No allowance will be made to any contractor for extra or addi- tional work, unless the same shall have been ordered in writing by the architect, and unless an ac- 490 count or voucher of the said wo is delivered to the architect, or i clerk of the works, within thr days of its performance. The contractors are to provi themselves with all manner labour, tools, implements, sc; folding, ropes, ladders, hotstin tackle, materials of every descri tion, carriage, freightage, a every requisite for the conipleti of their respective works; th are also to make good all dama or defects which may be occ sioned, whether from carelessnt or other cause ; the contract repairing the said damages defects, is to charge the expei to the parties by whom they m have been occasioned, and t magistrates are not to be charg with the same. The workmen the different contractors mi attend to give the necessary; sistance stipulated for each otl| in the execution of their woi wheu required to do so by t architect, or his clerk of the wor Each contractor is to clear a>v from time to time, when direct to do so by the architect, or 1 clerk of the works, all rubb; occasioned by the performance the works contracted for by bin Should it be deemed necesst at any time to suspend the wor or any part of them, on accoi! of weather or any other cause, tj architect shall be at full liber to do so, and no extra char shall be made on this account 1 > any contractor. The architect is to be at fj liberty to order the discharge or dismiss from the works aj premises, any man or men I incompetency or misconduct, ai the contractor or contract |i shall not replace them withtij the approbation of the architeci Should any of the materials ; lost or stolen from the preinii , BUILDING. i| allowance will be made to any ijntractor for the same. For the convenience of the con- noting parties, and for the ge- i al security of the materials, l\. belonging to them, a gate- " leper will be stationed within ti premises until the buildings i completed, and the wages r'd to him will be charged to a the contractors in proportion t the amount of their respective extracts, not exceeding two- dice in the pound sterling. 1 he works shall be begun as sm as the contracts are signed, t| front range of buildings must h covered in by '* and the whole of the works Dfst be completed by and in case of extra wks, an extension of time will ; hallowed of one week for every 1 hidred pounds value of such elra works. fhe tenders are to be delivered a on or before livery tender must state a spe- ccsum for which each branch ope works will be undertaken, s iject to the conditions contain- ed this specification; and every p son offering a tender must de- i lilr with it a sealed paper, con- it tiling a copy of the estimate, wli the quantities and prices on wjch such tender is founded, in ; o'er to show that it is made on a |>na fide calculation. Theseal- [ii ejbaper of the accepted tender <•:/ will be opened, and the copy "I he estimate contained therein, pit be left with the architect, iifrder that he may be enabled to alue any additions or deduc- ts s which may arise, according tche prices of such estimate. ach contractor must enter in a bond, with two proper su ties, approved by the magis- Irfes, for the due performance of Contract. The contractors will receive payments by instalments from the magistrates, upon application be- ing made to them, as the works proceed, when each quarter of their respective works shall have been performed, upon producing a certificate from the architect, A that the amount applied for does not exceed three- fourths of the value of the said work. The balance to be paid within six months after the architect shall have certified that the contracts have been duly performed and executed. The utility of specifications are too well known, to require any apology for our annexing to the above a specification of another description. Specification of works to be con- tracted for in building stables, &c. at the for according to drawings numbered. Bricklayer, fyc. The ground is to be excavated for all the walls, drains, cesspools, &c, allowing sufficient width for the workmen ; it is afterwards to be filled in to the proper level, and well rammed. The whole of the mould or other loose earth, occupied by the stables, coach-house, harness - room, court-yard, &c. is to be excavated, and carted away. The said space is afterwards to be filled in with dry rubbish, well rammed ; and the space oc- cupied by the coach-house, and court-yard, is to have a coat of gravel, not less than 3 inches thick at any part, and to be laid in a workmanlike manner, with a current, from the end of the coach-house and the cross fence- wall to the dungpit, of not less than 2 inches in every 10 feet. Cut away and take down the brickwork between the piers of 491 BUILDING. the outside fence-wall, and part of one of the piers. Cut out the indents in old wall, and rebuild 18-inch piers, &c, splayed, &c. as shown in the drawings. The top course and outside wea- ther of courses to be built of Roman cement, of half cement and half sand. Assist the carpenter in taking out the present garden door and frame, and cut out indents in old wall, take down the brickwork above, and brick up the whole space ; the top course and out- side of weather courses in cement, as before stated. Take down, and clear away to the foundations, that part of the old fence wall adjoining the party-wall of leaving a toothing into the walls. Clean and sort such of the old bricks as are -perfectly hard and sound, which are to be used in the different works ; fill up the space at each end of the party- wall with new brickwork, pro- perly flushed with mortar. Assist the carpenter in shoring up the old party-wall, if it should be found necessary. The whole of the walls, &c. are to be built of the heights and thicknesses, and in the manner shown or described in the draw ings. All the brickwork to be done with hard -burnt, sound, grey stocks of the best quality, to be approved of by the architect, selecting the best and most even of them for the outside ; the joints to be well bedded, and flushed up with mortar at every course ; the mortar to be made with hot lime, thoroughly screened and slacked, and clean sharp Thames sand, or other sand equally approved by the architect, in such proportions as shall be directed, not less than one bushel of lime to two bushels of sand in any part. Cut all indents, splays, skew, backs, &c. required, ana bed ant point all the sash and door frames Cut a groove 2 inches deep in th< party- wall of house adjoining, f 0l the lead flushing. Flues, 14 inches by 9 inches are to be made from the coach man's room and harness-room and to be well pargetted. Tin shafts to be carried up above tin top of the party-wall of housi adjoining, and iron straps (whicl will be provided by the smith are to be fixed by the bricklayei Turn a trimmer in half brick under the slab of the coachman' room. Provide two third siz chimney pots, and set the sam securely with plain tiles in cement at the top of the chimney-shaft. The brick drains and six cess pools, in and out of the building are to be built as shown in th drawings, with Roman cement of half cement and half sand, am rendered inside with the same not less than half an inch i thickness. Provide and lay a stone pipe, inches diameter in the clear, nor the tank to the ditch or sewer. The sides and bottom of th tank are to be rendered wit Roman cement, of half cemen and half sand, not less than three quarter inch in thickness. The whole of the stable, excep the space under the manger, an stone channel, is to be paved wit Dutch clinkers, and laid on edg in sand, with a fall of 2 incite from the partition of the harness room to the sink stone, 2 inches from the manger to th stone channel, and 1 inch frod the partition of the coach -hous to the stone channel ; the pavin between the last-mentioned pari tition and channel is to be lai herring- bone. The spaces undt the mangers, small corn-bin, an BUILDING. Ittom of dungpit, are to be rred with brick flat paving, laid i mortar. 'J he ground is to be ] ; 1 to the current before describ- ed and well rammed, to receive t whole of the said paving. The bricklayer is to lay half bt-k-sleepers, two courses high ii mortar, under all the joints o he stone paving in the harness- r,m. Ml the brickwork is to be built ti!y level, straight, and perpen- dular, and the plates, &c. are to b properly bedded in mortar. [he bricklayer is to find and e ct all the scaffolding necessary f< the performance of the said b:kwork, and other works re- qred, and take down and clear Bay the same at his own ex- p.se. .arpenter and Joiner. Provide a. fix turning pieces to chim- n s, doors, and windows, and tning piece to trimmer of coach- m's room, and centering to arch u ler tank, and arch under recess iriarness-room. Prepare and hang 2y-inch wught, ploughed, tongued, and h;ded gate to entrance court, wi a rounded and rebated cap- pE on the top, the whole con- n,ted together by four three- q rter-inch screw bolts, with n and plates, (to be provided b, the smith,) but carefully let in a securely fixed by the car- pi ter. and filiets, countersunk, si^wed on each side. Provide a hang one of Collinge's patent h „ r es, 5 feet long at the bottom o the gate, cranked with a stay defies deep, (to be let in and hiled by the mason,) and coun- ts, unk beaded screws to the e. Provide and hang one li *e as last, for the top of the g p, with a strap 21 inches deep ir the pier, and calked down fl iches in the brickwork, (2 feet 3 inches long in all,) the whole as shown on the drawing. The bottom hinge to be provided with a stop bolt. The prime cost of these hinges may be had on ap- plication at Collinge's manufac- tory, Bridge Road, Lambeth. Provide and fix, also, a two bolt brass warded, mortise gate-lock, and box staple with two keys, value fifteen shillings, and two 1 0-inch strong bolts, staples, and screws, and large oak bricks of the same size as described for the stone- work, let into the piers for the same. Provide and fix an oak brick in the pier of the cross- wall, with an iron catch to keep the gate open. Take down, repair, remove, refix, and rehang the present door and frame and lintel, where shown at the new cross-wall, Frame and fix an oak wrought kirb to the dungpit, 4 inches by 2\ inches in front, and 5 inches by 4 inches at the back, the sides cut bevel, with ] J-irich deal wrought, ploughed, tongued, and ledged flap, and frame hung with lS-inch cross garnets and nails, and a ring fixed on the flap, with an oak brick and iron catch in the wall, to keep the door open when necessary. Frame and fix an oak wrought kirb to the top of the cistern, with l|-inch flap, &c. as last described for the dungpit, cut for cir- cular iron pipe, but no ring or catch. The top of the flap to project 2 inches over the brick- work. Cover the roof with half- inch rough boarding for*slates, se- curely nailed to the rafters, also three-quarter inch featheredge lilting fillets, 3 inches wide, to eaves hips and party-walls, and a small inch gutter and bearers at one side of the chimney-shaft. Frame and fix the roof in the 493 BUILDING. manner shown and described on the drawings, the scantlings to be as follows : — Rounded ridge wedged in party-wall 8x2 Rounded hips tailed in plate, and secured to angle tie by the upright bearer, 4 inches by 2f inches, notched and nailed to each other . . 11x2 Common rafters tailed on wall plate, calked down on purlin, and cut and secured to ridge and hips, part of ditto to form ceiling of coach- man's room, and nailed with 6- inch two shil- ling nails 4x2 Trimming ditto framed together round chim- ney, purlins framed to- gether at hips, and calked down on tem- plate 2 feet long, 4 inches by 2}, and firm- ly secured to upright bearer on wall plate . . 6x4 Struts to purlins, halved and nailed together, and notch-tailed on partition, part of ditto to form ceiling joists of coachman's room .. 4x3 Remainder of ceiling joists of coachman's room, notch-tailed on plate of partition, and cut, and firmly secured to purlins 4x2 Three dragon ties, 5| feet long each, dovetailed and spiked at each end / on wall pkte 4x3 Upright quarter halved and nailed to ridge and head of partition for vane 3x3 Wall plate halved and spiked at the angles, without any other laps 4yX4 494 Provide and lay inside lintel! 4 1 inches by 3 inches, to wit dows of loft and coachman rooms, and to loft doorwiw, eac IS inches longer than the open ings. Provide and lay one tier el bond, 4 inches by 2\ inches, 3 feet above the loft floor, not t be cut out of openings unt directed by the architect. Pro vide and lay also wood bricks fj the jambs of windows, dooi skirting of coachman's room, ha flaps, &c. Provide and fix rough fillet t angle of partition for plasterer, cut away for and assist the smit in fixing the vane. Frame and fix quarter partitio forming the coachman's roon as shown in drawings, the heai and sills let into the walls 4 in ches, the quarters 13 inches froi centre to centre, and the scant lings to be as follows : — Heads 4x3 Sills 4x2 Angle post 5x4 Remaining posts, princi- pal quarters and braces 4x2 Common quarters 4x2 Upright quarters above head at door side, halv- ed and nailed to purlin and rafters, &c 4x2 Head and sill, and angle post to opening for hay flap 3X2 Common quarters to sides and top of ditto 3X.2 Cover the loft sides of the part; tion last named, and the sides an top of the opening for hay flap with half-inch rough boardinj securely nailed to the same. Prepare and fix deal case frames, oak sunk sills, and hall inch deal ovolo sashes, sing hung with iron pulleys, wbij lines, iron weights, and sa; fastenings complete to the W«! BUILDING. dos of loft, and coachman's roil, and rounded nosing to bot- toi of same. •epare and fix an inch chim- ne >heh, 4\ inches wide, with a roi ded corner and plugged. epare and fix three quarter inr deal skirting, 4\ inches wide, an ploughed for plastering, round co h roan's room. ame and fix a proper door fra-e, 4 inches by 3 inches, with m(ises 2 inches square, and i: -quarter inch deep in bres- ner. Prepare and hang inch de; wrought, ploughed, tongued, an[ ledged door, with 18-inch cm garnets, padlock, hasp, and sta, e. epare and fix inch rebated an ' ounded lining, ploughed for ring, and prepare and hang nch four panel square door, m\ one pair <2|-inch butts and lews, a 6- inch iron rim, two ho lock with brass knob. ame and fix a corn bin in th< oft, 7 feet by 4 feet 3 inches, an 3 feet 6 inches high, with intj rough sides and top, with tw flaps hung with 12-inch cross ga ets, and a padlock, hasp, and 5ti e to each. Three divisions be formed under one of the fla:, and the whole of the inside is have proper framed skeleton gr nds or bearers to receive the sick top, &c. ame and fix inch rough sides, u bevel, with inch flaps and es to hayloft, hung with 10- Hnj cross garnets, and proper bejers inside. ame and fix the floor of joists, ant trim the same for stairs, cl'.mey, and two flaps, the whole to )e executed in the manner ■h 'n or described upon the draw- ,n j. and of the following scant- lini; : Mmon joists calked 'vvn 1 inch and firmly secured on wall plates, girder over columns, and head of coach- house partition 8/2^ Trimming ditto ditto ... . 8x3 Wall plates on party- wall and external wall oppo- site, to tail on the walls within 4\ inches of the outside, the external plate to have a mortise tenon in the bressum- mer 4x3 Girder calked down 1 inch on template, 5 feet long, 9 by 3, as lintel to window of harness- room, chase- mortised in front post, and cut for caps of iron co- lumns 6x4 Provide and lay inch wrought folding floor to the coachman's room and landing of stairs adjoin- ing, and inch rough folding floor to the remainder of loft story. Provide and fix inch steps, risers, and proper carriages, with rounded nosings, to stairs ascend- ing from the harness- room to the loft, with string boards complete. Prepare and fix a wrought and framed newel, let into the paving and hanging stile at the fifth step. Prepare and hang an inch two panel square door, hung with 2-inch butts, and thumb-latch to the same. Prepare and fix inch wrought spandrel wainscotting to enclose the space under the stairs, and prepare and hang an inch two panel square door to the same, hung with a pair of 2-inch butts, and a thumb-latch fixed to the same. Prepare and fix an inch rounded nosing on the brick set-off at the top of the stairs, with bearers to same. Frame and fix quarter partitions in the stables, the heads and sills let into the wall 4- inches, and mortised 13 inches from centre, 495 If BUILDING. and the whole to be executed as shown in the drawing, and of the following scantlings : — Heads... 4x3 Sills 4x2f- Post in coach-house par- tition, adjoining har- ness-room partition .. 6x4 Remaining posts, princi- pal quarters, braces, and door heads 4x2} Common quarters 4x2 Frame and fix a bressummer, 1 1 inches by 9 inches, wrought three sides over the story-posts in front of the stables, mortised for the head of the partitions and the wall plate, and four mortises in soffit, 2 inches square, and three-quarter inch deep for the story-posts, sunk and rebated at top for the opening of loft door, and stop rebated in soffit for two sashes, and holes cut for iron bars. Prepare and fix a wrought stop in soffit, 2 inches by half inch, screwed to bressummer, for the coach-house gates. Fit and fix three bolts through bressummer, and strapped to girder head of partition and wall plate, and cover heads of bolt holes in front of bressummer. Prepare and fix a story-post, 9 inches by 9 inches, for the hang- ing stile of the coach-house gate, wrought three sides, and rebated with a tenon into the bressum- mer 2 inches square, and three- quarter inch deep, and one ditto in stone plinth, 2 inches square and ly inch deep. Prepare a story-post, 9 inches by 7 inches, for the hanging stile of the stable door, worked as the last, but double rebated and framed to transom. Prepare another story- post, 9 inches by A\ inches, work- ed in every respect as the last, but one of the rebates to stop at bottom of the sash. Prepare one shorter ditto of ihe same 496 scantling, and worked in ev< respect as the last, but single ; bated. Prepare and frame, a! fix a wrought weather and dou! rebated transom, 9 inches by! inches, mortise-tenoned into | door-post, and a wrought, rebal and weathered sill, 9 inches 3} inches, to the window, morti tenoned H inch into the posts. Prepare and fix 1 1 -inch dj sash over stable door, and mini bead to ditto inside. Prepare J hang a pair of If -inch fold, sashes with 2-inch butts, a br|, button, and two small bolts. P pare and fix inch deal round jambs, and 1 |-inch window bo: and bearers, 5\ inches wide, to 1 window, &c. Prepare and hang 2-inch d wrought both sides, plough tongued, and beaded door to ( trance of stable, and fillets vv 1 countersunk covered screws each side, the whole connecii together by three five-eight-in screw-bolt, nuts and plates, I be provided by the smith.) Ii let in and securely fixed by 1 carpenter, hung with a pair f Collinge's patent cast-iron bul (to be provided by the carpente with a stop to the bottom bin , a 12- inch stop- lock with twokti of unexceptionable quality, | stable-door latch, and two 9-irji bolts and staples fitted and ffc complete, with inch round lining, 5} inches wide, adjoin; window. Prepare and hang a 2y-in coach-house gate, wrought til sides, ploughed, tongued, t\ beaded, and fillets countersu , screwed and covered on each si;, the whole connected together r four three-quarter inch sere- bolts, with nuts and plates, (to ? provided by the smith,) but let i and securely fixed by the carp*- ter, hung with a pair of Collins* BUILDING. pient 5 feet gate hinges, (to be p'vided by the carpenter,) with a op bolt to the bottom hinge. C three circular holes, o* inches diheter, in the gate, where will btiirected. Provide and fix also a pong bent hasp and staple, v i an iron stop chain and ring, a I] -inch strong bolt at top, wh iron -plate fitted in bres- Biimer, the end of the bolt to beapered. Provide and fix also a inch bolt at the bottom. Pro- vii! and fix an oak brick in the of the cross-wall, with an catch to keep the gate open. ?pare and fix If -inch wrought oa'skirting, 6 inches high, for the caiage wheel in the coach - ho e, fitted to the stone lintels of ory-posts, and securely nailed n) jak spurs, IS inches deep, dr in in the ground as shown in ■drawings. epare and hang l|-inchtwo pa 1 square door from stable to CO fee h-house, 6 feet high and 2 4 inches wide, with 2 -inch bu», and a thumb-latch, and in( to we rounded and rebated lining, tto, and an oak wrought and liered sill. 4 inches by 3 Pid(. s end of closet. 6"t feet I ! incites wide, inch ght. rebated, and rounded tnj iid bottom and bearers, inch tight and framed front, with P [panel square folding doors, 3 tot 10 inches high, 3 feet 6 Jncys wide, hung with 2 -inch bui , a cupboard lock, and two 3R small bolts fixed to same. Two inch shelves, wrought both sides, and bearers inside, and one ditto under the whole, securely fixed to partition. Prepare and fix inch wrought and rounded stop 12 inches wide, with inch wrought risers and proper bearers, H-inch wrought two sides lining 1 3-j- inches wide, inch wrought and beaded fascia 5 inches wide, with lf-inch wrought harness rail, 5 feet long, and 4 inches wide, with three strong wrought, dovetailed, and cut harness brackets, 10 inches projection, the whole to be se- curely fitted and fixed to partition. Prepare and fix inch wrought front 2 feet wide, and return end 5 inches wide, 2 feet 9 inches high, and inch framed top, and clamped flap with rounded nosing to small corn-bin in stable ; also three-quarter inch, 3-inch square in clear, corn shoot, with elbow to ditto; cut holes for and fit the same in large corn-bin partition, and flap last mentioned, and provide a small sliding stop to the same; and three-quarter inch wrought both sides shelf and bearers over ditto, 8} inches wide ; the whole securely fitted and fixed with pro- per bearers to partition, Sec. Prepare 1 1 - inch four panel square framed door to harness- room, 6 feet high and 2f feet wide, hung with 2f-inch iron butts, and a 6-inch iron rim two bolt brass knob lock fixed to ditto, and inch single, rebated, and double rounded lining to ditto. Prepare and fix deal cased frame, sill, sash, &c. in harness- room, as described for the coach- man's room above, with three- quarter inch wrought and round- ed jambs, and soifit 5| inches wide, and inch wrought and rounded window board and bearer 6 inches wide. 497 BUILDING. Prepare and fix three inch shelves, 9 inches deep, in recess adjoining chimney, and cut away brickwork for ends of same. Prepare and fix an inch shelf to the chimney 4\ inches wide, with a rounded corner, and plug- ging for same, and three- quarter inc.h square skirting to chimney side of room, 4f inches wide. Prepare and fix 1 ^-inch rail, 8y feet long, with twelve turned pegs, 6 f inches projection ; l{-inch wrought harness rail, A\ feet long and 8 inches wide, with three wrought and cut brackets, 10 inches projection, and I {-inch wrought rail, 2\ feet long, 9 inches wide, with three-quarter inch wrought and cut Arris saddle bracket, 18 inches projection, each side 1\ inches wide, and rounded nosing to ditto, where will be directed in the harness- room. Prepare and fix I |-inch wrought rail, Sj feet long, with twelve turned pegs, 6 inches projection, against the partition in the coach- house. Prepare and fix three-quarter inch wrought, ploughed, tongued, and beaded wainscotting in stable to harness-room and coach-house partitions, and brick wall in front of stable. Prepare and fix inch ditto to the back over mangers, with all proper strong and suffi- cient bearers, excepting that part which will be described of lf- inch deal. Provide and fix two iron rings with screwed ring staples to side wainscotting, corresponding with similar ones fixed to iron columns, and two large ditto in front of each of the mangers, as shown in drawings. Provide and fix two iron screw pulleys in ceiling of stable for a lantern, where will be directed. Prepare and fix oak wrought 498 and rebated kirbs, 4 inches by ■ inches, for iron gratings in stable Provide and fix 1 i-inch pa tition, and fronts between, stal and inch ditto enclosing h a racks as high as the loft floor, t fronts prepared, cut. out, ai fitted for iron racks, also .Ar wood fillets at back of racks, t whole with proper and sufficu bearers; I ^ -inch wrought, *ph ed, and rebated front and bottfj of mangers, and bearers, and cij tings in stall partitions, &c, same ; 1 {-inch circular heads z\ gussets to hay racks, with proj bearers for same. Provide and fix four tier:' bond, where the wainscottijig || been described, against brick w j of harness -room and stable, i\ one tier round the remain; walls and back wall of stable, will be directed. Provide :l fix wood bricks for skirting, i, on chimney side of harness rot, and to window jambs of ditto. Provide and fix oak posts, s 1 * porting manger, &c. at end f stall partitions, wrought all rom cut at the top and rebated, 6 it long, 44 inches by 4 inches. Provide and fix I^-inch wrou t oak skirting, 9 inches high, t into last - named oak post, « three small oak spurs drivern centre. Provide and fix oak sill, ; inches by 4 inches, to stall po- tions, wrought, double round, and rebated for wood-work abk and ends cut and fixed to >« lumns. Provide and fix l|-jih wrought two sides, plough tongued, and beaded paitun under iron- work, and round fillets screwed against ditto, lid scribed to iron columns. The carpenter is to assist ie smith and other workmen in & ing all works necessarily conr tf ed with his own. BUILDING. Open spaces are to he left on bach side the ends of timbers let nto the wall and secured by rough wedges on each side. | The carpenter is to cut away ind make good after all other workmen, when and where re- juired. : All the joiner's work must be )iepared and put in a state of orwardness at the commencement if the works ; the doors and other raming to be put together for he purpose of seasoning, but not yedged up. Mf i All the timber is to be of the test Memel, or other timber equal- v approved by the architect, to e sawn die square, and free from ap or shakes. The deal to be of est yellow Christiana, or any ther equally approved by the rchitect, free from sap or large |r loose knots. The oak to be of English growth, of the best qua- ty, free from sap or shake, and iwn die square. The whole of le materials to be well seasoned. Mason. Provide and set York indow sills, throated 8 inches ide, to the windows of the loft, oachman's room, and stable, the tst sill to be let into the door- ost half an inch, and have a mor- se hole, 1 j inch square, cut for ie other post. Provide and set York sill to oorway of harness-room, and ie ditto to entrance door of able, let into the plinths under ie posts. Provide and set two York inths, 6 inches high, under the )sts in front of stable and coach - Juse, 7 inches by 9 inches, and ie ditto 12 inches by 9 inches, pth a mortise in each 2 inches |uare, and \ \ inch deep. Provide and set a York channel, inches wide, in stable ; the chan- pl to be 6 inches wide, but not exceed . inch in depth. Provide and set in Roman ce- ment three rough York stones, 12 inches square, under gratings in stalls, and one ditto, 15 inches square, under the sink stone in stable, with a hole cut a*nd rebated in each for a bell trap, (to be pro- vided by the smith,) but fixed and leaded by the mason. Provide and set one five-hole sink stone, 15 inches square, pro- perly dished, adjoining the dung pit, one ditto 18 inches square adjoining the tank, and one ditto 18 inches square in stable, the last to be cut out for channel be- fore described. Provide and set two York plinths, 9 inches square, 3 inches thick, for the iron columns, with a hole cut in each, 6 inches square and half an inch deep, and a stub mortise in the same, 1| inch square and three-quarter inch deep, and the mason is to assist the smith in fixing the columns. Provide and set in cement York bottom to tank, let into the walls on every side ly inch, and if this is not to be procured in one stone, the joints are to be rebated and set in cement ; three holes are to be carefully cut for lead pipes. Provide and lay York paving, jointed and set in cement, in the harness-room, including the back hearth and recess adjoining the same, and the space under the stairs, also under the tank and round sink stone, as shown in the drawings ; two holes to be cut in the last for lead pipes. Provide and set two York stones, splayed, rebated, and cut for top and bottom hinge of en- trance-court gate, the iron-work of the hinges to be let in and leaded by the mason. Prepare and set inch rubbed Portland jambs and mantels, 4 inches wide, 2 feet 2 inches open- ing to chimneys of harness-room 499 !• BUILDING. and coachman's room, with four chimney cramps to each, let into York slabs notched for the same. Provide and set also rough York slab and b,ack hearth to the chim- ney in coachman's room. The contractor for the mason's work must provide all lead requir- ed for fixing the work aforesaid. Slater. The roof of the stables is to be covered with sound dutchess slates, and nailed with strong copper nails, every third slate overlapping by two and half inches the head of the first. The slates to be well cut, and fitted against the slips, &c. and the whole to be done and left in the most workmanlike manner. Plasterer* Lath with sound fir laths free from sap, plaster, set up, and whiten the ceilings and partitions of the coachman's room, and the soffit and sides of the opening in partition for flap in hayloft ; also the ceilings of the stable, harness-room, and coach-house, and strings of stairs, excepting that part in the closet under stairs. Render, set, and whiten the brick sides of the coachman's room, and the chimney side of the harness-room. The ceiling of the coachman's room is to be lathed before the slating is laid. Smith. All the cast-iron work must be of perfectly sound cast- ings, all the wrought iron to be of the best quality. Provide and fix a vane A\ feet above the roof, and 3 feet under, with the letters N S E W firmly secured to the wood-work below the upper part, as shown in the drawing ; a half sphere to be cast at the ridge part to admit of plumber's flushing. Provide two iron tie straps for the chimney-shaft, 2 inches wide, and half-inch thick, with staples 500 to fix in the brickwork: these will be fixed by the bricklayer Provide three wrought- iron straps, three-quarter inch by |l| inch, 2 feet long each, with a nut i at one end, screws and holes drilled at the other, to secure the girder to the plates and partitions: these will be fixed by the carpenter. Provide and fix cast-iron seg- ment water-troughs, 6 inches wide, 2\ inches deep, with iron brackets fixed in brickwork every 3 feet in length, mitred and fitted together with a stop at each end against tne party-wall. Provide a cast-iron rain-water head, with hole provided for wooden gutter in the roof. Pro- vide one ditto for the head of rain-water pipe in front. Both of these are to be made to let into the trough. Provide and fix a rain-water pipe, 3 inches diameter in clear, as shown in the drawing. Provide iron bars, three-quar- ter inch square, to the windows of stable and harness-room, 3f inches apart. Provide and fix two iron co- lumns in stable, as shown in the drawings, with.»a cap let in and screwed to girder, and base let in half an inch on the York stone, with a steel tenon cast in the same \\ inch square, and three- quarter inch deep. Provide and fix cast-iron railing to stalls of partitions, with rings, &c. as shown in the drawings, and firmly secured to the iron columns ; the top rail to extend and be fixed in the brick wall. Provide and fix cast-iron racks with holes drilled and firmly screwed to the wood-work, and two rings fixed to each. Provide and fix two harness pegs, and one ring to each of' the iron columns, at the heights BUILDING. pared in the drawings, with biiare rivets to the same. Provide and fix iron nosing to root of partition between racks, cutely screwed to the wood- work. Provide and fix cast-iron nos- igs to manger, as shown in the rawings, and screwed to the ime. Provide and fix three cast-iron ratings and frames to the top of ^sspool in stalls, as shown in the rawings. 1 Provide and fix four G- inch bell aps to the cesspool, as indicated the drawings of the section at Yge of the drains, kc. and let to the York paving. Provide four screw-bolts for e large, and four ditto to the waller or outside gate, each ree-quarter inch diameter, and inches less in length than the dth of the gates. Provide three Uo to stable door, five-eight- ch diameter; the whole of these 'th proper nuts and plates. All defective castings, or other )rk found insufficient from de- ctive workmanship, are to be nnediately replaced. The contractor for the smith's >rk must provide all patterns 'cessary, and all lead required r fixing his work, and make ar- ngements with the other work- . if any scaffolding should be cessary for fixing any ofhis work. Plumber. Provide and lay ree-quarter inch service-pipe )m the main to the tank, to rise inches above the top of waste, JtH all necessary joints, and dered to bottom of tank, and ; three-quarter inch brass cock ihe same, and an inch ferrule i the main. Provide and fix a 2-inch waste- i >e to tank, secured at the top a small iron stay fixed in brick- >rk, and soldered to the bottom of the tank, with a three-quarter inch brass cock outside and 18 inches of pipe through 9-inch wall, and stone bottom of tank soldered to bottom, &c. Provide and lay half- inch pipe from tank to sink in stable, sol- dered to bottom of tank, to rise 3 feet above the level of paving, with all the necessary joints, and half-inch brass cock to the same. Line the bottom and sides of the sink with cast lead, not less than eight pounds to the foot superficial, with an inch washer and waste, and one-quarter inch waste-pipe into the drain. Cover the hips and ridges of the roof with milled lead, four pounds to the foot superficial, dressed down upon the slates, and well secured to the wood- work, to be not less than 12 inches wide, and to lap at the meetings at least 6 inches. Put a small flushing to the bottom of the vane. Provide and lay a flushing as last described against party-wall and round chimney, but eight inches wide, with a small gutter, six pounds to the foot superficial, at one side of the chimney-shaft 9 inches wide, and to jay under the slate at least 6* inches, and to turn up against chimney-shaft 4 inches. The whole of the materials aforesaid to be of the best qua- lity, and applied in the most workmanlike manner. Glazier. Glaze the sashes of the loft, coachman's room, harness- room, and stables, with second crown glass, to be well puttied, and left whole, clean, and perfect at the completion of the work. Painter, Paint all the usual wood and iron work, &c. outside of the building, including both sides of the outer gates, and the inside of the coach-house and stable door, gates, posts, and 501 BUILDING. linings. Wood-work inside of the tank four times in oil, stone colour, or other common colour, as may be directed ; and the old removed door and frame to garden twice in oil on both sides. Paint the doors and linings, sash- es and linings, &c. iron partitions of stalls and bressummer over hay-racks, and all iron-work inside, three times in oil, stone colour, or other common colour, as may be described. The white lead and materials to be of an unexceptionable kind, and the wood- work to be oil knotted and stopped with putty where necessary, the whole being left in the most workmanlike manner. General conditions. The follow- ing conditions and general ob- servations are to apply, and be attended to, in the proposals for the whole of the works, or for the distinct and separate trades, by the contractor or contractors. The contracts are to be entered into with the tenders are to be delivered, sealed and di- rected to the architect, at on or before and are to state a sufficient sum, with a distinct sum for each separate trade, for which the several branches of work will be undertaken, subject to the condition contained in the speci- fication. The contractor, whether for the whole or separate trades, is to provide all manner of labour, tools, implements, scaffolding, ropes, ladders, materials of every description, carriage and every thing requisite for the completion of the respective works, and is to make good all damage or defects which may be occasioned, whe- ther from carelessness or other cause ; the contractor repairing such damages or defects, to 502 charge the expenses by whom it has been occasioned. The workmen of the different' contractors are to attend to give the necessary assistance stipulated for each other in the execution of their work. Each contractor is to clear away from time to time all rubbish occasioned bys their respective works. The drawings are to be equally binding with the specification: and should any thing appear in them which has been omitted to be described, the contractor is trkmanlike, and not according 1 contract, upon three days' ] tice being given in writing for lit purpose by the architect; ;,d in case the contractor shall fuse or delay to rectify the joae, or comply with the orders it may be so given him in king, or refuse or delay to Fform all or any part of the >;k in a proper manner, or in ike the works do not proceed th proper despatch, Mr. jail have power and full liberty to suspend the further execution of the works by the said con- tractor, to take it out of his hands, and employ or engage any other workmen to perform and execute the same ; in which case the costs and charges thereof shall be paid or allowed to Mr. by the contractor, or re- tained or deducted out of the money which may be then due, or become due, to the con* tractor, the amount of which shall be valued and decided by the architect, whose award in this and in all other cases shall be final. The contractor or contractors shall receive the amount of their tender from Mr. within one month after the whole of their respective works have been com- pleted, upon producing a certifi- cate from the architect, stating that their respective works have been performed according to con- tract ; or, if desired by them, they shall receive a payment of half the amount of their tender upon producing a certificate from the architect, stating that two-thirds of their respective works have been performed, and the balance within one month after the whole of their respective works have been performed, upon producing a certificate as before stated. Sir, We, the undersigned, agree to perform the respective works ipulated for each of us, according to the particulars and conditions intained in the foregoing specification, and according to the true lent and meaning of Drawings, (signed also by us at the back,) ,*rked without any reference to the quantities or valuations |m which our tenders were made, and for the sums annexed to our matures. We also agree, that in case of any works being done at your dwelling, any other premises, on your account, they shall be done according to e directions, and subject to the valuation of Mr. , your archi- t, and according to the conditions contained in the said specifica- )n. Witness our hands day of BUILDING. r A Witness 1 to the ] C Signa- tures, M. N. D. < E. F. 1 G. H. I I. J. V.K. L. B. — Excavator and Bricklayer, Slater") and Plasterer J Carpenter and Joiner . . . : 190 Mason 14 Smith and Iron Founder 43 Plumber and Glazier 13 Painter 7 183 14 15 14 8 £452 11 6 Building. A mass formed by Jhe junction of materials. When any one intends to build, he should make choice of an architect who is known to be trustworthy and well skilled in his profession. To him he should communicate his ideas with re- spect to the required number of rooms j the purposes for which those rooms are to be destined j and the total expense at which he wishes the building to be com- pleted. The architect, being thus acquainted with the necessary particulars, proceeds to make out a design, and, having submitted it to, and obtained the approval of, his employer, then makes out a calculation of the expenses. If those expenses exceed theamount proposed to be laid out, the de- sign must be either proportionally reduced in all its dimensions, or such parts as are the least requir- ed may be omitted, or the ex- terior or the apartments may be divested of some of the proposed ornaments, accordingly as either of these be the most agreeable to the wishes of the proprie- tor. Every thing being thus adjusted, so as to bring the sum within the amount proposed to be laid out, the proprietor should commit the entire manage- ment to the architect, who then makes out a specification, (see the preceding article,) and selects such masters for the execution of the respective departments as shall appear to him most com- 504 petent to the undertaking. It j customary for the architect, whe he has made out the specificatior to submit the several items, to gether with the drawings, to th respective masters, whom h forthwith requires to furnish hit with an estimate of the expens 1 If the estimate appears reason able, each master-tradesman en ters into a written contract fo the due completion of the severe works, accordingly as they ar described in the specification, an at the sum which he has esti mated as a fair remuneration fo the time and labour to be con sumed. There are, howevei some cases, in which, from novel ties of execution, no estimate ca be made : and, again, there ar other cases, which, though pecu liarly novel, and not admittin of an estimate previously to th commencement of the work, yet from consisting of a repetition c the same novelties, allow of i after a very small portion of th work is completed : in such cases the architect must act accord! ingly. Again, there are man proprietors whose ideas are eve changing, and who no soone see a portion of the work com pleted, than they require to hav it altered : under such circum stances, it would be impruden to contract, and the work shoul be charged by measure and value affixing a regular price to ever correspondent article, and takim an account of the work pulle< BUI BUL dov, and the time employed in its jmolition. In whatever way the -ork is to be valued, it is nary in large undertakings tp e ploy a person stationary on the 'eniises, called a clerk of the war ; to him the architect com- muiiates his full intentions, and .. him authority to superm- ini he whole of the execution, to kbp an account of the work- : 1 1 e i time, to give in weekly epits, and to examine such part of the work as may be pre- paid! out of the premises. Ik preliminary measures ne- is|y to the construction of an i are, drawing the plans of ; jg veral stories, the elevations t facades, a longitudinal and i t: erse section at the least, a nor mtal and vertical section of Oaclbf the most difficult parts, and 1 detail of all the mouldings and ornaments at large ; from drawings the specification i iwn out and the expense csti ited. It is not, however, an (' y task for an architect to lun h all the detail of a building jre^uslvto its commencement; but sufficient time were allow- ed is might be done, and an esti.ile of the expense correctly ained. For further parti- cal;i , the reader is referred to the rticles Architecture, Brick- I'tijii, Masonry, Carpentry, Join- ery,\c. &c. b lding. In Masonry. The art of uuieeting stones together, Mihl with or without cement, so as t ! form the whole or part of an ( fice. It also signifies the mas n body which is formed by the nction of stones with regu- lar Irfaces ; in which sense it is anal ;ous to masonry, or a piece of r sonry. See Masonry. B lding act. An act passed by ie legislature, containing ctrta restrictions or regulations 3S for the erecting of houses within the cities of London and West- minster, the weekly bills of mor- tality, the parishes of St. Mary- la-bonne, Paddington, St. Pancras, and St. Luke, Chelsea. This act was passed in the 14 th Geo. 3. cap. 78. and a faithful abstract of it has been given under the arti- cle Bricklayer. Building of beams. The unit- ing of several pieces of timber together, by means of bolts, so as to form a beam of a greater length and thickness than could possibly be obtained from a single piece of timber. Beams which have been thus built, and judiciously strapped across the exterior sides, are much stronger than such as are scarfed, nor is so much tim- ber wasted in their construction. Many advantages may be derived from the building of beams j for independently of their being much stronger, and requiring less waste of timber in their construction than such as are scarfed, ribs may be built for vaulted roofs that, by proper attention to the degree of curvature, will require no trussing. See the articles Rib and Scarfing. Buleuteria. In Grecian Anti- quity. Public halls at Athens, where companies of tradesmen assembled to deliberate on com- mercial purposes. Bulker. A term in Lincoln- shire for a beam or rafter. Bullen nails. Nails with round heads and short shanks, tinned and lackered. These nails are principally used in the hangings of rooms. Bullock's-eye. OSil de Bozuf. A little skylight in the covering or roof, designed to illumine a granary or the like. Bullock-siieds. In Rural Eco~ nomy. The houses in which bullocks are kept while feeding. 505 BULLOCK- SHEDS In the construction of these build- ings attention should always be had to their being well aired, to the facility of feeding and clean- ing the animals in them, and to their being kept clean and dry by their having suitable drains and conveniences for urine and dung. In the rural economy of Nor- folk, Mr. Marshall remarks, that a bullock-house there con- sists of a centre building, 36 feet long, 19 feet wide, and about 11 feet high, with a pair of wide folding doors at each end, and a lean-to on each side the whole length of the building, and 11 feet wide. The centre building is the turnip-house; the lean-to sheds for bullocks, which stand with their heads towards, or rather in, the turnip-house, from which they are parted by a range of mangers only, having the full freedom of breathing in its spacious area ; by opening the doors at each end, a sufficient degree of air and coolness may be given in hot weather, while behind, the eaves of the sheds are brought down to within five feet of the ground, and are boarded with rough boards, except an opening at each end for the bullocks to creep in at, to pre- vent too great a coldness in severe weather ; thus preserving a due temperature. The shed of these dimensions, thus construct* ed, holds twenty bullocks, ten on each side, fastened by the neck, with chains, swivels, and rings, playing freely upon posts seven feet high. At each corner of the turnip-house is a triangular bin, for containing the topped and tailed turnips or other provisions. In autumn, it is further ob- served, the entire building is sometimes used as a temporary barn for buck wheat, peas, &c. and in summer the centre part is an excellent waggon-shed; d the doors been made a foot a a half higher, it is suggested tl it would have been an admirle refuge for loads of corn or I in a showery harvest. The m building is covered with reed ie lean-toes with tiles. And ii le rural economy of Glouce r- shire, the same writer obse, s, that each bullock has a house ic yard to himself, in which he es loose, occupying them by t; s, as appetite or amusement di ts him, having a manger ai a drinking trough to go t at pleasure. The construction of these, i v- ever, vary in the minutiae; he water trough, for instano is sometimes placed by the mai :r, in the hovel or shed, somei es in the open pen; other less no e- able variations may be see in different buildings. But the an and dimensions which at pn nt seem to stand in the hii.st esteem, and on which sef] erections of this nature have en made within the last fiftef or twenty years, are the follow,': the building, 15 to 15 J feet I within, and of a length por- tioned to the number of I required; the height of the j tes 5 feet to 6 feet 4 inches, i ported on the side by the ! *th or east by close walling ; oi I to the south or west by \M set on stone pedestals ; the g its walling, the covering plain M on a single pitch roof; aflM the back wall is a gangwaiS to 4 feet wide, formed j length of mangers, 3 feet &£ feet wide, from out to oujM top narrowing to about 15 i J within at the bottom: thejer- pendicular depth 14 to 15 in|es; the height of the top rail WJ the ground about 2 feet 9 in es; the materials 2-inch 1 llk „ md BULLOCK-SHEDS. stay* and supported by posts ' oss-pieces, and stiffened by top rails j the dimensions area of the covered stalls feet 3 inches square ; of . pens the same. The ■ m ms between the stalls are >f bri.d nails, passing from the >uter|pillars to similar posts, I isinin the inner or stall side "Sf tbj manger, and steadied at "'he t\ by slender beams, reach- r 11 >ss the building, each stall, eai partition, having a beam 11,: nd jir of principals. The par- tition of the pens are gates, h j, from the pillars to the K ounffry wall, and likewise from II illarjo pillar ; when they are I that situation each bullock M-as hi stall and his little yard ; ififhenpi this, each is shut up in k is stll : the yard forms a lane i r drii-way for taking in or turn- t any individual. The ourury wall of the pens is bout. 1 feet high, coped with •lock of copper dross; on the : uter de of it is a receptacle of mnu.on the inner a range of /ater -oughs, with a channel of i omn'nication for the conveni- ence \ filling them. The mate- rials (| the troughs are stone, of l< he cljinel gutter bricks, cover- ed v[h slates. These stone rougj, which are about 14 nche jy 2 feet 6, have a con- t enieiy in their construction , vhichs entitled to notice; in- stead jf the sides and ends being ,,dl of hem pecked down to an ingleLsquare with the bottom, )ne o; the ends is left bevelling slopir, making a very obtuse Wglekwith the bottom ; this smiplivariation makes them very ,***y I' be cleaned, either with the s! vel or the broom. Thfloor is paved with hard- burnt bricks, laid cdgwise in mort;i being formed with a deep descent from the wall to a chan- nel, from 3 to 4 feet from it, and with a gentle fall from the manger to the same channel, which be- comes the general drain for rain- water and urine. At one end of the pens is a pump (where a natural rill cannot be had) for supplying the troughs of water, and at the other a stack of stubble for litter, which is used in the stall only, the yard being left unlittered. At one end of the building is a cake-house, at the other a rick-yard, with a door at each end of the gangway to receive the hay and the cake. In some instances he has seen a double range of stalls on this plan, the area between them be- ing the common receptacle for the dung. When a number of stalls, as twenty or thirty, are required, their arrangement brings them within a convenient com- pass, and the two ranges, with a proper aspect, become shelter to each other. Beside these loose stalls, there are others built nearly on the same plan, but without gates, and on a somewhat larger scale, in which the cattle are fastened to the manger, or the partition posts, with a long chain, which gives them liberty to rub and lick themselves, and move about in their stalls. In this case a water trough is generally placed at the end of every second parti- tion, level with the manger, and with a general pipe of communi- cation to fill them, each trough supplying two bullocks. This plan, he observes, lessens the ex- pense in some degree, and pre- vents the bullocks from fouling their mangers. In the Cotswold hills, he remarks that each bullock has different troughs, a small one for corn, a larger one for hay, with a water trough which runs the whole length of the shed, and BUS is covered by a board, each bul- lock having a hole to drink at. There are various other construc- tions of sheds for this use, which will be more particularly describ- ed under their proper heads. See Cattle Sheds and Feeding Houses. Bui. lock-stalls. The parts that are partitioned off in the sheds, in which the bullocks stand to eat their food. They should always be made sufficiently roomy. See Cattle Sheds. Bulwark. In Ancient Fortiji- catlons: Nearly the same with bastion in the modern. See Ram- part and Torus. BUNDLK-PILLAR. In GotlllC Architecture. A column consist- ing of a number of small pillars round its circumference. Buonarotti, Michael Ancelo. See Bonarrotti. Burca. A term among 1 the Turks for the rich covering of the door of the house at Mecca. It is 10 feet long and 5 feet wide ; and there are several figures and Arabic letters on it, richly em- broidered in gold, on a ground of red and green. This is carried round in their solemn processions, and is often made to stop that the people may touch it. Burg ward, burgwardus, or bugwardium. In Middle Age Wri- ters. The same with bulwark. The name is also extended to the town, and even to the country, about such a fortress. Bursa. In Middle Age Writers. A little college or hall in a uni- versity for the residence of stu- dents. Burse. In Matters of Com,' merce. Denotes a public edifice for the assembly of merchants and traders ; and is used in the same sense as the more modern appel- lation, Exchange. BUSCHETTO DA DuLICIIIO. A celebrated Grecian architect, born 5jS BUT in the isle of Dulichio, an< m- ployed in 1016, by the rem of Pisa, in building and ornajjZ ing their dome or catbCj church; which he enriched % many marble columns, and vfl has ever since been reckoner of the most sumptuous edihV q Italy. He died at Pisa, wn a monument was erected t his memory, bearing an inscr inn which intimates his extraort irv knowledge of the mec nic powers. His disciples wer m merous, and he is regard as the principal founder of mm architectural science in Ital; Bust, or busto. In Scu,m, That portion of the human I ire, which comprises the head, ck, breast, and shoulders. b the Italians this term is applj. to the human figure as low ^ f the hips, with or without the. cad and arms ; which definition :rees with that species of scujure, which represents the portrjsoi illustrious Romans, either ei;rely : round and mounted on pedals, or in alto relievo on the si s of sarcophagi or other sepijnral monuments. The etymoloj' ofc the Italian busto most pn;tbly is from the Latin, bustum. Bustum. A figurative e res- sion among the Romans f(f«BJI kind of tomb. The busti, in the Campus Martius, was a m ture whereon the bodies ( the emperor Augustus and hi; uc- cessors were burnt. It waiiiilt of white stone, surroundedviA an iron palisade, and pjited within side with alder trees.jlbe word bustum also denote! the hearth, or pla^e of an altar pere the fire was kindled. But-hinges. Hinges eiiloy* ed in the hanging of shutters, casements, &c.|See Hinges. 1 inpti ress C A A MtN'TS, OR ABUTMENTS. ts or props, by which the ' arches, or any bodies v in an oblique direction hihorizon, are sustained in Jaces. See Abutment and m: y the [ENT-CHEEKS. The tWO id L rts on each side of a mor 'ie thickness of each cheek nonly equal to the thick ( the mortise j but circum lance sometimes arise which nil them to be of a different ; ikktp. 1 J END OF A PIECE OF TIMBER. id of a plank which was resio the root of the tree, the I; liu^-JOiNT. In Hand-railing. t joi at right angles to the f the rail. See Hand- ox is ry. A store-room for ns. ng-joint. A joint form- e surfaces of two pieces , the surface of the one eing parallel with the ind that of the other, i the same, or in an ob- ection with them. The lich the struts and braces h the truss-posts, in car- ire of this description. in. A small piece of wood C A A or metal, turning on a centre,, for fastening a door, window, or other closure. The button is generally made to turn on a nail, which nail is consequently made round, and has a smooth head. Button of a lock. Denotes a round head serving to move the bolt. Buttress. A mass of masonry, or brickwork, serving to support the side of a wall that is of very great height, or that is pressed on the opposite side by an adven- titious force, as a bank o( earth, or body of water. In those struc- tures improperly called gothic, buttresses are placed around the exterior sides of the building, one in the intermediate space between every two windows, and one or two at each of the angles, in order to support the vaulting. In gothic, or pointed architecture, two kinds of buttresses are used j the one, formed of vertical planes, and attached to the walls, is called piltared-buttresses; the other, which rises from the pillared-but- tresses upon the sides of the aisle with an arch-formed intrados, and sloping extrados, or top, is call- ed Jiying-buttresses, or arc-bou- tants. See Arc-bouianis, Pointed Architecture, &c. c. aabai A square stone edifice to this building on account of its c t tuple of Mecca ; being height, which surpasses that of principally reverenced by the other buildings in Mecca; Mjiometans, and to which but others, with a greater degree ey allays direct themselves in of probability, derive the name nyer. The believers of the from the quadrangular form of ahonjtan faith attribute the the structure. <-'ctio of this building to Abra- This building is so ancient, that imurfhisson Ishmael. its original use and the name of Ine. ord is Arabic, caaba or the founder are lost in idle tradi- gwj/i, a denomination which tions. The Mahometans affirm, ""tsipose to have been given that it is almost coeval with the 509 CAABA. world, and they pretend that Adam, after his expulsion from Paradise, supplicated divine per- mission to erect a building like what he had seen there, called " Beit al Mamar," or the fre- quented house, and " Al Dorah," towards which he might direct his prayers, and which he might compass, as the angels do the celestial one. Upon which God let down a representation of that house in curtains of light, and set it in Mecca, perpendicularly under its original, ordering the patriarch to turn towards it when he pray- ed, and to compass it by way of devotion. After Adam's death, they say that his son Seth built a house in the same form, of stones and clay, which, being destroyed by the deluge, was rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael at the com- mand of God, in the place where the former had stood, and after the same model. Notwithstand- ing the absurdity of these tradi- tions, it is not improbable that it was erected by some of the imme- diate descendants of Ishmael. It is most probable that the caaba was primarily designed for re- ligious purposes ; and it is certain that it was held in the highest veneration long before the birth of Mahomet. Having undergone several reparations, it was, a few years after his birth, rebuilt on the same foundations by the tribe of Koreish, who had acquired the custody of it, either by fraud or force. It was afterwards repaired by Abdallah Ebn Zobeir, the caliph of Mecca; and again re- built by Zusof, surnamed Al Hejaj, in the seventy-fourth year of the Hegira, with some alterations, in which form it now remains. The length of the caaba, from north to south, is 24 cubits j its breadth, from east to west, L 23 cubits ; and its height 27 510 cubits. The door whi on the east side, is Lj about 4 cubits from the gr id and the floor is level wit the door. In the corner, nex h door, is the " black stone so celebrated amongst the h . metans. This* stone is u silver, and fixed in the east corner of the buildir that which looks towards u about two cubits and one 'in!, or seven spans from the g'W The Moslems pretend that was one of the precious stor of Paradise, and that it fell di i the earth with Adam, andj.'ing taken up again, or otherwL* pre- served, at the deluge, was, the angel Gabriel, afterwards b jight back to Abraham, when 1| was building the caaba. Be th is it may, the " black stone" held in very high estimation the Mahometans, and is kissed! the pilgrims with great depn, some of whom call it "th.ight hand of God on earth." The caaba has a doubl roof, supported within by threejitan- gular pillars of aloes wo|, be- tween which are suspende on a bar of iron, some silver imps. The outside is covered wii rich black damask, adorned \jh an embroidered band of gold ] hich is changed every year, and; pro- vided by the Turkish entrors. At some distance the cjoa 1S surrounded, but not entir| r , by a circular enclosure of pillaj join- ed towards the bottom b)j l» w balustrade, and towards p *°P by bars of silver. Withjt this enclosure, on the south-vjt and north side of the caaba, ai three buildings ; which are th-prato- ries, or places where t ( ee oi the orthodox sects asseide • perform their devotion : wards the south-east sttjia tn< edifice which covers t * el CAB Ze:?em, the treasury, and the curila of Al Abbas. All these bui ings are enclosed, at a con- BidJible distance, by a magnifi- cenuiazza, or square colonnade, sibling the Royal Exchange ondon, but much larger, Jed with small domes and I p as, from the four corners of whip rise as many minarets or ties, with double galleries, [domed with gilded spires odrescents, as are the cupolas whip cover the piazzas. Be- > the pillars of both enclo- j sure hang a great number of m , which are constantly light- night. The first founda- tion of this outward enclosure r laid by Omar, the second j , who built no more than a v all, to prevent the court of the aba from being encroached i private buildings ; but the irire has been since raised, >y tfe liberality of many of the ■ succding princes and great DM I) o its present lustre. C. in, or cabbin. A room, or ajrtment, in a ship, where an Be usually resides. The same tenuis also applied to the huts and ttages of poor people, and #thosjof savages. The cabins of a the idians of Virginia are about r ) feet high. They are made by l ing poles into the ground, i and ringing the tops of them thin another, and so tying then ogether, as to leave a hole . W tj middle of the top of the cabin for the egress of smoke. 1<> pserve themselves from the mcle encies of the weather, the Indies cover the outside of their Ctbii with bark, and cast up bmik of earth round the interior, lo se e as stools and beds. CilNET, OR CABBINKT. The mos etired place in a building, fc tt ! art for writing, studying, °r ^serving any thing that is CAD valuable. A complete apartment consists of a hail, an antechamber, a chamber, and a cabinet, with a gallery on one side. Sometimes the word cabinet is used to particularize that place at the end of a gallery, wherein are preserved the pictures of the best masters, conveniently arranged, and accompanied with busts and figures of marble and bronze, with other curiosities. The same term is also applied to a highly ornamented kind of buffet or chest of drawers, set apart for the preservation of things of value, and used partly as a decoration of a chamber. Cabinet. In Gardening. A little insulated building, or kind of summer-house, built in some agreeable form, and open on all sides j serving as a place of re- tirement, and to take the fresh air under cover. The plan of the cabinet is either square, circular, or polygonal, after the manner of a saloon. Cable. A moulding in the lower part of a fluted column, representing a rope, or rush, lying in the fluting j which has given to columns of this descrip- tion the term cable-Jluted. This moulding is of a convex circular section, rising from the concave surface of the flute, so that its most prominent part may be in a surface with the fillet on each side of the flute. See Co- lumn and Flutes. Cabled column. See Column. Cabled flutes. Such flutes as are filled with cables. Cabling. The lilling of the flutes of columns with cables, or the cables so disposed. See Flutes. Caduceus. A rod or sceptre entwined by two winged serpents, and carried by Mercury, as an attribute of his quality and office. 511 C AI Caer. In British Antiquity. A term which, like the Saxon Ches- ter, denotes castle, and is prefixed to the names of places fortified by the Romans. Cage. In Carpentry. An outer work of timber, enclosing- another within it. In this sense, the cage of a staircase is the wooden sides, or walls, which enclose it. Caisso.w Large chests, framed of strong timbers, and made water tight, sometimes used in large and deep rivers for building the piers of bridges. The bottom of the caisson is composed of a strong grating of timber, and is so contrived that it can be de- tached from the sides when requi- site. In this mode of bridge- building, the ground where the pier is to be sunk is first excavat- ed and levelled ; and the caisson is then launched, and floated to the spot, and sunk. The building of the pier then commences with- in it, and is carried up above, or nearly to a level with the water j when the sides of the caisson being detached, the bottom, with the pier upon it, is allowed to remain as a foundation. The most considerable work, that has come to our knowledge, in which caissons have been used, is that of the building of West- minster bridge : of these, there- fore, a particular description may be acceptable. Each of the cais- sons contained one hundred and fifty loads of lir-timber, and was of more tonnage than a man of war of 40 guns ; their size was nearly 80 feet from point to point, and 30 feet in breadth ; the sides, which were 10 feet in height, were formed of timbers laid hori- zontally over one another, pinned with oak trunnels, and framed to- gether at all the corners, except the salient angles, where they were secured by proper iron- C AI work, which, being unscre d, would permit the sides ofjS caisson, had it been necessar to divide into two parts. iL sides were planked acrossjne timbers inside and outside || 3-inch planks, in a vertical Z tion. The thickness of the m was 18 inches at the bottom id 15 inches at top ; and in orriito strengthen them the more, £ angle, except the two points, nil three oaken knee-timbers, o- perly bolted and secured. '1 jj sides, when finished, were fast ed to the bottom, or grating, tp pieces of timber on the onde and 18 pieces within, called st )s, about 8 inches broad, and ; ui 3 inches thick, reaching and p. ping over the tops of the sis : the lower part of these s ps were dovetailed to the < er curb of the grating, and ke in their places by iron wedges, he purpose of these st raps and w( fpi was, that when the pier was up sufficiently high aboAe m water mark, to render the is- son no longer necessary fo he masons to work in, the wee? could be drawn up, so as to N liberty to clear the straps m the mortises ; in consequen of which, the sides arose by eir own buoyancy, and left the ( ing under the foundation o he pier. The pressure of the water 'on the sides of the caisson w; re- sisted by means of a giuw timber or ribbon, 14 inches de, and 7 inches thick, pinned the upper row of timbers oP< grating, and the tops of the ( were secured by a sufficient m < of beams laid across, whicljko served to support a floor, on^ch the labourers stood to hoijfoe stones out of the lighters, 4 t0 lower them into the caisson The caisson was also pro ^ C A L w il a sluice to admit the water. Th method of working was as folks: a pit being dug and levied in the proper situation for ie pier, of the same shape as (helusson, and about 5 feet wide all und, the caisson was brought to i position, a few of the lower ponies of the pier built in it, and n once or twice to prove the level of the foundation ; then ii finally fixed, the masons woi'id in the usual methods of ti ieork. About two hours he- re >w water, the sluice of the isfn, which had been kept till then, lest the water, w g to many more feet on the me than the inside, should Boafbe caisson and all the stone- r out of its true place, was uitfown, and, without waiting i.' lowest ebb of the tide, the waU was pumped sufficiently low to at lit the masons to set and cran' the stone-work of the suc- ceedig courses ; then, when the . tide Jul risen to a considerable g , the sluice was opened tit agaii and the water admitted : I , with a view to save un- ■ c iry expense, the caisson -> lrposely built but 16 feet h gh he high tides flowed seve- i fit above the sides, but with- i v damage or inconvenience ii works. In tins manner the < »rl jroceeded till the pier rose toth urface of the caisson, when 'lie les were floated away to ' tie same purpose at another ' lyes Description of West- / Bridge. Ca arkous cement. See Ce- CaIiariuh. A brazen vessel, Ofcifcjrn, in ancient baths, placed "» th hypocaustum, full of hot ^atei to be drawn thence into the p inn, or bath, to give it the Utti ry degree of heat. In this ' '^e he caldarium stood contra- 8T C A L distinguished from the iepidarium and frigidarium. Caldarium. A close vaulted room, in which people were brought to a profuse sweat by dry hot fumes. In this sense, caldarium was the same with what was otherwise denominated vaporarium, sudatorium , and iaco- nium; and in the Greek baths, hypocaustum. Calendario, Philip. A cele- brated architect and sculptor of Venice, who flourished in the time of Martin Faletri, doge of that republic, in 1354. He con- structed those beautiful porticoes, supported by marble columns, which surround the place of St. Mark. By these works he esta- blished both his fame and fortune. Calf-pen. A place in which calves are confined for the prac- tice of fattening them. The calf-pen is most commonly annexed to the cow-house, which is a plan that cannot be recom- mended, as the cries of the calf have an influence on the cow, keeping her in a restless, agitated state, preventing her from feed- ing well, and from giving that quantity of milk which she would otherwise furnish. The principal thing to be ob- served in the construction of calf- pens is the laying of the floor, which should be made of laths or spars, about 2 inches broad, laid at the distance of an inch from each other, upon joists, so as to make the floor above 1, 2, or 3 feet from the ground, as the situation will admit. This not only keeps them dry, by allowing the moisture to pass immediately away, but has the advantage of admitting fresh air below the bedding, and thereby preventing that unwholesome, disagreeable smell too often found among calves. 513 C AL C AL Stalls, or divisions, are but seldom made in calf-pens ; it would, however, be much better to keep them separated, as by that means they will be more easily fed, and much less liable to accidents. Partitions, about 3 feet high, of thin deal, nailed on small posts, might be so contrived as to be movable at pleasure, to increase or diminish the stall if necessary, according to the age and size of the calf. This may be done as represented in plate M 17, fig- If which is the ground plan of a double calf-pen for ten calves: a is the door; b, the passage betwixt the pens j c, c, c, &c. are the pens, showing the situation of the partitions ; d, d, d, d, are four joists, in which are several holes, as shown on the plan, for receiving iron pins at the bottom of the partitions, to keep them in their places ; e is a window or door, besides which there should be some other win- dows or air-holes, as high up as possible. If it be thought un- necessary to make the partitions, there might oe a small round trough, in a circular frame, fixed in the corner of each pen, as at/, for holding the milk, and a door in the next adjoining corner. The troughs should be round, that the calves may not hurt themselves upon them, which probably they might do on the angles, if the troughs were square. Fig. c 2 is a section of these pens, in which r, r, show the position of the racks. The advantages of this kind of calf-pens are, that the calves are all kept separate in a small compass, and cannot hurt each other, as the stronger ones sometimes do the weaker when confined promiscuously; their food also may be much more easily and equally distributed when not suckled. 514 To the above descriptioi >f Mr. Beatson we may add, E Mr. Marshall, speaking of \e rural economy of Gloucester » observes, that the house or ri )- Btead, in which the calf-pe iS placed, is about 12 feet by : 4 feet of its width being occu d by the stage, and 1 foot t a trough placed in its front, lea g S feet as a gangway, into e middle of which the door op. The floor of the stage is for nl of laths, about 2 inches sqi e. lying lengthwise of the si c, and 1 inch asunder. The fty fence is made of staves, an i and a half in diameter, 9ii.es from middle to middle, and 3 et high, entered at the bottom to the front bearer of the M (from which cross-joists pas? to the back wall,) and steadit at the top by a rail, which, as as the bottom piece, is erred at each end into the end 11, The holes in the upper rai ire wide enough to permit the s es to be lifted up and taken 01 to give admission to the calves ne of which is fastened to ry ■second staff, by means otH rings of iron, joined l?v a su i; one ring playing upon the 4i the other receiving a I leathern collar, which is bu round the neck of the calf. Caliber, or calliper. Th i* meter or greatest extent o'iny round body. It also denoUm widen of the bone of a pi' ordnance. Caliber compasses. Comj with arched legs, to take th meter of concave or c< bodies. Caliducts. This word rived from calor, heat, ami' 1 ■ I lead, and signifies a kind of Per edge, so as to form a lily on each side from the of their length, lieams w t|; description are used in truntied roots, being covered " »oards, and the boards »vci I with lead, to discharge the rain-water towards each end of the platform. Came rated. The same as arched. Camks. Small slender rods of cast lead, 12 or 14 inches long, of which the glaziers, by drawing them separately through a vice, make their turned lead. Camp ceiling. See Ceiling. Campana. The body of the corinthian capital, otherwise, from its figure, called the vase or bell. Campanile. From the Italian campana, which signifies a bell. A tower allotted for bells. In Italy it is customary to hang the bells in towers that are separate from the churches, and not to hang them in steeples upon the churches as is practised in England. Some of the campaniles, or belfries, of Italy, are very lofty and magnificent ; and of these, that of Cremona is the most celebrated, being 395 feet In height. This structure consists of a square tower, which rises 262 feet, surmounted by two octagonal stories, open to the air, and ornamented with columns; a conical shaft and cross termi- nate the elevation. The campa- nile of Florence, built from the designs of Giotto, though exhi- biting vestiges of a barbarous taste, must still be admired for its richness and the superiority of the workmanship. It is a tower of 267 feet high, on a base of 45 feet square. The great elevation of these buildings, combined with the narrowness of their basis, has occasioned considerable settle- ments in many of them ; the most remarkable of these is that of Torre Pendente at Pisa. It is of a cylindrical form, surrounded with eight stories of columns placed over one another, each 515 CAN CAN having its entablature. These columns are of marble, and seem to have been taken from the ruins of ancient edifices. Each column carries the springing of two arches j and there is an open gallery between the columns and the circular wall of the tower. The height of the last story of columns, which forms the belfry, retires from the general line of elevation : the height to the plat- form is 150 feet; and a plumb- line lowered thence to the ground falls nearly 13 feet beyond the base of the building. Canal. A duct or pipe, through which any fluid is conveyed ; for example, the canal of an aqueduct is that part through which the water passes. In ancient aque- ducts the canals were lined with a coat ot mastic. Canal. This word is some- times used for the flutings of a column or pilaster. Canal of the volute. In the ionic capital there is a spiral channel, or sinking on the face, commencing at the eye, and ex- panding in width until the whole number of revolutions are com- pleted j this is called the canal. In the Athenian temples of Mi- nerva Polius and Erechtheus, (see plate A 1*2) are several of these canals, commencing and ending in the manner above described. Canal of the larmier. A channel, or groove, recessed on the soffit of the larmier upwards, to prevent the rain-water from run- ning down the bed or lower part of the cornice. See Beak. Canardiere. A small turret, guerite, or sentry-box, made either of wood or stone, and sometimes erected at the salient angles of works to serve as a shelter for a sentinel. Formerly canardieres were constructed on castles to secure the warriors 516 from danger while they disch I ed their missiles. Cancelli. Latticed wmd^j or such as are made with tS bars of wood or iron: also ie balusters or rails which com n a court of justice, commum- table, or the like. Candelabrum. Stands, or % ports, on which the anci | placed their lamps. Can del -a were made in a variety of sh; | and much taste and elegance re displayed in their constrnctic Cano, Alonso. A distingui >d individual who, from excellir in the three arts of architect, sculpture, and painting, was c d the Michael Angelo ot Spain, le was born in 16*00, at the ci ot Grenada. Having studied ie principles of architecture u er his father, an eminent architejf his native city, he next dirfl his attention to sculpture, I disciple of Pacheco of Se I and afterwards applied himsdto the art of painting in the ac;u I of Juan del Castillo, the. pai 1 in the same city. Besides my fine pieces which he execute I the public edifices of Sevillt he also practised sculpture, and m two colossal figures of St. ■ and St. Paul, cf such peculiar cellence that the Flemish alB are said to have visited Sevi'in order to have an opportumw copying them. Claiming IP birth, and possessing a high sft his first productions were gr H* tous. In consequence of a qup with Sebastian de Lianas an eminent painter, which termii ed in a duel, he was obliged tOP Seville; and in the suite oft Count-duke Olivares, as wijfo under his protection, he we to Madrid, where he was soonp- pointed first royal architect, k|> painter, and instructor to he prince, Don Balthazar CP* CAN In vis situation he acquired dis- tin^ished reputation as an archi- tect, sculptor, and painter. His however, excited jealousy tndenvy, and he was charged witl plagiarism in the composi- tion;^ his pieces. But another i ) |nstance occurred which was ill mu( more injurious to his pros- : . Upon his returning home vening, he found his wife 11 Ted, and his house pillaged, d 1 Italian journeyman miss- :. The magistrates, disco- ri ;• that Cano had been jealous t s Italian, and that he was Jed to another woman, i d him with the murder, induced him to make a ; eel retreat. He fled for refuge 1 lencia, but was soon be- ,\ by the practice of his art: n sought an asylum in a rt.i-ian convent near that city; [ ing deterred, by the dread i i austerities, from taking the ordc lie returned to Madrid, • c he was apprehended, and deli red to the torture in order i . act a confession. Having wilted the rack without self- n ation, he was again taken a o ivour by the king; and with n< to his future security, he oljta ed the Clerical office of re- idejjary of Grenada. In this u; hi he enriched the churches i nadn and Malaga w ith many nbgs and sculptures. But i been refused the payment U pistoles by a counsellor of - eyia for an image of St. An- thorj of Padua, he dashed the main pieces on the floor of his Kadfny. This sally of fury in- '< * the chapter of Grenada to wsp opy. A magnificent co- vering for an altar, throne, tribu- nal, pulpit, chair, or the«like. See Baldachin. Also the label or pro- jecting moulding that surrounds the arches and heads of gothic niches. Cant. An external angle, or corner, of a building. Cant. A term among carpen- ters, signifying to turn a piece of timber which has been brought in the wrong way for their work. Cant-moulding. A moulding with a bevelled surface. See Moulding. Canted column. See Column. Cantaliver. Blocks of wood or iron, which are placed at regu- lar distances, projecting at right angles from the surface of a wall, to support the eaves of a house, or the upper mouldings of a cor- nice. Cantaliver is, therefore, essentially the same with modil- lion ; but the latter word is con- fined to t he description of regular architecture, while the former has a general and trivial use Cantharus. A fountain or cis- tern in the middle of the atrium before the ancient churches, wherein persons washed their hands and faces before they en- tered. 517 CAP The cantharus of a fountain, among the Romans, was the part or apparatus out of which the water issued. It was made in divers forms, sometimes in that of a shell, at other times, in that of an animal, &c Canthki*. or < antkrii. Beams of wood, in the framework of a roof, extending from the ridge to the eaves ; corresponding to the rafters of a modern roof. The word canterii was also applied to mean two inclining reeds, fixed in the ground, some distance asun- der, and meeting at the top, for the support of vines. Canting. The cutting away a part of an angular body at one of its angles, that the section may form a parallelogram, whose edges are parallel from the intersection of the adjoining planes. Canting stairs. See Stairs. Cantoned. When the angles of a building are adorned with columns, pilasters, rustic quoins, or any thing which projects be- yond the naked of the wall, it is called a cantoned building. Cantoned columns. See Co- lumns. Cap. In Joinery. The upper- most part of an assemblage of parts, or that which crowns the whole. In this sense, the term is applied to the capital of a column, cornice of a door, &c. &c. Capacity. In Geometry. The solid content of any body. Capeduncula. Vessels where- in the ancient Romans preserved the sacred fire of Vesta. Capital. From the Italian capitello, or Latin caput, signify- ing head; so that the etymology of this word defines its meaning, the capital being the head of a column. The capitals used in the archi- tecture of the Greeks, though with numberless minute varia- 518 CAP tions of ornaments and pn, r . tions, arrange themselves to three general classes, and L the most obvious distinctio L tween the orders. In this | also it is easy to distinguis be- tween those parts which L their use and origin in thj ri- ginal type of that wooden in- struction, from which Gr ft architecture derived, and L which are merely ornants and accessaries. Considerin o- lumns in their origin as dp. drical wooden posts, the ab U which is a square tile or t; et, has an evident use in shelt -n^ and protecting the upper p of the column by its projection nd also by giving a broader bei nd more convenient form foi he placing of the architrave, he abacus, therefore, iqpy be re; ti- ed as the original capital, \ ch is most conspicuous in that ler which bears the marks o k highest antiquity, attenu itei nd altered in succeeding order mi succeeding ages, but never on ed either in the purity of Gn.in architecture or its deterio ed imitations. In all the orders, an ast:a and fillet, or one or three chai h, separate the capital fron he shaft ; and these are always n sidered as part of the colum The doric capital, whicbre- serves more of the primitive pe than any other, is extremely m, but its simplicity is not mW beauty. It consists of a l ad and massy abacus, an ovolovler the abacus, from three to ive fillets under the ovolo, and m these a neck called the frit of the capital. In the ionic capital the is great invention and a parti .lnr character displayed; imleedM much so, that it never foi t0 distinguish itselfc even or ^ CAP n st slight and careless observa- ? t$>. It consists of a small and nulded abacus, below which d end to the right and left two S f il volutes ; it has also an cdnus, which is not unfre- qintly enriched, and a bead. he corinthian capital is most ri ly ornamented, and differs eatemely from the others. In 1 tli. the abacus is hollowed, form- in a quadrilateral figure with cu t ::ave sides, the angles of which ar generally truncated. Some- i tii|!S the abacus is enriched, but if m e frequently ornamented with i nver in the middle. Below ;k th abacus, the capital has the hi of a vase or bell, surrounded . i two tier of leaves ; which, bek selected from the most e tiful of the vegetable crea- t tic . give^t an easy and fine prjection. Under each angle of thubacus springs a volute ; and unlr the flower in the centre of MX abacus there are caulicoli. 1 hancients, however, sometimes ;d the ornament in the centre of e abacus : an example of this ii was in the porch of Septimius, wl *e, instead of a flower, there waan eagle holding a thunder- nil ho ) the capitals above enume- rate in which are displayed so n i of Grecian elegance, the Hc ans have added two others, th( uscan and the composite. ith regard to the tuscan caj al, there are no authenticated renins of the order, and the pr< t jpts of Vitruvius on this head arc t so very obscure, that the morn compilers of systems of arqtecture have of course varied exodingly in their designs ; the ore, therefore, that passes under thi| name, must be regarded rat r as a modern than an an- cie invention. It has been made to fFer from the modern doric, IT AL. by an air of poverty and rudeness, by the suppression of parts and mouldings. But though the tus- can capital is plain anu simple in the highest degree, it well be- comes that column whose charac- ter is strength. As the tuscan capital is of all capitals the plainest, so is the composite capital the most ela- borately finished. It is, as its name imports, a composed order, formed by an union of the ionic and corinthian, and never appears to have been admitted by the ancients to be a separate order ; it consists of a vase or bell, a first and second row of leaves, with some small shoots, a fillet, astragal, ovolo, four volutes, and a hollowed abacus with a flower in its centre. From the remains of Egyptian antiquity, it appears that the architects, confined to the severest simplicity in the general form of their buildings and principles of construction, acknowledged no given rules or orders of architec- ture for the proportions and orna- ments of inferior members. Ac- cordingly, we find an infinite variety of capitals, many of them possessing great richness of deco- ration and elegance of outline. The ornaments are in general accurate imitations of the natural productions of the country, such as the lotus, the reed, or the palm. The temples of the ancient inha- bitants of Hindostan, works of dateless antiquity, present many capitals of extraordinary form and composition. In some of these we find represented the figures of elephants and horses, apparently couching under the weight of the ceiling. Capitals very similar in ideas to these are also found in the ruins of Persepolis : they are composed of horses and camels. As Roman architecture sunk 519 CAP into the degraded and barbarous style, known in this country by the name of Saxon and Norman, which was finally superseded by the mode commonly called Gothic, ancient rules were forgotten or despised, ornaments were aban- doned to the caprice of the carver, and an endless variety of capitals were produced, more or less happy according to individual taste or barbarism. Variety, indeed, seems to have been the governing prin- ciple of decoration, and was pur- sued to an unmeaning excess, in contempt of symmetry, propriety, and congruity. (See Supplement.) Capital, angular. See Angular Capital. Capital of a baluster. One similar to that of the tuscan or doric order. Capital of a lantern. The covering which terminates the lantern of a dome, either in the figure of a bell, as that of the Sorbonne, or of a cupola or a spiral, as that of the church of Sapienza at Rome. Capital of a triglyph. The projecting band above the plain vertical area or face. In the Grecian doric, the capital of the triglyph projects only a short distance, and is not returned on the Hanks, except at the angular triglyphb, and this only upon each face of the building : in the Roman doric, it has a greater projection, and is returned with the same projection on the flanks as in the face. Capitol. A celebrated rock, or hill, at Rome, whereon stood many ancient edifices. It derived its name from a man's head being found there while digging the foundations for the temple of Jupiter. The capitol was anciently both a fortress and a sanctuary. A fortress surrounded with preci- 520 CAP pices, bidding defiance to all means of attack employed in cient times • a sanctuary crowi 1 with altars and temples, there sitory of the fatal oracles, seat of the tutelar deities of empire. Romulus began grand work, by erecting the tt pie of Jupiter Feretrius ; Tare nius Priscus, Servius Tullius, . Tarquinius Superbus continu. ; and the consul HoratiusPulvel , a few years after the expulsioi f the kings, completed it, wit i solidity and magnificence, s$ Tacitus, "which the riches of s - ceeding ages might adorn, t could not increase." It wash t during the civil wars betwi Marius and Sylla, and reb t shortly after 3 but again destrod by fire in the dreadful contest f t took place in the^eiy foil itself, and on the sides of e capitoline mount, between e partisans of Vitellius and Ve& sian. However, the capitol l e once more from its ashes, Vh redoubled splendour, and rece d from the magnificence of Vem sian, and his son Domitian, s last and most glorious emboli.* ments. The edifices in site d destination were probably ne ( the same as before the conllai • tion • but more attention was j to symmetry, to costliness, » above all, to grandeur and ma i- ficence. The northern enlr; c led under a triumphal arch the centre of the hill, and to e sacred grove, the asylum ope d by Romulus, and almost the cr I* of Roman power. To the ri t, on the eastern summit of the 1, stood the temple of Jupiter Fl* trius • to the left, on the wesP summit, was that of J'i] jr Custos : near each of these t ¥ pies were the fanes of inf< )r divinities, that of Fortune, M that of Fides, alluded to by Ci< * CAPITOL- In ie midst, to crown the pyra- tni formed by surh an assem- ble of majestic edifices, and at l( ame time to afford a becom- inoesidence for the guardian of the empire, the father of gods anuf men, rose the temple of Jujler Capitolinus, on a hun- dre steps, supported by a thou- n pillars, adorned with all the refitments of art, and blazing ,-. it the plunder of the universe. In e centre of the temple, with Jui on his left, and Minerva on his ght, the Thunderer sat on a thne of gold, grasping the glfning in one hand, and in the wielding the sceptre of the umrse. 1 the midst of these magnifi- nstructures, of this wonderful disfiv of art and opulence, stood forces the humble straw-roofed e of Romulus, a monument of imitive simplicity, dear and arable in the eves of the Ro- The cottage vanished in the irst conflagration : but not thecottage only, the temples, the mers, the palaces, that once sur'undeJ it, have disappeared ; n< >f all the ancient glory of the ij il nothing now remains but tholid foundation, and vast sub- struions raised on the rock; and eve its very name is almost lost I ! semi- barbarous appellation of | mpidaglio. i present the capitoline mount c»ered with buildings, far in - feri}-, without doubt, to the im- peril edifices above described, Outlet of grand proportions, and fas magnitude. The northern, stil he principal entrance, is an eashscent, adorned with a marble balkrade commencing below, wit two immense lionesses of Egf'tian porphyry, pouring a tor nt of water into spacious bass of marble, and terminated ab(3 by statues of Castor and 3U Pollux, each holding his horse. At this place is the entrance into the square, in the centre of which stands the well-known equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius ; and in front, and on each side, are three extensive buildings, erected by Michael Angelo. The Museum Capitolinum contains, in several large rooms, a most splendid col- lection of busts, statues, sarco- phagi, &c. bestowed by different popes and illustrious personages on this magnificent cabinet, de- voted to the use of the Roman people, or rather of the literary and curious of all nations. Anciently there were two ways from the capitol to the forum; both parted from the neighbourhood of the Tabularium, and, diverging as they descended, terminated each in a triumphal arch, that of Tiberius to the west, and of Severus to the east : of these arches the latter only re- mains. 'I he descent at present is a steep and irregular path, wind- ing down the declivity from the senators' stables, without any regular termination. The tra- veller, as he descends, stops to contemplate the three corinthian pillars, w ith their frieze and cor- nice, that rise above the ruins, and preserve the memory, of the temple of Jupiter Tonans, erected by Augustus as a monument of his preservation from a thunder- bolt that fell near him. A little lower down, on the right, stands the portico of the temple of Con- cord, built by Camillus, consisting of eight porphyry pillars, with capitals and entablature of irre- gular ionic. To account lor this irregularity, it is to be remem- bered, that the edifices on the sides of the hill shared the fate of the capitol, in the contest which took place between the parties of Vespasian and Vitellius, 521 CAR CAR and were rebuilt shortly after by Titus and Domitian, and after- wards by Constantine. Hence the word M restitutum" in the .'nsoription, and hence the want of regularity in some parts of the buildings, which being monuments of republican Rome, did not per- haps enjoy the favour of the em- perors. The triumphal arch of Septimus Severus is nearly half buried in the ground. Eustaces Tour through Italy, 1813. Capreoli. The struts or braces of a trussed roof, in ancient car- pentry. Caracol. Is sometimes used to denote a staircase in the form of a helix or spiral. Caravansera. A large public building, or inn, in the east, destined for the reception of tra- vellers, and the lodging of cara- vans. The caravanserai are huge square buildings, with a spacious court in the middle of them. They are encompassed with gal- leries and arches, under which runs a kind of banquette, or ele- vation, some feet high, where travellers rest themselves, and make their lodgings as well as they can ; their baggage and the beasts that carry them being fast- ened to the foot of the banquette. Over the gate there is frequently little chambers, which the caravan- seraskier, or keeper, lets out at a very dear rate to such as wish to be retired. Though the caravanserai serve in lieu of inns, yet there is this essential difference between them and our inns, that the traveller finds nothing at all in the caravanserai either for himself or his cattle, but must carry all his provisions and necessaries with him. They are chiefly built in dry, barren, desert places, and are generally furnished with water from a great distance, and at a 522 vast expense; there being no i j. vansera without its well of w r There arc several of thenjin cities ; where they serve not b as inns, but as shops, warehoijg and even exchanges. Carcass. The shell or ril a house before it is lathed plastered, or the boards are 1 Carcass flooring. See AM Flooring. Carcass roofing. See Ro< Carpentry, &c. Cardinal scapi. In J? ( Joinery. The stiles of doors. Cariates, or cariatides. Caryatides. Carina. A term in ancien' o- man architecture, for buiklin in the form of a ship. Carnedde. In British .ti- quity. Denote heaps of s ic, supposed to be druidical rem is. and thrown together on occ; >u of confirming or conunemorng a covenant. Carolitic column. See o- lumn. Carpenter. An artificer, vv se business is to cut, fashion, id join timber and other \voo( or the purposes of building, be word is formed from the Frch charpentier, which is de etl from charpente, which sigres timber. Carpenter's rule. See k Carpenter's square. MB Square. Carpenter's work. See » suration. Carpentry. The art of em] y- ing timber in the constructs d edifices. Though carpentry is uncs- tionably of very high antic; ty, our information with respe<> its history is short and sc.tv. and Pliny and Vitruvius ire the only ancient writers p this subject, whose works m reached modern times. Thf.b- CARPE 3 vations of these authors, being c etlv confined to the choice and Jlisg of timber, are of no use a to the constructive part, and ii rely demonstrate that such an a then existed. The remains of Egyptian archi- Kture present, perhaps, the only e mple of a complete system of biding without the use of tim- h , while, at the same time, u ics and vaults were unknown j fcmany Roman edifices, as the ptheon, temple of peace, &c. n ,lit be quoted, which, by means auks, are independent of car- p try. In the Egyptian con- slietion, however, flat roofs of nisy stone were used, which it u necessary to support by thick -i avenues of columns, arranged at mall equal distances over the \v>le area. This form, though i siiciently striking and pictur- le, was of course incommodi- ov, and only adapted to a dry cliate. A pediment roof, there- foj, was the first effort of con- st ctive carpentry : this answered th purpose of an effectual shelter bvhrowing off the humidity of v th skies ; at the same time that th rafters, in connection with the | tr sverse beams of the ceiling, , fo ied a truss which would be n lually improved, and thus give tli means of covering a wide p e, without any other support thji the external walls. he invention of pediment roofs sus naturally to Greece, where th member was an essential part >i rchitecture. Besides forming* ros, the Greeks appear to have usj! carpentry in the framing of flc|*s, and for rustic buildings m other purposes. But in a M n climate, abounding with fctye and marble, it is not pro- >a|te that wood was much used in ne internal finishing of any ces, except for those objects N T R Y. wherein lightness and tenacity are essential Qualities, as doors : though there are some remains of marble doors. Among the Romans, the use of wood was much more common ; and they appear to nave applied the art of carpentry to nearly the whole of the purposes common to the moderns. In more modern times, the art of carpentry has been much culti- vated j and the works of Palladio, Serlio, De VOrme, Moulineau, Perronet, and Sir ( hristopher Wren, exhibit many admirable specimens. At the present time it has begun to assume a scientific form j and, in England, the accu- racy and celerity of execution of the workman are unequalled. The art of employing timber in building is divided into two grand branches : carpentry and joinery. The first includes the larger and rougher kinds of work, and that part which is material to the con- struction and stability of an edi- fice ; and, generally, all the work wherein the timber is valued by the cubical foot. The second includes all the interior finish- ing and ornamental wood- work, and is valued by the superficial foot. Carpentry, or that branch which is now to claim our attention, is divided into three principal heads, viz. constructive, descriptive, and mechanical. Of these, descriptive carpentry shows the lines or methods for forming every species of work in piano, by the rules of geometry : constructive carpentry, the prac- tice of reducing the wood into particular forms, and joining the forms so produced, so as to make a complete whole, according to the intention or design : and me- chanical carpentry displays the relative strength of the. timbers, CARPENTRY and the strains to which they are subjected by their disposi- tion. These three branches will be particularly developed under their respective heads. It being our intention, in the present article, to trace carpentry through the several stages of its improvement in England ; and by that means make the reader acquainted with whatever is valuable and worthy of transcription in the works of such authors as have preceded those of the present day. The first English writer, in point of time, that we have met with on this subject, is Godfrey Richards ; who, at the end of his " Translation of the First Book of Andrew Palladio," published in 1676, writes thus : — " Of roofs. — Rules and instruc- tions for framing all manner of roofs, whether square or bevel, either above pitch or under pitch, according to the best manner practised in England. *' Also to find the length of the hips and sleepers, with the back or hip mould, never yet published ed by any architect, modern or antique; a curiosity worthy the regard even of the most curious workmen, exactly demonstrated in the following rules and designs, by that ingenious architect Mr. William Pope, of London. " Having raised the walls to their assigned height, and made the vaults, laid the joists, brought up the stairs, and performed all those things spoken of before, we are now to raise the roof, which embracing every part of the building, and with its weight equally pressing the walls, is as a band to all the work ; and besides, defends the inhabitants from rain, from snow, from the burning sun, and from the moisture of the night j adds no small help to the building, casting off fro the walls the rain water, whit although for a while seems to t but little hurt, yet in process time is cause of much damag The first men (as saith Vitruviu built their houses with flat roo! but finding that thereby they we not defended from the weath( they (constrained by necessit began to make them ridged, th is to say, raised in the middl these roofs are to be raised to higher or lower pitch, accordii to the country in which th are : wherefore, in Germany, j reason of the great quantity snow that falls there, they ra; their roofs to a very great pitc and cover them with shingh which are small pieces of woo or of thin slate or tiles ; for they would raise them other\vi< they would be ruined by reas< of the weight of the snow. B| we who dwell in a more tempel ate country ought to choo such a pitch which may secu the building and be of a han some form ; therefore, we divi the breadth of the roof into fo equal parts, and take three, whi makes the most agreeable pit for our country, and is the foun ation for raising any manner roof, whether square or bevel, appears in the following desig and descriptions. "Plate 13. Carpentry. 1 manner of framing a floor, with i names of each member. " 1 . The thickness of the w and lintel, or wall plate ; and it be in timber-work, then a brt summer. • "2. The summer. "3. Girders framed into t summer. "4. Spaces between the jois "5. Joists. « 6. Trimmers for the chimn way. CARPENTRY. Trimmers for the staircase, oivell-hole, for the stairs. Of the design. Plate 14. Ctvenlry. — A A, the breadth of th house, cantilivers, cornices, ar eaves. A B, the length of the raft- in; and furrings, which ought to*e one-quarter of the breadth othe house A A. The principal rafters to be cut wi a knee, (as in the design,) thj they may the better support thnselves and the burthen over thn, upon the upright wall, and al secure that part from the dr ping in of the rain ; which ofrwise would happen if the raers were made straight and fu'ed. The beam to the roof, or . er to the garret floor, ought o rojeet without the work as far asie furring or shredding, which is e projecture of the cornice. This manner of framing the ro will be useful from 20 to 30 fei or thereabouts. 1. Ground plate. 2. Girder or -binding inter- |uk or bressummer. 3. Beam to t he roof, or girder to le garret floor. 4. Principal post and upright br'k wall. 15, Braces. 6. Quarters. 7- Interduces. B. Trick post or window post. 9. Jambs or door posts. 10. King piece or joirgle piece. 111. Struts. T2. Collar beam, strut beam, wi 1 beam, or top beam. 13. Door head. 14. Principal rafters. 15. FurringS'or shreddings. 1G. Ends of the lintels and Mra. 17. Bedding moulding of the corice over the window s, and ?pi2 between. " 18. Knees of the principal rafters, which are to be of one piece. " 19. Purlin mortises. " Design of the gabel end or roof. Plate 15. fig. 1.— -Let the whole breadth of the gable end roof be 20 feet, divide the same into 4 equal parts, take thereof 3 for the principal rafter, and placing that perpendicular from the point C to the point D begets the length of the sleeper A D, which w ill be 18 feet ; and the length of the dormer's principal rafter from A to E, when laid to its pitch upon the back of its principals, will reach to level line F B, or top of the principal rafter ; and this is a general rule for all breadths. " 1. Summer or beam. "2. King piece, crown post, or joggle post. " 3, Braces or struts. " 4. Principal rafters. " 5. The sleeper. " 6 Purlin of the dormer. " 7- Principal rafter of the dor- mer. "8. Single rafter of the dormer standing on the sleeper and purlin. " 9. Point of the sleeper. "10, 11. Thickness of the wall and lintel, or wall plates. "Of the Italian or hip roof. Plate YZ.fig. 2. — A A, the breadth of the roof, being 20 feet. " A B, the length of the sleep- ers or hips, being 18 feet, which is proportionable to the breadth of the house. "E D, the height of the roof perpendicular. " C D, the length of the hip, and the angle which it maketh upon the diagonal line, which is snowed by the prick line G, from F to C. « 1, 2. The wall and lintels. " 3. Dragon beam for the hip to stand on. CARPENTRY. " 4. Beam or summer, wherein the dragon beams are framed. " 5. King piece or crown post. "6. Struts or braces, from the crown post to the hip rafter. "7- Hips as they make the angle equal to the breadth of the house. "S. Hips as they make the angle in the diagonal line from corner to corner. " 9. The additional length which the hips make upon the diagonal line more than the breadtli of the house. " Of flat roofs. Plate 16. Jig. I, — Within a camber beam and rafters joggled in, whose weight lyeth not chiefly in the middle, and may be so made, that, with- out hanging up the beam, the principals may discharge the weight j and how drips may be made to walk on. " 1. Camber beam. " 2. Principals joggled into the camber beam. " 3. The place where the prin- cipals are joggled in. " 4. Puncheons or braces. " 5. P>rips to walk on, and may be made with the less current, that the roof may be made the more pitch for strengthening thereof j and may be made higher or lower according to the build- ing or discretion of the architect. " 6. B;ittlement. " Fig. 2. A flat roof with a crown post or king piece. " Of the hip roof. Plate 16. Jig. 3. Instructions to find the length and back of the hip, so as it may answer the side and the end of the perpendicular line of the gable end, the two skirts, the side of the roof in piano, or lying in ledgement with the hip and gable end, the diagonal and perpendicular lines being laid down proportionable to any breadth or length, by which the most ingenious may serve himself, and an ordinary capacity {already 526 acquainted with the use of the n and compass) may plainly dem strate all the parts of a roof, whet bevel or square, above pitch or un pitch, by lines of vroporlion, as n appear in tne design following. " Suppose the roof "20 f broad, and in length 30, 40, • 50 feet, more or less. Let A , CD be the sides and ends of said roof, one end to be hipt, I other a gable end. Draw lines A B C D the breadth ; . length of the roof; then draw gable end ABC, whose sides j principal rafters being three-qu • ters of the breadth of the hou; then draw the perpendicular!: E F, the height of the gable e, which line is of general use to le 1 the ridge of all roofs j and if I other end be kept as in the des i D C G, then it serves to find I length of the hip, and the b;; of the hip, so that it may ansv both sides and ends of the rc , always observing that the mid; of the breadth of the house is) I H then draw the line K I f through the centre I, which \\ make right angles to the \\ E F H G, both in bevel square houses; then extend i line A B on both sides to O. be I the length of A E or E B, I length of the principal raft« , or three-quarters of the house;;) will O N and O K make the leiu of the rid^e I F, and K D and ( J the two skirts. " To find the length of the i — Draw the diagonal line 111 and I C,. over which the hip if hang when in its due place, tj take the perpendicular line a and place it from the point 1) P P, perpendicular to the diago 1 or base lines D I and I C, a, . So is I P and J P the pitchjf the hip equal to the gable ii E F, and, when erected, will bf perpendicular to the point . CARPENTRY. Tin take P D, the hypotenuse f ,e triangle D I P, and C P, (hehvpotenuse of the triangle ( [',' placing them from D to G, : to G gives the length of ip'D G C, and when laid to pitch, will all meet perpen- |gfei ir to their point I. bevel at one end and neat the other, the gable end f/r/ie, and the bevel end hipped. Plc\ 17. Jig. 1. — Suppose the bre.lth of the roof 20 feet, the :ti h more on one side than the "tli', as in the design ABCD, the draw the gable end AEB, whie side, from A to E and from E t B, is one-quarter the breadth oft: house, or is the length of the pri ipal rafters ; then draw the per-ndicular E F, the height of thei-oof from the floor ; and if kml l, then from the top of the kn(t as in the design of a kneed rati,- beforegoing. 'pie sides of the roof, which "i" s the ridge G H I K, to be dran as is described in the fore- goir design. 1 divide the breadth of the *orin two equal parts, as F L Q, thatake the distance L N, which is the half breadth of the house, and make it parallel to C Q D, as M L M and L will be the point whose perpendicular, O T, will meet the principal rafters and hips. " To find the length of each hip distinct from each other. Of the longest hips. — Draw the diagonal line L C, and take the height of the gable end E F, and place it perpendicular to L C at O : so you have the height of the roof perpendicular from O L equal to E F> the gable end ; and line O C will be the length of the hip raf- ter, which will be equal to C H, the skirt for that side of the hip, and C P the side of that hip end. " To Jind the back of the longest hip C O. — Lay the ruler from the point M to Q, and mark where it cuts the diagonal line at R, then set one foot of the compasses at the point R, and extend the other foot till it touch the line C O at the nearest distance, then make it touch the diagonal line at S, then draw the lines M S Q, which is the back of the hip for that corner of the roof. "To find the shortest hip.— Draw the diagonal line of L I) and take E F, the perpendicular of the gable end as before, and place it from L to T perpendicular to L D, then draw the line J D, which is the length of the hip for that corner, and is equal to the skirt D I, and the side of that hipD P, which, when erected, will meet with the other principals perpendicular to the point L. " To Jind the back of this hip. — Lay the ruler from the point Q to the point M, and mark where it cuts the diagonal line L D at V. Extend the compasses from the point V, to touch the line T D at the nearest distance, and carry that distance on the diagonal line to the point Wj then draw 527 CARPENTRY. the pricked I ; nes M W Q, which will make the back of that hip fit for that bevel corner. And this rule serves for all bevel roofs, whether over or under pitch. " Of a roof bevel at both ends, and broader at one end than the other. Plate \7-fig 2. — A BCD, the length and breadth of the house. "E F G, the length of the rafters or pitch between the widest and narrowest end about the middle of the house, to stand over the pricked line T T, as the foot F to stand on the one T foot G to stand on the other T. " H H, the point of the two hip ends, when brought to their due place, will be perpendicular to P P, and will meet the sides I K L M over the points P P. "OOOO, the points of the perpendiculars and length of the hips from ABCD. " Q Q Q Q, the backs of the hip or hip mould to each corner. "RRRR, the points to find out Q, the point for each back. tf S S S S, the lines represent- ing half the breadth of the house, parallel to each end. " T T, representing the middle of the house. "Notwithstanding the bevel ends you may place your beams for your principal rafters to stand on, square, or so near a square as may be, or between both, as from the ends of the pricked lines I K L M, bringing the outside of them straight under P, which will be more handsome for the house In the inbide, although it bevels outward." The preceding comprises the whole of the information con- tained in Godfrey Richards's work relative to carpentry. In the ex- planation to plate 13, we are made acquainted with the names of the several timbers which constitute a floor, and the manner in which 528 in they are disposed : n the ex nations to plates 14, 15, and the manner of framing a r< and in plates 16 and 17, is shi the manner of finding the len* | and backs of the hips, a> at sent, which discovery he g< rously ascribes to Mr. Pope. In modern buildings, wher the same things are used, same names are, with but 1 exceptions, retained. Of t exceptions, however, we < briefly take notice. The i; duces are now called inter the word prick-post has superseded by the terms j A, with the other describe >e arch or quarter of a circle A CARPENTRY. an from the point D craw D F, pefendicular to D B, and equal to:' A or AC, and another as from B, likewise equal to D and draw the line F E, which wilbe parallel to D B. This Dei? done, divide A B into a iuer of equal parts, not ex- eeeW two inches and a half, S n< h rough the divisions of them 1 dra lines parallel to A C. to ie! toufr the arch C B, which conti- imout to the line D B, and this lim vill be likewise divided into Iheame number of equal parts B is. Lastly, from the di- lute visits of the line D B draw lines riel to D F, and, in each of r the , from D B, lay off its respec- uvtparallel (from A B to the the ir.arcj C B) and at the points wheat they end, stick small ild nai or pins, and take a thin lath, i anilbend it round the nails or n observing that it touches the all, and with a pencil or any it Miii else proper to make a mark deslibe the arch F B, round the Ig of the lath ; and this is the c or the angle or mitre bracket. "'late 18. fig. 2.-1/ the lesser t| ( arch of an irregular groin be a '( semicircle, it is required to . rrjj larger one (not a semicircle) so t\t the intersection of these two irck shall beget, or make the 'l ine of the angle to hang mdicular over its base ; as also i to WW that arch-line of the angle. " irst draw the lines A B and 1 to represent the walls from pi vOmce the arches spring, and Ira the line C B, and on the n i C describe the semicircle A Bp and divide A C into any ii er of equal parts, from " e draw parallel lines to C I to touch, or come to the arctV E C, and if those parallels are ontinued out to the line H'.hey will divide it into the «aui number of equal parts as 3X A C is j and if from each of the divisions of this last line parallels to A C are drawn, they will divide the line A B into the same num- ber of equal parts as A C or C B is divided into. This being done, continue A C to I, so that A I be equal to E f, and continue D B to K, so that K B be likewise equal to E f, or A I, and draw the line I K. Moreover, at the points C and B raise the perpendiculars C N and B O to C B, each of the same length as E/, or A I, or B K, and draw the line N O. Lastly, from the divisions of AB, draw parallels to A I, (that is, continue the parallels drawn from the divisions of the line C B, to the line I K,) and from the divi- sions of C B parallels to C N. Then set off the heights or lengths of each of the parallels In the semicircle of A E C, upon the correspondent parallels to A I and C N, and stick in nails whereat they terminate ; and if a lath be bent round thorn, so as to touch them all, and a pencil be moved round the edge of it, the arches A H B and B M I will be found, which was required to be done. '* Note. — The pricked lines in this and all other examples of this kind, show that one parallel line has a relation with the other. For example; the lines fE,gh, and I M, are all equal to one another ; so that if the three arches A H B, A E C, and C M B, were raised perpendicularly upon the lines A B, AC, and C B, and a line drawn from H to M and another from M to Ej then would the line H M be parallel to and di- rectly over the pricked line b g. In like manner, the line E M would be parallel to and directly over the pricked line f b. Under- stand the same of the other paral- lels and pricked lines in this figure and any others of the like nature. 539 CARPENTRY. " Plate IS. fig. 3. — Having one centre given for an unequal-sided groin, to form the other, so that the intersection thereo f shall produce the angle, or mitre 'arch, to hang perpendicularly over its buse : and moreover to draw the curve thereof " Draw the lines A B and B D, and D C and C A, each equal to one another, to represent the walls from whence the arches spring, and on the line A B de- scribe the given arch A F B. This being done, divide the line A B into any number of equal parts, from whence raise perpendiculars to A B, to touch the arch A F B, and draw the diagonal lines A D, and C B. Then take the line E F, and set it perpendicular to the lines A C, A D, C D, C B, B D, from A to O, from A to I, from C to P, from C to S, from C to L, from 1) to K, from D to T, from D to V, and from B to M, and from B to Z, and draw the straight lines O P, I K, S T, L M, and Z V. Now divide the base lines D B, D C, C A, A D, and B C, each into the same number of equal parts as A B is divided into ; and from the points of division draw parallel lines to touch the lines OP, ST, V Z, C M, and I K. Then take the lengths of the per- pendiculars to A B, drawn to touch the given arch A F B, and set them off in the correspondent parallels, drawn from the points of division, of the several bases upwards, and the arches B y D, D v C, C q A, Ah D, and CnB, will be described as in the fore- going example, (plate IS, fig. 2,) whose heights xy, w v, r g, g h, and g n, are each equal to E F, as likewise all the other corres- pondent heights from the bases to the curves that are formed. "Plate IS. fig. 4.-— " The arch- line of a targe ceiling or vault sup- posed to semicircular being given • .530 how to form the curve of a h • arch, that sliall intersect the thereof, to give way for door windows, so that their insersec shall produce the groin to h perpendicularly over its buse; also to form the curve line there f4 First draw the lines A B, 1 D C, and C A, to represent walls from whence the an spring, and describe the two g jjj semicircular arches O A B, C J i, and in the line DB set off ( e span of the intersecting arehf'n v to t. This being done, se' tf the height you design to raise ie lesser arch v z u, from g infgj line A O B, perpendicularl y touch the arch in h, and from :o R, and t to u, and draw the ie R u, which halve in the poi | and draw the -line z y paralkto v R or t v. Then strain a ie or lay a straight rule fro h through g towards x ; as ft from z through y, towards x, id these two lines will cut one | ther at x, from whence to ie points v and t draw the line * and x v. Now set off g h | pendicular to x t from x to to id from t to s, and draw the fl w, and divide g B into any i ft ber of equal parts at plea e, from the divisions of which, ■ perpendiculars to g B, to t B the arch BOA. between he points B and h, and divide \ and y t, the halves of the has i /.. each into the same numbe ol equal parts as g B is di ■■ed into ; as likewise the base k and from the points of di* 011 draw parallel lines to touch |W lines u R and s w. This W done, take the length of thep that were drawn from the p of division of B g, perpen ; ;u- larly to touch the part B h, m arch B O A, and set them < H> the correspondent parallels W y to v R, and from y t to z i CARPE liVwise from xt to w s. Then if t the extent of each line, as v') set it off in the parallels, you [t i in nails, as in the foregoing gxfcples, and bend a thin ruler abit them, you will describe the so;ht arches v z t, and w t, Avlreof v z t is the true inter- Being arch, and w t the curve [J of the groin that is corres- pondent thereto. ifter the very same manner the 1 anes k m z and kp are drawn. Plate 18. Jig. 5. — How to form a sucircular niche with ribs, as is usk when it is to be plastered. First, describe the semicir- cu£ plate, A C B, as also the i circular front rib, A D B, 1 1 to it, and fix the plate, A C B, a\ in the place where it is to : nue, and upon it set the rib, A D B, perpendicular q 13. This being done, de- re the quadrantal ribs DC, 1) : D G, and D H, each equal to D or B D, and place them k t eight inches and a half from smother on the plate ACB, 1 C, E, F, G, and H, so as to : me in one point, at D, on the on of the front rib, AD Bj lis! anc'hus is one half of the work iris fini ed. And after the same maner may the other be done. ' low to form an elliptical niche, \ uilnbs for plastering. Plate 18. an fm, 7, 8. 1 irst describe the two figures 7 ; il 8, k n m being a semi- I ell" is, representing the plate whjeon the ribs stand, and being iqu to A D B or A e B. The , priced lines, / n, I o, I p, I R, mini, represent the base lines oft' ribseD,/D.g-D,/iD,iD, and.i Dj so likewise do the lines >' t, t, s w, s x, and s y, and the permdicuUirs at, b u, c v, d w, ix,hd f y, do represent the ris- mfirMf the ribs e D, / D, g D, n I) D. and B D, which is equal N T R Y. in length to CD; observing that within those lines the different arch of each rib is to be descrid- ed, viz. the arch s a is a quad- rant of a circle, having t for its centre, and is equal to the arch of the rib e D. The lines u s, s z, equal to z b, bu, are the semi- transverse and conjugate axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch, s /> is equal to the arch of the rib J D, which may be struck either with a trammel, or oy the intersection of lines. Moreover, the lines s z, s v, equal to v c, cz, are the semi- transverse and conjugate axes of a semi-ellipsis, whose arch is equal to the arch of the rib g D, and so of the rest. Now having the ribs all ready, set the front rib, A D B, perpendicular on the plate A e B, as at A B, and fix the feet of the short ribs on the plate A e B, as at ef g h i, which correspond with the points nop q r and their points a b c d e, to the crown of the front rib at D ; and thus may you finish your work." The work that next comes under our consideration, is Smith's " Carpenter s Companion," published in 1733 ; and, though he presents us with nothing new, his observations are, in general, very judicious, and worthy of being transcribed. His introduction commences thus : — " The usefulness of carpenter's work in building, and the little notice taken of it by authors who have treated of architecture, and the few there be that rightly un- derstand it, prompts me to write the following treatise. " Carpenter's work is one of the most valuable branches of archi- tecture; itwas contemporary with the first ages of this world ; with the knowledge of this art Noah closely and firmly connected those 531 CARPENTRY timbers together in the ark, which were so nicely wrought, that they not only kept the waters from penetrating into it, but was proof against the tempest and the rolling billows, when in its womb it carried all the tenants of the earth and air. *' Those naval preparations through all ages of the world, as well as those stupendous temples and edifices erected in all coun- tries, demonstrate the perfection of this art. The innumerable floating buildings, which roll from one country to another, through tempestuous storms, tost from the mountain'sheight to the depths of the ocean, without injuring the vessel, evidently show the vast use and judgment of carpenter's work. ** But as that branch of it, as relates to templar or domal uses, is the subject of this work, I shall only treat of its usefulness in them ; and I may venture to affirm, that carpenter's work is the chief tie and connection of a building, it is the ligaments which bind the whole together. " The bond-timbers which strengthen and tie the angles of a building, and prevent its sepa- rating, is the work of the car- penter j lintelling over doors and windows, with other discharge- ments of weight, is his care to perform. " Bond-timber in cross-walls, when settlements happen, if they are well applied, prevent the cracking of the walls, for that keeps the whole together, and every part settleth alike, which would fill the buildings with gaps and chasms if neglected. " Next for floors ; the rightly framing them by trussing the girders by placing them on joists, so that they come near no funnels of chimneys j the manner of te- 53a nanting, tusking, framing of tr . mers, stairs, &c. 1 say, all th » is the business of the carper j| to see carefully performed. " Partitions of timber, th manner of trussing to prev t racking, settlements, &c. and » discharge of weight of gird*, beams, or cross- walls, is car - ter's work, as is, likewise, » framing of timber bridges. " Roofs of various sorts r common houses, large edifit , or churches, their manner f framing, the height of their pit , their strength, usefulness, . with the various manner of j - forming all these works, is I subject of this treatise, whicl have rendered intelligible to evp capacity, by designs of every s , and have described them in s i a manner that will render e work useful to carpenters, i particular such who are ur- quainted with the manner of { - forming these operations f framing. " If it should be objected, it there are few things here treril of, but what every carpeir knows, I could wish such j jectors had been at the pair I have taken to inform the wol> since I reap no advantage fra it, but the satisfaction of comi - nicating any thing which u prove serviceable to my coun - men. I therefore conclude, fi'e est inventes addere." And am, yours, &c. James 6m» " The first thing which a r- penter must consider, for e carrying on a building, is e plan in which you are to pre] c your timber, in having it cut o proper scantlings, which shal e hereafter noted. " You are to prepare for W telling and bond-timbers j * CARPENTRY. liriils over doors or windows, 3 of 5 inches thick, and 7 br>d, and it is a slight way of milding to put in any of a le; scantling; as for doorcases, th" manner of making, and sc; tlings of stuff, it is needless to 3eak of ; it is the best way to ha? them put in when the foun- dajns are brought up high en?igh for them. Bond timber shJild be dovetailed in the an- glj of the building and cross- m s, as represented in plate 19, I % and 3 ; and here note th: it is a durable but expensive wl to have all fir timber which id in the walls of a building to >e pitched, with pitch and ht se mixed together; the quan- tity grease one pound, to four ■fitch; all these things are the ca of the carpenter. Bond-timbers should be 4 or i inches thick for cross- was, and in the angles of a billing, 6 or 7 inches, and pnortionably broad, 6 or 8 fet long, in each wall, and it weld not be amiss to place them • 8 feet distance all the he int of the building, in every inje and cross-wall ; these, if a baling be on an unfirm foun- da'm, cause the whole to settle toother, and prevent the cracks an ' ractures which happen if this be fglected. U'e come now to the floors, in liich these things are to be rved: the magnitude of the ''), the manner of framing, »n Lhe scantlings of the timber j for he first you are to observe to la> ie girders always the shortest w;i and not to have a joist, 1 iy time, exceed 12 feet in lerth. The first and common me- th( of framing floors is, as in ph \9 y Jig. 4, marked A, where th«'joists are framed flush with the top of the girder. The two cross joists, a and b, are called trimming joists ; that marked a is supposed to be against a chim- ney ; that marked 6 is the stairs; these joists are always thicker than common joists, being weak- ened by mortising. Scantling of joists, when a floor is framed in this manner, ought to be as followeth. Common Joists. Length Scantling in feet. in inches. 5 7 x 6 7 x 8 7 x «2|- 9 8 x 3 10 8 x 3j 11 8 x 3j 12 9 X 4 Trimming Joists. Length Scantling in feet. in inches. 5 7X3 6 7 X 4 7 7x5 8 8 x 4 9 8 X 5 10 9 X 6 '* These are such proportions as will render the work suffici- ently capable of sustaining any common weight. " The next manner of framing floors is that in plate 18, Jig. 4, marked B, with binding joists ; those six joists, marked 6, are called binding joists, framed flush with the under side of the gir- der, and about 3 or 4 inches below the top of the girder to receive the bridgings ; which are those marked m in the floor, and which lie across the bindingjoists, and are pinned down to them with* pins of wood, or spikes of iron. These binding joists should be framed about 3 feet, or 3 feet 6 inches distance from one 533 CARPENTRY. another, and their thickness 4 or 5 inches, or in proportion to the length of their bearing as trimming joists. k * These floors, if they settle out of a level with the building, are made level when after the bridg- ings are put on, which is gene- rally after the building is covered in and near completed ; they are generally double tenanted, as re- presented in plate 20, Jigs. 1, 2, 3, 4. The common tenanting is, as Jigs. 5, 6, 7, 8. That part of the floor marked D, plate 19, Jig. 4, are the same joists, with ceiling joists tenanted into them, the binding joists are chased, and the ceiling joists, marked n, are te- nanted into them, and put in generally after the building is up. These ceiling joists should be about 13 or 14 inches apart, and the scantling 2 and 3, or 3 inches square j and in large build- ings 3 and 4. As for the bridg- ings which lie on the top of the binding joists, they may be placed 12 or 14 inches distance, the scantlings 3 and 4, or 3j and 5., their bearing being only from binding joist to binding joist, which is 3 feet, or 3 feet 6 inches, and these are laid even with the top of the girder to receive the boarding. " I come now to speak of girders ; and first, for their scant- lings, take these proportions. Length Scantling in feet. in inches. Breadth. Depth. 10 8 X 10 12 8J X 10 14 9 X 10J 16* 9J X 10| 18 ](> x 11 20 11 x 12 22 lll X 13 24 12 X 14 " And here observe, that as 534 every weight added to the we i\ of the timber in the floor i if occasions it to settle, the gi > r should be cut camber; if JL feet bearing, half an inch cL ber, if 20 feet an inch, &c n proportion to the length 6fL bearing. " And further to strengthen e girder, and prevent its sagging s it is called among workmen, a is, its bending downward, 1 hi in plates 20 and 21, given sevd ways of trussing girders, wlh have been most of them practi { There are two sorts in plate , Jigs. 6 and 7, that I never saw y where performed. " The manner of trussing tl e girders is, first, to saw thegii r down the middle the dee, t way ; then take two pieces of y oak, about 4 J or 5 inches and 4 inches thick ; let half e piece be let into one side c girder, and half into the others in plate 20, Jig. 13, marked I, which are the two trusses. 14 is another way, which is v cutting the girder through, I driving a wedge against the es of the trusses, as wedge d. W a these are thus prepared, fa them together with iron b and keys, or much rather a sc v at the end of the bolt : Jigs. 1 t 2, plate 21, are other waysj'f trussing. "Some carpenters cut t|r girders down the middle and It them together without trnssi , only changing the ends differ t from what they grew, when the grain of the wood is croslj and it becomes much stron r than it would if it had contin d without sawing down the midr, and thus putting it together. " Some in trussing of gir< a make use of other trusses, a|fc plate 21, Jigs. 2 and 3, with L - ment, as Jig. 5, marked B. m • CARPENTRY. pteZl you see those two trusses I Soke of, Jigs. 6 and 7, of my iiention, with one inverted arch; I impose that to be of iron, nrked A, which is let into the Uses; the upper arched one I t;e to be of great strength, tlugh the trusses are inverted j fc; the pressure being upon an an, whose butment is good, I thk a great weight can no way o< ision the bending the girder. F 4 is a girder cut camber, but n« trussed. The girder being thus trussed ai put together, proceed in fram- ir 1 the joist, as in common floors; tl strongest way being double tt mting and tusking, as is before shvn in the bending joists, plate DO. Before 1 leave this plate of fl'rs, I shall observe to you, tl the best and most workman- li manner of framing floors, is tdplace all the upper edges of joists straight, for the slighter ami truer your joists In the truer your boarding will la| which is a great ornament to a magnificent room ; but if you frpe without binding joists, and la >n bridges, plane the bridgings ai lay them very straight and kj:lj this care taken will save a gjit deal of trouble in laying dm the boarding, which you ar often forced to chip and fur up tcjnake them lay even, and those filings are not only troublesome bi are apt to give way, and occa- ; the creaking of the boards as y feet, it is best to put in two tier f purlins in the length of the raftr. In respect to the construct i of roofs for coves, he states, "ti; the use of coving a room o] considerable height is, first, I making it much lighter thar: would otherwise be, if level i the ceiling ; the rays of light i a cove are reflected back agi into the room, which would oth • wise be lost and confused in room with a flat ceiling. " Likewise, all rooms with d cular roofs or ceilings are ml commodious, and useful for tertainments of music j the ang? of incident are always equal I those of reflection, so the undu- tion of sounds flying on any c(! or spherical part of a bniklii reverberate on the audience j n if spherical no part of the spiv: can receive the vibration, bu t will return in the same angle fri whence the undulation first beg . The reflecting rays of light, ail the reverberation of sounds, pi ceed from the same cause, 4 from incidents naturally affecti^ the eye and ear." Having thus made the rear CARPENTRY acq'unted with the information 1 con ined in Smith's " Carpenters i Conanion," it is necessary for us i make a few observations on I the me, that such as are inex- 1 periiced may not be induced to foil/ what is practically bad. L plate C 19, figs, 1 and 2, he I s given two very bad exam- pIes?of dovetailing, which are ryeldom if ever used. In fig. h has shown the method of framg wall plates at the angles. t Thi example, though tolerably goo is, nevertheless, much infe- orp those used at the present . v ind in fig. 4 he has repre- nt! four different, and very fair >ecimens of naked flooring. Pie C 20, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, ! 5, ( 7, 8 show the manner of tenc ng the binding-joists j figs. !C1 9, 1' 11, 12, which he has alto- t^getlf- omitted to describe, are vt ds of lengthening beams ; 1 and gs. 13 and 14 are common * trus s. Of the two former, figs. 3, 79, 10 are the only fair anles; and even these might ' ' be c isiderably improved by the uli >ns and alterations repre- sent; by the dotted lines. Fig. K 3, b< he addition of a step similar » to tl«t in fig. 7 ; fig. 9, by being m> alte^l to the shape represented, 1 he addition of a mortise j t and \g. 10, by being -cut bevel, ■d mortise introduced in the it . We have seen fig. 12 ;i exec ed, but consider both that * sr. 11 of very little value, v 13 and 14 are trusses in i common use. Ii ulate C 21, he has shown i ri s ways of trussing girders, t t one of them of sufficient prac:al utility to deserve our , »Ppr )ation. 1 next work in priority of I time. Price's " British Carpenter ■," ^hit is, upon the whole, much *nor worthy of transcription. 3V This author, after some useful observations in his introduction, treats of the scarfing of beams, the trussing of girders, and the various joints in roofing ; he then proceeds to circular domes, and the method of covering polygonal buildings ; and afterwards treats of the centrings of groins, the methods of covering the parts of coved ceilings, and the nature of oblique and rampant arches. Mr. Price commences thus : "Nevertheless, it may not be improper in this place to mention some general observations. There is a moisture in all timber ; there- fore, all bearing timber ought to have a moderate camber or round- ness, for, till that moisture is in some sort dried out, the said timber will sag with its own weight; and that chiefly is the reason that girders are trussed and used, as in its place will be shown. But here observe, that girders are best trussed when they are first sawn out, for by their drying and shrinking it tight- ens the trusses in them yet more. " Observe also, that all beams or ties be cut, or forced in fram- ing, to a camber or roundness, such as an inch in the length of 18 feet, and that principal rafters be also cut, or forced up to a camber or roundness as before. The reason of this is, that all trusses, though never so well framed, will sag, by the shrinkage of the timber and weight of the covering, and sometimes so much so as to offend the eye of the beholder j by this preparation, therefore, your truss will ever appear well. "Also observe, that all case- bays, either in floors or roofs, do not exceed 12 feet, if possible ; that is, do not let your joists in floors, your purlins in roofs, &c exceed 12 feet in their length or CARPENTRY. bearing, but rather let the bearing be 8, 9, or 10 feet, which should be observed in forming a plan. te Also, in bridging floors, do not place your binding or strong joists above 3, 4, or 5 feet apart, and that your bridgings or com- mon joists are not above 10 or 12 inches apart, that is, between one joist and the other. " Here also observe, never to make double tenants, or tenons, for bearing uses, such as binding joists, common joists, or purlins ; for, in the first place, it weakens very much whatever you frame it into ; and in the second place, it is a rarity to have a draught in both tenons, that is, to draw your joint close by the pin; for the said pin, by passing through both tenons, (if there is a draught to each,) must bend so much, that without the pin be as tough as wire it must needs break in driving, and consequently do more hurt than good." Plate C 22 represents Mr. Price's manner of scarfing, or pieceing of timber together. "In a and b are shown joints for plates, lintels, or timber for ties ; and if for beams, add the bolts as represented in the figures. " Where more strength is re- quired, c, d, e, f are applicable; which last may be done without wasting any of your timber. That of d is suited for an extraordinary use ; for, by its being in two thicknesses, it may be made as strong in a manner as though in one piece. I do not propose to limit the length of these joints ; but only to show their form of being framed or sabled together. " In g, h, i is shown the man- ner of trussing girders that are to bear above 94 feet. " First, cut out two pieces of timber, which together make the scantling proposed, with some W 538 good, dry, and straight grr ?( l English oak, of 4 inches b 3, or 6 inches by 4, as the natu.ot the thing shall require. Let into one piece, as in g, at /, i as tight endwise as it is pos to drive them in ; then cut m cancy in the other half, S which shall also drive on thff h, as tight endwise at / and m it is possible ; lastly, bolt m together, as is shown above nd they are fit for use. " In i is yet a stronger nie' id, because it divides the bed into three equal parts. "As before, let in the pes o, p, o, r ; and at the foot o and e, you may mortise thr.h both flitches, by which you ft with a wedge, tighten the ud girders, when the buiklin is covered in ; which conveniei is worthy of the strictest rcrd, and requires to be well perlmed. " In K is the way pro| ed or taught by Leon Baptist Allrti. Take two pieces or flitches, ng well dried, and turn the bu nd of the one to the top end o :he other without trussing at all bolt or screw them together^ short lines at the ends o the truss represent the walls tcear them when down." Plate C 23 represents hi ine- thod of framing timber tog »er. " At A is the joint of a in- cipal rafter, as d, framed .nto the top of a king post, as ifl is generally framed, as F G. "At B is the joint of aj;rut or brace, as /, framed int the bottom of a king post, as and may be framed, as F G : tp w when timber is scanty; o»h< the best way is at C, hec.- e a square joint takes the fulljirce of the weight; let b be the ^ post, and a the strut or m and framed, as F G. <( In D is shown a di rent CARPENTRY. maier, for variety, and may be fra;?d, asH I; because then the butient on the side of the tenon niaje cut, as the pricked line h; thorn the joint next the eye be as ;i pears at g. ' Let K represent a beam, and I a rincipal rafter: it is to be frail'd, as H 1, for then the but- mep give it a greater strength, n F O is shown the propor- i tenon or mortise ought to 10 the stuff to be made use of, for e aforesaid uses or partitions. ' n H and I is the proportion e tenon or mortise for the use bserved above, "n K and L is shown the pro- r in the tenons and mortises >ors ought to bear to the ip of the stuff to be used ; and n t may not be amiss to ob- s n that I do not insist it ought exactly so, but at the same infhe nearei the better." 11 plate C 24, Mr. Price has i the plan of a house, and the'nanner »f arranging the ' prir'pal timbers. •' onsidering," says Mr. Price, tl difficulties often arise from mi placfg timbers different ways, it letis n pessary to observe how they leiare lie, and also how they shall med. "herefore, here is the plan i ot mouse; in which is shown, e pricked lines, the best waypf placing your principal timlk-s, so as to lie firm j that 1 1 to lay them over doors or wintfws, nor too near chimneys, "I the same time, to have the oai lie all in one way, which gfierally the way that you < ie best vista; as M, N, O. ;cause I would not confuse f ne l'-n, hy showing the manner * ich the floors are to be Irani , observe the Moors of three 1 »/" as P,Q, R. That of Q is calle bridging- floors, as being framed with a binding or strong joist in every 3 or 4 feet distance, and flush to the bottom of the girder ; so that when the house is covered in, you pin down your bindings thereon, flush with the top of the girder : and this is the best way of carcass flooring. That of P and R may as well be framed flush to the top of the girders in each, and have every third or fourth joist the depth of the girder, and those between more shallow. " In T is shown the manner of bridging floors : a and b represent the ends of two binding joists, on which is the bridging d c : into these binding joists are framed the ceiling joists efg. " In V is shown two deep joists of the other floors, or common way, as I m ; and also three shal- low ones, as n, o, p ; and also the ceiling joist, q. And because these deep joists, as well as bind- ing joists, are so prepared as to put in the ceiling joists, when the house is covered in, observe in S, the supposed side of either, with the mortises for the said ceiling joists, as h, a single mor- tise ; and i and k, double or pulley mortises." In plate C 25, Mr. Price has represented a floor, and roof, lying in ledgement ; and in his description observes that, " Every man who frames roofs, does first piece his plates, cock or dovetail down his beams on the said plates, and prepare pieces on which his hips are to stand, as appears in this plan Q, as at YZ. " Then he frames his princi- pals, as R; and likewise his hip, as S, into the pieces prepared for them to stand on : and although all these respectively are framed, for the generality, on the floor, and which in practice is the best 539 CARPENTRY. way, they are here placed by themselves to avoid confusion. " I hope the pricked lines are enough to show that the skirts, T, V, NV,X, are laid out agreeably to the plan Q ; and in which are shown that one purlin lies above the strut, and the other below it; for if all were to lie in a right line, in the first place it cuts the stuff to pieces, so as to weaken it still more, and at the same time you lose your pinning. " Here is shown a method to turn up your hip most exactly true without backing at all ; and is thus : your hips being first framed into the piece they are to stand on, take a broad board, or small panel, lay it on the piece where your respective hip stands, and there mortise it as If it were your beam ; cut off the corner of it, so as to make it more agree- able to your plan, whether square or bevel ; lastly, when you come to turn up your hip in framing the skirts, slip this mould, as Y, upon the tenon at the foot of your hip, and there give it a tack with a nail ; the angles of that board will turn up a hip, as de- sired, and is far preferable to any other method whatever.'' Plate C 26. — " But because buildings must sometimes be bevel, and necessity requires the beams to be laid so, to miss some chimney or window ; therefore let A represent a bevel* plan, and whose beams also lie bevel : I doubt not but the pricked lines will show how much each prin- cipal rafter must lie bevel, at the time of framing; and that is, just as much as half the beam does, that the rafter stands on j the skirts B, C, D, E are the same way shown as before. " The method described in plate C 25, with oeing separate- ly applied, will turn up each 540 hip, and also each princil rafter. " I hope it will not be ts ill, my saying that a man mus 1 deprived of sense, who would q into this almost endless torm t, of cutting his timbers all bt I unless some unavoidable nev sity require it, such as at observed." Mr. Price next proceeds o treat of roofing, and the mod rf constructing timoer bridges, e y which he enters upon the I struction of circular domes, id shows, for the first time, w their purlins are to be square Plate C 27'.—" Of what is hitherto been described, not ig appears so beautiful when de, as domes, or circular roofs ; I as far as I can perceive, not ig has appeared so difficult in d If, e ; anil it is coved one- Wrtbf its height, as m b. The ■W {ime or panel being g h ; ie tjirter-circle, m g, is divided into eight equal parts, which are transferred to P j so that m, g, h, I, is the face of O, as stretched or extended out, on which any thing proposed to be described therein may be truly performed. " In Q is shown the plan of a niche or dome : if a niche, let it be demanded to be veneered with walnut-tree, &c. If a dome, let it be required to be covered with boards or lead. Divide it into any number of parts, as here into nine ; which transfer to S, as ap- pears from k to I. Describe the section also, as R, being a quar- ter circle, which divide into any number of parts, as here into five, as is shown in the figure from h to i ; which transfer in the plan Q, from a to f ; middle some one division, as from 4 to' 5 j then take those distances from R, and transfer them to S, as from /to 5; so that each division is halved or middled, as f a, f a, &c. ; on these lines place the distances from Q, as at e d c b, to 1, 2, 3, 4, in S; and these will form such curves as shall meet. " N. B. The more parts it is divided into, the better and truer it will be performed. u In T is shown the plan of an elliptical niche; its section is the same. In the plan T is shown the thickness of the ribs, (suppos- ing it to be prepared for plaster- ing,) as ikl m n. The manner of forming their several curves, as U, W, X. Y, Z, is best done with a trammel. Some of these ribs must be sloping, so as to require the mould to be shifted, as has been before shown in plate C 27. " Such things as the construc- tion and use of lines, are not con- ceived by every one ; therefore, because I would omit nothing that I think would prove useful, I have inserted several more ex- amples of tracery, the knowledge 543 CARPENTRY. of which seems indispensably ne- cessary. " That of T is a regular semi- circle, as a, b, c ; from which is traced the raking (or rampant) on Uj that of VV is a regular ellip- sis, as d e f; from which is traced the raking one X ; that of Y is a regular segment, (or part of a circle,) as g, h, i ; from which is traced the raking one Z j the manner whereof being so plain, a farther explanation seems need- less. " As to the particular use of these kind of arches, I must leave to the determination of the cu- rious, and have nothing farther to say on that head, than that if occasion require either of them to be executed, there is no other true way to describe them. " That of A is supposed to be the mitre bracket of a cove, whose projection is 6, c; and the height thereof is a, b; the curve being a segment, or part of a circle, let it be demanded to trace a curve from it, as B, which shall be agreeable thereto, if applied as a common bracket j e, d, being its height as before, and e, f, its projection, first divide the given curve, being A, into a number of parts, or if you make points thereon promiscuously it is equal. From these divisions or points, drop perpendiculars to some straight line, as that of a, c, ob- serving their meeting with the said line a, c, and for practice, take off all these distances on a lath (or rod) applying the proper end thereof to the projection of the common bracket B, being/; observing where the other end passes through the perpendicular line e, d, as at g, there raise per- pendiculars (long enough) from the said points j then draw the line d, f. Lastly, transfer the distances, as from the straight 544 line a, c, in A, to the figu to that of d,f, in B, which, no djbt inspection will explain, more cially if the letters and figui be duly observed. " And for variety view ;he figure A again, and admit it ere the curve of a common bn.et, let it be demanded to tnii a mitre, or angle bracket fnl it, as C 5 g, h, being its heig as before, and h, i, its proje on, (as to the method of findir.jthe projecture of either, no ;abt but every one knows it,) talithe line as a, c, in A, which inp> tice (as was before observl) I suppose to be on a rodonth, with its divisions or points ! it, and which transfer to C, a ll > to the line t, r, as 1,8, 3, and also perpendiculars to the 1 U** CARPENTRY. M a 6, 7, 8 ; and (because an exa )le for finding the projective qfftl angle or mitre bracket may- be r equ; oft! and „_d) observe to make r u to r s, so is w s the projective said angle or mitre bracket, ie points will be w, x, y, z, It by transferring this said line rith its points, as before, to l! B, afalso those of the height, as ,'Sefol, draw perpendicular and ,Dase|nes, as no doubt inspection jbovl. Their meeting gives the %hap«of the bracket as desired * mil pis also may serve as a w ;tani>rd rule in any case. As to " c ihiftfg this mould (in practice) 1 ! o ash give the said angle bracket • ts tn; back, there seems to have eII >eenjnough said in plate C 27. m .,"bte. The principal curve '"'Ueinjjformed on any plain super- ^■icieait may be taken off on a M1 ilh, 5 before was observed, and piy itrie required curve may be ' 1: esci[>ed on a piece of slit deal, lC :c. da width equal to what the ■Orchises from a straight line, il*rith i allowance of wood capa- Me o i old i u g it together. M 'Jat of ¥ is a plan, or speci- a f circular groins, whose ter is a b c d, an example of lie! may be seen in St. Cle- fntf Danes, in the Strand, and iiMiisevi al other circular buildings, nd ilmy opinion it is a curiosity pwortll of regard. To find the lan |f these groins do thus : i, ividlrom a to d, and from a to tu* inf a like number of parts, iil int-ten ; the lines a b, and d continued, meet in a ointlsg, being the centre of the urveja d, and b c; divide also *om to d, into ten parts, which eingdrawn to the centre g, ividfr the line 6 c into the une imber of jiarts equally ; so •Wt h meeting of these lines ' the! Ian of the groins, as a, e, P«ncl, c, d, and their upright 3Z is H, I, K, L, each being from the semicircle a b, in g, (being the principal curve j) as to the method whereby it is done enough seems to have been said of the foregoing examples to explain it ; the letters of reference show plainly what part of the plan each curve belongs to, which being bent agreeable thereto, will strictly correspond with each other. " N. B. If the principal curve had been a segment, (or part of a circle,) or an ellipsis, the method of performing would have been the same. " This plan would be difficult in performance if required to be ribbed with timber for plastering j but if to be centred for brick- work, it would be much easier, because the centres might be placed as from the line a b, to that of e d, as in a common vault. The curves of each centre would be different on account of its being taper, but the height is equal j these centres should be boarded as others are, the boards requiring to be taper only. "To make the groins so as to hang over the plan, the sides a, b, c, and c. (/, e, must not be centred as usual, but have ribs agreeable to the plan, and placed horizontally, so that the boards would stand as it were upright, as in domes, which was explained in the foregoing plates, which show the method for rinding the curvilineal form of any ceiling. " N. B. The foregoing plates must be well understood in order to describe, on the centres first boarded, the accurate curve of the groin, which can be done by no other method than is here shown. "If this plan were to be exe- cuted with ribs of .timber for plastering, then the groins must be performed by the methods as will be hereafter inserted ; for 045 CARPENTRY. the twisted rails of staircases, on At the end of his work J account of their plan not being Price has given the follow a regular curve." tables for the scantlings of tim A TABLE FOR THE SCANTLINGS OF TIMBER. A Proportion for Timbers of small Buildings. . . , Bearing Posts of Fir. Height. Scantling. Bearing Posts of Oak. Height. Scantling] If 10 feet 6 in. s 12 8 14 10 Girders of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 16 feet 8 in. X 11 in. 20 10 . . X 12J 24 12 . . X 14 Girders of Oak. Bearing. Scantling If 16 feet 10 in. x 13 in 20 12 . . x 14 24 14 . . x 15 ! Joists of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 5 in. x % in. 9. 6i. x 21 12 8 . . X 21 Joists of Oak. Bearing. Scantlinj If 6 feet ... . 5 in. x 3 i; 9 7J. . X 3 12 10 . . x 3 Bridgings of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 4 in. x 2^ in. 8 5 . . X 2j 10 6 . . X 3 Bridgings of Oak. Bearing. Scantlin If 6 feet 4 in. x 3 i 8 51. x 3 10 7 . . x 3 Small Rafters of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 8 feet .... 3J. . X 2j in. 10 41. . X 21 19 51. x 21 Small Rafters of Oak. Bearing. Scantlin If 8 feet .... 4lin. x 3 i 10 5±.. x 3 12 61. X 3 Beams of Fir, or Ties. Length. Scantling. If 30 feet 6 in. x 7 in. 45 9 . . X 81 60 12 . . X 1 1 Beams of Oak, or Tie- Length. Scantlii If 30 feet 7 in. X 81. 45. ! 10 . . X 111 60 13 . . X 15 — Principal Rafters of Fir. Length. Scantling. Top. Bottom. If24ft. 5,in.x 6. . 6in. x 7 in. 36. . 61 . x 8. . 8. . x 10 48. . S . . X 10. . 10. . x 12 Principal Rafters of Oak Length. Scantii Top. Bottor If 24 ft. 7 in. x 8.. Sx 9P 36. . S . . X 9. . 9X 10 48. . 9 . . X 10. . 10X n 546 CARPENTRY. A TABLE FOR THE SCANTLINGS OF TIMBER. A Proportion for Timbers of large Buildmgs. Bearing Posts of Fir. Height. Scantling. Bearing Posts of Oak. Height. Scantling. 12 12 Girders of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 16 feet 9jin. x 13 in. 20 12 . . X 14 Girders of Oak. Bearing. Scantling. If 16 feet 12 in. x 14 in. 20 15 . . X 15 24 18 . . X 16 Joists of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 5 in. X 3 in. 9 7i-- X 3 12 10 . . X 3 Joists of Oak. Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 6 in. x 3 in. 9 9 . . X 3 12 12 . . x 3 Bridgings of Fir. ' Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 4 in. X 3 in. 8. • 5J. . X 3 10 7 . . X 3 Bridgings of Oak. Bearing. Scantling. If 6 feet 5 in. x 3 J in. 8 61 . x 3i 10 8 . . x 3* Small Rafters of Fir. Bearing. Scantling. ?f 8 feet 4j. . X 3 in. 10 5|. . X 3 12 6j. . X 3 Small Rafters of Oak. Bearing. Scantling. If 8 feet 5 Jin. x 3 in. 10 7 . • X 3 12 9 . . x 3 , Beams of Fir, or Ties. Length. Scantling. 1 30 feet 7 in. x 8 in. 45 10 . . X ll£ 60 13 .. X 15 Beams of Oak, or Ties. Length. Scantling. If 30 feet 8 in. x 9 in. 45 11 . . x 12J 60 14 . . x 16 Principal Rafters of Fir. Length. Scantling. Top. Bottom. 24 ft. 7 in. X 8. . 8 in. X 9in. ; 36 . . 8 . . X 9. . 9 . . X 101 48 . . 9 . . X 10. . 10 . . x 12 Principal Rafters of Oak. Length. Scantling. Top. Bottom. If 24 ft. 8 in. x 9. . 9 in. x lOin. 36 . . 9 . . X 10. . 10 . . x 12 48. . 10 . . x 12. . 12 . . X 14 Ml CARPENTRY. ** Although," says Mr. Price, (t this table seems so plain, as to need no explanation, it may not be amiss to observe some parti- culars, such as that all binding or strong joists ought to be half as thick again as common joists : that is, if a common joist be given 3 inches thick, a binding joist should be A\ inches thick, al- though of the same depth. " Observe also, that if conve- niency do not allow of posts in partitions being square, in such cases multiply the square of the side of the posts as here given, by itself : for instance, if it be 6 inches square, then as 6 times 6 is 36, consequently, to keep this post nearly to the same strength, find some number that shall agree thereto ; as suppose the partition to be 4 inches thick, then let your post be 9 inches the other way, so that 9 times 4 is 36, being the same as 6 times 6j so that the strength is nearly the same, although being equal in its squares is best for strength. " Posts that go to the height of two or three stories need not hold this proportion, because at every floor it will meet with a tie j admit a post was required 30 feet high, and in this height were three stories, two of 10 feet, and one of 8. Look for post of fir of 10 feet high in the table, their scantling is 5 inches square, that is 25 square inches j which double for the two stories. And take also that of 8 feet high, being 4 inches square, that is, 16 square inches, all which being added together, make 64 square inches ; so that such a post would be 8 inches square. On occasion it may be lessened in each story as it rises. *'I do not insist that the scant- lings of timber ought to be ex- actly as by this table expressed, 548 but may be varied in some n spects, as the workman shall s< fit. The reason of its being ii serted is, in consideration of t\ scantlings of timber, as former settled by act of parliament, ar which, if compared, will pro\ the necessity and use of th table. " As to plates on walls, ( bressummers to support walls, do not find that they can con into any regular proportion as tl rest do, therefore must be left I discretion. " And as I have herein descril ed a great variety of the princ pal things requisite to be know by every carpenter, I shall coi elude this part with my wishi that it may prove as useful as m earnest endeavours have been I make it so." The author, whose works wi next come under consideratioi is Mr. Batty Langley. In h " Builder's Assistant," publishc in 1738, he has the following : " Of trussed partitions. — Win partitions have solid bearin; throughout their whole exten they have no need to be trusse< but when they can be supporte but in some particular place then they require to be trussc in such a manner that the who weight shall rest perpendicular upon the places appointed t< support, and nowhere else ; partitions are made of differei heights, to carry one, two, i more floors, as the kinds buildings require. " The first things to be coi sidered in works of this kind, the weight that is to be supporte the goodness and kind of timb that is to be employed: and prop scantlings necessary for that pu pose. "The strength of timber general is always in proportu CARPENTRY. the quantity of solid matter it mtains. The quantity of solid latter in timber is always more less, as the timber is more or s heavy ; hence it is, that all avy woods, as oak, box, maho- Iny, lignum vita, #c. are stronger Ln elder, deal, sycamore, %c. jiich are lighter, or (rather) less avy, and indeed, for the sirae Lon, iron is not so strong as i el, which is heavier than iron ; ;d steel is not so strong as brass « copper, which are both heavier 1 m steel. To prove this, make ! o equal cubes ot any two kinds (timber, suppose the one of fir, fe other of oak: weigh them f gly, and note their respective i ights ; this done, prepare two pees of the same timbers, of rial lengths, suppose each 5 f t in length, and let each be til up as nearly square as can I. but to such scantlings, that t weight of a piece of oak may I to the weight of the piece of / as the cube of oak is to the we of fir; then those two pieces I ng laid horizontally hollow \ h equal bearings, and being 1 tied in their middles with in- ( used equal weights, it will be s n, that they will bend or sag e sally, which is a demonstration t t their strengths are to each er, as the quantity of solid utter contained in them. ' As the whole weight on par- ens is supported by the prin- 1 d post, their scantlings must 1 h first considered ; and which old be done in two different mners, viz. first, when the <; i ters, commonly called studs, a to be rilled with brickwork, ;i rendered thereon j and lastly, W :n to be lathed and plastered o both sides. When the quarters are to be fi d between with brickwork, tl thickness of the principal posts should be as much less than the breadth of a bfick, as twice the thickness of a lath ; so that when those posts are lathed to hold on the rendering, the laths on both sides may be flush with the surfaces of the brick- work ; and to give these posts a sufficient strength, their breadth must be increased at discretion ; but when the quarters are to be lathed on both sides, or when wainscotting is to be placed against the partitioning, then the thickness of the posts may be made greater at pleasure. The usual scantlings for principal posts of fir, of 8 feet in height, is 4 or 5 inches square ; of 10 feet in height, 5 or 6 inches square ; of 12 feet in height, 6 or 7 inches square ; of 14 feet in height, 7 or 8 inches square of 16 feet in height, from 9 to 10 inches square. But these last, in my opinion, are full large, where no very great weight is to be supported. As oak is much stronger than fir, the scantling of oak-posts need not be so large as those of fir ; and there- fore the scantlings assigned by Mr. Francis Price, in his treatise of carpentry, are absurd j as being much larger than those that he has assigned for fir-posts. To find the just scantling of oaken posts, that shall have the same strength of any given fir-posts, this is the rule : " As the weight of a cube of fir is to the weight of a cube of oak of the same magnitude, so is the area of the square end of any fir- post, to the area of the end of an oaken post ; and whose square root is equal to the side of the oaken posts required. "The distances of principal posts is generally about 10 feet, and of the quarters about 14 inches, but when they are to be lathed on both sides, the distances 549 CARPENTRY. of the quarters should be such as will be agreeable to the lengths of the laths, otherwise there will be a very great waste in the laths. The thickness of ground plates and raisings are generally from 2^ inches to 4 inches, and are scarfed together as plate C 29, Jigs. 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. *' OJ naked jlooring. — The prin- cipal things to be observed in naked flooring are, first, the dis- position of girders, or manner of placing them in the most secure and advantageous manner. Se- condly, theirscantlings; andlastly, the manner of trussing them, when their lengths require it. " There are some carpenters, who insist that girders should be laid on strong lentils over win- dows', and who fillege that girders being laid on lentils in piers, the piers are endangered at the decay of those lentils. Others insist, that it is best to lay girders in piers, as being the most solid bearings, and that if sound oaken lentils are laid under them, they will endure as long as the brick- work will remain sound. " In buildings, whose piers are narrow at the renewing of lentils, the piers will be endangered in both these cases j for lentils laid over windows must be laid into the piers, on both sides of a win- dow, and which, when taken out, will make large fractures, that will be very little less dangerous than the other, and therefore I shall submit this point to the discretion of the workmen. " Lentils laid in piers between windows, for the support of girders, should have their lengths equal to the breadths of the piers: and those laid in party-walls, or gable ends of building, should be equal in length to the distance that is contained between every two girders. The thickness of lentils should always be equal > the height of two or three cours of bricks, and their breadth i > a brick's length ; so that in ev r of those particulars, they may ; conformable to the brickwork i which they are placed, and ) that which is raised on the, And for the better disposing the weight imposed on girdr, lentils should always be fin t bedded on a sufficient number f short pieces of oak, laid aen the walls, vulgarly called te- plets, which are of excellent i. "Let girders be laid in pit, or in lentils over windows, t will, in both these cases, be col mendable to turn small arc s over their ends, that in case th: ends are first decayed, they n| be renewed at pleasure, withi disturbing any part of the bri • work ; and for their preservat i anoint their ends with meljl pitch and grease, viz. of pitch;, of grease 1 ; and indeed, wi lentils to be covered with pi;i and grease also, it would con- bute very greatly to their du- tion. "It is always to be observ, that the shortest girders bd down, or sag, as workmen tei it, the least, and therefore its always best to lay girders o;r the narrow parts of rooms, ill whose ends should always ha, each, at least 14 inches bearj* in the walls, excepting in Sim buildings, where the front, | walls are but a brick and haljn thickness, when, to prevent | ends of the girders from bei? seen without side, their beari s cannot much exceed 11 inchej to say so thing of the scantlings of be and rafters before I proceed further. Beams. Length. Scantli Feet. Inches 30 6 x 45 9 x 60 10 x 75 10J x 1 90 12 xl Principal Rafters. Length. Scantling at Top. Feet. 24. 36. 41. 60. Inches. 5x6 7x6 9x7 10 x 72 10 x 9 Scantli : at Bott . Inclx 7 x 9 x 10 x 10 X 11 X Length. Feet. 3 . 10 . 12 . Small Rafters. Scantlii Inches 41 x | 5 X 6 X . " How to lay roofs in ledgrm Plate C 30. — This example i;f an irregular roof, whose sevi angles are bevel, wherein f jjy is the plan, 1 1, e, 1 2, k, 1 m and 1 4, o, are the beams or which the principal beams an|) stand. " Let the line c n be the b of the ridge, which is to be pla at pleasure, and let t c, a c i n s, n q be the bases of the fir hips j on the points c g k n er the perpendiculars c d, g f, and n m, which make each eq to the height of the pitch, «' draw the lines d 1.1, d e- } fl%Jf i 13, i I; m 14, m o; which vl be the lengths of the sevel principal rafters. At the poip e and n, erect the lines n r, m and c Vj c b, perpendicular to I CARPENTRY. seve . base of the hips, and each equal i to t heights of the pitch, and , ..drav.hc lines t v, a b, and r s, hich are the lengths of the 1 hip rafters ; make s x, and .,. he sides of the scalenum triarie s x q, equal to r s and q, lso t w and w a, equal to ' 'teal a b, which will complete ' WHgment of the ends. Make 1 isqual to the principal rafter 14 ir and s z equal to the hip 5; Iso make z equal to the priniial rafter m, and q z equal t] hip p q ; also make e ij '" p equato the principal rafter d e, ind y equal to the hip a; a ; also , makiS y equal to the principal rafte,/ 8, and / y equal to the hip ' r. ; ike y \V and y Y each equal to c also W X and Y Z each , jsquafo g k ; also X z and Z r eachjequal to /<: n. Draw the rmoal rafters 12 W, 13 X, and Y, IZ. Lastly, draw in the Irloins c 21, 22, 20, 23, 24, at ^iscrion, and they will complete • thetole letlgment, as required. " the manner of describing angh brackets and hip rafters in whj:ial roofs. — As brackets are usedery frequently in buildings, 1 I sh; therefore show how to find t he c vature of any angle bracket l.by 0: general rule, as follows : •t A, in Jig. 1, plate C 31, llubt a|ont bracket given, whose beig is d b, its projection a b, and - curve a caveto ; and let the suled parts b d represent an an^l )f a building, against which the ( e is to be fixed. " raw the lines a h and h i para)-l to the two sides of the buildg, at the distance of the I»roj( ion of the front bracket, and |iw 7 d the base of the front brack, and fh the base of the <>ngl bracket ; divide 7 c into any mber of equal parts, as at the | ints G, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and draw he ordinates 6, 83 5 9 3 4, 4A 10; 3, 11, &c, divide fc/intothe same number of equal paits as 7 c is divided, which will be done by continuing the ordinatts of 7 c, until they meet h f in the points 6, 5, 4, 3, &c. whereon erect the ordinates I, 13 j 2 12 ; 3, 11, &c. equal to the ordinates 1, 13 2, 12 ; 3, 11, &c. on the line 7 c ; and through the points 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8 /, trace the quarter of an ellipsis, which is the curve of the angle bracket required. " By the same rule, all other kinds of angle brackets may be described. " The curvatures of hip rafters to polygonal roofs, that is, those whose plans are polygons, as the Jigs. 3, 4, 5, 6, plate C 31, are also found by transposing the ordinates of a principal rafter (which must be given) upon the base of a hip rafter. " Suppose, in Jig. 3, ad to be the base, over which the caveto principal rafter c d is to stand, and let a e be the base of a hip rafter. Divide a d into equal parts, and draw the ordinates 2, 1 ; 4, 3, &c. on the line a, cl ; divide a e in the same manner as a d, and on the line a e draw the ordinates 1, 2j 3, 4j 5, 6, &c. and from the point through the points 2, 4, 6, 8, &c. trace the curve of the hip rafter as required. In the same manner in Jig. 5, the principal rafter c d being given, the hip rafter b e is found ; as also are the hip rafters b e in Jig . 6, and c e in Jig. 7, the principal rafters being first given. " To cover or line the head of a niche. Fig. 4, plate C 31. — Let a f c be the plan of the head of a semicircular niche, and complete the circle a f c d. Draw the diameters a b c, and d b f con- tinued out towards e at pleasure. Make/ r, and f s, each equal to 553 CARPENTRY. one-fourth of a f; then/ s will be equal to half a f, and draw the lines h b and s b. Divide b d into any number of equal parts' and draw the ordinates I, S ; 2, 9 ; 3, 10, &c. and on the points where those ordinates cut the semidiameter 6 d, with the radius of each ' semiordinate, describe semicircles, as the dotted semi- circles in the figure. Make ep equal to the curve a f. Make f p equal to a 1, f o equal to a 2, f n equal to a S,fm equal to a 4, f I equal to a 5, f k equal to a 6, and / q equal to a 7. On the point e describe the arches 13, 14 j 11, 12 j 9, 10, kc. Bisect the half part of each of the dotted semicircles, as / c in i, 1 8 in 2, 3 9 in 4, 5 10 in 6,711 in 8, 9 12 in 10, 13 IS in 12, and 13 14 in 14. Make f h, and f g, each equal to half the arch f i ; p 1 and p 2, each equal to half the arch 1 2 ; o 3, and o 4, each equal to half the arch 3 4; and so in like manner, n 5, and 5 6, to half the arch 5 6, kc. From the point e, through the points 12, 11, 9, 7, kc. and 14, 12, 10, &c. trace the curves e h and e g ; then four such pieces, as e h g, will cover the head of the niche, as required. " Note. If the niche have to be lined, then the diameter of the circle, being made equal to the inside diameter of the niche, the lining may be found in the same manner. The same method is also to be used, for the covering or lining of a semielliptical headed niche, as is plainly seen by Jig. S, where every of the same operations is performed on the plan of an ellipsis, and where e h s is the covering for one- eighth of the whole hemispheroid. " As sometimes the niches are made semipolygonal, it is neces- sary to show their covering also, and which is of great use in the 554 covering of polygonal roo M those of banqueting-housoiur. rets, &c. "Let Jig. 5, plate C 3lJ«, plan given, whose princip rib or rafter is c d, and hip 6 e. fa the length of k f equal t the curved length of c d, and aw the lines g a and h a. Dra the ordinates to the principal i; c d on its base a d. Make the ve- ral distances k i, 1, 2 ; 1, or the line k f, equal to the s|:ral parts of the principal c d, a yiev are divided by the ordijtes, making k i equal to the firs|iart from d, 1, 2, equal to thes ind part, 2, 3 equal to the thir &c JLiivide k a in the same prop ion as a d, at the points 1, 5, &c. through which draw righ':ne$ parallel to g h, to terminjiat the lines g a and h a; also thjigh the points 1, 2, 3, in the liiM draw right lines at pleasur anii parallel to g h. Then rc;.ing the lines 1, 7 ; 2, 8; 3, J|&c on the line kf y equal to thanes 1,7; 2, 8 ; 3, 9, &c. on tb|line k a; and from /, throug the points 13, 12, 11, &c. to /i^ace the curve/ h. In the san^eian- ner trace the curve / g. hen the piece f g h, being bend up, and laid on the two hip; that stand over the line ga arjAa, will be the covering for tb;|side of the roof or niche, as req eJ* "Note. The coverings j the two ogee roofs, Jigs. 6 and ^nd the caveto roof, Jig. 3, are/und in the same manner, as is ei^ni to inspection. " Of straight, circular, an, lly tical arches in circular walls. J kb 32.— The first work to bjlone is the making of the cenps to turn these kinds of archesipoij, which may be thus perfjroed. Let G H I K be the pUoi » circular building, and at jj 6 » be required to make a cer e for CARPENTRY. sei circular arch to the win w, vhose diameter without is ; i f M within n m. Bisect a d )sc ,i'/,p describe the semicircle gilts i\ 'Divide a d into any num- l' Wot equal parts at the points f 4 2f>c. and draw the ordinates U 6; , 4; 1, 2, &c. Divide m . to fe same number of equal L fftsimd make the ordinates 6, 4]; j 2, 1, &c. equal to the 6, 6; 4, 4; 2, 2, &c. id t ough the points 5 3 1 A:, c. tee the curve n km, then p dhd n A: m will be the two '! bs r the centre : this being Mle, lace the ribs perpendicular We lines a d and n m, and tverlhem, as centres usually '" e, a! then applying- the edge a lumb-rule to the divers 1 irts ' the inside and outside of e w low's bottom, the top of Jlll e re will give the several ! >int< it which the inside and 1 ttsidjof the covering is to be tt 0. so as to stand exactly er |e inside and outside of 1 bifding, and then the centre ill ^'completed as required. " Jliivide the courses in the arch this indow. — On a flat panel, c. d w a line, as b e, Jig. 7, akej/o equal to the curve c rf,| so make a b and e each |ual p the intended height of e bijk arch. Make / p in Jig. equ to e p in Jig. 6, also make b anfrf e in Jig. 6 each equal to f 7> then the points and f will be the extremes of tifi. Makep r in Jig. 7 equal > b fjlhe given height of the 'ch, d through the points br e (}p describe two semi- 'hpst which divide into courses 5 bef!e taught, and which will e theface of the arch required. ? T\find the angles or bevels oj ^ tfftr part of each course. — Wile the splay- backs of the i&dc m d and n a until they meet in F. On F, with the radius F m and F a, describe the arches n yv and afs, making n y v equal to the girt of the arch n k th. Make n 6, n 4, n 2, n y, &c. on the arch n y v, equal to n 6, n 4, n 2, n y, &c. on the curve n k m, and draw the lines 6 F, 4 F, 2 F, yF, &c; make the ordinates 6, 5 j 4, 3 ; 2, 1 j y x, &c. on the lines 6 F, 4 F, &c. equal to the ordi- nates 5, 63 3, 4 ; 1,2: h i, &c. on the line n m, and through the points 5, 3, 1, x, &c. trace the curve v x m. In the same manner transfer the ordinates 5, 6 ; 3, 4 ; 1, 2 j c, f f &c. on the line a d to the arch s f a, as from 5 to 6, from 4 to 3, &c. and tr ice the curve sea; and then will the figure n y v s c a be the soffito of the window laid out, and which being divided into the same num- ber of equal parts, as the under part of the arch a p 0, Jig. 7, and lines drawn to the centre F, as is done in Jig. 2, to the centre A, by the lines 2, 2, 2, &c. those lines will give the bevel of every course in soffito, as required. Fig. 5 is another example of a semielliptical arch, whose front is Jig. 4. Also Jig. 2 is a third example of a scheme arch, whose front is Jig. 1. And Jig. 8 is a fourth example of a straight arch, which in general are performed by the aforesaid rule. " To Jind the curvature of every course in front. — Suppose the rusti- cated semicircular-headed win- dow, Jig. 9, be standing in the side of a cylinder, whose sides are the lines Q T and P V, con- tinue out the sides of each rustic until they cut the sides of the cylinder in the points Q R S T and NOP, &c. then the lines Q N, R O, Q N, &c. will be transverse diameters of so many ellipses, whose conjugate dia- meters are each eoual to the CARP diameter of the cylinder, which describe as in fig. 10, and draw their conjugate diameters k I, i m and n o ; make the distances o 5, m 3, I 1, on each ellipsis, equal to a g the semidiameter of the window,^. 9, also make the dis- tances 5 6, 3 4, 12, on each ellipsis, equal to g 10 the height of the rustic arch; then the segments of the several ellipses, 5 6; 3, 4 j 1, 2 j at Z X A, will be the curves of the several courses, as required. " Fig. 3 represents the manner of covering the outside of a cone, the arch c a being made equal to the circumference of the circle e, which is equal to the base of the cone : this figure is exhibited here to show, that the soffito of a semicircular-headed window, whose splay is continued all round, is no more than the lower superficies of a semicone ; for if the splay was continued in every part, it would meet in a point, as the lines k d h and i e h,Jig. 8, and form a semicone as afore- said." Having concluded our extracts from Langley's " Builder s Com- plete Assistant," it may be, per- haps, advisable to state, that, though we are indebted to Mr. Langley for some useful disco- veries, as that of the extension of the superficies of polygonal roofs with curvilinear rafters, and the covering of the frustum of a semicone for a soffit in a straight wall, the axis of the cone being at right angles to the plane of the wall, yet many of his deduc- tions are very erroneous. What he has said relative to the strength of timber being in proportion to the quantity of solid matter it contains, is void of all principle, as the very reverse is not unfrequently proved to be the case : and with respect to 556 NTRY. his idea, that the relativejmnt. ling of oak and fir posts jy b e found by the rule, that ' L t he weight of a cube of fir i«, t De weight, of a cube of oak ! the same magnitude, so is tl | area of the square end of any i p os t to the area of the end : an oaken post, and whose iuare root is equal to the side j. the oaken post required," it no less defective and errone's in principle. Plate C 29, figs. 1, 2,^5, 6, 7, S, exhibit various mhods shown by him of scarfir.j for raisings, plates, &c. Of i ese, which bear a strong reseni wee to those exhibited in Sjth's work, Jigs. 1, 3, and 5 ; the only fair examples. Of . 