Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2016 https://archive.org/details/siamhandbookofpr00grah_0 II. M. THE KING OF SIAM. SIAM: A HANDBOOK OF PRACTICAL, COMMER- CIAL, AND POLITICAL INFORMATION W. A. GRAHAM, M.R.A.S, With go Illustrations and a Map SECOND EDITION CHICAGO F. G. BROWNE & CO. LONDON: ALEXANDER MORING, LTD. 1913 RESEARCH LIBRARY C5ETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE PREFACE lAM is a country of importance to Europe on account of her growing commerce and because she forms a buffer state and has been in the past a cause of friction between two great world-powers. Her form of government and recent administrative developments also provide much that is of general interest, while students of ethnography or religion might hnd profit in the consideration of her history and institutions. This book is intended to be a record of so much concerning the above points of interest, together with some others, as may be condensed between the covers of a small volume. It is believed that readers in quest of information concerning Siam may find in these pages that which they require, and it is hoped that those who already know the country will allow the passable accuracy of such information. The writer desires to express his gratitude to H.R.H. Prince Damrong for many of the photographs which illustrate the book ; to R. W. Giblin, Esq., lately Director to the Royal Survey Department of Siam, for photo- graphs and for much kindly advice and assistance ; to W. Lloyd, Esq., Conservator of Forests, and Luang Wanpruk, Deputy Conservator for valuable information concerning Siemese forestry; to Dr. O. Frankfurter of the Royal Library, Bangkok, for advice concerning the historical and social sections, and finally to W. W. Skeat, Esq., for assistance in proof-reading, in compiling the Index and generally in preparing the book for the press. W. A. G. CONTENTS PART I Geography — pack Area and General Divisions . . . . l The Country and Towns , . . . .13 Climate and Meteorology . . , . .31 Science — Flora . 35 Fauna . . . . . . . .63 Geology and Minerals . . . . .86 PART II The Races of Siam — Racial Divisions . • 97 Population . 108 Semang 1 10 Malays • 11 + Khmer . 118 Mon . 118 Yuan 1 20 Lawa 1 21 Kache . 123 Chong . 127 Meao and other Tribes 128 The Siamese • C ?7 Lao • 157 Shan .... . 162 Karien . 164 Vlll CONTENTS PART III PAGE History . . . . . . . . .166 Social Organisation . . . . . .214 Education ........ 228 Government ........ 236 The Ministry of Foreign Affairs .... 240 The Ministry of War ..... 243 The Ministry of the Interior .... 250 The Ministry of Finance . . . . .258 The Ministry of the Capital .... 274 The Ministry of Justice . ... . . 279 The Ministry of Lands and Agriculture . . 287 The Ministry of Public Works . . . .291 PART IV Industries ........ 296 Agriculture and Planting ..... 297 Irrigation Works . . . . . .322 Fisheries and Fishing . . . . . .327 Hunting and Trapping ..... 341 Forestry . . . . . . . .347 Mines and Mining . . . . . *359 Other Industries . . . . . .367 Commerce, Trade, and Treaties .... 375 Exports from Bangkok . . . . .386 Imports to Bangkok ...... 393 Commerce of Southern Siam .... 395 Overland Trade . . . . . . -397 Customs (Revenue) ...... 398 CONTENTS Communications and Transport — page Waterways and Boats . . . . . .401 Shipping Lines . . . ' . . .411 Roads . . , . . . . ,413 Railways . . . . . . . . -I.15 PART V Art, General ........ 424 Archeology ........ 442 Architecture ........ 454 Music, Dancing, and the Drama . . . .459 PART VI Religion ......... 476 Buddhism in Siam ...... 488 Buddhist Festivals and Ceremonies . , . 505 Brahmanic Observances . . . . .516 Spirit Worship . . . . . . .538 Other Religions . . . . . . .549 PART VII Language and Literature . . . . • 55i Bibliography ........ 577 APPENDICES List of Animals ....... 593 List of Plants . . . . . . .600 List of Minerals 604 Trade Statistics ....... 606 Tables of Currency, Weights, Measures, etc. . 607 Index 609 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE H.M. the King of Siam ..... frontispiece A Typical Scene in Central Siam .... 8 A Typical River Scene in Siam . . . . .16 A Bangkok Waterway . . . . . . zz Within the City Walls, Bangkok .... 23 The Bridge at Chieng Mai ..... 23 The Palace, Bangkok {Lenz) ..... 24 Si Kak Phaya Sri, Bangkok (Lenz) . . . .25 Floating Houses at Ayuthia ..... 29 Lawa Girls (Lenz) . . . . . . .122 Meao Women {Lenz) . . . . . .128 A Meao Girl {Lenz) . . . . . . .129 Yao Man and Woman (Doi Sawa) . . . .136 Yao Women of Muang {Lenz) . . . . - ^ 37 A Siamese Girl . . . . . . . .142 A Lao Funeral . . . . . . . .154 Punishment by Whipping {see page 254) . . .154 Funeral Pyre of a Royal Prince, with Cars bringing Bodies for Cremation . . . . . .155 Market Scene, Chieng Mai, North Siam . . .158 Lao Women at Work in a Garden . . . .158 A Mon Girl . . . . . . . .159 Laos of Laple, Northern Siam . . . . .160 Lao Women of the Ubon District . . . .161 Kariens {Lenz) . . . . . . . .164 Palace at Petchaburi ....... 206 H.M. the late King of Siam 2 I 2 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Interior of the Government School .... 232 The Siamese Army. A mountain gun in action {Lenz) 246 The Siamese Army. The Korat Division at Manoeuvres {Lenz) 247 Road-Bridge in Northern Siam ..... 294 Swinging Foot-Bridge in Central Siam . . . 295 The Great Central Plains from the West. Showing the Rice-flelds of Siam ...... 302 Rice Lands in Flood-time {^Antonio) . . . . 303 Siamese Planting out young Rice-seedlings on irrigated field ......... 304 H.R.H. Prince Damrong in a light Bullock Carriage . 310 A Kwien ” or Bullock Cart. Central Siam iyAntonio) . 312 A Plough Buffalo. Central Siam . . . • 3^ 3 Crushing Sugar-cane . . . . . . .318 A Durian Market {Antonio) . . . . .320 A Lao Fishing Party ....... 336 Fishing. Chieng Mai District ..... 336 Fishing Village on the Gulf of Siam .... 337 Throwing the Casting-Net. ..... 338 Drawing in the Casting-Net . . . . -338 Catching Small Fry with the help of Baskets . -339 Catching Mud-Fish in Tidal Waters .... 339 Elephant Catching in the “ Keddah ” . • ^ • • 344 Wild Elephants in ‘‘Kraal” at Ayuthia . . . 345 Teak-logging . . . . . . . > 35 ^ Teak-logging. Elephants easing a jamb of timber . 359 An Open (or “Paddock”) Tin-Mine in Puket . . 362 A Royal Barge . . . . . . . • 37 ° Siamese Porcelain . . . . . . .372 Raja’s Boat on the Patani River ..... 404 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii PAGE A Fully-laden Rice-boat (Lenz) ..... 405 The Smallest Kind of House-boat used in Siam . . 405 A ‘‘ Lorcha ” or Cargo-boat, Bangkok [Lenz) . . 408 Some Queer Boats on the Mehkong River . . . 408 Fruit-sellers’ Boats on the Menam . . . . 409 Through the Rice-fields by Elephant . . . .414 Modern Siam. Railway Terminus at Bangkok . .418 Ancient Sculpture in Sandstone: Ruins of Pimai . . 426 Sculpture in Sandstone representing the Adoration of the Buddha, The Sanctuary of Pimai . . .427 The Great Bronze Buddha of Ayuthia . . . 428 A Temple Door in Carved Teak .... 429 Lacquer-ware Caskets for holding Books . , . 430 Covers for Palm-leaf Sacred Writings . . . .431 Lao-Silver ........ 434 A Silver Betel Set ....... 434 “Niello” Silver-ware (Siamese) . . . . .435 An Illuminated Book. . . , . . .435 A Lao Girl Weaving ....... 440 Entrance to Wat Phra Prang, Sawankalok . . . 444 Wat Chang Tong, Sawankalok ..... 445 Khmer Ruins, Pimai ....... 446 Ruins of Sanctuary of Pimai ..... 447 Khmer Temple, Lopburi ...... 448 Phrachedi at Ayuthia ...... 449 Stone Image of Ganesha in Wat Phra Keo. Bangkok . 452 A Typical Phra Prang ...... 454 Phrapatum, the largest Phrachedi or Buddhist Relic Shrine in Siam . . . . . . .455 Wat with many memorial Phrachedi covering ashes {Antonio) 456 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE ‘‘Temple of the Sacred-Footprint,” Phrabat {^Antonio) . 457 Siamese Orchestra (^Antonio) ..... 464 Siamese Orchestra {Antonio) . . . , .465 Siamese Corps de Ballet {Antonio) . . . .472 A Dedicatory Altar ....... 490 Phra Todong or Monks on Pilgrimage . . . 492 Phra Todong receiving Alms ..... 492 The Simplest Form of Temple ..... 498 Interior of Wat Chinneraj, Bangkok .... 499 A Monk {Antonio) , . . . . . .502 Monks supplied with Food by a Merit-maker . . 506 Child dressed for the Top-knot Cutting Ceremony {Antonio) 5 1 8 “ Sao Ching Cha.” The Scene of the Swinging Ceremony {Lenz) 528 The “ Rek Na” or First Ploughing Ceremony {Lenz) . 534 A Wayside Shrine in Northern Siam .... 540 Inscribed Pillar, now in the Royal Library, Bangkok. Supposed to be a Lak Muang .... 541 Preparation of Palm Leaf Writing-Material . . *576 Map of Siam ........ 592 ERRATA Passim, for Kao ; Tammarat ; Lakon ; Patalung ; Nakon ; Pit- sanulok ; Pet ; Takien ; Tewada ; fla tii — read Khao ; Thammarat ; Lakhon ; Platalung ; Nakhon ; Phitsanu- lok ; Phet ; Takhien ; Thewada ; fid tliii. 22, for Pachim read Prachiin. for Menam, read Menam Chao Phaya. for of read or. for Krabin, read Kabin. for Dvarapuri, read Dwarapuri, et passim), for Dvaravati, read Dvvarawati. for Prik, read Phrik. for Kratiem, read Krathiem. for oars, read ears. for extenendind, read extending. for Prabat, read Phrabat. for Khong, read Kawng. for Kan, read Kawng. for Muang Sin, read Muang Sing, and for Sibsong, read Sipsong. for Kwang, read Kawng. for Animisu, read Animism. for ro, read or. for Pratu Pi, read Pratu Phi. for Tho read The. for Ngan read Ngau. for Cuhla read Chula. for Peiiak read Pheiiak. for 1565 read 1765. for Wien read Wieng. for Chlulalonkorn read Chulalongkorn. for exemption read exception. for Maha, Mongkut read Maha Mongkut. for Bali read Pali. equal a chatiQ^ awn, and two chaiig awu equal a tJiaiiaii. Page 3, line 22, ] 5 ) „ 31,/ „ 10, „ 17,./ „ 18, „ 14,7 n 19. ,, 2 a ,, 20, „ I,./ „ 28, ,, 36, ) „ 28, „ 369 n 53 , „ 16, 1 ,, 6r, „ 12, y „ 25, „ 15, / ,, 25, „ 16, ) „ 88, „ 29, „ 93 , „ 21,7 „ 95 , „ 24,7 „ T04, „ 34,7 „ ^23, „ 33,7 „ 132, „ 3 b ) „ 149, „ 30,7 „ 157, „ 7,7 „ 159, „ 8,7 „ 163, ,, 5 ,.i „ 177, „ 4,7 „ 185, „ 7,7 „ 196, „ 2 \,i „ 197, „ 27,7 „ 215, „ 9,7 „ 225, - ^7 ,, 226, „ T 9, 7 „ 267, ,< 30. 1 ,, 270, „ 27,. „ 271, „ 4 ( „ 271, „ 8, ( „ 271, „ 25,^ 27], " 25, . [Siam] ERRATA 271, line 27, 28, /er read thaiig. 272, ,, 29, /or Puta Puttha. 272, ,, 29 {ct passim), for Sakkarat read Sakarat. 274, ,, 2, for vaam read ram. 274, ,, \2, for itm read tJiiim. 274, „ 21, for vung read rung'. 275, ,, 10, /or Klong read Khlong. 285, ,, 14, /or Anurawati Arunawati. 292, ,, 14, /or maintaing renJ maintaining. 295, ,, 18, /or which ron^:/ and also. 299, ,, 2, /or Phya rooss.s'/77;), /dv’ Lamphum 7rod Lamphun. 420, ,, 33, /or eastward /'ood westward. 440, ,, 25, /dr Pratum read Prathum. 452, ,, 21, for Siva rood Shiva. ' ' 462, ,, 2)i {ct passim), for Klong read Kliong. 473) )) - 5 )fo>" Tailing, read TJialnng. 473, ,, 26, /or Phatalung rood Phathahmg. ^ 477) )) 27 (el passim), for Pathomrna rood Patthomma, and for Somphotiyan read Somphothiyan. 478, ,, 6 {et passim), for Chakkrawartin rood Chakrawartin. 484, ,, ], for he rood the. 489, ,, J3, /dr Wasah rood' Wasan. ' 500, ,, 5, /or lother rood other. 508, ,, 29, /or eld rood old. 515, ,, I, /dr pervading rood h‘M'ading. 527, ,, ly. for Idicnak read Plienak. 541, ,, 32, for Buddha Yot rood Budayot. 570, ,, 17, /"or' Pattamin a read Patthomma. SIAM PART I From the earliest times the great peninsula Avhicli lies hetween India and China and is now generally known as Further India, has been peculiarly subject to foreign intrusion. Successive waves of Mongolian humanity Iiave broken over it from the north, Dravidians from India have colonised it, Buddhist missions from Ceyloir have penetrated it and buccaneers from the islands in the south have invaded it. Race has fought against race, tribe against tribe, and clan against clan. Pre- dominant powers have arisen and declined. Civilisations' have grown up, flourished and faded. Thus out of many and diverse elements a group of nations has been evolved, the individuals of which, Mons, Kambodians, Annamese, Burmese, Shans, Lao, Siamese and Malay, fundamentally much alike but differing in many externals, have striven during centuries for mastery over each other and incidentally over the countless minor tribes and clans which maintained a precarious existence in their midst. Into this inMee of warring factions a new element intruded in the sixteenth century a.d. in the shape of European enterprise. Portuguese, Butch, French and English all came and took part in the struggle, pushing and jostling with the best until the two last, having come face to face, agreed to a cessation of strife and to a division of the disputed interests amongst the survivors. Of these there were but three, the French, the English, and the A 2 SIAM Siamese, and therefore Further India now finds herself divided, as was once all Gaid, into three parts. To the east lies the territory of French Indo-China, embracing the Annamese and Ivambodian nations and a large section of the Lao ; on the west the British Empire has absorbed the Mons, the Burmese and the Sbans, while wedged between and occupying the lower middle part of the sub-continent, with the isolated region of British Malaya on its extreme south border, lies the kingdom of Siam itself, situated between 4° 20' and 20° 15^ N. latitude and between 96° 30' and 106° E. longitude. Boundaries . — Siam is bounded on the north by the British Shan State of Keng Tung, by the French Shan State of Muang Sing and by the French Lao State of Luang Prabang; on the east by the French Lao States of Annam from which it is separated by the river Mehkong, and by the French protected kingdom of Ivambodia ; on the west by the British territories of the Southern Shan -States and Lower Burma down to Victoria Point in 9° 35' N. latitude, and on the south by the Gulf of Siam. That part of Siam which extends down the long and narrow Malay Peninsula is bounded on the east by the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea, on the west by the northern waters of the Straits of Malacca and on the south by the British protected Malay States. Land Frontiers . — The land frontiers of Siam have all been defined by treaty, and though accurate delimitation is still here and there necessary, the exceeding vagueness of the position of her boundaries which was until recently a disturbing factor in the politics of the country has now been eveiywhere corrected. The land frontier on the west and north, from Era in 10° 30' E. latitude to the river Mehkong at a point just north of Chieng Sen, 20° 5' E. latitude, 900 miles in length, has been delimitated by Anglo-Siamese commissions, the last of which operated in 1892-93. The line follows the LAND FRONTIERS 3 crest of tlie mountain range wliicli forms tlie backbone of the Mala}^ Peniimila and further north becomes the watershed between the Tenasserim, the Tavoy and the Haung Daya rivers on the west and the Meklong and its tributaries on the east. From near the source of the Thoung Yin river, the frontier follows that stream down its wild and sparsely inhabited valley to the point where it joins the Salwin, then up that river for 60 miles when, with a sharp turn westwards it ascends to the watershed between the Salwin and the Meping and bears away north and east, along the range and over the tops of giant peaks until it meets the Mehkong at the little village of Ban Mai. From Ban Mai, 20° 15' N. latitude to the mouth of the Nam Mun river about 15° N. latitude, the Mehkong, except where it passes through the State of Luang Prabang, makes between French and Siamese territory the clearest possible frontier. Near the mouth of the Nam Mun the line leaves the Mehkong and, turning westward, follows the Pnom Dang RMc range for some 200 miles, then bends away south and, passing between the provinces of Pachim and Battambong, reaches the mountain range behind Chantaburi. This range it follows south by east for 100 miles, parallel with the coast and some 20 to 30 miles inland ivhen, by a turn to south by west, it meets the sea near Cape Samit far down the eastern shore of the Gulf of Siam. By the treaty which led to the final adjustment of this line from the Mehkong, the jorovinces of Malupre, Bassac, Battambong, Siemrap and Sisophon, once part of the ancient kingdom of Kambodia but long ago annexed by Siam, return to the former and thus come under French protection. The greater j)art of tlie eastern frontier has been delimited by successive Franco- Siamese Commissions. The land frontier across the Malay Peninsula has not 4 SIAM yet been delimitated, having been determined by treaty so lately as 1909. The coast-line of Siam runs from the southernmost point of the Patani Division on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula, right up and round the Grulf of Siam and down to near Cape Samit, the south-east corner of the province of Chantaburi, a distance of about 1000 miles,; to which must be added a strip on the west side of the Malay Peninsula, 350 miles long, where the long and narrow maritime Puket Division touches the sea and separates British Burma from British Malaya. Along this considerable length of coast-line is to be found almost every description of shore. At the head of the gulf a shallow dirty sea crawls over vast mud- flats, left bare for miles at low tide and merging by almost imperceptible gradation through mosquito- infested swamps into the low-l 3 nng fields and marshes of Central Siam. Down the eastern shores of the gulf the asjiect quickly changes, the sea becomes a clear and sapphire blue, mud banks give place to sandy beaches, and the land, tliickl}^ wooded where not under cultivation,, rises gentl}^ awa}^ from the shore into low hills. The coast is deeply indented and forms a series of islet- studded ba^'s of surpassing beauty. East and south of Cape Liant the shore becomes more rugged, in many places bold rocks protrude from the sea and the land rises steeply up towards the heights of the Patat mountain range from which many small and rapid streams run down through narrow valleys to the sea.. On the western side of the gulf long low shores alternate Avith high and precix^itous cliffs to AAdiich A^egetation clings as 1 )j a miracle. Here clear sparkling AA^aters of the deepest blue beat upon golden beaches backed b}" groves of AA^aving palm-trees, or spout and bloAv among overhanging rocks and round about innumerable islets. The bays and inlets on this much indented coast form ISLANDS 5 a series of excellent roadsteads, the four principal of which, Chuniporn, Bandon, Singora and Patani afford good anchorage for vessels of any size and in almost any number. On the belt of Siamese coast-line west of the Malay Peninsula also, are several ideal harbours, once the resort of pirates and noAV much used by the swarms of junks and other sailing craft which carry most of the trade between the little ports of this region and the emporium of Penang. Islands . — The whole coast-line of Siam is fringed with islands, some of which are between one ,and two hundred square miles in area, though the majority are much smaller. The most important of these is Chalang or Iljong Salang, corrupted by Europeans into Munk- Cejdon,’ on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, the centre of a flourishing tin mining industry and, on account of its good harbour and convenient situation, supposed to be coveted by a rising European Naval Power as a coaling station. Natives of Telingana on the east coast of India resorted hither in the beginning of the Christian era, Arab traders visited it as early as the 10th century a.d., and European merchants fre- quented it from the middle of the IGth century onwards. Moreover, the island was a cockpit of the wars between Burma and Siam. On the east coast, Ivoh Pungun and Koh Samui are the largest islands, the latter of these, in area about 100 scpiare miles, reported rich in tin deposits, and producing coconuts said to be the finest in the world. The larger islands of the east side of the gulf are the Si Chang group, near the mouth of the riA^er Menam, in the shelter of which A’essels AAdiich are too large to enter the river discharge and ■receive cargo, and the islands of Koli Chang, Ivoh Ivut and Ivoh Kong, lofty, precipitous and clothed Avitli the densest vegetation. Area . — The area of Siam is estimated at 200,000 6 SIAM square miles or about 40,000 square miles less tlran one-tliird of tlie whole of Further India. The greatest length, from north to south, is 1100 miles, and the greatest breadth, east and west, is 510 miles. Main Divisions . — In describing the country most writers have divided it into two or more parts, but no particidar system, either geographical or ethnographical, appears to ha Am been followed in doing so. From both these points of AueAv the kingdom may perhaps be most commiiiently considered in four parts, that is. Northern, Central, Eastern and Southern. The Northern part consists of the drainage area of the four rivers Avhich unite at about 16° N. latitude to form the Menam Chao Phaya, and of small sections of the drainage areas of the Mehkong and SalAAun riAmrs, inhabited chiefly by Laos, more especially to the nortliAA’-ard, and containing the ruins of many cities famous in ancient history. The Central part includes the drainage areas of the Meklong, the Menam Chao Phaya and the Bang Pakong rivers, Avhich floAv into the northern end of the gulf, the country on the AAmst side of the gulf as far south as KuAvi and on the east side doAAUi to near Cape Samit. This is the heart of the kingdom, the home of the greater part of the Siamese population and the source of nine-tenths of the AAmalth of the state. The Eastern part comprises the drainage area of the Nam Mun river and its tributary the Nam Si, and also a part of the drainage area of the right bank of the Mehkong riAmr. The population of this part is chiefly Lao. Lastly, the Southern part embraces that section of the country AAdiich is situated south of the tOAvnship of Ivuaau in the Malay Peninsula, and includes the Malay dependencies of Siam. The population of this j)art is composed of Siamese, Malays and half-breeds. Xorfhern Siam , — in area some 60,000 square miles, is a series of more or less parallel hill ranges and Amllejm CENTRAL SIAM 7 lying north and south. The/ hills in the south-east corner, mere gently sloping aclivities, rise gradually towards the west and north until, near the western frontier, they join the Tanen Taring Gyi range and tower into imposing heights. They are all thickly covered with forest, with here and there great masses of rock standing out hare against the sky, or dotted rvitli the patches of cleared ground which proclaim the presence of hill-trihes. The hills are drained by count- less streams which, small and insignificant or entirely dry during the hot weather, rush down in foaming torrents and cascades when swollen by the annual rains, increasing the volume of the Salwin and Mehkong rivers on the west and east and of the Menam Chao Phaya to the south. Tlie valley’s vary between broad open lands smiling with crops, through which clear streams meander, and deep shadowed gorges echoing to the voices of turbulent waters. Towards the south the rivei’s are fringed with wide banks of rich alluvial soil near which the iiopulation clusters thickly and where some of the most valuable agricultural produce of the kingdom is annually grown. Northern Siam is divided into the administrative divisions, or ‘Monton,’ of Payap including all the northern Lao provinces, formerly semi-independent states, of Petchaburi, Phit- sanulok and Nakon Sawan, the last of which, however, extends southward well into Central Siam. Central Siam, of an area estimated at 55,000 square miles, consists practically of one vast plain stretching from tlie mountains which divide Burma from Siam, east- wards to tlie foot of the high ridges marking the edge of the tableland of Eastern Siam and the confines of Kambodia, and of two arms extending southwards to embrac'e the head waters of the Gulf of Siam. Here and there isolated hills rise abruptly from the jdain, serving to emphasise the general flatness. Except indeed for 8 SIAM tlie slopes of the containing mountains east and west, and for the slightest of undulations caused by the extra accumulation of alluvium in the neighbourhood of the banks of the sluggish rivers which wind across it in a southerly direction, Central Siam is an uncom- promising dead level. Belts and patches of jungle occur to the northwards as well as in the east and west littoral districts, but the greater part of the plain consists of wide expanses, thinly clothed with tall Palmyra palms, dotted with the clumps of bamboo which mark the presence of villages, or absolutely treeless. The surface soil is heavy, clayey and entirely of alluvial formation and about a quarter of the area is under cultivation while the rest, covered in the main with grass and reeds, awaits a practicable scheme of irrigation and the coming of a population, which two factors alone are wanting to make Central Siam one of the greatest rice-producing districts of the world. The plain lies at a very slight elevation above the sea and is subject to regular annual river floods which, by the deposition of vast quantities of silt, are slowly raising the general level. The whole area has a gentle slope downwards from north to south and the land falls slightly away at right angles to the banks of the rivers which flow on slight ridges of their own alluvial accumulation. There is abundant evidence that within recent geological times the sea flowed over a great part of the plain and even now the northern shores of the gulf are advancing seawards at the surprising rate of almost a foot a year. Central Siam includes the administrative divisions of Krung Tep ‘ The Heavenly Royal City,' or Bangkok, the densely inhabited capital of the kingdom with its populous suburbs ; Ayuthia, also called Krung Kao or the ‘ Old Capital,’ with its group of provinces ; the Prachim and Chantaburi divisions to the eastward, Kakon Chaisi and Ratburi to the west and that part TYPICAL SCENE IX CENTRAL SJAI^L f . I 1 ■s' \ i ■ I EASTERN SIAM 9 of the division of Nakon Sawaii which is not included in Northern Siam. Eastern Siam, some 65,000 square miles in area, consists of a huge shallow basin contained in a circle of hills, together with a narrow strip of territory lying between the Mehkong river and the hills which form the eastern part of the circle. The basin is tilted towards the east, falling gradually away from a plateau edge of 1000 feet and more elevation Avhich divides the eastern from the central part of the country. Except in small and widely separated patches, poverty of the soil and adverse climatic conditions combine to render this great tract indifferently productive. No timber of value grows in the thin shadeless jungle which ■covers the slopes of the hills, while the huge swamps into which, owing to defective natural drainage, the lower lands are converted during the rains, encourage the growth of nothing but grass and reeds which wither away and are burnt up when the hot weather comes. A population of some million and a quarter, Laos, Siamese and Kambodians, that is about 20 people to the square mile, inhabits this inhospitable land, wrest- ing from the reluctant soil crops barely sufficient to maintain an existence which, passed amidst damp and mud for one half of the year and in a dry, hot and dust-laden atmosphere for the other, is one of the most miserable imaginable, more especially since this whole neighbourhood is peculiarly liable to the visitations of epidemics of diseases affecting both men and cattle. Eastern Siam is divided into the administrative divi- sions of Korat, Isarn and Udorn, the two last frontier districts far distant and difficult of access and therefore a good deal neglected. Southern Siam, about 30,000 square miles in area, comprises all the narrower part of the Malay Peninsula and is sharply divided longitudinally by the range 10 SIAM of mountains whicli passes down the w^hole length of the peninsula, into two well defined areas, the east and the west coast districts. The east coast district begins at Ivuwi, where Central Siam leaves off, with a mere strip of land in places not more than ten miles wide, sloping stee]^ly upwards almost from the edge of the sea to the top of the range, here from two to four thousand feet high, where runs the Burma frontier. South of this and beyond the Isthmus of Kra, the district wddens out until, at Nakhon Sri Tammarat, or Lakon as the province is now more usuall}^ called, a tract some seventy miles broad of alternating hills and plains lies between the sea and the border ridge which now di Andes the eastern from the* Avestern coast districts, Burma having come to an end at Victoria Point a little further north. Southward from Lakon the district narroAA^s again, passes the inland sea of Tale Sap at Singora and once more spreads out at Patani. From here oiiAvards to the southernmost point on the seashore at Tabar, the AvestAvard boundar}-, no longer keeping to the range summits but folloAAung mountain spurs and hill streams and again crossing deep A^alleys, marches Avith British Malaya, veers round to the east and encloses a broad country of mountains and valleys. The natural scenery of this district is A^ery beautiful, making a picture, constantl}^ repeated Avith minor variations, of coerulean blue Avater, golden beaches, villages nestling amongst tall palm-trees, miles of rolling evergreen jungle behind these, and at the back of all the magnificent purple mountains toAvering into the sky. Though generally of a hilly character the east coast district comprises seA^eral broad open plains of Aurying extent AAdiere, on a light but rich soil of clay and sand alluvium, crops of rice are annually groAvn and large herds of cattle are raised. Pound about the toAAuis of Lakon and Patalung the SOUTHERN SIAM II largest and most fertile plains are situated. In these open lands a considerable population lives and prospers exceedingly by agriculture and by fishing in the seas AYliich are here alive with fish of many kinds. Far different from that of the people of Eastern Siam, their lot is of the happiest, for with plenty to eat, an ecpial climate and little or no disease, they scarce know the meaning of trouble. For purposes of administration the east coast district is divided into the Divisions of Chumporn or Bandon, Nakon Sri Tammarat, and Patani. One of the chief natural features of this district is the inland sea at Singora, a stretch of shallow water over fifty miles long, separated from the ocean by a narrow strip of loAv-lying jungle-land but com- municating with it through narrow openings at the north and south ends. The surface is studded with islets, some densel}^ wooded, others bare and precipitous, and the sea is surrounded by a fertile but thinly inhabited shore. The scenery from the narrow southern entrance between green hills topped with white pagodas and past waving groves of statel}^ Casuarina trees to a point some twenty miles to the northward, is superlatively beautiful. The lower end of the sea forms the inner harbour of Singora but there is not much shipping on the sea itself as it is A’-ery subject to sudden and violent storms and in some parts is extremely shalloAV. The AA^estern coast district of Southern Siam was shorn of much of its area by the treaty of 1900 Avith Great Britain Avhich proAuded for the passing of the Malay States of Kedah and Perils from Siamese to British protection. It now consists of a strip of country 3o0 miles long, backed b}" the central range of the Peninsular mountains and extending from the southern- most point of Burma doAAm to the confines of British 12 SIAM Malaya. It is narrower than the east coast district, has a more deeply indented coast-line, and more islands fringing its shore. The natural beauty of the district surpasses that of the east coast, its characteristics being similar to those of Tenasserim further north. Great mountains sloping steeply up from the sea, showing purple against the morning sky, bright green beneath the midday sun and grey wdien the shadows of evening are creeping amongst them ; valleys of the deepest verdure descending to, and cut off suddenly, by the golden line of a sandy beach ; bold promontories in a setting of silver seaspray, tall rocks of limestone or granite of every shade of red and grey and of the most grotesque shapes, here a tiny white sail aslant on the blue waters, there a brown junk heaving slowly u]p the coast ; the sight of all this rewards the traveller who leaves the beaten track of the globe trotter and ventures a day’s sail from Penang into this little known and unfrequented district. The west coast has very little land suitable for the cultivation of rice but the soil is fertile and yields good crops of many other j)i'Oclucts, notably pej)per. Of streams, small, rapid and clear, there are many, but there is no water-course large enough to be dignified by the name of river. Geologically the country is the same as the east coast district, with rather more frequent appearance of granite and consequently greater distiirbance of the stratified formations. The population consists of Siamese, Samsams, Malays and a few Semang Negritos. Malays predominate to the south and Siamese to the north. There are also large settlements of Chinese who have for several centuries been attracted thither by the tin mines. The total population may amount to about 400,000 souls. The whole district constitutes the admini- strative division of Puket. THE COUNTRY 13 The Country and the Towns Physical Features . — Further India possesses within its comparatively small area three remarkably hue rivers, one of the largest lakes in Asia and several imposing ranges and mountain masses. Siam, however, as at present constituted, does not actually contain within her borders any of these. The Mehkong river, one of the largest in Asia forms for over a thousand miles the eastern frontier of the kingdom. The Sahvin, almost equal to the Mehkong in length, touches the western boundary at more than one point but nowhere has both its banks in Siam. The Tale Sap, the great lake of Kambodia, was until recently half within Siam, but by the adjustment of the eastern frontier now lies altogether outside her. The great mountain ranges Avhich lie north and south down the peninsula, diverge to the east and west of Siam, passing- through Tonquin to the sea, and through Burma into the Malay peninsula, the latter branch forming the boundary between Burma and Siam for some distance. But though the great natural features of the sub- continent appear to avoid Siam or at most to lend lier only a part of themselves, she contains within her own limits many mountain heights and ranges, many rivers and a few lakes which redeem her from monotony of conformation and scenery. ^Mountains . — The ranges of Northern Siam varying from 500 to 4,000 feet in height, lie north and south like the bars of a gridiron all across the country, here and there throwing up lofty peaks of which Doi-Intanon 8,450 feet the highest mountain in Siam, Chieng-Dao 7,160 feet, Panom Pok 7,532 feet, Sam Sao 5,476 feet. Pa Wing 4,830 feet. Pacha w 5,900 feet and Sutap 5,500 feet, the iast two near Chieng Mai town, are the most conspicuous. The Korat plateau with its 14 SIAM flanking ranges, tlie dread Dong Phaya Fai to loiter among tire dark ravines and thickly wooded glens of which means sickness and death, and the almost equally fatal Pnom Dang Rek range in its own someAvhat arid way, are very striking natural features. The Nakhon Nay ok and Ivahin hills sweeping southwards from the Korat plateau to join the Patat range, are as beautiful as rugged outline, dense tropical vegetation, and clear mountain streams can make them. The Patat range itself, sometimes cloud-capped and frowning, sometimes clear and smiling above the sea on the Chantaburi coast, forms inspiring masses of rock and jungle. Its highest points are Kao . Saidao 5,560 feet, Kao Kmock 4,000 feet, and Kao-Chemao 3,400 feet. On the slopes of the forest-clad mountains which form the western frontier of Northern and Central Siam and which roughly bisect the southern part of the country there is an enormous area of dense forest jungle, the haunt of elephant, bison, rhinoceros and other big game and destitute of human habitation unless the rude lairs of wild jungle tribes can be so called. Here are lime- stone cliffs of every colour, gray granite rocks besplashed with gleaming waterfalls, giant forest trees rising from dense masses of undergroAvth and roped one to another by cables of monstrous climbing plants, those on the highest elevations festooned with long weepers of moss and exaggerated ferns. In the deep ravines millions of cicadae make the air throb Avith sound all through the hot hours of day and at night the murmurings of hidden streams accentuate a silence punctuated at moments by the clear bell of a stag or the trumpeting of an elephant on the heights above. Here nature reigns supreme and riots through her realm in all the teeming productiveness of the tropics. Se\^eral passes through these mountains give access to the southern parts of Burma and through them a consider- THE COUNTRY 15 able trade is carried on between tlie two countries. The highest points of the range, situated at great dis- tances apart, are Kao Phra Wan 5,800 feet and Mogadok 5,750 feet situated east of Raheng and Nakhon Sawan, Kao Luang 4,800 feet in the narrowest part of Southern Siam just below Muang Kwi with Kao Prong 4,500 feet and Kao Luong 5,800 feet, isolated peaks adjacent to the main range and standing close together near the ancient southern city of Nakhon Sri Tammarat. Rivers . — The Menam Chao Phaya with its tributaries and branches is the only great river system in Siam. Indeed to the Siamese who live upon its banks and travel upon its waters, this noble river and the plains which it alternately floods and drains, constitute Siam itself, the fact that there are other rivers, valleys and plains in their country being scarcely realised by the majority. Far up in the north of the Mon ton Payap, four rivers, the Meping, Mewaiig, Meyom and Menam, rise among the mountains which lie between the Salwin and Melik ong watersheds and, flowing southward between the gridiron hill ranges of Northern Siam, unite, the Meping and Mewang at Raheng and the Meyom and Menam at Chum Seng, to form two streams which meet at Paknampoh some 250 miles from the sources, and together make the Menam Chao Phaya. Of these four rivers the Meping and the Mewang to the west, whose sources are at a high elevation, are rapid and generally shallow streams, liable to sudden heavy floods, while the Meyom and Menam to the eastward, rising at a mucli lower elcA^ation, flow quietly in long deep reaches Avith regular seasonal rise and fall. The western pair are navigable for shalloAv draft boats only, through the greater part of their length, but the eastern pair are deep enough to alloAv the passage of large rice boats at all times, and of deep-draft steam launches and other vessels during the high Avater season, to points some 16 SIAM 120 miles above Paknampob. The Menam is the largest^ deepest and most sluggish of the series, and in many respects resembles the Menam Chao Phaya below the final junction. It passes through a considerable rice growing district and consequently has much traffic upon it. From Paknampoh to the sea, 140 miles as the crow flies, the waters of the Menam Chao Phaya follow a number of tortuous courses. At Chainat, about 35 miles below Paknampoh, it throws off on the west side a branch known as the Suphan or Tachin river, which flows parallel with the parent stream to the sea. and a branch known as the Menam Noi which also flows parallel with the main river, returning to it at Ban Sam Kok. At Ban Takwai, some 20 miles below Chainat, an eastern branch separates from the main river and, flowing past Lopburi and Ayuthia, rejoins it at Ban Sam Kok. The low banks of the different channels of the river are all thickly fringed with bamboos and tall palm-trees, shading and half concealing an almost continuous succession of long, straggling villages, here and there swelling to the proportions of a town, and interspersed with innumerable monasteries, temples and pagodas. Every now and . then gaps occur through which appear vistas of rice fields backed by distant trees which mark the bank of another channel of the river or extending across a wide expanse of level land right to the horizon. Thus flowing slowly southward, bearing within its turgid depths vast quantities of yellow silt and upon its broad bosom a multitude of boats of every descrip- tion, the great river, at once a highway, a sewer and the only water supply of some millions of people, at last reaches the capital and, passing through it, now a great stream navigable for sea-going steamers up to 1,500 tons burthen, continues its further winding A TYPICAL RIVER SCENE IN SIAM, SHOWING THE HOUSES BUILT ON PILES. 1 f' ■i . . ... . THE COUNTRY 17 course of twenty miles to tlie sea. In the reaches below Bangkok a different scenery prevails. Bamboos and tall palm-trees are fewer or are absent, the banks, now even lower than those above the city, being lined instead with the deep green fronds of the stunted fern-like nipah plant and with mangrove extending back through miles of swamp on either side. Out to sea between low-lying shores and wide mud flats, runs the great stream and, meeting the salt-water performs its last natural function, depositing its burden of silt upon a great semi-circular bar which stretches for many miles across its mouth. With the exception of the four northern rivers which contribute to its formation, the Menam Chao Phaya lias only one tributary, namely the Nam Sak, which flows south and west through the Petchaburi and Saraburi districts and joins the eastern or Lopburi Channel a short distance above Ayuthia. The Nam Sak is a river of some 200 miles in length and is navigable for boats and steam launches to a point about 30 miles from its mouth. Tlie amount of water discharged by the Menam Chao Phaya varies greatly with the seasons. At the driest time of the year the volume just below Paknam- ]wh is not more than 150 cubic yards per second, while during the height of the raiii}^ season, it amounts at the same spot to fidly 2,000 cubic yards per second. At Bangkok in flood time the discharge reaches 3,500 cubic yards. The waters usually begin to rise in May and continue to do so until about the end of October, when the river is in full flood. Subsidence is gradual and the lowest level is reached about April. Sudden freshets and high rises are unknown in the Menam Chao Pha^^a. For fifty miles inland the river is subject to strong tidal influence, the continual scouring effect of which is to make it uniformly deep. B 18 SIAM The great volume of water discharged during flood time to some extent overcomes the action of the tide, hut during the dry weather the flow extends far inland when the water in the lower reaches is brackish and unsuitable for drinking purposes. The Bang Pakong river drains the Prachim Division east of Bangkok. It rises in the Wattana hills close to the new French frontier, flows north, then west, then south, describing a complete semi-circle and falls into the gulf of Siam at the north-east corner. The river is about 120 miles long and for the last fifty miles of its course passes, with many intricate windings, through a low-lying and very fertile rice-growing district. Near its upper waters are situated the Wattana and Krabin gold mines and on its lower banks stand the thriving towns of Prachim and Petriu. About fifty miles from its source it receives the waters of its principal tributary, the Nakhon Nay ok river which drains the small province of that name. Other tributaries are the Sai Cheng, rising at the back of the Patat range behind Chantaburi and flowing north, the Taphan Hin and Sai Yai, which descend from the Pnom Dang Rek range on the north, and several smaller streams which water the district encircled by the main river and which join the latter at different points on its left bank. Like the Menam Chao Phaya, the Bang Pakong is tidal for many miles inland but, unlike the former, it is subject to sudden floods which frequently overflow its banks iind extend for miles across the flat lands in its neigh- bourhood. The river is navigable for small sea-going vessels up to Petriu and for boats and launches to Prachim. The Meklong river drains the long valleys which lie between the great western boundary range and its eastern foot hills, flows south by south-east and falls into the gulf of Siam at its north-west corner. The 19 THE COUNTRY main stream rises not far from Ralieng and is about 250 miles long. It is sometimes called the Menani Kwa or ‘ The River on the Right Hand,’ and its chief tribu- tary, which flows parallel with it for many miles, is known as the Menam Kwa Noi, ‘ The Lesser River on the Right Hand.’ It is rapid, shallow, fairly straight and navi- gable only for small boats. For the most part it flows through a wild uninhabited country, but in its lower reaches it passes the towns of Ivanburi, Ratburi, and Samut Song Kram and has many villages on its banhs in the parts which lie between those places. Its waters are clear and its bed is a yellow sand, very different from the soft grey mud of the Menam Chao Phaya. It is subject to sudden floods of short duration, and on account of its steep slope is very little affected by the tides. Both the Bang Pakong and Meklong rivers are connected with the Menani Chao Phaya by a series of parallel canals which cross the Central Plain at right angles to the river courses. These, as their names, Palisi Charoen (‘Gain and Prosperity’); Dainneun Saduak (‘the Comfortable Kingsway ’), etc., imply, were made as means of communication between the capital and outlying districts and towns which were otherwise difficult of access, and they form good highways in a country wdiere roads are impracticable by reason of floods and the difficulty of procuring road-metal. The main canals have all been made during the last 120 years, and many of them having in course of time become much silted up, have recently been re-excavated. The Mehkong river, as has already been said, does not now" actually pass through any part of Siam but it is of importance to her as a frontier. It is also deserv- ing of notice as the recipient of the Xam Mun, a river wdiich, w"ith its tributaries, drains almost all Eastern Siam. The ruined city of M^ieng Chan, and small modern 20 SIAM towns of Nawng Ivai and Cliieng Kan are almost the only Siamese places of any interest or importance on the banks of the Mehkong. The river, though a magni- ficent stream with an enormous discharge and with long reaches of deep, quiet water, is rendered difficult of navigation by the presence of numerous rapids. Efforts have been made by the French to remove these obstacles but hitherto with very indifferent results, and the Mehkong for purposes of commerce seems practically useless. The Nam Mun, a river more than 300 miles in length, rises on the jDlateau near Korat and flows east through the wide basin of Eastern Siam to join the Mehkong in latitude 15° 20', which it does by passing through a narrow ojDening in the low hills which skirt the left bank of the main river. It has a large number of tributaries, one of which, the Nam Si, is of great length. The whole system is subject to high floods during the wet season, while in the dry weather it contains almost no water at all, and hence it is not of much value as a means of communication. Other Siamese rivers of more than insignificant proportions are the Nam Koh and Nam Ing, northern tributaries of the Mehkong, and the Bandon and Patani rivers of Southern Siam. The Bandon river is of some importance as a waterway for valuable timber extracted from the forests through which it flows. The Patani, a broad, shallow, and rapid stream about 120 miles long,, drains the seven small states which constitute the Patani Division or Monton, passes through a beautiful and fairly well poprdated country, and is reputed to contain deposits of gold. It is ver}^ little subject to tidal influence. Lakes . — The lakes of Siam are few, and if the inland sea of Singora be excepted, of small size and of little importance. In the northern part of Eastern Siam there are several shallow meres of wide extent, dry or THE TOAVNS 21 almost dry during a part of the year, and at other times reed-grown swamps, the haunts of innumerahle pelicans and other water birds. The best known of these meres is Naung Han near the village of Ramarat and connected with the Mehkong river by a short stream, the Nam Kun. In Northern Siam, not far from Chieng Rai, there is a small district of lakes and tarns lying amidst high mountains, the largest of which is about three miles long by one wide. The district is not without scenic beauty of the typical teak-forest character, but is very sparsely inhabited. West of Ulai Tani and again west of Ratburi small lakes lie at the foot of the western mountain range in remote jungle districts where man seldom ventures. Towns , — In Siamese there is no word exactly equiva- lent to the English word ‘ town,’ the word ^ Ban' meaning, as did formerly the English word ‘village,’ any collection of houses from a single homestead upwards, being the only word in the language which belongs solely to the liabitations of men. Many words are used, however, to denote settlements which are evidently of more import- ance than mere villages, either because of their size or for other reasons, and of these the most usual are ‘ lloa Muang' or briefly ' Muanrj' the head or centre of a province, ^Xakhon,' from the Sanskrit or Pali ^Kagara' meaning a country, ‘ Wieng' the Lao word for a fortified place, and ‘ Krung ’ meaning a capital. Settlements dignified with these names may, however, witli the exception of 'Krung,' be quite small and insignificant places, owing their superior considera- tion to tradition of power or greatness, or to their selection as modern administrative headquarters, while others, still known as mere 'Ban,' are large and populous communities. It is not easy, therefore, to decide what to call towns and what villages in Siam, the more so since the average English dictionary defines a town as a place 22 SIAM larger than a village and a village as a place smaller than a town. If no place with less than 10,000 inhabi- tants is a town, then there are not half a dozen towns in the country. If, on the other hand, the presence of a market denotes a town, then there are practically no villages in Siam. There can, however, be no doubt about the Capital, for Bangkok is not only a town but is certainly the largest city in all Further India, having a population of about 630,000. It is situated astride the river Menam Chao Phaya some twenty miles from its mouth and covers an area of about fifteen square miles. With the exception of London there is no other capital in the world, the population of which bears so large a jjroportion to that of the country of which it is the head, for Bangkok contains nearly one ninth part of the people of Siam. Up to a few years ago Bangkok resembled nothing so. much as a huge wen which had been growing steadily for a century and a quarter, absorbing the life and the substance of the country, taking the revenues of its outlying provinces to pay for its own embellishment, and the best blood of the peasantry to fill the households of its nobles, and to rot in the insanitary barracks of its naval and military establishments. At the present day, however, this is no longer the case. With the abolition of slavery the nobles have disbanded the greater j)art of their follow- ing ; new laws have immensely improved the conditions of military service, while a policy of partial decentralisa- tion of government, and above all of railwa}" extension, has brought the outlying parts of the country into a prominence not formerly imaginable, and is teaching the upper and the official classes that life may be made endurable elsewhere than in the beloved capital. Even so, however, Bangkok still overshadows the rest of the country to an extraordinary extent and both Siamese BANGKOK WATERWAY, WITHIN THE CITY WALLS, BANGKOK BRIDGE AT CHIENGMAI. (Seep. 27.) THE TOWNS 23 and foreign residents and visitors are still too apt to tliink that to all intents and purposes the capital is the only part of the country which counts. Prior to 1769, Bangkok was an unimportant place near which stood one of the forts intended to guard the riverine approaches to Ayuthia, the former capital. In or about that year, however, it was selected as the headquarters of the army engaged in recovering Siam from the Burmese, from which time it grew rapidly and soon became the largest town in the country and the seat of government of the re-organised state. In 1782 His Majesty Somdet Phra Puta Yot Fa definitely fixed upon the place as his capital and since that date, indissolubly connected with the fortunes of the dynasty he founded, it has prospered until, far surpassing all former capitals, it has become the greatest city the country has ever at any time possessed. In its earlier years Bangkok was built very largely upon, or close beside, the river and the innumerable creeks and canals which were excavated with some degree of system at A^arying distances surrounding the Royal Palace. The houses were either constructed on floating pontoons moored at the sides of the Avater-courses, or on high piles driven into the mud banks. The Royal palaces occupied a large area in a bend on the east bank of the iTA’-er and the best land sites all round these Avere devoted to the erection of pagodas and temples mostly of briclvAvork and many of them of beautiful and elaborate design. The dAvelling-houses ay ere built of light material and usually had thatched roofs, those of the princes and higher nobles being generally, hoAvever, more solid structures of teak- wood, often richly caiwed, and Avith high roofs made of tiles. There Avere x^ractically no roadways, all communication being by AAuter. About the year 1880, however, the necessity for roads began to make itself felt and there aaus constructed a street 24 SIAM some five miles long connecting tlie neighbourhood of the Royal palaces with the foreign consulates and European dwellings and places of business which lined the east bank of the river below the city. Since that time the making of roads has continued, slowly at first but more rapidly later, so that to-day there are some eighty miles of well-laid out streets, crossing the old canals at a thousand points and lined with neat brick-built houses in which the erstwhile riparian population now resides. The streets are as a rule well paved and metalled, and are kept fairly clean, those nearest to the Palace being in the best condition as being the more likely to catch the eye of Royalty. They are continually crowded with traffic of all kinds, thousands of jinrickshaws, hundreds of horsed carriages and motor vehicles continually passing to and fro. Here and there a row of the older thatched dwellings persists and a few floating houses still cling to the banks of the river and the principal creeks, but these are doomed to early extinction. The picturesque castellated fortifications of the city are going also, the gateways have nearly all been removed to facilitate traffic and whole sections of the walls have been demolished and utilised as road-metal. Before long Bangkok will be a city of bricks but it will be also a city of trees, the verdure of which, together with the graceful spires and bright-coloured roofs of its religious and public buildings, will always redeem it from the monotony of appearance which characterises many cities of the west. North of the city an extensive park was laid out a few years ago, in the centre of which the late King built for himself a small palace to which he could periodically retire to enjoy the pleasures of country life. The park, which is called Dusit, or ‘ The Paradise where all desires are fulfilled,’ after the fourth heaven of the THE PALACE, BANGKOK, {Photo Unz SI KAK PHAYA, SRI, BANGKOK. IPhoto: Lenz. THE TOWNS 25 Buddhist cosmogony, is now a place of shrubberies, ornamental waters, small artificial hills and kiosks, intersected by well-kept walks and carriage-drives lined with avenues of tamarind and other trees. The summer palace has grown into a great enclosure containing many fine buildings in which the Court till lately re- sided almost permanently, and a magnificent Audience Chamber, while, at a distance round about it, stand many beautiful villas, the palaces of the more important Royal princes. A boulevard about two miles long and some 200 feet wide, lined with trees and crossing three canals by means of handsome marble bridges, connects the Dusit Palace with the Grand Palace in the city, which last appears a maze of delicate spiral roofs, flashing with gold and silver, overtopping white castellated wails and, with its surrounding green lawns, white roads and imposing temples and public buildings, forms one of the most remarkable sights of the Far East. The European residential quarter is to the south and south-east of the town where many of the foreign con- sulates, now nearly all raised to the condition of Legations, have been, or are being, rebuilt. All the main streets are lined with shade trees and provided Avith electric tramways while the Avhole toAvn is lit by electricity. The Avater question has ahvays been a difficulty in Bangkok, for, though Avater in the rivers and canals is superabundant in quantity, it is, more especially in the dry season AAdien it is charged Avith filth and made brackish by the strong tidal influence, quite disgusting as to quality. Recently a number of artesian Avells have been sunk by the Government, and thereby a supply of fairly good drinking AA^ater has been obtained, sufficient for the needs of schools, barracks and a icav other public institutions, but the vast majority of the inhabitants are still compelled to drink the river AAaater and there- 26 SIAM fore a water-works sclieme, one of tlie many which have been considered within the last twenty years or so, has lately been sanctioned, and is now being carried out. The work will cost about two hundred and thirty thousand pounds, is expected to be completed at the end of 1912, and will supply the greater part of the city with good water brought from a distance of some twenty miles and subjected to an elaborate process of ozonisation. The reach of the river immediately below the town constitutes the Port of Bangkok, where steamers, sailing ships, and lighters lie at anchor, half hidden in the smoke of numerous rice-mill chimneys standing on either bank. The quarter known as Sam Peng, just outside the southern face of the old city walls, is a place of much interest. It is the Chinese quarter, and its inhabitants built it up in close resemblance to a quarter of an old Chinese city. The houses, of every size and shape, stand as close together as possible and, until a short while ago, the only streets were narrow alleys often not twelve feet wide, where crowds of people hurried up and down all day and where the lives and property of strangers was not safe at night. Almost every house is a shop of some kind and an immense amount of trade is carried on in the quarter by a population herded together under the most revoltingly insanitary con- ditions. Of late years several broad streets have been driven right through the settlement and measures have been taken to exert both sanitary and police control over the inhabitants, but the neighbourhood is still the haunt of disease and crime, and its condition is the reverse of creditable to the administration of the city. Ghiemj Mai, situated in Northern Siam is, in import- ance if not in size, the second town in Siam. It stands THE TOWNS 27 at ai^ elevation of 800 feet above the sea, on the right bank of the river Meping, one of the northern branches of the Menani Chao Phaya in 18° 46' N. latitnde and 99° 0' E. longitude. The place was founded in the 11th century a.d. as the capital of a small Lao State which subsecjuently acquired sway over the other principalities of the neighbourhood and became the centre of a somewhat loosely constituted kingdom. All through the Middle Ages and down to the beginning of the 19th century Chieng Mai, as the first city of this kingdom, was exposed to endless vicissitudes ; its rulers being consistent!}^ claimed by both Burma and Siam as their vassals, and frequently compelled by force of arms to transfer their allegiance from one to the other of these great rivals. The town is surrounded on three sides by massive walls and ramparts, now fallen into decay, and has a walled enceinte rather over a square mile in area, within which are the palace of the Chao or hereditary chief of the State, the houses of his principal adherents, and a number of temples. It is the headquarters of the High Commissioner of the Payap division and also of a division of the Siamese army. The population, which is about 30,000, mostly Lao, lives in neat houses lining well laid out streets, intersecting more or less at right angles. A good water supply is obtained from a hill near by, from which the encircling moats and a series of water-courses within the town are filled with running water, and the river is spanned by a massive wooden bridge. The foreign community is composed of members of an old-established American Presbyterian mission and of the employes of several European firms engaged in the teak trade. A British Consul, Avhose district extends over all tlie Northern Siamese Lao States, resides here, and there are also many Burmese timber and general merchants established in the place. There are a few Europeans •28 SIAM in the Government Service, Medical, Forest, Survey and Gendarmerie officers. Puket, also called Tongkah, a name given to it by the Chinese, lies in 7° 50' N. latitude : and 98° 24' E. longitude, at the south-east corner of the island of Chalang or Junk Ceylon, off the west coast of Southern Siam. The place has long been known to the outside world on account of the rich tin mines that exist there. The colonists from the shores of India who worked the mines some 2000 years ago, were possibly the founders of the town. Eight or nine hundred years later, as has been said above, Arab traders who came to share in the wealth of the island settled at Puket, and about the 15th century a.d. the attention of Chinese merchants was drawn to the mines, with the result that a colony of Chinese miners sprang up, which has con- tinued there down to the present time. The town, which is the headquarters of the High Commissioner of the Puket Division, is in no way remarkable except for the enormous deposits of tin around and below it. The population which amounts to about 30,000, consists chiefly of Chinese. There are a few Europeans engaged in the tin mining industry, and an Australian company has recently been organised to dredge tin from the bottom of the sea close to the town, which it is doing with some profit. Ayuthia, known to the Siamese as Krimg Kao, or ‘ The Old Capital,’ stands on the eastern branch of the Menam Chao Phaya in 14° 21' N. latitude : and 100° 32' E. longitude. The river is here broken up into a net- work of creeks and marshes in the midst of which stands an island covered with the ruins of pagodas, temples and palaces, the remains of the once proud city which played so great a part in the history of Siam. In the earliest records the place appears under the name of Dvarapuri or Dvaravati as the capital of a I s . z -) FLOATING HOUSES AT AYUTHIA. THE TOWNS 29 small state wliicb. existed from 469 a.d. to about 650 a.d. and then disap»peared amid tlie continuous and kaleido- scojDic political changes of the time. About 1189 a.d. it emerged once more as Nong Sano or Nong Sarnao, known to Arab travellers and to the compiler of the Malay Annals as Shahr-i-Nao or Shaher-al-Naui, the capital of a State embracing all central and southern Siam. At this time it rose to a considerable elegreo of prosperity but, again declining, faded away and had fallen into insignificance when, in 1350, it was overthrown and rej^laced by the city of Ayuthia. The old name of Dvaravati survived all vicissitudes, and is used frequently by historians, as for instance by Symes in his ‘Account of an Embassy to Ava in 1795,’ as one of the names by which the later capital of Siam Avas then still knoAAm to the Burmese. Ayuthia A\^as twice destroyed by the Burmese, once in 1555 a.d. and again in 1769, after AAdiich latter date it ceased to be the capital of the country. The modern toAvn consists chiefly of houses built of light and perishable material, clustering on the banks of the ancient creeks or erected on floating pontoons. The High Commissioner of the Ayuthia division has his headquarters here, and there is a museum containing a good collection of objects of much archeological A^alue recoA^ered from the adjacent ruins. The government offices, jail, hospital, market and raihvay station are all good commodious buildings. Some miles of fairly good roads haA^e recently been constructed but communication is still chiefly by Avater. Ayuthia is connected by rail and river AAntli Bangkok, forty-tAA^o miles distant, and has a considerable trade Avith the capital. The population, about 12,000, is largely devoted to agriculture but there are also many shopkeepers. Under the neAv military arrangements, Ayuthia is the headquarters of a division of the arniAA Other towns: Petriu, on the Bang Pakong river and 30 SIAM connected with Bangkok by rail, is a town of rising importance. Situated in the centre of a fertile district, its rice trade is growing fast and several rice mills have within recent years been erected there. The population which is about 10,000 is Siamese with a strong admix- ture of Chinese. Chantaburi, a few miles up the river which bears its name and which falls into the sea not far from the south-east extremity of Siam, is a small town which, though a very old settlement and of some historical importance, is chiefly remarkable in these modern times for having been occupied by a French garrison from 1893 to 1905, as a check upon supposed Siamese aggression on the eastern frontier. The town is the centre of a small trade, more especially in j)epper, and is the seaport for the gem-mining district situated further inland, the greater part of which, however, now belongs to French-protected Kambodia. The population is. mixed to an extraordinary degree. Many of the inhabitants are Annamese Roman Catholics, the descendants of refugees from aforetime Christian persecutions in Annam. Others are Shan and Burmese, attracted to the neighbourhood by the gem mines while there are a good many Kambodians from across the neighbouring frontier. Chantaburi is the headquarters of an administrative Division. The terminus of the eastern Railway, the oldest line in the country, is Korat, 170 miles from Bangkok, an ancient walled town on the uplands of Eastern Siam. The population, now about 7,000, consists of Siamese, Eastern Lao and Kambodians. The official name of the place is Nakhon Racha Sima or ‘the Frontier Country ’ and, lying between Siam and Kambodia, it Avas formerly subject to periods of Kambodian supremacy. Occasionally also it profited by disturb- ances in the surrounding states to assume independance, but it Avas finally reduced to order and incorporated CLIMATE 31 with. Siam on the opening of the Bangkok era. It is now the headquarters of the Korat Divisions, both civil and military, and of a French vice-consul. It is tbe centre of activity of the sericultural depart- ment and has a growing trade witli Bangkok, chiefly in livestock. Ubon, on the Nam Mnn in far distant Eastern Siam, is a Lao town of considerable size but of which, little is known. Paknampoli at the junction of the rivers of Northern Siam, has acquired some importance since the railway reached it. Raheng, on the Meping, is a timber station and the starting point of a Burmese trade route. Ang Tong and Saraburi are places in Central Siam with a fair amount of trade, the former in rice and the latter in livestock and other produce of Eastern Siam. Phrapatum and Ratburi in the south-western district of Central Siam are interesting both on account of their past history and their present activity. vSukhothai, Sawankalok, Pitsanulok, Ivampeng Pet, Nakhon Sawan, Suphanburi and Lopburi, the sites of ancient capitals and fortified places, are all of much archeological interest, but as modern towns are of no particular importance. The Climate Temperatiwe . — The temperature of Siam, though the country lies entirely within the northern tropic, is con- siderably affected by peculiar local conditions and there- fore varies very perceptibly in different localities. On the plains of Central Siam, between the months of February or March and October, the sea wind blow^s from the south or south-west almost continuously, mitigating the heat of the days and rendering the nights comparatively cool. During this period, which comprises the hot and the rainy seasons, the temperature rarely rises above 98° fahr. or falls below 7 9° fahr. From the end of October 32 SIAM to February, the so-called cold season, the wind blows from the north-east when the maximum temperature may reach 92° fahr. and the minimum fall as low as 54° fahr. Formerly the climate of Bangkok city was very similar to that of the surrounding plains but during the past few years a change has become noticeable. Sir John Bowring in his book on Siam, gives statistics of the temperature of Bangkok over the period 1840 to 1847, during which the maximum temperature registered was 97° fahr. and the minimum 54° fahr. Observations of a much later date give results very similar to the above but the statistics of the last ten years or so show an almost continual increase in the average daily range and at the present time, while the minimum temperature remains much as it used to be, the maximum reaches 105° or 106° fahr. each year during the hot weather and 100° fahr. during almost every month of the other seasons. The causes of this climatic change have not hitherto been explained but it is possible that they may be found in increase of population, in the substitution of bricks and tiles for timber and thatch as house-building materials, or in the draining of marshes in and around the city. In Northern Siam owing to the absence of the sea breezes and to greater radiation, intense mid-day heats followed by cool nights are the rule, the mean maximum standing about 3° higher and the mean minimum about 4° lower than on the plains further south. The wide, shallow basin of Eastern Siam, cut off by its surrounding hills from the cooling breezes from the south and west and with its bare laterite soil exposed to the full heat of the sun, is subject to terrific heats which scorch up the land, burn off the thin vegetation and reduce great tracts of country to charred and arid wastes, while the wide range of daily tempera- MEl'EOllOI.OGY 33 ture caused by excessive radiation, renders the climate generally nnhealtliy. It is in Southern Siam that the mildest climate and also the lowest average range of temperature prevails. There, with sea winds blowing across the peninsnla alternately from west and east, the thermometer rarely falls below 1)8° fahr., scarcely ever rises, even at the hottest time of the year, above 05° fahr,, the daily range seldom exceeding 14° fahr., and often during the wet season amonnting to no more than 3° fahr. In Central, Northern, and Eastern Siam there are three distinct seasons, the hot weather, the rains, and the cold weather. The first extends from Eebrnary, or 5Iarch to May, the second from Jnne to October, and the third covers the remaining four months of the 3 ^ear. When the north-east winds blow strong, the cold weather is very marked and, thongh the actual temperature is not below the average summer heat of Europe, causes some inconvenience to the peoiple of the countr 3 v At times, however, the seasonal winds fail and when this hapi^ens the cold weather is scarcely to be distinguished from the hot. In the louder part of Southern Siam there are two seasons only, the hot weather which lasts from Fel)ruaiy to August, and the rains extending from September to January, the lieight of the wet season falling in Deceml)er, a month which is almost invariably quite Avithout rain in Central Siam. South of the toAvn of Chumporn there is no cold season, but occasionally the thermometer may fall below 08° fahr. for one or tAvo nights in January or Februaiy. Rainfall . — The rainfall of Siam varies a good deal in the different parts of the country. In Southern Siam and on the Chantaburi coast the aA^erage is not far short of 100 inches for the year ; in Northern Siam it is al^out GO inches, and in the neigh])ourhood of Bangkok about 50 inches. Until a feAv years ago the Government c 34 SIAM collected no rainfall-statistics bnt records liave long been kept at the consulates, and by business firms and private individuals, and tliese having been carefully collected and tabulated by the Royal Irrigation Depart- ment, and compared with the regular statistics of recent years, give what appears to be a fairly correct average over a long period. The comparative smallness of the rainfall in Central Siam is undoubtedly due to the influence of the great western mountain ranges which gather the clouds of the south-west or rain-bearing monsoon, and cause the precipitation on their summits and slopes of the greater part of the rain which would otherwise be distributed more equally over the whole country. The rainfall is not entirely confined to the wet season, for in the neighbourhood of Bangkok showers fall at intervals during the cold and the hot seasons, while towards the west and in Southern Siam the fall amounts sometimes to several inches during the hot weather months. Snow never falls anywhere in Siam, not even upon the highest mountain peaks of the north but hailstorms, though of very rare occurrence, are not altogether unknown. The beginning of the wet season is usually heralded b}" a series of severe squalls and thunderstorms accom- panied by heav}^ rain, which sweep down from the western heights and sometimes cause damage to property on the plains. During the months of September and October, heavy gales almost of cyclonic violence are met with in the gulf, but accidents to the shipping constantly plying there to and from Bangkok are very rare. AVaterspouts are occasionally seen both at sea and over the flooded marshes of the plains. At the lower extremity of Southern Siam, in the districts bordering on the British-protected Malay States, the memory of a devastating cyclone which caused great destruction of property about thirty years ago, still FLORA 35 remains with the country-people, who refer to it con- tinually when fixing the dates of occurrences in the lives of the last two generations. SCIEXCE Flora The Flora of Siam is a subject which has hitherto received practically no attention at all, either from the Siamese themselves or from botanists of other nationality. A few lists of plants in the vernacular recorded for their medicinal or supposed magic qualities and stray writings from peripatetic German scientists, not of the first order, constitute the only literature touching the matter, and it is probable that there is scarcely an individual actually residing in the country who has ever given more than the most cursory attention to this important subject. Owing to the physical nature and geographical position of the country the Flora much resembles that of Burma in Xorthern Siam and that of Malaya in the western parts of Central and throughout Southern Siam, and hence a general idea of the Siamese Flora may be obtained by a study of the botanical works concerning those adjacent countries. The classification of plants peculiar to the country, of Avhich there is doubtless a large numljer, presents, however, an almost untrodden field for the energies of future enthusiasts, ^jending whose coming the botanical secrets of the country, some of which are possibly of much economic value, remain undisclosed. The Siamese Flora is almost entirely tropical, for it is only upon the upper slopes and summits of a few of the highest mountains that ])hints peculiar to a temperate 36 SIAM climate are to be found, and even there only a few species are represented, intermingded with the tropical forms. The tropical Floia is, however, very large and comprehensive, for the natural features of the conntry, the low-lying seashores and the swamps, marshes, meres and creeks of Central Siam, the rivers, hills and moun- tains of Northern Siam, the hot, dry uplands of Eastern Siam and the hnmid atmosphere of the monntains, valleys and plains of Sonthern Siam, provide all the ^aarions conditions most favourable to* the growth of plants of widely different nature and requirements. The folloAving list of the botanical orders repre- sented in the Flora of the conntry sets np no claim to anything like completeness, but it is possible that, in the absence of any other, it may occasionally be of nse Avhere the more elementary aspects of the subject are concerned. Angiosperms. — DiaotyJedonous Orders. — Tlie Bcinun- culacece form a very poorly represented order, having apparently no members in any x^art of Siam excex>t the north Avhere, amid the semi-temx)erate A^egetation of the nx^per slox^es of the higher monntains, sx^ecies of CroAA^s- foot and Clematis occur. A small Clematis, rather like TraAmller’s Joy, is cnltiAmted in gardens in the south bnt is not indigenous. Of the order Magnoliacece- the chief examxDle is the Chamx^ac (Miclielia Chavipaca) of AAdiich tAvo sx)ecies, Avith yelloAv and AAdiite floAvers resx^ectively, are common in Sonthern and Central Siam and are largely cultivated in gardens for their sAAmet scented floAvers. The Anonacece are Avidely diffused. The cnstard- apple in Northern, Central, and Eastern Siam and the Bullock’s heart in Sonthern Siam, are common fruits, Avhile several species of Artahotrys groAV Avild in the j Tingles of the latter xiart and are cultivated in all parts of the conntry for their fragrant bnt insignificant- FLORA 37 looking flowers and for their handsome foliage, as trees, climhers and shrubs. The waters of Central Siam ahonnd with s])ecies of the order Nyniphaeacece ; Nyinphaea Lotus the White Waterlily and N. vnhra, a variety with beantifnl deep red flowers, are common thronghont the country in almost eveiy piece of standing water. The tall NdiDuhiuni Waterlily, locally known as J)auh Biia or Fatlium, and in English as the Sacred Lotus, also belonging to the N yuiphaeacece, is found in the muddy shallows at the edges of rivers and in all the marshes and ponds of Central Siam which are beyond the reach of sea water. Its beantifnl rose-pink blossoms, which stand up well above the surface of the water, are very mnch admired by the Siamese and, as a sacred emblem of Buddhism, are constantly reproduced in paintings, wood-carving and metal-work. The roots and seeds are nsed as food and the leaves, Avliich are peltate and almost round, sometimes take the place of dishes. The petals of the flowers are mnch nsed as the outside wrappers of native cigars. The order Crueiferce does not ap})ear to be represented in the wild state at all. A few species are cultivated in the north for the oil of the seeds or for the edible cpialities of the leaves, stem or roots. The Cabbage and other allied plants of the order are diflicnlt to raise in Central, and impossible in Sontliern, Siam. The Violaceai are represented l)y a small Dog A^iolet which is found occasionally on the slopes of the higher monntains of Northern Siam, apjiearing in clearings after the crops of hill-rice have been reaped, and I)}" the species of the genus Alsodein, an arborescent plant with small regular flowers, which is common in Sonthern Siam. Of the order Guttiferce the genns Gareinra has several s^Decies in Siam, principal among vdiich are the 38 SIAM Mangosteen and the Gamboge. They are all trees with smooth leathery leaves and more or less coloured, resinous juice. The fruit of at least three species indigenous to Southern Siam is eaten, but none of these can compare with the cultivated Mangosteen, considered by many to be the most delicious fruit in the world. Extracts from these plants are used in medicine as astringents. The order Diptei^ocarpece includes many forest trees native to Siam, one of which, Tlopen odorata (Siamese, Mai Taliien) is, after teak, one of the finest timber trees of the country, producing also a fragrant resin used in medicine as an astringent, and for making pitch. The order Malvacece is largely represented. Hibiscus of many species grow wild and others are cultivated for their beautiful flowers. H. esculentus, the Ladies’ Finger, is one of the commonest vegetables. Bombax mcdabaidciun, a tree 'which grows to an immense size in Central, Northern, and Eastern Siam, producing brilliant red flowers and pods containing a coarse cotton, is of frequent occurrence. Several species of Gossypium, though not apparently indigenous, are cultivated. A large herbaceous mallow with conspicuous yellow flovcers is a common wild plant in the fields and open lands round villages and there are several other species, some of which grow into large semi-woody shrubs. Lastly, the ‘ Durian,’ a great tree the fruit of which is mucli prized, is cultivated in Southern and Central Siam, but is absent from the Northern and Eastern districts. The order Oxalidacece- includes small plants, the commonest of which is Oxalis cornieulata, a weed with trefoil leaves and small yellow flowers which grows in great abundance on waste lands, in gardens, and in the rice fields after the crops have been reaped. The Rutaceae (sub-order Aurantiaceae) comprise the FLORA 89 Bael, tlie Orange family and the Woodapple. The first and last are found wild in Southern and Central Siam and possibly in the other parts as well, while the Orange family is represented by a great number of cultivated species and varieties. The Bael fruit is used in medicine as an astringent and the Woodapple {Feronia elepliantiim) provides a A^ery hard timber. Of Pummelos, Limes, Lemons and Oranges, each district produces its oaaui varieties, all of Avhich differ more or less from the fruits of this Avide-spread genus which are knoAAm in Europe. Southern Siam contains many species of the order Meliacece, of Avhich the Langsat and the Ramhutan, cultivated for their fruits and apparently indigenous in the country, are perhaps the best known. Melia Azedaracli, sometimes called the Persian Lilac, is also common and many large trees found in the jungles of the South and in the Avest part of Central Siam also belong to this order. The Nim, a tree of the Meliacea% the bark of Avhich yields a medicinal extract useful in cases of fever, is frequent in the jungles of Northern Siam. The order RhamnacecE is represented in Northern, Central, and ANestern Siam l)y the Zizijplius Jujuha, a bushy tree, A^ery thorn}’, Avith small, round, smooth leaA’es and bearing annually a large quantity of fruit rather bigger than a cherry and of a yelloAV or rosy colour when ripe. The fruit is edible but is not of much account. The tree grows wild in great profusion in the plains and open country but is not found in the thick jungle nor anyAAdiere in Southern Siam. The order SapindacecB includes species of trees, the fruits of Avhich make a lather Avith AAUter and are therefore used as soap. Several species are common in Northern and Central Siam. The order also includes the Lychee or Litchi and the Lam Yai, both cultivated 40 SIAM for fruit and tlie latter j^ossibly peculiar to Siam, and several closely allied wild species. Gavdios'pevmum Jlalicacahum, a very common climbing herbaceous ] )lant, remarkable for the large inflated capsules enclosing its fruit, also belongs to this order. The Anacardiaceae include the Mango which is culti- Auted in endless Amriety in Northern, Central and Eastern, but scarcely at all in Southern, Siam though of the many indigenous wild species which inhabit the country the greater number are native of the South. A common Avild mango is found as a tree of great size in many of the forest districts and is quite distinct from the mango A\diich has escaped from cultivation and become Avild in the neighbourhood of villages. The Amrieties called Paidi and Machang or Bachang in Malay, Avith Amry inferior fruit, groAv almost, if not quite, Avild in Southern Siam AAdiere they both appear to be indigenous. The Spondias mangifera Avhich is knoAvn to the English in India as the Hog-j)lum, is a natiAm of the jungles of Northern, Central and Eastern Siam, AAdiile S. didcis, (Siamese, Ma Prang) a fine tree bearing apricot-coloured fruit liaAdng an agreeable acid- SAveet flavour, is ciiltiA^ated in the fruit gardens round about Bangkok. In Central Siam the Mango has been deAmloped by cultivation into a great number of varieties, the fruits of which riAml the best Indian and Burmese kinds. Anacardium. occidentale, a small untid}" looking tree, Amry common in Southern Siam, has a peculiar fruit formed of the much enlarged floral recejAtacle Avith a hard, kidney-shaped seed attached to the end of it and quite exposed. This fruit is called Jamhu Keterek in Malay and is eaten, though its scent Avhen ripe is much superior to its taste. SeAmral Avild species of the genus MeJanorrhoea, belonging to this order, are in- digenous and yield valuable Avood-oils much used for making pitch, Amrnish, etc. FLORA 41 Tlie order Leg urn ino see-, witli its sub-orders Pap- ilionaceae, Caesalpinece, and Mimoseae, is largely represented in Siam. The first sub-order includes the Indigo, the CrofaJaria and a host of vetches, beans and pulse, both wild and cultivated, and also the Clitovia Ternatea, a delicate climbing plant with flowers, blue, purple or white, resembling a large sweet-pea, which grows wild in profusion in Northern, Central and Eastern Siam but is rarely seen in the South. The second sub-order contains the Caesalpinia pulcherrinta (Siamese, Hang Nok Yung) grown in all gardens, the Tamarind (Siamese, Hakham) a most graceful tree with fine pinnate leaves, small fragrant flowers and a bean-like fruit, edible though very tart, a tree much used for shade purposes and common in Northern, Central and Eastern Siam though comparatively rare in the South. The Elame-of-the-Eorest, a large tree said to have come originally from Madagascar, and closely allied to Caesalpinm pulcheii'ima, has long been grown in Siam, where its beautiful flowers are much admired. The plant is cjuite acclimatised, many specimens of great age are to be seen, and in a few places it has apparently escaped from cultivation and become wild. Bauliinia acAiminata, a shrub with ^■^retty white flowers common in Southern Siam, belongs to this sub-order, as does another species with small yellow flowers produced in clusters. The sub-order Mimosece- includes the Sensitive plant, veiy common and troublesome as a Aveed in all parts of the country, and many Acacias, of Avliich Cutch, a native of the northern forests, yields a valuable dye. Fithecolohhim cluJce (Siamese, Makham Tete), a small, shrubby tree belonging to this sub-order and of Central American origin, is common in Central Siam, vdiere it is used for ornamental hedging. It has small leaves and a curious tAvisted pod containing black seeds Avhich are eaten 42 SIAM when young and tender. The plant is to he found in many parts of the riverine districts and is well established in the wild state. Siam having no temperate region, is not well off in plants of the order Rosacece. The genus Rosa is represented by two species of wild rose found on tlie northern heights, one a scandent plant with large white flowers and the other a diminutive shrub of incon- spicuous bloom. Attempts are made to cultivate different varieties of rose but, except now and then in the far north, are seldom attended with any degree of success. In Bangkok and Central Siam generally, the common China Rose grows passably well, and a few other kinds appear to be to some extent acclimatised, but the flowers produced are poor and the extreme liability of the plants to the ravages of insects and of disease makes their cultivation scarce worth the time devoted to it. Of the genus Ruhus there- are two or three species of Rasp- berry found on the hill slopes of the north ; Fragaria is represented by a small yellow-flowered strawberry which grows in old clearings on the highest mountains only ; of Drupacece there are no species known, but the srdo-order Pomacece has one species of apple and one of pear, grown in the villages of some of the northern hill-tribes and of a most inferior quality. There is a small shrubby tree belonging to this last sub-order which is common on poor sandy ground in Central, Eastern and Southern Siam, having large thorns, un- attractive yellowish white flowers and a hard fruit resembling a small quince but quite inedible. The order Myrtaeece includes the Guava (Siamese, Farang), a bushy tree supposed to have been originally introduced into the East from America but now so far dispersed over Siam and the neighbouring countries as to appear indigenous there. The Eugenia or Jamhosa, which belongs to this order is much cultivated, more FLORA 43 especially in Sontlierii Siam, where at least three species are grown for the sake of the somewhat insipid and watery fruit. E. malaccensis has large glossy leaves and ornamental crimson filamentons flowers. liiE. alha the flower filaments are pale yellow. De Candolle gives all species of Eugenia as natives of Son them Siam and the Malay Peninsula. Eugenia earyophyllata, the flower hnds of which, when dried, constitute the cloves of commerce, is a plant which thrives in Southern Siam and is probably indigenous there. It belongs to this order as also does, according to some authorities but not to all, the Pomegranate, cultivated in Siam but apparently a native of Persia. Of the order Melastomacece, Melastoma malahatluncum and M. yolyanthuiii are both exceedingly common on waste ground and in open grass-covered spaces. The two species are very much alike, having broadly lanceolate leaves, much veined and covered with bristles which on the under side of the leaf are soft and have the appearance of down, giving a light coloured effect. The leaves are opposite and the stem is surmounted by a bunch of red-purple flowers, each one shaped rather like a wild rose. The fruit, which has a black juice, is eaten but is not of much account. The most prominent plant in Siam of the order Lythraeece is the Lugerstroemia of which several varieties grow in the jungles in all parts of tlie country. They are particularly numerous in Southern Siam where some of the river banks are thickly fringed with them and where, during tlie months of May, June, July and August, their profusion of beautiful mauve flowers is a striking feature of the landscape. Some of the varieties are large trees, others are shrubs. The Henna plant, Laiesonia alha, also belongs to this order and is in- digenous in Southern Siam. The order Onagraeece is represented chiefly by 44 SIAM J nssieua repens, an annual water plant wliicli appears in great quantities floating upon tlie waters of Central Siam as soon as the rains come. It has small and nninteresting flowers. It is probable that many other plants of this order inhabit Siam but they have not been identified. Rliizoplioraeece. A nnmber of species of this order, collectively known as Mangrove, inhabit the salt swamps and marshes round the northern shores of the Gulf of Siam. The}" are trees which root in the mnd and form dense, nnhealthy jungle right to the edge of the sea, and extending for many miles on either side of the month of the river Menam Chao Phaya, afford a depressing first glimj^se of Siam to the visitor aj)proach- ing from the seaward. They are all mnch used for firewood, the greater part of the fuel consumed in Bangkok being cut in the Mangrove swamps and conveyed to the city in boats. The order Comhretacece includes the genus Terminalia of which several sj)ecies are good timber trees in Siam. T. Catappa, the Almond tree, is very handsome, having long horizontal branches with large smooth and glossy leaves, and is mnch used in Bangkok as a shade tree. The fruit is a very hard nut enclosed in a green outer shell ami v ith a kernel tasting some- thing like walnut. The Qnisqualis indica, a climbing shrub, is indigenous in Southern Siam and is cultivated in gardens in all parts of the country for the sake of its axillary spikes of pretty pink flowers, remarkable for their long calyx-tubes. The Passifloracece have several representatives in Siam, the most common of which is a delicate herbaceous ]flant, a tenacious climber, which grows in great pro- fusion on waste ground in Southern, and to a less extent in Central, Siam, having small white flowers of the usual Passionflower formation and green fruits FLORA 45 enclosed in the hirsute persistent calyx. This plant has lately acquired repute as a weed killer and as a covering for the soil of rubber |)lantations in the Malay Peninsula and Southern Siam. The Grevadilla, a large and strong herbaceous climber, with handsome bine and yellow flowers, is a Passionflower indigenous in Southern, and also probably in Central and Eastern Siam. It grows to an immense size, climbing up and covering the highest trees and has a green fruit some- what resembling a vegetal^le-marrow in shape and size ; it is considered by some to be good eating. Other species of Passionflower are indigenous and two or three foreign varieties are acclimatised in the country. The CuGurhitacece are numerous in all parts of Siam both as plants cultivated for their fruit, and wild. They are all climbing or creeping plants and the fruit is invariably in the form of gourds which differ con- siderably in size and other c[ualities. Some are very large, others diminutive, some are rough, othei's smooth ; some long and thin, others short and thick ; some are round, others pol^^gonal ; most are green but some are red or yelloAv ; some are SAveet, others sour, and some are uniA-ersally eaten AAdiile others are rank poison. Small cucumbers, differing placentally from the European A^ariety, Snake-gourds, Bottle-gourds, Pumpkins and AVatermelons are the most common edilffe kinds. Several Avild species Avhich abound in old hill clearings and on open ground near the habitations of men, have brilliant coloured fruit, one small kind, AAdiicIi is eagerly deA'oured l)y l3irds, bear- ing gourds of 1 ) right crimson. The Angular Luff a is a])])arently indigenous in Soutliern Siam. The order Berjoniacece is represented by species indigenous in the evergreen forests. A feAV haA^e been brought under cultivation but local amateurs prefer the ready-made, imported varieties and the iiatiA’es are 46 SIAM therefore neglected. The indigenous species have not been classified and new varieties doubtless await discovery. Papayaeece . — The Papaya which is one of the most common plants grown in the villages all over the country, is a native of tropical South America and the West Indies. No plants of the order are indigenous in Siam. Cactacece . — Of this order a tall strong columnar plant with many deep ribs {Cereus hexagonus) is very commonly seen round villages in many parts of Siam, where it is grown as a hedging plant and partly, perhaps, for the beautiful white flowers which it usually produces in some profusion. Though very widely dispersed it is not a native but is of American origin. No other plants of this order are found in Siam. The Uwhelliferce, though a large order, appears to be scarcely represented in Siam. The Fennel is cultivated and there are a few wild species Avhich can be recognised by the inflorescence, but of Avhich nothing is knoAAm and Avhich possibly have not yet been named. The order Riihiacece includes the Ixora, native of Southern Siam and cultivated as a garden floAver in all parts of the country. One indigenous species has ])ale salmon-coloured inflorescence, another red and a third white. The cultivated varieties are of every shade of yelloAv, pink and red. The Gambir of commerce (Siamese Slii-ziet) is a plant of this order indigenous in Siam Avliere it is also cultivated, the yellow dye Avhicli goes by this name in commerce being an extract obtained by boiling the lea\^es of the plant. The Gardenia, a plant of this order, is much groAvn for its fragrant white flowers but is not indigenous in Siam. Cinchona and Coffee both belong to the Rubiacece but, though grown in the country, are not natives. FLORA 47 Of the order Gompositce, although many species, including Artichoke, Sunflower, Lettuce, Aster, Michael- mas Daisy, Chrysanthemum, Marigold, Gaillardia, Cosmos, Coreopsis and others, are cultivated in gardens, where many of them have become acclimatised and whence not a few have escaped and become wild, yet but a small number of them appears to be indigenous ill Siam. About a dozen small weeds have been enumerated, having blue, white or mauve flowers and belonging to the Tubular sub-order, but no conspicuous flowered plants have been met with, though doubtless many such will ultimately be brought forward. Of the order Plumhaginacece, P. capensis, a foreigner Avith handsome flowers of pale blue, is cultivated, ivliile P. rosea and P. zeylanica are indigenous in Siam. The nathn mrieties are used in medicine and, being hardy plants and capable of considerable development, Avould repay cultivation by floiver gardeners iaAio, hoAvever, neglect them. The Ehenaeeoe is an order represented in Siam by seAnral trees useful for their hard timber and in some cases for the dye vdiich they yield. Diospyros Kaki (Siamese, Satorn) which belongs to this order, is a fruit tree very commonly cultivated in Central and Southern Siam and apparently Avild in the latter locality. It has large and handsome foliage and the fruit, about the size of an aj^ple, has tAvin almond-like stones in the middle, a velvet rind of a yelloAvish russet colour, and flesh of the consistency of a melon. The flavour is insipid to the European palate and eAmi the Siamese find the fruit more pleasing Avhen prepared Avith sugar, coconut milk, etc. To the order Styracece belongs the Sty rax Benzoin, a nati\n of Southern Siam, from Avliich Gum Benzoin is produced. The order does not appear to be otherwise represented. 