6, and its correspondent Jigk it may be said, that very feweben- ters would work it true; i|eed, carpenters, in order to save em- selves a little trouble, are t| too apt to dish or hollow outmcises, instead of paving that detje of attention to them whiehheir obvious importance deman In the same plate, Jigs. 9 a 1ft exhibit two examples of j.ked flooring, wherein the timbd are so arranged as mutually ti.up- port each other. This k I of flooring had its origin in |aly, and was at one time practijd in England, but being found '^ad- vantageous has been discontjued. Figs. 11 and 12 represerj the section of a girder. In j U the joists, g, add consider^ to the expense without bei; of adequate utility. In plate C 30, he has gijaW a very fair specimen ot jMg roofs in ledgment, in whi lie differs from Price in the di osi- tion of the rafter feet. In plate C3\,Jigs.l and j are shown his methods of tiling- angle brackets 5 and Jigs. 3 , % I 1 CARPENTRY. :f 7, £ his methods of covering cliea r domes. In fte C 3 C 2, he has attempted exh it the construction of semi- ii) rcuk semielliptical, scheme, tight arches in circular lit most of them are void prin pie, defective, and full of chimin t lines. In e " Builders and Work- :,. s reasury of Designs," Mr. in o-l« has an appendix, con- itingu H plates, on the geo- yjtricj principles of roofing, d \iich we shall transcribe e foWing : — r PlaC33,fig. 1, "a bed, plan using ; e /, the central n I o, base lines of the iwa principals : a g, g c, b h, \r,i lines of the hips ; g h, se o^he ridge , k n, base line the Middle pair of principals ; Mase lines of single prin- »als,'vhich meet the hips in po ts g h ; i, k, I, m, n, o, vcta d mortises in the raising cefe the dovetails or calks, of the beams ABC; tailed mortises to receive ! braces, as p p in Jig. 3 ; s or dovetail at large j dovetail mortise in the d receive the dovetail or "Fti 2. To find the lengths the incipal and hip rafters. — ake J) equal to the breadth of e bu; ing, and a c equal to the itrbt the pitch ; then a b, a d, the hgth of a pair of princi- ls, ai d a c the angle of the p, an a d c the angle of the ot ot'ie principal a d. " Fil 3, a b c d, plan of the ,5 ' n &,/ / g> beams calked >wn d the raising ; p p, p p, &c. »gle graces calked down in W miner ; a e, be, c e, d e, [ftgonjieces to receive the feet the | j rafters ; a h, b h, c h, h, hij,rufters ; a h k, the angle of the top, and h a k, the angle of the foot of the hip, a h. u Fig. 4. To find the angle of the back of a. hip in any regular or irregular building. — Rule. On any part of its base line, as c, draw a right line at right angles, as f g ; set up the hip, as h b, and from c draw c d perpendicular to the hip h b ; make c e equal to c d, and draw the lines f e, eg; then the angle f e g is the angle of the back required." Leaving Batty Langley, we shall next proceed to Pain s "British Palladio," and extract the following observations on groins and angle brackets : — Of groins and angle brackets. — Plate C 34. Fig. A is a vault to be groined, a is the given rib, b the jack-ribs, which cut on the body range, when set and boarded in, as shown on the given rib a. There is one whole rib stands between the piers and two jack- ribs, which is plain to inspection: c and d show the tracing of the jack-rib. Divide half the base line c into four parts, and the last one at the pier into two parts, and draw those parts to the dia- gonal line e ; then draw them at right angles, across the base line a ; then take off the ordinates 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, from the arch c, and set them on 1, % 3, 4, 5, 6, 7j 8, from the base line d ; then tack in nails at points 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and bend a thin slip round, and mark as that curve directs; that will be the mould for the jack-ribs. When the body-range of the rib a is set and boarded in, a mould must be made to get the angle or place of the jack-ribs. Divide half the arch c. into five parts, and run ten of those pans from a to b, which will be the length of the whole arch stretched out. Then divide half the arch d into five parts, and draw them 557 CARPENTRY. from the arch line to the base line, as 4, 1, 3, 2, 2, 3, 1, 4, 2, 5. Then take those parts from the base line d, and set them from b to d, and from c to d the same parts ; for the. line b c is equal to the base line d: those lines, drawn to meet each other, form the curve b e f ; so the shaded part e b is a mould to be bent over the body range from the centre I to the pier 2, mark it by, and it will give the angle line exactly true j then turn the mould, and mark all the angles in the same manner. This method will find the angles of any groin, regular or irregular : the ribs set a foot or 14 inches apart on temporary posts and plates, on wedges. " Fig. B is a groin ceiling. The hips are traced from the given arch e, which is an ellipsis ; the hips are got out and set, and the jack-ribs are cut and nailed be- tween them, as represented in the plan,^. B, which is plain to inspection. " Fig. C is an angle bracket, at an external angle j and fig. D is an angle bracket at an internal angle, which are traced by ordi- nates, the same as the groin : fig. E, plate C 35, an angle bracket for a plaster cornice, at an inter- nal angle j fig. F an external angle, allowing one inch for lath and plaster j fig. G an angle bracket, at an acute angle ; Jig. 11 at an obtuse angle. « Plate C 36. Fig. I is an ellip- tical skylight, showing the plan of the ribs and horizontal bars, as they are drawn from the sec- tion of the bar in the rib to the base line of each rib, and trans- ferred to the plan, which gives the moulds for the horizontal bars, as m m. The ribs are all traced from the rib a, which stands on the conjugate diameter j the rib b stands on the transverse 553 diameter ; the rib c d e Starij n the quarter, as c d e. Tr Jcc tion of the bars, on theirs shows how big the wood ^Id be to get the bars out ; tb;hev are circular both ways, ^ some are not aware of. " Fig. K is one quarter I the plan, showing the plan <; the ribs, and the wood that in!; be taken off from the conca^nd convex edges. (( Plate C 37. Fig. LisaL gon, to be covered with a dte. The edge of the soffit niay e found another way, by draw £ a semicircle equal to the semij-uneter of the ellipsis, and drawj ie ordinates up to the cir- cle: [en the spaces between the two ^hes are equal to those on the iin ; for 4, 1, between the nrcht; is equal to 2, 1, on the plan and 3, 2, is equal to 3, 4, and S3, is equal to 5, 6, on the plan, c. I L is a parallel Hewing and fifceu f soffit in a straight wall j p, the s-jit stretched out. For this a cen f ; must be made, to get the soffit and a thin veneer bent WUtkjLnd marked by, which will give l; edge of the soffit, &c. " ip. M shows the method for 4B finding the pitch of a pediment to fronts. Suppose the chord line, 1, 3, to be the width of any pedi- ment from out to out of the cor- nice ; then set the compasses at O in the centre, and draw the semicircle 1, 2, 3 ; then set the compasses at 2, and extend to 1, and draw the arch line 1,4, 3 j then draw the chord lines 1, 4, 3, which is the pitch of the pedi- ment. If it be a circular pedi- ment, the arch line 1, 4, 3, is the top, or pitch, &c. " Fig. N shows the method for finding the centre of any segment arch. Suppose the points a, b, c, to be put down promiscuously ; set one foot of the compasses at a, and draw the arch line 3 j then set at b, and draw the arch line 4; then set one foot of the com- passes at c, and draw the arch 1 $ then set at b, and draw the arch 2; then draw lines through the bisection of those arches, or ox- eyes, till they meet at d, which will be the centre that will touch the three points ; and so for any other." In the " Practical House Car- penter," by the same author, we have the following : — " Plate C 41, Jig. 1. is a dome on a circular plan $ a b show the section of the horizontal rib. Fig. 2 is a conical skylight, showing how to bracket the an- gles of the ceiling under the curb : the hip mould, g, at the angle, is traced from the rib, b, and that mould would do to cut all the ribs at the angles, as shown at the angle a. Fig. 3 is an ogee roof, whose plan is a pentagon, and shows the method for drawing any polygon figure to a given side : make a radius of the side, and draw the arches 2, 6; divide one of those arches into six parts ; turn them to the centre line, as shown by the letters 5 d, 561 CARPENTRY. 4 e, &c. ; the centre, c, will draw a circle to receive the side five times, 6 is the centre to receive six times, d seven times, and so on to i, which is the centre to draw the circle to receive the side twelve times. Fig. 4 is a dome, whose plan is a hexagon, and shows how to divide a circle into any number of parts : divide one-fourth of the circle into the number of parts you would have the circle, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 : and always take four of them ; to find the backing of the curve line hips, lay down the plan of the hip at the angle, as a, then take the distance 1, 2, from the plan of the hip, and set 1, 2, at bottom, tack in a nail, and shift the hip mould, and marking by it, as 1 2, 3 4, 5 6, 7 8, 9 10, will show the wood to come off. " Plate C 42, fig. 1, is a dome on an elliptical plan ; the centres for the mould for the horizontal ribs, dd, are a a, bb, c c,d d, the place of that rib on the plan is found by dropping dot lines from the sec- tions dd; c c on the top is designed for a skylight. Fig. 2 is a bevel roof; the sides are parallel on one part of the plan, the other bevels : to frame this roof in ledgment, the principal rafters must be framed to a level base, that is, the ends of the beams all of one height from the face of the plate ; when you come to lay them the other way to frame in the purlins, there must be wind- ing sticks held to the bases of the rafters, which winding sticks must be all out of winding, and as the width of the building di- minishes, the backs of the rafters will lie in winding, as they will be when in their places ; and mind that they are backed according to the bevel of the plan, for turn- ing them up to tumble in the purlins : by this method the busi- 562 ness may be well comply. Fig. 3 shows the method for kg ting the boards to cover a d£ Divide the dome into as rib parts as you think it will Z boards ; and draw lines to cup edges of each board, and w re they meet the centre line, i\\ % the centre for the edge of | board. « Plate C 44. K shows be centring for groins. L is a | groin cutting under pitch or door or window ; G is a M j| groin cutting under pitch; is the method for tracing the bs and hips for a groin ceiling X, a mould to bend over the d> range ; K, to get the lines u the jack-ribs by." In reference to Plate C 41 fc. 2, it may here be observed uri Mr. Pain has corrected this f jre from that which appeared >lns first edition from having seeifc Peter Nicholson's " Carptns New Guide." It is, however till defective, as he has not s wn the rib, b, nor the angle, to which he has alluded in theixt. On this figure, in the plat are the following words : — " A »me with a skylight on the top; G, moulds for the ribs of the ( Kj a a, the curb of the light." Independently of the aiiors we have named, many other Ml written treatises on this bra h of architecture ; but their inforr tion being principally gleaned roffl those who preceded the: «W have not thought it wor Dili while to make extracts froi heir works. It now, therefore only remains for us to state, 1 1 to the inventions and disc<-ries of the writers quoted, and hid may be reduced to the foil i"£> sections of prisms at right ;igl es to one side or plane of the iSBH coverings of prismatic and onic surfaces in the most simpka se! > CARPE a the method of ascertaining tl lengths and backings of hips, \ Peter Nicholson, the author oKicholson's "Architectural Dtc- mry," and many other scien- tii and useful works, has, ac- ccling to the statement which u tas given in the " ArcJdtec- tu l Dictionary ," and which we tai leave to transcribe, added th e of the intersection of one pile with another, the latter relng on three lines perpendi- cu • to the former ; the geome- tril construction of all cases in splrical trigonometry, by solid an:?s j sections of a prism, cone, meoid, through any three i points ; the section of a ri i making a given angle with ten parallelogram matic sec- tioljof such prism, and passing . ;gh any given line on the ection j the section of a cone pas/ig through any line on a , \ , axal or vertical section, and ma|ig a given angle with that n ; the section through any thrigiven points on the surface > ; ody, of such property that all :;tions parallel to a certain n will be similar figures, bav 5 the seats and heights of .... the .ints upon one of the similar plarjji, and another section of the bodkin a given position to that plai cutting all the said similar Beet is j the sections of various n< bodies, whose properties fined ; the formation of the i:' of a thin pliable surface, 'hi , when bent upon the sur- a prism, may coincide in '- ". r e with a section passing 1 " h any three given points t surface of the said prism 5 rmation of the edge of a lir f ; to fit a conic section, - 1 through any three given : " on the surface of the cone, •oil 5uch surface and that of the ^c oincide; the formation of NTRY. the edge of a thin pliable surface to fit the section of a body cut by any prismatic surface, while the pliable surface coincides with that of the section made by the prismatic surface j the properties of the body being such, that all sections parallel to a certain plane will be similar figures given a section of the body parallel to one of these sections, and another cutting all the said similar sec- tions in a given position, and the intersection of the given planes on each other. These subjects include the finding of the sections of cylin- ders and cones, spheres and sphe- roids, and the coverings of these bodies under the circumstances already stated. To these, Mr. Peter Nicholson has added the following inventions or disco- veries, viz. the method of ex- tending the surface of a cylinder or cylindroid, being the centre of an arched aperture in an oblique wall, terminated by the faces of the said wall j and the covering of the surface of a part of a semicone, being the centre of an aperture, with its axis ob- lique to the surface of the wall which terminates such covering ; in ascending groins, he has like- wise shown the centring for brickwork, and ribbing for plas- tering ; the construction of poly- gonal and annular groins, both level and ascending in a spiral, whether for centring or ribbing j cylindro-cylindric arches, or what are commonly, but improperly, called Welsh arches j spherical niches, both for straight and cir- cular walls, under any circum- stances j the true methods of constructing pendentine or span- drel ceilings, either spherical or spheroidal ; the bevels of purlins in all positions to the common rafters j the formation of boards 563 CAR CAR for covering spherical domes, without laving down either plan or section of die dome, entirely within the boards themselves j the forming of the lower boards, without centres, in the covering of a dome, with the joints in horizontal planes ; the formation of boards to cover a spheroidal dome, with the joints of the boards in vertical planes ; the covering of an elliptic dome with one mould only j the covering of a spheroidal dome with boards having their joints in parallel vertical planes j the construction of a dome with horizontal ribs, without taking the trouble to square them by horizontal and vertical faces ; the method of cut- ting purlins and jack-rafters to fit the hips, without laying the roof in ledgment ; principles for the equilibrium of polygonal roofs without ties, so that the rafters may obtain a given ratio among themselves, provided the abut- ments be sufficient ; a principle for preventing rafters without intermediate ties from having any lateral pressure : these two latter inv entions have been several years before the public, in the archi- tectural plates of Rees's Cyclo- paedia. To these might be added various other principles of less importance, which it is not neces- sary to recapitulate in this place In most of the subjects above alluded to he has given more than one method of operation, and in some instances he has multiplied his examples to five or six dif- ferent modes of practice. One or two of the inventions in the foregoing list, he acknow- ledges, are only his own by their new application, the principles being known prior to his time ; but he has adapted them to sub- jects to which they were never before applied j and he conceives that it requires at least asmn ingenuity, and is frequently I tended with more utility, to j able to apply an old or well-kno i principle to a useful object, as» discover a principle destitute f practical application : he Y therefore, not scrupled to inch; them in the list of his discover Nor has he, in the " ArcUtec ral Dictionary ," while thus clap ing credit for himself, denied to others j as may be seen in 5 remarks on Pain's lining o!i cylindric soffit in a circular w, the principle of which was j - viously laid down by Price in s centrings of groins. The inv - tions which Mr. Nicholson s thus appropriated to himself e the following: the application} the principle of covering the face of the frustum of a cone 1 a spheroidal dome, with the jo s in vertical planes ; the applica 11 of the principle of coverings oblong spheroidal dome by e mould only ; and the applica; n of the principle shown by Pa in his centring of groins la cylindric soffit for an apertur n a straight wall, with its axis 1- lique to the surface of such w I which latter was likewise | tempted by Pain, but witht success. Having thus furnished ie reader with the foregoing infl- ation from the works of the s - ral authors who have precrd those of the present day, I shall refer him to the arte Constructive Carpentry, for a # tise on the art as it is W practised. Carrara marble. The of a species of white ma e > which is called marmor lurm and ligustrum, by the ancient N is distinguished from the Pam now called statuary marble..' >y being harder and less bright. r i CAR CAR mirel. In the Middle Ages. A ekit, or apartment, for privacy ani.*etirenient. i rriage. The frame or timber wn; which supports the steps of i oden stair. See Staircase and Mdjjwilitig. i rteli. See Cartouch. i rtos, or cartoon. A design mn : on strong paper, to be after- ra s calked through, and trans- fer d on the fresh plaster of a to be afterwards painted in fre o ; it also signifies a coloured wDj for working in mosaic, tar, try, &c. i rtouch. An ornament, re- prt 'nting a scroll of paper, being ) ly in form of a table or flat OK ber, with wavings, whereon Is )ine inscription or device, omient of armory, cipher, or ike. It is nearly akin to a mr lion, from which it only t! 5 in this, that the latter i;tl both externally and inter- nal, as under the cornice in the eav; of a house, and the former i onl| internally, as in wainscot- Some workmen call the car.uches dentils. ( rved work. Mouldings, &c. fas'.med by the carver. ( rvkr. A cutter of figures or oth devices in wood. (Irving. The art of engrav- ing; r cutting figures in wood j and;, according to Pliny, prior bot to statuary and painting. In a n -e general sense, it is the act f cutting or fashioning a har body by means of some •ha instrument, especially a clii; ; in which sense it includes stat e. If they are employed to si™ the covering of a throne, they ay be represented under the fiaW and symbols of heroic virt s ; if to adorn a sacred buil|fi they must have an affinity tolw gion ; and when they are pfj in banqueting rooms, they MM be of kinds proper to inspire M and jollity. In composing them, parti ar care must be taken to avoid m CARYATIC ORDER. C (,t attitudes, distorted features, ai all kinds of monstrous and hrid productions, of which there ar such frequent instances in the Jks of the Goths. On the con- - v, the attitudes must be simple ar graceful, the countenances rijiys pleasing, though varied, l: strongly marked with the ex ession peculiar to the occa- si(. and object represented. There in t be but little flutter in the driery, which ought to fit pretty cl< i to the body, and its folds shild be contrived to express di :tly both the action and the sh e. Le Clerc observes, they •t ild always have their legs elf together, and their arms dp to the body or head, that tlr may have, as much as possi- )1 the form of columns, whose ofe they are to perform; and it iay be added that, for the reason, their attitude should bets near a perpendicular as it (^conveniently be, without giv- ing stiff and constrained air to thogure. be same author observes, that Ca atides ought always to be of B (derate size, lest, being too lark they should appear hideous; ani indeed, as these figures are (• rally represented in endear- ii (Rices, and under the forms »t liable and benevolent beings, th< aution seems to be extremely j>n er ; and it will therefore be juc,ious not to make them larger th;- the human figure. But the nu! figures may be made of any sizr and the larger the better, as the will then be fitter to strike wi! awe and astonishment. ile figures may be introduced wit great propriety in arsenals, or illeries of armour, in guard rodts, and other military places, wh e they may be represented urnr the figures either of cap- tiv or of martial virtues, such as Strength, Valour, &c. Their entablatures must be doric, and bear the same proportion to them as to columns of the same height. The proper entablatures for Cary- atides will be either ionic or corinthian, accordingly as the character of the figures is more or less delicate. Persian and Caryatic figures ought never to be employed to support the same entablature with columns; for figures of men or women as high as columns are considerably more bulky, and, when they are of an uncommon size, carry with them an idea of greatness that entirely destroys the effect of the columns, making them appear very trifling) neither should they, for the same reasons, be placed upon columns, as in the court of the old Louvre at Paris. It is somewhat customary to employ Termini instead of Cary- atides or Persians, to support the entablatures of monuments, chim- ney pieces, and such like compo- sitions. These figures owe their origin to stones, used by the ancients to mark the limits of each particular person's posses- sions. NumaPompilius, to render these inviolable, and to prevent usurpations, erected the Terminus into a deity, instituted festivals and sacrifices to his honour, and built a temple on the Trapejan mount, which he dedicated to him, and in which he was repre- sented under the figure of a stone. The upper part of the Termini represent the head and breast of the human body, and the lower part an inverted frustrum of a square pyramid, with the feet sometimes projecting out below, as if the body had been partly cased. As Termini are susceptible of a variety of decorations, they may 567 CAS CAS be employed as embellishments for gardens and fields : where they may represent Jupiter, the pro- tector of boundaries, or some of the rural deities, as Pan, Flora, Pomona, Vertumnus, Ceres, Pria- pus, Faunus, Sylvanus, Nymphs, and Satyrs. Cascade. A fall of water from a higher to a lower place Cas- cades are either natural, as that of Tivoli, &c. or artificial, as those of Versailles, &c. and either falling from a great height, as those .of the Sceaux, in form of a buffet, as at Trianon ; or down steps, in form of a perron, as at St. Clare} or from basin to basin, &c. Case. An outside covering, box, or sheath, in which an ob- ject may be enclosed ; it also implies the carcass of a house. Case-bags. The joists that are framed between a pair of girders in naked flooring. When the flooring joists are framed with one of their ends let into a girder, and the opposite ends let in the wall, they are called tail bags. The dimensions of the case-bags of floors and roofs ought not to exceed 10 feet. Case of a door. The wooden frame in which a door is hung. See Door and Door-frame. Case of a stair. The wall which surrounds a staircase. Cased. A term which signifies that the outside of a building is faced or covered with materials of a better quality ; for example, a brick wall is sometimes faced with stone, or with a superior kind of brick to that used in the back part of the wall. Cased sash frames. Sash frames having their interior ver- tical sides hollow, to conceal the weights bv which the sashes are hung. Casemate. A hollow mould- 568 ing, which some architects r, ^ one-sixth and others one-f th of a circle. Casement. A glass framnr sash, which is made to opei )V turning on hinges affixed to lie of its vertical edges. Casing of timber work. le plastering of a wooden hous i| over on the outside with mo r , and making it resemble s ;e work, by striking it, while I by the corner of a trowel one like instrument, guided by a 1 e, which gives the exterior of ie house the appearance of a sS building. This is best perfor >d on heart laths, because the mc ir is apt to decay the sap laths 1 short time. It is commonly | on in two thicknesses, the sec id before the first is dry. Cassine. A country house A house surrounded with a din, like those of the noblesse n Flanders, or those of the fe al lords or barons, favourable | the reception of a small bod if men, who are placed by it 1 of the reach of an attack or a r- prise, and can defend themse?s in it till detachments conn to their relief. Cast. A little brazen fu el used by plumbers at one en. of a mould, for casting pipes \u- out soldering, by means of w 1 the metal melted is poured the mould. Cast. A term, in sculpt for the impression of any fi< taken in bronze, plaster, was other fusible metal. The process of casting i follows : — Plaster of Paris ism with water in a basin or pan, stirred with a spatula until consistence is like that of ba for pancakes ; it is then poi on the figure of which the pression is to be made, and wl figure has been previously greii CAS CAS or Jed in the slightest possible maier, to prevent the adhesion I oft plaster; after a few minutes i the (aster acquires the hardness of s ; stone, and maybe removed troche object on which it has .". beeil'laced, when it will be found to cfitain an exact impression of evei part, even the minutest pon of the skin. This impres- sion! which is the reverse or holl'v of the original subject, [ike seal in comparison with its knpission, is called the mould. The iouhl being removed from gure, and slightly greased, ijhave plaster mixed with m: wat 1 as before, poured into it j Bud is, being allowed to remain till has become hard, and then rayed from the mould, is an a. image of the original figure. If tl figure be flat, having no 1 deejiollows or high projections, • m be moulded in one piece; . it urface be varied with great holivs and projections, it must be 1 ulded in many pieces fitted I ^oer, and held in one or more e or containing pieces. This lev art supplies the painter and s il or with exact representa- ( m rom nature, of limbs, bodies, hea< of men, and inferior ani- mal anatomical subjects, dra- peri , and plants; it multiplies mot s of all kinds, and is now prated in such perfection, that cast jf the antique statues are mac so precisely like the origi- nal* hat no difference whatever b di ernible, excepting in colour and laterials. See Bronze. C tella. One of the three kirn of fortifications that were boil dong the line of Severus's wal; the other two being deno- min ed stations and towers. These easts were neither so large nor bo irong as the stations, but muo more numerous, being no few! than eighty-one. In shape and dimension they were exact squares of 66 feet every way. They were fortified on every side with thick and lofty walls, but without any ditch, except on the north side, on which the wall itself, raised much above its usual height, with the ditch adjoining it, formed the fortification. The castles were situated in the inter- vals between the stations, gene- rally at the distance of about seven furlongs from one another, and guards were constantly kept in them by a competent number of men detached from the nearest stations. (Hors. Brit. Rom. p. 108.) Castella. In Roman Antiquity. A reservoir in which the waters of an aqueduct were collected \ from whence the water was con- veyed through leaden pipes to the several parts of a city. Castellated houses. See Houses. Casting. The act of taking the impression of any surface, by pouring a liquid, which possesses the property of hardening upon its surface. See Cast, Bronze, Plumbing, #c. Casting of brick or stone walls. See Rough Cast. Casting. In Carpentry and Joinery. A term analogous to warping. See Warping. Castle. A place fortified either by nature or art, in a city or country, to keep the people in subjection, or to resist an enemy. In the more extensive interpreta- tion of the word, it includes the various methods of encampment j but, in its stricter meaning, it is usually applied to buildings walled with stone, and intended for resi- dence as well as defence. In tracing the rise and progress of this branch of architecture, we shall witness the gradual inter- mixture and decay of the Roman 5G9 CASTLE. art, and the successive improve- ments made in the Northern, Saxon, and Norman styles ; we shall also observe the successive gradual changes which were intro- duced in the ancient modes of accommodation and defence, and the almost imperceptible transi- tions, made by the ancient chief- tains of this land, from a residence in stately, formidable, inconve- nient strong holds, to that of embattled mansions, (embattled without use, and almost without meaning,) and eventually to con- venient and elegant palaces, abounding with the luxuries of life. Some of the earliest castles are still existing ; we can, there- fore, with some degree of cer- tainty, speak of the nature of their construction. Two of them especially deserve our attention — - that of Connisborough in York- shire, and Castleton in Derby- shire, the antiquity of which, upon examination, will appear of much greater antiquity than is generally conceived. Of Connisborough, Camden states, that it is an old castle, called in British caer conan, situated upon a rock, whither, after the battle of Maisbelly, when Aurelius Ambrosius had routed the Saxons, and put them to a disorderly flight, Hengist, their general, retired to secure himself; a few days after which, he took the field again against the Britons, which proved fatal to himself and to his army. This castle has a most extraor- dinary appearance, and is very much unlike a Norman fortress. The great court, it is true, has some resemblance to the courts of other castles, but even this, when carefully examined, will be found to be very unlike those ballia that were in use after the 570 An area appears walle which was entered by a gateway between two towers, after passing a i bridge and deep ditch ; bu . area has neither the regutity nor the extent of those of the > r . man castles, nor any appea ice of those additional interior tid- ings, beside the keep, which in common with that people in short, the area of this strong M might just as well be conr ed to the Roman castle at ] h- borough, as to any NormarV tress : and might be supp with the same degree of p la- bility, to have been fonw bv a Roman general as by Wi im de Warren, to whom it has en attributed. This extraordiry castle stands in one corner < he area, and commands a mostlo- rious view of the windings ( he river Dun, or Dune, and o. he adjacent country. 'Plate C 65.— The first jng that strikes the eye is a fjry remarkable sloping part oi:he foundation walls, rising to a eat height, like a mount, and h tig in many parts, in consequer of its being covered with eartlind moss, the appearance of a {tall hill, e, f, g, h. jig. 1, exac of the same dimensions as the^tle itself. The bottom of this sling part appears almost circularbut higher up are seen, more py» six vast projecting buttrltes, ascending in a still more 3*p direction to prop and suort the building. Modern enters would, perhaps, call the wr e a regular glacis, or rather a ta . Immediately above this sluing part the tower rises perpenjeu- larly, to a great height. Its ijide forms a complete circle, bj on the outside appear six addiW square turrets $ which are, W" ever, merely the continuion CASTLE. Ms of the buttresses just U P W ;' , e , meDl'ned. Til walls of this tcwer are ' Vervjiearly half as thick as its iiatnier within, which is about r , tl; 2i ft; j and some of the turrets \s th' ascend towards the top are v v few places hollowed out, inverted into closets, which arrow loops. ing surveyed this strange nee of the outside, the ,iing that draws attention is ent to the grand entrance, is, and most probably was, by an exceedingly flight of deep steps, a, b, iich more than 3 feet in on the south side. These r .re so shallow, in the space tors ing the feet, and having n to hold by, and an abso- » ute ecipice on either side, that .^ven le going up is frightful, mi ind coming down not to be icconlished without help, ex- ficcpt |' workmen accustomed to tiscaffciis, and the impending i^iacigl;, of lofty buildings, rij At|;he top of this ascent is ill gr«iL doorway, a, very low, aowtir, in comparison to those gin Nil nan towers, and of very singer construction ; for al- thoujj, there is a stone arch 0! ; turntj over it, probably in imita- i hi ( those which had been seen i( inRc|an buildings, yet the nature lf[ of8u! an arch seems hardly to f h*vej:en understood, for directly aero? the diameter, and under- neatl,t, is placed a great transom atone, ke a beam ; and the space betw n it and the arch is filled U P wii stone work, as if to assist 1M i h in supporting the wall Up[i the whole it makes a : most rotesque compound, of the floor ; an ancient dun, or even of an old Egyptian temple and Horn arch, seeming to proclaim aloud the age in which it was built, to have been a period when a little improvement in architec- ture had been made, in conse- quence of seeing a few Roman works, but when the rude archi- tects had not seen enough, nor been sufficiently informed to com- prehend them. On entering the door, we find an area, in the thickness of the wall, like a little vestibule, a, Jig. 4. On one side of this is a passage to the staircase, which ascends not in a spiral form, as those of latter ages, but goes straight through the thickness of the wall, like the rude staircase of an ancient northern dun ; it is, however, well and neatly con- structed, and has a noble appear- ance. This staircase has no com- munication with the room on the first floor, except through the vestibule ; and, therefore, might be ascended without entering into that room. The room ought not, however, to be passed by unnoticed : it is completely circular, and has no window or even a loophole to it. But in the centre of the floor is a round aperture like the mouth of a well, b,Jig- 2, which opens into a most dismal, dark, deep dun- geon, b w t, excavated out of the midst of the artificial mount, and enclosed within the sloping part of the foundation walls, and rudely vaulted over ; at the bottom appears to have been a draw well, but there was no admission for light or air, except through the aperture b; nor could the room, in the floor of which this aperture is, have the benefit of either, when the door was shut, except by means of a similar aperture, which there must have been, at c, in the floor above. We cannot therefore err in calling the lower of these frightful apartments the CASTLE. dungeon j and that next above the store room, and the aperture at e, must have answered the triple purpose of drawing up water, of drawing up stores, and of admitting air and light : to let in the latter the more effectually, there is good reason to suppose, that a similar aperture was left in every floor, to the very top of the castle ; and the rather, be- cause, without such, even the state apartments would be most wretchedly dark, each of them having no more than one win- dow. In other respects we shall find they were highly finished, and magnificent for such a barbarous age. The ascent of the grand stair- case, from the vestibule, through the wall, from a to d, Jig. 4, is stately. It has no necessary com- munication either with the store room or dungeon, and enters at y into a fine circular room, the floor of which appears to have been supported, not by timbers let into the wall, but laid upon great projecting trusses of stone, which still remain all round the building. This room appears to have been finished and adorned with as much elegance as the times would admit. The stone work is exceedingly compact, smooth, and good ; the entrance from the staircase at d F V is by a handsome arch ; and directly op- posite to it is another at/, equally as well constructed, leading to the second flight of stairs, which go up to the state apartment, passing through the wall from / to e. Fig. % shows the concave inte- rior half of the tower, looking towards the south. Fig. 3 shows the concave inte- rior half, looking towards the north. 572 Fig. 4 is the plan of the fm floor, on which you enter on, the grand portal ; and Fig. 5 is the plan of the r >* grand apartment, of whic we are now speaking. In Jigs., 2 and 3, d v is thi ec- tion of the cavity, through \i c h the first flight of stairs asdds, within the thickness of thevjljj and e x is the section o be cavity through which the si .mi flight ascends in u is the sf|ion of the floor of the first jjuuj apartment ; and o p the sdion of that of the state apartmel As to the rest, the lette or' reference, both in the se on and plans, all correspond. The first grand apartmen m probably the guard room, or ief place of rendezvous, of the in- cipal part of the garrison , a in this there is one object that »t obviously strikes the eye at > glance, and raises astonish in in the mind ; a vast fire hHh at Z, Jig. 3, on the north le, constructed with an elegce which resembles that of H latter ages, but having a chit ey carried up through the wallke those in other ancient castles id opening through a loop onhe outside. The front of this e- place, however, is supported^ like the door of entrance, I wide arch, not trusted to as m cient for the purpose, but haig two great transverse stones li- ning across under it. To ■ rude imitation of the Roman i is joined as rude an imitatit ot ionic or corinthian pillars ; tee of which, in clusters on 1 side, support the trans^e stones, and at some little > c - tance produce the elegant ei» mentioned, of the resemblaniot a modern ornamented chim y- piece. The whole device seems i • tton ion CASTLE. y to indicate a period of etween the departure of mans and their arts from untry, and the introduc- savage foreigners, and heir inal establishment here ; I between the loss of , , ,i architecture, and the in- roduion of the Gothic ; a period ?hen? barbarians, just arrived, nxir with the rudest part of he Jtives, were prompted to nita imperfectly, and as far as onceptions would allow, ■ specimens they had seen ian magnificence, next thing that attracts «y is a narrow doorway, h, here the arch was either n, or thought quite use- is jfid where a transverse stone lone overs the top; this led to lo t, that served for a privy, n ed as it were out of one )fthtrreat buttresses, and hav- a arrow winding drain to a Mt hp. In 'is room there are no win- Jows but at g, Jig. <2, there ap- pears great arch, which leads to a [sort of recess, or small lobby over the grand portal, when is the window that ap- pearsfit i, Jig, 1, commanding entire the steps of ascent on the outsi«i , but small indeed for the convince of light and air to this rartment. We must con- clude herefore, that it was more- over ghted, as already hinted, by a Circular perforation in the midsof the floor above. The wind / just described, like the doorfy underneath, has a hand- some rch at top; but this arch, simil to the one above, is not trust; to, but has the assistance of a /eat transverse stone. Or'me side of the fire hearth, and >out half way between it and e door of entrance, is a little mare niche in the wall, at g, fig. % too small for any ser- viceable use as a locker, or cup- board, and the original design of which may, perhaps, best be in- vestigated from what we shall find in the state apartment over head. To that apartment, after pass- ing quite across this guard cham- ber, the approach is by a second flight of steps, constructed in the same manner, and as noble as the former ; no winding staircase is seen, but a regular continued gradual ascent, going straight on through a cavity in the wall, from the arched door / up to another arched door e. This chamber, from its decora- tions, appears to have been the place of royal residence ; and it had a great window to the south- west at r, Jig. 2 ; which is the only considerable one that appears in the whole building. At S is an arched doorway, leading to a little room over the grand portal, which seems to have served for a bedchamber, and where, that no person resting therein might be injured by any missive weapon, no light or air was admitted, except by a narrow loop, although the only great window of the lower apartment was directly under it. As the upper state room was not designed to contain a great number of persons like that be- neath, the fire hearth is smaller, but rather of still more elegant construction. In this we also find the imitation of Roman capi- tals, and a transom stone, instead of an arch ; the former appearing to have been constantly thought the greater security, where there was any considerable width and a weight above to be supported ; indeed, the arch appears to have been deemed only an additional help, for it is very remarkable 573 CAS that, in this building, all the arches which are without transom stones are very narrow. But the most remarkable ap- pearance in this room, and indeed in the whole structure, is a small niche, at I, Jig. S 3 richly orna- mented, the design of which can hardly be mistaken. From its dimensions and form it seems totally unfit for any other purpose than that of containing some small idol, and strongly indicates that this castle was built, and in use, in pagan times. And now, whoever considers, in this building, the rude but diligent imitation of Roman ar- chitecture, the staircase running straight through the walls, with- out any turnings or windings, exactly like those in a northern dun, the whole inside differing so little from that of a dun, and only having smoother and better finished walls and arches, and the floors contrived to hold more people, and better to exclude the weather, but still leaving a cir- cular area from top to bottom, open in the middle, and considers the unlikeness of the whole to any Norman structure, and adds to these considerations the ap- pearance of the niches, will, I think, have little scruple to allow, that nothing can more strongly proclaim an age of pagan barba- rity and ignorance, struggling amidst the disadvantages it la- boured under, and striving to emerge from its wretched state, to a degree of civilization and refinement. We cannot, therefore, but con- clude this tower to have been built by Hengist, or some Saxon king, before the conversion of that people to Christianity, and to be one of the most ancient, as well as the most perfect, remains of antiquity in this kingdom. 574 TLE. Neither machicolations, n th e portcullis, nor the mode oft ur . ing loopholes, seems to hav6 e n invented at the time this 1 3 was built. We shall therefore callj a Saxon castle, of the first at E the heptarchy, begging led to oppose an idea, too comnB received, that all these cafe, were Norman structures, am I the Saxons had no fortifical but of earth, which is undfl edly no more true than tlujfre Romans had only such; an 1 1 tion that, notwithstanding I numerous camps fortified ii I manner, can never be supped whilst the ruins of Richborgh remain. What greatly confirms als he idea of this castle being bu at the time of which we speaiis, its very near resemblance a Scotch dun ; it appearing, infl to be only the first improve nt of such a kind of buildingby architects a little more civilijfi We are well informed, thahe Saxons had made a league th the Picts and Scots about at era and that the greatest irt of their force consisted of rat bodies of those people, whojced them when they issued 01 of Kent towards the north, assed them to waste all Britain tdbe western sea, and were their n- federates when they seized lis very part of the country. If, therefore, we may be allcjfld such an odd conception, we (Br not but view this tower as o- claiming an alliance of Pic hi Scottish, Saxon, and Romanr- chitecture. The preceding informatic! is extracted from Mr. King's obl - ations on ancient castles, ir*C " ArchcEologia ;" but Mr. Bri >n, in " The Architectural Antiquik has supposed this castle to lit* CASTLE. )urst Vne;l Norman construction 5 we jes, however, are more dis- wseco coincide with Mr. King. ?le- cially as Josephus's descri on of the tower of Antonia at , u- salem, may lead us to su jet this mode of building to vc been very ancient indeed, a to have been known and introt ed even before the age in whic he lived. In taking a survey of this t tie at Norwich, we shall find alpst precisely the same cautions ed as in that at Rochester, whic) ill be hereafter detailed. Am

arance, carelessly defend- each of the three great " seen at c, together with a I r»t the north end of the m though now bricked up, 'ere rmerly left entirely open, •e so large, and take up it a portion of the side alls that this vestibule must (I almost the appearance in )en portico, and must have very beautiful ornament th castle; whilst its great 4D height, and its being merely the passage between the first and second portal, rendered it not in the slightest degree detrimental in case of a close siege. This vestibule has now not only the arches bricked up, but is divided into two rooms, the one over the other, it being in the upper room principally that the remains of the two portals are to be dis- covered. In this upper room is to be seen, directly opposite to the three arches represented at c, one vast arch in the wall of the castle, reaching across the whole side of the vestibule, and under that a second great arch, but of less dimensions, which was the second grand portal, and under this latter, in the lower room, the remains of the side pillars. In the upper chamber, near the floor, at the south-east end, may also be discerned the top of the first great portal, the outside of which is visible at b. From this vestibule there is still preserved a passage into the castle, and on one side of it is a small arch, now walled up, communicating with a winding staircase at that corner, which went to the top of the castle, as is shown at a in the plan, Jig. 3. Beneath the vestibule was ori- ginally an open arch and a vaulted room, or rather recess, left quite exposed to the area before the castle ; its roof or ceiling being richly decorated with intersecting arches, which must have had a fine effect, and greatly increased the beautiful appearance of the front : notwithstanding, however, that it seemed so light and airy, it was by no means a weak part of the building; for the side walls of this recess are of extraordinary strength, and the wall at the back of it, adjoining to the castle, i9 11 feet thick. Indeed, as this 577 CASTLE. was the strongest part of the castle, the front arch is now filled up, and the recess is converted into the felons' cell, whose grate is seen over p, Jig. 1, the entrance to it being now in the side wall from the debtors' cell. The ves- tibule, portal, and top of the stairs, being here at so great a height, there were not any win- dows whatever in the eastern front of the castle, except in the staircase and vestibule ; for on the level with the grand apart- ments there were only loopholes, and those in the places where they are represented in Jig. 1. The arches, therefore, as well as the pilasters, in this front, were merely ornamental, and even the two at d, which have so much the appearance of windows, are only a fantastic variation of orna- ment, probably placed there even by way of deception j but on all the other sides of the castle the windows were very magnificent, placed at a great height, and on the same floor where the principal and state apartments were situate. Four of them may be seen within the four great arches of the west front, Jig. 2. There is, however, on this side, at /, a brick arch and modern window, which should be distinguished from the rest, as it has been forced out since the completion of the castle, as is evident from the breaks in the ornaments on the adjoining parts of the wall, where originally there was merely a loophole and arch leading to it. The door also at g, which is now the entrance to one of the staircases of the castle, marked b on the plan, Jig. 3, has, m like manner, been forced out of late years, through a cavity or loophole. In this western front, the space between the letters h, i, k, I, has been faced with new work, but 578 the other parts appear to r< t as they originally were, v new work has also been fin ted in a manner suitable thereto mi the windows have been presL] in the very places where h* perforations of the old ones , found, and ornamented in a in- ner similar to those on the ier sides of the castle, and to ri in this front. The two arches which we v before mentioned in this die as being intended to decei bv an appearance of weakness, \ ich they did not possess, are s wa at m and n; and, in order to ike the deception still stronger, »re were in each of them four )p. holes at the top j but wh« we examine the inside of the tid- ing we find the. wall as there as in any other parind moreover flanked by two buttresses, or rather oblique m, each supported by a great h and reaching from the ndle wall to the back of these ares, as represented by c d e f : Jig . The inside of this castle, h ng been long used as a coinon county gaol, is so built upiitk a variety of rooms, cellsjind offices, and all the great oities leading to the loopholes a! so carefully bricked up, that Jiny curious particulars, and maili of the old mode of fortificatioi no longer be seen ; enough »w- ever remains to merit atten u. The inside of this castle, ir ?ad of containing an open yards it now does, was filled up wi lithe floors of most magnificenliiml spacious apartments; and, tl igh the timbers are now renietl, and small sheds built ajjnst the walls, yet the traces cjthe original disposition of the i'olc may easily be discovered b;|any person accustomed to exijune these kinds of -buildings; *H CAS are tlso visible marks of the fitrciT partition wall, running Bcrffrom west to east. This walfias been thrown down from de: g A, Jig. 3 5 but a gaoler wb< vas living at the time Mr. Kin examined this castle, re- niei )ered the foundation of that )eing discovered under the .entof the present yard; and a go hat on digging by the side hey found great arches of Wunication made through it ttodkround, and the obvious re- iii of vaults or dungeons. It furtlfr appears, that the apart- n on the ground floor were ulld over with stone; for a a >art of the old vault, at g I n the great stone arches of the Stresses, c d ef, and a stone 'vauljig over a part where the ►resit chapel is, between c d : o, still remain. At e, where now appears the reni&ing partition of the pro- jecti( wall, may be seen a part roun doff, and cased with brick, iki\ir the appearance of a round towe in the middle of this, a leep rcular cavity of stone work, like t pipe of a well, which has, says Jr. King, been filled up in ifthen nory of persons now living, uul Inch therefore was, in all « (>robi lity, the original well in the 4.11 of the castle, as at Rochjter and Canterbury. What kephis still more probable is, iut ere was a passage to it le of the galleries through ' Wl, the entrance to which, (dioug now bricked up, is still As the chimneys, or any of the ot !r passages or cavities in Wj s, they are all so carefully l'p< up, and have so many ""'i s erected against them, tie or nothing is to be ' d as to their situation or struct e. The staircase also at TLE. the south-west corner has its ancient entrance at the bottom at present stopped up, so as to have no communication with the inside of the building, except to those apartments which nowcom- prise the hospital of the castle ; and the lower entrance to it is now only through the forced doorway at g, Jig. 2. The other staircase at the north-east corner is walled up entirely. The next succeeding step in the alteration of military struc- tures in this kingdom, is that which took place at the time of the conquest. The Normans seem, at first, to have entered this country with ideas of fortification quite different from, and inferior to, those of the Saxons. Descended from the Danes they still retained Danish ideas, and considered the high mount as the most essential part of a fortress ; as therefore the high insulated hill is characteristic of almost every Danish camp, so the same kind of hill, as the basis of a round tower, is characteristic of all the first Norman castles. " William the Conqueror," says Stowe, i( with an army, went to Nottingham, and there budded a castle ; he also went to York, and there caused two castles to be builded, and put in them gar- risons ; he commanded also castles to be made at Lincoln, and in other places, about the year 1068." We will now see whether the remains of these will not illus- trate most fully the Norman mode of constructing such edifices. As to that at Nottingham, the keep has long since been destroyed j it was, however, on a very high and steep hill, from whence was the curious subterraneous passage, still remaining, called Mortimer's hole; but one of those at York, called Clifford's tower, is still in 579 CASTLE. being. Camden gives very little information with respect to it ; and merely says, u William the Conqueror built a prodigious strong castle, to keep the citizens in awe;" to which the editor adds, ** near the castle stands the shell of Clifford's tower, which was blown up in 1684." This, therefore, which was most evidently the strongest part of the building, having defied the blast of powder, and the injuries of time, was undoubtedly apart of one of the two castles mentioned by Stowe; and being one of the first buildings of the Conqueror, may serve to explain the style first introduced by him. It is built on the summit of an exceedingly high artificial mount, the sides of which are still so steep, that it can only be as- cended by a modern winding path, or by an old steep flight of steps, situated on the side next the other part of the castle. On this side there was originally a drawbridge, passing over the ditch, to afford complete com- munication ; and in the old wall, which enclosed the area of the adjoining castle, there is, though now blocked up, visible signs of a gate. Situate in this manner, on such an inaccessible eminence, it did not require, nor do we find that it had, the great elevated portal, placed at a great height above the foundations, as we find in the succeeding Norman keeps. On the contrary, this portal stands on the ground, at the brink of the precipice, and at the very brow of the slope and steps that ascended from the drawbridge. The plan of the tower, plate C 66, fig. 4, consists of four seg- ments of circles joined together ; the longest diameter, from peri- phery to periphery, being 64 feet; eel bat the shortest, from intersecti to intersection, 45 feet ; am the walls between 9 and lc thick. From hence it is obviou no beams for floors could P |! reach across, though the j ces for the timbers are still vble in the walls ; consequently^ must have had some supp j ;i the middle, which was probly either by posts or stone p placed around the circumfe ice of a sort of open well, tn| afforded both light and air tn the top to the bottom, an< lso the means of drawing uj the machines of war to the per part of the tower. On the same side as the >cp flight of steps and the drawbl£ there is a small square t er, which, Mr. Drake says, was ; led to the building in the tiiij jf Charles I. ; but whether it ere then a new addition, or a ere reparation, in the room ( an ancient turret, it is certain t tl was the original and only enti ce, a, Jig. 4. This was defended by a sing massy gate, at the head otoe steps, where, before theinvejion of gunpowder, a single man i|^t make a stout defence agata host ; it was then secured at by a portcullis, (a means of deliee which seems to have beei trst introduced by the Normans, »nd at c by a third and mneriite. Arrived within this we vi' » large store room, taking iwi whole of the ground floor ed having no light but from n;jow loops. At d and e are two ci;|ikr stone staircases, ascending lithe floor above ; there is also * ad- ditional small brick staireasithin the castle area, and »m ithout, except by a steep f steps and a drawbridge i r ditch, and therefore was Imoiias completelv insulated as that t York. It was nearly round, covering, like the preceding, almost all the summit of the mount. But here, as at York, the great portal was still on the ground, protected only by the difficulty of access, in consequence of the steepness of the hill. Indeed, this sort of security was so much depended upon, that we here even find remains of two great portals, one within the castle area to the south- east, and one without to the north- west ; so that it is evident, notwith- standing the walls of the castle area adjoin on both sides, that this keep was considered a distinct independent strong hold, equally tenable with the rest of the castle, or without it. The great portal towards the castle area was not considered as forming any communication be- tvveen the different parts of this strong hold, except in times of peace and security ; and in case of close siege must have been very little used, but safely shut up, and as strongly defended as that on the opposite side, without the castle walls, the one and the other being designed merely for state and convenience, when a numerous retinue were constantly passing in and out. On that side where a communication was really made with the rest of the build- ings of the castle, the utmost caution was displayed. The last castle that we shall mention of the original Norman style is that of Tunbridge. Cam- den informs us, that it was built by Richard de Clare, about the time of William Rufus, who got it by exchange for Briony, in Nor- mandy ; his great grandfather Godfrey, having been natural son to Richard, the first duke of Normandy, and made earl of Ewe and Briony. The great gate, or tower of 581 CASTLE. entrance, in this noble pile, was erected long after the first con- struction of the fortress, and con- tained more convenient apart- ments for the residence of a commander-in-chief than are to be met with in any of the original buildings of the age near the conquest. The entrance was by a strong tower, defended by a drawbridge and deep ditch. From the upper apartments of this tower there still maybe traced, very distinctly, the remains of a covered way, leading to a round keep, situated, like those already described, on tne summit of a high artificial mount. Part of the walls of this build- ing are still remaining, and dis- cover far more of its nature and design than those at Tickhillj indeed, it is obvious, that a con- sistency with the original plan and general device, has been pre- served in the very re-edification of the tower of entrance, and in the communication formed be- tween it and the keep, though the former is a building not only of a much later date, but much more complete, than any of the older square towers of entrance hitherto described. The refinements which the progress of arts introduced, soon caused the lords, who possessed these kind of castles, to begin to consider the residence in tne round keep, except merely in time of siege, as a mode of dwell- ing not so eligible as it had appeared to their haughty ances- tors. The large open well in the centre probably began to be thought uncomfortable, and there- fore induced them to prefer more convenient and pleasant apart- ments in other parts of the for- tress, where before they had been contented with one single room 582 for state. From hence, ho\i er they still took care to leave nfe retreat to the ancient keep elf in case of necessity ; to \ they might retire whene v a close siege commenced. Plate C 68, Jig. 1, is a gLl plan of the whole area ol his fortress, to which there jfcre great outworks, with severaijiep ditches, extending to a con able distance into the com, and having fine contrivaru of sluices and locks for filling cm with water j the latter ng brought not only to sun nd the whole castle, but to lib the very foot of the great vcr of entrance. At 1, just beyond the i was a round tower, nowdestred, whereof the foundations st re main under ground, and \ served as a barbican to d ml the approach. At 2, a drawbridge, so conl f ed as when drawn up to rest ain't the front of the castle, ai to close the entrance complete a is the great tower o|;n» trance ; b a high circular mnt, rising 70 feet above the pr;nt area of the castle, and lOCeet above the bed of the rive its base forming a circle conta Dg almost exactly an acre of < On the top of this is situate b keep, of an oval form, its lojest diameter without being 86 et, and its shortest 76 feet; ai its longest diameter within 64 et, and shortest 50 feet j so thi walls must have been, in BM parts, at least, about 11 P feet in thickness. It appears from these di sions, that there must have 'en a well, or small open area i W centre, with pillars or ajP round it, both to support^ timbers from the side wall n also to afford air and light. CASTLE. tie mount has been discovered up!i examination to have been foled of earth, dug out of the rrjt ditches and trenches which rotund the castle, and from the print bed of the river. And to pr(^nt such an enormous mass as e keep, when reared upon SU i new-made ground, from h.Tig any dangerous or irre- > u • settlement, its walls were , ,,i ructed in a very singular maber; for they were not only of eat thickness, and supported by trong buttresses, but com- ic d with timber wrought up ieir substance. It even ap- pend, upon pulling down the rui a few years ago, that at bout the height of one- ,« thi part of the building from tht.ground floor, there was a unued range of timber, by wa of curb, wrought up in the mk of the substance of the wall I all >und, so that whatever settle- nie there should be at any time in ie ground, the whole must . ig arly settle together or not It It is to be observed, how- u' that the ground, both within and ' ithout the area of this build- ups l »een raised considerably abo: the original floor, and that coper part of the wall is now dcsiiyed. l! this keep there were two >• extraordinary and well-pro- tect ; approaches from the other of the fortress, which de- icn the most minute descrip- 1 ; one is a covered way from the :pper part of the tower of entriice at a, along the top of a - r l vail, which joins that tower I keep at b ; but where it termates at the keep, like that at L coin, it never entered either upo he ground floor or upon that nexi .bove, but went with a very ■tee ascent quite to the state apartments, at the top of this building. The whole nature of it may more fully be understood by fig, 2, where a represents the tower of entrance, and b the lower part of the walls of the keep, and so much of the mount as now remains. At d is the arch, leading from the tower down to the top of the wall, which appears to have been secured by a strong portcullis and an iron door. From d to e is the covered way. At e is the foot of the exceed- ing steep flight of steps, ascend- ing from thence to f; but in such a manner that it is manifest they neither ended there nor entered the keep at /, but went up a con- siderable way above the present ruins, where we may be assured there was a doorway, at least as well secured as that at d ; and so contrived that on any emer- gency all communication might easily be cut off, even from this covered way. The wall of communication is considerably higher on the out- side of the castle than within : which latter is the side here re- presented. The ground without is even lower by 26 feet, on the outward north side of the wall, than within on the south, and the buttresses at the bottom of the outward front of the tower of entrance, spread out till they nearly meet the continuation of the foot of the mount, under w ; in which spot was an open arch that let water in from the outside ditches to a well at c. Upon the top of the wall, over this well, appear the rrftirks of a projecting frame-work of timber, made for the purpose of drawing up water on either side, to supply these two buildings 5 but in all proba- CASTLE. bility there was also a well of water within the body of the keep, as at York, for the service of the garrison in case of a close siege. The other extraordinary ap- proach to the keep is now in great part destroyed ; but it ap- pears to have been from a great round tower, of which the foun- dations only now remain at the west corner of the area of the castle c, fig. 1. From this tower it came, as a covered way, upon the top of the wall, about half of the intermediate distance to- wards the keep, as far as f, where was a steep descent, by stairs, to a square subterraneous vault, still remaining most perfectly entire j from thence was a subterraneous ascent leading to the summit of the mount, where it communi- cated only with the store room, or lower apartment of the keep, and with a small winding staircase within the substance of the wall at k 3 which latter appears to have g;one up directly to the leads at the top, and to have had no sort of communication with the state rooms, or any other of the intermediate apartments within. As, therefore, the former cover- ed way was obviously designed for the use of the governor, or lord of the castle, and his imme- diate attendants, so we may de- pend upon it this latter was de- signed for the use of the soldiers of the garrison, and was their common mode of approach from the tower a, and other barracks where they lodged, so long as the area of the castle was pre- served from the hands of the enemy, or till they were more closely besieged and shut up in the keep itself. Part of the steps of this ascent were remaining in the year 1742. In the buttress at x, is the ap- pearance of a square pipe, form- 584 ing a drain to the upper RjL ments. At d are discovered the fou a . tions of another round t<>£ and at g the remains of a saJS square tower, which seem t have had only two rooms, ie one above the other. At h was a sally port, constructed, and secured wl flight of steps descending- tow the river ; and between m a have been discovered foundat of a range of buildings, whicl have good reason to believe \ mere additions, made after time of Ed ward I. The walls surrounding the :a of the castle are, in general, at it 10 feet thick. At i i is the river, but it d not run originally in the preiit channel, as this latter was n le for it at the time the mount is raised, which was in great rt composed of the strata of eh dug from thence. From the corner tower d is a strong wall, built across e mouth of the last ditch at aj keep the water to its frm height, and over this wall found a passage and forme a continual fall; whilst thewle work was well protected b] s nearness to the adjacent tone At g was another large j strong weir; and from s(e foundations discovered at /> ; t seems that a tower or other \vk had, in like manner, been ei structed there for its protect^ At a little distance from s weir, to the west of the easjj began a bank, which was car d two miles up the country, thro ii hills and vallies, to enable the who had the care of the ca e to fill the mote, at least 14 t above the level of the valle;n the neighbourhood. And to e north, in front of the castle, wl CAS two ther ditches, at a consider- f ^distance, the one dry, and the her capable of being filled , bv (?ans of the bank just men- tionl ; this last was very deep „ and >road, and passed through , f the »wn only at a quarter of a milrrom the gate of the castle, , it';, we have reason to believe, was' drawbridge. jk great tower of entrance, hi next claims our attention, d) of the most curious struc- ; rt at this day remaining in | )i nd ; and appears, from the . vl of its ornaments, to have bee erected either in the time of bj John, or beginning of the of Henry III. me C 6S, Jig. 3, is a plan of 6 round floor, and of the great por'i. through which is a passage ft bass-court of the castle, or I . dl'm. The water of the ditches, \ have before stated, washed the ot of this tower ; and at x x y in i north front, is the part ;a?$t which the drawbridge was rawn up. A .appear the places for fixing the ndlass to draw up the bridge, andiver head, just beneath an arcl'it a vast height, are three ma( eolations, for pouring down boil g lead and hot sand on any tm mts, in case the drawbridge sho ; l at any time be torn down ikI lis first entrance forced. h % was an enormous port- II, descending from another of t : high arches, near the top of t': tower. A3, a pair of strong gates j From the staircase, on P CASTLE. riJt hand, at r, is a passage to a cess, or small room, formed inihe thickness of the wall, exjtly of the form and dimen- sion laid down in the plan ; from wHice at u is a passage to an irid doorway at /, which ap- el clearly to have been strongly leered, both by a portcullis and an pn door, and led down to the cofed way on the top of thewall the communicated with the keep. ]om the staircase, on the left bar, at q, is another small pa< ge w, leading to a privy, of n ame construction with that on .ie opposite side on the floor betith ; and at y y, are the ves for drawing up the small ullises over the side doors. ate C 69, Jig. 1, is a plan of thetate room above, which ap- pei to have been very magnifi- ceri! and of great dimensions, cling the whole area of theihree rooms beneath. It is t n divided into three apart- me:?, but the walls forming the (! vons are mere modern erec- iort raised on the top of the ri:ial ones in the lower floor, fit a view to fit up a small roo< as a library, which design hasince been laid aside. Az, is a large fire hearth and iifiey j and at t t are two large win i\vs, highly ornamented in lie vie that began to be intro- duc. in the time of king John, and irliest part of Henry III. ; but bey appear to have had no gla* and have been fenced only itl ron bars and wooden shut- tersns is known to have been age in early times. A-vv v, are four narrow loop- bole, but there is reason to think that ie arches leading to them wer shut up as mere closets " h 1 the arras, except on par- > 'J emergencies; and that - oble room, when finished and adorned, was no ways dis- figured by them ; it was no less than 17 feet in height. The beams of the floor were placed much nearer to each other than those of the floor beneath j indeed they are hardly the width of a beam asunder, and seem to have been intended to support occasionally the weight of a great concourse of people. The great portcullis, at the first entrance, was drawn up here behind the arras at x x, but seems to have been so constructed that, when at its utmost height, it only just filled up, and made level, the cavity left for it in the floor. The dotted part adjoining shows the top of the wall underneath, upon which the floor rested j for on account of the projection of the hanging arches, in the front of the tower, the flat wail in the middle was advanced further out here than in the room below. The ceiling of this room was still more remarkable than the floor, being no less than 3 feet in thickness ; designed to support not only the lead of the flat roof, but the great weight of balistas, catapultas, and other engines of war. In both the front and back walls appear the perforations of the machicolations, going up quite through to the top of the tower, where they were easily approached by means of a set-off in the para- pet wall above, and could with more convenience and advantage be made use of than if they had opened into the apartments beneath. *At y y, are the doors to the two staircases ; that on the right hand merely led directly to the top of the building ; but from that on the left, at o, is a passage leading to a small room in the wall, of the same proportions and dimen- 567 CASTLE. sions as here represented ; and from thence a second narrow passage p, leading to an arched doorway, defended by a portcullis and iron door ; and from this doorway was an exceeding steep flight of steps leading down to a covered way, on the top of the adjoining wall, which commu- nicated with the small square tower marked y, in the general plan. At the end of this passage- room was another arch leading to a small recess, serving for a privy, constructed just like the former. On the outside of the tower, far underneath, appears a large arched doorway, answering to one exactly similar at the op- posite end of the tower, the use of which, at first sight, is not at all obvious; they were both ori- ginally considerably above the level of the ground, and look in every respect like small side portals, as much as those above, defended by the portcullises and iron doors. These being placed on the outside of the walls of the castle give the tower a strange appearance of injudicious weak- ness ; but, odd as it may seem, they are found on examination to bave been designed partly for deception, to mislead an enemy by a false outside, and principally to preserve cleanliness 5 for the sake, first of concealing, and then of easily removing the soil and filth from the easements above, and to prevent its disfiguring the outside walls of the tower, in such a manner as was the case in many other castles, where the outlets to the easements were only loops. Within each of these doors is nothing more than a small square area, excavated out of the wall ; the flues descending down to which, from above, are so well constructed and secured, 588 that from this contrivance tl could not happen even the 1 diminution of the strength of castle, whilst at the same t the external appearance to enemy could only serve to o.l- sion a most ridiculous kincif deception. The situation both of the J doorway and of the one for dei - tion, that towards the wes.s represented in Jig. 6, wher shows the place of the for above the top of the wall, \ the steps leading from th( e down to the covered way goes to the keep ; and b the p ie of the latter, which is one of e remarkable arches of which e have been speaking, on the ( 1 side of the wall next the ditci Besides these in the tov, there were more than one net - sary, in the small tower ak plate C 68, Jig. 1 ; another at e top of the steps ascending to e keep at b,Jig. 2 ; and a whole Jg of them on the wall from h t| besides one or two others | tween h and c ; the wholeif these were so contrived aso cast all filth out of the arejif the walls, and to be easily clean d by means of the river. We have already mentiod that there was a set-off a the wall on the leads above;.t the top of the tower we be been surveying. The wall tie is not of half the thickness i it is in all the apartments | neath ; and by that means a m and station for the soldiers i formed all round. On ascend^ these leads the two circular sf- cases ended, being covered^ with stone arches at top ; penings of the small flues in {» wall, going down to the ▼airs beneath. '. ere now remains but one or twrhings more to be observed wit regard to this extraordinary bai'ing : first, there seems to be 'mewhat of a new improve- in e in the device of several of the'opholes, for they are formed as ' presented in Jig. 4. The low 1 - part of the loop, on the out le,at 6, descending, by means of ; , loping cavity cut in the wall, far'ineath the original opening inwards at c, and by that means giving a far greater command of the area before the castle to the cross-bow men, whilst, at the same time, it would mislead any one who should attempt to shoot a weapon into it from without ; and would direct that weapon in such a manner as to prevent its doing any harm, since it must strike either against the plane b c, or against the top d e. It is remarkable, too, that the ornamental arches, forming the entrances to the recesses that lead to these loops, dip below the rest of the wall somewhat in the manner represented at d, or even lower, so that although, at first sight, in consequence of the slope e f, these loopholes appear more carelessly formed than those at Rochester or Canterbury, yet they are in fact even more fully secured. The construction of the chim- neys also are curious ; for not- withstanding they are unavoid- ably represented in the plan, as if formed by means of recesses in the walls in the usual mode, yet, in reality, the wall at tiie bottom, behind each fire hearth, is level with the rest of the walls in the several rooms, and only is so formed as to rise up, from thence sloping backwards con- tinually, within the thickness of the rest of the wall, till it reaches the loop of exit, in the manner represented in Jig. 5, and so as just to afford room for piles of wood to be set up on end leaning against it, under the flue ; which mode of construction must have thrown greater heat into the rooms, and have occasioned a better draught up the chimneys. Further, to avoid weakening the walls too much, the small rooms and recesses formed in them, are no where alike on the ssy two sides of the tower on the same floor, but are placed counter to each other ; so that if the wall was at all weakened by the recess 3vi one floor, the defect was made good in the strengthening of the next. But notwithstanding all these various devices and improvements, and the elegant construction of the whole of the great tower of entrance, beyond what appears in the towers of entrance at Tickhili and Lincoln, yet we may perceive that the general mode of fortifi- cation most peculiarly belonging to the Normans, and which was at their first coming introduced by them, has been carefully pre- served with all its characteristic marks in every part of the general plan of this curious fortress. We find the high mount, the round keep on the mount, and the connection of this by a covered way, with the tower of entrance. There are many castles of this kind of construction in different parts of this kingdom : amongst which we may safely venture to pronounce Trematon castle, in Cornwall, notwithstanding the doubts of the ingenious Dr. Borlase to the contrary to have been a Norman structure of the first age, and to have been built by Robert, earl of Moreton and Cornwall, and half brother to the Conqueror. Restormcl castle, in Cornwall, seems also to have been another structure of the same age. But we agree with Dr. Borlase, in concluding Lanceston castle to be of much higher antiquity, and must place it, both on account of the manner in which the stair- cases are constructed, and on ac-, count of the small dimensions of the area of the inner tower, amongst the very first Saxon castles, and deem it to be of more early date than Com . borough itself. Nay, perhaps, we should t greatly err, if we were to vente still further, and to conclud t to have been a work of the . cient Britons, erected in the i t ages, in consequence of that g; t degree of art, beyond the res f the Britons, which the Corn men might attain by means f their great intercourse with si foreigners as came from afan trade for tin. Whence the rude Picts, j Celtic Britons, the primis Saxons, or the Normans, all f whose buildings have some L tant resemblance, obtained tl r first ideas of military architecti , so unlike to the Roman, can t be precisely ascertained j but is very remarkable what a gi t similarity there is between 1 castle at Lanceston, and the - scription given by Herodotiuf Ecbatana, the capital of Mei built in the first ages of I world j and of that part pa • cularly which may be conclud to have been the keep of tjt ancient and magnificent fortrJ At Lanceston we find, acco- ing to Dr. Borlase, three grt and elevated circular walls, tow- ing over, and behind each oth; namely, that of the first wal that of the second ward, andtt of the innermost ward, or cenil tower. Besides which, there, on one part, the outward wal f the bass-court of the cast; which would appear, in imp directions, at a distance, asi fourth wall beneath the rest. It is almost impossible for if one acquainted with ancient 1- tory to view these, and not > call to mind what Herodotus s s of Ecbatana. He tells us, Dejos compelled the Medes to co* un d one polity, and to build a eitv surrounded with fortifica- tion and that those strong and nmpficent walls, which were kno i under the name of Ecba- tanawere then built. They were, 'be iys, of circular form, one (rittf the other, and each gra- dual; raised just so much above the :her as the battlements are high the situation of the ground, '! wbii rose by an easy ascent, at! ; beini favourable to the design, eiing's palace and treasury wer built within the innermost circiof the seven which com- 11 pose the city. The first, and iskpacious of those walls, was equaia circumference to the city hens, and white from the >t the battlements j the second » blatj the third of a purple colour 5 li the urth blue ; and the fifth of a « deeprange : all being coloured ki withlifFerent compositions. And i,i of t\ two innermost walls, one I was minted on the battlements a lver colour, and the other lit gild with gold. Having thus ived for his own security, he le (I the people to fix their m tions without the walls of 6k: thisjty. Ir his description, surely, we ( ery nearly a description of n Lan ston castle, and the adjacent : vi\ almost the only difference bein> that the scale, in one in- ilan[, is rather larger than in the her; and that the battle- men of the walls of the one were paintd with different colours, and ose of the other left plain. N cannot, however, forbear obseing, that the judicious Mr. Comer concludes most of the dun.'cr round towers, in Scot- land o have been built by the Dan j and informs us, from goo(' authority, that the Picts wen; connected with the Nor- weg is, who, under the com- mand of Harold, assisted them in the endeavour to recover their lost possessions in Scotland. Whence we may infer, that all their build- ings had one and the same Celtic origin, jointly with the Norman castles, and with these structures of the earliest times in Cornwall 3 and certainly they scarcely differ the one from the other, except in such manner as they might well do, in consequence of the slow ad- vancement of civilization amongst the various people who built them. Having now investigated three successive different methods of constructing these important for- tresses, namely, the ancient Saxon, the improved magnificent build- ings of Alfred and his successors, and the first Norman piles, we may easily perceive how the next alteration was introduced. There were but few castles in England before the invasion of the Normans which, as Dr. Bar- low observes, greatly facilitated the conquest. VV r illiarn was so sensible of this circumstance, that he promoted the building of new ones with all possible ardour ; several therefore were soon con- structed, as we have seen, on the original Norman plan, by himself, and certain of his chieftains. But amongst other persons whom he employed and consulted on the occasion, was that great, saga- cious, and ingenious man, Gun- dulph, bishop of Rochester. This extraordinary genius began to reason with more acuteness upon the subject than any architect had done before ; and being em- ployed, about the year .1078. to direct the building of the tower of London, and of some other fortresses, he blended together both the excellencies of Alfred's castles, and those of the great round towers of his own country- CASTLE. men, and added thereto many new inventions, for the sake of increas- ing not only the security, but also the magnificence, of these piles. His mode of building was im- mediately so greatly admired, and so soon came into fashion, that, although the prejudices in favour of the old plan long continued amongst the Normans, and many castles continued to be built according to it, yet many also, in the very same age, and even in the very same year, were erected on Gundulph's plan. He determined to get rid of tne awkward labour of raising high artificial mounts, by way of defending the entrance and ap- proach to the keep, despised the inconvenience of the central wall, for the purpose of affording air and light in the round towers, and saw many defects even in the great castles of Alfred, espe- cially in their want of inward defence to the loopholes in the lower apartments, and in the unguarded design of their great windows above. In short, to him appears clearly to be due, the honour of the in- vention of the noble high elevat- ed portal, so completely defended by drawbridges, gates, and port- cullises, all placed in the most ju- dicious manner, in lieu of the high mount ; the invention of the mode of properly defending loopholes ; the invention of wells concealed in the walls, for the purpose of drawing up timbers ; the improve- ment of the manner in which galleries of communications were constructed in the walls j other judicious devices with regard to the situation of staircases, and an improved mode of constructing even the very dungeons. The noble proportion and dis- position of the state apartments, were also another excellence in 592 Gundulph's keeps, as well the stately mode of approacl and ascent to them. Of the several castles bi by Gundulph, we shall particniy enumerate that at Roclter, Rochester castle was in eat part re-edified, if not origiUy built by this great man, out the year 1088, and is one the finest remains of antiquity i :his country. It is true, that j jt of it is said to have been 1 ten down in king John's time but the uniformity of the whole \m that it was most certainly re red in a manner similar to that the original construction. This castle has been buii an the brow of a considerablt on the banks of the river ed- way; and its principal t er, which is 75 feet by 72, so situated as to command bos the river and the whole adent country. It was fortified I'itk strong outworks and deepdiies, and had a considerable areaa ind it, enclosed for the use cthe garrison. In the construction of the t/er, the circumstances most man: stly endeavoured to be provide; for by the architect, were, 1st. The security of th en- trance, and the rendering^ it difficult to an enemy, but so jag- nificent as to be suitable 1 the dignity of the person w!|,« commander in chief, was ere to have his residence. 2dly. The protection ojthe whole garrison in case of aiose siege, so that they might njher be annoyed by the weapoj of the enemy, nor be subje! to have their apartments s • on fire j at the same time tjWg care to devise such mea *s would enable them to annt besiegers with safety to selves. the CASTLE. 3c» . The contriving to mislead \nd ceive the besiegers, and to jrawheir attacks upon such parts '.Ml' building as were in reality longest, and the least liable 'b bjnjured by them , 4t y. The security of the stores, nd e securing of the prison- ers rsuch a manner as to need v2/ considerable guard. M 5tSr'. The easy conveyance of he eat engines of war, such as " ! :ilisl, catapultae, warwolfs, and : 'Tensive weapons, into the ' ario 1 apartments, and up to the 3p ope tower. 6tl|\ The means of giving a lictdarm to all the garrison, Kt producing confusion, or ei g the enemy to be apprized 11 fit.. It. The supplying the gar- :c! isorit ith water. Stri The conveying away the moklfrom the apartments, and naing of drains to carry ff thulth. i Ami lastly, the providing a iabiujion for the commander 1 chf, or lord of the castle, itely and airy, and free e annoyance of the ene- struments of war. These nds ' re obtained by the most i£en:js devices. First, as to the ntran 1 , nothing can be con- e< nore completely adapted o anvcr the double purpose ^oth ' state and security. It t in this castle., nor in- deed i any other ancient castle hat Have seen, says Mr. King, hat t('. entrance was either in 1 *er story or upon the , r roun, or near to it, but at a onsid able height by means of a JFtnd taircase, which went partly ound wo of the fronts of the sullen the outside, and termi- nated | a grand portal. But, be- <*e tl^ portal could be entered, foere as a drawbridge to be 4r' passed, the pulling up of which cut ofi all communication with the flight of steps ; and there was also a strong gate about the middle of the staircase, between the foot of it and the drawbridge. Nor was this the only security, for even the grand portal, beyond the bridge, was not the real en- trance of the fortress, but merely the entrance of a small adjoining tower, the whole of which might be demolished without any mate- rial injury to the body of the castle. Within this little tower was a sort of vestibule, and from thence was a second entrance (the real entrance of the great tower itself), through a second portal, placed in the thickness ot the wall, which was here about 12 feet thick ; and this second entrance, as well as the first portal, was defended by a port- cullis, or herse, sliding in a strong stone groove, and also by a strong pair of gates 5 so that there were three strong gates to be forved, and two portcullises to be de- stroyed, before this entrance could be gained j and one pair of gates was to be broken down, and the drawbridge at a great height to be replaced, before even the first portcullis could be approached. How strong the mode of forti- fying by means of the portcullis was before the invention of can- non, is so well known, that it is almost needless to describe it; but as it will tend to explain some other parts of the building, we will just mention, that the herse, or portcullis, was a strong grating of timber, fenced with iron, made to slide up and down in a groove of solid stone work, within the arch of the portal, just as a sash window does in its frame, and that its bottom was furnished with sharp iron spikes, designed both to strike into the 503 1 CASTLE. ground or floor, for the sake of greater firmness and solidity, and to break and destroy whatever should be under it at the time of its being let fall. Its groove was contrived so deep in the stone work, that it could not be injured cr removed without pulling down the whole wall. The remains of the grooves of both the portcullises, in both the portals we have described, and the places for working them in the rooms above are still visible, as also the remains and places of the hinges of the gates. We may also perceive that, for state, there were in the thickness of the wall, at the second entrance, two stone seats in large niches for the warders, or for those who by military tenure kept castle guard. Besides this grand entrance there was none other of any con- sequence, and indeed there was no possibility of getting in or out the castle otherwise than by it, except by a small sally port, or narrow doorway, situate directly under the drawbridge, and there- fore in a place where any assail- ants might easily be annoyed, both from the top of the stone steps and from the first portal, and if there were any machicola- tions over that portal by them also. This little sally port was at such a height from the ground that it could only be approached by a scaling ladder, as it had neither stone nor other fixed steps. And lest even this entrance, thus secured, should be forced, provi- sion was made within the castle that it should give no easy ad- mittance to the main body of the building; for, from hence, to the grand entrance in the apartments of the floor above, there was no ascent, except by one small wind- ing staircase, although, in the next story, there were nc ess than three convenient stai 51 leading to the upper apart of the castle. This staircas so narrow that a single se , could easily defend the pas it was also well secured by:W doors. Fig. 1 and % plate C 7( | are plans of the tower ; the first i inn designed to represent the our where the grand entrati j situate, at the top of the fli t of steps ; and the second a ] 10! the floor above, which co m 5 the state apartments. Fig. 3 is an elevation 1 the tower on the north-east sit to- gether with the smaller wee with which it is connecte and in which is the vestibul bu grand entrance. In Jig. 1, a b c is the ai flight of steps, the bottom ling at a. At /, on the first la was a strong arch over hea a great massy gate ; and at was the first grand portal, ft by a strong gate and porlllis. Between c and d was the aw- bridge; at e was the vest lie ; and at g the second grand pal, fortified also by another ga and portcullis. At h are the real niches on both sides the ; with stone benches for thjvar- ders, or those who kept guard at the gates. In the plan of the groun Inor at i, Jig. 2, is the place for ing the herse, or portcul the last portal ; and at A| the place for working the poiMNi over the first portal. Tl v proach to the first mention was from a gallery within the ' - ness of the walls; and t|, ap- proach to the second wa ro the former, and throug the chamber over the vestibuh In Jig. 3, I and 1 she the remains of the grand staiW C A S T L F. 4 ie grand portal, the bottom elwhich, notwithstanding the so and dirt that has accumulated c id the castle, is still 20 feet ) the ground ; and at 3 is the -port still at the height of 7 fel so that we may conclude th it was in former times still m e. Over this was the draw- brige. he present entrance to the i e is through a modern breach e in the wall at a place where th,e was originally a loophole ; represented at /, Jig. 1. At m the only staircase leading to th< ground floor ; and at n and o arttwo other staircases, com- bing at this floor, where the d entrance was formerly -it te, and thence leading to the to >f the castle. condhj. The contrivances in : structure of this tower for lirotection of the garrison in i- of a close siege, and after thoutworks should be taken, we most remarkable, and the me ods devised to secure them ( it fro| being annoyed by the , eney's weapons, and yet to ai e them to annoy the be- liejrs, were most curious, and are ell deserving our attention. ( the ground floor there were o indows, and but few loop- a nents, nor could any fire- »rai be thrown in to do mis- chit or reach further than the boti.n of the arches, through •hi these loopholes were ap- pro; ied from within the castle; "or ere there any other beside loopholes in the story above, where the grand portals were situate. The third story contained the rooms of state, and although there were, indeed, in these rooms, most magnificent win- dows, yet they were placed so high in the apartments, which were on that account exceedingly lofty, and were so peculiarly con- trived that it was almost impos- sible for any weapon to be shot into the room to do any mischief. If the weapon entered in an as- cendingdirection it struck against a low arch and could not enter the room ; and if it was shot with such force, and from such a dis- tance, as to enter the room nearly horizontally, it must then have force also to go quite across the room, at a great distance over head, and most probably would lodge in the arches of the wall on the opposite side, so that it was hardly possible for a weapon to have fallen into the room, and if perchance it did so, it must have been after it had struck the opposite wall and lost its force. But, in order to understand this the more fully, it is neces- sary to have recourse to some diagrams. Fig. 4, plate C 70, shows the front view of an arch on the ground floor, in the thick- ness of the wall, and its corres- pondent loophole, as seen within the castle ; and Jig. 5, plate C 71, is a section of ihe same. The loophole is placed at the end of an arch cut through the wall, which, in this part, is at least 12 feet in thickness The hole is placed at the very top of the arch, and is approached by a flight of steps, which do not begin till you have advanced some little way under the arch ; and the loophole, by means of a rising in the vaulted roof, at the further CASTLE. end, is not only placed at the top of the arch, but in reality con- siderably above the vaulting at the entrance : so that whatever weapon, or stone from a cross- bow, or firebrand, or firearrow, was shot in by the besiegers, it must strike against the rising part of the vaulting, and fall down within the arch, without a possi- bility of doing any great injury. It could strike no one unless it were a crossbow man, who might at that very instant be at the loop- hole within the castle, going to shoot at the enemy, and even he must place himself very awkward- ly to be struck by it ; for these loopholes, though the lowermost in the castle, are yet so high from the ground, that any weapon from without must ascend to enter them ; and as to any firebrand, or firearrows, shot in, it is plain that such must fall down within the stone arch and there remain. Another circumstance that de- serves notice is, that whereas the wall might appear to have been weakened by these arches, yet the steps so strengthen it, and there is so great a thickness left, even close round the loop- hole, that not the slightest danger could be apprehended from that account. Thus was the lower floor pro- tected ; which, both on account of its strength and darkness, was in general designed merely to hold the stores. These lower rooms (for there were two of them) reached from the ground to a little beneath the bottom of the drawbridge and grand portal, so that their height was at least above 14 feet. The next rooms reached in clear height above 20 feet more, almost to the lower range of loopholes, seen in Jig. 3 j it is therefore plain, that on this floor, which contained the prin. al entrance, there were no wind j nor lights, nor even looph I on the same side with thJj trance. The reason of thll obvious, for had there been ay they would have been too n':h exposed to the enemy when I had made themselves masteluf the steps, or were making m attack upon the portal. It is, however, to be obser ], that in the vestibule, in the si tower, on this very floor, tl are large and handsome m dows ; but then this vesti lie seems to have been considid as a place of very little imp t- ance in a close siege, and w e none of the garrison would ie found. The portcullises of 1 h portals were worked in or iir the room above, and in thatroi, though so much higher, ti e are only loopholes ; the dispi- tion of the loopholes and e windows of this small tower bt g- in an inverted order from tl e of the great tower. The large and elegant winds in the vestibule, added to e stateliness of the entrance, ol sioned therefore no sort of dar:r to the garrison. This second story, thought had no other large windows ta those in the vestibule, had h ever loopholes on all the si< except that to the north-e: and being so much higher t were allowed to be larger those on the ground floor other respects they were c trived much in the same mam only that instead of steps tl was a stone stage, within the wall, on which two crossbow TP- might stand. (See Jig. 6, jm C71 ° . i On this floor was the ZW chamber ; and here the chief jit of the garrison had their reside e CASTLE. an lodging. Within the wall a ]J at the north corner, is a BI Jl room with a fire-place, w jkh seems to have been the rtfjon of some officer who com- ded the guard. Its situation J be seen at p, fig. 1, plate C ). o us, in this more refined age, v naturally seem astonishing hoi so great a number of men cold find lodging in such a build- in! but an anecdote, which we w| on good authority, relate of rh family of lord Lovat, (who wj one of the last chieftains that rerved the rude manners and da-arous authority of the feudal i may, perhaps, give us 3e idea of their manner of ling. "This powerful laird re led in a house which would be -lined but an indifferent one fo i verv private, plain, country lenmn, in England, having, wielieve, only four rooms on a flok and those not very large. He, however, he kept a sort of co i, and several public tables, an had a numerous body of rei ners always attending. His ov constant residence, and the 2 where he received company, at dinner, was in the very i where he lodged ; and his s sole apartment was her oom ; and the only provision ev ro Ia< be f oi the lodging of the servants an retainers was a quantity of Up, which they spread every nr^t on the floors of the lower rons, where the whole of the infior part of the family, con- sis ig of a very great number of pe ins, took up their abode." le next floor to this, or ■fl story, contained the rooms of ate, and was about 32 feet in eight, taking in the lower- m< range of loopholes, and the munificent windows above. ie loopholes were contrived just like those last mentioned ; but, in all probability, the arches, through which they were ap- proached, were concealed behind the arras, with which, according to the custom of the times, these rooms were hung ; and the great windows were placed at such a vast height in the rooms, and so far from the ground, that any weapons shot in must, in all pro- bability, on that account alone, strike against the top of the arches that were cut in the wall to give light from these windows. The vaulting of these arches was purposely placed so low, and so near to the top of the windows, that, large and magnificent as they were, it was nevertheless almost impossible for any wea- pons shot in to reach the ceilings of the rooms, or considering the thickness of the walls, even to come into the rooms at all. It also deserves notice that, for the convenience of the garrison, in case of a close siege, and that orders might be speedily com- municated to all parts, there was on this floor, within the thickness of the wall, in the space between the loopholes and the windows, a gallery, as represented by the dotted lines in fig. 2, which in different places ascended and de- scended by means of steps. From this gallery, and the staircase at m, there was an easy communi- cation both with the great cavities in the walls at i and k, w here the two great portcullises of the two portals were worked, and also with the chamber over the vesti- bule. Besides these, there was, in the floor above, a smaller and narrow er gallery, within the thick- ness of the wall. As to the fourth or uppermost story of all, the rooms of which were about 16' feet in height, there was no need of anv prccau- 5^7 CASTLE. tions in the structure of the win- dows. It had, therefore, very large ones, like the grand apart- ments, and these were not far from the floor. The rooms here, as well as the leads of the castle, were occasionally used for the catapultas, balistas, warwolfs, and other instruments of war, to annoy the enemy, and were the places from whence the soldiers most conveniently attacked the besiegers. From these rooms there was a door which opened upon the leads of the small tower, as may be seen in fig. 3, on which instruments of war might also be placed. Thirdly. It was customary in ancient castles to enJeavour to draw the attention of the besieg- ers from the weakest part of the buildings by giving to some parts that were much stronger a still greater appearance of weakness. In the castle under consideration, the first, and most remarkable, was a stone arch and false portal on the staircase, just by the first gate g, fig. 3. Its appearance, certainly, could answer no other end than to deceive and mislead the besiegers, by inducing them to attempt a breach in this place, when once they had made them- selves masters of the steps and of the first gate ; for any one who looks at the north-east front of this building, would instantly conclude, that there was formerly an ancient entrance at this place; but upon carefully measuring and examining the inside of the castle it will be found that this imagi- nary entrance is directly against the most solid part of the trans- verse wall, being not only against the side cf the solid north-east wall, which is here 1*2 feet thick, but moreover against the end of the north-west wall at N, fig. 1. It may also be observed, that the 598 small apartment p, before i n . tioned, as being at this nfe corner, is above the crown o g arch, and consecpiently couk ( >t diminish the strength of the ill of this false portal. That deception alone was - signed by the construction of lis arch appears the more probw because in Dover castle therej a similar great arch and false r- tal, situated in a somewhat sin ir manner, and another small p portal on the ground, on ie the south side, which, on exiii- nation, is found to be not ■ against the whole thickness the wall of that front, but ,o directly against the end of ie strong partition wall in the mice, that separates the rooms of it castle. Something of the sjie kind may also be observe* in the castle at Norwich, where e two great arches onthegrod on the west side, which 1 e often been supposed ancient - trances, and at least appear w k places, are in reality the stroni t parts of the walls. The next deception was e round tower at the south anglis, fig. 1 ,• and here, as well as y the false portal, many late I servers of this building have bn deceived, just as the besie^s were intended to be; for it s been taken for granted, that s was a weak part of the buildi \ and that this tower was raiseo strengthen it. Indeed it appt$ on the outside that this roil tower might, at any time, e more easily battered down t'i any other part of the castle. H whoever attempts the experimt , will soon discover his error ; r though it has loopholes, ;1 seems on the outside to bd very injudicious structure, it , in reality, almost a mass of 8(1 stone, having no cavities, excl CASTLE a irrow passage, and a dark rod or cell, at the bottom, of very co'facted dimensions. The dun- gel for the reception of prisoners, wa invariably attached to the old En it to\ ish castle; in Rochester Castle as beneath the small square oining the keep; in others under the keep itself. It was enied by a narrow and steep flight ps in the wall. Air was ad- d only by an aperture in the roci which was secured by a fall- in" or trap-door. Within the may walls of this castle, there are 11 square wells, which open at thoottom on the ground -floor, and ried to the top of the build- . laving in their ascent branches f tssage leading to galleries on d upper floors. It is believed such cellular passages within pal, first occur in the castles of bis p Gundulph, and were pro- bab intended for quick convey- an< to the ramparts and top of the :astle. The principal castles bui 1 on the plan of bishop Gun- iifi, are, Canterbury, Dover, Lupw, Richmond in Yorkshire, anrrledingham in Essex. ' e reign of Stephen is most ted for the erection of castles dm g the prevalence of the mixed An > Norm an style. The castle f iwark in Nottinghamshire is a finfispecimen of the castellated tntfuities of the twelfth century. It i believed to have been erected by exander bishop of Lincoln, and thej)riginal and most important par. of it still exist. It occupied a l^e oblong square, on a high bail by the side of* the Trent ; the kee, appears to have been in the cen(2 of one of the ends ; it is of an ,blong form, and consists of thr< stories. On the ground- floor are vo rooms, without either win- dov^r loop-hole ; in one of these wan well, and a recess leading to a dismal dungeon. Next above was the principal room, which was entered by a covered way from the adjoining wall. The grand stair- case of the keep commences on this floor, and leads to the state apart- ments, which are immediately above. These were small, and chill in as- pect ; but the principal room was lighted by a large and handsome window. The outer staircase pro- ceeded from the base of the inner court, to the battlements and top of the building:, having; no commu- nication with the apartments of the keep : smaller towers appear to have been placed at each corner of the fortress, one of which yet re- mains. The castle of Tiverton in Devonshire is an interesting speci- men of the time of Henry I. Amongst the strongest castles of the reign of Stephen were Norham in Northumberland, Sheriff-Hutton in Yorkshire, and Brancepeth in Durham. The persons most dis- tinguished in the time of Henry I. and Stephen, for castle building, were Roger bishop of Sarum, and Alexander bishop of Lincoln. The former is particularly celebrated by contemporary historians. He built or much enlarged the castles of Malmsbury, Devizes, Sherborne, and Sarum. He was the first who in his buildings joined the courses of stone so nicely together, that, according to William of Malms- bury, " the joint deceives the eye, and leads us to imagine that the whole wall is composed of a single block." The last specimens of castellated architecture, between the reigns of Stephen and Edward I. are Knares- borough and Beeston castles ; both of them very irregular piles, the latter of which consists of circular towers. About the time of the first Ed- ward, in the thirteenth century, a CASTLE. more magnificent style was intro- duced, with numerous towers, splen- did and capacious halls, and occa- sionally the appendage of religious houses. The castle of Caernarvon was built by Edward after his con- quest of Wales in 1282, and the external walls yet remain ; two sides of which were originally de- fended by an embattled terrace, extending to a deep water ; a fosse fronted the remaining sides. The walls are from eight to ten feet in thickness, surrounded by an enclo- sed passage, with narrow loop-holes. Above the embattled parapet, arise, in majestic grandeur, nume- rous turreted towers, not uniform, but pentagonal, hexagonal, and oc- tagonal ; with three others to the north, two rising higher than the rest. The Eagle Tower has a stone carving of that bird, with three elegant turrets, and is remark- ably beautiful. There is a peculiar grandeur in the principal entrance on the east ; and beneath a tower, on this front, is a statue of Edward, in a menacing posture, with a sword half-drawn in his hand. It may be seen, by the grooves in the gate- way, that it was defended by four portcullises. The Queen's Gate is considerably raised above the moat, and only accessible by a draw- bridge. There is a deep well in the north-east corner, contiguous to a round tower, over a dungeon. — Such is the delineation of Caernar- von Castle, founded on a rock, and remaining almost entire. Within is an irregular, oblong area, with two walls, forming an outer and inner court. The remains of spa- cious windows and elegant tracery distinguish the state rooms, which present a square front, but are all polygonal internally. About 70 yards remain, of a covered passage, originally extending round the in- terior of the castle ; the only 600 remaining staircase, is that o l ie Eagle Tower, whose summit n >- mands an extensive view of their, rounding country, and the is f Anglesea. Edward the Secoi i 8 said to have been born in a tie dark room in this tower, in vU there is a fire-place; but the d- joining central, spacious apartr'it on the same floor, has more o- bably been the place of the al accouchement. Conway Castle is another of d- ward the First's erection, supped by the same architect as the e- ceding, and built in the year 1)4, A more beautiful fortress, perl >s, never arose; certainly England je$ not contain its equal ; but it in a ruinous state. The heap of 3- bish in the river, is all that rems of the round tower, which te i- nated a curtain rampart intende d prevent the enemy's approach ljm the river ; a similar tower atjbe opposite end of this wall is so destroyed. Part of a tower oijhe south side yet remains, hanjig over the foundation rock in at b> lique direction. The form of lis castle is an oblong parallelogii, extending along the verge of aie- cipitous rock, washed on two iiei by forked branches of the rir; the other fronts face the t<|B. The walls are of great thickijs, flanked by eight vast, circular, > battled towers, each with a sic r turret, machiolatcd, rising fronvie top, ascended by a spiral staireje, and used as a watch-tower, m two principal gates are admin U contrived for security: the grid entrance was at the north-west 4 by a drawbridge, over a fosse, dffl and wide ; the other was from w river, through a small advaiul postern; the common entrance s on the north-east, by a steep d winding path. Except the st; - hall, few of the apartments are - CASTLE. o-uiable ; its length is 30 feet, he" ladth nearly the same, and Sight 20 feet: the roof was uj x ed by eight arches, only four .t h now remain. It had two ire-ppcs, and was lighted by six , to windows toward the river, i tee larger toward the court, idejeath were extensive vaults, i ire, ammunition, and military tores: Opposite the principal jiatewi' are two towers, one called Wig's, the other the Queen's; i hese ^ntained several rooms each ; a.r had a recess in the wall, i groined roof, the ribs of hdivided the whole into six Jtments, with seats, and lan- v (lows ; it was called the riewr queen's toilet-room. , i Caolly Castle, in Glamorgan- shire,! the cer.ire of an open plain, nsrather the ruin of a small , an of a castle ; it is said l )behe largest ruin in Britain. ' lie I'jh outer rampart, with its lassiv abutments, and numerous )wers; is yet nearly entire, and I striking idea of its extent, n surging this ruin, we pass the arbic- , now formed into habi- ition4 and proceeding between vo ri ed towers, enter the great reao'the castle. To the rght is 1 rangof buildings ; the barracks nd grison, under the rampart; del, hall, chapel, state- B, nd other apartments, con- fiiutii; what was properly termed ie caie. With difficulty passing wet tr't>aq:ments of another draw- '"•'dgc nd its auxiliary towers, we pproai, the first court, and thence bioug a large gateway, with seve- aj groi es for portcullises, to the fiocirJ court of the castle, the area t whi( is 70 yards by 40. On the outhei side is a princely apartment onsiih-d to have been the hall; 'y son^ believed to have been the 'hapel'But whichever it may have 4G ie ci been, its ruin yet retains vestiges of great elegance, in the outlines of its four large windows, the grand propor- tions of the chimney-piece, and the light triplet pillars, with arches sur- rounding the room. The outward staircase entrance to this splendid apartment, the vaulted roof of which was supported by 29 arches, is in the most ruinous state. From this place is seen, to the east, a leaning tower, between 70 and 80 feet high, of prodigious thickness; it hangs nearly 11 feet out of the perpendicular, held together only by the strength of its cement. It has remained in this state many centuries. Near this part of the building, is a place called the Mint, with furnaces for melting metal. The corridor is yet in a good state of preservation, lighted by small windows, and, passing round the principal court, it formed a com- munication with the different apart- ments. The western entrance with its ponderous circular towers, vene- rably shaded with ivy, is remarka- bly striking; and, with the remains of its drawbridge and defensive outworks, may be considered the most entire part of the ruin. The aera of the building of this castle is believed to have been near the close of the reign of Edward the First. The re-edification of Windsor castle, about the year 1350, by William of Wykeham, led to the introduction of a more splendid style of building among the nobles; of which Harewood House and Spofford in Yorkshire are instan- ces: also Nay worth in Cumberland, and Kenilworth, one of the most picturesque objects in the kingdom, give a tolerable idea of the mag- nificence exhibited in the princely and noble buildings of this age. Sir John Fastolf built his country residence at Caistor in Norfolk, in 601 CAS 1459, which gives us the style (f the reign of Edward VI., after which succeeded houses ornament- ed with turrets and battlements. Haddon House, described by Mr. King, in his Archaiologia, vol. vi. page 347, is the best remaining specimen of these fantastical build- ings. Caster, Chester, or Cester, When they occur either as the whole, or as part of the appella- tion of places in Great Britain, prove them to have been fortified and inhabited by the Romans. Castra, Castramentations, or Castella. The Roman forti- fied camps, or stations. The Ro- man camps were commonly divided into castra hyberna, and castra cestiva, winter and summer camps. They were often placed on the site of British settlements, and conse- quently preserved the irregularity of form which usually prevailed amongst the Britons. Instances may be observed at Silchester, Kentchester, Bath, Canterbury, &c. The cause of this irregularity will very generally be found to be the peculiar circumstance of the situa- tion. As to the usual situation of their camps, " There is nothing," Horsley observes, " that the Romans seem to have had a greater regard to, than the convenience of a river, and perhaps, too, the additional strength which it afforded. For the benefit of the meridian sun, which they must need who came from so much warmer a climate, they usually had their stations and outbuildings on the north side of the rivers, and on a gentle declivity. In some instances they chose higher ground, for dryness and prospect. And, as often as they could, they seem willing to have joined these together. From these circumstances of form and situation, the Roman camp may in general be distin- C AS guished from that of the her nations connected in a ni arv capacity with this island." i> 5 term station applies to such fa stativa, or fixed camps, as used for the permanent quar i<\ detachments of the Roman , . The regular and great stalarv camp was encompassed bv a , and massive wall, composed times of stone, and at olh of stone, flint, and brick mingle and surrounded by a deep sins or double fosse. At Richbo igfc, where some portion of the-aiis are still remaining, on the rth- east they are in some parts arly 30 feet high from the grouiuand in many others about 23 the thickness at bottom is get allv from 11 to 12 feet, and in we parts even 13. It is eonstpd of regular facings of alternat ows of squared stone and brick 1 the two outside surfaces ; but, <|hin, between these two uprightsit is composed merely of chalk, ii«ble, and flints, thrown in care!.sly, with cement, or mortar, bead over them at proper distant!-, so as to si; k into the whole ass. The Romans were quite neglful of minute precision in disposi the form and lines of their camp: the sides are often of an unequal I gtli, and not straight, or set &are. On the line of wall which erpsed the camp, are sometimes discpred the remains or foundations | cir- cular towers. These freqlntly occur at the angles, or oipach side of the gate. But these j#ers appear to have been adej to the walls after their first en ion", as it is probable that the Ijmao stations in Britain were orijially constructed without such ms abreast; and the two primal gates, one on each side of tj oblong encampment, at the eitroities of the principal street of the dip. Tl internal arrangement was ma di with great judgment and , ne. When the outline was com- pete he standard was erected by rfieral on the spot chosen for e of his tent, which was ia on the highest ground, s 'as the point of admeasure- it. around it was marked off a ij.ia of 200, or, according to King, et, for his occupation, and le< he pratorium. It contained neral's tent, with a neigh- rr : sacellum, and augurale, parade or court. In nu- lero instances a Christian church 3 foi 1 to have been erected on or t part of the Roman castra- ment;jon occupied by the prceto- fwmlnd probably engrossing more partidarly the portion once ap- proprjed to pagan worship. This nay l ! instanced in the cathedral )f StjPaul, at London. A line t n drawn before the prccto- "iumh the distance of 50 feet, nnnit> entirely across the camp. t, to the right and left of he Ditorium, were placed the ents j the twelve tribunes, six on ?ach !e. Beyond the tribunes, ind e ally divided on each side, *eie h tents of the twelve pre- ecti ythe allies. About 100 feet K>oi 3 first line was drawn ano- i dung across the camp, and 'he inlval formed the chief street lne amp, called principia, or orincijlis, with the two principal its extremities. In a straigrf direction from the central point ci the front of the praetorium, anothe| street, fifty feet, wide, ran throut;' the body of the camp, on " Bid of which were placed the cavalry, and directly behind them the foot. Five hundred feet from the principia, and parallel to it, ano- ther street, fifty feet in width, called Quintana, stretched across the whole encampment. On the right and left of the Triarii, the veteran foot • encamped beyond the cavalry of their respective legions, two streets, each fifty feet broad, extended from the princip : a to the front of the camp, or that part most distant from the praetorium, on the sides of this street were placed the principes, who had a space allowed them of 100 feet square. On the right and left of the principes, were stationed the Hastati, who fronted two other, and more outward streets, each fifty feet broad, and running the whole length of the encampment. On the opposite sides of these streets were quartered the cavalry of the allies. Between the cavalry and the vallum or rampart of this entrenchment, were stationed the allied foot. Mr. King supposes, in opposition to the opinion of General Roy, that a regular street, 50 feet wide, ran between the allied cavalry and foot in each wing. Behind the praeto- rium ran a street 100 feet broad across the camp, and parallel with the tents of the tribunes. Between it and the tribunes' tents, was a space on each side, of the same breadth as the praetorium. On one side an area formed the market- place, or forum ; and on the op- posite side of the praetorium was a quarter assigned to the Quccstor, and near him depositions of arms, clothing, and provisions. Beyond these were the ablecti, or select horse of the allies, with the evocati, and volunteer horse; behind them the evocati and volunteer foot, and between these and the entrench- ment the select foot of the allies. From the central part of the praeto- rium, a street fifty feet wide ran to C03 CAS CAS the decuman gate. On both sides of this street were the extraordinary horse and foot of the allies. Be- tween the tents and the entrench- ments, on each side of the camp was left a space of 200 Roman feet. The above description of a Roman castramentation applies to the con- sular camp, for two legions, with their auxiliaries, amounting in the whole to about 19,200, according to the description of Polybius. In later periods of the empire, some variation in the Roman camp took place, but it chiefly related to the dimensions, and to the internal or- ganization of the temporary camp. The Roman stations in Britain, mentioned by Richard of Ciren- cester, are: -Rhutupis, now Rich- borough ; Durovernum, Canterbury ; Durosevum, Ospring ; Durobrivae, Rochester; Londinium, London; Sulomagus, Brockiey Hill; Veru- lamium, Verulam ; Forum Dianae, Dunstable ; Magiovinium, near Fen- ny Stratford; Lactorodum, Tow- cester ; Isanta Varia, Burntwalls ; Tripontium, near Lilburn ; Benonis, High Cross ; Manduessedum, Man- cester ; Eteocetum, Wall : Pen- nocrucium, on the Peak ; Uxaco- nium, Red Hill, Okenyate ; Uri- conium, Wroxeter ; Banchorium, Bander ; Deva, Chester ; Varis, near Pont Ruffin ; Conovium, Caer Hun; Segontium, Caer Se- gont ; Hereri Mons, Tommen y Mur ; Mediolanum, Clawdd Goch; Rutunium, Rowton ; Durositum, near Rumford; Caesaromagus, near Chelmsford ; Canonium, near Kel- vedon ; Camulodunum, Colchester ; Sturius Amnis, on the Stour; Cam- bretonium ; Sitoma^us; Venta Ce- nom, Castor near Norwich; Cam- boricum, Cambridge', Durolispons, Godmanchester ; Durnomagus, Cas- tor ; Isinnis, Ancaster; Lindum, Lincoln-, Argolicum, Lit tleborough; Danum, Doncaster; Legiolium, Cas- 604 tleford ; Eboracum, York ; h m ^/e/Wo?^/i;Cattaraeton,Ca// !C / c ! AdTisam, Pierce Bridge ; Vindu- i CAS CAS i \> m ,'aerwent ; Tsca Colon \z,Caer- Wi^n'ribia Amnis, on the Taaf ; 3o\ i i, Ewenny ; Nidum, Neath ; , Jum, perhaps Lughor ; Ad (,/io-eJnuiTi, Cas//e Flemish; Ad njtam, Sf. David's', Verlucio, field near Sandy lane; Cu- > Folly farm, near Marl- )ih; Spina?, Spene; Calleba, il-Mciiter ; Bibracte ; Bultrum, ?7s£ ; nMuiium, Abergavenny ; Magne, r (ent\ ester; Branogenium, near ardine ; Blestinm, Mon- , Sariconinm, Berry hill ; onam. on the Avon ; Alauna, •r ; Chestnton ; Ratis, Lei- Venromentum, Willoughby ; unum, East Bridgeford; Intern, near Thorpe; Croco- Brvgh ; Vindofnis, near St. '■.Bourne; Venta Belgarum, Aster; Ad Lapidem, Stone- Clausentum, Bittern, near 'hipton; Portus Magnus, Por/- /<; Regnum, Chichester ; Ad i m, on the Arun; Anderida \l Pevensey ; Ad Lemanum, Mother; Lemanianus Portus, D ubra, Dover; Regulbium, ?r; Madus,cm the Medway; a, Burhjields in South Fleet; agus, Holwood Hill; Brige, oughton; Sorbisdunum,6/d / Venta Geladia, Gussage %on; Durnovaria, Dorches- oridunum, Seaton ; Durius, on the Dart; Tamara, on lair ;Voluba, on the Fowey ; on the Fal ; Sylva Anderida, 'urne; A(\F\ues,Broughane; is; Ad Abum, Winter ton; Jariuni, Brough ; Ad Fines, Brough on the Don ; — U Hill near Chesterfield; — imkridge; Derventio, Little 't ; AdTrivonarn, Berry farm » Brr ston ;Brinavis,£/ut nine leagues from Grand (ro, and two miles from Zaccara; I extend over a country covered ith fine sand, to the pyramids of 1 raoh, a distance of 8 miles. I entrances to these tombs are c and covered over with sand; i have been opened, but a gr number yet remain concealed, embalmed bodies found in tombs are called mummies, posed from the Arabic mum, this substance being used IM process of embalming. A <■ free-stone is found under 'he m : i the If th Inch * th odies CAT hole extent of the district Egyptian catacombs, in ; or with marble, on which »e naif; of the deceased is some- imea |igraved ; but more com- nonly ie cypher X p. with the igure a palm. The cypher is •nders jd to be intended for the Had Grist, denoting the deceased o hav/been a Christian convert, iymboj of pagan superstition are ll so fnuently found. r pal :oad. CAT At Naples, the catacombs are nobler and more spacious, than those of Rome : in these are found mar- ble monuments, with inscriptions in Greek and Latin. The Syracusan catacombs are the largest, and in the most perfect state, of any yet discovered ; their appearance is less gloomy, and in the ornaments in different parts, re- ferrble to the latter period of the Roman empire; these consist of Greek paintings, with symbolical representations of the martyrs, placed within many of the tombs. In the island of Malta catacombs have been discovered ; they are not very extensive, but in an excellent state of preservation. Cataconum, the want of height proportionate to the breadth of the chapiter of a pillar. Cat a d rom e, a machine used by builders to raise and let down great weights. Catafalco, an ornamented scaf- fold used in funeral solemnities. Catagrapha, in ancient orna- mental workmanship, figures of men's faces represented as viewed obliquely. Catania, an Italian city, not far distant from Mount Etna, re- markable for numerous architectural remains: particularly an elephant of touchstone in the centre of the great square ; with an obelisk of Egyptian granite on his back : the ruins of a theatre, a large bath almost entire, an aqueduct eighteen miles long, and several temples, some of which are converted into churches. Catastroma, a scaffold raised upon the head and stern of ancient war-ships ; on which the soldiers were posted. Catch Drains, the feeders of reservoirs. In the constructing of canals, the same as counter-drains. Catena in a, (Catena, lat. a 607 CAT CAT chain) a chain, or other heavy flexible body suspended by its two extremities, forms the curve to which this appellation is given ; which is considered the best form for the arch of a bridge. Catehtiiun, or Catterthun, {Gael. Camptow?i,) an ancient military station in Scotland, a few miles N.W. of Brechin, in Angus- shire. This fortress, or rather camp, is supposed of Pictish or Danish origin, though afterwards used by the Caledonians. It con- sists of an immense quantity of loose stones ranged in an elliptic form : a ravine is also strongly marked round the summit. The size of some, and the immense mass of the whole of these stones, the height to which they have been raised, and the distance from which they must have been brought, with the rude outlines of birds, beasts, &c. which appear on some of them, have much perplexed antiquarians. Mr. Pennant is of opinion that this place was occupied by the Cale- donians previous to their engage- ment with Agricola. The stupen- dous dike encircling this enclosure extends 122 feet from the base within to that without : a deep ditch surrounds the base, and, 100 yards below, another ditch has en- compassed the hill. The internal area is flat ; the axis, or length, 436 feet; the transverse diameter of the centre 200 feet. Near the east side is the foundation of a rectangular building; and nume- rous others appear in various parts, some circular and others very small, which had once their superstruc- tures, to shelter the possessors of this post. A hollow place, filled with stones, marks the place of the well. Brown Catterthun is a smal- ler fortification of the same kind, on a hill, the earth of which is of a brown colour. 608 Cathahin e Wheel, in a i ent buildings, is an ornamentet ^ dow, or compartment of a w \ of a circular form, with r. • or radiating divisions, of \|j 0ll s colours. In the cathedral of Riims the great church of St. Om - Rouen, in Winchester catljy the church at Cheltenham, (1 in each of the transepts of St. ter J i at Westminster, are fine speneng of ornaments of this descripti Cathedral, (KaOeZpa, Gjthe head church of a dioctse, .'me. times called ecclesia matr or mother church. In Englani Ger- many, and other parts of Hope, the most perfect remains of i ient Gothic, Saxon, and Norman chi- tecture are found in the cat dral churches. There are gener./ in buildings of this denomina n a nave, two side aisles, and nor and south transepts. The cross j the transepts is half the length i the whole building ; each of the $N is one- fourth of the breadtiand height of the nave ; the heiitof the building is generally eql to the breadth of the nave and les; and the elevation of the towjand spires is in a mean proportii be- tween the length of the navand of the transept. Exceptici to these general proportions aij un- common ; yet in the church j St. Peter at Westminster, and tljcol- legiate church at Bristol, thf de- aisles extend beyond the trarpts. See Church. Cathetus, a perpendiculame, passing through a cylindrical »ome ihem have large conical lomes. G feet high, and supported »v a ciimn of chalk 43 yards in ;ireumrence. The descent is by i flighlof steps. The sides and oof a rocks of chalk ; the bot- tom is fine dry sand, and 170 ect »"i;r ground is a well of very P re Vter, 27 feet deep. This well ni ht be used for the lustra- 4H tions and purifications by watei which were prescribed to the initiat- ed. That these caves were hol- lowed for refuge from the attack of an enemy, is very improbable. They have been a work of greater labour and industry, than would be employed by people under the confusion and terror that such an event would excite. The Druids, like the worshippers of Mithra, per- formed their mysterious rites in caves. There is a remarkable cave in Cornwall, called Pendeen Vau, by the Welsh pronounced Fau: it con- sists of three caves or galleries, walled on each side with large stones, and rudely arched at the top. Six steps are descended at the entrance, the floor dipping NNE. ; this first cave is full six feet high, and the floor 28 feet long ; the second cave, to the right as we proceed, differs from the first in being only five feet six inches in height, and in having in its centre a round pit three feet in diameter, and two deep ; at the end of this cave, near the roof, there is a square passage or hole, two feet wide, and two feet six inches high, leading to a third cave, six feet wide and six feet^high, dug out of the earth, the sides and roof of earth, straight on the sides; the roof semicircular : this cave also ends in a semicircle, the length 26 feet six inches. See Borlase's An- tiquities of Cornwall. There is a singular cave at Roys- ton, on the extreme border of Hertfordshire, joining Cambridge- shire ; it is immediately beneath the Market-place, and dug out of the solid chalk rock ; its entrance was a perpendicular aperture of a circular form, two feet in diameter, closed by a millstone when it was first discovered in 1742; from this opening, steps were cut in the chalk C A on each side, to facilitate the de- scent to the bottom. When the rubbish was cleared away, a scull and other human bones were found much decayed ; round the side were rude carvings of the Cruci- fixion, St. Christopher, St. Cathe- rine, St. Lawrence, and various other legends. A seat' one foot high surrounds the bottom, except a division at a hollow place in the floor, called the grave. This cave or crypt is conjectured to have been an oratory and burial-chapel of the pious lady Roisia, but so uncertain are the traditions relating to this affair, that it gave occasion to a long-continued controversy between Dr. Stukely and the Rev. C. Par- kin, without conviction on either side. The respective pamphlets are worthy of perusal, containing abun- dance of curious and interesting matter. The diameter of this cir- cular crypt is about 25 feet ; its height between 30 and 40. Mr. King thinks, from its form, that this crypt was originally British. The ancient caves of Ireland bear undoubted proofs of their former use, and present many remains of symbols connected with the wor- ship peculiar to Mithra. " The genius of a-ntiqui%," says Maurice, " delighted in mystery, which was exhibited in their residence in gloomy vaults and subterranean caverns, and woody recesses, their theology veiled in allegory and hieroglyphics." The cave of Mithra, an expressive emblem of the various elements of nature, represented, as we learn from Porphyry, (de Antro Nymph urn) the world. From the similarity of the caves in Ireland to those of India, it ma y reasonably be believed that they were for the same purpose — and the Deasol, or circular dance of the Irish, is no other than the Pyhrric dance of the East. On the north side of the 610 ES. left-hand niche of the Mintic cave of New Grange in Irek j ( an ancient inscription in cbai [ m from two to six inches high. m characters are dissimilar to thing of Northern origin, Saxon, or Irish, and are belie be Phoenician. By comparing ie: eight feet wide, and nine k six inches long — the second s; feet six inches wide, and six feeiigh: inches long — the fourth, tw feet wide and six feet long. Injront is a semicircular porch of utie stones, 33 feet in diamete, at eight feet distance from thj en- trance are two pillars or alii, nine feet high. The chamb( are arched with dry corbelling nes, as at New Grange, the top c?red with a flag, three feet broad -the arch springs three feet fro tHe ground. See Col. Valiancy XW- lectanea de Rebus Hibern. The most ancient inhabits of Greece undoubtedly performelheir religious rites in caverns, anijthey were often adopted by succjling; generations as the site of the: cm- pies, of which they formtj the most sacred part. And hencj?ven in after-times the innermost of the temple was denominatj the Cavern, One of the most n ar- able caverns in Greece was tjt of Trophonius. See Adytvm. i^ar Nauplia in Argolis, there^ere caverns, which, according to *jabo, were called Cyclopean. In ^ 1 and India, caves continued iM C A U GED a? ei o be held in the same venera- tion md were ornamented internal- ly win a profusion of architectural n ents and emblematical sculp- ture See Ellora and Elepkanta. terraneous pits and caverns, I btedly of British construction, and near Guilford, in Sur- rev, ear Cray ford in Kent, and n other places. They are often : si tied into by means of a pit wjl, and are sometimes entered i level through the side of a 1. Within they are of different i-tude and description, some , ; only one spacious apart- but they are generally divid- ,n) several rooms. Diodorus - us expressly tells us, that the tis did lay up their corn in - tt ranean repositories, and some rm may have been used for tbatlirpose. C ea, the dens or caves, in amphitheatres, in which (•easts were kept; by some ; applied to the central part he buildings, usually called the oma. C, etto, (diminutive of cavus, concave ornamental mould- ing, coosed, in effect, to the ovolo ; c icavity of the one, and the \f ty of the other, are not al- •wectto exceed the quarter of a rclej In its projection, the ca- to > equal to its altitude, and not ;owed to be less than two- i >f it. It is applied to the basesrf pedestals, and the mould- ' cornices, and in some of the t autiful Ionic architraves it formshe upper member. Calicoles, slender stems or stalks- nder the leaves of the aba- the Corinthian capital. Betwn each pair of the uppermost leavts eight stalks branch out into l*o I flets, seeming to support the sixtee volutes, of which four are °n ea, face of the abacus. Caulking, is toe operation of filling up the seams of planks, on the sides or bottoms of ships, with untwisted ropes and pitch, to w hich the name of oakum is given. After this operation is completed, appro- priate iron implements called caulk- ing ircms, are used, to cover the work wfe a mixture of pitch, tar, ixnd tallow, as low as the ship draws water. Caulking or Cocking, the old mode of fixing the binding joists of a floor, or the tie-beams of a roof, was by dove-tailing into the wall-plates. Ca usewa Y,or Causey, (Chaus- sce, Fr.) a raised or paved way. A famous ancient work of this de- scription extends over the county of Northumberland ; supposed to be Roman, but suspected of later date by Mr. Horsley. It is called the Devil's Causeway. Caustic Curve, formed by the collected rays of light, issuing from a curved reflector. Called also, the catacaustic curve. Cecropium, the ancient name of Athens, derived from Cecrops its founder. Cedar, (Ktdpog, Gr.) the Pinus Cedrus of Linnaeus; by Tournefort ranked under larix ; it is a conife- rous evergreen, bearing large round- ish cones of smooth scales, stand- ing erect; the leaves small, narrow, and thickly set. This tree is no where found native, but on Mount Libanus ; and it is distinguished by the appellation of the cedar oj Lebanon, by the ancients called cedrus magna, or the great cedar. The timber of this tree is sometimes used in building: it is reputed to be almost immortal and incorrup- tible. Solomon's temple, as well as his palace, were of this wood ; and king Hiram had several cities sr.i,ve*i in exchange for the cedars fur ii*hed on these occasions. Cor- 611 C EI CEL tes is said to have erected a palace at Mexico which contained 7000 beams of cedar, most of them 120 feet long:, and 12 in circumference, as related by Herrara. A cedar was used for the main-mast of a ship belonging to king Demetrius, which measured 130 feet lojjg, and and 18 in diameter. In We tem- ple of Apollo at Utica, there are cedar trees nearly 2000 years old; and at Seguntium in Spain, in an oratory of Diana, there is a beam of cedar, said to have been con- veyed there 200 years before the destruction of Troy. Pins of the same wood are preferred to ircn for fastening planks, on account of its extreme dryness. Ceiling, (From ccelum, the sky) the inner roof of a building ; or the lath-and-plaster covering of the top of a room : in the former instance the term is applicable to roofs of temples and churches, which admit of various and splendid ornaments. Coved ceilings are more expensive and beautiful than flat ones ; but historical and other paintings are often introduced with good effect in the centre of flat ceilings, or in their angular compartments. Ceil- ings are frequently adorned with compartments, raised ; or the pan- nels are depressed within mould ings ; their figures various, circular, elliptical, tec. These compartments are decorated with roses, foliage, and other ornaments. The figures of the coves of ceilings are usually the quadrant of a circle, or of an ellipsis, taking its rise a little above the cornice, and finishing at the border, round the great pannel in the centre. The border projects a little beyond the coves on the out- side; and a space is left in the side toward the pannel, to admit the ornaments of an architrave. The compartments of the ceilings of ancient Temples and their Porticos, were generally in equilateral f< m which generate squares in theE rounding spaces; but the j mi on of polygonal pannels, afterwart troduced, varied these forms. £j junction of hexagons produce lo- zenges or triangles; of octa s . squares and octagonal spaces; ns mode of ornamenting is te c coffering ; and the parts rec e i are called coffers. The meth of ornamenting vaulted roofs with of- fers, and encirclements of t* charged with foliage or fret I derived from the ancients; as ay be seen in the remains of the m- pie of Balbec, the temple of 1 ice at Rome, and various ancient ins. A roof is said to be camp o\°nt ceiled, which has the ceiling (li- the rafters. See the articles hif, Soffit, Intrados. Cella, (Lat.) the sanotua or interior part of a temple, whic vas called by the Greeks, vaog, am ot)koq. The porticos which prim it were called pronaos, and pdo- mos. Behind it was often a em- ber, to contain the treasure cthe temple, which was called opho- domus, that is, the hinder pi of the cella. The cella was e> tly half as wide as long; the Jth was divided into four equal rts, the length into eight. Eight ere occupied by that to which the rH cella was properly applied, m prising the wall which contied the entrances, and separatee the pronaos. The three other ins from this wall to the centre fcped the pronaos. The antse had a nys the same proportions as the colnns of the portico. When the flla was not sufficiently wide, th en- tablature was supported b;. the antes alone, and the space be een them was left open, as in theN pie on the Ilissus at Athens. Vo columns were placed bet wee the antae, when the cella was more ian CEL CEL t*e v feet wide, as in the temple ! oflsseus at Athens, and the tem- pl e Minerva at Sunium. Balus- iJi, with doors to enter the Jos, enclosed the intercolum- B iatns between the columns and an u Other columns were placed in t interior of the pronaos, oppo- i e ie columns that were between Use, when the cella was more forty feet wide. These are neral rules given by Vitruvius, but iey do not agree with all the it temples of which remains are ft. A different distribution is m imes given to the hypgethros. pper part of the cella of the hros was not covered, its m was more than double its rj ; and as each facade had an ent ice, there were both a pro- ic and a porticus. Pausanias meions a temple which had no j entnce at all, that of Jupiter Ly- eeeij in the public square of Mega- >, the capital of Arcadia. But f .emple was probably very sm<) and was rather a species of motment than a regular villa. Thejtars, &c. appear to have been m red at the sides and front, and the :m pie and consecrated place \ > r surrounded by a dwarf wall, ■ or riholos. An interior portico, n ting of two ranges of columns plad one above the other was oftd con tinned all round, to cover a p; of the cella of the hypsethros. It h i two stories or galleries, one forr iof a covered place in the cella, | theiighest serving to reach the ■PR part of the statue of the divi- nitviat was placed in the temple. The;emple of Jupiter Olympiu<, and pparently also the great tem- ple ;f Psestum, contained such pallies. On this architrave, which the wer columns supportrd, large •'or , which united the walls to the ^'l formed the ceiling of the lower &nd ; ie flooring of the upper gallery. Each temple had in general but one cella, except one kind of Tuscan temple, which had three, one on each side of the other. The cella of the Greek temples were, in some instances, separated into several divisions, but they were always behind one another. Temples at Sicyon, near Argos, on the road to Mantinea; at Mantinea ; the tem- ple of Ilithyia, in the sacred wood of Altias at Olympia; and the Erechtheium at Athens, had double cellse of this kind. Pausanias de- scribes a singular temple at Sparta, which had two cellae, one below the other; in each there was a staiue of Venus, and that of the upper cella bore the surname of Morpho. The cella was almost always built of large stones, in the manner called isidomum: this pavement was al- ways raised higher than that of the portico, with steps at the entrance; the exterior sides were very simple, and had scarcely any ornament; the four corners were the antae, which were evidently first built for strength as counterforts. The wall between these antse was without ornament; a base only was added to the lower part: this upper part was ornamented with several mem- bers, or with an entablature like that of the portico : the frieze was not so high. The cella, and also the frieze, in some temples, was ornamented with bassi relievi. In the interior of the cella was placed the statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated : it was always raised upon a base, against the rear wall, opposite the entrance. In the hypsethros it was placed near the door of the rear front, where the galleries and porticos of the interior joined, and formed a canopy over the statue: a veil, or curtain, was placed before it when they were not sacrificing. The word Cella was often used 613 CEL CE1 by the Romans for the name of apartments in their baths, such as cello, calidaria, cellafrigidaria,£fc. Cellar, (Cella, Lut.) a place under ground, where stores and liquors are deposited. Cellars, in modern buildings, the lowest rooms of a house, the ceilings of which are usually level with the surface of the ground ; or they are under the pavement before the house. These apartments requiring to be kept cool, have usually double walls, with a passage between them, and sometimes a vaulted roof. Celtic Architecture. The denomination of Celtse includes the original inhabitants of Britain, Gaul, and Iberia, or Spain. From the circumscribed knowledge which we possess of their mode of life, it is difficult to ascertain the exact progress which they had made in architecture; but their efforts in building were doubtless very rude and undurable. In the British towns there were no buildings that weie calculated for the eye of pos- terity. According to Caesar, they consisted only of mean huts and cattle-sheds, in the midst of a thick wood, and fortified by a high bank and a ditch. These latter were, however, calculated for longer dura- tion, and many of them still remain as testimonies of former population. At Ambresbury Banks, near Copped Hall, in Essex, there is a remark- able specimen. " This intrenchment was formerly in the very heart of the forest, and is of an irregular figure, rather longest from east to west, and on a gentle declivity to the south-east. It contains near twelve acres,, and is surrounded by a ditch and high bank, much worn down by time; though, where there are angles, they are still very bold and high. There are no regular openings, like gateways or entran- ces." — ( Gougfis Camden.) This 614 description of a town, howev* vas peculiar to the inhabitants the lowlands. In the more inoun noils districts, in several parts of a ies and in Cornwall, in Laiu Shropshire, Cambridgeshire, liere- fordshire, &c. the traces 01 hese fastnesses, or towns of retn found on the summits of alir fn . pitous hills. They generally ^ a considerable area, and thei bi is guided by the natural sh e of the hill they occupy. Wh th* sides are not defended by reci- pices, they are guarded by /era! ditches, and by ramparts of anh or stones. They have genera two entrances. The Herefo, hirt Beacon, on the summit of e. of the highest of the Malvern !,$ i without doubt the remains an ancient British town. Its he ht :s 1444 feet above the level the sea. The area of the Cast Den- tation comprises an irreguiar con?, of 175 feet by 110 feet, d is surrounded by a steep ancHofty vallum of stones and earth, J by a deep ditch on the o side. Attached to the principal ar are two outworks, of considerab ex- tent, situated lower on the si s of the hill. Each of these coses a plain, probably intended f the reception of cattle, and bo are artificially connected by a ' row slip of land, secured by a bai and ditch. The acclivity of th -bill, in its approach towards the si mit, is guarded by several rtul bti formidable banks and ditches Within the area of many o bese encampments, are remains m foundations of numerous ce , or places of habitation, whic are generally circular or oval, thesual form of the dwellings of the B ons. Many of these remains are mid in Cornwall, and vestiges ofl na- tions, supposed to be British, in several recluse parts of Ei El Will) it* andWales. to ' disc'ered on CEM Many of them are Dartmoor in Devon- See Polwheles History of De:n. ( ment. Various compositions Is denomination belong more ; , r ularly to the joiner; others, ol ([different description, are used 3 plasterer; and the class of its purely calcareous, belong lively to the mason. ie is made from the sinews >kins of animals; that from kins being in all cases pre- e, and the glue made from tnimals being less affected by the oisture of the atmosphere, is . illy to be preferred, even to est isinglass. Good glue is genially very transparent, and will but not dissolve in cold water. Ah he best glue, when dissolv- heat, will draw out in long ! ■ th re is. ement for making up holes laws in wainscots, and for oth( purposes, is made by mixing equ parts of pounded resin and es'vax, and adding to this solu- s it melts over a slow fire, yellow ochre, or burnt ochre, hah of each as will produce )lour intended. Or for the )urpose, take fine sawdust of ood you wish to imitate ; ate this in water two or lays, then pour off a part of Ihe ter, and boil the residue till it bt'cc'es smooth and pulpy. Keep this overed up for use. When mix as much glue with it as the :casion may require. For filets and mouldings, carved oma'ents, and other similar pur- pose a very strong glue or cement u m e by dissolving isinglass, and glue to it which has soaked •our hours, and straining p lole through a coarse cloth. /or tar and Stucco. C|i£TBai£s, places where the addi- twep CEM bodies of the dead are deposited ; which were not allowed to be buried in churches, or within cities, in an- cient times ; but were ordered by law to be without the walls : yet they were held sacred, and frequently resorted to; and according to Eusebiusand Tertullian, the early Christians had their assemblies in the cemeteries, and afterwards, in the time of Con- stantine, erected churches in them, as places rendered sacred by con- taining the mouldering remains of the martyrs : and hence the Catho- lic rule, which is yet retained in the Roman church, never to consecrate an altar without placing under it the relics of some saint. The prac- tice of consecrating cemeteries has the same origin. Among the Turks it is the uni- versal custom to place cemeteries on the outside of their towns, and in the vicinity of Smyrna, and various other places, in these re- ceptacles of the dead, abundance of cypress trees, rosemary, and other odoriferous shrubs and trees, are planted, which exhale a pleasant and salubrious fragrance: this is not only a very suitable mode of ornamenting burial grounds, but is a successful method of purifying the air. The Campo-santo of Pisa was begun by Archbishop Ubalno, in 1200 : the celebrated John of Pisa was the architect; and it yet re- mains one of the most remarkable and interesting monuments of anti- quity to be found in Europe : it is one of the first in which the classi- cal style of architecture was re- vived. Its length is four hundred and ninety feet; its breadth, one hundred and seventy; and its height sixty : its form rectangular. The southern front is ornamented by forty-four pilasters, supporting arches. Where the arches unite at the top of each capital, is a mask, 615 CEN of a form suited to the capitals, ■which retain the whimsical and unclassioal style of those times. This edifice is of white marble from the mountains of Pisa, the whole squared and jointed with great accuracy. The interior, which is entered by two side-doors, is a vast court of four hundred and sixty feet in length, around which is an arcade of sixty-two demi-gothic arches, supported by columns, to which a surbase is the only pedestal. Numerous paintings of the early masters ornament the galleries, which are paved with the finest marble. Antique sarcophagi, raised on consoles, and placed on a sur- base, ornament the porticos, under which the monuments of celebrated men of Pisa are yet to be seen. Queen Christina of Sweden, called this cemetery " Non un cimeterio ma un museo and it was here that the king of Prussia placed the monument of the celebrated Alga- rotti, and inscribed upon it — " Alcjarottus non omnis." Cenotaph* (Kerora^og, Gr.) an honorary tomb or monument, distinguished from other monuments in being empty, tiie individual it is to memorrze having received inter- ment and funeral honours in some distant land, or having perished at sea : these latter are commonly distinguished by the figure of a ship, or the representation of a wreck at sea. Centaur, a poetical imaginary being of heathen mythology, half man and half horse. The Cen- taurs were in reality a tribe of Lapithas, inhabiting the city of Pelethronium : these people are said to have been the first who tamed and managed horses, from which circumstance the fable origi- nated. Centering, in building. The name used in turning an arch of 616 at r in ded stone or brick. See Carpt r y The centering of a large v; t I formed with trusses or ri equal distances from each ol vertical parallel planes, b< over so as to coincide wit kltf intended shape of the arch. The distance of the trusses from arh other should be regulated I the strength of the boarding, ai the weight of the arch ; on very works a truss is laid for .rv course of arch stones In vers that are not navigable, thera struction of the truss is venasv, as it may be made with a mj from the bottom. If the ri be navigable, it requires much dm skill, an opening being requir for vessels to pass through, head of the horizontal tie, a num r of ties must be disposed arour* tl ? polygon, which forms the it nor part of the centre; and reat attention must be paid to tl va- riation of the pressure 01 the various parts, as the work prods. The pieces which support th< n from the several pressing mm must be made to act in the dir ion of their lengths. If the thers are drawn in the direction of ie r length, the joints should be ap- ped ; but the abutting joint wilt be sufficiently resisted when prW) if the shoulders be perpendici.no the direction of their force. M the openings of a truss shod be triangles, and the intersecti ■ the timber should be as m oblique as possible. Thecen uv: of an arch may consist eitl (< ! one centre around the interi oi the entire arch, supported beg the piers ; or the aperture nv be subdivided by supporters, eachpw sisting of posts of wood bp together. The bridge of Or JJ by M. Husseau, is one of the M- est centres ever executed in Eii* It was constructed by means I a CEN CH A latWtruss, spanning the whole . oper?; its vertex supporting the mmit of the arch, and its supporting subordinate ru J which resisted the pres- i )f the arch at other inter- ned e points, n centering of the nave and r)ts of St. Peter's at Rome, ; , I\ 'hael Angelo, and two centres lot, were formed on the prin- ciplebf two independent trusses, one pporting the sides or haunch- l othe arch, and the other the w The centering of the , bridt;5 of Cravant, Nogent, May- ence'md Neuilly, were constructed rronet, on the principle of c ed polygons; the exterior bear 1 , supporting the curve, were ■ epl lengths, and joined toge- r n the form of a polygon : r h this, another polygon was •m , with its angles in the : l(| of the sides of the former, and o on alternately; until as man 1 polygons were inscribed as n] make the centerings suffi- cient strong. The centering of the r estminster and Blackfriars' Brid 5 in London, was constructed on still different principle. It cons ed of a series of trusses, each lupp ting a point in the arch, the prinfal braces having their lower itn i ties abutting below, at each end the centering on the striking plat( and at the upper end upon apro 1 pieces, bolted to the curve whic supports bridgings for bind- ing h pieces which compose them toge'?r at their junction. Another mod )f centering is by a number of q drilateral frames abutting on cach tther, having their joints ra- diate to a centre, like the wedge- ston. of an arch. These frames shou be strengthened by one or two iagonals, according to the •fodff strain, and must be secured b y k s or bolts. 41 In the figures given in Plate Carpentry, C 9, Fig. 1. is the manner of constructing a centre with four polygons, independent of each other, as used by Perronet. Fig. 2. is the construction of a frame by separate frames, the sides of which radiate to a centre. Fig. 3. is the celebrated centre used at Blackfriars' Bridge. A diagram of the centering of Waterloo Bridge is given in Plate B. 18. under the article Bridge. Centre, (Kevrpov, Gr. Centrum, Lat.) in Geometry, a point in a figure or solid, by which any straight line passing through it to each of the sides will be equally bisected. Centres of a Door, the two pivots round which the door re- volves. Ceramicus, (Repa/a^oe, Gr.) the name given to that part of the city of Athens which was S W. from the Acropolis, so denominat- ed, according to Pausanias, from Ceramus, the son of Bacchus and Ariadne. Ceroma, (Kepofia, Gr.) in the gymnasia, and in the baths of the Romans, an apartment where the bathers and wrestlers were anointed, as the name imports, with oil thick- ened with wax. Ceroplastic, the art of model- ling in wax. The Romans placed busts of their ancestors, made of wax, in the vestibules of their palaces, and carried them in pro- cession, on solemn occasions, and at funerals. Cesspool, see Sesspool. Cestophoiius, sculptures of females bearing the cestus, or mar- riage girdles, in the marriage cere- monies of the ancients. Chain-Timber, a piece of tim- ber, in breadth equal to the length and breadth of a brick, used for strengthening brick walls, by insert- 617 CH A CH A ing in the middle of the height of the story. Chair, Curule, the honorary seat, from which the chief public officers of Rome took their deno- mination of Curules ; it was ge- nerally of ivory, or other costly materials, and highly ornamented ; not only used as honouring dic- tators, praetors, censors, and ediles, but also the pontiffs and vestal virgins claimed their nse. This honorary vehicle is often seen re- presented on Etruscan monuments, and from this people the custom is believed to have been originally derived to the Romans. Cn alcidicum, a large and mag- nificent apartment, belonging to a court of justice. It is said to have derived its name from Chalcidicus, a city of Eubcea. Cu alcicecus, a magnificent temple of Minerva, built of brass, Chalk, (Ceta, Lat. calck, Sax.) a well known white substance, found in abundance in Great Bri- tain, and in most parts of the world. It is a carbonate of lime, insoluble in water, but decomposed by heat, and used in masonry for the same purposes as lime-stone, see Cement. Chamanim, (from Charnan, Heb. to burn,) idols exposed to the sun on the tops of houses ; by the Creeks called Pireia. Aben Ezra says they were portable chariots, in honour of the sun. See Pireia. Chamber, an upper apartment of a dwelling-house, a term derived from the Greek ^ctfiapa, a vault, the word originally signifying a vaulted room. With the exception of the term presence chamber, this word is synonymous with bed-room; with the French it has a more extensive meaning, as chambre a coucher, chambie de parade, &c. Bed-rooms are frequently finished in a highly ornamental style, with a spacious niche or alcove, for the 618 bed. The upper story is g e . ally divided into inferior bed- mi See Alcove. Chambers, Sir William < ; veyor-general of the board of rk< fellow of the royal and antiqi :ian ' societies, treasurer of the byj academy, and knight of the olar star in Sweden, was descende: ron an ancient Scottish family his ancestors were barons of Ta'siu France. His grandfather, si re-1 great loss, by supplying C ries the Twelfth of Sweden with \m sums of money, which Ins attempted to recover, residi in Sweden for that purpose. Sir William was born in that cotrv, and at the age of eighteei was appointed supercargo to the we- dish East India company, lie some time afterwards made rov- age to China, and finally slled in England. He was pa t r< zed by lord Bute, and, throng his interest, employed in deco.inj Kevv Gardens with Asiatic ild- ings, temples, pagodas, &c. He rose to eminence as an arcbct, under royal patronage : anuvas employed in all the great bui n^s of the time. His most celel ted works are his staircases, pacu- larly those at Lord Besboro h's, Lord Gower's, and the Royab- tiquarian Society's rooms. H praise has been bestowed o his architectural works at Sorset House, which established his me as an architect. He published 1757, " Designs for Chinese Tid- ings, Furniture, Dresses, Maches, and Utensils; engraved fronthe originals drawn in China.— N Elevations, Sections, and feifa tive Views of the Gardens^! Buildings at Kew in Surrey^ seat of her Royal Highnes^he Princess of Wales ;" a very s n- did work, was published in 11 His dissertations on Oriental CMf C H A C H A enimin 1774. His Treatise on Civil Architecture is a work of xreanxcellence. He died in the year r 96. i mbranle, an ornamental xwtynsj on the sides and tops of dor!' windows, and fire-places; . nament is generally taken ,e architrave of the order of |j{ hiding : in window frames, g is also ornamented, forming i side. The top of a three- cled chambranlf is called the rse, and the sides ascen- iant. Cl'MFER, Or ClIAMPIIER, tO niii, or make indentures in pillars, or other ornamented aarts' a building. i MPain Line, in ornamental t work formed of excavations, none parallel to the continu- |e, either ascending or de- scend; g. liiscEL, that part of a church, hi eastern end, in which the r r communion table is pla- ; sually separated from the ire id transept by cancelli or Uicix feet high, supporting ^ laid across one another, used in fortifications, to defend workmen from the attacks of the besiegers. Chan dry, in palaces, a store room for the reception of candles, torches, and other lights. Channel, a part in the Ionic capital, somewhat hollow, under the abacus, after the listel ; it lies upon the echinus, having its con- tours, or turnings, upon each, to make the volutes. See Canal of the Volute. Channel of the Larmier, see Canal of the Larmier ; and Beak. Channel Stones, are stones prepared for gutters, or channels, to carry off' the water. Cn an try, or Cn a un try, a little chapel in ancient churches, with an endowment for one or more priests to say mass, for the release of souls out of purgatory. In the 14th year of Edward the Sixth, all the chantries in England were dis- solved ; at which period there were no less than forty-seven of them belonging to St. Paul's cathedral. Chapel, (Capella, Lat.) a place for public worship, separate from, or attached to, a church : or this term is sometimes applied to a species of mausoleum raised to the memory of persons of celebrity. In ancient edifices the term was properly applicable to those apart- ments called Exedrce, which were detached from the body of the building for retirement or conver- sation : these were commonly pro- vided in the gymnasise, the baths, and the temples. The Pantheon at Rome had seven chapels, or exedrae within the circumference of its walls; these, and the exedrse of the temple of Balbec, are dis- tinguished by the peculiar elegance of their architectural decorations. Our most ancient ecclesiastic edi- fices have a recess generally of a 019 CHE CHE semicircular form called a chapel, as well as smaller recesses named shrines or niches. The Roman Basilica have also recesses of a similar form, under the same de- nomination. Chapiter (Fr. Capitello, Ital.) See Capital. Chapiters with Mouldings, are the capitals of the Tuscan and Doric orders, which are without foliage or other ornamental embel- lishment, Chapiters with Sculptures are the Corinthian, and those deco- rated with foliage and other carv- ings. Chaplet, an ornamental fillet in the form of a string of beads. Chapter House, the place where canonical meetings are held, usually attached to a cathedral church, and sufficiently capacious to contain all the clergy belonging to the diocese : the ecclesiastical court of St. Paul's is a superior specimen of this kind of building-. Ciiaptrel. See Impost Charged, implies thatone mem- ber of a piece of architecture is sustained by another. A frieze is said to be charged with the orna- ment by which it is covered. Charnel House, a place where the bones of the dead are deposited. Cn artoph ylacium, a recess, or apartment, for the preservation of records, or valuable writings. Chase Mortise, the mode of inserting, or mortising, inclined transverse joists into parallel tim- bers, in ceilings. Chauntry. See Chantry. Checkered. See Chequers, Cheeks; two equal and similar parts of any piece of timber-work. Cheese-Room, an apartment in the dairy, in which the cheeses are kept : the walls are supplied with shelves, and the rooms above and below communicate by trap-doors, 620 for the admission of a curret >f air Ciiemise, in fortification wail built before a bastion or ot! | wark of earth. Also apr d S the wall extending from ti talus to the stone row. Chen iscus, (from ^v, a Dose,; an ornament in form of a^oose on the prows and sterns of ' icient ships. Chequers, in the fac^s o( walls, are stones of uniforming! dimensions, so arranged it no interruption occurs in the oints, either horizontally or vecally, See Masonry and Reticular. Cherub, an ornament Irodu. ced by the Italian artists )f an infant's head joined to tw<;in:'s, used, in ecclesiastical edifj:s, on keystones of arches. ClIESNUT, Or ClIESTNU':j.''RE& {Fay us Castanea, Lin.) flijrishes in a dry soil, has a large )ri»bt trunk, usually rising 40 or 1 feet, with a fine spreading he;. It sometimes attains an immenlsize; the largest known are inSjlywi Mount iEtna, which measu; from 76 to 150 feet in circum fence. The yreat chesnut tree ojTort- worth, in Gloucestershire, 5 52 feet in circumference, and 1'ieved to be 1000 years old. T| tim- ber of the chesnut tree is prrrable to elm ; for door jambs, Viidow- frames, and some other ptoses, it nearly equals oak; but ere II a deceitful brittleness in ilffhty renders it unsafe for beams. Chest. See Caisson, Chevaux de Frieze, Jr. jl fortification,) the Fjiezelandjiorse, a piece of timber, a foot injiame- ter and ten feet long, intVWp are fixed a great number of j>°den pins, six feet long, crossin g ether with iron pins at tl|r efr tremities. They are to }|ce » avenues, to oppose the entr ee ot an enemy. i C H I or| ch'RON, an ornament m t«n?JbtH architecture, to which the A , ?nu0 f zig-zag, (i. e. turning this .• • , a v id that, like the letter Z.) jahl^iven. Dm,, C\ aro-oscuro, as pertaining to forrn lie s^nce of architecture, is that ^ artijlar part of it usually called " cioe i phy 5 as an art dependent ) n t laws of perspective, and i xerr ified in the drawing of the uJH>n of an edifice, to display ; he i ?rnal conveniences, the num- || er \'\ proportions of the various : part en ts, and the thickness of )ni be vl Is. C mn t fy, the passage through the smoke ascends from the : a dwelling house. The in chimneys is generally iuaj, and their dimensions pro- K>rtijed to those of the fire-place, romhich they are to convey the arefil air and smoke, rising in ive volumes. In order to >revc chimneys from smoking, re sometimes built in a cir- ular'orm, and the sides covered ith : aster, made smooth to pre- r let ion. See Fire-place, and moi' Chimney. Imn e y Shaft, a turret rising the roof, generally in the to receive and conduct ne smoke of all the chimneys rig to the building. mn f.y Jambs, the sides rising he top of the grate to the ;e of the chimney, from the of which the upper part 3 forward under the mantle- Cj mxey Piecf., the ornaments * cHiney-pieces consist of archi- trave friezes, cornices, columns, pfasj-s, termini, caryatides, con- wles_ and every embellishment wnic' the sculptor can invent or a ppr riate. CI nese Architecture. The buildgs of the Chinese are, like CHI the people, very peculiar, and differ in many respects from those of any nation with whom we are acquaint- ed. Yet nevertheless there is a considerable similitude in some respects between them and those of the people of antiquity. The general form of almost all their compositions tends to lhat of a pyramid. Like the ancients, they make their columns with diminutions and bases. The entrelas, so com- mon in ancient edifices, are often seen in those of the Chinese. The ting of the latter differs little from the peripteron of the Greeks. The atrium, and the monopterous and prostyle temples, have a considera- ble resemblance to some among the Chinese ; and the manner in which they construct their wails, is on the same principle with the revinctum and emplecton described by Vitruvius. The pagodas, or temples, of the Chinese are many of them very small, containing but a single apartment. Others, how- ever, are larger, containing courts, with galleries, &c, and tings, where the idols are kept. The large pagoda of Honang, in the southern suburb, occupies a great extent of ground, and contains, besides the temples of the idols, apartments for two hundred bonzes, hospitals for many animals, a large kitchen gar- den, and a burying ground. In plate C. 29 (Jig. J.) is «iven a plan of this pagoda. The first object, on entering, is an extensive court, containing three rows of trees, which lead to an open vestibule (a) as- cended by a few steps (b). From this we pass to a second vestibule ( , The figures (1 and 2) on p 28, represent two little baildi s .,■ wood, in the courts of one the pagodas of the western s i They are two pavilions, that ; two iron vases, which are us the sacrifice of gilt paper \ the idols on festival days. Tin are both octagons, supported byjiglit columns, which have bases ffer- ing little from the attic. A ie/.e charged with inscriptions in C m characters, surrounds the sp«ii be- tween the columns under the of. Of the towers called 7W, lich are very common in every pt of China, the most remarkable i the magnificent porcelain towel of Nang-king and of Tong-char foc. They are generally octagons, d ded into stories, which diminish ^ du- ally to the top. Each story as a kind of cornice, supporting ;;oof, which is surrounded by a now gallery and balustrade : oper bells are hung at each corner the roof. They have commonly ^ong pole at the top, surrounded bpe- ral circles of iron, support* by eight chains, tied by one e to the top of the pole, and b the other to the angles of the rl of the highest story. One of iese towers, which are found o the banks of the Ta-ho, between toft- ton and Hoang-pou, is replevied in fig. 3. (plate C. 29). Pom or triumphal arches, are alscery common in China, but the are almost entirely destitute of ace or beauty. The Chinese houses are per Hly CHI GHO nifor 1 in the shape and drraen- 0MS their interior. One half of Jtmd they are built on is cpl by courts and narrow alks. A broad walk passes IBS tne mi(,t,le ' 0,1 eacl * sit * e are the apartments, con- ; tll ,oof a saloon for receiving bedchamber, and some- study or closet. Before ,nes fell it of apartments is a court, ill' fish-pond or cistern at its b y, containing an artificial rk i the middle, on which bam- d other plants grow. The s the court are ornamented e earth many human bones, lieceij of red earthenware, and ragrr its of obsidian — the knives, pear and arrows-heads of the tncte- Mexicans. Ciragic Monuments, (from (oooc jr.) were erected by the Jreel in honour of those who amf ?. prize as choragus, or k eadei f the chorus. See A thenian Arch! dure. Chid, {Chorda, Lat.) the right Mne w f ch joins the two ends of an M vOBATES, (xopo/3arT/c, Gr. r,, m \>poQ a region, and (dcllvu) I isure for land twenty feet leu h, mentioned oy Vitruvius. ^lillin npposes it to be a species of *»el, ith two weights, to ascer- tl falls of rivers, aqueducts, Ch :am, see Stucco. Cm ici:,(circe, Sax. Kvpiaicr) y Gr.) buil^ for the performance of P«hl Worship. The first churches 1 It on the plan of the ancient 4K CHU Basilicae, some of which had been granted to the primitive Christians by Constantine. See Basilica. This style was followed bv the Gothic and Saracenic. See Gothic Archi- tecture. The following was the form of the ancient Greek churches. About a third of the space of the church was occupied by two por- ticos. The first, called -npovaoc, was adorned on the outside with columns, and enclosed within bv a wall, communicating by a door with the second. It was destined for the encrgumeni and penitents, in the first stage of their repent- ance. The second was termed vap077f, ( ferula ) because those placed in it, who were the peni- tents of the second class, began to be subject to the discipline of the church. The second portico led to the vaog or nave, which occu- pied nearly another third. In the ambo, which was in the middle, or on one side of the nave, the deacons and priests preached and read. The nave was destined for the reception of the people ; at its entrance was the font: beyond it was the \opog or choir, round, and set with seats. A flight of steps led from the choir to the sanctuary, which had three apsides in its length, a great one in the middle, under which was the altar, and two small ones: it was entered by three doors. Churches were first introduced into Britain by the Romans. The ecclesiastical buildings of the An^lo- Saxons, who succeeded them, were at first very rude, and many of the Saxon churches were built only of oaken planks, and some even of wattles, thatched with reeds. Yet in the earliest period of Christianity, amongst the Anglo-Saxons, their better kind of churches were con- structed of more durable materials, and in a more magnificent style. 625 C H U CHU i The church of St. Peter's at York, which was erected shortly after the baptism of king Edwin in 627. is described by Bede, as a spacious and magnificent fabric of stone. In the church of St. Peter, in the monastery of Wearmouth, built by the famous Benedict Biscopius in 675, glass was first used in Eng- land, the windows of the most costly buildings having, previous to that period, been filled with fine linen cloth, or latticed wood- work. The cathedral church of Hexham, in Northumberland, built by Wil- frid, bishop of York, in 674, was a magnificent specimen of Saxon building. Richard, prior of Hex- ham, an Anglo-Norman historian, in whose time it still existed, cele- brates its " crypts, and oratories subterraneous, with winding pas- sages to them," and its walls, which " were of immense length and height, supported on columns of squared, varied, well-polished stones, and divided into three stories." "The walls themselves, with the capitals of those columns by which the walls were supported, as also the coved ceiling of the sanctuary, Wilfred decorated with histories, statues, and various figures, pro- jecting in sculpture from the stone, with the grateful variety of pictures, and with the wonderful beauty of colours." Some, among whom we may instance Mr. Bentham, in his History of Ely Cathedral, have sup- posed that the early Anglo-Saxon churches were square, or rather oblong buildings, without a tower, as St. Peter's at York, begun by Edwin in 627, is reported by Bede to have been, and that they were generally circular at the east end, resembling almost exactly the basi- licse of the Roman empire. He supposes the cruciform shape, and the towers which rise above the roof, to have been introduced about 626 the time of Edgar. But s ob- servation cannot be universes m plied. The church of St. I rv 3 Hexham, which was built | the seventh century by St. WiJ^ j g described by Richard, prior 680, being that in which thejibbot Hilda died." The general an of the latter Saxon, and of the iliest Norman churches, was as l ows: the chief entrance was at t west end into the nave; at theipper end of the nave was a crk ill arms extending north andouth, and its head, which contaid the choir, towards the east, jiding commonly in a semicircle :Mh* centre of the cross, a tow<: con- tained the bells, and othe|were sometimes added for orname'.dw nave, or often the whole b ding, was encompassed with inn por- ticos. During the time tl|: this country was subject to theianes, little alteration appears tjhave been made in its ecclesjstical architecture. Many haveattnr buted to them the round m rs which are found in sonri very ancient parochial churche ut the churches which were bu 1 atter C I B C I R he jnquest, and which were ex- , eec } r\y numerous, the chief cha- actfjstic difference from the old , v buildings of the same kind, magnitude and grandeur of limensions. The works of rmanswere large, sumptuous, agnificent, carried up to a height, with two and some- three ranges of pillars, one nother, connected together les, forming an upper and portico, with a gallery over On the outside were three rstf windows. In the centre 5, as [ lofty strong tower, and one more were often added at viit end. A urch is said to be in a Greek - s; vhen the length of the trans- iart is equal to that of the I e in a Latin cross, when the ave ; longer than the transverse , , art;.!/i rotundo, when it is a m erfe! circle ; simple, when it c v a nave and choir; with w/eiwhen it has a row of por- cos,.i form of vaulted galleries, th hapels in its circumfe- Ci rium, (Kifiiopwv, Gr.) A jftj] bached building, ccnsisting ] an rched vault, supported by m umns. In Catholic coun- ts, e sculptured tombs of mar- called Ciboriums, when pd altars ; the term is also I'I'li* to the coffer or case in- losin the host, and to any or- aniei;d tabernacle unconnected "th her buildings. Ciboriums re dimonly seen in Italian and ther .ontinental churches, orna- lentij tombs and altars ; and •Mtinn, when he rebuilt the burcbf St. Sophia, in the twelfth earoiis reign, erected a ciborium 'I unetmpled elegance and beauty, t* dc|e of silver was surmounted •J aplden globe weighing 118 wuno. and was supported by four pillars of red marble: lilies of gold weighing 1 16 pounds, encircling the dome, fell down from it in festoons on every side, and on the globe was a cross of gold, weighing 75 pounds, covered with rare and pre- cious jewels. See Baldachin. Cilery, ornaments of foliage and drapery on the heads of columns. Cill, see Sill. Cima, see Cyma. Cimbia, a list, string, fillet, or cincture. Cimeliarch, a name given to the apartment where the plate and vestments are deposited in churches. Cincture, the circular con- cavity near the head or base of a column. Cinquefoil, a five-Uaved orna- ment, in circular and other divi- sions of the windows of ancient churches, and also on panels. It is a rosette of five equal leaves ; when in circles, the leaves not formed by the solid parts, but by the open spaces, there is also an open space in the middle. Cippus, the cippi were small columns by the sides of highways, generally bearing inscriptions sig- nificant of remarkable events, or used as land-marks, or for sepul- chral inscriptions. They were fre- quently without capital or base. Circle, ( Circulus, Lat.) a figure contained under one line, called the circumference, to which all lines drawn from a certain point within it, called the centre, are equal. The circumference is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree is again sub- divided into 60 minutes, each minute into 60 thirds, each third into 60 fourths, &c. ad infinitum. The circle is ihe most capacious of all plain figures. The area is equal to the area of a triangle, the base of which is equal to the circum- ference, and the Derpendicular equal 627 C I R C I R to the radius, or to a rectangle, whose breadth equals the radius, and whose length equals the half of the circumference. The ratio of the diameter to the circumference, was given by Archimedes, as 7 ; 22, which is sufficiently near for com- mon purposes, ft was estimated by Viera, by means of circumscribed and inscribed polygons of 398,216 sides, as 10,000,000,000: 31,415, 926,536. M. De Lagny, (Memoires de 1'Acad. 1719,) carried tl ap . proximate ratio to 128 pl a 5 of figures. The first who exp SP( | the area of a circle, in tern^ , diameter, by an infinite serie w,,* Dr. Wallis, whose calculation;^ been improved upon by Sir saac Newton and Dr. Gregory. iThe following are the most com lent formulae, for expressing the c ference, when a — circumft ace, and 1 — diameter. (2) a - s/ \2y( \ _ — + - — -f- 1 &c. ) V V 3.3^5.3* 7.3^9.3* / /ON o / 1 1 1 1 1 1.3.5 1 1 5 4 7 1 1 '3^577 + 5^8" 7.9.11 ) 1.3 4.6.9" 1.3.5 46 8.il 1 ) 1.3 1 (4)a= 8x( V ' \ 3 2 5 4.22' 7 k ✓ . 11 11 131 1.3.5 1 ( 6)fl = 4 K 1 "rr2i-r2A6-r2i,y'9 &c ' 4.6.23" 9 1.3.5 1.3.5 1 v 4-6.8.2*- 1 C V The following are a few of the most useful problems relating to the mensuration of the circle, and its various parts. To find the radius of a circle, when the chord and height of arc are given, we must divide the sum of the squares of the height, and of the half chord, by twice the height, and the quotient will be the radius. Thus in Jig. 4, (Geometry, Plate III.) Let the radius of a circle be required, that will describe an arc MAm, whose chord Mm is 16 feet, and its height AP, 5 feet. 64 sq. of i chord 25 sq. of height 2x5=10)89 8.9 or 8 ft. 10| inch. Ans. If it be required to find the height of the segment of a circle, when the radius and chord of the segment are given, extract the square root of the 628 difference of the squares radius and half chord, an th difference between it and the jio of the circle is the height lithe segment. Let the radius 0th circle BDFE (fig. 5.) be 25(jeet, and the chord DE of the seiiient DBE {fig. 5) be 12 feet, Hired the height BC of the segment] 62500 sq.of radius 6,24,64 (24j)27 36sq.of I chor. 4 62464 44)224 176 489) 4864 4401 4989)46300 44901 250 rad. 249,927 49982) 139900 99964 .073, Ans. 499847)39936 34989 4946 C I R W>n the radius and height of tne I of a segment are given, to find ie cosine of the half arc. Subsict the height of *he arc from he radius, the remainder is the swer. G n the radius, the cosine of the ||f arc, or the distance from ntre to a chord, and the 5 ta e of an ordinate of the : seemtit, made by that chord, to find e ordinate. Substract the zosm of the half arc of the n t, from the square root of Terence of the squares of J the Jlius and abscissa, the re- mainjr will he the ordinate. The \ truths 3f this rule may be thus ' imes ated. Let DBEF (jig 6.) be a:ircle, its centre, DE a chonC the middle of the chord, ; \I the ordinate: draw OQ al to DE, and produce PM fE Q ; Let r - OB = OM the 1 radiuj d = OC = QP, distance 'of cr;d from centre: x = CP - abscissa of segment from r y — PM ordinate. Then bi £ lid (1.47.) (QM)2=(OM)« 1 i * that is (d -f ?/) 2 ~ r«- k*. "jerefore y = s/r°— k 2 — d. For a sample of the application of this fie, it may be required to /i:but CB = OB — OC — r — rvM = r(l— -707106) or CD = -292894 x r, therefore (supposing r to be 300 feet) r — •292894 x 300 = 87.8682. Circle, Druidical, see Dru- idical Architecture. Circular Buildings, when of the same cylindrical form within as without, are calh d Rotundas. Circumference, the boundary line of circular bodies. Circumscribe, to draw a line C I R around, or to inclose any thing, so that the inclosed shall be touched on all its angles, or on its whole circumference, by the line or body that incloses it. ClRCUM V ALLATION, the SUT- rounding of trenches, or fortifica- tions, with a trench and parapet : commonly flanked with redoubts. Circumvolutions, a term ap- plied to the spirals of the volute of the Ionic capital, which in some instances has three, but in the temple of Minerva Polias has four circumvolutions. See Volute, Spi- ral, Sfc. Circus, among the Romans, a large ovate building for the exhibi- tion of popular games and shows ; they were originally plain open race- courses, bounded on one side by the Tiber, and on the other by palisades of naked swords stuck in the earth ; this was also the mode adopted by the Greeks on the borders of the river Alpheus. The first stone circus was built by Tarquinus Priscus, between the Aventine and Palatine hills. This primitive erection occupied a space of more than three English furlongs in length, and 960 Roman feet in breadih. It was beautified and enlarged by succeeding emperors, and in the reign of Domitian was sufficiently capacious to accommo- date 260,000 persons ; with propri- ety retaining its ancient name of Circus Maximus. These buildings were in the pro- portion of about five in length to one in breadth ; their principal divisions in the interior were the carceres, or starting place for the horses and chariots, at one end ; the area or arena, the course pass- ed over by the runners ; the meta, a column of a conical form, at the end of the circus, around which the racers passed as they returned toward the starting post ; the CIR stadium, raised above the i renrt by which it was surroundd; the spina, a platform divided intto ,Hi two equal parts, intersect stadium longitudinally, andndin? at the meta; in its whole mrsr* the spina was ornamente with statues, columns, and trophi, and in the centre was a temple uatly dedicated to the sun. The was the open space on eat i and in front of the orche «, , which it formed the princip port, both being for the a ccom motion of the higher orders of the rela- tors ; the euripus was a r rvoir of water passing along the de of the podium, which it se rated from the arena! Over the or <:stra was a gallery for the inferic class of citizens. Rome contained numero cin euses besides the ancient o dis- tinguished by the name of kxu mus^ of which the followin were the principal. The Circus Flaminius wjjbuilt by the consul Flaminius, nj* the Portus Carmentalis ; the pc it occupied, now forms the e of the church and monastery ]' St. Katherine. The Circus J\xan- drinus, erected by Alexandejieve- rus, in the modern era ofj.ome named Circus Agonalis, anfStig* matised as the place of the ijrtyr- dom of St. Agnes: this biding was near the baths of Seves in the place now called Piazs Na- vona. The Circus Salt tins, built or restored by the hij>rian of that name. The Circus tori- alis, or C. Vaticanus, beg! by Caligula, and finished in a srjndid style by Nero. The celcjated obelisk in the centre of the p stile of St. Peter, was taken fro the spina of this circus. Great um- bers of the early Christians s ered martyrdom in this circus, anoeio enjoyed the savage pleasure be- CIS C L A of > Hel * torn) j, log their torments. Nero also buii another circus in the gardens of >mitia his aunt, called Circus tia; and there were also those ntoninus and Aurelian, of rabalus, and, according; to writers, a circus near the gate t. Sebastian, attributed to Galnus. 