48 SIAM The order Sapotacece includes Mi)}iusops Kavhi, a large tree native of Sontliern Siam, having fine olive- green foliage and a small yellow fruit, very sweet hut enclosed in a rind containing acrid milky juice. Adiras Sapota (Siamese, Lamot Fcirang) is much cultivated for its fruit which is accounted one of the best in the Far East. The foliage is dark green and in appearance the fruit resembles a potato. It is not native of Siam but there are several indigenous species of the sub- order, the fruit of which, however, is not very interest- ing. Dicliopsis Gutta and other species of the same genus, indigenous in the forests of Southern Siam, yield the gutta percha of commerce. The order Oleacece is represented by Olea fragrans, a shrub with white jasmin-like flowers, small and sweet-scented, common in Central, Eastern and Southern Siam. A double-flowered variety (Siamese, Mali) with a heavy fragrance, is much cultivated and is used for making gailands, scenting drinking-water and tea, etc. This variety is probabl}' a native of China but has long been acclimatised in Siam. The Apocipiacece include the AUamandas, Oleanders, Plumerias, Vincas and the Beaumontia, all of which are extensively grown in Siamese gardens though the first two do not appear to be indigenous in the country. Plumeria acuminata frangipani, a peculiar, much branching tree which grows to a height of about fifteen feet, has thick, soft, fleshy limbs, full of milky sap, dark green lanceolate leaves gathered in tufts, and bunches of pink}-white, heavily scented flowers borne at the ends of the branches, is much grown in gardens and is easily propagated from cuttings. It is a favourite plant in the neighI)ourhood of Buddhist temples and in jMohammedan graveyards. In the dry weather the leaves all fall off though the tree continues to flower, and in this coiiflition it has a mournful and unattractive FLORA 4 !) appearance. Of Vinca, the Periwinkle, two species, one Avhite and one magenta as to the flowers, are found on sandbanks and other open tracts of poor soil, sometimes covering acres of ground and making a brave show with their almost continuous succession of blossom. Beaumontia grandiflora though said to be peculiar to the neighbourhood of Chittagong, has been found, apparently wild, on the islands in the Gulf of Siam and on the mainland in Northern and Southern, but not in Central, Siam. It is a strong climbing plant growing to great size and is much prized for its clusters of large creamy-white floAvers. The Asclepiadacecc are a large order of which many species, including Iloija of many kinds, Tlolostevnna, Calotropis and others, are indigenous in Siam. Per- gidaria odoratissima, the Tonquin bean or West Coast creeper, is much cultivated for its fragrant, drooping clusters of small yelloAA^-green floAvers. Cryptostegia grandiflora, belonging to this order, a large spreading scandent shrub Avith purple cup-shaped floAvsrs pro- duced in pairs is also a fairly common garden plant and has been found Avild in Southern Siam. The Stephanotis, a native of Madagascar, and a plant of this order, thrives in Siam. The order SoJanacece has many representatives. The brinjal, egg-plant or aubergine (Siamese, Macheiia) is cultivated in maii}^ A-arieties almost all over the country, AAdiile closely allied Avild species inhabit AA^aste ground and spring up as Aveeds on cultivated land, bearing fruit AAdiich is often large and sometimes of very quaint shape but nearly alAA^ays inedible. One variety especially, a Aveed of Southern Siam, has a large golden fruit coA^ered Avith regular nodules AA-hich giA^e it a most surprising appearance. Another species, Solamiw macranthum, a spreading shrubby tree, has clusters of large purple floAvers A\diich change into a dirty AAdiite D 50 SIAM after fertilisation. The flowers of all the species are very like those of the potato in shape. The potato, S. tiiherosum, and tomato Ly coper simmi eseulentum (sub- order), are not indigenous in Siam. The genus Datura is represented by D. alba, a common roadside weed with handsome tubular white flowers, and D. fastuosa, rather less common than the last, with immense white flowers tinged with purple, in form resembling three or four candle extinguishers projecting each a little out of the other. Englishmen in India call this plant the Hose-in-hose. The Daturas have handsome foliage and thorny fruits. They yield an extract which in small doses jiroduces intoxication and in large is a deadly poison. Nicotiana, the Tobacco plant, is extensively cultivated in all parts of the country, as are many varieties of Capsicuvi or Chilli. A small wild Chilli, excessively pungent, is indigenous in Siam. The order Convolmdacece is represented by an immense number of plants, all climbers or creepers and many oiaiamented with very beautiful flowers. Ipovwea Batatas the sweet potato, is cultivated in every village. lp>omoea. macrorrhiza, is indigenous in all parts of the country and is often to be seen covering large trees with the masses of its bright purplisli-crimson flowers. I. Pes- caprae, the Goatsfoot Convolvidus, spreads itself over the sandy soil near the sea-shores of Southern Siam, in trailers of immense length and bears handsome pink ilowei’S at all seasons. 1 . liederacea, a delicate climber with large pale blue flowers, is common on waste ground. Argyreia nervosa, a powerful, scandent shrub with large pale mauve-pink flowers is cultivated on trellises in Bangkok. Quainodit vulgaris is apparentl}^ indigenous and is also common in gardens wliere its very delicate foliage and small vivid red flowers are ]uuch admired. The Moon-flower, with large Avhite fragrant flowers FLORA 51 opening at nigiit, is also used as a garden ornament. A host of other species Avith flowers, some large and handsome, others tiny and nnconspicnons, abound eA^erywhere except in the deep evergreen forests. They spring np in deserted clearings as if by magic and AAdierever a fence is made or a stake driven into the ground, a coiiAmlAnilus of some kind Avill very shortly be found climbing upon it. Many varieties have neA^er been identified and some of them are possibly as yet nnknoAAm to the Botanical Avorld. The order Boraginacece contains the Indian Heliotrope, an nnpretentions Aveed AAntli small lilac bine floAvers arranged in a scorpioid inflorescence — one of the most common plants in Siam. It is in floAA^er at all seasons and prefers rubbish heaps and spots AAdiere the soil is rich and dry. Lahiatce. A large order containing the Mint, Sage, Marjoram, Basil and the Colens Avhich can all be groAvn in Siam but are not indigenous. There are, lioAveA^ei’, many Siamese species, common as A\xeds in all parts. The order Verhenacece is represented by a large number of plants of Avidely different general appearance. There are many sx)ecies of the genus CJevodeudron, common in Southern and Central Siam. C. squaw atuui is a jungle x>lant AAotli stem rising some three feet above the ground and bearing a parasol-like expansion of rich green, heart-shax)ed leaves surmounted by a head of blossom like a mass of Imight red corah C, Tliomsoiiae, a pretty little climber, is much admired by the Siamese. The Congea, a poAA^erfnl, scandent ])lant indigenous in all x:»arts of Siam, groAvs to the to]3s of high trees AAdiich it covers Avith its curious but effective dull-red Innctiole blossoms. The ^dant is common in tlie loAA^er districts of North Siam, Avhere, in January and February, it is a striking feature of the jungle. But tlie chief Siamese representatiA^e of this order is the Teak tree AAdiicli 52 SIAM grows profusely in the deciduous forests of the north and furnishes one of the best and most durable timbers known. The order Scroiohiilariaceo^ is not largely represented in Siam and such plants as there are have not been examined or classified. There are several species of the smiall order Utrieulariaceoe indigenous in Siam where they live in the marshes of the Central Plain in great numbers. They are floating plants with small bladders attached to the sul^merged leaves and their flowers, which are produced during the rainy season, are white, blue or yellovr. Many of the larger trees of Siam belong to the order Bicpioniacece. These have usually large dull red flowers and pinnate foliage. Their wood is generally soft and white and of no particular value. Some climbing shrubs of the order have been introduced into the country for the sake of their handsome flowers. To the order Pedaliacece belongs the Sesamum of commerce, two varieties of which are cultivated in Siam. Other rei^resentatives of the order are not known. The order Acanthacecc is represented by herbs and shrubs, many of Avliich have very beautiful flowers. Thunhergia grandi flora, indigenous in all parts of the country, is a strong climbing plant with fine heart- shaped foliage and wide-expanded pale blue flowers carried on long drooping spikes. T. laurifolia is also a native, with habits very similar to the last but with lanceolate leaves and flowers of a darker blue. There are several species remarkable for the arrangement of the flowers in wheatear-like heads. The order LorantJiaceoc, genus Viseiim, the mistletoe, has two species common in Siam as parasites growing FLORA 53 Upon large trees of all kinds. The roots are firmly attached to the host beneath the bark, and a tree once infested by this jiest soon loses its strength and dies. The seeds are covered with a viscid X3ulp which enables them to adhere to the twigs of trees with wliich they come in contact when falling from the parent. Of the order Fiperacea?, most of the species are indigenous in Sontliern Siam on both the east and west sides of the gulf. Piper P)etle (Siamese, Phlu) is cultivated extensively, the lear^es being used for chewing with the Areca nnt. The x')lant is a vine, grows best in the shade and requires a good deal of water. The leaves are a dee}3 glossy green and liaAm a x^leasaiitly X3imgent aromatic taste. Of P. longiuu, a similar X)lant, the dried flower s^iikes are known as long jiepper. Piper nigrum, the pe^Dper vine, (Siamese Prik), is cultivated in the divisions of Piiket and CUiantabnri. At one time all the }3ex3i)er of commerce came from Siam. The order Euphorhiaeece includes the croton, the castor-oil X3lant and others well known in Siam. Many sx3ecies are indigenous notab A E. anti quorum , a leaf- less cactus-like tree, very common on ]3arren uncultivated land in Xorthern and Eastern Siam. Some vflld herbaceous s}3ecies strongly resemble the English nettle in appearance, flflie tax)ioca, much cultivated in Southern Siam and re])orted indigenous tliere, l3elongs to this order. The order Casuarinaeece is represented by G. mmri- cata AYliich grows on the sandy seashores of Southern Siam on both sides of the gulf. It is a tree which attains to great size and has a hard and dural)le wood which, however, has not hitherto been found of an}- particular use. The young ''oranches present the peculiar apx3earance of the branched Equisetacear flflie leaves are mere scales and a tree, at a distance, gives 54 SIAM the effect of a firtree, more especially when the sea hreeze is heard songhing through its branches. Upon the new sandbanks Avhich constantly form round about the months of the riA^ers of Sonthern Siam, the Casiiaiina is nsnally the first plant to make its ax)pearance. The order Artoearpacece includes, of Siamese plants, the Jackfrnit, the Breadfruit, and many Figs. The Jackfrnit, (Siamese, Kanoii) is to be found in the neigh- bourhood of most Aollages, and is easily distinguished l)y its smooth dark foliage and pale green fruits the size of a football, borne on the trunk or thicker branches. The Breadfruit, (Siamese, Sake) is less common, and is mostly confined to the soiith. Of Figs the most remarkable species are Ficus I'eligiosa, F. indica, and F. elastica. The first is the sacred Boh tree of Buddhism, and is common in Central, Northern, and Eastern Siam, AAdiere it is found round about Aullages and in the immediate neighbourhood of most temples and jiagodas, frequently, in fact, groAAnng upon these last, the seeds liaAong been dropjAed by birds into cracks in the masoniy. F. indiea, the Banyan is common in the forests of the north AAdiere it groAA^s to an immense size. F. elastica has many Amrieties common in the jungles CA^eryAAdiere, but more especially in Southern Siam, AAdiicli yield rubber only a little less valuable than that of the best rubber-producing trees of the AA'orld. Of other Fig trees there are many AAnld indigenous species all of A\diich are to be identified by the characteristic structure of the fruit. In some the fruit is borne on the trunk or thicker branches, in others in the axils of the leaA^es, and in others again at tlie liottom of tlie trunk, sometimes almost under- ground. The fruit of many sjiecies is edible but is usually insipid. The order Lauracece includes the Cinnamon and ( hmphor trees, the former groAAnng to great size in the FLORA 55 evergreen forests, and the latter apparently confined to the Sonthern districts. The hark of the forest Cinnamon tree is exported in large thick slabs. The Nutmeg of commerce is obtained from a tree {Myristica fragrans), of the order MyristicacecE which is very conimonl}^ cultivated in Southern Siam, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. It does not, however, appear to have been found wild on the mainland. The seed is invested by a peculiar integument which develops beneath the outer shell after fertilisation, has a netted appearance and is known in commerce as Mace. The AmarantacecE include the Cockscombs and Loi-e- lies-bleeding which do well in gardens in Siam, and also a large number of weeds found on all rough ground, one of which is used as a sul^stitute, a very poor one, for spinach. A . salicifoUus is grown in gardens for its striking red plume of drooping leaves. The order Nyctaghiacem does not a^jpear to have any indigenous representatives in Siam, but the magnificent Bougainvillea climbing shrul3, a South American plant, is acclimatised and is to be found in many gardens. Axgiosperms. Monocotyledonous Orders.- — ^Of the oy(\qy Amaryllidaeece the genus Amaryllis is not very widely represented in Siam though there are a fevc species to be found, more especially in the north, the flowers of wliich are very beautiful. The genus Cidnuin, on the other hand lias many species but less handsome flowers. The plants of the latter genus are partial to damp soil in the neighbourhood of water, and they are more numerous in the southern than in other parts of the country. C. asiatieum is ve]y common and frequently attains great size. Some of the rivers of Southern Siam are fringed with it for miles. Many smaller species liaise been noted including one with large pale pink flowers a good deal after the pattern of the Amaryllis. 56 SIAM The order Dioscoridece, which includes the Yams, has many examples in Siam, all herbaceous climbing plants. Wild species are found in the jungles, and some of them have tubers which are considered by the country- people to be good food. Dioscorea alata and D. rubella are much cultivated for their large white tubers. The order Brorneliacece is represented by the Pine- apple only ; imported to the East at some remote date from America, and now naturalised in Siam as in all other neighbouring countries, it is one of the commonest fruits of the bazaars. The order Hydrocharidem contains only aquatic herbs, species of which are common in the inland waters of Central Siam. Hydrilla vertieillata, a plant of this order, is used in sugar-refining. The order Scitaminem is one of the most widely diffused in Siam. The plants are all herbs, very often of robust, arborescent nature. The sub-order Zingiheracece includes the Ginger, Cardomums, Curcumas, Alpineas, and others, species of which grow wild in great pro- fusion, sometimes covering large areas as forest undergrowth, while many are cultivated. Most of the plants have fine handsome flowers and all are aromatic. The sub-order Marantaeeoe includes Ganna, Arrowroot and Sital, all indigenous in the country. Of wild Ganna there are apparently two species only, one having green leaves and small yellow flowers and the other copper coloured leaves and red flowers. It is from these insignificant plants that the hundreds of beautiful varieties now to be seen in this part of the world have been evolved. The sub-order Musacece^ is represented by the Banana or Plantain and allied species. There can be little doubt that the Plantain is indigenous in Siam, for it is frequentl}^ encountered in a wild state, with quite inedible fruit in the evergreen forests and in other localities whither it is difficult to believe that it FLORA 57 can have escaped from cultivation. Many of the innumerable varieties which are cultivated may, how- ever, have been introduced from abroad. The genus Heliconia is grown in gardens for its foliage. Urania, the Traveller’s Palm, is also used as a garden ornament. The order Orchidece is represented in all its sub- orders, species of Epidendrece and Vanda being the most numerous. The deciduous forests of the north, and the forets dairieres of the east are the regions where they chiefly abound, great areas of jungle in these parts being aflame with the colour of their blossoms at certain seasons of the year. In Central and Southern Siam the order is not so well repre- sented, but many varieties of Vanda thrive in the former locality while both Vanda and species of ' Uendrobium, a genus of Epidendrece, are common in the latter, especially I>. angidatum, the Pigeon Orchid, which flowers every two or three months. Though the Orchids of Siam are apparently very similar to those of Burma, which have been so well described by Bartle, Grant and others, yet a careful study of them ^vould be a labour of the greatest interest and value, and would probably bring many new A^arieties to light. The order Liliaceee, considering the great number of sub-orders and species A\diich l^elong to it, is not well represented. Perhaps the commonest Avild species is Gloriosa superha, AAdiich is to be seen toAA^ards the end of the dry season and at the beginning of the rains, a delicate climbing plant, frequenting the hedges and scrub jungle of Central, Xorthern and Eastern Siam, the A^ery beautiful red and yelloAv perianth of its blossom making a dash of bright colour against the surrounding foliage. The Indian Aloe and the Onion family, belonging to this order, are groAvn in all parts of the country but it is not clear that any of the species 58 SIAM are indigenous. On tlie slopes of the higher mountains of the north a tall and graceful lily, with several large yellow flowers at the top of a leafy stem, is common during the early part of the dry weather. The F ontedeviacece are aquatic plants of which one species with small blue flowers borne on a long stem and at the foot of a large, leafy bract is ver,y abundant in the marshes and inland waters of Central Siam. The Commelinaeece include Cyanotis, a prostrate plant with purple leaves and stem, and Tradeseantia, or Spider-wort, varieties of both of which appear to be indigenous amongst the damp undergrowth of the evergreen forests. The order Palmar is a very large one and is well represented in Siam, more especially in the South. The Coconut Palm of many varieties thrives exceedingly in all the seaside districts of Southern Siam, but does not do veiy well in other parts. The Palmyra or Sugar Palm, on the other hand, flourishes in Central and Eastern Siam, where both sugar and the intoxicant known as Tari or Nam Tan is extracted from it, but is not often seen in the South. The delicate and graceful Areca Palm is common in most parts and many species closely allied to this last, grow wild in much profusion in Southern Siam and are much sought after by amateurs for the beauty of their foliage. Another wild kind furnishes the clnb-rooted stems which are sold under the name of ‘Penang Law}^er.’ The Nihong, whose tall thin stems grow in clumps, each one surmounted by a large tuft of very gracefully drooping pinnate leai^es, is a handsome Palm, a native of Southern Siam, where it is extensively used in house construction. The genus Calamus or Ratan has species among the commonest of jungle plants in all parts of the country, but more especially in Southern Siam where there are upward of twenty varieties. FLORA 59 Some of these grow to immense length and thickness and all are of commercial value, though one or two species command a mnch higher price than the others. Their handsome pinnate leaves being arjned with sharp thorns and their habits being scandent, the Ratans interlace themselves with other trees and tlins form the impenetrable tliickets which are characteristic of many Siamese forest districts. The fruits of some species are eaten but are neither wholesome nor very palatable. The Sago Palm grows wild in great profusion in the inland creeks of Southern Siam, but the Sago produced from it is not of the first order. The Fandanaceae include the Screwpines and the Kipa, both indigenous in Siam. Of the former several species are used for weaving very beautiful boxes, mats, baskets, etc., which are made from strips of the long strap-like leaves. Some grow far inland but the commonest kinds are found on the seashore, one, Avhich flourishes on all the beaches of Southern Siam, being remarkable for its large, golden, pineapple-like fruits, which hang beneath the spreading branches of the tree. The plant is sometimes used for hedging in the rice fields. The fruit is not edible. The leaves of this order are spirally developed on the stem, Avhence the name Screwpine, and wben young the,y have a pleasant, penetrating odour. The Nipa grows wild in a fringe along all the brackish creeks and rivers of the littoral districts of the countiy. It presents the pinnate leai^es of a Palm and the in- florescence of a Pandanus. Though it has no visil)le stem its foliage is A^ery liandsome and is a considerable factor in the scenery of the maritime districts. The fruit is eaten and is also used for the manufacture of a strong intoxicating drink . The leaAXs are largely used for thatching. The order Aroideae include the Ai'iim, Cidadium and 60 SIAM other similar genera. A large number of species of Arum grow wild, frequenting dark shady spots. In fields and gardens they are among the first weeds to appear and the most difficult to eradicate. They are of all sizes and man}^ of them have large and beautiful foliage though the characteristic inflorescence consist- ing of minute flowers borne on a spadix and sheathed in a spathe, is usually uninteresting. The stems and corms of more than one species are used as food. Varieties of Caladium, some indigenous and some foreign, are cultivated for their foliage. The sub-order Pistaeeo? compasses aquatic plants float- ing free on the surface of the water. Pistia Stratiotes, sometimes called the water lettuce, a circular plant with bright green leaves rising about three inches above the surface of the water and having a mass of filamentous roots depending below, is very abundant on the waters of Central Siam, d’he appearance of this plant, often in large and compact masses, floating on the current of the main rivers, is a sure sign of rising waters in the interior for, with the first swelling of the meres and marshes where it grows, thousands of plants are floated out and find their way into the rivers, a process which continues so long as the Avater is rising and reaching further out over the land. Minute plants of the order Lemnacece, some Avith roots and some AAoth- out, form the green scum to be seen on stagnant pools at certain seasons. Another floating plant AAdiich appears in great quantity on the rising Avaters of the rivers is Eielihornia speciosa, the Water Hyacinth (Siam. Pak Jawa) AAffich groAvs in great abundance on all inland AA^aters, and, Avlien in floAver, covers the entire surface of marshy pools Avith its beautiful mauve flower-spikes. The inflor- escence is A^ery fugitiA^e, lasting a feAV hours only and AAdien faded, the flower stem immediately turns doAAui FLORA 61 under water, apparentl}^ in order that the seed may not become dry and so die. Curiously enough, however, the plant does not pro2:>agate itself from seed but by offsets. The arrow-head leaves of Sagittaria Sagittifolia, a plant of the order Alismaceae, are to be seen in the marshy lands of most parts of the country and other species of the various genera of this order, which includes the Rushes, are common. The order Cyperaceae, including the Sedges, is numerously represented. The Carex replaces grass on wet ground and a tall Sedge, called in Siamese Yah Song Kratiem, infests the rice fields of Lower Central Siam to an extent which sometimes seriously interferes with agriculture, the plant, unless its roots are most carefully removed from the soil before seed- sowing, springing up with great rapidity and choking the young rice. The order Grooniineae, the plants of which are dis- tinguished from the Sedges by their hollow, jointed stems, is a large one and includes a great number of Siamese plants, ranging from the giant Bamboo to the most diminutive grass. Of the domesticated genera, besides rice which is grown in vast quantities in eveiy district, maize, millets of several kinds and sugar-cane are largely cultivated. Wheat, Barley, Oats and Rye are cereals unknoAvn to Siam, though the first Avould probably thriA^e if cultiAmted in the north. The Bamlioo of Avhich there are many A^arieties, is put to an extra- ordinary number of uses, supplying the material for house-building and almost all domestic utensils of the peasantr3v I'he 3:oung shoots are also used for food. Gymnospekms. — Of the three orders contained in this group, Gnetacece, Coniferce and Cycadacea^, the first is unrepresented in Siam and the other tAvo liaA^e a]>parently only one species each. On tlie higher lands near the northern frontier a large kind of fir tree is found, and 62 SIAM in Southern Siam one kind of Cycad, a curious, short, fern-like tree with a thick stem, is fairly common in the deep jungles. Cryptogams. — The Vascular Cry'ptogaws. — Ferns are few in Central and Eastern Siam and in the north are largely confined to the evergreen forests. In Southern Siam, however, they are numerous as individuals though even here the species are not many. The most notice- able is a coarse-branched Polypodium about three feet in height, which covers the ground in many localities after the manner of bracken and is found in large jiatches sometimes of many acres in extent. Other Polypodia, Hart’s Tongues, a few species of Adiantum (Maiden Hair) and many large-growing and curiously shaped arboreal ferns are common. A species of Lycjodium, a graceful climbing fern, is very common in the south, as is also a handsome climbing Selaginella, a moss-like plant with a curious metallic sheen on its green leaves in certain lights, probably S. hieolor, which grows rampant in the shady glades and orchards. Mnscinece.- — Ileyond the fact that many species exist, very little is known of the mosses of Siam. They occur in all parts of the country but more especially in the evergreen forests, and in Southern Siam where the a]3sence of a dry season is fai^ourable to their existence. It is probable that all the species found in tropical India are represented. Most of the large forest trees are infested with them, those on the tops of the northern mountains and in other particularly damp localities Ijeing frequently draped with the long weepers of the coarser kinds. ThaUophytes. — This group comprises the Algm and Fungi of wliidi, thougli they abound in all parts of Siam, no more seems to be known than of the Mosses. Of a\Iushrooms, edible and otherwise, the bracket-shajoed Polypori, the Puft'-ljalls, Earth-stars and other species FAUNA 63 are evident to tiie casual observer and tlie same may be said of many of tlie lesser kinds of Fungi wliicli attack deca};ing animal and vegetable matter and, during tlie rainy season, find a lodgment on boots, books, and in other similar places where their presence adds to the trials attending hnman existence. As regards the lowest orders of the vegetable kingdom, tlie Bacilli, Bacteria, etc., a Bacteriological Laboratory at Bangkok is making explorations and investigations amongst these, wliich may be expected, to gii^e valuable informa- tion as to the identity, nature and habits of the forms present in Siam. Fauna The study of the Fauna of Siam has liitherto been almost entirely neglected and no book dealing exten- sively with the subject has ever been written. The works of Mason and Oates on Burma and of AVallace on the Mala}^ Archipelago have no counterpart in Siam thongli, had the ill-fated French naturalist Mouhot lilted to complete his explorations and to coinjiile a record of his observations, this want would doubtless have been supplied. As it is the notes of Mouhot, Haase, and Fischer, and random papers by other more or less enthusiastic amateurs, constitute the only literature on the subject, which, from the geograxihical position of the country, is undoubtedly one of great scientific interest and importance. In vieiv of this paucity of ai^ailable information, it is impossible here to attempt more than a brief enumera- tion of the most noticeable species of the various orders, based upon the above mentioned fragments and upon the intermittent investigations of an untrained observer. 64 SIAM Mammals The order Quadrumana is re j) resented by one genus of ape, several of monkeys and one of lemur. The white- handed Gribbon {Hylohates Lai”) is an anthropoid ape, about three feet high, tailless, with very long arms and legs, the adult males black or ochre-brown and the females and young white or grey, and is common in the remoter jungles. The black Gibbon (H. Hoolok) closely resembling the white-handed Gibbon in all but colour is also found in most parts of Siam, but is less common than the latter. Of the Macaques there are at least five sjDecies, the most common being the Crab- eatiiig monkey found everywhere near the sea shore, the little brown-grey, long-tailed monkey and the red- brown short-tailed monkey. All these three have cheek pouches. Of the ‘Langurs’ {Semnopitheeus) two species are known and probably many more exist. The ‘ Lutong ’ is fair]}" common and grows to great size and strength. The ‘ Langurs ’ have no cheek pouches. The single specimen of Lemur, a small, tailless, nocturnal animal Avith sharp nose, very large eyes, soft fur and a long sharp-pointed nail on the index finger of one hand, is \"ery common. Gibbons, Macaques, ' Langurs ’ and the Lemur are all frequently kept in captivity. The first are remarkable for their absurd exhibitions of affection toAAurds human beings, the second and third are trained in the south to pick coconuts, and the Lemur is popularly supposed to be gifted Avith second sight and, as its name ‘ Ling Lorn’ (Wind Monkey) indicates, to have in particular a mysterious sympathy Avith the Avind, for AA"hich reason a specimen is frequently carried on board native sailing craft. The order Carnivora is represented by many species MAMIMALS 65 of Cat, two or tliree of Bear, three of Dog and one Otter.. The cats inclncle the Tiger, Leopard, a tree-leopard, and several smaller ‘cats,’ a Tiger Cat, a Wild Cat, a small but very heautifnl Leopard Cat, a Fishing-Cat and probably some others. The Domestic Cats of Siam are of two species ; one very small, brindled and having a peculiar twist in the tail in the form of the letter Z. The other is larger ’with a straight tail and bine eyes, and is of a light fawni colour shading into deep sepia at the points. The first is common thronghont India, the second is peculiar to Siam, and is much sought after b}^ European connoisseurs. The Tree Cat, the Palm Cat, the Lesser Civet (Vwerm Basse), a black and gray striped animal sometimes four feet long, and a small red-brown relative of the last, are all common. The Bears are the small Malay Bear and the Slotli^ — or Indian — Bear. The Himalayan Black Bear probably also occurs in the mountains of Northern Siam. The Domestic Dog is the widel}' distributed pariah. The other species of Dog are the Jackal and Wild Dog, both very rare. The species of Otter is that common throughout the Oriental Region. The order Insect ir ora consists of several species. All are small animals and most are of nocturnal habits. Three species of Mole have been recorded and an ecpial number of Shrews, one of the latter being veiw common and emitting a strong odour of musk. The so-called Fljdng Lemur, {Galeopitheeiis volans) wdiich does not proj)erly fly and is not a Lemur, belongs to this order. It has been found in nearly all parts of Further India and in the Iilalay Archij^elago and is fairly common in Siam. Its peculiarity consists in a lateral extension of the skin on both sides of the body into a loose, furry membrane attached to its limbs, neck and tail ; this membrane, wdien the limbs are E 66 SIAM extended, forms an aeroplane on which, the animal glides through the air. The order Cheiro'ptera is well represented. Some twenty species of Bat have been noted but there are probably many more. The largest is the Flying Fox, very common in all parts of the country but more especially so in the neighbourhood of those places where fruit is largely grown. The Flying Fox is a true Bat, has very fine black fur, changing to red round the neck, and often exceeds three feet in measurement from tip to tip of its extended wings. It has to a great extent lost its insectivorous habits, subsisting mainly on fruit. Many hundreds may often be seen together after sunset, making, with slow and heav}^ flight, for the orchards where fruit is ripening. Bowring remarks that the enormous numbers of Flying Foxes round Bangkok entirely obscured the evening sky when they passed over the city, and brought on a darkness as of night, but Sir John was always poetical. Although this animal is known to naturalists as Pteropus editlis, it is not sought as an article of food in Siam. It is, however, occasionally eaten there when found dead or killed accidentally. There are several other species of fruit-eating bats, but only one of them, {Gynopterus marginatus) about the size of a thrush, is common. The Sheath-tailed Bat, an insect-eater, is very common, large numbers of them inhabiting old temples and caves, where they alternately quarrel and sleep all day and whence they issue at sundown, intent on fly-catching. The floors of some of the caves in the Malayan Provinces and in the neighbourhood of Korat are covered with a layer of bats’ dung several feet thick, which makes an excellent manure and which also provides the salt-petre from which the country people manufacture gunpowder. At least three species of Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus MAMMALS 67 sp.) are known and also one species of Leaf Bat (probably Megaderma spasma). The smallest Siamese Bat is a little yellow animal strongly resembling a large butterfly when on the wing. It is not often fonnd near the haunts of men but frequents forests and the dark aisles of the Elephant-grass jungle. Other members of the order of Insect! v^ora which occur in Siam include the Shrew, a small species, probably the common Garden Shrew, being fairly common and the Rat-tailed Shrew {CvocAdura myosura) very much so. The latter in its night wanderings frequently finds its way into dwelling-houses where the shrill and strident chattering and the equally penetrating musky odour which it emits, more than counterbalance the good which it does in devouring cockroaches and other insects. There are many species of the order of Rodents in Siam. A small grayish-brown squirrel is very common in all gardens, and six other species have l^een observed, most of which remain unclassified. A black squirrel with white belly has been found measuring nearly four feet in length, to which dimensions the tail contributed considerably more tlian. half. A pure white squirrel is also known. A small species with mouse-coloured fur, small ears, thin tail and with yellowish-brown stripes extending from the snout over each eye to the base of the ears, is a common garden pest in and around Bangkok, where it may often be seen pursuing investigations of its own even in the interior of dwelling-houses. All squirrels in leaping from tree to tree spread their limbs to the fullest extent, thereby flattening themselves and obtain- ing some degree of support from the air. In the Fl^dng Squirrels, of which the Taguan {Pteromys petaurista) and two or three other species are known in Siam, the surface thus presented is much increased 68 SIAM by the extension of the skin between the fore and hind limbs, enabling the animal to make long flights or glidings through the air in the same manner as the Flying Lemur. Rats and Mice abound in Siam. The Brown Rat is very common and attains a great size. The Burmese Rat is also found. A large species has recently been noted in Southern Siam which has not been identified and is probably new. The slow-moving Bamboo Rat is often met with and a long-tailed Tree Mouse has heen obtained at Chantahuri. The rattle-tailed species ■of Porcupine is common and this nocturnal animal does much damage to crops planted in jungle clearings. A second species of Porcupine with flattened bristles and long, scaly tail is also occasionally met with. Rabbits are not found in Siam but one species of Flare is fairly common. The order Edentata is represented in Siam by one, or possibly two, species of Pangolin or Scaly Ant-eater, a curious little animal with long narrow body, short limbs and a sharp nose, the whole upper surface of the body, including head and tail, protected by hard, overlapping, horny scales, and the underneath part thinly covered with hairs. It is a terrestrial, burrowing animal which rolls itself into a ball and emits a disgusting odour when attacked. It is eaten by the country people and is considered a delicacy. The order Ungulata or Hoofed Animals contains the Indian Elephant, sometimes placed in a separate order Proboscidea, which is still fairly common. Warington Smyth has remarked a variation of this Elephant found on the strip of land which separates the waters of the Gulf of Siam from those of the inland sea of Singora. This is reddish in colour, does not exceed eight feet in height and has remarkably small head and feet. The variation has probably resulted from long confinement MAJMMALS GO to a small area imder peculiar natural conditions. The odd-toed Ungulates include a small species of horse, two species of Rhinoceros, single-horned and double- horned, and, in Southern Siam, the interesting piebald Malayan Tapir, an animal not known in Asia outside the Indochinese region. This last is a large, swamp- haunting beast with slightly elongated and prehensile snout, of peaceful disposition and nocturnal habits. The piebald markings do not vary in position, every individual having black head and shoulders and white rump. The even-toed Ungulates are represented by one sx3ecies of Pig, four s}3ecies of Cdievrotain, six s^iecies of Ueer and seven of horned-cattle including sheeii and goats. The Pig is the Indian Wild Pig, and is very widely distributed, the domestic pig of Siam being apparenth" descended from it v:ith a crossing of the Chinese domesticated pig. The Chevrotains are commonly called Mouse-deer and are a distinct family allied both to the Pig and the Deer. The four known sx)ecies differ very little from each other. The largest is less than eighteen inches high and the smallest is considerably less than a foot. Uone of them liaiu antlers or horns, but the males are armed with small tusks. The true Deer comx^rise the following : the Mnntjcic or Barking Deer, two sx)ecies, a red animal with a wliite belly, short antlers set on high bony excrescences, and haA'ing dee^^ly marked lines doAAu the sides of the face, the males bearing short tusks ; the Ilog-deer ; tlie Eld’s or BroAA'-antlered Deer, Avith a tine of each antler x^ro- truding doAvnwards and outvrards f^efore the broAV ; the Schomburgk Deer, a handsome animal Avitli much branched antlers found only in Siam, ami finally the IvAvang, Rusa (Malay) or Sambar (Hindi), Aury common and the largest sx^ecies in the country, The Indian Bison or Gaur is found in the remoter mountains. Tlie Banting or AVild Ox is fairly common in the south. 