1 enlarged accounts on this sub- L ct aimasius's Observations on So- i nu the ninth volume of the Tre- r Gravis, and fifth volume of Pol us, may be consulted with ; |\ tage. The name of Circus en, by modern architects, to ;c \r ranges of elegant mansions ; ose built in the form of seg- men of circles, are called Cres- doiD, a curve line invented by |, the reek geometrician Diocles. ([.tern, a reservoir for water, sunk below the surface of v e irth, or formed of planks of woe In the construction of an eart n cistern, a well-tempered • a m of clay must be laid as a fouilation for a brick flooring, the brief to be set in terras-mortar ; des must be built with the materials, and if in a cellar or (,ier place near a wall, a space be filled with clay, from the fouijition to the top of the cistern, n uous to the wall, to preserve it fm injury. A ooden vessel of this descrip- 1 on ; made of plain yellow deal plan; of 2 or 2\ inches, according to \ dimensions. The uprights may e 4 inches by 6, and placed 2i ,2t from each other. The plan; must be jointed with white lead .nd strongly secured with two woo',ri pins, at each intersection of t, uprights; it should then be plac firmly on a well-tempered bed f clay; a wall of stone or bricl must inclose this cistern, at the istance of 8 or 12 inches, and this space must be filled with clay. For dry and elevated sitnations, leaden cisterns are generally used. Citadel, a small castle or for- tress, generally occupying the high- est part of a city, as its strong hold, from whence supplies and forces may be derived till the last extre- mity. The most celebrated building of this description was the Acropo- lis of Athens. City, generally understood to apply to the capital towns in a country, as Philadelphia or Wash- ington, in America; Edinburgh and Glasgow in Scotland. In England a city is defined to be " a town corporate, having a bishop, and a cathedral church." Civic Crown, a garland of oak leaves and acorns, given as an honorary distinction, among the Romans, to such as had preserved the life of a fellow-citizen. Clamp, see Brick. Clamping, the act of securing a board with cross pieces at each end. Claro-Obscuro, See Chiaro- oscuro. Clathri, in Roman architec- ture, bars of iron or wood, which were used to secure doors and win- dows. Clay, a kind of earth, to which the name of argilla, or argillaceous earth, was formerly given, but which is now called, by the chemists, alumine ; a substance forming part of the boles, marles, slates, scis- tuses, and mica. Besides numerous uses of clay, as it is found variously compounded with other substances, it is most extensively useful in brick- making. See Bricks. Clayes, in fortifications, wattles made with stakes, interwoven with osiers, to cover lodgments. Claying, is the operation o< covering a vessel with two or three 631 CLE C LO coats of clay, to prevent water from running out. Cleam, a term used in some places, with the same signification as to stick, or to glue. Clear, the distance between any two bodies, where no other intervenes, or between their nearest surfaces. Clear Story Windows, such as have no transom intersection. Cleats, small wooden projec- tions on the decks, sides, and shrouds of ships, to fasten the ropes to. Ceeeta, the name of a Greek architect and sculptor. He was the builder of the magnificent Palaestra near Olympus, in which the races were performed at the Olympic games. He was so vain of his performance, as to place under one of his statues this in- scription : " Cleeta, the son of Aristocles, who invented the Palaes- tra of Olympus, did this." Clefts, often appear in green timber, which is very apt to split and cleave in several places, after it is wrought into form. The com- mon method used by the carpenter to fill up these cracks, is with a mixture of gum and sawdust : but the neatest way is to soak both sides well with the fat of beef broth, and then dip pieces of sponge into the broth, and fill up all the cracks with them ; they swell out so as to fill the whole crack, and so neatly as to be scarcely distinguishable. Cleopatra's Needles, a name commonly given to two obelisks of Thebaic stone, on the east of the palace of Alexandria. One has been thrown down, and buried in the sand, the other is still erect, and consists of a single stone 60 feet high, and 7 feet square at the base. They are covered with hiero- glyphics. Clepsydra, (K\c\f/vcpa, < ?ek from k*\£7rrw, to conceal, and water.) A vessel or buiidinlJj to measure time by the ruing out of a certain quantity of Li or sometimes of sand. Third building erected for the meir* ment of time was the dial, 1 y this only showed the hour Inn the sun appealed, the clejpdn was invented to supply its ace in wintry and clcudy wi • They were first used by the \p. tians. Tycho Brahe made one, to measure the motions i the stars, &c, and Dudley use the same contrivance in making his maritime observations. Contra- able improvements have been ade in this instrument by M. Amofai For a description of the celelted clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrl tes, see the article Athenian Arc ec- ture. Clinching, is the drivi of the point of a nail backward, len it has penetrated quite thron a piece of wood, with a hammer ; ss- ed against its head. • Clinkers, bricks impreg ted with nitre, and more thorohly burnt, by being placed next 1 the fire in the kiln. Cloaca, the common sew of ancient Rome, made to can oil the filth of the city into the || The chief of these, called the /o- aca Maxima, was built by th< rst Tarquin, of huge blocks of >ne joined together without cetm ', it consisted of three rows of a ies one above another, which at III conjoin and unite together. ■ measured clear 18 palms in hM and the same in width. Ipj these arches they rowed in t|M and by them were ways thraj which loaded carts could pass I began in the Forum Roma m, was 300 paces long, and en ed the Tiber between the tempi of COF Vest; and the Pons Sena tonus. Then were as many principal v ei as there were hills in the ! bister> (claustrum, Latin.) icipal part of a regular v, consisting of a square sfe or piazza, between the :l,unl the chapter-house, and the fecfy, having over it the dor- ter) and often enclosing the • ... v. According to Peter of Blois he monks used to hold their ;i ; in them: Lanfranc says hat eir proper use was for the TionUo meet and converse in at hours of the day. The indal cloisters in England are ii Gothic style. In Italy they en arcades, supported on columns of various orders. |se String, in dog-leg stairs, a ase without an open newel. Cher, the last stone in the horiz'tai length of a wall, which r ss dimensions than the rest, to fil :p the row. ;t, a small apartment com- muni ting with a larger one. CikjGH, a paddle or sluice in a pondjr canal. Crjoii Arches, or Paddle- Hol , crooked arches by which (fee per is conveyed from the uppe'pond into the chamber of the hk of a canal, on drawing up tfccclugh. Ci stered, in architecture, the coaliin of several members which penet te each other. Caste red Column, several slend pillars, attached to each other*) as to form one. The term >8 ust in Roman architecture, to denottwo or four columns, which appe;i to intersect each other at the #rj e of a building or a part- went o answer to each return. Cc ting, the covering any thing w »th iveral thicknesses. Cuing. See Cauking. Cockle Stairs, a winding stair- case. Ciemetery, see Cemetery. Coznaculum, (Lat.) properly the eating or supper room of the ancient Roman*. In the eariy periods of their history, when their houses consisted rarely of more than two stories, it denoted gene- rally the upper story. It also denoted lodgings let out for hire, and also the upper stories of the circusses, which were divided into small shops or rooms that were let out for hire. Coin a no, (Lat.) an apartment in the lower part of the Roman houses, or in a garden, to sup or eat in. According to Suetonius, it denoted a banqueting and summer house. The younger Pliny desci ibt:s a spacious coenatio in his Lauren- tine villa, in the superior part of a lofty tower. Coffer, (Co/re, Saxon,) a re- cess used anciently in level soffits, and in the intradoses of cylindrical vaults. They recede like inverted steps around the panel, each inter- nal angle being filled with mould- ings. The panel at the bottom is generally covered in Roman works with a rosette. They are also utones to counterbalance its cr ; a winding statue led to p, where a vast mirror was unbound the neck of the statue, \ ch might be discerned the it v of Syria, and ships en- tering the ports of Egypt. About \ ears after its erection, it was ro i down by an earthquake, broke it off at the knees, that state it remained till nquest of the island by the v:, ns, who beat it to pieces, ai d Id it to a Jew merchant, who load above 900 camels with the From the name of this originated the Greek proverb \. \&aiov to peyedog, and the termias since been applied to p.tatue of more than ordinary lii dime ions. C( um barium, (Lat.) a pigeon- 3 Columbarium Fictile was D e then pot for birds to breed l). ie term Columbaria was also apphi to the apertures that were i m. in the wall for the reception il 'cinerary urns in the ancient Rom cemeteries. See the plates ' till A ncient Roman Ornaments ; and i:; article Urn. C(|lumell.>e, another name for , btluirs. C( v m n , (columna, Lat.) a rounoillar, the parts of which are the b e, on which it rests, its body .. callec- the shaft, and the head callei the capital. The capital finish) with a horizontal table caller the abacus, and the base comn nlv stands on another called thepiM. See Base, Capital, £c. At.^hed columns were very sel- dom nployed in Greece ; the only instances known are the monument of Lysicrates, and the temple of Minerva Polias ; the columns of the temples atAgrigentum in Sicily are also attached. Attached co- lumns occur more frequently in Roman edifices, as in the Temple of Fortune, the Arch of Titus, the Colosseum, and the theatre of Mar- cell us. Columns are either plain or fluted, and the flutes, and mode of dividing them, are different in the Doric and Corinthian orders. The Ionic and Corinthian flutes are very similar. Twisted, spiral, and rusticated columns are never intro- duced in works of good taste. Cabled or rudented columns have the flutings of the shaft filled with astragals to about one-third of the height. Carolytic columns have foliated shafts. Columns were often used for monuments, like the Trajan and Antonine columns at Rome, and the Monument in Lon- don. Catherine di Medici erected an astronomical column at the Halle au Blid in Paris. The Romans had a columna bellica near the temple of Janus, from whence the consul proclaimed war by throwing . a javelin towards the enemies' country. The chronologi- cal column bore an inscription in remembrance of historical events, the cruciferal column bore a cross on its summit, the f unereal column an urn ; the zoophoric column, an animal; the genealogical column, an inscription relating to genealogy or heraldry ; the gnomic column, a dial; the itinerary column pointed out the various roads diverging from its site. The Romans had a lacteal column erected in the vege- table market, which contained in its pedestal a receptacle for infants that were abandoned by their parents (Juvenal. Sat. vi. 601), on the legal column the ancients engraved their laws; the boundaries 0J5 COL COM of a province were marked by the boundary, or limitative column; the manubial column was adorned with trophies and spoils, and the rostral column with the prows (rostra) of captured ships. The sepulchral column was erected on a tomb, the triumphal column in commemoration of a triumph. The triumphal column of Anto- nine was erected to the glory of Marcus Aurelius, in the time of Com mod us, for his victories over the Marcomani. He afterwards dedicated it to his father-in-law, Antoninus Pius. It was repaired by Fontana in 1589, under SextHs V. who placed on its summit a co- lossal statue of St Paul, with this inscription : Sex t us V. Pont. Max. columnam iianc cochli- cem, Imp. Antonino dicatam, m1sere laceuam ruinosamque, primal forme restituit, an. mdlxxxix. Pont. IV. According to the admeasurement of M. de la Condamine, it measured 116 French feet in height, and eleven in diame- ter. It is entirely of marble, and encircled with bassi relievi, which form twenty spirals around its shaft. For accounts of Pompey's Pillar and Trajan's Column, see those articles. The milliary column or milliarium aureum of Rome was originally a column of white marble erected by Augustus in the Forum, near the temple of Saturn, as a centre whence the calculation of distance began from the city. It is still preserved in the Campidog- lio. It is a short column, with a Tuscan capital, and has a ball of bronze for a finial. It was formerly gilt over. According to Vitruvius, columns at angles should be thicker than the intermediate ones; the diameter of columns should be proportioned to the intercolumniation ; the higher they are, the less should be their 630 diminution ; that those on the nks and angles should have their mer faces towards the walls perLfo cular; that the two middle coWm opposite the entrance, shoi \» wider apart than any of th two others ; that in theatres, and ^ks of gaiety, the columns shot he differently proportioned frorrnose in sacred edifices. On the p ) 0r . tions of the shaft, see Shaft. Column a rium, a heavy t ute, first levied by Julius Cees; on every column of a house, to jt a stop to the extravagant e|j laid out on sumptuous buildii ... Coma, (km pa, sleep, Gr.) i an- tiquity, a mound of earth ( r a grave. Comitium, (Lat.) a build • in the Roman Forum, wherein a 2m- blies of the people were heli It occupied the entire space beeen the Palatine hill, the Capito and the Via Sacra. Until the yi in which Hannibal first entered ily, it was open to the air, but was afterwards covered with a 100 up- ported by beautiful fluted Corii ian columns. Three of them ar still standing near the church of nta Maria Liberatrice. Excav;ons have been made at their ba by order of Pope Pius VII., I have discovered remains of tl. an- cient buildings. the .lint Com mi sure, (Lat.) between two stones. Common, a line, angle, su &c, which belongs equally to ral objects. Common Centeri a centering without trusses, h a tie-beam at the bottom. mon joists, are tfte beams in i have two legs, moveable or joint. Triangular cornpas- ive two legs like common comysses, with a third leg fixed I th bulb by a projection, with a o at o as to be moveable in every direon. Compasses composed of xn, with a fixed point at one i, nd a moveable one at the othe are called beam compasses. Proi'tional compasses have a it etween the extremities, and two urp points at each end, form- ing E.ouble compass, so that the two Ids may always preserve the >ameitio. If the joint be move- able/ is called a compound pro- porti al compass. Ccpassing, {compasse, Fr.) in architecture, bringing a piece of tirer into the form of an arch. C( plem ent, (complementum, ! Lat.Jne number of degrees which any gle wants of a right angle. The 'mplement of a parallelogram is tw lesser parallelograms, made by doing two right lines parallel to th'jides of the quarter, through agivf point in the diagonal. Copluvium, (Lat.) a void spact a the centre of Roman build- inps, , receive the waters that fell from ie roof ; also the gutter or eaves Cc posite Order, see Order The omposile arch is the pointed or la et arch. Ct CAMliRATA SUDATIO, (Lat.) the airtmenl in the ancient gym- CON nasium, between the laconicum or stove, and the warm bath ; where the wrestlers and racers retired, to wipe the sweat from their bodies. Concamerate, (Lut.) to arch over. Concatenate, (Lat.) to link together. Concave, (concavus, Lat.) hol- low. Concavity, of a curve line, is the side between the two points of the curve, next to a straight line. The concavity of a solid, is such a curved surface, that if any two points be taken in it, the straight line between them is in a void space, or will coincide in only one direction with the surface. Concentric, (Lat.) having a common centre. Conchoid, a curve line, dis- covered by Nicomedes, which al- ways approaches a straight line, but, though produced ever so far, never meets it. Conclave, (Lat.) the place in the Vatican where the cardinals meet to choose a new pope. It consists of a suit of grand halls or corridors, with rows of cells formed on each side, of equal dimensions, tw r o of which are allotted to each cardinal, one for himself, the other for his officer, called the conclavist, and his valet de chambre. The word was used by the ancient Romans to denote any room under lock and key. Concord, Temple of, at the foot of the capitol, built by Camil- lus. There still remains a hexa- style portico, with two Ionic columns at the back. The entab- lature, a large part of the tympa- num, and part of the pediment, are also preserved. The columns are of granite, each of one piece, 40 feet high, and 2 feet 2 in diameter. The capitals have the four faces alike. The volutes are very C37 CO N CON minute, and the mouldings too large. The weight of the tympa- num is discharged from the entab- lature with arches. The architrave and frieze make but one course in height, and the cornice has both modillions and dentils. It is sup- ; osed to have been pseudoperip- teral. Concretion, (Lat.) the hard- ening of soft bodies. Concurring, or Congruent, such figures or solids as till exactly the same space. Conduit, (Fr) a long narrow passage between two walls, or un- derground, for secret communica- tion between different apartments. Also a canal or pipe for the con- veyance of water. Cone, (kiovoq, Gr.) a solid which is bounded by two surfaces, of which one called the base is a circle, and the other, ending in a point called the vertex, a convexity; so that a straight line drawn from any point in the circumference of the base to the vertex will coincide with the convex surface. If the axis, or the straight line drawn from the centre of the base to the vertex, be perpendicular to the base, it is termed a right cone; if not, it is an oblique cone. Confessional, (Lat.) a cell in Catholic churches, where the con- fessor sits to hear confessions. It is generally of wood, and divided into three niches or cells, the cen- tral one, which is for the priest, having a seat in it, and being closed half way up by a dwarf door. Configuration, the exterior superficies of a body. Conge, (Fr.) the same as Apophyge. Conic Section, the figure form- ed by cutting a cone by a plane. They are five, corresponding to the positions of the plane — a triangle, 638 a circle, an ellipse, a par jl a and an hyperbola. Only th |t| three of these, however, are t peculiarly conic sections. CONISTERIUM, (KOVlOTpa, ir ,) an apartment in the gvmn £9 and palaestra of the ancients, S the wrestlers sprinkled then , with dust, after being anointt . oil, that they might take the jrtr hold of each other. Conjugate Diametersuvo diameters in an ellipsis or her- bola, parallel to tangents at ach other's extremities. Conoid, (icovoeidrjQ, Gr.) a ure produced by the revolution if a conic section round one of its ces. Conservatory, (Lat.) a ild- ing for the protection of der plants. It is often attached the house as" an apartment, for tl M play of scarce exotics, durir the time of their greatest beaut md perfection. It should be in ; erv dry situation, and, if there 1 no shed behind, the walls shou be at least three bricks thick. • Consistory, (Lat.) the jicial hall of the college of Cardin at Rome. Console, (Fr.) the same an Ancone, which see. In the [ace of* Dioclesian, at Spalatro, copies are used to support an entire der of columns. Constantinople. Thejild- ings of the Ottoman capital are interesting in two points of jew, both as exhibiting specimens the architecture of the Western er ire, and of that of the Turks, li e architecture of Pagan, Chr an, and Moslem, are promiscnsly blended. At the top of the ancient Ban- tium, and of an eminencehat descends gradually down to tr sea by the point of the seraglio, m mosque of St. Sophia. The Ian of this fine structure is aim I CON quar The dome rests outwardly ; ,n fir prodigiously large towers, ., .j have been added of late s The entrance is by a por- s toises broad, which in the e the Greek emperors served 1 J/estibulum. This portico ': n licates with the church by , narble folding doors, the eavefof which, being of brass, . with basso-relievos, are : , lignificent. The vestibulum iii 1 to another, which is paral- . but has no more than five . iraze; cloors without bas-reliefs ; k-es were charged with cross- n these last have been muti- 1 v the Turks. These two til es are only entered by doors tl sides, and, according to the f the Greek church, were Seceslry for the placing of those bat re either about to receive he sraments, or to undergo pub- nce. Parallel to them, the 'furksiave built a great cloister, i ging the officers of the A splendid dome occu- § g place of a nave, at the r 'oot : which runs a colonnade, .vhicluears a gallery of exquisite 'irch-nk five toises broad. By iomelt is called Constantine's 1 it was formerly set apart i or th-ivomen. At the roof, and ->n thi !ornice of the dome, runs a til illery, or rather balustrade, iisl 1 >ad enough for one person pa. Above it there is also uothl The columns of this I'Jomefave scarcely any swelling, •i"! t|r chapiters looked to be of i a linear order. The dome is 18 tones 'om wall to wall, and rests upon ur huge pillars, about eight toiies thick: the arch seems a perlec lemisphere, illuminated with twent our windows, disposed in a circun :rence. From the east part iOl thi Jome, you pass straight on to th : demi-dome, which termi- C O N nates the edifice. This was the sanctuary of the Christians, and now contains the niche where the Koran is kept, and close by it is the Mufti's chair. This mosque, built like a Greek cross, is in the clear 42 toises long, 38 broad, nearly all of which is taken up by the dome. Jt is said to contain no fewer than 107 columns of different marble, of por- phyry, or Egyptian granite. The whole dome is lined with varieties of marble : the incrustations of the gallery are mosaic, mostly made of cubes of glass, which are loosened every day from their cement, but their colour is unalterable. The Turks have destroyed the noses and eyes of some figures, as well as the faces of four cherubims placed in the angles of the dome. " I know of no monument of antiquity," observes Mr. Hobhouse, " which has excited so much curi- osity, both amongst the learned and the unlearned, as St. Sophia. For its dimensions and integrity, it may be thought incomparably more curious than any other relic of former ages ; but in every other respect it must disappoint any sanguine expectation. Its external appearance is that of a vast build- ing, whose ill-sorted construction requires a proportionate heaviness of mass to preserve it standing and entire. The weighty buttresses and the attached compartments of the temple, falling in a succession of penthouses, from the spring of the arch to within a few feet of the ground, nearly conceal, and totally ruin, any effect which might other- wise be produced by the height and expanse of its far-famed dome. The interior, to which you descend by five steps, seems at first sight magnificently spacious, and not broken with the aisles and choirs, nor deformed by the railings and CON CON tombs of modern churches, but your admiration diminishes as you proceed with your inspection. The beauty of the variegated marble floor is concealed by a covering of mats ; and the dome, as well as the body of the building-, is spoiled by a thousand little chords depend- ing- from the summit, within four feet of the pavement, and having at the end of them, lamps of coloured glass, large ostrich-eggs, artificial horse-tails, vases and globes of crystal, and other mean ornaments. The columns appear too large for the arches which they support, and the carving of their capitals can scarcely be more painful to the eyes of an architect, than to those of a common observer. Grelot knew not to what order they be- longed, or by what name to de- scribe their style, unless he called it a sort of Gothicised Greek. -My general impression was, that the skill of the one hundred architects, and the labour of the ten thousand workmen, the wealth of an empire, and the ingenuity of presiding angels, had raised a stupendous monument of the heavy medio- crity wh'ch distinguished the pro- ductions of the sixth century from the perfect specimens of a happier age." The other royal mosques of Con- stantinople may be considered as so many copies of St. Sophia. They always stand by themselves in an enclosure planted with trees, adorned with fountains, oratories, &c. They have generally from two to six minarets. At the ancient Hippo- drome, now called Atmeidan, is a mosque, each minaret of which has three stone galleries. The entrance is through a peristyle, a kind of arched cloister, covered with little domes, and supported by columns. One of the most splendid mosques in Constantinople is that of Soly- O-iU man II. The outside exce even that of St. Sophia; its viMof are larger and better dispc i, j( S galleries more regular and a'elv, It is an exact square, wit four fine towers at the angles : ; til midst is a noble cupola, su r ! by marble pillars, and two 1 e r at the ends, supported in th.same manner. Under the great oola as in other mosques, thei is a fountain, adorned with mar nil. lars. The spacious court din? to it, which contains anotr , has marble galleries, covered wit wm ty-eight leaded cupolas. This mosque is built of the fines .ones that could be found amo the ruins of Chalcedon. The iso of Valide, the mother of Momet IV. is near the Seraglio. r e in- side is lined with fine Dutchare; but its colonnade is of [irble, taken chiefly from the riis of Troy, with chapiters. The *ches over the doors and windoj are well designed ; its two njarets have each three handsome g.^ries. The Seraglio, which was l it by Mahomet II., is nearly thre miles in circuit : it is a kind of t ngle, whose side next the city the largest. The apartments {} et> the top of the hill, and the {'dens below stretching to the la:— " Though I saw only the oujde of the Seraglio," says Tournefi;, "I am persuaded that its insij can show nothing of what wj call stately and noble ; becaii the Turks have hardly any no'jn of magnificence, and follow ij one rule of good architecture.") The apartments have been made;: dif- ferent times, according to ip cap. price of the princes and sijwas, so that this famed palace ij little better than a disorderly hip « houses clustered together, jarble basins, bagnios, and spoutimjoun- tains, are placed on the ndw CON CON jjd anv fear of preserving the pj The principal entrance is .avilion, with eight open- m o|r the gate, or porte. This from which the Ottoman n Jook its name, is very high, semicircular in its arch, jith aUrahic inscription beneath 4 bell, and a niche on each side, more like a guard-house e entrance to a palace, trance leads into a large - d, not so broad as long, nd court is a square of )0 pies, much handsomer than It fit, covered with turf and unta';. On the left are the -mior's treasury, and little t'j on the right are the offices chens, embellished with nesput without chimneys. A rv, covered with lead, and I by columns of marble, . ound. At the further end i this )urt, on the left, is the hall Sere he divan is held ; on the rht ia door which leads into y :li:t, through which none ta n;sueh as are sent for. The I' ll of he divan is large, but low, i 'i ith lead, wainscoted and t af;- the Moorish fashion. f; only are strangers allowed ente^he Seraglio. The tasqne of the Arabs, in the hurt) ' Galata, was a church of ( 2 Dojnicans, as ancient as the ne of jt. Hyacinth. No altera- ha been made in it ; the lie lindows and inscriptions ie jites still remain, and the lich is a square tower, 8 f, a minaret. ppodrome of Constanti- till used as a place for i riding. It is called by The pie is ercise; * Tu ; Atmeiden, from At, a •rw, a meiden, a place. It is *>ut 23 paces long, and 150 l( Je. J, still contains the obelisk 1111 or Thebaic stone, which IM is a four-cornered pyramid, of one single piece, 50 feet high, termi- nating in a point, and charged with hieroglyphics. By the Greek and Latin inscriptions at the base, we learn that the emperor Theodosius caused it to be set up again, after it had lain a considerable time on the ground. The machines made use of in rearing it are rep esented in bas relief. Here are also another obelisk, which appears to have been covered with brass plates, with some other antiquities. The Bazaars are large square buildings, covered with domes, and supported by arches and pilasters. At the furthest part of the town, towards the sea of Marmora, is the celebrated castle of the Seven Towers. "The appearance of these walls," Mr. Hobhouse observes, " (the work of the second Theo- dosius,) is more venerable than that of any other Byzantine antiquity ; their triple ranges, rising one above the other, in most places nearly entire, and still retaining their an- cient battlements and towers, are shaded with large trees, which spring from the fosse, and through the rents of repeated earthquakes. The intervals between the triple walls, which are eighteen feet wide, are in many places choked up with earth and masses of the fallen ramparts, and the fosse of twenty- five feet in breadth, is cultivated and converted into herb-gardens and cherry orchards, with here and there a solitary cottage. Such is the height of the walls, that, to those following the road under them on the outside, none of the mosques or other buildings of the capital, except the towers of Tekkuri-Serai, are visible." Construction, (Lat.) the de- scribing a diagram, &c. from a given data. The art of building from the architect's designs. 641 CON Constructive Carpentry. — Under the article Carpentry, an historical view has been given of the various improvements which have from time to time been introduced into the practice of that art. In the present article, we shall give as comprehensive a view as the nature of our work will allow, of the mo- dern practice of Carpentry. We shall commence with the scarfing of timber, or the joining of two separate pieces by a close joint, a portion of the end of one piece lapping over the end of the other, and the sides of both making one continued surface. The per- fection of this operation consists in making the joint as nearly equal as possible in strength to either piece taken separately. This is done sometimes by forming the ends of the two pieces to fit each other closely, and at others by the inser- sertion of a third piece. The ends of the pieces must be so indented as to resist a longitudinal strain. This is termed tabling. One single table, or one resisting abutment, is both stronger and easier to execute, than two or four. It miut also be further observed, that the least pos- sible projection should be given to the resisting part, as the cohesive force is diminished by it, by a quantity of timber equal to the parts that abut. A tapering mor- tise may be used instead of the abutments, the two pieces being brought in close connection by a wedge driven into the cavity. Iron bolts are the most convenient means of compressing the joint equally on each side, because they need to be thinner, and consequently require a less bore for their reception, than wood. A long scarf will allow of more bolts, and is consequently stronger, than a short one. The strength is also increased by the number of steps, or abutments. CON The scarfing of beams will f ar . ther illustrated by the PlattC^** pentry, C 1$. The prince ol joining timbers will be best stood by Plate Carpen n; It may be done either by iku,,. both planes of contact either | ri^ht angles, or parallel with theiibres or the joint parallel with th jibrea of one piece, and at an^l wji, those of the other. A longi l Hnal joint, is that in which the c inion seam runs parallel with thlfibrei of both, in which case, bo and pins are commonly used, n u abutting, or butt-joint, thjplane of the joint is at right anjjleothe fibres, and the fibres of bot )ieca in the same straight line. IVhen the joint is at right anglesp the fibres of one piece, and para |i with those of the other, it is a i/uare joint ; when parallel with trjfibres of one, and obli ue to thostif the other, a bevel joint ; and ia at oblique angles with the fies of both pieces, a mitre joint. Sitting and mitre joints are seldor!used. The most common form of fining is by notching, in which | may vary the form of the joint, cord- ing to the number of angles'e po» sition of the sides of the pie^and the direction or quantity jf tk stress. The angles may l; from one to four: joining by mori 1 aw tenon only admits of one aj. two, Dove-tail notching is chiefljippli- cable to horizontal framing. I^hea binding joints have a great sjiin at their extremities, a shorter jaring tenon should be attached to tj prin- cipal tenon, with a sloping solder above, called a tusk : this |nd 4 tenons are called tusk tenoi II ConstructiveCarpentu^U' A and B shows the best meipdsw trussing girders : C the bcfonUl section of B ; D the sectiofl the abutment bv cutting throiTg in A ; E and F show the t sides CON CON f th king-bolt at c in A, which ic lin to each other so as to form we te, and thereby force the mssSipon their abutments. Gir- trussed to counteract the t ' the bending to which they re siject when extended beyond certli length. The bolts must ? of !>n, and the traces are gene- 1 into the side of each flitch, , a firmer abutment. The wtnvits should be of iron, bolted .routine thickness of both pieces, t s uld have a broad part in e m lie. Some resemble an in- ttedl'edge at the bottom, and [| $e cjndrically to the top, where I ey al screwed and nutted. [i ie article Constructive r try, plates II. to XXIII., h e have selected from the gravjgs in Nicholson's valuable .. : > " New Carpenter's Guide," i lhe best methods of perform- II the.rincipal operations of Car- P/a II. illustrates the neces- sary litfi of a roof, and exhibits a r t method for the bevels of j] ie. a 6 is the width of the ildm make b for a e equal to vidth, and c d = height of tin d e or d f will be the \gth the common rafters; draw apnal be, continue it to g, g~ height of roof, and 1 v owhich is the length of the ■ >Jr. Let the purline be at pla of a common rafter, as at rom ie point h, with any ra- ribe a circle, draw g I and i el to/6 tangents, to the " 1 and q, from s and r, the •ints vere the two sides of the '"me ersect the circle, draw two i!el to the former to cut 1 a? ial in m and k, draw m n rallel to ab, and join ni, : the down bevel, F the ' 1* I of the purline, and B ,W C a bevels of the ends of the purline when it is placed level. By turning the stock of the bevel at F from a round the line tar, we shall have the side bevel of the jack-raf- ter ; and the bevel at A, the top of the common rafter, is the down bevel of the jack rafter. For more information on this subject, see Roof. Plates III. and IV. Construction of Domes. As the method of find- ing the centres to cover a dome horizontal, is found very trouble- some in practice, owing to the cen- tres running out to a great distance, the following more practical method is offered. To find the curve of the boards that are near the bot- tom, fig. A. plate III. divide one quarter of the circumference of the dome into equal parts, each equal to the width of a board, making proper allowance for Jie camber, at the centre m describe a small circle, equal to one of the divisions; from n with radius n m, describe an arc to touch the centre of the dome at m ; and let H be the last board that you can conveniently describe with a centre, that is, the sixth board from the top; continue the inside curve of the board H round to / in the axis of the dome, and draw the line fn; also draw parallel lines from the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c, to cut the axis of the dome in 2 b d, &c. : draw the line I p to touch the small circle in the centre; and divide the distance fron p to 2, into two equal parts at q, and draw q n ; then di- vide the arc from q to r into six equal parts, and from the centre at n, draw lines to a, c, e, &c, and from these points draw lines to 2, 3, 4, 5, &c, to the other quarter ; then is the distance from 1 to 2 half the length of the bottom board which may be seen at B, (pi. IV.) set on each side of 2 ; and the small distance from 1 to q, in the CON CON axis, is its height; which is set from 2 to 2 for the height of B ; and 2 b is half the length of the board C, and b a its height : also 3 d in Jig. A, is half the length of the board D, and dc its height. The distance 1 1, or the length of B, may far exceed the length of any board that can be found, take therefore half its length, and i the height, for the length and height of B, so that the same sweep may come within the reach of a board : if this be still too large for a board, the length and height must be again diminished in the same proportion. The other boards, C, D, and E, are each one half of the lengths as taken from Jig. A, and must, by the foregoing rule, only raise i their weight to have the same sweep. Plate V. How to cover the whole of an ellipsoidal dome with one mound only, when its base or plan is a section, passing perpen- dicularly through the fixed axis, or any other section parallel to it. Let ABCD be a plan of the dome, which is a section through the quar- ter axis of a spheroid ; let BD be the lesser axis ; divide i of the plan BA into a convenient number of equal parts, as six ; from these points draw lines, 1 h a, 2 i b, 3 k c, 4 Id, &c. parallel to the greater axis AC, cutting the lesser BC at the points a, b, c, d, e, from B make B/, equal to half of any of the equal distances, as between B and 1 ; draw f u to the centre, cutting 1 a, 2 b t 3 c, &c. at the points h, i, k, I, m; from the point B, in the line AC, at No. 1. (pi. IV.j stretch out the arc BA, of the quadrant at Jig. 1, on the plan, as at 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. ; through these points draw or- dinates at right angles to AC, from the points 1, 2, 3, &c. in AC, (No. 1.) make the distances 1 h, 2 i t 3 kf &c. equal to their corres- ponding distances, Bf, ah, b i, c k, 644 &c. on the plan, which w gj ve points through which the cur may be completed. Plate VI. Fig. A is tr pl aa of an elliptic dome, B the 1 01 in the length, and C the sec n 1 the breadth ; a a in B, and b in C, shew how to square the p \m so that one side may be fair v| the surface of the dome. The jn i the purline is formed by dott lines drawn from the sections of t ' pur- line. To proportionate the rb at the top to meet the surfactjf the dome, draw the diagonals 2 km, and let h e and gf be the wid then g h or ej will be the true of the curve. To find tri form of the gores , let the board r jired be that over a b c in theiplnn, divide the quadrant D of lipse into 3 parts, so that the lords ab, bCfCd, shall be equal, d|v tlx lines c a, c b, c c, c d, to the ure: transfer the triangle a be Ira ft to a b c in G, and draw the ae c« 1-1-1-1, &c. in G at ri^ht aijesto a by and describe a rib G to thtj^ht of the dome, and the base > the perpendicular of the triangl fii divide the curve into five equ; tarts, and extend them along t lint 1-1-1-1, &c. in H: from thtointi of division in the curve drallinef perpendicular to the line ei-l-li &c, to meet the sides cb jd of the triangle, transfer tl|sej» ments of these lines to I through the remote extremiti|draw the curves b b, cd, ef, a-lhH which will forn> the edges ' ^ gore over ab c on the plan; The other gores are found in tlpM manner. Plate VII. exhibits the j'thw of executing the ribs of a t face of the plank, and in i nner apply the inside falling oaoul the point q coinciding as •efor on the under side, with the "itdge to s in the plank, and drawlhe under side, the plank nut out, and twisted to those es, ill be the true form of the enefj; it must then be cut into ' 'cc the other way in such thick- *asto bend easily. Fig. C v he method of laying down a stri board of a chain*. PI XX. and XXI. Gluing up cylitici cal, conical, and spherical ffalj. Fig. 1, method of form- CON ing a cylindric surface on one board, by grooving the boards across at equal distances : No. 1, the ele- vation, 2, the plan. Fig. 2, me- thod of forming a conic surface by radial grooves. Fig. 3, {PI. XXI.) the same for a sector of a conic surface less than the half cone. Fig. 4, method of forming the sur- face of a globe ; No. 1 and 2, grooving of the board, 1 being the face, and 2 the edge ; No. 3, the mould upon which the spherical boards are to be bent; No. 4, two boards joined together. PI. XXII. XXIII. Glueing up co- lumns, bases, and capitals. Fig. 1. method of glueing up the shaft of a column; No. 1, a section at top, and 2 at bottom; ABC the mitre bevel, DEI the trying up bevel. Fig. 2. mode of glueing up the base of a column; No. 1, the plan, 2 the elevation. Figs. 3 and 4, (PL XXIII.) Glueing up the Ionic and Corinthian capitals; No. 1, the plan, and 2, the elevation. Further remarks will be found under the different articles, as Dome, Groin, Hand-railing, fyc. Contact, (contactus, Lat.) in Geometry, is when a line or plane touches a figure, and may be pro- duced either way without cutting it. Content, (contentus, Lat.) in geometry, the area, or quantity of matter or space included in certain bounds. Contexture, (contextus, Lat.) the disposition of the constituent parts of a body in respect to each other. Contign atis, (Lat.) in Roman carpentry, was what is now termed naked-flooring. Contiguity, (contiguus, Lat.) the situation in which two bodies or surfaces meet. Continued, a term applied to any thing that is not interrupted. An attic is continued when it is 647 COP COR not broken into pilasters ; a pedes- tal is continued when its mouldings and dado, or die, are continued without interruption through the column and intercolumniation. Contorted, wreathed. Contour, (Contorno, Ital.) the outline of a body. Contra murk, in Fortification, an external wall built to protect and strengthen the wall it faces or incloses. Contrary Flexure, point or, the meeting of two curves, which bear the convexity of one, and the concavity of the other, on the same side of the line. Con tr a v allation, in Fortifi- cation, a trench guarded by a para- pet, beyond musket-shot from a besieged place, raised for the de- fence of the besiegers. Convent, {conventus, Lat. an assembly,) a religious house. Con ventual Church, one be- longing to a convent. Convergent Lines, lines which would meet if produced. Convex, (convexus, Lat.) swell- ing externally in a circular form. A convex rectilinear surface, is a curved surface, in which a point being taken, a right line passing through it can be drawn only in one direction. Convolution, (Lat.) a winding motion. Co-ordinate, (from con with, and ordinatus, Lat.) holding the same rank or proportion. Coordi- nate pillars stand in equal order. Coping, (from cop, Dutch, the head,) the upper tier of masonry which covers a wall. When it is of an equal thickness, which is done only on inclined surfaces, or on a wall that is intended to be covered by a roof, it is called parallel coping. When thinner on one edge than the other, it is called feather-edged coping. When thick in the middle, and thin dL* edge, it is called saddle r . row vertical plane, which pjeed with a level soffit before the ua- pet. Inclined coping is som.T^ without the astragal. The set of a projecture is said to copmr when it slants downwards fro the wall. Corbeils, (cor bis, Lat. W ket,) sculptured baskets of mm or fruit, sometimes placed o the heads of caryatides. In For ca- tion, corbeils are little bash of earth set upon the parapets, U iel- ter the men in firing on th be- siegers. Corbels, in castellated ind Gothic edifices, a row of stone re- jecting from the wall to suiiort the parapet, serving in the ph ot brackets or modillions. The rm is applied also to a horizont? ow of stones and timber in a w or vault, to sustain the floor or tfj to the vase of the Corinthian pi- tal, which in form reseinb :i basket ; and by some to a nic in a wall, to contain a statue. Corbel-Table, a series of tii- circular arches which cut >ne another in a wall, supports by timbers with their ends proje Rg out, and carved into heads, m lions' heads, &c. Corbettis, a word which Cm- COR cer i S to signify stones that sup- ilt port pages. K f; C< ns» a Spanish term tor jfchfctural ornaments. i don, the edge of a stone at * : (tside of an edifice. C .E, the interior of a wall, &c. C until The city of Corinth ras roverbial for its wealth as K s the time of Homer. It is ted in the history of archi- ti , for the invention of one of ders: but it is remarkable I o remains can now be found (rinth of any edifice of the orifhian order; nor could Mr. Dod ill perceive, in any part of the ! s, the acanthus plant, which forrr its distinctive capital. The Acrorinthus, or Acropolis, is one of t finest objects in Greece, in a commanding situation on a preci- o rock. Corinth now preserves v onuments of antiquity. At the uth-west corner of the town, \( Doric columns supporting : n architraves, were seen by 1 Cha'ler; but when Dr. Clarke \srt\ Corinth, only seven remained and only five of them iuppfted an entablature. Mr. d ll observes, that this temple "is irobably the most ancient n mt ing in Greece, if we may idgby its massive and inelegant f ions. The columns are each combed of one block of calca- reouj stone, which being of a poro quality, was anciently co- rere(fvith stucco of great hardness t urability. A similar expe- dient' as been practised in all the temp? of Greece, Sicily, and Italy when the columns are of comt'.n stone." Their height, in- steatSf being equal to six diame- ters, he true proportion of the Don" shaft according to Pliny, does lot amount to four. They are f ted.— Dr. Clarke found the ruin«of some ancient buildings, COR particularly of one partly hewn in the rock, opposite the temple. The outside exhibited the marks of cramps for sustaining slabs of marble, once used in covering the walls, a manner of building which does not appear to be earlier than the time of the Romans. Close to the Bazaar he saw part of a very large structure, built entirely of tiles or thin bricks. The people of the place remembered its being more perfect, and described it as full of seats, ranged one above another. Perhaps, he thinks, it might have been the Odeon. Corinthian Order. An ac- count of the origin of the Corin- thian capital has been given under the article Capital. The earliest mention of the Corinthian order is by Pausanias,(lib. viii.) who informs us, that it was used by Scopas in rebuilding the temple of Minerva at Tegaea, in Arcadia, in the fourth century before Christ. It is very seldom found in buildings anterior to the Roman emperors, when it was universally made use of. Among the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra it is almost the only order to be found. The only difference in symmetry between the Corinthian and Ionic columns, lies, according to Vitruvius, in the height of their capitals, the latter being only one- third, and the former the whole of a diameter. The Corinthian aba- cus is in height one-seventh of a diameter, and its diagonal two diameters: it has concave faces, moulded on the fronts. We are led to suppose, from the silence of Vitrurius on the subject, that each pair of the four faces of the abacus were continued till they met in an acute angle at each corner : ex- amples are found in the temple of Vesta at Rome, and in the Stoa or Portico at Athens. The lower part of the capital consists of two rows 648 COR COR of leaves, each row containing eight plants. One of the upper leaves fronts each side of the abacus, and the stalk of each leaf rises between each two lower leaves. The two rows of leaves, and the caulicoli and volutes are each two-sevenths of a diameter. The breadth of the bottom of the capital is one diame- ter. From Vitruvius (lib. iv. c. 1.) we learn, that in his time, the Corinthian column supported either a Doric or Ionic entablature. Ex- amples of such a use of the Ionic entablature are found in the temple of Vesta near Tivoli, in that of Antoninus and Faustina, and in the portico of Septimus Severus at Rome. In the arch of Adrian at Athens, and in the temple at Jackly, near Mylassa. Of the use of the Doric entablature with the Corin- thian column, we know of no ex- ample. But the Corinthian column is generally found with a peculiar entablature of its own, in which are introduced the architrave, frieze, cymatium, and denticulated band of the Ionic, surmounted by the mutules of the Doric, which latter are converted into a console, the ends and sides of each being shewn, and the bottom covered with a foliated leaf. The superior members of the cornice resemble the Ionic. In some examples of the Corinthian cornice, modillions of two plain faces are used in the place of consoles. In one example, the second cornice of the Tower of the Winds, at Athens, dentils are used above the modillions. When the entablature is enriched, the shaft is generally fluted, its flutes being in number twenty-four. Cornice, (coronis, Lat. cor- niche, Fr.) the upper part of the entablature. The richest cor- nice is the Corinthian, being the fullest of members, and the most graceful in its proportions. The 650 ■nu- the lire Ionic cornice is of graver ppor- tions, and is destitute of mod hnj and often of dentils. The 'one is lower in its proportions, greater projection, and is tinguished by its cymatium tules, and drops. See unci different Orders. When the c rests upon the architrave, as the Caryatic Portico at Athens . termed an architrave cornio In a block cornice, the corona i; im- ported by plain rectangular pW with level soffits instead of mi les. Coved cornices, which are T tM found on old houses, have mm cove, and are generally lathe md plastered on brackets. In a ill- icit ed cornice, some of its meteri are interrupted by another c ect. See Stucco. Corona, (Lat. ^ojowvoc, !r.) the brow of the cornice, whicino- jects over the bed mouldin; to throw off the water, form ; a division between the cymatiunn i crown members, and the m division of the cornice. I nip* cian works the corona is gi omitted. The principal exa /es of its omission by the Roman hi? tects are found in the Tern of Peace at Rome, the third or| of the Colosseum, and the an of Lyons at Verona. In the an of Constantine, the corona, m mounted only by a fillet, fits* the cornice. Corostrota, a name arjied anciently to a kind of inlaid wk Corps, a French term app'n to the projecting part of a wall, < is intended to form a grour decoration. Corridor, (corridor e, It| a long gallery or passage in a sion, connecting various apartrr and sometimes running rou quadrangle. Corsa. See Platband. CoRTiLE,(Ital.) thecourt-yc! of COT CO V Ita n dwelling-houses, often em- bel tied with columns and statues. It lswers to the Roman cavse- p rtinale, (Lat.) among the ancnts, the apartment which conined the cortina, or three- stools, from whence the ms delivered the oracles of Apn a tter inserted in the 24th vol. ol tl Repertory of Arts and Manu- facti's. His objections against Ihe nerality of cottages for the bbo ing poor, are these :— That beinl of either lath-and-plaster *©rljor their walls composed of bricl of not more than four inches 'a tckness, and rough-cast, or rendered; in the first instance, proving a weak defence against the weather; and in the latter, subject to injury from the slightest causes, and also liable tQ dampness. To give stability and warmth, and at the same time save materials, Mr. Dearn proposes to lay the founda- tion course, and the two following courses of the walls, in the usual old English manner, with alternate courses of headers and stretchers; and from this foundation the wall is to be raised to the required height by alternate courses of stretchers on edge, on the back and front of the wall ; and heading courses to cover, leaving a vacant space between the stretchers of the width of half a brick. Bond tim- bers may be introduced as may be deemed necessary. It is stated, that by this mode a saving of one- third, in the article of bricks, will be effected ; that only one half the quantity of mortar will be used ; that less labour will be re- quired ; and that the walls will, by this mode, be entirely free from damp; and the expense at least less by one-fourth than the less eligible mode of lath-and-plaster building. See Pisay, Villa, and Rural Architecture. Cove, a concavity. The term cove bracketing is generally applied to that of the quadrantal cove. Coved and Flat Ceiling, a ceiling in which the section is the quadrant of a circle, rising from the walls, and intersecting in a flat surface. Cover, that part of a slate which is hidden or covered. Cover Way, the recess left in brick-work for the reception of the roofing. Covert Way, or Corridor, a level space of about twenty feet broad, from the edge of the ditch, surrounding half-moons, or other 651 cou CR A fortifications : it has usually a parapet, with pallisades down the middle, and a foot bank It is also undermined on all sides, so that to make a lodgment upon it is difficult. The extreme edge toward the fortress being the talus that supports the earth of the covert way, is called the counterscarp ; but when the enemy is said to have made a lodgment in the counter- scarp, it is understood to include the. whole of the covert way, with its parapet and glacis. Coving, in old buildings, the projection of the upper stories of houses over the lower. The covings of a fireplace are the inclined ver- tical parts on the sides. Couch, a layer, or coating. Counter, a name given to the superintendent of a canal, or other great work, under the resident engineer. Counter Drain, a channel dug parallel to a canal, &-c. for the conveyance of the soccage water, by means of drains, into the lower grounds. Counter Fort, a pier or but- tress to strengthen a wall. Counter Gauge, a method of measuring joints in carpentry, by transferring. Counter Lath, one placed between every couple of gauged ones. Counter Parts, the similar equal wings of a building. Countersink, to make a cavity in timber-work for the reception of a plate of iron, or the head of a screw or bolt. Counter-Swallow's-Tatl, in Fortification, is an out-work in form of a single tenaille, wider at the gorge toward the place, than at the head toward the country. Country House. See Villa. Coupled Columns, columns arranged in pairs. Go* Couples, a term used i the North, for rafters framed to; h er in pairs, with a tie fixed Egj their feet. The main cwm answer to the trusses. Course, a continued laj of bricks or stones in building. The term is also applied to a r< f slates or tiles, arranged with m lower ends level. The cou? of the face of an arch is the M stones, which have their m radiating to the centre. The < rse of a plinth is its continuity i the face of the wall. A bond coie )> farther inserted into the wal M those adjacent. The joint be jS two courses is called the coi inq joint. Court, (Cour, Fr.) an opet rea before or behind a house, or , the centre, between the body o the building and the wings, ans«m^ to the Roman cavadium. Cirts admit of the most elegant (la- ments, such as arcades, &c. 'he courts of most of the hour in Pompeii were paved in con rt- ments with marble, or in mlfl See Cavadium. CousiNET,orCusinoN,the me which is placed on the impost:' a pier, to receive the first stone ( he arch. The name is also giv to the part of the front of an Inic capital between the abacus nd echinus. Crab, an instrument to ise large stones. Cradle, the same as C-.'er, which see. The name is Sj»e- times given to a centering ofibs and lattice, for turning culvert 1 Cradling, timberwork foris- taining the lath-and-plastetjof vaulted ceilings, or for susta ng the entablature for a shop front 'C. Cramp, (Kramp, Dutch,) a)™ of iron, bronze, or other metal, jQt at each end, and used to |»W together stones in buildings, id CRO CRO mJ of statues. Frequent use vasTiade of cramps, which were gen-allv of bronze, 1 n the buildings of tj Romans. Ca.mpoons, hooked pieces of iron >r drawing up timber or stones. Cane, (cran, Saxon,) a ma- Lo for raising heavy weights. fga Machine, as used by the Ro- man is teimed by Vitruvius car- cheym. Capaudine Doors, are such Ltjn on pivots at the top and botdb. Cenelle, in Gothic architec- ture he opening of an embattled Snk Cfscent, a building erected in the rm of an arc. C est Tile, the tile on the ridge of douse. In Gothic architecture, Umv running up the sides of a rabl or ornamented canopy. CteUX, (French) that species of scuiure, in which the lines and Igm are cut below the surface. Cjcket. (croc, French, a hook.) The nail buds or bunches of foli- age, 5ed, in Gothic architecture, to ornaent spires, canopies, pinna- WBjfcc.', the larger hunches at He p being termed Jinials. See Got,: Architecture. C [ssante Croix, a crescent, at e^i end. C mleciis, are rude erections, of gat antiquity, found in many partiof Britain, particularly in Corr all, Devonshire, and Wales: thest relics are generally believed to b British, and though it has been'ontested that many circum- staru; seem to indicate a Danish oriiji' yet their being found in the hidd recesses of the Welsh moun- tain^vhere the Danes never pene- trate is sufficient to negative this "pm i. The Cromlech consists of ■HI stones, supporting a larger one, aced nearly in an horizontal positi. That these monuments of antiquity were connected with funeral solemnities, is probable ; yet their frequent occurrence near Druidical remains, gives plausibility to the opinion, that they have been erected for sacrificial altars, or for some purpose connected with the ceremonials of that ancient order of priesthood. Cronaca, Simone, an architect of Florence, born in 1454. After having visited the principal cities of Italy, for the purpose of taking accurate measurements of their an- cient buildings, he returned to his native city, and rose to reputation. He finished the Palazzo Strozzi, which had been be^nn by Bene- detto de Maianof^pnd built the sacristy of the church of Santo Spi- rito, and the church of S. Fran- cesco del Offervanza at S. Miniato in the suburbs. His death hap- pened in 1509. Crosettes, the same as An- cones. Cross, (croix, Fr. crux, Latin.) Ancient crosses, though generally classed among Christian antiquities are in some instances the remnants of heathen superstition ; and not only may their existence in the British isles be traced to a period considerably antecedent to the in- troduction of Christianity, but, ac- cording to Borlase, many persons " continued to worship these stones as pagan idols ; to pay their vows, and present their offerings, at the places where they were erected, coming thither with lighted torches, and praying for safety and suc- cour." — This custom we can trace through the fifth and sixth centu- ries, even into the seventh, as ap- pears from the prohibitions of seve- ral councils. In Ireland, some of these stones have crosses cut on them, which are supposed to have been done by Christians, out of compliance with the Druid preju- 653 CRO C R O dices ; that when Druidism fell be- fore the Gospel, the common people, who were not easily to be got off from their superstitious reverence for these stones, might pay a less cen- surable kind of homage to them, when thus appropriated as Chris- *\an memorials, by the sign of the cross. There is yet some remnant of the veneration paid to such stones in the British western isles, even by Christians. They call them bowing stones, from the reverence shewn them. It is remarkable that Even Masc frith, which the Jews were for- bid to worship, signifies a bowing stone, and undoubtedly was so call- ed, because worshipped by the Ca- naanites. In the isle of Barray there is a stone, about seven feet high ; and when the inhabitants come near it, they take a religious turn round it, according to the an- cient Druid custom. It is not easy to persuade the illiterate to relinquish an ancient religious custom; for in proportion as the mind is uninformed, the man is obstinate. Representations of the cross were first cut on the tops of single upright stones; afterwardsthe shaft was variously ornamented with carvings. These crosses appear to to have been erected for various purposes, as marking the boundaries of districts — places of sanctuary — sepulchral mementos — memorials of battles, murders, and fatal events — places of public prayer and pro- clamation : — some were also placed by the road-side, in church-yards, in market places, at the junction of three or four streets or roads, and on the spot where the bearers of a deceased person of eminence halted on the way to interment. It was commonly the practice of mendi- cants to place themselves by the side of these, and beg alms in the name of Jesus. In the Archseologia there is an authentic instrument, • 654 dated the twenty-fifth of Noven 3r 1449; wherein it is stated, tha n the church-yard of St. Mary IV dalen, in Milk-street, London, the west side of that street, stoc cross of the height of a manU more ; and that the same cross is worshipped by the porishcrs the, as crosses be commonly worshif d in other chirche-yardes. Crosses were erected by miy Christian kings, before a battlebr great enterprise. Oswald causr a cross of wood to be erected, be e he fought with Cadwallo, hirr.lf holding it till the earth was ri- med in round about it, while 11 his soldiers kneeled down devow. The stone at Frisby, called sh p cross, is a boundary stone ; ar a second of the same kind, and., o called the stump cross, stands; n the top of a hill in the townshipf Cliverger, in the parish of Whaly, in the county of Lancaster; it m present about five feet high. Se- rai others of this kind might 6 mentioned. Magdrum Cross, in Fifesh ?, according to tradition, was d] ; but. according to Dr. Clarke he figures understood to repr lions, were in reality pantheior tigers, which were the mo;e a| n priate emblems of the mytholo!|ot these people, among whom j symbols formed the hiera a he gates of holy places, before vlch the people worshipped : there the courts of justice were held on which account it was necessar\ ;li t there should be an open pUj court in front of the propria. The gate at Mycense is strik iv illustrative of this account, ai of numerous passages of scrip re. See Ezek. xlvi. 1,2, 3, &c. The markets were also he in those places, and hence the vie n to each other, of the forum, be senate-house, and the has -a. Stewart observes of the temp at Corinth, that the shafts ot he columns are of one block, and at the diminution begins from he bottom : and this diminution, id an abacus of the Doric order, our- ring in this column between he lions, leads to the belief, that thigh the pattern might originate in Egypt, yet that the Doric (er arising from it might also b< he first advance in Greece from J y- clopean rudeness to ornameed workmanship; this pillar beinshe first known Greek Doric patteri to which, as far as is known, succeed that at Corinth. It is not doued that the supposed Cyclops m Celts, and it is remarkable tha lie postern gate of Mycense is irjhe form of one of the trilithor ot Stonehenge ; that the Cyclops M- shipped the sun, whose tempi' in Britain, is that celebrated renM, as is stated by Diodorus; tha us name of choir gaur> or chore^n- gantium, from giants, is synly- mous with Cyclops; that an jn- cient bulwark, near one of the $M C Y L C YL f e Grecian Thebes, resembles Oldparum, or Sorbiodunum ; that c hr ilechs have been found in Gre'e; and that the Roman Drui- diciuse of the Greek alphabet has bee confirmed by the Athenian coirf found in excavations at ' Chiiam, as stated in Gosling's Wa to Canterbury. Numerous nstances occur of conformity :t\jen the ancient British or Cel- d Cvclopean, or most ancient Greta architecture; but these are suffent to identify their origin. I lv, at Ausidonia, and Satur- Diaji the Siamese towns anterior to tl founding of Rome, fine speci- mer of the Cyclopean style are . ; and at the old Lycosures in ia, the primary town and metpolis, from whence all the colces of Italy were derived. — See l ,cropo!is. □under, (KvXivSpov, Gr.) a solu figure whose base is a circle, and .vhose curved superficies is • i where at an equal distance fron he axis, or line supposed to pass'Lhrough the middle. It is tern'' I a right cylinder when the axis at right angles to the base ; ei but fat oblique angles a scaline ll or cique cylinder. The solidity of a cylinder may be found by Bulilying the area of its end by the arallel distance between the two jds. The area of its curved surf'i may be found bv multiply- - ? girt of the cylinder by the i leng: of the axis. The cylinder rmerly considered as a sacred forn >articularly amongst the east- lions. The deities were often figuil as cylinders of wrought or w ight stone. C'.indric Ceiling, vulgarly a waggon-headed ceiling, a ee'ig vaulted in the shape of a gn it of a cylinder. They ap- pear o be not more ancient than : ie of the Romans, who used them in small temples, and in the side branches of larger ones. Cy- lindrical ceilings admit of being pierced by lunettes, which form cylindro-cylindric arches. They should be decorated with coffers, separated by soffits, and enriched with guilloches. Cylindric Dome. The follow- ing rules will serve to find the area of cylindric domes. (1.) To find the area of a uniform cylindric triangle, multiply the radius by the length of the axis. (2.) To find the area of a surbassed cylindric triangle, multiply the sum of the square of half the horizontal axis of the directing section, and six times the square of the height of the dome, by the length of the axis of the cylindric surface, and divide the product by seven times the height of the dome. (3.) To find the area of a surmounted cylindric triangle, multiply the sum of the square of half the horizontal axis of the directing section, and four times the square of the height of the dome, by the length of the axis of the cylindric surface, and divide the product by five times the height of the dome. (4.) Having found the area of one of the two equal and opposite cylindric triangles of each cylindric surface, add them to- gether, and double the sum ; the pro- duct will be the area of the dome. For an example, it is required to find the area of a uniform and sur- mounted cylindric dome, (Cylin- dric Dome, Plate I.) the length of which is 20 feet, and its breadth 12 feet. In this dome the diameter of the circular directing section will be 20 feet, being equal to the length of the dome, and the horizontal axis of the directing section of the surmounted section will be 12 feet, being equal to the breadth of the dome. But the height of the two cylindric circles being equal, the 6GI horizontal axis of the directing section of the surmounted surface will be less than the diameter of the circular directing section. Since the height of the dome is equal to the radius of the circular directing section of the uniform surface, it will be 6 feet. Therefore, by (1) 10 x 12 = 120 triangle CEa; by (3) 6 10 6 10 36 ~ioo 400 4 436 400 20 5,0J872.0 174-4 t= triangle cea. By rule (4) 120 x= triangle CEa. 174-4 zz triangle cea. 294-4 2 588 8 = area of dome. Find the area of a surbassed cy- lindric full dome, (Plate II.) the length of which is 20 feet, the breadth 12, and the height 4. Here both angles fall under rule (2.) 10 10 Too 96 196 12 7)2352 4 4 16 6 96 6 6 36 96 132 20 4)2640 7)660 CE a. 94-28 = cea. By rule (4) 84 = CEa. 94.28 = cea. 178-28 2 356-56 —areaof dome. END OF VOL. I. Cylindroid, a solid whichp. proaches the form of a cyljler differing from it in having the 1 elliptical, but parallel and < Its solidity may be found, that of the cylinder, by multip fg the area of one of the ends, b he distance between the two. Itss^r- ficial content also is found b; he same means as that of the cyli er. Cyma, (Kvfia, Gr.) an unduly moulding, which is generally he upper one of a cornice, wher is called cymatium. The cyma \:ta is composed of a concave andiw- vex moulding, the former beinjip- permost. In the cyma reverse convex is uppermost. The rm gula is sometimes used for cyt Cymatium, (kv/jkitiov, Gr. he upper moulding of a cornice, im- posed generally of a cyma. Che three kinds of cymatia mention by Vitruvius, the Tuscan is suppof to have been an ovolo orquarter-r nd the Doric an ovolo or cavetto nd the Lesbian the cyma inversa. Cymbia, a fillet. Cypress, (cupressus, Lat.)lie wood of the cypress was m valued by the ancient architec for its hardness and durability, pi door-posts of the temple of am laus, as described in Homer, ere of cypress. Cyzigenus, (kv^ikoq, Gj I magnificent hall among the Gi b, much resembling the Roman cia- culuw.. Vitruvius describes he cyzicenus as being situated tovrds the north, generally having a of the garden, and having y windows in the middle, as bei sufficient length and breadt contain two triclinia, with appendages, opposite each opj their height being equal to on< nd one-half of their breadth. 662 THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. CYCLOPEDIA OF ARCHITECTURE, HISTORICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, TOPOGRAPHICAL, DECORATIVE, THEORETICAL AND MECHANICAL, A. 2ABETI0ALLY ARRANGED, FAMILIARLY EXPLAINED, AND ADAPTED TO THE COMPREHENSION OF WORKMEN, ETC., ETC. BY ROBERT STUART, AECHITECT AND CIVIL ENGINEER. TWO VOLUMES IN ONE. VOL. II. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & CO., 51 JOHN-STREET. CINCINNATI: — II. W. DERBY. 1854. DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE DAG IADO,(Ital. a die) the square or subiform part of the pedestal of a cumn, or the walls of an apart- mei In Egyptian buildings, we soir imes find columns whose capi- tals re composed entirely of one die r cube of stone. The die is of the wall near the foundatic will remedy this evil. Dan kali, see Abyssinian ■ ild- incfs. Danube. If no other cilum- stance had given importar to this magnificent river, the reat bridge, thrown across it by 1 jan, would have made it sufficntly remarkable. " Trajan," says )ion Cassius, " built a bridge ov. the Danube, which in truth we < mot sufficiently admire; for thou all the works of Trajan are exceetfl great, yet this is the greatest. The piers were 20 in number, eacil50 feet high, 60 feet in breadtland distant from each other 171'eet. The expense of this work lust have been very great, and tl un- dertaking was more difficult j ac- count of the river being very pid, and its bottom of moveable Ae- rials ; it was in the narrowest!] of the river? and on that ac unt deeper and more impetuous. The arches were afterwards beaten )wn by Adrian ; but the piers y re- main, as if to testify that th|e is nothing which human ingemy is not able to effect. The iole length of this bridge was 590 yards." Days, or Bays, in Gothic pfl tecture, the compartments fcned in tall windows by the inters^'.on of a mullion, which of one km window makes two narrow on , to each of which the name of da has been given, and, by the succpi introduction of additional muW DEC DEC veryarge windows have been form e( j j;o six, seven, and even nine day! See A ng le, Bar, and Gothic Ardtecture, i \ fen i ng sound boarding, a met d of preventing the passage of soui through wooden partitions. See Utgging- Ials, the wood of the fir tree, t- vich this name is given when w t o planks, or thin boards, and pi eC : of various descriptions for buil ig and other purposes : white : Slow are the two sorts generally ise< A-hich are brought to England i n Norway, Prussia, and Russia. D ,\ of various lengths, and three inch thick, are kept on hand by t the London timber merchants, eadthof which varies, but sel- don exceeds nine inches. These lit'. tie It into boards or leaves; those diviid into two are called whole i dealnto four slit deal, and into five, S e- it stuff". Deals are made harder mli by ing thrown into salt water as s n as they are sawn, and dry- ing em in the air after they have ; rem;ied in the water several days; but not well seasoned they will be liabho shrink after remaining some time.^xposed to the action of a chai ng atmosphere. In floors, partpns, doors, windows, archi- trav mouldings, cornices, columns, pilars, chimney pieces, and in piainnd ornamental work of every desotion, this kind of wood is uni- verse preferred. For inside work, in l.l-rooms, and for panels, the whitl deal is more particularly adaj d ; and the yellow, being hare , and retaining a large por- tion ' resinous substance, is better fitte'.o resist the effect of the wea- ther,; out-door work. D:agon, (Gr. SeKayujvog), a plan figure, having ten sides and angl. D:astyle, (Gr. hKavices are most intellectual, and he execution superior. A hi^h ornamented chapel is seen »neaihe northern extremity; and a ■ sere, of a similar description, is on. that ilied by Strabo, the Typho- s or niunt The distorted head of the nglwyphon forms the capitals of ft the liars, and his graceless form Ik ippls on its walls. i;s B':oni inferred, from the supe- riori of the workmanship, that uiti this i pie was of the time of the first tolemy : the style of the ar- chit( ure bears little resemblance iir to di Roman works; but it ap- pear to have undergone repairs and corations at successive peri- ods jwn to the time of the Anto- wnel The hieroglyphics on the tall T the temple itself, are found to cilain the names of Tiberius and ugustus ; and the Greek in- ttrirhn over the entrance to the Pfoi )s, states it to have been Wecjl by the inhabitants of the Non when Publius Avillius Flac- cus was prefect of Egypt, about A. D. 34. Another inscription on one of the propylons of the temple of Isis, bears date the 31st year of the reign of Augustus, A. D. 23 ; and Mr. Salt observed in different parts of these temples the names of Trajan, Adrian, and the Anto- nines. Dendrometer, (Gr.) an instru- ment adapted to the purpose of measuring trees. Dentels, or Dentils, are or- naments in a cornice in the form of indentations or teeth ; this member is called a denticule, or a denticu- lated band; which, according to Vitruvius, is to equal the height of the middle fascia of the archi- trave, and its projection to be. the same as its height ; of which the dentils are one half, and the inter- vals between them two-thirds of the height. This ornament is chiefly found in the Ionic and Corinthian orders, but it is not made confor- mable to any regular proportions. They are exhibited in the Ionic temples of Bacchus at Teos, and Minerva Polias at Priene ; the tem- ples of Fortune and Concord, and the theatre of Marcellus at Rome, and the aqueduct of Adrian at Athens. Instances of this ornament in the Jorinthian order are found in the monument of Lysicrates, the arch of Adrian, and the ruins of Salonica ; the temples of Peace, and of Jupiter Stator ; and the baths of Dioclesian, and the piazza of Nerva, at Rome ; the temple of Jupiter at Spalatro, and in the ruins of Balbec and Palmyra. The frontispiece to the Tower of the Winds ; and trie portico of the temples of Pandrossus at Athens ; the Arch of the Goldsmiths, of Sep- timius Severus, and that of Titus at Rome, are instances of the Compo- site order with the denticulated band. 7 D ES D ES This ornament is frequently omitted in all the orders. See Cartouch. Depot, a military store-house, with conveniences for the reception and training of recruits: an edifice for this purpose should be strongly fortified, and contain numerous a- partments, the lowest tier of which should be below the ground-floor, for provisions requiring to be kept from sun and air; artillery and ordnance stores are on the ground- floor, the walls of which support battens of wood, against which pikes, halberts, swords, muskets, carbines, pistols, and small arms of every description, are piled ; camp equipages, ready prepared car- tridges, and similar matters, occupy the second floor ; and the powder magazine is in a strongly fortified separate building, bomb proof. Des-aguadero. A most ancient bridge, built by Capac Yupanqui. See Bridge. Description of building-work. See Building. Descriptive Carpentry. By this term is understood that branch of the art which teaches to lay down on a plane, sections, parts, &c. of the different works required to be executed. We shall introduce here the following problems ; others will be found under different arti- cles. To draw a cylindrical soffit, cut- ting right lines in a wall, which does not stand perpendicular to the ground, to a level base, pi. I. Jig. A, let a e at D be the level of the ground, a I the inclination of the wall, (— radius of cylinder) let fall the perpendicular from / to c, in the line a e make the semicircle in Jig. A ; to the width of' the cylinder, or the double of a I at D, take the distance a c at D, and make a b equal to it in Jig. A, and describe a semi-ellipsis to the length d d of the diameter of the semicircle, and to the width a b, lay the eqi visions round the semicircle fa A, along the line dd double \ ( take the parts e d, d c, o b, b f rom plan B, and lay them at D r tively from e towards deb, m | draw I e at right angles witE from the points a, b, c, d, dra per- pendiculars to cut I e at/. < take the distances e i, i h,h g I lay them on the soffit at C 3 way from Id, 2c, 3b, 4(03 the straight line d d, whement round, will be perpendiculanver the elliptic line in the plan land the curve line d d c b a, &c. will will fall over the points d, c , a, in the plan. To draw the sections of nple prismatic arches, that may^rm groins in vertical planes. I fig. E, be a Gothic arch, dra the chord a c for one half, divi it into any number of equal p;s as four; through the divisions raw lines from the centre e to ti cir- cumference at h g I, draw nes from c through h, g, I, to ci the perpendicular a d at b, c, ; if number 2 is required to be ier, and of the same height, dra the two chords a c and c K for ach side, divide each as before, a: set the divisions a, b, c, d, perio- cular on each end of a b ; om these divisions draw lines t the crown at c, trace the curve th ■ h, g t I, &c. so that the ar at number 2 will truly mitre intlfl E ; in the same manner the mi- pant curve at number 3 wi be brought to correspond with j and number 2. To describe the ribs for the ?ad of a niche, the curve in whiothe spherical surface intersects thai of the wall being a semicircle mri the plan a segment. Let BC (pi. II.) be the plan, AB or B the half of arc ABC will be any M the ribs, which are to be fix to .£ D E S D I A cum ont rib at the points a, b, c, it equal distances in the cir- ... rence, to be mitred together in t)le F of the spherical surface. T find the ribs of a spherical LJiof which the plan is the seg- Ekf a circle, and the elevation a ? c circle, supposing the ribs to be ifall circles mitred together, so Sttfeeir mitres may terminate in E immit of the back of the front l AE,BE,CE,DE(p/.III.) I t seats of one half of the ribs, procoe BE to intersect the cir- cum rence at F, make FM = BE, and i BF, as a diameter, describe ■m a FI, draw MI perpendicular Bp, intersecting the arc at I, Fl vfl be the under edge of a rib I appendicular plane upon EB. The her ribs may be described in ie me manner. The bevelings of tl ribs may be found by mak- in^r e distance of the wood to be v't vav on the bottom of each rib, fccordino: to their seat, as shov at FG, which are the same as the on B and C. The rib on B£ a great circle, and wants no beveiig. See Carpentry. Die. n, ( Designo, Lat.) a draw- \\:z< plan of an intended building, projf.ed by the architect, accord- ing the rules of art, with taste and bdgment ; including plans, tectis, and elevations. For a smalerection, a ground-plan and clevion will be requisite ; but for a hw. building, elevations of each of t fronts and plans of every ston and transverse and longi- tudii.l sections, with drawings of all t- bases, capitals, friezes, cor- nice., architraves, mouldings of vari(i descriptions, and all the imalr parts of the work, in geo- njetn.il proportion. A perspective view ill also be necessary, taken frorrn position where the erection will e seen in all its parts. A mod is sometimes required, and found of great utility in large build- ings. See Apartment, Building, House, Effect, Sfc. Details of an edifice, drawings or delineations for the use of the builders, otherwise called working drawings. Determining Line, in conic sections, a line parallel to the plane of the base of the cone. In the hyperbola this line is within the base of the cone : it forms a tan- gent to the base in parabolic sec- tions, it falls without in the elliptic. In the intersecting of a circle, the determining line will never meet the plane of the base to which it is parallel. Di ao lyphice, a species of sculp- ture in which the strokes or lines are indented, opposed to the usual mode, in which the figures are pro- minent. See Anagiypha. Diagonal, (dutyioviog, Gr.) a straight line from one angle of an angular figuie to another. Rect- angular figures of every descrip- tion, may be divided into as many triangles, except two, as they have sides. The diagonal divides the parallelogram into equal parts. Diagonal Scale, is a scale subdivided into smaller parts by secondary intersections. Diameter, the line in a circle passing from the circumference through the centre. Diameter of a Column, a line passing through its base, or thickest part, which gives the mea- sure proportioning the intercolum- niation, in some of the orders. Diameter of Diminution ; the diameter at the top of the shaft of a column. Diameters Conjugate, two diameters of a circle made to form right angles. Diamond, a sharp instrument formed of that precious stone, and used for cutting glass. 9 D I G D I M Di/tNA, Temple of. See Arch, and Ephesus. Di a style, a term applied to a building, with columns at the dis- tance of three diameters from each other; also applied to the columns themselves when so arranged. 8ee Colonnade. The breadth of the facade of the diastyle portico of a temple was divided into 28 parts where it had four columns, and into 44 when it had six. The half diameter of these columns was equal to one of those parts. Di a thy it a, ( Gr. ). The vesti- bule before the door of a Grecian house, answering to the Prothyra of the Romans. Diatoni, or Diatonic Stones, Cubical stones with two wrought faces, used by the ancient builders as angle or corner stones. They were as broad as the thickness of the wall, and. proportionally longer than wide. Dianton. The race-course, the circuit of which being two stadia, or twelve hundred feet, was used also to signify that measure. Diazomata, (Gr.) the passages, or corridors which separated the ranges of seats in the theatres ; by the Romans called battai, or belts, and also prcecinctiones. Dicapolis ; see jEgesta. Dictyoth eton , (Gr.) by the Romans called reticulata struc- tura. A building, with walls to admit light and air, in the form of lattice or net-work. Didoron, a brick, one foot long and six inches broad, used by the Grecian builders ; also a Greek measure of two spans. Die, or Dye, {de, Fr.) See Dado. Digging. A man with a spade, in a soft ground, will throw up a cubic yard of 27 feet in an hour : where a mattock must be used, that quantity will require two men ; and 10 a very strong gravel, three. fL work be of the first description .L the labourers' wages 2s. 6d. per v a yard will cost 3d. digging; hacker be required, 6d. ; and i be necessary, the amount will ! & per yard. It will require three ti to wheel 30 cubic yards of gra\ a day, to the distance of 20 ya< . Diglypii, (from Siy\v- mellein, in ancient architecture, tl basin which received the water fn an aqueduct, and from which imn to the different parts of the c r )odecagon, (dwdeKayovia, Gr.) a :ular polygon, with twelve equal sis and angles; in fortification, a pie with twelve bastions. >OGLEGGED STAIRS. See Con- sOctive Carpentry and Stairs. '('ME, an arched or vaulted roof, ipging from a polygonal, circular, oi'iliptic plan. When the base is a rcular, it is termed a cupola ; w n a polygon, it is a polygonal die; and when an ellipsis, an elitic dome. The central point in'ie curved surface is called the p<\ or centre. The imaginary st ght line, descending from the p" to the base, is the axis. When th altitude of a dome is greater thi the radius of the base, it is said to e surmounted; when less, sur- odd. The sectorial radius of a senentof a cylindric polyhedion is i e straight line from the pole to th middle of one of the sides of the base; or if the dome be the frus- tum of a cylindric polyhedron, it will have also two sectorial radii extending from the pole to the mid- dle of a side of each polygon. The curved surface of every dome, which is a segment of a cylindric poly- hedron, is equal to a regular poly- gon, whose apothem is equal to the sectorial radius; or to a rectangle, whose length is equal to the peri- meter of the equatorial polygon, and the breadth equal to the height of the dome. When the base of a circular directing section of acvlin- dric dome is greater than the base of the elliptic directing section, the dome is said to be uniform and surmounted ; when less, it is uni- form and surbased. When both directing sections are elliptic, and the base of the one upon the axis major, and that of the other upon the axis minor, it is surmounted and surbased. In the plate Dome, I. Jig. 2. is a dome, in the form of a semicylindric polyhedron, seen ex- ternally; '6. a dome, in the form of a segment of the same solid, seen externally ; 4. a dome in the form of a zone, of a semicylindric poly- hedron, from the outside; 5. a dome in the form of a hemicylindric poly- hedron seen internally; and 6, a dome in the form of a zone of a hemicylindric polyhedron seen in- ternally, the polygonal aperture above is called the eye of the dome. To estimate the curved surface of a dome, which is the segment or zone of a sphere, when a section along the axis of the zone is given, we must, for the segment, find the sectional radius, and apply it to the scale, then find the area of a circle, whose radius is equal to the number of feet in the sectorial radius, as in- dicated by the scale, and the area of this circle is equal to the curved surface of the spheric segment : for the zone, we must complete the DOM DOM entire segment, find the sectorial radius of the part cut off, and that of the entire segment, and the mea- sure of each sectorial radius by the scale, the difference of the areas of the two circles will be equal to the curved surface of the zone. For ex- ample, How many feet are contained in the concave surface of a spheri- cal dome, whose segment ABC, (Jig. 1. Dome Plate III.) is a sec- tion through the axis, and EF at the bottom of the plate a scale of feet. Bisect AC by a perpendicular BD, and join AB : AB is the sectorial radius, and from the scale will be found to be about 27 feet. Since the area of the surface of a dome is equal to a circle, whose radius equals the sectorial radius, the area of the circle is found by multiplying the square of the radius by 3.1416, or the square of the diameter by 7854. sq.rad. 729 or, sq. diam. 2916 3.1416 7854 sq. of diam. 5929 multiplied by 7854 = 4656.6366 arc of diam. 8 incli. [ 282744 62832 219912 11664 14580 23328 20412 2290.2264 feet. 2290.2264 feet. In like manner may be found the content in feet of a dome, which is the segment of a sphere, of which ABC, Jig. 2, is a section along its axis, the sectorial radius being found to be 41 feet. Ans. 5281.0296 feet. How many cubic feet will be re- quired to build a stone dome in the form of a sphere, the section along BD, Jig. 3, the axis of the convex side being ABC, and the thickness of the dome 8 inches? Here the sectorial radius AB will be found to measure 38 feet 6 inches: the dia- meter of the circle will be 77 feet, (38f. 6 in. x 2). 14 12)37253.0928 3104.4244 solid content: How many yards are contained \ the concave surface of a dome, wh is the zone or frustum of a spht given the section ABCDE, (Jig. along the axis, AB and DE be the two equal circular arcs? Cc plete the entire segment ABCL, let C" be the pole of the spheric s ment, draw the sectorial radii < and CB, which will be found the scale to be respectively 4& 6in. and 17ft. 6 in.— 91ft.(45* xjl is therefore the diameter of a cir ■. equal to the area of the entire si ment of the sphere, and 35 f (17^x2) the diameter of the si ment of the sphere cut off. 1 shortest operation is thus: squ the sectorial radius of the segmt cut off, and that of the entire s» ment, subtract one from the oth multiply the remainder by 78, and the product will be the area the frustum. Thus :- sq. of 91 = 8281 sq. of 35 = 1225 7056 multiply by 7854 9)5541.7824 area in ft. 615.7536 area in yards To find the area of a dome which any segment of a regular semicyli dric polyhedron, we must find t area of a regular polygon, which li the same number of sides as t dome, and which has the perpen. DOM DOM cul' from the centre to one of the lid] equal to the sectorial radius. Ha ng described the polygon to the .,' rial radius, the length of one of its pes may be found by the scale plate: "find the area of one of tbiriangles, multiply it by the nuler of the sides of the polygon, thi mswer will be the area of the p ]ron and of the dome. The areof the polygon will be found moi accurately and more expedi- . by means of the following I ib of the areas of regular poly- goi the radius of the inscribed circ being unity. : Name. Tetragon Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octason Area. 4 3.6327 3.4641 3.3710 3.3137 To id the area of a curved surface of lome, which is the segment of a gnicylindric tetrahedron, HIK, i Dome II.) being the section aio the axis perpendicular to the lid! The plan of this dome is a e, (ABCD) of which each side lal to the chord HK of the giw section. The sectorial radius HI >ing drawn, will be found to me; ire by the scale 24.5 feet, the ore 25 feet is the radius of the ins(j bed circle of a tetragon or sque, equal in area to the curved sur :e of the segment of the dome (or 1.5x2) 49 feet is the side it- seif ience 49 x 49 =240 lft. From tlie :ntre i with the radius HI de- icri the circle abed, and about it ties, be the square efgh, the area of t j square is 2401 feet. 1 find the area of the curved iwlfe of a dome, which is the ieg|:nt of a cylindric polyhedron, Ike umber of sides and the secto- rial thus being given, multiply the s qu 2 of the sectorial radius by the area of a regular polygon of the same number of sides as the dome, having unity for the radius of its in- scribed circle, (see preceding table), and the product will be the area of the dome. To find the area of the curved surface of a truncated sphe- rical dome, when the chord of an arc of a great circle and the versed sine of that arc are given : (1) Di- vide the square of the given chord by the versed sine, and it will give the diameter of the great circle; (2) multiply this diameter by 3.1416 and it will give the circumference; (3) multiply the circumference by the height of the dome, the product will be the curved surface. To find the area of the curved surface of a truncated spherical dome, when the diameter of each of its circles, and the height of the dome, are given : from the square of the semidiameter at the base, subtract the sum of the squares of the semidiameter at the top and of the height, divide the remainder by twice the height, the quotient is the distance of the plane of the base, extract the square root of the sum of the square of the semi- diameter at the base, and the dis- tance of the plane, the root doubled is the diameter of the great circle, multiply this by 3.1416 and it will give the circumference, which mul- tiply by the height of the dome, and the pruduct will be the an- swer. For more information on the men- suration of domes, see the excellent work on practical mensuration by Peter Nicholson. The following table is given by Dr. Robinson, of the dimensions of what he considers the best form of a dome. The thickness is supposed uniform. The numbers in the first column of the table express the portion of the axis counted from the vertex, and those of the second the length of the ordinate. 15 DOM DOM AD JJr> AD Dr> oX 100 1522 1360 3.4 200 1738 1400 11.4 300 1984 1440 26.6 400 2270 1480 52.4 500 2602 1520 91 4 600 2990 1560 146.8 700 3442 1600 223.4 800 3972 1640 326.6 900 4432 1670 465.4 1000 4952 1700 610.4 1080 5336 1720 744 1140 5756 1740 904 1200 6214 1760 1100 1260 6714 1780 1336 1320 7260 1800 " The curve formed according' to these dimensions will not appear very graceful, because there is an abrupt change in its curvature at a small distance from the vertex. If, however, the middle be occupied by a lantern of equal or of smaller weight than the part whose place it supplies, the whole will be ele- gant, and free from defect." The strongest form of a circular vault, required to bear a weight on its top, is considered to be that of a truncated cone, similar to the ex- terior dome of St. Paul's, in Lon- don. The equilibrium and pressure of domes differs considerably from that of common arching. In order to equilibrate the figure of a dome, the curvature may be changed into a concavity, after the convexity has been carried to its full extent of equilibrium, round, and equidistant from the summit on the exterior side. For, since the interior circum- ference of the curves is less than the exterior, the course cannot fall inwardly, without squeezing the stones into a less compass. In dome vaulting, a certain weight laid on the top must burst it outwardly, and this weight becomes greater, the more the contour approaches the chords of the arches of the two 16 sides. A certain degree of cj ture therefore must be given, v will just prevent the stones ir succeeding course from being f out. Circular vaults may be at top, and the weakest will b lantern of equal weight witl he part which would have compLd the whole. The oldest dome we know i ; that of the Pantheon, at Rjne built under Augustus. The ime of St. Sophia, at Constantir(>le, was built in the reign of Justin, by Anthemius and Isidorus, a L is nearly 113 French feet in dian'er. The other most celebrated dies are those of St. Peter's at Ron by Michael Angelo, of St. Pau at London by Sir Christopher Wnj.of the cathedral of Santa Mar at Pisa, by Arnolfo Lusii and Br el- leschi, of St. Mark at Venice.jnd of the Pantheon at Paris by - G. Soufflat. The wooden dome < he Halle du Bled, at Paris, is 20(|eet in diameter, and a foot in thick ss. See more on construction of dies under the article Constructive ir- p en try. In Constructive Carpen :y, PL IX. is given a section oj.he dome of St. Paul's. AAaajii a dome of bricks, two bricks ti:k, which, as it rises every five feetjias a course of excellent brick ([18 inches long, bending througlj.he whole thickness. The centeri] of this dome was contrived to also for scaffolding: every stor circular, and, the ends of the le< meeting as so many rings, it ports itself. The dome is strc hooped with iron, and was pa by Sir James Thornhill. BB6.313 a cone of bricks, tft. 6in. thick H plastered and painted. By thisjme the timber work is well suppcjB the horizontal or hammer tM CC,DD,EE,FF, being curill tied into the corbels G,H,IjK|W D O O iron ramps, which are well bedded into >e corbels with lead, and bolt- ed tithe hammer beam. The stairs w hk lead to the Golden Gallery, at tl top of the dome, run between the isses of the roof. The dome is becled from the base upwards, and ie scantling of the curve rib of tl truss is 10 in. by 11 at bot- tomed 6 by 6 at top. On the top tl dome is a cupola of Portland st0 n: 21 feet in diameter, and 64 feet ;h. The diameter of the dome i feet and in the circumference are I trusses. D.iestic Architecture, is proply that branch of the art lie relates to private dwellings, inch :ng cottages, farm-houses, &c. fcount of which, see Rural ArcSecture. D ucil, (Domicula, Lat. ) a little! ouse. D i us Aurea. See Banquet- ing )om. D joN,orDoNGEON,(Nor.Fr.) The Passive tower in the interior of a ient castles, to which the imn might retreat in case of neee ty. See Keep. - D ks, flat pieces of wood of the shap of bricks, about nine inches lon^. iserted in the wall ; so called St iand, but in London called plug: or wooden bricks. D< Chester, Roman Amphi- iheat at. See Amphitheatre. Due Capital. See Capital. J) wick-street, Golden-square, • ■»■!<. which is described in the perry of Arts, vol. xxvii. for 15,;>. 45, and in the Transac- ts the Society for the Encou- n it of Arts for the same year ; his infected by means of a dou- , >« sjng. If pivots be used, the ower.ne may be a coarse screw, h /ill raise the door as it Do* Latch. In the Transac- tions . the Society for the Encou- rage m; i of Arts for 1806, and in theR ertory of Arts, vol. ix. for the sa s year, p. 277, a description H piv( of an improved door-latch, 48 Ire a S possible from friction; never quiring to be oiled, moving smoothly, and of very simple and easy construction ; invented by Mr. Antis. of Fulneck, near Leeds, in Yorkshire. Door Spring. A spring for closing doors, of simple construc- tion, easy application, and not sub- ject to be out of order, by Mr. E. Parker, of High Holborn, is de- scribed in the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, for 1818. Dor ah, al. See Caaba. Doric Order. Of the three orders of Grecian architecture, this is the oldest and the most original. Mr. E. Aikin, who has written a learned and elegant treatise on the subject, observes, " In consi- dering the buildings of antiquity, and particularly of Greece, the first circumstance that strikes us is their extreme simplicity, and even uniformity. The temples of Greece were invariably quadrilateral build- ings, differing only in size, and in the disposition of the porticos, which either ornamented the front alone, or surrounded every side with their beautiful and shady avenue. The system of Grecian architecture is founded on the simple principles of wooden construction : a qua- drangular area is enclosed with trunks of trees, placed perpendicu- larly, with regular intervals ; these support lintels, upon which rest the beams of the ceiling, and an en- closed roof covers the whole. Such was the model ; when touched by the hand of taste, the post and the lintel were transmuted into the column and entablature, and the wooden hut into the temple. It appears probable that the earliest Greek temples were really of wood, since so many of them were con- sumed during the invasion of Xerxes; and that large and magni- ficent edifices were sometimes prin- cipally of this material, is rendered DOO evident by thf* example of the tem- ple of Jerusalem, which was sur- rounded by columns of cedar. But builders soon adopted the more noble and durable material of stone ; and though the general sys- tem of architecture was already established, its forms received some modifications by being thus, as it were, translated into a new lan- guage. A wooden lintel, from its fibrous texture, possessing consider- able tenacity and strength in pro- portion to its weight, it was practi- cal to form very wide intercolum- niations ; thus we are told by Vi- truvius, that the ancient Tuscan temples were constructed with wooden architraves. Stone, on the other hand, of a granular composi- tion, and of great specific gravity, would break by its own weight, in a bearing where a timber beam would be perfectly secure. When, therefore, porticos were erected of stone, it was necessary, in order to secure solidity, to contract the dis- tance between the columns to very narrow limits. A wooden eailice, never secure from the injuries of accident or violence, presented no motive for any great solidity in its construction. But in stone it is possible, as the energetic industry of the Egyptians has demonstrated, to defy the injuries of time, and almost the violence of rapine. The architect who builds in stone, may build for eternity ; and this idea will give a motive for that grand and massy solidity so essential to the sublimity of architecture. These circumstances led to the perfection of the Grecian style ; the original model secured simplicity of form and construction, while the supe- rior material preserved it from the meagreness attendant on wooden buildings. Thus arose the Doric, or, as it might be emphatically called, the Grecian order, — the DOO first-born of architecture, a c wm sition which bears the am ^ and characteristic marks of ii e i. timate origin in wooden cor -u c . tion, transferred to stone. J on . templating a capital example t|,j 3 order, as, for instance, the F the- non at Athens, how is our ad (ra- tion excited at this noblest, uvll as earliest invention of the bi ling art ! What robust solidity the column ! What massy grrleur in the entablature ! Whathacny in its simplicity! not destit ; of ornament, but possessing that ma- ment alone with which taste uni- fies and refines the concep nof vigorous genius ; no foliage . Is a vain and meretricious decoiion, but the frieze bears the aceve- ments of heroes ; while everjmrt, consistent in itself, and brin* a just relation to every other em- ber, contributed to that harm ions effect which maintains the po r of first impressions, and excit in. creasing , ad miration in the mm gent observer. So, in the im jirtal statue of Glycon, the form « he- roic vigour is crowned with buty, dignity, and grace. Other Ml have elegance, have roagnifince, but sublimity is the iSiaraciistic of the Doric alone. The temple of Juno, atArM said to have been the first jorie erection, considered as a spe nen of the order, built when Dor the son of Deucalion, the first kg of the Dorians, reigned in the elo- ponnesus ; but we are inf Tied by Vitruvius, that its fornand symmetry were not determin till Ion, the nephew of Dorus, 1< ^ Ionians into that part oKsia Minor, to, which his nam |w|l afterwards given. The rolui s ol the temple he there built, w< s x diameters in height— the proton the human foot bears to the of the body; they were flut , to ervtl: gai|t D O he purpose of resting spears The whole height of the e including the pedestal, is m odules, reckoning the module M ie diameter. The pedestal gd the base, shaft, and capital ■m the whole entablature 2 mo- Q Dividing the large diameter :o parts, called minutes, 30 I ven to the base, 30 to the p|, 30 to the architrave, 45 to I Jtope, and 45 to the height of I irnice, including the upper let or capital of the triglyph. he the mutules are introduced tl entablature, one module is Bigfd to the projection of the imi, which in this respect ex- .diinv of the other orders. The eiun of the mutules is equal r width, being 30 minutes: th of the triglyphs is exactly ne, and their distance from thcr equal to the height of tope, which by this division perfect square. The sides hannels of the triglyphs are it angles with each other, i LTcolumniation of this order uied with difficulty, arising e strict regard that is always i the due width of the tri- and the perfectly square f the metopes or their inter- Besides, it is absolutely re- I that a triglyph should be exactly over the centre of fry alumn. For these reasons, e iltules and Iriglyphs have h nitted in capital works, both He and modern, as in the pfm at Rome, and the Roval Bp I at Greenwich. Palladio * gjp an instance of an ancient m pli with angular triglyphs ; W reduces the intercolumni- ,ons • the two angular columns oil) diameter and a quarter, biclts less than the pycnostyle. nt intercolumniation is still r eaU approaching near to the D O O periostyle, as it is evidently neces- sary to bring the triglyph over the centre of the third column from the angle. The next, which is the centre intercolumniation, and faces the entrance of the temple, is rather more than eustyle, or two diameters and a quarter; and has, in the metopes, ditriglyph. But the in- tervals between the triglyph are much too narrow for their height, so as to produce an unfavourable effect. The other spaces are mono- triglyph, and are perfect. The regular intercolumniation of the Doric order, is the monolriglyph, or pycnostyle, which admits of one between two columns. The ditri- glyph, or eustyle, admits two ; and the areeostyle is triglyph, or consist- ing of three; but the most perfect of these is the ditriglyph. When capitals and bases of cou- pled Doric columns have their pro- per projections, and are at any distance from each other, the me- tope between them will be rather too wide; but that may be avoided, by confining the projections, or making the triglyph one minute more than it should be. and placing its centre a minute within the axis of the column, which trifling differ- ence will not be perceived without the nicest examination. In small buildings, such as ornamental tem- ples for gardens, strict regard to the rules for distances need riot be attended to; always, however, ob- serving that such works must have an interval, that will admit an easy passage between the pillars. Doric arches, without pedestals, are seven diameters and three-fourths high ; and in width four diameters and fifteen minutes- The piers are two modules in front, and in thickness one module, twenty-two and a half minutes; or in proportion to their distance from the wall. From cen- tre to centre of each pier is six dia- 21 DOR DRA meters and fifteen minutes. Arches of this order, with pedestals, have their apertures, in height nine dia- meters and thirty minutes; and in their width five diameters, fifteen minutes. The piers are two dia- meters and fifteen minutes wide in front. ; and from centre to centre of each is seven diameters and fifteen minutes. The distinguishing characteristic of the Doric order is the want of a base. The flutings are few, large, and very little concave. (See Flui- ings.) The capital has no astragal, but only one or more fillets, which separate the flutings from the torus. Amongst the finest ancient monu- ments of the Doric order may be named the ruins of Paestum. The temples of Minerva and of Theseus, as well as the Propylaea at Athens ; those of Juno, of Hercules, and of Concord at Agrigentum ; those at Segesta and Selinus in Sicily; that of Coza, and that of Minerva, at Syracuse. The proportions of the Doric column, in the ancient monu- ments which remain, are much shorter than those adopted by the moderns, its mean proportion being about four diameters and a half. The proportions were first altered by the Romans, amongst whom this Doric order lost many of its cha- racteristics. Amongst the remains of Roman Doric buildings may be cited the quarters of the soldiers at Pompeia, the tomb of Terracina, the baths of Diocletian, the theatre at Vicenza, a triumphal arch at Verona, the theatre of Marcellus, &c. Specimens of Doric columns are given from temples of German workmanship, in Doric Order, pi. II. PI. I. exhibits the parts and pro- portions of the Doric Capital. See Capital. Dome Portico. See Athenian Architecture. Doric Temple. See JEgesta. 22 Dormant, or Dormer ^ dow. The attic stories of !iuse j were in former times, gener; • ^ cupied as sleeping rooms, \ windows opened on the ii | plane of the roof; on this ak^ the rooms were called Dorm rus and hence the appellation ttfa mant, applied to the wind.s of these apartments. Dormitory, a sleeping m , See Abbey. Double Vault. Then i vault in St. Peters at Rome, clos- ed by a duplicate wall ; an i cellars are sometimes so forr 1, to enclose a surrounding body cold air. Dove-house, see Cohmbium, Dove-tailing ; a mode fix- ing two boards together by den- tures in the one, and project is in the other of the shape of a )ve's tail. See Joinery. Dragon - piece, the ame given to a piece of timber ined to what is called, in roo the diagonal tie. See Angle Bee. Drain, or Sewer. A t sage for water to pass off from ho ?s or towns; formed under-grouw and sometimes of very extensive men- sions in cities; necessary to'ivey away not only superfluous iter, but impurities of every descr ion, In all places subject to dan less, it is of great importance K iake drains before buildings are ei too ; but a situation in some cleji eld* vated, and naturally dry, is i > J preferred. See Arch, an( : Air- trap. Draught, or Drawing. tectural composition or design lin ; derstood to be a necessary nle ol conveying instructions to th(M* tical builder and the workmen v * hibiting a comprehensive \ projected building; drawin this purpose must he executt *»u clearness and precision, coP* chi D R A D R O tio- tin fer pa Soi ex an Di ■g, to a regular scale of propor- Plans, elevations, and sec- are to represent the internal ires of the apartments, halls, ages, and various arrangements rnaraent or convenience, and the nal facades, porticos, domes, other outward appendages, vings of the smaller parts of ditice will be required, numer- ii) proportion to the'r extent m variety of form. Where the fiidles of a building differ con- siti ablv, elevations of each of them e required ; and more than [reneral view of the projected u ne| asts and rigging of ships pass ■high. Drawing Room, sometimes with greater apparent propriety, called the withdrawing room, in noblemen's houses and splendid mansions, is a large and elegant apartment into which the company withdraw after dinner. Dressing, is the operation of squaring and smoothing stones for building, by the hammer and mallet, called hammer-dressing; or further by afterwards rubbing the outward face smooth. See Masonry, and Stories. Dressing Room, an apart- ment contiguous to the sleeping- room, for the convenience of dress- ing ; having usually an entrance door from without, for the admission of the valet. Dressing. Ornamental projec- tions from walls, of various descrip- tions, receive this appellation ; as also the architraves, borderings, and facings of doors and apertures. Drift, applied to arches, and synonymous with the term or phrase shoot and thrust, intended to ex- press the powerful impetus of the arch against the pier, caused by the slanting position of the courses of which it is composed; it is kept from falling by the resistance of the abutments. Drip, a name given to the member of a cornice, which has a projection beyond the other parts, arid a form adapted to the purpose of throwing off water by small por- tions, or drop by drop ; it is also called the Larmier. Dripping Eaves are the termi- nating projections of inclined roofs of houses, to which there is no gut- ters adapted for carrying away the water, which, therefore, falls into the streets. The building act pro- h bits this description of eaves in London. Dromos. An enclosed entrance to ancient buildings. 83 D R U D RU Drops, (guttce, Lat.) are orna- ments of a conical form, hanging, drop-like, in the cornice of the Do- ric order, below the mutules, and on the architrave under the triglyphs, six under each. Drops of a conical form are peculiar to the Roman Doric ; those of the pure Doric being- more or less inclined to the cylindric form. The drops in the cornice of the Doric portico at Athens are not much more than one-fourth of their diameter in height ; but those of the epi-style are more than half their diameter in height. Drovfd Ashler, the coarsest kind of hewn stone for building. See Masonry. Droved and stripped. A series of grooves an eighth of an inch deep, cut with a three-quarter- inch chisel, leaving a droved space between each, constitutes the hewn variety of building stones to which this name is given; a sort common in Scotland, but not used in Eng- land. Druidical Architecture. Some observations have been al- ready given, under Celtic Archi- tecture, on the domestic buildings of the ancient Britons, the present article will, therefore, be principally devoted to their religious and sacred edifices. Various remains of the ancient Druidical buildings are found scattered over different parts of England and Wales, and form interesting objects of antiquarian research. Some of the most re- markable monuments of the Druids are the circles of unwrought upright stones, commonly recognized under the name of Druidical Temples. They are usually found in elevated situations, and one structure often consists of several circles, either concentric, lateral, or in some other mode of disposal, indicating an at- tention to mathematical regularity 24 of arrangement. They are in Cornwall, (where the pwL| are denominated the Hurler} j n Cumberland, ( Long Meg awcL r Daughters,) Derbyshire, Dim- shire, Dorsetshire, Oxford ri (Rollrich,) Somersetshire, (Sta Drew,) Westmorland and Will 1P) (Avebury and Stonehe?ige.) L« are very common in Wales, an in frequently found in the W« : Isles. It is remarkable that are also found in Icela 1 d, NoiW Sweden, Denmark, and various rtj of Germany. Amongst othe guments for the great antiqu of these monuments in Britain, n observed, that in some inst :es they are crossed and injure; by Roman ways. Circles of ston .p. pear indeed to have been us* in the performance of religious nd judicial ceremonies, by the pst remote nations of antiquity, jid, under the prevalence of that hi- larity of manners, which ma be traced between nearly all coiniies in the infancy of society, they j?re probably constructed by the eaest ministers of the Druidical reli!>n. These circles are frequently find to have been surrounded by a jch and a vallum, the latter formin. he boundary, or being on the i|ter side. The number of stones i ai from uniform, and in some insUi'es it is not more than nine. I e| he circle called Grey Yards, in ( n- berland, there are eighty-eight, lie following sketch of the plans isl prevalent among these circle is condensed from Borlase. — i n figure is either simple or im- pounded. Of the first kintan exact circle, elliptical or serrtir- cular. The construction of m is not always the same, some r- ing their circumference marked W large separate stones only; ojw have ridges of small stones \w mixed, and sometimes walls. 0(W D R U ha their figure more complex and , d, consisting' not only of a cir- iJnit of other distinguishing pro- ,s. In or near the centre of , ... stands a stone taller than the s in the middle of others is a ,u, ;J en, whilst a cromlech dis- ; nlishes the centre of some cir- Some have only one line of , s iii their circumference, and i; s two; some circles are adja- some contiguous, some in- lik and some intersect each oi ; urns, skeletons, and other fuiral deposits, are found in or them. Some are curiously ereed on geometrical plans, the h entrances facing the cardinal s of havens. Some have ivrfues leading to them, placed x :ly north and south, with de- ta< d stones, sometimes in straight i in to the east and west, some- niangular. The principal w orks n treat on these circles, are Boise's Antiquities of Cornwall; Kt land's Mona Antiqua ; Dr. Streleys Works; King's Muni- mda Antiqua; Sir R. C. Hoare's Arjent Wiltshire ; Polwhele's His- tot of Devonshire. ie of the most extraordinary Didical circles in Britain, is that of '.'onehengc, in the middle of a fla trea, near the summit of a hill, sixniles from Salisbury. It is en- ded by a circular double bank i an ditch near 30 feet broad, after < r( ing which we ascend 30 yards <*we reach the woik. It con- is sis[ of two circles and two ovals. Hi outer circle is about 108 feet in ameter, consisting, when entire, 1 stones, 30 uprights and 30 im'sts, of which only 24 uprights retjin, 17 standing, and seven doi, and eij;ht imposts. They an diree and a H£jf feet asunder, kl en uprights have their four im- poi upon them by the grand en- tire. These stones are from 13 D . DRU to 20 feet high. The lesser circle is somewhat more than eight feet from the inside of the outer one, and consisted of 40 lesser stones, the highest being six feet : 19 re- main, of which 11 only are stand- ing. The Adytum or cell is an oval formed of 10 stones, from 16 to 22 feet high, in pairs, with im- posts, which Dr. Stukeley terms trilithons, and above 30 feet high, rising in height as they go round, each pair separate, and not connect- ed as the outer pair. Within these are 19 more smaller single stones, of which only six are standing. At the upper end of the Adytum is the altar, a large slab of blue coarse marble, 20 inches thick, 16 feet long, and 4 broad; pressed down by the weight of the vast stones that have fallen upon it. The whole number of stones, uprights, imposts, and altars, is 140. The heads of oxen, deer, and other animals, have been found on digging in and about Stonehenge, and there are numer- ous barrows in its immediate neigh- bourhood. There are three en- trances from the plain, the most considerable of which is from the north-east, and at each of them were raised, on the outside of the trench, two huge stones, with two smaller within, parallel to them. Other Druidical monuments are Logan, or Rocking Stones; these are stones generally of immense bulk and weight, placed on so small a centre, and in so exact an equili- brium, that it moves to a certain degree with the application of a very small power, as the touch of the hand, but which could not be thrown down by any common force. They are found in Cumberland, Cornwall, &c. Others from their form are denominated Rock Idols, and Tollmen. The hollow inden- tations often found on rocks, &c in Cornwall and Derbyshire, And 25 DRU DRU sometimes bearing evident marks of being; artificial works, are called Rock basins, and are supposed to have been used by the Druids. The Cromlech is a rude monument, consisting: of several huge upright stones, which act as supporters to a stone placed nearly horizontally. The number of upright stones is sometimes three and even six, and in a few instances more. The stone at top is generally of a swelling form, approaching: to convexity, and they are often found on Carnedds, or artificial hillocks of loose stones. — They are found in various parts of England. They are sup- posed by many to have been used as altars. On a subject like this, tradition is often worthy of notice. A cromlech in the midst of a circle of stones, in the isle of Arran in Scotland, is asserted by the thinly spread and stationary inhabitants of that lonely district, to have been the place w on which the ancient inhabitants burnt their sacrifices in the time of the heathens." See Martin's Descriptions of the West- ern Isles, p. 220. In many parts of England and Wales, are high and massy stones, in an erect position, either single or two or three together, and con- sidered as monuments erected by the ancient Britons in commemoration of some great event which happened there. At Rudston, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, is a single stone of this kind, twenty-four feet high, five feet ten inches broad, and two feet three inches thick. There are three stones near the village of Trelech, in Monmouthshire, of which the lowest is ten, and the highest fifteen feet. They are called by the natives Harold's stones. In the same parish is a remarkable tumu- lus, called Cryg y Dyrn, sixty paces in circumference, and six yards high. It is chief! v composed of small stones 2G covered with turf, and may pro) ) be called a carnedd. Upon th| 1 is a large flat stone of an oval I / three yards long, and twelve ir C s thick. Under it was found a vaen, or stone chest, four feet and three broad, composed ofsE stones. It is supposed to be he burial-place of some British m before^the Roman invasion, h!^ same village are the remains M entrenched camp. These mo- ments appear in many instanc to have been looked on by the Br ns with superstitious veneration. ! Tumuli or Barrows are font in various parts of England and \V i and vary much in shape, size, id situation. Some of the most cu; us occur in Cornwall, Derbyshire, >r- setshire, Hampshire, Lincoinse, Kent, and Wiltshire. S:r R. I Hoare, in his History of Andnt Wilts, distinguishes them into le following classes. The most arm kind appear from their conten to be those he terms Long Barrh, which, he says, " differ consideijly in their structure as well as din! sions; some of them resembkm egg cut in two lengthways, andie convex side placed uppermost; s le are almost of a triangular foi; whilst others are thrown up ;a long ridge, of nearly equal bre; h at each end ; but we find r.:e generally one end of these ban 's broader than the other, and broad end pointing towards east." They are generallytfo d on elevated spots, and single ; sometimes one of them is foun the midst of a group of others. Bowl Barrow, is so called frorrcs obtuse rotundity of form, ands sometimes surrounded by a slut ditch. The Bell Barrow " f its elegance of form seems to np been a refinement on the bowl row." The Druid Barrow supposed, by Dr. Stuksley, to Ire DUN DUN bonded to the ministers of religion, bi Sir Richard has strong reason supposing that it was appro- ved to females. The outward v urn, with the ditch within, is : t beautifully moulded: in the Ji are sometimes two or three ds, which often contain small ik &c. The Pond Barrow, re- k bles an excavation maciP for a ™ 1. be : ng circular, and surrounded \ allum, the area being perfectly lei. The Twin Barrow, has two tiiuli enclosed within the same c\ te, and is of rare occurrence. T small Cone Barroivs, are gene- ra. - found on commons and moors, seotn exceed thirty-three feet in dineter, and are raised of earth, ai generally surrounded with a n; ow trench. The cist in which tlr body was placed is found at uqual depths. The Broad Bar- rc, is broader and flatter than the be I barrow, which it otherwise re- sebles. Of the tumuli which are cc posed of loose stones, and called C nedd or Cairns, Silburv Hill is a markable specimen, being 560 fe in diameter at the base, 105 at th top, and 170 in perpendicular h( ht. The smallest are not more th t 13 feet in diameter. rum, the solid part of the catals of the Corinthian and Com- pote orders; from its form called thvase. it y ma i a. See Acropolis. 'RY Rot. See Air-holes and T'ber. I'ucts of water. See Aque- umiiata tombs. See Abys- man buildings. i n', on Burgh, the name o|n ancient species of buildings, of ircular form, common in the ney and Shetland Isles, the He- Nes, and the northern parts of 8j land. Borg is a Swedo-Go- th- word ; and the Highlanders universally apply the Celtic name Dun to those towers. They are, with few exceptions, confined to the countries once subject to the crown of Norway, and generally built within sight of the sea. One of the most perfect of these erections is at Glenby, and is described by Mr. Pennant, in his voyage to the Hebrides — " It is placed about two miles from the mouth of the valley ; the more entire side is about thirty feet six inches in height, and was some years ago about ten feet higher. The whole structure seems to have been of a conical form out- wardly, but internally the surround- ing wall is perpendicular; so that it must have been much thicker at the bottom than the top. The en- closed circular area is thirty-three feet and a half in diameter ; it is constructed of flat stones neatly placed one upon another, without any cement or mortar; and at ten feet from the ground, found to be seven feet four inches thick; and within this thickness were two sur- lounding galleries; one quite in the lower part of the tower, about six feet two inches high, and two feet five inches wide at the bottom, but made narrower at the top, and flagged and covered with great flat stones. The other gallery is placed directly over this, having these flag-stones for its floor, and being only five feet six inches high, and only twenty inches at the bot- tom, but covered at top, like the other, with large fl it stones. This upper gallery, in which a man could barely make his way, went quite round the tower, without any division or partition ; but the lower gallery underneath this, is parted off into separate spaces, by great flag- stones placed upright, which several spaces, or little cells, were in general accessible only by means of holes in the floor or gallery EAR E A V above; so that nothing can be more obvious than that these cells were intended for the keeping and pre- serving of stores. Besides these galleries, there were, on the inside of the wall, open to the circular enclosed apartments, four perpendi- cular rows of small cavities, or, as they have been described by others, four stages, or nests, of small square open holes, dividing the interior rircular wall into four parts, and turning up from the lower part of the tower to the top; each little hole or nest in the row divided from that beneath only by a sort of shelf or flag-stone, and formin< { little cupboard. This appeara > is similar to what is observable I another dun in the same neil bourhood, and seems to have hi intended to hold the drinlA horns and other utensils for b ! queting in these rude dens. Dwarf walls. The walls . closingn^ourt.s, above which . railings of iron ; similar walls soi . times supporting the ground-fl - of a building ; and low walls! general receive this name. Dwelling house. See Bui - ing, and House. E. Eagle, (aigle, Fr. cucroc, Gr.) a term used by the Greeks for the frontispiece or pediment of their temples. See jEtos or JEtonia. In describing the Propylsea at Athens, Wheler observes, " The eagle of the front was sustained by four pillars of the Doric order." In the Athenian inscription, brought to England bv Chandler, and now preserved in the British Museum, the slabs which form the tympa- num of the pediment are called Auraioi Xidoi, which explains the expression of Pausanias, that the sculptures of the Parthenon were placed aierois in the eagles. Earth Buildings. It appears from history, that before the Ro- man invasion the natives of Britain had no better habitations than those described by Tacitus ; found also among the Germans. They were dug (he informs us) in the ground, and covered with earth. In these they stored their provi- sions ; and into these they retired from the pursuit of their enemies, and in winter for warmth. Some earth-houses of this description are yet to be seen in the Western. Isles of Scotland, and in Cornwall, modern times various modes building houses, with baked dried earth, have been adept* and unburnt brick have also be used : in either case, the wa must be preserved from the we ther by a covering of waterprc cement. In February, 1 813, a p tent was granted to Joseph Ham ton, for certain methods of co structing and connecting earthi building materials. These the p tent describes as consisting lumps, bricks, or masses, and beii perforated with holes for the pd poses of fastening together by pi or bolts, with or without mortar cement; the former tnode beii always to be preferred ; and as ; improvement peculiar to the pater moveable air-furnaces are succe sively placed in various parts the walls, by which the most ir portant are soldered or vitrifi* together. — Repertory of An 1815, vol. xxvi. Eating Room. See Abaci ai Dining Boom. Eaves, (efese, Sax.) the ove hanging edges of a roof. Gutte ECB w 2 generally made by the ancient arjUects above the extremity of th -saves, in the tipper part of the Jatium : they were ornamented, : ] the Erectheium, by the ends of ie joints, which extended from thfidge to the eaves. In the in- sc »tion mentioned in the article EUe, which relates to the build- inlf this temple, their ornamented as or joint-stones, are termed yfroXot \idot, which is supposed ■ - Jr. VVilkins to be the upright cinlar pieces, which terminate the tiles at the eaves or gutters, idetimes the water was thrown ofl h rough the mouths of lions' heps, sculptured in the cymatium, n sometimes the circular oma- mit on the eaves was formed of , rs clay, where it was called ft yvXcthiQ, or yoyyv\oedr}Q ke- ou:c. The joint-tiles are called in nother part of the inscription ap i ; the eaves being first placed, thi tiles, and the other rows in ii." su sssion up the ridge, the apfxoi m laid in the same order of sue- on above each other. The tiles at 1 e eaves were formed in the top }f the cormce behind the up- pe fillet of the cymnattum, in bices twice the length of ihe other til wes Lath, called also Eaves ftp/, and Eaves Catch, an arris (ill or thick feather-edged board, at e eaves, to raise the bottom of tin irst course of slates, above ihe slung plane of the side of the ro< that, tlie next course may be pnerly bedded. jbatana, the ancient metro- pc of Media, the origin of which is cribed by Diodorus Siculus to iamis. All we know of its ex it and buildings is collected frc the exaggerated accounts of an 'nt writers, as there are no Ns left of it, and its site is be- c o i a subject of dispute. Char- ECF din fixes it at Tauris, others at Haniedan, and some at Gasbin, in the province of Yerrack. Eccentricity, having a dif- ferent centre from another circle; the distance between the foci of an ellipsis. Ecfou, a considerable village of Egypt, on the Nile, in Lat. 24° 6S' 43" N.; Lon. 32° 54' E. ; the site of the ancient Apollinopolis Mag- na. At the north-west corner ot the village, and on the highest ground, stands a magnificent tem- ple. Numerous brick huts have been erected at the top of the temple, in the peristyle, and in front of the propylon, so as to ren- der it difficult of access. The pro- pylon is in the form of a truncated pyramid, and is at once the most imposing, and one of the best pro- portioned in Egypt. From a base 90 feet in length by 30 feet in width, it rises up on each side of the gateway, like two square tow- ers, without embrasures, gradually narrowing, till, at the height of 100 feet, it measures on the flat- tened top only 75 feet by 18 feet. Handsome stairs lead from the gateway on either hand to the dif- ferent chambers, and to the sum- mit. Over the entrance is the globe with the serpent and wings, and on each side is sculptured on the wall a colossal figure of Isis, attended by the hawk-headed deity, and another colossal figure armed wiih a hatchet. Within the pro- pylon is an open court, or dromos, enclosed with high walls covered with sculpture, and adorned with a peristyle of eleven columns, besides five on each side of the doorway, all covered with sculpture. The pronaos, at the northern end of the court, hfcs six columns in front, with varied capitals, resembling the leaf of the down, or Thebaic palm, the loaf of the date-tree, and the 29 ECH ECH buddiqg lotus. The winged globe and serpent occur again over the door, and are frequently repeated on each side, with other strange devices of beetles, long-tailed mon- keys, &c. A moulding passes down the corners of the temple, * ,e same as at Dendera and Esneh, so as to include the whole in a frame. Within the pronaos are two rows of columns, three in each row, loaded with hieroglyphics and devices; the globe with wings is painted along the centre of the ceiling, and each intercolumnia- tion has its peculiar ornament. On the walls, Osiris, Isis, and Orus, are receiving offerings. The entrance to the cella is quite blocked up with sand and rubbish. The exterior of this beautiful tem- ple is covered with similar decora- tions, but the figures are larger and less numerous. The whole has been surrounded with a high stone wall, at once to exclude the un- hallowed gaze, and to protect the sanctuary from violence ; but it is now banked up with rubbish. The temple measures about 440 feet by 220 feet, and its largest columns are 21 feet in girth, and 42 in height. On a lower level, a little distance to the south-west, stands a small peripteral temple, supposed to have been dedicated to Typhon, whose terrible image occurs above the capitals of the columns, and on the walls. The cella of this temple is also filled up with sand. Ecu f a, (rjxea, Gr. from r)xto>, I sound,) sonorous bell-shaped vases of bronze, or earth, used in the construction of ancient theatres, to give greater power to the voices of the actors. They were arrang- ed between the seats in niches made for the purpose, their size being proportioned to the magni- tude of the building, and their con- formation such that they returned 30 all the concords from the fou and fifth to the double octa Vitruvius tells us, that the vases ' the theatre at Corinth were traj ported to Rome by Mummi In the choir of the Gothic catl dral of Strasburgh, formerly 1 longing to a monastery of Dom ; cans, Professor Oberlin discover similar vases in various parts of' vaulted ceilings, which appeared have been placed there for | same purpose. Echinus, (tyivoQ y Gr.) a c< vex moulding, generally ornamen' with spheroids or eggs ; the up| ends cut off, the upper part of l axis projecting, and the lower ceding. Each egg is surrouno by a border, and is rather m< than a semi-ellipsis. Every t| adjacent borders contain a sp; equalling the thickness of the b der at top, and gradually rececli towards the bottom ; and in ea recess or space is an anchor tongue. The Roman echin which is the quarter of a circ or an ovolo, is much inferior to t echinus of the Greeks. In a( lumn, the echinus is only used the entablature or capital; and the Doric order it is always pla whilst in the Ionic and Corinthi it is generally carved. Echo, (from yjxoc, Gr. soun.! certain kinds of vaults and archt generally of the elliptic and pai boiic figures, used to redoul sounds, and produce art-fir echoes. To an architect it is ve requisite to know the principles their construction. An echo i* reflection of sound striking agair some object, as an image is reflect in a glass. Caverns, grottos, mou tains, and ruined buildings, get rally return the image of sour At a ruined fortress near Louva in Flanders, there is a very 1 markable echo, at which if a p ECU sorting 1 , he only hears his own voic without repetition, whilst thoi who stood at a distance deal the echo, but not the vo : ce ; the[ ; ho too is attended with ex- 1( linarv variations, being some- time louder, sometimes softer, lorafimes nearer, and sometimes n 01 distant. A similar echo, near Roi : n, is described in the Memoirs i French Academy. As every 11 poir against which the pulses of sou i strike becomes the centre of B n series of pulses, and sound bes equal distances in equal tim ; therefore, when any sound pagated from a centre, and ulses strike against a va- rietbf obstacles, if the sum of the :1 lines, drawn from that point to eh of the obstacles, and from obstacle to a second point, be ■in, then will the latter be a poii in which an echo will be bea. Hence all the points of the obstacles which produce an h must lie in the surface of the oblijg spheroid, generated by the rev ition of the ellipse round its ma axis. As there may be mang- olds of different magnitudes, ! so ere may be several different echs of the same original sound. As here may also be a great nur er of ieflecting points in the o of an exterior spheroid than in at of an interior, a second or thii echo may be much more pow- Fi than the first, provided that the uperior number of reflecting poiu, that is, of reflected pulses pro- gated to the ear, be more km sufficient to compensate for theilecay of sound which arises fronts being propagated through a e iter space. In the celebrated ecWs of the Lake of Killarney, in Ke , the first return of the sound * uch inferior in strength to tlm which immediately follow. 1 rthe most powerful echo there- EC H fore, the sounding body should be in one focus of the ellipse, which is the section of the echoing spheroid, and the hearer in the other. An echo may be heard in other situa- tions, but not so favourably as a person often hears the echo of h s own voice, in which case, however, he must stand at least sixty-three or sixty-four feet from the reflect- ing obstacle. We commonly speak about three syllables and a half, or seven half syllables, in a second : that the echo therefore may return just as soon as these syllables are expressed, the distance of the speaker from the reflecting object must be half of 1,000 feet; for, as sound describes 1,142 feet in a second, six-sevenths of that space, that is, 1,000 feet nearly, will be described, while six halfs, or three whole syllables, are pronounced ; that is, the speaker must stand nearly 500 feet from the obstacle. In churches we never hear a dis- tinct echo of the voice, but a con- fused sound, because the greatest difference of distance between the direct reflecting courses of such a number of pulses as would produce a distinct sound, is not in any church equal to 127 feet, the limit of echoes. But the reflecting sur- face may be so formed, that the pulses which come to the ear after two or more reflections, may, after having described 127 feet or more, arrive at the ear in sufficient num- bers, and so nearly at the same instant, as to produce an echo, though the distance of the reflect- ing surface from the ear be less than the limit of echoes. There is a singular example of this in a grotto on the banks of the brook Dinan, two miles from Castle- amber, in the county of Kilkenny. As you enter the cave, and con- tinue speaking loud, no return of the voice . m who visited these excavatio II 1782, states, that he was aom- panied by a learned brahmin, 0111 Benares, who, though he had ver been there before, recognize it once, all the figures, and expl ietl with fluency the history of ich personage, and the meaning: im the various symbols with whiclnty were accompanied. Elfph/»ntina, an islan _ot Egypt, on the Nile, covered m ruins of temples, fortification^'. There are no buildings of c I* ! ELE ELI nuce, however, m any thing appaching a perfect state. Six fi intJiificent columns of an ancient | e , covered with hieroglyphics, a anite statue of Osiris, much i ed, a small peripteral temple, 36 ?et, by 2°, with seven square ol nns on each side, which, except ual winged globe and serpent ovithe door, and the sculptures aJhierogliphics which cover the , ;l , has^ none of the character- j st i| of an Egyptian temple, and levated shafts, of the pvrami- dal npvlon of a more magnificent ? tenjle, are the principal remains. Levation, (elevatio, Lat.) a eeqetrical projection drawn on a i plaj perpendicular to the horizon. .eusis, a town of Attica, for- , celebrated for its temple of Ce i and Proserpine, and for the Ellsinian Mysteries which were i I rated in it. There was also pie of Diana Propylaea. Eleu- now a miserable village, of tx thirty mud houses. It was \isid, in 1812, by a mission from the f )ilettanti Society, of London, sting of Sir William Gell, a e jer of the society, and well n ii by his works on the Troad, 1th a, Argolis, and Pompeii, as- l st by two architects, Messrs. J. , Gandy, and F. Bedford. • i- at Athens, they employed e selves in excavations at Eleu- hose temples had never yet bee, examined, from the depth of mder which these ruins were but i. They succeeded in dis- covling the great mystic temple of i , consisting of a cella, about 1 idred and eighty feet square, tkta portico of twelve magnifi- 1 ii )oric columns, of white marble, Wot than six feet in diameter. Thi temple was approached from AtHis, by the sacred way, over an txtrsive pavement, supposed by the .ravellers to be the area of Triptolemus ; on the right-hand of it was discovered a small, but beau- tiful Doric temple in antis, which appeared to correspond with that of Diana Propyleea. The Propvlaeum itself, was exactly like that of the Acropolis of Athens, described by Stuart. Within this was a seccnd portal, of the Corinthian order, opening immediately into the peri- bolus of the great temple. A descriptive volume has been pub- lished by the society, entitled, " The unedited Antiquities of Athens, comprising the architectural remains of Eleusis, Rhamsius, Sunium, and Thoricus ; by the Society of Dil- lettanti; imperial folio, 78 fine plates, by the best engravers, from the drawings of John Peter Gandy, and Francis Bedford." Eleutiierai, see Acropolis. Elgin Marbles, see Acropolis. El Hadda, see Arabian Ar- chitecture Ellipsis, or Ellipse, (e\\ei\ptc, Gr.) an oval figure, generated from the section of a cone, by a plane cutting both sides of the cone, but not parallel with the base. If a series of parallel straight lines, each limited at each extremity by the curve, can be all divided into two equal parts by a straight line, each half of each of the parallel lines is called an ordinate; the entire line, a double ordinate, and the dividing line, the abcessa. The point in which the abscessa meets the curve, is called the vertex of the ellipse. The whole of the straight line between the two verti- ces, is called a diameter of the ellipse. The middle of the diameter, is the centre. The double ordinate which passes through the centre, and the diameter, are called conju- gate diameters to each other. Two diameters, perpendicular to each other, are called the axes, the greater, being the axis major, the ELL ELL less, the axis mmor. To find the area of an ellipse, the two axes being given, we must multiply the one axis by the other, and the pro- duct by 78.54. And to find the area of an elliptic arch, we must multiply the span by the height of the arch, and the product by 7854. Ellipsoid, an elliptical sphe- roid, being a solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse about either axis. Ei.lora, an ancient Hindu town, called also Elloor, and Verrool, said to have been built by, and to have taken its name from, Elloo ra- jah. It is in a fine valley, near Dowlatabad, and the surrounding mountains are celebrated for the very ancient and extraordinary ex- cavated temples or pagodas, cut out of the rock by its former inha- bitants. These wonderful caverns were visited by Thevenot, (Voyages, part. iii. c. 44.) Sir Charles Ware Malet, who visited them in 1794, published an account of them in the sixih volume of the Oriental Re- searches, accompanied by a plan. He did not doubt their being the works of a people, whose religion and mythology were purely Hin- du, and he judges, that they were dedicated to Mahdew, or Moliadeo. He found several inscriptions in let- ters considerably differing from the present known characters of India, and was of opinion, that the most northerly caves of Lllora, occupied by the naked, sitting, and stand- ing figures, are the works of the Sewras or Juttees, who by the brahmins are esteemed schismatics, and whose sect, called Srawuk, is still numerous in Guzerat. A brahmin, who was an inhabitant of Roza, informed Sir Charles, on the authority of a book entitled Sewa Lye Mahat, or the grandeur of the mansion of Sewa, or Mah- dew, that these elevated temples 40 were formed by Elloo rajah,^ son of Peshpont, of Ellich're, when 3000 years of the Dwq Yoag were unaccomplished, w h, added to 4984 of the present I'ai Yoag, make an age of 7984 yta to the year of Sir Charles M; t's visit. A Mahomedan, named . cr ala Khan, an inhabitant of ib- mednagure, told him that, he id been informed, by a person c c- knowledged erudition, that |ey were the work of rajah Eel, iho was contemporary with Shah o- mim Arif, who lived ahove !)0 years ago. A collection of of the Ellora excavations has in published by Daniell. Beginning with the most north v, the first cavern is called Jug\ih Sabba, and fronts 15 E. ie lower story is almost choked p. The upper story is ascended a flight of steps in the right co t. A large figure, sitting cross-leg d, opposite the front of the cave, as called by the brahmin who attend Sir Charles, Jugnath, and hisjra attendants, Jay and Bidjee, o, in the Hindu mythology, areie door-keepers of Vishnu. Two str- ing figures on each side ofie recess, he called>SW and Bud. he whole room has the same figunas that in the recess, smaller, anqill apparently naked. This cave sists of two oblong squares, the i et one formed by twelve pillars, of w h the four at each end differ m those in the centre. The cepg has been handsomely painteain circles, with figures of men, worn, &c. but apparently the paintii is much more modern than the t. as much of the fine sculpture id fluting of the pillars are co with it. The second excava n, called Adnaut Sabba, is on left of the first. Its entrance finished; above it are figun Luchmee Narrain, and two att«'i- ELL an t« much mutilated. At the far ent ] f the cave, is sitting the idol Mint. A small opening on the , >. >ads to another cave, smaller, n d,f much better workmanship, C but o choked with earth, as to i ,\ scarcely more above the ovd than the capitals of pillars, , are handsomely finished in e vie of the front ones of the il we. The third, called Indur , fronting the south, is a ic ricent assemblage of excava- tion entered by a handsome gate- ut from the rock, on which re o lions couchant. The door- , .veads into an area, in which !( ; a pagoda, or temple, of a pvrJiidal form, containing a kind ire altar, wilh figures on each xe those on the last cave. The m 2 is elaborately finished with sculjure, and a mass of sculptured \ serves as the gate. On the leftjn the same area, is a very ban ome obelisk, fluted, and orna- merd with great taste ; its capital ido 2d with a group of sitting ;us. On the right side is an elepnt without rider, or hoda, On e left of it is an excavation, a figure like the preceding one n the recess. The excavations on e right are imperfect. The ! aretfeads into the lower story of 1 the ibba, which is unfinished, but cor. ns a figure in the recess op- pose the entrance like the former. A fljht of steps on the right, lead to t upper story, fronting the top ' ich is a gigantic figure of In- rfttmvith a tiara on his head, a jina, or brahmin string, over his left oulder, sitting on an elephant cou ed ; under a mango tree oppo- site m, is Indranee, his consort, on a li' . A recess at the end of this cav; ontains the same figure as the forri r. This room is div : ded into two iqii pby twelve pillars; an altar oc- CUp .the middle of the inner square. ELL The fourth cave, Pursaram Sub' ba> is entered by a passage from the left hand side of the upper story of the last excavation, and also by a passage from the upper story of Jugnath Subba. It is smaller than any of the foregoing, and exactly like them in fabric and preservation. Doomar Leyna, the fifth cave, fronting W. 15 S. is about a quar- ter of a mile from the last. The entrance is through a lane in the rocky mountain. On the left of this lane is a cave, almost choked up with earth. The lane opens into an area, at the end of which, oppo- site the entrance, is a small cave. The great excavation on the right of this area, has, at its entrance, two lions couchant. The entrance is by a kind of veranda, on the left of which is a gigantic sitting figure of Durma rajah, who has a club in his hand, and a jinoee over his shoulders. On the right is Wis- wcyshevur Mahdew in a dancing attitude, with a group of figures round him, among which is the bull Nundee. The cave widens con- siderably after passing the veranda, and continues to do so, particularly after passing the next section of pillars, till it reaches the centre or fourth section, on the left, of which is the centre door of an elegant square temple; at the right entrance of this temple is a standing figure of Mun, with a tiara and* jinoee, with Bouannee standing by him, and two small figures above. On the other side are various deities in a similar style. A small area at the end of this apartment descends a great depth by steps to a pool of water supplied by a cascade that falls during the rainy season from the whole height of the mountain. On entering the first section of pil- lars, the nuptials of Goura Mahdew and Parv;uttee, with a number of fi- gures above, occupy the right-hand 41 ELL ELL side. Rajah Dutz and Aim, Par- wuttees father and mother, are on one side, and Brimha, in a sitting posture, performs the marriage cere- mony, with Vishnu standing behind him. In front are the circles cut in the floor for performing the Zw- dea Home, or nuptial sacrifices. In a group on the left is Mahdew and Parwutiee, with the bull Nundee. Remains of paintings are distin- guished on the ceiling of this cave. The number of pillars is forty-four. The sixth cavern, called Jun- wassa, or the place of nuptials, with an aspect W.N.W. is much inferior to the preceding, and is entered from a veranda by the door. The cave has a veranda with win- dows, by which light is admitted to the inner cave, and in which there are figures of Mahdew, Vish- nu, and Brimha, on the left of the door, BhuLlel, Lvchme, and Nar- raine, on the right, and of the Bharra Outar, at the left extremi- ty, in which the boar is represented as bearing Pritwas, or the world, on his tooth, and having Seys under his foot. A sleeping figure of Koom Kurn, on the right, is at- tended by a female. The seventh, Comar Warra, with an aspect W.N.W. near the last, has its entrance much obstructed by fallen rock and accumulated earth. It is composed of four sections, divided by four pillars; the sections decrease gradually in length, the last being a recess, on each side of the door of which are coloured figures, one with a drawn sword, the other mutilated. The eighth cavern, called Gaana, or the oil shop, is a small group of little rooms a few yards from the last. It contains a figure of Gun- nes, and the Ling of Mahdew. Very near it is another group of small rooms, with two Linys of Mahdew. The ninth excavation, Neelkunt Mahdeiu, with an aspect W.S a few yards from the last. A Ll| enclosure at the entrance coi m s the bull of Nundee, with twom ted figures on each side. Arece posite the doors contains the/,? Mahdew, made of fine smooth s This cave is composed of se£ formed by rows of pillars decre ■ in lateral length to the recess, i The tenth cavern is ft amis! v\ aspect W.S.W. a few yards EL the last. At its entrance is the nil Nundee couchant, and on th |t a cistern of fine water. 3j pillars and two pilasters, of !m- sideraUe beauty and elahn e workmanship, support the. from nd at the extremities on each sidore female figures. In a large rptj oppose the centre of the entice is a temple containing the LiSm Mahdew. The rest of the ve forms a large hall, at each er, of which are recesses, con tain in fi- gures. The extreme wall of* iiat to the right is occupied by thejow Chunda. A group of skeion figures on the right of this reces re said to represent a miser, his fe, son, and daughter, all prayii in vain for food, while two thieve! re carrying oft' his wealth. Opp te this group is another of Kal Beho. As we entered the hall from he recess, on the right hand is M dew and Parwutiee play inj! at Chousur, with Narraud sitting e- tween them stimulating a ljd, which is below represented >as having taken place. On the flit side of the left recess at the erp the hall is the group of Bon\ee Mysaseer, on the left that of Sum- my Kartick, with his peacock id two mendaseers. In the centjw the recess, on the extreme wall | re the nuptials of Jcnnuch riJ'< Gunnes t Brimha, &c. affkiatitp the ceremonies. On enterinwj hall from the left recess, GouraM ELL ELL p,wuttee are represented on the lefin heaven, supplicated by Ro- „o On each side of the door of the' temple in the recess are two iiitic and two smaller figures, former said to be Apraon an Mewraon, the latter Keyroo, Bit, and Vishnoo. Many of the pihs in this cave are elaborately orimented. A smaller cave near I ntains the Ling of Mahdew, an a little farther is one of larger diipnsions, but plain, and almost ctved up. Several other such exlvations lay about, them. The eleinth cave, called Key las, or Pa- race, looking to the west, has a mcj? spiendid front than any of the otlh. A cistern of fine water is on ight of the entrance. On each d of the gateway a projection reapes to the first story, with mm sculpture and handsome bat- its. The gateway is spacious amfine, and has an apartment on ea([ side. A balcony over the ilfvay seems intended for the Nat Khannah, The pillars on the iside of the upper story of the gatvay bear a striking resemblance Grecian style. On the right if the passage through the - i'.ay below is Bonannee Usht- boc-, and on the left Gunnes. Th gateway leads to a vast area cuthrough the solid rock, in which the is an immense pyramidal tem- ple" whose wonderful structure, vaity, profusion, and minuteness of eiament, beggar all description." ' is temple, which is itself cut out of 2 solid rock, is connected with thecateway by a bridge, also of soli rock. Beneath the bridge, at the>r,d opposite the entrance, is Bo;nnee, sitting on a lotus, with twcelephants with their trunks joit'j over her head. An elephant *ta>s on each side of the passage wnrtr the bridge, but both have bee mutilated.' Ranges of apart- ments occupy each side behind the elephants, those on the left being much the finest, and richly decorated with figures. Two square obelisks stand behind the elephants, hand- somely graduated to the commence- ment of the capital, which appeared to have been a single lion on each. The twelfth cave, called Dus Outar, with a western aspect, at a small distance from Keylas, is en- tered by rough steps in the rock, the original entry being built up. The middle of the area is occupied by what has been a verv handsome square apartment, which was for- merly ascended by a handsome flight of steps, forming the portico, the roof of which, having been sup- ported by two pillars, and one having given way, has fallen in. The front of the square has a stone lattice in the centre, with figures in the compartments on both sides. On the left are cells with fine water, and on the right a dry water cistern. The front of this area is much filled with earth, washed in by the rain from the surrounding hills. The entrance into the square apartment is from the main struc- ture, which consists of two stories, both having a front of six pillars and two pilasters. The lower story is plain, and its pillars are all square and massy. The room above is of great dimensions, supported by eight rows of pillars in depth, all of which, except the front row, are square and plain. At the extremity of the centre aisle a recess contains the Ling of Mahdew, and in front of it is the bull i\undee, which has lost its head. The lateral walls as well as that on each side of the recess, are adorned with well pre- served mythological figures, amongst which the Dus Outar (or ten incar- nations) is conspicuous. In the centre of each side of the lateral walls is an altar. 4.1 ELL The thirteenth cave, called Teen Tal, (or three stories,) looking W.10S. is a few yards to the South of Dus Outar and is entered from a level surface through a good gate in a wall left as the rock was hewn. The front has a fine and simple ap- pearance, being composed of eight square pillars and two pilasters in each story, all of them ornamented, except the centre ones of the ground story. The area, after entering it a few paces, widens, and in the left hand corner is a reservoir of clear water, and opposite it an inconsider- able raised excavation The lower story has six pillars in its length ; at the extremity is a recess, with a gigantic image of Seys. As we proceed up the middle aisle, the ex- cavation narrows at the fourth pil- lar, and continues so to the end, having a small room on each side, and in the next panel two very large sitting figures of Sukur Acha- ry and Adnaut. The ascent from the ground floor is by a good stair- case on the right ; in ascending, a recess fronts you, which has a large sitting figure of Covere, with several others. Opposite the veranda of the second story, the figure of Jam is seated in a recess. A doorway at each end of the veranda leads to four rooms. The wall of the rock is continued from these doors to the third pillar on each side, and to the second in depth, to give space for two plain rooms on each side. In a recess at the extremity of the centre aisle is a very large sitting figure of Luchmon, with two colos- sal statues on each side of the door. The greatest depth, of this fine room has six pillars clear of wall, all of which are square and plain. A staircase leads into the room above by a door, on the left of which, in the landing place, is a small room, and opposite the entrance, at the end of the veranda, a colossal figure of Sey Dew ; on the Lukkool, next to him Bheem, j then Arjun and Dhurm rajah, e five sons of Pundoo. Opposite ti n are Ooda, Mado, Penda, and dan. As we advance through e middle aisle, the room is lessel at the six pillars, to make room L each side of this great recess r fourteen sitting figures with eu ] hair. We next enter a kind of * - tibule, richly decorated with ficrujj, A door in the centre leads int| tecess; in front of the door ii gigantic figure of Ram, sitting 1 a throne, and attended by the us 1 deiiies employed in his serv . Seta is placed on the wall oppo e him, on the left side of the d< . All the pillars of this apartment e square and plain. Remains f painting are found on the ceiling The fourteenth cave, ca| Bhutt Chutterghun,\\\\.\\ an asj t W. 10 S., is an excavation of p stories, entered by the wall of 3 veranda, the staircase being cho ] up. It takes its name from be» dedicated to Bhurt and Chutte- hun, two brothers of Ramchuiu, whose figures, according to the br • mins, were the principal in the pin . The fifteenth cave is Biskurm, or Viswahurma ka Joompree, ( L ■ karma, the Carpenter's Ho> ) Front W. 5 S. According to - legend of the brahmin, Biskiml, the carpenter of Ramchunder, ( J - wa, or Wisma Kurma, creator r maker of the world, butallegorica , artificer of Ram) fabricated ! whole of the wonderful workst Ellora in a night of six mont, which was caused on purpose I him; but the cock crowing bef? they were finished, they remaiil imperfect, and he ' retired, bavf wounded his finger, to this l hovel ; and they consider the fig- in the front of the entrance of ■ beautiful excavation, as represent J ELM |Jj holding nis w ° ur, ded finder; bJSir Charles, with more proba- thinks that it represents a rfe in profound meditation, as miv in similar postures occur. Trfportico of this cavern is light striking. On the right is a cisrn of water. Above the gate- is a balcony. The interior i| i appears like an elegant chlel, with an arched roof, re- leibling in style a similar excava- tio at Kanara, on the island of Sabtte, and another at Ekvera, ne the top of Bhore Ghaut, first exbred by Mr. Wales, the painter. Fri the ceiling are projected : f? ribs, following the curvature f te arch to the capitals of the pilrs on each side, through the wl e length of the excavation. Tn singular formed cave, and the e before mentioned, represents nl ihiAlmighty meditating the crea- tioof the world, under the arch or mopy of unlimited space. ie sixteenth cave, or rather srnpof caves, Dehr Warra, or the HtCacorcs Quarter, so named by tin atives, on account of their infe- ric v to the others. Front bearing fr< Jugnath Subba, from which tin are about a mile distant, S. > E. The large cave is, how- ev« a very fine one, and affords a bejjtifcl prospect of the great tank, to\, and valley of Ellora. Two pa > lei stripes of stone run along thdoor the whole length of the | Ci* and seem designed for seats cit.r to students, scribes, or the sel- lei.)f some commodity, a passage lea ng between them to the idol at |e end. See Adytum. m, a wood seldom used in bu ing; liable to warp, or twist. Vo veather-boards on the sides of btjji, and other out- buildings, it is foul to resist the action of wind anoveather, especially when coated til paint or other composition. Embankments, are artificial mounds of earth, stone, or other materials, made to confine rivers, canals, and reservoirs of water within their prescribed limits ; or to withstand the impetuous force of the sea ; to form approaches across valleys or ravines to elevated sta- tions, and for various other pur- poses. The most ancient embank- ments known, are said to have been those in the vicinity of the city of Babylon, for the support of cause- ways across the low grounds on each side the Euphrates, and lead- ing to the celebrated bridge ever that river. These are described by modern travellers as of incredible extent and magnitude. The Ro- mans have left large and extensive works of this description on the banks of the Tiber and the Po ; and in Britain the embankments in Romney Marsh, in Kent, are be- lieved to have been of Roman origin, as also the first embank- ments on the Thames, which, from the nature and form of the sur- rounding country, must have been originally surrounded by extensive lakes ; a supposition confirmed by the British name of the city of London, which was Lyn-din, (the city of the Lake) as also of the frequent recurrence of the term wall, in the names of adjacent places, as Narrow-wall, Broad- wall, Rot her hit he-wall, &c. In Kent and Essex, this term is uni- versally applied to earthen embank- ments. From its peculiar original formation, in consequence of the irregular recedence and encroach- ments of the ocean, the country of Holland is peculiarly subject to inundations; and, therefore, the in- habitants are obliged to raise exten- sive embankments, both against the sea, and upon the large rivers. The most remarkable of these are on the Issel, the Meuse, the Sparen- 45 ELM dam, and the Medenblik ; and at the great Bay of Dollar. In Eng- land, nearly half a million of acres were regained from the overflowed lowlands of Lincolnshire, Cam- bridgeshire and Kent, previous to year 1560, by embankments con- s ructed chiefly under the super- intendence of Vermuyden, a Flem- ish engineer; and the incorporated company, established by Charles the Second, for upholding and continu- ing these works, is yet in existence. In the formation of sea banks, by the continued motion of the waves, as it deposits long ridges of sand, to be slowly covered with the first rudiments of vegetation, and ultimately secured by the succession of different species of larger vege- table productions, whose branching roots embrace the consolidated mass, nature has given a lesson to art, which has been generally followed in these works. Wicker- work has been used in Holland ; and bushwood, to retain the mud, and sand, and sea-weeds, which in time constituted alluvial soil. Sometimes it becomes an object of importance to regain a portion of land which has been a long time overflowed by an insular part of the sea ; and this generally proves a work of great labour, especially where the bottom is sandy ; turf is of service in these cases, particu- larly when it contains the roots of marsh grass. When the shore or bank is undermined by the waves, rows of piles are driven into the ground at a short distance from each other, and in a line with the bank, about 40 or 50 yards' dis- tance from it, their tops being left to rise above high-water mark. This acts as a break-water, and pre- serves embankments. Large ham- pers of strong basket-work, filled with stones, are sometimes found a good preservative of these works, EM B i especially those against the side )f rivers, and rapid streams. ThB ner slope of an embankment sh^d not exceed an angle of 45 degi ! 5 The outer slope may vary frorifl to 45: the power of a ban] resist the weight of water, isL versely as to its acclivity; the p£ of water to destroy the bank b g diminished nearly in the same | portion. In all embankments ag-^t rapid rivers, or the waves of e sea, the masonry introduced r$t be secured by the strongest Ro n cement, which will set under w t r, and become as hard as stone. A German agriculturist, in o ;r to complete an embankment of | considerable dimensions in a B short time ; raised two strong pf| leaving a sufficient space betv n them, with an inclined cord fa tened to each, along which a bui;t filled with earth was made to si ; the height sufficient to allow e bucket to clear the ground in s course. A muffle with a dole hook was fastened to the eft and a pulley, very deeply gre- ed, within the muffle, carried e buckets to the end of their coui?, where they were emptied, and - turned by a second cord fixec o posts, with an inclination the - verse of the first, along which s own weight, with a slight impuls t starting carried it to its destinat . This method is economical and - peditious; two men being sufficit to unhook and empty the buckt ; it is also preferable to wheelbarns on soft ground, where the wins sink much. — Repertory of Arts Embattled, or indented ui notches, in form of embrasu , and on the top of a wall, para| , or other building. The heralds - press this embattled line, or ei brasure, by the term crenelle: ^ military architect sometimes qp them cannonieres ; and meurtriei , EMI *h< only big enough for muskets; anclvhen the parapet is so low ti, a annon may shoot without em- bra bar ■res, thev are said to shoot en ftBLEMATA, (Lat.) a kind of n |j woik used hy the Romans ibellish panels, floors, &c. i< were distinguished into emble- ma\ vermiculata, pavimenta tes- po/Jb, pavimenta musica, &c. Jibossixg, (from bosse, Fr. a pro berance,) sculpture in relievo, rures standing- partly out from the lane. See Acrostolium. hBRASURE, (Fr.) the enlarge- me: of the aperture of a door udow towards the inside of vail; its use being to give r r play for the opening of the oor or casement, and to admit light. Also an aperture in the all, through which cannon is poied, the same as a battlement. M&Jrenelle and Barbican. iissarium, (Lat.) a canal with flo(kates, sluices, &c, used to re- : i!e the water in the great lakes K'ient Italy. The two prin- ip were those of the Lake Al- I i: and of the Fucine Lake. The r was built about A.U.C. 355, dui g the siege of Veii, to carry off the verflowing waters of Lake Al- bai That of the Fucine Lake wa'nade by Claudius, and its re- maps are a fine example of the stnjth and durability of the an- ciei Roman architecture. le emissarium of the Lake Al bari alter a period of twenty -two cen'ries, now serves the same pur- pos lbr which it was first erected, tha s, to discharge the waters of theiake, and carry them to the oth side of the mountain into the ficl< which they fertilize. This ca- nal vas cut in the mountain of Albio, 300 feet above the village of istel-Gandolfo. to the length of i nile and a half. Kircher and EMI Piranesi have carefully examined this emissarium. But the remains of another work of the same kind, and in the same place, by the em- peror Claudius, have thrown more light on the mode employed in making this excavacation. In this emissarium numerous wells were sunk perpendicularly, and at in- tervals, from the surface of the mountain to the level of the canal, and galleries were pierced obliquely to meet them. Only one of these pits now remains visible, the traces of the others being obliterated. The entrance of the canal is adorned by an edifice, which contributes at the same time to the solidity ot the work. This edifice, although ruined in some parts, still exists. It is built of large square stones, roughly joined, and forms an arched grotto, with a gate at the bottom, which gives passage to the water in the conduit of the emissarium. Next is a square building, arched in four compartments, and a kind of vestibule, the arch of which has fallen. The trees which have been permitted to grow about it, and the rustic character of the archi- tecture, render it very picturesque, and worthy to be a model for si- milar buildings. This canal is built and arched with hewn stone in its whole length of 1260 toises. The emissarium of the Fucine lake, or, as it is now called, the Lago Ce- lano, is a more considerable work than that of the Lake Albano. It consists of an opening twenty feet deep and ten broad, which traverses the whole width of a great moun- tain that lies between the Liris, into which the conduit was intend- ed to discharge itself, and the lake. Thirty thousand men were employ- ed, according to Pliny, ten years in completing it. The mountain is still pierced on every side with subterraneous galleries, and there ENG ENT are discovered a considerable se- ries of vertical cavities, in the form of deep pits, to the bottom of which we may descend by pas- sages cut in an inclined plane. A similar work appears to have been commenced at the lake of Avernus, and the passage, which is now shewn as leading to the pretended cave of the Sibyl, was probably but a trench, opened for a canal that was intended to receive the waters of the Avernus. See Pirancsi An- tichita A Ibane. See also the article Alba-Longa. Emplecton, (f/i7rX?7KTov, Gr.) a mode of constructing w^lls, in use among the Greeks, in which the front stones were wrought, and the interior left rough, and filled in with various-sized stones, &c. In this kind of works the Romans commonly omitted the diatonoi, or bond stones, wh ch were constantly employed by the Greeks. En car pus, (EVKaf)Trog,Gv.) a fes- toon of fruit or flowers, which some- times ornaments friezes or capitals. En decagon. See Hendecagon. Engaged Columns, are those attached to, or built in, walls or piers, a portion being concealed. Engaged columns are not agreeable with correct taste. From the de- sign which Paoli has given of the little temple at Psestum, we should be led to believe that there were engaged columns in the pronaos, at the extremities of the lateral walls of the cella ; but the careful ob- servations of M. Delagardette have proved that there were antse with insulated columns before them on every side. Among the ruins of the temple of Apollo Didymgeus, near Miletus, built in the time of Alex- ander the Great, was discovered a Corinthian capital, which made part of an engaged column, but it may be of an age posterior to the erection of the temple. In later 48 times, the use of engaged col became more frequent, and were used to adorn the exteric evades of buildings, as may be in the Coloseum, the theati Marcellus, and the triumphal of Titus at Rome. The cella peculiar kind of temple, to v was given the name of ps< peripteros, instead of being rounded by insulated colon had only one in front, wbilsE other sides had only enga^et Co- lumns. Such are the tempi of Fortuna Virilis at Rome, am Maison Carre at Nismes. English Architf.cturi a name given by some to the G lie style. English Bond. SeeBontd Bricklaying. Ensemble, (Fr.) together, ne with another. The ensembl\or tout ensemble, of a building, n ns the whole work or compos in. considered together, and ntfi parts; and sometimes the reive proportion of the parts to he whole. Entablature, (from ta,'a- txim, Lat. entablement, Fr.) m part of a column which include he cornice, frieze, and architrave lee those articles. — Amidst the renins of the ancient Hindoo architect, no traces of the use of theentft ture have been discovered ; I jt was not necessary, because lie Indian temples were cut out olJie rock, and consequently the coh had no roof to support. Wh< the Persians employed an ent« lure is uncertain, but no ves can be found amongst the rui: Persepolis The Egyptians an only people of remote antiq y, whose buildings offer exampl'jof its use. In the oldest EgyfP temples the entablature was ry simple, being merely a single m stone, which was supported bjhe ENT ENT cobins in the whole length of the burner. stail, in Gothic architecture, deflate carving:. sTams, (evTcuTig, Gr.) the slight ,Lnre of the shafts of the an- cie Grecian columns, particularly J)oric, which is scarcely percep- I |)| and beautifully graceful. Vi- having obscurely hinted at -eral of the modern Italian artis, intending; to conform to his pt, carried it to an absurd ex- ces: making the middle of the shaft thiter than the foot. The follow- igiethod of obtaining the true is is given by Sir William Chibers, who has taken it from Bliclel, a French architect. • •To give an actual idea of the > lion, it. will be necessary first ^cribe Vig:nola's method of di- lution, on which it is grounded. 4 A to the second method,' says Vig)la, ' it is a discovery of my owtf and though it be less known tha the former, it will be rea- dihcomprehended by the figure, (Pi'e A 4.) Having therefore detained the measures of your ihin, (that is to say, the height shaft, and its inferior and supior diameters,) draw a line in- tely from C through D, perpen- dici'tr to the axis of the column — t }s done, set oflf the distance, CD hich is the inferior semi-dhime- teriom A, the extreme point of the iperior semidiameter, to B, a pir in the axis. Then, from A, Ihrj^h B, draw the line ABE, win 1 wiil cut the indefinite line CD ( i E; and from this point of ction, E, draw through the axijrf the column any number of rayjas E, b, a, on each of which, f™< .he axis towards the cireum- frre e, setting otf the interval CD, you ray find any number of points, through which, if a curve rawn, it wiii describe the G swelling and diminution of the column.' " Though this method be suffi- ciently accurate for practice, espe- cially if a considerable number of points be found, yet, strictly speak- ing, it is •defective; as the curve must either be drawn by hand, or by applying a flexible rule to all the points, both which are liable to variations. Blondel, therefore, to obviate this objection, (after hav- ing proved the curve passing from A to C, through the points a, a, to be of the same nature with the first conchoid of the ancients,) em- ployed the instrument of Nico- medes to describe it, the construc- tion of which is as follows : — " Having determined, as before, the length of the shaft with the in- ferior and superior diameters of this column, and having likewise found the length of the lineCDE; take thin rulers, either of wood or metal, as FG, ID, AH ; of which let FG and ID be fastened together at right angles in G. Cut a dove- tail groove in the middle of FG, from top to bottom ; and at the point E, on the ruler ID, (whose distance from the middle of the groove in FG is the same as that of the point of intersection from the axis of the column,) fix a pin ; then, on the ruler AH, set off the distance AB equal to CD, the in- ferior semidiameter of the column, and at the point B is a button, whose head must be exactly fitted to the groove made in FG,in which it is to slide, and at the other ex- tremity of the ruler AH, cut a slit or channel from H to K, whose length must be less than the dif- ference of length between EB and ED, and whose breadth must be sufficient to admit the pin fixed at E, which must pass through the slit, that the ruler may slide down. " The instrument being thus 40 EP I completed, if the middle of the groove in the ruler FG, be placed exactly over the axis of the column, it is evident that the ruler AH, in moving along the groove, will, with its extremity A, describe the curve A a a C, which curve is the same as that produced by Vignola's me- thod of diminution, supposing it done with the utmost accuracy, for the interval A, B, a, b, is aiways the same ; and the point E is the origin of an infinity of lines, of which the parts BA, ba, ba y ex- tending from the axis to the cir- cumference, are equal to each other, and to DC. And if the rulers be of an indefinite size, and the pins at E and B be made to run along their respective rulers, so that the interval AB and DE, may be aug- mented or diminished at pleasure; it is likewise evident, that the same instrument may be thus applied to columns of any size. Envelope, (Fr.) in fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in form of a simple parapet, and at others like a small rampart with a parapet, raised sometimes on the ditch, and sometimes beyond it, for the pur- pose of covering weak places with single lines. Epuebeium, ( stripe toy, Gr.) a building among the ancients, where youths or striplings wrestled and exercised. Epiir.sus, a celebrated city of Ionia, once the metropolis of Asia Minor. It was celebrated princi- pally for its temple of Diana, but that, as well as the beautiful Ionic temples of Apollo and Bacchus, and all the grandeur of the ancient city, have long since disappeared. See Arch. Epicranitis, (e7riKpavtTiQ, Gr.) a name given by the Greeks to the tiles which formed the cyma or top bed of the cornice of the pediments of their temples. The word occurs 50 in th^ celebrated inscription brou t to England by Dr. Chandler, i angular stone which formed L vertex of the pediment, was tern | the angular epicranitis. Epicycloid, (c7ruvn:Xo«c7?c, ( | a curve generated by the revolnt L of the periphery of a circle alijr the convex or concave part of . other circle. Episcenium, or Episcf.n , {iTTUTKrivtov, Gr.) The upper m of the scene in ancient theatL which had sometimes an attic r some other similar fin sh. Vitruvius, lib. vii. c. 5, lib. v. c. Epistyle, {E-marvXiov, Gr. \ Grecian term, synonymous via architrave, being that member r division of the entablature, v.h lies immediately upon the abas of the capital. The word oci s in Vitruvius, and in the Atheri inscription of Dr. Chandler. Equiangular, having eq 1 angles. Equidistant, at equal tances. Equilateral, having eql sides. Eras, or dates of Buildir , see Architecture. Erectiieium, see Acropo , and Athenian Architecture. Ergastulum, (Lat.) the nsje given by ihe Romans to a pri*r , or house of correction, where slav, by the private authority of tlr masters, were confined for tlr offences, and kept to bard labc . The Greeks called similar build! s 2u)(l)povi(TTripia, Sophronisteria. Escurial, a village in Sp; , seven leagues from Madrid, c<- brated for the magnificent pal ! of the Escurial, or St. Loren, begun by Philip II. in 1557, i commemoration of the battle f St. Quintin. The arrangement f the whole building is in the (o of a gridiron, by which St. Lore;) ESC ESC .ffered martyrdom. It has the Ipearance of a long parallelogram a h four points. The north or jncipal point is 637 feet broad, ap 51 high to the cornice. Each ?Je is flanked by a tower, 180 ft high. Of its three entrances, pi two hundred windows, the lrer part of the central gate is mined with eight Doric columns, a; the upper part with four of the L ie order. The other fronts are equal dimensions. That on the wt has few windows. This vast euce forms a monastery, as well an palace. The old church is 129 fe long, and 33 broad. The re- feory is 103 feet long, and 33 bad. The ground cloister is a scare formed by a double row of pizas one above the other, 93 fe long on each of the four sides, ar 17 broad, the walls covered wi fine paintings. The double cllter, built of granite, is 52 feet hii, has four grand fronts, open- in<,on a spacious court of 88 aries, supported by 96 columns, D<;c below, and Ionic above. A mv I octagonal temple, terminat- il n a dome, occupies the centre, u without of granite, and within le jasper marble, its eight sides au\iecl alternately with projecting cotnns, or with statues. The Kbi-y is adorned with fluted Doric ins, and the roof and frieze overed with allegorical paint- - The royal apartments are added with very fine paintings. 'Campana communicates with the £ tain building by a double gal- lery one above the other, eighty- i ;et long, supported by Ionic coli ns. We descend into the Ujh by a fine staircase, 136 : *road, and 34 long:, leading: io Spiazza, which forms the fore- " l of the church, and opens ,; arcades, resting on pilasters, and loric semicolumns. Above is raised a second body. This front is flanked by two towers, used as belfries. The inside of the church is built in the Doric style, in the form of a Greek cross, with a lofty dome in the centre, supported by eight symmetrical towers. The body of the church is 313 feet long, and 194 broad, and contains forty-eight altars. The interior of the choir is exquisitely finished, the walls and ceiling being covered with the fine paintings of Cambiaso. The chancel, which is raised by twelve steps, contains two mausoleums, containing statues of gilt bronze. The principal altar consists of four bodies of architecture; in the first of which are six Doric columns, in the second six fluted Ionic columns, in the third four fluted Corinthian columns, and in the fourth two Composite ones. Fifteen beautiful statues, and several paintings, are attached. A Corinthian circular table, fourteen feet seven inches high, and six feet seven inches in diameter, adorned with gilt bronze statues of the twelve apostles, and wiih eight columns of red jasper marble, which can scarcely be dis- tinguished from agates, stands in the centre. It is terminated by a cupola of jasper marble, containing a statue of Christ, and adorned with a topaz as large as the hand, encased in a rose of gold. An- other square tabernacle, 4 nineteen inches high, and still more gor- geous, is contained within this. Each side is decorated with four columns, and four pilasters, their bases and capitals of gold enamel, and the cornice of silver. It is crowned with pyramidal spires, on pedestals of vermilion stone, em- bossed with gold. The two sides are formed by two doors of rock crystal, studded with gold, and the whole is surrounded by a cupola, with an emerald, attached to a rose 51 ETR ETR of gold on the top, and on the inside a topaz enclosed in gold enamel. The sacristy is included in one beautiful nave, 93 feet long, and 80 broad. The treasury con- tains many articles of great value. The Pantheon, or place of inter- ment for the royal family, is below the church, and is, perhaps, the most splendid part of the Escurial. The first descent is by 59 steps. The walls and arches are encrusted with fine marble. After a second descent, we discover a beautiful front, supported by ten marble Dorc columns, the ornaments of gilt bronze. Another descent leads to the place of interment of the royal family. That of the kings and queens is an octagon, 31 feet in diameter, and 33 high, encrusted with beautiful marble of different colours, and adorned with statues of gilt bronze, Corinthian pilasters, &c. with four urns or tombs in each corner. The gardens, in the east and south of the palace, are disposed in the form of an amphitheatre, and are laid out in terraces, and surrounded by walls. Beautiful roads, often ornamented with elegant architectural objects, lead to the village from almost every side. The internal decorations of the Escurial were considerably in- jured by the French, during their occupation of Spain. Estra'de, (Fr.) an even or level space, a public road. Etruscans, the people of Etru- ria, a country of Italy, now called Tuscany. The Etruscans were ori- ginally a colony from Greece, and preceded the other nations in Italy in cultivating the arts, having prac- tised them even before the reputed time of Cadmus. Their aits were derived from Greece, by the migra- tion of the Pelasgi, whose letters and dialect they used. Nola and Capua were founded about 801 years before the vulgar aera. earlier sculpture of the Roman reported to have been executec Etruscan artists. Under Tar nius Priscus they practised fhirt of modelling, or plastic. Statue Jupiter and Hercules are mentic d as having been formed by thenf terra-cotta, and painted red. % is alluded to by Propertius, >. iv. 1. The Etruscan style, a ceo ri g to Strabo, resembled the Egypt L, or rather the early Grecian. Q |. tilian censures it as dry, and Ci o as hard. See the Works of Pus, i, Gori, and Buonarotti. The Etruscans were as rr h distinguished in architecture, is in the other arts. Etruscan chitects were employed by e Romans in the construction of e Capitol, the temple of Jupiter, d other edifices. The walls of e Etruscan cities are generally y high, and built of massy sto;. Remains are still left of thosof Volaterra, Cortona, Fsesula, \ The gates were very simple, d built of stones of an oblong-sqre shape. The Gate of Herculeni Volaterra, has a fine arch, cjfc posed of nineteen larg:e stones, e first temples of the Etruscans v i very small, and could contain ich, or the casual fall of a can e, to burst into a flame, and , n me the inhabitants." 