70 SIAM The wild BuiTalo, closely allied to the domestic species^ is said to have been seen. The domestic cow is of the small, humped Indian variety. The Goat-Antelope has frequently been secured and is the same as that found in the Malay States, in Burma, and in the Himalyas. A domestic sheep is bred in the Southern Provinces only, and domestic goats of mixed breed are fairly numerous. The order of Cetaceans is represented by two sjiecies of Dolphin which occur in the Gulf of Siam, and the order Sirenia by the amphibious Dugong, which has been found on the coasts of Southern Siam and of Chantaburi. There is evidence that the existence of this, one of the strangest of mammals, was known to AVestern naturalists many centuries ago, their informa- tion, gleaned from the tales of imaginative travellers, leading them to endow the animal with semi-human qualities and to suppose it to be a sort of Merman. The characteristics which w^ere apparently responsible for their opinion, were the short nose, small rounded head and square-shaped shoulders which, wdien the beast is seen from a distance, half submerged in water, give it a somewhat human aspect ; also the pectoral position of the mammae and the great affection evinced for the young of which only one is produced at a birth. Possibly also the theory of the Siamese that the lost souls of dead and damned fishermen find a habitation in the bodies of Dugongs, may have had something to do wdth the idea. The animals are, however, of the most phlegmatic and cowlike disposition, browsing peacefully upon marine A^egetable growth in the shallows of estuaries, or lying ruminating on the shore near b}^, quite un- troubled by anything in the shape of semi-human aspirations. The males are armed Avith short tusks, suppressed in the females. The lengtli of a full-groAAui Dugong is from eight to ten feet ; the skin is thick, BIRDS 71 black and comparatively hairless, the bod}^ contains a considerable amount of blubber and the meat is much like beef. Birds Siam possesses a large number of s^^ecies of birds re]Dresenting many families. No attempt has, however, been made to compile a complete list of them and very little has been recorded concerning any but those most commonly seen. A brief enumeration of some of these last is all that is undertaken here. Order Passeres . — The House Crow is extremely common in all towns and villages except in Southern Siam where, for some reason, it is comparatively rare. The Jungle Crow, a larger bird, is also fairly common. Magpies occur in the north. The Laughing Thrush, a beautiful white and brown bird, is found in flocks in the deep jungle, where its loud note as of garrulous talking often surprises the traveller. Several species of Bulbul are common. Certain long-tailed brown birds, common in India where they are called the ‘ Sat Bhai ’ (seven brothers) because the,y are (errone- ously) supposed to go in flocks of seven, hauiit the outskirts of villages, as does the Crow Pheasant, or Coucal, a rusty red and black, long-tailed bird, continually crying ‘Foot, Foot.’ Amadavats and Rice Birds swarm in the rice-fields where they are trapped by hundreds and the common SiDarrow is ubiquitous but there are few other Finches. The jet black King-Crow or Racket- tailed Drongo is often seen, the Bird-of-Paradise Fly-catcher, with its beautiful droojiing, white tail-plumage, more rarely. A small, pied Fantail {Rliipidura) is very common and is constantly to be seen catching flies on the wing, at the same time performing complicated aerial gyrations, thereby apparently combining j^leasure with business. 72 SIAM A green and russet fly-catcher, with two long tail feathers, is very common by the rivers, breeding in holes excavated in the banks. The Tailor-bird and other warblers are many, although like most members of this family the}^ do not warble conspicuously. Of the Starling family Golden Orioles are sometimes seen and Mynas, of which there are three species, are very common. The handsome, black. Wattled Mynah (Grackle) becomes very tame in captivity and is easily taught to speak. The peculiar bottle-shaj)ed nests of the Weaver-Bird are often seen, usnall}^ many together, hanging from the drooping ends of the branches of trees. Of Swallows and Martins there are many species, the most remarkable being two or three allied species of little Rock Martin or Swift, the nests of which, constructed entirely of a gelatinous substance secreted by the crop of the bird, and built among precipitous rocks on the coast, are taken and exported to China as the delicacy known as Edible Bird’s-nest, incidentally producing a considerable Government revenue. Two or three species of small grey Shrikes are common. The Cuckoo-Shrike is often seen and the little Swallow Shrike has ]3een observed. The Pied Robin is frequent in gardens. Order Picarlae . — There are many species of King- fisher in Siam, the Pied Kingfisher being perhaps the most common, though a large species wdth orange beak and l^lue and red body, which apparently feeds on land insects and is often seen far away from w^ater, is also very abundant. The Woodpeckers are also a large family, usually of gorgeous plumage and ahvays of noisy, (luarrelsome disposition. The Night-jars are numerous and can be seen at mglitfall, flitting through open glades or sitting, parallel wdth the branch, on the stouter limbs of trees. To these last are allied the Swdfts of wdiich there is one species known. The BIRDS 73 Toice of tlie ‘ Ice-bird ’ is beard in the land during hot weather evenings, at which season also the ‘ Copper- smiths,’ (Siamese ‘ Chang Tong ’) not the Indian ‘ Copper- smith ’ — maintain an anvil chorns far into the night. These two last are Night- jars. The Indian Ivo-il is common and reiterates ‘ Who are you,’ with rising- cadence, with as much persistence in Siam as elsewhere. The Roller, or Bine Jay, is seen everywhere and the little green Barbet, the Indian ‘ Copxiersmith,’ with the red face, is heard hooting through the heat of the day and may sometimes, though more rarely, be seen peering from a hole in a dead tree. A long-tailed Barbet frequents the shady thickets round the villages and its cry of ‘ Kawow ’ is knoAvn to, and imitated by, every Anllage child. Of Hornbills there are three species haunting the deeper forests and both the broAvn and spotted Hoopoe are sometimes seen in the more ojien parts of the country. Of Doves and Pigeons BveWe species IiaAm been noted, including Bine Rocks which breed in the eaves of temples. Ring Doves, Bronze Doves, Golden DoA^es, iSpotted Doves, the large, Grey Pigeon and the Green Pigeons, and there are probably many more. Ring- doves are kept in cages in almost eA^ery house, good specimens being much sought after and commanding high prices. The species of Green Pigeon, particularly that AA-^ith tAvo long red tail-feathers, resemble parrots in many AA'ays. Siam is not rich in parrots. Tavo or three species of Parrakeet, notably the Rose-ringed Parakeet, are common in the north, but the only specimen seen in Southern Siam is a small green Lorikeet Avith a red back, but little larger than a sparroAv. The Birds of Prey include a sjiecies of ATiltnre, the common Kite, the Brahmany Kite, the Whiteheaded Osprey, the SparroAV Hawk, the Peregrine Falcon and 74 SIAM many lesser Hawks. There are many Owls varying much in size but all of similar habits and not greatly differing in colour. The smallest owl is no larger than a thrush. The Cranes are few in number. The hideous, bald- headed and high-smelling Adjutant Bird which feeds on carrion, and the Pelican Ibis, are found in the plains, and the magnificent Sams Crane, six feet high, with mauve plumage and red head, are often seen in pairs in the valleys of the north. The Herons are well represented. White Herons of many species, collectively known as Padi-birds, nest in great numbers in the trees near the rice fields. The Egret which produces beautiful white feathers at breeding time, is one of these. The Solitary Grey Heron is found in the marshes and several kinds of Bittern are known. The Waders, Sandpipers, Curlews, Coots (including the Jacana), Plovers and Snipes are also numerous. The Pintail Snipe is very abundant from August to December or later, in Central Siam, The Painted Snipe is also present. The Carbuncled Plover with spur wings, haunts the fields along the edge of the jungle, only desisting from his favourite occupation of duelling to circle round the head of the chance snipe-shooter, exclaiming loudly ‘ Did-ye-do ’ until all the shooting in the neighbourhood, as well as the temper of the sportsman, is quite spoilt. A Golden Plover is found near unfrequented ponds and sandpipers swarm on the brink of every pool. Gulls and Terns abound on the coast. The Gallinaceous birds include the Jungle Fowl, from which the different varieties of domestic fowl were originally derived ; the Pea Fowl, the Argus pheasant, Silver, Fireback and many other pheasants ; the lesser Chinese Francolin or Tree Partridge, and several kinds of Quail. REPTILES 75 Of web-footed birds the Pelican frequents the plains, more especially at flood time, and is often captured and domesticated. Cormorants of two or more species abound on all the rivers. Frigate birds, Gannets, and Petrels are seen in the gulf, and various kinds of Duck, the Brahmany Duck, the Mallard, the Whistling Teal, the Cotton Teal, and others occur, though not in the vast numbers common in the north of Further India. Reptiles The Reptiles of Siam do not differ much from those of India and Burma. The Chelonian, Crocodilian, Lacertilian, and Ophidian groups are all represented but the large number of species known to exist have not yet been scientifically examined or classified. Among the Chelonians are the Snapping Tortoise, an aquatic animal with a long neck and a soft shell, the name of Avhich is derived from its habit of snapping fiercely at anything which comes near it ; the Ilawksbill Turtle, valuable on account of its shell and for its eggs, remarkable for the length of its flappers and often seen in the Gulf : the Loggerhead, common in the southern rivers ; several species of amphibious Tortoise, includ- ing one with a long tail and large head, all hardshelled and armed with claws, and one or more Land Tortoises. Of Crocodilians two species are known, Crocodilus Porosus the great crocodile of India and C. Siamensis a near relation of the Indian Marsli Crocodile or ‘ Muggar.’ The former is found in most of the rivers but is gradually being exterminated. This species prefers tlie brackish water near tlie mouths of the rivers, sometimes attains to over twenty feet in length and very rarely does harm either to man or beast. The C. Siamensis inhabits the inland marshes of central and the lower part of Northern Siam and is, in parts, very commom 7G SIAM At Sawaiikalok, far inland, crocodiles are kept in a tank in one of tlie temple grounds, and are said to be hundreds of years old. The Gavial probably exists in Siam but has not been noted. The Lacertilian group is well represented. Amongst the most common are the Geckos of which four species frequent the interior of houses. The largest of these often exceeds twelve inches in length, is spotted rather like a trout and crows loudly with a hoarse voice whence its local name ‘ Toh-ke.’ The other Geckos do not exceed five inches in length. All these have the toes flattened into suckers which enable them to cling to the smooth surface of rocks, walls and ceilings. The Tree Lizards are of many species, the males of some of which are crested, whilst those of one species have the power of changing 'their colour from inconspicuous iDrown to vivid yellow and blue. There are no true Chameleons in Siam. The Flying Lizards, (genus Draco) of which several species occur in Southern Siam, belong to this group. These last frequent coconut plantations and, by means of wings or rather aeroplanes formed of skin attached to greatly elongated ribs, and spread out or folded close at will, glide with great velocity from stem to stem among the palms. The grey colour of the common species renders them inconspicu- ous when at rest, but they reveal their presence at will by the sudden inflation of a white bladder under the throat. A beautiful species of vivid green is sometimes met with. A smooth-skinned, shining Grass Lizard, brown above and yellow underneath, with a l^lack line along each side from the eye to the root of the tail, is common. The 81ow-worm without legs occurs, as also does another whose legs are almost rndimentary and ap- ])arently useless. The latter is rare. Monitor Lizards ( Varanus) are common. Tlie largest are usually found in swampy jungle and attain a length of from REPTILES 77 five to eight feet. Several smaller species are arboreal. They are not nsnally eaten in Siam but a part of the liver is used for medicinal purposes. Skinks abound on dry sandy ground, in which they burrow. They never wander far from home and when surprised, dive into their holes with extraordinary velocity and precision. They are eaten by the country people. Of Ophidians upwards of sixty species are known and probably many more await classification. The Python is common but, though said to attain thirty feet in length, is rarely found over twelve feet. The Colubrine Snakes are very numerous and include the common Rat Snake and many species closely allied, the Green Whip Snake, the Ornate Tree Snake, and of poisonous snakes, the Hamadryad, the Cobra, the Banded Adder, the Russell’s Viper, the Green Viper, the ‘ Krait,’ and others. Two little Earth Snakes are known, both blind and harmless. One of these has an imitation head at the end of its stumpy tail which it exposes when attacked, meanwhile concealing the true head beneath its coils. Many of the non-poisonous land snakes are more or less aquatic in their habits, and several poisonous species are marine. The Siamese imagine all snakes to be deadly, though in reality the bite of only one species in seven of those which occur is in any way harmful. Batrachians This order is represented in Siam by the Frogs, which are very numerous both in species and individuals, and by a few Toads. The commonest Frogs are the Edible Frog (Rana tirjrina), the Bull Frog, the little Green Frog and the Tree and ‘ Flying ’ Frogs, the last two with large eyes, long delicate hands and feet (partly webbed), andsuckertoes ; they have marvellous jumping powers but 78 SIAM small judgment of direction or distance. The Common Toad is very abundant, and Horned Toads are known. Fishes The fishes of Siam both marine and fresh-water, are exceedingly numerous, and constitute, after rice, the chief article of food of the people. For the supply of Bangkok, many thousands of individuals belonging to species which may be counted by the hundred, are daily brought up from the sea, while an enormous number, but of much fewer species, are supplied from the inland waters. A considerable proportion of the population lives by fishing, and fish, dried, canned and pickled, is exported in large quantities. Carnivorous Sharks are common in the gulf, and are of seven species, some attaining great size, others, as the small Hog Fishes, averaging about eighteen inches in length. The Hammer-headed Shark is frequently caught off the shores of Southern Siam. Zebra Sharks and Thresher Sharks are less common. The Saw Fish with snout elongated in a long flat process of bone covered with skin and fringed with spikes or teeth, is fairly common, and is sometimes found over twenty feet long. Rays and Skates abound and reach enormous size. The Sting-Ray with flat triangular body and long bony tail, takes long leaps out of water, appearing almost to fly. Beaked-Rays, Devil-Fish and Eagle- Rays are all fairly abundant and an Electric Ray occurs. The catching of Sharks and Rays and Skates, which are all used for food, demands particular skill and is a close profession. Salt-water and fresh- water Eels are very common. Of (Ht-Fishes with large heads, smooth skins, and long feelers, there are many species which vary much in size, a small A^ariety being one of the most common edible fresh-water fishes. FISHES 79 Flying-fislies abound in tlie waters of tlie gnlf. There are many species of Carp and the Indian Hilsa is found. Bream, Red-Mullet, the Mango-Fish, two or three kinds of Sole, several round-fish, flattened longitudinally (Pla Chulamit), the Pla-Kapong a fish of salmon-like appearance and habits, and two or more species of small Pilchard (Pla Tu), the Horse-Mackerel and the Bat-Fish, are amongst the most common sea- hsh used for food. The Spoon-Fish (Pla Chaun), one of the Snake-headed fishes, is very common in the canals and flooded rice fields of the interior, and is one of the species which, when the water dries up, dives into the mud and remains there below the dry, baked surface all through the hot weather, emerging again when the returning rains once more bring the floods. Besides the above there is a host of species more remarkable for their colouring and hal)its than for their qualities as food. Among these are the gorgeous blue Emperor-fish ; the Sucking-fish which attaches itself, by a sucker on the top of its head, to sharks and other big fish, apparently for convenience of travelling ; the Climbing Perch which can live out of water and makes long overland journeys ; the Archer fish, which brings down flies hovering, or seated on a leaf, above it, with a well-aimed drop of water shot from its mouth ; the Siren fish, which attaches itself to boats and other immersed bodies, and can be heard grunting down below with ventriloquistic effect ; the celebrated Fight- ing-fish, a red, pugnacious creature, about two inches long, caught in the marshes and kept in a glass jar where it fights terrific duels with rivals of its own species, and the Mud-Skipper, a scaleless fish, with lirotruding eyes and with the xiectoral fins adapted for walking, b}^ means of which it is in the habit of hojiping and running on the mud-banks at low tide. 80 SIAM Invertebrates This enormous section of the animal kingdom though well represented in Siam can only be treated very briefly here. The Molluscs include many LimjDets and land and water Snails, and several species of Chiton. Among Cephalopods are species of sepia or squid and octopus. In the month of April a kind of small squid swarms near the shores of the gulf, and immense numbers are caught at night with nets and torches, and consumed by the populace with much immediate relish and subsequent internal discomfort. The Lamelli- branchiata include many families of bivalves, containing species of all shapes and sizes. These are generically termed ^ Hoi ’ in Siamese and many, including a small oyster and a very large mussel, are excellent food. The Arthropods ' are extremely numerous in all branches. Of Crustaceans there are several species of Prawn, these including the blue, long-legged freshwater variety. The common lobster, however, is absent. The Crabs are largely represented ; Swimming Crabs, Land Cral3S, Burrowing Crabs, Hermit Crabs, are all numerous and are of all shapes and sizes. Two species of the repulsive-looking tailed King-crab or Limiilus are common in the gulf. A tiny burrowing crab with one claw exaggerated to three times the size of its body and the other suppressed, infests the banks of all brackish rivers. The Land crabs frequently destroy large areas of rice crops. Barnacles and other parasitic crustaceans are common, as are numbers of Phyllopods and similar tiny animals. The Arachnid a are very numerous. Species of the Spider family are found everywhere on land and in water, under dead leaves, in fruit, meat and in all putrid animal or vegetable matter. Numerous forms, such as the ‘ itch ’-causing animal and the ‘tick,’ are parasitic upon men and animals, and many species are of microscopic size. The SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS 81 Phalangids with their long slender legs which come off on the smallest provocation, are represented by several species. Of Scorpions and pseudo-scorpions there are many species, the latter being all very small and scarcely noticeable though they inhabit houses in large numbers. The big, black scorpion is common, as are two species of the smaller, brownish-grey creature, both the latter poisonous, but not dangerously so. A harmless dark- brown scorpion-like animal with non-flexible tail, found in gardens where it hides under flower pots and in other cool corners, is probably a Thelyphojius. The number of species of Araneids, or true Spiders, is very great. Tarantulas, House-spiders, Green, Blue, White, Red sjDiders, Armour-plated spiders. Jumping spiders. Trap- door spiders, are all common. The large House-spider runs down his prey which consists of cockroaches et hoc genus omne. The Jumping Spider leaps upon his victim, with the utmost ferocity and precision and from an incredible distance. Many of the coloured spiders lie in ambush in the hearts of flowers to cajiture unwary flies in search of honey. A black and yellow spider spins a circular web so strong as to entangle and hold the largest beetles. Some of the yellow spiders are aerial navigators, sailing the air on windy days mounted on a yard-long thread of web of their own spinning. The Insects, by far the largest class of the Arthropods, inhabit Siam in vast numbers. All the nine orders are represented, some of them in great variety of species. Of Bees, the great Black Boring Bee, the Honey Bee and the diminutive creatures which live in colonies in the posts and walls of all wooden houses, are the most common. Wasps and hornets are very abundant and are often of beautiful colouring. Many of these build communal nests dependent from the branches of trees or from the undersides of leaves, but the majority F 82 SIAM eitlier deposit their eggs in small holes whieh they afterwards close up with mud, or in little mud cells which they build in corners or against woodwork. These species all place a stock of food, consisting of various animalculae, in the cells to provide nourishment for the larva when hatched. The commonest form of this food is the Grass Spider, half-a-dozen of which, captured and stung to a comatose state, are placed in the cell with the egg and remain alive until eaten by the larva. Many wasps, however, prefer green cater- pillars or crickets, flies or even bees, as food for their offspring, all of which are captured and treated in the same manner. At certain seasons of the year dwelling houses are invaded by these cell-making wasps, who fill up all keyholes and persistently plaster their little mud cells into every convenient corner. The Ruby- tailed fly, a handsome green wasp with a dash of red at the end of the abdomen, does not build a cell itself, but deposits its eggs in the cell of one or other of its cousins just before the last piece of mud is applied to close up the aperture. The egg thus intruded hatches into a larva which not only consumes all the food placed in the cell but eats the rightful occupant as well. The species of ants have not been enumerated but at least five distinct species are commonly found in all dwelling houses where, in spite of continual raids upon fruit, sugar, etc., they are tolerable on account of their scavenging propensities and of the interminable war which they wage against cockroaches, crickets and flies. The big Tree Ants or Ivaringa, live in nests made of leaves stuck together with a webby substance, are very fierce, and deliver a painful sting. Several species of large black ants live in the ground and one, with a red band round the waist, gives a sting almost as bad as that of the English wasp. The Beetle family is well repre- sented. Stag-beetles, Dung-beetles and Tortoise-beetles, INSECTS 83 Eliinoceros-beetles, Soldier-beetles, Glow-worms, Wood- borers and many kinds of Chafer abonnd, as do a number of minute beetles parasitic upon other insects. Click-beetles {Elaterido’) which when lying on the back apparently helpless, spring violently away by means of a sudden bending of the body, are common. Fire-flies {Lampi/ridce) are very common in nearly all parts of the country and are always to be seen at night either singly or congregated in large numbers in and around some particular tree which, by what is evidently concerted action, they illuminate witli flashes of light repeated in regular pulsation. Weevil beetles are numerous and some species are very large. Ladyljirds of many species are also common. The Siamese beetles are of all shades of colour, black, green, blue, yellow, red, brown, either uniform or arranged in spots or stripes, the Moidiotia Gloriosa, a veiy large black and red Carahus, being one of the most beautiful. The prosternum of the different species is developed into all manner of quaint shapes and sizes and the antennae into all sorts of lengths. Mosquitos, Gnats, Midges and ‘ Daddy-long-legs,’ House-flies, Blow-flies, Flesh-flies, Bot-flies, Gad-flies, are all unpleasantly numerous and the same may bo said of the Flea tliough the species of the last which feeds upon man is not recognised in Southern Siam. Butte-] flies aiid Llotiis are of many orders and species. The Xymphalidac include several Jjanainae, pretty insects endowed with peculiar odour-producing glands wdiich are said to i^rotect them from the attacks of birds many Fritillaries, two species of Kallima or Leaf Butter- fly, so called from its extraordinary resemblance, when at rest, to a dead leaf. Among the PcvpiUonidae are many relatives of the British Orange Tips and a strong contingent of S\vallowtails. The other families are also represented. Siam is rich in Spliinx Moths including the Death’s Head and the Gla.nt Hawk. Many other 84 SIAM genera are represented by innumerable species, great and small ; the Tineina or Clotb-eating Motbs are numerous. Many Leaf-rolling Moths are present and species of glaucopis, the larvae of which do much damage in gardens, are common. The caterpillars of various- Geometer species are very numerous, one, an orchid eater, exactly resembling, when stretched out, the epiphytic rootlets of its host. The Silkworm is exten- sive] y cultivated in Siam and a wild Silkworm resemb- ling the Tussur occurs in some parts. The order which includes the Caddis Flies is repre- sented by several species of both aquatic and land insects. The larvas of most of these live in cases constructed of particles of the material most easily obtainable, fastened together with a tough web-like- Bubstance. Some of the cases are made of stones, some of scraps of dead leaf, some of little bits of stick and some of dust found in the corners of dwelling houses. Mostly the occupants carry their cases about with them but a few are stationary. The larva of an Ant Lion^ which belongs to this order, is common in the dry, line soil under raised dwellings, and in other sheltered spots. It has no case, but, burying itself about an inch in the ground, kicks up the soil until a little pit is formed, at the bottom of which it lies with its strong mandibles extended. The iinwary ant stepping on to the side of the pit invariably slips on the loose soil, rolls straight into the waiting jaws below and is promptly devoured. The Locusts, Crickets, Mole-crickets, Stick-insects, Mantis, Earwigs, Cockroaches, White-ants, Stone-flies, Dragon-flies and other groups included in the order Oriho])tera, comprise the most abundant forms of Insect Life in Siam. Merely to enumerate the known species of the Locusts and Crickets of all shape, colour and size, of the various Mantis from the minute brovn.1 devourer of microscopic flies to the five-inch long, green monster INSECTS 85 witli wicked eyes and horrible spiked forearms whose relentless embrace means being eaten alive to even the largest of insects, of the Earwigs, Cockroaches, White-ants, and the hosts of Ephemeral Flies which embitter human existence, and of the gay Dragon-flies, blue, green and scarlet, the sla3^ers of Mosquitos, would occupy far more space than is here available and cannot be attempted. Of Bugs, Siam has a large variety. Some are aquatic, others land insects ; some suck the blood of animals, others the juices of plants ; some have wings, others are wing- less ; some are skippers, others not ; some are instru- mentalists like crickets, others are silent, but all alike are repulsive to the eye and offensive to the nose of man. One of the large common bugs is a brown monster about two inches long, armed with tivo heavy claws, with a hard, flattish body shaped like a triangle from the apex of which an acrid and most villainous-smelling fluid is discharged with disconcerting accuracy at the unwary investigator. The Bed-bugs, the Cuckoo-spittle Bugs and the Aphidae, or Plant-lice, also belong to this large class. The remaining orders of Insects are represented by several species, prominent amongst which is the ‘ Silver Fish,’ which eats cloth or paper without discrimination and is usually to be found lurking in the binding of books. The Myriapods, the last of the Arthropod group, are represented in Siam by various Chilopods, some of which grow to great size, and b}" several Diplopods. The Chilopods are poisonous centipedes which some- times attain eight inches in length and one of which is highl,y phosphorescent. The Diplopods include the Spiroholus, a harmless and very common centipede which rolls up when disturbed, and relies solely upon its unpleasant odour as a means of defence, and man^" 8G SIAM species of wcod louse. The Diploj^ods are all vegetable eaters. Of the great division of the animal kingdom below the Arthropods sometimes comprehensively termed the ‘ iVpathetic Animals,’ practicall}^ nothing is known as regards Siam. Doubtless Worms, Radiarians, Polyps and Infusorians are as numerous there as elsewhere, but for want of knowledge it is not possible to do more ihan enumerate the more evident forms. These are the earthworms, intestinal worms and other allied genera, the leeches, of wdiicli two species are common, sea Anemones of the most diverse colours and shapes, Beche-de-mer, wdiich are taken in large numbers in the Gulf and are much prized as food, and sponges, wdiich are of many kinds, as well as Coralline growths. Geology and Minerals A glance at an orographical map of Siam reveals the country as roughly a plain of comparatively low^ eleva- tion slopnng away southwards and eastwards from mountains on the West and North, wdth here and there a short range or an isolated height rising above the general level. The great range on the west extends almost unbroken from the extreme south of the kingdom in the Malay Peninsula, to the most northerly point, above (diieng Sen on the river J\Iehkong and thence continues northwards, through the British Trans- Salwin Shan States into China. The wdiole of this great range appears to consist of the remains of enormously thick lime-stone beds, p)robably of thecarboni- ferous age, Avith metamorphic rocks, gneiss, micaceous and siliceous slates and other schistose formations resting upon granitenvhicli is highly intrusiAm and to the action of AAdiich the schists are doubtless OAAung. The summits of the range are mainly granite and the slopes and GEOLOGY 87 foot-hills limestone. All throngh the Mala^mn Provinces and in the Ratbnri district this is the case bnt below the limestone beds in the last-named locality are found hard land soft sandstones, probably of Devonian age, thongh, in the complete absence of investigation for fossils, this is by no means certain. In this neighbour- hood the limestone l)eds stand np highly tilted out of strata of later formation, in an irregular line of precipi- tous hills parallel with the main range and assuming all sorts of heights and grotesque shapes. Further north, in the Raheng district, the limestone has become thicker and forms the major part of the range, the granite appearing throngh it less often than in the south. This is also the case in the Chieng Mai district and all along the range to Chieng Sen thongh all throngh this last tract outcrops of the underlying sandstone and slates are met with. In many parts of hs length, the limestone beds of the great range are found highly ci\ystalline and in several localities a good vdiite marl)le has been formed.. All across Northern Siam from Chieng Sen down to Pitsannlok the series of hill ranges lying north and south, spurs of the great mountain masses of the far north, present vei\y mncli the same geological character as does the western range. Everywhere are seen highly-tilted limestone and red-sandstone ontcroxis throngh vrhich the nnmerons rivers cut their v'ay, with occasional appearance of granite and the accompanying metamorphic formatioiis. A basaltic outcrop occurs in the extreme north with sapphire-bearing gravel in close contiguity. A series of vrell-defmed faults occurs right across this district in a north-west and south-east direction, dhvo small volcanic vents Avere observed Ip" AVarington Smyth near Hongsawxadi, vdiich, in LS03, were mildly active. A consideral^le amrnnt of alluvium covers the valleys of this district, composed of a cla^^ey soil with strata of cpiartz sand. 88 SIAM The geological formation of Eastern Siam is peculiar. Practically the whole district is a shallow basin contained within low hills of limestone, red sand- stone and laterite. On the north and to the westward are hills of between one and two thousand feet elevation, chiefl}^ limestone, containing calcite and quartz in abundance, with granite and micaceous schists showing here and there but, east of the site of the ancient city of Wieng Chan, composed chiefly of red sandstone with conglomerate occasionally apparent. Where the course of the Mehkong turns from east to south the limestone again appears and continues to form a barrier of ever- decreasing height between that river and the basin of Eastern Siam until the junction of the Nam Mun with the main river is reached. Here the great masses of limestone which form the southern boundry of Eastern Siam begin, and thence run away westwards as far as the Dong Phaya Yen mountain, overlooking the plains of Central Siam. This limestone is rich in calcite and quartz and rests upon sandstone beds, the outcrop of which is frequently met with. The western boundary of Eastern Siam is marked by limestone hills also, in which gold-bearing quartz-veins have been located, interspersed amongst sandstone outcrops and beds of laterite. The interior of the basin is covered with alluvium in which lateritic soils and quartz-sand prevail, covering laterite beds which appear to be of great extent. Central Siam is nearly all alluvium, composed of clayey soil with strata of quartz-sand deposited upon limestone beds to the north and west and upon a marine sand in the more Central parts. Ever}?- here and there limestone obtrudes through the alluvium, as at Chainat, Prabat, and Kabin. On the east coast of the gulf granite appears at Anghin and at several sj)ots further down, as Lem Tun and Kaw Kram. Near the GEOLOGY 89 latter place, an island close to tlie mainland, a submarine volcano was observed in activity by Monliot in 1860= Still further down the coast the great mountains of Kao-Sabab, Kao Sai Dao and almost the whole of the Patat range are formed of granite intrusions with the usual accompaniment of gneiss, mica slates and various schists. There is also an appearance of what seems to be millstone-grit in this vicinity. Here occur, in the neighbourhood of Chantaburi, basaltic outcrops contain- ing much crystalline corundum and also augite, with gem-bearing gravels, again, as in the far north, contiguous to the basalt. From the foregoing it will be seen that the chief geological characteristics of Siam are immense beds of limestone rocks resting on sandstone, very much foliated and broken by frequent intrusions of granite and other eruptic rocks, more especially in the south. Owing to the absence of any systematic study of the palaeontology of the country and the consequent rudimentary nature of our knowledge of the subject, it is difficult to determine the age of the limestones and sandstones, but it seems probable that they are principally Old Red Sandstone, Devonian and Car- boniferous formations of the Palaeozoic period. The Cambridge Expedition at the end of last century was successful in identifying by means of fossils some of the beds on the west coast of Southern Siam as belong- ing definitely to the highest carboniferous limestone series. Here it may be remarked that a French geologist, Dr Massie, did many years’ good work in the Mehkong valley, and that, but for the deplorable death of this enthusiast in the midst of his labours, very much more would undoubtedly be known concerning the geology of this region than is now the case. There are abundant signs of a general upheaval of 90 SIAM the whole country, which process is probably continuing at the present time. Thus, not far from the shore at the head of the Gulf of Siam, a marine deposit containing numerous recent shells lies upon the surface of the land some two or three feet above the sea level and has apparently no alluvium upon it, while further inland a well-marked beach, eight feet above sea-level, crosses the Central Plain and indicates Avhat was probably once, and apparently not long ago, a river bar. Again on the island of Kaw Mun there are clear traces of sea action on the rocks which are now considerably abo's^e sea level, vdiile in Southern Siam strata of vegetable matter are in many places found below marine deposit, and old beaches occur frequently, sometimes at a considerable distance inland. Gold. — Fine grains of gold are present in the sands of almost all the streams of vSiam, and the metal is washed in many localities with more or less system by the country people. The results of these washings are, however, seldom other than meagre, and usually suffice for no more than a little easily earned pocket-money for the washer, or for the manufacture of a few small ornaments for the adornment of the wives of hill chieftains. The washing is done at the end of the rainy season and after the rice-harvest has been got in. The implement used is a shallow wooden pan some twenty inches in diameter and about six inches deep in the middle. The operator stands in the water and lills his pan with dirt through a coarse basket- sieve. The pan is then gently rotated, the rim being dipped so as to expel and take up water, by which means the lighter constituents of the dirt are got rid of. The remaining material is then carefully set aside after having been examined and any visible gold removed. Later on the results of the washing are treated with mercury by which means the gold is> MINERALS 91 extracted. Tlie average winnings per day are about six pennyworth of gold for- each pan. Large gold- washing parties are frequently organised which, partaking of the nature of a picnic, are made the occasions of mnch frolic and hadinage, and not a little flirtation as understood in the wilds of Further India. Here and there, however, gold washing is a more serious occupation. Many of the river beds and alluvial flats of Sontherii Siam contain gold in fairly considerable quantities, and as at Bangtaphan and Tomoh have been systematically worked for a very long period. The remains of old Vvmrkings, which must have been on a veiy extensive scale, are to be seen in many localities of the last named district where, in spite of ill-nsage, robbery, and sometimes massacre at the hands of the native population, Chinese washers have persisted probably for centuries, and where they still continue to amass a small amount of wealth. Nuggets, sometimes as much as two ounces in weight, are occasionally found in these parts. The gravels of the valley of the Nam Ngau, a trilmtary of the Mehkong in Northern Siam, which are worked l)y the neigh- bouring hill-people, have also yielded some fair-sized nuggets. The alluvial gold so widely distributed is no doubt derived from the quartz-veins which are found in all directions running through, the limestone. It seems probable, also, that gold exists in many of the crystalline schists which underlie the limestone. The people of the country are usually ignorant of the fact that the gold which they find in the alluvium must have come from a matrix and no search for lodes has ever been made. Consequently gold in situ has scarcely ever been found and never in such quantities as to pay for working. Silver. — Occurs with galena in many parts of the 92 SIAM country and was formerly mined. At the present day it is not worked anywhere. Tin. — The great range of granite, sandstone and limestone, which forms the Malay Peninsula and which reappears in the Dutch islands of Lingga, Sinkep, Banca and Billiton further south, produces some five- sixths of the world’s tin supply. Of this by far the greater quantity comes from the Malay States which are under British rule, but from 5000 to 6000 tons are annually mined in that part of the range which passes through Siam, and it is probable that future development will prove this northern section to be as rich in the metal as any other part. As eveiy tin miner knows, wherever granite occurs, there tinstone (cassiterite or oxide of tin), may be found, more especi- ally where the granite is in contact with schists or slates or sandstone. Such is the formation in Cornwall and throughout the Malay Peninsula. The granite, where it has intruded into, or through, sandstone is found to be stanniferous, containing oxide of tin in small black or brown crystals as one of its essential ingredients. In the Malay Peninsula where the granite is in close contact with sandstone as intrusive blocks and as veins, oxide of tin is peculiarly plentiful. The granite being coarse-grained and loose, disintegrates rapidly and hence, amongst the alluvium at the foot of the mountains, are found great deposits of granite sand and tinstone crystals. This is washed in all parts of Southern Siam but the island of Puket, or Junk Ceylon, just off the west coast, contains the most famous mines. Here, ever since the 9th century a.d. or even earlier, tin has been mined, at first by colonists from the south- eastern shores of India, later by Chinese. The whole island is one vast tin mine and has in course of time had almost the whole of its surface, including that on which the various settlements are planted, turned over MINERALS 93 in the pursuit of the metal. Traces of tin have been found all the way up along the great range to the northern confines of the kingdom and beyond, and in the valley of the Nam Sak in Central Siam, but no working of the metal has yet been undertaken farther north than the neighbourhood of Eatburi. Gems. — It has already been said that in the extreme north of Siam and also in the neighbourhood of Chanta- buri near the east coast of the Gulf, there occur gem- bearing gravels, and that in both cases basaltic rocks are found in the immediate neighbourhood. The gem-bearing gravels are alluvial and consist of the detritus of disintegrated basalt, a clayey soil of decom- posed rock, through which is dispersed a great cpiantity of larger fragments. The gravel beds of the north run from five inches to eighteen inches thick, those of Chantaburi are as much as three feet through. Warington Smyth, who examined both districts some fifteen years ago, found corundum and sapphires with crystals of quartz and small garnets in the northern Chieng Kliong district, and corundum, rubies and sapphires with garnets, topaz and quartz crystals, in the Chautaburi gravels. Spinelles were found in both districts. He was led by the appearance of hercynite crystals and augite in the basalt, to the conclusion that this rock must be the matrix of the gems though he did not actually find any in it. The Chieng Khong gravels were first discovered by Shan prospectors in 1890. They were worked in a desultory manner for some years, but the poverty of the yield, difficulties of transport and the unhealthiness of the neighbourhood, have caused them to be practically given up. The Chantaburi gravels, which have been worked for a very long time, still -continue to yield good returns though, owing to the very unequal presence in the gems of the colouring matter, (cobalt and chromium), only a small ^4 SIAM percentage of the sapphires and rubies found are of the best corn-flower blue and j^igeon’s-blood red colours. The garnets, topazes and spinelles, though inferior gems, are saleable, as is the corundum. All these products of the gravel are aluminium compounds, corundum, sapphires and rubies being oxides of aluminium, while garnets, topazes, and spinelles are oxides of alnminium and magnesium. Coal. — ITie only known occurrence of black coal in Siam is in the division of Nakhon Sawan in the north of Central Siam. Nothing more is known of this de^^osit than the mere fact of its existence, no steps having yet been taken to examine the product or to ascertain its Amine as fuel. Lignite has long been known in Amrious parts of Southern Siam, notably at Trang, Paklao, Gerbi and Bandon. Many . concessions for the Avorking of this broAvn coal have been given during the last twenty years or so, but the difficulties of extracting it have been great and the results of experiment have shoAvn its combustible cpialities to be of an indifferent nature. The deposit at Gerbi seems to be the most promising ; the seam there is over forty feet thick and the difficulties of AAmrking are less than elsewhere. The lignite is noAv being extracted and, in spite of its poor qualities, is finding a market. Whether or not the Avorking of it Avill ultimately prove to be a paying concern is a matter of considerable doubt. Copper. — The very limited amount of mineral pro- specting Avhich has been done in Siam, has, however, been sufficient to reveal the presence of copper in seAmral localities. The principal of these are the Amlley of the Nam Wa, near Nan, and at Muang Laklion, both in Nortliern Siam, and at Chan Tuk in the Dong Phaya A^en Mountain, east of Central Siam. At the last named place there is a lode lying north and south, richly mineralised, Vvdiich has been Avorked by the MINERAI.S 95 country people for a very long time. It contains copper, both native and as carbonate of copper. Muang Ivut in Northern Siam is said to be the site of an ancient copper mine of great value which, however, was destroyed by lightning and has never since been re-opened. Lead. — Large veins of Galena (lead sulphide) occur in several localities in Southern Siam near the west coast of the Gulf. At Yala in Patani they have been p»ro- spected and are found to be highly argentiferous and to carry gold in varying qualities. They were worked in the past but were deserted long ago ovv^ing to fall in the price of the metal. Large heaps of Galena, known to the natives as ‘ Black tin,’ may still be seen in the jungle near the mines, lying just as they were left when the work was abandoned. Iron. — Iron occurs in Siam as pyrites very widely distributed, as red haematite at Chieng KaAvng on the Mehkong and as limonite in the Nam Pi valley north east of Pichai and at Lakhon in Northern Siam and elsewhere. The cubic crystals of pyrites have frequently been mistaken by natives for gold and haA^e led to many a wild-goose chase on the part of concession hunters. The red hematite deposits of Chieng Kawng are of great extent but do not seem to have been worked. The limonite of the Nam Pi and of Lakhon, Avhich appears as a surface ore Avith quartz underlying it, has been much AA'orked in the past and, in spite of the large recent introduction of foreign iron into Siam, is still mined intermittently for the manufacture of knives, axes, plough-shares and other locally used inq^lements. Popular superstition has iiiA^ested iron ore AAuth main’ dangerous supernatural qualities. Before either mining or smelting operations can be begun, the spirits which guard the ore have to be propitiated AAnth liberal sacrifice and AA’oe betide any person Avho shall keep the ore inside his house ! Even the trees and other vegeta- tion in the neighbourhood of the places where it is 96 SIAM stored are often blasted and destroyed by the force of its baleful magic. Zinc and Antimony occur in small quantities but have not yet been properly investigated.