1 the " Philosophical Transac- tion for 1778, p. 884, an experi- pei made by Lord Charles Mahon ; ((scribed, of surrounding the joisi of a plaster floor with a strong nre,ne result of which was a per- fect^nfirmation of the belief that < Di.de of securing buildings fron'fire will prove effectual. I (many instances the French kpi] rs fill up the intervals of the joist entirely with plaster, and dis- SJwilh boards altogether; the nati'of their plaster enables them to ( this, beins; made from gyp- sum'.vhith is the common material of tl country. It swells so much in ; tinjr, as to occasion a strong iate adhesion to the sides of the jgjtf which, with the addition of the Hons nailed below, very suf- ficie l\ supports the flooring tiles; besi«s, their dry plaster in a mass, as tly prepare it, is nearly as firm and jlid as our Bath stone, and will stain very heavy weights be- fore will break. Even if from custi and prejudice the people of -is untry should disapprove of the ;ippc.;nce of tiled floors, yet these wou, not appear when covered withn carpet. But indeed the Fren, in their tiles, frequently prod^e so exact and beautiful an jjmionof squares, or narrow pa- nels, r inlaid work, composed of shor, narrow pieces of walnut 1 as to be with difficulty disti uished from floors of real I'lro t. It would indeed be not a m«,er of much difficulty to, give die rm and appearance of deal Jpaij to those plastered or tiled A or not even forgetting the heidof nads, if required. It is also lieved, that floors of this con- stru( jn would prove cheaper, and FIR the cold air in winter would not find its way through chinks and crevices, as in boarded floors of in- ferior workmanship; they are found not only to resist the passage of cold air to the feet, but also inter- cept the conveyance of sound from one room to another. If objections were made to stone staiis, a very excellent kind of stairs are made of plates of cast iron, supported by wrought iron traverses; a neat specimen of which has existed for many vears in front of the »ate Duke of Queensberry's house in Piccadilly. Pointed stairs of this kind have an elegant ap- pearance. Excellent stairs might be made at a less expense by Cumberland slates, or flag-stones, supported by wrought-iron traverses. The Cumberland slate, of one inch in thickness, will support as much weight as a Portland stone of five inches. In securing buildings against fire, the floor is of the first importance, since the fire almost invariably commences there ; and next to these, the stairs; after which the partitions between rooms demand our attention ; these should never he entirely of wood, especially in rooms where servants sleep ; a four-inch wall, commonly called a partition of brick noggin, is always to be preferred for security. The means already pointed out, if adopted, would diminish the danger from fire, in at least ninety- nine instances in a hundred, which arise from accidents, and render it extremely difficult for infernal in- cendiaries to put their diabolical designs in practice. Considerable attention has been lately bestowed on this subject, and provision against the accident of fire has been made in buildings in every part of London, particu- larly in the new buildings in the Strand. In these erections, instead 57 FLO FLO of wooden bressummers extend- ing across the fronts, stron* thei ore only to be considered as H regis vertical pressure; and they »y be made so that they W| H bt qually strong at every part of thefngth. Vai.mg, constructed of hollow pots of earthenware, was first known in France in 1787: these pots are either square, hexa- gonal, or circular, and are joined with plaster-of-paris. This prac- tice has also been introduced into England : the pots are manufac- tured in Derbyshire, as mentioned in Farey's Derbyshire Reports. It is obvious, that the circular or hexagonal pots have the best, form ; and when joined with Roman ce- ment, floors of this kind are very strong, secure against fire, and excellently adapted for workshops and man' factories. Florid Style. See Gothic. Flue, the tube from a fire-place. See Chimney. Flush, a term used by work- men, to denote the continuity of two or more parts of joiner's work to the same surface. Flush and Bead. See Bead and Flush. Flutings, (slriges, ruga> y Lat. cannelures, Fr.) longitudinal cavi- ties cut on the shaft of a column or pilaster, &c. Fluting appears never to have been used in Egyp- tian columns, although in various parts of the Egyptian edifices has been traced something of the same principle. The Persian ar- chitects were excessively fond of it, and on some of the columns at Persepolis may be counted forty flutes. The Greeks were more economical of this kind of orna- ment, particularly in the Doric order, in which are found never less than sixteen, or more than twenty. The use of fluting in the Doric order is believed to be as old as the order itself; at least it is found in the most ancitnt remains. The Doric columns, according to Vitruvius, ou^ht to bear twenty flutes. The Greeks made the flutes of this order very slightly concave, and cut them off short. The flut- ings of the Ionic and Corinthian FO L FON orders differed from the Doric in number, form, and in their suscep- tibility of ornament: their number is fxed by Vitruvius at twenty-four, and sometimes thirtv-two: their form is that of a semicircle, or more commonly of that segment of a circle contained by a side of an equilateral triangle inscribed in it. The flutes are separated in the Ionic and Corinthian orders by a listel, and not, as in the Doric, by a simple edge. The most common method of ornamenting the Ionic and Corinthian flutes is, to fill the cavities by a rudenture, which is sometimes cut in the shape of a cord. (See Rudenture.) The princi- pal object of this ornament is to give solidity to the lovver-p trt of the co- lumn, and to defend the sides of the flutes, which would otherwise be liable to be broken in the lower part by any outward accident. It must be observed, however, that rudented flutes ought only to be used in columns which rise from the ground, and not in those whose elevation on pedestals places them out of r sk of being- injured, or which are used in a second order; and also that the rudentures ought only to occupy the lower part of the flutes, because the motive for which thev are used does not exist in the superior part of the shaft, whose elevation places the edges of the flutes out of danger. These observations apply equally to the Composite order. In the Tuscan order, flutes are seldom used; but when they are employed, the sim- plicity of this style allows only those of the Doric order. Flyers, are steps in a series, which are parallel to each other. Flying Buttresses. See Arc Boutaat. Folded Floor, a floor in which the boards are grooved and tongued, and laid down several at a time, go with their edges forcibly br^t together. Folding Doors, are ma to meet each other from op ii t e jambs, on which they are rL. and when they are rebated tog.*/ their edges meet, folding overU other, with a bead at the j< give the appearance of one \\ door. Foliage, an ornamental with which they were ornamented. Fortiucation, is the species of architecture termed military, used for defence against the attack of an enemy; showing how to for- tify a place with ramparts, parapets, moats, and other bulwarks. The fortifications of antiquity were con- structed of trunks of trees mixed with earth, and afterwards, when battering-rams, catapults, and other instruments of attack were invented, thick walls of stone or brick were used. To oppose the attacks of assailants with fire-arms, modern fortification requires ramparts, towers, and bastions, with numerous outworks. They are in the form of regular polygons, and called Regular For- tifications ; or, from peculiarity of situation, and other circumstances, their sides and angles are not uni- form, and they receive the name of Irregular Fortifications ; these are generally of a temporary descrip- tion, for the defence of an army on the field of action, and are called Field Fortifications, constructed of sand-bags, earth, and fascines, ten feet long and one foot thick, made of faggots of wood ; or, in- stead of these, when wood cannot be got, a wall of turf raised upon the parapet supplies their place. A very ingenious mode of fortifi- cation, applicable to ships as well as to land forts, to protect them against the destructive effects of cannon-ball, was communicated to the Register of Arts by Lewis Gom- pertz, Esq. of Kensington, and is 62 fully described in the secor vo- lume of the new series of thai with an illustrative engraving an( j it is also described in Jam o t1 ' s Dictionary of Science, vol. i. , a ,> e 330, with an account of nuri experiments made by the inv in The chief advantage of this tion is in its application to me vessels and ships of passage \ nu for ships of war, as it coi he adopted by both parties, its I'erts would be neutralized, — thoih it seems that in this case it Duid save the men from injurv and would always be in favour the weak, its nature being that de- fending itself, and returnii the blows. The attempt appear: wor- thy of encouragement, as affling an excellent defence of the eak against the assaults of the stira The fortifications of a lent Athens, as well as all its jblic, works, were upon a splendid ale; beside the Acropolis, the Citand the Piraeus, with Munvelra, w? re- spectively fortified. The two tter embraced a circumference of'ight English miles, with walls sixt Gre- cian feet high ; they were bit of square stone without cement, ned together with iron cramps. The city and the harbour werealso connected by two long wall the longer of which was equal tcorty stadias, or five English miles! -the shorter, to thirty-five — built u(>n a marshy ground raised with sjnes. To these were added, in time civar, ramparts of earth, trenchesand parapets, for the strengthen ! of the works, together with theirti- fications of the smaller pla<> in Attica. See Acropolis. Fortress, (fort) esse, Fr. sy- nonymous with Castle, whidjsee, and also Arabian Architect! . Forum. By this name r$l designated the public places here the markets were held at Fjme; FOR thev< r ere also used for public as- semlles of the people for public iHai elections, courts of justice, . | r e found in various (owns of npire, as Forum Livii, Fo- n fulii, Amongst the A the market-place, or Forum, pa , i led Agora, and was gene- :V ii the midrile of the town. In h e towns each quarter had its i and in towns situated on st, or a navigable river, the mgr were usually near the port. 1 e irm of the Grecian agora was enerally square, surrounded bv titicos, and by the principal Mb! edifices, as temples, &c. and ited with statues, as those ! A hana in the Corinthian terri- rv. rvtheum in Laconia, Corone ii ftssenia, described by Pausa- In the agora of Sparta was the [use in which the council of :be ciers met, «nd at the side the iwel < gs of the Ephori, and other nagi ates. The agora of Elis ■ irreat antiquity, and was I iistiif jished from those of the olherfities of Greece and Ionia, by wrtieos being pierced with e The forum of the Romans ffJM funeral iy an oblong square, he btadth two-thirds of its length. * I t y were often used for the :oml s of gladiators, the porticos *ere|rger, so that the intercolum- jiatic}} and galleries served also . »8sh»s for the merchants, and as x>um< ^-houses for the changers iwl ice i vers of public moneys. Thercjvere fourteen fora at Rome, rfwrja fourteen, called fora ve- nalituveve destined for mercantile p»irp< s; the other three, termed fora vilia or judiciaria, being wed r public assemblies, and for tne aninistration of justice. The g*at< and most celebrated forum »t R<:e, was the Forum Roma- **m,!'hich occupied the place k-twc. the Palatine mount and FO U the Capitoline, now called Campo Vaccino, and which being the most ancient, was sometimes termed Fo- rum Vetus or Latinum, or simply the Forum. In it was situated the comitium, and other public build- ings, and it was, till the timeof Julius Csesar, the only one in Rome. Many of the fora received their names from their builders, as the Forum Nerva and the Forum Tra- jani; others from the particular purpose for which they were des- tined, as the Forum Boarium, which was a market for cattle, and was adorned bv a bronze statue of a bull, the Forum Piscarium, or fish-market, Forum Pistorium, or bread market, Forum Suarium, or swine market. Several modern architects, as Perrault, Galliani, Palladio, Piranesi, and M. Durand, have published conjectural plans and elevations of these fora, in which they are probably very little exaggerated, and we may conceive from them a tolerably just idea of the disposition, size, and grandeur of these splendid works, in which utility was blended with all the richness and pomp of architectural ornament. The Meidan of Ispahan is a very large modern forum, surrounded on all sides by lofty galleries, and on festal days is adorned with richly coloured tapestry. See Ispahan. On the remains of the agora of Athens. See Agora. Foundation, (Fr.) that part, of a building or wall which is below the surface of the ground. The ancients in the foundations of their edifices followed somewhat different rules from those of the moderns. On a rock the foundation was com- monly not above two feet deep, but in castles they generally made the depth of the foundation one-sixth of the height of the edifice above the ground. The foundation walls were on each side half a foot wider G3 FOU FOU than the walls above, and were composed of large stones strongly cemented. Counter forts were raised on the outside of them, and in the interior other walls were con- structed, united to the principal walls, and projecting from them like the teeth of a saw : the angles were connected by diagonal walls. In their foundations, the Romans somelimes used puzzulana mixed with lime, and thrown into the foun- dation fosse. On this was placed a range of stones; and alternately a range of each followed, till the re- quired height was completed. If the ground to be built on was unsound or marshy, it was directed to be cleaned out, and piles of al- der or scorched oak driven down very close together by powerful machines, and the interstices ram- med with coal. If vaults and arches were to be made under the ground- floor, they must rest upon a foundation broader than themselves and of a compact and solid structure. The architect, well aware of the great importance of a good foun- dation, will be anxious to find or to make it such. A rock, or a com- pact sandy earth, of a firm consist- ence and rocky, make a natural foundation, either on land or in water; and if on land, and no cellars be required, it will be suffi- cient to dig a sixth part of the height of the building. If the building be in water, all the sand and gravel must be removed till a firm foundation be found, or if that cannot be done, piles must be driven and an artificial foundation made. In soft and loose ground, the foun- dation must be proportionally wider; and also when the fabric to be erected is very spacious. Stones laid level without mortar a* the bottom of the trenches, are best for the first course, and these should 64 be close packed together, am he broader the better. Witfj bn&H in general, it is a rule to mak he foundation course twice thebnhh of the thickness of the wall. In foundations near the ed of waters, or where trenches hav )( fore been made, the ground ust be carefully examined to a con jj able depth. Previous to layin'the foundation, it will be necessaf to make drains for carrying oiithe rain or other water, that \juld otherw : se collect and lodge iout the house. In forming these,[rg? allowances must be made fc the different quantities that ma be collected at various times, a it must be considered, that vast un- titles of sediment will be rollijed, and soon choak up the drain fit be of contracted dimensions to 1 prevent this, it will be necessjj'to make cavities in various places nto which the sediment will coot; these are called sess-pools. 'jese drains ou^ht to be arched oftt the top, and may be most cjve- nientlv built of brick; and accciing 11 to their different sizes, the folhiru: proportions of height and tjck- ness may be observed. 1 the drain be eighteen inches vie it may be one foot in height, a in thickness nine inches; the hod decay, which otherwise, y soil, will remain entire for ages] In loose soil, and where there be apertures in buildings, itich s doors, windows, &c. it ; best to turn an inverted ider each ; which will eflfec- !U3ll ounteiact the mischief which wooli irise from the stress of the incur ent weight — the piers car- ryinghe arches with them as one ! od y, pressing equally on the wb-sj of the foundation. The ic curve is recommended t! form of these arches; but ould never be less than a semiej'Ie. As avails rise from the first - they are diminished equally i side. The outward and walls of a building must f n ihe same level. Inverted be) must be built under all ertj»s, except those of very con- ictff dimensions The bearings ymey-breasts must not be itwji is — they must diminish as V e from the footing and the face t the outward wall. New- man h must not be laid .mi new-made walls. Old ! 'cns must not be built on w itho ; careful examination. All stone: in building, especially in fcontfions, must be laid as in 'iny. See Bed and Face of PoIitain, a building out of FR A which water is made to flow, for the supply of towns and cities : in ancient Greece they were to be seen in almost every town, and some of them highly ornamental. The Pirene, a fountain of Corinth, was enclosed with white marble, formed into elegant grottos, from which the water flowed into a capa- cious basin or reservoir, of the same material. A second fountain at Corinth was called Lerna, whose beautiful portico overshadowed ranges of elegant seats, on which, in the extreme heat of summer, the citizens might enjoy the cool air. Pausanias mentions a foun- tain in the sacred wood of Escula- pius, at Epidaurus, of great beauty. He also describes many others equally distinguished ; arcu ng which were those called Arsinoe and Clepsydra, at Messina. France, at Paris boasts of the fountain of the Thuilleries, at Versailles of that of the Orangery, and various others, splendidly, if not tastefully, deco- rated. At Rome are the foun- tains of the Villa Aldobrandini at Frescati, of the Terminus, of Mount Janiculum, of the gardens of the Belvidere in the Vatican, the three Fountains of St. Paul, and many others of great, celebrity. See Ba- sin and Cantharus. Fountain eers. See Aqueduct. Fou rciiou Fou. See Bridge. Fox-tail Wedging, is a pecu- liar mode of mortising, in which the end of the tenon is notched beyond the mortise, and is split, and a wedge inserted, which being driven forcibly in, enlarges the tenon, and renders the joint firm and im- moveable. Frame, the name given to the woodwork of windows, enclosing glass ; the outward work cf doors or window-shutters, enclosing pa- nels; and in carpentry, to the tim- ber works supporting floors, roofs, 65 FRE FRE ceilings; or to the intersecting pieces of timber forming partitions. Franking, a term used by the makers of window sashes, and ap- plied to the mode of forming the joint where the cross-pieces of the frame intersect each other. French Architecture. The works built under the direction of Charles V. prepared the regenera- tion of architectural taste in France. Of this age, may be instanced the castle of St. Germain-en-Laye, and those of Montargis and De Creil. The church of St. Urbain at Troyes, built towards the end of the fif- teenth century, is distinguished by its delicacy and solidity. From Charles XII. to Louis XII. little progress was made in the improve- ment of this art. Under the latter prince were erected the eastern and southern fronts of the castle of Blois, with the Palais de Justice, the castle of Gaillon, &c. In the reign of Francis I. architecture had still made very slow progress ; he erected parts of the castles of Fon- tainbleau and St. Germain-en-Laye, and, on his return from Spain in 1526, Chamboid. It was during the reign of this prince that the taste for the Gothic styie began to yield to the style which was intro- duced by the Italian artists whom his liberality encouraged. This is considered as the true epoch of the regeneration of pure architecture in France. The Italian and French artists emulated each other in fur- nishing the most magnificent de- signs for the erection of the Louvre, which was continued by his suc- cessor, Henry II. by whose orders considerable additions were also made to Chamboid, Fontainbleau, and St. Germain-en-Laye. From this period the architecture of France lias proceeded through a regular train of progressive im- nrovements, till it arrived at its 66 present state. In the Plat f French Buildings, are exh ted the general style of French „ . sions in the metropolis. For ore observations on the early an ture of France, see Gothic A lecture. French Bridges. See£;,, Frkncii Casements, areli dow frames made to form two s - ments, one of which is fixed i the other moveable, wrapping v r each other, and forming a trajoni at their junction. The lower which hinges on the jambs, hn a munion where the two sides eet in the middle. A patenttgi granted in 1825 to J. L. Bo| of Newman-street, and J. Turin of Well-street, London, for ai im- proved sash of this construct! . Fresco, (Ital.) the most merit by method of ornamenting hous< painting on stucco whilst tha u!> stance remains soft and fresh this method of decoration is pecurlv applicable to great public |>rks and splendid edifices, bein|th most durable ; it is also the^L expeditious y performed, an|9J requires the greatest skill its execution. The Egyptians "«\ tised stucco painting from a rlnj and unknown antiquity ; ana also found among the most a relics of Grecian art. Two < - torsare engaged, the pai I r the plasterer in constant a wl- ance. To prepore the work f the painter, a rendering and a finmj coat are required, and the e are prepared only with water )iirs No alteration or amendment cai»ki place, and the artist must pWSl great ability and judgment Jvi quickness of execution. Th &fl has been lately revived a m French, with considerable sres an example of which is rcfnjl finished in the chapel of SW'fi cent de Paule, in the chu i « FR I FRO Stifulpice at Paris, by a native «rtf: of the name of Guillemot ; it i lie third chapel in that church w h|i has been so embellished, and thctfect is very beautiful. JiET,a kind of ornamental work, v, h i presents a rough or uneven ranee, formed by rectangulars nnelled work. The labyrinth ; s formed from winding chan- nel whose sides are parallel to \c ether, with right angles. J ieze, (Fr.) that part of the ■ it lature comprised between the arc rave and the cornice, sup- posi to have originated from the pro-ting ends of the transverse beas resting on and fixed to the rc rave. Amongst the ancients, iscan order had no frieze, be- cau the beams which rest on the arclrave, and which in the other ord(' do not go beyond it, have so ;?at a projection in this, that i\ form the cornice. When er the beams give place to a frie? they are cut level with the i ave. In the Doric order the / was ornamented with tri- . v| , which doubtlessly owed t iei; rigin to the same extremities i ll beams resting on the archi- ■P They were placed at equal jfptyes above the middle of the pups, and that of the interco- :ni lions. Thus there remained bettt n the two triglvphs a square uac called the Metope. In the Ipte orders the frieze was orna- jpi I with garlands of flowers ftd 'tits, with figures of animals, ' e Vitruvius names it zopho- \) en, of arms, of allegorical nts, &c. On the frieze of ■ ! t > pie of Jupiter at Elis, ap- pwio have been sculptured the r.ice f Pelops and (Enomaus, Hlj some suppose it to have been i the fronton. On the frieze ^ th'.emple of Apollo at Delphos wef e spended the golden bucklers that were taken at the battle of Marathon. Stuart, in his Antiqui- ties of Athens, has given a repre- sentation of a Doric frieze, supposed to have belonged to a temple of Ceres at Athens, whose two tri- glvphs are ornamented with the heads of poppies, with a torch and a thyrsus placed across. Winckle- man has shown, in his treatise on the architecture of the ancients, that no member allows so great a variety of ornament as the frieze; it was often appropriated to an inscription, as in the Rotunda at Rome ; and in some instances, small oval apertures to admit light are introduced on the frieze. On this subject, amongst other works, may be consulted P. Columbani, a va- riety of capitals, friezes, and cornices, and " Frises et Ornaments moderne, par J. Le Pautrc" Frieze-Panel, the upper pa- nel of a door of six panels. Frieze-Rail, the rail next to the top rail of a door of six panels. Frigidarium, (Lat.) an apart- ment in the Roman bath, supplied with cold water. Frigiratory, an apartment, generally on the ground floor, or in the cellar, under-ground, well ven- tilated, and fitted for the preserva- tion of animal and vegetable articles of food. Front, (frons, Lat.) the name given to the principal anterior fa- cade of a building: by the Romans peculiarly applied to temples, as was also the word Anticum. Frontispiece, an ornamented front of a building. Fronton. See Tympanum. Frosted, a kind of ornamental work, having an appearance like that of hoar frost upon plants. Frustum, (Lat.) a piece cut off from a regular figure : the frustum of a cone is the part that re- mains when the top is cut off 67 G A I G AN by an intersection parallel to its base ; it is also called a truncated cone. The frustum of a globe or sphere, is any part of it cut off by a plane; the solid contents of which may be found by adding three times the square of the semidiame- ter of its base to the square of its height, and then multiplying that sum by the height and this again by 15236, which gives the solidity of the frustum. Funnel, the inside of the shaft of a chimney. Furniture, the name given to ornamental plates of brass, or other metals attached to the fastenin f doors, windows, and on other rti of the wood-work of houses. Furrings, are flat piece of timber used by carpenters to (L dislocated work to a regulator- rangement, by drawing the fof parts of it to one regular surW, Fusuuole, a small memb in form of a collar, with somelat long beads under the echinu or quarter-round, of pillars of the » - ric, Ionic, and Composite order Fut, (Fr.) the shaft of a co- lumn ; applied also to the ink of a pilaster. G. Gable, (gaval, Welsh,) the up- right triangular end of a building; in classical architecture, called a pediment. See Carpentry. Gage, (Fr.) in carpentry, an instrument made to strike a line trujy parallel to the straight side of any board or piece of stuff. Its chief use is for the gaging of tenons true, to fit into mortises; and for gaging stuff of an equal thickness. It is made of an oval piece of wood, fitted up on a square stick, on which it slides up and down, and on which there is a tooth, to strike a line at the distance required. Gaieta, or Gaeta, the ancient Cajeta, a seaport town of Naples, 40 miles north-west from the capi- tal. At the front of the cathedral is a fine antique white marble vase, of Athenian sculpture, with bassi re- litviy representing Athamas, Ino with a child in her arms, and a group of Bacchantes. An ancient column, opposite the great portal, is marked with the names of the winds in Greek and Latin. The tomb of Munatius Planens, which stands on a bold eminence on the neck of land which joins the pen- insula to the continent, is round, but stripped of its marble caig t and converted into a tower ith battlements. See Eustace 's 'a- vels, vol. i. p. 475. Gain, the bevelled shouldeif a binding joist. Galilee, a name given t< lie porch which was built at or?ar the west end of great abbey chi.'h- es, where the monks collecte on their return from any proce;on, and where corpses were dept ed previous to their interment. Gallery, (Fr.) an apart mt of much greater length than bre th, often used as a connecting paf ge with which the various rooms building communicate. PalJio gives the proper length of a g^ry at from eight to ten time its breadth. In modern palaces nd mansions, the gallery, like theor- tico of the ancients, is apprcpr ed to the reception of pictures nd sculptures. The name is also ;'en to long porticos, with rang* of columns on one side. Gang-Ladder, a name us m canal-making, for the same im- pose as a horsing block. Gang-Way, a temporary tail of planks. GAT GAT Uol, (Brit, geol,) a prison, or pla of confinement. It is always prounced, and sometimes erro- t, e( ;l v written, jail. In England, eve county has two gaols ; one v he peace, and the affairs of therown, and this is properly the ty gaol, the other for debtors. t/un, Pont du. See Aqueduct. urdfns, Hanging. See Arch. (ilRLand, (Gardcl Handa, in t, iforthern languages, a nosegay art;lhj wrought with the hand.) word cenotes ornaments of flovrs, fruit and leaves, intermix- ed jnciently much used at the fat of temples, where feasts and lol iu rejoicings were held, and as an rchitectural ornament, is fre- i qu't on triumphal arches, &c. u nf.ts, Cross, a kind of hini, in the shape of H . |»ret, (Fr.) the upper story of mouse. i.tr, (geat,Szx.) the door of a cit- castle, or other large building. Th city of Rome had originally but iree gates, but after the ad- m'uon of the Sabines as citizens, a firth was added on the side of the :apitol. The first gate was ter d Porta Muiionis, from the rag of the herds which entered bv •; the second, Romanula, from tlieuame of the city ; the third, } mills, from the temple of Janus K< t; the fourth, Porta Carmen- t&u from Carmenta, the Arca- dia prophetess, the mother of Evjcler, who resided near it. Oljr gates were afterwards, at wr| is periods, added. Leo Bat- Alberti, (de re edificatoria, Kb;iii. c. 6.) observes the simila- ritjjietween the names and use of ate (porta) and ports or har- bot (portus) : viarum quidem, et ear 1, qu-ae extra urbem sunt, et '"nn, quae intra ur'nem sunt, ca- t. quasi terminus quidam, est ter >tribus porta: maritimis nisi fallimus portus. The gates of an- cient cities were formed with an opening in the middle for carriages, &c., and one smaller on each side for foot passengers, as may be observed at Pompeii. In temples, the lintel, or architrave of the gate, was always the same height as the capitals of the columns of the por- tico. The gateways were some- times wider at the bottom than the top, as in the circular temples of Vesta atTivoli,and the Doric tem- ple at Cora. Vitruvius denomi- nates gates, according as they be- longed to the Doric, Ionic, or Corin- thian orders, Doric, Ionic, and Attic. The gates of Arabian cities are generally of vast height, plated with brass on both sides. See Ara- bian Architecture. In rural economy, the Gate is a frame of wood, constructed of bars, and turning upon hinges. Their width should be generally from 8| to 9 feet, and the height five to six, the bars five or six in number, each four or five inches broad. Oak, on account of its durability, is the best wood for gates; but deal, willow, and alder, are often used, and are durable from their lightness. Where horses, &c. are kept, the upper bars are required to be strongest. * Gates, in engineering, are the doors of locks or sluices, on ca- nals, &c. A Gate, on the construction, hang- ing, and fastening of a turnpike-gate, has been invented by T. N. Parker, Esq. ; a full account and descrip- tion of which may be procured at Taylor's Architectural Library, Hol- born. In this improved gate, an extraordinary degree of strength has been obtained with a moderate quantity of materials, and those materials so advantageously dis- posed, that the weight of the gate is thrown as near to the hinges as GEN possible. The force required to open or shut this gate is equal to about eleven pounds ; and when opened at right angles to the road, it presents no projecting obstruc- tion of any description, and has no tendency to recoil, nor to rest in one part more than in another. The materials of this gate are oak and iron, and though the principle is not new, yet the manner of its application is peculiar, as respects both the upper and lower hinge ; the weight on the lower is supported without either wheels or rollers, and yet it may be opened by a child of three years old ; and the upper hinge may be extended or shortened by a screw-nut, to adjust it with t he lower. The expense of this gate will be from about £1'2 to £20. Gate, the Sympathetic Park Gate, is made to open on the ap- proach of a carriage or horse, and to shut of itself when the carriage has passed through. This inven- tion is by Mr. John Parker, of Knightsbridge, and is described in the London Journal of Arts, vol. xiv. 1827. The lever is the prin- ciple of action, and the weight of the horse or carriage is the pro- pelling power, in the opening and closing of the gate. Gathering of the Wings, is a name given by workmen to that part of a chimney which connects the breast with the flue. Genesis, (yeveaig, Gr.) the for- mation of a line, plane, or solid, in geometry, by the motion of another. Glneva, a city of Switzerland. The houses are lofty, consisting fre- quently of four or five stories; and in the commercial part of the town, particularly in the Rue Basse, gloomy arcades of wood are sup- ported by large wooden pillars, which rise to the very top of the house, and protect the foot pas- sengers from the sun and rain. In GEO this street there are two rou f low wooden shops in front oL houses, separating the street !, m the foot pavements. The cjL dral, which is a fine bttilL' occupies the place of an an. J temple consecrated to the sun. Geometrical Stair, a fL of stairs, supported only by the ill at one end of the steps. Geometry, (ye^erpm, Gift from yrj, the earth, and jkrp ( j measure,) the science of extenL quantity, or magnitude, abstract ly considered. The oldest geom-j. cians we read of in history re the Egyptians, to whom ancnt writers attribute the invenfio of the science. One of its oldest d- tivators in Greece was ThaleJbf Miletus. Among his followers re Anaximander, Anaximenes, An L goras, and Pythagoras. It L tinued to flourish amongst thet cian sages, and, amongst its ? st distinguished disciples in later n s, are numbered the celebrated naj;s of Euclid and Archimedes. Amost the best works on geometry, e, Euclid's Elements by Simpson, j- gendre's Geometrie, and the wii of Playfair and Leslie. The I- lowing are a few of the most usjal practical problems : — 1. Given three straight lis, A,B,C, to find a fourth proport i- al. (Plate GI, Jig. 1.) Make* angle def at pleasure, apply ie line A on the side of the angle fp e to d, and the line B on the o r side from e to f, join df; apply e line C on the iine e d, from e t/, draw gh parallel to df, mee g the side ef'mh; eh will be 16 fourth proportional. 2. To find a mean proportion between two given lines. Dra> straight line AC, (fig. 2,) and m e AB and BC equal to die g|n lines; draw BD perpendicular;© AC from point B, or AC, a a GEO GEO dmeter, describe the semicircumfe- q ce ADO, cutting BD in D : BD v! be the proportional required. I. To find in lines the square rlt of any proposed number, I;w the straight line AC (Jig. 3,) J;al to the proposed number, Jeh may be supposed to be 35, w h is the product of 35 x 1, or 7 5. Make AB equal to 35 pi s of a scale, and BC equal to l.nd find the mean proportional B to AB, and BC, by the last pnlem; or find bd (Jig. A,) a m-n proportional between the lines a, and 6c, which are equal to 7 ar 5 ; (he line BDor bd will be found ec,d to 5 9 16, the square root. , To reduce a given rectangle tonother, which shall have one of itsides given. Let ABCD (Jig. 5,) b( he given rectangle : make the ii I = AD, and K ' = AB, which be* considered as the two middle teis, make H, as the first term, eq.l to the given line EP, and fin a fourth proportion by prob. 1, wl h may be done on the angle DA, and Ag will be the other sic of the rectangle to be erected on F, and equal to ABCD. (The Ki at the bottom of the plates is mi, to apply the lines of the fig =s to numbers.) | To reduce a given triangle to 1 1 tangle of the same area. Let the iven triangle be ABC, (Jig. 1, PleG. II.) take the side AB for the ength of one of the sides of the ectangle, and draw the line 1 i from C perpendicular to AB, sect CD into equal parts, in "if ■ oint i: draw EH zr AB, and bF : Di perpendicular to EH, and cor lete the rectangle EFGH, h ; will contain the same area as f; triangle ABC. < To reduce a triangle to a rec igle of the same area, of wh one of me sides is given. Let he given triangle be ABC, (Jig. 2,) and F the given side of the rectangle; G, H, I, are the three first terms of the four proportionals, H — AC base of triangle, and I bz de, half the perpendicular Bd, and a fourth term ko may be found by the triangle I km: construct the rectangle p qr s, of which the side p s = F, and p q = ko, and it will be equivalent to the triangle ABC. 7. To reduce a polygon to an equivalent rectangle, of which a side is given. Let it be required to reduce a pentagon ABCDE, (Jig. 3, No. 1 J to a rectangle, whose given side is I. (No. 2.) As the figure consists of five sides, it may be divided into three triangles by the diagonals AC, AD: in the first triangle, V, draw the perpen- dicular Bf; transfer AC and the half of B/ to K and L, (No. 2,) for the two middle terms of which the first is I : find the fourth propor- tional mq by No. 3 : the lines I (No. 2,) and mq, (No. 3,) are the sides of a rectangle equivalent to the triangle ABC: this rectangle will be rswv, (No. 8.) In the same manner the rectangle s t xw, may be found, equal to triangle W, by Nos. 4 and 5, and the whole fi- gure will be completed by tuyx — X, by Nos. 6 and 7, the rectangle ruyv being equal to the pentagon ABCDE. If the polygon be regu- lar, a rectangle must be described equal to one of the triangles, and repeated as often as the number of triangles. In Jig. 1, (Plate G. III.) the rectangle r sg z, No. 3, is made equal to the triangle FIE, (No. 1,) and the whole rectangular r xy z is the rectangle multiple of the partial rectangle rsgz. 8. To describe a square that shall be any multiple of a given square. Let ABCD, (Jig. 2,) be the given square, it is required to make one four times as large; draw tne dia- gonal BD, and produce the sidea G I L GLA AB and AD to G and K, make AE and AH equal to DB, and complete the square AELH : next draw a line from D to E, make AF and AI each equal to DE, and complete the square AFMI: the square AELH =: twice the square of AB, for the square of DB, which is equal to the square AELH, is equal to the squares of AB and AD, that is, twice ihe square ABCD ; in like manner the square AFMI, being the square of DE, equals the squares of AE and AD, and the square of AE is twice the square of AD, therefore the squares of AE and AD, or the square AFMI equals the square of AD, or the square ABCD. For the same reason, the square AGNK, made in the same manner, is four times the square ABCD. 9. To describe a square nearly equivalent to a given circle. Let the given circle be ABCD, (Jig. 3,; draw the two diameters AC, BD, at right angles to each other, bisect either of the four radii, as ED in f 9 and from A, the extremity of the radius perpendicular to FD, draw the straight line Ag through f, meeting the circumference in g : Ag will be the side of a square, whose area is very nearly equal to the circle ABCD. Geranos, (Greek,) a machine placed behind the scenes of the ancient theatres, by means of which the actors might be raised into the air. The name signifies a crane, and it perhaps resembled in some measure the machine which still goes under that name. Giant's Arch, a remarkable arch of the horse-shoe form, at Alora in Spain. See Arabian Architecture. Giblea Cheque, a term used in Scotland for a recess made in a stone doorcase, by cutting away the right angle formed by the front and returns of the aperture. 72 ivo, (gildan, Sax.) ftL of gilding and silvering Gildi tracings to be found on the earliest rn< ,. ments of Egyptian art. Vesi> s of it, as used by the ancient \i sians, are found among the ruiL Persepolis. It was practised C great extent among the Grjcs and Romans, but not in m architectural works. Gimlet, (Fr.) an instrument d by carpenters, &c. for boring h< s. Giocondo, an architect oft rona, in the sixteenth century, p visited France, built two brim over the Seine, and obtained ie title of architect-royal to the Fr< ;h king. He was first a teaeheot languages. He was employed th Raphael and San Gallo, in sur- in tending the erection of St. Pet s. He edited Pliny's Epistles, and i- truvius, and published severalr- chiteetural dissertations. Girder, (Saxon,) a lareebcn, to shorten the joists of a floor, id thus lessen their bearing. It is also termed the girding beam, lie Carpentry. Girdle, (Saxon,) the cireir band round a column. Girgenti. See Agrigenh Glacis, (Fr.) an easy slop^r declivity. In fortification, a slu- ing bank, more particularly it which ranges from the patapew the covered way to the level onie side of the field. Glass, {glees, Saxon,)atran rent substance, made by fu various salts and metallic ox M with siliceous earths. The rmi- facture of glass was well know Aristotle's time, about 350 y rs before Christ, and Pliny gives ie following account of its discovy. A merchant vessel, laden with r e or fossil alkali, being driven bug coast of Palestine, near the W Belus, the crew accidentally fj ported the kettles on which t y GOL dril their provisions on pieces of thifossil alkali. The sand about j t L vitrified by its union with the alkali, and produced glass. Tlvhint thus accidentally obtained wa improved upon. The glass of E 2 )tian manufacture was long pr< rred to all other : it was often staed of various colours. In the tin of Augustus it was used by theRoman architects in mosaic wo, several specimens of which ha' been found in the villa of Til ins, in the island of Capri, cor sting of red, green, and blue. Frji Lactantius it appears, that !) t the end of the third century, i, was used for windows, (de Opc. Dei, c. 5,) and from the gl;; plates found at Herculaneum, v t ave reason to suppose that this prdre was introduced much ear- lie The use of glass in windows ■ ntioned by St. Jerome in 422, Pi us Silenliarus in 534, Gregory of "ours in 671, and Johannes Pb)ponus in 630. Artificers skilled in ikincr crlass, according to Bede, we brought into England in 674. Gljs windows were not generally us< in England till 1180, and for a Misiderable time they vvere cstrned marks of great magnifi- es. .t'F„ See Cement. i kixg up various kinds of , is treated of in the article Co tructive Carpentry. LVPii, (y\v Arabian buildings of the tenth c( tury in Sicily, particularly o called Ziza, prove the existence the pointed arch in early Mahon dan architecture. In many very ancient Engl buildings, prior to the introducti GOT GOT ofne pointed style, solitary ex- antes are found of arches which a p oach in shape to the Gothic, imthev appear generally to have oorred fortuitously. Fig. 14, (in pie Gothic Architecture,) S is very remarkable and ancient -.. : i3\v from Brunless Castle. The hoi -shoe arch is also found in ild buildings, as^. 6, {Plate Ca'LE, C, 65.) from the very an- cie castle of Connisborough. 1 e will now proceed to describe dreading principles of the Gothic sty Of Gothic or pointed arch- ere are three principal kinds: the m pie pointed arch, which is striA from two centres on the line of 3 impost ; the tudor arch, with fou centres, of which two are on thene of the impost line; agee, wit four centres, two on the im- pos line, and two on aline with thepex, the segments struck from the'atter being reversed. The latt form is used principally in trat y and small work, and as a canHy or dripstone over doors and rin|»ws. The soffit is occupied » ouldings of various projec- tiorj The columns are never di- mir, ied, and are generally large, anchurrounded by a number of slen r shafts. The walls were at first nade of an unwieldy thick- nes.' to support the press of the arcH roof; but their thickness was fterwarcls diminished, and the defi mcy supplied by the use of butlsses. These are often divided into ages, diminishing in projec- tion^ they rise, and ending in a pinr ;le. From the upper part of ther pring insulated arches, serving as a ; rotection for the clere-story. The;teeple is generally a tower, sqUv'-topped, and crowned by a spin At the angles are slender lofty turn, containing the staircases. Tur s are also sometimes added to ti corners of the building. The turrets are often crowned by spires. The exquisitely beautiful turret at the north west angle of Peterbo- rough cathedral is square, and de- corated at the angles with boltels, which are carried up beyond it, and furnished by a triangular pin- nacle. The spire in the centre is octagonal, and rectangularly placed within the square, four of its sides thus forming triangles with the bol- tels at the angles of the turret, which being arched over, form grounds for pinnacles of the same form, which are carried up to about half the height of the spire itself. Two of the Gothic mouldings re- semble the cyma-recta and the cy- mareversa of the ancients. But the most peculiar moulding is the boltel, or cylindrical and nearly detached moulding, often answered by a corresponding hollow. Fig. 10 and 11, {Plate Gothic Archi- tecture,) are two forms of exte- rior drip-stones. The principles of Gothic archi- tecture, as has been already ob- served, appears to have been brought out of Spain, but it owes much of the beauties of its com- ponent parts, and the richness of its ornaments, to the Normans, amongst whom it was first intro- duced into the cathedrals of Seez, Coutances, and Mortain, in Nor- mandy ; then in the cathedral of Chartres, which was under Nor- man governance; and afterwards, on a more splendid scale, in the monastery of Clugnes, which was entirely rebuilt in 1093. No de- cided specimen of the pointed arch can be found in Normandy prior to 1080, about which time the cathe- dral of Seez was commenced, and partially built. The best preserved examp'e of this early period is the collegiate church of Mortain, which was founded by Robert, Count of Mortain, brother-in-law of William 75 GOT GOT the Conqueror, in 1082. At the commencement of the twelfth cen- tury, the adoption of this style of architecture became common, and, towards the middle, was used, to the total exclusion of the Norman, and its accessaries. The styles of Go- thic arch teeture in France and Normandy are distinguished gene- rally into three periods. The first style of Gothic archi- tecture, from 1150 to 1240, is principally distinguished by its very pointed arches, and by its not hav- ing; attait ed the bold elevation or lightness which subsequently cha- racterized it. The doors are deeply reces-ed, with a succession of co- lumns supporting an archivault formed of plain mouldings, some- times with grimacing heads round the top. In this age was intro- duced a small door on each side of the large western one. The doors of country churches were all small, with merely a plain pointed arch. Windows, during the period of transition, were plain, pointed, and narrow, from whence they gained the name of lancets. Towards the end of the twelfth century, the windows began to be ornamented with a moulding round the outside ; and at the beginning of the thir- teenth, the idea was conceived of uniting these lancets, which gave rise to the construction of larger windows, containing two lancets within one main arch, the vacant space at the head being rilled up with circles, trefoils, and quatre- foils. The columns during the first period began to be lengthened, clustered, and frequently encircled with fasces or bands, the capitals formed of flowers or foliage. The nave and aisles were narrow, sepa- rated by arcades of arches less acute than those of the windows, and covered with a vaulting in the form of an X, with a rose at the point of intersection, t- tresses were slender, and proje ^ more than in the Norman s e , In the latter part of this p ( ,! they were divided into part: 3r stages, the highest of which « surmounted with a little pinn; e whilst the front of the lowest is pierced with a niche, to contain ie statues of saints. At the sL time were introduced flying > tresses, and spires, which went first plain, and of an octaeil form. The best specimens of \% style in Normandy and France e the naves of the church of Eu d abbey of Fecamp, the cathec Is of Bayeux, Evreux, and the t y part of that of Amiens, St. G> vieve, and the Saints' Chapcllut Paris, the churches of . St. Drs, and St. Nicasius, and the catheil of Rheims. The second style of Gothic r- chitecture, from 1240 to 138(is particularly distinguished by e rectangular form of all its arc>, and embraces the most brill it epoch of its history. The sty is in general appearance chaste d harmonious, all its forms are Hi- lar, its members uniform, and ji i ciously proportioned. The d< rations are tasty and elegant; though they are numerous, arrangement is regulated with e regard to use, and the colloca n appropriate. The walls being a massy during this period, the d< s are less deeply recessed, but lar r, more highly finished, and formeof more graceful arches, surmourd with triangular pediments, wl e tympanums, as well as the fp below, are headed with a variet >f little figures. The windows J wider, and additional lancets t introduced; the interior divisi«s called mullions, assume a m slender appearance, and are sor times delicately fluted, in the fp GOT 5 f i-ouped pillars, with the heads v )rr Tiented with flowers. About beginning of the thirteenth cen- ;r trilobed, rose, and, in private noi's, bow windows, made their i appearance. Rose windows irelat first simple, ornamented Ait tiefoils and quatrefoils, united v lowing tracery ; afterwards e were formed of an elegant ass iblage of branch tracery, ra- : jg from the centre. The co- iuns are more delicate and ele- il than before, the capitals she er, but richer in foliage. Clus- ter pillars are sometimes found umr a single, plain, round capital. A pecies of ornament, called ;n'.et, was popular during this pe d, composed of a curled piece of liage, placed at the angles of spi 5, canopies, turrets, buttresses, &c The buttresses are more pro- jecig, ornamented with tablets, wit richer niches, and crowned wit crocketed pinnacles. Taher- naos are very peculiar to this pei d, and at the commencement of le fourteenth century became r mc gorgeous Gothic appendages. Th ribs, in the vaulting of the na > and aisles, are multiplied, and bn:h out into a great variety of tra ry. Spires are richly crock- cte longer and more delicate, ter- mi ting frequently with a bunch df iage, or a flame, called Jinials. i J a pets are considerably richer and nic open, formed of panels and ros 1 , enclosing trefoils, quatrefoils, &c 'he tracery is frequently mingled wit oak leaves, which now begin to used. The most remarkable mens of the second style are th( ate parts of the cathedral of An; ns and St. Denis, the church of t. Ouen at Rouen, St. Sepul- ch at Paris, and St. Stephen at je third, or florid style of Go- thi architecture, lasted from 1380 GOT to about 1500. During this period, Gothic architecture by degrees degenerating into fantastical re- finement, unmeaning and useless ornament, arches suffered a ge- neral depression, until at hist they almost entirely lost their pointed character. The most remarkable characteristic is a gorgeous exube- rance of decoration. The great source of ornament is pierced pa- neling, which is richly traced with foliage, and exhibits more gaudiness than elegance. Every variation of parapet, pinnacle, and buttress, are now in use, the latter very project- ing, and loaded with statuary, heraldic insignia, &c. Various parts of the summits, particularly the angles, are ornamented with round cupolas. A remarkable cha- racter of the latest productions of this style, is the extreme depth and delicacy with which all ornaments are wrought on the stone. Win- dows begin to lose the elegance of their form and proportions ; they are multiplied considerably along the lateral walls, and widened, for the introduction of additional lan- cets, with a very obtuse arch. The divisions in the head display, instead of roses and trefoils, a variety of undulating forms, and the mould- ings of the arches are sometimes festooned with foliage, particularly the leaves of endive, vine, thistles, and broccoli. Portals too mark this style. They are invariably surmounted with a square head, or pediment, whose spandriis are orna- mented with foliage or sculpture. In porches, a drip-stone and rich battlement parapet crown the whole, with richly canopied lateral niches, flanked with buttresses, and termi- nated with a group of four pinnacles. Arcades are of a very compressed form, and the imposts of the arches often repose only on consoles, covered with richly grouped foliage GOT GOT The ornaments of the vaulting con- stitute a series of intricate panel tracery, and richly frosted fretwork introduced between the groinings. Sometimes a radiating cluster of ribs or nervings springs from the summit of the columns, branching *v t on the roof in the form of a fan. This style of decoration was multiplied by degrees to great ex- cess, and at the central points of union, are displayed immense masses of richly ornamented stone- work, called pendentives, which descend frequently to a considerable depth. The first period of this style may be seen in the churches of Alengon, Argentan, Le Treport, and Harfleur; and the chapels, porches, &c. of many other chur- ches. Of the second period, are part of Notre Dame, of St. Stephen, and St. John, at Caen, the hall of justice at Bayeux, and parts of many churches and buildings at Rouen. The most elaborate and delicate workmanship is exhibited in the mortuary chapels, monumental screens, and canopied tombs. The pointed arch was first used in the ecclesiastical buildings in England, towards the close of the reign of Henry I ; during those of Stephen, and Henry II. its use be- came more frequent. Parts of the following structures are character- istic of the style practised at this early period. Buildwas Abbey, Shropshire, begun about 113.0; re- mains of the priory church at Dunstable, reign of Stephen ; abbey church at Romsey, Hants, Lanthony abbey, Monmouthshire, founded in 1136; and the north side of the nave and choir of St. David's Cathedral, S. Wales. The intro- duction of this style into England was very gradual, and in some instances pointed arches are found mixed in the same building with those of the Saxon and early Nor- 78 man. The Gothic architect in England, as on the Contir t, has been divided into three distU styles. The first style* genei j denominated the Early Engt commenced with the reisrn Richard, in 1189, and eontird till about 1 300, including the re n of Richard I. John, Henry III. | Edward I. The second, or 0): merited English, from 1300 o 1460, beginning near the enof the reign of Edward I. and in - ding, Edward II. and III. Richarc [. Henry IV. V. and VI. The Fhd English, from 1460 to 1637, e time of the dissolution of religi s houses, including Edward IV. 1 V. Richard III. and Henry v , and VIII. The Early English style, s chiefly distinguished by its Ig narrow windows and bold or- ments and mouldings. The h i of the window is generally 2 lancet arch, and sometimes 2 trefoil. In large buildings, t) or more are generally found cc- bin«d, with their drip-stones unit. When combined, a quatrefoil 3 commonly inserted between Is heads, and when many, the wh; is sometimes covered by a segm tal pointed drip-stone. In la buildings, the windows are f quently decorated with slen shafts, which are usually insulat and connected by bands with wall. The circular, rose, or cat| rine window, is frequently foul in large buildings of this sti worked with great care. Do' are distinguished by their rcce, being usually placed in a do hollow, with a simple pointed an, the columns insulated in a (Id hollow. They are sometimes vided by one or more clustei shafts in the centre, with a kind four-leaved flower as an ornamt above. The steeples were oft GOT GOT ll |! a do ed with finely proportioned gpjl They have usually ribs at the ngles, "which are sometiines ered. In some instances the s mu is surrounded with bands of K efoik. Buttresses are common : ( ons at the angle* of the tower, tho'ch octagonal turrets, with pin- ■ -ic5, are sometimes met with. Tht'slope of the spire in some hes projects over the wall of the ower, which is finished by a cor ^e. The piers are surrounded wit bands, sometimes confined to the hafts, and sometimes continued I pier, the capital being usually con'osed of plain bold mouldings. In 'are Gothic Architecture, y 2 is a capital of this style, anina. 13, a base. The plan of ers is generally a circle, sur- rou'led by small shafts. Fig. 6 beautiful variation from Salis- buij Cathedral. The buttresses ■ areimple, have few sets off, and raM'any ornament in their fasces. Thriving buttresses were not used till te. The ornamental works of tlmperiod are distinguished for the boldness, and contempt of ment. The most peculiar or- ii nt is that denominated the tooied ornament, which resembles a 1( pyramid, of which the sides ; re >ierced in the form of curvi- Jiwj triangles bending inwards; It usually placed on a hollow moding, and is sometimes entirely det hed, except the angles. The Di li pal specimens of this style are, dui|g the reign of Richard I. the for side of the west transept of Roaster Cathedral, the chapel of the oly Trinity at Canterbury, the "PI 1, transept and choir of Lincoln catidral, and part of the nave and aisI ' of that of Peterborough. Du<,g the reign of John, the Ga- I'leof Ely cathedral, part of the eas ndof that of Winchester, the ren us of Beaulieu priory, Hants, the choir and transept of the ca thedral of Rochester, and the nave and central tower of that of Lincoln. During the rei^n of Henry III. the pusbytery of Ely cathedral, West- minster Abbey church, the tower and western front of Wells cathe- dral, the whole of Salisbury cathe- dral, the transept of Worcester cathedral, and the transepts of York cathedral. The windows of the ornamented style of English Architecture are distinguished from those of the pre- ceding period by being larger, and divided into lights by slender up- right stones, called mullions. In some cases, the mullions branch out into geometrical figures, and are all of equal size and shape; in others they are dispersed through the head in curves of various de- scriptions, which is called flowing tracery. In windows of more than three lights, the principal mullions form simple figures, subdivided by inferior ones. The principal mul- lions are faced by slender shafts, with bases and capitals. The flow- ing tracery will be understood by the sketch, Jig. 9, of a window from the nave of York cathedral. The architraves are enriched by mouldings, which sometimes resem- ble columns, and the windows often reach from pier to pier. The arch is generally either the equilateral triangle, or more obtuse. The dripstone is improved into an ele- gant canopy, in form either pedi- mental, or an ogee arch, and is decorated with crockets and a finial, and the space enclosed between it and the exterior contour of the arch filled up with tracery. The circular window was also brought to perfection in this style. The doors differ less from the last pe- riod ; they are not so frequently double, and the shafts are not detached ; in smUl doors, the 79 GOT GOT mouldings of the arch are carried down the side, instead of co- lumns. There is frequently no base moulding. The steeples differ little from the preceding style. In the groining of the roofs, the merely decorative ribs are not often used, that from pier to pier, with lon- gitudinal and transverse ribs, being most frequently used alone. At their intersections are placed bosses or sculptured ribs. The lancet arch is rarely met with ; the tudor but in one instance, the nave of "Winchester cathedral. The mould- ings are less numerous, but bolder. In small works, the ogee arch is frequently formed, decorated with crockets, and a finial, as in jig. 3, which represents the top of one. The piers are square in their gene- ral form, and placed diagonally. Two variations are shown in jig. 4, from Exeter cathedral, and Jig. 5, from the nave at Yoik. The shafts are sometimes filleted. The capi- tals are frequently enriched with foliage, as in Jig. 11 and 12, from Westminster Abbey and Hall. The bases consist often of reversed ogees. Buttresses are richer in the building, and are usually finished by pinnacles. The flying buttress is most common. The parapets are sometimes horizon- tal and sometimes embattled, each of which are frequently pierced in the form of cinquefoil-headed arches, quatrefoils, and triangles. Sunk panels are more common. Crockets and other ornaments were brought to perfection during this period. Fig. 2, represents the upper part of an ogee canopy, with crockets, or small bunches of foliage, running up the side, and a combination of two or more, calied a finial, sepa- rated from the others by a moulding at the top. The best specimens of this style are in the reign of Edward I. and II. several parts of Exeter cathe- dral, St. Ethelbert's gatehouse and the cloister, in that of Norv \ the Lady chapel, of Litch j cathedral, and the nave of a| minuter. Under Edward HI.L octagon and lantern of Ely, L choir of Carlisle, and part of , transepts, choir, and cloister^ Gloucester cathedral, St. Alb 8 abbey church, part of St. Mm Redcliflfe, Bristol, the choir >f St. Mary's at Warwick, and Stephen's chapel, Westminster, w the House of Commons. Uw Richard II. and Henry IV. am/, great part of the nave and e college, at Winchester; the n^, chapter house, and part of e cloisters, at Canterbury ; some mains at New College, Oxford; d the tower and spire of St. Mich's at Coventry. Under Henry [, King's College'chapel, Cambrid ; Beaufort's chancery, in Wincher cathedral ; the chrpel of the Vir i, in that of Canterbury; the Divi y school, Oxford ; and Beauchep chapel, Warwick. The last style of gothic archi - ture, the Florid English, or pendicular, is distinguished by s superfluity of decoration, and - compromising minuteness. lis marked most strikingly by s windows, the mullions of which e carried perp ndicularlyto the he, instead of finishing in flowing liiji. They are also distinguished bla transom or cross muilion, tobri the height, under which is usu;j)f a feathered arch. The architrje has seldom shafts or moulding, t is worked plain. The arch of e door is frequently finished b> a horizontal moulding, continued o the springing of the arch, and tm turned shortly ; it is called a lap and the space enclosed betweeijit and the exterior line of the an, the spandrel. The steeple is j> tremely rich ; spires are seld i, but lanterns frequently, used. P GOT G O U e*t(or angles are usually con- ceal by octagonal turrets, but „ scmimes supported by buttresses. In t groining, a number of small ribs 'verging from a centre, are can I up in the form of one side of a ointed arch, and terminated at elal distances from the cenlre semicircle; as they recede jrorr'he pomt, they are divided by i r ribs, and these again sub- I so as to make all the panels • nrly equal size, which are lented with feathered arches; the terval between these semi- | are filled with tracery of the description. This exquisitely beav'ul kind of roof is called fan th. Arches in general are verySund, and the Tudor arch is ost common in late works. The iers are much deeper than broa'and a shaft runs up the front to s port the gro ; ning. The ca- pital are generally composed of plain io- Idings, with sometimes a four- wed flower in the hollow. Para ts are generally embattled ! and | reed. The general ornaments of th jerpendieular style is nothing but series of vertical panelling. A be tiful small ornament, often isedjs called the Tudor flower, nd a series of square flowers, ice diagonally, and frequently acM, connected at the bottom le circles. The best examples I thr,ityle are under Edward IV. 'I 1 and Richard III. ; George's ipe'at Windsor; the Honiton bap< Devon; part of Charing rc Kent ; St. Lawrence's, at tw i ; and the chapel on the . it Wakefield. Under Henry I. shop Alcock's chapel, Ely, k J i'l church, the Lady chapel, in Glow ter cathedral, part of Ciren- 'sterhurch, Bishop Waynflete's 1 >'c in Winchester cathedral, ^ -y's, Oxford, and the chur- so>,inster and Great Malvern. In plate Athenian Architect turf,, A. 10, we have given a sketch of the form of the Gothic arch as observed at various periods. Fig. 1, from Ely cathedral, is of the eleventh century. Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, from Ely, are of the twelfth. 7, 8, from Ely, 9, from Durham cathedral; and 10, a lancet arch from Merton church, Cambridge, are of the thirteenth. II, 12, and 14, from Ely, and 13, an arch of Edward III. are the 14th; to is an arch ofHen.VL; 17,oneof Hen.VII. and 16, one from Ely; all of the fifteenth. 6, is a horse-shoe arch, from Canterbury. In the twenty- seventh plate to the article Carpen- try are given plans, sections, and bases of window mouldings from Westminster Abbey ; on plate C, XV. Jig. 4, crockets and finial from John of Gaunt's Palace, Lin- coln ; and on the plate Gothic Architecture, fig. 1, ornament of a buttress from Lincoln ca- thedral. Mr.Willis, in his History of Mitred Abbeys, gives the following: relative proportions of Gothic buildings : "In most of the stately abbeys, the height was equal to the breadth of the body and side aisle. " The steeple and towers were frequently built equal in height to the length of the whole fragment, or rather the cross-aisle from north to south, as is the case in Bristol, Chester, and St David's ; " The cross-aisles often extend half the length of the whole fabric, as did the nave or western part, viz. from the great door at tht west end, to the lower great pillars that supported the steeple ; " And the side aisles were just half the breadth and height of the nave, insomuch that both added together exactly answered it." Goufing Foundations, a term used in Scotland for the mode of 81 GRA GR A securing unsound walls, by driving wedges or pins under their founda- tions. The term is taken from a Scottish game called Golfing, in which a ball is driven with clubs, through two distant holes. Gouge, a chisel of a semicir- cular form. Gradetto, Gradetti, see An- nulets. Grain, in wood or stone, is the line of direction in which they may be most easily split transversely. Miners in reference to stone use various terms to signify the grain, or splitting direction of stones, as beat, lamella, stratula, sheet, dec. Granada ; for a description of its architectural peculiarities, see A lhamra. Granary, a building to pre- serve grain, &c. Vitruvius terms buildings for the preservation of grain, granaria, those for hay, fcenilia, and those for straw, far- raria. Amongst the Romans, the granary made part of the villa fructuaria, (see Villa.) It always occupied the higher rooms, and had a northern aspect. Its roof was sometimes vaulted. The floors of granaries were generally either paved with small bricks, or covered with earth trodden down. The walls were covered with clay, beat up with dregs of oil, and mixed with olive leaves. On the northern side were excavated small windows or air-holes. The term horreum was applied by the Romans to buildings not only for the preservation of corn, but for various other effects. Grand Staircase, in exten- sive buildings, the principal stair- case receives this name. Grange, anciently meant a barn and its apurtenances, and was an important part of the establishment belonging to abbeys, Grange, New, a remarkable antiquity in Ireland. It is a large mound or pyramid, surround* by a circle of stones, 25 miles m Dublin, and near the town f jL, heda. The gallery is 62 feet}! and the arms of the cross or >. septs 20 feet each. A eupo! , the centre is formed of lon» n stones; projecting in gradatioi tiles, and meeting >n the ceta like one of the openings to great Egyptian pyramid : see ( Granite, a genus of stones, tU used in buildings, composed clfti of quartz, feltspar, and mica, I n. ing rough and large m-.sses ol great hardness, striking fire th steel, and receiving a good pi h. Someties garnet, basaltes, ani n- durated steatites are found irr el- ded in its composition, whi( is formed of particles, visible and is- tinct. Not decomposed by ail, and only imperfectly and s calcinable in a great heat, be most stupendous ranges of n n- tains on the globe are of this s:e, of which there are three diaict species, and many varieties, wife granite or moor stone, is v te, interspersed with a few lar^e Ick spots, and crystalline quartz. It is much used in London foi he steps of public buildings, anon other occasions,where great strr ih and solidity are required. Thilod its varieties are found in Irejid, and also in Cornwall and D< shire. The Scottish granite M Dundee and Aberdeen, is rent- able for its excessive hardness ml much used for bridges, and \ Itf requiring great strength and di- dity. Red granite, sometime. 1 ; el- lowish, and generally intersp'sed with black mica, is found in Den- shire, and at Mount Edgc'be there are fine tables of it, eqi '° the finest Oriental granite; it isN found in other parts of EngM, in various countries of Europep abundantly in Egypt and Ai>w- GRE Bl?< granite, with dark green tinge, is lquent in the old pavements of Lovon, and on the sea shore. je pale whitish granite, varie- tal] with black and yellow, is mo frequently found in loose HOtl es than in strata, and is m u used in paving streets. Al- every country produces these 15, and in many places they are und immensely large, of which r^est known is near the Cape of ™d Hope, in Africa. This n kable mountain, on account of - ajnitude, is called the Tower ibel. Granite takes a good li ; hence the Egyptians for- mei employed it, and the Italians v t e it, for working large pieces namental architecture ; for purpose it is particularly *el adapted, as it is not liable to c ay in the air. Indeed, there are solumns, statues, and other nents of antiquity, formed of rase, which have withstood the ful and continued action of the bather during the vicissitudes of 400 years. C aticulation, is the dividing dign or draught into squares, r e purpose of reducing it to sma r dimensions. (; £Costasis, a hall or portico adjc ing the Roman comitia, in wlii( foreign ambassadors waited fo they entered the senate, and hil the senate deliberated on the wvfr that was to be given them. l * ci an Architecture. From 1 ' pod of its invention, in its pro- sper Cection, architect u re must have?xperienced those gradations i fl * :h every art is necessarily sub- The first rudiments of that style 'hich has since been the ad- mira >n of all civilized nations, has supposed to be drawn from Svri: and Egypt. The Sidon- 'aris, horn Homer characterises as l «v ; TToXvCuthaXoi, as " skilful workmen," were the same who erect- ed for Solomon the temple of Jeru- salem. But with the Greeks all the arts soon lost the character impressed on them by their first teachers ; and the obligations of Grecian architecture to the prac- tice of Syria or Egypt, are limited to the mere mechanism of the art. The main object of building, in the first stage of society, was security. Hence arose the disproportionate and astonishing exertions bestowed on the walls, the remains of which are so common in different parts of Greece, and which, by their more polished descendants, have usually been attributed to the agency of supernatural power, as the works of gigantic Cyclopeans. Of these remains, Tiryns and Mycenae are among the most ancient and most celebrated. (See Acropolis and Cy- clopean Buildings.) The same mo- tives which led them to employ this incredible labour in defence of their cities, influenced the more powerful individuals in the measures adopt- ed for the preservation of their wealth. Treasuries were common in Greece at a very early period. Minyas, who ruled the Boeotian Orchomenos, considerably before the era of the Trojan war, is said to have been the first who erected a building for this purpose, and his wealth is celebrated in the Iliad; in the passage in which Achilles re- jects the offers of Agamemnon, even although accompanied by all the riches enclosed in the " stone mansion of Apollo," it appears highly probable that Homer al- ludes, not, as is generally under- stood, to a temple, which there is reason to believe did not exist at that time, but to some treasury, which, from the manner of build- ing employed in these edifices, might well deserve the charac- teristic appellation of Xawae* (See 83 GRE GRE Arch.) Among the architects em- ployed in these edifices, are pre- served the names of Agamedes and Trophorius, (see Agamedes.) In the time of Homer, the parts of architecture, properly termed orna- mental, appear to have been un- known in Greece ; the chief deco- ration of his age, consisted in a smooth polished surface: the stones were large, and well fitted toge- ther ; but the charm and grace of forms were unknown. But to com- pensate for it, ho exaggeration is spared to make them rich ; we have brazen walls, and golden doors, with silver and ivory posts and lintels. The mansions of the heroes of the Homeric age, whose chief recommendation was solidity and extent, were built round a court, on the same p'an as was universally adopted in later ages. The chambers in general, with the exception of the great hall of the palace, were small. The seats and couches were frequently distin- guished by their costly materials and beautiful workmanship, but the chief decoration consisted pro- bably in the magnificence of the arms, and in the skilful manner in which they were arranged. It is impossible to fix precisely the era of the introduction of the two grand distinctions in architecture, the Doric and Ionic orders. Per- haps the most ancient example of their existence, may be found in the account given by Pausanias of the Sicyonian treasury at Olympia, built in the thirty-third Olympiad, or about six hundred and fifty years before Christ, in which were made two chambers worked with brass, one Doric, the other Ionic, (see Doric and Ionic.) As the Doric style continued with few exceptions, to be generally adhered to by the European states of Greece until the time of the Roman con- quest, the examples still rema:',. are numerous. One of the J ancient is the temple of J u er Panhellenius at iEgina, whic said to have been built befort Trojan war, (see JEgina.) temple of Jupiter at Oiympi supposed to be as old as six dred years before the Christian y and the remains of the Doric |! pie at Corinth prove it to have i a work of remote antiquity. \ v in order of time, we may class ie Grecian cities of Italy, which jiy be arranged in the following co- nological order — Syracuse. Pies n, Selinus, Segesta, and Agrigen^, (see these Articles.) The cit of Selinus, whose stupendous ruin re the admiration of modern ti.s, was founded by a Greek coiy from Megara, about the year 0, A.A.C. The character of the re- nificent edifices of which ves es remain, combined with histoai data that may be collected, p ve them to be at least as old as:ve hundred years before our era. le Corinthian colony which estabh- ed itself at Syracuse, is sa it to have been as ancient as the mi le of the eighth century before CI >t, and the remains of the temp! of Minerva in the Ortygia, or that rt of the city which was first iuh it- ed, bear every mark of the higflt antiquity. Immediately next to these, in relation of time, come the Athem temples. Here we may paus;:m the full perfection of art*; after ; i Is period nothing was added; per ps in the course of a few year: ts gradual decline commenced, ne dates of these buildings are a u- rately fixed: Mnesicles began'ie Propylsea in the eighty-fifth OJwi iad, and the Parthenon was W a few years after. The teu'le of Theseus may be considereas coeval with the buildings ofw ORE Aopolte. See Athenian Archilec- tu, and Acropolis. ne of the noblest efforts of Ic us, the architect of the Par- thr'on, and perhaps of the temple of \[ rva at Sunium, is to be seen in e temple of Apollo Epicnrius i rcadia, which, although still ne; y entire, has been little ex- plc d, or even visited. The exten- siv ruins of Messene, built sixty ye'*:, after the death of Pericles, pre that the art had not yet suf- fer any material deterioration. Th walls of this city, which are in mv parts still entire, and may be aced through the whole ex- ten of their ancient circmt, pre- scribe most beautiful and perfect gpc'men of the military architec- ts af the Greeks, being fortified anndomed with numerous towers aneates. But, as we may judge frouhe proportions of the portico of hilip in the isle of Delos, whin must be as ancient as the hur ed and tenth Olympiad, the arc lecture of Greece in a very sho time experienced a consi- der le change. The port'eo of Aalstus, at Athens, is suppose d 'o oe 'e most modern specimen of the')oric order in Greece, after whi it gradually yielded to the ind Corinthian. Tf? Ionic order appears to be t ;is the Doric, but was con- fine at first chiefly to the Asiatic it The earliest specimen, of i remains are to be found, is the mple of Juno at Samos. Its iotnjuction into Sicily may be ic in the tomb of Theron at A^r' ntum, which has Ionic co- ll ,! and capitals, surmounted by I Djc entablature. The beauti- W < ostyle temple of Bacchus at feoitvas built by Hermogenes of Atahda, probably soon after the fcnfo invasion. The temples of Minva Polias and Erechtheus, at GRE Athens, was erected during the Peloponnesian war. The temple of Apollo Didymoeus, near Mile- tus, does not appear to have been built before the hundredth Olym- piad ; and the temple of Minerva Polias, at Priene, was dedicated by Alexander. From this period to the Roman conquest, no specimens of the Ionic order are known to exist. The Corinthian order is of com- paratively recent invention. The first examples of this style in Greece appear to have been pro- duced during the last few years of the Peloponnesian war. It was introduced in the temple of Mi- nerva at Tegea, when rebuilt by Scopas of Paros ; and in the Cho- ragic monument of Lysicrates, which was erected in the hundred and eleventh Olympiad. Many of the ornamental theatres, so nume- rous in Asia Minor, may perhaps be referred to a period considerably before the Roman conquest ; the most remarkable amongst those of the Corinthian order, are those at Laodicea on the Lycufe, and Patara on the coast of Lycia. The Ro- man conquest spread the Corin- thit»n style throughout Greece, a'most to the exclusion of every other; and although the buildings of the period which followed, are often more splendid and costly, they are deficient in the pure taste and correct design of preceding ages. See Order. Greek Cross. See Church. Greenhouse, or Conservatory, is an horticultural erection for shel- tering tender exotic \ lants from the injurious effects of our variable climate, especially during the win- ter season. The length of green- houses will, of course, be propor- tioned to the number of plants they are intended to shelter ; their depth should not exceed 12 or G R I G It O 14 feet in small houses; nor, in large ones, be more than from 18 to 20 feet. The windows should extend from one foot and a half above the pavement to nearly the same distance from the ceiling, so as to admit of a cor- nice round the building, over the tops of the windows. The floor ought to be of Purbeck stone, or flat tiles, elevated two, or, if on a damp situation, three feet above the ground ; it will also be ad- visable to carry a flue about ten inches wide, and two feet deep, beneath the floor, through the whole length of the house, and to return it along the back part, where it should be carried up into funnels, for the purpose of dis- charging (he smoke. The inner wall of the building ought to be covered either with stucco or mor- tar, in order to* exclude the frosty air, and the shutters for the same purpose should be on the inside, and fold back upon the piers, that they may not intercept the sun's rays. The walls ought to be white- washed, that they may the better reflect the li£ht and warmth of the sun. As the front of the conser- vatory is usually placed south, the two wings should be south-east and south-west. Grey Stocks are bricks of the third quality of the best, or marl- bricks. Grit, (grytta, greot, Sax.) a fossil, sometimes forming a sandy substance, sometimes in the form of stones, of a friable texture; called also sand-stone. It resists the ac- tion of acids, but is permeable to water, and used for filtering stones. There is a kind of sand-stone, dug up in Derbyshire and other nor- thern counties of England, which is used for whetstones, to sharpen knives, and various implements and tools. 66 Grit, Argillaceous, a stor f various degrees of hardness, id of a gray, sometimes of a yel ish colour, composed of a silic and micaceous sand, closely ( pacted by an argillaceous ceir It gives some sparks with s is indissolvable, or nearly sojin acids, and verifiable in a stlig fire. It is used for millstonesjid sometimes for building. Son of the varieties of grit or sanci-s )e with s liceous, micaceous, or spry mixtures, constituted the puzo- lana of the ancients. Groin, the angular curve n by the intersection of two s cylinders, or arches. Groins for ;d of cones, are calle-l conic gns. Cylinders intersecting each o r, form a cylindric groin. Whenw unequal cylindric vaults intevct each other, a cylindro-cylmk groin is formed. When the se- rai axes of simple vaults form e al angles around the same poinhn the same plane, what is termeir. equi-angular groin, is the re It. If three or more vaults join to m a groin, it is called a multangir groin. When the axis of the n- ple vault is in two vertical phis, at right angles, a rectangidar g in results. A spheric groin is at which the intersection of two r- tions of a spherical vault prooVs, When the junction of cyln'ic with a spheric vault forms a g n, it is called a cylindro-spi[ic groin, if the spheric portion ' of less height than the cylindric: ut if the spheric portion be of gner height than the cylindric ; he formation will be that of a spro- cylindric groin. Groined Ceiling, a su re formed by three or more cued surfaces, so that every two jay form a groin, ail the groins teoi- nating at one extremity in a mon point. The curved suice GRO G RO bereen every two adjacent groins, is called a sectroid : the point v re the groins terminate is the ajv or summit. The reverse vild of a sectroid is a convex gu3C e, which exactly coincides w i it; equal sectroids have the sais reverse moulds. The chord ji groin is a line supposed to Mrawn from the summit to the ot r unconnected extremity. A rejar groined ceiling has all the se oids and chords of the groins eq.l, and the unconnected extre- m js, in a plane. The base of a reilar groined ceiling is a regular pckon, whose angles are the un- co ected extremities of the groins. Tl axis is the line drawn perpen- di iar from the apex to the base. A ctangular groined ceiling con- Ki of four equal sectroids. hen one of the side arches of lin vault are given, to find the cu 2 of the other side and angle ritpo that the groin lines shall be In irtical planes, passing through thijdiagonals on the plan. The rihj'f the other side, and that of thi iagonal, may be described by tWrammel, when the given rib is a set! ellipsis, as in Plate I Groin, To.ud ihe length of the jack ribs, let[e plan of them be drawn, and de: ibe a rib upon each opening, he necessary breadth of stuff ; froj the extremities a, c, e, of the se<[ of the jack ribs, draw lines a b, cc^/, parallel to the axis of its * tive vault, and the same upon theilier side, and continue them to iieet the outer edge of the brclth ; the parts bb, dd,ff, are theengths or chords of the jack r 'b »n the semicircular side ; their jen hson the other side are found in |i same manner. To strengthen thoinis of the ribs, they should taide of two pieces of wood of e ! [ GRO G RO I and IH, and the straight line (I, will be the exact covering over a? one of the four planes of the stroids. Find a third propor- tual to the length of the circular a as a first term, and the two n die terms each equal to the scorial radius, by the operation ttfig. 3:) make 11, in I k (Jig. 2. equal to the fourth propor- tilal: draw GT and MU perpendi- ci r to GH, and through I draw T parallel to GH, also through / div v w, parallel to GH, meeting pi G in v, and HUin w. The reet- HG v w will be equal to the triple GHI, and consequently eqil to the area of one of the sect- ro:, or of one fourth of the whole ceri?. If PM {Jig. 4.) equal GH, (i 2) and MN and PO (Jig. 4) eq I twice k I, (Jig. 2,) the rect- i an f ? PMNO, will equal half the an of the ceiling. The area GUT (Jig. 2,) is that of a cylin- dri surface, whose arc is AED i ji 1,) and the length of its axis f i draw g r perpendicular to AL Jig. 1 : ) make g r equal to thehord AE or DE, produce each , of i diagonals to the points a, b, c, 6 and through the point r, in theniddle of one of the sides, corlete the square abed, by dratng lines parallel to the sides t>f 2 square ABCD : the square a b d, will be equal to the area "i dome having the same base aod .ection as the groined ceiling. Whj: the section AED is a semi- wrc the area of the groined ceil- ing xceeds the area of the plan in inuch greater proportion than I B.ments. I, ABCDEF,/#. 1 (Pl.VM.) ; i plan of a regular semicir- cubcylindric groined ceiling. A, i CD, E, F, being the springing poin of the groins. As all the Wt.l sections of each cylindric surf; [» upon each side AB, BC, CD, &c. are semicircles, and as each cylindric surface is uniform, and the equal sides AB, BC, CD, &c. of the groined ceiling are dia- meters of the semicircular cylindric surfaces, the axis of each cylindric surface will bisect each of the sides, AB, BC. CD, &c. perpendicularly, and will meet the axis m the centre O of the hexagon. The groins will, therefore, be in the vertical planes, upon the diagonal lines AO, BO, CO, &c. We may now construct Jig. 3, as before. Having drawn lines from the points in the half arc A u (Jig. 1,) which divide it in equal parts, to meet the diagonal AD, and having drawn the cor- responding line in Jig. 3, make the ordinates ftom the points in w x, on each side of k I, (Jig. 3) re- spectively, equal to the perpendi- culars from AB to AO (Jig- 1.) Make w n the first term of four proportionals, and make AE and AB the two middle terms: having found the fourth, as in Jig. 2, make m z and n y (Jig. 3) equal to it, join y z, and the rectangle w xy z, is equal to the surface of ihe groin- ed ceiling over AOB (Jig. 1.) Important improvements have been recently made in the con- struction of ribbed £roi:s, by Mr. Sappling, communicated to the Adelphi Society of Arts; a full description of which is also given in the Mechanic's Magazine of June, 1830. Groove, or Mortise, the channel made by a joiner's plane in the cd^e of a moulding, style, or rail, to re- ceive the tenon. Guotfsque a singular and fan- tastic style of ornament, found in ancient buildings. See Arabesque. Grotto, an artificial cavern. (See Cave.) Wansleben was astonished at the immense number of arti- ficial grottoes, hollowed in the mountains of Egypt. Said Ibn GRO Patrick imagined that they were the work of the Israelites, done by order of the Pharaohs. The peo- ple attribute them to the devil and to sorcerers. Many of them, per- haps, may be referred to the ear- liest ages of Egyptian history, when they served as dwellings for the then barbarous people. Artificial caverns in Greece were consecrated to the Nymphs, See Catacomb, and Nym- phcp.um. Ground-joints, are joints sup- porting the floor immediately above the around. Groun d floor, the lowest story of a building. Ground Niche, a niche rising from the floor. Ground Plan, an ichnogra- phical outline, or drawing, of the foundation of a building. Ground Plane, a line forming the ground of a design or picture, which line is a tangent to the sur- face of the face of the globe; as a ground line, is any straight line serving as the ground of the de- sign. Ground Plates, the outermost pieces of timber lying on or near the ground, and framed into each other with mortises and tenons. Mortises are also made in these, to receive the tenons of the joists, the summer, and girders ; and some- times the trimmers for the stair- case and chimney way, or space, and binding joists. Ground Plot, the ground on which a building is placed, ground- sel, or sil, (grand and sil, Sax.) the same as ground plate. Groun ds : joiners give this name to narrow pieces of wood built in the foundations of walls, at the surbases of rooms, to secure archi- traves, and support the walls over apertures. They are of various di- mensions, and covered in with plaster ; or sometimes present- GUA ing a surface flush with 1e plaster. Grouped Columns, arc \ , three, four, or more columnsi re put together on the same pede:|- when two are placed together, J are said to be coupled. Grout, a thin kind of mo i see Mortar. Gry, a measure containing lc tenth of a line. A line is L tenth of a digit ; a digit one t :h of a foot ; a foot one third a pendulum, whose diadromes.jr vibrations, in the latitude oti5 degrees, are each equal to ie second of time, or one sixtiet of a minute. Guage, for measuring timbe- The Silver Medal of the Adthi Society was voted to Mr. Ja:s Broad for his invention of a Gije or measure for timber, whiclis described in the 14th vol. of ie the second series of the Repery of Arts for 1809. It consist^ two pieces of well-seasoned wd joined near the middle by a 1, forming an axis on which 'y move, and has an index fastene o one of the arms, with the neefs y contrivances to answer the inter d purpose of enabling any gentlci d or workman to make an e: ' estimate of the contents of tret r other timber, either before cut g down or in any other state. Adelphi Society also presentedie Silver Medal to Mr. R. Palmenf Hackney, for an ingenious and - ful invention of a Gauge for ie purpose of marking a line along ie centre of any parallel or incli d surface ; also for finding the ce « of a circle, square, or any regfti polygon. This useful instrun it marking a centre line with accuracy, enables the workmario measure timber with ease. It HI also greatly assist in making r tises, and answers all the purpes GUT GYM of carpenter's common gauge. ] t ill rost about. 4s. Engravings, wit a full description of this instru- m|, are g ; ven in the Repertory of Ar vol. '25, for 1814. See Gage. / £ u i t r, a small tower of wood or we, on the point of a bastion, or »me oilier appropriate station feme use of the sentinel. jest Hall, see Abbey. Ijeule, Gale, Gulce, Go/a, are whu r;us modes of spelling this term, do is synonymous with cyma- (jildhall, the great court of rure for London. In it are keprhe Mayor's Court, the She- riff Court, the Court of Hustings, thefcourt of Conscience, Court of ojmon Council, Chamberlain's Co t, &.C. Here also the judges sit )on Nisi Prius, &c. The ge- r tyof botough towns and ci- tie« ave a public building of this dernination for similar purposes. In ime of the larger cities these hal are of considerable antiquity, or built in a modern style of ar- chi rture, large and commodious, for e transaction of public busi- nes' ( illochi, (Ital.) ornaments in e form of a series of spiral strijs. ( lbe. See Gorge. ( lpmor, or Gl'lpiiur, the pru pal apartment in Arabian hou s. See Arabian Architecture. Qkduli'ii, bishop of Roches- ter,- waid the close of the eleventh i' y, the inventor of numerous imptant improvements in the con- Btru ion of castles. See Castle. C rbi es. See Arabian Archi- tect e. C(tt*, (Lat. drops,) ornaments of iconic form, on the cornice of the' jric order ; they are supposed to r resent drops of water. Ottsiis, are a kind of canals in tte ofs of houses, to receive and carry off rain-water. They are either made of lead or of tiles, which are either plain or concave ; these last are called gutter-tiles, and so adapted to each other as to be laid with great ease. The Ro- mans had gutters of terra-cotta along the roofs of their houses, and the rain water from them ran out through heads of animals and other devises, placed in the angles and in convenient parts. Leaden gutters were known in the middle ages. Gymnasium. (Gr.) Amongst the public edifices of the Greeks, the gymnasia were classed in the first rank. It was in them that they instructed the youth in all the arts of peace and war, to make them useful and accomplished citi- zens. As long as they were care- fully protected by the state, the sciences and the arts were culti- vated with zeal. The name of palcestra, which properly desig- nated that part of the gymnasium where they exercised their bodies, was sometimes applied to the whole building. At first the gymnasium was only an open space enclosed by a wall, as the ancient gymnasium of Elis mentioned by Pausanias : rows of plane-trees were planted, to afford shade from the heat of the sun. These trees, when the gymna- sia were ornamented, and divided into compartments, gave place to colonnades and rows of pillars. The philosophers began by choosing a place to give their lessons, and built the Exedrce, where they col- lected their disciples. According to Ignarra, in his work de Palces- tra Neapolitand, it was from this time that a difference was made between the gymnasium and the palestra; as by the first name they generally designated the place appropriated to the lessons of the philosophers, and by the latter the 91 GYP GYP place destined for ihe exercises of the body. Baths were added, as necessary appendages ; and as the gymnasia degenerated, particularly among the Romans, they were re- garded as the principal part of them, and the name of gymnasia was replaced by that of therma. Vitruvius, in his fifth book, has given us a description of the distri- bution of a gymnasium. In a square or oblong space of two sta- dia in circumference, was built a peristyle, com posed of four colon- nades or port cos, of v hieh three had but a single range of columns; the fourth, on the conlrary, situated towards the south, had a double range. Sometime?, however, the double ranges appear to have been continued all round. Behind these porticos were different halls. On the side of the three simple porti- cos were the exedrce of the philo- sophers : under the double portico were the entrances to the places where the youth prepared for the exercises of the palaestra, and to the baths. In the middle of the halls was the ephebeium, at the side of whieh was the coriceum, next the conisterium, and at the angle of the portico the loutron, or cold bath. On the left of the ephebium was the elothesium, by the side of whieh were the fri- gidariam,the concamerata sudatio, the laconicum, and the warm bath. Under them was the propnigeum ot • prcefurnium. The second part of the gymnasium bad three porti- cos, one of which, looking towards the north, was very large, and had a double range of columns. Into this we entered on leaving the pe- ristyle. The two other ranges, which were generally simple, ran to the right and left of the first, enclosing with the wall the area of the gymnasium. By the sidY)f tne wall and the columns, w< a gallery or foot-path ten feet w> which was destined for the us,f the spectators. The space betw n the porticos was planted with tr ;. Near the porticos were open k menades, called by the Grl| peridromes, and by the Rorr s xysti, where the athleti exercd sometimes during the winter, t their extremity was a vaststadiL which afforded sufficient room.r a great number of spectators, d in which were exhibited the pu c games. Such is ihe gymnasn as described by Vitruvius. t the form and disposition of e gymnasia varied in different pi; s and in different times. The i > rior of these buildings were adord with the most elaborate work n sculpture and paint'ng. On e subject of gymnasia, thereadeny considt, besides the work of Igr- ra before- mentioned, Stiegl s Archiiologie der Baukurst. e Circu s , // ippodrom e,Palcestra y \ Gynjeceium, or Gyncecom}, (Gr.) a part of the Grecian hois appropriated to the women. Gypsum, calcareous earth s;- rated with vitriolic acid, there e it does not effervesce with ae . Being subjected to a mode e heat, to expel the water of c - tallization it forms plaster-of-Pat, and coming in contact with war, immediately assumes a solid fo : of the numerous species of this fo I, alabaster is perhaps ihe mostab- dant. The plaster earth foundn Glipston quarry, in Northampt - shire, is a dry, harsh, gritty, lilt yellow powder, which adhereso the tongue, but not to the fing>, and, mixed with water, immedia y sets without previous heating, e Alabaster. 92 HAL II A If H. I ckino, an inferior and imper- fect ode of walling, to save stones. f diuaneium. See Mauso* leuf \ lfmoon, in fortification, an ufc rk, having only two faces, f orr icr together a salient angle, vhi is flanked by some part of the ace, and of the other bastions. Flf-space, or resting-place, e oace or interval between two tiijl of steps in a staircase. I ll, {hal, Sax.) a name ap- plieiindifferently to the first large pa nent on entering a house, to the ublic room of a corporate bod a court of justice, or to a mair house. Vitruvius mentions thrt sorts of halls; the tetrastyle, vfcjj has four columns supporting % the iling; the Corinthian, which s »lumns all round let into the walhnd is vaulted over; and the Eofyian, which had a peristyle of insured Corinthian columns, bear- ing second order with a ceiling ; ihes are called oeci. The length v a ill should be at least twice and quarter its breadth, and, in nil lgs of large dimensions, three time its breadth. Its height may be t -thirds of its breadth; and an sihed ceiling is to be preferred. In s case, its height is found by viding its breadth into six parti five of which will be the igj from the floor to the un- dersii of the key of the arch. In jry magnificent buildings, i" the hall is larger and loftier rdinary, and in the middle of ' >e mse, it is called a Saloon ; 'd royal apartment is said to cons;, of a hall or chamber of uai , a chamber, an ante-cham- ber, i cabinet chamber, and a f( . The great hall, where the «r of kings-bench, &c. are kept exceeds in extent any hall in Europe, measuring in length 300 feet, and in breadth 100. See Al- mahara, Basilika, Andron, and Cyzicenus. Halving, the junction of two pieces of timber, by inserting one into the other ; in some cases to be preferred to mortising. Ham, (Sax.) properly signifying a house or dwelling-place, also a street or village; hence Notting- ham, Bucking/mrw, &c. Hammer Beam, a beam in a gothic roof, not extending to the opposite side. A beam at the foot of a rafter. Hand-railing. (SeeBut-joint, Carriage Carpentry, Constructive Carpentry.) The art of forming hand-rails round circular and ellip- tic well-holes without the use of the cylinder, is entirely new. The new principle, the invention and per- fection of which we owe to Mr. P. Nicholson, is fully described in the " New Carpenter's Guide." No previous author seems to have had any idea of describing the section of a cylinder through any three points in space, making a mould to the form of the section, and ap- plying it to both sides of the plank by the principles of solid angles, so that by cutting away the super- fluous wood, the piece thus formed might be made to range over its plan. The following is the theory of this practice. If we suppose any line to be drawn on the surface of the working cylinder, and the latter be to be cut entirely through from this line to the opposite surface, the line coinciding with the section made by cutting the solid through the line thus drawn, will be parallel to the base of the working-cyiinder. Then, if the upper portion of the working-cylinder, separated faun the lower, be to be removed, and HAN H A R the lower inserted in the well- hole, the surface of separation comeiding with the nosings of the steps, while the base rests on the floor ; and if the whole be elevated to a certain height without turning, so that the base may be parallel to the floor, tYi surface of separation will form the lop of the hand-rail in the square, and its two vertical sides will be a portion of the vertical sur- faces of the working cylinder. Suppose again, that another por- tion next to the top is again sepa- rated from the lower part, but not removed, so that the upper part may be every where of a certain thickness between the surfaces of separation, the portion of the work- ing cylinder before formed still remaining in the same situation, the upper part thus separated would form the hand-rail in the square, and this the solid which we would wish to form, first in parts, and then put together in solid, con- stituting what is called the square rail, which is therefore contained between two opposite surfaces, which are portions of the surfaces of the working cylinder, and two other winding surfaces, contained between each pair of curves of the helix. The area which the base of the working cylinder would occupy on the floor is called the plan of a hand rail, and is bound- ed by two equidistant lines, on which each of the working cylin- dric surfaces stand erect, and the breadth of the space between these two lines is the breadth of the rail. If there be any sudden rise in the balusters, the top of the rail ought to be kept to the same height throughout, but should the height of the steps lead the top of the rail to irregularity in the curvature of the rail, the whole must be reduced to a uniform curve. To fix the rail as nearly as possible 94 parallel to the line of the nos r S the top over the upper part iy be depressed, and over the m part elevated, half a step. VvC the well-hole is very small, )( j winders necessary, the top oh e rail must be kept higher oveh e winders than over the strait part. Hangings, were originally, vented to hide the coarsenesof carpentry, or the cold and kS appearance of stonewalls; and u of tapestry, particularly the gjj embroidered, is attributed to It- talus, king of Pergamus, who d 621, A. U. C. making the Ro'n people his heir; at which pe d tapestry was first introduced I that country. The Anglo-Sans had silken wall - hangings, h needle- work figures in gold, rep senting birds and other aniin, and passages of history, rea>r fabulous. A Saxon lady has s corded the actions of her husb.i, to memorize his probity. The ■ of hangings, called tapestry, is invented in Flanders, about e year 1410, and none or very He was manufactured in England 11 the reign of Elizabeth, whera highly ornamented kind, with fig 's of men in fantastic postures, e morris - dancers, was much ul Paper hangings were invented e;y in the 17th century; and leajir was used for the same purp,\ about the same time. Hanging-stile of a door is that to which the hinges are tix< Handspike, a lever for e purpose of carrying a heavy beii, or other burden requiring M strength of two or more m When pieces of timber are m for this purpose, they are cad pudlais. Hard, signifies a ford, or |i sage, particularly used in fe y districts. H E A H EB ] rdening of timber for ship- buiin?, by keeping for a long tim at the bottom of deep waters, ancient practice, and said to ans ;r the intended purpose. I.kness - room, a room in w hi< the harness is to be depo- . te near the stables ; it must y and clean, and free from modiness. I ssack, the provincial name r entish rag-stone. I Ten, a slight erection of boa s and slips of wood, for corn and other agricultural ^produce ; ds( hollow trap to catch weasels anc! ther animals; or, a hatch is apr priated to the feeding of ani ils. In ships, hatches are a kin of trap-doors between the ma.nast and foremast, leading froi one deck to another, and the pla< they occupy is called the hat way. Flood-gates in rivers and:anals are sometimes called hat'es. Itch way, the name given to the assage from one deck of a shir; to another, through the hates; applied also to the pas- sagijthrough a falling door to the top*' a house. 1 un cues of an Arch, see Arc I wke, the board with a han- dle h its underside; used by the plasrer to hold his plaster. r aders, in masonry, are extending over the thickness of a -all; and in bricklaying, the are called headers, which are I lid ngthway across the thickness of I wall. I a ding courses, in bricklay- ing, hose courses in which the lent; of the brick is across the thic : ess of the wall, are called hea ig-courses. 1 ad-stone, see Key -stone. 1 ad-way of a Stair is the dea distance measured from a given landing-place or stair to the ceiling; allowing for the thickness of the steps. Headwouk, a name given to ornaments on the key-stones of arches, frequently representing heads of animals, especially a stag's head above park-gates; in market-places, a bullock's or a sheep's ; and over stables, the head of a horse. Heart-eond, in masonry, is where two stones, forming the breadth of the wall, have one stone of the same breadth placed over them. Hearth, among the Anglo- Saxons, was a heap of ashes or earth heated by fire, used for bak- ing cakes, and other purposes : the Norman hearth was in the middle of the house ; but when chimneys were introduced, in the 14th or 15th centuries, it was under the fire-place, for which the chimney was constructed. Heather-roof, a covering to wooden buildings used in Scotland, especially in Argyleshire ; recom- mended, as superior to straw- thatch. Hebrew Architecture. — Whilst the Israelites sojourned in the desert, their temple, or, as it was denominated, tabernacle, was constructed of wood, and other materials, sufficiently light and portable to allow of its removal from place to place. And this was their only temple for a long time after their final settlement in Palestine. It was in the time of Solomon that the first grand tem- ple was erected, and this work seems to have been executed under the superintendence of Tyrian ar- chitects. The details of this tem- ple given in the bible are the only account left, by which we can form any idea of the architecture of the Hebrews. It was divided, like the 95 H EC H EL tabernacle, into two parts by a partition of cedar-wood. Before the anterior facade was the ulam, probably a great gate, such as we see before many of the Egyptian temples, whose general construc- tion has been supposed to bear considerable resemblance to that of Jerusalem. The latter temple appears to have had lead windows, resembling those observed in the ruins of the grand temple at Thebes. The roof appears to have been flat. The whole of the tem- ple was enclosed by a wall, the space between which was occupied by a portico divided into three stages. Before the principal edifice were two courts, the first and larg- est for assemblies of the people, the second for the priests, whose dwell- ing surrounded it. Before the ulam were two columns, whose capitals, from ihe expression of the bible, that they resembled a rose spread out, appear to have resem- bled those of the Egyptians, which were generally a lotus flower. The walls of the temple were covered with tigures of cherubim, palms, flowers, &c. David and Solonun were the authors of numerous other edifices, all executed by Phoenician workmen. See JEgesta, and Order. H kc atom py los, (Gr.) a name anciently given to the Egyptian city of Thebes, from its having a hundred gates. Hecatompf.don, (Gr.) a temple of a hundred feet in length, parti- cularly applied to the temple of Minerva Parthenon. Mr. Stuart appears to have taken very great pains to discover the true length of the Greek foot, from different measures of the Parthenon, which, from its name Hecatompedon, was supposed to contain a measure of 100 feet in some very conspicuous part. According to the results of his in- 96 quiries, published by Mr. Rev.y the difference of the foot, taken m the various parts of the temp j s as follows : — Eng.U 1. Length of the upper step in the front of the temple gives for one foot i 2. From outside to ootside of the angular columns. \ 3. From centre to centre of the front columns 12 ^2 4. From the Roman foot by my measure (Mr. Stuart's) of the Obelisk of Sesostris ..12.1)1 5. Length of the architrave .... 12 25 This last 'Mr. Reveley has add, as Mons. le Roy has supposed u the length of the architrave dbt probably be 100 feet. Hecatonstylon, the namof a celebrated gallery at Rmg orizontal ; some of a cylin- ar| c rm, others conic, others N concave, and some hemispheric. The ancients had also portable solar dials in metal, which were termed phorematica, and of which a de- scription is given by Baldini in the Memoires de VAlacademie de Car- tone. On a silver vase found in the port of Antium, which was given by the chevalier Borgia to cardinal Corsini, and on which is represented the expiation of Orestes, we observe a dial placed on a quadrangular pedestal, as that dedicated to Diana by Colirius was placed on a column. A solar quadrant is also seen, sup- ported by a square base on a bas- relief, published by Bartoli in his Admiranda Romce, by Lamberti, in his Villa Pinciana, and by Vis- conti, in the Museo Pio- Clementino. See also Martini, in his book Von den Uhren der Alien. Helix, or Helyx, (Helice,¥r. from r/Xt£, Gr. which signifies a kind of ivy, whose stalk curls,) a small volute or twist, representing the twisted tops of the acanthus stalk, placed under the floor in the abacus of the Corinthian capital. Hem, the spiral projecting part of the Ionic capital. Hemi, a Greek word, which signifies half, often used in the composition of architectural teims. Hemicycle, (Gr.) a machine of the ancient theatres, mentioned by Pollux, which was placed near the orchestra, and served to represent what was happening at a distance, or on the sea. Hemicyclium, (Gr.) a chair whose back formed a half circle, and in which the ancients sat when they were giving instructions. Ac- cording to Cicero, Scaevola used one, and the Menander of the Mu- see Napoleon, No. 76, as figured in the third volume of the Museo Pio- Clementino, is seated in a he- micyclium. Hendecagon, a geometrical 97 HER HER figure with eleven sides, and as many angles. In fortification, it is a place defended by eleven bas- tions. Heptagon, a geometrical figure of seven sides and angles. Heptangular, having seven angles. Hetaphonus, (Gr.) the name of a celebrated portico in the city of Olympia, which repeated seven echoes or returns of sound. Heptapylos, (Gr.) a name given to Thebes in Bceotia, which had seven gates, in opposition to that of Egypt, which was termed Hecatompylos. Hercu lan eum, called also Her- culanum and Herculeum, an ancient town of Italy, on the bay of Naples, in the vicinity of the modern town of Portici. It is supposed to have been founded as early as 1250, A.U.C. and, according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, it belonged suc- cessively to the Oscians, to the Cumaeans, and to other very an- cient people. The Romans appear to have gained permanent posses- sion of the surrounding territory about 293 years before Christ; and it appears, from an inscription in honour of Lucius Manutius Con- cessanus, which was discovered in the. neighbourhood, that it was made a Roman colony. Accord- ing to the received opinion, this city, with Pompeii, disappeared totally in the famous eruption in the reign of Titus, A. D. 79. In a memoir read in the Institut Na- tional, and printed in the Magasin Eucyclopedique, M. Dutheil has shewn that the existence of these cities may be traced up to the beginning of the fourth century, where they are mentioned as inha- bited cities in the Tabula Peutin- genana ; but in the Itinerary of Antoninus, neither of them is men- tioned ; and concludes that the eruption which destroyed therms most probably that of 471, m the cinders of Vesuvius were * ried even to Constantinople. E centuries had elapsed, and a morials of the unfortunate tfcl had been lost, a peasant, n ging a well beside his cotta: in 171 1, obtained some fraemr ,t coloured marble, which att: ted attention. Regular excav o llS were then made, and some ces of statuary were extracted om what afterwards proved to temple in the centre of th an- cient Herculaneum. The k of the two Sicilies, twenty or irty years afterwards, directed th ub- terraneous ruins of the anciei city to be explored, and the entree is now gained by a narrow paige, descending gradually to mor seventy feet from the surface, lere it branches into numerous eys, leading to different street and houses. All the streets are ived with blocks of lava, and i|i in straight lines, having geneniran elevated foot-path along thnitle. The houses were of brick, nolrna- mented on the exterior, and but one story. Among the Jiblic buildings which have beer dis- covered are two temples, of jhich one, which was 150 feet 160, contained a statue of Jijter; opposite it was an extensive|jiW" ing, forming a rectangle c! 228 feet by 132, (supposed t<|iiave been appropriated for the |>urt« of justice,) surrounded by ;por- tico, whose arches were suited by columns; within, it wa&javed with marble, the walls were ]' nted in fresco, and bronze statues;tood between forty-two colurnnsinder, the roof. The theatre waspund nearly entire, and had twa is comparatively of recent q\— Oude is said, in the historical^ called Mahabbarit, to have be one of the most ancient cities of 1 df t - stan, having been built in the ,bn- lous ages of the reign of Ki ma, which is placed about 2,50C ears before the birth of Christ, ar was believed to have been the re- place of Rama. The extent this ancient city is estimated the Ayeen Akbery, (vol. ii. p. 4) at 148 coss, or about 259 mi; tn length, and 36 coss, or 53 mi, in breadth. About 1000 years fore Christ, the city of Canougwas built on the banks of the G?i;es; and its walls, according to thlMa- habbarit, were 87 miles in ci;um- ference. Major Rennel thinl that Canouge and Palibothra wei the same. From the Ferishta a the Ayeen Akbery, the city of ellii appears to have been founded >out 300 years before Christ, ar! the latter states, that twenty prir sof the name of Bal followed insu- lar succession for 437 years; La- hore, on the banks of the IUee, or ancient Hydraotes, appe; to have been the Bucephalus of lex- ander. Ayra, on the Jum , i lat. 27° 15', was Ptolemy's iara, and was enclosed with an e; hen wall by the Patan monarch: but by the emperor Akbar it was ised to splendour, and surrounds vith a wall of hewn stone. The architectural remains In- dia, in style and constri'on, have a great resemblance to 'ose of Egypt. The pyramids, t & HIN lossa statues, the obelisks, the sphyr, the numerous pits, and subtranean temples, with colossal ! figur , and the lion-headed sphyn- xes, discovered by Belzoni in Erv| indicate the style and sys- . \ f mythology to be akin to S (if the people that formed the vast rxcavations of Ellora, Ele- %han|, and Canarah, and the va- rious^ mense pagodas, pillars, and tMicoiosU images of the Indian idols, proii, he Ayeen Akbery, and Cap- tain ilson's article on Caucasus, . >1 su e Researches, vol. vi.) we learn hat in the Joubah of Cash- mere: etween Balkh and Cabul, in the imerous excavations, there i ire d) places, where the figure of li sebnt is carved, and that near >>( xcavations there are carved n tl rock, on the side of the . nounin, figures of 15, 20, and ven ,3 ells high. Sir W. Jones dentl?s the Eswara and Isi of the Hind with the Egyptian Osiris - idcI s, and thinks that the great jjstatuof Narayen, or the Spirit of aod, ho at the beginning floated pn tl waters, as it now stands h great reservoir of Catrnan- ier, ,2 capital of Nepaul, differs >nly name from the Cneph of E?yp/ Asiatic Researches, vol. i.) Anoth: proof of a similarity of style tween the ancient Egyptians , and 1 idus, is their mutually using oily, res or obelisks, like the pil- ot ilahabad ; there is a strik- % rcmblance, too, between the -, r yp n pyramids and the eolos- btx building near the Gunduc "er, the Hadjipore district. It • »ited by Mr. Burrows in 1785,<-ho considers it to be evi- ! ntlyotended for the well-known o< of the god Mahadeo, hav- - or nally been a cylinder placed upon | » frustum of a cone, for the purpo, of being seen at a distance. »8 t present much decayed. H I N Its dimensions are — diameter of column at base, 363 feet; height of conic frustum, on which the cylin- der is placed, 93 feet; diameter of the cylinder, 64 feet; height of the remains of the cylinder or round tower, 65 feet ; entire height, 158 feet. It is constructed entirely of well-burnt bricks. The pillar of Allahabad, as described by Captain Hoare is a lofty conical structure, covered with inscriptions, (Asiatic Researches.) But the resemblance between the architecture and my- thology of India and Egypt, is ap- plicable to most of the early tribes of mankind. Similar remains are found more or less in almost every part of the globe. The cylindric tower of India resembles the ancient round tower in Ireland. The an- cient religion and the architectural remains of Ireland, as well as those of Britain, and various parts of the west of Europe, bear a remarkable analogy to those of the East. The pyramids of Egypt have narrow passages leading to dark chambers or temples under ground ; at Be- nares, an ancient seat of Bramini- cal learning, there are pyramids on a smaller scale, with subterraneous passages that are said to extend for miles. The caves of the oracle at Delphos, of Trophonius, and of New Grange in Ireland, had nar- row passages like those of Egypt and India. New Grange is a large mound or pyramid, surrounded by a circle of stones, near the county town of Drogheda, about twenty- four miles north of Dublin. (See Grange.) On its first opening, a gold coin of the emperor Valenti- nian was found in it, which, Dr. Llhwyd observes, might bespeak it Roman, if its barbarous origin were not proved by a rude carving at the entry of the cave. See the articles Pyramid, Mexican Architecture, Cholula, Cave, and Round Tower 101 H I N H IN We will now give a brief sketch of the chief characteristics of the architectural works of the Hindus. The royal palace of Agra was built in the form of a crescent along the banks of the Jumna. It was four miles in extent, and its walls were of very large stones, in colour re- sembling jasper. It consisted of three courts, each containing innu- merable porticos, galleries, and turrets, all richly painted and gilt, and many of them overlaid with plates of gold. The first court was surrounded with shady arches; the second was surrounded by the apartments of the great omrahs and ministers of state; and the third contained the seraglio and the state apartments of the emperor, hung round with the richest silks of Per- sia, and behind these were the royal gardens. In a square which separated the palace from the city, a numerous army lay constantly encamped ; and a larger area in front of the palace, towards the river, was occupied by the royal elephants. The columns of silver, and even of gold, and the other costly ornaments of the interior, are described in the travels of Tavernier and Mandesto. The foregoing de- scription will give an idea of the public structures of more modern times, but it is among the pagodas and other sacred edifices that we must look for the pure ancient buildings of the Hindus. The first kind of sacred edifices we shall notice is the pyramid. It has been supposed that pyramidal structures on the plains, served the same purpose as the excavations of the mountains. But pyramids are not unfrequently found within the mountain caves. The pyramids of Deogur and Tanjore partake much of the nature of the cavern, their entrances being very small, and the interior being lighted by means of 102 numerous lamps: in the cjfti] chamber there is but one L The exterior is very rude. The second kind of sacred lL are described der their respective articles. A third kind of sacred buijngs are temples which consist offen- sive courts. The pagoda of Seringham,ear Tritchinopoly, is composed of m square enclosures one withn other, the outermost being four Ha in circumference. The walls i 25 feet high, and 4 feet thick, wi a gateway in the middle of eacMcta The stones of which they are uik are in some instances of imi nse size. In the centre is the srtu- ary of Vishnu, a chapel 102reBt square. Many parts are adjfed with mystic figures. At SariWi in Guzerat, Buswara on the n" 1 river, and at Chittambrun o; the coast of Coromandel, are fii ex- amples of this kind of pagoda, See the Travels of Tavernier, Son rat, and Thevenot. At ChittaifW there is but one court, wh H S H I N i ]3> feet by 936, and the entrance is nder a pyramid 120 feet high. (Pl. Trans, vol Ixii. p. 354. Oie's Hist. vol. i. ) )me pagodas are built in the foi of a cross. The great pagoda of enares, on the Ganges, has be< long the chief seat of brami- ni( learning. Its form is that of a ess, with a cupola in the centre, v. hh terminates in the shape of a sin py/nid : each extremity of the rc terminates in a tower. Under uiupola, in the inside, is the alt, surrounded by the figures of Hi u idols. The same figure is fol ved in the pagoda at Malta. ' e great temple of Juggernaut, n|)f the oldest in India, is in the j of a circle. Juggernaut is -ii.ro be only another name for Ms ideo, who is represented by a bull on the eastern side of the edi e, and his image is on an ele- it altar in the centre of the bui.ing. lie Hindu temples are generally 1 on the banks of the Ganges, isi.u, or some sacred river, for convenience of ablution; but irhi tin's is not the case, they are ice ipanied by square tanks or R8( oirs, sometimes three or four hi cd feet broad. See Crawford's • u lies, and the Oriental Sports. I : most ancient remains of Hir^ architecture are doubtlessly tbemmense excavations, which ire iparently as old as the earliest E&),ian temples. Mr. D'Ancar- l"< n YilsRecherches sur I'Qrigine, 1 ty'it, et les Progres des Arts '■' t Grtce, thinks them anterior tot period of 2000 A. C. The coluns found in these caverns are nick formed, but are in many inst;'-es more tasteful than those of l /pt. Their capitals generally reprint round cushions, pressed dow; )y the superincumbent weight. ' jl ^l Call much admires the ele- H I N gance of some of the pillars. " I think," he observes, " the carving on some of the pagodas and choul- tries, as well as the grandeur of the work, exceed any thing of the pre- sent day, not only for the delicacy of the chisel, but the expense of construction, considering, in many instances, to what distances the component parts were carried, and to what height raised." In plate Athenian Architecture, A. II. we have given several specimens of these columns. Fig. d and e are from Ellora, and Jig f and g from Elephanta. o, b, and c, which are figures of Hindu arches and gate- ways, are described under the article Gothic Arthitecture. A column in an ancient building near Muddumpore, engraved in Daniell s Views, has the elements of a beau- tiful style. The gradation from the octagular base to the multan- gular shaft, setting off to the circular upper shaft, is at once elegant and strong, and its capital is bold and characteristic. We have given in the plate {Hindu A rchitecture — Co- lumri) a figure of a beautiful column in the ancient temple of Visvisha, at Benares. It is considered by Mr. Hodges, from whose work we have copied the print, as being of the age of Alexander, when some ideas of Grecian architecture may have been carried into India. Its ele- ments are in every respect Indian ; its ornaments are purely Greek. Its base, shaft, and capital are all, in shape, situation, and distribution, completely Hindu, with its multan- gular and mixed circular shaft, its quadrifrontal capital, and trencher- shaped abacus. In its pedestal is found the Grecian honeysuckle in all its purity; the angles of its shaft are adorned with the sacred water-leaves of the Hindu mytho- logy ; above these are the Doric flutes ; and in the capital are found H I N H 1 N the leaves of the Greek acan- thus. The following observations on the architecture of Burmah, are extracted from an article by G. H. Hugh, on the customs of the Bur- mans, in a recent number of the " Friend of India," published at Serampore, in Bengal. " In the construction of their dwelling-houses, bamboo, of which there are several species, and in great abundance, is the principal, and in many instances the only ma- terial used. Holes, two or three feet deep in the earth, receive the posts, which are more or fewer according to the sizes of the houses. Mats, made of split bamboos, form the outside covering, inside partitions, and sometimes the floor. But, com- monly, the latter is made by split- ting the material into quarters, laying them down in a series, and tying them to the transverse poles with split rattans. Leaves of the nipah tree, called here dance, com- pose the roof ; and a house, not positively uncomfortable, and suffi- ciently capacious for a small family, is constructed at the mode- rate expense of thirty or forty rupees. Men of high rank and ample means build their houses in the same form, with posts of teak ; the sides, partitions, and floor, are boards of the same wood ; and the roof is made either of leaves or of flat tiles. These tiles are burnt like bricks, each about eight inches long, five broad, and nearly one thick, jutting over at the head about an inch, by which they re- tain their positions upon the rafters. They are laid double, the lower edges of one series projecting over, and lying upon, the heads of the next lower series ; thus forming a defence from wind and rain, and presenting a good degree of security from exterior fires. The . The posts of the houses and^no i- teries, being inserted from twk four or five feet in the ground, -e subject to the depredations jf white ants, and to rapid dep. The old palace at Amarapooi is built of teak ; the roofs piled u n each other to a great height, m diminishing in size as they ascl, present the appearance of a 1 y spire. The exterior and intor parts are covered with gold n and the whole exhibits a respi- dent object to the beholder, is present majesty, who ascended e throne of his grandfather aht June, 1819, has since built a w palace at Ava, a few miles be tv the former capital, of which e took possession about March, IN. The pagodas are solid massenf masonry, varying in height, ca conical form, covered with plair composed of sand and lime, d many of them with gold leaf. ■ large pagoda, situated ahou-a mile and a half to the NW>f Rangoon, and called Shiva-da\n Parah, is a splendid and magw cent monument of heathen su stition and idolatry. Accorc g to its history, the foundation laid soon after the supposed hilation of Gautama. If this true, it must have existed fc period of about 2,302 years. S :e its erection, its size has beend creased by successive additions. The following account of temples of Arracan, is from diary of Dr. Tytler. " The B< Deeong is one of the most rem; HIN H I N a bl hills included within the bo'daries of this extraordinary c it It is situated in a direction ne !y due west from the entrance whe lne army gained admission, ?l ,hquently to the escalade which wa so gallantly executed by the IH )s under the command of Bradier Richards; and is sur- roided by four pagodas, dedi- ( a I to the worship of Gaud ma, ,oonee, Simoonee, Maha-moo- ne or Buddha. Leading to these d :es are several flights of steps, islnding the eastern face of the hi : which are ornamented with co ;sal figures of deformed giants, co posed of brick -work, and plas- 1 with chunam, of an uncouth slue, brandishing clubs in their 1 1 Is; and what is extremely re- m liable, figures of the Egyptian jpf'nx present themselves close to fh' temples, and these are so con- ted, as to exhibit an acute triple; two lions' bodies being ccoined to a single female head, pled at the sharp angle of the ng. The Baboo Deeong hill is )out 100 feet in height, and is cc posed of strata of schistus; it is completely surrounded with w; t, even when the tide is ebb. Srounding the outer wall of one of ie principal and most ancient ofieArracan temples, is observed ar'ngst the weeds and jungle, w h in many places obscure th : e interesting relics, a series of ve surprising mutiiated sculp- tujs, placed in interstices, resem- 1)1 : embrasures, constructed in th ruined wall enclosing the court of'ie temple. Upon one of those st'es is sculptured the Tauric m[, or Bucephalus Siva, the Mira of the Persians, or, in other wi'js, the Sun in Taurus. Another di nctly exhibits the sphynx, con- si: ng of the bust of a woman at ched to the body and feet of a lion, or the solar luminary having passed Leo and entered Virgo. The dragon's head and tail, shewed in the headless column of an im- mense snake's body, are conspicu- ous upon another stone in the series." — Asiatic Journal, April, 1826, p. 512. " In point of magnitude," says a writer in The Scotsman in the East, " the monuments of Arracan are unequalled by any hitherto explored by me, and in some par- ticulars differ essentially from the remains of former magnificence I have examined, either on the con- tinent of India, or on the islands of the Eastern Archipelago. Simi- lar to those of Java, they consist of octagonal temples, surrounded with bell-shaped fanes, but, unlike them, are less decorated with sculpture, and are distinguished by stupendous arches, vaults, and arched galleries, which, I had thought, existed only in the ima- gination of poets and novelists. There exists here the ruins of nearly three edifices, which con- sist of circular galleries, arches, and vaults, built of brick and stone, strong, cemented with mor- tar, and of the most massy con- struction. These subterraneous passages, for they consist of exca- vations in rocky masses of the hills, contain not fewer, probably, than ten thousand images of Budd ha, varying in size from not less than fifteen or twenty feet high, to an inch. Many of them are deca- pitated, which I attribute to the Mussulmans, in their erruptions into this province, as I have dis- covered a portion of an Arabic inscription near one of the entrances of the principal temple." On the architecture of Siam, the following observations are from the public accounts of the mission from the Governor-General to the 105 H I N HIN court of Bankok, in 1821, and a description of the public buildings of that city. ** The palaces are buildings of inconsiderable size, in the Chinese style, covered with a diminishing series of three or four tiled roofs, sometimes terminated by a small spire ; they are more remarkable for singularity than beauty. The palace of the king is covered with tin tiles. Many of the temples cover a large extent of ground : they are placed in the most ele- vated and best situations, sur- rounded with brick walls, or bam- boo hedges, and the enclosure contains numerous rows of build- ings, disposed in straight lines. They consist of one spacious and in general lofty hall, with narrow but numerous doors and windows. Both the exterior and interior are studded over with a profusion of minute and singular ornaments, of the most varied description. It is on the ends, and not on the sides of the exterior of the building, that the greatest care has been bestowed in the disposition of the ornaments. A profusion of guild- ing, bits of looking-glass, China, basins of various colours, stuck into the plaster, are amongst the most common materials. The floor of the temple is elevated several feet above the ground, and gene- rally boarded or paved, and cover- ed with coarse mats. The wildest stories of Hindoo theology figure on the walls." — "The arrangements observed in the Waal-thay-cham- poun, may be given as an instance of what occurs in the rest. This consists of a number of temples, pra-cka-dis, and buildings allotted for the accommodation of priests, enclosed in an ample square, rather more than a quarter of a mile on each side. The principal temples are further surrounded by a piazza, 106 open only towards the temple, about twelve or fifteen feet breadth, and well paved. A; and royal apartments. These U ai large and spacious. The gal- le is on the left hand, and mea- sns 150 feet by 27 : it is adorned b portraits of al l the Scottish kings, fr n Fergus 1 st, to the 7th James. T: front of this palace is two I sines high ; the roof flat. At each ei are projections ornamented W i circular towers at each angle ; hi the building is much higher, a the rest of the palace is three sl ies high. Towers on the north- utwere built by James the 5th, f< his own residence, and his name a tears in a niche. At the time of t restoration, this palace was re- eled by Sir William Bruce, archi- c, executed by Robert Mylne, nson. ioME-STALL, a mansion-house, o >eat in the country. Iorizontal Cornice, is the lej.'l part of the cornice of a p iment, under the two inclined cnices. Iorn, a name sometimes given t( he Ionic volute. Iorologium, (Gr.) a common tn the name of Clepsydra, and the in which the place of water w supplied by sand, which had tl 1 name of Clepsammia. See A Ironicus Cyrrhestes. Iospitalia, (Lat.) the door- y> s in the scene of a theatre a >ngst the ancients, on the right a left of the valvae regiae, or p icipal doorway. Also, the name g>n to that part of a house which c tained the rooms allotted to ■'.ngers. HOT Hospital, (Lat. hSpital, Fr. ) a building endowed by public or private charity, for the reception and treatment of invalids : the name is also applied to any chari- table institution. In the work of M. Durand, (Parallele des Edi/ices de tout Genre ) we have a collection of plans of different hospitals. The magnificent hospital at Milan has never been entirely finished, but the grandeur of its court-yard, and the surrounding porticoes, and many of its ornaments, which are executed in hard clay, render it a very interesting building. The hos- pital of Geneva, and that of the Incurables at Paris, partake of the same character. The finest build- ings of this kind in England, and which may be considered the most noble in Europe, are those of Greenwich and Plymouth. Hos- pitals for old soldiers are, in their plan and purpose, the same as the meritoria of the Romans. Hotel, (Fr.) a large inn, or place of public entertainment. Hot-house, a building erected for the purpose of raising such exotic plants, as from their extreme tenderness are not able to bear the effects of cold in our variable cli- mate. Hot-houses originally signi- fied bagnios, from the hot-baths there used. Those for orange-trees are said to have been first used, as a mark of royal magnificence, early in the 17th century. Ottode Munc- hausen built the first hot-house for pines, about the commencement of the 18th century. The purpose of these erections being to receive as much benefit as possible from the genial warmth of the sun, assisted by subterraneous stoves and flues, the chief object to pursue, will be a proper aspect of the slanting roof, covered with glass, (which is usually made moveable, to admit air occasionally,) and the best con- 109 H O U HOU struction of the stove and flues. Among the numerous modern im- provements, the introduction of steam in preference to warm dry air, or the warm air mixed occa- sionally with steam, and the air introduced warmed by steam-pipes, v as been represented as beneficial ; but conceiving the admission of air at the upper part of the building as a great imperfection in these buildings, Dr. Anderson procured a patent for an improved mode of constructing hot-houses, with a glass roof perfectly flat, and an- other above it, also of glass, but slanting in the usual form. The lower glass framing is made air- tight, to prevent any communi- cation with the common atmos- phere, but by the upper roof. A contrivance for occasional commu- nication with the lower apartment, is, however, made by the insertion of a pipe extending through it nearly to the ground. By this construction, as soon as the air in the lower room is rarefied by heat, it ascends, and forces the cold air from the upper story through passages left for that pur- pose ; and when the influence of the sun is withdrawn in the even- ing, the air in the upper reservoir cooling, becomes heavier, and the current through the tube is revers- ed, by which the warmer air is made to descend into the lower apartment before the cold can reach it. See Stove. House, (hus> Sax. huys, Dutch) a human habitation ; a building in which a family resides. Among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, houses were flat on the top, for walking upon; and had usually stairs on the outside, by which they might ascend and descend. Each house enclosed a quadran- gular area or court; which being ooen to the sky, gave light to it. no This was the place where comp L was received, and for that purr. 8 it was strewed with mats or u pets, for their better accommo. tion ; it was paved with mar or other materials, according ) the owner's ability, and proviJl with an umbrella of vellum, f o \ shelter from inclement weatl . This part of their houses, call by the Romans impluvium, cavcediam, was provided with ch nels to carry of the water i > the common sewers. The lei roof was covered with a stra? plaster by way of terrace. Hitl especially among the Jews, it \ customaiy to retire for meditat: , private converse, devotion, or \ enjoyment of the evening bree, See Acts x. 9. In plate P. 3, is given the pi of a Roman house, according i Vitruvius. The vestibuium into the atrium, a great court s • rounded by porticoes, (see Atriuu on the right and left of the atri i were the alae or wings, within wh were sometimes the cellee fai • liaricse, or apartments for dome*: purposes. In the atrium, acco- ing to Servius (in Virg. Mn. i. 75, and iii. 353,) was also the culina • kitchen. The tablinum was ent- ed from the atriurn, which was si- ceeded by the cavcedium; "T exedra and bibliotheca," obser ; Mr. Wilkins, whom we have !■ lowed, " are represented in It plan under the porticoes of ' cavgedium ; because, although • truvius does not inform us in wi division of the house they wi! placed, he mentions the cavsediw amongst the parts which the die i and friends qf the proprietor w.: at liberty to enter uninvited : whei ! it is probable that these, being pi- lie apartments, were situated in 1 1 court." The triclinia, or coram i eating rooms, are placed in i floor; he mentions stairs, but be oes not point out their situa- : 01 In our plan, a is the vesti- luln, b the atrium, c the tabli- t.u d d the alse, e e cellae fami- lia i», /cavsedium, g vernal tri- clium, g" summer triclinium, g" mx\x triclinium, i' cold bath, i" tep bath, i" warm bath, k & cubi- cul m pinacotheca, n bibliotheca, pistyle, q Cyzicene oecus, r r coils of the offices, s exedra, tt ns, u rooms for embroidery, 1 ndatories. In the foregoing la we have followed Wilkins; in the ketch below it, we have given the plan according to Newton, T islation of Vitruvius, ) where all e oeci are introduced. Here h proceeton, / the basilica, p ie?rvants' rooms, q the Egyptian ss each side, and pass edge ys through the two contiguous s ml by which the four sides are Id firmly together. Joists are b« 2d to each of the sides, by whicl.he floors are supported. Each sit of the roof is in one part, all the ur sides of which are bolted tog< er at the angles. None of the is are larger than two men may e lv manage. The whole house, w:h contains three flats, may be ten down, removed to a considei/le distance, and put up again in ne day by two men, with the assist ce of a horse and cart. The adn- tages of this plan are self-eviot. Many delightful spots might be obtained for the site of a porUe house during the summer mons, where there is no probability a fixed residence being built. Tcjbe sportsman in particular it wlri furnish a cheap and most com t- able lodging on the moors. Housing, the hollow mad in one body, to receive the extrc ty of another. House-warming. In an or the monuments of he- P roes. The country people believe that men engaged in the game of hurling the ball on a Sunday, were for that profanation petrified, form- ing this assemblage. Hurries, a term applied in some places to the stages of wood on navigable rivers, harbours, &c. to which the railways are conducted from coalpits. Hut, (hutte, Sax.) a small cot- tage, built of wood and earth. In countries abounding in woods, the first inhabitants would naturally seek shelter amongst the trees of the forest; next they would weave together the branches over their heads, to make the shelter more complete ; and step by step would at length form artificial cabins or huts of turf and the branches of trees. The Colchians, according to Vitruvius, who inha- bited a plain on the shores of the Euxine, in a woody country, form- ed their dwellings by placing at an equal distance trees of a certain length, across which they laid others transversely through their extremities; the space between the trees was filled with loam and small branches, so as to form a kind of wall ; four smaller trees, placed over the top, and joining at a point over the middle, formed the roof, which was also covered with loam. The Phrygians, as we learn from the same author, followed a different method : inhabiting a country in which wood was scarce, they made their dwellings on small hills, on the summit of which they dug pits as deep as they thought necessary, and made an outlet at the side. Over the top they placed branches of trees, and covered them with straw, reeds, and earth. Among the Arabians, in the cities of Loheia, Tehama, and Machsa, we still ob- serve huts of little betler construc- tion, even beside the more durable 113 H YP houses of the rich. The Tunguses, a people of Siberia, who live a wan- dering life among the woods and on the banks of the rivers, form their huts in the following manner: They place long poles in a circle, so as to meet together in the mid- dle in the form of a cone; at the summit a hole is left, through which the smoke may escape ; the en- trance is about four feet high. A number of huts have been built on the borders of the South Esk, in Scotland, which have a very pic- turesque appearance. They are built of a sort of muddy clay, mixed with the roots of aquatic plants, that is dug from the side of the river in suitable sizes and shapes, which are generally those of bricks. Hydraulic Mortar. See Aqueduct. Hydraulos, (Gr.) a pneumatic engine mentioned by Vitruvius and other ancient authors, the use and form of which are not well known. H ypjetii ros, (Gr. from v7ro,above, and at&rjp, the air.) The seventh or- der of lemples mentioned by Vitru- vius, which had ten columns on each facade, and was surrounded by a double portico, as in dipteral tem- ples. The cella was without roof, being entirely exposed to the air, but it had generally round it a por- tico of two ranges of columns, one above the other. Several examples of hypcethral temples still remain, but they all differ in some particu- lars from the description of Vitru- vius. The principal are, the great temple at Psestum, described in the works of Paoli, and Delagardette on the Ruins of Psestum, ( see Pces- tum,) the temple of Jupiter Olym- pius at Athens, (see Athenian Ar- chitecture,) that of Selinus in Si- cily, (see Selinus,) that of Minerva at Athens, and that of Jupiter Pan- hellenius at iEgina, (see JEaina.) 114 HYP The cella of the hypcethral tek was twice as long as wide ; an a3 every hypcethral temple hftcB account of its length, two entra p it had also two pronaoi. Hyberbola, (Gr. from over, and fiaWu), / throw,) JL tion of the cone, made bv the m being cut by a plane which E within its circular base, beitiet ther parallel to the side of the Z. nor cutting it through its vfW but which, if continued, woull"* I C E i c a m le of heating rooms dees not ap- pX to have been in use among the Rnans before the time of the em- As. Winckelmann has given us a dcription of a hypocaustum, which w discovered under some cham- bJ among the ruins of Tusculum. B eath the rooms, he says, were foid little cells, about as high as a jle, two under each apartment, ar without any entrance. Their ceng was made of large flat bricks, ar supported by two pillars, con- sulted of brick and loam. Through th:eiling ran quadrangular tubes m e of loam, the upper extremity ofhich terminated in the chain- beibove, whilst the other end de- sc ded half way down the little ce Other tubes were carried in th .vail to the rooms on the second stir. The extremity of the tube vi often decorated with a lion's he made of hard clay. The cells we approached by a corridor two fet wide, and the coals were intro- dud by a square opening. In bai, the hypocaustum was placed in ie middle, and around it were ph;d the other chambers apper- tai ig to the bath, so that people mi t pass directly out of one into thether. vpog£um, (Gr.) a term ap- pli among the ancients to those pai of a building which were be- |ckly, see Jackly. ) inousE.asubterraneousapart- me for preserving ice during the un ier. The best situation for an icel,jse is in a chalky or a loose gra lly soil, on a declivity, where a d ity is dug in the form of an iovi ed cone, and, when the nature oft soil requires it, accompanied will a drain, which may conduct the aste water into a well. The side- should be of bricks, without low the level of the ground, and more particularly to the vaults where they deposited the remains of the dead. Montfaucon, in his Antiquite Expliquce, torn. v. pi. 3. has given a figure of two hypogcea, in the interior of which are seen the niches containing cinerary urns. In the same volume, pi. 5, and pi. 118, he has given the design, plan, and description of two others, one found in the Villa des Cavalieri, and the other in that of Corsini. The hypogcea in later times were often richly ornamented. See the plates to our article Roman Orna- ments. Hypomochlion, the fulcrumor prop of a lever, which, when heavy bodies are raised by that instru- ment, bears all the incumbent weight ; it is applied also to the roller placed under pieces of tim- ber or stones, to facilitate their re- moval. Hypopodium, (Gr.) a footstool used in the ancient baths, &c. Hyposcenium, (Gr.)a term ap- plied by Pollux to the wall before the scene which faced the or- chestra. H ypotrach elium, (Gr.) a term given by Vitruvius to the slenderest part of the shaft of a column where it joins the capital. It signifies the part under the neck. I. mortar, and the doors should be made to shut close, and should have bundles of straw before them, to exclude the air as much as pos- sible. The ice should be placed on a frame, or a cart wheel, covered with straw. The icr; should be pressed together in a body as hard as possible lciiNooRAPHY, (Gr.) the trans- verse section of a building, which represents the circumference of the 115 IN A whole edifice, the different rooms and apartments, with the thickness of the walls; the dimensions and situation of the doors, windows, chimneys, the projection of co- lumns, and every thing that could be seen in such a section, if really made in a building. Icosahedron, (Gr.) a regular body, consisting of twenty trian- gular pyramids of equal height and bases, their vertexes meeting in the centre of a sphere, which is supposed to circumscribe it. If the linear side be a, the surface will be 5 aV3 and the solidity 2 Imbow, to arch over. Im pages, (Lat.) a term used by Vitruvius (lib. iv. c. 6,) and sup- posed to mean the rails of the door. Impetus, (Lat.) the span of a building, arch, roof, &c, Impluvium, (Lat.) the central part of the court, amongst the Ro- mans, which was uncovered, and the breadth of which was never less than a quarter, or more than a third, of that of the A trium. See Cavcedium and Atrium. Impost, (from impono, to lay on, Lat.) the layer of stone which crowns a door-post or pier, and which supports an arcade, &c. It generally projects, and is orna- mented with mouldings. An arched impost is that which crowns the pier of an arcade, and turns in an archivault, or which crowns a circular wall, niche, &c. An im» post is mutilated when its projection is diminished, that it may not ex- ceed that of a pilaster, as at the Fontaine des Innocens at Paris. In Antis. Temples are said to be in Antis when there are two columns between the antes of the lateral walls and the cella: this disposition is observed in the re- INC •'• *Jh M mains of the temple at Myus'f which figures are given in the L cond volume of the Ionian Antic, ties, and in the Architecture C< . paree of Mr. Durand. See^wra Inbond Jambstone, a be- stone laid in the joint of an apert, L Inch, (ince, Sax.) the twei part of a foot. Incertum, (Lat.) a term g which Vitruvius designates a m e of building, which consisted if small rough stones and mor, Chandler is mistaken in giving e name of incertum to walls ( - structed of hexagonal and pents - nal stones without mortar. I Inclination, (Lat.) the mu 1 approach of a line to a plane, r of two planes to each other. Inclined Plane. The incli d plane is one of the mechantl powers, and is not only used |o assist in raising ponderous bo s of immense magnitude, to elevat s to which they could scarcely* raised by any other way ; but o the natural declivities of hills e frequently made to serve the ft pose of the quick conveyance^ coals, timber, or other article? o a considerable distance, without e aid of horses. The most rent- able work of this kind is the SI 2, or inclined plane, of Alpnach n Underwalden, in Switzerland, 'lis great and singular erection lis completed under the superintejl- ence of Mr. Rupp, in the year 19 for the conveyance of the timbepf the lofty pine-trees from the to of Mount Pilatus into the Lak(pf Lucern. This wood was purchi d for £3000, and the expense of ie slide was £9000. Its lengths eight miles and a quarter, an : it rises from the level of its leer extremity 2600 feet. It is ime form of a trough, about five H broad and four deep, the botm of which is formed of a triple s< es INC t of rees, those in the middle being u ho>wed out, to admit a stream of w? r conveyed into it to lessen the '? fri'ion. The declination at the comencement of this work forms aningle of twenty-two and a half !j deees. The pines, stripped of yJl branches, descend by their ow gravity when placed on the sli , and proceed rapidly with an derated motion, acquiring an asfiishing velocity, passing the dis- tais of upwards of eight miles in ipLnutes; and in rainy weather, wi an increase of water, the pas- is effected in tVjj.ee minutes. Soetimes a tree springs out of the nve, when, if it goes against a •r< ing tree, it cuts it in two as thas if with an axe. i combustible. We read in ' Ails Gellius, that Sylla endea- u voed in vain to burn a wooden ' |p|r that was defended by Arche- ' 1 hv one of the generals of Mithri- ' da 1 ;, because it was soaked with ah . Gregory of Tours speaks of rtain wooden vessels that were 1 imi in his time, that withstood 1 th( ire as well as those of iron, but :,e )esnot tell us by what process thfl were made incombustible. At tipts have been made to com- !» po: a chemical mixture, that would H rer :r houses incombustible. In iteii 17', Hales proposed to cover them e wit earth, but this is only practi- cal in rustic habitations. M. Sou- he; in, of Montesor^ues, in 1759, iftfe anM.Didelot, in 1781, made seve- r rai rials, but without the desired in< ss. Dr.Fochus, of the Academy rf of 'ience, Munich, has discovered r a (;n position which renders wood [c inc ibustible ; it is made of an alk i ; mixed with an earth, and is it sail :o be produced by the mixture I of ne and clay calcined in a fur- loj: nac An equal quantity of argil- , lac us earth or clay is to be mixed jtj wit, lime and water, till of the con- 1 N F sistence of thin plaster; this is eva- porated to dryness, and subjected to the heat of a lime-kiln furnace, and, being afterwards mixed up of a proper consistence, is found to dry as hard, and of as compact an ap- pearance as Portland stone, of which it is a good imitation. The saturating of timber, or any other combustible substance, with a solution of soda and potash, render them completely fire-proof ; and a patent was granted to Mr. Benja- min Cook, of Birmingham, April 16, 1822, for the discovery of this mode of preventing accidents from fire. The mode of effecting this purpose is described in the 44th volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures. Either of the alkalies separately will have the same effect, as also a solution of alum. Incrustation, (Lat.) any thing, such as mosaic, scagliola, &c. ap- plied with mortar, or with mastic, or with cramps, to incisions that have been made for its reception. Indefinite, (Lat.) a line, &c. which has but one extreme, which may be produced infinitely in a di- rection opposite to this extreme. In dent ED,(Lat.) toothed together. Indian Architecture. See Hindu. Indian Rubber, a substance produced from a tree in Cayenne and South America, called the %- ringa tree. It is most abundant in rainy weather, when it oozes in a milky form from incisions made in the tree, and acquires the con- sistence, which it has when we get it, merely by exposure to the air. The colour is given to it by expos- ing it to the smoke of burning ve- getables. Indurating, (Lat.) any thing which hardens another. Infirmary, a public building for the reception of the sick ; in an- 117 I N S INS cient abbeys, an establishment of this denomination was usually pro- vided. Inlaying. See Incrustation, Mosaic. Instruments, Mathematical. A common case of mathematical instruments contains — (1.) A pair of drawing compasses, with pen, portcrayon for pencil, &c. and dot- ting leg ; (2.) a pair of plain com- passes or dividers ; (3.) a drawing pen ; (4.) a plain scale ; (5.) a sec- tor ; (6.) a protractor, in the form of a semicircle or rectangle ; and sometimes, (7.) a pair of bow com- passes ; (8.) a pair of triangular compasses ; (9.) a pair of propor- tional compasses; and (10.) a pa- rallel rule. (1.) The best kind of drawing compasses, have a cylindrical soc- ket, with a parallel slit on the outer side, into which the end of the foot fits. — (2.) Of plain compasses, there are two sorts, common dividers, and hair dividers, which are adjusted by a screw. — (3.) The drawing pen, has generally a pointer screwed into the upper end. — (4.) The plain scale, has the following scales upon it: aline of six inches, a line of fifty parts, and a diagonal scale on one side; and on the other a line of chords marked C, and seven de- cimal scales of parts, the numbers at the beginning of which shew the number of the small divisions at the beginning which are contained in an inch. The line of fifty parts being equal to six inches, gives the hundredth part of a foot. By the diagonal scale any number may be laid down to the hundredth part of an unit ; and atone end on a scale, just twice the size of the other. Thus, if we consider the divisions at 1,2, 3, &c. as each an inch, foot, mile, or any other measure, the diagonals at the end will give the hundredth parts. For instance, 118 if we wished to lay down ajj inches, we must place the foo the compass on the fifth par; under 3, and extend the other to the 6th diagonal on the s parallel, and it will give the e length ; and if it were require* set down 6,28 yards, we sh( proceed in the same manner, y placing one foot on the 8th pc . lei under 6, and stretching e other to the second diagonals that parallel. If we considd each of the divisions as 10 feet, then the first measure would re sent 36,5, and the second 6 and if we reckoned them as ), they would be respectively 365 d 628. The line of chords is of g it use in laying off or measuring - gles. If we wish to have a linht a given angle, suppose 23 degn, to a given line which we may II A C, from a given point as A, e have only to set one point of e compasses at the beginning of e line of chords, and extend it to ), then with this radius describe n arc from the given point on e given line, and take 23 deir s from the chords in the compass, d measure it off from the given e on the arc to B, and from ihe gin point draw a line through B, an l will give the required angle. I, on the other hand, it be requires measure a given angle, sup} ACB to be the angle, in Jig. \ plate M 1, with the same chorif 60, from the point A describe n arc as from B to A, take the lenh from A to B in the compass, a] y it to the scale, and it will give e degree contained in the angle. 1e seven decimal lines are called p - ting scales; and as their divisi s of an unit into ten parts beingD scales differing in a ratio of 4 u , the scale of a map, place, &c. r Y be varied in seven different dr - ings comformable to the same tt% I N S I N S The lines generally laid down urn the sector, are: a line of equal 3 S , marked L; a line of secants, m ked S or se ; a line of chords to oOiegrees, marked C ; a line of pcgons, marked POL; on the ot r side a line of sines to 90 de- rr;s, marked S ; two lines of tan- re s, one to 46 degrees, the other 4,5 to 75 or upwards, marked f ta ; along the side, when quite op, Gunter's line of artificial num- be, marked N ; a line of artificial si, S; a line of artificial tan- s. T; a line of 12 inches; and I ie of the foot divided into 100 p;'s. The following examples will ill trate the use of each line : — L » of lines, L. Three numbers, 41 and 12, being given to find a proportional; take 12 parts nne compass from the beginning ohe line L, and, opening the see- to apply it across from 4 to 4 ; th , with the instrument open to th same angle, take in the com- piles the distance from 6 to 6, ar by applying one foot on the fit from the beginning, the other a reach 18, for the answer. Line ojkords, C. In Jig. 12, plate M, 1. oppose it required to draw an are DCB — 35°, with any conve- ni't opening, take the extent from 6(o 60, and with it, as a radius, fru the point C describe the arc B and with the same opening of th sector, take the extent from 35 to 5, and set it on the arc BD to D and by drawing the line CD, th ingle will be completed. Line of '^nes, S. In the triangle a b c, , (PL Acropolis, Tiryns,) it* b — 230, and the angle a b c ■=p° 30' be given, to find the li< nc; take the distance 230 on th 'ine of sines, and a the angle at c 53° 30', set it off from 53° 30' to 3° 30' in the line of sines; take th .! "stance from 36° 30' to 36" 30', *lp will measure on the line of sines 170,19, the length of ac. Lines of tangents, TT. Let a c, the tangent of the angle b be required, when a c 230, and the angle 6 36° 30', take 230 from the line of sines, set it off from 45° to 45° on the line of tangents, then measure from 36° 30' to 36° 30' on the tan- gents, apply it to the line of sines, and it will give 170,19, the tangent a c. Lines of secants, S or sec. — When the base a b, and the angles a c b, a b c, are given to find b c, the secant of a b c, take 230 on the line of sines, make it a parallel dis tance at the radius or beginning of the lines of secants, take the secant of 60° 30', measure it on the line of sines, it will be 287,12, the length required. In the solution of spherical triangles, the lines of sines and tangents are used conjointly; thus in the spherical triangle efg (Jig. 1, PL Athenian Architecture , A. 9) right-angled at e. The side ezz 36° 15', and the adjacent angle f -S 42° 34' being given, it is required to find the side eg; measure the sine of 36° 15' from 90 to 90, the parallel tangent of 42° 34 will give the lateral tangent of 28° 30' eg. Line of polygons, POL. — Take any parallel distance between 6 and 6 as the radius of a circle, then the distance between 4 and 4 will be the length of the sides of a square inscribed in the circle, from 6 to 5 of a pentagon, from 12 to 12 of a regular figure of 12 sides, &e. The artificial lines of numbers, sines, and tangents, commonly called Gunters lines, from their inventor, are applicable to the same pur- poses as ttie sectorial lines. Thus, if it be required to find a fourth proportional to 3, 9, and 10, take the extent from 3 to 9 with the compasses on the line of numbers N, with this measure, place one foot in 10, the other will fall on 30, the answer. In Jig. X, PI Acropolis, 119 I N S INT if the two angles b and c, and the side a b be given, to find a c, take the extent from 53° 30' to 36° 30' on the artificial line of sines S, and put one foot on 230 in the line of numbers, the other will fall on 170,19. To find a c, the tangent of b, measure from 45' to 36° 30' in the artificial line of tangents T, and it will reach from 230 to 170,19, on the line of numbers. We may solve the example, of the spheri- cal triangle, by taking the extent from 90° to 36° 15' in the line of sines, and it will reach from 42° 34*' to 28° 30' in the line of tangents. — (6.) The use of the protractor, is to lay down or measure an angle, for which purpose it has 180 de- grees marked round the outer edge ; when of metal, it is made in the form of a semicircle ; but when made of ivory, it is made rectangu- lar, and is commonly more exact. — (7.) Bow compasses, are used for drawing small circles with great exactness. — (8.) Triangular com- passes, have three legs, two moving the same as common compasses, and the third fitted into a socket at the head, so as to move in any direc- tion ; they are used to measure an- gles or triangles, and are very useful in drawing, to ascertain, from two fixed points, the situation of a third. — (9.) Proportional compasses, are used in graduating the radii of spi- rals, in dividing circles or straight lines into equal parts, &c. The common form is that of a cross, with a parallel slit down the middle of each part, and a centre piece moveable round a pin, and fastened by a nut and screw. — (10.) Of parallel rules, there are two kinds, the common kind, and the rolling parallel rule, the latter of which is on many accounts preferable. — (11) Elliptic compasses, consist of a beam a b, PI. C. 67 ', Jig. 4, about a foot long, with three cursors or 120 sliders, to one of which ma 3e screwed a point or pencil; t< le bottom of the other two are riv>d two sliding dove-tails, adjuste d grooves made in the cross-bran ? s of the instrument. These ha ig a motion every way, by UirO about the long branch, go bS wards and forwards, along ! )e cross: so that when the beam | is gone half way about, one of m will have moved the whole leS of one of the branches ; and v n it has got quite round, the s'ie dove-tail has got back the lei h of the branch. The distance i tween the two sliding dove-t's, is the distance between the o foci of the ellipsis, and by ch; r. ing that distance, the ellipsis y be changed to any dimensiot- (12) German compasses, have t|ir legs a little curved outward, o that their points only mee- (13) Draught compasses, are m vided with several moveable poi j, for the purpose of drawing e lines in architecture Insular Column, is a colio standing by itself. Intaglio, (Ital.) any tbingili figures in relief on it. 1 n ta vol at a, the same as Cy • tium. Intercepted axis, a term conic sections; it is that partf the diameter of a curve line c<- prehended between the vertex;! the ordinate; it is also ca 1 abscissa and apscis, or apsis, \ 1 forms an arch of a peculiar ki , appropriated to the canopy o a kingly or an ecclesiastical throb and to vaults in churches. e Apsis, Intercolumniation, (Lat) the space between two colurr » measured from the place whe they are of an equal thickness, s the diameters of the shaft oU column is not the same in all s INT INT heiit, the lower part of the shaft, j ml ?diately above the base, has bet fixed upon as the measure of ;iS and intercolumniations. In tliel'eraains of Egyptian architec- ts the intercolumniation is from i t and a half to three feet, and .r,- more. Vitruvius enumerates ^different properties of inter- , ; miation, designated by the i s of Pycnoshjlos, Systylos, ilos, Araostylos, and Eus- \ (see these words.) The two rs vere considered as very incon- i nt, as they did not allow room for vo persons to enter the temple : st. The diastyle and the r style, from their too great icL seemed to weaken and en- i ei the architrave, and on this mt wooden architraves were ■» in the latter. The eustyle referred both for the elegance of ? proportion, and because it d a convenient passage be- the columns, without dimi- - ig the solidity of the archi- It is probable, that in the order the diastyle and sys- 'tercolumniations were exclu- or principally used, and that ;er three were little used, on :< mt of the difficulties they d in the distribution of the . phs and metopes. In the I ) order, all the different modes mis't be used. The araeostyle ieejj to have been used principally Tuscan. It appears, how- that the ancients did not alvj's observe the rules laid down by itruvius for the disposition of tiuMiitfTcolurnniaiions ; at least thcfispositi- ns of the intercolum- uia »ns in the remains of ancient .lenjica rarely agree with those *lu are given by that author. Wtind the intercolumniations un- and disposed so that that in ie middle of the facade of a poi:o is larger than those on each Q side, which often diminish some inches in each intercoiumniation, the two last being the narrowest. Such is their disposition in the temple at Segesta, in the temple of Concord at Agrigentum, and in the great temple at Paestum, of which figures are given in the works of M. M. Houel and Dela- gardette. In this latter temple, however, this disposition exists only in the two principal facades; at the sides, on the contrary, the inter- columniations are equal, except the two last towards the angles, which were always made narrower than the others, on account of the tri- glyphs of the corners. Neverthe- less, there are temples more an- cient, and others belonging to the same epoch as these, on every side of which the columniations are all equal, except only those at the corners. In the temple at Corinth, the small temple at Paestum, and the great temple at Selinus, the intercolumniations are equal to the inferior diameters of the columns, and in that of Thoricus, of which a figure is given by Le Roy, is a little more. Towards the time of Pericles, this distribution began to be constantly observed. The inter- columniations of the temple of Theseus, and the Parthenon at Athens, which are given in Stuart, and those of the temple of Jupiter Nemaeus, near Argos, given in the Ionian antiquities, are not quite equal to an inferior diameter and a half of the columns. Those of the temple of Jupiter Panhellenius, in the isle of iEgina, and of the temple of Minerva Sunias, on the promontory of Sunium, also given in the Ionian Antiquities, are a little larger. In many of these temples, which appear all to be of the Doric order, the columns seem to approach each other too near, and the intercolumniations to 121 INT be too narrow to allow a free pas- sage : however, as the inferior dia- meter of the columns, by which the width of the intercolumniations was determined, was very considerable, they were sufficiently large. But when the shaft of the columns were formed less conical, and conse- quently the inferior diameter was diminished, it became necessary to make the intercolumniation more than a diameter. This is observed in some of the Doric temples just mentioned, and always in those of the Ionic order. The intercolum- niation of the Ionic temple of " the Ilissus is a little more than two inferior diameters of a column ; and it is nearly two diameters in the temple of Apollo Didymaeus, near Miletus. The temple of Bac- chus at Teos exhibits the eustyle which was invented by Hermogenes, who built it. But after it had be- come well known, this mode was not always used. In the Erech- theium, the intercolumniation of the portico is equal to two inferior diameters, and that of the portico of Minerva Poiias is a little more than three; that of the temple of Fortuna Virilis, and that of the Co- rinthian portico of the Panthenon, at Rome, are a little more than two diameters. The intercolumniation of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, that of Jupiter Stator, and of the Basilica of Antoninus, at Rome, as given by Desgodez, are a little more than three modules. The peculiar design of some build- ings, as the Doric portico and the Propylea, at Athens, one leading to the market, and the other to the citadel, and which consequently ought to have a wide passage, required the intercolumniation of the middle to be greater than that of the sides. Vitruvius directs, that, in temples of the Ionic order, the intercolumniation of the middle 122 IN V of the principal facades ouglto be equal to three, and the o rs only to two and a quarter inf or diameters; that in the Doric a- style, there ought to be three § glyphs above the intercolumni; )n of the middle, and only two 01E others; and that in the syse where one triglyph was commHy placed between each intercolu i- ation, there ought to be two aS that in the middle. Interdentil, the space 3. tween dentils. Inter duces, see Inter- ties Interfenestration, the s :e between windows. Interjoist, the space betv n joists. Intermodillion, the spacej- tween two modillions. Intekpknsi vs., (Lat.) timrs in the roof of the cavsedium, i;- tending in a diagonal direcn from the angles of the court the junction of the beams of e roofs, and used to carry colliqe or gutters. Interpilaster, is the iiil val between two pilasters, wl h should always be regulated y the principles of intercolun- ation. Interquarter, the space - tween two quarters. Inter-ties, are short pieced timber used in roofing, to bind - right posts together, in roof pa- tions, in lath and plaster wc, and in walls with timber frai- work. Intrados, (Italian) the unr curved surface or soffit of |n arch. Intrita, a kind of clay, ckj- my like pitch, used in old time|r mortar, and in lamps instead f oil. Invalides, Hotel des, 1 hospital at Paris, begun in J6j after the plan and designs f ION 1 O N Libcil Bruant, under the reign , f luis XIV. for the reception of the /terans who had fought in the r ri s hattles during his reign, and hich bears some resemblance in i general form to the Praeto- rian amp of the Romans. I erted Archer, such as their intrados below the cen- tre 1 axis. Inverted arches are of pt utility in giving stability to h idings, in all cases where the wall's hi°her on each side than , the rd of the arch. If a, one of the islands called e ebrides ; its name in the ori- ir angnage signifies the " Island |ives." This little island is le ated for its remarkable anti- itfe; and in history for having ei "once the luminary of the I onian regions, whence savage I n ind roving barbarians derived the nefits of knowledge, and the 3 igs of religion." It has only e 'wn, near which is the Bay of 1 1! rs, so named on account of t h os who were slain there by the n . Beyond the town are the ii of the nunnery founded by St. >lumba ; the church is 58 feet . 20, and the east roof is en- re. On the floor is the tomb of the st prioress, with her figure ' iv g to the Virgin Mary. From n< a broad pavement leads to the thedral, and on the way is m's Cross, which of 360 is iht' fly one that survived the Re- forrrrion. A large enclosure, calle Relig Ouran, is the burying placof Oran, where the kings of Seothd, Ireland, and the Isles, and eir descendants, were buried, IB tr e different chapels. One of tbes<; containing 48 Scottish mo- narch from Fergus II. to Mac- beth ; inscribed, Tumulus Regum Scot, ; the next, Tumulus Re- gum ibernice, containing four Irish " "»:hs; and the third, Tumu- lus Regum Norwegice, containing eight Norwegian viceroys of the He- brides. Above 300 inscriptions were collected here by Mr. Sache- verel, in 1688, and given to the Earl of Argyle. Here also stands the chapel of St. Oran, the first building begun by St. Columba, and Oran's red grave- stone is near the door. A little to the north- west are the remains of a cross, with a number of detached stones, they are called clachabratti, and visitors are enjoined to turn thrice round here, in the direction of the course of the sun. Originally, there were three noble globes of white marble, placed on three stone ba- sons, and these turned round ; but the synod ordered them, with 60 crosses, to be thrown into the sea. A little north of these is the cathe- dral, built in the form of a cross, 115 feet long by 23 broad, the transept 70 feet. The pillars of the choir have their capitals charged with historical devices. This build- ing seems to have been too magni- ficent for the 7th century, in which it is said to have been built. The walls are of red granite, from Nun's Island. In the church yard is a fine cross of a single piece of red granite, 14 feet high, 22 broad, and 10 inches thick. Near the south- east end is Mary's chapel ; behind this is a piece of the cloister of the monastery, and some sacred black stones in a corner, on which con- tracts and alliances used to be made, and oaths sworn. The place where St. Columba landed is a pebbly beach, where a heap of earth represents the form of his ship ; near it is a hill, with a circle of stones, called the Hill of Angels. The ruins are, by the attention of the family of Argyle, kept in tole- rable repair; but this celebrated spot, the seat of learning and piety, has now no school for education, 123 ION IRO no temple for worship, no instruc- tor in religion. Ionic Order. The Ionic, next to the Doric, was the oldest order amongst the Greeks. It. originated amongst the Ionic colonies of the Lesser Asia, and is more delicate and graceful than the Doric, and yet has more majesty than the Co- rinthian. The column is fluted with twenty-four channels. The abacus of its capital is scooped on the side, and the chief ornament of the capital is its two spiral volutes. (See Volute.) It is supported by the echinus moulding, sculptured with the egg-and-tongue, and bor- dered above and below by a headed astragal. The base consists of a torus and two scotise, separated by astragals, and resting on a square plinth. But the most favourite base used with this order, both by the ancients and moderns, was the. attic. The cornice is in ge- neral much divided by moulding and dental bands. In most of the Asiatic remains the frieze is found wanting. In the temple of Erech- theus, the column is terminated by a fillet and astragal, and in that of Minerva Polias by a single fillet, a little below the lower edge of the volutes. In the capitals of the Ionic buildings at Athens, and of the temple of Minerva Polias at Priene, the lower edge of the canal between the volutes is formed into a graceful curve, bending downward in the middle, and revolving round the spirals. In the temple of Bac- chus at Teos, in the great temple at Loadicea, and in all the Roman examples of the Ionic, the channel which connects the two volutes is not formed with a border on the lower edge, but is terminated with a horizontal line, which falls a tan- gent to the curve of the spiral at the commencement of the second revolution of each volute. The 124 proportions of this order are the whole column, 8 modules, of ^ the base occupies 30 lines, ai the capital 20 lines, the abacus L* 6hy the echinus 6*, the interv! ne channel 7, the whole depth oi,he volutes is 27 lines, depending m . siderably lower than the ech , S ; the shaft. 7 J- modules, taperin IQ lines from the inferior diame to the neck. The entablature, lit*, dule 38 lines, the architrave t|ng 31 lines, the frieze 27, anche cornice 34. The finest sped ns we have of the Ionic order arlhe temples of Minerva Polias at P ie, of Erechtheus, and Minerva 'o- lias, at Athens. Lion, (iren, Sax. Acam, Wn.) a metal common to all parts cihe world ; and though recorded toive been extremely scarce amonjhe Greeks at the time of the sieg of Troy, it is now every wher>he most abundant and the mostu'ul of all metals. Though the lig ;st of all metals except tin, yet i is the hardest, and, when pure is naturally malleable. Most of le metals become more brittle as By acquire heat, but iron, on the n- trary, is the more malleable e it approaches to fusion. Its spdc gravity is to water as 7632 to 10. It is the only known subst :c attracted by the loadstone. ie iron manufactured in Great Br in is obtained from three kinds of the Lancashire; very heavy, a fibrous texture, and a dark pule colour, inclining to black; in lodged in veins. Bog Ore, w :* resembles a deep yellow clay, fed in strata of from twelve to tw« :y inches in thickness; and Stones, of an irregular shape, Sr quently forming beds of git extent, like other stony mass, frequently intersected with se of pit-coal. By various process, iron is rendered fit for casting; ] IRO forml into stoves, fire-grates, and an elless variety of culinary and othe Jtensils, and on a larger scale , it stilies the place of heavy beams f nber in machinery and in builds and, when rendered malle- able it is called forged iron, and used; for purposes requiring a crear degree of elasticity, and ever variety of form. Besides cast nd forged iron, there is an inteiediate state, in which the ? metJi is made to possess a certain aVr of hardness with the neces- sary uctility for the manufacturing of I ves, and all kinds of edge- tools! and polished ornamented gooc As early as 1779, cast n .as used for the arches of rj s, and since that time con- du improvements have been mad n their construction. In the Repjtory of Arts for 1794, an Kjcofit is given of Mr. T. Wilkin- 'cast-iron blocks for forming ;:hesof bridges, since which, I i)um,ous similar inventions have i patented, and the principle Kstones in forming arches [Id in its utmost extent, par- i ticuWy in the magnificent bridges aero the Wear at Sunderland, in w iu Mr. Burdon, by the appli- Itk of his patent iron keystones, s > luced an arch at least fifteen ighter than an arch of stone of tl same dimensions, of elegant formind very easily put together. In tl sixth volume of the Repertory - J s for 1797, an account is giveiof a similar invention for the sam()urpose, differing only in the subs ution of hollow, or box- shap , for solid key-blocks. Iron has :;o been used for joists, and otheparts of building, to render then: ire-proof ; and Mr. Farrow, Iron )nger, 18, Great Tower-street, k>nn, has procured a patent for fire-] x)f buildings with iron joists and fters. A model of a house IRO of this construction is to be seen in Mark lane. In 1811, a patent was granted to Thomas Pearsal, of Bitton, in Gloucestershire, for the manufac- ture of various parts of buildings ; roofs, rafters, joists for floors, skeletons for stairs, frames for windows and skylights, and various similar appendages to houses. De- scribed in the Repertory of Arts, vol. xx. second series, 1812. — A patent was also procured by Richard Jones Tomlinson, in 1814, for a mode of covering the roofs or sides of buildings with sheet iron. Described in the Repertory of Arts, vol. xxiv. second series, 1814. — And in the same volume, a descrip- tion is given of the manufacture of a patent brick, from the scoria, cin- der, or slag of furnaces, cast into smooth and convenient forms for building, by Messrs.Mander,Manby, and Vernon, of Wolverhampton. Iron Chains, under the roofs of circular buildings, are found of great utility in preventing the pres- sure of the incumbent weight from pushing out the walls, especially in domes of great magnitude. The dome of St. Paul's, in London, has two massive chains for its support, which are sunk into the substance of a circular course of Portland stone. Iron King Posts, and Queen Posts, are generally to be preferred to those of wood, and, where bolts and straps are used, are as cheap. Iron-work. Bolts, straps, and clamps, are preserved from the effects of moisture by the following mixture. Add half a pound of litharge to two quarts of boiling linseed oil, putting in small quan- tities at a time, and cautiously. Let it simmer over the fire two or three hours, then strain it, and add a quarter of a pound of finely pounded rosin, and a pound of white lead, keeping it in a gentle IT A heat till incorporated, and use hot. A composition of oil and rosin, and finely levigated brick-dust, is found a most effectual preservative of iron from rust: it must be mixed, and used as a paint, of the usual consis- tence, and finely ground. Irregular Figure, a figure whose sides, and consequently an- gles, are unequal to each other. Is agon, (Gr. from urog, equal, and ytovia, an angle,) a figure with equal angles. Isiac Table, an Egyptian mo- nument, consisting of a plate of copper, covered with various figures in basso-relievo, which was disco- vered at Rome in 1525, and was bought from a blacksmith by Car- dii.al Rembo, but it has since been lost. The principal works which treat on it are Pignorius, Mensa Isiaca, Montfaucon, Antiquitee Expliquee (torn. ii. part 2, 1. 