* Pp]TROLEUM. — The only undoubted occurrence of petroleum is in the Muang Fang district of Northern Siam. Samples from the wells, which exist here over an area of some twenty square miles, have been analysed more than once and have been pronounced to be oil of a j^eculiarly rich quality. Hitherto, however, a system- atic opening up of the wells has been rendered quite impossible by the immense difficulties of transport which must first be overcome, but with the extension of the railway to the north there may possibly be a future for the petroleum of Muang Fang. A small amount of oil is now produced by the people inhabiting the neighbourhood, who collect it from the surface of water contained in pits dug in the oil-bearing locality. It is a dark brown and viscous fluid not unlike the oil from Yenangyaung in Burma, situated some 250 miles almost due west of Muang Fang. Reports of oil have oc- casionally been received from Southern Siam, and samples from this quarter are at present undergoing analysis. Salt.— To the north of Muang Nan in Northern Siam, near the Nam Ngop river are situated the only known salt deposits of Siam. The salt is found from twenty to forty feet below the surface and is extracted by means of brine wells. The brine, on evaporation, yields a large quantity of fairly pure salt. In Eastern Siam, in the central basin, there are extensive salt marshes whence a considerable quantity of salt is obtained by evaporation. It is, however, along the northern and western shores of the Gulf that the main supply of Siamese salt is obtained. Here the low-lying level land * Deposits of Wolfram in Nakhon Sri Thammarat and on the island <)f Kaw Samni, the value of which has only recently been discovered, are now being worked and the output of this mineral will probably increase a good deal in the near future. FAUNA 97 near tlie shore is divided up into dammed fields into which the sea water is admitted at high tide. When partially evaporated this water, rich in salt, is run off into smaller fields and there allowed to evaporate to dryness. The process is repeated many times before the thick crust which is thus accumulated is remoA^ed. The state of Patani in Southern Siam annually exports a large quantity of evaporated sea salt, A^diile the greater part of the salt consumed in Bangkok comes from the salt fields near the mouth of the Menain Chao Phaya. Saltpetre.— In the limestone mountains of Siam there are many caves in which, from time immemorial, legions of hats have lived. The consequence is the accumulation on the caA^e floors of beds of guano which in many localities, as at Trang and all through the hilly region which forms the east boundary of Central Siam, attains a thickness of several feet. By the simple process of boiling this guano Avith wood-ashes, a remarkably pure saltpetre is obtained, AAdiich, having been used locally from the earliest times, is noAv becoming an important article of export. PART IP— THE RACES OF SIAM Speculation as to the ‘aboriginal,’ that is, the very first inhabitants of a country old in geological time, is apt to prove but an unprofitable occupation for the reason that, hoAA-ever far back enquiry may be carried, the investi- gator can arri\"e at no point Avhere clear proof may be said to exist for the assumption that there were really no human inhabitants of such country at some still more remote period. The most superficial study of the ethnological literature of almost any country will G 98 SIAM show how the calculations and deductions of scientists and their resultant pronouncements concerning ‘abo- riginal ’ populations, have constantly proved mistaken in the light of subsequent research. But apart from the fruitless quest of the ‘ aboriginal,’ the study of ethnology, the origin, evolution, rise, decline, absorption and disappearance of races, the construction and disruption of nations, all the movements of humanity, though leading always back into mists of the past which there is no dispelling, is a. pursuit than which there are few more fascinating. Its text-books are the physical appearance, languages, traditions, written character and history of the races of mankind, whether young and healthy, or old and decrepit, and nowhere in the world is a better library of these to be found than amongst the mountain ranges, the secluded valleys and the wide plains of Further India. In Siam the earliest evidence of the existence of man is furnished by the axe-head celts which have occa- sionally been found in Southern Siam and on the Korat Plateau. Some of these differ from the Neolithic celts found in Europe and America in that, though finely polished, they are ground to a chisel-like edge on one side only and have prominent square-cut shoulders. Others are of the usual smooth shape, ground on both sides, similar to those found in Assam, Burma, Yunnan, and Kambodia. Their general work- manship would seem to indicate that they belong to the later Neolithic Period. It is of course impossible to do more than imagine the appearance and condition of the makers and users of these stone implements, a race of primitive men who must have lived in Siam long ages before the advent of the most ancient people of whom any definite knowledge exists. It may be supposed that they inhabited a hilly shore surrounding a great gulf which THE RACES OF SIAM 99 covered the whole central plain of Siam, for no celts have ever been fonnd on the plain, and moreover there is evidence in the traditions of comparatively modern races, borne ont by the movements of the land at present visible, that the central plain has appeared above the level of the sea almost within historic times. Nothing more can ever be known of these early men than that they existed and made these implements, and there appears no reason to con- clude that they were ‘ aboriginals,’ since geology alloAvs the existence of man many ages before the later Neolithic Period. Amongst the mountains of Southern Siam there exist at the present day certain small, black, curly-haired men, differing greatly from all the other tribes and races of the country. The little creatures are, however, evidently related to the natives of the Andaman Islands south of Burma and not very far west of their own home, and also to certain hill tribes of the Philippine Islands. They are clearly of the Negrito race which Avriters are content to call the aboriginals of India. These tribes, Avhose habitat in Southern Siam extends far down the Malay Peninsula, are probably the sorry remnant of a once numerous population, successors to, and possibly descendants of, the Neolithic men of Siam. They are knoAvn as the Semang and are usuall}^ con- founded with the Sakai, a tribe of someAvhat similar habits but of very different physicpie, AA^hich occupies the same mountain range further to the south and chiefly beyond the borders of Siam. It is noAv the A^ery generally accepted theory that during the last feAv thousand years Siam, and in fact the AAdiole of Further India, has been subjected to periodical flooding by successiA'e AA^aves of humanity, set moving by natural or social upheaA^als of population far to the north in Central Asia. We may imagine. 100 SIAM then, the Negrito population of Siam, or rather of that part of what now constitutes Siam which was then above the sea, leading their primitive existence through countless generations, their condition scarce!}' advanced beyond that of their celt-wielding forerunners, until there came down upon them one of these great waves of population which broke them up, thrust them aside into the remoter hills, all but exterminated them and finally settled itself down in their place. This irresistible tide of humanity was the advance down all the rivers of Further India of the tribes which constituted what is conveniently called the Mon-Annam famil}^, the savage ancestors of the Mon or Talaing, the Khmer or Kam- bodian, and the Annamese civilised races of yesterday and to-day, and of a host of lesser tribes which still persist in quasi-barbarism. Of this intrusion, which must have begun thousands of years ago and which doubtless took many centuries to complete, the modern representatives of the intruders have absolutely no tradition, and it is only through researches based upon the discoveries and suggestions of Gamier, Forbes, Max Muller, Grierson and others, that the secret of the origin of the great Mon-Annam family has recently been explained upon scientific deductions of a soundness which it is difficult to gain- say. These studies reveal the fact that many tribes found scattered among the mountains which skirt the Irrawaddy and the Mehkong valleys mutually differing in many characteristics, and whose traditions point to their having occupied their present seats since very I'emote times, are of the Mon-Annam stock. They are found in Central Assam, if not still farther north and west, in the Northern Shan States of Burma, in the districts of the Llehkong where England, France, China and Siam are now close neighbours, and they swarm among the mountains in the north-Avest, north and east THE RACES OF SIAIM 101 of Siam. Tlieir languages not only indicate tlieir relationship with each other and with the Mons and Khmers of to-day, hut also hear evidence, sufficient to satisfy most authorities, of being old forms from which the languages of the more civilised hranches of the family were derived. There are those who aver, apparently with good reason, that the languages of the Mon-Annam family have points of similarity with those of the pre-Dravidian Kolarian races of India, and that this fact points to a common origin of the Kolarian races and the Mon-Annam, hut this is disputed hy others who contend rather that in remote times the Mon- Annam ancestors, inhahiting the wilds of far-away Tibet, may have come into contact with the progenitors of the Kols and that thus the two races, though of different origin, have acquired some slight similarity of speech. The theory of a descent of the Mon-Annam family from the north is not unopposed, for some students of the matter maintain that the arguments used to prove that descent may he apiplied with equal success to a theory of an ascent from the south, and that the originals of the Mon-Annam family may, after all, have arrived in Further India by sea from India or elsewhere and hai^e spread inwards and northwards from the coasts round about the mouths of the great rivers. Colour is lent to this argument hy the fact that in comparatively recent times, that is not more than about 2000 years ago, the countries inhabited by the i\I6n and the Khmer were colonised by members of the Dravidian races of Telingana in India, who reached these countries by sea. These adventurers howev^er were already highl^y civilised people, well used to seafaring and they found the i\I6n-Annam tribes, amongst whom they came and settled, in a state of the rudest barbarism and most complete ignorance. There is also evidence furnished 102 SIAM by the annals of the early Lao State of Wieng Chan^ far np the Mehkong River, that at about this same period the Lao were already fighting against the wild and savage inhabitants of the hills round about them, which inhabitants, it is now known, were hill-tribes of the M6n-Annani family. Hence if this family came to Further India by sea, it must have come very much earlier than 2000 years ago, for its members had already spread far to the north by that time. It is difficult to imagine either how or why a people in such an elemental state could have left their home and put out to sea with' out the least knowledge as to whither they were bound, or how, having done so, their offshoots should have wandered so far north as the upper Mehkong and the N. Shan States, whereas, more especially with the ana- logy of subseciueiit Tibeto-Burman and Lao intrusions, there is nothing at all repugnant to the theory of a descent by land from the north. Against the idea that these races ma}^ have arrived on the mainland from India is also the indisputable fact of their Mongolian origin. In fact, though exhaustive linguistic research leaves certain learned professors undecided as to whether the Mon-Annam family came into Further India by land from the north or by sea from the south or south-west, it is now generally thought that the probabilities of the latter source of origin are small and the theoiy of immigration from the north is generally accepted. This of course, has nothing to do with subse- cpieiit movements of individuals and groups of the race to and fro in Southern Siam, the Malay Peninsula and the Archipelago at much later periods. At first, probably little more advanced than the Negrito population which they found there, the Mon- Annam wanderers, on arrival in Further India, may have led the same sort of very primitive existence as their predecessors, settling among them and finally THE RACES OF SIAM 103 ousting them from the country more by the pressure of increasing numbers as more tribesmen arrived, than by the exercise of any superior arts or knowledge. In time they came to occupy the whole littoral of Further India and, as their numbers still continued to increase, began to overflow from the mainland into the adjacent islands, working away to the south and east through the Malay Archipelago, and there is reason to suppose that the Hainans (or Hailams), the Javanese, the Bugis, the Macassars, the Tagalas of the Philippines, the Da^^aks of Borneo and a host of other more or less related tribes, are all descended from the M6n-Annam stock, though now largel}^ diluted with Chinese, Indian and Xegrito blood. Communication between the islands at the present day is far from difficult and if, as Wallace avers, the whole x\rchipelago is in a state of subsidence, it is possible that at the time of the incursions of the M6n-Annam there existed diy land, by which the wanderers were able to fare perhaps a part of the way through what is now the Malay Archipelago and possibly even further south and east. The branches of this ancient family now to be found in Siam are the Khmer (or Kambodians), Mon (or Talaings), ATian (or Annamese), Lawa, Chong, and the various tribes grouped by the Siamese under the generic term Kache. The i\Ion and Khmer are the descendants of those tribes which, imbued with civi- lising influences brought amongst them by colonists from the south of India, early emerged from the state of savagery and, achieving considerable enlightenment, sx>read themselves in a series of more or less independent communities over the plains and deltas of Further India as these gradually rose out of the sea. The modern Malays of Siam, a composite race of com- paratively recent evolution, are probably the result of a fusion of the ancient M6n-Annam tribes who occupied 104 SIAM the north of the Malay Peninsula with distant cousins from the islands to the south who, like the Mon and Khmer, had come under the modifying and civilising influences of India, and whom force of circumstances drove back from the south upon the footprints of their early wandering ancestors. The Lawa and Kache, with their Kamuk, Kamet, Kabit and Kahok clans, are isolated remnants of the same great family which, left behind by the southward tribal movements of past ages, have remained in the hills, and, in the absence of later civilising influences, have retained to the present day much of their original primitive state. Another wave of population which rolled down from the north over Further India was that composed of the Tibeto-Burman family. This intrusion, which may have occurred any time between 2000 and 3000 years ago, was much more recent than that of the M6n-Annam family and many traditions which seem to have originated in the movement are still extant among the present-day representatives of the family. Though the original seat of the Tibeto-Burman tribes has been disputed, there seems to be now a general consensus of opinion that they came from much the same quarter that formerly gave forth the Mon-Annam family, but the Tibeto- Burmans in their descent followed the Irrawaddy river chiefly and the Mehkong river very little, and though they approached the borders of the country which is now Siam, they never really crossed them until com- paratively recently, when the Meow (or Meo), the Muh-so (or Lahu), and Kui, the Kaw (or Aka), the Lishaw and the Yao, all tribes of probable Tibeto- Burman origin, made their appearance in the north and east of the country. These tribes formerly dwelt among the hills of Muang Sin, Sibsong Panna, SiI)song Chutai and the neighbourhood, and further north. Disturb- ances in those parts have caused them to migrate in THE RACES OF SIAM 105 varioHs directions, and considerable numbers liave now made tlieir borne in Siam, where they are being constantly joined by more emigrants from the north. While the Mon and Khmer were spreading them- selves over the sonthern shores of Further India and before they had begun, under the influence of foreign colonists, to emerge from the state of savagery, the tribes which they had left behind them at different points during their southward trend, were already being driven back into the mountains and brought into a state of partial subjugation by clans of a third great family of wanderers from the north. These were the Lao who, descending from the neighbourhood of the Yang-Tse valley, where the Lao-Tai family had its most ancient seat, had, so long as 2500 years ago, established a powerful and to some extent civilised State on the banks of theMehkong river at Wieng Chan. These people whose first southward movements from western China were probably contemporaneous with those of the Tibeto-Burmans from Tibet, were among tlie earliest off-shoots of the great family whose modern representatives now ]3eople Assam, the Shan States of Burma, Siam and much of the great tract of almost unknown country which lies at the back of Frencii Indo-Cliina and lieyond the northeiTi borders of Siam. The Lao-fl'ai inhaliitants of the Yang Tse valle,y must have been very numerous, for not only did the}’ thus early establish kingdoms far remote from home but they also became a power in their own land and for some time bid strongly for the mastery of all China. For many centuries they conducted successful wars against all their neighbours, but a want of internal cohesion, vdiich a])pears to have been their chief weak- ness, together with other causes, ultimately brought about the disintegration of their kingdom, when their already strong migratory proj^ensities sent them in 106 SIAM search of new destinies in distant lands. They were repeatedly attacked by the Chinese and each attack produced a fresh exodus until, during the thirteenth century a.d. the Emperor Kublai Khan dealt them a final blow, crushing the old Lao-Tai power and scatter- ing its component parts in all directions. Fugitive hordes entered Assam, where former emigrants had already effected a lodgment, and became the dominant power in that country. Others invaded Burma, where for two centures a Tai or Shan dynasty occupied the throne and held the Burmese in subjection, while down the Salwin and Mehkong valleys and into Siam came band after band of exiled tribesmen who mingled with their cousins already established there, accelerated the fusion between Lao and Khmer which had for long been going on, and in 'time caused the formation of the race which now occupies the greater part of Siam. From the date of the overthrow of the last stronghold of Khmer power and the founding of the city of Ayuthia, the Thai or ‘ Freeman,’ evolved from the union of Lao and Khmer, have been, except during brief intervals of alien conquest, the ruling race in Siam. The divisions of the Lao-Tai family now to be found within the borders of Siam are the Thai, or Siamese proper, the Lao, inhabiting the former seats of the tribes of their own stock who afterwards developed into the Thai, the Shans, a later intrusion of distant cousins, the descendants of the Lao-Tai tribes who settled in the eastern districts of the Burmese Empire in the twelfth century and earlier, the Sam-Sam of Southern Siam, a cross between Thai and Malay, and the Lu, a small tribe of recent arrival of whom little is known except that their language reveals their Lao-Tai origin. Besides the races already enumerated there are in Siam certain tribes which it is difficult to affiliate with any of the three great families occupying Further India, THE RACES OF SIAM 107 Of these the most important are the Karien (or Karen) clans which have their seats in the hill-ranges between Burma and Siam. They live chiefly on the Burma side of the frontier but considerable nuanbers are found on the eastern slopes of the dividing range through all the western border-districts of Central Siam and ex- tending some way down into the Siamese Provinces of the Malay Peninsula. Of legendary history the Karien have very little and what there is gives no indication as to whence they may have come, though it is to be noted that they have certain vague traditions of ancient wanderings from some unknown land. These traditions do not take them anywhere beyond Burma but their language, which has a certain affinity with Lao and with Chinese, seems to indicate a probability of their having come originally from South-West China. Some authorities class them with the Lao-Tai family, others with the Tibeto-Burman and others again place them quite apart from all their neighbours. Captain Forbes has it that they arrived in their present habitat in the sixth or seventh century a.d. after the Mon of Pegu and thereabouts, and the Khmer inhabitants of Siam, had become civilised nations, and it is possible that they were originally regarded by the Chinese as related to the Lao-Tai family and were driven out of China in consequence of this supposed kinship. Another tribe which has not yet been satisfactorily classified is that of the Sakai, members of which inhabit the mountains of Southern Siam in small numbers, the main seat of the tribe being in the British Malay States. At one time the Sakai, Jakiin and Semang, all Avild tribes of Southern Siam and the Malay States, Avere classed together as Negrito but though in some AA^ays resembling each other by reason of long contact, it has recently been demonstrated that the Sakai are certainly not of Negrito stock AAdiile eAudence has been produced 108 SIAM wliicli seems to point to a descent from an old Dra vidian race, the progenitors, perhaps, of the Veddas of Southern India, The following table shows the grouping of the present inhabitants of Siam. Negrito r Mon-Annam r Tibeto-Biirman { r The Lao-Tai Unclassified tribes r \ Semang Khmer Mon Yuan (Annamese) Lawa Ivache Chong Malays of Siam (fused with Mon-Annam v. pp. 103-4) Meao, Meo, or Meao-tsu Mnh-so or Lahu Kawi Aka or Kaw Lishaw Yao or Yao-yin Siamese or Thai Lao Ngion (Shan) Lu Sam-sam Ivarien or Karen Sakai To these should be added the Chinese immigrants, a very numerous community composed chiefly of Hokkien and Hailam, the latter natives of the island of Hainan and though perhaps ])artly of Mon-Annam stock, not now distinguishable from the Chinese proper. Population. — The population of Siam is not accurately known, as no census of the whole country has yet been THE RACES OF SIAM 109 taken. In 1854 a.d. Pallegoix, whose calculations were based upon an intimate knowledge of all parts of the country, estimated the total of all races as six millions, and other writers have variously placed it at from five to twelve hnillions. A recent census of Bangkok, an enumeration of the more centi'al parts of the country and a careful estimate of the more outlying, are the sources from which the most reliable present figures are obtained and these give the population at just over six millions. The census of Bangkok shoAvs a population of 628,675 of whom 379,118 are males and 249,557 are females ; a curious result for the capital of a country where polygamy prevails, but which is accounted for by the facts that in the foreign element, which is very large, the males greatly predominate and that the schools and the military forces of the country tend towards concen- tration there ; as well as by the fact that the number of temples, each of Avhich has its large complement of monks and novices, is very great. It is known that many causes, such as defective sanitation and the absence of the most rudimentary knowledge of hygiene, have contributed to check the increase of population to such an extent that the numbers have scarcely increased during the past fift.y years, and hence it is probable, judging by the recent enumeration, that Pallegoix came nearer to the mark than other observers in the past. The Thai, or Siamese proper, number about 2,400,000, the Lao very nearly the same, and these are the main divisions of the population, the Chinese coming next with about 400,000, then the Malays Avith 350,000, the Khmer Avith 80,000, the Mon Avith 60,000, and the Karien Avith 30,000. Others, of AAKom there are some 300,000, are chiefly Avild hill-tribes. The foreign element in the capital, AAdiich includes Europeans, Americans, Japanese, Burmese, JaA^anese and natiA-es of India, amounts to about 9,000. Of Europeans and Americnus there are 110 SIAM about 1800, chiefly members of business firms, govern- ment officials and missionaries. The number of Chinese in Siam has been much exaggerated. Pallegoix esti- mated it at 1,500,000 and more recent observers have gone further, some of them not hesitating to state that half the population of the country is Chinese. Such estimates, however, have usually been based upon the number of Chinese to be seen in the streets of Bangkok where the Chinese element is at its strongest, and it has too often been taken for granted that because every other man encountered in the streets of the capital wears a pigtail,* therefore the Celestial must be equally prevalent in other parts of the country. As a matter of fact the Chinese number about a quarter of the in- habitants of Bangkok but this proportion diminishes rapidly as the distance from the capital increases and, except where the tin-mining and rice-milliiig industries have caused the formation of separate colonies as at Puket and Petriu, is an almost negligible quantity in most of the rural districts. At the same time there is a strong infusion of Celestial blood in tlie Siamese themselves, more especially amongst the townspeople and the upper classes, for Chinamen, v/lio have resorted to Siam for com- merce and as tradesmen and labourers since the beginning of the seventeenth century a.d., have intermarried freely with the women of the country, their descendants about the third generation or even earlier, becoming indistinguish- able in outward appearance from the pure Siamese. Many noble families of the present day trace their descent to some not veiy remote Chinese ancestor who, arriving in the country penniless, raised himself by years of thrift among a thriftless people, to a position of wealth and power. The Semang. — The investigations of the Cambridge Expedition which explored the interior of Southern Siam and the Malay Peninsula in 1899 and the subse- * Or did until queue-cutting became the fashion. THE RACES OF SIAM 111 quent work on The Pagan Paces of the Malay Peninsula by Messrs Skeat and Blagden, have added enormonsly to our knowledge of the Semang. Formerly he was classed with other tribes of his neighbourhood who were collectively known as ‘ Sakai,’ a Malay word meaning simply slave or servant as does the word ‘ Ka ’ aj3plied by the Siamese to all and sundry hill-tribes in Northern Siam. Now it is known that the Semang stands alone, separated from the people surrounding him by a vastly older descent, and represents with his Negrito cousins of the Andamans and the Philippine Islands, and possibly also with the Pygmies of Central Africa’ one of the most ancient races of mankind now in existence. The Semang of Siam probably number about 6000 in all, and inhabit the mountains at the back of the Chaya, Singora and Patani districts. Among these ranges they wander up and down, seldom remaining in one place longer than is necessary to reap the thin croj)s of rice and millet which they sometimes plant in rough clear- ings on the hill sides. The men average about 4 ft. 10 in. in height and the women 4 ft. 7 in. Their colour is either chocolate brown or ‘jet black ’ ; the head, when not shaven, is covered with short wool, the fore- head is low and round, nose flat and spreading, cheek- bones not prominent, eyes horizontal, mouth wide witli lips usually not over thick but occasionally very much so, chin small, and jaw slightly prognathous. The body is usually well developed with a somewhat protruding posterior — on the whole a decidedly unjDrepossessing race judged by standards other than their own ; but their bright eyes, vivacious expression, quick, lithe movements and habitual cheerfulness do much to relieve their general ugliness. The distinctive costume of the Semang male consists of a diminutive loin-cloth made of a stringy fungus common in the neighbourhood. That of the Avoman is 112 SIAM a girdle of leaves and a bamboo liair-comb, the latter worn to avert sickness and other ill fortune. Tattooing is unknown but both men and women occasionally ornament their faces with lines scratched thereon with a thorn. A Semang house is seldom more than a simple shelter formed of palm leaves stuck in the ground with the tops bent over and intertwined. Now and then, as a result of contact with more ciAulised races, small huts of plaited palm leaves are constructed, but the wilder Semang frequently do not aspire to a house of any kind, contenting themselves with a lair beneath an over- hanging rock or in a holloAv tree-trunk. Their weapons consist of boAv and arroAvs, a blovA^-pipe adopted from the neighbouring Sakai tribes, and spears of sharpened bamboo slivers. ArroAvs and bloAv-pipe darts are usually tipped with a poAverful vegetable poison, prepared from the juice of the Upas tree or creeper. Their arroAA"- heads are frequently of iron, obtained from the Malays or Siamese near Avhom they live. They are skilful and courageous hunters, and all manner of game, from the elephant to the smallest bird, falls to their primitive Aveapons. Their religion is of the vaguest and most rudimentary character, consisting of little more than the occasional ]3lacation of a god called ‘ Kaye ’ (the controller of ‘ Thunder ’), and of a hazy idea of a paradise and a place of eternal punishment, neither of which seems in any way to affect the shaping of their lives. Of ceremonies they have next to none. A bare act of barter between a bridegroom and his father-in-laAv constitutes a wedding, while a burial is no more than a silent shuffling of the deceased into a shallow graye constructed like an underground leaf shelter. Their music, their dancing and singing are of the most primitive description. A hollow bamboo beaten Avith a palm-leaf or knocked against a tree trunk, a flute blown through the nose instead of with the lips and a THE RACES OF SIAM 113 bamboo Jew’s harp twanged with a monkey’s bone, aro the musical instruments used, to the accompaniment of which rude songs are chanted and an elemental dance is performed, not apparently in connection with aii}^ ceremonial but merely as a distraction. The Semang usually cook their food, though meat is sometimes jireferred raw. The}^ obtain fire by the friction of two pieces of bamboo rubbed together, but the more civilised are possessed of flint and steel, and nowadays trade matches are not unknown to them. They use neither alcohol nor opium but are confirmed tobacco smokers. The Semang are absolutely illiterate, possessing no written character of any kind. Their language is largely made up of words borrowed from the ancient Malay and contains also a few words of ancient Mon- Annam origin, the latter resulting probably from contact with the ancient races of Southern Siam. Countless generations of oppression at the hands of their more civilised neighbours have created in these little people a condition of extreme shyness and timidity towards the rest of mankind. Neither Malays nor Siamese have ever realised that the Semang are as much human beings as themselves nor can they see any differ- ence between the value of the life of a Semang and that of any lower animal of the more useless kind, and conse- quently they are always as ready to take the one as the other. Therefore the Semang seldom leaves his jungle fastness and when visited there by strangers, steals away before them like a wild beast. His ‘ form ’ may be found fresh beneath a rock, with fire still smouldering and with little bits of basket-work and fresh-picked bones lying about, but the owner will not be met with and, indeed, it is only after long negotiation with a known and trusted go-between that he may at last be induced reluctantly to show himself. It will therefore be understood that as a tax-paying citizen of the State H 114 SIAM the Semang is a complete failure and, though he would doubtless enjoy the suffrage if domiciled in England, in Siam he is accepted as an uninteresting waif of humanity of no value even as a slave — in fact, a nonentity. A young male specimen was captured and presented to the late King of Siam a few years ago. This youth now speaks Siamese fluently, occupies a place amongst the Court pages, and revels in his fine clothes and gay surroundings. Malays.- — The Malay population of Siam has been I'educed by the recent cession of territory to Great Britain, from over one million to some 360,000. Of those who remain under the White Elephant ensign, the greater part inhabit Southern Siam but about 30,000 are located at Chantaburi, Ayuthia and Bangkok and along the East Coast of the Gulf. These latter are the descendants of captives brought back from time to time by the military expeditions to the Malay penin- sula, which were of frequent occurrence in the past. The Malay of Southern Siam is of comparatively recent evolution. It is not more than 500 years since roving parties of Malays from Malacca first penetrated the rivers of the northern part of the Peninsula and, overcoming the resistance of the inhabitants, made settlements there. Their superior warlike qualities enabled them to spread their influence through the surrounding districts and, by converting the indigenous male population to Mohammedanism and extensively inter-marrying with the females, to produce a large population of passable Malays in a surprisingly short space of time, the more so as the indigenous people, descended like themselves from the ancient M6n-Annam stock, strongly resembled them in many respects. Indeed, with the exception of language, costume and religion, there is little to distinguish the Malay of Southern Siam from the Siamese of that locality. THE RACES OF SIAM 115 Physically the two are exactly alike, both having complexions of varying shades of brown, short stature and slight but well-knit frames, brachycephalous heads with prognathous jaws, oblique brown eyes, straight black hair, prominent cheek-bones and flat noses ; in fact all the usual characteristics of the Further Indian Mongoloid type. In this respect the Malay of Southern Siam differs somewhat from the true Malay, in whom the Indian and other foreign blood which has contributed largely towards the evolution of his race, has to some extent modified the Mongol characteristics. The language of the Patani Malay consists of a dialect of Malay interlarded with words borrowed from Siamese ; a dialect so broad as to be almost unintelligible to the iinaccnstomed ear of a true Malay. The Tongkah and Puket ]\lalays also use a large number of Siamese words, but their pronunciation, being less marred by dialectical clippings than is that of their East Coast cousins, is more comprehensible to the Malays of the South. The Malays of Siam are all Mohammedans but the spirit worship they practised, together possibly with a veneer of Buddhism, before their conversion, still maintains a strong hold upon them, more esjiecially in the remoter districts, where the inhabitants are frankl}^ animistic wdth the merest varnish of Islamism super- imposed. The people are grouped into parishes, each of which has a Surao, or Praying House, and a staff of clergy, and the Mohammedan rites of circumcision, marriage and burial are universall}^ practised ; but beyond these observances the lives of the peo])le are ordered entirely with reference to the legions of supernatural beings which they believe to surround them and to exercise an influence, benign or baleful as the case may be, upon even the most trivial of their actions. There is some slight evidence to show that before the people were 116 SIAM converted to Islam their religion may have included a debased form of Brahmanism. The conqueror when imposing Mohammedanism upon them, failed to dispel the influence of the Brahman Gods who, though classed by orthodox Moslems with Afrits and Jins, to follow whom is death and damnation, still stand at the head of the spirit world and command the utmost respect of the- XDeople. In fact the Brahman Gods with their hosts of attendant sjDirits occupy much the same position with regard to tlie Mohammedanism of the Malays as- they do to the Buddhism of the Siamese. The Malays of Siam are agriculturists and fishermen. They own some of the best rice-producing land in the Peninsula, and the seas which wash their shores teem with fish of many kinds. Their methods of farming and fishing differ from those of the Siamese only in the shape of some few of their implements and in their more extensive dread of interference wdth their pursuits- by the unseen powers and consequently in their more elaborate propitiatory efforts. The usual costume of the Siamese Malay consists of three garments, or rather pieces of cloth. With the men these are a waist cloth descending to the knees, a strip worn sometimes as a belt and sometimes thrown over the shoulder, and a small kerchief around the head. In the case of the women the three cloths are amplified ; the first descends' from the waist to the ankles, the second is hitched round the body over the bust and descends to a little below the hips and the third is intended to cover not only the head but the shoulders and neck also. The men usually shave their heads while the women wear their hair long" and knotted on the top of the head. The race isnonhirsute and such scant hairs as appear on the chins of the men are usually plucked out. On festive occasions the men wear a checked skirt or sarong while the women use bright-coloured silk clothes and dress their hair with- THE RACES OF SIAM 117 flowers. In spite of the precepts of Islam, the ladies contrive, by the disposal of their costmne, to reveal the lines of their sometimes shapely figures and, as often as not, to expose their arms and neck in a manner which would scarcely be tolerated farther south. Indeed the restrictions imposed upon the female sex in other Mohammedan communities are here largely absent, the women moving about in public with freedom equal to that of the men except upon occasions of great ceremony, when ladies appear carefully swathed to the eyes and when they are rigorously segregated from the men, though an hour or so earlier they may have been disporting themselves at a public bathing-place clad in next to nothing at all. The loose jacket, baggy trousers and bright sarongs which form the typical costume of the male Malays of the south are rarely seen among the Siamese Malays, and then only on the persons of the more well-to-do. Though Islamism is at its very feeblest amongst the Siamese Malays, yet its prohibition of gambling and of the drinking of alcohol, are very generally observed, at least by the unsophisticated people of the east coast districts, who are in consequence more easily controlled and more free from crime than the Siamese. The Malays of the West, however, in whose veins is a considerable admixture of Tamil blood, though more careful in the outward observances of their religion, are great sinners in private and, especially in the towns, are perhaps the most depraved communities of Mohammedan Malays in existence. It is to be noted that the tales of reckless Malay courage, combined with treacherous ferocity, which form a considerable part of the literary nourishment of English youth, find singularly little corroboration among the Malays of Siam who, though they may occasionally settle a question of dishonour by recourse L18 SIAM to arms, in nine cases out of ten now prefer to v/rangle it out at lengtli in a Court of Law. Khmer . — The Kamhodians now inhabiting Siam are located chiefly in the neighbourhood of Korat and Prachim, the provinces bordering on Kambodia proper, but many small communities of Kambodians are to be found in other neighbourhoods, especially around the town of Ratburi in the west of Siam, far away from Kambodia, where prisoners taken in the ancient wars were planted out in settlements and given lands, subject to the rendering of military service to the Siamese king. In costume, customs and religion, the Kambodian is now scarcely to be distinguished from the Siamese, In appearance, however, he is slightly fairer, perhaps a thought larger and rather less Mongolian, and consequently wears a foreign air which, together with his peculiar misi^ronunciation of Siamese which the lapse of time is seemingly powerless to eradicate, renders his identification a matter of ease. The Kambodian language continues to be spoken in the villages, but is being sup^^lanted by Siamese which latter is known to, and used by all, as a second language, and is naturally the language of the schools. Mon. — The modern Mon race, or Talaing as the Burmese call it, is represented in Siam by several communities inhabiting the banks of the Menam river above and below the capital, and scattered through the provinces of Ratburi and Kakon Chaisi, and by a considerable number of people living in Bangkok itself. These are descendants of prisoners brought from the Tenasserim province of Burma during the wars between that country and Siam, or of refugees who have from time to time fled from Pegu and other parts of Southern Burma to escape the persecution which the Talaings formerly suffered at the hands of the THE RACES OF SIAM 119 Burmese. The captives and refugees on arriving in Siam were given lands to cultivate, in return for wliicli tlie}^ were placed under the obligation to render military service, as was the case with Mala 3 ^s, Ivambodians and other foreigners in like circumstances. Under these conditions they settled themselves in villages con- tiguous to their lands where thej^ were generally goA^erned by their own headman, permitted to folloAv their OAvn form of Buddhist ritual, differing slightly from that of the Siamese, and to use their oaaui language. Tlieir descendants occupy the same lands to-da}^ The communities, in spite of the liability to the detested military seiwice and of the somewhat degraded social position Avhich that liability formerl}- entailed, haAm increased in size and prosperity, many individuals haA^e risen to high office in the seiwice of the State and the Mon to-day are reckoned among the more prosperous people in Siam. One of the most popular and successful of Siamese Ministers at the Court of St James’s Avithin recent years Avas a scion of this race.. In the ordinaiy course of events the old military laAvs haAm become unsuitable to the needs of the countiy and liaAm therefore been replaced fjy others Avliich make service in the Arm}- or Navj^ compulsory for all Siamese subjects. Thus one of the main influences for separation betAA^een the i\I6ns and Siamese has been removed and it is probable that a feAv years Avill see the complete alisorption of the former by the latter race. As a Talaing in Burma, so a Mon in Siam, can often be distinguished by his superior size and lieight ; otherAvise his physical ap])earance is almost identical Avith that of the Siamese. The Mon of botli sexes Avear the Siamese panuwj or tucked-up skii-t but the AAmmen Avear it rather more Amluminous than do the Siamese. The Mdn ladies also affect a tight- fitting, Avhite jacket on all occasions, and wear their 120 SIAM hair loiig and twisted into a neat chignon at the back of the head. Their houses differ slightly in construction from those of the Siamese, and have their gable-ends pointing east and west, a matter about which the Siamese is not particular. The Mon language is still spoken in the villages, and is taught in a few of the temple schools. The Mon, however, all speak Siamese and that without the foreign pronunciation which distinguishes the Kambodians. Yuan. — Annamese are found in Siam to the number of about 6000, and live principally in the south-eastern Province of Cliantaburi and in the neighbourhood of Bangkok. The former are the descendants of certain converts to Roman Catholicism who fled from Aniiam in the 17th and 18th centuries to escape persecution in. their own country, while the ancestors of the latter were mostly prisoners of war taken in the campaigns against the Annamese at the time when Kambodia was a bone of contention between Siam and Annam. The Annamese of Cliantaburi continue to practise the religion for which their forefathers suffered exile, and those of Bangkok are also nearly all of the same faith. It seems that in former days the Roman Catholic Missionaries in Siam found ready converts in the Annamese prisoners of war, and that in addition to the rudiments of Christianity, they taught them also the elements of military discipline, thereby changing them from a miserable crowd of slaves, reluctantly bearing arms in the service of their conquerors, into an orderly and useful body of troops, wherefore the King, much pleased with this arrangement, ordered that all prisoners subsequently taken in the Annamese wars should be handed over to the Missionaries for conversion and for inclusion in the ranks of the Christian soldiers. King Mongkut, early in his reign, presented no less than THE RACES OF SIAM 121 3000 such persons in one batch to the Roman Catholic Mission. The Annamese, by reason perhaps of their adopted religion, do not show any tendency to become absorbed by the Siamese, though they strongly resemble them in feature and physique. They still retain their peculiar costume of loose black trousers and coat, common to both sexes but with the coat extended into a sort of gabardine in the case of the women, and allow their hair to grow to its full length. They also continue to use their own language ; the}^ are all able to speak Siamese more or less correctly. Some few have risen to high military rank, but outside the Army and Navy they are not found among the upper classes. Lawa. — The Lawa dr L’wa are a hill tribe inhabiting the border ranges to the west and south-west of Northern Siam. The appearance, language, and traditions of this people clearly indicate that, though now surrounded by Lao, Siamese, and Shans, and much modified by contact with these races, they really belong to the Mon-Annam family. They themselves believe that at some very remote period their ancestors occupied the whole valleys and plains of Central Siam, and it seems possible that such was in fact the case though not, as has sometimes been suggested, at the period of the invasion of Siam by the Lao-Tai family. Their gradual reduction to a mere remnant of a race must have taken place during much earlier times, for they have nothing to connect them directly with the civilised Khmer who occupied the land at the time of the Lao-Tai intrusions. It seems probable that the remote ancestors of the Lawa were a part of the people found indigenous in the land by the Brahman Khmer who founded the kingdom of Sukhotai-Sawanlvalok and that in The fastnesses of their hills they have been left behind by the march of events since that remote time, and, except for the admixture of a rude form of Buddhism with their 122 SIAM spirit worship and a recent introduction into their language of a few Shan words, they have seen the Khmer, and later the Lao-Tai, civilisations rise in turn and flourish around them, leaving them in a condition hut little removed from that of their rude forefathers. The Lawa is a little shorter and a little darker, and has slightly less pronouncedly Mongolian features, than the Siamese. He cuts his hair short in Siamese fashion hut wears the haggy trousers and turhan of the Shan. The traveller in Further India following the jungle^ tracks and hridle-paths in any part of that maze of forest-clad mountains and valleys which lies roughly Ijetween 98° and 104° E. long, and 17° and 25° N. lat. and which England, France, China, and Siam now divide between them, may meet at any corner, or will see crossing his route hy a hy-path, a line of little, hlue-clad figures, plodding in single file, hending heneath the weight of tall baskets suspended upon the hack by a band round the forehead, swinging their arms before them and drawing their breath with a peculiar whistling sound. These will be the women- folk of one or other of the innumerable tribes which occupy the crests and spurs of the ranges in this vast tract, carrying produce home from the fields or to the markets held periodically at the Shan or Lao villages of the valleys. Although belonging to so many different tribes, some of which are but remotely inter-connected in race, and others not at all, the resemblance in the general appearance of these women is such that the casual obseiwer might almost mistake a group of Kacliin from near Bhamo for Kamuk about Muang A an. The ground-work of their costume is almost always dark l)lue cotton cloth made into a kilt or skirt, a jacket more or less voluminous, a cloth for the head and gaiters for the legs. It is in the stripes and ornaments on the blue ground, in the number and nature of the cane or wire: lawa girls. 1 • - 1 THE RACES OF SIAM 123 bands worn round the waist, neck or knees, in the method of fastening the headcloth and of wearing the hair, that the particular tribe or clan to which the women belong can be distinguished. The women of the Lawa affect this blue dress, relieved as a rule only by a few thin white lateral stripes on the skirt. They also wear a jacket in the form of an abbrevdated gabardine and usually dispense with the headcloth. They wear their hair long and gathered into a rough chignon at the back of the head. The Lawa cultivates hill rice, is of a timid and peace- loving disposition and is slowly decreasing in numbers. A jumble of witchcraft and sj^irit -worship, made more complicated by the presence of a few Buddhist mendi- cant monks, serves him for religion. A single wife contents him as long as he is in his natural condition of poverty, but should he b}^ chance amass wealth, he at once becomes a polygamist of pronounced type. Going to market forms the chief excitement of his life, the government is represented to him l)y his own headman, and the outside world by occasional visits of Siamese Forest officers or taxgatherers. The Lawa houses are large and strongly constructed, built of bamboo chiefly, with thatch roofs, and all inconceivably dirty. The art of smelting iron is understood by the tribe and is practised largely but in a most primitive manner, ploughshares, knives and other articles being made from the metal and sold in the neighbouring markets. KachE. — The Kainuk, Kamet, Lamet, KaBit, Ka Hok and Pai, are closely related hill-tribes located partly in the mountains of Muang Xan in the east of Xorthern Siam but chiefly in the neighbouring French dependen- cies of Luang Pral)ang and Chieng Kwang. Separated by a wide tract of country from the hills of the Lawa, they nevertlieless strongly resemble the latter and they seem to bear a family likeness to the Wa who inhabit 124 SIAM between the rivers Salwiii and Mehkong some 400 miles to the north, and also to the Palanng or Rnmai of the hills of Twang Peng, 350 miles away to the north-west. Like the last named, the Kache are properly classed as of the Mon-Annam famil}^, and this despite the qnaint Lao tale which traces the origin of themselves and the Kache to a brown man and a black man, evolved from two pumpkins somewhere in the neighbourhood of Luang Prabang, and who, apparently, propagated the two races without that female assistance which is usually considered necessary to the achievement of a family. The people of these tribes which are known gener- ally to the Siamese as Ka or Kache, meaning originally ‘ slave,’ vary considerably in the amount of civilisation to which they have attained, some of them, from long and intimate intercourse with the Lao and Siamese, having adopted Buddhism together with many of the manners and customs of their neighbours, while others, and these constitute the majority, continue in the rude and l)enighted condition of their forefathers. In the past they were invariably regarded by the Lao chiefs in whose territory they lived, as beings of an order not cjuite human and as the mere chattels of the overlord, to be bought or sold, put to any kind of forced labour or exterminated, according to his pleasure. For a Lao to kill a Kache might be considered as a mischievous destruction of the i:>roperty of a chief but in no sense amounted to the crime of murder. The Kache, largely outnumbering the Lao, frequently rebelled against the treatment which they received, but were usually reduced to order without much trouble and were always after- wards made l)itterly to expiate such lapses from docility. These things, however, are of the past. The Kache are now as free as any one else in Siam and many of the Kamuk clan have saved money and acquired property, •chiefly by their work in the teak forests where they are THE RACES OF SIAM 125 largely employed as malioiits and lumber-men. The loss of Luang Prabang and of the provinces east of the Mehkong has greatly reduced the Kache population of Siam but the timber industry draws large numbers westwards from the territories ceded to France, and settlements of the better class of Kache are increasing in the province of Nan. The Kache are considerably shorter and darker than the Lao or Siamese and, like the Lawa, have features not demonstratively Mongolian in type. Their diminu- tive size and dark colour has led to their being classed as Negritos, but careful comparison of their a23pearance and customs with those of true Negritos, such as the Semang, at once contradicts this theory. Their language is strikingly similar to that of the Lawa, the general construction of the two being almost identical. Tiiere is no written language but a legend runs that the tribes once possessed an alphabet. This, however, was known to one man only and consequently, when he died suddenly during the heat of a discussion, was lost. The wisest and most intelligent men of the tribes devoured their erudite clansman’s body, in the hope of recovering some part of his knowledge but their efforts in the cause of science were of no avail and the Kache remains illiterate. The costume of the male Kache varies from the diminutive, striped loin-cloth of homespun cotton with which he starts his adult life, to the complete outfit of baggy trousers, short coat, turban and sash, which he assumes, in more or less correct copy of the Shan dress, as soon as he begins to have an income to spend and a position to support. Should he never aspire to more than the ordinary life of the wilder hilltop villages, the loin-cloth may continue to suffice, supple- mented for village festivals or on chilly evenings, by a short sleeveless waistcoat the donning of which, far 126 SIAM from covering liis nakedness, throws into sharper relief that part of him which his nntntored mind leaves bare. In the more civilised Buddhist villages, however, trousers are now de rigeur. The Kache women wear the traditional blue skirt of the hill people but many of them prolong it almost to the ankles. A single white stripe follows the hem and otherwise it is usually without ornamentation. The females of some of the more backward clans, however, such as the Ka Hok, still use a knee-long, kilt-like skirt and sometimes weave many bands of red and white into it. The short blue jacket which they all wear at times, has sleeves with a thin white band round the upper arm. Bracelets, hairpins and earrings of silver are worn, and the hair is done in a ‘ bob ’ on the toj) of the head and covered by a blue head cloth. In the 23i*ivacy of the home much, if not all, of this costume is commonly discarded, apparently to facilitate the per- formance of household duties. All the Kache, even the more enlightened Kamuk, consider cleanliness a mere fad and do not practise it. The religion of the Kache except those Kamuk who have adopted Buddhism, expresses itself in the pro- pitiation, by sacrifice, of the evil spirits by which they believe themselves to be surrounded and jealously watched in all their undertakings. The ranks of these ‘ spooks ’ being constantly recruited from amongst the ghosts of departed tribesmen, propitiation is an increas- ingl}^ arduous business, the more so as misfortune of any kind is invariably attributed to the malevolence of some neglected goblin. Most villages have a meeting- house in which sacrifices are offered, and here fowls, pigs and cattle are killed, cooked, and, after being offered to the spirits, eaten Avith gusto by the congrega- tion, for the good of unfortunate individuals for Avhoni prayers are desired or to secure the general AA^elfare of THE RACES OF SIAM 127 the community. The identity of any spirit which it is desired to appease, is usually discoverable by the initiated, from a careful scrutiny of the fibres of a split stick. The Kache villages occupy the highest crests of the mountain ranges. The houses are comparativel.y solid structures of timber and bamboo, long and low, with the floor raised two or three feet above the ground and the whole thatched with grass. Marriage is in theory a matter of barter, but in practice the principals know each other intimately and have usually come to a mutual understanding based upon practical experiment before the arrangement of the marriage is published. As in other tribes practising ante-nuptial free love, infidelity after marriage is almost unknown. The Kache havn little or no knowledge of medicine ; the properties of a few herbs are known and these are used for certain maladies, but the usual treatment for any sort of disease is the exorcising of the evil spirits causing sickness, by sacrifice and by bloAving, Avhistling, singing, dancing and other incantations, variations of which are common throughout Further India. The dead are abvays buried, usually in the jungle at the edge of the village clearings. Burial ceremonies are of the most primitive, cleansing the body of evil spirits and eating and drinking heaAuly in its honour, being the principal observances. All the Kache clans practise agriculture in temporary clearings made on the forest-clad mountain slopes. Here they groAv rice, maize, millet, a little toliacco and other produce but chiefly rice, planting a deal- ing once or sometimes tAvice and then making another. They are skilful fishermen and trappers of game. CiioxG.— The Chong are a small and scattered tribe inhabiting the mountain range north of the Chantaburi province. They are in an exceedingly primitive con- 128 SIAM dition, have no settled habitations and subsist chiefly by the collecting of jungle produce such as resin, beeswax, wood-oil and rattan, which they barter with the Siamese for foodstuffs. Their customs, beliefs and language have much in common with those of the Kache, and though some writers have sought to class them with the Negritos, they are more probably of M6n-Annam stock. Meao. — The first impression on encountering the Meao, Meo or Miaotzu is that here is something different from the usual hillman of Further India. Instead of the almost naked men and the generally dirty and sparsely clad women, to whose frowsy appearance and unwashed Mongolian faces the traveller in this part of the world has grown accustomed, there appears a neat and sturdy little people, in whose features the Mongolian type is distinctly modified, of a bright, cleanly and intelligent appearance, and of industrious habits. They are divided into eleven, some say twelve, clans, the majority of which are not, however, represented in Siam, and from long contact have acquired many points of resemblance with the Chinese of Yunnan, the most remarkable of which are their language and the abbreviated x>igtails and the costume of the men. The dress of the women varies greatly in the different clans, and borrows nothing from the Chinese. The men wear loose blue trousers, a coat, usually dark blue but sometimes white, with a turned-up collar, a gay waist- band with broad, embroidered tassels, and a large blue turban worn flat and projecting far out all round the head. All carry an embroidered bag which serves as a capacious pocket, and many go armed with a dah, or sword, and a crossbow. The women of one clan wear a short, pleated kilt descending to the knees, a white crossover jacket embroidered at the edges, with sleeves turned up with red, and a broad embroidered collar. MKAO WOMEN MEAO GIRL THE RACES OF SIAM 129 ill sliape like that of a sailor, wliicli covers half the hack ; they also wear a turban of coloured cloth and usually swathe their legs in strips of cloth as a protection against thorns. In another clan the female costume consists of a full dark-blue skirt, hitched round the body under the arms and descending to the knees, with a full-sleeved blue jacket over it and open down the front, a sash round the waist and cloth leggings from knee to ankle. The top of the skirt, the ends of the sleeves, and the leggings, are usually embroidered with white and red stripes and with cowries, beads, mother-of-pearl shirt buttons, etc. The head-dress is very peculiar, being formed of a number of stiff rings of bamboo covered and fastened together with cloth and heavily em- broidered with beads and silvery seeds, the whole forming an edifice which rises high above the back of the head and terminates in a loop like the handle of a basket. Festoons of cock’s feathers and embroidered ear-lappets add the finishing touches to this extra- ordinary coiffure. McCarthy records that in yet another clan the coiffure of the ladies, an equally elal3orate affair, is made but once in several years, being kept in position by a plastering of beeswax. Francis Gamier, who made the acquaintance of more than one clan of these people in the JMehkong valley in 1861, apparently mistook them for Midiso. With the advance of the French to the J\Iehkong, Siam has lost the greater ]>art of her kfeao subjects, but a certain numl^er of villages are to be found on the Avest side of that riA^er and in other parts of Northern Siam, and as the ]3re Availing soutlward and AA^estAA^ard moA^ement of the A^arious clans of this people continues, more communities Avill doubtless be established there in the future. The Meao liA^e in strongl}" built houses AAdtli timber or mud AA^alls and stone floors, generally perched on the I 130 SIAM crest of the highest available mountains. They use a rough bedstead, stools and tables, all of which are (‘onspicuously absent from the houses of the Kache. Their agriculture is carried on in forest clearings on the sides of the mountains on which they have their settlements, and they grow rice, maize, tobacco, hemp, vegetables ‘ of sorts ’ and opium. They keep cattle, goats and a few ponies. The women are much occupied with weaving and embroidery, the results of their labour being often of artistic value. The Meao are monogamists and their marriages which are usually 2 :)receded by a period of irregular co-habitation, are accomj)anied by elaborate ceremonies. Their religion is the usual sj^irit-worship, observed by means of sacrifice, by heavy eating and by the copious drinking of rough, strong spirit distilled from rice. They practise burial of the dead and their custom of 2 ^ 1 acing a white cock beside the corpse to do iDattle with the great lizard suj)230sed to bar the j^assage of the soul to paradise, may possibly denote some remote connection with the Chinbok tribes far away to the west on the other side of Burma. The Meao say they once had a written character but have lost it. They now use the Chinese in which a small x^roportion of their men are XU'oficient. They also use the Chinese calendar. There ax:>X)ears no reason to warrant affiliation of the Meao with the races of Mon-Annam stock, while language, customs and, to some extent, apx^earance, seem to hint at connection with the Tibeto-Burman races. They are therefore noAv included among the latter, though subsequent investigation may x^ossibly such classification quite Avrong. The Muhso are another Avidely distributed tribe, sux)i30sed to be of Tibeto-Burman stock. They some- times call themselves Lahu or I^ahuna, Muhso being ax)X)ai‘cntly a corrux:)tion of one of the Chinese names lor the tril^e. Their traditions indicate an ancient THE RACES OF SIAISI 131 Muliso kingdom sitnated south of Talifii in Ynnnan, and not very far from the borders of Tibet, which latter conntiy was prol^ably the cradle of their race. Migrations to the southward caused by internal strife, by aggression of foreign tribes or by excess of popula- tion, brought into existence a series of Mnhso com- munities scattered oA^'er the north of Further India and bound together in a confederacy Avhich in time greAv to such poAA-er as to aronse the jealousy of China. A long struggle AAntli the latter poAver AA^as the result, and this ended some tAventy-fiA^e years ago, in the disruption of the confederacy, since AAdiich time the Mnhso liaA^e continnally jonrneyed still further sontliAA^ards to find an escape from their conquerors and persistent oppressors. This moA'ement has brought them in considerable numbers into Siam and especially into the district of Mnang Fang in the far nortliAA^est corner of the Chieng Mai, or Payap, Monton AAdiere, indeed, there has for some years been established a Mnhso chieftain of AAude- extending influence, flflie features of the Muhso are of a modified Mongolian type and in stature they are hardly less diminutiA^e than the ]\leao. The costume of the men is practically that of the Yunnanese China- men, that is, it consists of baggy blue trousers, a loose, long, blue coat or blouse tied in at the AA^aist by a cloth, and a blue turban. Sometimes, hoAA^eA^er, the coat is a short, double-breasted, bolero affair. The AA^omen AA'ear a skirt hitched round the AA^aist and falling a little beloAA" the knees, of a blue ground AAuth lateral stripes of colour AA'OA^en into it. A long black or blue coat split up the sides so as to make coat-tails in front and behind, coA^ers the uiAper part of the body and hides a good deal of the skirt. It is fastened at the neck and falls aAA'ay in front leaAung Ausible an iiwerted Y of bare skin, extending to the AA^aist. The AAdiole costume is embroidered at the edges and is studded AAuth sih^er 132 SIAM buttons and broaches, in the making of which the Muhsa are very adept. The head-dress of the females is the usual blue cloth, each clan having its own peculiar method of wearing the same. A silver torque, a pair of large silver earrings and a number of cane neck- rings, the latter to avert barrenness and other forms of ill-fortune, are worn by all women. The ensemble of the costume has a pleasing though rather sombre effect. The weapons of the Muhso are sword and crossbow. The latter discharges an arrow made of bamboo, some- times tipped with poison, capable of bringing down tiger, bear and other big game at 100 yards’ distance. The Muhso cultivate the mountain ridges and slopes round about their villages and are skilful husbandmen, obtaining good crops of rice, maize, millet, tobacco and opium. Their houses are well built of the usual timber and bamboo. Their religion is in the main animistic but is imbued with Buddhism. Whilst observing most of the ceremonies of ordinary animistic beliefs, they meet together for worship in a special building, set apart for the purpose in each village, on the eighth day of the new moon, at full moon, and on the eighth and last days of the waning. They practise circumcision. Their animism comes out especially in a religious festival which they hold once every year and at which sacrifices of fowls, pigs and cattle are offered, with the inevitable accompaniment of strong liquor. Sir George Scott, who has observed the Muhso in many regions of Further India, says that in their older northern seats they are Buddhists of a sort but that those wdio have wandered far to the south- Avard have reverted to Animisn. This probabl}^ explains the mixed religious customs of the Muhso of Siam. They bury their dead in Avooden coffins Avitli a great deal of ceremony of the sort practised by most spirit Avorshipx^ers. In the bag AAdiich every Muhso carries slung from his shoulder, a musical instrument of the THE RACES OF SIAM 133 Hioiitli-orgaii kind will usually be found, an instrnment made of reeds fixed into a small dried gonrd or a hollowed piece of wood. The instrnment is blown into throngh a mouthpiece, and notes are made by manipulat- ing air-holes in the reeds with the fingers. A low, sweet sound is produced and the little airs of a iveird cadence which the performer plays while walking to market or watching the crops, are very pleasing even to nnaccnstomed ears. This instrnment, called ‘ ken,’ is used to accompany the queer dancing to which the ]\Inhso are greatly addicted. The ‘ ken ’ in various forms is common to many of the people of Further India, In the hill-tracts to the far north it is formed of a single reed eight inches long, thrust into a tiny gonrd and producing only three or four notes, while among the Lao in Siam it has reached its full develop- ment as a powerful instrnment of considerable compass, with fourteen reeds varying from one and a half to twelve feet in length. The Mnhso has no written character, bnt a few of the men can read Chinese, nsnally very badly. The Knwi or Kwi or Lalm Hsi are closely related to the Mnhso, the two tribes speaking different dialects of the same language and understanding each other fairly well. Except that the Kmvi cremate their dead instead of burying them as do the ]\Inhso, their customs and religion are almost identical. Tlie Akha or, as they are more commonly called, Kaw, are not found in large numbers in Siam, though they are fairly numerous in the districts nortli and east of Luang Prabang which have passed, within the last few years, from Siam to France. In the mountains of the Mnang Fang, Chieng Sen and Chieng Ivawng districts of the Payap Monton, they have a few widely scattered villages bnt there are probably not more than 2,000 of them in the whole country. They have been 134 SIAM classed with the tribes of Tibeto-Biirman stock, Warington Smytli remarks their close resemblance to the Miihso. Sir George Scott, however, while placing the Miihso comparatively close to the Burmese, finds no grounds for including the Ivaw in that group other than those of convenience and of politeness to Dr Grierson. Except by their superior size and ugliness tlie Kaw men are scarcely distinguishable in general aj^pearance from the Muhso or from the most highly civilised of the Kaclie tribesmen. Their features how- ever are coarser, the chin j^rojecting remarkably and, like the Meao, they wear a small x^igtail hidden under their turban. The women of the tribe are unmistak- able. Their head-dress is peculiar and appears much too large for them, while their other garments invariably give the impression of being too small. The head- dress resembles a small crinoline or basket of bamboo hoops covered with cloth. The affair is heavily en- crusted Avith pieces of sih^er, coins, shells and beadlike seeds and is A\nrn covering the AAdiole of the head and descending so Ioav on the forehead as almost to conceal the eyebroAA's. The remainder of the costume of the female KaAV consists of a jacket stopping an inch or tAvo above the AAnist and proAuded Avith tight short sleeA'es, of a skirt covering the body from somewhere beloAv the AAnist to half Avay doAvn the thighs, and a ])air of cloth gaiters enclosing the calves of the legs ; the Avhole is much embroidered and the general effect is rather that of a Scottish Highlander in a suit many sizes too small and minus all underclothing. The Kaw is a spirit Avorshi])per, the spirits most considered being those of ancestors, supposed to return occasionally from some vague aljode of the departed, situated somewhere in the AAnst, and to frequent their former haunts, AAdien, if not properly propitiated, they inflict all sorts of ill upon their posterity. Each IvaAv house has a ghost’s THE RACES OF SIAM 135 , entrance never to be nsecl by mortal man and only on special occasions by mortal woman. Mucli sacrifice, witii lieavy eating and with drinking to extreme intoxi- cation, accompanies all religions ceremonial. The dead are bnried in coffins made from hollowed-ont logs. The Ivaw are free loA^ers before marriage. Some of the clans are monogamists while in others the men have as many wives as they can support. The approaches to their villages are usually guarded by an archway of large bamboos which, it is supposed, prevents the entrance of specially malignant spirits. The Lishaiv, a scattered tril^e found in sonth-western Yunnan, in the Ivachin country of Burma and in most of the Shan States, are represented in Siam by some two or three hundred persons only. The}?" are apparently related to the Muhso, but in habits and customs are almost indistinguishable from the Yunnanese Cliinese of the more primitive sort. The\^ live in houses with mud floors, both sexes wear loose blue coats and trousers and large l)lue turbans, and they nearl)- all speak Chinese in addition to their own language which has much in common with that of the Muhso. They are clever agriculturists and practise also the blacks-mith’s trade and the silversmith’s art. The Yao or Yao Yin are recent arrivals in Siam, whither they have apparently l^een driven from the mountains further north and from the east of the ]\lehkong. Off-shoots from their numerous clans have settled in the hills round Chieng Sen, Chieng Kawng, and in the province of Yan, where they have felled great tracts of jungle for the cultivation of rice, opium, cotton, and other produce. It is difficult to j:)lace the Yao, but as there are indications of relationship between them and the ^leao they may be considered, until more is known of them, as of Tibeto-Burman stock. Like so - mail}" other tribes of the neighl)ourhood, the Yao have 136 SIAM adopted many of tlie ways of the Yunnanese Chinese whom they much resemble in the style of their houses, the dress of their men folk and their methods of agri- culture. The costume of the women varies in the different clans, chiefly in the matter of head-dress, that of the Ting Pan Yao, the senior clan of the tribe being the most striking. The coiffure consists of a large square pad with a hole in the middle, supported above the head by stiff bands attached to the corners and to another band fitting close round the head. The hair is passed through the hole and is gummed dovm with resin on the top of the pad, a cloth of varying colour and with tassels depending from the corners being spread over all. This edifice cannot of course be removed without a lengthy operation and is therefore retained, when once made up, for many weeks at a time. The Lanten Yao, of whom there are now many in Siam, provide their women with a practicable hat, much like the sun-hat worn by the Siamese peasants. The rest of the Yao female costume consists of a long sleeved coat or gabardine descending almost to the ankles and slit up the sides, like that of the Muhso, to reveal an embroidered i:>etticoat which covers the body from the waist to below the knees. All the Yao clans are imbued to a certain extent with Chinese culture which gives them many advantages over the other hill-tribes. Many of the men read a little Chinese and all, even those who are quite illiterate, pay the greatest reverence to books as books, and apart altogether from their contents ; in fact no Yao house is considered completely furnished without at least one book conspicuously displayed hanging on the wall. The houses are built of split logs, with earth floors. The interiors are dark and begrimed with the smoke which constantly arises from the open baked-earth fireplaces, of which there are usually several in each YAO MAX AND WOMAN. (l)Or SAWA.) YAO WO.MKX OF MUAXOt FAXG IX FULL DKFSS, THE RACES OF SIAM 137 house. The Yao grow rice, cotton, maize and opium, and keep cattle, a few goats and innumerable pigs and fowls. Their religion is plain spirit worship, various propitiating services being held at the time of sowing and reaping, and during sickness. A ceremony of importance is the house-warming. The spirits which, if left undisturbed, would infest the house and bring all sorts of ill-luck, are invited to dine upon an altar- like structure erected in the middle of the neAV house, and (Avhen supposed to be seated and at Avork upon the AHctuals), are carried ont, food, altar, and all, by the householder and his friends and deposited Avitli much shouting and firing of guns at a safe distance in the jungle. A similar ruse to evict malignant spirits is in frequent practice amongst the Malays and in many other parts of Further India. Betrothal and marriage are matters of some formality. Offerings presented by the principals to each other in the presence of relations, a comparison of horoscopes and the payment of a doAver by the bridegroom, precede betrothal, some days of feasting folloAv it, and after an inteiwal the bride is formally surrendered at the equally formal entreaty of the bridegroom, and further feasting at the house of the latter concludes the ceremony. All the clans are monogamous. The Ting Pan Yao burn tlieir dead and bury the ashes. The Lanten and other clans simply bury. Pigs are sacrificed at funerals. The Siaaiese. — It has already been sheAvn hoAv the Siamese, or Thai, are a jAeople of peculiarly mixed origin and hoAv they are at the present moment under- going still further gradual modification in consequence of the frequent inter-marrying of foreigners of many races, but chiefly Chinese, AAntli their AA^omen, the children of AAdiich unions are rapidly merged in the preponderating race. In spite of this, lioweA^er, the Siamese are a highly distinctive people and it 138 SIAM is astoiiisliing “ to note how rapidly foreign elements introduced from many widely separated parts of the world, tone down and assume the general attributes characteristic of the nation which the records of ancient writers show to have been fairly constant for many centuries. ‘ Comme I’aisance se trouve dans le bon marche des choses necessaires a la vie, et comme les bonnes moeurs se causent plus facilement dans une aisance moderee que dans une pauvrete accompagnee de trop de travail on dans une oisivete trop abondante, on pent assurer que les Siamois sent de bons gens.’ So wrote De La Loubere some 200 years ago and the dictum as regards l^oth their general character and the causes which have contributed to its formation is entirely applicable to the Siamese of to-day. The character of the average Siamese is marked by a general friendly but careless politeness, tinctured considerably with subserviency towards superiors and with arrogance towards inferiors. His manners, which are naturally good, are developed by the habit of respect towards his parents, his teachers and the members of the priesthood, which he is taught to adopt at an early age. Amongst the upper classes it is common to meet with. a quiet dignity and serene politeness rarely excelled in the most refined countries of the world, while the manners of the peasantry surpass those of the industrial and agricultural classes of Europe as is commonly the case wdth nations of the Far East. Towards Europeans the behaviour of the Siamese often leaves something to be desired, which is mainly due to the fact that every Siamese considers himself, by virtue of his nationality and quite apart from every other consideration, vastly the superior of any foreigner. The sentiment which prompts the heaving of half bricks at the alien does not belong peculiarly to any one THE llACES OF SIAM 139 nation. In tlie Siamese it is more strongl}^ developed tlian among most other people and it is to the credit of their manners that the European vdio dwells with them experiences rather less of its unpleasant effect than does the foreign visitor in most European countries. It may also he noted that the European in Siam sometimes exhibits a dislike for his hosts Avhich is scarcely calculated to encourage the virtue of politeness. The Siamese is naturally submissive to those whom he recognises as his superiors l)ut in his general dealings with the world displays considerable in- dependence and self-reliance. He is light-hearted, open and frank, kindly and hospitable and, in spite of occasional lapses into cruelty and apathetic indifference to the sufferings of others, generally humane. He is of a peace-loving disposition and considering the facilities which he has until lately enjoyed, little given to the commission of violent or other crimes. The unenviable reputation which the lower classes have acquired as thieves is not supported by facts, comparisons between the statistics of Siam and other eastern countries being in this respect distinctly favourable to the former, more especially since the country has been supplied with organised machinery for the suppression of crime. Though an able and intelligent cultivator of the soil, though exemplaiy as a schoolboy and industrious as an office clerk, the Siamese has been almost unanimously condemned by foreign observers as of an incorrigible laziness. The visitor to Siam rarely penetrates beyond the capital, and there he at once notices that all the manual labourers, the ’rickshaAv pullers, road-menders, ricemill-hands, carpenters, bootmakers, builders, etc., as well as most of the shop-keepers, are Cliinese. Hence he jumps to the conclusion that tlie diligent 140 SIAM Celestial is in a fair way to driving the Siamese out of ■existence in liis own country. Sncli is, however, by no means the case, the native never having attempted competition with the Chinaman in the labour-markets of the capital. The Siamese is by nature a rustic ; when he lives in Bangkok he does so because he has been brought there, either he or his forebears, for the Royal service or as a more or less indefinitely attached member of the household of one or other of the nobility. There he has been kept in the idleness of easy menial service and there he has watched the various industries of the capital created and developed by the Chinese and to a great extent for the Chinese. It has never entered his head that he, a fed retainer, should enter into competition with the starving alien coolies who flock to the capital from China for the purpose of finding work. It says something for the race that the descendants of these Siamese retainers and swash-bucklers make as good citizens of the capital as they do. The gradual change of custom has thrown thousands of them out of the employment which brought them to the city but the}^ have taken advantage of the education supplied by the Govern- ment and the foreign Missions and, while many have gone back to the land the majorit}^ now obtain clerk- ships, go into the Government service or set up as small shopkeepers, and it is creditable that the residue of idlers, loafers and habitual criminals is not under the circumstances more numerous. In his usual surroundings the Siamese, though very far from being a glutton of work for work’s sake, does sufficient to keep him in comfort according to his standards, and rarely comes to grief through sheer idleness. The women, whether in town or country, are always busy, managing their houses and children, trafficking in the ]:>azaars, doing the light work in the fields, and market- THE RACES OF SIAM 141 ing. The fact that women are seen paddling to market, their hnsbands reclining at ease in the boat, has been cited as an example of the superlative indolence of the Siamese manhood, bnt in almost any conntiy town of Europe a similar state of things prevails when, on market days, the coimtry- women come staggering in under the weight of baskets of produce, accompanied by their men-folk who carry nothing bnt their pipe and stick. The Siamese, like the Bnrman is a spendthrift and, with rare exceptions, most nnbnsinesslike. He spends his money freely in the pursuit of pleasure and provided he can laugh he takes no thought of the morrow, wherefore he too often becomes involved with the money-lenders to his ultimate undoing. Both men and women are inveterate gamblers and, since the Government has closed the public gaming-houses in the Provinces, indulge this proclivity by cock- fighting, by lotteries and in other ways. The race has many artistic leanings, all are enthusiastic lovers of the drama, while singing, dancing and the playing of various musical instruments are common accomplish- ments. The Siamese is vastly superstitious and arms himself with charms against every imaginable evil. ProAuded these and his auguries are all right, he is fairly courageous, but Avill not A^enture his person Avhere the fates appear unpropitious. The pros])ect of deatli, hoAveA'er, leaA^es him strangely unmoved. Tlie features of the Siamese are strong!}^ Mongolian. A wide head, flat at the back, a prognathous jaAv, a flat nose very broad at the nostrils, long and slightly oblique eyes, large ears and liigh cheek bones, are tlie usual lihysical characteristics. The residt is not very pre- possessing even according to the standards of Further India, Avhile the customs, common to both sexes, of Avearing tlie hair short and erect in a stiff black brush and of blackening the teeth either by the constant 142 SIAM cliewing of betel or by the application of a dye obtained from burnt coconut shell, still further detract from the general appearance. In complexion the Siamese is on the whole slightly darker than the other Indo-Chinese races, bnt the colonring varies very mnch with indi- viduals, passing from the almost white of high-bred women, through infinite gradations to the deep chocolate colour of the sunburnt peasant. The skin is not tattooed except here and there with tiii}^ charm-marks. The physique of the countryman is sturdy and well deA^eloped, that of the toAAmsman is less so. The legs are not so Avell formed as the upper part of the body, OAving possibly to the fact that a large section of the people has liA^ed for many generations in boats AAdiere the loAA^er limbs are little used, AAdiile the arms and shoulders are constantly exercised in roAving and paddling. It is oAving to this same reason, perhaps, that the AA^omen are usually square-shouldered, and when seen from behind, surprising!}^ manlike. The average height is about 5 ft. I in. for men and 4 ft. II in. for AA^-omen. The ancient Lao-Tai apparently noticed the fact that as their race moA^ed soutliAA-ard the size of its people decreased and a prophecy arose that AAdien its descendants reached the sea they AA^onld be no larger than rabbits and AAmuld shortly thereafter disappear altogether. The Siamese liaA^e long ago reached the sea but, though the smallest people of their family, far from disappearing liaA^e become the most important part of it. Tlie principal garment of the Siamese, both male and female, is a (doth some 24 ft. AAude by 7 ft. long, the middle part of AAdiich is passed round the body, AAdiich it coA^ers from tlie AA^aist to just beloAv the knees, and hitched in front so that the tAA^o ends hang doAAm before. These ends being tAvisted together into a rope are passed backAvards betAA^een the legs, draArn up and SIAMESE GIRI.. (The twisted ends of the Paiinng may he seen at the hack.) f i ■■ J . •> ■4 . ■'. ■ .