2, c. 1 — 3) Keysler, Voyages, torn i. Banier, Jablonski, and Pignorius. Isidomum, or Isodomum, (Gr.) The Greeks had commonly two methods of building, one called isidomum, was with courses of equal thickness and equal lengths ; in the other, called pseudisodomum, the heights, and thicknesses, and lengths of the courses, differed. Another inferior mode was styled Emplecton. See Cella. Isle. See A He. Isosceles, (Gr.) a triangle which has two sides equal. Ispahan, see Persian Architec. Italian, or Hip-roof, see Car- pentry. Italy. From its proximity to Greece, Italy was one of the first of the western states of Europe, which received literature and the arts. The church of St. Mark at Venice, built by Grecian artists in the tenth and eleventh centuries, is still admired for its conception, for its antique magnificence, and for its ITA fine proportions. The cathe< | f Pisa, built in 1016, by the eek architect Buchetto, or Busc tto of Dulichium, is faced with ri b!e both within and without, a: j s supported by four ranges of r ble columns. The tower built [\ twel fth century beside tbiscath ral shows that architecture had a |*dy made some progress. In th< teenth century, Lapo or Jaco , of Florence, built the church < t> Portiuncule. Contemporary '\th this architect, were also Fuci md Nicolas de Pise, both Floret ,e The works of the latter, abng which are the church of St IVn- tony at Padua, and that c the Trinity at Florence, were gitiy admired by Michael Angelo. ur- ing the thirteenth and fourtntli centuries, a noble emulation m to have animated all the ci| of Italy. The church of Santa ina Formosa, built at Venice, i the antique taste, by Paulo Bar :ta, many monuments at Bolna, the beautiful marble chapel ( the church of Santa Maria Majc at Rome, by Marchione, are all rks of this period. In Italy arc ec- ture now made rapid advanc to- wards its entire restoration. >hn of Pisa, in Tuscany, labour at Campo Santo, but it was Bne- leschi who opposed most vigot sly the ruling taste for the Gothic flc, and who studied without ce ing the remains of ancient Rome. Che treasures of the Medicis, and ( the princes of Milan, hasteneclthe progress of the arts; the rks of Vitruvius were studied ; had Leon Battista Alberti, of Flolice, succeeded to the talents and < er- prise of Bruneleschi. From tha me a crowd of eminent architects ave contributed towards its perfe on. In the four plates of Italian th- ings, are given specimens ojthc style of buildings in that coin y. J A V J A V J. ick Arch, an arch of only th< hickuess of one brick. Lex of Hilton, see JEoli- ^ TcKLY, a village near Mylasa, >ed to be the ancient Labrau- a which was visited by Dr. Chdler, and plans and drawings of Is temple published in the Io- ni; Antiquities. The temple, (he observes,) was oflhe Corinthian order, sixteen conns, with part of their enta- bljire, standing ; the cella and ro<' demolished." The remains of ,vn were also traced by it, with sq re towers at intervals, and walls lik those of Ephesus. Within is latre, cut in the rock. Of the nfj and lateral walls of the pro- only the base is left, which is inued round the walls of the tenle. The pavement of the pro- as raised one step above that of le portico. The columns are flud, except those on the south lii and on their front are inscribed h names of the benefactors at wl ;e expense they were done. TT projection on the front of the uprmost step has the appearance of i ovolo, though much defaced ; th')thers are concealed under the ru ish. The entablature is left plli ; it probably was intended to ha been decorated, to accompany lumns, which are finished, rcumstance, with that of the co mns on the south side of the te;>le not being fluted, shews, be nd a doubt, that the ancients w< accustomed to finish the de- coiions after the fabric was rais- ed the temple of Apollo Didymeus, Miletus, furnishes another exiple. iCk Plane, a plane about 18 11 :s long, to prepare for the try- in; jlane. Jack Rafters, the jack tim- bers which are fastened to the high rafters, and the wall plates. See Constructive Carpentry. Jack Ribs, the jack timbers, or parts of curved ribs, which are fastened to the angle ribs, and rest upon the wall plates, in groin- ed or domed ceilings. Jack Timber, a short timber fastened at the ends to two tim- bers which are not parallel, or to two timbers which actually meet in a point, as to the wall-plate and hip-rafter of a roof, the wall-plate and hip of a groin, &c. Jambs or Jawnbs, (Fr.) door- posts, or upright posts at the ends of window-frames, also the upright sides of a fire-place, from the hearth to the mantel-piece. Jamb-lining, the side work of door-ways. J a mb- posts, uprights on the sides of door-ways, on which the jamb-linings are fixed. Japanese Houses (says a late traveller) are the antipodes of those of the ancient Egyptians, and the inhabitants of the Hauran. While the latter, always aiming at mas- siveness, constructed their houses of huge stones, and roofed them with the same materials, you here see, upon the green knolls that skirt the road, little delicate habita- tions of fine wood, or even of paper. But their light and graceful struc- ture, and their gilded ornaments, glittering in the sun, give them the air of fairy dwellings, which the very breath of heaven might dissolve. Java, an island in the East Indies, in which remains of splen- did buildings, laying claim to the highest antiquity, are yet to be seen. " Nothing, (observes Cap- tain Baker) can exceed the air of 127 J 01 JO I melancholy, desolation, and ruin, which this spot presents; and the feelings of every visitor must be in unison with the scene, when he reflects upon the origin of this once venerated, hallowed spot; the seat and proof of the perfection of arts, now no longer in existence in Java, and the type and emblem of a religion no longer acknow- ledged, and scarcely known among them by name. Never have I met with such stupendous and finished specimens of human labour, and of the polished refined taste of ages long since forgotten, crowded in so small a space. And though there may be remains of antiquity in other parts of the globe, equally worthy the eve of the traveller or the pencil of the artist, yet Chandi Servo must ever rank with the foremost in the attractions of curi- osity, or of antiquarian research. " The most splendid of these monu- ments of antiquity are at Pram- banan, Boro - Bodo, and Singa Sari. The ruins of Boro-Bodo is remarkable for grandeur of design, and exquisite workmanship. This temple is under the residency of Kadu, its name being a corruption of Bud'ho, ancient or heathen. The building crowns the summit of a hill; its form is quadrangular, and rises by seven terraces, one above another, each enclosed by a stone wall ; flights of steps at the four corners, leading to the top, on which are four latticed domes, with one of a larger cir- cumference. Upwards of 300 stone images of devotees occupy as many niches, or temples, in the walls; these are above three feet high. Similar images are also in the domes above, both within and without, carved in relief, in the most correct and beautiful style. Historical scenes and mythological ceremonies are represented by 128 groups of figures; they a , r , the Indian costume; and th ex- tent and gTandeur of the le is wonderful, and beautifull 9r . rect in the workmanship ; biL e of the most extraordinary rjjE mental assemblage of wonde j« an immense colossal statue man resting on his hams, lyi cn its face, and adjacent to a t- u on which it was originally p >,j It measures in length 1*2 feet ith corresponding dimensions in ju parts ; it is cut from one fcj stone. The terrace from m this enormous statue appea to have fallen, is about 18 feet jh, and could not have been rai to that station by any machine at present in possession of the n ves of Java. A second figure o his description has been latelwk- covered ; and in the distri of Malang, not far from Singa- .ra, several interesting ruins of ai er.t temples have been found. Jerkin- head, is a pe feature in roofs, in which :hc gable is carried higher thai the side walls. Jet-d'eau, (Fr.) water tlwn into the air from a pipe or ibe placed in the middle of a basir nd falling again into the basin bp Joggle Post, a strut-po:for fixing the lower ends of the s ts. See Crown. Joists, for floors of the sirr est construction, are placed with eii edges uppermost, extend from to wall, and are generally i and thin; these floors are c single-jointed, excepting large m bers, called beams: all the pieces supporting the boards floor are called joists; and if pieces are fixed to the bearm'n- derneath, to sustain the lath PQ plaster, these are called cM joists. Bridging joists are W to which the boards are njed. liar JOI * i. . ; Th binding joists are those into vh:i the bridging joists are mor- tise See Bay, and Carpentry. \ i n er y, in building, is con- ul fine to the nicer and more orna- al, as carpentry is to the -c^erand more ponderous, parts. !e and yellow deal, mahogany, a American oak, are the woods n -illy used by the joiner, who, in s acting, always give6 the pre- fere:e to such pieces as are free ror knots, and straight-grained ; the ellow deal is in general the teas liable to these imperfections, : therefore best for styles of doo and framing, and mouldings ery description. White deal ii n e preferred for panels, which i be cut down the middle, a; Coined again, an edge to a ids, whether the panel require iree, or more pieces, carefully »i knots on the edge of the ni which if admitted will cause to y, even in dry wood. The itraihtest logs should be selected ir jinscots, of a clear grain and n i form colour. A log of wain- g ought to be cut in a ire< m opposed to what workmen ill e beat of the wood, in order it t may have a handsome ■ k ted appearance; for the ityleand frames of doors, sashes, * &c. od cut in the same direction astb&eafwill make better mor- |J nd be less liable to split or rp Mahogany is used only for * ors, sash frames, banister Is, nd other parts of the most i houses. Spanish maho- y s harder than that from Hone as, and also, when it is ' (1, is far more beautiful. The ecies of mahogany, called ltt h is of the cheapest kind, * i netimes used for panels of imensions, and is preferred 1 boards, the facings of shops, * n( l iat the workmen call sweep JOI work ; it is less liable to be affected by the weather. For polishing wainscot work, the joiner dissolves thin shavings of bees-wax in spirit of turpentine, without heat, in a glazed earthen pan, stirring it fre- quently, and, by adding of either article, keeping the compound or the consistence of honey ; this ap- plication put on with a linen rag, and rubbed till it will not adhere to the fingers, gives a fine polish ; or to a quart of linseed oil a pint or spirit of turpentine is added, and a small quantity of lime; it is kept hot beside the fire two or three hours, strained through a cloth, and kept for use; this is applied with a brush, and after twenty-four hours is to be rubbed with oak saw-dust, finishing with a clean linen rag ; or to polish and heighten the colour at the same time, gently boil one quart of linseed oil with half an ounce of litharge for an hour or more, then strain and mix with half a pint of spirit of turpen- tine, in which a sufficient quantity of pounded turmeric has been left to macerate. This, mixed with the oil and litharge, is to be applied with a brush or rag, and after an interval of a day may be repeated, by which the work may be rendered very beautiful. In joints of boards, it is in gene- ral only necessary to ascertain the perfect truth of the joint, and that it is, as the workmen say, out of wind- ing ; to apply the glue quite hot, and rub the edges against each other till it become nearly cold ; but if the wood be porous or spongy, by previously rubbing the joint with soft chalk, and wiping away all loose particles, the operation will be more effectual. The workman, after glueing up his work, suffers it to remain at rest a short time till the glue stiffens; that which escapes from the joints 129 JON \s then carefully scraped off with a chisel, and all the corners cleaned out with a sponge slightly moistened with hot water; the work then re- mains till perfectly dry, after which a fine smoothing-plane is used, to take off all unevenness about the joints; and lastly a smooth scraper and fine glass-paper are applied. Sometimes it will be necessary to damp the whole over with a sponge, to raise the grain, and afterwards apply the glass-paper, when the work will be ready for polishing with wax, oil, or varnish. Joint. See Abreuvoir, But- joint, and Constructive Carpen- try. Jointer, the largest kind of plane, termed also jointing plane. In bricklaying the term is applied to a piece of iron bent in two op- posite directions, and sometimes used in building a wall. Jointing Rule, a rule used by bricklayers for securing a straight face to their work. Jones, Inigo, a celebrated En- glish architect, the son of a clothier in London; he was born in 1572. He was put apprentice to a joiner, but soon distinguished himself by a taste, for drawing, particularly in landscape drawings and paint- ing: he was patronised by William, Earl of Pembroke, who sent him abroad with a handsome allowance, to perfect himself in that art. He was no sooner at Rome, than he found himself in his proper sphere ; he felt that nature had formed him, not to decorate, but to design pala- ces. His first work was Whitehall. Christian the Fourth, of Denmark, invited him to his court, and ap- pointed him his architect. He was afterwards architect to Queen Anne. He served Prince Henry in the same capacity, and the place of JUM surveyor-general of the works as granted him in reversion. Oi he death of his patron he travjed again into Italy, and on his rJ the surveyor s place fell to him. he, with uncommon disintere ness, gave up the profits o ii s office, which he found great in debt, and also prevailed on he comptroller and paymaster toni- tate his example, till the vjle arrears were cleared. In ] Laud, then Bishop of London, uu the first stone of St. Paul's Cta. dral, and Inigo the fourth, nd after completing that structunhe successively designed some o most splendid erections in Lor among which are the chapf 01 Lincoln's Inn ; the Banqung House, begun in 1619, and fin ed in two years. This is a bealtl model of pure taste. Surgn's Hall is one of his best works ; nd of the most admired are the Aide of Covent Garden, and the Ch :h. One of his most beautiful won is the Queen's House, at Green :\\. He early tasted the misfortune of his royal master. He was not fa a favourite, but a Catholic; a m 1646 he paid £544 for his ri n- quencyand sequestration. H mi Stone, the mason, buried their m stock in Scotland yard. < >'. misfortunes, and age, put anwd to his life at Somerset House, ! 21, 1651. Judgment Gate. SceJnu hara. J uffers, an antiquated for pieces of wood four or five i square. Jumper, a name given bi- sons and miners to a longiou chisel used *in boring shot- >les for blasting large masses of M by which they may be spli » t0 smaller ones. 130 KEE KEY K Kaaba, see Caaba. Kang, or Chinese Stove, is heat- i by a furnace, which casts all its jit into it. The furnace is po- rtioned and fitted to the stove, al may be placed either in the r m, or on the outside of the h.ise. The heat of this furnace, ii celled by the outward air, rushes tough a slit into a tubular con- d u r, and passing from this into a.'ther pipe at right angles to it, rag under the middle of the floor cthe stove, issues through vent- hes in the last pipe, and is com- nnicated to the bricks which form t! pavement of the stove, and from fm to the whole room. The s jke is carried off by funnels at ends of the stove. See a d wing and description in the Phi- lophical Transactions, vol. Ixi. pL 1. article 7. — It is observable, tt: in order to draw off the perni- c is vapours arising from the coal fi water-pots are placed in the Hps, and the emperor's apart- ttjits in the palace are decorated w i flower-pots, with little orange- tis and other plants; and the Cnese philosophers assert, that tr is the best method of sweeten- in the air ; a doctrine perfectly existent with the opinions of Eopean chemists. tEP, ( Sax. ) sometimes styled ei hatically the tower, the strongest pa of the old English castles, form- in the citadel of the fortress. It w generally near the centre of the fo fied works, but in some in- to es, as at Portchester, Good- ri( Castleton, and other very t castles, it is found placed in line with the exterior walls. ItMassive walls and narrow loop- i were calculated to afford deice in the last extremities of * Jge. It has sometimes been denominated the Maiden tower, but this term does not refer to its being the habitation of the ladies, but it appears to be a corruption of the old French magne or mayne, great. See Castle and Don Jon. KeRAUNOSCOPEION, ( KEpUVVOQ, lightning, aKOTrs.it>, I behold, Gr.) a machine used in the theatres of the ancients, to represent the light- ning of Jupiter. Another machine, called bronteion served to imitate thunder. Kerf, the slit or cut in a piece of timber, or in a stone, by a saw. Kerkis, in the plural kerkides t (kzqkiq, Gr. the radius of a circle,) a name which in the theatres of the ancients designated the stairs which crossed the ranges of seats like radii of a circle, and which were carried from the orchestra to the outermost circumference of the seats. See Theatre. Key, (c&g, Sax.) In the earliest times, the locks and keys were very simple, the former being but a bar of wood, and the key a hook by which it was raised or drawn back. By degrees they became more com- plicated. The keys of the ancients were generally of bronze ; they had an infinite variety of forms, and they were sometimes so large and heavy, as to require to be carried on the shoulder. Keyed Dado, so named on ac- count of its being: secured from warping by bars grooved into it, on the inside. Keys, in naked flooring, are pieces of timber fixed in between the joists by mortise and tenon. When these are fastened with their ends projecting against the sides of the joists, they are called strutting pieces. Key of a floor, the board last laid down. 131 LAB LAB Keys, pieces inserted in boards to prevent warping. Key-stone, the stone placed in the centre of the top of an arch or vault. See Crown and Console. The character of the key-stone varies in the different orders. In the Tuscan and Doric it is only a simple stone projecting beyond the rest: in the Ionic, it is adorned with mouldings in the manner of a console ; in the Corinthian and Composite, it is a rich sculptured console. The degree of ornament on the key-stone is usually regu- lated by the general character of the building. The ancients have left us several fine models of orna- mented key-stones of arcades and arches, which generally represented some ornament or figure that re- lated to the building. Those of the arcades of the amphitheatre of the ancient Capua are adorned with heads, in high relief, of the di- vinities to which it appears to have been consecrated. The key-stones of triumphal arches were orna- mented with allegorical symbols and figures allusive to the subject. That of the arch of Titus is the finest known. Mr. Burden, the architect of the bridge at Sunderland, who first formed an arch of iron on the same principle as the stone arch, obtained a patent for making blocks of iron as substitutes for key-stones of arches, possessing great lightness, with all necessary strength. These blocks in the widest part measure 5 feet 2 inches, and in thickness 4 inches, being in the form of a kind of frame- work. Each block weighs four hundred weight, \\ they are fixed together by pins s i bars of iron. Knee, a part of the back u hand-railing, of a convex form, L reverse of a ramp, which is a bfi of a hand-rail, and is cone? . The name of Knee is also giver!} any small piece of timber of a bfi or angular form. Knee, Knee-piece, or Knee-r- ter, an angular piece of timber, ) which pieces of timber in a roof je fastened. Kilcullen's Cross. % Cross. Kiln, a building for the ac - mulation and retention of heat i order to dry or burn certain m?- rials deposited within them. It Bricks, and Lime. King Post, the middle post a roof. See Crown. Kitchen, (cuisine, Fr. perh; from culina, Lat. kegin, Wels) that part of the office of a ho where the business of cooking carried on. Knotting, a process to prevt the knots appearing, by laying a size composed of (1) red lead, ) white lead and oil, or (3) a coatf gold size, (which last is alwa effectual,) as the preliminary p- cess of painting. Knuckle, the joint, of a cyli drical form, with a pin, as an a? by which the straps of a hinge fastened together. Krade, (Gr.) a machine in ancient theatres by which the go and heroes were represented t versing the air, by means of a ch and ropes. L. Label, in Gothic architecture, Labyrinth, (Lat.) a buildi; the drip or hood-moulding of full of numerous and intric an arch, when it is returned square 133 passages. The most celebrai labyrinth of antiquity was that LAB E'pt, wnich was situated above la: Mceris, near Crocodilopolis, or A noe, in the district now called fkm, or Fium. The builder of it.or the use to which it was ap- p|J, is unknown. Some have reirded it as a kind of pantheon, u re they sacrificed to all the E ptian deities ; others have tbight that it was appropriated totie celebration of religious mys- :e ?s ; and others have imagined tb, it was dedicated to the sun, ar represented the zodiac, and IM tb course of the great luminary, ai of the planets. See Paul [ias's " Voyages dans la Grece," & and the same author's " Voy- dans la Turquie," &c. Pauvv's cherches sur les iEgyptiens," P Dcke's " Travels in the East," it G lerer's "Weltgesehichte in ihrem :en Umfange." The same au- E thj's " Article de Metempsychosi," s r ceiling and partitioning. LathiL cut in lengths of three, four, M five feet; yet the statue only aUs of five and three feet lengths, eaJtf which are to be an inch and a If in breadth, and half an inclm thickness. Lath-bricks, a particular tt of brick, made in some par of England, of twenty-two inchein length, and six inches broad, 'hy are used for drying malt, for wh they are well adapted, and nm heat a long time. Lattice, (lattis, Fr.) a ref- lated window, made of lath: or slips of iron, separated by ess windows, and only used where ir, rather than light, is to be admi d. as in cellars and dairies. Laundry, a spacious and n lighted apartment, which is in le occupation of the laundress, 10 will need every thing conveint for mangling, ironing, and drW the linen of the family; these e, a stove to heat the irons, ancor drying ; with a range of gra e, and other conveniences, le stove must have an iron pipe, > ducted in several directions apt the room, to give out heat, an at last inserted in the chimney k near the ceiling. Horses, or^i- der frames of wood, are provid, to hang the linen upon ; and t se are occasionally drawn up to ie top of the room, where the at being greater than below, the y- ing will be sooner completed.|A water-pipe, for the use of the wk- women, and various other requis s, should be provided. Laura, a collection of Me cells, or monkish habitations, P- tiguous to each other, in w I n hermits, in ancient times, N together in a wilderness. OfP LEA LEV r st celebrated Lauras of antiquity jre, that of St. Eu:hymius, four cfive leagues from Jerusalem ; the Jura of St. Saba, near tbe brook (dron; and that of the Towers, r | ir Jordan. Layer, a stratum, or row, one ] 1 upon another, stratum super latum; applied to the stones c bricks, and synonymous with cirses. Lazaretto, (Ital.) a hospital f the reception of persons sick of citaeious disorders, the wards of \ich are quite isolated. Lead, (laid, Sax.) the heaviest rtal except gold and quicksilver, ci hluish white when first broken ; s cific gravity 11,450, less hard, 1 i elastic, less tenacious, and less s orous, than any other metal ; s jble in all acids and alkaline s irions ; fusible before ignition, ai easily calcined. It is found neralized with sulphur, with a s ht mixture of silver and anti- l ny : in diaphonous, prismatical c stals, generally hexagonal ; white, \ owish, or greenish, in the Men- d hills, in Somersetshire. Near I'stol, and in Cumberland, it a imes the form of a white, grey, o/ellowish spar, without the least n .liic appearance ; in some places it; in the state of native ceruse, in white powder; and in Monmouth- it has been found native, or ii i metallic state. The metal of 1' ' is easily rolled out into very t!) plates. Next to tin, it is the n-t fusible of metals. Plumbers tojchase the lead as it comes from tl| manufacturer, in pigs, which tlr reduce to forms suitable to t^ r purposes : for buildings, they h e cast sheet-lead, used for flat r ' s, for terraces, gutters, and the si, s and bottoms of reservoirs, and Wilar purposes. Rolled lead is v thin, for putting over ridges and * les of roofs, and in various situ- ations, as a protection from the weather. Leaden pipes are used to convey water from the gutters of the roofs of houses, and for other purposes. Lean-to, the name given to a small building, whose side-walls and roof project from the wall of a larger building. Ledge, or Ledgement, a pro- jection from a plane, as the slips on the sides of window-frames to keep them steady in their places, or those against the door-frame, against which the door shuts. Ledgers, the horizontal pieces fastened to the standard poles or t mbersof scaffolding, raised around buildings during their erection; those which rest upon the ledgers are called putlogs, and on these the boards for working upon are laid. Legs of an Hyperbola, are the two parts on each side of the vertex. Legs of a Triangle : when one side of a triangle is taken for the base, the other two are called the legs. Length, (leng, Sax.) length, and breadth also, are understood, as applied to the ground, or the floors, or the horizontal plane which the building occupies : the dimen- sions of an ascending vertical line, is called height; and the same line measured downwards, gives what is called the depth of an apartment, or a building. Lesche, amongst the Greeks, the name of a building, or hall, used for public resort. Level, (loefel, Sax.) a surface which inclines to neither side. There are several instruments used to take levels: as, the Air Level; Water Level; Pendulum Level; Refecting Level ; Mason s Level ; Carpenter's or Bricklayer's Level, &c. The Air Level, invented by Dr. Hooke, shews the line of level 135 LIN by means of a bubble of air, en- closed with some liquor in a glass tube. — The Water Level, which resembles the chorobates of the ancients, shows the horizontal line by means of a surface of water or otber fluid. — A Carpenter s Level, consists of a long ruler, to the mid- dle of which a broader piece is fitted at right angles, with a plum- met hanging down it. — The Masons Level, is formed of three pieces of wood, joined in the form of an isosceles triangle, having a plummet suspended from the vertex, over a mark in the centre of the base. Levelling, the art of discover- ing a line parallel to the horizon at several places, to determine heights or depths. Library, (bibliotheca, Lat.) an apartment to contain books. Liburna, (Lat.) a species of Roman swift ship, with two sets of rowers. Line, (Linea, Lat.) in Geometry, that figure which has only length. Lines of the Sector and Scale : see Instruments. Horizontal line, in perspective, the common section of the horizontal plane, and that of the draught or representation, passing through the principal point: in Dialing, it is the common section of the horizon and the dial plane. Other lines in perspective are, the Geometrical line, a right line drawn any way on a geometrical plane : Terrestrial line, the line of inter- section between the geometrical plane and that of the picture : Line of the front, the common section of the vertical plane and that of the picture : Line of station, the common section of the geometrical and vertical planes, or, according to others, the perpendicular height of the eye above the geometrical plane : Objective line, the line of an object, from whence the appearance is sought for in a picture; Vertical LIG line, the line intersecting a vert 1 plane : Visual line, a reflectioi f light from a visible object: L e of direction, that in which mot] is given to a moveable body ; L \ of light, that which defines light parts of bodies diversified!* light and shade, of which 5 shaded part is defined by the of shade. The Lines of divisi or gradation, denote the arithi tical, or geometrical proportu; into which a body may be dividi, In France, the name of line isgii to a measure which contains 1 twelfth part of a foot. In fort- cation, a Line of defence, is a 1 5 supposed to represent the flight a ball : the Line forming the Jia , is a line drawn from the an \ formed by the two demigorges f the bastion, to the angle at w flank ; the Capital line, is a 11 drawn from the point of the bast to the point where the two dei gorges meet: the Line of circu vallation, is a line or trench cut besiegers round their camp: t Line of contravallation, is a dil bordered by a parapet, serving > cover the besieged : Lines of co munication, are trenches that r from one work to another: a L of approach, or attack, is the w< which besiegers carry on un( cover, to gain the moat and bo of the place. Light-house, a high buildii on the top of which lights i\ placed, to guile ships at sea. Tht erections were called by the Saxo> becns or beacons, originally &ig fying signals, and serving eitl to prevent shipwrecks, or to g| notice of invasions : for the lat ' purpose, the green flame, and t fire cross, were peculiarly adapts The light-house is generally erect, upon a cape or promontory on t| sea-coast, or upon a rock in t| sea. Lamp-lights are on ma LI G accints preferable to coal-fires or can es; and the effect of these may be :reased by placing them either behd glass hemispheres, or before pro rly disposed glass or metal re- flects; which last method is now ver:enerally adopted. In England it is branch of the royal prerogative to Jet these landmarks, for guid- jng nd preserving vessels at sea, by" ?ht as well as by day; and r e ing has the exclusive power, , i emission under the great seal, todse beacons, light-houses, and sea- arks to be erected in conve- niei places, as well upon the lands of s subject, as upon the de- nies* of the crown ; which power ually vested by letters patent t office of lord high admiral, inly statue, 8th Elizabeth, c. 13. the orparation of Trinity- house ? npowered to set up any bea- n or sea-marks, whenever they sha think them necessary; and tf owner of the land, or any oth< person, shall destroy them, or all take down any steeple, treeor other known sea-mark, he a forfeit £100, or, in case of tl ty to pay it, shall be ipso r /cc' outlawed. T light-house on the Eddystone rod has already been described una" the article Eddystone. The ! frkrfof the Forth and the Tay are ncud by several light-houses. On es of Inchkeith and May are nail light houses; a third is < I on Cape North, at the rnoi: of the Tay, and a signal or ac;i is placed upon the Carr- 1< near Cape South. But the ai light-house is situated on * Jell-rock, which warns the mar ?r of a vast and dangerous reef : f rocks, in front of the Tay and e Forth, advanced a consider- ately into the sea. In former wm*' to warn sailors from these rock the monks of Abeibrothock, S LI G or Aberbroath, are said to have placed a lar^e bell, called the Inch Cape Bell, on the principal rock, whence it received its name. The Bell-rock light-house was built on the same plan as that of Eddy- stone, with the improvements in lighting which have been since made. It was begun in 1807, and in December, 1810, the lantern which had been previously made and fitted in Edinburgh, was placed upon its elevated position. During the erection, a temporary edifice was built, for the shelter and con- venience of the workmen. It was constructed with timber, well secur- ed with iron stanchions. Fig. 6, (PI. Light-house) represents two of the bracing chains, with their tightening shackle, meeting in the ring which is fixed to one of the batts, which were sunk into the rock about twenty inches, and immove- ably wedged with timber and iron. The lowest story ( Jig. 7.) of this temporary erection served as a forge, and had a space for mixing the mortar for the building: the figure represents the floor of this apart- ment, showing the situation of the mortar tubs and lime casks, and the smith's bellows, fire - place, and anvil. The floor immediately above this was occupied by the kitchen, the next was fitted up for the accommodation of the archi- tectand conductors, and the highest served as a bedroom for the work- men. The light-house is of a cir- cular form, and composed of blocks weighing from 4500lbs to 5500lbs. A general elevation is given in Jig. 1. and a section in Jig. 2. The lowest course is forty-two feet and two-thirds in diameter. The en- trance is on the twenty - seventh course, 32 feet 8 inches above the rock at the foundation of the first stone. The stairs are 30 feet long in the centre of the tower, the walls 137 LIG LI M of which are here 7 feet thick. The provision store occupies the floor of the thirty-ninth course, and is entered from the stairs of the landing: in the section of this room, in Jig. 2 are seen the ma- chinery for raising the stores, &c. The next room is the light-room store, the floor of which is on the 48th course, 55 feet 10 inches above the foundation. The next is the kitchen, its floor on the 57th course, 65 feet 8 inches above the foundation. Above th>s is the bed- room, the floor of which occupies the 66th course, 75 feet 8 inches above the foundation. The last room is the stranger's room or library, on the 78th course, 85 feet 11 inches above the foundation. Fig. 4 is a plan of the light-room floor, 86th course, 97 feet 9 inches above the foundation : in the cen- tre is shown the drum or barrel on which the rope is coiled, which gives motion to the machinery both of the lights and the bells. The weight which causes the move- ment is shown in the foundation, Jig. 2 ; the rope is carried down through the various floors of the whole building, by means of pulleys, &c. and will be traced in the very fine line from the drum to the cavity in the solid courses : the two bells are also shown on this floor. Fig. 5 is a plan of the lantern, shewing the reflectors, frame, &c. The upper and lower sides are the white lights : the right and left sides are the red lights. The sill of the sash of the frame is 102 feet 6 inches above the foundation, and the cupola is 13 feet 4 inches higher. The light- house was lighted for the first time on February 2d, 1811. The light is brilliant and powerful, alternately red and white, and may be seen distinctly, when the sky is clear, at a distance of eight leagues. The 138 reflectors are fixed upon a i iron frame, which presents )Ur vertical faces. For a warnirl i n misty weather, when the lij>!t j 8 not visible, two bells, each wk. ing a hundred weight, are t ed day and night, by the mach ; which imparts motion to th( re- flectors. Signals are made ti he keepers who are on shore, by n n of a ball painted black, and ifo tical staff which passes the c tre of it. Like Arcs, segments of c les which are contained by i ; angles. Like Figures, such as, vc their angles equal, and the les about those angles proportion; Like Solids, such as are igi tained under like planes. Lime-Kiln, Cato has give us a description of the ancient ie- kiln. Its form was that of a ( e: its height commonly twenty et, its breadth at the base ten, a he top three. The greater half c he base consisted of a ditch dug i he ground ; the part above the th was constructed of bricks or sie, plastered with mould. At the li- mit was an opening to leUit the smoke. In the kiln a vai of limestone was formed over there, and afterwards all the superior irt was filled with limestone. Her the emperors certain criminals m condemned to work at the ,ie- kilns. Lime is prepared for morta by burning in kilns in modern, \\r.\~ cisely the same manner as n in- dent times, and it is from thi cir- cumstance, that all stones m which quicklime is producfd^e called calcareous or calculable To convert carious stones into (Pck lime, they are kept in a kiln.it a white-red heat, for the spao of twelve or fourceen hours; oijthe same purpose may be attainei by i LOG LOR Ice in g the stones a longer time inj lower degree of heat; but if threat be too great, vitrification tab place. ning, covering for the in- rl , as casing is covering the ex ior surface of a building. ning of a Wall, a timber ling, whose edges are either retted, or grooved and tongued. hikg-out, the marking lines wh'e timbers are to be cut. kings of Boxings for win- do shutters, the wainscot frame- wof into which the window shut- ter fall, when folded back from thtvindow. nings of a Door, the lin- i: of the sides of apertures of dol>, called also jambs, or jamb lings; and that which covers the top, or head, is called the M ntel, ( Fr. ) the horizontal pie^ which covers the opening of I door or window. Vitruvius terj; it antepagmentum superius. Lir Is, in some old authors, are cal 1 wull-plates. |st, or Listel, ( Fr. ) a little sqi e moulding, serving to crown or company a larger, also termed a/?f. Isting, the cutting the sap- wo»? out, from both edges of a W. Jnio^TiiATON,(Gr. from Xi0oc, tto\ and ^paryvfii, to pave,) a Gru term for a species of mosaic, ten d by the Romans opus sectile, ant consisting of pieces of marble ofrertain size. Another variety was'Tmed opus tessclatum, or ver- mkntum. 1 bby, {laube, Germ.) an open spa-, surrounding a range of cha'bers, or seats in a theatre, a »mr I) a 1 1 , or waiting room. *ck, (/oc, Sax.) an instrument for siening doors. 1;CK Weir, or Pound Lock, consists of a deep bason or reser- voir, in a canal, closed at each end by gates, which successively opening and shutting, allow the water to rise or fall, in order to afford the means of raising boats as they pass up the course of a canal, or lower- ing them as they pass down. Lodg e, (logis, Fr.) a small house in a park or forest. Logeum, (Xoytiov, Gr.) the pul- pitum, or wooden stage of a theatre, placed upon the proscenium, or permanent stage. Log house, temporary habita- tions, made of branches of trees, or logs of wood. Logistic Spiral, or Propor- tional Spiral, a spiral whose radii are in continued proportion, where the radii are at equal angles. Longimetry, the art of mea- suring lengths, accessible and in- accessible. Loop, (Fr.) a small narrow window. Lo rimer, the name given to a square member, under, or forming part of, a cornice, which projects, and has a groove in its under side. Lorme,Pii i labert, a celebrated French architect, born at Lyons, early in the sixteenth century. At the age of fourteen he went to Italy to study the art to which he had devoted his attention, and soon became noticed by Obrdinal Cevino, who took him into his palace. In 1536, he returned into his native country, and constructed the Horse- shoe, at Fontainbleau, and the chateaus of A net and Neudon, for Henry the Second. On the death of this king he was made inspector of the royal buildings, by Catherine de Medicis, under whose direction he commenced the building of the Thuilleries; and in 1555, was created counsellor and almoner to the king, and was presented with two abbacies for his services. He 139 MAC MAC died in 1557. He wrote Dix Livres r , Lying Panels, those w hid re cut out with the grain of the wd, not, as is usual, with the grain a vertical, but a horizontal direc in. Lysicrates. See Athein Architecture. Lysis, (perhaps from theG?k aXvaig, a chain, or band,) a id of plinth, or step, above thejiv nice of the podium of anint temples, which surrounds or n- braces the stylobate, as majje observed in the temple of Foriia Virilis. M. M Roof, the junction of two common roofs, with a vallum be- tween. The letter ay inverted would also correctly represent this kind of roof. Mach xcoi.ations, (machicoulis, Fr.) in old castles, " over gates, are small projections, supported by brackets, having open intervals at the bottoms, through which melted lead and stones were thrown down on the heads of the assailants." Grose. Machicolations, however, were not always projecting works, but sometimes consisted of rows of square holes in the vaulting of portals, for the same use. As castellated edifices became more magnificent, these became orna- mental works over the principal gates. Sculpture, however rude, was admitted at an early period, either over the machicolation of 140 the gates, or in the grotesque figs used as water-spouts, &c. (>r the grand entrance into Caernai n castle, is the statue of Ed war I. drawing his sword in an attitud)f defiance. Macra Teiciie, (ra paKpa rjl or ra r end, an enclosure, which was ie of the three great garrisons o which Athens was divided, id which, in this light, was somett N denominated the long: fortress^ fiaKpov teixoq. At the beginr g of the Pelopennesian war, when e I MAD 'J re j, r part of the population of v Atti crowded into Athens, its towi, and those of the two cities, i furrhed dwellings to the fugitives ,L fronthe open country. The long mi v space between the two walls overed with dwellings, and Slickly inhabited as long as this remained flourishing and poppus. When Athens fell into ower of the Lacedemonians, >s -vails were demolished. Some ? > have supposed that there v. nhree walls, but Leake (Topo- yL of Athens) has proved 8 satisjctorily that this is a mistake, e vestiges which remain are i bie towards the lower end, where theyvere connected with the for- fic: ons of Peiraeus and Phalerum. ' fheiodern road from Athens to port >hrako, about two miles from J the ter, comes upon the founcla- i; tionof the northern wall, which are rnned of vast masses of d stones, about twelve feet in thic ess. Precisely parallel to it, at 1; distance of 550 feet, are trao the foundations of the south 11 o the Peiraic peninsula, and othe vestiges are found in the e rds. The southern wall ap- 1 pear :o have terminated in a round iom at the heights near the angle 1 oftr'Phaleric bay. Mderno, Charles, an ar- chiu of considerable eminence, in Lombardy, in 1556. He was [it under the care of his uncle Don'ico Fontana, at Rome, and at ai ;arly age distinguished him- 1 self 1 a sculptor ; but being left i uncle to superintend an ar- lite ural erection of some import- e e completed the undertaking li e much skill and judgment, Lbati'e was earnestly advised to ichige the study of sculpture 1 t of architecture. His first 1 jf note was a magnificent roon lent over the remains of MAG Sixtus V. He gained so higfh a repu- tation under Clement VIII. by the erection of numerous public works, that on the death of that pontiff, and the accession of Paul V. in 1605, he was appointed to finish the building of St. Peter's, being chosen in preference to eight other candidates for the undertaking. The pontificial palace on the Qui- rinal mount was improved and repaired under his direction, and the fine fluted column on a marble pedestal, in the square of St. Maria Maggiore, was raised by him from the prostrate ruins of the Temple of Peace, and placed where it now stands. Most of the great public works undertaken in his time, in Italy, France, and Spain, were in part under his direction; and the splendid palace of Urban VIII. was begun, but not finished, by him. During his public career he wit- nessed a succession of ten popes, by all of whom he was regarded with favour. He died in 1629, at the age of 73. Ma drier, a term applicable to flat beams of wood, placed at the bottom of a moat, to support a wall ; to a thick plank armed with plates of iron, projected from a petard against the gate, or any other part of a fortified place, to make a breach ; a plank of wood covered with tin and earth, for a defence against fire, is also called a madrier. Maeniana, seats in the upper porticoes of the forum, whence the spectators beheld the performance of the gladiators. Magazine, Powder. Gun- powder is a store requiring peculiar attention and care, and is either deposited in fortified places, found in towns requiring military protec- tion, or magazines are constructed and particularly adapted for the safe custody of this combustible M A I MAI article. These erections require to be of great strength, and fire-proof. The Gothic arch was therefore adopted ; but the proportions of these were believed to be too weak, and modern architects have built the arches of powder magazines of a semicircular form, in the propor- tions of 60 feet in length and 25 broad ; within the foundation wall 8 or 9 feet thick, and from the foundation to the spring of the arch, 8 feet ; the floor raised two feet above the ground, and well pro- tected from moisture; and the store room six feet high to the floor of the arch. The arch is formed of four arches, one above another, and the top of the building formed of solid workmanship, rising out of the arch. The gable ends are four feet thick, and their foundations five; the sides are supported by four counterforts ; between which there are air-holes, to ventulate and keep the room dry. Mahogany, a wood sometimes used for doors and window sashes, is seasoned by sawing out and dry- ing in the open air, after exposing to the weather during the winter: it ought never to be exposed to fire-drying. It was some time early in the last century, that this beau- tiful wood was first introduced into this country. The Jamaica maho- gany is the hardest and most beau- tiful, and distinguished from that of Honduras, by the chalky ap- pearance of its fibres : those from Honduras appear quite dark; after oiling, this distinction is not so clearly observable. See Joinery. Main Couple, see Couple. Maison Angelique, see Aque- duct. Maison Carree, (Fr.) an an- cient edifice at Nismes, of a long square form, which is one of the finest specimens of Roman archi- tecture and sculpture found in 142 ler France. It is twelve toises ](T including the vestibule, and ^ interior is eight toises long se of the four columns at the arjes. Every circumstance connected ith this building, prove that it has en a temple, although some have ip- posed it to be a capitol, and oers a praetorium. M. Seguier has!:en enabled to decipher the foiling inscription: c. cesari avo^ti FILIO CONSULI, LUCIO CM RI MAN MAR eng tho AU STI FILIO C0NSULI DESIG- KA i PRINCITIBUS JUVENTUTIS. It r st, therefore, have been erect- ed wut the year of Rome 754, or e first year of the Christian era The best and most detailed vings of this building are by Clerisseau, in the first cahf of his Antiquites de la Frae. . ? llet, ( malleus, Latin ) a , n hammer used by carpen- ters tc. ' KiLTHA, (uaXda, Gr.) origm- alljj native bitumen, with which the^ncients plastered their walls. !i rtificial kind was made of pitc 1 wax, plaster, and grease ; anc er sort was composed of lime slac^d with wine, and incorpo- ratfiwith melted pitch and fresh figs' I . nsart, Francis, born at Par' in 1598, was the son of the kinf carpenter, and received his edition as an architect from the ■!( ated Gautier. Possessed of si and genius, he attained great pro .sional eminence, and was so nx as to produce perfect works, tha he discovery of even a trifling fi ncy in what he had done, sufficient inducement to him i iiolish works of considerable tude. The fine abbey of I al e-Grace was begun and near- ffnpleted by him, for the foun- i' Anne of Austria ; but he was irr< ?d in his attempt to demolish par f his work, and others finish- it he had begun. President Lon'ieil employed him in the builjng of the chateau des Mai- not far from St. Germain's ; wd hen he had made consider- ablt .rogress in this work, he pull- ed flown again, without consult- ing is employer. But he after- war finished it in a style of excel- lent which gave it the character * 5 most perfect architectural work of the age. The portal of the Minims in the Place Royale, was his last work. He died at the age of 69, in the year 1666. Mansard Roof, see Curb Roof. Mansion, (Lat.) a large house. The origin of the term, and appli- cation, is believed to have come from the mansiones, or stationary ca?nps y of the Roman soldiers, see Castra : and on the subject of mansions, see House. The French maison, a house, comes from the same origin. Mantel Tree, or Mantel- piece, the name given to the beam of wood supporting the breastwork of a chimney. In modern build- ing its place is supplied by an iron bar, or by an arch of brick or stone. Mantlets, in fortification, a kind of moveable pent-houses, made of pieces of timber sawed into planks about three inches thick, nailed over one another to the height of six feet, cased with tin, and set on wheels, to be driven before the pioneers or miners in a siege, to conceal them from the enemies' shot. Maple, (acer campestre,) a very common tree in almost every part of Great Britain. The timber of the common maples is far superior to the beech for all the uses of the turner; and when it abounds with knots, as it frequently does, it is much esteemed by joiners for in- laying. It is frequently employed for making musical instruments, on account of its lightness. It is of the same genus of plants as the sycamore, or acer pseudo-platanus. See Sycamore. Marble, (marbre, Fr. marmor, Lat. from papfiapov, Gr. a shining stone,) a peculiar kind of stone, of a hard and compact texture, and a very fine grain. Its varieties 143 M A are almost innumerable. It is formed in beds or strata in most of the mountainous countries of Europe. In England it is most abundant in Derbyshire. That of Italy is, however, the most valuable of any, particularly the black and milk-white marble found at Carara, in the duchy of Massa. Goguet thinks, that in Homer's time mar- ble was unknown in Greece, but Millin and others think, that the Greeks of the Homeric age not only knew the nature of marble, but also the art of polishing and work- ing in it ; but this writer thinks the only marble known by Homer, or perhaps the only stone to which the name was given, was the bril- liant white marble, marmor sali- num. Workmen in marble, among the Greeks, were called lithotomoi, lithokopoi, lithourgoi, &c. among the Romans, marmorarii : their business was to take it out of the quarries, to saw it, and to polish it. From inscriptions that remain, it appears that they formed a kind of society, sodalitium, who had their patrons, schools, privileges, and gods, which were Minerva and Vulcan. The authors who treat of the marbles of the ancients, are Ernesti, Winckelmann, de Launay, " Mineralogie des Anciens," and Caryophilus, " De Marmoribus Antiquis." Amongst the most valuable mar- bles of antiquity, we must first enumerate the white marble of mount Penteles in Attica, thence called Pentelican marble. It was used in the Parthenon and other buildings of Athens, and it was in great repute among the sculptors. The isle of Paros has always been celebrated for its marble. The finest Parian marble was that excavated in mount Marpessus, and thence called Marpessian mar- ble. The marble of Paros was 144 MAR I J sometimes termed lychneusM L used in making candelabra ; n j Lygdinum, from the promontc f Lygdos. Another of the white , . bles of antiquity was that of nW Hymettus in Attica. The j te marbles of Thasus and Lhos were also in great repute, he latter isle produced also a ck marble. A marble even vter than that of Paros was disco at Luna in Etruria. Amon- white marbles, we may also n- tion the marmor Phellcnse, )m mount Phelleus ; the marmoho. raliticum, found near the ,er Coralios in Phrygia, and te ed also Sangarium, from another ,ne of the same river; the Cyzim marmor was taken from theur- ries of Cyzicus in Asia Minor ; he marmor Synnadicum, or ma or Phrygium, was found in the vi- rons of the city of Synnad in Phrygia, and was of a !ck ground with little circles, n- other sort of marble, which ren- bled ivory in its colour, was c ed Chemites. Among the black ir- bles, that of Tcenarus was in < at esteem ; the marmor Libycur, or Numidian marble, called so marmor Luculleum, was whalhe French term noir antique, ouge antique. The celebrated Cm marmor was excavated from he mount Pelineus, in the isle of do, and was of a transparent chenr- ed black colour. The ma: or Obsidianum was also black, nd was procured from Ethiopia. 1 he isle of Proconesus produced a I ck veined marble, called Procone'.n, or Cyzican marble. The m :le of mount Taygetes, called ma wr Laconicum, was of a green cour, and is known among antiquies by the name of verde antie. The marble of Carystus, w a mingled green ; that of mj»nt Atrax, in Thessaly, called Ja* I MAR MAR ciu marmor, was a mixture of wliN ffreen, blue, and black. The prei ^Tiberian and Augustan ; ma les were found in E°:ypt. The naior Apkites, or Memphites, h i took its first name from its ibiance to the colour of the of a serpent, and its other : o! the city of Memphis where is found, is called now in (taf il serpentino antico. The ma ''.or Synnadicum, which was lis, ermed Phrygian, and Myg- was black and red, and i isfound at Synnas, in Phrygia. '\\\Corinthian marble was yellow : e armor Phengites, which was iu in Cappadocia, was white , il vellow spots: the Rhodian Kale, was marked with spots resebling gold: the marble of Jfek excavated in mount Acyn- thu was also yellow. 1' varieties of marble used in morn times, are exceedingly nu- mer s, and a classification of ther would occupy a larger space ■wan be allowed for this arti- cle. (Except the finest specimens Bute marble, they are all opake, som exquisitely fine specimens of pi) marble are to be seen in the Bor ese p dace at Rome, which on I iig suspended by the centre, ■I : on a hard body, bend very con: erably ; and it isfound that W ry marble exposed to the sun, in t e acquires this property, in- dica ig- a less degree of adhesion '■' i parts, than it naturally pos- The ancients were sup- with marble from quarries, are at present almost en- tfetl unknown ; of these marbles <-xqi ite specimens are preserved H t Musee Napoleon. Almost ever mountainous part of the w od produces this mineral, but l he iest and most valuable is mm Italy. The British marbles Itom Der^shire, Devonshire, An- glesea, and Kilkenny are well known. Marble, Polishing of, was well understood by the ancients, and performed differently in different countries. It is first brought to an even face, by rubbing with free- stone ; afterwards with pumice stone; and lastly, emery, if of seve- ral colours; but white marble is finished with calcined tin. The Italians polish with lead and emery. The process of polishing practised in the manufactory of Messrs. Brown and Mawe, at Derby, is said to be as perfect as any in the kingdom ; and accelerated by numerous im- provements in the mode of opera- tion. Several kinds of sand are used, from the sharpest sand to the finest that can be procured ; after which emery, of various degrees of fineness; and then the substance called tripoli, which owes its red colour, and polishing power, to the oxide of iron it contains. Thig smooth powder leaves a Igood po- lish on the face of the marble ; but the application of putty, or oxide of tin, gives a superior brilliancy to the work. Finely levigated ironstone may be used with effect, instead of tripoli. An iron plate is used for rubbing the sand upon the marble, in the commencement of the process : an alloy of tin and lead is applied to the stra- tum of emery, and a coarse linen cloth fixed to an iron plate, is used with the putty in the last part of the process. A graduated supply of water is necessary in these operations. The sawing of marble preparatory to polishing is by a saw of soft iron, with a con- tinued supply of the sharpest sand, and water. Marcia Aqua, one of the aque- ducts of ancient Rome. Market, see Agora. Market Cross, see Cross. 145 MAS MAS Marmorarii, (Lat.) workers in marhle. See Marble. Marmoratum. (Lat.) a plaster of pounded marble, or mortar of lime and marble beaten together, mentioned by Varro as employed in walls, terraces, &c. Marquetry, (Fr.) inlaid work of fine hard pieces of wood of dif- ferent colours fastened in thin leaves on a ground ; called also in- laying. See Parquetry. Masonry, the art of arranging and joining stones together for the formation of walls, in the construc- tion of buildings. Vitruvius men- tions seven kinds, distinguished by the different modes of arranging the stones : of these, three are of hewn stones. The reticulated Ma- sonry, consisting of stones squared in their courses, forming a regular appearance with the intersecting lines, parallel, diagonally, and per- pendicularly ; it is agreeable in appearance, but the weakest mode of masonry. — Bond masonry, is that wherein the stones of each succeeding course are laid, not ex- actly over those below, but project- ing, as tiles of roofs are arranged ; so that the joint that mounts and separates two stones always falls directly over the middle of the stone below. The appearance of this work is less beautiful, but more durable, than the net-work masonry. — The mode of laying the stones so that when two stones are laid, each of which makes a course, a third is laid at the end, of the thickness of two courses, and the same order observed throughout the building, may be called double-binding; the binding being not only of stones of the course with one another, but of one course with another. — Masonry by equal courses, called by the an- cients isodomum, differs in nothing from the bond masonry but in this, that its stones are not hewn. — Ma- 14G sonry by unequal courses, is so made of unhewn stones laic j n bond-work, but the courses of n . equal thickness. — Masonry ec i up in the middle, is likewise ide of unhewn stone, and by the n- cients called emplecton ; in L method the stones are only J j n order by the courses, the m ile being filled up with stones th ?n in at random among the mort; — Compound masonry, is so calle as being made up of all the rest. In this, the courses are of hewn s ie, and the middle, being left voi is filled up with mortar and pejles thrown in together. After thiihe stones of one course are hour to those of another course by cr; p. irons, fastened with melted lee — All the kinds of masonry in ujat present, may be reduced to \m Bond masonry : that of brick-irk, where the bodies and projecns of the stones enclose square sj: es, or panels, &c. set with bricks; lat called de motion, or small «k, where the courses are equal, ell squared, and their edges or ds rusticated ; and that whereii.he courses are unequal, and filleup in the middle with little stone nd mortar. — Further informatiot on the different parts of the practjof masonry, will be found underjeit ■ different articles ; as Foundion, Wall, &c. As the construct^ of domes, groins, and circular ajies are the most difficult and eo pli- cated branches of the art, we ne illustrated it by the plates Maim M. 6, 7. In plate Masonry, j 6, the first figure shows the methlof constructing spherical domes, i.lj is the mould applied on the he- lical surface to the vertical jets; and No. 2, the mould on the me surface to the other joints, the mould tending, in both cases, jtbfl centre of the dome ; Nos. 3,1 5* 6, 7, 8, are moulds that apply Hhe I MAS covex surface to the horizontal joij : the lines a, b, c, d f e,f, &c. belr » r ri £ nt an ?' es t0 tne differ- eniadii be, dc, fc, &c. produced U n! they intersect the perpendi- cul* ac, the different intersections be;!: the centres which give the ir leg of the mould, and the str::ht part that which gives the hoiontal part. The second figure j t plan of a ground vault. The arc|must be laid down on a floor or !*ce of floor-cloth, then let the nui'er of joints in the semi-circu- lar *ch be divided, and drawn on the lan, and from the intersections wit -he diagonals draw the trans- , r joints on the plan, of which we 3V find the curve by setting the orresponding distances from the ne of the base to the curve, as t equal to ab', next draw the join 1 of the elliptic arch in the, mai 3F shown at cd ; that is, dra- the chord ec, and bisect it, and'raw a line from the centre c thrcfrh the bisecting point, and pnx ^e it till it touches the per- peiwular ef, then cd, being at righ angles to ef, will be the re- qtiir joint : the others may be four in the same manner. On exai nation, we shall find, that a rect i\e circumscribing the mould ill give the magnitude of the on n its square state, and that if ea stone in both arches be thus enclud, the dimensions for each will found, and the position for ie nilds. The third figure on iate shows the manner of j; the joints for the stones in an < ptic arch in a wall, &c. The • urve is described by the inter riion of lines; find the foci ; and since in an ellipsis the Stance of either focus from onet remity of the axis minor is e qiia o the semi-axis major, DF '» eo^l to c C ; then to find a jo : nt a »aoidraw lines from both foci MAS through the point b, as F e,fd, and bisect the angle dbe by the line ab, which will be the joint. In plate M 7, the first figure shows the method of finding the moulds necessary for the contraction of a semicircular arch, cutting a straight wall obliquely. Let A B C D E F G H be the plan of the arch, I KLM the outer line, on the elevation, and N OP Q the in- ner line; a b c d e on the elevation exhibits the bevel of each joint from the face of the wall, and abode beneath, gives the mould, x y on the elevation, corresponding with x y at a. The arch mould, No. 2, is applied on the face of the stone, and gives, when applied to the parts of the plan, the bevel of each concave side of the stone with the face, i. e. K to O on the elevation. The se- cond figure shows the method of finding the mould for constructing a semicircular arch in a circular wall. No 1 shows the elevation of the arch, and No 2 the plan of the bottom bed from q to r ; a to b is what the arch gains on the circle from the bottom bed k to /, and cto d is the projection of the intra- dos to p, on the joint lp. Nos. 2, 3, 4, plans of the three arch stones, Nos. 1, 2, 3, in the ele- vation ; Nos. 5, 6, moulds to be applied to the beds of stones, Nos. 1, 2, where sc is equal to sc in No. 2, and tw to tw in No. 3 ; k I pom No 1, is the arch or face- mould. Masonry, Free. The strange oblivion attending the introduction of the Pointed, or English style of architecture, is in some measure explained by a consideration oHhe character and circumstances of the persons engaged in greeting build- ings during the centuries in which it flourished. It would appear that associations of architects and work- 147 MAS men had been long in the habit of traversing various countries, for the purpose of undertaking the con- struction of ecclesiastical edifices, according to the most approved method of each prevalent style, or fashion. These associated parties of masons met with peculiar favour from the pope, towards the close of the twelfth century. " Bands of architects and artists," of vari- ous nations, were then incorpo- rated by the holy father, and were endowed with many great and exclusive privileges. Among the advantages obtained by them at that time, was an authoritative grant of permission to fix their own prices of labour, subject, per- haps, to some regulations enacted in the papal chapter. This arbi- tary privilege, which exempted such artists from the operation of the statutes of labourers prevailing in England, remained in force until the reign of Henry the Sixth ; but it will appear, that they assumed little on so comprehensive an in- dulgence, and were as moderate in demands for compensation, as they were transcendent in professional skill. The persons thus incorpo- rated, and stimulated to exertions by such valuable endowments, were termed, in England, " Free and ac- cepted Masons." Many important particulars respecting this frater- nity are transmitted by Christopher Wren, who was the grand master and ruling genius of that wreck, or mimicry of the institution, which existed in his time; and he was a man likely, from professional curiosity, to examine all its remain- ing records. After noticing the indulgence granted to these builders by the pope, he observes, that they styled themselves free masons, and ranged from one nation to another, as they found churches to build, (for very many in those ages were MAS every where building, through If or emulation.) Their govern > m was regular, and where they e se rules of art which pro- iuc a lucrative monopoly. And ucl an intention was carried into tffe< with comparative ease, in ui>lf :red ages, when war was the grea employment of the chieftain, t his adherents throughout neat all the classes of the laity. The ime spirit has been evinced m r.re recent ages, in regard to Ihe lltivation of the arts; and has en rendered futile only by the nterprising and commercial tony of an advanced state of ' ' • The mysterious and se- cret radices of the free and ac- cepted masons have descended, by tradition, to their united repre- sentatives of the present day, and are wrought into a proverb by the vulgar. That they possessed writ- ten documents illustrative of those principles of art by which they pro- duced architectural effects so con- sistent and impressive, will scarcely be denied. Intent on a love of privacy, and indignant at the neg- lect into which their science was fallen, it is probable that many of these documents were destroyed by the masons, on the revival of Grecian architecture. We are dis- tinctly told by Preston, that " many of the fraternity's records, of the time of Charles the Second, and succeeding reigns, were lost at the Revolution ; and that not a few were too hastily burnt, at a later date, by some scrupulous brothers, from a fear of making discoveries prejudicial to masonry. The im- port of these writings is involved, perhaps for ever, in that profound obscurity so much cherished by the association. It is probable, however, that they contained little or no intelligence respecting those valuable secrets of art which were once so profitable to the brethren, and concerning which we now in- quire with such earnest and rational solicitude. That no illustrative papers remained to the time of Sir Christopher Wren, is evident from his silence; and is still more appa- rent, from the absurdities into which he fell, when he attempted to imi- tate the works of his " accepted'* predecessors. Mathematical Instruments. See Instruments. Mathematics, (Gr.) may be defined as the science of quantity, or that science which considers magnitudes as computable or mea- surable. The mathematical sciences are divided mio pure or speculative, 149 M AU M E C which are those that consider matter abstractly, and mixed ; the latter treating of magnitude as subsisting in material body, and combined with physical considerations. The mixed mathematics are very crm- prehensive, including astronomy, optics, geography, hydrostatics, mechanics, fortification, navigation, &c. Mauresque, the style of build- ing peculiar to the Moors and Arabs. See Arabian Architecture. Mausoleum, (fjiavcru)\uov, Gr.) a building erected by his wife to the memory of Mausolus, king of Caria, whence the term was afterwards applied to every sumptuous sepul- chral monument. An es^ay on this monument is given by Caylus, in the 26th volume of the Memoires de l'Academie des Belles Lettres, and a treatise by Aulisius, De Mau- solei Architectural will be found in the third volume of the Thesaurus of Salengre. The Adrianeium, or Mausauleum of Adrian, is one of the most remarkable monuments with which that emperor embel- lished the city of Rome. It was situated near the Tiber, and there are considerable remains, which have in modern times been turned into a fort, known by the name of the Castle of St. Angelo. The lower part is a great square, each side of which is about one hundred and forty-eight ells long, and thirty- four high. Above this square rises a round building, anciently surrounded by a gallery of Corin- thian columns. The diameter of this circular building, including the peristyle, was one hundred and nineteen ells; the height of the columns, including the architrave, was twenty-four ells. Probably this circular building was sur- mounted by another of a similar form, also surrounded by columns. The entire edifice was coated with 150 white marble, adorned with a number of statues, and surmc ti | by a quadriga with a stat f Adrian. This edifice commun > with the city by a bridge ov t| , Tiber, which was no less m; ijfi. cent than the building itself, t three, hundred feet long, an(|has five arches. Anciently it i . called the iElian Bridge, noJtii called the bridge of St. Angel Mea^v re, (mensura, Lat.^/ w Gr.) that which serves todete;ine the extent of any quantity. The measure of an angle is a|arc described upon the angular jnt; \nfig. 12, pi. M. 1, the arc OB is the measure of the angle "B. The measure of a plane fgtor superficies, is a square of 1 tot, inch, &c. The measure of a im- ber, is a number of which [sa multiple, as 2 is the measure! 4. The measure of a ratio, is a _m rithm. The measure of a so, is a cube of 1 inch, &c. The en- sure of a line, is any righ ine taken at pleasure, and consired as unity. The measure of vel ty, in mechanics, is the space psed over by a moving body in my given time ; to measure a velity, the space must therefore bdi- vided into as many equal pa as the time is conceived to be d i led into : the quantity of space in ich intervals is the measure of tr ve- locity. Measure of the mass or nn- tity of matter, is only to be ; < >- tained by its gravity or weighuhe same bulk of an homogeneous ly being of the same weight, wr so- ever its form may be. MECIIANlCALCARPENTRYhat branch of Carpentry which te hes the disposition of the timberac- cording to their relative stre'th, and the strains to which the are subjected. Timber in building, is exposed to four strains— ) * M EC MEC p^e may be torn asunder — (2) c shed— (3) broken across— (4) o vrenched or twisted. The first jy happen to tie-beams, king- pts, stretchers, SfC. the second upillars and truss-beams ; the tld to a joist or lever; and the fj-th to the axle of a wheel, the J of a press, &c. The first of the strains is the most simple, ai the others are all modifications ol ... It has generally been agreed, bi it is denied by Buffon, that the h< t of the tree is the weakest p; , and that this weakness in- crtses with its age. The middle of iie trunk is stronger than at the ro, or at the springing of the lies, or the branches them- se s, and the outer fibres, which an termed the blea, are weaker tli the rest. In European trees, th vood on the northern side is th weakest, and that on the south sic the strongest ; and it is always ob'rved that the heart of the tree rest the north side, where also th annual plates are considerably th ler than on the south. Mus- chbroek made a number of ex- penents on the absolute strength of tftrent woods, with pieces cut m ps, one part being cut away to parallelopipedon one-fifth of an if square, and the twenty -fifth pa of a square inch in section. Th following are the results of his ex nments ; ihe number of pounds givg the absolute strength of a squre inch. Pounds. I ust Tree. (A oacia.) 20100 Jel> 1*500 I cli and (J;ik 17300 ( "Ke 15500 ler 1:5900 * 13200 Mberrv and Willow 12500 j • 12000 1 " 11800 1 >' 10000 Tirnranate 9753 L on 92 ,0 T arind 8750 Pounds. Fir 8330 Walnut .., 8! 30 Pitch pine 7650 Quince 0750 Cv press 0000 Poplar 5500 Cedar 4880 These numbers are given as the weights will just tear them asunder. To this table of the strength of wood we may add — Pounds. Ivor? 10270 Horn 8750 Whalebone 7500 Bone 5250 Tooth of the Sea-calf 4075 It may be observed, however, that two-thirds of these weights will greatly impair the strength after a considerable time, and in general one half is the utmost that ought to be reckoned upon, as more may risk their ultimate demo- lition. Woods of very straight fibre, such as fir, will suffer less injury from a load which is not sufficient to break them immedi- ately. Muschenbroek's tables as- sign a much greater tenacity to the different woods than the generality of writers who have treated on the subject; the reason however is, that he gives the weight that will just tear them asunder, while others give that which may be suspended to them with safety. He gives a very minute detail of his experi- ments on the ash and walnut, and the result as given in the table on these woods may be considered as the average of more than fifty trials on slips from each side of the tree, from the centre to the circum- ference. t Mr. Emerson lays down as a rule, that a cylinder of any of the following substances, of six inches diameter, when loaded to one-fourth of its absolute strength, will carry — Cwt. Cwt. Iron 135 1 Good Rope ... 22 Oak 14 Fir , .. 9 151 M E C From Emerson's experiments it appears that the following weights may be safely suspended to an inch square of the different bodies enu- merated. Pounds. Iron 76400 Brass 35000 Hempen Rope 19G00 Ivorj 15703 Oak, Box, Yew, Fluni-tree.. . 7850 Elm. Ash, Beech 6070 Walnut 5360 Red Fir, Holly, Elder, Plane, } Q0 Crab $ Cherry, Ha? el 47G0 Alder, A*h, Birch, Willow . . . 4290 Freestone 914 Lead 430 We calculate, in theory, that the positive strength of a body suffer- ing under compression, will sustain a weight in relative proportion to the area of its section. But as a piece of timber cannot be so straight, and the weight acting upon it so equally disposed, that it will press in a direction precisely perpendicular upon each fibre, the weight must be regulated in some measure by its length. From the observations of Parent, it appears that the force required to crush a body, is in general nearly equal to that which will tear it asunder, and that it requires something more than sixty pounds on every square line, to crush a piece of sound oak. But Parent's rule is not applicable in every case, as woods of a soft texture are much more easily crushed in proportion to their te- nacity than others. Euler published first in the Berlin Memoirs for 1757, and confirmed in the Petersburg Commentaries for 1778, his theory, that the strength of prismatic co- lumns is in the direct quadruplicate ratio of their diameters, and the inverse ratio of their lengths. One of the most common strains to which bodies are exposed, is that which tends to break them across, in which case it frequently happens, 152 M EC that in addition to the po: V e force of the strain, the powt ot a lever is exerted. This wilL better explained by the diajm (plate Athenian Architecture rip Jig. 2) in v\hich ABC is the vei'Lj section of a prismatic solid, at projects horizontally from a ill in which it is firmly fixed; iL weight be hung on it at B, or \\ power act there in a direction r pendicular to AB, and let the 1 Jy be supposed to possess insupei le strength in every part but the r- tical section DA, perpendiculJto its length, in wh ch place on it must break. Let the cohesio uniform through the whole ofliis section ; that is, let each of he adjoining particles of the two ; ts cohere with an equal force. Ae part ABCD, may simply slide (Ira along the surface of the fractu if the power acting at B be eqn to the accumulated force which i|x- erted by every particle compng the section in the direction l). Let this be prevented by someng supporting the point A, then lie action at P tends to make theiiy turn round A in the same ma er as round a joint, in which en it must separate at the line DA, v?n the adjoining particles at D, fat E, wiil be separated horizont y. Since, however, their attract ic of cohesion resists this separation in order that the fracture may ha j n at the Hace intended, the en :v of the power P, acting by the.'er AB, must be superior to the au- mulated energies of the compo nt particles : and the energy of iph depends not only on its cohesive ut also on its peculiar situation, see the supposed insuperable firm ^ of the rest of the body rende 11 a lever, turning round the fulc m A ; the individual cohesive pow< of each particle, as D or E, actinjby means of the arm DA or It* M EC M EC ! Ccequently, the precise energy f c h particle may be ascertained ultiplying the force individually fxled by it, at the moment of fraure, by the arm of the lever w Wh enables it to act. Let/* repent the equal force exerted ic h individual particle at the h ent of fracture : the energy of D ill be DA x f\ that of E will e A x f\ and that of the whole vi be the sum of all these pro- luk Let d represent the depth of e section DA, and let x repre- iei any undetermined part of it, as [] then the space occupied by j an particle will be x\ The cohe- sio of this space may be repre- r d by f y x\ and that of the 1 e by / v d. f s x x y will repre- the energy by which each ele- me: x v of the line DA, or d, resists th( fracture, and the whole accu- mi ted energies will bef'Xx fx x\ Th is/ x ^ d 2 , or p d X \ d, vl h is the same thing as if the co sion f s d of the whole section ha been concentred at the point G, hit h is in the middle of DA. itTon and Du Hamel were di- re(d by the French government to, lake a variety of experiments on ie strength of timber, and were flushed with ample funds and ap ™tus, with all the forests of Free at their disposal, for sub- let . The repoits of M. de Button ''Ziven in the Memoirs of the Fr ch Academy in the years 1740, l 7 , 1742, and 1760,* and those of 1 . Du Hamel in his work, " Sur llploitation des Arbres, et sur le Cd.ervation et la Transportation luftois." Du Hamel took six- te( f bars of willow, two feet long, an half an inch square, and after rting them by props under thjends, he suspended weights to Ihjniddle, and found that four of th«,i were broken by forty, forty- On| forty -seven, and fifty -two pounds, of which the mean is forty- five. When he cut through one- third of four of them on the upper side, and filled up the cuts by pieces of harder wood wedged in- tolerably tight, he found they were broken by forty -eight, fifty- four, fifty, and fifty-two pounds, of which the mean is fifty-one. Four others, when cut through one half, were broken by forty-seven, forty-nine, fifty, and fifty-six pounds, of which the mean is forty-eight. The others were cut through two-thirds : and their mean strength was forty-two pounds. At another time he found that six battens of willow, thirty- six inches long, and one and a half square, were broken on an average by five hundred and twenty- five pounds : that when cut through one-third, they were broken by five hundred and fifty - one pounds ; when cut half through, by five hundred and forty-two ; when cut three - fourths through, by five hundred and thirty pounds at a medium. The result of his experi- ments on oak is exhibited in the following table, when three pieces of each dimension were tried. The column B contains the breadth of the pieces in inches, D the depth, L the length, P the number of pounds which broke each piece, and M the mean weigh* - B I) L P M Exp. 1. ends loose. 1 18 400 415 40.) 400 Exp. 2. ends (irmly fixed. 1 18 (iOO (iOO G24 GOh Exp. 3. ends loose. 2 1 18 810 79.-> 812 803 Exp. 4. ends loose. 1 2 18 1570 1580 1590 1580 M EC Table continued. B D L P M Exp. 5. ends loose. 1 1 36 185 195 180 187 Exp. 6. ends fixed. 1 1 30 285 280 285 283 Exp. 7. ends loose. 2 2 30 1550 1020 1585 1585 Exp. 8. ends loose. '5 H 30 1005 1675 1040 1G00 From this table it appears that (from Exp. 1 and 3,) the strength is proportional to the breadth, the length and depth being the same ; that ( Exp. 1 and 4) the strength is nearly as the square of the depth, the breadth and* length be- ing the same; that (1 and 5) the strength is nearly as the lengths inversely, the breadth and depth being the same; and that (1 and 7) the strengths are as the square of the depth, multiplied by the breadth, and divided by the length. The cause of the irregularity always observed in such experiments, is the texture of the timber. M. BufTon, tried a number of experiments on the strength of oak, with the largest beams he could possibly break. The following is the result of his experiments on bars of sound oak four-inch square, and free from knots. The first column is the length of the bar between the supports in clear feet : the second, the weight of the bar in pounds, on the second day after it was felled, tried on two bars of each sort: the third, the number of pounds required to break the tree in a few minutes : the fourth, the number of inches in which a tree bends down before bieaking : MEC and the fifth, the time at whit it broke. 2 3 4 5 2£ n 15 la 14 12 7 $ 00 \ 56 5350 5275 4600 4500 3- 5 4- 5 8 \ 68 I 68 3- 75 4- 7 9 S 77 I 71 4JO0 3950 4- 85 5- 5 10 S 84 ( S2 3025 3000 5 83 0-5 15 15 12 S loo i 98 3050 2925 7 8 M. Buffon, found the cuts i;t the root both the heaviest and e strongest. He made similar i periments on other pieces of | ferent sizes. The beams were'll square. In the following table,! first column gives their length, d at the head of the others are - pressed their sizes in inches. 4 5 6 7 8 7 5312 11525 18950 32200 -17649 - 11 8 4550 9787 15525 26050 39750 10 9 4025 8308 13150 22350 32800 81 to 3612 7125 11250 19475 27750 8- 12 2987 6075 9100 1617. f , 23450 to 14 5300 7475 13225 19775 5' 16 4350 6362 11000 16375 5( 18 3700 5562 9245 13200 4- •20 3225 4950 8375 11487 « 22 2975 31 24 2162 28 1775 On the strength of other ki|S of timber no experiments he been made. Fir possesses, acct - ing to Buffon, three-fifths; accc- ing to Parent, five-sixths ; or, i- cording to Emerson, two-thirds e strength of oak. MED Axles of wheels are the principal oects which are liable to be twist- e or wrenched, but they scarcely c 'ie within our limits. When t , cylinders are wrenched asun- d, we must of necessity conclude, t t the external particles of each a placed beyond their limits of c esion, that* they are extended a operate equally ; hence, at the i, ant of fracture, the entire sum o he forces actually exerted, is as tl squnres of the diameters. Ir. John Banks, in his treatise o the " Power of Machines," has gm some valuable observations the subject of the strength of ti jer. " The resistance of which a! beam of wood or iron affords," ^observes, " will be as the sum 01 he products of all the fibres, brveen the top and the bottom, mtiplied by their respective dis- ta res from the top. For if a =: fekh, b — breadth, and z z= d(!,h, we shall have z x z, and dried by — ; the fluent of z z = * 2 : . ; hence, — the whole re- si mce, which when the weight is s' tended from Jlhe middle of the ton, must be divided by half the le th, or by _f_, which will be = i : .a to 111 ; which expresses the a st ligth of the beam." Hence he d< res the rule : " Multiply the brdth in inches by the square of tli lepth in inches, and divide that pr uct by the length in inches, th quotient is a fraction, or whole ruber, &c. by which is expressed thi comparative strength of the be!i." ickias, or Megyas, (Arabic) an. rabic term which signifies an ins'iiment to measure with, and hy hich they more particularly de nated the Ndometer at the wiiiern extremity of Roud- ha MEL Medallion, any circular tablet on which are embossed figures or bustos. Medianos, the middle columns in a portico, where the intercolum- niation is enlarged. Medieval Architecture, the| architecture of England, France, Germany, &c. during the middle ages, including the Norman and early Gothic styles. Mega log raphia, (Gr.) a name applied by Vitruvius to a kind of painting, representing the history of the gods and heroes, which the ancients employed for the interior ornament of their houses. M ei dan, see Constantinople. Melrose Abbey, a ruin, in the parish of Melrose, in Roxburgh- shire, in Scotland, and one of the most remarkable in that country. Venerable Bede gives an account of the original abbey, and of its abbots. It is said to have been built in the sixth century. The last erection was founded by king David, in the year 1136. Vestiges of the older abbey may yet be seen at the place called Old Melrose ; the foundation stretches across a kind of promontorv enclosed by a curvature of the Tweed. Several erections have been since built, which have been successively de- stroyed, and the present remains belong to a building erected in the time of king Robert Bruce. It has evidently been a spacious and mag- nificent structure, hardly exceeded by any of the ancient monastic buildings in Great Britain. What remains of this building, are the ruins of the church, which was built in the form of St. John's cross, and the patron saint was the Vir- gin Mary. These ruins measure two hundred and fifty-eight feet in length, and one hundred and thirty- seven and a half in breadth, and it is nine hundred and fortv-three feet 155 MEN in circumference. Its original ex- tent was far more considerable, as is evident, from the appearance of the western part, formerly, both the internal an^ outward walls were covered with sculptures of men and animals, but these were destroyed by the violence of the Reformation, in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI. and Elizabeth. The tower which rose from the middle of the transept, was a structure of great beauty and magnificence, as may be clearly inferred from what re- mains. The great eastern window consists of four mullions, with beau- tiful tracery. Several elegant niches remain on each side ; and on the top is the figure of a venerable old man hold ; ng a globe in his hand, and also the figure of a young man, both in a sitting posture, with an opc n crown over their heads. Many of the pillars remain in a perfect state, the embellishments beautiful, and as fresh in appearance as if newly executed. Besides the church, some of the walls of the cloisters remain ; the original buildings, with gardens and other appendages, occupied a space enclosed by a wall of more than a mile in circuit. Members, (membrum, Lat.) the different parts of a building; the dif- ferent parts of an entablature ; the different mouldings of a cornice, &c. Memel Timber, imported from the town of that name, in Prussia. It is situated on the northern ex- tremity of the Cruische-Haf, an inlet of the sea, and its greatest trade is in timber,- an immense quantity of which is brought to this country. Memnonium, ( Gr. ) a grand building which encircled the cele- brated statue of Memnon, in Egypt. Menagerie, (Fr.) a building to keep rare and foreign animals in. The ancient Romans had generally 156 private menageries, a kind of sr!j parks, in which they had all kL of animals, attached to their vill Mensuration, the scie e which teaches us to estimate L magnitudes of bodies, superficL and lines. The most import t parts of it will in general be foi] under their different articles. Merlon, in fortification, L part of a parapet which terming by two embrasures of a batte : its height and thickness is usu; / the same as the parapet ; i breadth about six feet on - outside, and nine within; it sen to cover those on the battery fn the enemy's attacks. Meros, (Gr.) a triglyph conss of six parts, two and a half of wh are on each side, and the meros in the centre, and constitutes i part. Mf.saulje, ( Gr. ) described / Vitruvius as itinera, or passae; they were, however, smaller con . They are mentioned by Apolloi ; Rhodius, who, describing the rec- tion of the Argonauts in the pah of iEetes, conducts them first i) the vestibule, then through 2 folding gates info the mesm I which had thalami here and ttV, and a portico, atdovaa, on ev side. Meta, (Lat.) the mark or J in the Roman circus, where ! chariots, &c. run to. See Circu Metagenfs, a Grecian arc- tect, who with his father Ct«- phontes, assisted in the erect 1 of the temple of Diana at Ephes. He wrote a description of that c<- brated building Metatome, (Lat.) the same s Metoche. Metezan, Clement, architt to Louis XIII. celebrated for f dertaking and completing the 1- mense dyke and fortifications nec- sary to the reduction of Roche , M EX tl plan was an 'imitation of the f] ous works of Csesar at Durazzo, ai those of Alexander the Great q Tyre. In this undertaking it J necessary to raise a solid wall aoss a gulf of more than 740 Boms in breadth, and to do this jrjthe face of an impetuous and ' h« terous sea. Huge rocks were [ fi thrown into this abyss, in order tcorm a foundation, and to secure the, immense beams of timber Jte driven into the bottom of the i st with incredible labour. These ! wfks were raised so high, that the 1 sc iers, even at spring-tides, expe- ! ™ riced no inconvenience from the ri ig waves. The platform at the fcirlation was ninety feet, dimin- is ig, as it rose, to thirty. Strong ' fcj were erected at the extremities 1 ofi-ie wall, and an opening in the mdle, of one hundred and fifty lS p: ?s, was guarded by a floating i«| bi stwork formed of thirty -five v< els chained together, and before the were a double row of tall fci st-es. In six months this truly grt work was completed, and to pi'ed effective in compelling the Wbged to surrender. A portrait k ofvletezan was on this occasion ci ilated through France, under w wi h the following lines were in- soed, to express the admiration ai gratitude of the nation : ' itnr Archimedes Ternm potuisse roovere ; ; n jra qui potuit sistere, uon minor est." f ETociiE, (f.ierox'n, Gr.) the in- to ils between two denticuli in the if lo>2 entablature. etope, (Gr. from fiira, be- tu n, and 071-77, a hole, see Opce,) the sp e between the triglyphs in the D c frieze. They were sometimes td ned with carved work, as the he' s of oxen, vessels, and other ar les used in sacrifices. kxican Buildings The re- ! tn: is of ancient. Mexican buildings th have been discovered are prin- M EX cipally in those parts t)iat were least frequented by the Spanish con- querors. In the city of Mexico, there is scarcely a trace of its for- mer grandeur. The cathedral, a somewhat heterogeneous edifice, is said to stand on the ruins of the great teocalli of the god Mexitli. A very credible perosn assured Mr. Humboldt, that the foundations are surrounded by an immense quantity of idols and reliefs. Near the Capilla del Sagrario, a sculp- tured rock was found, seven metres long, six broad, and three in height. Within the enclosure of the cathe- dral is preserved the remarkable stone called the stone of sacrifices, which was found, with a great num- ber of idols and other remains of Aztec sculpture, in Dec. 1790, in digging twenty or thirty feet deep, in order to level the great square. It is supposed by Humboldt to be one of those stones called temala- catl, on which the combat of the gladiators took place, between the prisoners of rank designed to be sacrificed, and a Mexican warrior. At the same time were discovered the calendar stone and the statue of the goddess Teoyaomiqui. The only remarkable monuments in the valley of Mexico, Mr. Hum- boldt tells us, are the remains of the two pyramids of San Juan de Teotihuacan, on the north-east of the lake Tezcuco, consecrated to the sun and moon, and called by the Indians Tonatiuh Ytzaqual, (house of the sun,) and Metzli Ytzaqual, (house of the moon.) Mr. Bullock visited this site on his return from Themascaltepec. For some time before he reaches the gate of Tezcuco, the traveller is apprised of his approach to a place of ancient importance, by a large aqueduct still in use, and the ruins of several stone buildings. The Spanish quarters built i'ur Cortes, MEX are still entire. Several tumuli are seen on entering the gates, which are supposed to have been teocallis. The most important ruin is what Mr. Bullock calls the site of the palace of the ancient caziques of of Tezcuco, which, though in ruins, £*r surpassed every idea that he had formed of ancient Mexican architecture. " It extended for 300 feet, forming one side cf the great square, and was placed on sloping terraces, raised one above the other by small steps. Some of these terraces are still entire, and are covered with cement, very hard, and equal in beauty to that found in ancient Roman buildings. From what is known of the extensive foundations of this palace, it must have occupied some acres of ground. It was composed of large blocks of basaltic stone, of about four or five feet long, and two and a half or three feet thick, cut and polished with the utmost exactness." The sculptured stones from these ruins have been used in building the modern church and houses. Heaps cf ruins surround it on every side, and Tezcnco,the Athens of Anahuac, as it is called by a Spanish historian, would seem to invite, above all others in Mexico, the attention of the antiquary. At about two leagues from Tez- cuco, is a spot called Bano de Montezuma, Montezuma's bath, on the summit of a conical hill, called Tescosins:o. " We scrambled with great difficulty," observes Mr. Bul- lock, "through bushes, and over loose stones, which were in great quantities on all sides, and at last perceived that we were on the ruins of a very large building ; the cemented stones remaining in some places covered with stucco, and forming walks and terraces, but much en- cumbered with earth fallen from above, and overgrown with a wood 158 MEX of nopal, which made it differ, to ascend." He discovered bath on one of the sides of the 1 " It was cut in the solid rock, < [ standing o; t like a martin's ri\ from the side of a house. It is only an extraordinary bath, but s | more extraordinarily placed. I a beautiful basin, about twelve m long, by eight wide, having a v about five feet by four deep in p centre, surrounded by a parapet * ruin two feet six inches high, \A a throne or chair, such as is rep . sented in ancient pictures to hi been used by the kings. There steps to descend into the basin- bath ; the whole cut out of \ living porphyry rock with the m; mathematical precision, and 4 lished in the most beautiful mam . The mountain appeared to b| been covered with palaces, temp , baths, hanging-gardens, &c ? Mr. Bullock was informed t ; he had seen but the commen- ment of the wonders of the plae About two miles from Tezcu, is the Indian village of Huexo, Mr. Bullock observed, on his ;• proach, several small pyramids ( alternate layers of clay and unbu ; brick. One of them had evider, an entrance to the centre, wh was discovered by part of it havr fallen in. Within the town w| the foundations of a palace, a two large reservoirs, with which was supplied with water, rema entire. The ancient wall of i town, almost thirty feet high, a I very thick, extends to a consid- able distance. It is singula' constructed, being divided into h unequal parts. The broadest di- sion is built of large oval ston, with the ends standing out, so as I give it the appearance of havij been formed of human skulls, a I it is divided from the rest by a p- jecting cornice. Beyond the wa r MEX on he road to Tezcuco, a broad coved way runs between two h, ,. walls, terminating near a river, wfafn appears to have been one of :; r ntrances to the town. Over ihejed of the river, which is now (here is a remarkable bridge, , ,t a pointed arch, nearly forty feekieh, supported on one side by ss of masonry in a pyramidal , r . It is ascribed to the ancient Ifefcans, but if constructed on the'rinciple of the arch, it must ha\ been the work of European arc'tects. ; . Bullock visited the cele- ratj pvramids of San Juan de Tecpuacan. "As we approach " he says, " the square and pgr t form of the largest became ■ < My step more and more visibly disllct, and the terraces could >e counted. We rode first to the sser, which is the most dilapi- of the two, and ascended to r the tp over masses of fallen stone ( ruins of masonry, with less i diff ilty than we expected. On the lu mm it are the remains of an i. it building;, forty-seven feet Ion and fourteen wide; the walls Me irincipally of unhewn stone, ::m feet thick and eight feet high ; i the Urance at the south end, with i n windows on each side ; and Mi f; north end it appears to have bee iividecl at about a third of its i. We soon arrived at the I fool)f the largest pyramid, and bep to ascend. It was less dif- ficu. than we expected, though the lole way up, lime and cement areiixed with fallen stones. The terr-es are perfectly visible, parti- cub y the second, which is about thin-eight feet wide, covered with acc of red cement eight or ten mel ; thick, composed of small pel) i-stones and lime. In many plat , as you ascend, the nopal treehave destroyed the regularity MEX of the steps, but no where injured the general figure of the square, which is as perfect in this respect as the great pyramid of Egypt. We every where observed broken pieces of instruments, like knives, arrow, and spear heads, &c. of obsidian, the same as those found on the small hills of Cholula; and, on reaching the summit, we found a flat surface of considerable size, but which has been much broken and disturbed. On it was probably a temple, or some other building : report says, a statue covered with gold. We rested some time on the summit, enjoying one of the finest prospects imaginable, in which the city of Mexico is included. Here I found fragments of small statues and earthenware, and, what surprised me more, oyster-shells, the first I had seen in Mexico. In descending, I also found some orna- mental pieces of earthenware, the pattern one of which is in relief, much resembling those of China, the other has a grotesque human face. On the north-east side, at about half way down, at some re- mote period, an opening has been attempted. This should have been from the south to the north, and on a level with the ground, or only a few feet above it ; as all the remains of similar buildings have been found to have their entrances in that di- rection." According to the mea- surements made by Dr. Oteyza, a young Mexican savant, in 1803, the base of the larger pyramid is 682 feet long, and its elevation 180 feet perpendicular. Mr. Bullock thinks its height to be nearer half the base. The other pyramid (that of the moon) is 36 feet lower, and its base much smaller. They are constructed of clay mixed with small stones, covered with a thick facing of porous amygdaloid, over which was a coating of cement. 159 M EX M EX There are four stages, subdivided into smaller steps; a stair of hewn stones formerly led to their summits. Early travellers all mention the prevailing tradition that their in- terior was hollow. Around them, in the plain, there are several hun- dred smaller ones, in general about 30 feet high, which, according to the tradition, were dedicated to the stars. It is probable, however, that the whole plain was a vast burial place ; its Aztec name was Micaotl, i.e. the road of the dead, which the Spaniards, borrowing a word from the language of the island of Cuba, have rendered Llano de los Cues. They are supposed to be the most ancient of all the Mexican monu- ments. The military intrenchment of Xochiculco, near Tetlama, two leagues south-south-west of Cuer- navaca, is another remarkable an- cient monument. It is an insulated hill, about 370 feet high, formed into five terraces, which are covered with masonry ; the whole form a truncated pyramid, of which the four faces accurately correspond, like the pyramids of Hotihuacan, to the four cardinal points. The stones are of very regularly cut porphyry, adorned with hieroglyphi- cal figures, among which are to be seen crocodiles spouting up water, and men sitting crosslegged in the Asiatic manner. The base is sur- rounded with ditches or trenches, which appears to be the only reason of its being styled by Humboldt a military intrenchment." The plat- form exhibits the ruins of a small square edifice. At two leagues' distance from the large village of Papautla, there is a remarkable pyramid, which was first discovered about sixty years ago. Situated in the midst of a thick forest, called Tajui, it was concealed from the first con- querors. It differs from the pyra- mids of Teotihuacan and Chi ] a in being constructed, not of ', c k or clay, but wholly of imn! )se blocks of stone, very regularlj ut and laid with mortar. The b; ig an exact square of 80 feet, not quite 60 feet high. It is L. posed of several stages, of v c h six are yet visible; a seven! is concealed by vegetation. flights of 57 steps lead to the jm- cated summit. The facin adorned with hieroglyphics in which are discernible serpents nd crocodiles in relief. 378 si'ire niches are symmetrically distril'ed over the pyramid, which haveien conjectured to correspond tc he Mexican calendar. In the northern part of he intendancy of Sonora, on he banks of the Rio Gila, arefnd some remarkable ruins, whiclire known by the name of La \:sa grande. They are consider* by the Mexican historians as the s de of the Aztecs on their arrival h he Rio Gila towards the end o he twelfth century. The count is still held by native tribes, anrno permanent communication has/er been established. Twoenterpmg monks, Fathers Garces and jut, however, succeeded in penetmg these districts by land in 177 of which enterprise the college o he Propaganda published an int< st- ing notice. The edifice callere than a square league. The tw grande, exactly laid down act- ing to the four cardinal w% is 445 feet from north to sjth, and 276 from east to west, is constructed of unburnt brick of unequal size, but symmetri'Hy arranged. The walls are njrly four feet thick. It had threcto- ries, and a terrace ; the stair, ro- v MEX ( bay of wood, was on the outside. \V perceive in it five apartments, pa , of which is about 27 feet long, road, and 11 high. A wall, iJrupted by large towers, sur- / roids the principal edifice, and apiars t0 nave serve d t0 defend it. Vestiges of an artificial canal we discovered, which brought the war of the Rio Gila to the town. Thsurrounding plain is covered wit broken earthen pitchers and poi prettily painted in white, red, am blue. The social civilization of e Indians in the neighbouring 9s, forms a singular contrast the state of the savages who er about on the banks of the Mi )uri. They live collectedly in : vill es, are clothed, and peaceably 1 cul ate the earth. Still further n , in the country of the Moqui, s Riode Yaquesila, in laf.36°, Faier Garces was astonished to fiocm Indian town with two great squtes, houses of several stories, inc treets well laid out in parallel tlx i dirdgns.' The edifices were con- n ed exactly in the same ma er as the casas grandes on ici the inks of the Gila river. Every ig the people assemble toge- r the on the terraces which form the >ofs. " Every thing in these , cou ries, " observes Humboldt, ajears to announce traces of the civi ation of the ancient Mexicans/' I the district of Zapoteca, in 'lie tendancy of Oaxaca, is one of ost remarkable monuments of it civilization in all Mexico ; the dace of Mitla, a name con- ' ii J from Mignitlan, which M?i es, in Aztec, place of woe. I eTzapotec Indians call these Win leoba, or luiva, (burial, or ti) alluding to the excavations four beneath the walls. It is " ti n leagues from Oaxaca, on the oad to Teuautepec. It is •up sed to have been a palace X MEX constructed over tne tombs of the kings, where the monarch retired, on the death of a son, a wife, or a brother. The tombs of Mitla con- sist of three edifices symmetrically placed in an extremely romantic situation. The principal edifice, which is in the best preservation, is nearly 130 feet long. A stair, formed in a pit, leads to a subter- ranean apartment, 88 feet long, by 26. This gloomy apartment, as well as the exterior walls of the edifice, is covered with a lagrecque and arabesque ornaments. But what distinguishes the ruins of Mitla from all the other remains of Mexi- can architecture, is six porphyry columns, which are placed in the midst of a vast hall, and support the ceiling. These columns, almost the only ones found in the new continent, bear stiong marks of the infancy of the art. They have neither base nor capital : only a simple contract'on of the upper part is observable. Their total height is nearly 19 feet; the shaft of each is of a single piece of por- phyry. The ceiling, which they supported, was formed of beams of savine wood, three of which are still in good preservation. The roof consists of very large slabs. There appears to have been origi- nally five separate buildings, dis- posed with great regularity. A very large gate, some vestiges of which are still to be seen, led to a spacious court, 150 feet square. Heaps of earth, and remains of subterraneous structures, indicate that four small edifices, of oblong form, surrounded this court. That on the right is in tolerable preservation, and the re- mains of two columns still exist. In the principal edifice we first distin- guish a terrace, raised three or four feet above the level of the court, and surrounding the walls, to which it served as a base. A niche 161 M E Z M I L formed in the wall with pillars four or five feet above the level of the hall, is supposed to have en- closed an idol The principal door of the hall is covered with a stone 12 feet long by 3. After entering the inner court, is seen the well. A very broad staircase leads to the excavation, which is in the form of a cross, supported by columns. The two galleries, which intersect each other at right angles, are each 82 feet long, by 25. Three small apartments surround the inner court, and behind the niche is a fourth, with which they have no communi- cation. In the interior of the apartments are paintings of wea- pons, trophies, and sacrifices. There is no appearance of their ever having had windows. The arabesque (with which the exterior walls are covered) form a kind of mosaic work, com- posed of several square pieces of porphyry, placed with much dexte- rity by the side of each other, and attached to a mass of clay, which appears to fill up the inside of the walls. In the neighbourhood are the remains of a great pyramid, and some other buildings, very much resembling them. Mr. Hum- boldt observed many ornaments remarkably similar to those on the Etruscan vases of lower Italy. See Cholula, Palenque, Pyramid. Of the picture writing of the Mexicans, some singular specimens have been preserved. Purchas has published some of the most valuable, in sixty-six plates. Thirty- two plates have been published by the Archbishop of Toledo, and others are found in various mu- sseums of Italy, Spain, and other countries of Europe, See also Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleras, and Robertson s History of America. Mezzanino, a low story be- tween two floors. Mezzo- relievo, or mean relief, 162 in comparison with alto-reliev high relief. Middle Quarters of a lumn, is a name given to the quarters of a column divided by zontal sections, forming an an<| of 45 degrees from the horizontal ,. Middle Post in a roof, lee King-post. Miletus, an ancient and ie- brated city of Asia Minor. The ruins of the celebrated ple of Apollo Didymeus arde- scribed in the Ionian Antiqi es, vol. i. p. 27. The site of his temple is in a manner buried i ler its vast ruins, but from the pa ol columns which yet appear in eir places, it is evident the fron a decastylos, the aspect the dij and the species between the nostylos and systylos, the inl o- lumniation being one diamel of the columns and seven-ninths, he breadth of the west front is >. 10" 2 ; but as no trace of the asl front remains, it was impossil to ascertain the length. The l| had no door in the west fror of which omission, (except in prole and in antis) examples oce in that at Jackly, that on the l\m at Athens, and of Jupiter Nefi in Achaia. The wall of the in the west front is 8' 10'', it is :ed on each side with large piec pj marble inclining to a lightish and left rough. The intern; rc- lumns of the dipteros are flute i he whole length of their shafts the external only two feet I the capitals, the rest of the being left rough, except a inches above the apophyses, « as this temple was never cprnpMi evidently proves that the flP| was finished after the columns ere raised, as also the walls of the 'k which remain rough. Sever; ca- pitals of pilasters remain oithe north side of the temple ; thfTft 4 out ow aft few ch, MIL fi; are not quite half the breadth t o heir front, from which it is evi- t that none of them belonged tc'he antae, for the internal face otthe antee in temples have the 2le breadth as the front, answer- in to the diameter of the columns pl ed between them. The hem 01 order in front of the volutes of tb external capitals of thedipteros is it square, but in those of the in- teal is wrought circularly, and th flowers resting on the echinus of ie former have only three leaves ; of ie latter, four. From the num- be and proportion of the capitals, wi out mentioning the frieze deco- I ra'i with griffins and lyres, of wl:h several fragments remain, l| which undoubtedly filled the sp e between these capitals, it may eDncluded that the lateral walls of he cella were enriched with pi! ters, corresponding with the ptomata or colonnades round the tenle. The griffin was particu- lai sacred to Apollo, and is here in- rrc'iced as the guardian of the lyre. illiare, (Lat.) the stone or coinn placed by the Romans in thf public roads, to mark the dis- (;u s from one mile to another, BJQ also from Rome. Hence we all oft find in Roman writers such PX| issions as tertio ab urbe lajjide, tduartum lapidem, &c. to mark thfiistance of three or four miles s fro Rome ; the expression was often i abiged, and only the words ad i tgunum,ad septimum, &c. used. •V the temple of Saturn, in the i of Rome, was a gilded pillar, 1 ;d by Augustus, and called Wihrium aurium, whi^h some supposed to have been the >i from which the other distances reckoned ; but Hennin, in his not on Bergier, has conjectured lhalit was only from this point tha listances in the city were esti- va' I, and that in the country the M I N distances were reckoned from the outside of the capital. In 1757, between Montelimart and Valence, a milliare was discovered, nearly eight feet high, on which might be read sextum milliarium, above an inscription in which occurred the name of iElius Hadrianus. In the cemetery of the village of Saquenay, a milliary column was discovered in 1703, with the inscription An- domatunum millia passuum xxii. and the name of Germanicus; An- tomatunum was the name of Lan- gres, before it was called Lingones. At Juvigny, a village two leagues from Soissons, has been long pre- served a milliary column with the inscription — Millia vii. ab Au- gusta Suessionum. Minaret, (Turkish,) a circular turret rising by different stages or divisions, each of which has a bal- cony. They are very common in the east. The first minaret was erected at Damascus, contiguous to the church of St. John the Baptist. See Arabian Architecture. Minerva Polias, Temple of. See Athenian Architecture. We will here introduce a translation of the celebrated Architectural In- scription relating to the temples of Erechtheus, Minerva Polias, and Pandrosus, which was brought from Athens, and published by Dr. Chandler. It is a survey made by order of the people of Athens, when Diocles was archon, which was in the twenty-third year of the Pelo- ponnesian war, in the fourth year of the ninety-second Olympiad, B.C. 409, of such parts of these temples as were at that time un- finished. The marginal numbers were shewn, by Visconti and Mr. Wilkins, to have related to the number of pieces of marble belong- ing to different parts of the edifice, the state and situation of which are spoken of contiguous to them. M IN M IN "The Epistatae (public inspectors) of the temple in the city (acropolis) in which is the ancient statue of Brosyn * * * es of Cephissia, Cha- riocles of Agryle, Diocles of Ce- phissia, the architect Philocles of Acharnse, the secretary Etearchus of Cydathenseum, have taken an account of the works of the temple in the state in which they found them, some finished, and some half finished, according to the de- cree of the people, which Epigenes proposed in the archonship of Dio- cles. The tribe Cecropis, being first in the council in which Nico- phanes, of Marathon, was secretary of the first pytany. " We have found these parts of the temple half finished. In the angles towards the Cecropium : IV. Plinths (JlXivdovg) not placed, four feet long, two feet wide, and a foot and a half thick. I. Maschalieea, or shoulder tile, (MatrxaXiaiavy) four feet long,three feet wide, and one and a half thick. V. Simse, (JLiriicpaviTtdag,) four feet long, three feet wide, and a foot and a half thick. I. Saddle-stone of the pediment, or angular ridge of sima (ywi/icuay,) seven feet long, four feet wide, and a foot and a half thick. Marble tiling (yoyyvXovg XiOovg) not placed ; continuation of the same, ten feet long, and a. foot and a half high. II. Pieces in continuation of the Epistylia(a>rt < /uo/5w toiq eTriffrvXtois) four feet long, five palms wide. I. Capital of a column (tuoKpavov) which is to be between the win- dows (fierwTrov) not placed, a foot and a half wide, and a foot and a half thick. Epistilia, not placed, eight feet long, two feet one palm wide, and two feet thick. III. Epistilia in their places, not worked on their surface, eight feet 164 long, two feet and a palm v| e> and two feet thick. The Eleusinian stone, agist which are to be the figures', ir- mounts all round the rest of he work, and is already placed er the epistylia of those columi at the wall towards the Pandrosern. IV. Of the attached columi a foot and a half of each from w ,i n the volute (avdefiiov) is left n- sculptured. The inner cymaim of an epistylium eight feet jL, on the wall towards the sch, has to be placed. These part re unpolished and unfluted. The all towards the south-wind is u o- lished except in the portico (rt wrought. \ Four feet long, two feet wide, foot thick, of each of which the i ternate joint, and the joints be- nd, are not wrought. I Five feet long, two feet wide, f foot thick, of which the alter- i ite joint and joints behind are >t wrought. V. Parts of the corona, (yeto-a) ur feet long, three feet wide, five lms thick, wrought smooth, with- ■t carving. \ Others of the same magnitude, both of which the cymatium d the astragal were un wrought, •ur feet. I Others, the cymatium was wrought four feet, and eight lit of the astragal. I Another, a foot and a half of e cymatium was un wrought, and ;r feet of the astragal. I Other, the smooth work was tie, but of the cymatium six feet da half were unwrought, of the f tragal eight feet. I Others, six feetof the cymatium wrought, eight of the astragal. » Other, what relates to the ooth work half worked. I Parts of the corona above the rtico, four feet long, three feet tie, five palms thick, worked . ooth, without carving. 1 Angular pieces upon the por- o towards the east, six feet long, ree feet and a half wide, five lms thick, of one of which the tooth work is done, but the en- tire cymatium and astragal un- wrought ; of the other, three feet and a half of the cymatium are un worked, and five feet of the astragal unwrought. L On the wall towards the Pan- droseium, seven feet and a half long, three feet and a half wide, the smooth work half done. I. Six feet long, three feet and a palm wide, five palms thick, also on the wall towards the Pandro- seium ; of this, five feet of the astragal are unwrought. VI. Stones of the Tympanum (AuTiaioi. sc. Xtdot. See Eagle.) of those belonging to the porticos, seven feet long, three feet and a half wide, and one foot thick, are half worked. II. Others five feet long, three feet and a half wide, one foot thick, are half worked. The corona above the pediments, two feet and a half wide, four feet and a half long, a foot wide, the smooth part is completed., I. Other half finished in the smooth work. II. Marble door frames, eight feet and a palm long, two feet and a half wide. IV. These others are however completed, but the black marble has to be placed over the super- cilium (£vya.) I. Console (ovf) to the door lin- tel (v7r£pdvpov) towards the east, half worked. III. Pentelic marbles to the altar of the Thyecus, four feet long, two feet and one palm high, one foot thick. I. Other three feet." In his explanation of this inscrip- tion, Muller considers the tiles (7rAiv0cn) to be the blocks of mar- ble composing the southern wall, and the E7riKpaviri^eQ to be the capitals of the walls, i.e. the blocks forming the continuation of the 165 M L lines and ornaments of the capitals of the antae, the ywviaia being the angular stone of the same range. The avdefjitov he supposes to be the flatted torus above the echinus, between the volutes, peculiar to this example of the Ionic order. The term a^KicrKoi he supposes to refer to the dentils of the Caryatic building. See in explanation and illustration of this inscription, Chandler's Inscript. Antiq. pi. ii. In. 1. — Muller de Minerva? Pol. Templo. — Roeckh. Corpus Inscript. Groec. pi. ii. ch. ii. p. 264. — Vi- truvius, ed. Schneider, vol. ii. p. 2G0. — Rose, Inscript. Grsec. p 130. — Wilkins, Atheniensia. — Wal pole's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 591. Minerva Polias at Priene. See Priene. Minion, an ore of iron used in mortar ; with lime and sand, it forms a water cement. Minute, (Lat.) the lower dia- meter of a column is divided into 60 equal parts, called minutes, which are used in measuring the proportions of the other parts. Minster, (minstere, Sax.) a monastery ; an ecclesiastical frater- nity ; a cathedral church. This name is yet retained at York, Be- verley, and Litchfield. Misericord. See Abbey. Mitch el, Purbeck stones of 15 inches by 2 feet, when squared for building have this name given them by the workmen. Mitre, an angle of forty-five degrees, a half of a right angle. Mitre, in carpentry, is the name given to the joint formed between two pieces of wood fixed to each other by the formation of an in- denture in each to correspond with the other, so that the two surfaces may coincide when brought toge- ther. This mode is sometimes employed to hide a dovetail, and is called lap-and-mitre joint. 166 or f me Mitre Box, a block for cutting mitres. Mixed Angle, an angle fo by one right line and one curvec Mixed Figure, one cdhsikg of straight and crooked lines. Mnesicles, a Greek arch ct, who superintended the buildij of the Propylsea. (Plutarch iir ir, Periclis.) See Propylaa. Moat, ditch, fosse, or va m, terms used to express a h-iow space on the outside of the \va or ramparts of ancient fortresses. Ven the moat was dry, there were sie- times subterranean passages,thr gh which the cavalry could sally. Model, see Effect. Modillion, (modillon, F a projection under the corona o he richer orders, resembling a bra et. The Grecian Ionic has no till- lions, and the Roman Ioniout seldom. The modillions of he frontispiece of Nero at Rome, in- sist of two plain faces, separately a small cyma reversa, and cre ed with an ovolo and bead. Ii he frieze of the fourth order of theCbs- seum, the modillions are cut oi he outside in the form of a cym re- versa. See Plate M. 4. Modular Proportions, a term applied to building, in refeiice to the module, according to v ch they have been erected. See Mode. Modulation, (from modor, to regulate,) the proportion ot he parts of an order. Module, (Lat.) the semi ia- meter of the lower part of the aft of a column, equal to 30 min es. Vignola divided the module int 12 parts in the Tuscan or Doric, nd 18 in the other orders. Moineau, (Fr.) in perfect fcifi- cation, a little flat bastion r;ed before a courtin which is too lot. Mole, (mcel, Sax.) a pi( of stone, to shelter ships from he violence of the waves Amcljst MON MON I Romans, the name was given to ;kind of circular mausoleum, as j t of the Emperor Adrian. See /rianeium. Monastic Buildings. The f t simple habitations of the mo- ikic recluse was a cave in the ik, or a hut of the rudest con- viction, but from that aera to the f ? (solution of those institutions in us country, many of the build- j.s for religious devotees had tome highly ornamented, and sieof the most elegant cathedral cirches arose from the ruins of 1 masteries. The ornamental im- f'vement in these buildings is tieved to have commenced with ills t Conquest, and ended in the time c Henry VHIth ; an opinion con- f led by an examination of the re- bsi ninsof ancient edifices,with a refer- m e eto the periods of their erection, "he seals of the kings, in Speed's ill Mory of England, give a complete a just view of the different modes o architecture which prevailed in t! r respective reigns ; in these, efh king is represented sitting en- i lined amid a sumptuous pile of a litecture. Henry III. is seated \\ a >ng arches of the round Saxon f< i. So are his successors, Ed- »'J I. and II.; Edward III. is tl| first whose seal exhibits pointed a ies, and those are of the simplest k I. Richard, prior of Hexham, , fljrished about A.D. 1180; and al it this time, as he informs us, \ Wilfred presided over nine m asteries, some of which were of 5 « tlj most elegant and sumptuous g *i| ; and it cannot be doubted these buildings rose in ele- ^ e, and became more orna- 1,1 fed as they became richer. The ,il us abbey of Ramsey, in Hun- onshire was founded by Ailwin, II "man of all England, as he is rt ! d, with the assistance of & aid, bishop of Worcester, after- wards archbishop of York. Its church, which was six years in building, is described as of great elegance, in the form of a Roman basilica, but, as far as we can learn, the Monastery itself was not dis- tinguished from other structures, merely adapted for convenience as a receptacle for a numerous society. The abbey church of St. Alban's, erected in honour of the first British martyr, remains, the most venerable monument of christian antiquities in the kingdom. This church, or monastery, had the precedence of other abbeys given to it in 1154, by Pope Adrian the Fourth, an Englishman, born near the place, on account of its being erected to the memory of the proto-martyr of England, it was therefore judged proper that St. Alban's abbot should be the first in England in order and dignity. This august, ancient building is in the form of a cross, with a high tower in the middle. It is constructed of old Roman bricks from the ruins of the Roman city of Verulam, which was removed, to found the town and monastery to honour the martyr's grave. The length of the building, from east to west, is 600 feet, of which 41 1 feet is the extent from the western door to the high altar, from which to the end of the Lady chapel, including the shrine of the saint, is 189 feet. The great cross isle from north to south measures 180 feet, which corresponds with the height of the great tower in the middle; the breadth of the body of the nave, including the side aisles, is 72 feet, and the height of it measures about the same. The roof of the cross aisle and the west end, with the Lady chapel, are wainscoted, but the choir is vaulted with wood, and painted. A little above the middle of this vaulting, is the stately high altar, built by William Walling- MON MON ford : it is a beautiful specimen of ornamental stone-work, originally overlaid with gold and silver ; pro- bably one of the most splendid in the kingdom. But all these images are gone, as well as the shrine and the brass font brought out of Scotland; a wooden shrine has since been put up, with this inscription on black rn h rbl e : — Sane tits A Iba nus, Verola- meyisis Anglorum Protomartyr, 17 Junii, 293. The original foundation, by king Offa. was in 794. All the offices, the library, cloisters, chapter-house, &c. are demolished, except a large gate-house, and vestiges of the cloisters on the south side, with the door-way from the south aisle, and the marks of the arches on the outside, from which we learn that they were 129 feet in length, and 21 in breadth. The whole of the remaining fabric is leaded over, and the brick walls covered with plaster or stucco, of superior hardness and stone-like appearance. The ancient Cistercian monas- tery of VVhalley, on the banks of theCalder, in Lancashire, has been destroyed, as all the buildings of this description were, at the Re- formation, but the ruins have been partly preserved, and incorporated with a family mansion. We can- not better illustrate this subject than by giving the following de- scription of this abbey, from Mr. Whitaker's History of Whalley : — " The area of the enclosure, con- taining 36 acres 3 roods 14 poles, is still defined by the remains of a broad and deep trench, which sur- rounded it ; over this were two approaches to the house, through two strong and stately gateways, yet remaining. They are con- structed in that plain and substan- tial style, which characterized the Cistercian houses; a style which approximates to that of fortifica- tion, and shows that the monks id not obtain a license to kernel id embattle, without an end in\ w . Within this area, and on the v^e of the Calder, which formed lie south-west boundary of thecloseias the house itself, consisting of lee quadrangles, besides stables M offices. Of these, the fust id most westerly was the cloi: r- court, of which the nave of ie conventual church formed the n th side ; the chapter-house and ve y, yet remaining, the east; the r- mitory, also remaining, the wh and the refectory and kitchens, ie south. The cloister was of w i, supported, as usual, upon cor 1 1, still remaining; the area within as the monks' cemetery, and sie ancient gravestones are still e- membered within it. Against ie wall on the south side of this qvl- rangle, is a wide surhased ah, apparently of Henry the Ei^'s time, which has evidently contaid the lavatory. The groove of ie pipe of lead which conveyed M water, is still conspicuous, a is also another for the reception < a wooden rail, on which the to 1 Is hung. Beyond this court, to ie east, is another quadrangle, for.id by the choir of the church on ie side; the opposite side of the cb- ter-house, &c. on another; a ie of ruinous buildings on a thll; and a large distinct building it«f, surrounding a small quadranjrle-m the fourth. This appears evidely to have been the abbot's lodgiii; for which reason, as being st adapted to the habits of an c i- nary family, it immediately bee ie the residence of the AssheUs; and after many alterations, an a demolition of its best apartmes, particularly a gallery nearly : »0 feet in length, has still sevial good and habitable rooms, an now preserved with due care»v MON MON j-owner. The ancient kitchen, the Liina abbae of the Compotus, fence such hecatombs were served 1 remains, though roofless, with t ) fire-places. On the southern se of this building is a small, but ^ v beautiful and picturesque ruin, i ntled with ivy, which appears to ite been a chapel, and was pro- blv the abbot's private oratory. It the conventual church itself, Jich exceeded many cathedrals Extent, has been levelled nearly t the foundation." A very curious plan of a monas- tv, from an ancient manuscript, is 1 p'en among the '* Vetusta Monu- rnta," published by the Society r c Antiquaries. Che mandra, or early monaste- rs, of Ireland, are composed of re Cyclopean masonry, without c ient, being mere super terrane- o caverns. At Inis Murray is aienclosure of walls, from five to t 1 feet thick, rough, and built P c large stones, without mortar. Vhin are cells covered with [ eth, thrown up so as to make i tin in a manner subterraneous, vi a small hole at the top, and* a ther on the side, apparently r e for air than light. They have ! ai been vaulted with the same ne stone. The entrance into the e iosure is so narrow as scarcely Mm it a man to pass. Within a three square chapels, dedicated tot. Melas and Columbkill, built o ;tone and lime in a rude man- n but modern compared with the N of the building. An altar, or >i;le stone, is enclosed within a ther square wall. Dun Angus, it lie Isle of Arran, on the coast Oiialway, is a circle of monstrous sliies, without cement, of which tl monastic appellation is man- d . Within one of these man- 01, or stone circles, stood, among tl Orientals, the pillar which Y Simeon Stylites occupied. The appropriation of these buildings to the early monastic uses, is proved by Bede's description of a religious house, built by Cuthbert. The building was constructed around four or five perches, made between wall and wall. On the outside the wall was the height of a man, but in the inside higher, which was done by sinking the rock, and in- tended, by restraining the light, to prevent the thoughts from ram- bling. The wall was of rough un- polished stones, with turf dug up in the middle of the place, and banked on both sides of the stone all around. Some of the stones were so large that four men could hardly lift them. Within were two nouses and a chapel, with a room for common purposes, the roofs of unhewn timber, and thatched. Within the walls was a house for the reception of strangers, and a fountain of water. (Led- wich's Ireland.) The size of the stones may be traced to the Cyclo- pean architecture, and the mode of building was probably derived from Druidism. This was not the only druidical or pagan interpolation. At Kildare, where once stood a temple resembling Stonehenge, was a nunnery, said to have been founded by St. Brigid before 484, and about the same time an abbey was also formed under the same roof for monks, but separated from the nunnery by walls. In 1220, Henry de Lowndres, archbishop of Dublin, quenched the fire which had been kept perpetually burning by the nuns, and which was called unextinguishable. It was, however, relighted, and continued to bum till the suppression of monasteries. (Hoare's Tour; Fosbrooke's Bri- tish Monachism.) At Inismore, or Church Island, in Sligo, in a rock near the door 169 •4 MON of the church, is a cavity called our Lady's Bed, into which preg- nant women go, and turn thrice round, with the repetition of cer- tain prayers, fancying that it will preserve them from death in child- bed. This is evidently derived from the Druidical deasuil. The monks of Ireland were of such holy celebrity, that in the Legends of St. Brandon, the Egyptian her- mit, Paul is made to say, " Som- tyme I was a monke of Saynt Patrike's Abbey in Yreland, and was wardein of the place, whereat men entre into Saynt Patrike's purgatorie." Those singular monuments, the Cloghads, which are ascribed to the ninth century, are tall slender round towers, fotfnd annexed to various Irish churches. Some have supposed them to have been resi- dences of fire-worshippers. Col. Morres says, that the founders of these towers were the primitive coenobites and bishops. Only two are known out of Ireland, at Aber- nethy and Brechin. (Sir K. C. Hoare's Irish Tour, p. 279. Ar- chaeologia, vol. ii. and vol. ix.~ - Ledwich's Ireland.) Monkey, a name given to a block of iron, with a catch, used in gins, for driving piles. Monolith al, (fiovog, one,\idog, stone, Gr.) works constructed of one stone. M. Denon has given representations of several subter- raneous structures worked in single rocks, together with sundry little monolithal temples. Monopodium, (Gr.) a table ' with one leg. Monopter a l, (Gr.) a species of temple, of a round form, which had neither walls nor cella, but only a cupola sustained by co- lumns. The base of the columns is raised by one-third of the diame- ter of the temple; the height of 170 the columns was equal to the 4 meter of the temple taken at > outer side of the pedestals; tl thickness was one-tenth of height of the shaft and capit j the architrave equalled in he half the diameter of the cohftfm Monot rygliph, (Greek,) space of one triglyph and two rji topes, between two Doric colum Montmorillon, asmalltov, about eight leagues from Pcictii, celebrated for an ancient buildik which is generally supposed ) have belonged to the ancit Druids, and of which engravi $ have been given by Montfaut, in the supplements to his Antiqic Expliquee, and by Martin, in s work on the religion of the Gai. The statues which adorn its por , they suppose to be Gaulish drv - ties, and Martin thinks, that one f them is meant for a personificat i of the moon, and that the e commemorate the burning of ! city in the year 1666. This in - nificent pillar was designed Sir Christopher Wren, and nfiaft the place where the fatal fire co- J menced. It is of the Doric ore! , fluted, the height 202 feet fri the ground ; its diameter is 1-5 f» It is of solid Portland stone, <• closing a staircase of black marl , with 365 steps. The pedestal in - suring 28 feet in circumferen. and its height is 40 feet : its mjt is covered with numerous fig'|> in basso-relievo. It has a balcC 32 feet from the top, which J MO R MOR oamented by a spacious blazon- h urn of gilt brass. This erec- m was begun in 1671, and finish- em 1677. JoNUMENTS. See Sepulchral. ,\0SI MENT OF L\ T SICRATES. S Athenian Architecture. loo in s n, or Mores k. See il uresque Ioor-S ton E, a kind of granite fc id in Cornwall, and some other p-.s of England, and of great v; le for the coarser parts of build- ir Its colours are chiefly black a! white, and it is very coarse. It found also in immense strata, ii mie parts of Ireland. Iortar, the calcareous cement M in building, compounded of but limestone and sand Lime- st e or chalk, slowly calcined till al ts carbonic acid gas is expelled, \o> about 44 per cent of its wi ht, and becomes what is called lliked lime, on the application of (Mt, fulling into a fine powder: It < nly formed into a stiff paste wi water, this powder becomes hy ate of lime, assuming a solid fo , and, as it attracts carbonic acid fr< the air, hardens, and consti- tn the common builder's mortar. H rate of lime, without any other lient, whilst in a moist state, fal away and is dissolved in wa:r. Alumina, silica, and man- ga'se produce the same effects wi lime, but in an inferior degree. H v substance in powder, which coi 'ins much iron, be added to hi nortar, its hardness and eom- is much increased, and it alsiequires the property of har- den g under water, and is deno- miii ed Roman Cement, or Water Mcjir. In these combinations, if the' me should be in excess, it sepa- rah either crystallizing or forming stal- tes ; by which it appears that a def te proportion of the materials '3 n essary to form the best cement. Various additions are made to mortar, for the purpose of increas- ing its hardness or tenacity, which for this purpose must be reduced to a fine powder, and the whole intimately kneaded together, and Wrought to a smoolh consistence^ puzzalana, terras, iron ores, ba- salt, and other similar substances, in considerable variety, with sand of various descriptions. Common limestone, (the chaux rnaigre, or poor limestone, of the French) con- sists of nearly pure carbonate of lime. It slacks freely, and pro- duces white lime, and, wiih the addition of sand, good common mortar. The species of lime in- cludes chalk, marble, &c. Chalk lime is seldom sufficiently burnt, and more quickly absorbs carbonic acid than stone lime. Silicious lime- stones give a buff colour. Those stones which are almost entirely constituted of pure carbonate, as is the case with respect to most of the varieties of marble or limestone called rich, when burned, slacked, and made into paste, will retain their softness under water, or other- wise excluded from the air, for almost any length of time ; whilst those stones in which calcarious matter is found mixed with sand, silex, alumine, and iron, and which are called meagre limes, if treated in the same manner, quickly harden under water, and in time form a kind of free-stone, which cannot be easily broken : from this circum- stance it is called hydraulic lime. Mortar of this lime, when exposed to the air to dry, acquires a crum- bly consistence ; and these kinds of lean lime, which contain an excess of silex, are found unfit for hy- draulic cement. The rich lime, exposed to the air, mixed with a due proportion of sand, acquires a great degree of hardness. Puzzo- lanas are either natural or artificial. 171 M O R MOR The natural are found in situations which have been acted upon by subterraneous heat. They all con- sist of silex, alumine, oxide of iron, and a little lime; their properties vary greatly, silex or clay being the predominating ingredient ; the lime and iron sometimes, though rarely, wanting. The scoria of forges and furnaces, broken pottery, and pulverized brick or tile, are artificial substances analogous to puzzolanas. One class of puzzo- lanas, containing a large proportion of clay or argil, resist the action of sulphuric acid: another class, with a less proportion of clay, easily dis- solve with this acid, and abandon the clay, which immediately sub- sides. From very rich slacked lime, with sand alone, or with puz- zolana, which resists the action of sulphuric acid, we obtain a mortar which, placed under pure water, re- mains always soft, or acquires a feeble consistence. Exposed to the air, this mortar soon acquires a crumbly consistence, but never hardens. If the same experiment be made with a puzzolana readily decomposed by sulphuric acid, a mortar is obtained, which soon sets under water, and becomes gradually harder, but, exposed to the air, it dries quickly, and consequently never becomes very hard. Since the quality of natural hydraulic lime depends on the mixture of various ingredients, with only a certain proportionate quantity of clay, combined by heat, it is natural to suppose that an artificial mixture of the same materials, submitted to heat, would produce a compound of equal efficacy. Experience has abundantly confirmed this opinion, and it is now known that an arti- ficial hydraulic lime may be pre- pared almost in any place, at a moderate price, and superior to the natural. 172 M. Berthier is of opinion, t| with one part of common clay, J| two parts and a half of chaik i very good hydraulic lime may j made, which sets as quickly | Parkers cement. He concluc' that a limestone, containing six j cent of clay, affords a mortar p cisely hydraulic. Lime contain ■ from fifteen to twenty per cent \ very hydraulic ; and when fr twenty-five to thirty, it sets aim instantly, and may therefore be h to be a trite Roman cement. But, argillaceous limestone, which, wl slacked, increases in bulk from < to three parts upon ten, and wh when in the form of a slacked p&: will take from one hundred toe hundred and sixty or one hund j and eighty measures of sand, -l afford, at a moderate cost, a cem ; equally fitted to resist the chan ; of weather, and the constant ex;- sure to a running stream. A lili magnanese added to mortar give t the property of hardening unit water. Limestone is frequen found combined with this mine' which gives it a brown colour wh burnt. Sharp coarse sand is the best | mixing with the lime, and it she < be divested of the clay or m which generally adheres to it. | sea-sand be used, it will require be freed from alkaline salts, al other impurities, by washing i fresh water; but for the purpose; mixing or slacking the lime, water is injurious, as it preve i the mortar from becoming perfec ' dry. In drying, sand is not dit- nished in magnitude, but li I shrinks much, therefore the grea' the proportion of sand, the sooi* the mortar sets, and the harde.t will be when dry; but thorn many valuable treatises have bet written on the subject, and n 1 experiments made, the exact p MO R MOR po ons of the lime and sand, have n0 yet been ascertained. Accord- ing .0 Virruvius, the Romans pre- ssed three parts of coarse sand to ne of lime; and, according to Pl y, four of the former to one of tkatter. The usual proportions of he London builders, is two and a half of sand to thirty- sen bushels of lime. the mortar be well beaten, it ril take a greater proportion of i, and will be proportionably im oved ; and it is agreeable to an bservation of Mr. Smeaton, thr 1 one measure of unslacked Km well beaten, will always re- qoi two measures of sand for mo ir of any kind ; and the greater : te roportion of sand, the more it is t'be beaten. r e mixture of fine and coarse sar is found to improve the corn- potion of mortar, and Dr. Hig- ,ives the following, as the besoropqrtions of each. Newly- sla<2(l lime, 1 part; coarse sand, 4 pts; fine sand, 3 parts. The aduon of J of the quantity of the me, of burnt bone ashes, im- prod the composition, giving a re t degree of tenacity, and can lg it to dry without cracks. I 'rtar is best made in a vault or illar, and kept covered up froi the air; when used, it must be ;aten up, and brought to a pro r consistence. (out is a diluted kind of ce- mei sufficiently fluid to fill up therregular spaces between the stois of rough walls; if it be mat, of mortar that has been eaten in the making, and kep% long time, it will then set in a te days ; but if new-made mortar he :ed, the grout will be a long tirn before it hardens, or perhaps Hv! never properly set. (mmon mortar, even when tho ughly dry before the water is admitted, is by no means well adapted to the purpose of lining reservoirs or aqueducts; but if a certain portion of burnt clay be mixed with the lime, the mortar will set and harden under water. To give this property to cement, various ingredients have been added : coal - ashes, wood - ashes, coal-cinders, brick-dust or burnt clay, pumice - stone, unslacked powder of quicklime, forge scales, roasted iron ore, wakke, or com- pact basalt, cellular basalt, puzzo- lana, &c. In the construction of the Eddy- stone lighthouse, Mr. Smeaton used equal quantities of puzzolana and A berth aw lime, as the mixture best calculated to withstand the utmost violence of the waves, con- tinually beating against the founda- tion of that building. Two bushels of slacked lime, from Aberthaw, one bushel of puzzoiana, and three of clean sand, will form a good water cement ; and in various parts oi England, as at Tinker's-hill, near Ludlow, and places bordering on Wales, a peculiar kind of lime is found, which, if properly prepared, forms, with sand only, a mortar which will set and harden under water. The substance called puz- zolana was discovered by the Romans near the town of Puteoli, not far from Mount Vesuvius, and was first used for buildings bor- dering the bay of Baiae, some of which were built in the water. The only preparation this substance requires, is pounding and sifting, in which state, when mixed with lime, it is found to possess, in the highest degree, all the requisite properties of a water-cement. No nation in Europe has had so much occasion for water-cement as the Dutch, and the substance called terras, or trass, was first used by them. This substance MOR MOR which is also called wakkc, is a species of basaltes, which has proved extensively useful in form- ing mounds, and various aquatic works, in the Low Countries. This celebrated terras mortar is made by covering a previously prepared mass of quicklime, of about a foot thick, (and sprinkled with water,) with an equal quantity of powdered terras. The whole is then left at rest two or three days ; after which, what is wanted, is taken each day, and beat up for use. One measure of quicklime, and two of slacked, in powder, with one of terras, the whole well beaten to the consistence of paste, with as small a portion of water as can be made sufficient, forms the terras mortar commonly used in England. A cheaper kind is made by mixing two parts of slacked lime, and one of terras, with three of coarse sand. Pebble mortar is used when cavities occur in walls, between the unequal projections of unhewn stone : it was much used by the Romans, and is yet of great utility, where large quantities of mortar are required. For this pur- pose, take one part of terras, or of puzzolana, two of coarse sand, two of fine sand, eight of small pebbles, screened and washed, and four of slacked lime. Mix the whole together. The lime termed argil- lacious, from its containing a por- tion of clay, is preferred for this purpose. It is only under water, or with the exclusion of air, that terras mortar acquires its usual degree of hardness ; for, when exposed to the action of the atmosphere, it will not become as hard as com- mon mortar. Though the experiments of Morveau have proved that com- mon compact basalt will, when 174 previously burnt, make nearly good a water-cement as the eel lar species, (the terras of | Dutch,) yet it has rarely been J for that purpose. This mine abounds in Great Britain, and | expense of its importation mi< be saved to the country. Caltc hill, in the vicinity of Edinbii^ and near the port of Leith, is most one entire mass of basalt. The cendre de Tour-nay is us! in the Low Countries ; this article procured from the lime-kilns b( dering the Scheldt : the lime of t district contains a consider!! portion of clay mixed with iro and the pit-coal, with which it burnt, contains a large quantity an argillacious schist impregnat with iron. After the lime is tak out of the kilns, there remains t cendree, about one-fourth of whi consists of burnt lime-dust, a three-fourths of coal-ashes. Tl material is sprinkled with water, slack the lime, and well mix together, and put into a prop vessel, and covered over with \\ earth. In this state it is kept f a considerable time, and, win taken out, and strongly beaten i for half an hour with an in pestle, in a wooden mortar trough, it is reduced to a sc pasty consistence ; it is then spre; out in a shady place several day and the operation of beating r peated ; the oftener this is don the better, except it should becon unmanageable from being :< much dried. In a few minute this cement, when applied to bri< or stone, adheres so firmly, th water may be immediately porm over it; and if kept dry tvvent four hours, it will receive no injur even from the most violent action a flowing stream. In London, a blue mortar cinders and lime is used for cove MOR MOH income parts of buildings much exped to the weather; and if this *ere prepared with the same ( r and attention, it might be red to possess, in a great , the valuable properties of ndree mortar of the Scheldt. ( v.mon mortar of ashes is made xing together two bushels of u slacked lime, and three bush- , i wood ashes, which when cold w i beaten ; in which state it is v kept for a considerable time, d r' beaten two or three times us to using it, will be found improved by keeping. In gi«!ng the effects of alternate ne and dryness, this mixture riorto terras mortar, but not near equal to it underwater. .A Smeaton has ascertained, by se of experiments, that the ial (the grey oxide of iron) that f under the forge hammer ed-hot iron, pulverized and :r and mixed with lime, form a yhIi >le cement, equal to that of z ana. In pursuing these ex- nts, roasted iron ore pro- uc an efficacious water cement, ng a greater proportion of it ai either terras or puzzolana. ji quantities of iron scales and .1 leous lime, with half the [ua'lty of each of these of sand, roi ;ed a cement in every respect equ; to terras mortar. If pure rl late of lime be used, equal part of each of the ingredients ou£' to be incorporated. \iut forty years ago, M. Loriat li( :d he had discovered the true proc s of making the celebrated cem't of the Romans. His sup- pose discovery is merely the adding of tl powder of dry burnt lime to corn'on mortar, of a consistence rath thinner than usual. The lime owder, when of a right pro- port i, and well worked together, sets .vithout cracking, acquires the consistence of plaster of Pa- ris, and is as dry in two days as common plaster is in several months. The proportion of quicklime pow- der in the Loriat mortar varies as the other materials vary in quality; one-sixth of the other materials is frequently too little, and one-fourth not too much; experience alone can determine. As a water cement it is of inferior utility, and very little better than common mortar driedbe- fore the admission of water upon it. Brick or tile powder, and forge scales, are added, to improve this composition, as in the following receipt : — Take of bricks, in fine powder, one measure, of fine river sand two measures, old slacked lime to make a mortar in the usual manner, and, lastly, add one mea- sure of dry powder of quicklime. About the time of M. Loriat's dis- covery, Mr. George Semple pub- lished a treatise on building, in Ireland, in which a similar mode of preparing a water cement was given, as follows : " Get your lime brought to you hot from the kiln, and immediately pound or grind it with a wooden maul, on a smooth large stone, or a dry boarded floor, till you make it as fine as flour; then, without loss of time, sift it through a hair or wire sieve, and to a quantity of a hod of your setting mortar, (which on this account should be poorer than ordinary,) put in two or three shovel-full of this fine flour of lime^-and let two men, for expedition's sake, beat them together with such beaters as plasterers make use of, and then use it immediately." Plaster of Paris, with a propor- tion of one-tenth of rust of iron, makes a water cement, which sets almost instantly, and is of great hardness, and if boiled patatoes be incorporated with mortar of lime and sand, or with mortar contain- MOR MOR ing burnt clay, these compositions will be much improved. M. Vicat has, by numerous ex- periments, found that calcarious stones, slightly or imperfectly cal- cined, will produce a Roman cement; and in the 83rd volume of Annales de Chimie, it is stated that powdered chalk, heated from six to thirty minutes on a red-hot iron plate, acquires the property of set- ting in water, when slacked stiff like plaster of Paris. Yet the re- sult of these experiments seems only to have established the gene- rally received opinion that no Roman or hydraulic cement of a sufficient hardness can be obtained from purely calcarious stones. The Greek and Roman architects gave the name of Maltha (Ma\0a) to a calcarious cement used as stucco, and this and the term Mas- tic are given to various compositions. The mixture of milk with sand and lime, is said to have constituted the maltha of the Greeks; and we learn from Pliny that Roman mal- tha was made by mixing fresh burnt lime, slacked with wine, and beat in a mortar, with hog's lard and figs. This composition pos- sesses great tenacity, and acquires the hardness of granite. A second kind was made of powder of slacked lime, with bullock's blood and pow- dered scales of the grey oxide of iron. Previous to the application of the maltha, the surface of the wall or ceiling was smeared over with oil, to make the composition adhere. The inhabitants of Tunis, and other places in Africa, use a species of maltha, which has gained great celebrity. The process of prepa- ring it is, according to Dr. Shaw's account, as follows. To one measure of sand, two of wood ashes, and three of sifted lime pow- der, are mixed, with a sprinkling of 176 water. After the mixture has t subjected to the operation of b ing, a little oil is added ; the bea is then resumed, and continued three or four days, during wl the proper degree of softness preserved by alternately adc small quantities of water and I In a short time after its applica in the usual way, it acquires hardness of stone. In a mausoleum of some of Tartar princes, the spaces betw the bricks are about an inch brd, and filled with a cement wl h appears to have been applied i liquid state, and it has acqu such a solid consistence, that i easier to break the well-burnt br s than to separate the cement, wlh is of a grey colour, and appear o have been a mixture of unslacd lime, pulverized charcoal, and poi- ded sand-stone. Parker's Roman cement, aja facing to brick and other walls, a composition forming an artifiil stone, and, being w ater- proof, - cellently adapted to this purpc ; if the wall be previously wettec it will adhere firmly. Arch sto s, cornices, and ornamental parts >f buildings, may also be convenieiy made of this material. An acco t of it is given in vol. xxvi. second :- ries of the Repertory of Arts. This valuable composition s been long known, and was f t brought into public notice un r the name of Parker's Patent ment, sold by Messrs. Ch. Wy and Co. Bank Side, London 5s. 6d. per bushel; it is iw sold at about 3s. per bushel by rious dealers. This material mixed with an equal quan of sharp grit- sand, freed fin impurities, and when beaten p with a due proportion of war, forms a handsome and dun e covering for the outsides of bu - MOR M O R j n> If the sand should have bd previously moistened, the ce- m t must be immediately used, ar in no case mixed up before- m. To give a proper finishing to iis kind of work, a mixture of fi\ ounces of sulphat of iron to a m of water, is mixed with as m h lime and cement as will pro- tji|< the consistence and the color required, for a wash to be apied to the surface of the work. Scetimes the colour is modified i,\ i or even paper or thin paste- bc d may be substituted. lis cement answers well for jo ng broken stones of the largest ki ; and stone joints never leak, or ant future repairs : if the stone i luck, not more than an inch ne to the water need be filled with ;nt; the rest may be done with M non mortar. Two ounces of M mmoniac, one ounce of flowers of ilphur, and sixteen ounces of 1 'ron filings or borings; mix in a mortar, and keep the poller dry. When this cement is <» ed, take one part of the above, enty parts of clean iron filings or rings, and mix intimately, and beat to a powder in a mortar. When mixed to a proper consistence with water, apply with wooden or iron spatula. This is the cement used in the filling up and clasping the joinings of South wark cast-iron bridge. The chemical action of these materials, on one another^ causes the whole to unite in a hard and homogeneous mass. The roofs and floors of houses in Venice are covered with a cement, the composition of which is un- known in England; it resists the action of the weather, and preserves itself from injury for a long time. It is believed to be compounded of plaster of Paris, sulphur, resin, pitch, and spirit of turpentine or wax, mixed hot. Walls and floors are sometimes made of mortar; .an also the roofs of houses. For plain country ha- bitations, the floors may be made g of two-thirds of lime, and one of coal ashes well sifted ; with a small quantity of loam, or clay ; mix the whole together with water, and temper well, and make into a heap ; which after remaining a week or ten days, temper over again, beat- ing it till it be of a proper tenacity and consistence. The ground being made level, lay the composition about two inches and a half or three inches thick, making it smooth with a trowel : if this work be done in warm weather, it will dry sooner, which will be an ad- vantage; and if a superior floor be wanted for better apartments, cover this first layer with another made of the lime of ragstones, well tem- pered with whites of eggs, and laid on about half an inch thick, before the first floor be too dry. When the whole is thoroughly dried, and rub- bed with a little oil, it will be as smooth as polished marble. Mortise and Tenon, a me- thod of joining two timbers by 179 MOS MOU cutting a hollow prism or recess from a face near the end of one of the timbers, and a correspond- ing projection at the end of the other. Mosaic, (Gr.) or Musaic, a kind of painting composed of small cubes of glass, stone, wood, &c. and worked on walls, ceilings, pavements, &c. A great number of these works have been dis- covered amongst the ruins of an- tiquity. Several copies of Mosaic ornaments are given in the plates of the article Roman Ornament. This kind of work is supposed to have originated in the East, to have been brought from Phoenicia to Greece, and from thence to have passed to Rome. The most curious and valuable works, which contain figures and explanations of antique Mosaics, are Barthelemy, Expli- cation de la Mosaique de Palses- trine; Savorelli and Capellani, Opus Musivum erutum ex Rude- ribus Villse Hadriani ; Hoeffelin, Observations sur la Mosaique des Anciens, a l'occasion de quelques Tableaux eu Mosaique, qui se trouvent a la Galerie des Pein- tures de l'Electeur Palatin, in the comment. Hist. Acad. Theodoro Palatinae, vol. v; Osservazioni di Ennio-Quirino Visconti, su due Musaici antichi storiati; Descrip- tion de la Mosaique, trouvee a Seville, published by order of the king of Spain ; La Borde, Mosaique dTtalica, published in 1802, and the best collection we know of ; Ciampini, on the Mosaics of Sacred and Profane Buildings, pub- lished in 2 folio vols, at Rome, in 1690,1699; Furietti,on Mosaics; M. de Vielle, Essai sur la Pein- ture en Mosaique. Several other works of the same kind might be enumerated. Mosque, (Arab.) a Mahometan temple, or place of worship. The 180 earliest Arabian mosques enclo? in a quadrangular square an it mense number of columns rancj in rows, which were often the r, spoils of ancient edifices. 1 ; mosques of the Turks, on | other hand, are more distinguish for the size and elevation of lif principal cupolas. Each mosci has its minaret, and commonl i fountain of water, with numenj basins for ablutions. See Arab t Architecture and Constantinopl Mould, called also Caliber, \ instrument of iron or of hard wo , used by masons as a guage ) give the dimensions and form f carved stone-work in cornice. Mouldings, the small proje- ing ornaments of columns, «. The regular mouldings are, e fillet, Intel, or annulet; the ost- gal, or bead ; the torus : the sco , or trochilus; the echinus, ovolo t quarter round ; the cyma rever , inverted cyma, or ogee; the cyi recta : the cavetto, or hollow. I more particular description of e n will be found under their sevi 1 articles. Their forms and appl - tion are exhibited in Plates M M 4, and M 5. The Grk mouldings are chiefly distinguish from the Roman, by being cc • posed of ellipses, and other ccc sections, while the Roman e formed of segments of circ*. The Roman ovolo and cavetto e never found in Grecian architect! 1 , nor the Greek echinus in the h man. In some early specimen >f the Doric, a straight line is ud instead of the moulding, as in e capital of the portico of Philipt Delos. All, except the fillet, I mit of decoration ; but in richest profile it is advisable leave some uncarved, to give a repose to the composition, and o prevent confusion. The fillet t y be used at all situations MUN hchts. The torus is appropriated tc bases. The scotia should be tx w the eye, and between the fli ts attached to the torus. The e( nus serves for supports, and si jld onlv occupy situations above tl eve. " The inverted cyma is al used as a supporting member. T cvma recta and cavetto are or fit for crowning mouldings, fo which their forms are peculiarly aoted, being incapable of hold- in water, which must necessarily di) from their extreme points. n assemblage of essential parts ai mouldings is termed a profile, ai on the choice, disposition, and pi»ortion of these depends the boty or deformity of the profile. Ti most perfect are such as are ccposed of few mouldings, varied b(, in form and size, fitly applied w regard to their uses, and so diosed, that the straight and ci ed ones succeed each other al nately. On every profile th 2 should be a predominant m iber, to which all the others 01 it to be subservient, and seem m e either to support, to fortify, or,) shelter it from the injury of th veather, as in a cornice when the cc na is principal, the cyma or ca- vf ) over it, and the modillions, d( ( ils,ovolo, and talon, support it. oven aw, a small flat bastion, in lie middle of a courtin of un- u? I length ; intended to be occu- pi by a band of musqueteers for th lefence of a fortress. ullions, the frame-work of I )thic window. Multilateral, (Lat.) having m.y sides. uniment-room, a little strong ro » or apartment for keeping pl .', charters, evidences, &c. LN.NIONS, another name for K lions. [ural, (Lat.) belonging to a Museum, (Gr.) a repository of scientific a«»d literary curiosities, and the works of learned men and of artists This term was originally ariplied to that part of the palace of Alex andria which was appropriated solely to the purpose of affording an asylum for learned men : it con tained groves, and buildings worthy of royal majesty, and a temple, where the body of Alexander was deposited in a golden coffin. Men of learning were here lodged, and accommodated with large halls for literary conversations, and porti- cos and shady walks; and, supplied with every necessary, they devoted themselves entirely to study. They were divided into companies, or colleges, according to the sciences of which they were professors ; and to each of these was allotted a handsome revenue. The founda- tion of this establishment is attri- buted to Ptolemy Philadelphus, who here placed his library. Of museums, in the modern sense, Professor Beckman says, that anciently natural curiosities were preserved in wax ; and dead bodies also, both in wax and ho- ney. In the middle ages, particu- lar and extraordinary articles were dried, and kept in the treasuries of emperors, kings, and princes, which gradually increased into menage- ries, and probably museums. Such collections were first made by pri- vate persons, in places where many families had been enriched, with- out much labour, by trade and manufactures. They appeared for the first time in the 16th cen- tury, and were formed by every learned man who studied natural history. Of Museums in this country, the Ashmolean at Oxford is a noble pile of building, erected at the ex- pense of the University, at the west 181 M US MYC end of the theatre, on which side it has a magnificent portal, sus- tained by pillars of the Corinthian order. The front, which is to the street, extends about 60 feet. It was begun in 1'679, and finished in 1683; when a valuable collec- tion of curiosities was presented to it by Elias Ashmole, Esq., which were the same day deposited there. Important additions have been since made to this collection ; among which are Egyptian anti- quities, hieroglyphics, and mum- mies ; with Roman altars, and me- dals and lamps, and various natu- ral and antiquarian curiosities. The British Museum occupies an ancient building of great extent, erected by the first Duke of Mon- tagu, and formerly called Monta- gu House. This erection is in the French style of architecture, and has behind it a garden, consisting of nearly nine acres of ground. It was purchased of the Duke's heirs, by parliament, for uniting together the Royal, Cottonian, Harleian, Sloanian, and other collections of books, manuscripts, coins, subjects of natural history, and other arti- cles of great rarity and value. On the western side of this build- ing is the entrance, under tall arches, leading to the various apartments. The staircase and ceilings are ornamented by the artists Baptiste, Rousseau, and La Fosse. Among these works are Caesar, attended by the chiefs of the provinces he conquered ; the feasts and sacrifices of Bacchus; and an emblematical representa- tion of the rivers Nile and Tiber. On the ceiling, Phaetcn, accompa- nied by the Hours, in the ardour of youthful enthusiasm, undertaking to guide the chariot of the sun ; and the story is continued to the ceiling of the first apartment. A fine portrait of Sir William Hamil- 182 ton is placed over the north or leading to the saloon, and the d- joining room contains several \ u . able portraits. On the ceilin the first room on the first f which is a half-oval, is a very painting of Jupiter hurling lightning at Phaeton. An iL. merable variety of Egyptian, Gi k, Roman, and Indian antiquities re deposited in the various aj t- ments; and models, and sculpt L and singular devices, with nat al and artificial curiosities; anhip were invented by the Thas- II Their place was before suppli- e( 'V two scaffolds, (rrapa/jXrjfxara) oi at the stern, the other at the piv. The prow was generally m e in form of a fish, most com- m ly the dolphin. The was gene- W • directed by a person called * v.stes, who gave the signal for tl rowers to strike, and sung the ciusma, or song of encourage- 2 A ment, in which they joined. In the middle was the commander of the rowers, called hortator remigium, pausarius, or portisculus. Sails are said to have been the invention of i^olus or Daedalus. According to Pliny, they were placed at first one above another, on the same mast; but afterwards at the stern and prow. The sails at the stern were called epidromus, at the prow dolones, at the top of the mast thoracium, that put at the end of another ortkiax, and that on the main mast artemon. Both sails and oars were used in the same vessel. Masts are mentioned by Homer, but not fixed. At the prow was a kind of bowsprit. The Kepaiai, or asseres, were large beams, with iron at both ends, suspended like the yards, and in battle were swung like battering rams at the enemy's vessel. There were tops as now to the masts, call- ed corbes, manned by soldiers, and by corbitores y who were to watch the enemy's motions. The ship took its name from the parasema or symbol, which was placed at the prow. At the stern, the protecting deity had her statue and altar. On the edges was a piece of wood call- ed chelysma, to defend the deck. Ancient ships had wells, and con- servatories of water ; the well was emptied in some instances by the antlia or pump, in others by the winding screw of Archimedes. The dock for ships is the textrinum of Servius, Papias, &c. The navalia, in Greece were the towns built about the port of a more important town, when that town was too far from the sea to have a harbour of its own : at Rome the term was applied to quays, where ships un- loaded their goods. — The follow- ing are the principal kinds of ships mentioned by ancient writers. Actuarial naves, long and light, 185 N A V N A V with oars and sails. Annotince. Frumentarice, provision vessels. (Pollux.) Hornotince, those built in a year. Candicarice, those used on the Tiber, made of thick planks. Constratce, those wholly decked. Cubiculatce, such as contained dif- ferent apartments, like a house. Len tr ice, pon tones fiuviatiles, those employed only on rivers. Levibus, light and undecked. Liburnce, light gallies, with sails and oars. Lintres, (povot,v\a) canoes made out of the trunk of a tree, carrying three men. Leves, very light, undecked. Long a, militares, such as carried a large number of men, with oars. Lusoria, pleasure boats. Moneres, mono- crata, vessels with only one rank of oars, galleys. Onerarice, ships of burden, with sails and oars. Ora- rice, littorarice, trabules, coasters. Plicatiles, made of wood and lea- ther, so to be taken to pieces, and carried about. Precursor ice, such as preceded the fleet. Prcedatonce, prcedaticce, long swift pirate ships. Solutiles, those intended to fall in pieces, as that in which Agrippina was exposed. Stationarice, such as remained fixed at anchor. Su- tiles, made of staves, and covered with leather. Trabarice, light barks, (Pollux.) Gauli, Phoenician, round for carriage. Cor bitce, with tops to the mast, without oars. Caudicce, corn vessels. Cercwn,ships of burden, sails and oars. Celoces, celetes, pirate vessels, without decks. Catascopia, brigantines, ( Gellius. ) Hippa- gines, or hippagogce, for carrying cavalry, ( Liv. 44. 28. ) Orice, wherries, (Plautus.) Lenunculi, small fishing boats, (Nonnus. ) Horiolce, the same, Stlatce, pira- tic vessels, broader than high. Pontones, ferry boats. Phaselus, a small vessel with oars and sails. Paro, parunculus, a bark. Myo- para, a Corsair's vessel, (Plautus, Festus, &c.) 18G Amongst the machines used ancient sea-fights may be enur rated the dolphin, ($ \tv) a la piece of lead or iron, in the form f that fish, which was suspended!) the masts, and thrown with foils into the enemy's vessel : the a- panum, (Sp£7ravov) in form on sickle, fixed on a long pole, to t asunder the ropes of the sail-yai [ &c. : the naval spears, (dopa i vavfia^a) which were of an ext . ordinary length, and are called v Homer, (11. xv.) paKpa; the cira, (xtpaiai) machines to throw la? stones : corvi, or grappling-iron, < . The only specimens that 1 known of ancient British shippr are the coracles, stiil used inWa , which are round wicker bask- . The British ships are supposed) have been of the same form as Phoenician, which were nearly rou . The ships of the Anglo-Saxons we often richly ornamented : the !• 1 ran broader and broader from e stern to the prow, when it a-n decreased gradually to a point, e more readily to cut the wa ■. Harold sent, as a present to Atl - stan, a magnificent ship, witla golden beak and purple sails, * rounded with shields, gilt in e inside. The Anglo-Saxons 1 also pleg - scips, i.e. play-sh;, supposed to be pleasure vesa In Lye, occur scip-hlcedder, (si - ladder,) scip-hlaford, (ship lord»r captain,) scip-rother, (a rudd,) the ceola, (a ship with deck d cabin,) roge - streng, (cord w1 h bound the sail to the mast,) ma- cyst, (hole to receive the nn,) mcest-rap, (mast-rope,) and J- rap, ( rope at the foot or botton)f the sail.) The Danish ships apdjj in general to have been only a V d of very large barks, with sevll rows of oars ; and the large vesBl said to have been built by somW their kings, were more for sijw N A V N A V t n use. In the middle ages, the t ii archiiiale, called also tarse- iiis, was applied to a place ap- y priatfd both to the building of Jjps, and keeping of arms. Among t vessels of the middle ages, we f 1 mentioned the alnus cavata, 1 Fridesrodusjn his Life of Wilfrid, t character of which may be con- j tared from its name, the busse, 2 ;hip made like a wine-cask, and t abromones, used in rowing riches : the gondola, from the I barous Greek, KovvreXac, aVene- t 1 ship, radce, ships with wooden t ers. The lin, sailed with all v ids without danger, the lymphad m one mast, the letter of marque, ft mentioned in the time of Rich- B II. In the fifteenth century, svs of forecastle, the largest in i , carried about 150 men, barges Jrut 80, a balinger 40, a spinne minnace 25. There are few accounts of the s ;e of the English navy before the te of Henry VIII. In Rymer's idera, vol. viii. p. 447, is an order t Henry Somer, keeper of the pri- we wardrobe in the Tower, to de- li r to Mr. Loveney, treasurer of q en Philippa of Sweden, (who v then sent to her husband by her n ie, Henry IV. in the ship called t Queen's Hall,) the following n tary stores : — " eleven guns, f < y libras pulveris pro gunnes, ft ypetras pro gunnes, forty tam- p s, four touches, one mallet, two fi pans, forty pavys, twenty-four b- s, forty sheaves of arrows, pro siFura ejusdem navis, ordinata p aula ejusdem reginee." This is b eved to be the first document o he kind, and is curious, as it n '.ions cannon employed on board a ip. Henry V. and Edward IV. a f *ar to have had several ships of tl r own, which were sometimes u ; I in war, and sometimes in *)e: and in 1481, the latter issued an order " dilecto sibi Rich- ardo Symondes, magistro navis nostras vocatse Le Grace de Dieu," in which is set forth "cum nos quandum armatam potentiam ad profisciscendum supra mare in re- sistentiam ill ins infidelis et antiqui inimici nostri regis Scotorum ordi- navimus, assignavimus te ad tot marinarios quot pro gubernatione et conductione navis prgedieta? ne- cessarii fuerint et opportuni, ubi- cunque inveniri poterunt, tarn infra libertates quam extra, arestandum et capiendum, et eos in nave prae- dicta, nobis ad vadia nostra deservi- turos, ponendum etponi faciendum." Similar orders were directed to the captains of five other royal ships, and also to five ships rot belonging to the king, which seem to have been hired. At this time the ships ap- pear to have been built much larger than in the preceding reigns, for in the famous armada of Edward III., though it consisted of 1 100 vessels, the men on board were only 11166, allowing very little more than ten men for a vessel. Before the reign of Henry VIII., there appears to have been no re- gular navy. Ships were occasion- ally hired from the Venetians, Ge- noese, &c. which with those sup- plied by the Cinque Ports, formed the whole English fleet, and were all dismissed as soon as the service was performed, for which they were hired. Henry found the incon- venience of having suddenly to raise so large a fleet as was requir- ed by his wars on the continent, and, to execute his plan of forming an established navy, he established building yards at Woolwich, Dept- ford, and Chatham. The following extract from a report made to James I. in 1618, will show the state of the navy till the time of Elizabeth. " In former times our kings have enlarged their domi- 1S7 N A V N EM nions rather by land than sea forces, whereat even strangers have mar- velled, considering the many advan- tages of a navy ; but since the change of weapons and fight, Henry VIII. making use of Italian shipwrights, and encouraging his own people to build strong ships of war to carry great ordnance, by that means established a puis- sant navy, which in the end of his reign consisted of seventy vessels, whereof thirty were ships of bur- den, and contained in all 10,550 tons, and two galleys; the rest were small barks and row-barges from eighty tons downwards to fifteen tons, which served in rivers, and for landing of men. Edward VI., in the sixth year of his reign, had but fifty-three ships, contain- ing in all 1 1,005 tons, with 7,995 men, whereof only twenty - eight vessels were above eighty tons each. Queen Mary had but forty-six of all sorts." The shape, however, of the ships of these reigns were, perhaps, more contemptible than their size and number. The Harry Grace de Dieu, the largest of king Henry's fleet, if we may depend on the curious print given us by Mr. Topham, may be fairly pronounced unfit for every purpose of naviga- tion. Another print of a large ship, published by Mr. Allen, and supposed to have been built in James's reign, is less uncouth, though still an unpleasant picture of the state of ship-building at this time. However, in a few years the art was astonishingly improved, and the Royal Sovereign, built in 1639, gives us the first idea of any knowledge of the art, and she con- tinued a useful and valuable ship in our navy, until the beginning of the last century, being in all the actions at sea, during the reigns of Charles II. and William III., and doing great service in the fight off 188 La Hogue, in 1692. The numb, of the navy was greatly increase by Elizabeth, but declined durir the reign of James I. and his su< cessor Charles, and was not muc increased during the time of Cron well ; but the navy flourislie greatly in the reign of Charles II and has continued to increase pr< gressively in number and powe till the present time, (See Willet on British Naval Architecture, the eleventh volume of the Arch? ologia.) Nebule, (nebula, Lat. a cloud in Saxon and Norman architectur a zigzag moulding without angles Neck, the space between tl cannelures and annulets of the D< ric capital, in Grecian example: and in Roman, that between tl astragal and the annulet. It seldom found in the Ionic, but occurs in the capitals of the ten pies of Erechtheus and Miner Polias, at Athens. Neck-mould, in Gothic Arch teeture, the moulding which sep rates the capital from the shaft, • that under the finial of a pinnae or canopy. Nekfs, Peter, an architectiin ii painter, born at Antwerp in 157 He was a disciple of Henry Stee^ wick, and was particularly skilf in perspective, generally choosit subjects which displayed that sc ence. His son Peter succeede but never equalled him, in pra tising the art. Peter Neefs di< at the age of eighty-one. Nemea, a town of aneie Greece, which was celebrated f its magnificent temple of Jupite surrounded by a grove of cypres In Pausanias' time the roof w already destroyed. The ruins the temple of Jupiter Nemea st exist. They consist of three Dor columns, two of which support the architrave. The temple was abo NEM N I C H feet 3 inches long, if there w 8 fourteen columns in the flanks, as Mr. Wilkins supposes. The bndfh of the upper step was 65 fe 3 inches. There were six co- in ns in front. The width of the co was 30 feet 7 inches. The le th of the temple between the co mn of the pronaos and porticus w 105 feet 2 inches. The dia- mers of the columns of the pstyle 5 feet 2i inches. Upper d neter of the columns 4 feet 3 nches. Height of columns 3 ee t 10f inches. Capital 2 feet j ,»sed to the action of the water. It .is lined within with marble, or a imposition resembling it. Its ce ngs were supported by beams of rass, and it was supplied by Bins of pipes with the pure water of the fountain Egeria. It was moored in the centre of the lake, and appeared like an enchanted castle. When it sunk is not known, but it was probably neglected, and appears to have disappeared before the invasion of the barbarians. Marchi, a learned and ingenious Roman, descended in a diving ma- chine in 1533, and made such observations as enabled him to give a long and satisfactory description of it. It is much to be lamented that no attempt has been made to raise it. Many ancient ruins are found on the banks of the lake. See Brotier's Suppl. to Tacitus. Eustace, vol. ii. p. 272. Miss Knight's Latium, 87 907. Nerves, the mouldings of the ribs of Gothic groins. Nessotropiiium, (Gr.) a place in the Roman villas for breeding ducks. Net, or Rete, (net, Sax. nati, Gothic,) the covering of a geome- trical solid. Net Measure, a term used when no allowance is made for finishing, in buildings, or for waste of materials. Newel, the upright cylinder or pillar, around which winding stairs turn, thence called newel stairs. Niche,* (from the Ital. nicchio,) a cavity or hollow in a wall, for the reception of a statue, &c. They are found sometimes square in an- cient buildings. Niches are seldom found in pure Grecian buildings, except when they have been after- wards made by the Romans. Those in the Pantheon at Rome, are rect- angular recesses, dressed in the same manner as the apertures of doors. The exedrae or lar^e niches on the sides, have cylindrical backs, finishing at the top with the soffit of the architrave of the general entablature. A niche, on a circu- lar plan, is observed in the remains N IN NOR of the piazza of Nerva, with a rect- angular front and circular head. Various kinds of niches are found in the ruins of Palmyra and Balbek, many of them richly decorated. An inscription published in the Moaumenti Gabini, shows, accord- ing to Visconti, that the ancients called niches zothicce. In Roman buildings, niches are generally un- ornamented, but in the Gothic style they are highly enriched. Niches are made to partake of all the segments under a simicircle. Great care should be taken to pro- portion them to the size of the figures which are intended to oc- cupy them. An angular niche is one formed in the corner of a build- ing; a ground niche has its rise from the ground, as in the portico of the Pantheon at Rome. For the construction of niches, see Car- pentry, Constructive Carpentry, Descriptive Carpentry. Nicomedes, a Greek geometri- cian, who flourished, probably, near the time of Eratosthenes, and is celebrated as the inventor of the conchoid. Nidged Ashlar, is brought to the square by means of a cavil or hammer with a sharp point, and is used in Aberdeen when the stone is so bad as to resist the mallet and chisel. See Ashlar. Nilometer, an instrument used in Egvpt to measure the increase of the Nile. Nineveh. Diodorus and Stra- bo think this to have been the largest town ever known. It is now entirely destroyed, but is be- lieved to have been situated on the bank of the Tigris, opposite the place where Mousul stands. Jardine told Evelyn (Evelyn's Memoirs, i. 491) that Nineveh was a vast city, now all buried in ruins, the inha- bitants building in the subter- raneous vaults, which were, as 190 appeared, the first stories of the d city, and that there were frequent found huge vases of fine eart' columns, and other antiques. ] the " Description du Paehalik ( Bagdad," (Paris, 1809,) ruins of il old city are said still to remain, j Nismes, see Amphitheatre ar Maison Carree. Nodated Hyperbola, anar given by Sir Isaac Newton to a h perbola, which in turning roui decussates or crosses itself. Nogs, a term used in Lancashi for wood bricks. Nogging, a kind of brick wo carried up in panels- between qu? ters. The horizontal boards whi. are nailed to the quarters strengthen the brick work, a termed Nogging-pieces. Non agon, (Gr.) a figure of ni; sides and nine angles. Normal Line, a line which i tersects another at right angles. Norman Architecture. Aj ter the fall of the Roman pow< the first people who occupied t west of Europe were the Gotl who, under Theodoric, gained pc session of Italy about 493. Th< buildings were principally cast! or palaces, and were characteriz by excessively rude heavy wal' blended with the decorative mat rials they robbed from the remai; of the Roman edifices, which th piled together without regard order or symmetry: remains j their buildings are still found many parts of Italy. The Got; were succeeded, about 568, by t! Lo m b a r ( ! s , w h o , i n t h e i r fi r st a tte m f at architecture, merely imitated tl works of their predecessors. The edifices were merely composed immense solid walls, from six j nine feet thick, with narrow wi dows, or rather loop-holes, f discharging missiles on their assa ants, and at the same time to sere NOR NOR th besiegers from the aim of the ar ers without. When the Lom- Jls were united under one 2C mment in 590, their queen Tbdolinda embraced the Catho- Hc 'aith, and endowed numerous ec3siastical establishments. The of their castles was naturally referred to their churches, which he the same massive proportions, an narrow windows, though the la r were somewhat larger, and ro id-arched at the top. This m e of construction predominated ev after the reign of Charlemagne, v. expelled the Lombards in 778, ar became, with various improve- m ts, the prevailing style through It/, Germany, and France, under th appellation of the Lombard st:. Bede, Spondani, and Feli- i bil described their religious build- in as most magnificent, but it w; only such magnificence as aged with the time. n the cession of Normandy, (tl 1 called Neustria,) to the Nor- m s by Charles the Simple, in 912, I ar their conversion to Christianity, th strove to exhibit their zeal in the m faith they had adopted, by the ill ex nt and splendour of their eccle- si;ical buddings. The Norman m ks were so partial for archi- te ire, that they studied both the th ry and practice ; in their own itkures they worked as artificers ar masons, the most intelligent su intending and directing the ^ ution of plans, that were de- si; 4 by the abbots and superiors. Tl,/ adopted the heavy style of th Lombards, but on a grander U more noble scale, adding nu- m >us ornamental accessories of th own invention. The simila- rity the first Norman style to th of the Lombards, has caused " be included in France under th same name, and it was not UI the eleventh century that it was eminently distinguished. Re- mains of the architecture of this period are found in abundance in Normandy; till at the commence- ment of the twelfth century it gave way to the Gothic. The form adopted by the Nor- mans in their religious structures was that of all the Christian chur- ches of the middle ages, as described by Gregory of Tours — oblong; in form of a Latin cross ; with a semi- circular chancel ; in the interior was a nave and two aisles, which were separated by arcades of round arches; and underneath was fre- quently a crypt; the whole exter- nally supported by small buttresses. The ornaments were chiefly used in the doorways and windows, and also in the cornices, which gene- rally consisted of ornamental mould- ings : the ornaments are chiefly taken from the architecture of the different people whom they suc- ceeded, and differ only in their combinations ; the most frequent is the chevron or zig-zag. A more full description of these ornaments will be given under the article Saxon Architecture. In the latter periods of Norman building, the pine cone, the simple and double, astreated, diamond, platted, and the beak Or cat-head mouldings, are of frequent use, the latter repre- senting the heads of cats or birds, surmounting a plain thick semi- circular band, overlapped by the tongues of the former, or by the beaks of the latter. The columns had no diminution, were at first but rude cylinders, and were after- wards ornamented by angular mouldings, bands entwining from the base to the capital, smaller co - lumns grouped around, &c. and, like the columns of many of the Egyptian temples, each column of an arcade, &c; differed in its shape and ornaments from all the others : 191 NOR NOR the capitals at first large, square, and heavy, sometimes ornamented with grotesque monsters, ugly and often obscene figures of animals and human forms, were afterwards adorned with rude imitations of Roman work, such as bands, vo- lutes, and foliage. . The doorways and windows were deep, on account of the excessive thickness of the walls, and were always sur- mounted with a semicircular arch. They were at first very small, but towards the middle of the eleventh century they began to be enlarged, and to be more richly ornamented ; and in the latter end of this century, and the beginning of the twelfth, the columns, piers, arches, &c. of the doorways were most elaborately worked, and ornamented with sta- tues of saints, &c. and the pedi- ment commonly adorned with ecclesiastical sculptures. In the first period, double windows, or two smaller ones, included within one larger one, supported by plain short rude pillars, were in use, and, in the second period, triple windows, or one high central one with a smaller one on each side, with or- namental and slender pillars, were introduced. The upper row of windows were much smaller, in general, than the lower ones. False windows were often used for orna- ment in the latter period. Modil- lions or corbels were much used by the Normans ; they were at first very clumsy, and had a very con- siderable projection, supporting a heavy flat cornice, and ornamented at the ends with grotesque figures. Afterwards they were made smaller, and had heads only at the ends; and at the end of the eleventh cen- tury they were made plain, and supported only one row of arches, and sometimes only" a very small cornice ledge, or a narrow band in 192 form of the edge of a saw. Tow were at first square, plain, and little elevation ; but they were degrees made higher, and m ornamental, with false windows, tersecting arches, and pyrami pinnacles. The best specimens Norman buildings are found Caen, Bayeux, and Valognes, i other parts of Normandy; e church of Lessay, in the departs t of La Manche, which was foun 1 about the period of the conquesif England by William, is the iu perfect specimen known, being tirely unmixed with later Go additions. When the Normans gained a I tlement in England, they at e same time secured their conq-i s by building an immense numbex fortresses, and signalized their tl in religion, by the number and rr - nificence of their ecclesiastical i. fices. The term Anglo- Norm may be applied to all huildi s erected in the reigns of WiHiaiL and II., Henry I., Stephen, d Henry II., or from 1066* to ID. Some writers have, from the simr rity of the two styles, included .ie arches of the Saxon builders um the same term ; and it has \ n doubted, whether any genuine on buildings yet remain, m Saxon Architecture.) The mans either altered or rebuilt i- most every ecclesiastical edifice t v found. Perhaps one of the ear st specimens is the ruins of fa disfarne, the monastery of vim was certainly originally a Sa n building. Lindisfarne was called by the tons Jnis Medicante, and by English Holy Island, from b|g the residence of several of the i- thers of the Saxon church. KM Oswald, in 635, made it a bislx's see, and Aiden, a Scot, its first ]> late. The church was enlarge* n NOR NOR 35 but, " more Scottorum" only nue of timber, and thatched. Ea>ert, who was bishop about Sears, and died in 698, covered all he roof and walls with sheets of ad. The Danes made their sec id descent on this island in 87,' when Earduff, the seventeenth n< last of its bishops, with Ea ed, the abbot of the monas- ter! and the inhabitants of the jali], took up the body of St. Cubert, and the most valuable of ?ir relics and sacred utensils, k after wandering from one hid % place to another, for seven yea, from fear of their pagan in- vac s, they at last settled at Ches- • r- -street, where eight bishops pre led, till the final removal of thcee to Durham. The monas- teries given by William de Ca- rile o to that of Durham. " The chuh of the monastery," say the ri s of the Beauties of England andVales, " is now in ruins. Its nor and south wall is standing, tho h much out of perpendicular ; part of the west remains, but ast is fallen. All the roof, tlof the church and chancel, i en arched. The columns of be ive are of four sorts, twelve feet'igh, and five feet in diameter, , and richer than those of Duiim; the bases and capitals ii are lain. Over each arch are : vindows, in pairs, separated v i hort column ; and over these if are nailer arches. One of the i2 al ribs of the arch, that sup- port the tower, is still standing, h wrought with Saxon zigzag; i also the western door, and i seve other arches. The length : tl body is 138 feet, its breadth I , and, with the two aisles, H; but it may be doubted, WWr there ever was a tran- sept, Tl military buildings of the 2B Anglo-Normans have been suffi- ciently described under the article Castle : in the present we shall confine ourselves principally to the style of their ecclesiastical works. The rage for building churches and monasteries prevailed to such a degree amongst the Norman nobles and gentlemen, according to Wil- liam of Malmsbury, " that a rich man would have imagined he had lived in vain, if he had not left such an illustrious monument of his piety and munificence;" and Mr. Bentham observes, that all our cathedrals, and most of the abbey churches, were either wholly re- built, or else greatly improved, within less than a century after the Conquest. The buildings of the Anglo-Normans are believed to have differed from those of the Saxons in general, little more than in their increased grandeur and dimensions. The Normans dismiss- ed much of the minute ornaments of their predecessors, but far ex- ceeded them in the symmetry of their whole buildings. The general character of the Norman style is the uniform prevalence of the se- micircular arch, — massy column* standing on a strong plinth or base, with capitals usually square, often quite plain, but sometimes orna- mented with foliage, and with figures of men, animals, &c, as in the one represented in fig. 8, (plate Castle, C. 69) ; massive contours of the mouldings ; walls of great thickness, without any very pro- minent buttresses. The princi- pal buildings do not present a magnitudinous assemblage of small parts, but a ponderous vast whole, from which all ideas of littleness are excluded in eveiy particular. The arches are the primary sub- ject of investigation in an ancient edifice. Those of the Anglo-Nor- 193 NOR NOR mans are characterized chiefly by plainness and simplicity. Such was not, however, always the case ; for in many instances ornaments were bestowed with a most liberal hand. Amongst the most splendid Anglo-Norman arches of entrance, is that at the west front of Roches- ter castle, constructed, as is be- lieved, after the design of Gundulph. Its numerous mouldings are all de- corated with sculptures, the princi- pal of them representing twisted branches and curled leaves, with a variety of small animals and hu- man heads, in rich open-work. Curious specimens are also ob- served at Glastonbury, Malmsbury, and Castle Acre priory, Norfolk. Fig. 6, (plate Castle, C. 69,) re- presents the mouldings of an arch to the entrance of St. Botolph's priory, at Colchester, which was founded in the beginning of the twelfth century. The mouldings are worked in stone, and are in good preservation. The angles, which are stained red, are formed with Roman tiles, with which a great part of this curious edifice is built. They are supposed to have been taken from the ruins of some Roman building in the vicinity. The entrance is six feet eight inches wide. Fig. 12, (plate Castle, C. 66,) is a profile of the mould- ings of* the arch to the entrances of Colchester Castle. Mr. Millers, in his description of Ely Cathedral, characterizes the Norman arch as of " far greater amplitude than those of the Saxons — with less minute ornament, but frequently bounded by a single moulding — sometimes indeed by more, but often none at all — soffit always plain. In the second tier, there are sometimes two smaller equal arches under one larger, with a column of moderate size (or even romparativley slender) between 194 them. In the third tier, %ttm\ three together, the middle higher and broader than the oth and opened for a window; and the three occupying a space ec to the span of a lower a;ch." The columns are described Mr. Millers, as " huge mas piers," consisting " sometimes, it seldom, of a simple shaft, and a cylindrical, hexagonal, or oL gonal; and, in general, spin y fluted, or adorned with lozens, net- work, &c. in alto or basse - lief: — they are most frequentl y a compound form ; the body of ie pier being sometimes of a red- near, sometimes of a curvili g form ; and on two or more m of it, various portions of coltujn, or of flat pillars, applied to, id worked up with it — sometimes ur stout round columns joined te- ther, with or without angular m appearing between each — or sq> e, with a small round column at ch corner — in short, the variet of form very great, and that in he same range — the capitals freqm jy plain — the most usual ornamel is a sort of volutes; in sonjeinstc.es flowers, leaves, shells, human h Is, or animals — they can scarceijbe said to have a regular base.iut stand on a strong ninth, accono- dated to the shape of the jr." In plate Castle, c. 66, Jig. 8 » a column of hatched work in the upper walk of the north traept of Norwich cathedral, of the bj in- ning of the twelfth century;/^ is another near it, nine inches ii IO- meter : both with plain cajak Fig. 10 is a capital to theentnee of Colchester castle, twelve i bes deep, and 1 1 is a leaf of the lime capital, on a larger scale. F\> 6, on plate Carpentry, xv.are four varieties of Norman ca a!s, from an ancient doorway alUn- coln, about A D. 1180. | N OR NOR The sculpture of the Anglo- jirmans was very rude. Statues s rcely ever occur on the exterior c buildings; but pieces of sculp- t e in relief are very frequent, j ticularly over doorways. The s>jects are generally scriptural or € iesiastical figures, allegorical de- sks; whole figures of men and amals, masques, chimerae, &c. fhe roofs were generally vaulted vh stone ; the groining strong and pin, without tracery, but some- t es laced on one or both sides vh a moulding. The chapel of t White Tower, in the Tower of Iidon, is said to be the only ex- a jle of original Norman vaulting ii England. It is said to have bn built by Gundulph, about 5 1 8. This chapel has side aisles surated by massive Norman piers, a covered with Roman vaulting; b the central space is vaulted w i a cylindrical stone vault, rest- ir on the walls of the triforium ; * tl eastern termination being coved, s( s to accommodate the form to tl semicircular apsis of the cha- p<> The upper windows let in the lilt through the triforium ftrches. Awm below the chapel is vaulted in he same manner, the spaces ui>r the side aisles being, in this st f, solid wall. he mouldings and other orna- m ts of the Norman buildings w< the same as those in use ng the Saxons, many of which, I, he iver, were discontinued. Those pr oipally used by the former were tli zigzag, the billet moulding, ied work, intersecting arches to dieve blank walls, &c. See Sof'n Architecture. The corbel ** the two towers called St. Oregon and St. Anselm's, and the nor- west tower, are all of this Bti A great abundance of specim 3 are found in the parish church, and monastic ruins, in every m of the kingdom. Nosings, the parts of the tre - board of steps, which projt over the riser, and are genenp rounded. Notch-board, a board wnp is grooved or notched for the rec - tion and support of the ends f steps in a staircase. Notching, a hollow cut f|f one of the faces of a piece of t - ber, generally of a rectarrgir form. Nubian Architecture. ■ antiquities of Nubia are in reay but a continuation of those >f Egypt, their origin and style ing decidedly the same. On e island of Philae is a magnificat temple, which occupies an arearf about 435 feet in length, and 5 wide. ^The propylon or pylon, is 90 feet high, and resembles sop what that of Edfou. The appro h is by a long narrow court, at e entrance of which are substruct s of a small temple, which had x columns on each side, and fouin each extremity. From this sp a colonnade, in continuation of e columns of the temple, extend for 240 feet along the edge ohe river, to the grand propylon ; thi - two columns are still standing, e Temple. Our plate represents n elevation of the plan, elevati, and a capital, of the temple it Tefah or Tafa. Its pyramidal ]i- tico faces the south, and has columns engaged in a wall alnst to the bottom of their capits, which represent the full -Me OAK ;us, and support an entablature d cornice. Between the columns d the sides are small doorways th cornice and frieze; and above Le, a second and third cornice, i each of which is the winged pbe. The frieze has a bead and If worked on it. The front is , out 27 feet long. The inside is jffect, having a roof supported by hr clumsy columns standing on a |to circular base; their capitals, i! full-blown lotus. The depth ('the building is not more than l?ntv feet. Other magnificent i ns are found at Kalabshe ; Gyr- *\ Dakke, Dehr, Ebsambul, &c. Nucleus, (Lat.) the middle part (the flooring of the ancients, con- s ing of cement, which they put I ween a lay or bed of pebbles, OAK cemented with mortar made of lime and sand. Nuel, see Newel. Nymph aum, (Gr.) a name given by the ancients to picturesque grot- toes in rocky and woody places, supposed to be dedicated to, and frequented by, the nymphs. The Romans often constructed Nym- phgea in their gardens. One of the most celebrated amongst these an- cient grottoes, was the Corycian cave on mount Parnassus, which was very extensive, and enclosed a spring of unusual size and clear- ness. In Attica may still be seen the remains of a nyphseum, adorned with many inscriptions and bassi relievi, from the rude workmanship of which, it may be presumed that the grotto is exceedingly ancient. O. Dak, (ac, aec, Sax.) from its (pgth, hardness, and durability, r v be considered as the most i ful of all timbers. It is found i almost every climate of the f,he. The oak sometimes grows t in extraordinary magnitude. In v . xviii. of the Gentleman's Maga- z ?, are given the dimensions of a Iff, which was 12 inches long a) I 7 inches broad, and all the c er leaves of the same tree were c cental size. An oak was felled the estate of Woodball, which v 24 feet round, and sold for 1 3. Several very remarkable oaks I described in Hunter's edition o^velvn's Sylva. In the Gentle- " i'a Magazine for 1773, we have a account of a species of oak e ntially differing from the com- jjji one, which grows about St. 1 mas, in Devonshire, and is tl e called Lucomb oak : it grows a straight and handsome as a Hr; •t leaves are evergreen, and its * d as hard as that of the com- mon oak ; its growth is so quick as to exceed in twenty or thirty years the altitude and g>rth of the com- mon one in a hundred. It is cul- tivated in Cornwall, Somersetshire, &c. M: de Buffon tried experi- ments with barked and un barked tiees, and proved that timber barked and dried standing, is al- ways heavier, and considerably stronger, than timber kept in its bark. The best time for felling oak is in winter, when it is most free from sap, but it is considered most profitable to the owner to cut it down in spring, as the sap loosens the bark, which is sold to the tanner. The best way to sea- son oak is to immerse it in water; when in logs, it should be done for twelve months, first soaking it, then drying it in a shade, and then soaking it again ; but for planks, a much shorter time is sufficient. The oak was anciently a symbol of Jupiter, and the Druids selected the fairest and tallest tree of the 197 OliE O B L wood, cut. off all its side branches, and then joined two of them to the highest part of the trunk, like the arms of a man or cross; and they inscribed above and below the in- sertion of these branches the word Thau (God). Under this tree they performed their most sacred rites. — ( Borlase.) Obelisk, (Lat.) lofty pillars of stone, of a rectangular form, di- minishing towards the top, and ge- nerally ornamented with inscrip- tions and hieroglyphics; amongst the ancient Egyptians, generally placed in the space before a tem- ple. The period of their first ori- gin is unknown, but we often read in ancient historians of their being erected by the Egyptian kings, ami the Arabs still term them Pha- raoh's needles. The Romans moved many of them into Italy, and erect- ed them in the public places of Rome, and several are still pre- served at Constantinople. See Con- stantinople. Several have also been found in England. The famous obelisks, denominated the Devil's Arrows, stand in the fields about half a mile to the south-west of the town of Boroughbridge, 200 feet asunder, and situated on high ground. Stukely and Plot affirm them to be British monuments, but Mr. Drake urges many arguments to prove them Roman. Dr. Gale supposed them to have been Hermes, which had lost their heads and inscriptions ; but in a MS. note to his Antoninus, he confesses himself to be mistaken, there being no cavity whatever to receive a bust. Two square obe- lisks, of a single stone each, are found in the churchyard of Pen- rith : they are about 12 feet high, one about 12 inches in diameter, and 12 by 8 at the sides ; the highest about 18 inches diameter, with something like a transverse 198 piece to each, and mortised int i round base. They are 14 ft asunder, and between them \L grave enclosed by four semicireir stones of unequal lengths. 3 a is called the Giants grave, \ ascribed to Sir Ewan Caesar who is said to have been as tall \ one of the columns, and able > stretch his arms from one to other. — Holinshed, speaking; the ancient Scots, says, "the gra s and sepulchres of our nobler i had commonlie so many obeli j and spires pitched about them, j the deceased had killed enens beforetime in the field ;" and ac , " they used not to write with cr • mon letters as other nations it but rather with ciphers, and figu of creatures, made in manner f letters, as their epitaphes upon tlr toomes and sepulchres remain j amongst us doe hitherto declai" That the Runic obelisks of 2 northern nations were sepulchral a have decided proofs in Olan'sW- mius, (Monum. Danic. p. 91 — 1) The monstrous figures on tin were hieroglyphics, by which, e says, they characterized the q- lities of the deceased. The tin Runes is applied to magical in- scriptions upon lea\es, &c. ■ the inscriptions, it is remark; e that the most ancient are the ht engraved : -hey are commcv written from top to bottom, (1 are said to have been introdud by Woden. Works on Qbelfa have been published by MenJ, Bargarai, Fontana, Pouehl, (Acad, des Inscript.) Bandinii. /i- ga, Kircher, &c. The works of m of the travellers in Egypt may be ( ir suited. See Abyssinian Buildi s. Oblique Angle, one quair, or less than a right angle. Oblique Arches, such as ess a river, canal, &c. in an oblige direction. OCT ODE )blong, (Lat.) a rectangle of u qual dimensions. )bservatory, (Lat.) a build- ii erected on an elevated spot of gund, for making astronomical oiervations. The Observatory of Oenwich was erected in 1676, by er of Charles II., at the solici- t on of Sir Jonas Moore and Sir (ristopher Wren. The Observa- |L of Paris is one of the finest in 1 rope, and was constructed be- t en 1667 and 1672, from the dfwings of M. Claude Perrault. Tk Observatory at Oxford was lit after the designs of James watt, at an expense of nearly J 3,000 ; that at Cambridge has t n latelv erected at an expense c £60,000. Father Le Compte ccribes a very magnificent obser- vory, erected and furnished by ti emperor of China, at Pekin, at t instigation of the Jesuit mis- ; snries. Tycho Brahe's Observa- t f % called Uranihurg, in the little i: iid Huen, between the coasts of if fc'ionen and Zealand, was built, h a, °. ~ °1 ^ ^ <» CM ^ CM CO CM to „*V *c a *o IN CO CO CM tp O CM CO CM CO t— < *o uo ©©©cot'-.coooieM C <1> •2-5 o _, lead I 00 CO CO CN CO ^ S O»-u0-^K-s«0}~ OOOw^ODcio on i>- uo 03 N >0 uo III -»|*» on ucti ! 5 ~ r-T cm" wT t>T cT 1 1 1 2 § cf ucti QJ CM UO °, 1 °1 °1 1 «5 to istr tJ TfCOCOMNCCiOK) o £ — str > »- CM to co o>' o QJ -C Bl cu i— i OOC0U0u0CMC0t-C0 C^C^CO^r^cO^to^Oi^TP Ol ish the t, tha o CO Head * oo n t a 1 .0 ■n J Vel. CO tN- uo tP IO CO N »C O N- CM I ! 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CM CO to CO CO CO ^ CO O CO ^ ^ ^00 "^t-Tco" uo" to" oo" cT to" re forr it api OBSTRUCTIONS.- Vel. 1 u0 CO^ CO^ CM to Tf " t-T cm" Tp »o t>T cc cnc ~" Head) fNOlSCOCOCJ»0(N -■fOCON'OINOlN OOr-t^t Ol O Ol 0_ r* CO_ tP^ i> ^ hich a • Qnd T3 Head! , to 00 th tP Ol r O 'C '0 OCMOltO — UOKN OOOCOCOTpfNCN O^OOOO — CMf^ d Hea 1 Vel - CO N V) uo uo ih CO (O N Oi >0 &c. w liable r-l<0 d Hea > CM CO to CM CO -f -3 CO tO^ CM^ UO^ t- 0_ CO T " t-T CM f ' UO* to N m o H» y in feet, an Head i— CM CM CM UO — Tp to UO tO to 'f CM © O — to tp to O CO to OOOO^CM^-^^^ £>& y in feet, an Headj rp Oi to — UO tp ©--tOt^CMOCMCO O O O CM to — K -r 0_ CO^ 0_ th t- Vel. tOCOtocoOltOCMCO CON^ClC^CCCONO O) — Hoc Vel. 1 CO^ tO_ CM TP tO^ CO - N " t-T CM co" tjT to" N to Velocit Head C to UO «0 uo OCOrfCOOCMCMCMUO OC^uOCOCOtOCOrf OOOO — CMCOU0_^ o "S p- > /elocit Headj tP tP to UO t~ r» O — uo CM C O — CO! O O O CM uo C. T o o o o o q. - d > uOOlOiCOtOuOrfCO co to « oi n * r-T CM" Tp" UO*" tO 00* CO*" I d Vel. Ov CO to co O. to oil * t-T CM CO TP*" UO* © to Head CO-^-tftOt-^tOCOCC— i o^nwot'OoiTt 1 OO— Tp CO O 0< W CO oco-TN-q oooooo V > Tp CO to CO Ol UO r -M CO f coocono-^co- to v> a -° QJ "cc to "co t> rp x -- : CM UO H CM TP */0 to CCj * r-T cm" tp" uo" to" co" co" " t-T . 5 pet- sec. ft. in. co**to*o'^5**o , 'c o a : r- CM CO TP UO tC » ' Velo per hour.l miles 1 : —i CM CM CO rf tO 2 * ~ ; P ; velo per miles! CM CM Cm . T O L Y O P I Jrcus, the banquetin^-room of a oman house. See House. :>kfice, (Lat.) in general, an ailment for the discharge of any m icular duty or employment. Offsets. When the face of a ;v is not one entire or continued si. ace, or when it is formed by tv or more continued surfaces, e»i rising from the horizontal base w . h forms the top part of the w below; the part thus connect- in the two surfaces is called an ojset. )gee, a moulding the same as tl cynia reversa. See Mould- v )give, an arch or branch of a G hie vault, which, instead of be- ii circular, passes diagonally from o angle to another, forming a c ;s with the other arches. The eitre where the ogives cross is c ed the key, and is cut in the ftn of a rose, &c. The members o nouldings of the ogives are call- e nerves, branches, or reins, and t arches which separate them, a ble arches. )lym pi a, a city of Greece, cele- b ed for being the scene of the C mpic games, and for its once s] ndid temples. The temple of J, iter Olympius has been explored b Gel I, and his measurements p lished in the Appendix to Wil- li Magna Grsecia. The propor- ti s observed in the several parts o he front of the temple appear tdiave been nearly the same as tl >e of the temple of Theseus at A ens. The diameter of the an- ? ir columns at the base of the ll ft were found to be 7 1". There is However, some little difference 'i he proportion of the intervals b'veen the columns, which is ac- C nted for by considering that this t( pie required a greater extent, to a lit staircases in the transverse * Is of the cella. Had the length of the cella been 88 feet, double the width, the extent of the cella and staircase walls together, ac- cording to the proportions of the temples at Agrigentum, would have been 99', which deducted from Gell's dimension of 127', leaves 28 feet for the extent of the pronaos. The distance between the axes of the angular columns was 44 feet. This temple may be added, Mr. Wilkins observes, to the list of those in which the number of co- lumns in the flanks exceeded the double of those in the fronts by one. See Temple. Ol v mpius, Jupiter, Temple of, see Athenian Architecture. In the plan of this temple given in our plates to that article, A marks the south-east angle of the peribolus, B the south-west angle, C the re- mains of the west end, D the arch of Hadrian, E a column whose base being similar to those in the external row in the south-east an- gle, proves it to have been one of the external range, and conse- quently that the temple had twenty columns in flank. Onerari^, see Naval Archi- tecture. Opx, (o7rrj, Gr.) the cubilia, or beds of the beams of a roof, on which rest the metopae. Openings, (Sax.) those parts of the walls of a building, which are left unfilled up, for admitting light, air, &c. Opera House, a theatre for per- forming musical dramas. Amongst the most celebrated buildings of this description, is that entitled La Scala, at Milan, and that of San Carlos, at Naples. The next to these are the Italian Opera-house, at Vienna, and the King's Theatre, in London. Opistiiodomus, the same as the Roman posticum, a term ap- plied to the hinder part of a tem- 201 ORC pie, when there is a regular en- trance, and a facade of columns as in front. It was a custom with the ancients to preserve their treasures, public records, &c. in this part of the temple, which was often exten- sive, and situated immediately be- hind the cella. Doubts have lately existed, whether the treasury of the state in the Parthenon, was not a distinct building separate from the opisthodomus or treasury of the temple. See Wiikins' Atheniensia, p. 99. Opposite Cones, two similar cones, which have the same com- mon vertex, and the same axis. Opposite Sections, hyperbolas made by cutting opposite cones by the same plane. O hanger y, (Fr.) a kind of hot- house for orange trees. Oratory, (Fr.) a closet for private devotion, near a bed-cham- ber, in Roman Catholic families, with altar, crucifix, &c. Oiib, (orbis, Lat. a sphere,) a knot of flowers or herbs, placed at the intersection of several ribs in a Gothic ceiling, to conceal the mitres of the adjoining ribs. OitciiEsTK a, (Gr. from op^t-opai, to dance,) ihe place in the ancient theatres where the chorus used to dance: in modern theatres the name is given to the place where the musicians sit. OncuoMENOs, an ancient city of Bceotia, in Greece. Traces of the former strength and magnificence of this city still exist. At the east foot of the acropolis are the small remains of the treasury of Mmyas, which Pausanias describes as one of the wonders of Greece. The entrance is entire, though a great part of it lies buried in the accumulated earth, only six large blocks of regular masonry remaining above the ground. The whole of the building was of white 202 O R D marble: the lintel orarchitrav s flat, and composed of a single bl< 15 feet 4 inches long, 6 feet 3 inc s broad, and 3 feet 3 inches th . It bore a great resemblance o the treasury at Mycense. Si - lar edifices, called noragis, thot i smaller, still exist in Sardi ... Part of the acropolis is built in e Tirynthian style. Dodwell has L graved a very curious sun-dial foi j there. See Geil's Itin. of Gree< Order, (Lat.) The five ores of Architecture, as transmitter us from antiquity, are, the Do-, the Ionic, the Corinthian, the 7 - can, and the Composite ; of L peculiarities and origins of wli an account will be found urr those heads. The application of the Doriis particularly commendable in la e and majestic edifices. The I I of Aberdeen truly observes, 1 1 "the remains of a dipteral terni, with columns composed of e purest marble, more than six t and a half in diameter, and s y feet in height, cannot be descrid in any terms commensurate \h the sensations excited by the vv of the original." Mr. Wiikins, in his Introduce to theAntiquities of Magna Greei, supposes the temple of Solomoio have been the prototype of e early Grecian temples, particul; y those of Magna Groecia. In s investigation he has thrown m h light on its architecture and bm portions. He supposes its colut s to have been Doric, and gives e following scale of the heights 'f Doric columns, supposing tl r diameter to be unity. S 4.71: Temple of Solomon ^ ^gg Jupiter Panbellenius 5.3C Jupiter Nemseus 6 51 At Corinth 40,: ;E R esta 443 Paestura 4.3C O R D O RD f Minerva at Syracuse 4.410 ano at Atfrigei.tum 4.695 ,„er*a at Aibens o.566 inena ai Suniura 5.809 Wseus at Athens 5.669 Aikin, in his "Essay on the Doric Order," has given the follow- ing Table of Proportions : — irtico cf the Agora, Athens . . mple of Minerva, Sunium . . Jupiter Nemaeus . . . Jupiter Panhellenius . Theseus Minerva, Athens . . at Corinth rtico of Philip mple of Apollo Minerva, Syracuse . Juno Lucina Concord ■eudodipteral Temple, Paestum ■xastyle Temple, Paestum . . , paethral Temple, Paestum . . ner Peristyle of ditto upper Columns ' mple of Selinus Jupiter, Selinus . . . /Eiiesta '■eatre of Marcellus i a Doric architrave, of which a , r ure is given by Stuart, are ol rved four guttae, without the taia. A similar departure from ar ilectural propriety has been diwered in one of the temples at St his, where, under the mutules be een the triglyphs, three guttse ar observed, corresponding with th. narrow width of the mutules ov the metopes. ie few specimens of the Ionic or r, now remaining at Rome, are ofio little merit, that Palladio, ^ 1 ola,and other modern authors, ' been chiefly resorted to as - lards in this order, as well as th Doric, till the discovery of the annuities of Greece by Messrs. St rt and Revett, brought into no e the admirable specimens of io architecture, which have ever Bot. Top Height of Archi Frieze Cor- interco Diain. Diam Column. trave. nice. luiuma lion. min. min. dia. min. min. min. min. dia. min. 60 47 6 2A 2 40 42 21 60 45f 5 54 48i 48i — 1 28 60 49 6 31 38§ 4SJ 60 441 5 24 51 2 — 1 41 60 46§ 5 42i 331 50 49i — 1 m 60 47 5 43 43 32 1 17g 60 4 4 483 — — 1 14 60 49i 6 32 £ 38 2 25i 2 4*! 60 42.1 6 49j 42i — 60 46 4 24i 44, 40 — 1 5;] 60 *H 4 42 55 45 — 1 15 60 46 4 45i 4L4 1 c 1 4b£ 25 1 10? 60 4 27 50 59£ 60 43 4 47| 45] 44f 24^ 1 n 60 m 4 8 42i 40 2 %n 1 H 60 43 4 13J 39 1 22| 60 44i 3 50 68 2 49 60 46 4 2 15 46< 60 35 £ 4 52 26 60 44| 49f 40^ 1 11 60 48 7 5'3 30 45| m since met with so much attention from the best informed architects, as well as connoisseurs. The Cho- ragic monument of Lysicrates has been supposed, by some, to be the most ancient known example of the Corinthian order. But the capitals of the columns attached to the interior of the cella of the temple of Apollo Didymcus, neat Miletus, may claim a greater anti- quity, for it was rebuilt by Peonius, after its destruction by Xerxes, 479 B.C.; perhaps even previous to the time of Callrmachus. The capitals of this temple bear a con- siderable resemblance to those of the monument of Lysicrates, in their single row of leaves, their central honeysuckles, and in the channel at the springing of the leaves. The flower expanding itself 203 O R D O RN between the leaves, reminds us of the Egyptian lotus, and, with other considerations, tends to induce us to adopt the supposed Egyptian origin of this order, and reject the claim of Cailimachus to its inven- tion, although he may have given it a new form. Three singular Corinthian capitals are engraved by Wilkins, in the Appendix to his Antiquities of Magna Grsecia : they were found in the Archipelago, and in Sicily. The Corinthian order may be seen in great perfection, in what remains to us of the anti- quities both of Greece and Rome. Another Athenian edifice, of the Corinthian order, is the arch of Hadrian. The antae at this build- ing have a very sensible diminu- tion, while in structures of the age of Pericles they were never per- ceptibly diminished. The intro- duction of the Ionic echini, also, beneath the foliage of the capitals of the antae, savours of the declen- sion of pure Grecian art. Of the Tuscan order there is no ancient specimen, unless a small tomb near the Trajan column at Rome, is to be so considered. The Composite order is peculiar to Italy. The Composite order does not appear to have been con- sidered by the Romans as a distinct one; but the name has been given to it by the Italians, and it is con- sidered as combining the entabla- ture and dentils of the Ionic, with the mutules of the Doric, and en- richments of the Corinthian. It is heavy without grandeur, and rich without beauty ; and it is to be regretted that Sir Christopher Wren has made so much use of it about St. Paul's. The base com- monly given to it consists of two tori, the lowest considerably the largest, with two scotise enclosing aD astragal. The attic base is, however, more commonly used. The proportions of this order given in the plate Composite j Roman Order, which is a ear [ from the arch ofVespasianandTn. Ordi nates, (ordinatim ap . catce, in Lat.) in Conies, pan l lines terminating in a curve, ;i bisected by a diameter. The oL nate of an Ellipse, is a strai t line drawn perpendicularly to e axis major, from any point in it a meet the curve. Ordonance, the giving to i parts of a building the just dim. sions, &c. which they ought to hie according to the model. Ouganical Description f Curves, the description of th upon a plane by means of inst- ments. Oui£, (Lat.) wherries, see Nal Architecture. Oriel Window, a project; angular window, commonly oil triagbnal or pentagonal form, a divided by mullions and transcs into different bays and comp;- ments. Original Point, Line, or Pla , in perspective, a point, line, r plane, referred to the object its . See Perspective. Orillon, in fortification,asirl rounding of earth lined with a w, which is raised on the shouldeif those bastions that have caserne; to cover the cannon in the reti i flank, and to prevent their be; dismounted by the enemy. Orle, (orlo, Ital. to hem,)\ fillet or band under the ovolo of 2 capital. Palladio applies the tti also to the plinth of the base oi column or pedestal. Ornaments, (Lat.) the sma;r and more detailed parts of a vrom art, which are not essential, t only serve to enrich it. The or- ments of the architecture of p most ancient people are confined) the representations of nature, rl< - P JE S P MS ers l aves,and branches; afterwards the ijures of men and animals were intifuced. Amongst the Greeks ornnent was at first confined to the'iterior of the edifices, and it robot till a later period that they ben to ornament the exterior )ik< ise. An architect ought to pos- ses some general knowledge of sailing and sculpture, in order to be )le to direct the application of err nents with advantage ; and it haibeen observed with great jus- tici that, in order to preserve har- mc'and consistency throughout, om eye should superintend the wh te of the workmen employed. it hog on a l, (Gr.) rectangular. RT HOGRAPIIICAL Pll«>JEC- TH of the Sphere, the drawing th( superficies of the sphere on a ph; which cuts it in the middle, thrye being placed at an indefinite disnce vertically to one of the he spheres. hThograpii y, (Gr.) the ele- ven of a building at any of its pacular parts. In geometry, it is -plied to the art of delineating tli'lforeright plan of any object, an of expressing the heights or eh tions of each part. In per- Ipltive, orthography is the fore- rit> side of any plane, that is, the sic or plane that lies parallel to a stiiht line, which may be ima- giii to pass through the outward convex points of the eyes, continued to a convenient length. In fortifi- cation, it is the profile or represen- tation of a fortress made after such a manner, that the length, breadth, and height of its several parts may be represented. Osculating Circle, the circle of Curvature. Ova, (Lat) an ornament in form of an egg. Oval, a geometrical figure, bounded by a curve line returning to itself, including the ellipsis, or mathematical oval, arid all figures resembling it, though with different properties. Oviculum, the diminutive of Ova ; a little egg. Ovolo, (Ital.) see Echinus. Outline, an exterior or bound ing line. Out of Winding, perfectly smooth and even, or forming a true plane. Out to Out, to the extremities or utmost bounds. Outfall, a canal or drain to carry off waters. Out-works, in fortification, all works raised without the enclosure of a place, to cover it from the enemy. Oxygon, (Gr.) an acute-angled triangle, from o^yy, acute or sharp, and yw^ia, an angle. P. ace, a measure of five feet. addle, (pattal, Welsh,) a snr I sluice : Paddle holes are the p^nges which conduct the water fa the upper pond of a canal into th ock, and out of the lock into th ower pond. They are called al: dough arches. ffisTUM, or Posidonia, a town of :aly, sixty miles from Naples. Oi he origin of Poestum, ancient authors have left us no account, and its history is very obscure. The Saracens crossed over from Sicily about A.D. 840, and took posses- sion of this tract of territory, and when they were obliged to abandon it, they plundered the city and de- stroyed the dwellings. And in 1080 Robert Guiscard stripped its tem- ples to decorate the church he had founded at Salernum. It has since 205 P M S gone entirely to decay, and the present town, called la Citta di Pesto, consists of a few scattered cottages within the ancient walls. The principal ruins of the ancient city consist of the walls, the remains of three temples, vestiges of the amphitheatre, and two spots dis- tinguished by heaps of stones, the site of some important buildings. The only Grecian building is the great temple, supposed to have been dedicated to Neptune, and distinguished by its solidity, simpli- city, and grace. It is characterized by low columns, with a great dimi- nution of the shaft, bold projecting capitals, a massive entablature, and triglyphs placed at the angles of the Zophorus. The shafts of the columns, although at first sight they appear to swell in the middle, are diminished in a straight line. The temple is hypsethral, has six columns in the fronts, and fourteen in the flanks, including those at the angles. The upper step of the stylobate is a parallelogram, 195 x 4" long, and 78' 10" broad. The columns have twenty-four flutings, but the number on the columns of the lower range within the cella is only twenty, the regular number in the Doric order : in those of the upper range they have only sixteen. The plan of the flutes at the base is the segment of a circle, below the capital that of an ellipse. The drops are conical, and the mutules appear to have been of the same form, but none remain. The cella was separated into three divisions by a double range of columns, two tiers in height; the cella was ap- proached both by the posticum and the pronaos, and in the transverse wall of the latter were inserted the staircases leading to the roof and the apartments over the vestibule. The columns are in diameter 6' 10" 36; in height 28' 11" 5, in- 200 P jES eluding the capitals ; height of er . blature 12' 2" 2 ; height ofcolur, of interior range, 19' 9" ; diamtr 4' 8" 1. The diameter of the L lumns in the upper range \ 5 determined by the diminution t those in the lower, since each . per and lower column may | considered as a frustum of the sa ; cone, continued through the c- stylia. All the lower columns s remain, and seven of the upp, The lateral walls have fallen, exc . those parts contiguous to the ar > of the vestibules. The second temple was pseiu dipteral, and has nine columns the fronts, thus differing from ev other in existence. The pron; has three columns between the j tee, three columns of a range wh divided the cella are still rema ing. The similarity of its colutr to those of the third and less temple, proves them to be nea coeval. Its length measured up the upper step is 176' 9", its breac 80'. It has 1 8 columns in each flan diameter of the columns at the bf of the shafts 4' 9" 75; height i eluding capitals 21'. The sha diminish in a curve, and ha twenty flutings, which terminate a semicircle at the top. The lov part of the ovolo of the capital ornamented with sculpture, whi is not alike in all the capitals ; some it is omitted. The antae the pronaos, contrary to the prsj tice of the Greeks, diminish li the columns, and are crowned w a singularly formed capital. T lesser tern pie is hexastyle-peripter having six columns in the fron and thirteen in the flanks, reckc ing those at the angles. T temple within the peristyle appes - to have consisted of an open ves bule, a cella, and an opisthodomi or sanctuary. Instead of a contin ation of the walls of the cella, t PAG prart of the epistylium is formed by course of stone 11.5 inches de . The epistylia at the angles amoined diagonally. The cor- i K does not resemble the Grecian D<,c; instead of mutules, it has pa Is sunk in the soffits of the r i pal member. There are, be- ic these temples, several other trcs of edifices, but in such a ru/d state, as to leave it totally M uulrtain of what kind. In plate J£:sa, fig. V. is a section through thi cella, and outer porticoes of he hypaethral temple. Be- sic Mr. Wilkins* work, the reader m; consult Dumont, Vues et D( ils de Psestum — Morghen, Sei veite delle Ruine di Pesto — Mi7- ferTie Ruins of Psestum or Posido- nij -Major's Ruins of Psestum — Pi nesi, Vues de quelques Restes, &( le l'ancienne ville de Pesto — P(, i, Paest. quod Posidoniam es- a dixere, rudera — Delagardette, Le Ruines de Psestum — Fran- 's Chalcography — Antoni?ii, Di stations sur la Lucanie, — Rie- de. , Voyage en Sicilie, &c. — D'rville, Sicula — Pancrazi, Le IP hita Siciliane spiegate — Wine- t• lours may be ground in water oi r , when the tint is made : and w n they have been infused in war, they must be mixed up with s.j. If on new plaster, the colours - quire more size. Spanish whl', P AI PAL poi-ded in water, mixed with a pirer quantity of the black of {.hi:oal, according to the tint you V aj, makes a good common white. Th white des carmes is a manner hitening interior walls, which >rs them extremely beautiful, lantity of the very best lime mi. be passed through fine linen, armoured into a large tub, with a Kit just as high as the lime coles; fill the tub with clear Br water, beat it with a piece of wo , then allow it to settle for Ely - four hours, and let the v a r off, supplying the tub with ire water, and continuing the opction for several days, till the i rr attains the greatest degree of wh-ness; then turning off the the ater, the lime will be found of ie consistence of paste, and m d when used be mixed with s'zinade of fine glove-leather and a 1 ie alum with a little Prussian blnbr indigo, and a small quantity of ligo. Since the discovery of N aiming, and the knowledge ink'ood is preserved by it, and m tally since the discovery of a vari>h without smell, and which eve takes away that of oil, the paiing of apartments with oil has bet justly preferred. I the" 26th volume of the Re- pet ry of Arts, a specification of I lit is given, which was grant- H Mr. Joseph Braham, for the Irapation of Parkers Roman ce- me. of the consistence of white- El to timber, to preserve it from the Iry-rot ; and for using the 8an composition or cement mixed Mjoil, to form a very good and HI paint, for floor-cloths, or H or outside house-painting. Thdmixture of Parker's cement w propriated to wrestling and o ir gymnastic exercises. The term 13 sometimes applied to the wle building. The palaestra conta also baths, which were thrown ( for the use of the public. Vitnis asserts positively, that there 1 L never any palcestrce at Rome. Palatine Bridge, a bridgit Rome, which is now called r. Mary's bridge, and passes In the present church of St. Mar\ ie Egyptian, at the lower end of ie Forum Boarium to the Via Trs- tiberina. Pale, (derived, according to u Cange, from yalla, Lat. a lin- ing, or tapestry,) a pointed ste, and piece of board, used in ma.i? enclosures. See Post and ty- ing. Palenque, a town of Gift mala, in America, near whicr re found the ruins of an ancient which were explored by Ant! io del Rio, and a translation of lis Report published at London in 4to. 1822. The site of the run! city is called Casas de Picds; the stone houses, and the rem is, and particularly the figures, prent a wide field for investigation, lie largest building occupies a mod twenty yards high, in the midd of the plain, and is surroundeton every side by other buildings he ruins extend about seven or < fit leagues, but their breadth is nch less. The interior of the i : ge I PAL buying is in a style of architec- tu: strongly resembling the Gothic, an from its rude and massive con- str.tion promises great durability. Th entrance is on the eastern side, v portico or corridor thirty-six vas or yards in length, and three in eadth, supported by plain rect- amlar pillars, without bases or pe stals, with architrave formed of ,j re smooth stones, a foot thick, an over them another plain rect- anilar block, five feet long, and Abroad, extending over two pil- lar In the walls is a range of m ows like niches, some square, an others in form of a Greek en!;. a ling for Trees, a sort of fewng for separate trees, formed v hree small posts, connected wi wi| cross bars. \ lisades, pales or stakes set up or an enclosure. Palisades, « or trong sharp - pointed wooden ill 'is, sometimes armed with iron sp ;s, fixed in the ground, are used in rtification. alladto, Andrea, an Italian At itect of Vicenza, born in 1518. Hi received his first instructions fire the poet Trissino, whom he ftc mpanied to Rome, and there Iti ed the ancient edifices of that eel .rated city. His first great wc was the palace Foscari, which he lilt in the pure antique style. Hevas afterwards invittd to the of Emanuel Philibert, duke of.avoy, where he met with a m< flattering reception. The 1 pic theatre at Vicenza, which lilt in imitation of that of Mar- tth at Rome, is considered to be his iaster-piece. He died at Vi- Cetli, in 1580. His Treatise on Ar itecture, which was first pub- "il I at Venice in 1570, has gone wi ?h many e iitions. He also ttiiosed a small work entitled Le\lntickit(i di Roma, and he PAL illustrated Badelli's Translations of Csesar, by a preface on the military system of the Romans, with copper plates, chiefly designed by his two sons, Leonida and Orazio. Lord Burlington published a volume, with the title Idisegni delle Terme Antiche di Andrea Palladio, Lon- don, 1730. Pallier, or Paillier, a French term, which signifies a landing- place in a staircase, which is broader than the rest o the stairs, and serves as a resting-place. Vi- truvius calls the palliers, or landing peaces of theatres, diazomata. Pallification, or Piling, the act of piling ground - work, or strengthening it with piles. Palm, a measure of length among the Italians, often used in the works of Winckelmann, in the Antiquites d'Herculanum, by Vis- conti, &c. The palm of Genoa is nine inches nine lines — that of Naples, eight inches seven lines — that of Palermo, eight inches five lines — the modern Roman palm, eight inches three and a half lines. Palmyra, or Tadmor, ajcity of ancient Syria, said to have been originally founded by Solomon, the ruins of which are found in the middle of the desert, between Da- mascus and the Euphrates. The verdant tract on which it is situated was perhaps formerly far more ex- tensive than at present, and the city was probably enclosed among palms and fig-trees, from the former of which it appears to have taken its name. The ruins were discovered in an accidental manner, in 1678, by some English travellers from Aleppo. Dr. Halley, soon after this period, published Observations on the state of Palmyra. Seller also published a work on the anti- quities of Palmyra at London, in 1696, and Halifax's Voyage to Tad- mor appeared in 1705. But the 211 PAL most important work is that by Wood and Dawkins : The Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tadmor in the Desart, fol. London, 1753. The most magnificent ruin is the temple of the sun, the remains of which spread over a square of two hundred and twenty yards, and which was surrounded by a stately wall, built of large square stones, and ornamented with pilasters both within and without. In the court two rows of noble pillars appear to have supported a double piazza all round; fifty-eight of them still re- main entire and are thirty-seven feet high, with capitals of the most ex- quisite workmanship. The walls of this piazza on that side opposite the temple were evidently the most ele- gant. At each end of this line are two niches for statues, most beauti- fully carved, with their borders, supporters, canopies, and pedestals. In the middle of the court stands the temple, which was encompassed by a row of columns fifty feet high, of which sixteen remain. The tem- ple is thirty-three yards long, and thirteen or fourteen broad, and points to the north and south. In the middle of the west side is the entrance, on which are remains of the most beautiful sculptures. The windows were not large, and were narrower at the top than at the bot- tom. In the centre is a dome about ten feet in diameter, which appears either to have been hewn out of the rock, or made of some composition which time has rendered equally hard. The north end of the temple is ornamented with curious fret- work and bassi relievi. Several obelisks are found in the immediate neighbourhood of the temple : about a hundred paces from the middle obelisk is a grand entrance to a piazza, which is more than half a mile long, and forty feet broad, and the pillars which border it on 212 PAL each side are twenty-six feet hj and eight or nine in circumferes;;' Their number is supposed to l| e been five or six hundred, and L hundred and twenty-nine yet p main. To the left of the pi;i a are the remains of a magnified building, which appears to hie been a banqueting house ; it is m of fine marble, and most exquisi v finished, and its pillars are eacp one single stone, so strong, that of them, although it has fallen do has received no injury ; it is twei two feet long, and eight feet i inches in compass. In the west e of the piazza are several apertis for gates into the court of the pal i, each one adorned with fourporpby columns, placed by couples in fi t of the gate facing the palace; cy two of these columns remain enij:, which are thirty feet long and rje in circumference. On the east I of the piazza stand a numbe f marble pillars together, and aja small distance the remains oa lesser temple, with a piazza be e it supported by six pillars. 1 pedestals of those in front have - scriptions in Greek and Palmyi e characters, but much defaced, t the north part of the city, ran d on each side of a hollow way, n e than a mile in extent, are ■ ruins of the ancient sepulclw, which are square towers, foui!>r five stories high, varying in ma;ii- tude and splendour. The outjie is of common stone, but the flti and partitions of each story arj)f marble; a walk runs across jie building in the middle, and jie space on each side is divided to partitions for the reception of ie corpses. There have been js- covered at Palmyra twenty inscriptions in Greek, thirteer Palmyrene, and one in Latin, subject of the Palmyrene characlrs and language, has given rise to PAN PAN mrh dispute, and has been dis- cued by Scaliger, Petit Galand, Spd, Norris, and the Abbe Bar- t h »my, but Georgius (de Inscrip- tic bus Palmyrenis) has shewn th ) with tolerable satisfaction to ,p vro-chaldaic. Some fine views of ie ruins of Palmyra are given Cassas, in his Voyage pitto- re" ne en Syrie. On the language, se he explanation of the Medals ot^almvra, published in London in 78*2. " The Researches of M. Si :ster de Sacy, published in Vu, and the Memoire of Barthi- le i, surl'Alphabet et stir laLangue d( ; on se servait antrefois a Pal- m e, in the twenty-sixth vol. of thMemoires de l'Academ. des In- sertions. a mp re, (Fr.) an ornament cc posed of vine leaves and bunches of rapes, with which the hollow of th circumvolutions of twisted co- lli ns are sometimes decorated. ancarpi, (Gr.) garlands and foons of fruit, flowers, and leaves, a( ning altars, doors, vestibules, B an droseium, see Athenian Ahitecture and Acropolis. an el, (panelleum, Lat.) a thin bed having all its edges inserted in e groove of asurrounding frame. A inely in masonry, is one of the fa s of a hewn stone. See Abaci. \ ntameter, see Bevel gra- d\ *ed. a nth eon, (Gr. a temple dedi- ' d to all the Gods.) one of th most magnificent temples of a* ent Rome, and the only one • h has been preserved entire It now converted into a Christian crlch, and is dedicated to the V nn Mary and all the Martyrs. Oahe frieze of the portico is the 'n iption, M. Agrippa, L. F. C Tertium fecit. It is of the C nthian order. The form of this b< iing is round, with a spherical dome, and its diameter within, and its height from the pavement to the grand aperture at the top, are each one hundred and forty-four feet. The inner circumference is divided into seven grand niches, worked in the thickness of the wall, of which six are flat at the top, and the se- venth, opposite the door, arched. Before each niche are two fluted columns, each of one single block of antique yellow marble. As high as the grand cornice the whole wall is cased with different kinds of valuable marble in compartments, and the frieze is entirely of por- phyry. Above the cornice arises an attic, in which are fourteen ob- long niches, between each of which are four marble pilasters, and be- tween these, tablets of various kinds of marble. Immediately from the cornice of the attic springs the spherical roof, which is divided by bands crossing each other like the meridians and parallels of a globe ; between these bands and the open- ing at the top, a space of consider- able width is left plain. To lighten the roof, the space between the bands was formed of nothing but lime and pumice stones. The roof was co- vered on the exterior with plates of gilded bronze. The walls were decorated with lead and brass, over which were carvings in silver. A flight of seven stairs led from the spring of the roof to the summit. The superb portico, which was as- cended by eight or nine stairs, con- sists of sixteen Corinthian columns of granite, fourteen feet in diameter, eight standing in front, and hav- ing an equal intercolumniation all along. The tympanum was adorned with bassi relievi in brass, and the cross beams which supported the ceiling of the portico, as well as the doors, were covered with the same metal. In the course of ages this building has been often embellished 213 PAN PAR and repaired. It suffered by fire in the reign of Titus, but was re- paired by Trajan, Adrian, Anto- ninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Severus. On the architrave is the following inscription: — Imp. C;es. Septimivs. Severvs.Pivs. Per- tinax Arabicvs. Parthicvs. Pontif. Max. Trib. Pot. xi. cos. in. p.p. et Imp. C;es. Mar- cvs. Avrelivs. Antoninvs. Pivs. Felix. Avg.Trib. Pot. v. cos. procos. Panthevm. vetvs- tate. obrvptvm. CVM. OMNI. cvltv. restitivervnt. The sta- tues and chief ornaments of the interior, with the vast quantity of bronze which adorned it, and the external plating of the roof, were carried away by Alaric and by Con- stantine II. Emperor of Constanti- nople. Benedict II. and Nicholas V. covered the roof with lead. Raffarelle, whose tomb it contains, and several other artists, left sums of money for its reparation. Urban VIII. did some repairs in a bad taste, but he carried away the brass which covered the cross-beams, and other robberies were committed to adorn the palaces of his family, the Bar- berini, and it was said, " quod non fecerunt barbari fecere Barberini." There was anciently another pan- theon at Rome, in the form of a decagon, dedicated to Minerva, and measuring from angle to angle about twenty-two feet and a half ; between the angles were nine round chapels, each dedicated to a different deity, and a statue of Minerva was over the gate. The Pantheon of Athens was first changed into a Christian church, and afterwards into aTurk- ish mosque. Pantiles, see Tiles. Pantograph, (Gr.) an instru- ment for copying, and diminishing or enlarging drawings. It was in- vented in the seventeenth century, and a description of it appeared at 214 Rome, in 1631, under the tit) 3 f " Pantographice, seu ars define }j Res quaslibet per Parallelogr mum lineare, seu Cavum. Mech cum, Mobile, &c." 4to. The ventor of the instrument, and author of this work, is suppose o have been Christopher Scheine Suabian Jesuit. Various impr ments have since been made t The figure of the pantograph in use is shewn in Plate P. 3. 7. It consists of four brass wooden rules, two of them fron to 18 inches long, the other half that length. On the e: fixing of the holes or joints, ch< depends the perfection of this - strument. Those in the middl >f the long rulers, at eandrf, ar o be at the same distance from tl e at the ends of the longer one t b, and those of the short ones ar, so that when put together they i v make an exact parallelogram, e joint at b must have a little pi; , round at the end, underneath, r the instrument to slide upon;>f the two parts of the long rui which extend beyond the parall i- gram, one, c, should have ape of lead, or some other heavy s i- stance, attached to it by a m< - able socket, so as to keep the i- strument firm whilst in use, am t /and a should be sockets for n- cils and points; that at / bag moveable. The mode of usin it is evident from the figure. A \ - tograph on an improved consti > tion has lately been manufactu i, and may be procured at the ma matical instrument makers. Parabola, (Gr.) a conic see n formed by a cone being cut I a plane which is parallel to a tanf t plane to the curved surface ot < cone. Any line parallel to W base is called a double ordink A line which bisects a numbe double ordinates is their abscn, PAR PAR al the point where it meets the c've is the vertex. To find the a a of a parabola, between a dou- h ordinate and the vertex, when t abscissa and double ordinate a given, we have only to multiply t ether the double ordinate and t abscissa, and two-thirds of the pduct will be the area required, lus if the double ordinate be 36, ; a I the abscissa 24: 36 x 24 = m x § = 466 the answer. The (rtesian Parabola is a curve of t second order, made use of by Iscartes, to find the roots of equa- tis of six dimensions, by its inter- stions with a circle. Newton els it a trident. a r abolic Asymptote, a pa- r olic line approaching to a curve, A never meeting it, yet both be- i produced indefinitely, their re- 1 ve distance becomes less than w given line. A Parabolic pyra- tloid, is a solid figure, which was t's named by Dr. Wallis. Para- 1 lie space, is the area contained it Iween the curve of the parabola iel( al a whole ordinate. A Para- lie spindle, is a solid made by t rotation of a semi-parabola ; a>ut one of its ordinates. The i rabolic spiral or Helicoid, is a e ve arising from the supposition c he axis of the common parabola xks tit into the periphery of a circle, at al t ordinates being portions of the r ii next the circumference. 3 akaboloid, (Gr.) a solid form- < by the revolution of a parabola i aiut its axis. 'aradigrammatice, (Gr.) an i o term signifying the art of form- if figures in plaster. \arados, (Gr.) the grand en- t ice in the Grecian theatres, v eh conducted into the orchestra, upon the stage. 'aradromides, ( Gr. ) bypae- • tl walks attached to the Greek paestra. See Xystus. Parallel, (Gr.) in Geometry, lines, surfaces, &c. which are every where equidistant to each other. Parallel Rules, see Instru- ments. Parallel Copings, have their upper surface parallel to the bed of the stone, as those which cover a gable. Parallel Cut, a counter drain. Parallelogram, ( Gr. ) any four-sided rectilinear figure whose opposite sides are parallel. Parallelopipedon, or Paral- lelopiped, (Gr.) a solid which has six faces, each parallel to its oppo- site face, and all its faces parallelo- grams. Its contents may be always found by multiplying the breadth and length of its base and its height together. Half of a paral- lelopiped upon the same base is a rectangular prism. Parameter, ( Gr. from napa, through, and perpeio, to measure,) a constant right line in each of the three conic sections, called also latus rectum*. The rectangle form- ed by the parameter and an ab- scissa, in the parabola, is equal to the square of the correspondent semi-ordinate ; and in the ellipsis and hyperbola, the parameter makes a third proportional to a conjugate and transverse axis. Para pet, (parapetto,\ta\. breast- work,) a small wall of masonry or earth for support or railing to a quay, bridge, terrace, &c. Parangon, a species of black marble, which the ancients pro- cured from Egypt and Greece, and which they called also ba- saltes. Parascenium, another name for the Postscenium in the ancient theatres. Parastades, ( Trapaarafoc, Gr.) the name by which the Greeks dis- tinguished the anted of their tem- 215 PAR PAR pies: a temple thus constructed was termed vaoQ sv irapavTaaiv. Parastatice Imagines, a name given to the statues of the emperors placed at the gates and entrances of temples. Par erg a, (Gr.) a word some- times used to signify the orna- mental additions made to a prin- cipal work. Parget, (from Lat. parcet,) a name applied in a general sense to the several kinds of gypsum, which when slightly calcined, forms plas- ter of Paris, but more particularly applied to the gypsums brought from Derbyshire and Montmartre. Pargeting, the plastering of walls. See Pageting. Parlour, (Fr.) in the old mo- nasteries, was a room for conversa- tion, and adjoined the buttery and pantry at the lower end of the hall. Parquetry, or Marquetry, a kind of joinery or cabinet work, for which the French are famous, and which attained perfection in the seventeenth century. * A parquet, is an inlaid floor composed of small pieces of wood, either square or triangular, which are capable of forming by their disposition various combinations of figures. Two sorts of wood are generally employed, differ- ing very little in shade. The library of St. Paul's, the floor of the British Museum, and some of the new apart- ments at Windsor, &c. exhibit fine examplesof its use in England. When Carlton-house was fitted up, about forty years ago, the throne-room, and several others, were laid with a species of parquetry, like that in fig. 5. pi. P. 3. It was prepared at Paris, and was sent to London, in compartments of about three feet square. It was laid on joists of the common description ; the compart- ments were joined together by groove - and - tongue, wrought with 216 what are usually called m; ; h planes, and were fastened to U joists by oblique nailing through ie tongued edges, so that no rife appeared on the surface, ask shown in fig. 6. The narrow gonal pieces and square fratnAn the outside are put together vh mortise and tenons, and groove* 1 o receive flush panels. Parsonage Houses, were m merly embattled and fortified, & had numerous offices and appe - ages, and sometimes a chapel. ,t Bucknor, in Kent, however, tl e is an example of one, being a n e hovel, built on the church. Parthenon, see Athenian chitecture. Mr. Wilkins, (Atlu- ensia, p. 99,) has rectified sev. 1 errors which occur in Stuart's - scription of the temple of Mine a Parthenon. Vitruvius, in a passe manifestly corrupt, has pointed t the Parthenon as an hypvetl.l temple, having two interior ran s of columns; and has been cc- monly followed by modern writ . " It is certain, that in later tiis there was a double order of colurs within the cella of the temple ; circles made to mark the situates of the lower, still remain in pavement. From these circles i. appears, that the columns w: nearly two feet two inches in d meter: the lower portion of o, whose diameter corresponded vk this dimension, was lying within I cella. The method observed i fluting, proves this column to h; been of the Doric order, but its to be observed, that the lower pi of the shaft was planed and it fluted, a circumstance which ten in some measure to invalidate ? claim to the high antiquity of u other parts of the building. Ba - soning from the examples of r- paeth'ral temples, these columns | not commensurate with those of t' i ristyle, but considerably less in pportion. It will be easily shown, M this want of proportional bulk fan argument against the proba- cy that the temple was hypse- t al. In temples of this description, | height of the upper and lower iicres of the interior columns toge- it, reached from the floor to iihin a certain distance of the m. In the temple at Psestum, i entablature of the upper co- l-nns ranged very nearly with the i per member of the external (ier. No probable extension of I ! proportionate height could bring ; double range of columns, the i meter of the greatest of which • s only two feet two, within a liited distance of the external . nice of the Parthenon," &c. In ciflrmation of these arguments of ilkins against the antiquity of ■ interior columns, Mr. Walpole |s a memorandum made from the lormation he obtained from a 2nch artist of great merit, who d resided many years at Athens, • itaining a positive assertion, that n interior columns of the Parthe- m, of which there were then re- ining several portions, were of ! lower Greek empire. 'The particulars given inWheler's • iCription prove, that the interior istyle was a modern work, es- iitially differing from that of the ; 3 of Pericles. In the disposition • the interior columns, as given by • lart, some great errors are ob- ived, both in their number, posi- fn, and dimensions. The floor of I cella around the wall is a little ' >ed , but this is not a proof of the < stence of an hypaethral, for in the bsethral temple of Psestum, the br next the walls, instead of be- i raised, is sunk. The pavement of the opistho- < nus has the marks made by the 1 ges of the ancient doors, and it 2E is so little above that of the posti- cum, that the rise of the step has been frequently overlooked. In conformity with Wheler's descrip- tion, Stuart has introduced six co- lumns, in two ranges, within the opisthodomus, although he says no traces remain. Now the walls of the opisthodomus are still existing, very nearly of their primitive height; the original pavement remains in a very entire state, and is formed of large marble slabs, a foot thick, but exhibits no appearance what- ever of columns having been placed upon it; it appears unaccountable, therefore, that six columns " equal in bulk" to those of the exterior peristyles, should have perished, and left no trace behind. Wilkins expresses his conviction, that no columns ever existed in this situa- tion, and that Wheler alludes to the columns of the posticum, which are six in number, and nearly equal in size to those of the peristyle. By supporting the roof, he mereiy meant that they upheld the marble ceiling between them, and the co- lumns of the western front. The roof of the Parthenon was unquestionably of timber; it was covered with marble sculptured so as to represent large tiles, after the mode observed in the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, as described by Pausanias, (v. 10.) and some are yet to be seen among the ruins. Party Walls, partitions of brick between buildings, in several occupations. Parvis, formerly a room over the church porch, where schools used to be held. Passages, the parts of a build- ing which lead from one room to another. When there is only one series of rooms in breadth, the pas- sage must run along on one side of the building, and may be lighted by apertures through the exterior walls. PAT P A V If there be more than one room in breadth, it must run along the mid- dle, and may be lighted at one or both ends. When the building is very long, cross passages should be made, which will allow of giving additional light. In the upper stories of buildings, passages may be introduced in any direction which is convenient, as light may gene- rally be admitted from above. Pastas, (7raorac, Gr.) a vesti- bule. In the expedition of the Argonauts, when Jason arrives at the palace of Hypsipyle, the ser- vants throw open the folding doors, and conduct him through the vesti- bule, Sia KaXrjg iraaTahoq. ( Apol. Rhod. i. 789.) Herodotus uses the word Traorac to signify the vesti- bule, or pronaos, of a temple of Minerva, ii. 169. Pollux makes exedra and pastas synonymous terms. Pastophori, ( Gr. 7raoro£, a couch, and ep(o t to bear,) priests of an inferior order among the Egyptians, who carried the statues of the gods in solemn processions, and are often found sculptured and painted on Egyptian temples. The apartments where the pastophori lodged, were termed pastophoria. Clemens of Alexandria, describing the Egyptian temples, observes, "After having passed through mag- nificent courts, you are conducted to a temple, which is at the farther end of these courts, and there a pastophorus gravely lifts up the veil, which is the door, to shew you the deity within;" and Apul- lius speaks of the pastophori that carried the Syrian goddess. Pate, in fortification, a kind of platform in shape of a horse-shoe, encompassed only with a parapet, and, having nothing to plank it, usually erected in marshy grounds to cover a gate of a town. Patera, (Lat.) a vessel used in 218 the Roman sacrifices, in shape L dish, sometimes introduced as n ornament in friezes, &c. Paternosters, rows of be L carved on mouldings. Pavement, (pavimentum, IM a path or road paved with stones, The Carthaginians, according o Isidorus, were the first people \ adopted the practice of paving tl r streets with stone. It was in - duced into Rome, in imitatiorf them, by Appius Claudius Coec, who constructed the road ca'j after him the Appian way. Af - wards the Roman roads were i versally paved, and remains of tl k are found in every country win formed a part of the empire, fa Road. The pavements in the - terior of the Roman houses wg often constructed upon stages r timber work, when they were call contignata pavimenta: the pay- ments which they called cvas- tiones, were made of oaken pla s of the quercus cesculus, wh i were considered to be least subjt to warp. In some churches on e continent, the pavement is of ni- ble, and in others mosaic, as ink Mark at Venice. In France, s roads, streets, courts, &c. are pa 1 with gres or grit-stone; and fl- stones, as in England, are nol\ use. In Amsterdam, and the cH cities of Holland, the carriage to , or middle of the street, is, as vu us, paved with flint or stone, ;1 the foot path at the sides \u brick, and distinguished by E name of the burgher-masters. The pavements of great strcs in England are usually of flint r rubble stones. Pavements of ft - stone, flint, and flags, are laid i a bed of sand ; but in courts, or e interior of buildings, the pavem f is usually laid in mortar made'f sand and lime, or in cement. 1j chief kind of paving are brk P A V P A U wing, with bricks, either edgways flat. Granite, which is uni- rsally used in London, and gene- ilv brought from Scotland — uernsey stone, which is now much US e— Marble, often variegated, ,d inlaid with mosaic— Newcastle Lsj about two feet square, and e and a half or two inches thick \ pebbles, which when about three hi s deep are called holders, or u: j crs — Portland stone — Pur- .ck pitchers, squared siones from e Isle of Purbeck, used * in foot iys, generally from six to ten hes square, and five deep — rag ■me, dug in the vicinity of Maid- Mie in Kent, and formerly used London — Ryegate or fire stone, ed for hearths, stoves, ovens, and ief places which are liable to »at heat — squared paving, first ed in Scotland — Sweedland pav- /, a black slate dug in Leices- shire, and used in halls, &c. — nkshire paving, a stone of great and about the same thickness the Purbeck, which is not affected frost, or penetrated by wet. amond pavements have the stones flags laid diagonally. Pavement, Tessellated, a pave- nt of mosaic work used by the intents, made of square pieces of s ne, &c. called tessera. The ,mans greatly delighted in this 1 d of ornamental floor, which f ceeded, Pliny tells us, to the ( painted pavements which ori- [ ated in Greece. Many speci- l ns have been found in various ) ts of England, as well as in every I t of the continent which was i ler the Roman dominion. The t equal, is termed a square pedes- [• one which supports two co- nns, is a double pedestal; and t support a row of columns with- jt any break, it is a comtinued ■iestal. The lowest and most i iple kind of pedestal, is the tscan. Palladio and Scamozzi ire it three modules in height: gnola, five. According to the ter writer, it consists of a plinth a base, the die, and a talon owned for a cornice. The Doric lev has in antiques no pedestal < base : Palladio gives it a pedes- , four modules five minutes high, ich is increased by Vignola to e modules four minutes. In the nple of Fortuna Virilis, the Ionic 'iestal is seven modules twelve nutes: Scamozzi makes it five, d Vignola six modules. Its mem- ts and ornaments, as well as )se of the Doric, differ little from )se given to the Tuscan. In the ! loseum, the Corinthian order ? a pedestal four modules two nutes in height: Palladio gives b height of the Corinthian pedes- at five modules one minute; ^nola, seven modules ; and Ser- t six modules five minutes. The mposite pedestal has much the tjne dimensions as the Corinthian : ! imozzi makes it six modules two mutes, and Palladio six modules ! en minutes. Pedestals should i cr be employed with detached ( umns forming porticos, but they I frequently applied to columns 1 ich divide arches, and are neces- I y in churches, where the pews fluid otherwise conceal the base, :1 great part of the columns. ■ ey may be introduced with pro- ] ety, likewise, in all edifices built 1 the reception of crowded assem- blies. The best method of arrang- ing pedestals is that employed by Vignola, who makes them in all three orders, one third of the height of the columns. Pediculus, in the middle ages, a kind of prison, in which the feet were bound in chains. Pediment, (from pes, Lat. a foot,) an ornament generally of a low triangular form, which crowns the ordonnances, finishes the fronts of buildings, and is used as a deco- ration of windows, doors, &c. A pediment is more properly speaking the angular end of a building which surmounts a portico. The entabla- ture, in this case, is covered by two straight inclined cornices, the mouldings of which are similar to the horizontal one : the space en- closed is called the tympanum. This was the original pediment, and the only form found in Greece; but the Romans, to vary the form, employed, in smaller works, a seg- ment of a circle, instead of the triangle. This form, however, is heavy, and is only used as a cover- ing to gates, doors, windows, and such smaller architectural works, where, by reason of its minuteness, it produces variety, without being disagreeable to the eye. The fol- lowing method of determining the height of a pediment has been given in a French pamphlet. From the summit of an equilateral tri- angle, of which the base is the up- per fillet of the horizontal cornice, with one side of the triangle as a radius, describe an arc. With the point of intersection between this arc and the centre line of the com- position as a centre, and with the depth of the horizontal cornice as a radius, describe a part of a circle : a line drawn from the extreme boundary of the upper moulding of the horizontal cornice, making a tangent to the circle, gives the PEN PEP inclination of the pediment. See Mtoma, Eagle, Fastigium, Gable, Tympanum. Pegmata, see Antepagmenta. Pelecoides, (Gr.) a mathema- tical figure in form of a hatchet, contained under two inverted quad- rantal arcs and a semicircle. Pend, in Gothic architectures vaulted roof without groining. Pendant, a hanging ornament in very rich Gothic groined roofs. See Gothic Architecture. Pendent Bridge, a wooden bridge, with butments only at the ends, and supported by posts and pillars. Pendentive, the whole body of a vault, suspended out of the per- pendicular of the walls. Pendentive Bracketing, or cove bracketing, springing from the rectangular walls of an apartment upwards to the ceiling, and form- ing the horizontal part of the ceil- ing into a circle or ellipse. Pendentive Cradling, the timber-work for sustaining the lath and plaster in vaulted ceilings. Penetrale, (Lat.) the most sa- cred part of a temple, which gene- rally contained an altar dedicated to Jupiter Hercaeus, who derived his appellation, according to Festus, from kpscog, an enclosure, and was the supposed protector of its sanc- tity. And thus Ovid alludes to the death of Priam, who was slain at the altar of Hercuean Jupiter, (in Ibin. 283:)— Nec tibi subsidio sit praesens numtn : ut illi, Cui nihil Herceei profuit ara Jovis. And from Virgil it appears that this altar was in an hypsethral atrium, and shaded by a laurel tree, (Mn. ii. 512.) There was an altar of Hercsean Jove in the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, (Dionys. Halicarn. in Dinarcho. p. 113.) and it was under an olive-tree, (v-n-o ttj i\ai<}) and consequently must have been in that part exposed to t 1 open air. Diodorus Siculus spea of a fiufjioQ vTraidpioQ, hypaethr altar, in the midst of the peristV of a temple of Jupiter at Thelx! and the Iliac table represents Pria; slain at an hypaethral altar in t! 1 midst of an internal peristyle. Penetralia, ( Lat. ) small ch pels in the innermost part of t! Roman houses, dedicated to tl: penates or household gods, which they used to deposit wha ever was held most valuable. Penetentiaries, amongst tit monks, were small square house in which the penitent shut himse up, sometimes in a grove near river, and at a distance fro towns. Pent Roof, see Roof. Pentadoron, (Gr.) a kind J bricks among the Greeks, whic were five palms long, and whic they employed in their publ edifices. Pentagon, (Gr.) in Geometr; a figure of five sides and hv angles. Pentagraph. See PanU graph. Pentapastos, (Gr.) a maoliii mentioned by Vitruvius, which w<| used to raise great weights, sucj as stones, to a certain height, ii building. Pentastyle, (Gr.) having fh columns in front. Peperino, (Ital.) a kind of stoi found in the environs of Rome. Th found in the neighbourhood of Ai! is generally known by this nam whilst that found near Tivoli called travertino. Both sorts, d account of their fine quality, we; much used by the ancient Roman The first is found in an anciei tomb near Albano, and the latt< in the great cloaca of Rome, in tr foundations of the Capitol, and i the column termed rostrata. PER >erambulator, (Lat.) an in- st ment for measuring distances in Jelling, by being attached to the wel of a coach, &c. erclose, or Parclose, in the ai n'tecture of the middle ages, sig- ns d a closet. ergula, (Lat.) the name given aung the Romans to that part of a )use now called the gallery. By \Mscus it is termed magistralis. h Mautus, the term is used for the : b; ony of a house, where the ! crtezans were accustomed to p e themselves, more readily to a act notice. The pergula was soetimes a portico for training vi s and creepers, ranged along tl back front of the windows of tl triclinium, (Pompeiana.) Winc- t k nann says, that in its most cus- fr ary sense, it meant a bower itfc el antly formed of reeds fastened aoss. It was also a short walk- ir place, where artificers exhibited tl r goods. eriacti, ( from 7repiay£iv, Gr. U evolve,) the revolving scenes of tl theatre, called by the Romans ! skee versatiles. 'eribolos, (Gr.) a court or en- c ure within a wall, sometimes si ounding a temple. It was com- n.i'.y adorned with statues, altars, a; monuments, and often contain- d other smaller temples, or a sa- c| grove. The peribolos of the t( pie of Jupiter Olympius at Aens, was four stadia in eircum- fcjjnce. The temple of Apollo I ymaeus, near Miletus, was sur- H ided by a peribolos and a sacred g e, some of the trees of which st exist. Round temples had scetimes also their peribolos, as see by the temple of Jupiter 8 • pis, at Puzzuolo, orPuteoli. i ri drome, (Trepi, around, and oc, a course, or parade,) that p of the periptere, which was left b' veen the columns and the walls, PER and which served among the Greeks as a promenade. Perimeter, (Gr.) the bounds of any figure. Periphanes, or Prostypon, (Gr.) a term by which are some- times designated figures and orna- ments sculptured in very high relief. Periphery, (Gr. from Trzpityepio, I surround,) the circumference of a circle, ellipsis, parabola, or other regular curvilinear figure. Periptere, ( Gr.) a range of insulated columns distant from the wall an intercolumniation, which surrounded the exterior of a tem- ple. Peripteral, a temple sur- rounded with a periptere, which is the fourth kind in the classifi- cation of Vitruvius. They were occasionally both round and square. See Temple. Perirriianterion, (Gr. from irepipaivh), to sprinkle,) a kind of vases placed at the entrances of ancient temples, which were filled with pure water, with which the priests both washed their own hands, and sprinkled such as en- tered. In the Pitture d'Ercolano, vol. v. pi. 69, are seen two lustral vases at the gate of a religious edi- fice, in each of which is a branch of laurel. Peristyle, ( Gr.) a range of columns within a court or building, as the internal colonnade of an hy- paethral temple. One of the courts of the Roman villas, which was defended from the rays of the sun by a colonnade, was called a peri- style. See House. According to Vitruvius, it should have in length one and a half its breadth. Peristylium, ( Gr. ) a large rectangular space in the middle of the Athenian gymnasia, for walking, and performing the exercises not peculiar to the palaestra. PER PER Peritrochium, (Gr.) a term in Mechanics, given to a wheel or circle, concentric with the base of a cylinder, and together with it moveable about an axis. Perpendicular, (Lat.) a right line standing on another, so as to make right angles with it, or to make the angles on each side the same. One plane is perpendicular to another, when a line in it is per- pendicular to the other plane. A perpendicular to a curve, is a right line which cuts the curve in a point, where another right line, to which it is perpendicular, makes a tangent with the curve. Perpent Stone, Perpender, or Perpin, (Fr.) a long stone, intended to reach through a wall, so as to be visible on both sides, and there- fore wrought and smoothed at the ends. Perpeyn-walls, a term ap- plied in the Monasticon to two walls in Fotheringhay church, which divided the body from the aisles : probably it meant walls finished alike on both sides. Perrault, Claude, born at Paris in 1613, was at first brought up to the medical profession, and took his degree as doctor in 1641 : but he was afterwards led by his taste to turn his attention to the study of architecture, and in 1666, was appointed to select a spot, and gave a plan, for the erection of the Obser- vatory of the Academy of Sciences, of which he was one of the first members. His master-piece was the facade of the Louvre, executed under Louis XIV. He also fur- nished a design for a grand trium- phal arch, which was begun, but never furnished. Amongst his other works are the chapel at Sceaux, that of Notre Dame, in the church of the Petits Peres, in Paris, &c. Perrault published a translation of Vitruvius, with 224 notes, in 1673. He also publis " Ordonnance des Cinq Espece? e Colonnes, selon la Methode L Anciens," and several works L other subjects. He died at P in 1688, at the age of 75. Perron, (Fr.) a staircase ijL open, or without-side the buildii ; more properly the steps in e front of a building which lead h the first story, where it is r - ed a little above the level of e ground. Perronet, John Rodolpih a French architect, born in 17 In 1745, he was made inspecto f the school of engineers, and at - wards director of the bridges ! roads of France. His services we rewarded by honouring him vjh the order of St. Michael, and e was admitted a member of e Academy of Sciences at Paris, f the Royal Society of London, n of the Academy of Stockholm, e published a description of e bridges which he had construe! , in 2 vols. 12mo. and Memoirs n the Method of constructing git Arches of Stone, from twohundl to five hundred feet in span, s death took place in 1794, at Pai Persepolis, the ancient capj.l of Persia, of which now only a ruins remain ; which are supped to be chiefly those of a pal The great plain of Merdasht(M dasht) or Istakhr, in which ruins are situated, is one of most fertile in Persia, being wated in all directions by rivulets artificial drains, which ultima^ unite in the Bundemir, the anc Araxes. The artificial plain which the ruins of the immfse royal citadel or palace stand, i a very irregular shape. The ex of each face is, that to the sc eight hundred and two feet, to north nine hundred and twenty- to the west one thousand four 1) PER PER ( »d and twenty five. The level | become exceedingly uneven by I accumulation of fallen ruins, j the north - west considerable i sses of the native rock shew tmselves, still bearing the marks c the original implements with Ich the higher pieces had been }vn down to the level required. I deeper cavities, the progress of iuarry is visible, part of the rock i some places being half hewn t nigh, and in others, lying in ripieted slabs ready for removal. I> steep faces of the rocky terrace a formed of dark grey marble, c into gigantic square blocks eluisitely polished, and, without tl aid of mortar, fitted to each o -t with closeness and precision. A a spot near the group of co- h ns, its present perpendicular li is thirty feet; but there can bno doubt that, might we clear a y all that hides this beautiful ui, we should find an additional d ih of twenty feet. This spa- c s art ficial platform consists of ti e separate terraces. The first, o lowest, embracing the whole If fh of the southern face, is one h .1 red and eighty-three feet wide, i A lg the edge, large masses of i st e remain in different spots, with foments of a parapet. On the efof the third or highest south- er terrace, are marks of a strong ra e of railing or palisadoes. At th:op of the steps which connect th terrace with the one beneath, ar found two large holes, cut ieUv in this stone, which received th pivots of the gates that an- ci( ly closed this ingress. The if are composed of immense blus of marble, each block being so rge as to allow ten or fourteen Rt( to he cut into its solid mass. Oieaching the platform, the first ob. ls that strike the astonished W Her, are the lofty sides of an enormous portal, the interior faces of which are sculptured into the forms of two colossal bulls. A pedestal elevates them five feet above the level of the platform. At a considerable height above their backs are three small com- partments filled with inscriptions in the arrow - headed character. Proceeding onward to the east, twenty-four feet from the portal, was a fine group of columns : they were all erect in Chardin's time, but when Sir Robert Ker Porter visited Persepolis, two only remained, and not a relic of their companions. They were placed equidistant from each other, at twenty-two feet. Their bases are buried in the ruins : their capitals are singular and beautiful, consist- ing, as it were, of three combined in one. The shaft gradually nar- rows toward the top, varied by thirty-nine flutings near the cinc- ture; each of which is four inches in width. A space of twenty-four feet separates them from a second portal, resembling the former both in shape and dimensions, except that its length is eighteen feet in- stead of twenty-one. The inner sides are sculptured in like manner, but the animals represented have the body and legs of a bull, an enormous pair of wings projecting fiom the shoulders, and the heads, looking to the east, showing the faces of men. On the head is a cylindrical diadem, on both sides of which horns are clearly represented winding from the brows upwards to the front of the crown ; the whole being surmounted with a sort of coronet, formed of a range of leaves like the lotus, and bound with a fillet beautifully carved in roses. An agate seal, brought by Niebuhr from Basrah, and sup- posed to be of the highest antiquity, exhibits the winged bull with a PER PER human bead. A similar device appears upon a cornelian brought from Shiraz by Sir W. Ouseley, as well as on many Greek medals, gems, and bronzes ; but this is the only instance in which such a re- presentation is known to exist in Persia in marble. Mons. Anquetil du Perron advances very cogent reasons for supposing it to be a symbolic representation of Noah ! Sacy thinks it the emblem of Kaia- murs, the Hrst sovereign of the Paishdadian dynasty, and he de- rives his name from Gaw-i-mird, bull and man. Three compart- ments of inscriptions are cut in the wall over the figure. At the distance of one hundred and sixty- two feet from this portal is the magnificent terrace which supports the multitude of columns from which it takes its name. 44 On drawing near the Chehel-minar, or Palace of Forty Pillars." says Sir Robert Ker Porter, " the eye is riveted by the grandeur and beau- tiful decorations of the flight of steps which lead up to them. This superb approach consists of a dou- ble staircase, projecting consider- ably before the northern face of the terrace, the whole length of which is two hundred and twelve feet: at each extremity, east and west, rises another range of steps ; and again, about the middle, project- ing from it eighteen feet, appear two smaller flights rising from the same point. Here, the extent of the range, including a landing- place of twenty feet, amounts to eighty-six. The ascent, like that of the great entrance from the plain, is extremely gradual ; each flight containing only thirty -two steps (none exceeding four inches in height, ) in breadth fourteen inches, and in length sixteen feet. The whole front of the advanced range is covered with sculpture. 226 The eye at first roves over it, 5 t and bewildered by the multiti : s of figures." Amongst these sctih tures the bull and the lion o a occur, and not unfrequentlv flower of the lotus. This flo was alike sacred in Persia, In i, and Egypt. The Egyptians in - duced it into the architecture >f their temples. It is the Jieur- - luce of the arms of France ; 1 Sir R. K. Porter remarks, thai all pictures of the salutation of e Virgin, this flower is introduced '* On ascending the platform ri which the palace of Forty Pil s once stood, nothing can he n e striking than the view of its riM t so vast and magnificent, so falL mutilated, and silent, — the cm of Cyrus, the pavilion of Alex do's triumph, and the memorial the wantonness of his power !" 1 j immense upper platform stretcs north and south 350 feet, and fun east to west 380. The greater n is covered with broken capil shafts of columns, and innumer; e fragments of buildinp, a hi tie above seventeen feet in height, and the base, including a torus, two feet more. The capital is in the form of the heall, breast, and bent fore-legs of a bull, richly ornamented with collars and trap- pings, united at the back to the corresponding bust of another bull, but leaving a cavity between, suffi- cient to admit the end of a square beam. On the site of Pasargadae a pillar still erect is described by Mr. Morier, as a plain shaft without a capital, ten feet five inches in cir- cumference. In the interior of a modern bath at Kermanshah, given by Mr. Buckingham, are columns with capitals exactly, and bases very nearly, resembling those at Persepolis, but the shafts are fluted spirally. (Travels in Assyria, &c. p. 98.) The modern columns of the royal palace of Shah Abbas at Ispahan, are also spirally fluted. Sir W. Ouseley observed amongst the ruins of the site of Darabgerd, walls and arches, still twenty feet high, the remains of an ancient aqueduct. An extraordinary building amongst the ruins of Pasargadae is described by Mr. Morier. " It rests upon a square base of large blocks of mar- ble, which rise in seven layers, py- ramidically. It is in the form of a parallelogram ; the lowest range of the foundation is forty-three feet by thirty-seven : and the edifice itself, which crowns the summit, diminishes to twenty-one feet by sixteen feet five inches. It is 229 PER PER covered with a shelving roof, built of the same massy stone as its base and sides, which are all fixed toge- ther by clamps of iron. Around it, besides a great profusion of broken marbles, are the shafts of fourteen columns, once, perhaps, a colonnade, but now arranged in the square wall of mud which sur- rounds the whole remains." In the interior was a small chamber, but not at all remarkable. lie thinks it to be the tomb of Cyrus. The Mahometan writers call it the tomb of the mother of Solomon. Hafiz Abru says There is like- wise another place in the district of Jstakhr, on the road to Aberkuh, called the Meshehd-i-Mader-i-Su- lieman, on whom be peace ! Here also are stones of considerable size, and sculptured in a wonderful man- ner; the work, as it is related, of those jins (genii) who were subser- vient to Solomon, on whom be peace !" The entrances to the excavations of the Naksh-i-Rustam are near 60 feet from the level ground. Sir W. Ouseley thinks them coeval with the palaces of Persepolis, though much of the sculpture has been added during the Sassanian dynasty. The tomb least difficult of access, being the last to the left, was ex- plored by Sir W. Ousely, and is described as a chamber, thirty-five feet long, seven broad at each end, and eight in the middle. "This measurement does not include the depth of three arched recesses, hol- lowed like the chamber itself, in the solid rock, and forming sepul- chral vaults nine feet long by five feet and a half broad. Immense slabs of the same rock cover the vaults; these it would be impossible to lift, or even move, without the assistance of several men. There is a fracture in one vault, made probably by the violators of these 230 tombs wbo, we may suppose, w] taking out the body in search f treasure, raised and propped L stone cover, until having accc^ plished their object, they let it l| into its original situation. Thron the aperture it was easv to asc- tain that this vault contained thing more than some pieces stone. Within this chamber, which the ceiling is arched I the recesses, and about ten it where highest, all parts are of plainest execution." In the sa range of mountains, near the lage of Hajji-abad, other cave and sculptured rocks are fou The place is called Zendau J,- sheed, the prisons of JemshA The first cave is apparently natu . The second is a deep indentah into the mountain, at the entra of which the rock has been smoot and cut inio five tablets, each cL taining Puhlavi inscriptions. % third is celebrated for its grk depth, but " has nothing artiful about it." Opposite the Nak- i-Rustam is a square buildinll about twenty-four feet broad, ft nearly thirty -five feet high, c- structed of white marble " ina most substantial manner." \ small doorway, about eleven t from the ground, leads into a ch«- ber, twelve feet three inches sqn and about twenty feet high, ceiling is composed of two imme e marble slabs. 'fhe walls are tirely destitute of ornament, the walls, externally, are m small oblong perpendicular nich, but none sink deep into the st( Some of the natives assure traveller that it was *' the Kaa of Zaratusht," (Zoroaster.) Morier and Sir R. K. Porter tl that it was a fire temple, and scribed the interior as exhibit signs of fire and smoke. A cor enriched with dentils, passes roi PER PER Pfl r e summit: the cornice, on the )rthern face, is formed by one ngle slab, which is twenty-two el six inches long. Not far dis- nt, following the abrupt turn of u'j e rocks towards the east, are o fire altars, four feet and a half ii uare, and between five and six a high, narrowing upward, and 4 rmed from a protuberance of the ,.i -k. On the top of each is a IMtl fuare cavity, eight inches deep, pposed to be the receptacle of the l cred fire. The eminence on lich they stand is called Sang- i- J( | (! dieman, Solomon's stone. At a v miles from Servistan is a ruined 7 tress called the Kalaa atesh ka- li, (Castle of the Fire-temple.) e fire-altar, which gives name to ; castle, and which is a few hun- t ?d yards from it, is described by ■ W. Ouseley as a single upright tine, between ten and eleven feet :h, and three feet and a half :'tare at the bottom, diminishing :* little towards the top. On the jth and western sides are traces t Pahlavi inscriptions. On the > is a deep hollow, designed to 1 reive the vessel containing the i red fire. A rude low wall or I ce of large stones encloses the : ar, having a narrow entrance on 1 south. The first view brought ipngly to his recollection the uidical remains he had seen in 1 ties and Ireland ; and a few ( trees seemed to represent one ( those sacred groves which were, 3arly ages, attached to religious Pictures. At four miles from hsa, the same writer observed, 1 n the right, and crowning the, 8 unit of a hill, an object which r 'mbled, on a distant view, one c »ur British Druidical cromlechs." 1 " is called Khaneh-i-Gabran, t mansion of the fire- worshippers. I s a mass of stone, or rather of 1 harder cement, in which stones of different kinds and colours are thickly incrusted, of an irregular oblong form, about fifty feet long, and twelve or thirteen feet high, with a passage through it " Sir W. Ouseley observed, on the site of the ancient Darabgerd, an irre- gular cluster of large rude stones, on a rising ground in a part of the enclosed area, which, from its ap- pearance, he says, " a British anti- quary might be almost authorized to pronounce Druidical." Some of them are from twenty to twenty- five feet high. One, very tall, stands nearly in the middle; an- other, towards the west, resembles a table or altar, being flat at the top; and under two or three are recesses or small caverns. The modern architecture of Per- sia, which resembles that of most Mahommetan countries, will be best understood by a description of the principal buildings of Ispahan, or Isfahan n, the former capital. The college called Medresst Shah Sul- tan Hossein, is on the right of the Meidan. Its entrance is hand- some : a lofty portico, enriched with fantastically twisted pillars, and intermixed with the beautiful marble of Tabreez, leads through a pair of brazen gates, finished with silver, and their whole surface highly carved and embossed with flowers and verses from the Koran. The gates lead to an elevated semi- dome, which opens at once into the square of the college. The right side of this court is occupied by the mosque, which is still a beautiful building, covered with a cupola, and faced with two minarets. The interior of the dome is richly spread with variegated tiles. The other sides of the square are occupied, one by a lofty and beautiful por- tico, and the remaining two by rooms for the students, twelve in each front, arranged in two stories. 231 PER PER "The quiet and retirement ef this college," says Mr. Morier, " the beauty and serenity of the climate, and the shrubbery and water in the courts, would have combined to constitute it in my eyes a sanctuary for learning, and a nursery for the learned, if it. had been in any other country." The palaces of the kings are enclosed in a fort of lofty walls, which have a circumference of about three miles. The palace of the Chehel Sitoon (forty pillars) is in the middle of an immense square. The first saloon is open towards the garden, and is supported by eigh- teen pillars, all inlaid with mirrors. Each pillar has a marble base, carved into the figures of four lions. The walls are also covered with mirrors?- and the ceiling is painted in gold flowers. From this saloon, an arched recess, studded in the same manner with glass, leads into an extensive hall, the ceiling of which is arranged in a variety of domes and figures. From the garden of this palace, an intri- cate passage leads under an octa- gonal tower into the harem, called Amaroot Noo, the new palace, which is in the same style of build- ing. From the interior of the pa- laces we ascend the Ali Capi gate, which forms the entrance. " This gate, once the scene of the magni- ficence of the Sen* family, the threshold of which was ever revered as sacred, is now deserted; and only now and then a solitary indi- vidual is seen to pass negligently through. The remains of that splendour so minutely and accu- rately described by Chardin, are still to be traced ; the fine marbles remain, and the grandeui and ele- vation of the dome are still unde- molished." The houses of Ispahan are only one story high, but are composed of so many compart- ments, that the meanest of them 232 occupy a considerable area. Th are built of earth or brick, and th. uniformity in height and co!o produces a dull appearance. Tl Shah Meidan, or royal square, wi its bazaars and religious edifices rivals any in Asia. Its length four hundred and forty paces ! one hundred and sixty in breach On the south side stands the rov mosque, a magnificent buiidii erected by Shah Abbas, in tl sixteenth century. It is enten by a gate twelve feet wide, clos< by two leaves, covered with plat of solid silver, partly gilt and scul tured. The whole edifice is co structed of massy stone, coven with highly varnished bricks at tiles. Within are fountains flowir into jasper basins, spacious court and extensive porticoes, of whit that in the centre is surmounted I a vast dome and gilt crescent. In Plate Castle, C. 71, fig. is shown the dome, minarets, ar style of architecture, of the mosqi of the college of Ispahan. Fig. is a sketch from one of the stree of Ispahan, showing the gener appearance of the Persian house Fig. 2. is the fire altars of the Sam i-Sulieman. Amongst the buildings of tl eastern countries, not the lea conspicuous are the caravanserai or public edifices for the receptic of strangers. Many fine builclin< of this kind are found in Persi They are generally of a squai form, with porticoes surrounding court; the former to shelter ti horses and camels, with rooms f( the travellers, and warehouses f( the merchandise, &c. These buik ings are in some instances formed ci more ancient edifices. The Can vunserai-i- Doob, is thus describe; by Ouseley : " It is a spacious chan! ber, hollowed with admirable ingj nuity, and by means of prodigioif PER PER ] a iur, into the very heart of the m ,ntam. Its roof seems formed of.irches, supported on square pi rs, of large, but not ungraceful ; prLrtions ; the roof, however, the pi rs, the arches, and the walls, ar all of the solid rock. It receives a Ltle light at the entrance, an 11 ie and handsome doorway in th side of the mountain, and from a juare aperture in the centre of th roof, where the rock is ten or el?n feet thick. The chamber its r is a square of seventy feet, re larly divided into four parts by th.rows of pillars intersecting one fid ar:her. Near the door were in- sotions carved in the Arabic chacter, not very ancient ( about A ). 1305, or 1350.) In the wall inating the main aisles on the lei and right, and opposite the dc , were niches not unlike the fir places in European houses, and f Borgo, discovered the points of fa tance to which every line that mai s an angle of 45° with the grow line is drawn. Soon after, Guo Ubaldi discovered that all the li parallel to each other, if they inclined to the ground line, conve e to some point in the horizontal 1 and that a line drawn from eye parallel to them will also PER f" t ough this point. Ubaldi's work c perspective was printed at Pes- ? in 1600, and may be said to ehtain the first principles of the rthod afterwards established by J Brook Taylor. Phe following are the principal O'the numerous works published (^Perspective. In Latin — Johan- n Cantuariensis, Perspectiva, fol. Fa, 1508; an Italian version of wch was published bv Galucci, f, Venice, 1593.— C. Vittelionis, dflNatura, Ratione, et Projectione I Fliorum Visus, Luminum, Colo- i i, atque Formarum, quam vul^o, w Iispectivam vocant ; libri x. fol. N-imb. 1551. — Joa. Fr. Niceroni, ' ijjmaturgus Opticus studiosissi- nh Perspective, fol. Paris, 1638: a 'rench translation of which was p lished under the title of Per- s tive Curieuse, fol. Paris, 1663. is -iuido Ubalclus, Perspectiva, fol. i I 0. — Em. Maignan, Perspectiva ( aria, Rom. 1648.— Andrea Pu- tt (surnamed Pozzi,) Perspectiva . itorum et Architectorum, two \ . folio, Rome, 1693, 1700, with i\ hundred and twenty-six en- l in^s : this edition was in Latin a Italian, and it was published ii atin and German by J. Box- blh and G. C. Bodenner, fol. A';shurg, 1706-9; an edition was I I li wise published in Latin and E lish by Strutt, fol. London, 13-1707. — Ram. Rampinelli, L iones Opticae, Brix. 4to. 1760. L iv's !)ook appeared in 1701, and ;> ravesandisin 1711, both in8vo: tl Utter was translated into Eng- li by Stone, in 1724. De Breuil, P spectiva Practica, is also wor- 1 of notice. — In Italian — Bern. [,] Z-nle da Trefigi, Tratteto di Pros- f p< iva, fol. Milan, 1524.— Barbaro, f P:.ica del la Prospettiva, Venice, ijij fo 1559, 1568, 1669.— Dispareri in fateria d'Architettura e di Pros- P<'va, 4to. Bresc. 1572.— Vigno- PER la, le due Regole della Prospettiva prattica, con i comment, del P. E. Danti, fol. Rom. 1583, 1611, 1644.— Bol. 1682, Ven. 1743.— Serigati la Prattica di Prospet- tiva, fol. Ven. 1596, 1626.— Ac- colto, Discorso, interno al Diseirno con gl' fnganni del Occhio, Pros- pett. Prat. fol. Firenza, 1625. — Contino, Prospettiva Prattica, fol. Ven. 1645, 1684.— Giul. Troili, Paradossi per praticar la Prospet- tiva, senza saperla, fol. Bol. 1672, 1683. — Paolo Amato, Nuovo Prat- tica di Prospettiva, fol. Pal. 1736. — • Zanotti, Trat.tato Teoretico Prattico di Prospettiva, 4to. Bol. 1766. — Orsini, della Geometrie e Prospet- tiva Prattica, 3 vols, 12mo. Rome, 1774. — In Dutch we have Het Perspectiv Conste van J. F. Vre- demann, fol. Lond. 1559. Amst. 1633, a French transition of which was published hyMarolois.fol. Amst. 1662 — Onderwysinge in der Per- spectiv Conste, door Hen. Hondius, La Hague, fol. 1622, 1647, a trans- lation of which appeared in 1647. — In German, treatises on Per- spective have been published ; of perspective as it regards the Arts, fol. 1509. — by Rivius, fol. Nuremb. 1547; by Lantensak, fol. Franc. 1567 ; by Jamitzer, fol. Nur. 1564; by Bruns, Leips, fol. 1615; by Lenkart, fol. Augs. 1616; bv Al- berti, fol. Numb, 1623-7; Scbab- ler, 2 vol. fol. Nurnb. 1719-20; Heinecken, fol. Augs. 1727, 1753; Bischof, 8vo. Halle, 1741; Lam- bert, 8vo. Zurich, 1759, 1774; Werner, 8vo. Erfort, 1764 : Jacobz 8vo. Amst. 1767; Voch, 8vo. Augs. 1780; Burja, 8vo. Berlin, 1793. — In French the following authors have written on perspec- tive: Cousin, fol. Par. 1560, 1587; Cerceau, fol. Par. 1576 ; Caux, fol. Lond. 1612; Josse, fol. Par. 1635 ; La Perspective Pratique, &c. par un de le Com. de Jesus, 4to. 235 PER PER Par. 1642, 1663, 1679. English translations by Prike, 4to, 1672, by Chambers, fol. 1726. German by Rembold, 4to Augs. 1710; Bossa, 1648, a very extensive and useful work; Huret, fol. Par. 1675; La- mi, 12mo. Par. 1701, 8vo. Amst. 1734. English translation. London, 1702; Bretetz, fol. Par. 1706, 1746,1752; Courtonne, fol. Par. 1710, 1725; Ozanam, 8vo. Par. 1711; Jeaurat, 4to. Par. 1750; Le Roy, 12mo. Par. 1757; Peti- tot, fob Parma, 1758; Curel, 8vo. Stras. 1766; Michel, 8vo. Par. 1771; Morien, 8vo. Par. 1789; Valenciennes, 4to. Par. — The prin- cipal works in English are, Mason, Practical Perspective, fol. 1670; Halfpenny, 4to. 1731 ; Peake, Ar- chitectural Perspective, fol. ; Ha- milton, Stereography, fol. 1738, 1749; Ditton, fol. 1712; Brook Tavlor, 1715, 1719; Oaklev, fol. 1730; Kirby, 4to. 1755, '1768; Perspective of Architecture, on the Principles of B*ook Tavlor, 2 vols, fol. 1755, 1761 ; Ferguson, 8vo. 1755, 1778; Highmore, 4to. 1784; Cowley, 2 vols. 4to. 1766; Priest- lev, 8vo. 1770; Noble, 8vo. 1771 ; Malton, fol. 1776; Ware's Com- plete Body of Architecture, folio, 1760; a -new Treatise on Perspec- tive, 4to. 1810; Cresswell, 8vo. 1811; Milne, in his Elements of Architecture, 4to. 1812; Hayter, 8vo. 1812; Martin, Muller, and Emerson, in their courses of Ma- thematics; Nicholson, in his Archi- tectural Dictionary, &c. Pkkticje, beams in the ancient churches, behind and about the altar, ornamented at the great feasts with reliquaries of ivory, silver, &c. Peruzzi, Baldassare, an Ital- ian artist, born in 1481, at Acca- jano, in the territory of Sienna, in mean circumstances : his father had been reduced by the civil wars, 236 in the territory of Florence, m a state of comparative affluer , Young Peruzzi began to exhibit s abilities in painting at an early a and he was afterwards emplo 1 by pope Alexander VI. He e| studied architecture, and was d noted for his knowledge of pcrsp . tive, that the works he producec'i imitation of architectural proj- tions, excited the admiration f Titian. But he was chiefly - nowned for his paintings in fret and oil. He died by poison, i 1536, and left in manuscriptk treatise on the Antiquities of Roi and a Commentary on Vitruvius Pf.st House, a lazaretto. Peter of Colechurch, an Ei. lish priest and architect, A built the old London bridge, in A reigns of Henry II., Richard , and John. Peter's, St. the principal chm. of Rome, founded originally by C(- stantine the Great, over the repui. j?rave of St. Peter, on the Vatic hill, on the site of the circus Caius, or Nero. It is also call the Basilica Vaticana. It 1 since sustained a great number ' alterations and repairs, and n surpasses all the most celebrat buildings, ancient or modern, in size, and in the beauty of its stn ture. The portico is ornament with statues of the first popes, w suffered martyrdom, the work Algardi, surrounded by angels, f< toons, gilt stucco, &e. The mart columns are of surprising magi tude. The entrance is by five dooi that in the middle, of metal, t work of Filarcto, of Constantinop in the time of pope Eugenius 1 sculptured with the martyrdom St. Peter and St. Paul, and soi events of the life of the pope whose order it was made. Tj porta santa (holy door) the fifth, only opened in the jubilee yea PET PET uler the portico, near it, is in- stbed on marble, the first papal b for the jubilee, the work of Biiface VIII. The splendour of tl interior is minute: it does not cisist in a grand ensemble, but in tt extraordinary magnificence of e v part. The sculptures are of gkntic proportions, and have in g eral a grand effect. The mar- b doves with olive branches, ap- p.r at first as if they might be tched with the hand, but on a n rer approach they prove to be w high, and appear as though t\f were flying higher every step v approach. To the middle aisle ti e is a magnificent marble pave- n it, and its ceiling is ornamented m gilt stucco worked in grotesque. T altar, called the confessional o he apostles, is situated in the otre of the cross ais'e, under the g id cupola : under it are said to b aid half the body of St. Peter, a half that of St. Paul. This w the site of the ancient Vatican ci etery. The shrine has over it a :anopy, that was erected by pe Urban VIII. at an expense 100,000 crowns for the vvork- rr iship alone. he grand cupola is said by some tcqual, and by many to exceed, tl of the Pantheon. The ball is tvve palms in diameter, and the ci s, cast in bronze, is twenty-five fe high. The inside is covered W; mosaic work. If we compare tr cupola of St. Peter's, with that 01 St. Paul's, in London, it will apar, that, though the one is dtdedlyan imitation of the for- 01 . there is a material difference in le decorations. The buttresses ol he dome tower in St. Peter's, thigh each decorated with two er tired columns and pilasters, by piecting from the cylindric wall, hii a disagreeable effect. The d< e is pierced with three rays of little dormer windows, which add little to the effect of the exterior, and only serve to light the interior staircases. The following is a com- parative scale of the dimensions of St. Paul's at London, and St. Peter's at Rome, in English feet. HEIGHT. the cross The turrets as they are at St. Paul's, and were at St. Peter*!. To top of statues in front First columns (Corinthian ) . . . . The ir bases and pedestals Capitals Diameter Composite pillars at Si. Paul's, and Tuscan at St. Peter's. Triangle of mez/o-reliev >, with its cornice Bases of the cupoia to the pedes tals of the pillars Pillars of the cupola. Pedestals and bases Capitals, architrave, frieze, and cornice Cornice to outward slope of cu- pola Lantern Diameter of ball „ Cross Oulward slope of cupobi Cupola and lantern from cornice to top of cross Height of niches in front First windows LENGTH. Whole length of church anil porch Porch within Square b^ the cupola From the door within to the cu- pola From cupola to end of tribune. . BREADTH. Church, within the doors of the poxtjcoa Front with the turrets without the turrets Church and their naves Church and widest chapels .... Porch within Nave at the door At the third pillar and Iribuna. . Side aisles Outward diameter of the cupola Inward diameter Square by cupola Turrets Outward diameter of the lantern 237 *8 370 4;i7£ 222 2S9£ 135 175 33 74 13 19 5 10 4 9 25 25£ 18 38 28 3 J 5 4 12 M 40 25» 50 03 9 ;; u 50 £9 240 280 14 20 14 20 500 729 50 2 18 328 190 313 17 1(37 510 I8CJ 3G4 1 10 .118 130 255 180 301 20 40 40 67 40 73 17 29 145 189 100 138 43 35 77 18 36 P H A Pevensey Castle, in Sussex, from the quantity of Roman bricks employed in it, is believed to have been constructed out of the ruins of some Roman fortress. The ex- ternal walls enclose an area of seven acres. The towers are toler- ably high, to the height of twenty to twenty-five feet. The principal entrance is from the west, between two round towers, in which are considerable layers of Roman brick, about twenty feet from the ground, and four or rive asunder. There are no Roman bricks in the interior works, and they are only found in the north and west sides of the outer. It is related, that in 1710, a workman having to make his way under the wall in the moat, dis- covered the foundation to consist of piles, planked over with slabs of an extraordinary substance, which appeared to be not in the least decayed. Phalange, (Or.) or Scutulce, a name given, by Vitruvius, to a kind of wooden rollers, which were used to transport heavy burdens from one place to another. Pharos, (Gr. from ^wc, light, and opau, to see,) amongst the ancients, a light-house. The name was first given to a celebrated light- house on an island opposite Alex- andria in Egypt. It appears to have been a magnificent building, but the accounts of the ancients are evidently much exaggerated. The Rhodian colossus also served as a light house. See Light-house, and Eddystone. The pharos of Alex- andria is represented on many medals of that city, and on some we observe Isis, with the surname Pharia, entering the port in a ship with full sail. There were many of these buildings in Italy. Sue- tonius speaks of one in the isle of Caprsea. Stephanus of Byzantium, mentions a celebrated pharos at 238 P H E the mouth of the river Chrv- rhoas, on the Thracian Bosphois. A celebrated pharos was, in lA still in existence at Boulogne; mer, Bononia, which was also kmk by the name of Gessoriacum. r j !S is supposed to have been the. s: e that is mentioned by Suetoniusn the life of Caligula, who built :. This tower was an octagon, and ejh side was, according to Bucher twenty-four or twenty-five feet, t had twelve galleries, one above e other, each worked in the thicki g of the wall, about a foot arua half wide, thus diminishing by - grees towards the summit. It \ \ been known for ages by the n? e of turris ordans or turris ordenk and it was called by the people f Boulogne tour d'ordre, all win names are supposed to havebi derived from turris ardens, or > burning tower, from the fire whi was kept burning all night at i top. A plate of this tower, frori design which was preserved t Boulogne, is given by Montfauc, Supplem, a l'Antiq. expl. torn. . pi. 50, and he has given anotheif a similar construction on plate .. On pi. 50, he has presented us wi an engraving from a medal f Apamea, with the representati of a pharos upon it, and anot: from a medallion. PiiA itiLLON, a little pharos. \ Phatnomata, (^ori'^/mra,) i name given by the Greeks to arc! I or vaulted ceilings. Pheasantry, a building r rearing pheasants in. Phengites, (Gr.) a firm ?1 brilliant marble discovered in Ci- padocia, in the reign of Nero, ?1 still found there. Specimens ! also found in Germany and Fran , and in England, in Derbyshire al other counties. It was used amc, r the ancients in the construction f windows; and it was employed \ P H E P H I th construction of Nero's golden hc;e, and of the temple of For- tu : this temple, which was en- tity built of it, had no windows, arl yet the interior was quite light Jn the doors were shut, owing to transparency. Pliny says, that it is customary to construct bee- hiis of this material, for the pur- pc of overlooking the work of the be . Domitian had a portico, in ; h he was in the constant habit of promenading, enclosed with p| igites, that he might be en- attl to see every thing that was pn'ng on without-side. Phen- yl ; bears the semblance, when di up, of a rude irregular mass, ve shattery and friable, but excel- In most marbles in brightness, ai far surpassing them in trans- pt ncy. The colour is a pale st .v colour, inclining to a rich e, the yellow tint more deeply ted in some places than others, uai 1 (speakingof the Erictheion) jines that the windows were 1 ;d with transparent windows, or ihengites : that, stoae, however, se is not to have been known until tbkime of Nero. They were, per- h; ciosed with lapis specularis, w I), though a general term, is cc'monly supposed to signify talc, orhica. Glass might even have bd employed, but this was not lily; for though in many parts ol Greece I discovered fragments otiiass vases, and several glass bdes, in the Athenian sepulchres, yt I never found any fragments pt ectly flat, as the glass used in w lows must be. It is said that a ass window, almost entire, was di'Dvered many years ago amongst th ruins of Pompeii ; and it would aj'rar from Pliny, that it was used b] he Greeks as well as the Ro- ws; but probably not in early tu s." Mica, phengites, and horn w ■> according to the best evi- dence, (see Vopiscus, Seneca, and Tertullian,) the earliest sorts of glazing. The invention of glass mirrors is also of uncertain date. The representations of metallic mir- rors are found in the most ancient female sepulchres, and are even mentioned in Exodus. They were of bronze or mixed metals; but specula of glass are first mentioned in a work attributed to Alexander Aphrodisius, who lived about the end of the second century. (Dod- weli.) Phials, or vases, u sed by the an- cients in building vaults, to render them as strong as possible. The apertures were placed at the top, and within and around them they pour- ed small stones and cement. Denon thus describes arches of this con- struction, which he found at Vianisi in Sicily. A sort of phials, eight inches long by three wide, without bottoms, and filled with mortar, having their necks introduced into each other, in a row, covered over again with a general coat of plaster, on which a brick was laid flat, then a fresh bed of mortar, and another brick upon this, like the former. It was scarcely possible ever to de- stroy semicircular arches fabricated in this manner, and it was with the utmost difficulty that he could wrench off a few fragments. Ac- cording to Alberti, the phials were used to ease the weight, and they were made without bottoms, to hinder the possibility of water col- lecting in them, and thus rendering them heavy : and he says that the ce- ment was very light, but extremely tenacious, •* et cemcnta super infu- dereex lapide minime gravi sed alio-f quin tenaci " (See Denon's Sicily, p. 317. Alberti, de re sedifieatoria, f. xlv.) Philo, a Grecian mentioned by Valerius Maximus and Cicero, as the architect of the Peiraean docks, 239 P H R PI A and celebrated also for his elo- quence. V. Max. viii. 12. Cic. de Orat. i. 14. Piiocicum, an edifice among the ancient Greeks, in which were held assemblies of the deputies from all the Phocaean towns. It was situ- ated near the city of Daulis, in Phocis, and is described by Pau- sanias in the fifth chapter of his tenth book. Phoenicians. The Phoenicians were one of the most polished and industrious nations of antiquity. Almost all the arts flourished among them, as is attested by the so much boasted magnificence of Tyre and Sidon. Solomon em- ployed the Phoenician artists in the construction of the temple at Jeru- salem. Strabo and Appian speak of the beauty and prodigious height of the houses of Tyre and Carthage. The temples were enriched with statues of gold. The grandeur of the city of Tyre is described in the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth chapters of Ezekiel. The Phoeni- cians built several cities distinguish- ed for their magnificence. Hiram, king of Tyre and Sidon, and the friend and ally of Solomon, is mentioned as the founder of many palaces and cities. Some have conjectured that the Phoenician ar- chitects constructed the principal part of their edifices with timber, as the mountains of Lebanus sup- plied them with it in great quan- tities, and its cedar is much cele- brated. Phryctorion, ( Gr. ) a tower among the Greeks, on which was placed a sentinel, who gave notice of the approach of an hostile force by means of fire. Thus in the Agamemnon of iEsehylus, a sen- tinel watches from the top of the palace of that hero over the country in the direction towards Troy, and at length he perceives the fire on a 240 ce tower, which announces the ft f the city. A machine of this n i e , for the same purpose, was usi ancient theatres. Phrygian Marble, see 1 ble. Phrygian Stone, a subst vc employed by the ancients in he process of dyeing. ■ Phygalia, a city of Arc ia, where are still found, among < ;e r ruins, fine remains of the tempi of Apollo Epicurius, which was o he Doric order, has six columns ii he fronts, and fifteen in the h\;$. There was also a range of sii- columns, abutting against thse of the Parthenon in form., he sculptures of the frieze are W preserved in the British Musam. The substance of which the te )le is built, is a fine close-grained stpe or litharge, which is found ir he vicinity : its colour a light br with a suffusion of yellow. (P well, Stuart, Chandler.) Piazza, (Piache, Ital.) a P the •id H PIC P I c med archway, or vaulting, sup- rted by pillars; a portico. Picket, in fortification, a stake Lrp at one end, to mark out the bund and angles of a fortirlca- , where the engineer is laying Jjwn the plan of it, to hold toge- i r fascines or faggots in any work 1st up in haste, and for several jier purposes. Pict's House, or Burgh's Cas- is, a name given to some singular mains of the ancient inhabitants cob (, North Britain, which are found lquent in the Scottish Islands. !. ^metimes they stand in little holms i the midst of lochs, with a road eli, lined of stones to connect them a h the island ; sometimes on high Mi 1 d by the sea, near the brink of ] cipitous rocks, but much oftener ( the skirts of sandy bays, and in t vicinity of landing places. They i to be found in the countries Km which the Picts originally tine. There is a remarkable one j.Sualsburg, near Drontheim ; and other called the Castle of Yms- I g, in Westrogothia. (Dalberg, Vicia Antiqua et Hod.) Many of tin are still to be seen on the s res of Caithness, of Sunderland, 1r si of East Ross, and the vale of ( p.elg, near Bernera, contains f|r, (Pinkerton.) The founda- t is of several have been dis- c ered on a plain near Perth ; and I I of Dornadilla, in Strathnaver, i: o less distinguished for its struc- t than the very large one at T nrobin castle. But they are nut frequent, and in the best pre- station, m the northern isles. %y are almost without exception a circular base, rising in the ■ foe of a cone, with its top some- »yt blunted. Stones of a conve- rt form, and of a large size, * lout cement, are the materials o hich they are constructed. They a of two kinds. The smaller, 2H which seem to be the oldest, con- sist of one thick circular wall, in the inside of which there are some- times places which might have served for beds. The larger kind is far more complicated in its in- ternal structure. Besides the outer wall, which it has in common with the former, it has also an inner one, concentric with, and distant about two feet from the former. The walls sometimes meet at no great height. In others they ascend parallel to each other, at the dis- tance of little more than two feet, and this space, which is entered by a door of two feet high from without, is occupied by a stair of a winding spiral form, from the bottom to the top of the building. The largest kind are surrounded by a broad deep ditch, and a sort of rampart. One of the finest that has been examined is at Quanterness, under the brow of the hill of Wideford, a little more than a mile west from the road or harbour of Kirkwall. Its external form is that of a trun- cated cone, in height about four- teen feet, in circumference at the base three hundred and eighty-four feet. It is probable that it was surrounded by two walls, but the quantity of rubbish rendered this circumstance difficult to ascertain. Internally it consists of several cells or apartments, the principal one of which is in the centre, built with large flat stones, without cement, the one immediately projecting over that below, so as gradually to con- tract the space within as the build- ing rises, till the opposite walls meet at the top, when they are bound together by large stones laid across. Six other apartments, of a similar form and construction, but of little more than half the dimen- sions, communicate with the central one, each by a passage of about two feet square, on a level with the 241 PIC P I E floor. There does not appear to have been any contrivance for the admission of light. The earth at the bottom of the cells, as deep as could be dug, was of a dark colour, of a greasy feel, and of a fetid odour, plentifully intermingled with bones, both of men, of birds, and of some domestic animals. In one of the apartments an entire human skeleton, in a prone attitude, was found ; but in the others, the bones were not only separated from one another, but most of them divided into small fragments. From their appearance some have conjectured the inhabitants to have been can- nibals. Fig. 7, (in Plate Castle, C. 65.) is a ground plan of this Pict's House, fig. 8 is an eleva- tion of the principal room. The dimensions of the apartments are as follows. Largest apartment : length 21 feet 6 inches; breadth 6:6; height 11 : 6. Apartment No. 1.: 1. 8:11; b.3:6; h.6:ll; No. 2.: I. 7:2; b. 3:9; h.8:7; No. 3.: 1.10:0; b. 4:1; h. 8:6; No. 4.: 1. 9:9; b. 4:4; h. 8 : 1 ; No. 5.: 1.10:7; b. 4:1; h. 7:6; No. 6.: 1. 9:5; b. 4:5; h. 7:0; Passage into the great room No. 7 : L 22: 0; b. 1 : 9 ; h. 2 : 0. The passages from the great room to the small ones, were in breadth and height about the same as No. 7, and their length about 3 three feet 7 inches. (Barry's Orkney Islands ; Pennant's Tour.) Picts' Wall, see Adrian's Wall, and Severus's Wall. Picturesque, " It is said of every object in general, which pro- duces, or can produce, by a striking singularity, a fine effect in a pic- ture." (Millin.) Perhaps the most correct definition that can be given of the picturesque in architecture would be, the agreement of the style of a building, with the situa- tion in which it is placed. A cot- 242 tage may be extremely picturesqu, but a cottage by the side of a p lace would have as ridiculous ; effect, as a fine smooth building a rustic situation. On this subjc the reader may consult Gilpii work, and the useful little boc Fosbrooke's Tourist's Grammar. Piedouche, (Fr.) a little squa! base, smoothed and wrought wj mouldings, which serves to suppi a bust or statue drawn half way, any small figure in relief. Piedroit, (Fr.) a square pii partly hid in the wall, differing frd a pilaster in having no regular be or capital. Pier, (pierre, a stone, Fr.) mass of stone, &c. opposed to t force of the sea, or of a great riv. or supporting a heavy vault, t arches of a bridge, &c. See Ca son. Pierres levees, and Pier! debout, (Fr. horizontal and uprii stones,) the name given in Fran to the cromlechs, circles, and otl monuments of the ancient Dru which are found in various par particularly in Poitou and B tagne. The pierres debout are j upright stones, and the transve stone the pierre levee. Caylus, the fourth and sixth volumes of Recueil d'Antiquites, has given I gravings of several of these antiq ties. The pierre levee of the T bauchere, in the department of Vendee, is one of the largest tH has been described. M. Mazer. Poitiers, measured it in 1785, wh it was twenty-five feet long, sev - teen broad, and more than lb thick. It is supported by rje pierres debout, each about six 1 1 high, forming a grotto twenty-f it feet long by sixteen. From ex - vations made by the learned Be- dictine Dom Fonteneau, and by . Mazet, under many of these stoi p« they appear very commonly to b e PIE oeen places of sepulture. In Poi- ou there are pierres debout, which ise perpendicularly from nine to wenty-six and twenty-seven feet. There are found Druidical monu- ments at no great distance from Uontmorillon ; one described by Uillin, (torn. iv. p. 730) consists of horizontal stone, more inclined to •val than square, eighteen feet ong, fourteen wide, and three hick. It had four supports, but nlv one remains at present in its pright position. The most remarkable monument f this kind is found near the little D\vn of Carnac, three leagues from ie town of Auray, in the depart- ment of Morbihan. It is described y De Cambry in his " Monumens eltiques." The road from Auray ) Carnac is extremely difficult ; it traversed by hills and cross roads, hich are almost impassable. There •innot be a wilder or more deserted ' strict. Some long stones, placed ! i the hills and on the hillocks of ! md, precede the great theatre of hich you are in quest. On the ft and afar off we saw in the ho- zon heaps of stones, which we oided, taking them for parts of alls or some ruined fortress : we ached at length one of the bounds the monument towards the west, 'will not attempt to describe to 'U my surprise at the sight of ese wonderful masses stretching wards the horizon, in the midst the desert which surrounds them ; this monument, so simple and ijestic, so prodigious from its ex- it, and time labour it must have ; t." These stones are placed in 1 ven straight lines, which are m thirty to thirty-three feet dis- it; and M. de Cambry supposes 1 m to have been erected for i ronomical purposes. " I have » asured," he says, "the largest I nes at Carnac. The most ele- P I L vated are twenty-one or twenty-two feet above the ground. Their breadth and thickness vary as well as their height, but some of them are enormous, especially in that part near Kervario, near the mill of Kerner. One of them is twenty- two feet high, twelve broad, and six thick, exclusive of what is con- cealed by the sand ; it must weigh 256,800 lbs., supposing the cubic foot of granite at 2001bs." They are all of this material. There are now about 4,000, and a great num- ber have been destroyed. They are also described by Caylus, in the sixth volume of his Antiquites. M. Boulay, an enlightened inhabi- tant of Auray, told Cambry that they extended formerly nearly-three leagues along the coast. Several views of this monument are given in " the Celtic Druids," by Godfrey Higgins, which are copied from Cambry 's work. A description of the monument of Carnac is also given in the Archseologia, volume xxii. PiLiE, square blocks placed upon the ancient epistylia, immediately over the columns, for supporting the timbers of the roof. The term was also given to buttresses built against the walls of a mole. Pilaster, (Fr.) a kind of square column, which has its proportions and ornaments, such as flutings, &c. like those of the columns of the order from which it is named. It is generally engaged in the wall, having a projection of the third, fourth, fifth, or even only the sixth of its breadth. The pilaster must not be regarded as an imitation of the columns; it owes its origin to the necessity of giving more solidity to the walls of the cella of temples, where it was first used under the name of antce. These antae or pi- lasters served to strengthen the corners of the cella and the pro- 243 PIL PIL jeeting walls of the pronaos. To give them more elegance, and to serve at the same time for orna- ment to the walls of the cella, they gave them a base and capital. In Doric temples, the pilasters as well as the columns were generally with- out base : this was not, however, always the case, as we see in the temple of Minerva Sunias. In Ionic and Corinthian temples, the pilasters had always a base and ca- pital; both, however, differing from the bases and capitals of the co- lumns of the same temple. These pilaster bases consisted of several members, sometimes plain, and at others ornamented with leaves, &c. In Ionic temples, the capitals of the pilasters were sometimes richly charged with ornaments which bore a great resemblance to what we de- nominate Arabesque. In the ruins of the temple of Apollo Didymceus, near Miletus, we find these capitals adorned with flowers and leaves ele- gantly interlaced, and others where genii are seen rising among the foliage. The capitals of the pilas- ters of the portico at Psestum have a different form. Their profile con- sists of a line which reaches to the abacus, where it forms a kind of volute. Vitruvius says expressly, that pilasters ought to be the same breadth as the columns with which they range, and that they ought not to be diminished; and amongst all the monuments of Grecian archi- tecture, the portico of Psestum is the only one which offers us an example of pilasters with any dimi- nution. It was not till a much later period, perhaps among the Romans only, that pilasters were made to bear the same capitals, bases, and ornaments, as the co- lumns behind which they stood. The Pantheon, the temple of Anto- ninus and Faustina, that of Mars, the basilica of Antoninus, and other 244 edifices at Rome, afford example; In the age of Augustus, the pilasteJ were sometimes almost entirelv d( tached from the wall against whic! they were placed, an example J which may be seen in the portio of Octavia : and about the sam period began the practice of usin| pilasters without any columns bf fore them ; of this the Pantheo furnishes us with an example. Th pilasters of these edifices havi however, no diminution. The trj umphal arch of Trajan, which beai at present the name of Constantim exhibits pilasters diminished in th same proportion as the columr behind which they stand. Th example, however, was rarely fo lowed by the ancients. In moder times some few architects hav given diminution to pilasters. Pj lasters are distinguished by variou names, according to their orde their figure, their ornaments, appl cation, &c. Pilaster, Demi, or MembretU a pilaster supporting an arch. Pilaster Masses, in Gothi architecture, rectangular pillars c portions of wall, with impost mould ings. Pile, a stake or beam of timbe driven firmly into the ground, ti form the foundation of building: piers of bridges, &c. In founds tions they are only employed whe the foundation is suspected of b< ing unsound. Amsterdam, an, some other cities which have beej built in similar situations, are who:!; built upon piles. They make tl foundation solid, by reaching dee into the earth, to a firmer stratur than that of the surface. Piles aj sometimes driven in rows, to fori; the faces of wharfs, banks of river piers for the sea, &c. for whic purpose they are sometimes drive in rather an inclined position. Th( are also used in the formation PIL P I L coffer dams, as a temporary defence gainst the water, in laying: the oundations of bridges, &c. (see Coffer-dam.) The breach in the >anks of the Thames at Dagen- iam, was stopped by means of love-tailed piles, or piles mortised nto each other by a dove-tail joint, ^iles are generally formed of squared imber, but for laying foundations, nd in other cases, when they are o be driven quite into the ground, ,mall trees may be used without quaring. The pointed end should ie shod with iron to enter the ;round, and the other end bound vith a iron hoop, to prevent it from ieing split by the blows of the )ile-driver. In forming a tank, or offer-dam, pile-planks are gene- ally used, which have grooves ormed in their adjacent edges, to eceive tongues or slips of wood, /hich make their joints quite ; ght. The practice of laying founda- ions on piles was common among he ancients. Some authors ima- ine also, that they trace the use f the caisson in laying foundations jp rivers, &c. in the ninth book of he iEneid, ver. 710 et seq., where r irgil speaks of the piles which are the moles of the famous bridge ff Baiae, and in the twelfth chapter f the fifth book of Vitruvius. In the early part of the eighth entury, the monastery of Croy- md, in Lincolnshire, was erected, 'his is described by the historian, ngulphus, to have been a stone uilding, succeeding the wooden ratory of Sr. Guthlac ; and as the larshy soil on which it was situ- ted, made it necessary to form an "tificial foundation, that was done y driving into the ground a vast umber of oaken and ashen piles, id bringing from a distance, in ^ats, earth and sand to compose solid surface. (Ingulphus, Hist. i Croyland, in the Script, post Be- dam.) This circumstance is men- tioned, by a manuscript poem on the life of St. Guthlac, cited by Camden, and preserved in the British Museeum. " Nunc exercet ibi se munificentia regis, Et magnum teniplum magno innlitnitie con- dit, At cum tain mollis, tarn lubrica, tarn male constans Fundamenta pnlus non ferret saxea, palos Praecipit itifigi quercino robore caesos, Leucarunique novem spatioiate feitur arena ; Inqne solum mutatur humus, sulTultaque tali CeJJa basi multo stat consummata labore." Pile Engine, or Pile-driver, a machine invented by M.Vauloue, to drive in the piles for the founda- tions of Westminster Bridge. A great improvement has been made in it by Mr. S. Bunce. Pile Planks, have their ends sharpened to drive into the ground, and form a dam in a canal, &c. Pillage, a word sometimes used for a square pillar, with a round base and capital standing behind a column, to bear up the arches. Pillar, (pilar, Span, pilier, Fr.) an irregular, and rude column. The supporters in Saxon, Norman, and Gothic architecture are pillars, not columns. The form and di- mensions of pillars are guided by no rules : they have generally a kind of foot or base, and a sort of cornice above; but are sometimes without either. Amongst the peo- ple of remote antiquity, particularly those of the north and west, large pillars, or rough single, often pyra- midal stones were erected as me- morials, as sepulchres, sometimes for religious purposes, and many of them were objects of worship: after the introduction of Chris- tianity, this reverence was trans- ferred to crosses, erected in various 245 Y 1 S places, and the ancient pillars of their pagan ancestors were often adorned with the addition of the same symbol. These monuments, perhaps, bear affinity to the Egyp- tian obelisks, and had probably the same origin. They are supposed to have had at first some symbolical analogy with the Indian ling ham. At the earl of Pembroke's mansion at Wilton, near Salisbury, is pre- served a pillar formed of one piece of white Egyptian granite, nearly fourteen feet high, and twenty-two inches in diameter. It was brought from the temple of Venus Genetrix at Rome, and bears an inscription to Astarte. In common language, the terms pillar and column are often used as synonymous. Pinacotheca, (Gr. from nival, a picture, and drjKt], a repository,) amongst the Romans and Greeks, a picture gallery. Pine, ( ttlvoq, Gr. ) This tree was well known to the ancients. Its leaves were employed by the Greeks to decorate their Pans, Bacchanals, &c. The species call- ed pinus cedrus, or cedar, was much used in buildings. See Cedar. Pinion, in mechanics, a lesser wheel which plays in the teeth of a larger. Pinnacle, (from the Lat.) the top or roof of a house terminating in a point, most frequently used in Gothic architecture. Amongst the ancients it was almost entirely con- fined to temples. Pinnacles with vanes mark the fifteenth century. Pinning, fastening tiles toge- ther with oak pegs. Pir^us, see Port. Pisa, a city of Etruria, of con- siderable antiquity, and some cele- brity in the arts. One of its churches, called Santa Maria delta Spina, from the report that among its relics are preserved part of our Saviour's crown of thorns, is a very PIS singular edifice : it is situated c the banks of the Arno, is suppose to have been built about 1231 was repaired in 1300, and is square low building, of rather whimsical and grotesque appea ance, being of that style of arch tecture, which is named in Ital Gotico-Moresco, which was intn duced in the eleventh century, aj parentiy from the East. The oth< kind or Gothic, the Gotico-Tedesa or German Gothic, which is h some supposed to be an improve ment of the former, is exhibited i the cathedral of Pisa, which, wit the edifices pertaining to it, thi baptistry, belfry, and cemetery, perhaps one of the finest piles ( buildings of the kind in the work Its erection dates in the elevent century. Its campanile, or belfn is better known as the leanin, tower of Pisa, (consisting of eigh stories, divided by cornices, an each surrounded by pillars an] arches,) and which inclines fourtee: feet from the perpendicular in ai elevation of one hundred and eight feet. There are several other mag nificent churches at Pisa, beside the cathedral. The remains of a; ancient aqueduct is found in th vicinity, and a modern one, sup ported by one thousand arches, i carried to Leghorn. See Cam panile. Pi say, see Pise. Piscina, among the Romans was, (1) a fish-pond, (2) a shallov reservoir for persons to bathe n who did not know how to swim, o! (3) a place for watering horses am washing clothes. In ecclesiastics architecture, the piscina was a bow for water, generally in a niche i the wall of the church, in which th; priest laved his hands. Piscinai or remains of them, may be foun in almost all our ancient churches: as there was generally one attache P I s P I s every altar. Properly speaking, t was a basin or sink, in which be priest washed his hands while )erforming the sacred rites at the iltar, in allusion to the text, " I will •/ash my hands in innocency," (Ps. ;xvi. 6.) and where all consecrated i-aste, or impure water, &c. that ould be so disposed of, was emp- led out. There is a great variety a their form, and some were as emarkable for plainness and sim- )licity as others were for their taste- ul elegance of design, and richness >f sculptural execution. The latter ;ind are found chiefly in buildings »f the Gothic style. Fig. 12, PI. ?astle, C. 71, is a Piscina from trinity church, Coventry. In PI. Carpentry, C. 44, is given a figure f a Piscina at St. Alban's. Pis- inae were sometimes doubled. Pise, or Pisay, (Fr.) a very use- ul and economical kind of build- lg, which has been long practised 1 the district of Lyons, in France, t was known and practised at a ery early period of antiquity, as ppears from a passage in Pliny's Natural History, (lib. xxxiv. c. 14,) hich is an exact description of this Tanner of building. M. Goiffon, ho published a treatise on Pise, in 772, believes that the art was jractised by the Romans, and v pinks that by them it was intro- uced into France; and the Abbe lozier, in his Journal de Physique, ivslhat he discovered some traces f it in Catalonia ; so that Spain, ke France, has a single province i which this ancient mode of lilding has been preserved. We lail abridge the account of M. rancois Cointereaux, who pub- ihed a work at Paris, in 1791, lly describing this mode of con- duction. Its value may be appre- ated from his assertion of " the )ssibility of raising the walls of )uses two or even three stories high, with earth only, which will sustain floors loaded with the hea- viest weights, and of building the largest manufactories in this man- ner. 1 " It has been of late years in- troduced into England, and speci- mens may be seen at Woburn ab- bey, and some other places. Its du- rability is fully shown by the state- ment of the Rev. Mr. Jancour, who resided at Montbrison, where he says the church was a remarkable specimen of this kind of building : it is about eighty feet long, forty broad, and fifty high; the walls are built en pise, eighteen inches thick, and crepe or rough -cast on the outside with lime and sand. Soon after his arrival, the church, by some accident, was burnt, and re- mained unroofed for about twelve months, exposed to rain and frost. As it was suspected that the walls had sustained much damage by the fire and the inclemency of the season, and might give way, it was determined to throw them down partially, and leave only the lower parts standing ; but even this was not done without much difficulty, such was the firmness and hard- ness these walls had acquired : the church had stood above eighty years, and all the repairs it requir- ed, were only to give it, every twelve or fifteen years, a new coating of rough-cast on the outside. The word pise, or en pise, is a technical term used first in the country, where this kind of building is in common practice. The man- ner of operation is merely by com- pressing earth in moulds or cases, that we may arrive at building houses of any size or height. All earths are fit for the purpose, when they have not the stillness of clay, or the lightness of poor lands; all earths which are fit for vegetation ; brick earth ; and, more particularly, strong earths with a mixture of PIS PIS small gravel. The following are given as indications that the earth is fit for this purpose : (1) when a spade or plough brings up large lumps of earth at a time ; (2) when arable land lies in clods or lumps; (3) when field-mice have made their abode in it ; (4) when the roads of a village, having been worn away by the water continually running over and through them, are lower than the contiguous lands, and the sides of these roads support them- selves almost upright ; (5) when we find a difficulty in breaking the little clods of earth in the road with the finger ; and (6) wherever deep ruts are observed in the road. In digging cellars and trenches for building, it most commonly happens that what comes out of them is fit for this purpose. When the earth that is near at hand is not of the proper kind, it may very often be rendered so by mixing. The principle of mixing it is very simple ; strong earths must be mixed with light, those in which clay predominates with others that are composed more of sand, those of a rich glutinous substance with others poorer and more barren. The proportion of the mixture must be determined by the degree in which these different qualities prevail, and must be learnt by practice. With the earth may be mixed some small pebbles, gravel, rubbish of mortar, &c. but all ani- mal or vegetable substances, or any thing liable to corruption, must be carefully excluded. Well-worked earth, in which there is a mixture of gravel, in about two years' time becomes so hard, that a chisel must be applied to break it, as though it were freestone. • The following is one of the experiments recommend- ed, to ascertain the goodness of the earth. Take a wooden tub without a bottom, dig a hole in the ground, fix a flat piece of stone level at the 248 bottom, place the tub on it, a> ram it tight all round with eartl then ram into the tub the earth y< intend to try (which must be di from a little below the surface the ground, that it may not be tj dry or too moist,) putting in each time about the thickness three or four fingers' breadth, ramming it well in, till it is filled > to the brim ; make the earth at ti surface of the tub perfectly smoo and even ; then take up the ti from out of the ground, with tl earth, or pise, in it; turn the ti upside-down, and let the pise oi or, if it should stick fast, let it d: in the air for twenty-four hour when you will find it loose enoue to drop out of itself; keep th lump of pise exposed to the ai but sheltered from any rain th; might chance to fall, and if it cor tinue without cracking or cruml ling, and increase daily in densit and compactness, it is a certai proof that it is fit for building, the earth be not well pressed roun the outside of the tub while filling the pressure of that which you at ramming in the inside will assu: edly burst it, even though the hooj. be of iron. The earth, as dug u for pise, should be well raked witi a rake of about an inch and a ha between each tooth, so as to leav. in it the small stones and pebbles which are no larger than a wall nut, as they will add to the strengt of the mass. In mixing differer kinds of earth, a portion of eac should be thrown alternately on th heap, in the proportions found re quisite, whilst another person mixe them together. No more eart; should be prepared at once than J sufficient for one day s work, an; if rain be expected, you must hav at hand planks or mats to cover with, the moment it begins; 1c the earth cannot be used whe PIS PIS J e || 5r too dry or too wet : if the , Ijir, the workmen will be obliged to ait till it has gained its proper cc istency; if the former, it may , ea v be moistened by sprinkling it , wl | ' a little water ; when wet in ai considerable degree, the work- y placing at the bottom of e mould a board about five or 21 six inches long, and an inch thick, resting on the opposite angle, and so broad that there may remain on each side, four or five inches of the earth of the wall, which should be about eighteen inches thick; and the board, being concealed in the body of the pise, will be out of the reach of the air or of damp, and of course there will be no danger of its decaying. The board should be rough from the saw. These boards need only be placed at the angles of exterior walls, and in those parts where the partition walls join it. It is also advisable, particularly where the earth is not of a very good quality, to put ends of planks into the pise, after it has been rammed to about half the height of the mould : they should be only ten or eleven inches long, to leave, as be- fore, a few inches of the earth of the wall on each side. Having deter- mined the height of each story, boards three or four feet long should be placed beforehand in the pise where the beams are to be fixed, and the beams may be laid on for each story, as soon as the mould is moved for the place, the pise being continued as high as the place you intend for the roof. The openings for the doors and windows must be left, as you build the walls, by plac- ing within the mould one or two of the heads of the mould, as may be required, where the opening is to commence. They should be made sloping a little, to leave room for the frames and sashes. The chim- ney pieces are laid in the same manner as in common building, and the flues are made of brick- work, and firmly connected with the walls. The apartments may be very handsomely finished without making any jambs to the inside doors, as the facings of wood to the earthen wall will render them unnecessary. In making very long 249 P I s P L A walls, as for parks, &c. it will be found requisite to set several moulds to work at the same time in different places, for the sake of speed. The rich traders of Lyons have no other way than this of building their country houses, and many are known to have lasted for upwards of a hundred and sixty years. An outside covering by painting in fresco, the way most commonly used, entirely conceals the nature of the building, and many of these edifices are extremely handsome. The plaster for the outside of pise walls differs from that used on other walls, and it requires to be laid on at a proper time. When a house is begun in February, and complet- ed in April, the covering may be laid on in autumn, that is, five or six months after it is finished ; if finished in the beginning of Novem- ber, it may be laid on in the ensu- ing spring. If it be laid on before the dampness of the wall is gone off, it will be liable to come off. To prepare the walls for plastering, they should be notched with the point of a hatchet or a hammer, the little dents thus made being very near each other. The wall should afterwards be run over with a stiff brush, to detach all loose particles. A scaffold may be quick- ly erected in the holes which the joists of the mould have left. Two kinds of plaster may be used — rough-cast, or stucco. The former consists of a small quantity of mor- tar, diluted with water in a tub, to which a trowel of pure lime is added, so as to make it about the thickness of cream. Stucco is only poor mortar, made in a clean place near the lime-pit, and carried to the masons on the scaffold. The rough-cast is laid on by first sprink- ling the wall with a brush, and then dipping another brush, made 250 of bits of reed, box, &c. intc he rough-cast, which is throwr! as equally as possible against the 4|; as he lowers the scaffold, the Jfc! man can fill up the joist-holes th stones, or old plaster, &c. In < c _ coing, one man sprinkles the ill with a brush, and lays on stucco with a trowel, while am er follows him, sprinkles water er the mortar thus laid, and srnchs it with a wood flout. It ma whitened with lime as it is laid Pit, (cavea, Lat.) the part theatre between the galleries id the stage. Pitch, the vertical angle a roof; the proportion between ie height and span. When the le th of the rafters is equal to the bre th of the building, it is denominat a Gothic pitch. Pitch ing-Piece, a horizc al timber, with one of its ends wei into the wall, at the top of a nh( of steps, to support the upper id of the rough strings. Pix, in the architecture of ie middle ages, a box or shrine, sCe- times called a tabernacle, anci- tended to contain the host, or b* secrated wafer, suspended u i the cibarium, or canopy of ie altar. Placard, the decorations | chamber door. Place, an open piece of grc id surrounded with buildings, gp rally decorated with a statue, » lumn, or some other ornanien B the middle. Two terms were p by the Romans to designate lie place : — area, which meai a wide unappropriated space ; id forum, which was a place destpi for carrying on public business Place, in geometry, is a ceiM extent wherein each point mayn- differently serve for the solutioiof an indetermined problem, whe it is to be resolved geometric.)'. P L A '[ Sivte place, is when the point tin serves tor the problem is found in line, whether right or curved, that by reason of the want of o condition only, to render the ir ,|lem determinate altogether. So I place, is when three condi- [ o are wanting to the determina- te of the point sought, and so it vibe found in a solid; and this ma be included under either a / pU:?, curve, or mixed superficies, anithose either determinate or in- itely extended. Superjicial / , is when, there being two con- ins wanting to determine any that resolves any problem, point may be taken through- u the extension of superficies, whher plane or curve. ,ace of Arms, the body of a ! i ss. The place of arms of a , h, or of an attack, is a post net it, sheltered by a parapet, or epf'ment. . a fond, (Fr.) or platfond, the cei * of a room ; the bottom of it theuojection of the larmier of the 3ii corjche ; a soffit. a in Tiles, or Plane tiles , tilt :hat have their surface planes. an, (Fr.) the draught of a ui ng, taken on the ground floor, she ng the distribution, form, and i\ t, of its several rooms, passages, c In plans of buildings, the nia-ve parts, as walls, &c. are ^rer ally distinguished by a dark sha- . In a geometrical plan, the par are represented in their na- - tur; proportions; a perspective si: pfoi is exhibited with diminution, I: acc iing to the rules of that sci- •nc'f The raised plan of a build- ing the elevation. I ^hip-building, a plan is the secli of a ship as designed upon pap, previously to the actual "Ming, of which there are three Fir pal ones, the plan of the eleva- tion called sheer-plan,) the hori- P L A zontal or half-breadth plan, and the plan of projection or body plan. Plan of a bastion, the same as the face of a bastion. Plancere, the under part of the roof of a corona, which is the superior part of the cornice, be- tween two cymatia. Plane, in geometry, a surface which coincides every where with a right line, which is every where perfectly true and level. Plane, Geometrical, in per- spective, a plane surface, parallel to the horizon, placed lower than the eye, wherein the visible objects are imagined without any altera- tion, except that they are some- times reduced from a greater to a lesser size. A horizontal plane, is a plane parallel t«o the horizon, which passes through the eye, or has the eye supposed to be placed in it. A vertical plane, is a plane surface which passes along the principal ray, and consequently through the eye, and is perpen- dicular to the geometrical plane. Plane, a carpenter's tool. Mont- faucon has engraved an ancient carpenter's plane, nearly of the same form as the modern. The construc- tion of the carpenter's plane is known to every one. The broad chisel, or steel cutter, is called the plane iron; it is fixed in a hole through the plane stock, projecting a very little beyond the face of the plane, which must be perfectly true. The iron is fixed by a wedye, which leaves an aperture before it called the mouth of the plane. There is a great variety of planes, known by their different names and uses. The first is the jack plane, which is generally about seventeen inches long, and is used for rough woik, and for redncin*- the surface of large pieces of wood. The iron makes an angle of forty-five de- 25L P L A P L A grees with the face of the plane, and is a thin metal plate, one side iron, the other steel; the lower part is ground off the iron side to an acute tingle, and the sloping part is termed the basil; the edge should be sharpened to a regular aud slight curvature. A handle, fixed to the upper part of the stock, im- mediately behind the iron, is called the tote. A great improvement has been made of late years, by the introduction of the double iron, consisting of a second iron with a reversed basil, screwed against the front side of the iron, its edge lying against the iron at a very small dis- tance from the cutting edge. Its use is to prevent the cutting-iron from splitting the shaving deeper than it will afterwards cut, and thus leaving an uneven surface. The long -plane, is in length gene- rally about twenty-six inches, and is set fine, and used for finishing work intended to be very straight. The trying plane, is of nearly the same length, and differs only from the jack plane, in having two han- dles. The shooting plane ox join- ter, is the most correct, as well as the longest plane in use, being ge- nerally about thirty inches long. The smoothing plane, is not above seven inches and a half long, has sides curved in the form of a coffin, and no handle, and is principally used for finishing work when put together. The foregoing planes are all denominated bench planes, as in their use the work is always laid on the work-bench. The straight block, is a plane used for straight- ening short edges. Rebating planes, are used for cutting out rebates or semi - grooves on the edge of a board, and sometimes for orna- menting mouldings, &c. ; they are of different kinds, some having the cutting edge at the side, called side rebating planes, others on the 252 face, and others again on b- Fillisters, are used for sinking cutting away the edge of a piee wood to form the rebate, the otl smoothing it afterwards. The n ing fillister, has a wooden ru named the fence, fixed by scr along its face, and covering par the length of the cutting edge, id which may be moved so as to le more or less of the cutting e exposed, as the breadth of rebate may require. In this pi the cutting edge has an obliq; of about forty- five degrees, iron called a tooth, is placed s« to precede the other iron, and t off the shaving from the side, 'e sash fillister, differs from the t in several particulars; the fenc% not fixed by screws, but adapi for removal to a considerable L tance, and fastened by two Is attached to it; the breadth of e iron is rather broader than c stock, so that the cutting edge }- jects a little at the side. Rebate planes are all about nine inches ; 1 a half long. The plough, is a \ narrow plane, and hasanappe- tus to guide it in ploughing a groe at any required distance from edge of a board. The dado grc ing plane, is also used for makfe grooves. The toothing plane, i I fluted iron, with teeth in its ec , and is used in planing woods r veneering. There are other tcs of this kind called moiddq planes, which have curved fcs and cutting edges, so as to mi various ornamental monldin; they are known by the names snipe's bills, side snipes 6fc beads, hollows, and rounds, ovos, ogees, &c. Plane, Inclined, see Inclid Plane. Plane Surface, a surl'e which lies evenly between its bo>i- dary lines. PLA P LA Fane Table, a rectangular boa for finding the position and dist'ice of points which are situ- ates n the same plane. Eanjmetry, the part of geo- m i which treats only of lines andurfaces. Ianing Machine, a machine r ianing wood, which was in- ]of mouldings, grooves, rebates, &c the machinery of which con- sis in a crank, passing through a mcise in a box in which it slides, fix on an axis, the motion of h is regulated by a fly-wheel. fk planes are connected with a »tr g heavy beam. anisphere, (LaO a project- Iwof the sphere, and its several . cir ; !s f on a plane. •AN K, (Fr.) a name given ge- ne ly to al! timber, but fir, which '8 iss than four inches thick, an thicker than a board, which is an nch and a half, and down- wj .g. Flank Sheers, or covering boards, planks which are placed horizontally over the heads of the timbers of the forecastle, quarter- deck, and round-house of a ship. Planting, layingthefirstcourses of stone on a foundation. Plaster, a composition of lime, with sand, &c. to cover the walls of a building. See Mortar, Stucco, and Alabaster. Plaster of Paris, a prepara- tion of a species of gypsum or ala- baster, dug near Montmartre, a village in the neighbourhood of Paris. It is calcined by fire into the fine plaster, which is so valuable for modelling, &c. When diluted with water to a thin paste, plaster of Paris quickly sets, and has its bulk increased at the instant of set- ting, and Mr. Boyle found, by ex- periment, that a glass vessel filled with this paste, and close stopped, bursts while the mixture sets, a quantity of water sometimes issuing through the cracks. Hence this substance becomes a valuable ma- terial for filling cavities, &c. when other earths would shrink. Two or three spoonfuls of burnt alabaster, mixed up with water to a thin sub- stance, when thrown into a vessel full of water, quickly coagulate into a hard lump at the bottom. Plaster Floors, are exceed- ingly useful in cottages, &c. where they may be constructed at no great expense, and afford a great security against fire. The plaster must be composed of lime of a strong binding quality, and is laid on a kind of strong reed, or on laths nailed to the joists, which must be laid in the usual manner. These kinds of floors are in general use in Nottinghamshire and Rut- landshire. Platband, any square mould- ing with little projection ; the fas- ciae of an architrave ; the list be- 253 P LU P N Y tween flutings, &c. The platband of a door or window is the lintel, when it is made square, and not much arched. Platform, a row of beams, which support the timber work of a roof, lying at the top of the wall; a terrace, or open walk at the top of a building. Platte, Plat, or Plot, in old church architecture, a model or plan. Plinth, (irkivQoi;, Gr. a brick,) the lower member of a base. Every body placed in an unright position ought to have its base or foot, and the part inferior to this is the plinth, by which the place of the former is often supplied. In a wall, the term plinth is applied to two or three rows of bricks which project from it, to any flat moulding in a front wall, to mark the floors, sus- tain the eaves, or the larmier of a chimney. See Abacus. Plotting, the art of laying down on paper the angles and lines of a plot of land, by any instrument used in surveying. Plotting Scale, see Instru- ments. Plotting Table, an improve- ment by Mr. Beighton on the plane table. Plug and Feather, or Key and Feather, a mode of dividing hard stones, by means of a long tapering wedge called the key, and wedge-shaped pieces of iron, called feathers, which are driven into holes previously drilled into the rock for the purpose, and thus forcibly split it. Plugs, pieces of timber driven perpendicularly into a wall. Plumbing, (from theLat. plum- bus, lead,) the art of casting and working in lead, and using it in building, principally in roofs, win- dows, pipes, &c. Plummet, a weight of lead 254 hung to a string, to sound dehs or, on a level, to mark the pei| ;n - dicular. See Level. Pluteus, a term used by "V vius in different significations, the description of the pronaos, in that of the scene of the the it means the walls between the - lumns, like what is observed irthe flanks of the temple of For , Virilis, and in the front of the L ple of Saturn, described by Labi o, In the description of the basia, he uses it to signify the contiied pedestal, intervening between he upper and lower ranges of. o- lumns. Plyers, in fortification, a a kind of balance, or timber levs, for raising or letting down a d v- bridge. Plymouth Marble, a n fine species, which is dug uliti great abundance in various par of Devonshire, particularly about v- mouth, from whence it is shipd to London. It is of a bluish wte ground, varied with veins of ill red, with some of brown and 1- low, an^ it is capable of recei iig a good polish. Pnyx, (Gr.) the spot where le citizens of Athens assemblecito choose their magistrates. It pears from Plutarch, that Pnyx was near the Museum. Fm a passage of Lucian, it appears dent that it faced the Areopa Harpocration says, it was wi sight of the Propyleeum. F Aristophanes we learn, that it a place of assembly on a roc the open air, with a stone bcnh oratory, and near the city \ Pollux says, it was constructed ancient simplicity, not with magnificence of a theatre. these particulars join in provir it to be the ruins called by Sti t, the Odeum of Regilla. The Pm is said to have been first ap > POD pited by Solon "to assemblies of ft citizens, but it is supposed by Jay, that it was tbe scene of po- jar convocations long atecedent t, the time of the great Athenian It slator. The name Hpv£ is re- ijd to be derived from nvKa, ! (Jse, and Stephanus Byzantinus ik that it was so called from tbe [ disity of habitations formerly built 1 tie, a fact which the indented r<;s at present testify. 'odium, (Lat.) a continued pe- d :al ; a projection from the wall w ch surrounded the arena of the * aient amphitheatre, and which f ( ned a kind of gallery; it resem- «l bl a continued pedestal, in the p th and kind of cornice with wch it was ornamented on the s of the orchestra. In this T g ery were placed the principal st iters and magistrates sit- t • in their curule chairs; here a was the suggestus of the i e >eror, and the place allotted to the vestals, the priests, the e as, &c. It was defended by a B ng railing of iron bars, &c. fi a the wild beasts that were let 1< e in the arena ; and Caesar, far- l\ to secure it, caused a canal cied the Euripus, to be dug, and fi d with water between the po- dln and the arena: see Amp hi- tiitre. )uring the middle ages, the word p ium was employed to signify a lace on the top of a mountain, p icularly when the mountain was s<>teep on one of its sides near tl place, that it could not be c ibed. Many cities, towns, and v iges of France, particularly on II side of Provence and Langue- (1 . where the Latin language was (jj «j;er preserved, the name has ruined. From this word podium, my have derived the word puy, *:h signifies the same thing, and * used in the same manner, as POL Le Puy-en Velay, Podium, Puy- Sainte-Marie, Podium Sanctee Ma- rise ; Puy-Laurent, Podium Lau- rentii, &c. Poecile, or Poikile, (Gr.) The Poikile was the principal stoa or portico at Athens; it was adorned with a great variety of excellent paintings, and with shields taken by the Athenians from their ene- mies. It was first called the pisi- atiactic portico, and received its name of Pcecile after it had been embellished with the paintings of Polynotus and Mycon. Point, (Lat. punctum,) in Geo- metry, that which has neither length, breadth, nor thickness. An accidental point, in perspective, is a term used by the old writers fpr what is now called the vanishing point, which is in the horizontal line, and is found by drawing a straight line through the eye, pa- rallel to an original line, which serves likewise for the vanishing point of all its parallels. A con- jugate point, is that into which, in some curves, the conjugate oval vanishes. An objective point, in perspective, is a point on the geo- metrical plane, of which the situa- tion on the perspective plane is required. The point of distance, is the distance of the picture trans- ferred from the centre to the van- ishing line. The point of sight, or point of view, the place of the eye whence the picture is viewed ; the old writers gave this term to the centre of the picture. The point of reflection, in geometry, is syno- nymous with the point of rcirogra- dation. The point of contrary flexures, is a point in a curve where it bends to a contrary part to that where it originally tended. Pointed Style of architecture, a name given by some writers to the Gothic. Polishing, see Marble. 255 POL POL Pola, an ancient city cf Istria, of which numerous ruins still re- main. Its amphitheatre has already been described under the article Amphitheatre. Of its two temples, one is dedicated to Rome and Au- gustus ; it is of the Corinthian or- der, the intercolumniations of its prostyle being two diameters, ex- cept that in the centre, which is two and a half. The pediment is supported by four columns, form- ing, with two lateral ones, an open portico, which leads to the interior of the edifice. The bases of the columns have no plinths ; the capi- tals are formed with olive leaves, and the volutes are invested with foliage of oak. The foliage round the circumference of the frieze is exquisitely sculptured, and the me- dallions and cornices are rich and delicate. The other temple, of which there are small remains, exactly resembled this in its orna- ments and dimensions, the two porticoes being ranged in the same line. (See Allason's Picturesque Views of the Antiquities of Pola.) Pole, (Gr.) a point ninety de- grees distant from the plane of any circle, in a line perpendicular in its centre, which line is called the axis. Polia, a beautiful species of stone, much employed by the an- cients in building ; called also Amiantus and Corsoides. Pollard, a tree which has been frequently lopped or polled of its head and branches. It is a practice that does great injury to good timber. Polygon, (Gr.) a geometrical figure of many sides. To find the area of a regular polygon, (1) mul- tiply one of the sides of the poly- gon by the perpendicular from the centre upon that side, and multiply half the product by the number of 256 sides; or (2) multiply the sq-re of the given side of the polygeny the number opposite its nam. in the followng table, under the \M Area. In this table the side of ie polygon is one. Table of Polygons. ti umb. of Sides. is anjfes of Polygons. Area of Polygons. Ferpen 'J. )ars| Polygii. 3 Triton .433013 .2R8-,1 4 Tetragon 1.000000 .500 !0 5 Pentagon 1.720477 .688110 G Hexagon 2.59*076 .866|",4 7 Heptagon 3.633912 1.03b 17 8 Octagon 4.S28427 1 .2071)8 9 Enneagon 6.181824 1 373k 10 Decagon 7.094209 1 538118 11 Hendecagon 9.36:>640 1.702 17 12 Dodecagon 11.196152 1.860 54 Polygon, in fortification, n exterior polygon, is the distance one point of a bastion from ie point of another, reckoning II round the works : an interior p, then the sectorial radius will be y. Fig. 2, is a hemicylindric 1 .ahedron, or one of the segments, en the whole solid is cut into ) equal segments ; Jig. 3, is a ;ment less than haif: (4) a seg- nt cut by a plane parallel to the 1 >e, or the greatest horizontal ygon ; (5) an interior view of a ! ment; (6) a segment cut by a ] ne parallel to the base of the 'jre. Polystyle, ( Gr. ) a build- i ; surrounded by so many co- 1 nns, that we cannot readily cal- < ate the number at a first view. 2 K POM Pomcerium, (Lat.) a space near the walls of the city, amongst the Romans, which was considered as sacred, and not to be touched either by the plough or the buikh r, but had altars within its enclosure dedicated to the gods. Authors are not agreed as to its exac t situ- ation. Pomel, (from pomum, Lat. an apple,) a globular protuberance ter- minating a pinnacle, &c. Pompeii, a city of Campania, which was anciently a flourishing place, but it suffered the same fate as Herculaneum, and was buried under the lava and cinders of Vesu- vius. It is about three miles dis- tant from this mountain. At a mile from the Torre dell Annon- ziata,\ve leave the road to Salerno, and turn to the right to arrive at the ruins of Pompeii. The first object that draws attention, is what is called the country house : it has been so called, because it is situ- ated without the walls of the city, but it is not seen till we are close by it. The same is the case with the other edifices of Pompeii, which are all concealed behind the heaps of cinders which have been thrown up from the excavations that have made since its discovery. For the same reason an exact idea cannot readily be formed of the true extent of the city, and this difficulty is increased by the small elevation of the houses. This country house had two divisions, the one more elevated than the other. The columns, or rather square pillars, formed a covered gallery, which extended round the court, and round six other columns, which perhaps sustained a kind of portico. These columns, or square pillars, were covered with a yellow- ish stucco, and the pedestals were black, and adorned with arabesques. The second division of the building 257 POM POM was decorated with several columns, which formed a rich portico, al- though of too diminutive propor- tions. In general every part of this country house was extremely close and narrow. On the road which passes before the entrance door, we still see the tracks of carriages. Near the door were found two skeletons ; one of them held a key in one hand, and in the other a purse full of medals and precious stones. It is supposed that the other was carrying a box, full of different valu- able things, which was found near it. Perhaps it was the master of the house and his slave, who, in flying, had carried with them their most valuable articles, but who, when arrived at the door, found it already encumbered beneath the cinders under which they were buried. The court of the house formed a square of ninety-four feet. The two corners of the side on which you enter, were occupied by two chambers, of which one pro- bably served to lock up the corn, and the other to thresh it. In en- tering the court, an open portico was perceived, supported by six columns; on two sides it was sur- rounded by trees, of which the trunks and branches are still seen. Before this portico was a basin, the lead pipes of which were also found on the spot. At the extre- mity of the gallery was a stone vault, which appears to have served as a cellar, because there were found there many of those kinds of vases in which the ancients kept their wine : and they say even that in several of these vases was still found the remains of the wine, which was thickened, and had be- come by length of time as hard as stone. Near this is another stone cellar, very dark, and plastered with stucco; it has remained en- tirely uninjured, but was blocked 258 up by the cinders. Near t; staircase which conducts to tj cellar were found seven skeletc; of females, whom terror had dou - less driven at the moment of |j volcanic eruption to seek shelter;: this remote place, where they h'[ perished. They had all press i into a corner by the door, and whi their bones were discovered, it vjj observed that the image and fob was preserved in the cinders, whi even portions of their clothing JL preserved. These impressions I still shown in the Museum of P tici ; and among other curiositi . the impression of the breast of c of these women, which is so v preserved, that we discover the i pression of a very delicate lace : \ also also see the form of the rin , bracelets, necklaces, and ear-rin, with which these ladies were adoi ed. Hamilton, in his account the discoveries at Herculaneum, ■ marks on this circumstance, tit the volcanic cinders, mixed witht great quantity of water during l: eruption, formed a kind of cl , which would produce the sa 1 effect as the materials which used in making casts. Near 1 1 cellar was a dark chamber, f which, as well as of five other sml chambers which follow in succ sion, no one has been able to cj- cover the use. None of them H windows. At the extremity of i gallery, we descend by a flight f steps to the second division of 12 house, which contains several ap£- ments of different sizes, beh 1 which was the garden, into wh 1 we descend also by a great sU- case. In the whole of t part of the house, there has it been discovered as yet a sin 3 place which can be regarded aia bed chamber, except a kind f alcove and circular wardrobe, h - ing three windows, which look ip POM P M he garden. In the garden we still listinguish the compartments, as veil as the different shrubs and tushes, which have probably been oses. This second division of the ouse was the most elegant; the .aintings with which it was deco- cted were finished with great care, year the chamber which we have jst mentioned, which may be re- arded as a bed-chamber, was the iting-room, and by the side of it ie pantry, from which we enter a hamber which appears to have erved the purpose of a dressing- torn, as various articles of clothing ere found in it. Another smaller :>urt, embellished with a basin and blumns of different proportions, as near the high road, and led to the great court of the interior, here was the gate which led out to this road. Near the garden Ie the cold and vapour baths. At a short distance from this >use, we discover near the high ad a little sepulchral monument, Sorned merely with fasces. An scription informs us, that a cer- in Diomedes, a freed-man of ria, had consecrated this monu- ?nt for his mistress and her nily, as well as for himself and >. The fragments of the columns lich were near the tomb of the ^h-priestess Mammia, lead us to opose that it was formerly more vated than it is at present. On square base was a circular sub- ucture adorned with columns :1 marble statues. A gate leads o the first enclosure, or, we may ! ', into the fore court of the : >ulchral monument; the tomb, I'perly so called, was surrounded 1 a terrace ; some steps conduct- < to the stylobate, on which are si found some columns. From t nee an opening conducts into the t ib, where there are many niches, i he principal of which is an urn, that contained probably the ashes of Mammia. In the fore court were two open excavations, leading into two vaulted caves, which could have no other destination, but to serve as sepulchres. On the wall of the sepulchral monument, and near these excavations, were found masks of colossal magnitude. They do not appear to have properly be- longed to the tomb of Mammia, which was of too small propor- tions. They are those called scenic masks, which renders probable the opinions of several learned men, who have considered this spot as the place of sepulture for the come- dians of the city. The entrance to Pompeii is small, and not striking, nor announcing a city of great importance. The remains consist of fragments of columns, of which several considerable portions have been found lying about, with fine capitals of the Ionic order; perhaps these columns have once supported buildings. On two sides are arcades and porticos, which form the entrance to the foot- paths, that extend along the sides of the high road. This path is extremely narrow, not being more than three feet broad ; but this is only proportionate to the high road, which is not more than ten or twelve feet broad, although it may be traced for a distance of fifty or sixty toises. In the ancient level of the street, we still see very distinct traces of the carriage tracks, which prove that there was a distance of four feet between the wheels. At the entrance rises a square pedestal, which appears to have supported a column of con- siderable size. Many tumulary monuments which are found in its neighbourhood, as well as the inscriptions on the pedestals itself, induce us to consider it as a sepul- chral monument. Still nearer the 259 POM gate are found two circular benches, about twenty feet long, of which one only is well preserved, bearing an inscription, which in- forms us that this was the place of sepulture of the priestess Mam- mia y which was granted her by a decree of the decurions. This last circumstance, of the place of her burial being assigned by a decree of the decurions, proves that the family of this priestess had great influence at Pompeii. As we follow their principal street, we still discover the form of different shops, notwithstanding the ravages committed by time and earthquakes. If we judge from a kind of balustrade or wire lattice, which is seen at one of them, it was the shop of a dealer in perfumes and spirituous liquors: below there is a kind of pipe or excavation in marble, but it would be difficult to ascertain its use. In the same street, near the gate of the city, occurs a very singular sign, which has by chance been perfectly well preserved : it is a Phallus or Priapus, sculptured in bas-relief on the stone post of a house. The common opinion is, that it was the sign of a house consecrated to Venus, and this opinion is supported by a remark- able inscription found at Pompeii, and published by Winckelmann, in his lettre au comte de Bruhl sur les decouvertes d'Hercula- num, page 62, of the French trans- lation of M. Jansen. Others have thought that it was the sign of a warehouse or manufactory of those figures which we call obscene, but to which the credulity of past times attached religious ideas, and which were carried by ladies as amulets. Mr. Hamilton thinks that it was more probably the sign cf a particular worship, offered to the god of the gardens, as we 260 see at the present time hou; having sometimes for a sign t figure of some saint. Accordi to Mr. Hirt, the distribution the house, which has this Priap for a sign, proves that it w rather a tavern than a place co secrated to Venus. He thinks probable that many of the she in this street were taverns, wh( they provided the guest with e; ables, and where at the same tii they prepared warm drinks, tr is, that they were thermopotia, a kind of coffee-houses. T same style of architecture a the same distribution universa occurs : several are handsonv adorned with marbles. In the houses were found only the mc necessary utensils, but all we well worked, and had elega forms : they were lamps, cane labra, vessels and kitchen utensi weights, statues, vases of all siz. in earth, in bronze, and in gla, many fragments of glass-windov little idols, ladies' jewels of g( and silver, mirrors, wax, tabl, for writing upon, chirurgical a musical instruments, colours of I kinds, medals in gold, silver, a 1 bronze ; children's play - thin , dice, tooth-picks, boxes of colo, eatables, corn, fruits of differc kinds, &c. Neither statues if busts of great dimensions w \ found. The best paintings h'<; been found at Herculaneum, it at Pompeii. The wooden uteris were in general either decayed, r carbonized by the heat of 1 burning cinders. The temple of Isis is witfot doubt the most remarkable of fi ruins discovered at Pompeii. 