• ■. ■' • r\ ' -t i 1 t THE RACES OF SIAM 143 tucked into the waist at the middle of the hack. The result is much like a pair of knee breeches when seen from before but frequently a considerable amount of bare thigh is revealed behind. The garment is called Panung and is clearly of Indian origin, as it closely resembles the form of body-covering most prevalent in India, both in shape and in method of wearing. In olden days the women wore the Panung arranged like a skirt. When they took to tucking it up is not certain but tradition ascribes the origin of the alteration to their having been compelled to equip themselves as men in order to deceive the enemy as to the size of the army during one of the sieges of Ayuthia in the sixteenth century a.d. A belt is usually worn by men but not by women to keep the Pamuig in place. The everyday Panung of the peasantry is made of cotton and at the present day is almost invariably of foreign manufacture. That of the townsfolk, more especially of the upper class, is of silk, or fine cotton, often of excellent quality and much beauty. Patterns are of great variety but an ancient custom decrees a certain colour for each day of the week ; Sunday light red, Monday silver grey, Tuesday red, AVednesday green, Thursday variegated, Friday light blue and Saturday dark bine. The dictates of this custom are obeyed as a general rule liy the women and more rarely by the men. In the country the rustic bothers himself very little about clothes, sometimes wearing a short muslin vest in addition to the Panung but more usnall}^ going naked from the vuist np. He is altogether peculiar in the matter of head-covering. For some reason the Siamese have nothing in the shape of a tnrban or head- cloth snch as is worn in one form or another by the men of every other race of Further India and to supply this deficiency they wear hats, nsnally of foreign manufacture. The countiwman affects various kinds and shapes but is 144 SIAM most partial to a liigli-crowned and deep-brimmed black or brown straw hat Avliicli comes from Austria and of which large numbers are now annnally imported into the country. The men who live in towns aspire to white drill coats of European cut, smart Homburg hats, cotton stockings and pi]3e - clayed shoes, all of which, when worn with the Panung make up a neat and effective costume. The women formerly wore nothing in addition to the Panung except a light silk scarf, called Pahom, wound loosely round the upper body so as somewhat inadequate!}^ to cover the breasts but, though this is still the most usual costume, a variety of jackets, varying from tight scanty waistcoat-like affairs to much befrilled European blouses, are now worn. The high-class ladies also affect openwork stockings and high-heeled shoes. A pale yellow face-powder is much used and flowers are worn in the ear, twisted into the hair, or in the form of garlands. Small children, as is usual in tropical countries, Avear no clothes except on special occasions, unless the small heart-shaped sih^er or gold disc, called chaping, suspended by a cord before the person of little girls, can be dignified by the name. Jewellery, some of it of most artistic design, is much worn by women and children. Not very many years ago it AA^as the custom throughout the country for both sexes to AA^ear the hair in a short thick tuft on the top of the head, the x^art round the back of the head and OA^er the ears being shaved clean in tlie case of the men, and cut close, Avith the exception of a lovelock hanging before each ear, in that of the AA^omen. This custom lias noAV disap]Aeared except in some of the remote country districts and men and Avomen alike Avear the liair cut al)out an inch and a half long all over the head. Occasionally on the scaljAS of old Avoinen a thin circular line may be seen, the x^arting betAA^een the close crop and the thick tuft Avhich they AA^ore in their youth. It THE RACES OF SIAM 145 was formerly the custom also for the finger nails to he worn long by the well-to-do, somewhat after the Chinese manner, but this usage has fallen into abeyance, and long nails on the hands of young men are now considered as a mark of dissoluteness. Bangkok, which fifteen years ago was little more than a gigantic but higgledy-piggledy collection of thatched timber houses and mat huts, crowded together on the edges of the canals in the most complete confusion, is now rapidly becoming an orderly and well-laid-out masonry-built city. The spirit of change, however, has scarcely reached the country districts and there the people continue to construct their dwellings in the manner and after the model sanctified by ancient usage. The typical Siamese house stands on the bank of a river or canal and in the cool shade of spreading bamboo clumps. It consists of three separate oblong buildings placed so as to form three sides of a square and opening on to a central platform of planks or split bamboo. The whole structure is raised on posts some five or six feet above ground and is approached by a flight of steps on the fourth side of the square. Often this fourth side is closed to the outer world by a plank palisade, in the centre of which is the main entrance to the house at the top of the flight of steps. A house, however, rarely attains to these proportions straight away. It is usual for a young man, on setting up an establishment, to start with one oblong building, that is, one section of a completed house, and this may satisfy him for years, or may be added to as the family grows and wealth increases. Each oblong consists of one or more rooms open on the side facing inwards, onto a narrow verandah, which skirts the central platform. For ceremonial reasons the floor of the verandah is slightly higher than the platform, that of the interior higher again, and there is sometimes an inner sanctum, the sleeping-place of K 146 SIAM the master, the floor of which is highest of all. ' The cooking-place occupies one room, whence refuse is constantly discharged through the interstices of the floor to form a black and festering pool below. Cattle are also frequently stabled below the house. The material employed varies from the flimsiest bamboo matting and thatch to solid teak and tiles. An inter- mediate quality, much used, consists of teak floor and joists, walls of plaited split bamboo, and roof of thatch made from dried fronds of the Nipah 23alm. The roofs, whether of grass, Nipah, or tile, are alwaj^s high, steep and pointed. A word must be said of the floating houses which line the edges of the river and the larger icanals in Bangkok and other towns situated in the plains, where the waters are subjected to tidal influence. These are nearly always built of teak and covered with Nipah thatch. Two oblong roofs with gable-ends, united side by side by a gutter, with a third much smaller roof at the back, cover a square floor of about forty feet each way which rests ujDon two or three large floating pontoons. The si:)ace is divided into a front and a back room with kitchens and store room behind and a small verandah in front. Tlie walls are usually of ^^anelled teak and are frec[uently enriched with carving round the cornices and door-frames. More usualh^ than not the front room is fitted as a shop. The house is always moored facing outwards on to the river and is ap- 2 ^ reachable l^y water only. The staple food of the Siamese is rice and fish. Near the sea or the inland fisheries, fish is eaten fresh and in other parts it is always aA^ailable cured and 2 ^ickled in various ways, from the ordinary sun-dried variety to the evil-smelling 2 )atrid paste known as Kapi, in wliich form it is used as a condiment. Fresh rice is obtainable everyAvliere and in fact is usually ke23t in the husk and milled with a wooden 2 ^estle and mortar, or in a rough THE RACES OF SIAM 147 liaiid mill, as required. Meat is also eaten, but, owing to religious scruples regarding tlie taking of life, is rarely obtainable except wlien cattle die of old age or sickness, or where a Chinese pork-seller is within reach. Of vegetables a great variety, inclnding encumbers and gourds of many kinds, several sorts of beans and j:)nlse and the tender shoots and leaves of innnmerable trees and shrubs are used as food, as are, of course, all kinds of tropical fruits. Food is dished in small bowls arranged on a tray and served on the floor and is eaten with the fingers, the women nsnally jilacing themselves a little behind the men and eating after them. A copious drink of water concludes a meal bnt nothing is drnnk while food is being eaten. The regular meal- times are earh^ morning and sunset, bnt food is frequently taken between whiles during leisure moments and a midday meal is becoming common in the capital. All Siamese know how to boil rice and to prepare the simple dishes which they mostly use, bnt amongst the better class townspeople cooking is carefully studied, and has long been raised to the level of a fine art. The ladies of the highest class are taught cooking and take mnch pride in the accomplishment, paying special attention to the concoction of curries and the confection of sweets. A Avell-prepared Siamese curry is a thing of pure delight and offers a series of sensations quite novel to the palate of the European gourmet. Birth, Childhood and Adolescence. — The birth of a Siamese infant takes place in a small room sometimes constructed in the space under the house but more usually screened off from one of the upper rooms, wliere the mother lies on a lied from the neighliourhood of which all evil spirits have been carefully excluded by charms and exorcisms. The baby is received at birth by several wise and aged women by whom it is care- fully washed and at once examined for any marks or 148 SIAM peculiarities which may guide the soothsayer in prog- iiosticating its future. It is then left very much to itself while the mother, stretched upon a broad plank,, is subjected to the heat of a great fire, a treatment which is considered, throughout Further India, as the only sure road to a rapid recovery, but which, in fact, often seriously compromises matters and is the chief cause of the disappearance of the good looks of the women of this part of the world at a comparatively early age. All newborn infants are called ‘ Deng ’ or ‘ Red One,’ much as English children are called ‘ Baby,’ with the prefix Ai or Fww if a boy and I (pr. ‘ ee ’) or Meh if a girl. A fortnight or so after its mother’s cure is completed, that is, when the child is about a month old, its head is shaved with the observance of many formalities and a brand new horoscope is drawn up for it by the family soothsayer, whereupon it is presented by its proud parents to an admiring circle of friends and relations, iiwited to assist at the ceremony. About the time when the child is able to walk it becomes necessary to provide it with a more distinctive name than that of Master Red or Miss Red. The soothsayer is again called in, the horoscope is carefully examined, other portents, if present, are considered and a name is ultimately selected from among those suitable to the year, month, and day of birth. The soothsayer, if duly instructed and properly remunerated, can usually arrange with the fates for a name in accordance with the fancy of the parents, l^ut latterly it has become common to dispense with his services and to give any name desired, regardless of the horoscope. There is no such thing as the family surname in Siam. The baby early introduces a regime of tyranny into his home. His mother, father ami other relations are all his humble slaves, his lightest wish is law and he is spoiled and petted by THE RACES OF SIAM 149 all who come near him. At the age of tAvo or so he non descends to be Aveaned, and about t he same time, a plump, yellow and happy little person, he begins to explore the outer AA^orld. He disports himself in the comfort of absolute nudity, bathing in the canal or playing in the dust Avith the tropic sun beating haianlessly upon his sha\mn poll until, at the age of four or fiA-e, head-shaving is partially discontinued and he begins to groAV a lock of hair on the top of his head AAdiich his mother carefully oils and tends and tAAusts into a tight knot and transfixes Avitli a more or less ornate pin. Shortly after this he begins to AA^ear clothes and his education, consisting at this time in the amass- ing of infinite fairy lore, begins. At the age of seven or eight years, he goes to school at the village monastery or perhaps, if he lives near one, to a modern school. His course of life here diAmrges from that of his sisters AAdio, having led an existence entirely similar to his OAVn up to this point, are usually debarred from the joys and sorroAA’^s of book education and iioaa^ liegin to be inducted into the household duties AAdiich Avill form their care in later life. BetAA^een the ages of ten and thirteen the top-knot of both girls and boys, AAdiich has been all this time agroAving, is cut off, a formal proclaiming of the adolescence of the AA'Carer, attended by intricate rites and ceremonial in which Buddhism and Brahmanism both have part. Thereafter the girls return to their household pursuits and dcA'-eloping ra])idly into AAmmen, soon achicA^e their destiny by marriage. The boys continue their education and at the age of tAA'enty ro so receiAm AAdiat may be called their confirmation in the Buddhist Faith. This is accomplished liy the formal admission of the youth into the Holy Order of the Monkhood. It is a tenet of Buddliism that no man can attain to the true completeness of his manhood until he shall have renounced the Avorld for the monastic 150 SIAM life and belonged to the Holy Order of Mendicants. Since the vows necessary upon taking Orders are not irrevocably binding bnt can be cancelled at will, every young man, tliongli intended for a lay career, takes them upon himself as a part of his preparation for life. It is usual for a number of youths to enter the monkhood together and the occasion is one of much rejoicing, feasting and meriymaking on the part of their relations. Dressed in the gorgeous but curiously shaped garments which tradition assigns as the correct costume for royalties and other magnificent persons, the aspirants form a procession with their relatives and friends and a bevy of the fairest maidens of the neighbourhood, visit their accjuaintances, sIioav them- seHes in public and • ultimately present themselves at the temi)le AAdiere the officiating monk and his assistants aAvait them. An impressive ceremony folloAvs during which the youths, after a stern catechism, change their splendid costume for the yelloAv robes of the Holy Order, receive the begging boAAd, the fan and other insignia, and finally are accepted as inmates and take up their abode in the monastery precincts. The AAdiole ceremony expresses a folloAAdng in the footsteps of the Buddha, the princely costume of the novices representing the magnificence of the Royal Siddhartha, and the be^y of young AA^onien, the AAmrldly vanities and temptations, from Avliich he freed himself by the Great Renunciation. After the lapse of such period as the iieAv monk, or more generally his x^arents, may think x)i’oper, release from the oaths is given, Avhen the .youth quits his temporary retreat and resumes his place in the lay Avorld. Three months is the usual time for a boy avIio has no thought of the monkhood as a permanent calling, to wear the yellow robes, but noAAmdays the period is frequently shortened to a month, a fortnight or even to a few days only. THE RACES OF SIAM 151 Marriage. — The Siamese men nsiially marry at the age of twenty or twenty-one, the women at fifteen or sixteen. The old maid is an anomaly nnknown in the land. Although marriage and all the preliminaries thereto are snrronnded hy considerable formality and ceremonial, and many marriages are arranged hy relatives Avithont consideration for the feelings of the parties, yet sufficient intercourse is permitted hetAA^een young people, alAAnys Avithin the limits of a proper and rigid decornm to render marriages of affection, or at least of inclination, the most common. The Siamese girl, a qniet, modest, good-mannered little creature and sometimes of an attractiA^e appearance, is far behind her Burmese and Lao sisters in the art of captivating the hearts of men, for the exercise of AAdiich she is lieaAdly handicappeci hy her short hair and man-like garments, and hy the very strict ohseiwance of the proprieties in AAdiich she is hronght np. Hence her loA^e affairs are seldom violent, nor do they often proceed to any dangerous length. A youth looking for a Aidfe, liaA'dng conceiA^ed an inclination toAvards some girl of his acquaintance, and found her not aA^erse to his mild pursuit, points her out to his parents as the girl he AA^onld like to many, and haAdng thus taken the initiatiA^e, ahoAA^s the matter to pass out of his oaaui immediate control. If the girl is knoAAm to he of fitting station and otherAAdse suitahle, the running is then taken np hy an aged and respectahle female knoAim to hoth families A\dio, being instructed thereto hy the parents of the hoy, proceeds Avitli the exercise of much fine diplomacA^ to ascertain the feelings and attitude of those of the girl. The result lieing satisfactory, mntnal friends of a sedate age meet and discuss the matter and, if no impediment appears, Adsit the parents of the girl AAdien the marriage is arranged, proAdded alAAnys that the horoscopes of the principals, AAdien examined by an expert, rcA^eal no insiirmoiintahle 152 SIAM obstacle in the way of antagonistic birthdays or irrecon- cilable destinies. The question of settlements is an important one, both families being required to contribute to the capital on which the young people will start life and to share the expenses of the wedding. The ceremony, if properly observed, takes place at the house of the bride and lasts for two days. The bridegroom escorted thither by his friends and a hired band, makes suitable presents to his lady and her father, and is installed in the room, a temporary adjunct to the bride’s parental home, constructed at his own expense, where the honeymoon will be passed. He and his relatives now present to the parents of the bride their share of the Thun or capital on which the young establishment is to start life, and also a tray bearing all the paraphernalia for the betel-chewing and which, as the most significant part of the ceremony, gives the name Kan Mdk to the whole business. Meanwhile the main part of the house fills v/ith acquaintances, friends and relations, who eat, drink, and make merry, while a choir of monks chant doxologies and repeat Buddhist formulas appropriate to the occasion. Then also the Thun is carefully counted over and discussed. Later the bride and bridegroom appear, and kneeling together united by a holy cord, have rice sprinkled upon them and holy water from a conch shell poured over them by the guests. They are then separated from each other, and the boy spends the rest of the night serenading his lady love with the assistance of a hired band. On . the follovvfing morning a feast is given to the officiating monks, spasmodic merriment continues through the day, and in the eveniug the Infide is formally conducted to the specially prepared chamber of hymen and there left, for the first time since her betrothal, alone with the bridegroom. The couple continue to live with the bride’s family for some months, often until the first THE RACES OF SIAM 153 child is born. To save expense the marriage ceremony is very often cut short at the point where the bridegroom presents the Thun and the betelnnt tray, the bride being brought to him immediately afterwards. In cases where the girl is of much lower social position than the boy, all ceremony is often dispensed with, as is naturally the case also on the rare occasions when the parents withholding consent the parties elope together. Snch unions are looked upon by the world as quite regular, and children resulting therefrom are equally legitimate in the eyes of the law with those born of marriages at which full ceremony has been observed. Polygamy, being nowhere directly forbidden by the teachings of the Buddha, is considered permissible, that is, a man may contract connubial relations with as many women as he can afford to keep, but only the first wife is ever married with ceremony and she remains the acknowledged head over all subsequent members of the household. The wives frequently live all together in the same house, in fact as a lady gets on in ^-ears slie usually deems it politic to surround her husband with lesser wives whereby he is kept from roaming and her OAvn importance as the head of a large household is enhanced. In the case of a first wife, divorce is a matter of mutual consent and division of property, but though thus easy of attainment it is avoided if possil:>le on account of pul3lic opinion. Lesser wives can be j)ut away at the will of the husband. All children parti- cipate in inheritance, but those of the first wife are entitled to a larger share than others. No stigma Avhatever attaches to the position of lesser wife. While the households of the nobility often attain to very large dimensions, the lower classes practise polygamy very little. Death. — The firm and unshakeable belief in the chain 154 SIAM of past and future existences and in tlie temporary nature of heaven and hell with which every Siamese is imbued by his religion, robs death of most of its terrors for him. Consequently, when to his dying ear comes the reiterated cry of Plira Arahang ! Plira Araliang ! ‘Lord! Lord ! ’, by which his sorrowing relations seek to fix his mind upon the Great Beatitudes, though he may realise that this means death immediate, his failing thoughts turn rather to speculation as to his future birth than to the horrors of his present situation and impending dissolution, and thus he dies borne up and comforted at the last by the kindly philosophy which has eased his path through life. After death the body is washed by the relatives, enshrouded in clean white cloth and, with a coin placed in the mouth for the payment of toll at the gates of Paradise, is placed in a coffin. During this ceremony a choir of monks intone sacred verses and formulas impressing upon the sur- vivors the vanity of worldly things and the sorrow and illusion of human life. A band also plays persistently to ward off evil spirits and continual lamentation is kept up, sometimes by persons hired for the purpose. The coffin, coloured black and ornamented with silver paper trimmings, is then placed upon a bier in the principal room of the house and is Avatched by the relatives for one or tAvo days and nights AAuth inter- jnittent accompaniment of music and holy recitation for the pacification of the ghost of the departed. During this time the relations of the deceased are ‘ at home ’ to their friends and receive their condolences in return for light refreshments. The watching ended, the body is usually carried to the temple where it is either cremated immediately or deposited until sufficient funds haA^e been collected, and preparations made, for a cremation suitable to the position of the deceased. Sometimes, hoAA^ever, the corpse is kept in the dAA^elling PUNISH MKX r P.Y WHIIMMXG. FUXKKAL PYRE OF A ROYAL PRINCE, WITH CARS BRINGING BODIES FOR CREMATION. THE RACES OF SIAM 155 lioiise for a period wliicli may extend to many montlis. When the coffin is removed from the house precautions are taken to confuse the ghost of the departed as to the direction taken. It is carried out through a hole made in the wall instead of through the usual exit, the hearers then march round the house several times before setting off for the temple and finally carry the body three times round the funeral pyre before depositing it to be burnt. Thus the ghost, after its body has been destroyed, cannot find its way back to haunt its home but must go straightway to the place where it will await rebirth either in heaven, hell, or elsewhere, according to the stock of merit acquired during life. It is the desire of every Siamese to secure for himself as imposing a cremation as possible and his sorrowing relations usually see that he gets it. In Bangkok there is a cremation season, falling about April or May, when an enormous amount of money is always spent upon the obsequies of those who have died during the past year. At this time the relations of a departed worthy, having invited all their acquaintances to the spot where the cremation is to be held, bring out the body and with the observance of carefully regulated ceremony place it upon a funeral pyre, the height and magnificence of which vary with the opulence of the family. Feasting, music and theatrical performances contiime for two days in temporary buildings erected for the purpose near the pyre, and on the second day the pyre is lighted, the relations and friends assisting the conflagration with burning tapers and scented comlmstilDles. Lotteries are held for which the tickets are free and the prizes numerons, money is scattered amongst the crowd of poor who attend, and at night a display of fireAvorks is giA^en. Thronghont the proceedings choirs of monks intone homilies and it is a point of honour to entertain Avith food and presents as large a choir as possi1)le. 156 SIAM The expenditure of money is, in fact, lavish to a degree, and it sometimes happens that the whole of a man’s estate is dissipated by his heirs in their endeavours to gratify his spirit with a sumptuous burning. The cremations of deceased members of the Royal family are events of the greatest importance, and are held at intervals of a few years, when all those of the royal blood who have died since the last ceremony are cremated in succession upon a pyre of great mag- nificence. Such a ceremony partakes of the nature of a public festival and lasts sometimes for a month, during the whole of which time thousands of people are fed daily and entertained with all manner of diversions at the Royal expense. In these cases the bodies of the deceased are not laid in coffins but are placed in a sitting position in large urns of copper within a shell of gold. Each stage of the cremation, the bringing of the body in procession to the spot where it is to be burnt, the placing of it upon the pyre, the lighting of the fire and the actual burning and finally the collection of the bones and ashes, is the affair of a separate day. The King takes the most prominent part in the whole of the proceedings, lighting the funeral pyre with his mvn hand with sacred fire from one of the Royal temjDles. The whole Court, clad in mourning, is present at each function. The bones which are collected after cremation are preserved in small golden urns in the Palace and on certain periodical occasions are produced and made the object of reverent ceremonies. The ashes of the common people are likewise collected after cremation by tlieir relations and are ]3reseiwed with much care in little urns, one or more of which may be seen in almost every house. Persons who die of cholera or other rapid and violent disease are buried for a time and afterwards exhumed and burnt. Formerly it Avas usual to expose the bodies of paupers THE RACES OF SIAM 157 and criminals at the public crematorium where they were devoured by vultures and pariah dogs. This custom, which provided one of the stock sights for visitors to Bangkok, has been done away with and all such bodies are now cremated. The public crematorium is situated just without the city wall, the gateway in which giving access thereto is known as Pratu Phi or ‘ The Gate of Ghosts.’ The Lao are so nearly related to the Siamese and so closely resemble them in appearance and customs that they are now included in most government and other statistics with the Siamese themselves and it seems probable that with the linking up by railways of the different parts of the country and with the natural spread of Siamese influences, the two races will in a short time become completely merged. This is the more likely as the people resent being called Lao, a word which, as applied to them by neighbouring races, has acquired a contemptuous significance, and they often insist upon their right to be included with the Siamese as Thai. The Lao of Siam are divided into two great clans, whose chief distinguishing mark is the presence or absence of tattooing on the thighs and lower parts of the body. The tattooed Laos called Lao Pung Dam, or black-bellied Lao, occupy the whole of Xorthern Siam and the head waters of the Menam River, those who are not tattooed, Lao Pung Khao or white-bellied Laos, inhabiting the valleys of the Lower Mehkong and its tributaries, the Korat Plateau and all Eastern Siam and extending far into French Indo-China. The tattooing in question consists of a series of pictures of very conventional animals and mythical monsters, covering the body from just above the ankles, or more usually from the knees, up to the waist. Each animal 158 SIAM is surrounded by a broad line of cabalistic writing and any spaces between the figures are filled in with fanciful tracery. At the waist the pattern is finished off with a string of charm words. The process of tattooing is laborious and painful but, as is the case with the Burmese, it is considered by the tattooed Lao as an in- dispensable ornament to every grown man. The result gives a man the appearance of being clothed in dark blue tights. The colouring matter used is carbon obtained from the residue of burning coconut oil. Vermilion is also used for tattooiug magic squares and other charms which are often worn on the upper part of the body. Both branches of the Lao proceeded originally from the ancient Lao-Tai people of south-western China, but the Mehkong Lao have been much longer in their present seats than ‘ those of the headwaters of the Menam. The latter, who have fairly close affinity with the Shans of Burma, represent the tribes from which the Siamese race is largely derived. Formerly the Lao country was split up into a number of small states which, though feudatory to Siam (and sometimes for short intervals to Ivambodia and Burma), were each ruled by a chief wJiose office was hereditary and whose Court closely resembled in miniature that of the kings of Further India. Indeed the epithet miniature did not always apply, for at one time or another some of them, more especially Wieng Chan on the Mehkong and Chieng Mai on the Meping, were independent kingdoms, almost, if not quite on a par with their most powerful neighbours. At present the partial or total indejjendence of the Lao States has practically disappeared so far as Siam is concerned. The last Chief of Wieng Chan died a prisoner in Bangkok eighty years ago ; since then Luang Prabang, also on the Mehkong, has become French territory and mm ^lAKKET SCENE, CHIENGMAI, X. SIAAE LAO WOMEN AT WORK IN A GARDEN. A MUX GIKI, ir/io/o : All/on io. THE RACES OF SIAJM 159 thoHgli in the north the Chiefs of Chieng Mai, Nan, Pre and Lakhon Lampang, still hold their titles, the}- have little or no anthority, but exist as pensioners of Siam, their States having long been welded together into the Siamese Provincial Division of Payap, ad- ministered by a Siamese High Commissioner with a large staff of civil servants. Tho Lao man is so like his Siamese cousin that, but for his slightly heavier build and perhaps rather lighter complexion, it is almost impossible at first sight to tell them apart. When he speaks however he reveals his race, for Lao, though to a great extent the parent language of Siamese, differs considerably from the latter in pronunciation and in the general absence of words of Khmer origin. Nowadays the Lao masculine dress is identical with the Siamese except that the shaving of the sides and back of the head leaving a mere tuft on the top, now abandoned by almost all the Siamese, is still practised by the Lao. At the foot of the hills to the west of Ratbnri there is found a community of Lao known locally as Lao Song Dam or ‘ Lao Clothed in Black.’ These people resemble the Northern Lao in most of their customs but the men wear tight fitting short black drawers, black coat with silver buttons and black straw hats, while the women wear a l)lack knee-long skirt relieved with broad blue lines, black jackets and black head cloths. On special occasions both sexes wear a long black coat tastefully embroidered in colours, chiefly red. They claim to have come from the North al^out .100 years ago. The Lao women wear a striped skirt falling from waist to ankle, a scarf thrown across the breast and over one shoulder, and sometimes a close fitting jacket. Often, however, they go bare from the waist upward. Their hair is worn long, is fastened in a knot at the top of the head and is frequently adorned with flowers. 160 SIAM They are fairer and of fuller figure than the Siamese women and, with their distinct advantage of costume, have a more pleasing and more feminine aspect. The Lao of the Northern and Western or tatooed variety seem to possess most of the good qualities of the Siamese and few of the bad, for while they are equally polite, hospitable, and obedient to authority, they surpass their southern cousins in honesty, peace- fulness and sobriety. They are moreover more in- dustrious, and perhaps more truly religious than the Siamese. These remarks do not however apply to the eastern or non-tatooed Lao in whom the standards of morality and virtue are not high. The position of their women approaches that of the Burmese in its absolute independence and in fact Burmese influences, the result of old-time conquests and occupations of the Lao States by Kings of Ava and Pegu, are visible in many of the customs of the Lao as well as in their style of architecture and their religious rites and observances. The written character of the Lao is very similar to that of the Shans and is derived from the ancient Mon rather than from the Khmer. The differences between the Lao and Shan languages are hardly more than dialectical and in fact, in the Burmese Shan State of Keng Tung just north of the Siamese frontier, the Lao shades off into Shan by almost im- perceptible degrees. The difference between Lao and Siamese is more marked, by reason of the great influence of the Khmer language upon Siamese, whereby in- numerable Kambodian words and also wide differences in pronunciation have been introduced. Opinion is divided as to the source from which the Lao derived their religion. At one time it was taken for granted that Buddhism had reached them from the south as a result of the Cingalese Mission to Further India of the fifth century a.d. but it is difficult LAOS OF LAPLE : NORTHERN SIAM. LAO WOMEN OF UBON DISTRICT. THE RACES OF SIAM 161 to maintain that explanation in the face of evidence which has more recently come to light, showing that the Lao were Buddhists long before that time, and it is noAY generally supposed that the Lao-Tai family first received their religion from Northern India in the form of Northern Buddhism, brought it doAAui Avitli them AAdien they penetrated Further India and, coming in contact Avith Southern Buddhism as imported from Ceylon, adopted many of its tenets in preference to those of the A’-ersioii they already kneAV. The modern Lao are all Buddhists but their faith is more strongl}^ tinctured Avith Animism than is that of the Siamese. Traces of the ancient Naga or Serpent- Avorship and of the spirit-AA-orship common to both peoples are more emphatic among the Lao, and the propitiation of the minor deities of the house, the field and the fells as Avell as of the old Brahman gods, mascpierading in more or less effective disguise, is a consideration of much more importance Avith them. In the matter of charms and spells they are more credulous than the Siamese, and this trait is much pandered to by the monks many of Avhom pose as Avitch-doctors, prophets and charm-mongers, thereby accpiiring great local influence AAdiicli is not alAAuys used in the interests either of the Buddhist religion or of the temporal GoA^ermnent. In the arts the Lao are aa-cII advanced according to tlie standards of Further India. In silver-AAnrk, carving, embroidery, painting and music, they fully equal the Siamese. The favourite instminent is the Ken, a reed instrument similar to that used by the Muhso and other northern tribes but of a more highly deAnloped type. The Ken is made of all sizes, from the small pocket affair AAdiich almost every man plays to the large instru- ment of fourteen or more reeds, of sonorous tone and Avide compass, AAdiich is used by professionals. The Ken L 162 SIAM has long ago made its way to the south and is very much admired by the Siamese. A well-trained band of fifteen performers is maintained in Bangkok by one of the Royal Princes who, being himself an accomplished musician, has provided it with an extensive repertoire, the orchestra for which he has arranged himself. The band plays Scottish airs and European dance-music most effectively^ Shan. — A few Shan, whom the Siamese call Ngiow and sometimes Thai-Yai, or great Thai, have found their way from the Burmese Shan States into the north of Siam and a colony of these same people has long been established at the Ruby mines of Chantaburi in the south-east corner of the kingdom. Differing in no respect from their countrymen who have so often been described in books on Burma, the few Shan settlers in Siam call for no special remark except that to them is due the rapid northward extension of the railway from Bangkok. An altogether insignificant number of them raised the standard of revolt in the year 1901 and awakened the government to the difficulty of moving troops to the north and taught them by a somewhat startling experience that until means of rapid and reliable transport should be available, the hold of Siam over the Lao country must be precarious and might give way altogether if put to sudden and unexpected test. Hence the Northern State Railway which at that time had reached a point some sixty miles from Bangkok was j:)ushed on until to-day it is well into Northern Siam. The Lu closely resemble the Eastern Lao. Their advent into the north of Siam is comparatively recent and was the result of disturbances in the Sipsong Panna, the headquarters of their tribe. They have spread themselves over most of the Nan district of Northern Siam and are also found in large numbers in the British Shan state of Keng Tung. They are, if anything. THE RACES OF SIAM 163 rather taller and -better built than the Lao. Those who inhabit Siam shave the head at the sides and back leaving a tnft of short hair at the top after the old Siamese, and present Lao method. They are Buddhists and the Valley of the Nam Ngan, their principal strong- hold in Siam, contains many monasteries. Even more than the Lao they mingle spirit and demon worship with their Buddhism Avith, as nsnal, the entire con- currence and active assistance of the monks. The men, who are invariably tatooed in the Lao manner from the AA^aist to the ankles, dress in the Avidest of baggy trousers and shortest of donble-breasted coats, made of dark bine cotton cloth embroidered AAnth small pieces of scarlet flannel, Avith bead-like seeds and sometimes Avith roAvs of mother-of-pearl shirt buttons. They cover their head with a great AAdiite or red turban, and the wide Shan straw hat Avhich is Avorn on the top of the turban and hanging doAAm in three flaps is a good deal affected. They carry long dahs or sAA^ords, daggers, and some- times a flint-lock gnn, Avith the inevitable embroidered shonlder-bag or liaA^ersac, containing pipe, tobacco, betel and other odds and ends. Their general appearance is strongly reminiscent of the NgioAv Shan. The Ln AATimen aaAio are alAA^ays Imxom and sometimes pretty, keep their hair long and do it up on the top of the head. They Avear a skirt or petticoat much like that of their Lao sisters and coA^er the upper part of the body AAnth a long-sleeved jacket, folded cross-Avise oA^er the bosom and deeply embroidered round the edges. The pretty carelessness or perhaps coquetry Avhich causes the Lao ladies to neglect the too close veiling of their charms is not a trait of the Ln. The Ln of both sexes folloAv the NgioAv Shan practice of piercing the lobe of the ear and distending the hole so made until it is capable of accommodating a roll of paper, a disc of AA^ood or otfier object sometimes as mncb as tAA^o inches in diameter. 164 SIAM With the very well-to-do this ear-plug is sometimes formed of a thin strip of gold rolled up cylindrically and as much as four ounces of the metal is sometimes carried in each ear. The Sam Sams are a community of half-breed Siamese who inhabit the western coast districts of Southern Siam, In many respects they resemble the Malays and would in fact be practically identical with them but for their repudiation of Islam. Prior to their exploration by Messrs Annandale and Skeat in the beginning of this century the Samsams were almost entirely unknown to the outer world. They are a small and unimportant community and tend to become reabsorbed amongst the Siamese. The IvARiENS. — The 30,000 or so Kariens who inhabit tlie western and south-western mountain ranges of Siam are, as has already been intimated, the overflow of the Karen jieojde of Burma, of which country they form a fifteenth part of the entire population. The various clans, their appearance, costume, customs and religion have been so fully set forth by Sir George Scott and other writers on Burma as to render further description of them almost superfluous. The Kariens of Siam are chiefly of the Pwo and Bgai sects, the Sgaw being practically unrepresented. They are of a shy and retiring disposition and rarely leave their oAvn mountains though a feAV occasionally visit the market tOAAms in their neigh- l)Ourhood and have been knoAvn to seek AA^ork in the tin mines AA^est of Ratburi. The men are usually thin and spare of build but of an extreme Aviriness. Under all or any conditions they are entirely at home in the jungle and as trackers and hunters of big game are far in adAmnce of all other inhabitants of Siam. They wear cotton trousers or a striped cotton skirt of tlie scantiest length, and loose jackets or sometimes gabardines, and they all AA^ear their long hair tAAusted KARIKXS. 