1i columns which surrounded it e almost entirely preserved. Hi of those which composed the p- style have been broken, as wells the capitals and the fronton. 1e POM POM inple itself was entirely built of lcks, and on the outside covered |h a very solid stucco, of which I ancients made very frequent £, The style of the architecture i more agreeable than severe. r e orders are of a small propor- m, which diminishes the effect L the edifice would have had, i t had been of a more imposing : le. In this temple have been jUd all the instruments which ; pertained to the religious cere- nnies, and even the skeletons of I priests who had been surprised ; d buried by the shower of cin- believe that it had been destroyed in an eruption anterior to that which finally buried the city, as we see was the case of the temple of Isis, before it was rebuilt. 262 Around this monument are si five steps, twelve inches high, a] fourteen wide ; the entrance v$ from the side o\ the sea, and n,» steps, six inches high, formed : i projection, and led to the peristv. There appears to have been ei« columns in the front, and elevi in the flanks. The mosaic pa - ment is still in several places un| jured, and shews that the tem \ had two divisions, the most renv; being probably the sanctuar; there still exists a round isoiai altar, and on the outside a lc; square stone, on which the victi were placed. This building i pears to be the most ancient Pompeii. Its dimensions, 'and I remains of the columns, &c. pre that it was of a noble and nrajes architecture. It appears to he been peripteral. The place which it is built is ninety-one f| long, and nearly sixty-four ttfoaj the columns are of the Doric ord their diameter is three feet anc half, and their height appears have been equal to six diamete There was found a moulding baked earth, which probably si rounded the cornice, and whit adorned with the masks befc mentioned, served to give a pf sage to the rain-water. Between this temple and tn of Isis there is a spacious edirk which, according to all appearand served as a barracks, and place arms, for the Roman soldiei whence it is named the quarter' the soldiers. It has suffered 1< from the earthquake than many the others, because it was of lc elevation and of a lighter constru tion. Experience has proved th lofty buildings of a massy constru tion are much more exposed destruction by the convulsions the earth, than buildings of weaker and lighter constructio I? POM n the quarter of the soldiers, Imost all the walls are found un- -ijured, and nearly all the columns ntire. The form of this edifice is hat of a long square, and it is urrounded by columns and an pen gallery : this gallery commu- icates with many chambers or ells placed round, and which, robably, were the lodgings of the oldiers. The interior court, which ; about twenty-three toises by eventeen, served probably for lilitary exercises. The columns re of the Doric order ; they have o base, are eleven feet high, and ieir diameter is eighteen inches, he gallery between the colonnade nd the wall is thirteen feet seven iches wide. It served for a walk, nd at the same time to shelter le cells, each of which lodged robably four soldiers, for in each re found four suits of armour, hese cells are not all of the same imensions ; all of them are very nail, plastered with stucco, orna- tented with arabesque paintings, nd paved with mosaic. They ere shut by means of a folding oor, which, as we may judge from le form of the threshold, opened I iwards. They received light only y the door, and perhaps some- mes by an opening made in the )of. The dimensions of two of lese suits of armour, and the eight of the helmets which were njnd in one of the chambers, ave induced some people to think lat they were only trophies, used for ornament; but, as they ere covered with cloth, there is ■ason to suppose that they were tended for use. Amongst the n'ts of armour that were found, iere was one, on which, according • Mr. Hamilton., was represented iie siege of Troy. The helmets sembled those of our ancient arriors in the age of chivalry, / POM and were furnished with vizors. A brazen trumpet was also found, of a singular form, and six ivory flutes, uniting in one mouth-piece, with no holes to vary the notes ; the only variation appears to have been caused by the difference in their several diameters. From various circumstances connected with these chambers, it appears that the soldiers, as well as the greater part of the inhabitants of Pompeii, passed most of their time on the terraces and galleries, and that they only resorted to their rooms to sleep, and to take their repast. Some have thought, from the meanness of its accommodations, that this building was only des- tined for military and gymnastic exercises, but M. Bartels, in his Lettres sur la Calabre, proves that it was really a barrack, from its resemblance to the quarter of the soldiers at the villa of Adrian at Tivoli. There are also larger chambers, which are supposed to be the apartments of the officers, as at a short distance from them have been found the skeletons of slaves, and of a horse loaded with clothes and valuable effects, which they were perhaps endeavouring to save. At a short distance was a peristyle of columns with elegant capitals ; probably it was the lateral gate. Very near, another gate conducts, by four steps, to a place sur- rounded on every side by a cover- ed gallery, sustained by columns of the Ionic order. On the right is the entrance to a small theatre, which is supposed to have been covered: only the steps are seen, the rest being still buried in ruins. Some travellers think that it was an odeon. To the left of the gate of the quarter of the soldiers, are five little divi- sions or chambers, in one of which was found a handmill, and of 263 POM POP which another appeared to have served for a prison to the soldiers, who were put in irons. Several skeletons were found in it, which appear to have belonged to unfor- tunate soldiers, who, at the mo- ment of the eruption, were then imprisoned, and for whom it was impossible to save themselves. The position of these skeletons shows us that the mode of putting prisoners in fetters resembled that which is still practised in several countries. Their feet were placed on a block of wood, and under- neath passed a fetter which held them, and which was fixed to the block by nails. The remains of this building show clearly that it formed part of the theatre, to which it appears to have served as a peristyle. The proscenium of this theatre is in a great part discovered, and appears to have resembled in form that at Hercu- laneum. The covered gallery with which it is surrounded, where are found the vomitoria, has also been in a great part explored. The construction of the houses of Pompeii shows that they must have been built on a very unequal ground, perhaps even on the ex- tinguished crater of an ancient volcano : at least it appears that it had subterraneous communications with Vesuvius, for even now a cellar found under the terrace of a small house is so filled with suffocating effluvia, that, in enter- ing, it is necessary to use great pre- caution. When this cellar was discovered, a female skeleton was found laid by the side of a great Yase, near a stove, which warmed at once two bathing rooms and a dark rotunda, lighted only by an opening in the roof. This place is equally deserving the notice of the antiquary and the naturalist. The vase, beside which the skele- 264 ton is stretched on a heap of ci ders, is three feet and a half diameter, and appears to ha been used as a bathing-tub. T place where the skeleton w found, and its position, show th the person has been sudder thrown down, which without dou was the consequence of an a phyxy, produced by the effluvi It is to the solicitation and advi of Mr. Hamilton, that travelle owe the preservation of this skd ton in its original position at situation. It certainly makes he a much more lively impressk than it would in the cabinet I Portici. The entrance of this ca is still sometimes dangerous, fro themephitic air with which it isoftc filled : at other times these exh; lations are less sensible, so as ev( scarcely to rise so high as tl organs of respiration. Ponton, (Fr.) a bridge of boat Pompeion, (Gr. ) a magnificei edifice at Athens, at the entranc of the ancient city, by the side < the port Phalerus, in which all tl sacred utensils, &c. (7ro^7rcu) whic were used in the celebration of in fetes, were deposited. PoNTiFiCES.or Bridge Builder were an order of Hospitallers, founc ed by St. Benezet, about the clos of the twelfth century. Their offic; was to assist travellers, by makin bridges, settling ferries, and receiv ing strangers in hospitals built o the banks of rivers. Of this orde; St. John the bridge-maker was celebrated member. Poplar, (populus, Lat. ) th tree is ranked by Carlo Fea anion those which were used by the ar cient statuaries. See Timber, an, Abele. Poppy, (popig, Sax.) The popp was a plant greatly venerated b the Egyptians ; among the Greek; it was dedicated to Ceres, and : / POR >n introduced in architectural oaments. A recl j as P el \ in the c ection of Stosch, exhibits a p|>py-head, encircled by a serpent. Rderic Michael Lochnar has coi- ned all the ancient monuments o which the poppy is depicted, in 1 h " Mekonopaignion ; sive, Pa- r er ex omni antiquitate erutum, ( nmis, Nummis, &c. JEvi incisis j| stratum," 4to. Noriberg^, 1713. 'okcelain, ( Fr. ) a beautiful semi-transparent kind of earth- e are, principally manufactured hChina. The Chinese (who are t illy unable to pronounce the nne given to it by Europeans, t ir language comprising no such s nds) call it tse-ki, and the two c f ingredients employed in it. v ch are formed into a paste, pc- t -tse and kao-lin : the former i c : sists of fragments of rock ex- ited from certain quarries, and rJjuced to a fine powder, of a c'lur inclining slightly towards gp, the other appears to be nliing else than a very pure white s'd, intermixed with shining par- t ?s. The vessels, &e. of porce- 1; are, in China, made in separate p ts, which are cemented together v i some of the same paste softened it ater, and the seams being polish- | e'vith an instrument on both sides, n 'race is visible after it is covered m varnish. The painters of the p :elain, who are called hoa-pci> a ignorant people, possessing no o ir art but that of mechanical p :tice, and content themselves in g ?ral with making absurd and n istrous figures. Porcelain, among t' Chinese, is not unfrequently used ii uilding. In the vast plain near tl city of Nankin, there is an oc- t; >n tower, with nine arched stories, ir usted in the interior with mar- b and on the outside with porce- k , whence it has become cele- b ed bv the name of the porce- 2L POR lain tower. At each story is a gallery, and all are covered with roofs of a green colour, supported by gilded rafters, from which hang little copper bells. The highest point of the building is surmounted by a pine-apple, said to be of solid gold, and the pieces cf porcelain are placed so skilfully, that it is next to impossible to detect the place where they join, whilst the whole is adorned with lead and enamel, glazed with green, yellow, and red, glittering at a distance like gold, emeralds, and rubies. This tower is said to have stood eight hundred years, without receiv- ing any injury. A figure and full description is given in Fischer's " Essai d'Architecture Historique." The manufacture of porcelain ap- pears to be very ancient, and it is believed to have been once practised by the Egyptians. Very successful potteries have been of late estab- lished in several countries of Europe. On the history, &c. of porcelain, the reader may consult — Pere d'Entrecoller, in the Recueil des Lettres Edifiantes ; Du Halde, Histoire de la Chine; Recueil des Observations Curieuses; and, Milly sur l'Art de la Porcelaine. Pouch, ( from the Lat. porticus,) an arched vestibule at the entrance of a church, or other building. PorciiesterCastle, near Ports- mouth, appears to be partly of Roman construction, with modern additions and alterations by the Saxons, Normans, &c. The walls, which are nearly twelve feet thick, have in many places a passage covered with a parapet round them. The western entrance is under a square tower, and over the gate on the inside are two figures which bear some resemblance to Egyptian sphynxes : this gate, as well as the eastern, is fourteen feet wide. The keep has four towers, three df POR POR which are on the outside wall, the one forming the north-west angle being much the largest : the build- ings of the keep cover an area of sixty-five feet by 115. In some of the round towers are still visible regular rows of Roman bricks, which divide the layers of stone work. The sacellum of the Roman prcetorium, is supposed by Mr. King to have occupied the site of the present parish church, which is a very old building. Porphyry, ( from nopyvpoQ, Gr. 'purple,) a very hard stone, partak- ing of the nature of granite. It is designated by Pliny under the name of porphy rites. Winckel- manh (Observations sur l'Historie de l'Art,) is wrong in pretending that it is not certain that porphyry was produced in Egypt. It is pro- bable that the Egyptians, who be- stowed greater attention on sye- nites, for a long time neglected the porphyrites, and that on this ac- count no works in porphyry can be proved to be of very great anti- quity ; in fact, there are few remains of works in porphyry, that are purely Egyptian. The mixture of red (or rather purple) and white was not approved by the ancient artists, and this substance was never employed for sculpture in the best ages of the art. Pliny, after havi.ig related that Vitruvius Pollio, governor of Egypt, pre- sented to the emperor Claudius some statues of porphyry which he had brought from that country to kome, adds, that they were regard- ed as fantastic novelties, and that none approved of works in such materials. From this we may judge that the number of statues in por- phyry among the ancients cannot have been very considerable. This substance appears to have been much better calculated to be used in columns, for funerary monu- 266 ments, for urns, &c. of which tire is a great number at Rome in ie baptistry of St. John, in the chi h of St. Constance without the in the Museo Pio-Clementino Pliny and Anna Comnena spea columns of porphyry, which o; mented the interior of the Egyp n labyrinth. The most celebiVd quarries of porphyry were in JjkL tian Arabia, that is, in that pai >f Africa which joined Egypt, d which was often confounded \ Arabia. But the great numbe porphyry columns found at 1| myra leads us to presume tha was also found in the eastern Asiatic Arabia. Porphyry is less fine than m y of the ordinary marbles, but r exceeds them in hardness, am 3 capable of bearing a high poll. It is still found in Egypt in - mense strata. It is generally a high purple, which varies howir from claret colour to violet. ,3 variations are rarely disposedn grains. The red-lead coloured } - phyry, which is found in got plenty in Minorca, variegated vli black, white, and green, is a be tiful and valuable material, 'e pale and red porphyry, variegaJ with black, white, and green, is foi I in huge veins in Arabia Pet a and Upper Egypt, and in st-paie nodules in Germany, England, id Ireland. Ficoroni mentions exquisitely fine columns of bljk porphyry in a church at Rok and three celebrated obelisks of [ - phyry have been found in Egij two at Alexandria, and one it Cairo. (See Obelisk.) M. Fer r, in his " Lettres sur l'ltalie," >s given details of the different kin of ancient porphyry, which he )- served at Rome. The dark d porphyry, porjido rosso, is tl e the most common : it is of a d p red, with oblong white spots : ^ / P O R te.r are of feld-spath, which re- ntes schorl. There are two rieties of black porphyry, porfido ro; that which is more pecu- rly called black porphyry, and ■x which they call serpentino ro antico. The first has a ground tirely black, spotted with oblong lite spots, like the red porphyry : other has also a black ground, h great white spots oblong or her in the form of a parallelo- jedon, nearly resembling in eo- nr w hat the French call serpentin •t antique. The brown por- tjry, has a brown ground, with ! :e oblong greenish spots. There | several kinds of green por- jury, which the Italians distin- ;sh into serpentin vert antique, h green porphyry properly so ( led. The first is found in great ; indance, and in large blocks, in t neighbourhood of the ancient e now quite lost. The tomb of ( istantia, the daughter of Con- s nine, still extant in the church >t. Agnes, and commonly known blhe name of the tomb of Bac- C s, is finely worked in this sub- s ice, and in the palace of the 1 leries there is likewise a bust o ipollo, and of the twelve em- p >rs, all in porphyry. Da Costa (■' t. Hist, of Fossils, p. 285,) ima- g s, that the ancient mode of u in the Levant, as long as the A mata Sottile, as the Venetia; called that part of their navy whi consisted of galleys and gallio, continued to be an object of imp< tance among them, and to ha opponents of the same kind amo the Turks, and the other nav powers of the Mediterranean. The traces of the works whi closed the three ports of the P reeus being still perfectly appare: its three divisions are exactly c termined. The entrance of t outer port is marked by an insj lated rock, lying towards the ea ern shore : this port extended j ward as far as two reefs, whu projecting from either shore, foi a second narrow passage, now i dicated by two small masses modern masonry. Anciently t reefs afforded a foundation to ti projecting walls, the opening I tween which was the communic tion from the outer to the midc port. This was by much the large of the three, and contained all t portion of the Peireeus now in u< and extended as far as the shore the modern custom-house and co vent of St. Spyridion, leaving I the north side a third narrow e trance, leading into a circular basi the regular form of which, and tj walls which were carried across t! entrance, with the exception of i opening in the middle, furnish u doubted proofs, that it was one the three Peiraic ports, thoug from the neglect, and the alluv. deposits of a small stream, it h been rendered now a mere 1 goon. (See Leake's Topography Athens.) The port of Ostia was not one the least celebrated amongst t Romans. Suetonius attributes to Claudius. The mole at t PO R POR (trance was of such extent, that o calls it an isle. This port was mated at the mouth of the Tiber, ,'posite to Sardinia. It had two itrances, with a large pharos, like it of Alexandria, in the middle, guide the vessels in the night. ' e emperor Trajan repaired this rt, enlarged it, and even doubled 1 former size, shutting it up in ij form of a hexagon. Thus proved, it afforded a safe and jst commodious harbour, and at 3 same time presented to the es all the pomp and grandeur architectural decoration, in the iendid edifices which surrounded ' and amongst which were ware- uses, magazines, vast manufac- ies and depots, hotels for stran- rs of every class, and even palaces (r the ambassadors who might be their way to Rome. The port Ostia, with its hexagonal form, is 'own in Montfaucon, Antiq. Ex- q. torn. iv. part 2, pi. 143; and the Recueil et Parallele of MM. irand and Legrand, pi. 25, after 2 design of Serlio. The medals ' Nero represent this port almost und, but it is hexagonal on a ; ?dal of Trajan, with the inscrip- 'n port. ost. Perhaps, in form- * it round, the designers of the edals had no intention of giving e exact form of the port. Mont* ucon, Suppl. a l'Antiq. torn. iv. . 49 bis. no. 2, has published an scription in memory of a procu- tor or inspector of this port : laudii Optati Augusti liberti ocuratoris portus Ostensis, The me antiquary has given, from manuscript of Peiresc, in PI. 49, e plan of the ancient port of ejus, which was almost triangu- \ and of considerable extent ; each side of its entrance was ?cted a tower, and in the middle the port was the ruins of a for- -ss. On the west bank, near the extremity, was a kind of ruined gateway. This port is now dry, and at some distance from the sea. PI. 49 bis., of the same work, exhibits an engraved stone, repre- senting a port with its round pha- ros, placed on a very high and steep rock. A description of other ports will be found in the Hydro- graphie of Fournier, and in the Architecture hydraulique of Be- Hdor. Portal, [portail, Fr. from Lat. porta,] the arch over a door or gate ; the frame-work of the gate ; the lesser gate, when there are two of different dimensions at an entrance : the vast trilithons, or frames of the entrances of the edifices at Persepolis, and in an- cient ruins in other parts, are called portals. The name is also given to a little square corner of a room, separated from the rest of the apartment by wainscoting. Portcullis, [Fr.] a strong grating of timber, fenced with iron, and made to slide up and down in a groove of solid stone-work within the arch of the portal of old castles. The bottom was fur- nished with sharp iron spikes, de- signed to strike into the ground, for the sake of greater firmness and solidity, and also to break or destroy whatever should be under it, when it was let down. Port- cullises were used among the Ro- mans. The portcullis is believed to have been first introduced to the military architecture of this country, in the instance of early Norman castles. Portico, [porticus, Lat.] a long covered space, composed either of vaults supported by ar- cades, or of flat roofs supported by pillars, the sides being quite open. Jn the time of Homer, the portico, aiOovaa, does not appear to have been constructed with columns. POR POR Twice only is it mentioned, that these porticos were polished or well wrought, and in one instance he alludes to the divine mansion of Jupiter himself, in the other to the splendid palace of Priam. (II. xx. 11. vi. 242.) " It seems," says the translator of Vitruvius, Mr. Wil- kins, " to have been a species of raised platform or exedra, probably covered at the top, but exposed at the sides to the air, and to the enjoyment derived from this expo- sure, we may chiefly attribute its origin." One of the principal porticos at Athens was the Pcecile. At Rome they were very numerous. Vitruvius and Columella prescribe the manner in which the portico ought to be turned, that they might be convenient places of resort at all seasons. Pliny, speaking of the porticos or galle- ries which he had in his country- house, gives such a description of it, as even now to excite our admi- ration. In plate P. I. are repre- sented porticos of temples of the Doric and Corinthian orders. Portico of Philip, in the isle of Delos, a ruin described by Stuart. It is a fine specimen of the Doric order, and is remarkable for the lightness of its proportions. Mr. Stuart conjectured it might have been erected by Philip, after the Sacred war. The shafts of the columns appear to have been left plain, for the purpose of future completion. Among the archi- traves were three lying pretty near each other, with inscriptions in memory of Philip. Each archi- trave was ten feet long, two and a half thick, and one foot eight inches deep. There are also in this island the remains of a Doric tem- ple dedicated to Apollo, of which the shafts of the columns are fluted at their upper and lower extremi- ties, and left plain in the middle. 270 The aspect of this temple, from | appearance of the ruins, was e<- jectured to have been periptei, and it was judged to be nea| equal to the temple of These . In this island have been fou capitals with bulls' head a I shoulders attached to them. ] gures of them are given in the si- plementary volume to the 1;| edition of Stuart. They were fou near a portal or gateway, on t ascent of mount Cynthus, form to support, the wall of an ancit fortification of that height; tJ entrance is constructed with t large stones, inclined to each otl like those at the aperture to t great Egyptian pyramid. It perhaps the earliest specimen Greece, of the architecture term Pelasgic, displaying the first st toward the principle of the arc and was probably executed by t colony settled here by Minos, the supplementary volume of t last edition of Stuart's Athens, given a restoration of one of the capitals. The bulls, with those the triglyph, doubtless belonged some edifice dedicated to the wc ship of Mithra, who among t Persians personified the sun. i Persepolis, and in the vicinit tauriform capitals are yet in exis ence; and a Silician coin, engr ved also in the supplementa volume of Stuart's Athens, bea an emblem alluding to the worsli of the bull. Kneeling bulls a introduced in the frieze of the ter pie of the sun at Balbec, (Cass; Voyage Pittoresque de la Syri torn. ii. pi. 16, 17.) Porticus, in ancient church( appears to have been a portion the west end, dedicated to sor: saint, &c, not resembling our m dern porches, (See Britton's Arc! tect, Antiq. vol. v. p. 118, 119.) Portland Stone, [the saxu POS VRJE anarium Portlandicum of Da Ota, and the psadurium hebes, Qidum, laxius, of Hill,] a dullish vite kind of sandstone, brought f n the isle of Portland in Dor- s ; hire, and much used in London. 3» piers and arches of Westmin- s -bridge are of this material. It i ery soft when it comes out of t quarry, but hardens by time j] exposure to the air. See Stone. Porus, (Gr.) or lapis porinus, a. scies of marble, which, accord- i to Theophrastus and Pliny, rsmbles in its beautiful white cour, and in its quality, the mar- t of Paros, with which some have ! cifounded it. It is now un- bwn. It was found in Elis, and lusanias informs us that the tiple of Jupiter Olympius was tic I 1 it of it. Some authors mention 1 stues made of it, and it was used j ticularly for engraving inscrip- '« tis on. Ernesti thinks that the • ! I'rble called porus, or lapis pori- ? , is the same as that which the llians now call peperino. Position, in geometry, the station of one thing in regard to nther. Post, (Fr.) a piece of timber set e r habitation, and placed some of tpr fraternity under the government one of those more eminent temp s who had been created by the gr d master prceceptores templi, to t e care of the lands and rents in ut place and neighbourhood : tl e preceptories were only cells to e temple, or principal house of e knights in London. Presbytery, the part of e church appropriated to official": priests, comprising the choir, d other eastern portions of the i - fice. In Roman Catholic countrs, the term is applied to religis houses near any given par wherein all such priests as e considered to merit such disti- tion, are lodged and boarded n common. Prick-Post, the same as Qun Post. Priene, an ancient city of /a Minor, at a few miles distant fin Miletus. The temple of Mine a Polias, which is supposed to b< the age of Alexander, is descri in the first volume of the lor Antiquities, p. 13. Its site is vered with ruins so confusedly be > ed together, that neither the ni ber of columns in front can be tinguished, nor its aspect or spe be determined. The upper s the only one that can be measu is 1' 1"2. The base is Ionic, has no plinth. The torus is e PRI P R I Li, and fluted. The eyes of the i utes of the capitals are bored X i inches and a half deep, per- : \js for the convenience of fixing f toons of flowers, and the other jDaratus with which the temples ire adorned on days of festivity. 12 hem, or border, with its fillet, rting on the echinus, and con- r ting with a graceful sweep the s'als of the volutes, adds much to t beauty of the capital. The s -al of the volute has four revo- 1 ons. The cymatium under the dtitals has three mouldings, a fil- 1 a cyma inversa, and, beneath 1 1, a fascia or band. Neither t diameter or altitude of the co- l! 1 ins could be obtained. j rime. Any figure in geometry is si to be prime, when it cannot be 11 d tied into any other figures more s pie than itself, as a triangle in p ie figures, and a pyramid in s'Js. A prime number is one 1 tk cannot !>e divided by another n iber without a remainder. 1 Aiming, among painters, the h ng on of the first shade of co- F I r. Principal Brace, a brace inediately under the principal i to lifers. 'kincipal Point, in perspec- ti, a point in the perspective p ie, on which a line drawn per- p Jiculalry from the eye to the p ie falls. kincipal Rafters, the two in ned timbers which support the K . kincipal Ray, in perspec- ti the line passing from the eye tc he principal point on the per- sflive plane. kincipalis, see Castra. Friory, a building of the same n ' re as a monastery, or abbey, * >e governor was denominated a pi ', or prioress. rism, (Gr.) a solid of which 2M two of the faces are parallel, equal, and similar plane figures, and simi- larly situated, and of which the remaining surface or surfaces be- tween them may be in contact with all the intermediate points of a straight line, intersecting each edge of each of the two faces, while the line moves parallel to itself. The two parallel faces are called the ends or bases. The edges of the two ends are called the directrices. The moving straight line, in which all its points between the two bases are in contact with the interme- diate surface, is called the gene- ratrix. When the generatrix would be at oblique angles to each of the bases, if it cease to move in any of its positions, it is called an oblique prism. A triangular prism has its bases triangles, a square prism, its bases squares, &c. If the two di- rectrices are endless curves, it is an oval prism, if circles, a circular prism, if ellipses, an elliptic prism. If the directrices be circles or ellipses, the surface between the prism is called a cylindric surface. To find the solidity of a prism, find the area of one of the ends, and multiply it by the perpendi- cular distance between the ends. To find the surface of a right prism between the two bases, multiply the perimeter of one of the ends by the length of one of the perpendicular edges, or by the perpendicular dis- tance between the bases, and the product will be the area of the surface or surfaces between the two bases. Prismoid, (Gr.) or the frus- tum of a wedge, a solid which has two parallel rectangular faces, and the remaining faces trapezoids, ter- minating with their parallel edges in the same lines as the two pa- rallel faces, which are called the ends. The greater end is called the base. The length of a line 273 PRI PRI intercepted between the two ends, and perpendicular to one of them, is called the altitude or height of the prismoid. See Pyramid. Prison, (Fr.) a strong building for the confinement of criminals or debtors. From the different pas- sages of the Greek and Roman writers, where these buildings are mentioned, it appears that they were composed of divisions or cells more or less disagreeable: some- times the prisoners were kept only in a simple vestibule, where they were permitted to see their parents or their friends, as appears from the history of Socrates : sometimes, for it seems to have been regulated by the nature of their crimes, they were shut up in dark subterranean cells, and in moist and infectious holes, such as that in which Jugur- tha was immured, according to the account of Sallust. The establish- ment of prisons at Rome is attri- buted by Eutropius to Tarquinius Superbus ; others attribute it to Ancus Martins, and they say that Tullus Hostilius added to them a kind of dungeon, which was for a long time after called tullianum. According to Juvenal, during the time of the kings and the republic, there was but one prison at Rome. Under Tiberius a new one was con- structed, which was named the Mamertine prison. The Acts of the Apostles, and the whole ecclesiasti- cal history of the first ages, prove that there was then scarcely a town in the empire which did not possess a prison, and the jurisconsulti of- ten speak of them in their Com- mentaries on the laws. The ex- pression mala mansio, which is found in Ulpian, signifies, ac- cording to some critics, a prison. The places known by the name of latomicB and lapidicince, have been taken by some authors for the mines, to which some criminals 274 were condemned ; but it appt s that they were real prisons holloed in the rock, or vast quarries, if which all the outlets were cam' , closed. The Roman laws mento different officers who had either e care, or inspection, of the pris s and prisoners. Those who kept n account of the expenses of the L son of which they had charge d the age and number of their - soners, and of the nature of e crime with which they were > cused, were named comments L There were some prisons cad free, because the prisoners v e not shut up, but only committee o the care of a magistrate, a senar, &c. or confined to a partic ir house, or even in their own, \h permission to go out. The law>f Trajan and the Antonines pni- bited domestic prisons, or what e French call chartes privees ; bu n some instances a father was r- mitted to confine at his own hue an incorrigible son, an husbam:o inflict the same punishment on is wife, and for greater offence a master was allowed to imprison is own slaves, which was in a p:t called ergastulum ; see this wo. In the " Recueil et Paralleled Durand and Legrand, are g n plans and elevations of mocn prisons. The plan of the mam de correction at Ghent, which* sembles, in an octagonal forn a great number of insulated ho approaching to one common cei e, is very ingenious, as it greatly » litates the inspection and so r- intendence of the whole. The i son of Aix, built by M. Ledoujin a style somewhat resembling of the Egyptians, is on a very pie plan.' On the same platjoi the above work which contain^ plan of these buildings, is onM the " maison de correction 1 at H' *t that of Milan, that of Amster<">» PRO PRO nd the prison of Newgate, which, \, Millin observes, is built in " a vie approaching the severe archi- cture of Florence." Mr. Howard observes, that " a mnty gaol, and indeed every ison, should be built on a spot at is airy, and, if possible, near a ver or brook ;" but " not so near that either the house or yard all be within the reach of floods. it be not practicable to build ar a stream, then an eminence ould be chosen, for as the wall und a prison should be so high greatly to obstruct a free circu- :ion of air, this inconvenience ould be lessened by rising Dund, and the prison should not surrounded by other buildings, r built in the middle of a town city." Proaulion, a term amongst > Greeks, for what the Romans led vestibulum, the passage , ich conducted from the exterior the interior of a building. Prodomus, (Gr.) a term some- • les given to the portico, at the (.ranee of the cella, and to the : ade of the temple. Producing, in geometry, the (itinuing a right line to any l, uired length. Profile, (Fr.) the perpendicu- 1 section of a building. The t-n is also used in speaking of t contour of an architectural i mber, as of a base, cornice, &c. I.s on the just proportion of their J files that the chief beauties of t different orders of architecture d end. The ancients were most c,?ful of the profiles of their rwldings. The good effect which tUe produced, depended on the n.nbers that were employed, as •jjl as on their disposition and p ections. In this respect the C eks have been skilf ul masters. T profiles of the capitals, of the bases, of the entablatures, and of the different mouldings which are offered to us, in the works of the Grecian artists, abound in preci- sion, spirit, and expression, and communicate to the whole a cer- tain warmth and life. They never overloaded their entablatures with members, as the edifices of the Romans offer us examples in later ages ; they employed but a small number, and each had its peculiar design. These members are dis- posed in the most agreeable situa- tions, they offer a variety in their form and height, and their projec- tion is determined by the most exact proportions. In each profile there is a principal member, to which all the others are subordi- nate. The face of the principal member is always rectangular : those which serve to support or to cover it, have their profiles traced with a curved line. The members which are designed to sustain or cover, are strong towards the ex- tremities; those on the contrary, which only serve to form a separa- tion are delicate. The effect of the profile depends much on the degree of projection given to each member. When this projection is too diminutive, the profile will have a cold and mean air : when, on the contrary, the members have too much projection, it will appear clumsy. The ancients avoided these two faults with great success, and, according to Vitruvius, their method was to give each member a projection equal to its height. The best works of antiquity sup- port the authority of Vitruvius; although sometimes the whole height of several members was given to the most elevated member, that it might cover the other infe- rior members which were below it, and which depended upon it. Projection, a branch of per- 275 PRO PRO spective, u the art of forming the representation of a body upon a plane, by drawing straight lines through a given point, or parallel, from the contour, and from the intermediate lines of the body, if any, so as to cut the plane ; then colouring the respective compart- ments according to the degree of light, shade, and hue, of each sur- face." (Nicholson.) Projecture, the prominence of the mouldings and members beyond the naked surface of a column, wall, &c. They are termed by the Greeks £Kopat, by the Italians Sporti, and by the French sailles. See Profile. Prolate, (Lat.) a spheroid is said to be prolate, when it is pro- duced by the revolution of a semi- ellipsis about its long diameter; when revolved about its short diameter, it produces an oblate spheroid. Pronaos, (Gr.) the front porch of an ancient temple. Propnigeum, (from Gr. irviyw, to suffocate,) the chamber in the Roman baths, placed under the different portions of the bath, as the Laconicum, &c, for the purpose of given heat to them. It was also named prcefurnium. Proportions, see Architecture. Proportional Compasses, see Instruments. Propylaa, the buildings which fronted the only entrance to the Acropolis of Athens. Some infor- mation relating to these buildings, and more particularly to their for- tifications, have been given under the article Acropolis. They were commenced during the administra- tion of Pericles, and were finished in five years, Mnesicles being the architect. Several plates of the Propylaea are given by Stuart, from drawings in possession of the society of Dillettanti. Before the 276 Propyleea stood two lofty piers,; each of which was placed equestrian statue. On the riglv the Propylsea was the temple Victory without wings, whe there is a prospect of the sea, ;S on the left was an edifice adord with paintings, the work of Pol . notus. The remains of the teme are described by Wheler ; " it $ built of white marble, and one f its ends is near the wall. It not above fifteen feet long, ;J eight or nine broad ;" the fri " has a basso-relievo on it of li figures well cut." The three c tiguous buildings originally forni one front, occupying the wi breadth of the rock from side a side at its western end, so that e only admission into the Acroprs, was through the middle build * the five gates of which are : I remaining. Here we must suppe was placed the Hermes Pro- Iseus, and perhaps the Gran, which were sculptured by Socrai. The great front vestibule is divid by six Ionic columns into the ailes, through the central oneif which carriages passed. The rd through the Propylsea was me practicable by an inclined pie intersecting the flights of stn, and traversing the entire edif . The central intercolumniation s made ditriglyph, to afford suflfic t width for the passage of the qu - rigee. In the interior of this ] of the building, there is an as( of four feet eight inches by steps. The central wall is rem; able for the massive marble linls which covered its five gates, lit of the central gate being a s mass, 22 feet 6 inches lc, r 3' 10" 3 high, and 4 feet w The interior of the door- ways lined with marble, parts of wl still remain. On excavating, cording to M. Fauvel, two si PRO v e found next the interior of the e t portico, and a low one outside s jping into the Acropolis. At t! front portico there are four Hds. There was only one step to n inner portico of the Propylsea Eleusis. The substruction of tl right wing of the Propyiaea b eath the western wall is not . p'allel with the plane of the wall a ve, but diverges somewhat to- wels the north ; it consists of a ut twelve courses of a deep coured hard breccia. The left v g is much dilapidated, but evi- d 1 itly had three columns in front, p bably in antis, as in the other v'g. The present horse-road into t interior of the Acropolis was f ned, probably, when one of the Ink princes closed up the central c ning, when the great vestibule v; converted into an arsenal; it ry probably have received its diction from an ancient private c. privileged entrance, at this a le of the building. The co- 1 ns consist of eleven frusta, in- ching the capitals. The episty- 1 extend from centre to centre, a I are in three thicknesses, like t se of the Parthenon. The me- t a? of the front portico appear t.iave been decorated with seulp- t The exterior marble walling if instructed without mortar, in b ?ks of one thickness, the courses which are 3. 10' 5" long, and 1 v 5" high. When the Greeks c ie in possession of the Acropolis (1 ing the late war, they made two droveries in the Propyleeum. ( J was, a small subterraneous c pel under the right wing, which a eared to have been long filled ii rubbish; the other was the c 'jrated fountain of Pan, rising P tear the north-west corner of the c del, that it was immediately c losed by a new bastion. The e ance to the subterranean cham- PRO ber is by a descent of steps from the interior of the outwork, beneath the north wing ; and the well is, according to the accounts of the travellers who have visited the place since its discovery, in it. The chamber is decorated with paint- ings of Greek saints, executed in the middle ages, and the colours are still vivid. See, for further de- tails of these buildings, the fifth chapter of Stuart's Athens, and the notes of his editor — Meursii Attica — Hughes' Travels — Unedited An- tiquities of Attica — Leake's Topo- graphy of Athens— Waddington's Visit to Greece. In the plan of the Acropolis of Athens, (plate A cropolis,) the follow- ing references are not mentioned in the article to which it belongs. a, pedestal of Rome and Augustus. 0, site of the temple of Minerva Pro ma- dias. c, site of the temple of Diana Brauronia. s at Eleusis present us, is the L thod of covering the edifices \ h marble slabs, worked into lie shape of tiles. This ingen is contrivance was so highly apk ciated by the Greeks, that »y honoured the inventor witl a. statue, and with an inscripti which is preserved by Pausans. Byzes of Naxos, the author >f this invention, flourished in e time of Solon, 580 years be Christ, (Pausanias, v. 10.) " meritorious part of the inven consists in the expedients adop for the purpose of preventing e admission of wet, and especiv between the joints of the contii- ous tiles : this was effected by e introduction of narrow joint-tk (called appoi, harmoi, in the Ath- ian inscription) extending from e ridge to the eaves in a contind line over the meeting joints of e flat tiles; these being previoiy ranged in courses, the higher o - lapping that next in order below " The Eleusinian Propylaea was is tirely constructed of fine Pent c marble, the pavement consisting blocks nearly six feet square, more than thirteen inches thick accurately fitted, that in in places the joint is not percepti There are six steps on the n< h front, the lower step both higp and wider than the others. Be each column a circular sinkin visible, half an inch in depth, PRO % >mewhat more in diameter than ie column : a similar sinking is imarked in the steps belonging to ie wings of the Propylsea at thens, and in other Grecian edi- :es. It has been conjectured, jiat it was intended to collect the ater from the channels of the flut- gs, and discharging it in front, jt in some instances it is not open the front of the step, and others k. we imagined that it was intended Ml mark the level to which the ; ivement of the portico was to be eJ orked : however, it is met with in to liidings where the pavement has ;en finished perfectly smooth, ie columns of the north front * minish in a line very slightly con- i! x : the bottom diameter of those liyf . the angles is 5' 1".366, and at tie; e height of 6^ feet from the upper risk ?p it is 4' 1 1". The beams of the pi iling are supported by the epi- v ! ylia of the inner ranges of co- lli inns, and by the flank walls of [lire e building. The beams over the pretj le aisles were twenty-three feet nil .rig, three wide, and two and a jftl If deep, and each weighed about fleet) iven tons. The intervening pa- oi !s were formed out of slabs four it long, sixteen inches wide, and ik m deep. Plutarch informs us that the ystic temple of the Eleusinian ires was begun by Choraebus, who oceeded so far as to erect the -ver columns and their epistylia. his death Metagenes, of Xypete, ded the galleries and the upper lumns: and Xenocles the Cho- gian constructed the roof over 2 ceiling of the sanctuary. The iole area occupied by the temple s covered by a substructure of rous stone : the steps and pave- nt of the portico were formed of 2 hard grey limestone of Eleusis. e walls appeared to have been sed within and without with Eleu- PRO sinian stone, the intermediate space being filled in with the same stone as that of the substructure. In advance of the Propylaea, and apparently included among the appendages of the great temple, was discovered the temple of Diana- Propylsea. Diana was considered by the Greeks as the daughter of Ceres, not of Latona, ( Paus. viii. 37. Herod, ii. 156,) and hence her temple was here appropriately situ- ated. This temple is the only variety which has yet been disco- vered of the species of temple called vaog ev 7rapa.arTa.criv, which presented in its fronts two columns interposed between the antae, ter- minating the flank walls of the cella. It was the most simple of the forms of the early temples of Greece, and the Greek tragedian alludes to it in the dialogue be- tween Pylades and Orestes, where the latter is instructed to obtain access to the sanctuary, and carry off the statue of the goddess, by letting himself down into the in- terior, where the openings between the triglyphs afforded admission. (Eurip. Iphig. in Taur, 116.) With the Doric buildings, which have been hitherto described, the roof terminates in a stillicidium, or dripping eaves, but in this building the sima, or upper moulding of the pediment cornice, is continued along the flanks, and a channel is hollowed in it, for the purpose of collecting the rain which fell upon the roof. (Unedited Antiquities of Attica.) The term propylceum, was ap- plied in its general meaning to the vestibule of any building, or place. Puopylon, (Gr ) a vestibule. Proscenium, the front part of the stage of the ancient theatres, on which the actors performed. It had also, or rather a part of it had 279 PRO PRO the name of pulpitum, which the Greeks called logeion : for Pollux, enumerating the parts of the thea- tre, mentions separately the pro- scenium and the logeion, and Vitru- vius uses the expression proscenii pulpitum, the pulpitum of the proscenium. The Greek name has probably been given to it, because it was the place where they spoke, \oyog signifying a word, speech, or discourse; and the Latin name pulpitum originated perhaps in its being a place elevated, and com- posed of wood. ( See Pulpitum, and Theatre.) The logeion was not more than twelve, or less than ten feet high above the floor of the orchestra. A sufficient proof that it was generally of wood, is, that in all the ruins of the theatres of the ancients, in which a part of the scene has been preserved, we do not find the least trace of the pro- scenium. In the theatre of Tauro- menium, on which, amongst other works, may be consulted the second volume of the " Voyage Pitto- resque" of M . Houel, and the '? Voy- age en Sicile," by Riedesel, we find before the scene, at the place where the proscenium terminates, and where the orchestra commences, a long subterraneous and vaulted gallery, which passes under the whole length of the proscenium ; we arrive at the middle of this gallery by a similar gallery, which comes from above, and passes un- der the scene. These two gal- leries are disposed in the form of a T. The vault of the gallery, which passes under the proscenium in its whole length, is, at equal distances, pierced with holes, in which, without doubt, were fixed the wooden supports which formed the anterior face of the prosce- nium, on which were placed the timbers that formed the logeion. The theatre of Telmessus, figured in the 72nd plate of the first p t of the " Voyage Pitioresque" of I de Choiseul - Gouffier, shows e. dently that the proscenium 2 thus supported; we there discov in the wall of the scene the opr ings in which the beams were i ed. Perhaps the galleries unc the proscenium of the theatre Tauromenium, served also to fa litate the access to the machiri placed under the scene. In t theatre of Telmessus, we also d cover in the wall, under the scei three entrances which lead undert proscenium. According to Vitt vius, the length of the whole see was equal to twice the diamei of the orchestra, and all the r mains of ancient Roman theatr give these measures. That the who were stationed in the orche tra might not be hindered fro seeing what was passing on tl scene, the pulpitum in the Rom; theatres must have been low than the logeion among the Greek The same author accordingly tell us, that the Romans made it i more than five feet high, whilst tl Greeks gave it double of that el vation. Prostas, in Grecian house the passage which separated tl thalamus, or bed-chamber, fro the antethalamus, or antechar ber. Prostyle, temples with lumns only in front. Whi there was also a portico at tl opposite front, the temple w termed amphiprostyle, that is, pr style on both sides. Such was tl temple near the Ilyssus, in tl environs of Athens. Prostyride, a name given 1 Vignola to the key of an arcad formed by a bunch of foliage b tween two listels and fillel and crowned by a Doric cym tium. I PTE | eC ! j Protii yrum, (Gr.) a porch at ?' e outer door of a house; a rail h| I defend the door from horses, !* ;rts,&c. Protractor, see Instruments. i improved protractor has been vented, with a moveable index ted on the centre, and so con- ved as to set off angles to a inute with great nicety. Prytaneium, (Gr.) a place at hens, where those who had de- rved well of their country were aintained at the public charge. *' ' Pseudisidomum, or Pseudiso- >mum : see Isidomum. * Ps eu do dipt eros, (Gr.) that is, !lt Ise dipteral, a mode of arrang- £ the columns in a temple, in \kh the two fronts had eighteen >lumns, and the sides fifteen or (teen. It differed from the dip- ral in having only a single range columns, the interior range near e eella being dispensed with. By is disposition, a wide gallery was jft round the cella, in breadth ual to two intercolumniations and e diameter of a column. Vitru- us attributes its invention to Her- lOgenes. See Hermogenes. Pseudoperipteros, or imper- ct peripteral, a disposition of the icient temples, in which the co- rans of the sides were engaged in e wall. Instead of being sur- unded by a portico, it had none it on the facade in front. On .ch side the walls of the cella sre continued to the intercolumni- ions of the portico, which were ereby shut. This diposition was metimes given to temples, for the ke of enlarging the interior of e cella. Such are the temple of jrtuna Virilis at Rome, and the .aison Carree at Nismes. Pseudotiiyron, ( Gr. ) a false )or behind a building. Pteroma, ( Gr. from nrfpov, a ing,) the spaces between the walls 2N PUR of the cella of a temple, and the columns of the peristyle ; called also ambulatio. Pugging, a coarse kind of mor- tar laid on the boarding between joists. Pug-Piling, the same as dove- tail filing. See Piling. Pulley Mortise, a long mor- tise, parallel to the under side of the bonding joists, for the recep- tion of the ceiling joists. Pulpit, (Lat.) an elevated place for public speeches ; the place in a church whence the sermon is pro- nounced. Some of them, particu- larly in Roman Catholic churches, are richly ornamented. Pulpitum, see Logeum and Proscenium. Pulvinaria, (Lat.) cushions in the ancient temples, on which the statues of the gods were sometimes laid. Pulvinated, ( from pulvinus, Lat. a pillow,) a frieze that swells out in form of a pillow. Punchion, ( Fr. ) a common name given to all the iron tools used by stone-cutters, &c. for cut- ting, or chipping : also, a piece of timber placed upright between two posts which have too much bear- ing : also, a piece of timber, called by Vitruvius columen, which is raised upright under the ridge of a building, and in which are jointed the little timbers, &c. Punt, an oblong flat-bottomed boat, with square head and stern. Purbeck Stone, a species of sandstone, brought from Purbeck in Dorsetshire, and much used in London, both for building and pavements. It is harsh and rough, of an ash colour, hard, and very heavy. Though it cuts to a smooth surface, it will not take a polish. It is found in other parts of the kingdom, and there are large strata of it in Yorkshire. 281 PUT PUZ Purfled, (Fr.) ornamented with carving, resembling embroidery, lace-work, fringes, or flowers. An old term. Purlins, pieces of timbers which are laid across the inside of the rafters, to keep them from sinking in the middle. Puteal, (Lat.) The puteal of Libo, puteal Libonis, so celebrated in Roman history, was the mar- ginal stones of a well, with a cover, which Scribonius Libo had caused to be erected by order of the senate, in a place where a thunderbolt had fallen, near the statue of Marsyas and Janus, by the Comitia. He erected within its enclosure an altar and a chapel. It appears indeed to have been a kind of tribunal, where they took cognizance of com- mercial affairs. The figure of this puteal is still seen on some medals with the inscription, puteal li- bon. Puteoli, an ancient town of Campania, celebrated for its hot and cold springs ; it is now called Puzzuoli. No part of the Roman port now remains, but a line of piers, which were designed to break the force of a rolling sea. The ruins of the ancient city are con- siderable. Among these is an am- phitheatre, still almost entire, and a temple of Sera pis. The latter has in great part been destroyed by volcanic commotions. It square enclosure is surrounded by build- ings which appear to have served for abodes for the priests, and baths. A circular platform remains in the centre, approached by four flights of steps, on which the vases for fire, the altar, the rings for the victims, and the other appendages, still remain, although the columns which supported its roof have been removed to the palace of Caserta. The modern cathedral occupies the site of another temple, which was dedicated to the deities whow*. supposed to preside over comme > and navigation. Near the town I the remains of the Campanian wl which was constructed by Dor tian, and frequently mentioned Statius. It is paved with lava a lime on each side, and venerable i pulchral towers stand on each sir their interior richly stuccoed. Putlogs, or Put locks, pieces timber about seven feet long, us in building scaffolds. Putty, (Fr.) a kind of pas; made of whiting, a little white lee and linseed oil, well beat togethe Puzzolana, a greyish eai used for building under watt This mineral is found in great( abundance in the vicinity of P teoli, and derives its name frc Puzzuoli, the modern name of tl place; it is also found in oth parts of Italy, and generally in t! neighbourhood of burning mou tains, from which it has be« thrown out in the form of ashe sometimes covering the face of tl country to a considerable dept and over extensive districts: som times, also, found in the state small pieces of an earthy ai porous texture, classed by miner logists under the genus lava, is magnetic, and easily melts per into a black slag. It sudden hardens when mixed with one-thi of its weight of lime and watc forming a cement more dura!: under water, than any othe Bergman found one hundred pat of it to contain fifty-five to sixty siliceous earth, twenty of argillac ous, five or six of calcarious, at from fifteen to twenty of iron : tr last constituent is considered to the cause of its property of harde ing under water. The iron decoi poses the water of the morta and thus, in a very short time, new compound is formed. Tl / P YL ibstanee is found in France, and England. Artificial puzzolana made by reducing to a red heat ,ree parts of clay, with one of acked lime by measure. Puzzo- na was called by the Romans rra puteolana, from the place here they chiefly procured it. he Greeks were not acquainted ith this substance, and the Ro- ans had in this respect a great Wantage over them, on account ■ the solidity which it ensured to :eir buildings. When it was used buildings in the water, they ixed, according to Vitruvius, two irts of puzzolana to one of mor- '* Sir. The ruins of edifices built in ie sea, in the neighbourhood of aise, prove the solidity of this ?ment. Winckelmann, in his eatise on the architecture of the icients, says that the Romans ™! referred the black puzzolana, m l stead of which now the prefer- lce is given to the red. Puzzo- na was employed with great ad- intage in the construction of the ublic ways at Rome, and in its cinity. Pycnostyle, (Gr.) the method ' intercolumniation, which has but diameter and a half between each i ; )himn. The pycnostyle interco- mniation occurs in the ruins of lu almyra. Pylon e, (Gr.) a term applied y the editors of the Description de Egypte, to the lofty pyramidal asses of masonry which were aced at the entrance of temples id palaces of the ancient Egyp- ans. They give their reasons for ? adoption, in the following words : Embarrases de donner a ces con- ructions, qui n'ont point d'ana- gues ni dans l'architecture Grec- je, ni dans l'architecture Romaine, dans la notre, une denomination li en presentat une idee exacte, d Jus avons adoptes celles de py- P YR lone, derivee du mot grec ttvXwv, dont se servent les anciens auteurs pour designer l'espece d'edifice dont il est ici question." Pyramid, (for the derivation of the word, see next article,) a solid, having one of its sides, called the base, a plane figure, and the other sides triangles, their points joining in one point at the top, called the vertex. The edge of the base and the vertex are called the two direc- trices, and the straight line extend- ing between them is called the generatrix. Pyramids are called triangular, square, &c, according to the form of their bases. When the base is enclosed by a curve, the pyramid is a cone. The soli- dity of a pyramid may be found by multiplying the area of its base by its height, and dividing the product by three. The frustum of a pyra- mid is the lower part, when the upper part is cut off by a plane parallel to the base ; the latter being also the base of the frustum. Any two edges of one end, and the corresponding edges of the other, make four proportionals. To find the solidity of the frustum of a pyramid or cone, or of a prismoid, which is the frustum of a wedge; to four times the area of the mid- dle section, parallel to, and equally distant from each end, add the areas of the two ends; multiply the sum by the altitude of the solid, and one-sixth part of the pro- duct will be the solidity. Pyramid, a building of a pyra- midal form. The most ancient people raised pyramidal structures to serve for monuments. The most famous pyramids of anti- quity are those of Egypt. There are at present more than forty pyramids found in that country. It is very singular, that this kind of building is only found in one district of that country, which is P YR PYR now called Fayoume, and which lies between Cairo and Meidun, on the west side of the Nile ; hence it would appear that we ought to regard them as more modern than the temples of the Thebaid. The portion of the country, in which the pyramids are situated, is not more than twenty leagues in extent, and is situated between the twenty- ninth and thirtieth degrees of north latitude, and under the forty-ninth degree of east longitude. The pyramids mentioned by the an- cients are not all now in existence; neither those which, according to Herodotus, were in the lake Moeris, nor those which, according to Hero- dotus, Diodorus, Pliny, and others, belonged to the labyrinth, can now be found. On the other hand, all the pyramids which now exist are not mentioned by ancient writers. It is thought that it was only one period of the Egyptian history, that was distinguished by their erection. The history of their origin, how- ever, as given by the ancients, is very uncertain. According to He- rodotus, the stones, which were used in building them, were ex- tracted from the quarries of the eastern mountains, on the frontiers of Arabia. Yet modern travellers have observed, that the pyramids appear to be constructed of the same calcarious stone which is procured from the neighbourhood of the place where they stand. Many opinions have been form- ed, as to the original destination of the Egyptian pyramids. Some, amongst whom we may include nearly all the ancients, take them for tombs. Others suppose them to have been erected for astronomi- cal purposes, and this opinion is found in the commentary of Pro- clus on the Timaeus of Plato. Others again have taken them for religious edifices, and suppose that in them were celebrated the mi; sacred mysteries. The mode I erecting these buildings was, wit out doubt, very simple. The fi process would be to level t ground ; after this they would pi ceed in laying different layers stone, from the foundation to t summit, carrying up the immen stones from step to step, either j levers or some other means, wi an incredible degree of indust and labour. Their design m without doubt, to serve as sepi chres for the kings or great peop! and this is the opinion of almo all the ancient writers ; but th, probably also partook of a religio character. M. Gatterer divid the pyramids into five groups, tho near Ghize, those near Manje musa, those near Sacarra, those Bagshar, and those near Fejur The first of these collections a the most remarkable, and are siti ated on a vast elevated plai which was appropriated to lY sepulchres of the inhabitants the city of Memphis. Two pyn mids, of an immense magnitude rise far above the others, which ai smaller, and in great part destroy ed. Further towards the east j the great sphinx, which is cut 01 of a solid rock, that was foun standing on the spot, but which now in a great measure buried i| sand and earth. Several attempts have been mad to ascertain the true derivation d the word pyramid. The Greek all derived it from 7rvp,Jire' t othei derived it from trvpog, corn, imagiri ing them to be the granaries thj; were built by Joseph, to preserv the grain of Egypt ! But M. Sy! vester de Sacy, in a memoire ir, serted in the 6th volume of th Magazine Encyclopedique, p. 44( has shewn that the word pyrami belonged to the primitive languag; P YR PYR ' Egypt. The Arabs call' the >ramids haram, and in the plural hram, written in the Arabic cha- rter by the three consonants krm. d discover the origin of their ime, M. de Sacy endeavours to scover an Egyptian or Coptic ord, which might easily be made to either pyrumis or haram. In inclusion, he derives it from a ord composed of the three letters rm, which, he observes, is found the Oriental languages in its rimitive sense, to separate from le intercourse and usage of men, tence in Hebrew, Syriac, &c, the ;rb signifies to consecrate to God, » devote ; hence herem, a thing onseerated, and the Arabic haram, thing forbidden, prohibited, a oly place ; harim, women ; harem, ie place where they are kept >parate from the men. " If be- >re the word haram or hrum, we lace the Egyptian article, we lall have pi 'hram, whence the !reeks might easily form pyramis, : nd, taking away the Egyptian 'rticle, and Greek termination, we lall have the haram of the Arabs, his word would signify the holy Hace, the edifice consecrated, in a articular manner, either to some ivinity, or to some religious use." 1 Pyramids are not confined to 'gypt. The pyramidal tombs of 1 byssinia are described under the rticle Abyssinian Buildings', some aces of this kind of edifice have een found in other eastern coun- ties. They occur in several in- ances, in the islands of the )uthem seas. They are found so in America, (see Cholula, and Texican Buildings ;) and their >rm may be traced in the pagodas f India and China. The pyramid f Meidun, near Memphis, displays ie shape of the Pah-gahu temple, hile that of Ghize, if surrounded ith a tee, would correspond pre- cisely to that of Shoe-Madoo. Both these pyramidal forms, as well as the globular structures of the Cin- galese, are alike sacred to Buddha, under different invocations or ava- tars. The variations of structure are neither accidental nor arbitrary, but imply the particular incarna- tion to which the edifice is dedi- cated. Various authors, at different periods, have differed much in their estimates of the dimensions of the Egyptian pyramids. The following is a comparative view of the dimensions, according to several authors, of the great pyra- mid, in French feet. Width of one Ancients. Height, of its sides. Herodotus, 800 800 Strsibo 625 000 Diodorus Siculus 600 700 Plinj 708 Moderns. Le Brujn 616 704 Prosper Alpinus 625 750 Thevenot 520 682 Niebuhr 440 710 Greaves, 444 ...... 648 Number of Layers of Stone which form it. Greaves 207 Maillet and Thevenot 208 Pococke 212 Belon 250 Alb.-rt Litfwenstein 250 In the plate History of Arch, we have given a figure of the en- trance of the great pyramid, and, at fig Z, a sketch of the mode of roofing the interior chamber. On the Egyptian pyramids, be- sides the works of the numerous travellers who have visited that country, and the authors already mentioned, may be consulted, Bel- lonius, de Admirabili Op rum An- tiquorum et Rerum Suspicienda- rum prsestantia. 4to. Paris, 1535. Greaves' Pyramidographia, or a Description of the Pyramids, 8vo. Lond. 1646. L'Egypte de Murta- di, Fils de Graphiphe, ou il est QUA QUA traite des Pyramides, des Deborde- ment du Nil, et des autres Mer- veilles de cette Province, selon les Opinions Arabes, translated from the Arabic by P.Vatter, Par. 12 mo, 1666 ; and English translation, 8vo. Lond. 1666; Celsius, Historia Py- ramidum, 8vo. ; Gochvvend, Pro- gramma de Pyramidibus, folio; Krans, Theoria Pyramid um, 8ve iEgyptischeMerkwurdigkeiten,8v White, iEgyptiaca. Oxford, 180 Pyramidoid, (Greek.) a so formed by the revolution of a pai bola about its base, or greatt ordinate. It is also sometim called a parabolic spindle. Q Quadra, a square border or frame, encompassing a basso-re- lievo, panel, &c. Quadra, the bands or fillets of the Ionic base, on each side of the scotia, or hollow. The term is also applied to the plinth or lower mem- ber of the podium. Quadrangle, (Lat.) any figure with four angles and four sides. Quadrant, ( Lat. ) the quarter of a circle, an arc of ninety degrees with its enclosed angle. Quadrature, (Lat.) the deter- mination of the area of a figure, in a square, or even any other recti- linear form. Quadrels, square artificial stones, made of a dry chalky earth. Qua drifores, (Lat.) folding doors whose height was divided into two ; when they opened in one height, they were termed fores val- vatce or valvce. Quadrilateral, (Lat. )a fi- gure of four sides. Quarrel, (carreau, French,) a square or lozenge-shaped piece of glass for windows. Quarry, (carrig, Irish,) a place out of which stones are dug. Lime- stone is found in abundance in Lancashire, Westmorland, York- shire, and Cumberland, as well as in Devonshire, Sussex, Kent, and other of the southern counties, and Gloucestershire, Shropshire, Der- byshire, Staffordshire, and some districts of Scotland. Kent is mo particularly celebrated for two kin- of stones, the Kentish rag-ston of a hard strong texture, and th termed hassock, of a soft crumb; nature. The former is divided 1 the quarrymen into two kinds, tl common rag, and the cork ston the latter resembling in its gener appearance strong grey lime-ston The hassock is of a loose and bri tie texture, crumbling between tl fingers into a coarse powder reserr bling sand. Marble is found < various kinds in different countie That of Sussex is much used ft ornamenting chimney pieces, am many other purposes. It is chief! found about Kirdford, and is com monly known by the name of Pel worth marble. Excellent marbl is found in various parts of Derbj shire, and several species are als found in other inland counties, a Shropshire, Nottinghamshire, &(; Near Newark, in the latter count) is found a fine blue stone, which i very nearly allied to marble, and ij of great use for hearths, &c. Vari ous species of fine marbles ar found in different districts of York shire, particularly on the sides c river Kent, near Kendal. A fin black marble is also found in Lan cashire. It is found in abundanc in several parts of Scotland, parti cularly on Ben Nevis, where a fin variegated species is dug up. Chal quarries are chiefly found in Bed ! QUA •dshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, jnt, Sussex, Surrey, and other uthern counties. Granite is iefly found in the northern parts the island, although it is found =ntifully in the western districts Cornwall, and also in some other the southern counties. Free' me, is very ahundant in Cheshire, imberland, Westmorland, Lan- shire, and other northern coun- s. That brought from Runcorn, anley, &c. in Cheshire, and that )m Wigan, Ormskirk, Up-Hol- id, and the vicinity of Lancaster, 3 particularly celebrated. It is ;o abundant in Northumberland. : ;ry fine free-stone is brought from e isle of Portland, and also from ?vonshire, Cornwall, and from the )tswold, and other quarries in oucestershine. A grit-stone, rtaking of the nature of free- ze, is found in various districts Shropshire, and in some other unties. In Cheshire, and in ssex, and other southern counties found a very useful sand-stone. Scotland, free-stone is found in Wiltshire, and many other coun- 's. Flag-stones, of an excellent ality, are found at Grinsell, near rewsbury, at Corndon hill, near shop's-Castle, and about Bridge- rth, in Shropshire, as well as in ; Swinney mountain, and abound Lancashire, Yorkshire, and most the counties which produce free- me. The white and grey sorts of 1 te are found in Lancashire,York-' ire, Westmorland, Cumberland, )rthumberland, and in several itricts of Scotland. The lighter d thinner kinds, as the blue, sen, purple, &c. are chiefly found Wales, and in the northern parts Lancashire, and in some few dis- cts of Scotland. In Borrowdale, d other parts of Westmorland d Cumberland, are found good Je and green slates. Granite, QUA porphyry, serpentine, and other kinds of stone, are found abun- dantly in the isle of Jersey. In Kent, the banks of some of the large rivers are scooped out into stone quarries in a very re- markable manner, some of them worn out and disused. Near Maid- stone are many traces of quarries thus abandoned. In the quarries of Fant and Farleigh, the blocks of stone are found in irregular masses, separated by seams, and in some places buried in brick earth. Gra- nite is often found in large de- tached blocks, particularly in Corn- wall and Scotland, where they are easily dug up and quarried. In the Carse of Gowry in Scotland, free-stone is found in immense blocks, in the quarries of Kingoodie, some of them fifty feet long, sixteen broad, and three thick. Around Bath, numerous quarries are seen, with men at work sawing the stone into regular forms for use : the sameness of their labour, and the ghastly hue thrown over their coun- tenances by the adhering particles, or the reflection from the stones, has atendency toexcite melancholy ideas in the beholder. Immense blocks of stone are carried down the hills, by an ingenious machine invented by Mr. Allen, of Prior Park : it is a carriage with low and broad cast- iron wheels, with a groove in the perimeter, which serves to confine their course to the pieces of wood on which they smoothly move down the hills without the help of horses, carrying from four to five tons of stone at a time, without horses : the motion regulated by a friction lever, made to bear on the hinder wheels as occasion requires. It is highly desirable that a quar- ry should be situated near to some river or canal, or on the sea coast, unless it be required for building- purposes very near to the spot, as QUA QUA the great expense of land-carriage of many miles, in such a material, cannot be afforded. There are many instances in which canals have been cut solely for the con- veyance of the stone ; in others, iron and wooden rail -roads have been constructed, to lessen the la- bour of the draught. Some of these rail-roads being on a slightly inclined plane, the loaded carriages are impelled forward by their own gravity to considerable distances. The implements made use of by the miners or quarrymen, although few and simple, are very efficient in their expert hands. They are represented in Plate Tools, and are as follow : Fig. 5. The sledge- hammer, or mallet. 6. The borer, or chisel. 7. Wedges. 8. The scraper. 9. The claying bar. 10. The needle. 11. The tamping bar. 12. The shovel. 13. The fusee, inserted in the charge. In separating the different por- tions of stone, the readiest means are of course adopted. When the mass to be removed is not very large, and is surrounded more or less with fissures, by which it is parti- ally unconnected with the rock, the driving in of wedges will often be sufficient to produce an entire sepa- ration. The wedges also serve to remove from their beds those por- tions of the rock which are already naturally separated by cracks or fissures. Blasting, by gunpowder, is re- sorted to where the rock is solid and compact; and to perform the operation only two men are requi- site. The miner's judgment directs him to the fittest place for the charge ; and a hole is bored or cut into the hard rock to receive it, which is effected in the following manner. The borer, or chisel, 6, is held by one man, whilst it is struck with a sledge-hammer by the other; the man holding the ch : l turning it at every blow, so an cross the previous cut, by wh ri means the stone is chipped ayy by degrees. The boring, or ci- ting, is occasionally suspended :) clear out the hole, which is dig by the scraper,^. 8; then the c - ting, or boring, is resumed ; and ) on alternately, boring and clear r out, till the perforation is of > required depth, which is fromf bearing a more considerable veight, and consequently they are generally preferred. The edge- ways are formed of bars of wrought- ron, about an inch and a half vide ; the vertical thickness, which s always greater than the width, s proportionate to the weight fhich the rail has to support. The dge-ways are much adopted in Vales. But in the neighbourhood f Newcastle, the tram- ways are till generally used. A third kind f iron rail ways are quite flat, ithout edges or runs, and are tid into hollows made in the ommon road or pavement, so as ot to rise above the level of the round. This plan is particularly ell adapted to the streets and juares of a town, where vehicles all forms and sizes are continu- ly passing. An ingenious improvement in til-roads, by Mr. H. R. Palmer, is ascribed in the first volume of the st series of the Register of Arts, istead of two lines of rail laid xm the ground, as heretofore, r. Palmer's rail-way consists of ily one, which is elevated upon liars, and carried in a straight ie across the country, however adulating and rugged, over hills, lleys, brooks, and rivers; the lars being longer or shorter, to it the height of the rail above the rface of the ground, so as to pre- serve the line of the rail, which is always straight, whether the plane be horizontal or inclined. The waggons travel in pairs, one on each side of the rail, like paniers over the back of an ass, and they are so contrived as to need only two wheels for the pair, instead of eight. Raiser, the upright board on the foreside of the steps of a flight of stairs. Raising Pieces, pieces which lie under the beams, over the ports or puncheons, by the side of the house. Raking, a term applied to mouldings whose arrises are in- clined to the horizon. Raking Temple, a member hollowed in the square of a pedes- tal or elsewhere. Ramp, a concavity on the upper side of hand-railings, formed over risers, or over a half or quarter space, made by a sudden rise of the steps above. Rampant, (Fr.) a term applied to an arch whose abutments spring from an inclined plane. Rampart, a massy bank or ele- vation of earth, &c. raised for the purpose of covering a place from the direct fire of the enemy. It is made of sufficient thickness effec- tually to resist the impression of the cannon balls, and is formed into bastions, curtains, &c. The term rampart is also applied to the space left void between the wall of a city and the houses next to it, called by the Romans pomcerium. Ramps, in fortification, gentle slopes made for the cannon to be drawn up and down by, and to facilitate communication, raised either on the side of an elevated work, or against a salient angle, on each side of an entering angle. Range, a term applied to the edge of a number of bodies which 291 RAT run straight in the same surface or line. Rasant line of defence, in for- tification, that part of the courtin or flank, whence the shot exploded glances or razes along the face of the opposite bastion. Rath, amongst the ancient Irish, a fortress or castle. Like the British oppidum described by Caesar, the rath was a large circu- lar enclosure, on elevated ground, not unfrequently in the bosom of woods, and it consisted of the fol- lowing parts, the Beallagh, Dun, Mote, Ran, Rath, Uagh, £c. The beallagh was an external circular enclosure, constructed of a staked hedge or fence of wood, sometimes with an entrenchment; within this enclosure resided the servants and domestic animals of the chief. The dun, which answered to the Nor- man keep, was situated within the area of the beallagh, near the centre, and was generally the habi- tation of the chief and his family. The mote or molhan, was the cir- cular entrenchment which enclosed the dun. The ran was a rampait of earth or stone, surrounding the dun, and within the mote. The rath was the court or open area within the ran, wherein the pilait or right lann, (habitation of the chief and his family) was situated. They were in general small build- ings of earth and hurdles, some- times with walls of wood. The uagh, or uaigh, was the cave or cellar where the provisions were kept, and into which the women and children retired in case of danger. Although it was gene- rally placed under the dun, and had steps leading from the rath, yet it was sometimes situated be- tween the dun and the rath in the field. Of the ancient Cathairs, which were the same as the an- cient caers, there are now no re- REC mains. At Ardscul, about three miles from Athy, is a very good specimen of a dun. It contains also the amhaire or radhaire, aj watch-tower, which contained the habitation of the chief, and wherein guards were constantly placed. In; it may be traced the foundation of a building, which consisted of two apartments, in a line with each other. The cave under the rath was ten feet square. When on a plain, these buildings are always circular, but on hills other forms are sometimes adopted. In a rath on the Curragh of Kildare is a tumulus, and another with a cavity. (Gough's Camden.) Ravelin, in fortification, a flat bastion, anciently placed in the middle of a curtain. The term is now applied to a detached work, which is formed by two faces mak- ing a salient angle, and raised be- fore the curtain of the counterscarp of a place, to cover it and the ad- joining flanks from the direct fire of the enemy. It is sometimes termed a half moon. Ray, principal, in perspective, the perpendicular distance between the edge and the vertical point of the table. Rebate, (raoot, Fr.) 1. a hard free-stone, which is used in con- structing pavements : 2. a piece of wood hafted into the top of a long stick, for the purpose of beating out the mortar : 3. an iron tool sharpened something like a chisel, and employed in dressing and polishing wood. Rebating, plaining or cutting grooves, channels, &c. Recess, (from recedo, Lai.) a depth of some inches in the thick- ness of a wall, as a niche, &c. Recipi angle, an instrument which was used by French engi- neers, to take angles in fortifica- ^ tion, &c. It was in the form of a RED REP square, or rather a bevel, consist- ing of two moveable limbs like a sector; and in using it, the centre of a protractor was laid to the joint, and the degrees cut by the edge showed the quantity of the angle, or the angle made by the two rulers was traced on paper, and afterwards measured by the pro- tractor. Sometimes a circle, mark- ed into degrees, was annexed to it, when it could be used without a protractor. See Bevel. ' Recta Directrix, in conic sections, a line made by the mutual intersection of the vertical plane 'with that of the base. Rectangle, a figure in geome- try, whose angles are all right angles. Solids are said to be rect- angular also, with respect to their situation, as a cone, cylinder, &c. when it is perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. A parabola ; was called by the ancient geome- ters a rectangular section of a zone, as, before the time of Apollo- .lius, it was considered only in a :one, the section of which by the 'axis would be a triangle right- 'angled at the vertex, hence the book of Archimedes, on the quad- rature of the parabola, was entitled )u " the section of a rectangular : :one." Rectification, in Geometry, he finding the length of a curve foe, or a right line equal to a (wen curve. Reciilinear, figures bounded )y right lines. Redans, (Fr.) projections con- ducted at intervals, in a wall built tn uneven ground, for the purpose >f preserving the same height 'hrough its whole length. Redoubt, in fortification, a mall square fort, defended only in ront, used in trenches, lines of cir- umvallation, &c, and also to tefend passages, &c. They are generally encompassed by a ditch and bank of earth, and consist of two parts, a rampart and a parapet. Reduct, a quirk, or little piece taken out of a larger, to make it more uniform and regular. Redundant Hyperbola, a curve of the higher kind, so called because it exceeds the conic sec- tion of that name, in the number of its hyperbolic legs, it being a triple hyperbola, with six hyperbo- lical legs. Refectory, (Lat.) an eating- room. The term is confined to convents and other religious com- munities, and to colleges. Reg let, (Fr.) a flat narrow moulding, used to separate from each other the parts or members of compartments and panels, and to form knots, frets, &c. Reg rating, a term given by masons to the process of taking off the outer surface of an old hewn stone, for the purpose of whitening it, and making it look fresh again. Regula, (Lat.) a band below the taenia of the Doric epistylium. Regular, a figure is said to be regular, when it is equilateral and equiangular. A body is regular, when it is bounded by regular and equal planes, and has all its solid angles equal. Regui ar jCurves, such as are the perimeters of the conic sections, which are always curved after the same geometrical manner. Rejointing, the filling up the joints of stones in old buildings, when the mortar has been crum- bled out by the effect of time and weather. Relievo, or relief, the prefec- ture of an architectural ornament. Rendering, in building, the same as Pagetting. Replum, (Lat.) the panel of the impages of a framed door. 203 RES RES Reredos, or Reredosse, (Tar- ritre dos, Fr.) a screen or division wall, placed behind an altar, rood- loft, &c. in old churches. Reservoir, (Fr.) an artificial pond or basin, to collect water for the use of canals, mills, &c. In houses it is a basin made of wood, and lined with lead, to keep water for the supply of the house. Belzoni describes an ancient Egyptian reservoir among the ruins of Arsinoe, at Medinet el Faium. He made an excavation, and found it to be as deep as the bottom of the Bahr Yousef ; and it was, no doubt, filled at the time of the inundation, for the accommodation of the town. There are others similar in these ruins, which prove that this was the only mode they had of keeping water near them, as the river is at some distance from the town. Amongst the ruins of ancient Carthage, the reservoirs for water are still very perfect, being all arched over; they are not exposed, the walls being covered with a thick and strong cement. Amongst the remains of Forum Julii, at the mo- dern Frejus, in France, a reservoir of water is formed by galleries in arcades, three upon the length and four upon the breadth ; at the four corners, a hole through which the water entered. At Misenum, Oc- tavius Csesar brought water, by means of aqueducts, into immense reservoirs, the largest of which remains to this day in great pre- servation, and is called piscina mi- rabile : it is a subterraneous cistern, divided by alleys, formed by rows of square pillars, which support an arched roof. At Taurominium, the water was collected in a similar manner. Of its five grand reser- voirs one remains perfect. These edifices were oblong squares, with arches supported by pillars. Each had an aperture for the conveyam of the water, and another to let the superfluity, with a staircase j descend by, and a sluice to empi it entirely, and carry off the mm Swinburne describes that reservo which is best preserved, as divide by a row of massive pillars intl two rooms, lighted by semicircul; windows, near the ceiling. St Aqueduct. Resistance, in mechanics, th; power which acts in opposition t another, so as to diminish or di stroy its effect. From the theoi of resistance, there are many J suits which are extremely valuabi when applied to practicable put poses. In the fracture of any bod^ as a cylinder, when it breaks by it own weight, two powers are exerl ed ; the weight which tends to brea it, and the cohesion of the parts c fibres, which resists the fracture! Now the fracture may take plac in two ways. When the body j in a vertical position, the fibres c the base all break at once, and th absolute weight of the body mus exceed the united resistance of a its fibres. But in an horizontE position, the fibres are broken on after another, and consequently much less relative weight is requii ed. From the observations of M Mariotte, it appears that fibres ma be considered as so many littli bent springs, which never exei their whole force, till stretched t a certain point, and never brea' till entirely unbent. Those, cor; sequently, which are nearest th axis of equilibrium, or the wholj line on which the motion of th fraction will be, which is an immove able line, are stretched less tha; those farther off, and therefore em ploy a less part* of their force Hence all bodies, fractured in thi position, bend before they break Oak will suspend much more tha RES RET fir, but fir will support twice as much as oak; which difference is supposed to arise from the curva- ture of the fibres of oak. The re- sistance of a bar or beam to a frac- ture by a force which acts laterally, is as the solid made by a section Df the beam in the place where the force is applied, into the distance 3f its centre of gravity from the point or line where the breach will end. When the beam is fixed at both ends, it must be considered as only half its length, that is, the re- sistance is doubled. The following is a table of the relative resistance :or strengths of different bodies, re- sulting from I he experiments of Emerson and others. Proportional Resistance. Fine freestone 1 Iron .. 107 Brass 50 Lead 6 J Bone 22 Box, yew, plum-tree, oak 11 Elm. ash 8£ Walnut, thorn 7£ Red fir, holly, elder, plane crab-tree, apple-tree 7 Beech, cherry-tree, hazel ........ 63 Alder, asp, birch, while fir, willow . 6 | The following table of the cohe- sive force of a square inch of dif- ferent substances, is from the expe- riments and investigations of Pro- fessor R.obinson. Pounds. Gold, when cast 20,000 Silver 40.000 Cnn iron 40.000 to 60,000 Wrought Iron 60,000 to 90,000 'Soft Sieel 12.000 Razor Steel 15,000 Oak and Beech in the direction of their fibres, from 8,000 to 17,000 Willow 12,000 Fir 8,000 Cedar 5,000 f'ory 16,000 B ne 5,000 Rope 20,000 Respond, or Responder, in old English architecture, a pilaster, or ualf-column placed against a wall, in a situation to correspond with another pilaster or pillar, so called from the Latin respondere, to an- swer. Ressant, a term employed by William of Worcester, ( I tin. 220,) in describing mouldings of door- ways, supposed to have been of the ogee form. Ressault, (Fr.) the effect of a body which projects over, or falls back from, the line or range of the other members. Restorm el Castle, see Castle. Reticulatum, a kind of ma- sonry among the Romans, in which the stones were laid diagonally. Perrault and some other writers are mistaken in supposing that the reticulatum was a wall constructed of stones, which had their faces in form of a parallelogram. Vitruvius prefers the reticulatum to the in- certum, because it had a more regular appearance : but at the same time he observes, that it want- ed solidity, because the stones were not placed horizontally. R etrencii ment, (Fr.) any thing cut off or taken from another. Any works, such as ditches, with para- pets, gabions, &c. to strengthen or defend a post: and, more particu- larly, a simple retirade made on a hern-work or bastion, when it is intended to dispute every inch of the ground. Return, (Fr.) the continuation of a moulding, projection, &c. in an opposite direction ; a side or part which falls away from the front of a straight work. Return Bead, one that ap- pears both on the face and edge of a work. Returns of a Trench, in fortifi- cation, the several windings and crooked lines of a trench, drawn in some measure parallel to the side of a place attacked, to prevent being enfiladed, or having the shot 295 RH A RHO of the enemy scour along the length of the line. The returns of a mine, are the turnings and windings of a gallery. Revels, (from the Lat. revello,) the two vertical sides of an aper- ture between the front of the wall and the window or door frame. Revolution, the motion of a figure round an axis. Rez - de-Chaussee, ( Fr. ) the ground -floor. Riiamnus, one of the demi of Attica, celebrated for its temple of Nemesis, the remains of which are described in the " Unedited Anti- quities of Attica." The hieron of Nemesis contained within its en- closure two temples, the principal one hexastyle peripteral, and the smaller temple in antis. The latter is named, by the editors of the fore- going work, the temple of Themis, from a votive chair found in it dedicated to that goddess. The temple of Nemesis is the only example of this species of temple having the antae, which terminate the flank walls of the cella, to range ■with the opposite columns in the front. The lower portions of the shafts of seven columns in the south side, and one in the pronaos, remain in their original situations. A kind of railing appears to have been placed between the folumns of the pronaos, as the holes sunk in the pavement for the purpose of fixing it remain. The shafts of the columns in the front were fluted only at the top and bottom. The columns of the pronaos were fluted in front, and planed behind : the flutings are nine, the planes eleven. The epistylia were continued from the antae, across the ambulatory, to the opposite columns in the flanks. The metopae were omitted in the frieze, but the guttae retained in the epistylia. All the members of the cornice were painted or gfl The temple of Themis has but or, portico, and is situated almost i contact with the temple of Nemesi The walls are of the same materi; as the larger ten pie, but the cfl lumns and other parts of the ornj mental architecture are of a so porous stone. The masonry of th walls was of that kind denominate by Vitruvius, incertum. Rhodiacum, (Gr. ) In the in teriorofthat part of the house, whic among the Greeks was occupied b the male portion of the familj there was a peristyle greater thai that of the gynaeceium, enclose' on its four sides by porticos. Th< open place in the middle of th peristyle was generally plantec with grass and flowers. The por ticos which formed the peristyle were sometimes all of the sam< height; at others, the columns o that which faced the south wen made loftier than the rest. Wher the peristyle had this latter dis- position, it was termed rhodiacum According to the description which Vitruvius gives us of the Greek houses, there were behind these porticos different apartments all round the peristyle. The walls next to the porticos were covered on the outside with stucco. Be- hind the northern portico was the Cyzicene oecus, and a room foi; pictures ; towards the east was the library, towards the west the exe- drae, and towards the south was a great hall, where the master of the house took his repast with his friends. In describing the part of the Greek houses which was ap- propriated to the men, Vitruvius mentions neither a bed-chamber nor a common sitting-room : it appears, therefore, that the master of the house passed the day in the exedrae or in the library, and in the cecus when he had com- RIG JjJ j\y, and that at night he re- t:d to the apartment of his wife. [| I)tn the description of the part Jthe house inhabited by the men, J gen by Vitruvius, it appears that i only contained apartments that ue for pleasure, more superflu- c. than necessary; and the ne- csary and essential parts of the hse appear to have made part I cthe gvnaeceium. Riiom boi d, (Gr.) a quadrilateral f ire, of which the opposite sides si opposite angles are respec- t?ly equal. Rhombus, (Gr.) a quadrilateral , f'jre whose sides are all equal, d whose opposite angles are re- s ctively equal, two being obtuse tp two acute. Rhyparographia, a kind of i?rior painting among the an- cnts, which consisted in repre- ssing common inns. The forty- trd plate of the third volume of t' Pitture cCErcolano furnishes i with an example. Pliny and ™ Vruvius mention these rhyparo- K £phic paintings, with which they (2n adorned the walls, &c. of t ir houses. Rib, (Sax.) an arched piece of t.ber, sustaining the plaster-work c'a vault, &c. Ribbet, the recess in a wall t receive a door or window- sitter, as it folds back when c:ned. Rideau, in fortification, a small f nation of earth, extending length- \ys, to cover a camp, or add an £ antage to a post ; also, a ditch, t earth of which is thrown upon i side. iiDGE, ( hrigg, Saxon, ) the t of the roof, which rises to an i te angle. Iight Angle an angle of ninety c';rees. Right Line, a line perfectly Slight. 2P RO A Right Circle, a circle drawn at right angles with the plane of projection. Roads. The Romans were pecu- liarly industrious in the construc- tion of roads. The ancient Britons had many great roads running in different directions through the island ; and several British roads were adopted by the Romans, and improved according to their own mode of road-making. When we remember the great number of British towns which were retained by the Romans, and fortified by them as stations or settlements, we may readily believe that many roads, now supposed to be purely Roman, were really formed in the line of previous British trackways. The Romans worked with the hand of conquest, and all but such na- tural obstacles as were quite supe- rior to the efforts of human skill and labour, yielded to their perse- verance; and it appears from actual investigation, that all Roman roads run invariably in a straight line, except where they meet with some local impediment, such as a steep mountain or a deep ravine, or where they bend out of their general di- rection, to approach or leave a sta- tion, or to throw off some vicinal road. (Leman on the Roman Roads, &c; Introduction to Nichols's Hist, of Leicestershire, p. 119.) The Roman military road, in Britain, consisted of an artificial fabric, composed of chalk, pebble-stones, or gravel, raised to a considerable height above the level of the natu- ral soil. These materials were of- ten brought from a distant tract of country; and instances are yet to be seen, of the road rising to the height of ten feet, in a crest of emphatical but deserted grandeur. The occurrence of so great an ele- vation was most frequent on heaths, covered with long stubbed or pol- RO A ROA lard oaks ; and it has been conjec- tured, that such was the aspect of a great part of Britain, in the early periods of the Roman ascendancy ; and that the forest trees in the vici- nity of a great military thorough- fare were thus decapitated for the security of an army on its march, by revealing the recesses of the sur- rounding country, and precluding the danger of surprise. The most considerable of the Roman ways were paved with stones : when the surface did not consist of large paving stones, it was composed of gravel, and the durability of the road was greatly assisted by excel- lent drains, disposed with much care and judgment. For more copious information on the con- struction of Roman roads, the reader is referred to Bergier's " His- toire des Grands Chemins de l'Em- pire Romain," &c. Miss Knightdivides Roman roads into stratas vias, pebbles and gra- vel, like ours; vias silice stratas, paved with large unequal stones ; and vias saxo et lapide quadrato stratas y a kind of flagged pave- ments. In some roads four strata occur: (1) the statumen, or foun- dation, all sand and soft matter being carefully removed ; (2) rude- ratio, a bed of broken earthenware, tiles, &c. set in cement; (3) nu- cleus, a bed of mortar; (4) summa crusta, the outer coat of bricks, tiles, stones, or other materials. Along the sides of the Roman roads, in Italy, temples, ©dicula, triumphal arches, villas, groves, gardens, &c. were thrown together in the most picturesque irregula- rity; porticos afforded shade, and inns shelter, refreshment, or repose, to the traveller. The Greeks commonly paved their ways with large square blocks of stones, unlike the roads of the Romans, which are composed of , 298 irregular polygons. The anc ,t road from lolis to Carthsea, cording to Toumefort, the firt thing of the kind, which can j. haps be found in all Greece, ! 1 exists. He traced it for the miles in extent, flanking the si s of the hills, and standing by* strong wall, of which the copr consisted of immense blocks oi greyish stone. The British roads, before » Roman invasion, were not pai or gravelled : they were sometii 5 elevated terraces, and their bf$ was the firm and verdant it They are very commonly atteiuil by tumuli or barrows, and vesti 5 of villages and settlements ; sometimes found near them. r J> Romans adopted the British tov; and trackways whenever they fou them convenient. New Ronu roads sometimes run parallel 1 them. The chief British tra<- ways adopted by the Romans, the Foss-road and Ikenild-street. Among the old English we fi roads made of mortar and stone, : wood and stone, and roads for c riages, distinguished from brid ways. The Anglo-Saxons call the old Roman roads, milita ways ; the British trackways, t country roads; and they distinguis ed the high-ways as anes weens gm (one waggon's way) which was fc feet broad, and twegna wee ganweg, (two waggons' way,) whi was perhaps eight or more. In Mr. Mc. Adam's observatic on the arrangement of roads, observes, " The reason we requ artificial roads in Europe is, tl the soil becomes soft from wetne: were the natural earth always d , nothing could be preferable, fi being travelled upon, it would nev wear out, nor would any carria!;, however heavy, sink in it. II object to be aimed at, therefore. 1 ROE ROM t keep the natural soil dry, and «g may be done both by defend- j it from ground water, and from it which falls from above. In t knowledge of the measures re- c site to effect these objects, con- s's the whole science of road- uking." \ patent was given to Mr. Parker f an improved miethod of paving r ds. The method of paving yts of roads, for which this pa- tt has been granted, consists in fning two parallel rows or lines, ohard materials, at a proper dis- t ce asunder to support the wheels ohecarriages, which distance must b regulated by the medium length o heir axles; thus forming a way o rack for them, similar to a rail- r d. Five varieties of this method a ( described by the patentee; the m first relating to stone rail-ways, a the fifth to a compound rail- v of stone and iron. In all the n'hods of making the stone ways, kte blocks of granite, of a suitable bidth and depth, which latter is n particularized, (but probably n d not exceed a foot either way,) a laid level in the manner before mtioned, and, where the ground is'Dft, must have sleepers of stone O'uher fit material placed beneath tl r joints ; but when the ground is'ard enough, the mode of joint- it these stones (in which the dif- f( nee of the four first varieties c sist) will support them in their p :es sufficiently, without any H pers. Rochester Castle, see Castle. ioe-Stone, or Oolite, a kind o me-stone found under chalk in v ous parts of England, generally s< trated from it by beds of sand a clay. Different strata of it are c:ed in Northamptonshire, Ketten in Somersetshire, the Bath fi stone: and in the isle of Port- In, Portland stone. It is one of the secondary lime-stones, and may be considered as belonging to the chalk formation. It is compos- ed of small round globules, resem- bling in some measure the roes of fish. Rolls, in Gothic architecture, mouldings representing bent cylin- ders. Roman Architecture. The Romans received their first notions of architecture from the Etruscans. In true taste they were always far inferior to the Greeks, but they have the merit of bringing to perfection the ornamental part, and of having raised edifices neglected by the Greeks, such as public roads, aque- ducts, cloaci, amphitheatres, and triumphal arches. Under the first kings they thought more of enlarg- ing than of embellishing the city. Every temple built at this period was small and square, being scarcely large enough to contain the statue of the deity to whom it was dedicated. The houses, agree- ably to the name given them (tecta,) were but miserable cabins. They were not formed into regular streets, but thrown together as chance di- rected. The walls were half mud, and the roofs pieces of boards; and even this was a later improvement; for in the time of Romulus, the houses were only of straw, and from thence called culmina. The palace of the kings was a little thatched house, which is called by Ovid and Livy a cottage. Any thing finer than ordinary was ap- propriated to the embellishment of the temples. The chief ornaments, both of the temples and the houses, were their trophies, which were trunks of trees loaded with the arms taken in war; and permission to raise these was at first given only to pa- tricians, it having some privileges attached to it. Ancus Martius built the city and port of Ostia, ."it the mouth of the Tiber. Tarquinius ROM ROM the Elder established the grand cir- cus; he caused the walls to be re- built with large hewn stones, and con- structed the great cloacus, which was finished by Tarquinius the Proud, and of which the remains are still to be seen. After the expulsion of the kings, the first works for the embellishment of the city were the finishing of the capitol, which Tar- quinius Superbus had begun, and the Campus Martius for the gym- nastic exercises of the young Ro- mans. In the different wars which the Romans made on their neigh- bours, the generals made vows of dedicating temples to the divinities whose assistance they had invoked, and the plunder of the vanquished people was in part consecrated to this purpose. However, in the time of Furius Camillus, Rome must have been very badly built, for the people wanted to leave it, and settle in the conquered city of Veii. In the war with the Gauls, the latter took the city, and burnt it; as the greater part of the temples had not suffered from the fire, and as the private habitations were but cabins, the city was rebuilt in a short time, but with so much haste that no plan was followed ; the streets were made narrow and crooked, and the cloaci, which were originally under the streets, now ran under the houses and courts. Amongst the temples which the Roman generals had built in fulfilment of the vows they had made in their different expeditions, the most distinguished was that of Quirinus, built by Papi- rius Cursor, after the victory over the Sarnnites, because the first solar quadrant at Rome was affixed to it. The censor Appius Claudius made the first via, or paved way, and the first aqueduct, both which bore his name. The aqueduct reached from Praeneste to Rome, and the Appian way led from 300 Rome to Capua, and was a r- wards continued to Brundusijn, During the two first Punic \L many temples were built at Rde but they do not appear to l!/e been of great extent, since for at which Fulvius Flaccus raisecito equestrian fortune after the ir with the Celtiberians, only hal Df the marble tiles were eniploid, which he had carried away fin the temple of Juno Laciniaiit Crotona, to cover it. The Roi n power had now arrived at a g it height ; most of the rich citi:|is quitted the country where they Sd hitherto lived, and settled in ie city, and from this time Rome;- gan to be embellished. Cato lit a basilica, surnamed Porcia ; d Titus Sempronius built anotr, called Sempronia. The censs, Fulvius Fiaccus and A. Postums Albinus, contributed much to e embellishment of the city; ty paved it, adorned it with portn, enlarged the circus, and made p* lic ways and bridges on the outs;. A little before the third Punic \ r, Rome had no theatre: for eh representation a temporary see was erected, and the specta s ranged themselves before it in e public places. When at this te the censors Messala and Cas;s wished to build a theatre, e senate, at the proposal of P. Cm Nasica, forbade it as an unr- taking which might be injurious the people. By degrees, as the Romans ■ tended their conquests, they tra - ported to Rome a great numbe >f works of art, as paintings, stat s, &c, and adorned their houses vh them. Their architecture still c»- tinued in the Etruscan style, d the whole embellishment of t ir temples consisted in adorning th i, generally without any taste, W the statues, &c, which they W ROM ROM ca ed away from the conquered f coitries ; it was not till the time N of ulla tnat tne y De g an t0 imitate th architecture of the Greeks. Tt i temples were built either of br;, or of such stone as was fe d in the vicinity: it was only n ater times that the Romans w acquainted with marble, which m brought to Rome from Greece. M :llus Macedonicus, the eontem- L pc ry of Mummius the conqueror of orinth, was the first who built atRome a temple of marble. ' Fin this time most of the grand * edces, and particularly the tem- * pi, were built of this material, tit! airbricks were only employed to i fil ip the interior of the walls, and dpi fo vaults. From this time the toil R tans employed Grecian archi- 1 te|, as before they had made use v ofEtruscans, and they carried Inn av/ many of the columns from he d th buildings in Greece, to adorn i nil th, own at Rome. Thus it was ad th Sulla carried away the co- i lu is, «&c, from the temple of ii;d J l ter Olympius, at Athens, to lire en jllish that of Jupiter Capitoli- ll We know little of the Ro- m; architects who had studied in i f Gi ce. In the time of Antiochus Ephanes, there was at Athens a a R principal edifice of Vespasian is $ great amphitheatre, which v; built nearly in the middle of ; city, and which was the first st(> edifice of this nature. Among 11 edifices that were constructed t Rome, under the emperors u> succeeded him, the most dist - guished are the triumphal archf Titus, the stadium, the naumach, the Odeon, and the forum begun Domitian and completed by Ner . The palace of Domitian was bi for Rabirius. Frontinus hi, under Nerva, the direction of 1: aqueducts: under Trajan flourish. Apollodorus, who fell a victim i the jealousy of the prince, blaming his architectural plan C. Julius Lacerus built in i honour a temple in Spain. T: most remarkable edifices in tl reign are the forum, and t: column and triumphal arch i Trajan. No emperor built mc edifices than Adrian; he built t; maison carree at Nismes; in So ROM ROO |a , a wall which was eighty miles ] ; he rebuilt Jerusalem, which ; dimmed ALlia. Capitolina ; and he-rebuilt part of the temple of Ji.ter Olympius at Athens ; Detri- a ft was his principal architect. Tl edifices of this time are the vi which bore the name of the ereror, and the iElian bridge, (g Adrian, Adrian s Villa, Advi- ce Vallum, Mausoleum, &c. ) U er the Antonines were erected tb temple of Faustina and Antoni- m the column of this emperor ai that of Marcus Aurelius, with- 01 reckoning numerous temples ai other edifices in the provinces, i: ai the rebuilding of Smyrna, Lao- d-i a, and other cities of Asia Bon After the Antonines, archi- 1 teure fell with the empire into d( ine, as may be seen by the an of Septimius Severus. Under 1 A (ander Severus, the artists were ei )uraged, and he erected several ec ces; but architecture had fallen to much, to revive : it continued !iE to lecline, till at length it became m'strous. Under the reign of > Cstantine the Great, many tem- "i pi 1 and Christian churches were 8 mi at Rome, which prove in an ! E in ntestable degree the bad taste ( of it* age. The practice was now in duced, of despoiling the old ! ei ces of their ornaments for the erellishment of the new. After * Cstantine had fixed the seat of th empire at Byzantium, and the p6leof the north had begun to i thaten the empire by their excur- sus, architecture fell to its lowest st e, and instead of embellishing ci s, the emperors thought only of bt ling fortresses. Under Constan- tii however, Metrodorus is men- tis! as a skilful artist, but none of is works are known. omax Ornament. In the pl^s Roman Ornament and Ro- ut Mosaic Pavement, are given some of the most elegant designs that have been found among the ornaments of ancient Roman se- pulchres and tesselated pavements, or Mosaics. Roman Order, another name for the Composite Order: see Or- der. Roman Vaulting, a term ap- plied by some to a vault built in the following manner : each vault being built exactly as if it were single, the two vaults will meet in an edge or groin of a regular elliptical form, lying diagonally across the com- partment, and the lines running along the top of each vault will be horizontal lines. Romanesque Arch, see Arch. Rome, a city of Italy, situated on seven hills, called, severally, Palatinus, Capitolinus, Aventinus, Janiculus, Cselius, Esquilinus, and Quirinalis. See Roman Architec- ture. Many of the principal edifices of ancient and modern Rome are described under their proper articles, as Amphitheatre, Aqueduct, Pan- theon, Peters, St. &c. For a fuller account, the following works may be consulted : Buonaventura, Re- liquiae Antiquae Urbis Rcmanae ; Cassas, Grandes Vues Pittoresques, &c. ; Parcier et Fontaine, Palais, Maisons, et autres Edifices, &c. a Rome. See also Zoega, Piranesi, and Eustace, with the other tra- vellers. Rood-loft, (rode, Sax. a cross,) a gallery between the nave and choir in churches, in front of which, towards the nave, stood the rood or cross, and images of saints. The rood-lofts of English cathedrals have often been occupied in later times by organs. At Gilden Mor- den, in Cambridgeshire, the rood- loft is very large and complete, having a double screen forming two pews, about six feet square, on each side of the passage to the ROO ROD chancel; the upper parts are of light open Gothic work, of the fifteenth century : the lower part is painted with flowers, and has figures of Edmund and Erkenwald, with their names and inscriptions. Rood-tower, or Rood -steeple, the building at the intersection of the nave and transept of a church, which covered the rood-loft, &c. Roof, (Sax.) the covering of a house, which shelters the interior from the action of the weather. The ancient roofs, according to Vitruvius, consisted of the follow- ing parts ; Trabes, a beam or wall plate, being the timber which is laid upon the walls, columns, &c. to receive and distribute the pres- sure ; Culmen, the top or ridge. Columen, the king post ; Tran- strce, the principal rafters ; Ca- preoli, struts or braces ; Canterii, small or common rafters, project- ing to the extremities of the eaves; Templa, cross or longitudinal pieces, which supported the as- sercs, or laths. In PI. Temple, fig. 13 shows a transverse section through the roof of an ancient temple, according to Vitruvius, a, the trabs, b b, the tigna, c c, axis, d, transtrum, e, capreolus, f, coin- men, g g, canterii, h h, templa, i i, anseres. The trabs, or beams, which were placed immediately upon the columns and antae, were notched, in order to preserve the tigna in their positions : these in- cisions were termed cubilia by the Romans, and opce by the Greeks ; whence the intervals between two were called mctopaz. The simplest form of a roof is, when one side of the building be- ing higher than the other, pieces of wood are laid across in the posi- tion of an inclined plane. This is called a shed-roof, or lean-to, but is only practicable, except as wings to larger ones, in such buildings as a cow-shed or a pig-sty. R ( _ angular buildings are, theref»j; usually covered by a roof, whL vertical section is an isosceles . angle. The height, or pitch of e roof was formerly made in Engl; ] very high, and there are some - stances in which the angle cont; % more than sixty degrees. The ru of the present day have generiy an angle of not more than th degrees. High roofs are, howei, the most advantageous in poin f durability in our climate. In e;- em countries, the roofs are gi rally made flat. The principal dis - vantageof this form is there obvial by the regularity of the dim;. When the sides of the roof o\ building are all inclined, it is call a hipped or hip-roof.' If the incliil sides are not carried up till ti/ meet, but are finished in a horizorl plane, it is said to be truncal. When the roof of a circular bui- ing is constructed in the form ci cone, it is a revolved roof. If roof of a circular or regular pc- gonal building is of such a form > to have its section a regular cur r it is termed a dome. The chief part of a roof of ; most common and simplest ob- struction, whose sides incline en way, is a truss. The principle! the truss may be thus explainc two pieces of wood simply incliil to meet in the middle, with tl r extremities resting on the w , would have the greatest possi; tendency to thrust them out ; ) obviate this, a cross beam is in- duced, which acts as a string ) hold them together ; and since f the span be considerable, this be i is liable from its length to sink* the middle, a post is suspend from the vertex, and attached 5 the beam, and, from the point t intersection, two other pieces pi obliquely to the centre of the t) R O O RO rces which form the exterior of 1 frame. The large horizontal jces are called the beams, and my rest at each end on the wall iites, and any other beams above 2 called collar beams. The per- iocular piece is called the king yt, and in large roofs there are c er perpendicular pieces called ^en posts. The inclined pieces v : ch pass from the base of the I g-post to the middle of the out- S2 inclined pieces, are called $ uts, and these latter are termed t principal rafters. The piece vich is parallel to the wall-plates, al supported by the ends of the t beams, is named the pole-plate, li piece which runs along the t is called the ridge-piece, and t piece which runs parallel to t; and the pole-plate, half-way bwen them, is called the purlin. 1- small pieces, running parallel tithe principal rafters, supported bihe poie-plate and purlin, and n ing in the ridge-piece at the e emity, are called common raf- tr or spars. The head of the k^-post is formed much wider th the rest of it, and is bevelled a'ipht angles with the inclination o tie rafter, which is firmly mor- tal into it, the projecting parts big called joggles. An iron Hp is sometimes added for g iter security, bolted into each p e. Sometimes the king-post is rr tised into the beam, and secur- er vith pins, but the best way is tcuspend it by an iron strap re- scuing a stirrup, which passes rt id the beam, and at its upper ei is fixed to the king- post. Fig. d t )late Carpentry, C. 44.) shows th mode of joining the collar ht n, principal rafter, and one of th queen- posts, and the iron bi es to protect the junction, as es uted in the truss of the roof of Dry Lane Theatre. Our plates 2Q of roofs, represent a section of the riding-house built at Moscow, an elevation, part of the roof on a larger scale, and A, B, C, the mode of joining the parts. The other plate contains the roof of the Shel- donian theatre at Oxford, and that of the Argentine theatre at Rome. In some roofs are used punch- eons, or short transverse pieces of timber, fixed between two others to support them equally; strain- ing beams, or pieces of timber placed between two queen-posts at their upper end, for the purpose of withstanding the thrust of the prin- cipal rafters; straining sills, or pieces of timber placed upon the tie-beam, at the bottom of the queen-posts, to withstand the force of the braces, which are acted upon by the weight of the covering; chamber beams, or horizontal pieces of timber made on the upper edge to slope from the mid- dle towards each end in an obtuse angle, for discharging the water, and placed above the straining beam in a truncated roof, to fix the boarding on which the lead is laid ; and auxiliary rafters, called sometimes principal braces and cushion rafters, which are pieces of timber framed in the same ver- tical frame with the principal raf- ters under them, and parallel with them. In roofs of rectangular buildings, instead of a lead flat, a valley is often introduced, which makes the vertical section in the form of the letter M, or rather of an inverted when it is called an M roof. The most common pitch of a roof for slates, is that whose height is one-fourth of the span, or whose inclination is at an angle of 26° 30' with the horizon. If we take this as a standard, the following table will show the degree of incli- nation for other materials. 305 R O ROO VinA Tncli nation of roof Weight upon ft of to the hori- in part* of the square of covering. zon. Span. roofing. Copper, lead, dey. min. 3 50 is $Copperl00 Head 700 .Large slatrs, li V 1 6 1120 \ \from 500 Com. slates, 26 33 Ho 900 Stone slates, 29 41 2380 Plain tiles, 29 41 1780 Pan-tiles 24 650 Thatch, 45 h A roof of an improved construc- tion, by A. H. Holdsworth, Esq. is described in the first volume of the Register of Arts, for which the Society of Arts gave their silver medal. In this method of roofing there is a great saving of timber ; and the gaining the whole space under the roof for useful purposes. A A, fig. 6, plate Carpentry C. xix. represents the walls of the house B., one of the timbers of the uppermost floor, resting on the sleepers f f t which are let into the wall; over two other sleepers laid in the top of the wall, are fitted two pieces of wood, D D. The principal rafters C C, forming each pair, are then secured at the bottom, into the pieces D D, and are fastened to each other at the top by iron pins. Each pair of the principal rafters C C, is supported by two arch pieces E E, these pieces are in their grain, and are formed on the plan recommended by Mr. Hokey, of the king's yard at Woolwich, to whom the country is so much indebted for this me- thod of preparing the timber. They are cut lengthways, by a saw, into three pieces, to within two feet of one end, are then placed in a steam-kiln, and boiled until they will bend freely, when they are fixed to a mould, and left to cool; after which, a few pins of wood are driven through, to keep 306 the pieces so cut from again flJL open. The arch pieces will little out of shape when tafi from the mould, but will be ea brought back, and, when secu under the principal rafters, wil| the more firmly. The lower of these arch pieces are insertec the beam B of the floor, and ther i firmly pinned ; while at the d they cross one another, and ei i butts against its opposite raf . They are further secured, by itji straps, to the short pieces D D, i which the principal rafters n, thus preventing the latter frjj sinking and thrusting out the \va , and making the whole a stiff? I complete framing, on which > longitudinal rafters, and transvej pieces, are fastened in the us I manner. The most important «- cumstance to attend to, is that f bringing the feet of the arch pies so far down the wall, as to ge them a firm bearing. Mr. Hoi- worth has used this kind of roo j buildings of great width, and - presses his entire confidence in s belief, that it may be advanta- ously applied to any extent f building, for which timber of su- cient length can be procured. Both copper and iron are u 1 for covering roofs in Sweden ; iron becomes of an equal redcu colour throughout, lasts a long tii , and is very secure. The cop soon becomes of a dirty whi green, but very unequal cole, which produces a very disagt - able effect. The spring rafter, invented y Mr. Smart of the Ordinance whf, Westminster bridge, received honorary reward of the Societ Arts. For roofs nearly flat, improved method is found hie advantageous. A square spar/ the usual size for a rafter, is it with a circular saw, as represer d ROO 2§in j b b, figure 7, (pi. C. xix.) it is en again cut, as represented at «W ij at right angles to the former * { h itting, and at equal distances Iv ,m each end; and lastly a thin ds:e is cut out of the two places irked d d ; the two pieces c d> k then to be gently raised up, till ley form an angle of ten or e!ve degrees with the piece b b, ( Id are secured to their place by I s 13 insertion of a key-wedge e, of usoned oak, as represented at ). 2. It is evident that a weight nk jessing on the key- wedge of this j'ter, (the ends being properly ;oy[i|, ipported,) will be sustained till In iher the fibres of the wood form- on ii m the string are drawn asunder, nk < till the lateral cohesion forming in! | butt-ends of the rafters are de- iin|)K i.oyed; at the same time there is I to i lateral pressure on the wall, or then ner support. (See Carpentry, ll-roof, $c. | Room, a part of a house enclos- kindt anc * entered by a f jdtl; cpr, as a kitchen, parlour, dining- ig ],>m, drawing-room, chamber, &c. 'e proportions of rooms depend m rich on their use. Their length [jfllg i general may be from once to p roc| tee their breadth; but they are (nmonly made longer, in propor- ^ in, according to their size : thus {.mall room may be square, while ^ (i of very large dimensions may I 1 in length at least twice its l f| , tyadth. The height may be three- f rths of the breadth, when the (ling is flat; but when it is coved (arched, it should be once and a frth, or more, according to the ij.f of the arch. The ornaments uhe walls of rooms are columns, Hsters, entablatures, niches, re- uses, and panels, with foliage r d other embellishments. When £ apartment is adorned with an (ire order, the entablature may ( upy one-sixth or one-seventh of ROS the height: if a cornice, frieze, and astragal are used, they may be one-tenth. Pilasters should not project more than one-tenth, or one-eighth of their breadth ; and all proportions should be much more delicate than on the exterior of the building. Roporog r a ph y, see Arabesque. Rose, or Rosette, an ornament sculptured in the centre of each face of the abacus of the Corin- thian capital. Rose Window, a circular win- dow, with compartments of mul- lions or tracery, branching from a centre; it is sometimes also called a Catherine-wheel, or marigold window. Rosslyn Chapel, in Scotland, was founded by William Saint Clair, earl of Caithness and Ork- ney, in 1446, and is now in a mu- tilated condition. It is a most remarkable specimen of architec- ture, and combines, according to the description of Mr. Gandy, "the Egyptian, Grecian, Roman, and Saracenic styles." Mr. Britton, in his Architectural Antiquities, ob- serves, that " of arches, there are more than thirteen varieties to be found in this building. A flat, or segment, beneath the roof of the aisles, and over the door to the sub-chapel; semicircular in the vault of the roof, and over the en- trance doors; groined, acutely pointed over the western aisles ; flat-pointed between the centre and side aisles; sharp-pointed in the lower windows ; ogee to the pisci- nas: flattened, and latest of the pointed style, inside of the door- way, south-side; half segment in the flying buttresses; counter arch in the triangular windows; flat arch and segment joined, in a door in the vault ; several arches of various forms in the windows, niches, and canopies, aisc in the ROU ROU battlements." The exterior of this building is supported by twenty- one buttresses, surmounted by pin- nacles, and differing in ornaments." Two have double pinnacles, the outer shafts of which are smaller than the inner, and connected by flying abutments. Even the win- dows that answer to one another in situation and dimensions, all differ in the tracery and other orna- ments. The transom of the arch of the windows at the eastern end is decorated with half-figures of persons in a supplicating attitude. Rost rom, ( Lat. ) The place where the orators pleaded at Rome. The rostrum was a kind of square pulpit, supported by columns, and ornamented with a base formed of rostra, or the beaks of ships, from whence it took its name. There were two rostra, termed Vetera and nova. The first was placed in the forum Romanum, near the place called curia postilia, and was adorned with the beaks of the ships taken in the first naval vic- tory gained over the Carthaginians. Its figure is seen on a medal of the family Lollia, in the Thesaurus Morellianus, on another of C. Junius Silanus, published by Gess- ner, and on several others. The rostra nova was als ocalled Julia, either because it was situated near the temple of Augustus; or because it had been the work of Julius Caesar, or because it had been re- paired by Augustus. Rotunda, (Lat.) a building which is round both within and without. Rough-casting, is the ordi- nary mode of finishing the plaster and lath outside work of 'cottages, and inferior buildings ; a pricking- up coat of hair-mortar is first put on, upon which, when tolerably dry, a smooth coat of the same mixture is laid; and a second workman 308 following with a vessel full of . thinner mixture, which he thro , over the work as fast as it is finis ed : this last operation produces uniformity of colour. Round Churches. Thesecc stitute, Mr. Britton observes, a si gular and rare class of ancie edifices, and are eminently intere: ing to the architectural antiquai Their origin in England has be generally attributed to the Jev This opinion was very prevale with respect to that at Cambrid< till Mr. Essex, in his historic observations in the sixth volur of the Archeeologia, showed evident incorrectness. " Their ter pie at Jerusalem," he says, " w not of the circular form, neith was the tabernacle of Moses ; n do we find the modern Jews afft that figure in building their syn gogues. It has, however, be generally supposed, that the roui church at Cambridge, that Northampton, and some othei were built for synagogues by ti Jews, while they were permitt to dwell in those places; but no probable reason can be a signed for this supposition, ar I think it is very certain that tl Jews who were settled in Can bridge had their synagogue, ar probably dwelt together in part of the town now called tl Jewry, so we may reasonably po elude, the round churches we fir in other parts of this kingdom we not built by the Jews for syn gogues, whatever the places m; be called in which they stand There are four perfect examples j these buildings in England : S Sepulchre's at Cambridge, St. S pulchre's at Northampton, the Ter pie church in London, and a srm church at Little Maplestead, Essex. All these, with one th was at Temple Bruer, and one ROU ROU slackly, in Lincolnshire, are gen e- Jly attributed to the knights tern - ars, who obtained their orgfaniza- dh and fame in the vicinity of ie church of the Holy Sepulchre Jerusalem. This building is nd to have been erected by He- na, the mother of Constantine ie Great, and we are informed liat it was rebuilt by Charlemagne, ; 813. " The east* end," says Mr. ssex, " I take to be of his build- er, containing the semicircular ibune; but the intermediate part ztween it and the sepulchre is iore modern, and might be rebuilt hen the church was restored, in ie year 1049, after it was defaced v the Saracens towards the end •f the tenth century." (Archaeolog. )1, vi.) Bede describes this struc- lre as a round church, with three alls and twelve pillars, (Resurrec- onis Dominicse rotunda ecclesia ibus cincta parietibus, duodecim ')lumnis. Sustentatur de Locis anctis, c. 2.) The circular form this building still remains. It 'as revered by the knights above '1 earthly objects, and it was their rovince to protect Christian pil- rims against the Saracens : and \ they were originally instituted id stationed at the church of the oly Sepulchre, it seems extremely 'robable that they would imitate lat structure, when they were terw irds distributed in companies ver Europe, and when they had casion to erect a new church, nd it actually appears that some them in England had both the rm and name of the Holy Se- dchre. These churches are de- ribed in the first volume of Brit- n's Architectural Antiquities. Round Towers. The round wers of Ireland have long been subject of antiquarian dispute, early seventy of them still re- ain, and only two are known out of Ireland, which are found at Abernethy and Brechin, in Scot- land. They in general bear a great resemblance to one another, are from thirty to one hundred and thirty feet high, and from thirteen to twenty in diameter. These build- ings are mentioned by Giraldus Cambrensis in 1185, and by John Lynch in 1662, who attributes them to the Danes, who entered Ireland, according to Giraldus, in 838, and says that " they were called clock theach, or house of the bell." They have since been treated on by Peter Walsh in 1684, by Dr. Molyneux in 1727, and more lately by Dr. Ledwich, Mr. Grose, Vallancey, and Morres. The tower at Monasterboice, near Drogheda, is one hundred and ten feet high, and seventeen in dia- meter: the thickness of the wall is three feet six inches. The an- cient church, which is close to it, is now in ruins. In the church- yard are two very old and curious crosses; one about eighteen feet high, covered with sculpture, is called St. Boyne's cross, and is esteemed the most ancient religious relic now in Ireland. Among the sculptures on it is an inscription in Irish characters, " in which," says Mr. Elmes, " is plainly legible the name of Muredach, who was for some time king of Ireland, and died in 534, about a hundred years before the arrival of St. Patrick in that kingdom." Tradition says that this cross was sent from Rome by the pope. The round tower at Drumiskin, in Louth, is one hun- dred and thirty feet high, and that of Kildare one hundred and thirty- three high, and eighteen in dia- meter. The walls of the latter are three and a half feet thick, and are built of fine white granite to about twelve feet from the ground. The name Kildare signifies the wood of 309 ROU ROU oaks, and the whole district was anciently a large forest, in the centre of which was a plain sacred to Druidical worship, now called the Curragh of Kildare. " The tower at Kilkenny," Mr. Elmes ob- serves, ** which he has measured and investigated, is evidently older than the cathedral, the south tran- sept of which appears to have been shortened in its original building, on account of the round tower, which is within a very few feet of it." In the first volume of the Ar- chseologia, some ancient Irish ma- nuscripts are cited, relating to the history of the round towers, which, it appears, " were built in the darkest times of superstition, about anno 900 or 1000. The ancient Irish MSS. relate, that these towers were used for imprisoning penitents; some other writers name them in- clusoriciy et arcti inclusorii ergas- tula ) the prisons of narrow enclo- sures; particularly the MS. of the Life of Dunchad-o-Braoin, of whom it is said that he betook himself into such a prison, wherein he died anno 987. The MSS. add, that these penitents were placed in the uppermost story of the tower; where having made probation, or done penance, such a limited time, ac- cording to the heinousness of their crimes, they then were permitted to descend to the next floor; and so on by degrees until they came to the door, which always faced the entrance of the church, where they stood to receive absolution from the clergy, and the blessings of the people." A writer in the second volume of the Archseoiogia, thinks that the round towers of Ireland are decid- edly Irish ; and he conjectures that the two Scotch examples were per- haps built by the Irish during their incursions into Scotland. In illus- 310 tration of his supposition as to th use, he adds an anecdote which met with in a Welsh MS. of t Gwider family in North Wales, which it appears, that so late the year 1600, the common Wei were so wild, that Sir John Wyu when he went to church, was fore always to leave a watchman on eminence, whence he could s both his house and the churc] his duty was, to give notice if saw any attack made on the forrw though it was always left bolte barred, and guarded during churc time. " This anecdote natural hints another manifest use of the' towers, as the castles in Irela; (for such every gentleman's hou was) almost always stood near church ; and consequently in country in that age (1015,) mu more wild than Wales, a watchm; at the top of one of these towe; remaining all church-time, must of the greatest advantage, to gi alarms to the family in thi churches." 44 I am not," he adc " singular in my opinion on the matters, for both earl Morton ai bishop Pocock concurred with m the latter had seen a long trump of iron, which was dug from t bottom of one of these tower several such have been found Ireland, near these buildings; sor of them are exhibited in one of t plates published by this sociel and others are now extant in t royal museum." Mr. Gough, an article in the same volurr thinks that these towers were ere< ed before the introduction of bel to call people to church by t sound of a trumpet or horn. The round tower at Brechin, Scotland, consists of sixty regui courses of hewn stone, of a brighr colour than the adjoining churc it is eighty-five feet high to t cornice, whence rises a low spi ROU x>inted roof of stone, with windows, in d a vane at the top. The tower it Abernethy is seventy-five feet iigh, and like that at Brechin is bout forty-eight feet in external ircumference. On the front of he tower at Brechin are two rches, one within the other, in elief. On the point of the outer- nost is a crucifix, and between ioth, towards the middle, are igures of the Virgin Mary and jit John, the latter holding a cup vith a lamb. The outer arch is domed with knobs, and within >oth is a small slit or loop : at the lottom of the outer arch are two >easts couchant ; one of them, by ts proboscis, is evidently intended or an elephant. (See Smith's listory of Cork ; Gough, and Val- encey, and Grose's Antiquities of reland.) In the county of Kilkenny are nany curious Druidical remains, ome of which are described in the ixteenth vol. of the Archaeologia. Cromlechs are very common in reland. They are there called romleacht, which signifies, " The tone of punishment." They are mown by the Welsh under the lame of crwm lechew, or bowing tones. The cromlech at Tobin's :own, in the county of Carlow, orms a sort of rude temple, with i porch on the west end formed by wo irregular upright pillars, each ight feet high, and nine broad, erminated behind by a broad flat tone, eight feet high, and nine >road. It is covered by a large loping stone, twenty-three feet long, ighteen broad at the front end, nd six behind. On the upper urface is a large channel, from >'hich branch a number of smaller nes. The sides are enclosed by everal upright stones, forming a oom or cell, eight feet wide in font, and five behind. A sort of ROU avenue, formed by small hillocks, leads to the portico from the west. It is situated near a rivulet, on the road from Tullow to Hatchet's Town. Another remarkable crom- lech occurs in a field about a mile and a half from Carlow. See, be- sides the books already referred to, Ware's Antiquities of Ireland. Round Towers, attached to " parish churches, occur chiefly in the counties of Norfolk and Suf- folk, and are traditionally attri- buted to the Danes. They are uniformly constructed of rough materials, and such as could be easily procured ; whole flints, stones, chalk, and other coarse ingredients, imbedded in mortar. The walU are generally of a great thickness, but gradually diminish in sub- stance, as they ascend. They are usually found with small churches, and are not uniformly situated at the west end : at Tooting, in Surrey, a circular tower is found on the north side of the church. Why these remains are attributed to the Danes, it is not easy to say, un- less from their frequent occurrence in the Danish district of East Anglia. No ancient towers of this kind are found in the northern countries whence they came. The high antiquity of these buildings must be allowed by all. The em- bellished pointed arch never occurs, except when evidently a modern addition. In the tower of the church of Bychamwell, Norfolk, are four pointed apertures, the arched parts of which, and the sides, are formed of plain squared stones ; and the former are dis- posed in the form of an acute tri- angle. They appear to be coeval with the original building, and similar arches are to be seen in the ancient entrance -gateway to Rougemont Castle, at Exeter. Even the ornamented circular 311 RUD K U JL style is rarely apparent, although it is by no means uncommon to find their simple narrow openings, or windows, having semicircular heads. In many instances, parti- cularly in Suffolk, these massive round towers of churches, are lighted by narrow apertures only, which resemble loops, or arrow- slits. (See the Introduction to the Beauties of England and Wales.) Rudder, (roeder, Dutch,) the instrument at the stern, by which a ship is governed. The ancients sometimes had but two rudders to a vessel, and, according to Athe- naeus, that of Philopater had four; of these we learn from Suidas, that two were placed at the stern, and two at the prow. Rudentuue, (Fr.) the figure of a rope or staff, which is frequently used to fill up the flutings of co- lumns, the convexity of which con- trasts with the concavity of the flutings, and serves to strengthen the edges. Sometimes, instead of being in a convex shape, the flut- ings are filled with a flat surface, which reaches nearly to the edges, as we see in the interior columns of the Pantheon. Sometimes the rudentures are ornamentally carved, and sometimes on pilasters, &c. rudiments are used in relief, with- out flutings. Rudentures are the most common ornaments of the flutings in the Ionic and Corin- thian orders. As their use is to give greater solidity to the lower part of the shaft, and secure the edges, they are in general only used in columns which rise from the ground, and are not to reach above one-third of their height of the shaft. The arch of Constan- tine offers an example of columns with rudentures one-third of their height, although raised on pedes- tals, but it is evident, that this arch has been built of the ruins of 312 some other edifice, where the c( lumns may have rested on ih ground. Ru deration, (Lat.) a mode ( laying pavements, mentioned b Vitruvius, and, according to sortu of building walls, with rough pel bles and mortar. The morte was made of lime and sand, and called by Vitruvius statumen. Rule, an instrument for met suring, &c, of which there ai several kinds ; stone-cutter's rule mason's rules, carpenter's rule sliding rules, parallel rules, &< See Instruments. The carpenter's rule is calle sometimes the sliding rule, becaus' it has several sliding pieces, whic are used in making different calct lations. Its principal uses will b understood by the following exanr pies. (1.) In multiplication, if vi wish to find the produce of 12 an 14, set 1 on the slide marked I to 12 (the multiplier) on A, an against 14, (the multiplicand) o B will be found the product on A which is 168. If the number bj higher than the scale reache, 1 they may be taken as decimal: thus 783 may be reckoned as 78.( and 45 as 4.5, &c. This observa tion applies equally to other case! (2.) In division, if it be required t divide 180 by 12, set 12 on A to on B, and against the dividend 36( on A will be found 15, the answe on B. The line marked C, cor tains all squares, lengths, and cor tents of solids, and D all rooti (3.) To square any number : let be 15 ; first place 1 on C to 10 o D, and it must be observed, ths when you consider the 10 on D a 10, the 1 on C will be its square, c 100, and if you reckon the 10 o D as 1, the 1 on C will also be ] and so on : then again every nurr ber on D stands its square on C in the same proportion; thus th : ' ' .'. - f : -> !' n Mr RUR It U R piarcof 15 will be 225; and if ju reckon it as 150, the square ill be 22500, &c. (4.) To ex- act the square root of a number, xjng the slider as in the last ex- mp!e, against every number on C ill be found its square root on D. ;.) To find a mean proportional ?tween 6 and 54, set one number on C, to the same number on D, id against 54 on C will be found 8 on D, which is the mean pro- ortional. Rural Architecture, that ranch of architecture which re- tes to the construction of pictu- isque and rustic dwelling-houses, c, in the country. In the choice Situations, for a residence of this ascription, attention should be articularly paid to its conveni- |ice in site and position, with igard to the adjoining country, ) as at once to be in itself pictu- sq"e, and at the same time to ford picturesque views to its in- ates. When the surface of the juntry is but gently varied, the ighest eminences will be found encrally the most appropriate and .^reeable, but if the hills are high id numerous, their sides, or, when ?ry steep, a gentle slope at the :>ttom will be the best situation, ne bank of a river, or the margin t a lake, particularly when the inks are woody and diversified ith rocks, will afford a good situ- Jon. In the building itself, a irtain degree of irregularity is pessary ; and its convenience ,ill be greatly increased by a care- il attention to the position of the >oms. Thus, for instance, the .eakfast-room should be so situ- ed as to afford a morning scene, id the drawing-room might be so sposed as to present a view of ie setting-sun ; and to every view >ine object should be visible, to >rm a striking characteristic. At 2R mid-day, the prospect may be ren- dered agreeable, by an expanse of water, or a brook. The style of building is best regulated by the nature of the situation. In an ex- posed situation, where trees are generally broad and low, as on the brows of high hills, rocks, &c. the buildings should also be low, and have some appearance of strength and solidity. In low fer- tile plains, where trees are luxu- riant, and generally grow to a con- siderable elevation, and their out- lines generally narrow, round, and flowing, with few horizontal branches, the shoots and branches tender, and the trunks compara- tively slender, the buildings may also, like them, be high, light, and elegant. More massy and splen- did edifices, should be built in rich extended plains. This mode of regulating the style and situation of rural edifices, it has been ob- served, " is certainly deserving of attention, were it for no other rea- son, than that the trees might grow well with the buildings; that when full-grown they might nei- ther be too large nor too small ; that they might neither diminish it into insignificance, nor leave it staring through the trees, which, from want of due proportion to it, appear as copsewood." Many places are more appro- priated for the growth of some kinds of trees than others. This also should be particularly attend- ed to. The most common trees are oak, elm, and beech. But in some situations, particularly on lofty ground, the only kind of trees that can be got to flourish, are larches, firs, birch, and mountain ash. The colour and hue of the sur- rounding objects should also be attended to — the tints of the rocks, stones, soil, or foliage; and they ought to form a guide for the 313 SAC SAG colour of the edifices which are erected in their neighbourhood. Rustic, a mode of building in imitation of nature. The ancients sometimes built with stones, smooth- ed only on the sides where they were intended to join, and the outer surface left entirely rough. A species of rustic employed by the Greeks is found in the base of the choragic monument of Lysicrates. But one of the noblest specimens of this kind of work, is the vast wall which surrounded the forum of Nerva, and which is now called the wall of the arch of Panthanus. Other examples are found in the aqueduct of Claudius, called also the arch of Drusus, and in the amphitheatres of Pola and Verona. The Italian architect, Bruneleschi, employed rustic work in great pro- fusion, for the purpose of impress- ing all his works with a character of strength and grandeur, but later Italian architects have used it with less profusion and more taste. Frosted Rustic Work, has the margins of the stones reduced j a plane parallel to the plane of til wall, the intermediate parts havir an irregular surface. Vermiculated Rustic Work, h; these intermediate parts so worke as to have the appearance of beir eaten by worms. Rustic Chamfered work, which the face of the stones beir smoothed, and made parallel to tl: surface of the wall, and the angl-j bevelled to an angle of one hui! dred and thirty-five degrees wil the face of the stone, when tnt come together on the wall, the b veiling will form an internal rig] angle. Rustic Coins, (called by Vitr vius, lapides minantcs,) stones the interior angles of building which project from the surface the wall, the edges being bevelie or recesses left at the joints, j present they are not much used. Rustic Order, that kind building, where the face of tlj stones are hatched or picked wi the point of a hammer. S. Sabliere, a piece of timber as long as a beam, but not so thick. An old term. Sacellum, (Lat.) a small cha- pel amongst the Romans, without a roof, sacred to the gods. Little private sacella, or chapels, were annexed to the Egyptian temples. Sacella, in old church architecture, were burial chapels, for the cele- bration of obits, and where prayers for the dead were offered up. Sacome, (sacoma, Ital.) a term applied to the exact profile of a member or moulding; and given by the French to the mouldings themselves. *Sacrarium, (Lat.) a kind of family chapel in the Roman houses, 314 differing from the lararium in b ing dedicated to one particul deity, instead of being dedicate generally to all the household god Cicero, in his oration against Mil speaks of the sacrarium of tl Bona Dea. The name was al| given to a part of the tempi where the sacred things were d posited. Sacristy, (from sacrista, Latj a strong room attached to a enure in which sacred vestments and utei sils are deposited. See Abbey. Sagging, the bending of a boc in the middle by its own weigr when suspended horizontally 1 each end. Sagitta, (Lat. an arrow.) Tl SAL :erm is sometimes applied to the cey-piece of an arch. Some geo- neters use it to signify the abscissa )f a curve. In trigonometry it is he versed sine of an arc, which tands on the chord like a dart. Sail, ( segl, Sax. ) Amongst he ancients, sails were composed •ither of flax, rush, broom, or lea- der. In the age of Homer they vere all flaxen. According to Caesar, the Venetii had sails made >f the skins of beasts. Triangular ,ails were most commonly used in he Mediterranean. Square ones veie only used in very small ves- ,els. The Portuguese in the In- lies used round sails. Sails at irst were only spread in favourable vinds. Saint -Ciiamas, in Provence. There is here an ancient Roman nidge entire, called by the natives he Pont Surian. It is built in ull centre between two rocks, and n a level with the road which oes from Aries to Aix. It has iut one arch, which is six toises n diameter, built with large stones hree feet square, and eleven toises ong. Towards the Aix side the rch has a frieze, with an inscrip- tion stating that it was built by the 'estamentary will of a flamen of 'lome and Augustus. Some Ro- nan work, and a similar inscrip- ion, are also found in the bridge ver the Charente at Saintes. Saliant, (Fr.) projecting. 1 Sally, (Fr.) a prefecture; the nd of a piece of timber, when cut cross the fibres with an interior ngle, formed by two planes. Salonica, a city of Macedonia, nciently called Thessalonica. In fiis large city, Mr. Stuart says, we found the remains of only one uilding, the description of which re could flatter ourselves, would iterest the lovers of ancient art. 'his is situated in the Jews' quar- S AL ter: five Corinthian columns on their pedestals support an entabla- ture, over which is an attic adorn- ed with figures in alto-relievo; on the side next the street are a Vic- tory, a Medea, or perhaps a Helen, with a Diadem and Sceptre, a Tele- phus, and a Ganymede; and next the court-yard of the Jews' house, a Bacchante dancing and playing on the flute, a Bacchus, a Bac- chante crowned with vine leaves, and a Leda. It seems difficult, if not impossible, to ascertain the species of building of which this ruin once made a part ; for though the figures I have specified would seem to be proper decorations for a theatre, no traces were discovered that might confirm the opinion these figures suggested ; nor does the vulgar tradition of the place afford any light that may assist our inquiries." The Greeks call this edifice Goeteia, ( Torjreia, en- chantment;) and the Jews who are descended from Spanish refugees settled here, and speak Spanish, call it the Incantada, which has a similar meaning. A ridiculous story is attached to the name, which is given by Stuart. There are also at Salonica the remains of two tri- umphal arches, one of which has been richly ornamented. Saloon, (Fr.) a lofty hall, usu- ally vaulted at the top, with two stages of windows. It is much used in the palaces of Italy, from whence it came to France and England. It is of various forms, square, round, oval, and oc tagonal. See Alhambra, for an account of Arabian saloons. Salsette, an island near Bom- bay, containing the famous temple of Canari, very much resembling that at Elephanta. This monu- ment has been described by Gough, and by Mr. Salt, in the Bombay Transactions. It is characterized, 315 SAN SAN like that of Elephanta, by its open courts, porticos, gigantic figures, columns in rows, forming aisles in vaulted rooms forty paces wide, and a hundred long, round at the end, grottos like burial chapels, with dagops or cupolas in them, by way of niches to images. In the first part of this temple are two large pilasters twenty palms high, a third of which from the bottom is square, the middle part octagonal, and the upper round. There are observed in various parts numerous inscriptions. Sanctuary, or Asylum, a place privileged by a sovereign, whence such offenders or debtors, as fled to it for protection, could not forci- bly be taken without sacrilege and impiety. The privilege or immu- nity was called aorvXta, by the Greeks, and the deity presiding, QtoQ aavXaioQ, (Plut. Vit. Romul. p. 22.) Some have pretended that Nimrod, on the loss of his eldest son, was the first deviser of the institution, by erecting a golden image of him in his temple and palace, to which all that resorted, though murderers, or guilty of other capital offences, should be absolved from their crimes. The history and purport of asylums or sanctuaries, is treated at length by Mr. Pegge, in the eighth volume of the Archoeologia. This Sanctuary, among the Jews was the most sacred and retired place in the temple, and was term- ed on that account the holy of holies : in it was deposited the ark of the covenant, and no one was permitted to enter, except the high priest, who went in once every year to make intercession for the people. In the Grecian temples, the part which answered to the sanctuary was called Adytum, (see this word.) In the Catholic churches, the Sanctuary is that part where the high altar is placed, accompanied by a rail or balustrade. See Cella Sanctjs Bell, usually port able, and rung by a monk durinji the more solemn part of the cere; mony of the mass, as the pries repeated sanctus, sanctns, sarictus Sand, (Danish and Dutch,) ] very fine kind of gravel. Sand, ii building, is chiefly used as an in gredient in mortar, for which pit sand is the best for walls an< vaults, and river sand preferabl* for rough -casting. Sand-stone, a species of ston composed essentially of sandy par tides, generally of quartz, some times mixed with felspar or parti cles of slate. Wheu the substanc which cements or binds these, par tides together is lime, the stom is termed calcarious sand-stone sometimes it is oxide of iroi mixed with aiumine. There an a great number of varieties. Se Quarry, and Stone. Sangallo, Antcnio de, a Flo rentine architect, born in the fif teenth century. He was educated a a joiner, but he afterwards left thi trade, and assumed the name aiu profession of his uncles,Giulianoanc Antonio Sangallo, who were thei architects of some reputation a Rome. He was entrusted witl several works by Bramante, \{ 1512, and arose so much in rej pute, that in the pontificate of Ler the construction of tombs. It said to have perfectly consumed le flesh of human bodies which ere buried in it, in the space of >rty days. From its frequent use >r this purpose, the name became pplied to the tomb itself. There also another quality related of lis stone, that of turning into one any substance deposited in ?ssels made of it : (Theophrastus, liny.) -Sarcophagi were made ther of stone, of marble, or of orphyry. The Greeks sometimes nployed hard wood, as oak, cedar, f cypress, which were calculated > resist humidity, and occasionally rra-cotta, and even metal. The >rm was generally a long square, le angles sometimes rounded. The J varies both in shape and orna- !ent. The sarcophagi of the pri- itive Christians often enclosed ;veral corpses, and were orna- ented with several sets of bassi- lievi. The sarcophagi of the an- ,ents are often most beautifully ulptured. The figures on them ere either those of the deceased, id the parties connected with iem, or allegorical, or mytholo- cal. Some sarcophagi have con- ined only an urn. The Egyp- an sarcophagi are sculptured with hieroglyphics. Those of the Ro- mans and Grecians sometimes re- present sleep and dealh, with their legs crossed, one hand supporting the head, and the other holding a reversed torch ; sometimes Mer- cury is seen conducting the souls, and Charon ferrying them over in his bark. Sometimes the subjects sculptured on the sarcophagi are groups of Bacchanals, the triumphs of the god after his conquests in India, and Bacchic scenes. The early Christians ornamented their sarcophagi with pious subjects from the Old and New Testaments, such as those mentioned by Gregory of Tours, and many that may be seen in published collections. Sarrasine, in fortification, a sort of portcullis, called also a horse, which is hung with a cord over the gate of a town or fortress, and let down in case of surprise. Sash, (chassis y Fr. a frame,) the wooden frame which holds the glass in windows. A patent was given in 1819, to W. Bailey, of High Holborn, London, for an invention of certain improvements in the con- struction of sashes, sky - lights, frames, &c. He proposes the use of iron bars, which, after rendering them red hot, he passes through grooved rollers, so as to produce rebates on the side intended to re- ceive the glass, and any other form of moulding upon the reverse of the sash frame; the bars are then cut into convenient lengths, and fitted together, so as to form the frame of any desired dimensions. After this the glass is to be attach- ed by putty, or any other means, to the sash frame. For such win- dows as are of a curved form, par- ticularly in the Gothic style, this invention may be peculiarly appli- cable by the facility in bending the bars to any desired or fanciful form. In the erection of hot-houses, green- 31? SAW SAW houses, and all kinds of conserva- tories, this invention is particularly useful, as it combines strength, lightness, economy, and durabity. For the purpose of roofs, sheets of iron, copper, or other materials, are to be fitted into these frames, and "iveted firmly together. Saw, (saga, Sax. saive, Dutch,) to cut wood, ivory, stone, &c. by an edge formed into regular teeth. The Greeks attributed the inven- tion of this instrument to Daeda- lus, or Talus; it is found figured on the obelisks of the Egyptians. The trunks of trees were first split into planks by wedges, and Beck- man thinks, that the idea of a saw was taken from a fish-bone, for which he cites Ovid (Met. viii. 244.) Cicero (pro. Aul. Cluent.) mentions an ingenious saw, by which a thief sawed out the bottom of a chest; it was "crooked on every part of the teeth, and twist- ed," adunca ex omni parte den- tium et tortuosa. Saw-mills by wa- ter occur in the fourteenth century, both for cutting stone and timber. They occur at Augsburg in 1322; the first erected in Holland was in 1596. One was erected in Lon- don in 1663, but opposed by the sawyers. In 1767 or 1768, one driven by wind was built at Lime- house, but destroyed by the mob ; another, however, was erected. A wind saw-mill of this description occurs at Leith in Scotland some years before. Anderson (Comm. ii. 254) mentions a wind saw-mill which was erected upon the Thames by a Dutchman, in 1633, but put down, lest labourers should want employ. (See Beckman's Invent, i. 364.) The best saws are of high- tempered steel, ground bright and smooth, and the good quality of their workmanship may be known by their bending stiffly, and equally in a bow ; the former show- ing that they have been well ham- mered, and the latter that thej have been evenly ground. The saw is one of the most use- ful of all cutting tools to the joiner' as it enables him to divide timber! of any dimensions, into pieces oil bars of whatever size he may re quire, with scarcely any waste! Saws are of several kinds: th» t ripping-saw is used for dividing boards into several pieces, in tin direction of the fibres : the hand saw is employed for cross-cutting and sawing thin pieces in thi direction of the grain : the pannel saw serves either for cross-cutting or for cutting very thin boards in 3 longitudinal direction : the tenon saw, with a thick iron back, i used for making an incision of an 1 depth below the surface of thi wood, and for cutting pieces eni tirely through, not exceeding thi breadth of that part of the plat between, and the iron back: thi sash-saw, and the dovetail-saw are used in much the same way To divide boards into curver pieces, a compass-saw, or a ver narrow saw without a back, ii used, and in cutting a very smal hole, a saw of the same kind callei a key-hole saw, these two hav thicker plates, and coarser teetl than either the sash or dove-ta: saws. The external and interna; faces of the teeth of all saws, arj generally formed at an angle c sixty degrees, and the front edgei teeth slope backward in a sma! degree, but recline from th straight line drawn from the inte rior angle, perpendicular to thj edge in the plane of the plate, a; the saw may be employed in rip, ping or in cross-cutting. Thi teeth of all saws, except tumin and key-hole saws, are bent altei nately on different sides, for th purpose of clearing the sides of th ,t, which the saw makes in the iod. With the intent of saving manual x>ur, the saw-mill has been in- nted, and has been brought to :h a state of perfection, that, by :ans of this machine, wood may cut to the thickness of writing- per. The general principle of ?se machines consists of a saw awn up and down as long as cessary, by a motion com muni- ted to the wheel, the piece of iber to be cut into boards being vanced, by an uniform motion, receive the strokes of the saw. ie most complete saw-mill, is that ?cted in the government-yard at msmouth, and impelled by a rge steam-engine, which raises e wood to its required situation the frame, and performs all the sential functions of animal life. Saw-pit, a pit dug in the ound for sawing timber, which is ne by two men, one standing ove, and the other below. The qdes should be lined with board- or with stones or bricks, and depth should be a little more an the height of a man. Saxon Architecture. This •m has been applied by some 'iters to all architecture in Eng- id and Wales, previous to the tinted Gothic style, which is cha- ized by round-headed doors and tidows. But we take the term applied exclusively to buildings :cted in this isle under the Saxon lgs, comprehending all edifices nstructed between the conver- n of the Saxons in 597, and the >rman conquest in 1066, with ! exception of the short inter- ring reigns of the three Anglo- inish kings. The few buildings ich now remain, that can, by itten documents, be proved to be an age prior to the Conquest, ve caused many writers to assert, that at present there is no real specimen of Anglo-Saxon architec- ture extant: and many have be- lieved that their churches, which were doubtless their chief works, were low mean buildings, usually composed of timber; and that, if in rare instances they were formed of stone, they still were destitute of columns and arches, the stone- works consisting merely of upright walls. The latter opinion has now become universally discarded, and the former rests only on presump- tion. It is clear from the writings of Bede, that many cfiurches were constructed by the Anglo-Saxons of oaken planks, or even of wattles, and thatched with reeds. Such buildings were sometimes raised in haste, and were afterwards taken down, to give place to more sub- stantial edifices, or were included in those more permanent struc- tures; as in the instance of a chapel on the site of the present church of St. Peter at York, which was has- tily built of wood, for the purpose of baptizing Edwin, king of North- umberland, in 627. But it may be readily apprehended, that in every age, when society was thinly spread, and the resources upon which ecclesiastical architecture de- pended, proceeding chiefly from the bounty of individuals, many churches, not designed for a tem- porary purpose, would be com- posed of materials so ordinary and cheap. Several such are noticed by ancient writers, and it may be observed, that a church, thus rudely formed, although the date of its erection be unknown, is still re- maining at Greensted, near Ongar, in Essex. There is, however, abun- dant evidence that churches built of stone were contemporary with such frail edifices. " At the time the Saxons were converted," Mr. Bentham observes, " the art of 319 SAX SAX constructing arches and vaultings, and of supporting stone edifices by columns, was well known among them ; they had many in- stances of such kind of buildings before them, in the churches and other public edifices erected in the time of the Romans. For notwith- standing the havoc that had been made of the christian churches by the Picts and Scots, and by the Saxons themselves, some of them were then in being. Bede men- tions two in the city of Canterbury : that dedicated to St. Martin, on the east-side of the city, wherein queen Bertha performed her devo- tions, and which Augustin and his companions made use of, at their first coming; and the other, that which the king, after his conver- sion, gave to Augustin, and which he repaired and dedicated to our blessed Saviour, and made it his archiepiscopal see. Besides these two ancient Roman churches, it is likely there were others of the same age, in different parts of the kingdom, which were then repaired, and restored to their former use." (History of Ely Cathedral.) Bede and his contemporary Eddius, make frequent mention of build- ings of stone, both of their own and preceding times. Eddius de- scribes the church of Hexham, which was founded in 674, as one of the most magnificent fabrics of the age; and particularly notes ** its deepness in the ground, with rooms formed of stones, admirably polished ; but having, above ground, one room of many parts, supported on various columns, and on many subterraneous chapels; yet possess- ing a wonderful length and height of wallr ; and earned, by various passages winding in lines, along spiral stairs, sometimes up, some- times down." Richard, prior of Hexham, (Ricardus Hagust.) who 320 flourished about a century after tl Conquest, when the original bnili ing was still in existence, thou^ in a decaying state, has left us al a description of it, and both me tion the " crypts and oratories su terraneous, with winding passag to them," and relates ** that tl walls were of immense length ai height, supported on columi of squared, varied, well-polish( stones, and divided into three st ries ;" adding, " that the wal themselves, with the capitals those columns by which the wal were supported, as also the cov< ceiling of the sanctuary, Wilfn decorated with histories, statues, ar various figures, projecting in scul ture from the stone, with the grat ful variety of pictures, and with tl wonderful beauty of colours. r also surrounded the very body the church, with lateral and sul terraneous chapels on every sid< which, with wonderful and inexpi cable artifice, he separated t walls and spiral stairs, above at: below. In the very stairs, an upon them, he caused to be ma( of stone, ways of ascent, places landing, and a variety of winding some up, some down, yet so artii cially, that innumerable multitude of men might be there, and stand a about the very body of the churc! yet not be visible to any thl were below in it." Mr. Whitake (Cathedral Hist, of Cornwall compares the subterraneous on tories and crypts of this churc with those of the old St. Paul' (see Paul's, St.) and of the presei cathedral of Canterbury. One • the most complete Saxon church* of which we have authentic info mation, was that of St. Peters ; York, which was rebuilt about tl middle of the eighth century, i consequence of having sufFere from fire in 741, and which is d< ■ SAX ribed by Alcuin, in his poem, de 'ontificibus et Sanctis Eccles. 'borl who makes particular men- 3n of its pillars,, arches, vaulted- iofs, windows, porticos, galleries. !C, which are the characteristics f a finished building. The church ' Hexham is described by Richard ; having " a tower, of a round Irm, from which four porticos, or sles, proceeded." From this issage, supported by other evi- nces, it appears most probable at towers were added by the uons to their churches at a very irly period. (See Church.) The Saxon style was doubtless it a barbarous imitation of the chitecture .of Rome. Bede, in ascribing the church of St. Peter, I the monastery of Wearmouth, hich was built by the famous Be- ;dict Biscopius in 675, imforms i that that abbot went over to r anre, to engage workmen to lild his church after the Roman anner. And Dr. Milner, in his ,:ciesiastical Architecture of the iddle Ages, observes, that " the ?ll-known Saxon mouldings, the evron or zig-zag, the billet, the ble, the embattled fret, the lo- nge, the corbel table, and a riety of such other ornaments as je supposed to be peculiar to ixon architecture, will be found, 1 close examination, to have had eir archetypes in some or other the buildings, medals, tessellated ivements, or sepulchres of Italy, fore they were adopted by our cestors." However, it was but imitation, for the architect of e most splendid sacred structures 2 to be found in native eccle- istics. Although the Saxon churches re in a great many instances ■edified by the Normans, yet it is i Owed to be far from improbable at some few churches constructed 1 2S SAX by the Anglo-Saxons, in recluse situations, may still be in exist- ence ; and it may be presumed almost with certainty, that many parts of Anglo-Saxon structures still exist, though intermixed with predominating buildings, often of a much later erection. In such cases, they are most commonly to be looked for in door-ways, or in massy pillars, which sometimes support arches of another style, and in the foundations and crypts. Enriched door-cases of stone, with all the peculiarities attributed to this style, are frequently seen in- serted in the buildings of churches, which, in almost every other part, or perhaps entirely, are of the Go- thic or pointed style. Some mo- tive of peculiar reverence seems to have influenced the architects of the more modern structures, in re- taining these vestiges of the an- cient buildings. It is conjectured by Mr. Stavely (Hist, of Churches) that the south door was sometimes the place where civil business was transacted, and Eadmer, describ- ing the cathedral church of Can- terbury, says, that " of two towers at the middle of the length of this cathedral, one on the south had on its side the principal door of the church ; which door is often men- tioned by name in the laws of our ancient kings ; by which laws it is decreed, that even all suits of the whole realm, which cannot be legally determined in hundred or county courts, or certainly decided in the king's own court, must have their determination here, as in the highest court of the king." (Whit- aker, Cath. Hist.) Smaller courts appear also to have been some- times held at the doors of country churches. The preservation of circular arched doorways in more modern buildings is not confined to this country ; an old door, with SAX a round arch, and hatched mould- ings, is remaining in the cathedral of Liege, although the other parts of the structure are entirely Gothic. (Ornaments of Churches consider- ed, p. 91.) We know from historical testi- monies, that a great number of parish churches were erected be- tween the conversion of the Saxons and the incursion of the Danes in the eighth and ninth centuries, and in a great council held at Cealc- hythe, in 816, a canon was framed, prescribing a precise manner of consecrating them by the bishop of the diocese, and directing that the saint to whom each church or altar was dedicated, should be depicted either on the wall of the oratory, or on a table. In the church of Kirkdale, in Rydale, in the north riding of Yorkshire, over the south door is a curious inscription in Saxon cha- racters, of which a plate is given in the fifth vol. of the Archseologia. The inscription is accompanied by an ancient dial, and is placed over a doorway, with a plain semicir- cular arch. It is engraved on one entire freestone, seven feet five inches long, and one foot ten inches high, and is in perfect pre- servation, except a small part in the centre, where the inscription is disfigured, but not obliterated by the weather. This seems in some measure to be owing to its being defended by the porch which en- tirely covers it, except at two an- gles, and consequently must have been of later erection, which is further improved by its having been formerly plastered over with lime or some other cement, as appears by the remains of it in the inter- stices of the letters, and in the vacancy where the hand of the dial has been broken off*. The inscrip- tion may be read thus : Oum. *322 SAX Gamal. suna. bohte. sanctu gregorius. minster. thonn) hit. wes. .el. to. b roc an. an i TO. FALAN. CJ.IEHITLE. AND. Ma NEW AN. FROM. GRUNDE. CHRIST AND. SANCTUS. GREGORIUS. II EADWARD. DAGUM. CNG.IN.TOST dagum. earl. " Orm, Gamal son, bought St. Gregory's churcl then it was all gone to ruin an fallen down. Chehitle and others n| newed it from the ground, to Chri and St. Gregory, in Ead ward's JaV the king,and in Tosti's days the ear] ; and under the dial, and. iiawarti me. wroht. and. brand. PR "and Hawarth me made, and Bra the priest." " That part of tl inscription," observes the writ " which is above, and runs rou the radii of the dial, being som* what defaced, I dare offer no e} planation of, but am favoured wit the following ingenious conjectun from the Rev. Mr. Manning < Godalming. It is obvious, sa< that great master of Saxon literi ture, from the* position of this dia that it was intended for a dire south dial, described on the plar of the prime vertical ; on the bac part, or north side of which, tl sun never shines from the autumn to the vernal equinox. Now su< a dial may, with great propriet be called a dial for the winter ha of the year; because it exhibi the whole of the sun's diurn course, while he is in the souther or winterhalf of the ecliptic, but n when he is in the northern summer half of it." This beit premised, he has no doubt th the Saxon legend was a descri tion of such a dial, and in original state ran thus: this, i DJEGES. SjEL. MERC A. TO. SUNN TILLUM. WINTERES. " This is draught exhibiting the time of cla while the sun is passing to a from the winter - solstice." T SAX time when ibis inscription was en- graved may be determined within i few years. Tosti, who was fourth >on of Godwin, earl of Kent, and Drother to king Harold, was made ;arl of Northumberland, by Ed- vard the Confessor, in 1056, on the leath of earl Leward. This earl vas driven from his earldom for lis oppression, and was killed at Stamford bridge, near York, in 066. The inscription must, there- ore, be dated between those years. 7 rom Doomsday Book, it appears hat Orm was the owner of Kirk- lale, and the districts adjacent, in lid ward the Confessor's time. And rom Simeon of Durham, we learn hat a certain Thane in Yorkshire, iy name Orm, the son of Gamal, Tarried Ethelrilh, one of the five laughters of Aldred, earl of North- mberland, &c. On one of the walls of the hurch of Aldborough, in York- hire, is the following Saxon in- :ription, " Ulf hit arseran cyrice jr Hanum and for Gunthard aula ;" i. e. 44 Ulf commanded this hurch to be erected for the souls f Hanum and Gunthard." From mny circumstances, this church evidently the original Anglo- axon structure, with a few modern Jditions, as pointed windows, &c. i The walls in general are made of )und pebble-stones, supposed to ave been gathered from the sea- lore in the neighbourhood, which nd of stones by a strong cement ade very durable buildings; but e lower part of the south wall of e chancel is built with hewn 'one, such as was generally used our most ancient cathedral urches, upon which there are me grotesque figures, and in the >rth wall is a narrow window, 'Out five feet high : the chancel •or also, which is a south en- ince, is low and narrow, and has SAX over it an elliptic arch, ornamented with zigzag work. Ulf, who is mentioned in the inscription as its founder, was lord of the whole of this part of the Saxon province of Deira, or the country bounded by the Humber and the Tees, about the time of Canute, (Archseolog. vol. vi. p. 40, 41 .) The church of Stewkley, in Buck- inghamshire, bears many marks of great antiquity, and the character of its architecture offers great inducement to suppose it Anglo- Saxon. Dr. Stukeley says, it is of an age " undoubtedly before the Conquest," and a stone is said to have been discovered in repairing the roof, bearing date 1006, (Brit- ton, Architect. Antiq. vol. ii.) St. Peter's church, at Northampton, in the style of its ornaments bears great resemblance to it. The observations of Mr. Garbett are entitled to particular notice. Having been appointed by the Dean and Chapter of Winchester, to superintend the repairs of the cathedral, he inferred from his own observations, that it contains por- tions of Saxon workmanship, of a very early age. He even concludes, that " the crypt, under the part of the church between the high altar and the Virgin chapel, is a remnant of the work of our pious British or Roman ancestors, in the early part of the fourth century." He judges that the transept contains some portions of the structure raised by Kenewalch, king of Wessex, in the seventh century, and also more of that attributed to bishop Ethelwold, in the tenth. These conclusions he draws chiefly from a comparison of the architecture and workmanship of the tower, built by bishop Wal- kelyn, in 1079, with part of the transept, in which, he says, 44 it is not difficult to trace distinctly the junction of the Norman with the SAX SAX Saxon work, not only by the supe- riority of the masonry, but by the shape of the arches." To this sup- position Mr. Britton opposes the authority of Rudborne, the histo- rian of Winchester, that bishop Walkelyn commenced the rebuild- ing of the cathedral from its foun- dation, (a fundamentis, ccepit re- adificare ecclesiam :) but some al- lowance must be made for this assertion, and his beginning from the foundation need not imply that he allowed no portion of the older masonry to remain. " There are considerable remains of one building yet standing, though now principally confined to vaults and cellaring, which may be justly attributed to the Saxon era, since there can be no doubt that they once formed a part of the monastic edifices of Westminster Abbey, pro- bably the church, which was rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, in the latter years of his life. These re- mains compose the east side of the dark and principal cloisters, and range from the college dormitory on the south to the chapter-house on the north. The most curious part is the vaulted chamber, open- ing from the principal cloister, in which the standards for the trials of the Pix are kept, under the keys of the chancellor of the ex- chequer, and other officers of the crown. The vaulting is supported by plain groins, and semicircular arches, which rest on a massive central column, having an abacus moulding, and a square impost capital, irregularly fluted. In their original state, these remains, which are now subdivided by several cross walls, forming store-cellars, &c. ap- pear to have composed only one lpartment, about one hundred and ten feet in length, and thirty feet in breadth, the semicircular arches of which were partly sustained by 324 a middle row of eight short and massive columns, with square capi- tals diversified by a difference in the sculptured ornaments. These ancient vestiges now form the base- ment story of the college school, and of a part of the dean and chap- ter's library." Britton, Architect. Antiq. vol. v.; Brayley's Hist. and Antiq. of Westminster Abbey, vol. ii. That the church at Brixworth in Northamptonshire, is of an age an^ terior to the Conquest, we have many proofs. Mr. Britton judges it to be even a building of the time when the Romans were in posses- sion of the island, after the Britons were converted. It is evident from Domesday Book, that it was in ex- istence at that time, and in Leland's Collectanea, we may trace it to the time of Cuthbald, the second abbot of Medeshamsted, afterwards called Peterborough, who was contem- porary with Wulphere, king 61 Mercia, who died in 670. The building is almost entirely formed of Roman bricks. This edifice has been described by Mr. Baker, in his History of Northamptonshire, and by Mr. Rickman, in his " Attempt," &c. It has at its western end, in addition to the square tower, a round one, con- taining a newel staircase. In its original form it appears to have consisted of a spacious nave and narrow aisles, a large chancel, and a western tower, with a clerestery t the nave, and the chancel dividei from it by a large arch. The con struction of this church is particu larly curious ; the walls being mostl built with rough red-stone rag, i pieces not much larger than com mon brick, and all the arches turned and most of them covered with courses of bricks or tiles, as the) may be called. • The original doors and windows have all round arches but many additions have been made SAX SAX n more recent ages. Fig. 3. PI. Castle, C. 7 1 , represents the arches ,vhich look from the tower into the :hurch. The tower of Earl's Bar- :on Church, in Northamptonshire, lis well as that of Barton-upon- Humber,in Lincolnshire, bear marks )f great antiquity, and are ascribed >y Mr. Britton to the Anglo-Saxons. Both are evidently much older than :he church to which they belong, ,vhifh are good specimens of the Gorman style. " Nothing," Mr. Brit- ':on observes, " can be found more resembling the towers now under notice, than the architectural draw- ings in certain manuscripts of ac- knowledged Saxon origin. In the British Museum, and in the Gre- gorian gospels preserved in the ibrary of Salisbury cathedral, are irawinss by Anglo-Saxon scribes, n which the triangular arch, and :olumns resembling balusters with wo or three bands, are represented, ind seem to be rude delineations )f architectural members, very simi- ar to those in the towers of the wo Bartons, and Barneck, in Northamptonshire, in which they ire employed." The walls of the ower of Earl's Barton, are partly iomposed of stone ribs, placed per- )endicnlarly, with some turned as )iank arches, and others fixed dia- gonally, whilst the intermediate ipaces are formed with small rub- )le stones and mortar. The win- low openings are very small. The vestern doorway, which is equally tide in design and in construction, s formed of two large pieces of tone, for the jambs, imposts with lightly hollowed arches for orna- nent, and large masses of irregu- arly sized stones for the arch, "he walls of the tower of St. Peter's hurch, at Barton upon H umber, ire strongly* built of rubble-stone md grout, interspersed by a sort *f frame- work, formed of coarse freestone, of the same grit as the doors and windows are cased with. The uppermost story seems to be of more modern construction than the lower parts. The lower win- dow of the south side consists of two openings, separated by a cir- cular pillar swelling in thickness in the middle. The churches of Brix- worth, Barton on Humber, Earl's Barton, Brigstock, and Barneck, may all be safely attributed to the Saxons : " They must be seen," says Mr. Rickman, " to be properly ap- preciated ; for to do justice to them in words, would require a volume to each." Fig. 4, PI. C. 71, is a sketch of triangular arches in Earl's Barton tower, and Jig. 7, arches and columns, the latter of the same description as Jig. 3. Figs. 8, 9, are triangular arches from the tower of Barneck. Figs. 10, 11, column and capitals from the very ancient crypt at Lastingham, or Lestingeham, in the north riding of Yorkshire. Fig. 13, from the tower of St. Alban's Abbey church, dis- plays two semicircular arches, un- der another constructed with Ro- man bricks, and devoid of mould- ings. A plan of the Saxon. church at Brixworth is given in plate Car- pentry, C. 42, Jig. 4. The church of St. James, at Dunwich, in Suf- folk, of which a plan is given in the twelfth volume of the Archaeologia, bears in its form a great resem- blance to that of Brixworth. The church of Melbourne, in Derby- shire, is supposed to be a Saxon church by Mr. Wilkins, who has given a description of it in the Archaeologia, (vol. xiii. p. 290, &c.) In the old German churches, the east end is almost always semi- circular. At the church of St. Margaret's ClifT, in Kent, there is a very singular doorway, of which a figure is given in the fourth vol. of King's Munimenta Antiqua. In 325 SAX SAX this gate the circular arches, with their mouldings, are enclosed in a triangle. Some of the columns in arches from the tower at St. Al- bans, resemble those of Earl's Bar- ton, in their singular form, with swellings, bands, &c. (King's Muni- men'a Antiqua, vol. 4.) The church of Saxham, in SufFolk, near Bury St. Edmund's, has a round tower, with arches, even in the highest part, which are undoubtedly either Saxon, or very early Norman. Roujd towers certainly are not characteristic of the Norman style, and there is, therefore, a great pre- sumption, that the tower and its architecture are purely Saxon. Rumsey church is evidently Saxon ; (Archaeolog. vol. xv.) the capital of one of its pillars is given in Carter's Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Painting. Wahham Abbey church is by the generality of anti- quarians considered to be Saxon. But Britton thinks both this and Durham cathedral to be entirely Norman. There are remains of a curious building at Warnfortj^ in South- amptonshire, which are supposed by Mr. Wyndham, (and his sup- position is ably supported,) to be the original church founded there by Wilfred. His description of it, with plates, is given in the Archaeologia, (vol. v. p. 357 — 366.) The walls are raised with flints, bedded in a strong cement of mor- tar, and are of a great thickness. The arches are all semicircular and plain, and the columns which re- main are round, rather slender in proportion, and not in the least resembling any of Norman con- struction. The doubts and uncertainty with which the architectural monuments supposed to belong to the Anglo- Saxons are involved, make it next to impossible to give any certain 326 traits that may be considered as distinguishing the Saxon style. Several characteristics, however, have already been mentioned, that are considered as being decidedly Anglo-Saxon, as columns, arches, &c. Dr. Milner asserts, that Saxon buildings may in a great measure be distinguished by " the coarseness of the work." Mr. Wilkins observes, that " the Saxons supported their arches, which separated the aisles, by a single column, or rather pier, which was circular, octangular, or hexan- gular, in the plan ; whereas the Norman architects supported theirs, in general, with extremely massive piers, ornamented on their sides and angles with upright small co- lumns; and sometimes they inter- mixed them with round piers, like the Saxons, as may be seen in Ely, Norwich, Peterborough, and other cathedrals. They differed widely, however, from the Roman propor- tions ; and the Normans increased the difference, as is shewn by the following comparison : Saxon Proportions. Diam, Height. 3 3 2 4 ft. 3 = 4 14 2 = 6+2 Piers to the chan- cel at Orford, in Suffolk . . . Width of the arches three dia- meters . . . Piers to the con- ventual church at Ely .... Width of the arches three dia- meters, Norman Proportions. Piers in Norwich Cathedral . . Width of the arches two dia- meters . . . The same proportions may be observed in Ely, Peterborough, and 7 3 14 6 = i SAX iher Norman buildings." (Archae- lo£. vol. xii.) The arches, Mr. Millers (De- cription of Ely ) observes, are frequently very plain, sometimes ecorated with various sorts of mnldings, not only on the face, !iit in the sorfit, which, in some istances (as in the ruins at Ely,) ; entirely occupied by them ; dou- le, triple, or quadruple, each rest- lg on two columns, and generally iced with a different moulding, hicli is frequently double ; so lat, upon the whole, there are ix or eight concentric circles of lem ; and, as each semicircle rejects somewhat beyond the next, moulding is placed under the rejecting parts, usually the same s that upon the face of it." In plate Tools, we have given gures of all the Saxon mouldings om Mr. King. Their names are : 1 1. Double leaf moulding (from Malms- bury.) , 2. Chevron or zigzag. 3. Triple indented moulding. 4. Triangular frette moulding. 1 5. Enriched triangular moulding. 6. Embiittied frette moulding. 7. Labyrinth moulding. 8. Lozenge or losange moulding. 9. Enriched lozenge, or enriched frette moulding. 10 Rose moulding. 11. Trefoil leaf mouldings. 12. Scroll foliage moulding. 13. Enriched quatreloil moulding. 14. Mere scroll moulding. 15. Starry moulding. 10. Bead moulding. 17. Nobbed moulding. 18. Nail-head moulding. l!>. Billet moulding. 20. Doable billet moulding. 21. Square billet moulding. 22. Hatched moulding. 23. Incrusted moulding. 24. Scribbled moulding. 25. Cable or twisted moulding. Braided moulding. 27. Crossed circle moulding. 2H. Sun-flower moulding. 2'.'. Reticulated moulding. 3(). Chequer moulding. St. Cross- pointed moulding SAX 32. Spear-point moulding. 33. Head moulding. 34. Heart moulding. 35. Wedge moulding. 36. Nebule moulding. 37. Overlapping moulding. 38. Corbel table. The lozenges have sometimes their ends inserted within each other like the links of a chain, as in a gate at Malmsbury, when they are termed lozenge chain moulding. The head moulding admits of an immense variety. Zigzag and tri- ple indented, with a very few others, were imitated by the Normans. The zigzag ornament is very com- mon among the ruins of Mycenae, and most ancient Greek cities. The following is a list of the principal buildings in which remains of An- glo-Saxon architecture are consi- dered by different writers to be found. Avington church, Berks; Stewkly church, Bucks ; Dinton church, Bucks ; remains of the conventual church at Ely ; War- wick church, near Carlisle; Mel- bourne church, Derbyshire ; Stud- land church, Dorset ; Waltham abbey church, Essex; Greensted church, Essex; church at Tewkes- bury, Gloucestershire ; Bishop's Cleeve church, Gloucestershire ; part of Rumsey church, Hants ; parts of the abbey church, and the church of St. Michael, at St. Alban's; Barfriston church, Kent; the undercroft of Canterbury cathe- dral; remains of the west front of St. Augustine's abbey church, Can- terbury; Crowle church, Lincoln- shire; Southwall church, Notting- hamshire ; parts of the cathedral, and of St. Peter's in the east, Ox- ford ; Iffley church, Oxfordshire ; Teckencote church, Rutland; part of Halesowen church, and St. Kenellin's chapel, Salop; Tutbury church, Stafford ; chapel at Ox- ford, Suffolk ; New Shoreham church, Sussex ; parts of the mo- SC A nastery at Pershore, Worcestershire; the undercroft of Worcester cathe- dral ; the chapel of St. Mary, in cryptis, in York cathedral ; Adel church, near Leeds, Yorkshire ; and the crypt of Lestingham church, Yorkshire. The following works are tne prin- cipal authorities relating to the antiquities of the Anglo-Saxons : Gale, Quindecim Scriptores; Twys- den, Decern Scriptores; Wilkins* Concilia ; Ricard. Hagulstad. de Stat. Eccles; William of Malms- bury ; Eddius ; Scriptores post Bedam ; Anglia Sacra ; Brompton's Chronicon. Scabellum, (Lat.) a kind of pedestal, anciently used to support bustos or relievos, very high and slender, generally ending in a kind of sheath, or in the way of a baluster. Scaffold, ( eschafaut, Fr. ) a fiame of wood fixed to walls, for masons, plasterers, &c. to stand on while working the parts of a build- ing which they could not otherwise reach. In an illuminated bible of the fifteenth century, is a representa- tion of a scaffold round the tower of a castle, which is not like ours in stages, but ascends spirally. A very ingenious scaffold for reparing domes was contrived by Mr. Hughes, and the invention was rewarded by the Society for the En- couragement of Arts,&c. It is made to move round on an upright pole, in the centre of the dome, and on two wheels running on the floor, so that it can readily be turned to any part of the dome. See Con- structive Carpentry. Scagliola, (Ital.) is the name of a species of -plaster or stucco, invented in the town of Carpi, in Modena, in 1584, by Guido del Conte, composed of selenites cal- cined to a fine powder, and mixed with a sufficient quantity of water 328 SC A make a paste, which must be well kneaded. It is used in the form- ation of columns and ornamental works in imitation of marble; which is performed with astonishing effect. In forming columns, a frame or cradle is made of slips of wood, about two inches and a half in dia- meter less than it is intended to be when finished. This cradle is then lathed round, and covered with a rough coat of lime and hair, raised up in little projections. When this is quite dry, the artist lays on the composition, which is made to imi- tate the most beautiful and costly marbles, and which when dry re- ceives a high polish, and proves so complete a deception, that nothing but a fracture of its substance can discover the difference. The purest gypsum is calcined and passed through a fine sieve, and, as it is wanted, mixed with a solution of glue or isinglass to form the com- position ; which is laid on the pre- pared model of the intended shaft, and is then floated with wooden moulds of the size required : dur- ing this operation, the colours are put upon the work as it forms, by which means it becomes incorpo- rated with its substance ; forming the veiny appearance so much ad- mired. The workman, when the composition is fit for the operation, smooths the work with a pumice stone with one hand, while with the other he washes it with a spunge and water : he then polishes it with tripoli, charcoal, and a piece of fine linen ; then he polishes it with a piece of felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and tripoli, finishing his opera tions with the application of pure oil, laid on with cotton wool. The bases and capitals of these columns are generally of real marble Scala Santa, a portico near the church of St. John de Lateran, at Rome, with five arcades in front, SC A SCE id three flights of sfairs, of which ie middle flight is pretended to ive been made out of the steps hich once belonged to the house ■ Caiaphas, which they say were -ou^ht from Jerusalem to Rome, 1 account of their having served ; a passage for Jesus, when he as transferred from Caiaphas to ilate. The original steps, which •e twenty-eight in number, are dvv covered with marble, to pre- :rve them from being worn. They e ascended with great devotion. Scale, (Sax.) a line divided to a certain number of equal arts, an instrument for measuring • plotting by, &c. See Instru- ents. Scalene, in geometry, a trian- !e whose sides are all unequal. Scamillus, a small plinth be- >w the bases of the Ionic and orinthian columns. Scamozzi, Vincenzo, an Italian frchitect, born at Vicenza, in 15o2, >ed in 1616. His father, Gian- omenico, was also a skilful archi- ■ct. He travelled to Rome,Venice, rid Naples, to gain improvement, nd among his works are the addi- ons to the library of St. Mark, at t Venice, the finishing of the •lympic theatre at Vicenza, and a leatre at Sabioneta. His " Idea 'ell' Architettura Universale," in x hooks, was published in 1615. Scamozzi's Rule, a two foot )int rule for the use of builders, 3 called from its inventor, the rchitect Scamozzi. ScANuuLiE, flat pieces of wood 1 sed by the ancient Romans, in lie place of tiles, to cover their ouses. The people who made lem were named scandularii, and '/ere exempted from all public ser- ices. Scantling, ( Fr. ) the dimen- ions of a piece of timber in breadth nd thickness. Also, the name of 2T a piece of timber, as of quartering for a partition, when under five inches square, or the rafter, purlin, or pole-plate of a roof. In ma- sonry, scantling is the dimensions of stone in length, breadth, and thickness. See Carpentry. Scape, (Lat.) a term sometimes given to the shaft of a column, more commonly to the place where it rises from the base. Scarfing, the jointing and bolt- ing of two pieces of timber toge- ther transversely, so that the two appear but as one. See Construc- tive Carpentry. Scarp, in fortification, the slope on the side of a ditch which is next to the fortified place, and looks towards the field ; also the foot of a rampart wall, or the sloping of a wall from the bottom of a work to the cordon on the side of the moat. Scene, (Gr.) This word origin- ally meant an alley or rural por- tico, for shade and shelter. Cas- siodorus says that theatrical pieces were first represented in such places as this. "When first applied to a part of the theatre, it was used to indicate the wall which formed the back of the stage, but was after- wards more frequently applied to the whole stage, and was subse- quently limited to its present signi- fication. There were, according to Vitruvius, three principal scenes appertaining to the theatre, the tragic, the comic, and the satyric. Amongst the Greeks, the scene had, according to Vitruvius, the following disposition : in the middle was a great door, called the royal door, because it was decorated as the gate of a palace ; at the sides were smaller doors, called hospi- talia, because they represented the entrances to the habitations destin- ed for strangers, which the Greeks commonly placed on the two sides SCO SCR of their houses. Some variation was occasionally introduced in the disposition and ornaments of the scene. Sometimes, particularly in satyrical pieces, as in the Cyclops of Euripides, instead of doors, caves were represented. Scenography, (Gr.) the repre- sentation of solids in perspective. Schola, (Lat.) the margin or platform surrounding the ancient baths. Also a portico correspond- ing to the exedra of the Greek palsestra. Scholium, (Gr.) a note or re- mark, on a proposition, &c. School, see Academy. There has been a great dearth of archi- tectural schools in England. Batty Langley had a school or academy, but his disciples were all carpen- ters ; and though his taste as an architect was below mediocrity, he produced many excellent workmen. One of our first regular bred ge- nuine architects was the tasteful and scientific Wyat, who was the son of an eminent and opulent builder, acquired the elements of his art at home, and refined and purified his taste abroad from the purest sources, an absolute neces- sity in those days, for there was neither master or school in Eng- land, till that which he formed. In a similar school, and with simi- lar advantages, did Milne gain the first prize in the first class of archi- tecture at Rome, and was the first Briton who obtained a premium for art in that city. The encourage- ment shown to Chambers and Tay- lor, the establishment of the royal academy, and the triennial pre- mium for architecture, founded a school from which sprung many able and tasteful men. Sciagraphy, (Greek,) another name for a section of a building. Scopas, a celebrated artist of Greece, who flourished in the year 330 430 before Christ, and was parti- cularly distinguished as a statuarj and sculptor. He executed one 01 the columns in the temple of Ephe- sus, and one of the four sides of the famous tomb of Mausoleus. Scope, one of the machines of the theatre which represented an elevated tower, on which was placed the guards whose duty it was to watch over the public safety. Scotia, ( Gr. from okotios, sha- dy,) the hollow moulding in the bases of Ionic columns; also, the groove or channel cut in the pro jecting angle of the Doric corona The Greeks call the scotia of the base rpo^tXov, trochilon. Scratch-work, (from the Ital sgraffiata,) a kind of fresco, with a black ground, covered with i coat of white, which is 'after- wards scratched with a bodkin, or some pointed instrument, so that the black appears through the scratches. Screen, (escran, old Fr.) par titions, generally wrought with rich tracery, &c. placed before small chapels and tombs, or behind the high altar. In old parish churches, oaken screens, richly carved, often divide the nave from the chancel. We sometimes, as at Exeter, find them at the side of choirs. See Altar. A screen, is also an instru ment, consisting of three wooden ledges, joined in a rectangular frame at the bottom, the upper part of which is filled with wire work : its use is to sift sand or lime in making mortar. Scribing, fitting the edge of a board to any surface, as of the skirting of a room to the floor. In joinery, it is the fitting one piece of wood to another, so that their fibres may be perpendi cular to each other, the two edges being cut to an angle to join. S EG S EL Scroll, see Volute. Scutcheon, (Fr.) a shield for morial bearings. In a contract r building Fotheringhay church, e term appears to be applied to rnify a compartment of the ex- rior tower. Sealing, fixing a piece of wood iron (for hinges) to a wall, with ment, lead, &c. Secant, (Lat.) a line which ts another, a line cutting a circle >m a point in the tangent to the ntre. Seclusorium, (Lat.) an apart- ent in the large aviaries of the oman villas, where those birds re confined that were designed be sold or killed. Secos, see Adytum. 'Section, in architectural draw- ls, a view of an edifice, as cut 'wn the middle, showing the dis- sition of the interior. It is also lied sciagraphy. Sector, the space between two Jii of a circle, and the part of e circumference which they in- ide; a mathematical instrument, B Instruments. To find the area a sector of a circle, multiply e radius by one-half of the In Sector of a Sphere, a conical id, whose vertex ends in the : ntre of the sphere, and whose se is a segment of the same here. Segment, (Lat.) a part cut •many thing; the area contain- by the arc of a circle and a rd. In the segment of a circle, the rd of the arc is called the base ' the segment, and the height of ? arc the height of the segment. f find the area of the segment of circle, when its base and height 2 given, find the area of the sec- \ (see Sector,) and the area of e triangle cut off by the chord; subtract the one from the other, and the remainder will be the area of the segment. Segment of a sphere, a portion of a sphere cut off by a plane in any part except the centre, so that the base of such a segment must always be a circle, and its surface a part of the sphere. Selinus, an ancient city of Sicily, which has been in ruins ever since its destruction by the Carthaginians. The most striking ruin is that of the great temple, probably that dedicated to Jupiter, which stood in the ancient forum. This Doric temple, like the gene- rality of those dedicated to the supreme deity of the heathen my- thology, was hypsethral, its form being octostyle-dipteral, having eight columns in each front, six- teen in the flanks, and a double row surrounding the cella. The columns of the east front were fluted, but some of the others seem quite plain, while others exhibit preparations for flutings more or less advanced, so that it is proba- ble that it was left unfinished. The flutes are separated by a fillet. Within the cella was a double row of columns. The accumulated mass of ruins hinder a correct ex- amination of this temple, but its whole length appears to have been 331 feet, and its breadth 161. The length of the cella Mr. Wil- kins calculates at 110' 5" 6, and its width 67' 3". Diameter of columns of peristyles at base of shaft 10' 7" 5, below the capital 6' 3" 6, height including capital 48' 7". The capitals are each formed of a single block, the length of the abacus is 12' 10" and the height of the whole capi- tal 4' 9" 5. The epistylia, which extended from the centre of one column to that of the other, are of one stone, 21' 6" long, 9' 2" 25 high, 331 SEN SEP and five feet thick. The next temple is hexastyle peripteral, hav- ing six columns in front, and four- teen in the flanks, including corner columns. Length 186' 4", breadth 76' 2", on upper step. Diameter of columns at base 6' 6" 9, below the capital 4' 1" 9. The propor- tions of this temple are exactly similar to those of the temple of Jupiter. No traces of the wall of the cella are discernible. The third or southerly temple is hexa- style-peripteral, with sixteen co- lumns in its flanks. Besides the celia and vestibules, it appears to have had an opisthodomus, or second cella, the wall of which, from its thickness, appears to have contained staircases. Length of temple, on upper step, 232' 11", breadth 83' 10'. Height of co- lumns 32' 8" 13, diameter at base T 5" 9, at capital S 9" 2. There are also remains of three other temples, upon what is supposed to have been the acropolis, but com- pletely overthrown. Sell, see Sill. Semi, a Latin word which is used in composition with other words to signify half, as semicircle, a half circle. Semicubical Paraboloid, in geometry, a curve whose ordinates are in subtriplicate of the duplicate proportion of the diameter, i. e. the cubes of the ordinates are as the squares of the diameters. Senaria, (Lat.) a name given by the Romans to those pipes in their aqueducts, the diameter of which was an inch and a half, or six quarters ; when the diameter was seven quarters, they were called septejiaria ; and the name was varied as the proportion increased up to the vicenaria, which mea- sured twenty quarters or five inches in diameter. Septa, or Ovile, (Lat.) a place 332 in the Campus Martius at ancien Rome, where the people assemblec to choose he magistrates. Septangular, (Lat.) havinj seven angles. Septizonium, the mausoleun of the family of Septimius Severus at Rome, which was a large build ing, of a square pyramidal figure with seven ranges of columns, am surmounted by the statue of Septi mius. There was also an olde building at Rome, which had thi same name. Sepulchral Arch, an arc over a tomb, with an inscription, Sepulchral Monuments The custom of interring the dea is the most ancient, and prevaili "both amongst the inhabitants Greece and Italy, till it was supe; seded by the practice of burnin them. In the Grecian colonies ii Italy they buried their bodies en tire, and even when the custom burning them prevailed among lb Romans, some families still pre served that of inhumation. Thi may be seen in the example of th family of the Cornelii, which pre served the custom of burying th body till the time of Sylla. Th body of no member of this famii; had been burnt before, and thi dictator ordered that his bod should be placed on the funeral pile, fearing lest it should be pro ianed like that of Marius was. In Campania, several tombs o the ancient inhabitants have beei discovered, and in them were fourv the beautiful vases called Etruscan (see Vase,) of which several col lections have been made and pub lished. In the collections pub lished by D'Hancarville and Tisch bein, is represented one of th Campanian tombs as it appears at the moment of its discovery They were formed by an enclosur of cut stones, and covered with j SEP rt of roof or flagstone, shelving both sides. The dead body is stretched on the ground, the ?t turned towards the entrance of e sepulchre, and the head ranged ainst the wall, from which were spended, by bronze nails, vases terra-cotta, whilst others of a iiilar kind were disposed around e body, In the plains of Etru- i we rind many sepulchral grot- 3S scooped in a shallow manner t of the rock, and excavated in rious shapes. Denon thinks that the custom d fashion of the sepulchres at rrigentum are not Grecian, but loenician and Carthaginian. They e either troughs, one over the her, sometimes arched, or cham- rs with vent-holes in the roof, ly two inches apart from each 'her. In some parts of Greece d Italy are sepulchral chambers cavated in the rock, and formed e a bell, as at Amphissa in eece, described by Dodwell. pulchres excavated in rocks are Jer than the Roman sera. Ano- er form of sepulchre is a square demerit supporting five round ramids, as that on the Appian ty, erroneously termed the tomb the Curiatii, and one among the mins of ancient. Alba. These f also of great antiquity. In the lley of Ispica in Sicily, Denon ind tombs formed out of a hol- v stone, upwards of five feet ig, and fifteen inches wide, and ntaining petrified bones. Mr. Walpole says, that the most cient form of the tumulus, is a ap of earth with a stele at the pi In parts of western Scythia ly are found encompassed with a uare wall formed of large square '>nes. This defence was also ded to the early sepulchres of ' eece and Asia, as in that of pheltes at Cleonae, (Pausan.) of SEP Alyattes in Lydia, (Herod,) of Auge at Pergamus, of iEpytus in Arca- dia, and of Phocus in iEgina (Pau- san.) In one with a circular wall, which was opened between Smyr- na and Pergamus, were found gal- leries and chambers. "The sepul- chre of king Dercennus," Mr. Dodwell observes, " was, according to Virgil, a tumulus. This is pro- bably the most ancient kind of sepulchres for great persons, the pyramid the second, and the spe- laion the third. They generally contained sarcophagi, and were sometimes ornamented with the inscribed stele, or column, which is noticed by Homer. (II. xvi. 457.) One of the tumuli in the plain of Athens has been excavated. It was found to contain a chamber, finely constructed of large blocks of stone, in which was a vase of terra-cotta, with figures and in- scriptions." A curious account of the bar- rows or tombs of the ancient Tar- tars is given in the second volume of the Archaeologia. The Rus- sians, in effecting a practicable road to China, discovered in 50° north latitude, between the rivers Irtish and Obalet, a desart of a very considerable extent, overspread in many parts with tumuli or bar- rows. This desart constitutes the southern boundary of Siberia. Strahlenberg, in his History of Rus- sia and Tartary, (p. 4.) relates that in 1720, some Russian regiments being sent from Tobolski, the capi- tal of Siberia, up the river Irtish, to the great plains, found in the tumuli there many antiquities, as they also did on the western boun- dary of the desart, between the rivers Tobal and Ischim. He also mentions (p. 325, 330.) that Scy- thian antiquities are annually brought from the pagan tombs which lie on each side of the river 333 SEP SEP Irtish, on the desarts of the Kal- muc Tartars. Mr. Bell gives a similar account in vol i. (p. 209.) of his journey from St. Petersburg to Pekin. From these circum- stances it appears, that when any- chief or person of distinction was interred, it was usual to bury in the same tumulus with him, his arms and favourite horse, &c. And this custom, which is said to be of great antiquity, prevails at this day among the Tartar hordes. The Russian court being informed of the depredations made on these tombs, by the borderers on the desart, sent a principal officer, with a parly of soldiers, to open such of these tumuli as were too large for the maurauding parties to under- take, and to secure their contents. On surveying the numerous monu- ments of the dead spread over this great desart, he concluded that the barrow of the largest dimen- sions, most probably contained the remains of the prince or chief. In this he was not mistaken. After removing a very deep covering of earth and stones, the workmen came to three vaults, constructed of stones, of rude workmanship. That wherein the prince was depo- sited, which was in the centre, and the largest of the three, was easily distinguished by the sword, spear, bow, quiver, and arrow, which lay beside him. In the vault beyond him, towards which his feet lay, were his horse, bridle, saddle, and stirrups. The body of the prince lay in a reclining posture, upon a sheet of pure gold, extending from head to feet ; and another sheet of gold, of the like dimensions, was spread over him. He was wrapped in a rich mantle, bordered with gold, and studded with rubies and emeralds. His head, neck, breast, and arms naked, and without any ornament. In the lesser vault lay 334 the princess, distinguished by hi female ornaments. She was place reclining against the wall, with \ gold chain of many links, set wit| rubies, round her neck, and gol bracelets round her arms. Th head, breast, and arms were nakec The body was covered with a ric robe, but without any border 1 gold or jewels, and was laid on sheet of fine gold, and coverej over with another. The foi sheets of gold weighed forty pound The robes of both looked fair an! complete, but upon touching, crurri bled into dust. The tombs in the neighbourhood of Pergamus, in Asia Minor, ai very ancient and simple, and re semble in structure the Scythia tombs observed by M. Palla They are cones of earth, raise with much art, upon the plac which was occupied by the funer; pile, and which contained its n mains. Sovereigns elevated thes< to hold their whole families hence these gigantic tombs an mountains, supported by interk vaults. The Asiatic princes ol served the Scythian form, raise their sepulchres upon solid stor bases, and the natural vault we sometimes divided into many caves of this last kind are the tombs < Pergamus. (See the Voyage Pi toresque de la Greece, torn ii.) Panticapaeum, now called Ker chy, in the Crimea, is rendere remarkable by its immense tumi lus, called by some the tomb i Mithridates. It still exists almo entire, having a fosse in fron Several other very large tumuli a scattered about, and the plaii are covered with them. It called the Altyn Obo, and i shape is rather hemispherical. I sides exhibit that stupendous m sonry seen in the walls of Tiryn where immense unshapen mass SEP SEP i stone are placed together with- it cement, according to their ac- « ien tal forms. The western part entire, although the others have oden scabbards, bosses of shields, '. are British. Those which arc ll-shapcd, in clusters, without y remains of garments, &c. are tfjlo-Suxon. None appear to ve been formed by the Danes, except where there were no stones to make pyramids or obelisks. Roman sepulchres have been dis- covered in several parts of Britain. "The burial-places of the Romans," observes Mr. Douglas, " in this kingdom, are very rarely discover- ed, owing to their custom of inter ring the dead at no great distance from their stations, by the side of the public road, and in such situa- tions as have been occupied by a succeeding people to modern times : and it is now only to accident we are indebted for the few remains which this country has preserved." (Nenia Britannica.) Many instan- ces have occurred, where articles of Roman workmanship have been found with human remains, in Britain, beneath tumuli. But Mr. King observes, that " where Ro- man insignia have been found, we have very great reason to believe that the barrow, or cairn, was the sepulture, not of Romans, but of British officers, or chieftains, in the Roman service :" for " we do not find that the Romans ever raised barrows over the sepulchres or ashes of their great men, either in Italy or in any other part of the world." The general exterior cha- racteristics of a Roman place of interment in Britain, appears to consist simply of the plain grave, with one or more stone pillars, bearing an inscription, and some- times a sculptured device. Roman sepulchral inscriptions on stone have been found in most parts of this island, which are visited by a Roman road, although they most frequently occur in the vicinity of a known station. They are gene- rally dedicated to military men, and are sculptured sometimes with the effigies of the deceased, and with garlands, &c. At Chatham hill, in Kent, a Roman sepulchre was discovered, of which the walls 335 SEP SEP were composed of rubble stone, and hard mortar; the wall first disco- vered was thirty feet in length, and intersected by three apartments, with their walls. One apartment, which was complete, was nine feet three inches by seven feet three inches, with the inside of the walls covered with fine white plaster, on which were painted stripes of black and red. The urn, containing the ashes of the deceased, was deposited on a pavement within the sepulchre, and round it were several vessels of different size and shape, paterae, &c. A Roman sepulchre, discovered about two hundred and fifty yards from the wall of the city of York, was an oblong room, with a ridged roof, covered with hollow Roman tiles : it was about three and a half feet long within, and con- tained several urns, all standing on a tiled pavement. A burial vault was discovered in Oxfordshire, which in the part explored was twenty feet long by eighteen wide, and eight high from " the plank- ing stones." The human remains were laid in partitions of a dissimi- lar width, which crossed the vault from east to west, and were built with Roman red tiles, about eight inches and a half square. The partitions were two feet and a half deep, and generally about the width of modern graves. Roman urns and other vessels were dis- covered among the rubbish. There were two tiers of sepulchral re- cesses, and above was a range of planking tiles, covered with mortar and sand, in which was set tesse- lated work, supposed to have form- ed the flooring of a temple. When cremation ceased on the introduc- tion of Christianity, the converted Romans and Britons betook them- selves to the use of sarcophagi, or coffins. Stone coffins have been found in several instances in Bri- 336 tain, containing bones accompani, by urns and funeral vessels, apj rently Roman. Roman coffins, f brick and of burnt stone, a occur. (Gough's Sepulchral M numents — Beauties of Englaj and Wales, for Oxfordshire, &c. In a Roman sepulchre discov ed in 1794, at Ashby Puerorum, Lincolnshire, the sepulchral i was enclosed in a stone chest • coffin) with a lid, which fitted | sides neatly, and rather hung o the edges. The chest was of fn stone, such as is found in abui • ance on Lincoln heath ; and I urn was made of strong glass, w | manufactured, greenish, but j more so than green window-gh usually is. It was found wrii cutting a ditch in a ploughed fie. The urn was nearly full of srr, I pieces of bones much burn, many of them being white throu^- out their substance. (Archaeo- gia, vol. xii. p. 96.) Among I- man sepulchres found at Lincc, were many whole skeletons, al also " a sort of cist-vaen, or h formed of four stones, with a co r of the same, in which was enclo.'l an urn." (Archceolog. xii. 108, t seq.) In August, 1807 was & covered, in the suburbs on ji southern side of the city of Yorki Roman vault. It was bioken ii) at one of the sides, in digging 3 foundation for a house. In i vault was a sarcophagus, cut 't of a single grit-stone, and cove 1 with a blue flag-stone, contain £ a skeleton in remaikable preser- tion, arising probably from s being immersed in water; e head elevated by being rested o a step. The length of the sarcop - gus was seven feet, breadth the feet two inches, depth one foot x inches, thickness four inches, t the northern end of the vault s an aperture, too small to have 1- SEP SEP lotted the sarcophagus, and care- ssly closed with large stories, ear the vault an urn of red clay as discovered, containing ashes id fragments of burnt bones, (Ar- igeologia, vol. xvi.) That the Saxons, in common ith other northern nations, at one ?riocl burnt their dead, and some- mes erected barrows or tumuli er their ashes, is proved by the jmerous barrows that still remain Lower Saxony; and Mr. Doug- s, in his Nenia Britannica, sup- >ses that in many instances small irrows placed in clusters must be cribed to the Anglo-Saxons. But ore careful researches have shewn at few tumuli in Great Britain e to be ascribed to the Saxons, le Saxons, it is believed, had once e same custom of burning their ad, as the Britons. " The custom 1 interring the body," says Mr. irner, ( History of the Anglo- ksons,) " had become established 1 the era when their history began be recorded by their Christian ?rgy, and was never discontinued, leir common coffins were wood; 'e more costly were stone. Thus, man who had been buried in a <>oden coffin was afterwards pla- i in one of stone, (Bede,l. iv.c. 19.) iij'i 'teir kings were interred in stone iffins, (Bede, c. 4,) they were bu- 'd in linen, (c. 19,) and the clergy their vestments." Cuthbert, arch- hop of Canterbury, obtained per- ssion, about 750, for cemeteries be made within cities; and from s circumstance some have sup- sed that church-yards were then ; t formed around the places of rship. Mr. Whitaker, however, his History of Manchester, ob- ves, " The custom of placing 'neteries around our churches, England, is asserted by all our liquaries to have been originally roduced by Cuthbert, archbishop 2U of Canterbury, about the year 750. But they are as much mistaken in this, as 1 have already shown them to be in many other particulars. And the church-yard was every where laid out, at the time when the parish church was erected, among the kingdoms of the hep- tarchy. The churches in France had cemeteries about them, as early as 595 ; and those in Eng- land had them equally as early as the period of their own construc- tion. The very first that was built by the Saxons in the kingdom, that of St. Peter and St. Paul, without the city of Canterbury, had an enclosure for sepulture about it; and the very first apostle of the Saxons, the pious and worthy Au- gustine, was actually buried within it. In sixteen years only after the conversion of the Northumbrians, the church of Lindisfarne appears encircled with its cemetery; and the head of Oswald, the slain monarch of the kingdom, and the body of Aidan, the bishop of the diocess, were equally interred there. And even the country church of St. Michael, distant about a mile and a half from Hexham, had a cemetery around it as early as 685." It became at an early period the custom of the English to bury within churches, such as were noted for their piety, their dignity, or their benefactions to the church or monastery. But the tombs were generally even with the pavement, and it does not appear probable that the Anglo-Saxons were accus- tomed to place figures in imitation of the human form, even on the tombs of the most illustrious deceased : and it is certain that no well au- thenticated monumental effigies of Saxon construction is now remain- ing. " Those we meet with for the kings of that race, such as Ina at Wells, Osric at Gloucester, Sebba 337 SEP SEP and Ethelbert, which were in St. Paul's, or wherever else they occur, are undoubtedly cenotaphs, erected in later ages by the several abbeys and convents of which they were founders, in gratitude to benefac- tors so generous." (Archaeolog. vol. ii. p. 293.) The Anglo-Saxons naturally em- braced the customs of the Chris- tians, after their conversion. Soon after the arrival of St. Augustine, we find St. Awdrey, of Ely, laid in a marble coffin ; for Sexburga, abbess of Ely, intending to remove the body of her sister Aedilreda or Awdrey, into the church, directed some of the brethren to seek for a stone " de quo locellum in hoc facere possent." They, finding no stone proper for the purpose in the isle, came to Grantacaester, " et mox inveniunt juxta muros civitatis locellum de marmore albo pulcher- rime factum, operculo quoque si- milis lapidis aptissime tectum," (Bede, lib. iv. c. 19.) This is the oldest instance met with among the Saxons; but from this time, the use of stone coffins is often re- ferred to. The stone coffin is of very remote antiquity in this island, for the cist-vaen of the Britons appears to to have been the prototype of it. Some very singular stone coffins are described in the fifth volume of the Archseologia, p. 224. Stone coffins were at first made of several stones, set round, with one at the bottom, and one for the cover at top. Afterwards they were formed out of one single stone. In the church at Christ Church, near Caerleon, is a very curious tomb-stone, with rudely sculptured effigies on it, which bears the date of 1300, in a barbarous and almost unintelligible Latin inscription that runs round it, (Archaeolog. vol. v. In parish churches, ancient se pulchral monuments are usuall found in the chancel, or in sma chapels or side aisles, which hav been built, and frequently endowec by some member of the familie who are buried there. During th time of our Saxon ancestors, feJ or no monuments of this sort ap! pear to have been erected ; at leas being usually placed in the churche belonging to the greater abbeys they felt the stroke of the genere; dissolution. " The monuments of England,! observes Mr. Gough, " are so feii in the eleventh and twelfth cer turies, and even in the thirteent) that, after the most diligent searcl there are periods which do not fur nish any. The reigns of Henry III and the two first Edwards afforde no small number; but it was unde Edward III. and Richard II., thij they multiplied so fast, that ne ones are continually presentin themselves, and the number irj creases as we come nearer oil own time." This writer has d:| vided and classed tombs und( eight different heads : 1st form ; coffin-shaped stone, prisma! and plain at the top. 2nd form ; prismatic and carved at tl top, with crosses plain and lleury, as th of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, 1160, and that of bishop Glanville, ne the altar in Rochester cathedral. 3rd form ; tables with effigies or scul; ture, as that of Robert duke of Normal^ in Gloucester cathedral, with effigy cms legged in a coat of mail, A. D. 1134. Km John, in Worcester cathedral 1213. Pr lates in pontifical habits, first in half-relif afterwards complete efHgies, as Herbe Walter, archbishop of Canterbury, 120 Knights and nobles in armour, &c. a* Lon spee, earl of Salisbury, 1226. 4th form ; tombs with festoons or arch over them, as those of Henry III. Edwa I. queen Eleanor, Edward the black princ Henry IV. &c. This class was succeed; by more loftv tombs, with arches crochcij pinnacles, finials, &c. 5th form ; tombs in chapel burial-plactj SER SEV consisting mostly of open screens with doors, altar, monuments, piscines, niches, &c. se- veral of which are seen in the catbedrals of Wells, Salisbury, Exeter, &c. 6th form ; inlaid with brass, representing figures of the deceased, and inscriptions either in cameo or intaglio. These are ■mostly of the fourteenth century. Many tine specimens are engraved and published i>y Cotman. 7th form ; against walls, which chiefly |)ccur since the Reformation. 8th form ; detached buildings, as domes, )belisks, columns, and equestrian statues. It was long customary in Italy :o raise the tombs of eminent per- sons upon pillars ; that of the great Vlatteo Visconti, in the church of 5t. Eustorgio, in Milan, is mounted 'ery high on six pillars, which stand >pon the backs of three lions. And he Italians appear to have been al- ways fond of representing their great nen, and military worthies particu- larly, on horseback, both on their epulchral monuments, and in pub- ic statues erected to their memo- ies, as well as in paintings. (Ar- haeolog. vol. xviii. p. 194.) ■ On ancient tombs the reader may onsult Gutherius,de Jure Manium. ; he best collections of sepulchral lonuments are — Montfaucon, les lonumens de la Monarchic Fran- ais; Millin, Antiq. Nationales ; Herbert, Topographia Principium •lustriae ; I regali Sepolcri del ')uomodi Palermo, fol. Nap. 1784; epulchral Monuments, by Gough, :c. Seraglio, the palace of an astern prince, more particularly lat which contains the apartments f the females. Serapeum, a celebrated temple r Serapis, at Alexandria, consist- g of a vast square mass of build- g, the temple itself standing on i immense platform, supported on ches. Serlio, Sebastiano, an eminent alian architect of the early part the sixteenth century, who was born at Bologna, and died in 1578. After having travelled through Italy, and resided a considerable time at Rome, he settled at Venice, where he built the palace of Gri- mani, and published a " Complete Treatise of Architecture," in 1537. He afterwards went to France, at the solicitation of Francis I. in 1541, where he was employed at Fontainbleau. Sesqui-duplicate Ratio, in geometry, where two terms of the greater contain the less twice, with half over, as fifty to twenty. Ses- quialteral ratio, is the ratio be- tween two lines, numbers, &c. when one contains the other once with a half over, as six to nine. Sesquitertian ratio, is when one quantity contains the other once and a third over, as six to eight, or twelve to sixteen. Sesspool, or Cesspool, a well sunk under the mouth of a drain, to receive the sediments which might choke its passage. Set-off, a sloping face of ma- sonry, marking the divisions of a buttress. Setting, in masonry, fixing stones in walls or vaults. Setting-out Rod, a rod in use among joiners for setting- out frames, as of windows, doors, &c. Severy, (perhaps from sepa- rare,) a compartment, a division of scaffolding. Severus's Wall, or Vallum, one of the barriers which were erected by the Romans across the northern part of our island, to re- strain the incursions of the Scots. Severus died at York in 210. Dion Cassius mentions the great barrier that divides the island into two parts, as a thing existing when Severus undertook his expedition, and asserts, that this emperor, in the skirmishing warfare that the SEV natives used against him, and in clearing away forests, levelling hills, draining morasses, and building bridges, lost at least fifty thousand men, and yet persisted in his design. And Herodian says, he made roads and bridges. But neither of these two authors, who are by far the most copious de- tailers of the actions of Severus, mention any wall of his building. Spartian, however, about sixty-five years after his death, not only asserts that he built a wall eighty miles long, across the island, but says that it was the chief glory of his reign. Aurelius Victor says it was thirty-three miles long, and Eutropius thirty-two ; but Osorius and Cassiodorus make it one hun- dred and thirty-two. All who mention it agree that it passed from sea to sea. Spartian calls it murus aut vallum ; Victor has murus in his large work, and val- lum in his abridgment. Eutro- pius has vallum. Orosius calls it magnum fossum Jirmissimumque vallum. Antoninus, and the au- thor of the Notitia, use the phrases ad vallum and per lineam valli. Bede and Gildas cite the words of Orosius, and the former observes " a murus is made of stones ; but a vallum, by which camps, intended to repel the force of an enemy, are defended, is made of turf and earth, piled up high, like a murus, above ground, so that in the front, the place whence the earth was raised, forms a fosse, and upon this are fixed stakes, made of very strong beams of wood. Boethius and others mention Severus as repairing Adrian's Vallum. See 'Adrians Vallum. Sewer, (asseour, old Fr.) a subterranean channel or gutter for carrying off the superabundant water, filth, &c, of a town. The common sewers of Roman towns 340 SH A have been more or less imitated fa the modern cities of Europe. They are said to have originated with the elder Tarquin, and were re- paired and enlarged by Cato the Censor, and his colleague Valerius; Flaccus. See Cloaca. Sextant, (Lat.) the sixth part of a circle, or an arch of sixty de- grees ; an instrument of that form, for taking angles. Shaft, {sceaft, Saxon,) the; cylindrical part of a column, be- tween the base and the capital, The shafts of large columns, when: made of stone, are rarely of one piece. But it is possible to join the parts of a shaft in a manner sc solid, that it will appear to be one single block. Wood, in his de- scription of the ruins of Balbek. mentions a remarkable example ol the solidity of shafts composed ol several blocks, an example which proves at the same time that the ancients spared nothing in endea- vouring to ensure solidity to their buildings. A very lofty column the shaft of which was composed of three blocks, fell, and broke the stone of the wall against which it struck ; even a fragment of the shaft itself, was broken off by the violence of the shock; yet the blocks were not in the least dis- jointed, although they were no! joined with any cement or mortar The temple to which this columr! belonged, was surrounded by i partico of fifty-four of the sam< kind. Before the period in whicl the Greeks brought architecture t( that perfection which we stil admirej we find among ditTeren people shafts of columns of variou: forms. The shaft of the Indiai columns in the pagados of Salsettf and Elephanta, is of small eleva tion, and is diminished in an un dulating line. This form, which i disagreeable in other columns, ha S H A SH A here no unpleasing effect, on account of their lowness. The renerality of Egyptian columns appear to have had no diminution, but were perfectly straight, and of different forms and ornaments. According to Pococke, the general height of Egyptian columns was from three to five and a half, and, though very seldom, six diameters : the diameters vary from three to nine feet. The Persian columns, which have been found among the ruins of Persepolis, vary in form and height, they have a certain diminution, and are sometimes fluted. The columns of the Greeks were generally diminished in a straight line. The oldest Doric columns were low, and their diminution was so considerable, that the shaft was of a conical form : the upper diameter was often less than a third of the dia- meter at the bottom. The columns af the grand temple at Peestum are an example. By degrees the lower part of the column was made i!ess in proportion to the upper, and their height was increased : the superior diameter being not more than a quarter less than the inferior. This is the proportion generally observed in the Doric edifices at Athens. The diminu- tion of the columns of the temple af Jupiter Nemeus, between Argos and Corinth, is not more than a fifth. The diminution of Ionic and Corinthian columns, differs much at different periods. The difference between the upper and lower diameters was from a fifth to i twelfth. It appears, indeed, that n the best periods of the art, the indents had no exactly deter- mined rule for the proportion of he diminution of their columns, :)ut the architects seem to have r egulated it according to their weight. The Greeks almost always diminished their columns in a straight line. The Romans adopt- ed the same mode of diminution, as we may see in those of the por- tico of the Pantheon, of the temple of Jupiter Stator, and, at a later period, in those of the temple of Antoninus and Faustina, of the portico of Septimus Severus, &c. Besides the diminution in a straight line, which was the most used, Vitruvius also speaks of another kind of diminution, which he calls entasis. Many commen- tators on Vitruvius have imagined that by entasis, he means the swelling of the shaft, such as Pal- ladio prescribes ; that is, that, in- stead of decreasing the lower part of the shaft to one-third of the whole height, it increased from the foot. But it is not probable that Vitruvius intended by the term to express any such a swelling in the shaft, not only because it gives a bad effect to the column, but be- cause the remains of ancient build- ings offer us not a single example. By entasis, Vitruvius meant, with- out doubt, that the shaft was not to be diminished in a straight line, but in a line slightly curved out- wards, without, however, any part of the shaft having a greater dia- meter than that of the foot. The Doric columns in the portico at Pses- tum offer examples of such a dimi- nution in a line slightly curved, instead of being perfectly straight. These columns depart most from the conic form towards the begin- ning of the upper half ; but even there the diameter of the shaft is not more than at the foot, but it is, on the contrary, a little less. Vitruvius does not explain in a very exact manner the form of this line of the entasis, and the design to which he refers has been lost. 341 S H A SHO A passage of the third chapter of his third book, throws, however, some light on the subject. He there fixes as a rule, that, in fluted Ionic columns, the width of a side comprised between two flutings ought to be equal to the swelling of the middle of the column. The column generally contains twenty- four flutings, and consequently as many sides. Each side having for its width the third of a fluting, it follows that its width is the ninety- sixth part of the circumference of the shaft, or the thirty-second part of his diameter. It appears, there- fore, that this was the measure of the swelling of the middle of the column. This proportion at the same time agrees very well with that which we observe in the co- lumns of the portico at Psestum. The columns of several buildings at Rome, as the triumphal arch of Septimus Severus, that of Constan- tine, the theatre of Marcellus, the Coloseum, &c. offer us examples of another kind of diminution. One- third of the shaft of these columns arises from the base in a cylindric form, having the same diameter all its length. The two other thirds diminish in form of a cone. This is the most common mode of dimi- nution. See Entasis, and Dimin- ishing. Shaft, in a chimney, is the stone or brick turret above the roof. The shaft of a king-post is the part between the joggles. Shake, the fissure occasioned in timber by its being dried too sud- denly, or exposed to too great heat. Any timber, when naturally full of slits or clefts, is said to be shaky. Shank, (scenca, Sax.) the space between the channels of the Doric triglyph, which is sometimes termed the leg of the triglyph ; Vitruvius calls it femur, 342 Shield, (scyld, Sax.) an ancien weapon of defence, borne on th arm, to send off lances, darts, &c often used in architecture as a pari of ornamental decorations. Th shield was the most ornamental part of the ancient armour, beinj; adorned with figures, and in th| ages of chivalry bearing alwayj painted on it the arms of its pos sessor. Shingles, (schindel, German,! small oaken boards, used like slate to cover a building, from eight tj twelve inches long, and about fou broad, thicker at one side than th other. This kind of roof is no frequently used. The process oj making a roof of this kind is calle. shingling. Ship, see Naval Architec ture. Shoar, or Shore, (score. Sax.):! prop of timber, acting as a brace in the side of a building, the uppe end resting against that part of th< wall on which the floor is supported and both ends resting on plates o! beams. A dead shoar, is an up right piece, built up in a wall which has been cut or brokei through for the purpose of mak ing some alteration in the build ing. Shoe, the part at the bottom o a leaden pipe, or water trunk which is intended to turn the coursii of the water. Shooting, planing the edge o a board straight, and out of winding) Shooting-board, two board! which are joined together with thei sides lapped upon each other, s< as to form a rebate, for making short joints. Shoulder, the plane transvers< to the length of a piece of timbe| from which a tenon projects. Shoulder of a bastion, in forti fication, the place where the fac and plank meet. SIG Shouldering Pieces, see Brackets. Shread Head, see Jerkin Head. Shredings, or Furrings, in old buildings, short slight pieces fixed as bearers below the roof, forming a straight line with the upper part of the rafters. See Furring s. Shrine, (scrinium, Lat. ) the tomb of a saint. The altar is some- times called a shrine. The canopy Dver shrines, called mandualis, whence mantel - piece) requies, Hpa, &c. was sometimes so richly idorned with gold, silver, gems, md other ornaments, as to make i very brilliant appearance, on which account the shrines were :overed in Lent. The form and condition of the shrine, and the innexation of an image to it, was )f importance, because such tombs md greater privileges than plainer nonuments. : Shrouds, The. A term applied o the parish church of St. Faith, n the crypt under St. Paul's : this 'iame is also given to other subter- ranean churches. Shutters, the boards which ihut up the aperture of a window. Side-posts, a kind of truss- >osts placed in pairs, each disposed it the same distance from the mid- lie of the truss, for the purpose of supporting the principal rafters, oraces, crown or camber beams, as •veil as for hanging the tiebeam oelow. ! Side-timbers, another name or purlins, as is also side - wavers, which is used in Lincolnshire : the Former term is chiefly confined to Somersetshire. ) Signinum Opus, (Lat.) a kind )f work mentioned by Vitruvius, il). viii. c. 7, which was used by he ancient Romans in the con- struction of walls and cisterns. S I N They mixed five parts of pure sand and two of lime, to which, when well stirred together, they added pieces of soft sandy stone, each about a pound weight. This mass served to cover the walls or ground- work ; and, to increase its solidity, they beat it with logs of wood pointed with iron. According to Pliny, the signinum opus was com- posed of pounded tiles and lime. Sili or cill, {syl, Sax.) the tim- ber or stone at the foot of a door, &c. Ground sills, are the timbers on the ground, which support the posts and superstructure of a tim- ber building. The name of sill is also given to the bottom pieces which support quarter and truss partitions. Sillon, in fortification, an ele- vation of earth in the middle of a moat. Si ma, see Cyma, and Mould- ings. Similar, figures, &c. which have equal angles and proportional sides. Sine, a right line drawn from one end of an arch, perpendicular upon the diameter, or it is half the chord of twice the arch. The sine of the complement is the sine of what the arch wants of ninety de- grees. The versed sine, is an arc or angle less than ninety degrees, being that part of the diameter, which is comprehended between the arch and the sine. Single-frame and Naked, is a term applied to a floor which has only one tier of joists. A sin- gle-joist floor, is one that has no binding joists. Single-hung : when only one sash of a window is moveable in the same vertical plane, the sashes are said to be single-hung. Single Joists, joists which are employed singly in a floor. Single Measure, a door which 343 S I s SLA is square on both sides: if it be moulded on both sides, it is double measure, and if moulded on one side and square on the other, it is said to be measure and a half. Siparium, (Lat.) a curtain which was often employed instead of a door, to separate one room from another. It was used in temples to conceal the image of the deity, when sacrifice was not performing. It was also raised beforathe tribu- nal of the judges in criminal causes, to admit of their discussing the subject with greater secrecy : in cases of less importance, the veil was left undrawn, and hence arose the expression ad vela sisti to de- note the curtain being drawn, and levato velo to signify an open in- vestigation. Sisypheium, (Gr.) a temple at Corinth, which is described by Strado, built of white marble. Its site is not exactly known. Chan- dler supposes it to be the temple that is described by Stuart in his Antiquities of Athens. But the difference of the materials is an objection to this supposition. The ruin described by Stuart is "a Doric temple, apparently of great anti- quity, and built before architecture had received the improvements it afterwards did in the time of Peri- cles." Twelve columns remain. They are made of the stone called porus, (TroptvQQ \i6oc.) They have twenty flutings, which terminate un- der the listels of the capital, and are segments of circles. The guttse are round, and detached from the architrave. The shafts are each of one block only, and the whole has been covered with stucco. It may be observed, that the temples in Greece, Sicily, and Italy, built with the same stone, are generally found to have been extremely thinly stuc- coed with a fine cement, and after- wards painted. The architraves are 344 of one stcne, reaching from centre; to centre of the columns. In plate Carpentry, C. 44, fig. a, b, c, show the form of the flutings, of the gut- tse, and of the grooves and necking of the capitals of these columns;! they are taken from the drawings of Sebastian Ittar, an Italian artist employed by lord Elgin, which ares now in the British Museum. Skias, (Gr. a shadow, shady- place,) an edifice at Lacedemon, which served as a place of public! assembly to the people. It was! the work of Theodorus of Samos, to whom is attributed the invention! of casting iron, and of making! statues of it. It was to the roof of this edifice that the Lacedemonians suspended the lyre of Timotheus of Miletus, after having punished this musician, for having added four more strings to the seven strings of the ancient lyre. Skirtings, the narrow boards which form a plinth round the margin of a floor. Skirts, several superficies, in a plane, which would cover a body without one part lapping over the other. Skreen, an instrument used in making mortar, see Screen. Skylights, frames with one or two inclined planes of glass, placed in a roof to give light to the rooms or passages below, and looking to the sky. Slab, the outside plank cut off a tree, which is of unequal thick- ness. Slating, covering roofs with slates. The slates used in London are brought chiefly from Bangor, in Caernarvonshire. But the most esteemed is a pale blue-green slate, brought from Kendal, in Westmore- land, and called Westmoreland slates. The Scotch slates are nol much repute. The Welsh in slates are known by the follow- SLA SLA * names, according to their aver- se sizes. . Length. Breadth. ft. in. ft. in. j Doubles .... 1 6 1 3 8 Countesses . . . I 8 10 Duchesses . . . 2 1 Welsh Rags . . . 3 2 Queens . . ; . 3 2 Imperials .... 2 G 2 Patent 2 G 2 Slate is separated from its bed, om. Solarium, (Lat.) (1.) a sun- ial, (see Sun-dial, Horologium, c.) (2.) a platform at the top of ie ancient nouses, where the in- ates occasionally walked to take ie air; (3.) a tax levied on those bo received permission to build Don the public ground, levied by e curators of the public places. Solder, or Sodder, (soldare, al.) a metallic or mineral com- )sition used in soldering or join- g together other metals Solid, in geometry, a body which has length, breadth, and thickness. Solids, A rchitectural. In plate I, fig. 1 is a semi-cylinder, being the centre of a semi-cylindric vault; fig. 2, a semi-cylindroid, being the centre of a semi-cylindroidic vault upon the greater axis of the ellipse, which forms the ends of the vault ; fig. 3, a semi-cylindroid being the centre of a semi-cylindroidic vault upon the axis minor of the ellipse, which forms the ends of the vault ; fig. 4, and 5, groins upon a square plan, proving their summits in curved lines ; fig. 6, a groin spring- ing from the angles of a square base, but of which their horizontal sections are every where quad- rantal arcs of a circle ; hence the four surfaces meet each other in a horizontal plane, and terminate in a quadrant ; the quadrilateral space is rilled with a circular figure. In plate II, figs. 1, 2, 3, gothic groins, their summits being straight, 1, being upon a square plan ; 3, on a rectangular plan ; and 2, on an octagonal plan ; fig. 7, a groin of the same kind as fig. 6. on plate 1, upon an oblong plan ; fig. 8, gothic arches penetrating a polygonal dome of the same number of sides; fig. 9. gothic arches penetrating a spherical dome. Solid Angle, an angle formed by three or more plane angles, which meet in a point, and of which the sum of all the plane angles is less than three hundred and sixty degrees. Soline, a term among French carpenters, for a joist or rafter, which is either slit or sawed, and with which they lay their ceilings. Sommer, see Summer. Sophia, St. See Constanti- nople. Sostratus, a celebrated Gre- cian architect, of the third century 347 sou sou before Christ, bom at Cnidos in Asia Minor; his father Dexiphanes was also celebrated as an architect. Sostratus is renowned in history for the terraces and arcades with which he adorned his native city, and was patronized by Ptolemy Philadelphia, king: of Egypt. He was the builder of the celebrated Pharos, which protected the en- trance to the port of Alexandria, and is said to have given celebrity to his name by a singular strata- gem : having been ordered to en- grave on the tower the words " King Ptolemy to the Gods, the Saviours, for the benefit of Sailors," he substituted his own name in- stead of that of Ptolemy, and hav- ing filled it up with mortar, painted over it the original inscription, so that, after it had been some time exposed to the action of the wea- ther, the mortar came off, and the inscription appeared according to the first engraving, " Sostratus, Sj9n of Dexiphanes, of Cnidos, to the Gods, the Saviours, for the benefit of Sailors," and continued so as long as the tower remained standing. Soufflot, James Germain, a French architect, who was born at Irancy, near Auxerre, in 1714, and died in 1780. He was first in- tended by his father, who was an avocat, for the profession of the law, but preferring that of architec- ture, he studied it some time at Lyons, afterwards travelled into Italy, and, on his return, was ad- mitted into the number of the king's pensioners. His works at Lyons, particularly the hospital, gained him great reputation. He afterwards visited Italy a second time, and settled on his return at Paris. Amongst his other works are the exchange, the concert- room, and the theatre of Lyons, and the portal, nave, and towers of 348 the church of St. Genevieve. A collection of designs which he lef behind him were published by M Dumont, under the title of " Ele vations et Coupes de quelque Edifices de France et d'ltalie, de signees par feu M. Soufflot, archi tect du Roi, et gravees." Sound Boa rding, short board which are disposed transverse! between the joists of floors, fo holding any substance which i intended to prevent sound fror being transmitted from one stor to another. They are supports by fillets fixed to the sides of th joists, generally about three quar ters of an inch thick, and an inci long. The substance which i placed between them, to preven the transmission of the sound, i technically termed pugging. Sounding Board. Thechurc of Attercliffe, near Sheffield, ha long been remarkable for the diffi culty and indistinctness with whic the voice from the pulpit wa heard : these defects were com pletely remedied by the erection c a concave sounding board, havin the form resulting from half revolution of one branch of a para 18 bola on its axis. It is made c pine-wood ; its axis is inclined foi ward to the plane of the floor, a an angle of about ten or fiftee degrees ; it is elevated so that th speaker's mouth may be in th focus; and a small curvilinea portion is removed on each sid from beneath, so that the view ( the preacher from the side gallerie may not be intercepted. Th effect of this sounding board ha been to increase the volume of th sound to nearly five times what was before, so that the voice now distinctly audible in the u motest parts of the church, an more especially in those place however distant they may be, whic SPA SPE re situated in the prolongation of ie axis of the paraboloid. The de galleries are also benefited, robably from the increase of the :condary vibrations excited in a teral direction. Souse, (Fr.) or source, a sup- nrt or under prop. Spalatro, a town of Venetian >almatia, where are the splendid ; mains of a palace of the emperor •ioclesian, which has been de- ;ribed, and several fine plates iven of it by Mr. Adam. This uilding was of a quadrangular )rm, divided by two large streets, hich crossed at right angles, and :d to the different gates. These reets were bordered on each side y arcades thirteen feet in width, lany of which are still entire, he first street led directly to the eristyle before the villa, from hich a flight of steps led into ie porticus, and from this were vo doors to two winding stairs, hich led to the ground story, that ie slaves might have access there ithout having to pass any of the ipartments. Next to the porticus the vestibule, which was lighted irough the roof. From this we iter the atrium, on each side of ie door, into which were two iTiall rooms, one of which may ,ave been the porter's lodge, and ie other the tablinum, or reposi- )ry of the records. By the alae f the atrium are the two andrones r mesaulae, from which there is :cess to several great rooms, hich received light from the roof. , ext to the atrium is the crypto- jorticus. The first room on the iround-fiOor is the basilica, for ramatic performances, concerts, c ; next the oeci or eating apart- ments, and the exedrae or orawing- )oms; and then the bath and its partments, and the bed-chambers, emples were placed in the two areas adjoining the palace. The whole area which is covered by the palace is nine and a half English acres. Span-piece, a name given in some places to the collar-beam. Span Roof, a name sometimes given to the most common species of roofing, which is formed by two inclined planes. Spandrel Bracketing, brack- ets which are placed between curves, each of which are in a vertical plane, and in the circumference of a circle, which is in a horizontal plane. Spars, the common rafters of a roof for supporting the tiling or slating. Specific Gravity, a compa- rison of the weight of any quantity of solid or fluid, with the weight of some other fluid or solid, chosen as a standard, which is generally rain water, as being least subject to variation, and of which a cubic foot weighs 1000 ounces avoirdu- pois. For tables of the specific gravity of different substances, see the articles Stone and Timber. Specus, (Lat.) the canal into which the water flows, in aqueducts which are raised above the surface of the ground, constructed of hewn stones or bricks. It was covered with a vault, to preserve the water from the warmth of the sun, and from being mixed with rain-water. Sometimes these canals were cover- ed with flat stones, laid horizon- tally, as in the Aqua Marcia, a part of the Aqua Claudia, and the aqueduct of Segovia. Sometimes the same series of arcades sup- ported several of these canals, of which there were often three placed one above another : thus the Aqua Julia, Tepula, and Marcia, were supported by the same arcades ; another example may be instanced in the Anto Vetus, and the Aqua Claudia. 349 SPH SQU SphjERIsterium, a building appropriated for exercising with a ball ; a tennis-court. The an- cients generally placed Sphseristeria among the apartments that were connected with their baths, and in their gymnasia. They also had them in their mansions, and par- ticularly in the villas of the rich. Pliny the younger, in the descrip- tion which he gives of his two country houses, mentions the sphce- risterium. The emperor Vespa- sian had one in his palace, and, according to Lampridius, Alexan- der Severus very frequently exer- cised in the Sphaeristerium. Sphere, (atyaipa, Gr.) a solid body contained under one single surface, and having a point in the middle called its centre, from whence all the lines drawn to the surface are equal. A solid ap- proaching the figure of a sphere, but not exactly round, formed by the revolution of a semi-ellipsis about its axis, is called a spheroid. When it is generated by the revo- lution of a semi-ellipsis about its longest or transverse diameter, it is called an oblong spheroid ; when about its shortest or conjugate diameter, it is a prolate spheroid. The fixed axis of the ellipse is called the axis of rotation. The circle described by the semi-axis of the ellipse is called the equatorial circle. To find the solidity of a sphere, or spheroid, multiply the square of the equatorial diameter, by the axis of rotation, and the product by, 5236. If the equato- rial diameter be equal to the axis of rotation, multiply the cube of the diameter by 5236. Spherical Bracketing, brack- ets of such a form, that the surface of the lath-and- plaster work which they support, will form a spherical surface. Spherics, the doctrine of the sphere. 350 Spheroid, see Sphere. Spheroidal Bracketing bracketing which has the surface o a spheroid. Sphinx, (Greek,) a figure of monster with the head and breast of a woman, the wings of a bird the claws of a lion, and the rest o the body like a dog : we find if most frequently occurring amongst the ornaments of the Egyptian tem-s pies, from whom it was borrowed; by the Romans, who placed it alsci very often in the porches of then' temples. Spiral, a curve line of a circu- lar kind, which in its progress re- cedes from its centre. Spire, (Gr. anaipa, twisting,' among the ancients, was the base of a column, and sometimes thf astragal or torus, but among the moderns it designates a steeple which diminishes as it ascends either pyramidally or conically. Spla yeb, (disployer,o]d French to spread out); the heading joists of a boarded floor, the jambs of 3 door, or any thing else, of which one side makes an oblique an- gle with the other, is said to be splayed. Spring Bevel of a Rail, the angle which the top of the plank makes with a vertical plane, that has its termination in the concave side, and touches the ends of the rail-piece. Springing, setting the boards of a boarded roof together with bevel joints. Springing Course, the hori- zontal course of stones whence an arch rises. Square, (quadra, Lat.) a figure of four equal sides, and as many, equal angles; an area, generally oil this form, surrounded by houses and ornamented with an enclose lawn, with shrubs, trees, &c. ; a instrument used by mechanics, com- ST A ST A osed of two rules fastened perpen- icularly at one end of their extre- mities, so as to form a right angle, nd used for measuring and de- Tibing right angles and perpendi- jlars: when one ruler joins the ther in the middle in the form of .3, it is called a T square. Squaring hand rails, the cut- mg of a plank to the form of a til for a stair-case. Stadium, (Greek,) among the {reeks, the open space where the thletse exercised in running, and here they combated for the prize. i its primitive signification, the ord signified properly that part of ie gymnasia, where the people >sembled to witness the different thletic exercises : according to the escription of Vitruvius, it was a lace so disposed that those whom iriosity or idleness might conduct uere, could conveniently view from it ie combats of the athletae. This ilace, which was much longer than road, was rounded at one of its f ie stair-case, and recommends lat in a stair-case 6 or 7 feet in iameter, the stairs in each revolu- on should be twelve ; in a diame- r of 8 feet, sixteen ; and in a dia- meter 9 or 10 feet, twenty ; and if 3 feet, twenty-four steps. Ellip- cal winding stairs differ only from rcular stairs in having their newel i ellipsis instead of a circle ; and [uare winding stairs, in having it square. Scamozzi mentions a 2Y double winding staircase, made by Pietro del Boyo and John Cossin, so contrived, that two persons, the so contrived, tnat two persons, the one ascending, and the other de- scending, should nevpr meet. And Palladio mentions a quadrangular one at the castle of Chamboo, near Blois. Mixed stairs are such as partly wind and partly fly, and in- clude dog-legged stairs, or such as fly directly forwards, wind in a semicircle, and then fly back; and square flyers and windows, having a square newel, by the side of which they fly, and wind at each corner a quarter of a circle. Stairs, (stares, Sax.) steps to ascend from the lower part of buildings to the upper. Stalk, (Stealcan, Sax.) a kind of ornament in the Corinthian capital, which is sometimes fluted, and resembles a stalk, and from which spring the volutes and helixes. Stall, (stal, Sax.) an elevated seat in the choir or chancel of a church, appropriated to an ecclesi- astic, as the prebend stalls in a cathedral. They had sometimes desks and canopies. Stalls or seats contiguous to the high altar, were for the priest, deacon, and sub-deacon, who sat whilst certain parts were sung by the choristers. Stanch eon, (estan$on, Fr.) a prop, or support, the perpendicular mullions or upright bars of a win- dow or open screen. Also, a pun- cheon. Stand, (standan, Sax.) a solid square body placed under pedes- tals, vases, &c. Standard, (etendard, Fr.) a rule or measure for regulating others; a banner or flag. Standards, the upright pieces of plate rack, used above a dresser; the upright poles in scaffolding. Star-fort, in fortification, a work with several faces, with 353 STE STO salient and re-entering angles. A star-redoubt, is a redoubt built in the same form. Staves, boards joined together laterally, to form a hollow cylinder, cone, &c. for the shaft of a wooden column, or any other purpose. Steel, (stal, Sax.) iron united with carbon. There are two ways of making steel, by fusion and by cementation. The first is used to convert iron into steel immediately from the ore, or from crude or cast iron. By the second way bar iron is exposed to a strong continued heat, covered with charcoal. The process for converting iron into steel was known to the ancients. The Romans called it chalybs, be- cause it came from near the river Chalybs, in Spain, the water of which was used in tempering it. It is probable that the famous iron manufactory at Bilboa, said by Anderson to have commenced in 989, was only a continuance of their ancient skill. The casting of steel was introduced from Germany into Sheffield, by a person named Waller, a little more than a cen- tury after, and, being much made by one Huntsman, was called Huntsman's cast steel. Steeple, (steopel, stypel, Sax.) an appendage generally erected at the west end of churches, to con- tain the bells, and rising either in form of a tower or of a spire. Stele, (Gr.) the same as Cip- pus. Steps, the degrees in ascending a stair-case, which are composed of two parts, the tread or horizon- tal part, and the riser or vertical part. Steps round the circumfer- ence of a circle are called winders, and when they proceed straight for- wards, flyers. Stereobate, (Gr.) the bases or foundation, from which a wall, co- lumn, or building rises. 354 Stereographic Projection that projection of the sphere in which the eye is supposed to be placed in its surface. Stereography, (Gr.) that part of the geometry of solids, which demonstrates their properties, and shows their construction. A work! on perspective, by Mr. Hamilton,! is entitled Stereography. Stereotomy, (Gr. ortpzoQ, solio, and roprj, section,) the branch o stereography which teaches us tc! cut solids under certain specifier conditions. Stern, the hindermost part o a ship. Sterlings., see Stilts. Stiles, (stigele, Sax.) the ver tical parts of a frame. Stilts, {stcelan, Sax. support ers,) piles driven in the ground, t< support the pier of a bridge, usee formerly when the bed of the rive could not be laid dry, and sur rounded by a row of piles ant planks, fixed at a short distanc from them, somewhat in the man ner of a coffer-dam, which wa termed a Stirling or jettee, an< the space between filled with loos stones. Stoa, see Athenian Architec ttire. Stock, a tool for boring wood with a crank, so contrived as t rest with one end against th! breast of the workman, while wit one hand he holds the boring en steady, and with the other turn the, crank. The steel borers arj called bits, and the whole instri ment is commonly called a sioc] and bit. Stone, (Saxon,) the substanc which is employed in the erectic of all magnificent edifices, whir are intended at the same time possess durability. Various kirn are employed, which receive the different names either from the su STO STO stances which are found in their composition, or from the places where they are quarried. Modern masonry is confined more to the working in freestone than in mar- ble, as in the former our islands every where abound. Portland free- stone is the common stone made use of by masons in London, as its hardness gives it many requisites to produce exquisite masonry. Of late, however, the Gloucestershire stone has come into great use, ow- ing to its comparative cheapness, but Portland stone will be always preferred for internal work, on ac- count of its superior neatness. Portland stone is brought from the island of Portland, in Dorset- shire, and highly esteemed for building, especially in London, and forms the chief material in public buildings. In erections of brick, and common dwelling-houses, the ornamental parts are of this stone. It is a stone of a compact and beautiful appearance, but fails to support great pressure: as it comes out of the quarry, it is soft, and worked with ease, but by exposure to the air it becomes very hard and durable. The island of Pur- beck, in Dorsetshire, produces the stone called Purbeck stone, which is suited to the rougher workman- ship of paving, and for steps ; and where greater strength and dura- bility are required, the Yorkshire stone is chiefly used, for copings and outside work, and frequently for paving. Hearth stones and slabs are made of Ryegate and other similar stones. Scotland produces abundance of stone of the best kinds for building, and particularly the Craigleith stone, from a quarry in the neighbour- hood of Leith ; and a good stone is also brought from Hail's quarry. Two kinds of stone are brought from Craigleith, one of a fine cream colour, dug out of the rock called liver rock ; this is distinguished by its property of remaining unchang- ed, even after having been a long time exposed to the weather. The Possel stone, and that from the Lord President's quarry, are from the city of Glasgow: other building stones from Scotland are of in- ferior quality, change their colour, and yield to the effects of exposure to the weather. For hewn work, re- quiring squared, or squared and smoothed stones, those chiefly used are sand or lime stones. The sand- stone of the north of England is generally of a reddish colour; a very fine sand-stone is, however, found in the neighbourhood of Liverpool. Lime predominates in the composition of the stones of the south and west of England, which are worked with ease, and harden by exposure to the weather. In all works which require great solidity and wear, the granites of Cornwall, and the Dundee stone, ot Scotch granite, are now generally employed; their excessive hardness has made it necessary to bring to London the workmen as well as the stone, as there were found in Lon- don no persons who would undertake to work it. It has been chiefly used in the docks and new bridges. Granite, being a compound silici- ous rock, varies much in the pro- portion of its constituent parts, but it may be considered as forming a durable building stone. Those gra- nites, however, which contain much white felspar, and only a small por- tion of quartz, like the greater part of the granites of Cornwall and Devonshire, are liable to decom- position much sooner than some of the Scotch granites, in which the quartz is more equally and abundantly disseminated. That species of granite, called syenite, was extensively ouarried by the STO Egyptians at Siene, 'in Upper Egypt, and afterwards by the Romans, and many works con- structed of it preserve the marks of the chisel fresh to the present day. In the naval hospital at Plymouth, the granite, which is from Cornwall or Devonshire, ap- pears to have been well selected, since, after a period of seventy years, it exhibits no symptoms of decay, except in the columns of the front, where the felspar is already disintegrating. The felspar in the Cornish granite contains a large portion of potass, and to this its more rapid decomposition may be ascribed. Some of the sand-stones in the secondary strata are composed of grains of silex, and are often almost as durable as granite. Some of these, however, which appear to have been of alluvial formation, have their parts so loosely cement- ed, as to be totally unfit for build- ing. Some of the lowest beds in Derbyshire and Yorkshire, which are commonly called mill - stone grit, are almost purely silicious ; and the stones of Kirkstall abbey, which is now in ruins, are of this kind, and where they remain, after a period of six hundred years, they preserve their angular sharpness as fresh as if they had just been worked. A quarry is still worked in the neighbourhood. It may be ob- served, that, in general, purely sili- cious stones are the least liable to decay, but when they are mixed with other substances, no one but a skilful mineralogist is able to judge which are the most appro- priate for durable architecture. Argillaceous and basaltic stones are ill suited for building: in their native beds they are often found so extremely hard, as to make it im- possible to move them in any way but by blasting; yet when they have STO been for a few months exposed to ! the air, they become soft, and shiver into small pieces ; yet there are some basaltic stones, which appear more perfectly vitrified, and which will resist the action of the atmosphere for ages. Lavas are nearly allied to basalt, and some of them rapidly decompose, and form a fertile soil, while others re- main unchanged for centuries. In the West Riding of Yorkshire, where argillaceous sand - stone is fre- I quently used in mending the roads, they are soon reduced to mud. Under the head of calcarious stones are comprised the several sorts of lime-stone, from marble to chalk and calcarious lime-stone. That marble or lime-stone which is found in primitive mountains, among blocks of granite, gneiss, and mica - slate, is generally the most durable, as it is highly crys- talline, and frequently contains si- licious earth. Such as contain cal- carious earth combined with mag- nesia, are of a milky whiteness, and, when they have an uniform texture, are very durable. The edifices and the statues of ancient Greece, (among the latter of which may be enumerated the Medicean, Venus, the colossal Minerva, known by the name of the Pallas of Ve- letri, the Diana Venatrix, and the Juno Capitolina,) which are of 1 Parian marble, have retained for! ages theoriginal polish. This marble has somewhat the appearance of wax when polished ; it receives the most delicate touches of the chisel, and hardens by exposure. The; marble of mount Pentelicus, near Athens, was intersected with veins of extraneous matter, which in some instances appear more than in others. Dr. Clarke remarks, that while the works executed in Parian marble remain perfect, those of Pentelic marble have been de- STO STO composed, and sometimes exhibit a | surface as earthy and rude as com- mon lime-stone. Of English mar- bles by far the most beautiful are t'hose of Devonshire, particularly 1 the marbles found at Babicomb, which are veined, and spotted with a variety of colours. The Plymouth break-water is composed of im- mense blocks of marble from the Cat-Down quarries. That called Anglesey marble is chiefly pure serpentine. Such of the secondary lime-stones as contain a consider- able quantity of magnesia, which are particularly found in Notting- hamshire, Durham, and Yorkshire, where they are said to have been used in building the York Minster, are very durable. The roe-stones of Portland and Bath, though much used, are far from durable, and when used in ornamental work, the I fine chiselling is soon effaced by the atmosphere. The loose texture of chalk, and the generality of magnesian stones, render them of little use in build- ing. Alabaster or gypsum is some- times employed, but it is peculiarly improper for any situation that is exposed to rain or water. Alabaster resembles marble in taking a fine polish, but is much softer and more easily worked. The ancients pro- cured it from the district of Upper Egypt, which lies between the Nile and the Red Sea, and from Syria and Carmania. A stone dug in the hills near Dun- stable, and called Tottenhoe stone, from the parish in which it is found, has the appearance of indurated chalk, is easily worked, and har- dens by exposure, but is liable to be injured by frost, particularly when in contact with the ground. This was the stone chiefly employed in the house of the duke of Bed- ford, at Woburn Abbey ; and the present condition of many old churches, which have been built with it, in those parts, is a proof of its durability. Whin and schistus are used in rubble work. The former, dressing freely with the hammer in one direction, may readily be formed with good faces, but not being stratified, their beds are uncer- tain, and not easily improved by art. Schistus is just the reverse, having naturally good beds, but is in few instances capable of being dressed square across the layers, or laminae. Those stones, in general, which are the hardest, and the most compact and uniform in their texture, and which can be brought to the smoothest surface, are the least liable to decomposition and disintegration. Those stones which, when im merged in water, absorb the smallest quantity, and which are the lea t changed by the action of heat or of acids, may be depend- ed on as those which will resist longest the effects of the atmos- phere. It is now a common prac- tice to rub with oil the calcarious sand-stones, and this must in a considerable degree contribute to its durability, by resisting the ab- sorption of water. Modern architects have been re- markably injudicious in their choice of stones. It has been observed, that " in modern Europe, and par- ticularly in Great Britain, there is scarcely a public building of recent date which will be in existence a thousand years hence. Many of the most splendid works of modern architecture are hastening to decay, in what may be justly called the very infancy of their existence, if compared with the date of public buildings that remain in Italy, in Greece, in Egypt, and the East. This is remarkably the case of the bridges of Westminster, and Black- friars, the foundations of which 357 STO ST O began speedily and visibly to perish in the very life-time of their foun- ders. The same observation is ap- plicable to Somerset - house, and many other public buildings in London : the fine chiselling of the alto-relievo figures have already disappeared by the action of the ele- ments mouldering away the stone. The most careless observer may notice, that this effect is more rapidly taking place in some stones than in others, though they are aft of Portland stone, a calcarious stone, called roe-stone by mineral- ogists, and obtained from the isle of Portland." The following is a table of the specific gravities of the different kinds of stone, compared with that of metals. Stones. Pvrites 4954 Rubv 4283 Garnet 4189 Topaz 4011 Sapphire 3994 Beryl 3549 Diamond 3521 Lime-stone 3179 White Glass 2892 White Razor-hone 2876 Basalt 2864 Chalk 2784 Chrysolite 2782 Emerald 2775 Porphyry 2765 Marble 2742 Bottle Glass 2733 Alabaster 2730 Pearl 2684 Slate 2672 Pebble 2664 Red Egyptian Granite 2654 Crystal 2653 Green Glass 2642 Agate Onyx 2638 Spar 2595 Flint 2594 Beryl 2545 Common Stone 2520 Paving Stones 2416 Gypsum 2168 Opal 2114 Brick 2000 Amber 1078 358 Metals. Hammered Platina 20337 Purified Platina, not hammered.... 19500 i Crude Platina, in grains 15602 j Gold, hammered 10302 Gold, pure, melted 19258 \ Gold, Gtiinea 17629 Mercury, solid 15632 Mercury, fluid 13568 i Lead, melted 1 1352 Lead, Cubic ore of 7587 ' Virgin Silver, hammered 10511 i Virgin Silver, not hammered 10477 Coinage SiUer 10534 Brass, cast, not hammered 8396 Hardened Steel 7840 ! Steel, neither tempered nor hardened 7933 Nickel, melted 7807 ! Copper 7788; Iron Ore 7355 j Cast Iron 7207 Cornish Tin, melted 72:U Hardened Tin 7299 Zinc, melted 7191 An ingenious paper by Mr. Tread-j gold, on the flexibility and strength of stones, was published in the Phi- losophical Magazine. In making his experiments, he supported the piece of stone at each end upon iron supports ; the scale for the weights was suspended from the middle between the supports ; and a silken line attached to the mid- dle, moved a lever index, which multiplied the depression so as to; render a very small quantity visible. The scale and its apparatus weighedj ten pounds; the weights used were cubical pieces of iron cast on pur- pose, weighing ten pounds each A piece of white statuary marble; of a very regular texture, free frorr veins, or other apparent defects was tried at three different lengths the short specimens being frag! ments of the long one. The piec< was not perfectly uniform in breadtl and depth, but the dimensions 0, the places of fracture are given | the specific gravity of the marbl-j was 2,706, and it absorbed -i of its weight in water. STO STO Dista ce V betwe f ' the snp ports * Depth 1,075 Breadth 1.075 Distance N . between ^ the sup- / l5 ports, j Depth 1,08 Breadth 1,05 Wt. Depres- sion. Wt. Depres- sion. Wt. Depres- sion. IbT in. lb. in. lb. in. not sen- 10 AO ,UJ 10 ,005 ltl sible. OA jIU ,U1 005 30 ,06 30 ,012 30 [oi 40 ,03 40 ,015 40 ,012 50 broke. 50 ,017 60 ,015 GO ,02 70 ,02 70 ,021 90 ,025 80 ,025 100 ,027 90 ,03 110 ,03 100 ,035 120 ,034 110 broke. 130 ,037 and broke. Distance between the sup- ports. Depth 1,075 Breadthl,075 ce . There is some difference in the quality of the Portland stone used in London : the best and strongest kind is of a browner colour than the rest. With a piece of this, of a regular texture, and appar- ently without defect, the following experiments were made. The length between the supports was 24 inches, the breadth two inches, and the depth 1,45 inch. The specific gravity of this stone was 1,113, and it absorbed — of its weight of 16 to water. Weight. Depression. lb. 10 20 30 30 40 60 70 80 90 100 in. ,01 ,015 ,02 ,022 ,025 ,0275 ,03 ,032 ,035 ,037 and broke. The next trial was made with a piece of white silicious sand-stone from Lord Keith's quarries, at Long Annet. Its specific gravity was 2,212, and it absorbed of its ' 276 weight in water. Its texture was regular with small scales of mica distributed through it. The dis- tance between the supports was 18 inches; the breadth 1,45 inch, and the depth 1,525 inch. Weight. Depression. lb. in. 20 ,015 30 ,02 40 ,022 50 ,025 60 ,03 70 ,038 80 ,045 90 ,05 92 broke. The following table contains the results of experiments on the lateral strength of stones, in which the flexure was not ascertained. With the exception of one of those from Long Annet, they were laid with their natural beds horizontally. The specific gravity of the Dundee stone was 2,621, and it absorbed only — of its weight of water : that of the Craigleith stone 2,362, and it absorbed — of its weight of 63 water. Kind of StODtt. Dis- tance be- tween sup- ports, Bdth. Dpth. Wt. that broke it. Wt. of the cubic foot. in. in. in. lb. lb. Dundee Stone . . 14 1,45 1,5 414 163,8 Craigleith Stone . . 14 1,55 1,55 137 147,6 Hailes Stone . . 14 1,55 "i* 123 134,6 Long An- net Stone 9 1,525 1,45 166 138,25 — another specimen 7 1,55 1,55 233 Portland Stone . . 12 2,07 1,55 270 132, Bath Stone . . 5,5 I, 1, 58 123,4 359 STO STO The Dundee stone was from the Mylne-field quarry, near Dundee ; but the specimen used in the above experiment was superior to those usually obtained from that quarry. Stone henge, a celebrated temple of the ancient Druids, in Wiltshire. The area of this mo- nument is surrounded by a ditch 369 yards in circumference, and a slight agger of earth. The only entrance appears to be that which faced the north-east, and is marked by a bank and ditch called the avenue, which leads directly into it. The first object on this side, as we approach, is a large rude stone, in a leaning position, which has received the name of the Friar's heel, from an idle tradition con- nected with it. The temple con- sists of two circles and two ovals ; the two latter constituting the cella or sanctum. The outward circle, about three hundred feet in cir- cumference, is composed of huge upright stones, bearing others over them which form a kind of archi- trave. They evidently show the mark of tools, but are irregular in their forms and sizes. The height of the stones on each side the en- trance is a little more than thirteen feet and the breadth of one seven feet, and of the other six feet four inches. The inner and grander part of the temple, the cella, repre- sents two-thirds of a large oval, and a concomitant small oval, as in the outward temple we find a large and a small circle. The larger oval is formed by five pair of trili- thons, placed in pairs, and increas- ing gradually in height from east to west, the smallest being sixteen feet three inches high, and the highest twenty-one feet six inches high. From examining those which are standing, and comparing with them those that are fallen, we find that a great deal of regularity 360 pervaded the plan of this building and the approach to the altar was rendered more striking by the tri- lithons rising gradually as you ad- vanced towards it. The inner oval consisted originally, according to Dr. Stukeley, of nineteen stones ; but only eleven now remain. They are much smoother and taller than those of the inner circle of small stones, and incline to the pyrami- dal form. The most perfect is seven feet and a half high. One of these stones has a groove cut all down it, but for what purpose no conjecture can be found ; it varies also in shape from the other, and bevels off almost to an angle on the inner side. The altar stone is fifteen feet long, and almost totally covered by the fall of one of the large upright stones and its impost across it. The inside diameter of this whole building is about one hundred feet, and the width of the entrance into the cella forty-three: the distance from the altar-stone to the entrance into the temple fifty-seven feet 4 inches. Many fragments of Roman pottery, and British antiquities, have been dis- covered at different periods, in dig- ging within the area, which, from the situations in which they were found, prove the building to have been there at the time the Romans had possession of this island. Stukeley tells us, that a tablet of tin was found there in the time of Henry VIII., inscribed with many letters, but in so strange a charac- ter, that the most learned antiqua- ries of the age could make nothing of it. Some have called it Punic, others Irish ; and the doctor says " it was no doubt a memorial of the founders, written by the Druids." The avenue is a narrow strip of land, bounded on each side by a slighjt agger of earth. It issues from the north-east entrance of the STO STO em pie, crosses the turnpike-road, nd proceeds in a straight line to- wards a valley, where it divides ito two branches, one leading in a entle curve to what is called the ircus, and considered to have .een the race-course of the ancient kitons, the other proceeding in a [ireet line up the hill, between two ows of barrows, planted with fir rees. A view of Stonehenge is given in >late Athenian Architecture, A 6. In the same county, at Abury, is mother remarkable druidical tem- ple. Stukeley, who examined the 'emple at Abury when it was in nuch better preservation than at >resent, observes, " that the whole igure represented a snake trans- mitted through a circle." " In >rder to put this design in execu- ion, the founders well studied their ground ; and to make their repre- sentation more natural, they art- ully carried it over a variety of Ovations and depressures, which, vith the curvature of the avenues, produces sufficiently the desired ';ffect. To make it still more ele- gant and picture- like, the head of '.he snake is carried up the southern oromontory of Hackpen hill, to- vards the village of West Kennet ; 'iay, the very name of the hill is lerived from this circumstance ;" 'or acan, he observes, in the Chal- lee signifies a serpent, and hac is 10 other than a snake : in York- mire they still call snakes hags : *oen in the British language signi- ies a head. (History of Abury, 3. 32.) Dr. Stukeley then observes 'that the dracontia was a name imongst the first learned nations 'or the very ancient sort of temples )f which they could give no ac- count, nor well explain their mean- ing upon it. It is well known that the serpent was held in great vene- ration by the ancients; and tem- 2 Z pies were constructed in the form of that animal, and designated by this name (dracontia) and Stukeley supposes that an allusion is made to a similar temple by Pausanias, where he says, that on the road from Thebes to Glisas was a place surrounded by stones, which the Thebans called the serpent's head, (ocpeug Kelute and ultimate strength, in hich cases, particularly in long jams, it becomes an important nality, and must not be omitted ; id in all cases where it is required, must be drawn from some prior cperiment on the same kind of ood, by means of the following teorem, viz. " Let /, d, D represent the length, ipih, and deflection of any beam; d', the length and depth of any her beam, whose deflection, D', required; then I'd D D' = I* d' " Example 1. — The strength of irect cohesion on a square inch of r being 13,0001bs. required the eight necessary to break a rect- igular bar, 30 inches long, 2 ches deep, and 1 inch in breadth , hen fixed at one end in a wall, id the weight acting at the other ; be deflection, computed from other :periments, having been found to ? 5 inches. " First, find the neutral line : ?re, since the section is a rectan- e, the centre of tension and com- ression are each on the centres of eir respective areas, therefore call e depth of tension x, the depth |* compression will be 2 — x, which so denotes these areas ; and we ust have, therefore, x 2 : (2 — *)*:: 1 :3; 2 STR or 3 ar 2 = 4 — 4 a? + i s or i J -f 2 x = 2. Whence x zz — 1 + n/ 3 = ,732 = a ,732 also zz ,366 ~ d ; 2 5 1 tan. of deflection z2 — 2S — — ,16666666. 30 6 Where the an?le D = 9° 34', and its cosine =: ,9860 ; therefore, by formula 1, 2 fad 2x 1 3000 X, 732 x, 366 W= zz /.cos.D 30 x, 986 = 2351bs. " Example 2. — Required the weight that would break the same beam, when supported at each end, rejecting the deflection, which is very inconsiderable. " Ry formula 2, Sfad 8xl3000x,732x366 W- zz / 30 = 9281bs. " Example 3. — Required the weight that would break the same beam, fixed at each end. " Rejecting the deflection, we have, by formula 3, \2fad 12x 13000 X, 7 32x366 W= zz . I 30 zz 14921bs. Note. — We have assumed 13000 for the force of direct cohesion; this, however, rather exceeds the greatest strength of fir, which varies from 10000 to about 130001bs. " Example 4. — Assuming the direct cohesion at 13000, and the specific gravity of fir at 720 ; how long must a beam be, that is 2 inches deep and 1 inch broad, which, when fixed with one end in a wall, will just break with its own weight ? " Let x be the required length of the beam in inches ; its weight 3C5 STR 2x X 720 will be ounces, 1728 90 a; 5 x or = pounds ; and this 1728 96 weight will have the same effect as if it acted all at one point on the centre of the beam, or at the dis- tance 5 x, 5 x " Hence, by substituting ■ 96 for W, in formula 1, we have 5 x 2x 13000 X ,732 X ,366 — ; or 96 \x 5 x 2 = 192 x 2 x 13000 x ,732 X ,366 = 133728; whence x = >/ 133728 inches, or 47 feet. 5 " In this case the angle of de- flection is not introduced. " When the deflection is consi- dered, as it should be in this case, we find it to be, from the data of example 1, and the theorem for the 5 x* deflection, as 30 2 : 5 :: \x* : ; 3600 25 z 2 l ;) annoys whence the cos V (1800) 2 - and the above equation becomes 5 x 2 x 13000 x ,732 x ,366 96 s 25 x 2 x (l ) (1800) which produces a cubic equation, whence the value of x may be de- termined. " Mr. Banks, after many experi- ments made, at various times, on the real and comparative strength of oak, fir, and iron, has deduced the following inferences: the worst, or weakest, piece of dry heart-of- oak, one inch square, and one foot long, bore 6601bs., though it was 366 STU much bent, and 21bs. more brok< it. The strongest piece he tried! of the same dimensions, broke witl 974lbs. The worst piece of dea bore 4601bs. ; but broke with littlt more. A bar of the weakest kinc of cast iron of an inch square anc a foot long, would break witl 21901bs." Stretching Course, bricks o: stones laid in a wall with thei: longest dimensions in the horizon- tal line. Stride, (stria, Lat. a furrow, the name given by the Romans t( the lists or fillets which separate the flutings of columns. Striated, chamfered, or chan neled. Strig;e, the Latin name for th< flutings of a column. Striking, a term used fo drawing lines on the surface of : body. Striking a centre, is th removal of the woodwork after th completion of the arch. String-board, a board placet next to the well-hole in woodei, stairs, and terminating the ends oj the steps. The string-piece, is th! piece of board put under the flyin; steps for a support, and forming as it were, the soffit of the stair. String course, a narrov moulding continued along the sid of a building. Struts, oblique framing pieces joined to the king-posts, or queen posts, and the principal rafters;-; they are sometimes called braces. Strut Beam, an old term fo the collar-beam. Strutting Piece, see Strain ing Piece. Stucco, a term indefinitely af plied to calcarious cements of var. ous descriptions. The chunar stucco, or maltha, of India, is aj invention of great celebrity and f newly slacked lime, an equal juantity of pit-sand, and leaving he mixture at rest for three days, n the mean time twenty pounds of nolasses must be dissolved in wa- er, and a peck of a kind of pea ailed grarnm, is *o be boiled with i peck of mirabolans, till the whole >e reduced to a jelly. Incorporate he three ingredients intimately, and >eat up to the consistence of a very luid cement, with as much of the sand ,nd lime as necessary for the purpose; fter which mix into it a small quan- ity of short tow, and it will be fit or use. When the workman leaves iff, for even a short time, some of he gelatinous composition, without he lime, must be spread over the dace where the work is to be con- inued from. The whites of four ggs, and four ounces of butter- nilk, are to be added to each half- >ushel of the composition, when ntended to be used as stucco; but t must be added at the time it is ised. See Mortar, Albarum Opus, ,nd Tectorium. The most common stucco is com- posed of pulverized white marble •nixed with plaster of lime, the Vhole sifted and wrought up with narble. Architectural and sculp- ural ornaments, such as fruits, lowers, garlands, festoons, &c. are nade with this composition. Im- mediately when the stucco is mix- •d, it forms a very soft and ductile >aste, the consistence of which, lowever, soon hardens, and then he desired form is given to it, either vith moulds, or, in some cases, with i little spatula of iron. During his operation it continues to hard- n, and may even be cut, and at his period those parts of the orna- nents may be executed which de- nand a nice finish. In time it be- omes as hard as stone, and takes i beautiful polish. Vitruvius ap- >ears to make mention of stucco, in the second, third, and sixth chap- ters of his seventh book under the name of Opus Albarium, or Opus Coronarium. The most eminent artists in this branch have been, — Margaritone, who died in 1317, and is generally considered as the inventor of the art ; Barthelemi Ridolfi, who died about. 1550; Giovanni Nanni, died 1564; Leo- nard Ricciarelli, died about 1570; Luca Romano, about 1586 ; Aru- dini and Branchi, about 1640; Roncaioli, 1660; G. F. Bezzi, 1690; G. B. Artario, about 1700; G. B. Genone. 1700 ; A. Disegna, 1710; S. Busi, 1730; A. Stazio ; M. Costa; Clerici, 1745; C.Maz- zetti, 1750; G. Artario, 1769. The following works may be con- sulted on this subject : — J. A. Cor- vinus, Artis Sculptoriae, Vulgo Stuccatorise, Paradigmata, Aug. Vin. 1708; J. Melchior Croeker, in his Instruction a l'Usage des Peintres ; Montamy, in his Traite des Couleurs pour La Paintre en Email ; Appeal on the Right of using Oil Cement or Composition for Stucco, 8vo. 1779. Studs, (studes, Sax. a post,) a term applied to posts or quarters, which are placed in partitions about a foot distant from each other. Stud-work, a wall of brick- work built between studs. Stylobate, or Stylobatum, (Gr.) a term used by Vitruvius to signify the whole uninterrupted basis below the columns : it means a plane surface raised either upon a certain number of steps, which were continued all round, or upon a podium, which afforded no approach but in front. Subnormal, the distance be- tween the foot of the ordinate, and a perpendicular, to the curve (or its tangent) upon the axis. Sub-plintiis, the columns o*" 367 SUN Chester-gate, Regent's Park, have bases and plinths, with cubical sub- plinths of granite beneath them, as if they were too short for their places, and required the aid of such appendages, to raise them to their ar- chitraves. This is a fault never found in the pure and sublime architec- ture of Greece, and rarely in that of ancient Rome, except where they stand as divisions or piers be- tween steps, the column standing on the uppermost, as in Wren's beautiful colonnade at Greenwich Hospital. Sudatory, (sudatorium , Lat.) an apartment in the Roman baths ; a hypocaust. In 1753, when the military road leading to Carlisle ■was made, a curious Roman hypo- caust, or sudatory, was discovered about two miles from Newcastle- upon-Tyne ; it was situated about three hundred yards south-west of the Roman station Condercum, now Benwall. Summer, the lintel of a door, window, &c; a beam tenoned into a girder, to support the ends of joists on both sides of it ; a com- mon term in some places for a girder. Summer-House, is a little edi- fice or recess embowered among roses, jesmines, and every variety of beautiful flowering shrubs, in a garden or shrubbery. Summer-Tree, a beam full of mortises for the reception of the ends of joists. Sun-dial, Fig. a and 6, PL JEgesta, are delineations of an an- cient sun-dial, still remaining nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the acropolis of Athens ; a a marks the equinoctial, £ b the sum- mer solstice, and c c the winter sol- stice. It appears to be of the same kind as the hemispherium that was invented by Aristarchus tfie Samian, which is mentioned in 368 SUN the following passage of Vitruvius " Hemicyclium excavatum ex quad rato ad enclimaque succisum Be rosus Chaldseus dicitur invenisse Scaphen sive Hemispheerium Aris tarchus Samius : idem etiam discun in planitia." The following obser vations on this passage we havt translated from Montucla, Histoin des Mathematiques. 44 The quad rant of Berosus ought first to bi considered. We think it must no be considered as a hemispheric ca vity, as many authors have de scribed it, but a cavity simply in ; hemicycle or cylindric : for th. scaphe or hemisphere which w. shall describe below, and whicl has been preserved, was attribute^ to Aristarchus of Samos. Lei u conceive then a square or cubi block of stone, exposed directly t< the south, and let us again cut th surface of it so as to be parallel t the axe of the world, or to mak with the horizon an angle equal t the elevation of the pole. This is I think, the sense of the words bi enclima succisum, although per haps it would have been mor exact to say excavatum in quad rato ad enclima succiso. Trac on this surface, inclined to the hori zon, and perpendicular to th equator, a meridian, which may b the axe of a cylindric cavity. It i easy to demonstrate that any poir on this axe will describe an arc c a circle like the diurnal arc dc scribed in the heavens by the sur Thus raise at the bottom of thi cylindric cavity a style, the summ of which reaches the axe. Th shade of its summit will describ on the day of the equinox a semi circle, and every other day an ar similar to that described on th same day by the sun. If then w divide each into twelve equal parti \\^ and draw lines in the cavity of th cylinder lines through the simiJa SUN livisions of each arc, we shall have he twelve horary lines. It is true bat we shall not have the whole of he hours in the long days, for in hat case the diurnal parallels nn.rht to exceed the semicircle, ind those of the short days would >e less. But we may remedy this nconvenience, by prolonging the vlindric cavity in the meridional mi, to the horizontal plan. " This was perhaps the defect of he cylindric quadrant or hemicycle if Berosus, which was succeeded >y the hemisphere of Aristarchus .f Samos. It is without doubt the nost simple, but nothing is more ommon than to see genius taking he longest road. Let us conceive hemisphere hollowed in a cubic lock of stone, whose base is hori- ontal. At the bottom of this avity let there be erected a style /hose summit coincides with its 'entre. A little attention will how that the shade of this summit ill describe each day at the bot- im an arc of a circle like the arallel diurnal described by the 'un. It will then be easy to de- crihe there the equator and the >vo tropics. We may divide each hto twelve equal parts, by drawing urve lines through the equal divi- ons ; they will be the horary nes, and will divide, in twelve ■p>al parts, the track of the style, nd the uhole day from sun-rise to in-set. 44 1 speak continually of the divi- on of the day into twelve equal larts. I ought indeed to observe ere, tha* such was always the 3se amongst the Greeks and the omans. The discus that is attri- uited to Aristarchus of Samos, was robably only the projection of •ese lines on a plain, tangent to ie hemispheric convexity ; for us problem certainly does not tceed the capacities of geometers 3A SUN of that period. It is probable also that the scaphe was only the same projection made in a cavity less than the hemisphere. It could only give a few hours after and before mid-day." What appears to be a represen- tation of the scaphe of Aristarchus may be seen in a bas-relief in the Monumenta Peloponnesia of Pa- ciudi, torn. i. p. 68. See Winck- elmann, Mon. Ined. No. 151. Mil- lin. Gal. Myth. pi. clxxi. Several sun-dials still remain at Athens. Among the " Engravings of Statues, &c. at Ince," (vol. i. pi. 71.) is a spherical Grecian dial, with a head, perhaps of Aristarchus, sculptured under it. Another is preserved at lord Besborough's at Roehampton, and a very elegantly formed one from Asia Minor, has been depo- sited in the British Musseum, where is also the dial of Pheedrus, which is described by Delambre. See Vitruvius, lib. ix. c. 9. Mon- tucla, torn. i. p. 720-3. Visconti, Memoires, p. 78. See Heliotro- pium. Sunium, the southernmost pro- montory of Attica, on which was a temple dedicated to Minerva Su- nias, the remains of which are described in the " Unedited Anti- quities of Attica." It was con- structed with the white marble produced by the neighbouring hills. It is of the Doric order, and had six columns in front. North of the temple, and nearly in a line with its eastern front, were dis- covered the remains of a Propylaea of the same order and proportions. The exquisite finish observed in the execution of these buildings is a proof of their having been erected in one of the best ages of architec- ture. The fronts of the Propylaea were in antis. The walls of the peribolus, which embraced the temple within their circuit, were 369 SUR faced externally with white marble, and may be traced along the brow of the eminence down to the shore. The columns of the Propylsea diminish in lines perfectly straight. The metopse over the central inter- val are much narrower than the others. Supercilium, (Lat.) the trans- verse antepagment of a doorway. It is also applied to the small fillets on each side of the scotia of the Ionic base. Surb ase, the mouldings imme- diately above the base of a room. Surbasement, (Fr.) the trait of any arch or vault which describes a portion of an ellipse. Surface, the side or superficies of a body. A surface, which may be cut by a plane through any given point in the surface, so that the intersection of the plane and the surface may be a curve, is called a curved surface. If the curve bend inwards it is a concave surface, if outwards a convex sur- face. If each of two straight lines extended from any point of a sur- face to two other points in the same surface, may be on contrary sides of that surface, or, in other words, if the surface be com- pounded of the two (concave and convex,) the surface is said to be a concave- convex surface. Cylin- dric surfaces, which may be ascer- tained from two dimensions, are either those of which the right sections are circular or semi-elliptic arcs. As the length of the arc of an ellipse which is not a semi- ellipse cannot be found from the base and height without something more is given, or without some other circumstance respecting it is known, as the length of one of the axes; so the area of a cylindric surface, of which the right section is an arc greater or less than half the perimeter of an ellipse, cannot 370 SUS be found from the length of the axis of the cylindric surface, and! the two dimensions of the right section. Surmounted arches, are those which are higher than a semicircle. Suspension Bridges. — A new mode of constructing suspension bridges has been recently intro- duced into Scotland. The chains or rods are placed below, and the weight rests on the rods by means of cast-iron brackets, on which the beams are placed. The rods, which are of chain iron, are bent round the ends of the beam, and fastened with a hoop of iron to| prevent springing. Buckling screws' are placed on the rods near the brackets, for the purpose of light- ening the rods, and raising the beams to the level, so that the whole structure can be adjusted with the greatest ease. From the construction, it will be easily seen that the whole weight or pressure is exerted on the iron rods or wires, in the direction of their length, sc that they have no tendency tc break or bend in a lateral direc- tion. The amazing strength that this mode of connecting the end? of a wooden beam imparts to it may be illustrated by a very sim- ple experiment. Let the mechanic take a piece of wood, about two 01 three feet long, and an inch in dia- meter ; place the ends of it betweer two chairs or stones, and attemp to stand upon it, and he will fine it break almost instantaneously Let him now take a similar pieo of wood, and bend, round the twf the court. At the two inner ingles of the area, there seem to lave been two small apartments: miliars of the natural rock have been ,eft here, apparently for doorways, here can be little doubt that this 'ourt was, as Maundrell supposes, in idol temple, and the pile in the entre, the idol's throne. " It eems the more probable," he re- marks, " in regard that Hercules, . e. the sun, the great abomination »f the Phenicians, was wont to be dored in an open temple." ! The early Grecian temples of tvhich we have any account, bore a ;reat affinity to those of the Asiatics, md other ancient people. Accord- ing: to Pausanias, the oracle of Del- )hi, in remote ages, was consulted in an arbour of laurels. Pausanias and Herodotus say, that, in the most ancient times, the oracle of Jupiter, at Dodona, delivered its oracles from an old oak. Near Magnesia on the Mseander, accord- ing to the former writer, there was a grotto consecrated to Apollo, which was celebrated as contain- ing an exceedingly ancient statue of the divinity. On mount Octra, in Eubcea, are the remains of a very curious tem- ple. It has no columns, and in short is like the mouth of a cavern. The roof is simply a covering of stone, which is made to support itself, and of which no other exam- ple is known. That portion of the roof which lies upon the walls, counterpoises the weight of that which is between them, and thus forms the ceiling. The eastern wall appears to have been a little thicker, to counterbalance the slabs, which on this side were not bevelled away and notched, as were those on the west. The inclination of the slabs answered two purposes — to throw off the rain, and to throw the weight more upon the wall. The opening between the opposite projecting stones must have been about two feet, which was probably formed with a ridged stone, the whole being covered with slab stones. The remains are supposed to have belonged to a temple of the Cyllenian Mercury: (Walpole's Me- moirs, 289. Fosbrooke's Foreign Topography.) The Egyptian temples are re- markable for their massive dimen- sions, and for the number and dis- position of the columns, contained in the several enclosures within the walls, and continue generally to the last small cella, which appears to have been but a stable, or kind of lodging for the sacred animal which it was the duty of the priests to TEM feed. But the more simple was this small chamber, into which it is pro- bable that no one entered but the priests; and the more magnificent the entrance and porticoes, which conducted to it, the more magic and varied were the effects of the architecture. Obelisks, colossal sta- tues of human beings, sphynxes, and lions, were generally placed at the entrance. On each side of the entrance, two lofty masses of ma- sonry, of a pyramidal form, arose, covered generally with hieroglyphic bas-reliefs. A corbel, scooped out in the shape of a gorge, was the only crowning ornament both of the gateway itself, and of the two lofty masses which accompanied it. No pediment or roof broke the horizon- tal line of the platform above, where it is probable that the priests passed their nights, according to the custom of the country. It was here that they had the opportunity of making, under a clear sky, all those astro- nomical observations, which were one of their principal occupations. The spectators were struck with ad- miration, before they entered, at the grandeur of these enormous masses, at their imposing simplicity, and at the symmetrical arrangements of the hieroglyphic figures with which they were covered. The vast mag- nitude of the blocks employed in their construction, the difficulty of transporting, cutting, and polishing them, all made them appear the works of more than human arti- sans. The scene changed on enter- ing the first enclosure, and was varied successively by the different positions of the columns, generally of colossal magnitude, which were there distributed, sometimes in a peristyle of a single or double range, sometimes in porticoes of four ranges deep, and which presented them- selves to the traveller either on his side, or before him, sometimes close 382 TEM by him, and at others at a suffi- cient distance, so as agreeably to occupy his view by the contemplaJ tion of their richness, of the bril-j liancy and tint of their marbles,! and of the varied play of their «baJ dows at different hours of the day.: All these bodies, though at rest,' seemed to move about him in the, enclosure, while, at every step hei advanced, their positions varied withj the points of view. Different emo-; tions occupied his mind in suc-| cession, and filled him with thati trouble and inquietude by which the priests knew so well how to| profit in gaining credit to their fa-; bles and oracles. It was thus, with- 1 out doubt, that these men, who alone possessed knowledge in the midst of an ignorant people, made use of the powers of architecture, and the other arts, to attract by the curiosity, and to astonish by the grandeur of the spectacle, the men whose actions they wished to direct. The lateral facades were only im- mense walls, generally adorned with hieroglyphics; their simplicity, as well as their extent, and the curi- osity excited by their mystic figures, redoubled the desire which every one felt to penetrate into the in- terior, to contemplate there the won- ders of which he had heard mention from the initiated ; to obtain this favour, he willingly submitted to perform all sacrifices, and to go through all the probations which were required of him. The figures on plate Temple will give a better idea, than any descrip- tion of the plan of Egyptian temples; Fig. 7, is a plan of the great tern-i pie at Dendera, (Tentvra) whicl| has been described under the arti- cle Dendera. Figures 10 and ll are temples at Thebes, near th Teocalli, see Cholula. Tension, (Lat.) the degree in which a piece of timber is strained by drawing it in the direction of its length. Teos, an island of Ionia, cele- brated for its temple of Bacchus, the ruins of which were visited by Chandler, and described in the first volume of the Ionian Antiquities. No vestiges of the plan, aspect, or species of the temple could be as- certained, from the confused state of the ruins. But it is described by Vitruvius as an octostyle-dip- teros. The plinth of the base is formed into the upper step : if the height of the uppermost step is divi- ded into two parts, three of them give the breadth. The diameter of the lower part of the columns is 3' 3 "6, which is less than the diameterof the astragal under the capital by eight- \ tenths, and exceeds that of the upper part of the shaft only by 1"8. The plinth, lower torus, and scotia, with its fillets, are of one piece of i marble. The upper torus, with an astragal, is annexed to the apo- j phyges of the column, perhaps to strengthen and protect it from in- jury, the projecture being very ; great. The small diminution of the column, Chandler thinks, proves that the two portions of the shafts he measured belonged to different columns, the upper part probably to the internal range of the dip- teros, and the lower to the outer. Tepidarium, (Lat.) the name of one of the apartments in the Roman baths. In the baths of Diocletian, before their demolition, I the tepidarium appears to have been a magnificent structure ; it was a i grand octagonal saloon, of an ob- long figure, of which each face formed a semicircle; its vaulted roof was supported by several rows of columns, of an extraordinary altitude. Term, or Terminus, a sort of pillar in form of a reversed pyra- mid, crowned with the bust of a man or woman as a capital. See | Caryatic. Terra-cotta, (Lat.) baked earth. Earth or clay was the first material used by artists, both in building and modelling. In the time of Pau- sanias, there were in many temples , statues of the deities made of this substance, as at Tritaea, in Achaia. Bas-reliefs of terra-cotta were fre- quently employed to adorn the friezes of temples. They served j also for models to the artists. Many tombs found in the Via Appia, and in Campagna of Rome, I TET as well as the small temple of Honour and Virtue, have orna- ments of this substance. The ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii are full of bass-reliefs and other terra- cotta ornaments, and they are to be seen in the cabinet of almost every antiquary. In modern times terra-cotta has been much used in making architectural ornaments, it being plastic, easily worked, and at the same time solid, and not expensive. Terrace Roofs, roofs which are flat at the top. Terras, the same as Tarras. 1 Terre Plain, in fortification, a platform or horizontal surface of the rampart, with a little slope on the outside, for the recoil of the cannon. ' Tesselated Pavement, see Pavement. Tessera, (Gr.) a cube or die; a composition for covering flat roofs. Tester, (from teste, or tcte, Fr. the head,) a flat canopy over a pul- pit, tomb, &c. \ Testudo, (Lat.) a name given 'among the ancients to a kind of light surbased vault, with which they covered the grand halls in the baths and mansions. They were often formed of iron, or of wood, and covered with mortar or stucco. These kinds of vaults have been dis- covered at Herculaneum and Pom- peii, but, from their want of soli- dity, they have not been able to resist the catastrophe which over- threw these two cities. Tetradoron, (Gr.) a kind of bricks, four palms in length, which were commonly used by the Greeks in building their private dwelling houses. Tetragon, ( Gr. ) a figure of four sides and angles, more com- monly called a quadrangle. Tetuapastus, (Gr.) a machine with four pulleys. ■ 3D THE Tetrastyle, (Gr.) a portico consisting of four columns. Thatch, a roof of straw or reeds, used in cottages, barns, and such like buildings. — The antiquity of thatching is mentioned by Ser- ous, (in Virg. Eel. i.) and Hero- dotus describes the houses of Sar- dis as thatched with reeds. Theatre, (Gr. from deaofiai, to behold,) a place appropriated for the representation of dramatic spectacles. Next to the temples, among the Greeks and Romans, the theatres were the most important public edifices. The Greeks attri- buted their invention to Bacchus, and generally consecrated them to that god. In the earliest times, the theatre was often raised within the enclosure of his temples. Every town, which was in the least consi- derable, possessed a theatre, be- cause the dramatic representations were considered not only as an amusement, but also as a part of the religious worship, and they were accordingly represented in honour of the gods. The origin of dramatic entertainments must be looked for in the solemn proces- sions in honour of Bacchus and Ceres, at the times of harvest and vintage. At these festivals they sung the dithyrambs in honour of Bacchus, and accompanied them with dances. Afterwards appeared persons disguised as satyrs, sile- nuses, and nymphs, and the history of the adventures of their divinities was related, at intervals, between the dances and the choruses held in honour of Bacchus. Thespis introduced this custom into Attica, but before his time it had been practised in other parts of Greece. At Athens the first step was made towards the perfection of the dra- matic art, by putting into writing those declamatory stories which had before been delivered extem- 393 THE THE pore. This rude satyric drama was transformed by Phrynichus and Susarion, into the tragic and comic choruses, or into tragedy and comedy. That they might have, in these early times, a place where they could be under shelter from the burning rays of the sun, while relating the adventures of the gods and heroes, an arbour was con- structed of the branches of trees, which represented the scene. This was the contrivance they made use of in the country. But similar festi- vities were soon exhibited in the towns, where a wooden scaffold was raised, or more commonly the spectacles were exhibited on carts, as ancient writers report to have been the practice with Thespis. Such theatres as these at first scarcely merited the name : but afterwards particular edifices were consecrated for the purpose of dra- matic representations, and were ren- dered remarkable by the vastness, magnificence, and beauty of their architecture. In the Grecian colonies, it ap- pears that theatres, well distributed, were built at an earlier period than even in Greece itself. At iEgesta, in Sicily, and in the isle of Cys- thena, (now Castella Rosso,) at the southern point of Asia Minor, are found theatres that appear to be of very high antiquity: their disposi- tion is very simple, and they have but a single stage of seats, to which two stairs, disposed in a manner altogether arbitrary, and destitute of symmetry, conduct, which pro- bably was regulated by the coi/ve- niences of the place. At Adria, a colony of the Etruscans, are also found the remains of a theatre, which cannot have been a work of the Romans, but which must be dated from a more remote anti- quity, as is evident from its archi- tecture, and from the history o this city. These theatres, witl many others in the Grecian colo nies, were constructed of stone, a period when, in Greece itself almost the sole material used ii the erection of such buildings waJ wood. In the time of the dramatu poet Pratinas, who lived in th( seventieth olympiad, there existed! even at Athens, only a woodei theatre. During the representation of one of his pieces, the seats gav< way, and this accident was th( cause that, in the time of Themis ' tocles, a theatre of stone was erect ! ed, which was named the theatn of Bacchus, because it was situater near an ancient temple of that god It was hollowed out of that flanl of the mountain of the Acropolis which looks towards mount Hymet tus, and was of a considerably extent, as was required in a city si populous as Athens. Athens ap- pears to have been the first city o Greece proper which possessed i theatre of stone. At Laeedsemor there was a theatre of white mar- ble, and the ruins of it still bea: witness to its extent and beauty A view of them may be seen in the first volume of Le Roy, Monumem de la Grece, pi. 27. The chief of all the theatres of Greece were those of the isle of iEgina, of Epi- daurus, and of Megalopolis. The theatre of Epidaurus, situated in the sacred grove of Esculapius, was built by Polycletus, and surpassed in the perfection of its disposition, and in the beautiful proportion oi all its parts, every thing of the kind in Greece. Some ruins ol this theatre still remain, and are described by Chandler, and also b>; Villoison in his prolegomena to his edition of Homer, page 1. note (1.1 Those of jEgina and Megalopolis were equally celebrated. About the time when this theatn THE /as built at Athens, it appears that he people of Magna Grs?cia, of Sicily, and of Asia Minor, were ither building new theatres, or mbellishing the old ones in most f their cities. Sicily had many ne theatres; and, according to 'icero and Diodorus Siculus, those f Agyrium and Syracuse were lore particularly celebrated. The itter was remarkable for its size, s well as for its fine situation', and ,s ruins are at the present day an bject of admiration to travellers. it Tauromenium there was also magnificent theatre, which, if we lay form our judgment from the lan, is of Grecian origin ; but it ppears to have been rebuilt and mbellished by the Romans, from ne disposition of the scene, and :ie portico behind the highest ange of seats. For an account f these theatres, the reader may onsult Riedesel, Voyage dans la icile, &c. and M. Houel, Voyage 'ittoresque. Modern travellers find remains f theatres in several cities of Asia Iinor. The greater part are not f so remote a date as the times of le Greeks, but they have been uilt, or at least rebuilt, by the tomans, and distributed according b their manner. Chandler and I'ococke are the two travellers who ive us the largest details of the !?mains of the Asiatic theatres, 'hich are found at Ephesus, Ala- anda, Teos, Smyrna, Hierapolis, 'yzicus, Alinda, Magnesia, Lao- icea, Mylassa, Sardis, Miletus, tratonicea, Telmessus, Jassus, and 'atara. In all their possessions, and in ie cities newly conquered, the tomans erected theatres, or at ;ast embellished those they found lere. They gave to the city of Ca- ma, in Sicily, a theatre most mag- ihcently adorned, as is proved by THE the numerous fragments of co- lumns, entablatures, mouldings, and other ornaments, of the finest marble, and worked with infinite taste, art, and precision. At Oranges and Aries, and among the ruins of ancient Saguntum in Spain, there are found remains of Roman theatres, as well as in different ancient cities in Italy, as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Eugubium in Umbria, Antium, Pola, &c. It was not till the year 391, after the foundation of Rome, that the first theatrical pieces were exhihited at Rome, on account of a pestilence which the people hoped to arrest, by games and rejoicings in honour of the gods. Before this epoch, the Romans had only been acquainted with the games of the circus. For a long period, the theatres at Rome were made only of wood : when the representations were ended, these edifices were de- molished ; they only consisted of a scene, without seats for the spec- tators, who were obliged to stand all the time. Marcus iEmilius Lepidus was the first who erected a theatre with seats. When, at a later period, the censors Messala and Cassius wished to build a similar edifice, they were warmly opposed by Publius Cornelius Na- sica, who feared that this inno- vation would corrupt the manners of the Romans ; and the building was interdicted by the senate. Pom- pey was the first who built at Rome a theatre of stone, intended to last longer than the first representa- tions. He embellished it with the greatest magnificence, and enriched it with the principal Grecian statues which were then at Rome. Tiberius caused the scene of this theatre to be repaired, but it was not finished till the time of his successor, Cah- gula. It was also repaired by Claudius, and this theatre was 395 THE THE preserved for a long time, having been rebuilt by the Gothic king Theodoric, when it had fallen into ruins. Besides this theatre, there were at Rome two others, which were distinguished by their great- ness, that of Balbus, and that of Marcellus. The first was built in honour of Augustus, by Cornelius Balbus ; the other was built by order of the emperor himself, who gave to it the name of his friend Mar- cellus. A palace has been, in more modern times, built on its ruins ; but a part of the exterior wall of the theatre may still be seen, con- sisting of two ranges of arcades placed one above the other. The principal authors who throw any light on the interior disposition of the ancient theatres, are Julius Pollux, and Vitruvius, whose de- scriptions are unfortunately far from clear. The latter, too, makes no distinction between Greek and Ro- man theatres, which often leads his readers into errors. In the position of their theatres, the Greeks always seized a locality where nature favoured the requisite arrangement of the theatre, and constructed their edifices on the side of a hill, by which they in- curred a much less expense in the erection of these magnificent struc- tures. When the immediate na- ture of the hill allowed, as at Chaeronea, Argos, and many other places, they cut very many of the seats out of the solid rock, or laid the stone seats immediately upon the soil, and often sunk the or- chestra and some of the lower rows of seats below the general surface. The only instances now known of Greek theatres built in a plain, are those of Mantinea and Megalopolis, in European Greece, and a small one near Arabi-Hissar, probably the ancient Alabanda, in Asia Minor. When, however, the situ- ation chosen for a theatre was plain, with no elevations, it becarr necessary to erect a building i support the seats ; but this appea to have been very rarely the cas at least we know only two exan pies, the theatre of Marcellus, ar that of Gabala in Syria, figured i the 29th plate of the second volurr of Pococke's Description of tl East. The Grecian theatres wei often of very great dimensions. The Dionysiac theatre at Athen as appears from a passage in Plat was capable of containing mo 1 than 30,000 persons. It mus therefore, have been much mo, spacious than it can be traced i the ruins. The diameter of tl theatre of Epidaurus is 366 feel those at Argos and Sparta, an that near Dramatzus in Epiru were about 500 feet in diameter. Vitruvius thus describes the m; thematical delineation of the par of the theatre. " Describe with] a circle three squares whose angle touch the circumference ; that sic of the square nearest the sceiv and which cuts off a segment < the circle, defines the limits of tfc proscenium, and another line draw parallel to the last, and forming tangent to the circle, determine the front of the scene. Throug the centre of the orchestra, opp( site the proscenium, a parallel lii is drawn, and where it cuts the ci cumference, the points form tu centres, and the compass bein placed upon that to the right, circle is described by the left inte val towards the right-hand side < the proscenium. In like mannt with the centre on the left, by tl right interval, a circle is describe on the left-hand sides. Thus, t this delineation from three centr<| the Greeks have the orchestra mo ample, the scene more recedin: and the pulpitum, which they ca THE yeiovj narrower. Therefore, with em, the tragic and comic actors >pear on the stage, but the other rformers in the orchestra. Hence e Greek distinctive terms scenici, id thymelici. The logeion should >t have less than ten, nor more an twelve feet in height. The ghts of steps between the cunei and ats are opposite the angles of the uares up to the first praecinctio ; jm that prsecinctio, the next ghts are in the intermediate naces, and up to the summit vary the same manner, should there ! other prsecinctiones." (Vitruv. >. v. c. 8.) " The theatre of Pa- ra," Col. Leake (Tour in Asia inor) observes, " is an exception this rule for constructing the rve of the orchestra or cavea, is curve being in all these thea- i% (those which he has before I entioned) a segment of one and e same circle, instead of being rmed from three centres." The ancient theatres consisted three principal parts, the koiXov, lich was called by the Romans vea, the opyjiarpa, and the ffKnvrj. ie cavea of the Romans was di- ied into three parts, which were stinguished by the three terms :a, media, summa : ima was the :hestra, media the ranges of ats occupied by the knights and tter orders of people, summa the •permost rows appropriated io the .ver orders, and the women. The ilon (koiKop) was composed of a ccession of seats, divided into ,o or three flights by hia'C^nara, praecinetiones. The number of Us in each flight varied accord- l to the size of the theatre, and ey were again subdivided into "ictc, or wedge-shaped masses, perpendicular radiating stairs, lied KKifjLaKEQ. In some instances, in the theatre at Laodicea, there re other shorter stairs between THE each of these, in the upper rows of seats. Above the upper flight was a covered portico {tectum porticus,) which protected the audience from the currents of air, and confined the voices of the actors within the koilon. In this portico were the entrances. The orchestra lay be- tween the logeum, or proscenium, and the koilon, and was appro- priated to the dance of the chorus; in the centre was the thymele, where was the altar on which sacri- fices were offered to Dionysus, and where were placed the tripods, crowns, and other prizes. The scene was the part of the stage more par- ticularly devoted to the principal performers, deriving its name from the custom of exhibiting the first dramatic performances under the shade of trees, {aKnvr], umbraculum, quod olim sub arborum umbraculis prima dramata fuerint acta, Schol. in Horat.) It was divided into two parts : the hyposcene, vnoaicnviov, was the stage on which the princi- pal performers, or scenici, only re- cited ; the scene itself was the wall exhibiting the dramatic deco- rations; the parascenia, irapaaK^via, was the enclosure, behind and on each side of the scene, appropriated to the convenience of the actors when they retired from the stage. In this division were disposed the various machines which were used in the representation, such as the phryctorium, typvtcrtopiov, or beacon ; the Siareyta, or house with two stories; the dtnXoyeiov, or sky plat- form for the gods; the ytpavoQ, or crane; the ppopreiov, or artificial thunder machine ; the Ktpawo- GKoireiov, or lightning machine ; the pr)x^ v r), a machine on which the deities ascended ; the K*ara/3A///.mra, or embroidered pictures; the kXkticl- ZtQ ; the avmreiafxaTa, &C. See, for farther information, the articles Scene, Orchestra, Proscenium, 397 THE THE Echea, Thymele, Podium, Para- scenium, and the other terms men- tioned in this article. The openings or entrances which lead to the orchestra, and to the seats of the spectators, were differ- ently situated, accordingly as the seats were placed on the declivity of a mountain, or on a particular edifice constructed to support them. When the theatres had the former disposition, the seats of the specta- tors descended as far as the orches- tra, as in the theatres at iEgesta, in the isle of Cysthenes, at Telmes- sus, &c, and the stairs also were prolonged to the orchestra, and from thence the people ascended to the higher seats. The orchestra was approached by two great late- ral entrances. When the orchestra was separated from the stairs, roads were made on the side of the moun- tain, which led to the highest range of seats, whence people might de- scend by the stairs to the others. Such was the case with the theatre of Tyndaris, and that of Tauro- menium. The theatre at Syracuse had particular entrances for each of the three stages, and each stage was destined for one quarter of the city. In the theatres situated on a plain, the entrances were formed in the building which supported the seats ; and each stage had a sepa- rate entrance, to facilitate the de- parture of the spectators, when the spectacle was terminated. From an inscription found at the eastern entrance of the theatre at Patara, in Lycia, of which the fol- lowing is a translation, it appears that the logeum, which is generally considered to have been built of wood, was often of more durable materials. " To Antoninus Pius, consul the fourth time, father of his country; to the Dii Augusti ; and to the Dii Penates; and to her beloved coun- 398 try, the city of Patara, the mothei city of the Lycian nations; Veli Procula, of Patara, the daughter d Quintus Velius Titianus, has ded cated and consecrated both th proscenium (irpoaKrjviop) which he father, Quintus Velius Titianuj raised from the foundation ; am the ornaments upon it, and th things belonging to it, and th erection of the statues of men am of gods, and the building of th! logeum (Xoyeiov), and the incrusta tion of it (with marble), which thing were done by herself; but th eleventh step of the second prse cinctio (diafajjia), and the curtain (ra fir}\a) of the theatre, raised boti by her father and herself, had bee already dedicated and deliverer over, according to the decree of th most august senate." (Walpole Memoirs, vol. i. and ii. See thi Ionian Antiquities, vol. ii., Beau fort's Caramania, and Leake's Asi; Minor.) The Vela (jS^Xa) here trans lated curtains, are supposed to sig nify the velarium, or awning, some times extended above the cavea, t< protect the audience from the effect of the sun. On PI. Athenian Architecture A 14, is given a plan of what Stuar calls the theatre of Bacchus, a Athens, but which has since beei proved to be the theatre of Herode: Atticus, the site of the former havj ing been discovered in another place; The building is in so ruinous a stati that it was with difficulty he couh give a tolerable description of it As this theatre was an odeon, thi system of Vitruvius cannot be ex pected altogether \o agree with itf On the plan, " we must observe, says Stuart, " that the exterior wait is the portion of a circle, the eentn of which being found, it will follow from the precepts of Vitruvius, we suppose what he has said con! cerning the Greek theatres appli; THE THE able to this building, that the ex- 2 nt of the proscenium, with the ituation and dimension of the or- hestra, may be determined. For he distance a b from the centre a f the exterior circle, to the front f the scene D b B will be the adius of a lesser concentric circle, n which three squares being in- cribed, after the manner he has iirected, the side of the square gf Nearest to the scene, and parallel to X, will then mark the limit of the uroscenium, and the remaining part if the circle, if we do not mistake /itruvius, will form the space as- igned by him to the orchestra ; r-ithin which space, I am persuaded, he pulpitum or logeum projected t least as far as to the centre a, or I cannot imagine that the actors sere confined to the narrow space ssigned by this scheme to the pro- cenium, or, in other words, that he pulpitum and proscenium were, s Galiani has imagined, only dif- erent names for the same place. -Mux, whose evidence will have reat weight in this disquisition, 'numerating the parts of a theatre, pecifies the orchestra, the logeum, 'he proscenium, the parascenia, &c. s different and distinct places ; be- ides, if they were not, and the ogeum was only a part of the pro- 'cenium, it would follow, that many •f the spectators would be in a situ- tion where they could see but very ttle of the actors, and others would ot see them at all, during the fhole representation ; a defect /hich it is not easy to conceive ould exist in a building where reat art and expense were em- ployed, principally with intention 'o accommodate the audience in uch manner that they might all ee and hear to the best advantage whatever was produced on the iage," In the plan D b B is the front of the scene ; b the royal folding door (mediae valvse aulas Regise.Vitruv.:) c one of the hospitalia doors ; BC the versura, or return of the wall , EFG the orchestra ; d e the kata- time, prsecision, or section, dividing the extremity of the pulpitum next the orchestra ; HH the parascenia, (others suppose that the parascenia were divisions of the theatre behind the scene) ; KLM the external, en- compassing the seats of the specta- tors; LN the portico, containing the seats for the women ; NO the upper range of seats; OP the prae- cinctio, or circular corridor, sepa- rating the upper from the lower ranges of seats ; PF the lower ranges of seats; R an aperture leading from the staircase to the corridor OP. The seats for the spectators were here cut in the rock, and consequently had no staircases under them, to conduct the spectators to the upper range of seats, as in the theatre of Mar- cellus, and the amphitheatres of Rome and Verona : no vornitoria were therefore necessary ; but there were ample staircases at each ex- tremity of the front, which are marked QQ. S marks the apart- ments behind the scene, whereVitru- vius says the chorus was prepared; T appears to mark the Portus Eu- menici. The plan of this theatre is remarkable for the small depth of its proscenium; the recesses which remain in the wall indicate the number and width of the cunei, which were seven. The three ranges of arches above each other display a Roman style of archi- tecture; the arches of the middle or second range have a descending soffit towards the interior, which proves part of the edifice to have been covered, which corresponds with the statement of Philostratus concerning the Odeum of Herodes. (Philostrat. in Herod.) Within the THE THE proscenium there is a well of brack- ish water, supplied probably from the spring of the Asclepieum. Wa- ter seems to have been a frequent accessary to the ancient theatres. In that of Syracuse there is an ancient conduit for water encircling the koilon, cut in the rock beneath the seats. At the theatre of Nico- polis, in Epirus, there are three openings in the cavea, which Mr. Hftghes supposes to have answered a similar purpose. The Roman theatres were not only refreshed by water, but even sometimes per- fumed with odoriferous showers. See D'Orville's Sicula. p. 264. Hughes' Travels, vol. i. pp. 100, 420. The site of the theatre of Bacchus or Dionysus, is now incontestably identified with that which Stuart sup- posed to be the Odeum of Pericles. Of this vast building how few marks can be traced! Above it, on the rock of the Acropolis, is a cavern, and the Choragic monument of Thrasyllus, (see Athenian Archi- tecture^) and near it was the street of Tripods. A representation of the Dionysiac theatre is given on an Athenian bronze medal, now in the British Museum, an engraving of which is given by Mr. Leake, which exhibits its position below the cavern in the rock. See Chan- dler's Travels, vol. iii. ; Stuart's Athens, the last edition, chap, iv., with the notes of his last edition. The reverse of a medal, struck under Gordianus Pius, at Heraclea in Bythinia, and published by Bua- narotti, among the medallions of the cabinet Carpagna, represents a theatre, with a portico behind the scene, and a temple attached to it. In pi. Castle, c. 65, Jig. 9, is a plan of the theatre of Marcellus at Rome. Its form was that of a regular semicircle. Around the semi - circular orchestra a were 400 raised in concentric circumferences, the walls and galleries f f com- municating by the stairs g g. The proscenium b, occupies the space; between the galleries d d. These \ communicated with the porticos of the scene, the middle of which was; generally occupied by the pulpitum ; e, e t is a vestibule, which has its entrance near the stairs which conduct to the other parts of the : edifice. The Olympic theatre at Vicenza,! which was built by Palladio, in 1583, was designed in imitation of the ancient theatres : its form is a semi-ellipse, encompassed all round; with a frame-work of stairs, con- sisting of fourteen steps of wood for the spectators. The greater diameter of the ellipse is ninety- seven feet and a half, and its lesser, as far as the stage, is about fifty- seven feet and a half. At the sum- mit of this staircase, or receding galleries of stairs, is a corridor of the Corinthian order, which, from the narrowness of the ground, could not be detached from the outer wall all round; the nine central, and the three external intercolumni- ations, therefore, when the columns touched the external wall, Palladio filled with niches and statues. The stage is constructed with two tiers of columns of the Corinthian order, and surmounted with a light and well-proportioned attic. On the stylobate of the second story are placed statues, and the interco- lumniations are also enriched with niches and statues. The panels of the attic are ornamented with re- liefs representing the labours of Hercules. The central panel, over the largest of three openings in the proscenium, is arched, and exhibits a representation of an ancient hip podrome. The following inscrip- tion, recording the period of its erection, is placed over the arch : — THE THE VIRTUTI AC G EN 10 OLYMPICOItIM ACADEMIA THE A- TRVM HOC A FVNDAMENT1S EREXIT lANNO M. D. LXXXIIII. PALLADIO ARCHIT. In the front of the stage are three openings, through which are seen three majestic avenues, with magnificent palaces and private dwellings on each side of them, finishing with triumphal arches, planned and executed in alto-re- lievo, foreshortening and diminish- ing perspectively, by Vincenso Sca- mozzi. A full account of this building is given in L'Origine dell' Academia Olympica, &c. opera di Ottavio Bertotti Scamozzi, 1690. The famous theatre of Parma, which has often been attributed to Palladio, was the work of Gio. iBattista Magnani, and Leonella •5pada, who performed the paint- ngs, &c. It is of a semicircular ibrm with two straight sides added ; t is in length, from the front of he stage to the wall, about a hun- dred and twenty-five feet, and its oreadth, reckoning from the wall behind the boxes, about ninety- hree feet. Around the pit, which s about forty-eight feet broad, here is a gradation of fourteen ows of seats, with two entrances it the sides, and a large ducal oalcony in the middle. Each en- rance has a large winding stair- rase. Over these seats are two 1 tately boxes, one Do.ic, the other onic, each having a gradation of our rows of seats. The upper de- oration of the boxes is sustained >y enchased pillars, between which re arches sustained by other pil- ars, the whole causing a great con- usion in the appearance, and form- ng an impediment to the view of he spectators who are in the boxes, lie two great lateral entrances are '•etween the seats and the stage, 3 E and in the middle of the upper arch, on a very high pedestal, is an equestrian statue. The effect of the stage and the orchestra is hurt by great projections and un- meaning arches, and the front of the stage is extremely narrow and inconvenient. This theatre is now in a very ruinous state. The theatre of Milan begins from its foundation with a curve of a diameter of seventy-two feet, which gradually widens into two straight sides. The length of its pit is one hundred and forty feet, which is almost double its breadth. This theatre, in its form, is directly op- posite to most other modern thea- tres, which all run narrow towards the stage ; whilst this widens. The theatre of Fano, which was built by James Torelli, is of a form some- what resembling that of a dressing- glass, being eighty-four feet long, and in breadth a little more than one half of its length. It has a convenient double staircase, lead- ing to the fifth tier of boxes. On each side of the stage are two co- lumns, and in the niche between them are statues, and in the centre the inscription, Theatrum Fortune. The theatre at Verona, which was built by Francesco Galli Bibiena, is in figure a curve, which gradu- ally enlarges in proportion as it approaches the stage, and the boxes project out more and more as they are distant from the stage. The orchestra is divided from the audience. Between the auditory and the stage are doors leading to the pit, according to the custom of the ancients. Besides the exterior roof, there is an internal one of boards, with holes in certain places, which, like the body of a musical instrument, renders the theatre very sonorous. The theatres of Modern Rome are the worst in Italy, being all *40l THE THE irregular, ill-shaped, and incon- venient. The largest is that of the Aliberti, which is the work of Fer- dinand Bibiena, and forms an irre- gular and incommodious curve, with six rows of arched boxes. The pit is about fifty-five feet in length, by fifty-one feet and a half in its greatest breadth. It has miserable entrances and staircases. The thea- tre of Tordinona, which was built in the seventeenth century by Carlo Fontana, and rebuilt under Cle- ment XII., is of a figure nearer to a circle than any other. Its greatest diameter is fifty-two feet, and its smallest forty-eight. The Argen- tine theatre, built by the Marquis Girolamo Teodoli, is the most modern theatre in Rome, and has six tiers of boxes. It is of an irre- gular figure, resembling a horse- shoe. Its greater diameter is fifty- one feet, and its lesser forty-six. The royal theatre Turin, erected by Count Benedetto Alfieri, prin- cipal architect to the king of Sar- dinia, in 1740, is of an oval figure, and the pit is fifty-seven feet in length by fifty in breadth. It is annexed to the royal palace. It has six tiers of boxes, in the second of which is the royal box, which includes five boxes, ornamented with balustrades, and covered with a superb canopy over the centre : it projects out in a circular form, and under it is the principal entrance into the pit. The last tier, which they call the dovecote (piccionara), has a balustraded parapet, with a circular row of seats in front, for servants out of livery; the left side is for the public, and the right for the servants of the court, and those of the ambassadors. There is, un- der the orchestra, a cavity, with two tubes at the ends, which ex- tend to the height of the stage, intended to improve the sound. The ceiling is arched, and the 402 convex part covered with strong cemented bitumen, to prevent thci water from penetrating through, and thus damaging the paintings underneath. Within the cornice also, boxes are continued round, well caulked and covered with bitu- men, and filled with fine sand, for the purpose of absorbing any small quantity of water that may chance' to get in. The proscenium is de- corated with two Corinthian co- lumns on plain pedestals, and between the columns are boxes for the actors. The entrances, stairs galleries, lobbies, corridors, &c. are' extremely magnificent. The thea- trical part is extremely well fur- nished with every necessary ma- chine or other convenience. The theatre royal at Naples resemble* in form the Argentine theatre a: Rome, that is, it is of the shape o; a horse-shoe, or a semicircle whose extremities elongate in almos straight lines, but draw nearer t( each other as they approach to- wards the stage. The greates diameter of the pit is about se venty-three feet, and the smalles sixty-seven. The building is ali of stone ; the stairs are magnifi- cent ; the avenues, vestibules, cor-; ridors, and lobbies are all very spa cious. The theatre of Bologna, whiclj was finished in 1763, by Antoni; Galli Bibiena, is of the shape c a bell cut lengthways, its lengt! in the pit being sixty-two feet and its breadth at the stage abou fifty. The imposts and pilaster which divide the boxes are over loaded with cartouches, scroll? brackets, and other wretched orna ments of the Roman school c architecture. The exterior priri' cipal front is ornamented with tw orders well divided ; the first of ir sulated Doric columns, with arch( over the capitals in a most ba THE THE barous style, the other of a mixed Ionic, with windows between. The theatre at Montpellier has internally the shape of a bell, is about forty- four feet long, and thirty feet broad. In the palace of Versailles, M. Ga- briel, the king's architect, erected in 1770 a theatre after the manner of the ancients, of a semicircular figure, with seats all round, encom- passed with a gallery. At Peters- burg, under the empress Elizabeth, a magnificent theatre was erected ; within the imperial palace, by Count Rastelli, a Venetian. The stage is about seventy-two feet long, and the rest of the theatre, which is of an elliptical form, is a hundred and three feet long. There are five tiers of boxes, the first having a balustrade, the second tier an arch- ied front to each box, the third dra- pery, a la toilette, the fourth plain with flat sides, and the fifth open, without any divisions. The impe- rial gallery is in front, and was adorned by M. Le Motte, a French architect, with four columns. The icourt goes into this gallery, to see the dances ; but to hear the opera better, they go into a box near the orchestra. The stage has two co- lumns on each side. With relation to modern thea- res, Mr. Wyatt, the architect of the oresent Drury-lane theatre, in his 'report, arranges the necessary cha- racteristics of the design of a thea- ;re, under four different heads, — 1 first, the size, or capacity of the i.heatre, as governed by the width of the proscenium, or stage-open- ng, and by the pecuniary return o be made to those whose pro- perty may be embarked in the con- ern. Secondly, the form or shape If the theatre, as connected with he primary objects of distinct ound and vision. Thirdly, the acility of ingress and egress, as materially affecting the convenience r f those going to every part of the house respectively; as well as their lives, in cases of sudden accident and alarm. Fourthly, decorum among the several orders and clas- ses of the visitants to the theatre, as essential to the accommodation of the more respectable part of those visitants, and consequently of great importance to the interest of the theatre." These are more fully discussed in the report itself. In large theatres, he recommends thirty-five feet for the width of the stage opening. The following will give a comparative view of the di- mensions of the stage openings in some of the principal theatres in Europe: — feet. Parma 40 Turin 39 Bourdeaux 39 Argentine, at Rome. . . 3G Milan 40 San Benedetto, Venice 40 Theatre Francois, Paris 40 Tlu-atre Italien, Paris 33 Covent Garden 37 Former theatre at Drury Lane . . 46 Afterwards reduced to 33 With regard to the size, as re- gulated by the pecuniary return, amongst other observations, he gives the following statements: — "A theatre, consisting of three-fourths of a circle, with a proscenium ac- cording to my plan, which shall limit the stage opening to thirty- five feet, will contain, in four dif- ferent heights, seventy-eight boxes, holding 1004 persons ; with four boxes, of larger size than the rest, next to the stage, on each side of the theatre, capable of containing 188 spectators in addition to the 1004 before mentioned, Amounting, in the aggregate, to 1192 persons, or £417 4 A pit, containing 91 1 persons, or 159 8 A two-shilling gallery for 482 persons, or 48 4 A one-shilling gnllery for 284 persons, or 14 4 Total £'039 0~6 403 THE THE exclusive of four private boxes in the proscenium, and fourteen in the basement of the theatre, imme- diately under the dress boxes. Suppose the four private boxes in the proscenium to be appropriated to the managers, and certain other persons connected with the theatre, who shall pay no rent for those boxes, the remaining fourteen pri- vate boxes will let as follows : namely, the twelve smaller ones for £300 each, and the two larger ones for £500 each, for the season, (being at the rate of £23 per night, for 200 nights,) which, together with the foregoing amount, produces an aggregate total of £662. 6s. 6d." On the subject of theatres, the following are the principal works that have been published : — On ancient theatres — Boindin,Discours sur la Forme et la Construction du Theatre des Anciens, in the second vol. of the Memoires de l'Academe ; Ant. Bocchi, Osservazioni Sopra un Teatro antico scoperto in Adria, Venez., 1739, 4to.; Girol. del Poz- zo, Sopra i Teatri degli antichi. On theatres in general — Trattato de Teatri,Ver., 1723, 4to.; J. Capi, opera del Teatro, Ven., 1789; Nic. Sabattini, Pratica di fabricar Scene e Machine, &c, 4to., Rom., 1638; Motta, Trattato Sopra la Strut- tura de Teatri, fol., 1676; Arnaldi, Idea d'un Teatro, 4to., Vic, 1762; Projet d'une Sallo de Spectacle pour un Theatre, 8vo., Par., 1766; Vues sur la Construction Interieure d un Theatre d'Opera, 2 vols., Par., 1766; Exposition des Principles, &c.,des Theatres Modernes, 12mo. Par., 1769; Dumont, Suite des Projets, &c, folio, Paris, 1773; Roubo, Trait6 de la Construction des Theatres, &c, fol., Par., 1776; Noverre, Observations sur la Con- struction d'un nouvelli Salle d'Opera, 8vo., Par., 1781 ; Patte, Essai sur l'Architecture Theatrale, 8vo., Par., 404 1782; Lamberti, La Regolata Con- struzione de Teatri, fol., Naples 1787; Ricati, Delia Construzionc! de Teatri, 4to., Bas., 1790; Gj Saunders, Treatise on Theatres, 4toi Lond., 1790; Montenari, Dicorsd del Teatro Olimpico, 8vo., Pad 1733, 1749, 1752; Patte, Descrip. tion du Theatre de la ville de Vi- cenza, 4to., Par., 1779; Planta < Spaccato del Teatro di Bologna fol., 1763 ; Dumont, Plans des belles Salles des Spectacles, Paris 1760 ; Louis, Description de If Salle de Spectacle de Bourdeaux fol., Par., 1792; Wyatt, A Descrip tion of the Theatre Royal, Drun Lane, 4to., Lond. Thebes, a very ancient city o Egypt, formerly renowned for it; power and wealth, and now cele brated for the amazing extent anc magnificence of its ruins. Th( space covered by the ruins is nov occupied by nine distinct town ships. " Very imperfect ideas/ Mr. Belzoni remarks, "can bi formed of the extensive ruins o Thebes, from the accounts evei of the most skilful and accurate tra vellers. The most sublime concep tions that can be derived from thi most magnificent specimens of ou present architecture, would fall ver far short of these ruins ; for such i the difference, not only in magni; tude, but in form, porportion, ami construction, that even the penei' can convey but a faint idea of th whole. It appeared to me lik entering a city of giants, who, afte a long conflict, had been all de stroyed, leaving the ruins of the various temples as the only prool of their existence. The temple 4 Luxor presents to the traveller i once one of the most splendi groups of Egyptian grandeur. Th extensive propylon, with the tw obelisks and colossal statues ii front — the thick groups of eno; THE mous columns; the variety of apart- ments, and the sanctuary it con- tains ; the beautiful ornaments vvhich adorn every part of the walls and columns; the battles on the propylon — cause, in the astonished traveller, an oblivion of all that he nas seen before. If his attention ae attracted to the north side of Thebes, by the towering remains hat project a great height above :he wood of palm-trees, he will gradually enter that forest-like as- semblage of ruins of temples, co- umus, obelisks, colossi, sphinxes, Dortals, and an endless number of )ther astonishing objects, that will convince him at once of the impos- sibility of a description. On the ,vest side of the Nile, still the tra- veller finds himself among wonders. |he temples of Gournou, Memno- u'um, and Medinet Abou, attest he extent of the great city on this ide. The unrivalled colossal figures jti the plain of Thebes, the number )f tombs excavated in the rocks, ,hose in the great valley of the cings, with their paintings, sculp- ures, mummies, sarcophagi, figures, )fec. are all objects worthy of the idmiration of the traveller." j Dr. Richardson begins his de- cription at the village of Gournou. ;he temple here is small, when com- pared with the Memnonium, and hat of Medinet Abou, but is much larger than those of Deir, &c. It is ,rt a very dilapidated state. The )rincipal entry appears to have >een from the south, where there |s a row of eight columns, which un along the front of the wall. A passage leads into a chamber ; from ach side of which, passages branch tfF into other chambers or courts. : Proceeding west from the temple •f Gournou, at a distance of about hree-quarters of a mile, we come ,o a broad avenue that has been ormed for nearly an equal distance THE from the side of the precipitous rock. This beautiful avenue is exactly opposite to the grand propylon of the great temple at Carnac, and has been lined with a row of sphinxes of quartzy sand- stone, highly crystallized. Frag- ments of gigantic statues are found scattered about. This avenue was terminated by a temple, part of the walls, and some of the chambers, of which still remain, but so much obstructed with rubbish as to pre- clude the possibility of examining it. Attached to it, on the south side, there is a large stone vault, in the form of an arch, without being con- structed on that principle : the stones on the outside of the wall are built in line ; but each succes- sive course projects further into the interior of the building than the one below it, and the corners of the stones are rounded away, so as to give it the vaulted form. The term Memnonium is used, by Strabo, to designate that part of ancient Thebes which lies on the west side of the river. The French savans have restricted it to the magnificent ruin which we are proceeding to describe. This beautiful relic of antiquity looks to the east, and is fronted with a stu- pendous propylon, of which 234 feet in length are still remaining. The propylon stands on the edge of the arable soil ; but the area for the dromos behind it is floored with the solid rock, on which the rest of the temple is erected. Great part of the eastern wall has fallen down, and both ends are greatly dilapidated. A stair leads from each end to the top of the pro- pylon, from which passages go off into a number of chambers. The figures on the walls are very abun- dant, chiefly representing battle- scenes. There are fifty-six paces between the propylon and the THE THE of the temple. This space was probably enclosed with a high wall at each end, and formed the dro- mos ; but no traces of the walls exist, except the rough marks of their junction with the propylon. In this dromos was found the broken statue of the hero to whom the. building was dedicated, either Mem non or Osymandyas. The front wall of the temple is greatly dilapi- dated, and what remains of it does not indicate that imposing gran- deur and profusion of ornament that generally characterize the fa- cade of an Egyptian temple; but when we pass to the inside, the walls are seen adorned after the usual manner. The columns in front of the wall, forming the piaz- za, are formed in front into statues representing Osiris, with his hands crossed over his breast, holding the crook and scourge ; the lower limbs closed up in the shape of a mummy, with a row of hierogly- phics passing down the front. Four of these statues are still remaining on the east side of the pronaos ; they consist of seven stones each, and are about twenty- two feet high. There have been four on each side of the door of the pronaos, fronting an equal number on the opposite side of the court ; that is, there were sixteen in all ; while the northern and southern sides of the area have been bounded by two rows of co- lums, forming, with the sixteen Osiris columns, a magnificent piaz- za all round the court. Only two of these columns now remain on the northern side, and three on the southern : they are reeded at the base and at the top, and are twelve feet in diameter. In the rear of the eastern colonnade there are fragments of many statues, of black granite. Above eight or ten paces from this part of the building is 406 an area, thirty-five paces long, be- tween two ruined walls, which is filled up with a stupendous colon- nade of eight rows of columns, six in each row, twenty-eight of which are still remaining. The ceiling consists of large flat stones, orna- mented with hieroglyphics. The whole of this noble edifice, of which only a skeleton remains, has been two hundred feet wide, and six hundred feet long. It contained six courts and chambers, passing from side to side of the temple, which were ornamented with about one hundred and sixty columns, thirty feet high. All the side walls have been broken down, and the materials carried away. About a quarter of a mile from the Memnonium, at the modern village of Medinet Abou, we find another large temple. Its gateway leads into a large walled court, crowded with stones in front of a large propylon, which appears to have been built out of a former edifice. Passing through this, we come to another and smaller pro- pylon, which leads into a low square court, in the middle ol which has been erected a christian church, many columns of which are still standing. Proceeding on ' ward, we come to the principal part of the temple, which is adorn-! ed with a number of columns: if is an open court, with a number o: side chambers, and, in the middle a spacious insulated apartment! open at both ends. Beyond thi: chamber are two other apartments; occupying the middle of the build' ing, with several side-chambers, al of them covered with sculpture and hieroglyphics, and painted in variouj colours, some of them still remark; ably vivid. Attached to this tern pie, on the south, are the remain! of what has been called a statel palace, though Dr. Richardson il THE THE disposed to consider them as a series of chambers built over the gateway leading- to the grand temple, the original and regular entrance to which passes under and through the middle of it." Proceeding about three hundred and fifty feet in a direct line to the west of the gateway, over heaps of sand, and houses of un- burnt brick, we come to the pro- j pylon of the £rand temple at Me- . dinet Abou. The propylon is about one hundred and seventy-five feet long, the temple itself is about five hundred and seven feet long, and the cella is about one hundred and forty-eight feet broad without the walls. The walls are covered with sculptures (chiefly battle scenes) and hieroglyphics. The dromos, I in the interior, is a court of about one hundred and twenty feet square, , having a piazza of nine columns on each side; extending to the second propylon, the columns, the , ceiling, and the wall, all round, are covered with hieroglyphics and ; sculptures. Passing through the magnificent doorway of the second propylon, we enter the pronaos, which is an open court surrounded with a piazza, having eight columns on the east and west, and five on , the other sides. The space occu- pied by the ruins attached to this temple is about a mile in circum- . ference. At the south corner of I ruins, there is another small tem- ple, consisting of three small rooms. To the south east, near the village of El Barrat, is a strong embank- ment of earth, about five hundred feet thick, and from thirty to forty feet in height, enclosing an area of about two thousand feet square, : supposed to have been an ancient I reservoir for retaining the waters of the river for the supply of the city. At Dair el Medinet, nearly op- posite the Memnonium, there is another temple, consisting of a small propylon, with the small chambers, which are entered sepa- rately from the pronaos. In addition to these temples on the west side of the river, there are traces and remains of many more ; the walls of some levelled with the ground, and the greater part of the materials carried away. All over the rocky flat, and in the face of the mountain in several places, recesses have been cut in upon the front of the elevation, and carried back so as to form three sides of a square, and numerous excavations have been made in the rock, with a piazza running all along the line of en- trances. Each mansion consists of a large chamber, with a shaft pass- ing from it, at the further extremity of which is a niche for the recep- tion of a mummy case. These have been considered by many to be the dwellings of the earliest inhabitants of Thebes. About three-quarters of an hour from Gornou, on the other side of the mountains, is the valley of Biban - el - Melook, (the caves of the kings,) containing the vast exca- vated tombs of the ancient Theban monarchs. The ruins on the east side of the river are far from being so interest- ing as those on the Libyan side : they consist almost entirely of the temples of Luxor and Karnac. The edifices are, however, on a grander scale. The temple at Luxor, like the Memnonium, is a mere skeleton : the greater part of the columns in the interior, and part of the sanctu- ary, are still standing ; but the outer walls have been thrown down, and the materials carried away. It is nearly 800 feet in length, and the propylon extending along the front measures in width about 200 feet at 407 THE THE its present base, which is between twenty and thirty feet above the foundation. Behind the propylon is the dromos, a large open court, about 300 feet long, and 160 wide, surrounded with a piazza formed by a double row of columns, which appears to have been walled and covered in. A double row of state- ly columns, twelve feet in diameter, and between thirty and forty feet high, with spreading capitals, re- sembling the budding lotus, lead to the cella, which is peripteral, hav- ing a row of eleven columns on each side. We next come to an- other colonnade, consisting of ten rows of columns, three columns in each row; then to a cross wall, with a door-way in the middle of it; beyond which is another colon- nade, consisting of eight rows of columns, four columns in each row, and leading to what may be re- garded as the sanctuary of the temple. This communicates with several small apartments. Great and magnificent as is this temple, Dr. Richardson observes — " it only serves to show the way to an edi- fice much greater, to which it bears only the proportion of a lodge to a palace ; I mean the splendid ruin of the temple at Karnac." The distance from Luxor to Karnak is nearly two miles, and the whole road was formerly lined with a row of sphinxes on each side; for two-thirds of the way they are now buried under the rubbish ; but in the latter part of the way, near to Karnac, they still remain on each side of the road. The regular approach to the temple, which is considerably more to the east, is likewise bordered by two rows of sphinxes, and then passes through four immense propylons. The gateways are chiefly of polish- ed granite, and, as well as the sides, are covered with sculpture 408 and hieroglyphics, and adorned with numerous colossal statues, placed at the distance of four or five hundred feet from each other. Entering by the side, the travel lor is placed in the centre of this splendid ruin, where the astonished eye passes over the wrecks of a sacred edifice, extending about six hundred feet on each hand, the whole length of the temple be- ing about twelve hundred feet, and four hundred and twenty feet in breadth. On the opposite side, there is also an entrance through a magnificent propylon, four hun- dred feet long and forty feet thick, approached by a double row ot sphinxes. There is a staircase in the northern end, leading to the top ; and a passage runs over the ceiling of the door-way, from the north to the south wing. This gateway leads into a spacious court, containing a double row of stately columns, forty feet high ; a row of smaller columns passes down each side, and on the right a small tem- ple projects considerably into'the court. The columns in the middle of the court terminate in another propylon. To this propylon suc- ceeds an immense colonnade, the columns running down the middle, being the largest. These supported the highest part of the roof, in the sides of which are small windows for the admission of light to this part of the temple. This colonnade brings us to the end of this half of the temple. The middle of this part of the temple is occupied by a sanctuary constructed of highly- polished granite. Beyond this is another very extensive colonnade. Many parts of this temple are com- pletely concealed by the accumu- lation of rubbish. On every hand are gateways and adjoining temples, which, in other places, would be reckoned magnificent. There are THO also some ruins of a temple at the village of Medamoud. Theodolite, an instrument used in surveying, for taking angles in vertical or horizontal planes. Theologeion, (Gr.) In the the- atres of the ancients, this name was given to a machine which was used to represent apparitions; it was placed in the upper part of the scene, and appears to have had some resemblance to the ekky- klema. By a particular process, applied in the interior, they dis- played a part of the decoration of the stage above the scene, by which means the deities appeared to the i eyes of the spectators : probably they were always surrounded with clouds, and, when they became (invisible, they were entirely con- cealed by them. Thesilium, the building at Megalopolis, in which the deputies iiof the different cities of Arcadia used to assemble, to deliberate on their affairs in common. It was so named from its founder. 1 Theseus, Temple of. See Athenian Architecture. 1 Tholus, (Gr.) a term given to buildings of a circular form. Vitru- vius (iv. 7. and vii. 5.) uses it to signify the roof of a circular build- ing. According to Suidas, the building at Athens, where the Pry- tanies used to assemble, was a tholus. A circular building at Epidauria was distinguished by the : same term ; and it was also ap- plied to the laconicum of a bath, which was of a circular form. Thoricus, one of the demi of Attica, in a plain on the eastern coast, which derived its importance from the vicinity of the silver mines of Lauricum. A little below a co- nical hill, which is supposed to be the site of the ancient citadel, are the remains of a Doric portico, with fourteen columns in the front, 3F TIL and seven in each return. No re- mains of a wall could be discovered within the area. The columns di- minish nearly a fourth of their lower diameter, in straight lines. The shafts are plain, except a small portion, which is fluted at the top and bottom. (Unedited Antiquities of Attica.) Thorough - lighted, a term applied to a room which has win- dows on two opposite sides. Thymele, (Gr. ) Suidas, ex- plaining the word