1 THE RACES OF SIAM 165 up ill a lieadclotli, the end of which is soiiietiiiies made to protrude like a horn over the forehead. They are seldom seen without arms consisting of a dali, a sjiear or sometimes a rusty cheek-gnu. The women are fair and might he of pleasing appearance were it not for the excessive dirtiness of themselves and everything about them. Their usual covering is a sort of gabardine, a garment easily contrived from a single piece of cloth with a slit in the middle throngh which the head is passed and with the sides sewn together. Sometimes this constitutes the whole costnme, at others it is short hnd falls over a skirt reaching to the knee and some- times it is altogether absent, being replaced by a covering for the upper part of the body made of a simple strip of cloth thrown round the neck, spread out over the bosom and fastened into a cloth lielt at the waist. The black bands of lacquered cane worn lielow the knee by so many hill people of Further India are never absent from the lindis of the Karieii women. Their costnme is decorated with embroidery of pearly seeds, strings of which are also worn round the neck and ivaist, silver rings sometimes ornament the ears and after marriage a blue clotli is worn on the head. The Kariens of Siam are juirely spirit worshippers, being still be^^ond the reach of the Christian Missionaries who have converted the greater |)art of their fellow tril^esmen in Burma. Their ritual takes tlie usual form of sacrifice witli its attendant feasting and heavy drinking of strong rice spirit. They are experts in the art of hill cnltwation and obtain good crops of rice and maize from their extensive clearings. Their lionses are long barrack-like affairs built principally of liamboo and thatched with grass. The children have their ears pierced while very young and are usually promised in marriage before the age of six. Divorce is a matter 166 SIAM of mutual consent and the custom of cutting off the ears of women taken in adultery renders that offence of rare occurrence. A death is announced by salvos of firearms and much beating of gongs. Funerals are accompanied by dancing, feasting and drinking. The deceased is buried in a coffin with his weapons, tools, etc., beside him. A temporary hut erected over the grave is stored with food and implements indicative of the favourite pursuits of the deceased. In their funeral customs and at many other points the Kariens bear a striking resemblance to the Kachins of the north and north-east of Burma, a fact which may possibly be of some future assistance in throwing light upon their origin. The art of divination by means of an inspection of the bones of slaughtered fowls is much practised among them and in fact no Karien will marry, build a house, start upon a journey, plant his crops or take any decisive step in life without first seeking the approval of the spirits as indicated by the bones. Such divination is conducted by experts and the exact rules by which the auguries are interpreted have not been revealed. Iron-smelting and metal-work is carried on to some extent, and a peculiar kind of metal gong, cast in the shape of a kettle drum and known as the ‘Frog Gong’ is made by them and is much ]Di‘i^ed not only by themselves but by the other races with whom they are in contact. PART III HISTORY Until recently the history of Siam prior to the fourteenth century a.d. was practically unknown, the only avail- able literature relating thereto being the heterogeneous HISTORY 167 collection of disjointed stories and fragments known as the Pongsawadmi Muang Nua or the Annals of the North Country, compiled at different periods from snch of the official records of various cities and kingdoms as escaped the destruction which at intervals overtook the com- munities to which they referred. These annals were moreover rare and difficult of access and because of the numerous supernatural happenings recorded therein were, even when found, considered altogether nnworthy of credence. Of late, however, the valuable researches of a small group of enthusiasts, deciphering the annals of neighbouring states, and the lithographic inscriptions found in various parts of the country and delving amongst the chronicles of the Emperors of China, have brought to light a multitude of facts bearing upon ancient Siam, and the labours of H.R.H. Prince Damrong, the Rev. Pm’e Schmitt, Colonel Gerini, Frankfurter, Fournereau and others have shown that the annals of the North Country though certainly rich in fantastic nonsense, contain after all a great deal of truth as well. These labours reveal the condition of Siam in earliest times as a land inhabited by people of the Mdn-Ivhmer family amongst whom settled in remote times parties of their more civilised cousins from Kambodia, brinoine: with them the religion and the customs acquired by contact with colonists from the south east coast of India and possil)ly with the Laos of the very ancient Kingdom of Wieng Chan in the Mcffikong valley. Such settle- ments grew from mere villages into cities, sometimes of importance, at the same time putting out offshoots in all directions and these in time l3ecame the capitals of small states with undefined borders the chiefs of which, constantly seeking to extend their dominions, made fierce war on each other and against the Lao-Tai tribes which they found upon their flanks, reducing or being reduced by their neighbours, while every now and then 168 SIAM a more than nsnally able ruler arose and dominated the rest, welded his conquests into a more or less enduring kingdom and sometimes repudiated the vague over- lordship claimed by the ancient Empire of Ivambodia over the whole congeries. To these researches is also due what is known concerning the incursions into Siam of the Lao branch of the Lao-Tai group, the gradual fusion of this family with the Mon-Khmer, and the con- sequent evolution of the Thai race and of the united Siamese kingdom. Of the period sul^sequent to the fourteenth century A.D. contemporary records are more easily available. The Ponfjsawadan Ki-mig Kao or Annals of Ayuthia contain a complete and fairly accurate record, compiled in successive reigns, of the history of the country from 1349 to 1765 A.D. Also the seventeenth century saw the production of many books by Eurox^ean missionaries and others of which Siam was wholl}^ or in part the theme and some of these contain not only accurate descrix^tions of the momentary condition of the country but also many historical references of value and imx^ort- ance. Siam was not x^i’olific in literature of any kind during the eighteenth century, a x^^i’iod of continual war and frequent revolutions, but the reconsolidation of the kingdom and the dawn of the Bangkok era induced a x^‘T^i4ial renaissance of the arts and also a flow of literature which, increasing steadily in volume down to tlie end of the nineteenth centniy, sux:)X^liDS very comp)lete information on all x^oints of recent history. Tlie ancient Mon-Khmer tribesmen were no doubt very numerous and were disx:>ersed over all the land of Siam which at that time existed above sea level. The oldest settlement of these of which anything definite is known was Haribnnja, or Sukhodaya, situated on what is now the Me Yom river at a sxiot aliout 200 miles north of Bangkok and which, about 300 b.c., was HISTORY 1G9 apparently a fair-sized village community, tlie members of which belonged to a Brahman sect. At first putting for\vard no pretensions to the status of a kingdom, the settlement appears to have increased somewhat rapidly in importance, for about two centuries later the Chief (Sri Dhammaraja) made himself king of the district, built the new capital of Sawankalok (also called Sajanalaya), the construction of which occupied seven years, and appointed one of his sons, Uloka Kumara, viceroy of Haribunja or Sukhoda}^, which itself soon grew into a fortified city. Thereafter the two towns served alternately as the capital of a country which under the name of Sri Sajanalaya Snkhodaya and later the kingdom of Sukhothai-Sawankalok grew by slow degrees to great wealth and strength. Its monarchs claiming Kshatriya descent surrounded themselves with the ancient Brahman ceremonial of India, most of which is observed without very much change at the court of Siam at the present day, and their time was largely occupied with, the waging of war upon the kingdoms of neighbouring states founded in the same manner, upon the same principles but at somewhat later dates than their own. Sukhothai (Sukho, liappiness, Thai, free), a corrup- tion of Sukhodaya, ‘ the Dawn of Happiness,’ suggests a ])ossible origin of the term ‘ Thai ’ ap])lied to the Siamese race and a totally different word from ‘ Tai,’ the race name of the great north branch of the Lao-Tai family. In course of time the kingdom of Sukliothai- Sawankalok reduced all its neighbours to a condition of vassalage and l)ecame generally recognised as the capital of the whole country. The vague and usually inoperative suzerainty of Kambodia continued for many centuries but with little or no effect upon the destinies of its nominal dependency which was left to manage 170 SIAM itself and its group of subordinates as seemed to it best. The principal of those lesser states, which for a long period alternately admitted and denounced the suzerainty of Sukhothai-Sawankalok was Sri Wijaya, also called Samarattha and later Suphan, the first capital of which was built, probably about the year 150 a.d., on a site at that time close to the sea at the head of the Gulf of Siam, though it is now twenty-five miles inland. As Sri Wijaya the state flourished for some 800 years, successive kings adding to the buildings and fortifica- tions of the capital and embellishing the magnificent pagoda, the graceful spire of which, often restored and more than once practically rebuilt during successive ages, still dominates. the district now known as Nakhon Chai Si (Nagara Jaya Sri) for miles round. About the tenth century A.D., Phra Phan the then reigning monarch, a person whose varied and stirring career included, according to the legends, many years of exile, the slaying of his own father and the conduct of more than the usual number of military campaigns, deserted the capital as the sequel of an unfortunate war with the vassal state of Ratburi, in which the Suzerain Power had been temporarily worsted, and retiring northward, founded a new city which he called Suwarnabhumi, close to the site of the modern toim Suphan. Some 250 years later the descendants of Phra Phan ruling in Suwarnabhumi suffered defeat at the hands of a Peguan prince, and when the invader was- afterwards driven away with the assistance of the king* of the neighbouring state of Lopburi, also a nominal vassal of Sukhothai, the latter as the price of his help, annexed Suwarnabhumi to his own kingdom. About the middle of the 5th century a.d. an individual to whom the chronicles give the sounding title of King of Taksila Maha Nakhon, but who was apparently no more than a rebellious Governor of the Sukhothai- HISTORY 171 Sawankalok province of Taksila, founded two settle- ments on the banks of the main river of Siam, one of which must have been at the edge of the sea and the other about thirty miles inland. The former was called Dwaravati, or later Dwarapnri after the mythical sea- girt city of Krishna and the latter received the name of Lawapnri, Lawo or, as it is now called, Lopbnri. The two settlements grew side by side, both claiming to be the capitals of kingdoms comprising the surrounding country districts, but after some centuries of rivalry Dwarapnri was absorbed by Lopbnri the latter becoming in time subject to spasmodic control by Snkhothai and also to occasional beatings from the armies of Kambodia, the paramount power in the south. Yet another southern State was the kingdom of Ligor or Yakhon Sri Dhammaraj, situated on the east coast of the Siamo-Malay Peninsula, about latitude 8° 25' N. The date of the first appearance of a consolidated kingdom in this neighbourhood is uncertain but there is evidence that travellers from both India and China knew of a capital city on the north-east coast of the Peninsula at a very early period, while the Annals of the North describe Ligor as waging a temporarily successful war against Lopbnri in the 9th century a.d. In very early times the Kings of Ligor were the over- lords of the entire Siamo-Malay Peninsula and though the advent of the Malays and the establishment of the Malacca Power destroyed their rule in the southern parts, they continued until comparatively recently (when the sub-kingdom became a mere province of Siam), to be the acknowledged masters of all the central and northern districts. Ligor was always subject to much foreign influence. Indian and European traders made it a centre for the collection of merchandise and in the wars l)etween Siam and Pegu, its situation contiguous to the frontier caused it to be frequently occupied })y 172 SIAM the Peguan forces. The cult of Brahmanism flourished greatly there in the middle ages and it remains at the present day the last stronghold of popular Brahmanism in Siam. - But it was not only against their Mon-Khmer cousins that the several states in Siam found occasion for the exercise of their military j)roclivities. The Lao tribes inhabiting the mountain districts on their outskirts had for long demanded a certain amount of attention, and as time went on, and these, emboldened by increasing numbers, took to avenging past oppression by raiding the villages in the plains, it began to be evident that these erstwhile contemptible savages were growing to the proportions of a serious enemy. In fact as early as the 5th century a.d. the reduction of the Lao in the north had become almost the main business of the kings of Sukhothai-Sawankalok. Expeditions against them were constant ; they were frecpiently overthrown, and large numbers were from time to time carried ca]^tive to Sukhothai or Sawankalok, but the intercourse which was thus brought about served only to strengthen them, for they copied and adopted the Mon-Khmer customs and civilization Avith A\diich they thus became acquainted, and turned their knoAAdedge against their instructors Avith pertinacity and an ever increasing measure of success. A Lao capital city AA-as founded about 575 a.d., being built in imitation of the I\lon-Khmer capitals, at a spot al)out 250 miles north of SaAAxmkalok, and to this AA^as given the name llaril3unjaya, an early name of Sukhothai, AAdiich afterAAairds became corru])ted to Lamphun Chai, then to Lam])liiin or Labong. Here the principal ljuildings of Sukhotliai AA^ere reproduced and here a succession of Lao kings reigned, closely obseiwing the Brahman rites and royal ceremonies in A^ogue at Sukhothai, and encouraging both Brahmanism and HISTORY 173 Biiddliism amongst tlieir people. Other Lao states grew into prominence in the neighhonrhood of Lamphnn, of which the most formidable was Chieng Sen some 300 miles north of Lamphnn, and Wieng Chan 500 miles to the east on the Mehkong, and here also the Royal etiquette followed that of Kshatriya Courts. The time came when the Mon-Khmers could no longer keep the Lao in check. During the succeeding centuries the Lao arms were carried far south into the kingdoms of Lophuri and Ligor, alliances lieDveen Khmer and Lao kings became of frequent occurrence, the Royal families intermarried, and Lao settlements were formed in various parts of Southern Siam. Despite the wars with the soutiiern states and with the Lao and notwithstanding occasional trouble A\dth Kambodia, the Sukhothai-SaAvankalok kingdom grcAV and prospered greatly and in time attained to a con- siderable degree of civilisation. Not AA^ar alone occupied the attention of its succeeding kings. The Arts AA^ere encouraged, the people AA^ere AA^ell and systematically goA^erned, trade AA^as extensive and friendly relations AA'ere maintained Avitli China and other distant lands l^y means of frequent interchange of embassies. Early in the 7th century A.D., envoys from the Emperor of China Ausited Sukhothai and found the country AA^ealthy and poAATi'ful. The eiiA^oys liave left records of tlieir Ausit from AAdiich it ap]Aears that the peojile AA^ere chiefly engaged in the cultiAvition of rice and other cereals and in the manufacture of sugar, and that in their manners and customs they to a great extent resembled the present inhabitants of Siam. The records also describe the appearance of the capital, its fortifications and buildings AAdiich AA^ere eAudently executed in the style of Khmer architecture visible to-day in the ruins of Angkor, Pimai and other places, and they enlarge upon the royal state kept by the king. 174 SIAM In later times, with the further growth of the kingdom the capital must have become a great and rich city, for here were gathered together the spoils and the tribute of all the surrounding countries which from time to time were brought under the yoke. Here Peguans from the west, Kambodians from the east, Yunnanese and Lao from the north, Mon-Khmer from the cities of the south, and not a few traders from India, attracted by the wealth of the metropolis or carried thither as prisoners of war, must have rubbed shoulders with the native population in the streets and market-places, scattering and prostrating themselves before the palanquin or the elephant of the king, as it passed by amid a crowd of red-clad guards. Of all the Khmer kings who reigned over the State of Sukhothai-Sawankalok either in one capital or in the other, during the fifteen hundred years or so which include its period of growth and the zenith of its prosperity, historians of the present day put names to only five, of whom moreover, two, the first and second rulers of the State, are semi-mythical creatures of whom nothing more is known than that they were the ancestors of the long line of forgotten royalties which followed them, and whose names even, Phra Dhamniaraja and Uloka Kumara (which may be taken to mean respec- tively ‘ Royal Progenitor ’ and the ‘ Dawn of Freedom ’) are possibly of comparatively recent invention. The remaining three names are those of the royal hero Arunawati Ruang, of his father, and his son, the last of whom was also the last true Khmer king of the State. King A|)ayagamuni lives in history only as the father of Arunawati Ruang, which dignity he is said to have achieved by a chance union in a forest with a princess of the ‘Kaga,’ a dragon-like being of the underworld who took human form for his ensnaring. Concerning the hero himself a thousand legends are extant, in which HISTORY 175 his superior piety, intelligence, wit, and the miraculous powers inherited from his mother, play an important part. He is said to have begun by freeing his country from the yoke of Kambodia ; to have adopted a modified Khmer alphabet (Khom) for use in scriptural writings ; to have invented the Siamese alphabet ; to have estab- lished the era known as the Chula Saka, imposing the same upon the Lao, Khmer, Burmese and Chinese people, and to have performed many other works of the greatest magnitude and importance. There is however some reason to believe that the exploits of Arunawati Ruang are mostly fiction. It is no uncommon thing to find in the early histories of Further India the birth of heroes attributed to the silvan philanderings of Princes with ‘ Naga ’ ladies, but since the term ‘ Naga ’ is applied in many parts of India and Further India to savage tribes as well as to the underground dragon-people, it is possible that the objects of the princely attentions were mere simple, but probably attractive, hill-girls, and thus the mother of Arunawati Ruang may have been far from competent to endow her son with miraculous powers. From time to time during the history of Siam, civil wars and other political upheavals have caused such connected records as existed to be scattered abroad and lost. The Annals of the Sukhothai-Sawankalok kingdom, which doubtless once existed, have long since disappeared and the works which now pass in Siam as relating the history of the Ancient States are no more than collections of vague fragments gathered from various sources, pieced together in a later age without any knowledge of their chronological sequence. The annals of the north place the birth of Arunawati Ruang somewhere between 407 A.D. and 618 a.d. but recent comparison with the chronicles of contiguous countries has shown that the event almost certainly occurred in the eleventh century A.D. It is probable that the historians of the past 176 SIAM finding tlie name and existence of tliis undoubtedly remarkable king standing out solid facts in a foggy sea of mere conjecture, clung to them and fastened upon them events for which this individual monarch was not responsible but which were known to have happened, and for which they were forced to find an author to the best of their ability. Sukhothai-Sawankalok certainly threw off or tried to throw off the Ivambodian yoke, and that many times, and it may even be that King Arunawati Ruang was reigning when one of these bids for inde- pendence was made but there is absence of proof that his particular rebellion was anything more remarkable than those of his predecessors. That a somewhat modified form of the Ivambodian alphabet, now known as ‘ Khom ’ was in use in the state during the later period of the Khmer kings is not open to doubt and indeed it would be strange if this were not so in view of the common origin and close relationship between the Khmer of Kambodia and of Sukhothai-Sawankalok but there can be little doubt that it was the result of an adoption and subsequent gradual alteration of the alphabet of a superior civilisation and no more the outcome of the inventive genius of one man than is the series of characters collected from Kambodia, Pegu and from the Lao which forms the modern Siamese alphabet. An inscription on stone, found at Siddiothai and the subject of recent discussion, establishes the fact however that King Arunawati Ruang undoubtedly ordered the sub- stitution of the early Siamese for the Ivambodian ali^habet for use in official writings, but this proves nothing as to the invention of the former. The in- vention of the Chula Saka era has been claimed for kings of Kambodia and Burma as well as for King Arunawati Ruang. Evidence is still lacking as to where and by whom this era, common to all Further India, was first inaugurated but in the inscriptions which have been 177 HISTORY found among the ruins of Sukliothai and SaAvankalok,. though many of these were executed as late as the fifteenth century a.d. or about the middle of the eighth century Culila Saka, the dates inscribed upon them are ahvays of the older Buddhist era ultimately displaced by the Chula Saka, from which it would seem that if King ArunaAA'ati Ruang iiiA^ented the latter, both he and his successors took care not to use it. It appears from the histories of Burma and from traditions of the Lao States that the Chula Saka era was imposed upon the latter after one of the victorious incursions of the Peguan arms into the Lao country. Thence its use passed to Sukhothai-SaAvankalok and Siam but, though almost uniA'Crsally employed in Pegu and Burma from the tenth century a.d. doAAm to the present day, it did not come into general use in Siam until the sixteenth century a.d. aaPcu successiA^e Burmese wars brought vSiam and Burma into frequent and close contact. But though ArunaAA-ati Ruang is not to be credited AAuth all the notable CA^ents of the Khmer period of Sukhothai-SaAA^ankalok, he seems to liaA^e been a great king, for during his reign the country reached the zenith of its prosperity and AAdien he died, about 1090 A.D., he left to his son, Phra Sucharat, an empire including much of the northern Lao States and all the southern Khmer kingdoms of Siam. His successor, lioAA'CA^er, AA^as not left for long to the peaceful enjoyment of his inheritance. During the 11th century a.d. the Kings of Loj)buri and Lamphun, both Aussals of Suk- liothai-SaAvankalok had been intermittently at wav Avith each other, the suzerain PoAA'er taking no part in the matter, but al^out the end of the century Lopburi AA^as OA’ercome and, declaring itself subordinate to Lamphun, admitted large numbers of Lao to settle AAdthin its borders. Shortly after the death of ArunaAAuti Ruang a great Lao army composed of the AA^arriors of seA^eral 178 SIAM allied states and led by the Chief of the northerly state of Mnang Hang, by name Sndhamma Raja, invaded Sukhothai-Sawankalok itself, defeated its armies, over- ran the Khmer lands to the south, reduced all the cities and founded the capital of Vishnnloka now called Pitsannlok to the southward of Snkhothai and in the heart of the Khmer kingdom. Thereafter Snkhothai and Sawankalok became more or less subordinate to Lao domination and their rulers very little removed from a condition of vassalage to their ancient enemy. This may be said to be the beginning of the end of the period of Sukhothai-Sawankalok supremacy in Siam for, though its chiefs continued until considerably later to maintain regal state, no turn of fortune ever again restored them to the paramount position of their fore- bears. The slow but sure decay of these proud cities began from this date. The strength of their enemies waxed Avhile their own waned ; each succeeding ruler found himself of less importance than his predecessor, until at last, with even the semblance of royalty shorn away, some four centuries after the founding of Pitsannlok the rulers of these once proud cities were no more than provincial governors representing the kings of Siam (Ayuthia). Sudhamma Raja, King of Pitsannlok, like most other Lao, was apparently an admirer of Khmer institutions, for, in setting up his throne in the conquered country, be ordered himself and his surroundings as closely as possible in imitation of Snkhothai and, by marrying Padoma Devi, a princess of the Khmer dynasty, set an example which the hordes of his followers from the north were not slow to copy and thus gave an immense impetus to that fusion of Lao and Khmer which, already in process in Lopburi, was soon to result in the evolution of the Siamese race. Two sons were borne by the Khmer princess to Her royal husband, one of whom. HISTORY 179 Kesara Sima by name, was in liis tnrn married to a princess of tlie lionse of Snldiotliai-Sawankalok, and was sent by bis father to rule over the vassal state of Lopbnri (about 1110 A.D.), while the other succeeded his father at Pitsannlok. From the date of Kesara Sima’s accession to the throne of Lopbnri, the pivot of Siamese history is shifted from the North and the great plain of Central Siam becomes the stage on which the drama of the contending nations is chiefly played. Snkhothai- Sawankalok was sinking ; Pitsannlok rapidly declined from its brief glory after the close of Sndhamma Raja’s reign, and the Lao chieftains of the north became involved in internecine strngglings which occupied them fully and which ultimately caused the fall of Lamphnn and the rise of Chieng Mai. Lopbnri there- fore became the centre of the combination and acquired an importance which is proved by the fact that both Kambodia and Pegn haYung nndertaken to concpier Siam made Lopl^nri their principal objective. About this time also the Lao-Klimer half-breeds, whose numbers had increased witli surprising rapidity all over the country but more especiall^y in the neighbour- hood of Lopbnri, began to look upon tliemselves as a distinct race and to be known as the ‘ men of Syama ’ a name which had from the most ancient times been occasionally applied to the group of states which occupied Siam, and which began to supersede the individual names of those states, more closely niiited now than heretofore. But though the men of ‘ Syama ’ were thus becoming the ‘ Siamese ’ they were yet far from acquiring the status of ‘Thai’ or ‘Free.’ Not many years after the accession of Kesara Sima, Lopbnri was badly beaten by Kambodia, a fact Avhich is borne out by inscriptions at Angkor Thom, the ancient capital of that kingdom, and 180 SIAM liardly liad tlie armies from the east retired when a host of Peguans attacked the Siamese from the west^ overthrew them completely, exacted promises of al- legiance, and retired with a princess of the Lopburi royal family as a bride for their king. Thus towards the end of the 12th century a.d. Siam occupied the apparently unpleasant position of simultaneous vassalage to two different Powers. Fortunately, however, such subjection was merel}^ nominal and, temporary sub- ordination being a position to which the vicissitudes of war had long accustomed the nations of Further India^ it was not allowed to interfere greatly with the local ambitions of the State. But it seems to have been thought that Lopburi was unlucky as the capital of the Lao-Khmer kingdom, for about 1180 a.d. King Narai built a new city at Nong Sano close by the ruins of Dwarapuri, the city which had been founded at the same time as Lopburi and afterwards destroyed. King Karai, having repudiated the suzerainty of Pegu, was shortly attacked in his new capital by King Nares, a son of the late king of Pegu and the Lopburi princess and consec|uently his cousin. It is related that on this occasion the contending monarchs had recourse to a method of settling their differences which appears to have iDeeii in fairly common use among the nations of Further India. The annals of the multitude of states which participate in the history of Burma, Siam and Kamljodia recount numerous instances of opposing armies abandoning tlieir Avarlike front and setting to Avork to build pagodas, dig tanks or perform other AA^orks of merit in competition AAntli each other, under agreement that the honours of the campaign should rest Avith the army AAdiich first completed its task. In the present instance it AA^as arranged that each army should build a pagoda. In a fcAv days the besieging host had far outstripiAed the defenders and disaster to- HISTORY 181 tlie neAv city of Nong Saiio seemed imminent when King Narai adopted the ruse of completing his building with a light structure of bamboos and cloth, gilded and made to resemble the genuine brick and mortar article. Thus the enemy, full of confidence, awoke one morning and to their consternation beheld from their camp outside the city, the tall spire of an ajiparently finished pagoda flashing in the sunlight, whereupon without further inquiry they acknowledged defeat and retired in disorder. The daAYii of the 13th century a.d. saw the beginning of the last and greatest influx of Laos into the south of Siam. The vigorous suppression of the Lao-Tai undertaken in South-Avest China, culminating Avith the victories of the Chinese Emperor Ivul^lai Khan, drove many thousands of this people doAAui into the mountainous country north of Siam, AAdiere the noAv- comers upset the balance of PoAA-er amongst the older Lao and caused the disruption of several of their states. Thus certain small potentates of ancient lineage, finding themseKes homeless in their oaaui lands, gatliered their folloAA^ers together and sought to carve out iieAV fortunes for themselves further south. Descending the Meh Ping, the principal river of north-AAUstern Siam, hordes of these AAunderers established themselves at ]\Iuang Taksila, Kampeng PJiet and elseAvhere, combining Avith the inhabitants and rapidly ac(iuiring great strength. Idience, after an interval, they struck further south, Avrested Nakhon SaAvan and SuAAmr- nabhumi from the Kong Sano PoAver, founding the capital city of Suphanhuri close to the ruins of the latter, reached Uatl)uri and idtiniately oA^erran tlie southern peninsular state of Ligor. All this, liOAA^eA^er, AAUS not accomplished in a day. Py the time the Lao kings had consolidated their poAver and fixed themseh’^es in their capital of Suphanhuri they, like the former 182 SIAM invaders of Snkliothai-Sawankalok and Lopbnri, had become inextricably mingled with the original popula- tion, and the 13th and half the 14th century had passed away. The State of Nong Sano had fared badly during this period. Shorn of its western provinces and subject by Kambodia to a continual drain in men and treasure, it gradually sank into complete insignificance and, when the King of Suphaid^uri, fleeing as is supposed from a pestilence, marched westwards to found yet another capital, Kong Sano fell into his hands almost without a struggle. Its king, the weak descendant of the glorious Sudhamma Raja of Pitsanulok, fled to Kambodia, and Plira Chao U Thong, the King of Suphanl)uri, erected' close b}^ the ruins of the fallen city and on tlie site of the ancient Dwarapuri, the capital of Llaha Kakhon Sri Ayuddhya (Ayuthia), destined to achieve a world wide fame as the capital of one of the greatest kingdoms in the history of Further India and to l)e the home of the kings of Siam for upwards of four hundred jmars. In the year 1350 a.d. Phra Chao U Thong under the new title of Phra Ramathibodi was installed as king’ at Ayuthia and for a long time afterwards was fully occupied in liringing the outlying states and j^rovinces to acknowledge his sway, in organising a system of government and in the framing of laws, maii}^ of Avhich were of surpassing excellence and continue in use to the present day. In time the kingdom com- prised the cities of Sukhothai, Sawankalok, Pitsanulok, Pichai, Pichit, Kampeng Phet, Kakhon Sawan, Suphan- l)uri, Ratburi, Ligor and Chantaburi wdth their subordinate towns and districts, and these not merely in a state of nominal subjection Imt under a more direct control than had been the case since the palmy days of Sukhothai-Sawankalok. It was further claimed that Tavoy, Mergui, and Malacca were also subject to A 3 uithia HISTORY 183 blit this was probably mere vaunting, since the Pegnans were at this time in actual occupation of Tavoy and Mergiii, while the Mala 3 ^s had, as early as the 13th century a.d., made themselves finally independent in the South, and had liy now extended their power considerably farther north. In fact Ayiithia had now succeeded to the whole of the Snkhothai-Sawankalok kingdom, the component parts of which, b}^ dint of treaties, matrimonial alliances and other weapons of diplomacig were welded together to such an extent that when Ivambodia, annoimd by the independent attitude of what was still considered a mere appanage of the Kambodian Crown, sent an army to re-assert its rights of suzerainty, a strong and united enemy was met, which, not only advanced to try conclusions ivitli the invader, Imt defeated him, drove him back, and followed him far within the confines of his own coiintiy. King Ramathibodi died after a reign of nineteen years (1369 a.d.). Thereafter events moved qiiickl}^ for, before the close of the century, five of his descendants liad followed each other ii])on the throne, while two successful wars had been accomplished, one against the Lao cajfital of Cliieng Mai and the other against Kambodia. Chieng Mai was taken and: added to the kingdom while Kaml)odia, the old oppressor, was at last really beaten, its caj)ital destixyed and a large number of its inhabitants captured and brought to swell the popnlatioii of Aomthia. The 15th centnr}" a.d. opened with the nsnrpation of the throne b}^ a cadet of the ro 3 xrl famil^g whose direct descendants sncceeded each other for more than a hnndred 3 ^ears. This period comprises the reign of seven kings, under whom the state continued to gain in strength and importance, a vast treasure l)eing at the same time expended in beantifyiiig the 184 SIAM capital witli stately buildings in the style, though somewhat degenerated, of Khmer architecture. Buddhism had by now definitely replaced Brahmanism as the popular religion and, not only in Ayuthia but in many of the provincial cities, great numbers of mendicant priests were supported, while the graceful spires of Phrachedi, or Pagodas, arose in every direction. About 1434 A.D., Chieng Mai, which had thrown off its allegiance, was again invaded and reduced to submission, suffering once more a loss of many thou- sands of its inhabitants carried off to Ayuthia. In 1527 Siam fell under a regency. The king was a minor and the reins of government were in the hands of his mother. . This unnatural parent, in order to facilitate usurpation by a man of low birth whom she had married, caused her son to be murdered, but her schemes were frustrated by the nobles and the people, who slew both her and her husband and crowned an uncle of the late king. Shortly afterwards another invasion of Ivambodia was undertaken, but nothing decisive was accomplished. At about this time marauding bands of Siamese from Ligor, acting under orders from Ayuthia, penetrated far into the province of Tavoy, subordinate to the King of Burma and Pegu, and there performed exploits which astonished and enraged the Burmese. Though engaged in a campaign in Arakan, King Thabin Shwe Hti of Burma lost no time in collecting an army at Maulmain, which advanced into Siam under the command of Bureng Naung the Burmese Heir-a]3parent. A jjattle was fought on the banks of the river near SuiDhanl)uri, the Siamese were defeated, and shortly .afterwards the Burmese Prince appeared before the walls of Ayuthia itself. Plere, however, he met with a stout resistance and operations were so much prolonged that his commissariat broke down and he HISTORY 185 was forced to retire. He was followed by the Siamese and fought many rearguard actions in which he lost heavily, and it Avas Avith a much reduced and thoroughly beaten army that he ultimately recrossed the frontier. Three years later, hoAvever, taking the assumption by the king of Siam of the title of Plirci Chao Chang Peuak or ‘ Lord of the White Elephants ’ as a casus helli, Bureng Eaung, noAv king of Burma, marched out of Pegu Avith a great host and, brushing aside all resistance en route, shortly laid siege to Ayuthia. To saA^e the city the ‘ Lord of the White Elephants ’ opened negotiations with the invader, as the result of AAdiich several of the animals Avhich had caused all the trouble, together with a royal prince as hostage, Avere handed over to the Burmese, avIio thereupon retired. xV conflict of dates here occurs between the Burmese and Siamese histories. The chronicles of Ayuthia give the years of these tA\m invasions from Pegu as corresponding Avith 1543 and 1547 a.d. AAdiile Burmese records place them in the years 1548 and 1563 A.D. Moreover the Siamese Aversion has it that after liis defeat the king of Siam entered a monastery, ap|)ointiDg his son Maha Indra diracha as his successor, AAdiereas the Burmese maintain that the king Avas actually carried off along Avith his AAdiite elephants and afterAAurds permitted l)y his conqueror to enter the priesthood, his son being appointed gOA^ernor of Siam under the Burmese. Both sides, lioAA^eA^er, agree that A^ery soon after tliis the royal monk had discarded the yelloAv robe, and that he and his son Maha Indra haAung repudiated Burmese suzerainty Avere again on the AAurpath. This brought Bureng Xaung, avIio AA^as Imsy attacking Cffiieng Mai back to xVyuthia, AAdiicli place he once more besieged. The ‘ Lord of the White Elex)hants ’ died, but j\Ialia Indra continued to resist. Cdiieng Mai rose and. 186 SIAM joining with Luang Prabang and Wieng Chan sent an army to the assistance of Aynthia. Things began to look had for Bnreng Nanng, when by the aid of treachery he gained admittance to the city, overcame the resistance of the Siamese and made himself master of the sitnation. The place was then sacked and partially destroyed and King Maha Indra with the majority of his people was dispatched in chains to Pegn. The indefatigable Bnreng Nanng returned to Gliieng Mai, concpiered it and pressed on to Luang Prabang, the Chieftain of which place fled on his approach, without daring to offer resistance. Burmese governors were appointed to i^oth these states and the conqueror returned in triumph to Pegu, leaving one Phra Dhammarach diracha, erstwhile governor of Pitsanulok, as his viceroy in Aynthia. But scarcely had the Burmese withdrawn than that unfortunate city was again subjected to attack, this time by a Kambodian army sent to avenge late defeats and to reassert ancient claims to overlordship. The remnants of the population were, hoAvever, quickly gathered together, and managed to show a front too bold for tlie Kambodians, who retired content with the loot of the surrounding districts which the Siamese were ])Owerless to protect. And now, when the fortunes of Aynthia were at the lowest ebb, when, despoiled of her treasures, her build- ings in ruins, her people captives or fugitiAms, and her fair provinces given over to pillage by her enemies from east and AA^est, slie seemed doomed to extinction, there arose a hero destined to retrioA^e the fortunes of his natiA^e land ami to carry the Siamese arms once more Auctorious into the heart of the enemy’s country. This AA'as Phra Naret, a son of the regent Phra Dhammarach diracha. Appointed Governor of Pitsanulok by his father, he saAv seiwice AAdiile yet A^ery Amung both against HISTORY 187 the formidable Kambodiaii bands wliieli periodically oYerraii his province and in the wars of Nanda Biireng, the son and successor of Bureng Naung of Pegu, against rebellious Ava. Having by his military skill aroused the jealousy and dislike of Pegu to such an extent that, liis life was endangered, Naret revolted about 1505 a.d., and, while Nanda Bureng was occupied before Ava, raised an army of Siamese with which he attacked and jiillaged Tenasserim and Martaban. Nanda Bureng’ sent a force to avenge this raid, but it was met and defeated at Suphanburi, that cockpit of the wars witli Burma. It was folloived liy another, led by the king liimself, ivhich fared even worse, being enticed into an amlnisli liy the skilful dispositions of Naret and almost annihilated. Naret was then proclaimed king of Siam, and at once set to work to recover the lost adherence of the outlying procinces ; and this he accomplished vrith the usual sacking of towns and carrying off of captii-es to repopulate Ayuthia, which he now restored. King Nanda Bureng was for some time occupied with internal wars, but having at length established his suiiremacy throughout Burma, he made another attempt to sulidue Siam. He sent off a large army under the command of the Burmese Heir-Ap]iarent to invade the country, l)ut fresh disappointment was all that he gained, for, thougli the army reached the wads of Ayuthia it suffered complete defeat there, the CV)in- mander-in-Chief and many thousands of his men being slain, and the rest taken prisoners or put to flight. Tlie western foe lieing thus disposed of, King Naret turned his attention to the east. Burning to avenge the insults and miseries which liad been inflicted upon his country in the time of her weakness, he iioav called his vassals together and invaded Kambodia at the fiead of a strong force. Lawek, the capital, was liesieged, and 188 SIAM in spite of a spirited resistance was ultimately taken and destroyed. The king of Kambodia and many of his people were brought to Aynthia, where the former was executed, Naret fulfilling an ancient vow by bathing his feet in the blood of his enemy. ISTot content with these victories, King Naret now determined on the invasion of Burma. He marched through Tenasserim and appeared before Han tha wadi, the capital of Pegu. The place soon fell, but on the approach of an army from Ava the courage of the invaders failed them, and they retired taking much loot and leaving behind Siamese Governors for the two provinces of Tavoy and Mergui, the people of which, owing to Burmese oppression, gladly welcomed annexa- tion by Siam. Indeed many thousands of Mons voluntarily followed Naret to Siam where they were given lands, and where their descendants continue in much honour to the present day. After a short interval of rest preparations were made for a more determined effort, and in the }^ear 1593 a.d., according to Siamese history, or 1599 according to Burmese, a great Siamese host invaded Burma with the object of capturing Ava itself and thus subduing the whole country. But Siam was not destined to achieve this crovuiing triumph, for early in the campaign Naret met a soldier’s death, and his son and successor alDandoned the enterj)rise and withdrew the army. Thus in less than thirty years Siam was raised by the skill and daring of one man from the verge of national extinction to a position of ascendancy over all the other kingdoms of Further India. King Naret left to his- son an empire extending from the 4th to the 21st degree of north latitude, and from the 96th to the 106th degree of east longtitude. To the north and east Chieng Sen, Chieng Mai, Luang Prabang, Wieng Chan and other Lao States, in the west the provinces of Tenasserim^ HISTORY 189 Tavoy and Mergui, and to the south Ligor and its Malay dependencies were all recognised as lying within the frontier, while both the Ivambodian and Burmese armies had been many times beaten and driven far away within their own borders. Siam, in fact, had become a Power, and so thorongh had been the work of the builder that his empire did not crumble away immediately on his decease, as usually happened with Further Indian conquests, but in spite of revolutions and all manner of internal commotions and of more than one foreign Avar, held together for a subsequent period of 175 years. After the death of Phra Naret, his son, his grandson, and his brother folloAA^ed each other in quick succession upon the throne. A reAmlution then took place, Avhen the reins of goA^ernment AA^ere seized by one Phaya SuriAA^ongse, a noble of high standing. Under the title of Phra Chao Prasat Thong, this king reigned for OA^er tAventy years, and his death Avas the signal for a scramble for the throne at the end of AAdiich in 1655 a.d., one of his sons, Phra Narai, after disposing of a brother and an uncle aaFo liarred his AAuy, made himself undis- puted master of the realm. Thereafter folloAved thirty- three prosperous and more or less peaceful years during AA'hich the Arts and Commerce flourished exceedingly, official relations AA^ere established AAnth European Sovereigns, and Siam became knoAAm to the West as one of the rich and poAverful countries of the Far East. At the beginning of his reign, Phra Uarai im^aded Burma, but the enterprise miscarried and the army Avas forced to content itself Avith the loot of some of the Lao States Avhich had sIioaaui signs of reA^olt. For some time lAast Siam had lieen knoAvn to the European merchant-adA-enturers resorting to the Far East under the flags of Portugal, Holland, and England. Early in the IGth century a.d., the Malay kingdom of 190 SIAM Malacca, to the suzerainty over which Siam asserted a shadowy claim, had been conquered by the Portuguese, and individuals of that nation had penetrated to Ayuthia and to Pegu. Portuguese volunteers were to be found in the ranks of both armies during the Burmese-Siamese wars, and it is on record that three Portuguese ships taking part in the defence of Ayuthia in 1548 a.d., were destroyed there. Portuguese traders also settled in the Siamese ports of Kedah, Mergui, Ligor, and Patani taking some part in local politics, and in more than one instance rising to positions of trust in the service of the State. In the beginning of the 17th century a.d., Portuguese missionaries settled at Ayuthia, where they were received with favour and given land for churches and other advantages. At about the same time English and Dutch ships first appeared in Siamese waters, and an obstinate rivalry soon sprang up amongst the foreigners, who competed for commercial supremacy and for the favour of the King and his governors Avithout AAdiich little or no trade could be carried on. This rivalry led to constant quarrelling and often to desperate fighting, a fierce sea battle being fought in the Patani roads as early as 1619 a.d., Avhen two English ships under the brave John Jourdain struck to three Dutchmen under Hendrick Johnson after the English commander had been killed. In 1634 a.d., the Dutch had so far prospered that they had built a fortified factory at Ayuthia and had extensive commerce all over the country Avhile the foreign carrying trade to C4iina and Japan Avas in their hands. In 1641 a.d., the Dutch took Malacca from Portugal, and thus sounded the knell of Portuguese influence in Siam. Many individuals of that nation continued, hoAA^ever, to liA^e and trade at Ayuthia, their descendants persisting in Siam at the present day, bearing high - sounding Portuguese names, but otheiwise, through constant 191 HISTORY admixture of Siamese blood, sliowiug small sign of their European ancestry. The pushing Dutchmen soon supplanted the Portuguese at all points where the latter had established factories. They confined themselves chiefly to trade and took little or no interest in Siamese politics except where their commercial prospects were affected. The fi rst formal treaty contracted by Siam with any European Power was that entered into in the year 1604 a.d. with the i-epresentatives of the Dutch East India Company, authorised by the Dutch Republic. The Dutch con- tinued to trade with Siam until the year 1706 a.d. when, their truculent disposition having led to frequent ruptures with the government, they finally lost the royal favour and shorth^ afterwards Ijroke up their factory on the banks of the Menani Chao Phaya river, the site of which is still known as Amsterdam. In 1659 A.D. there arrived at Ayuthia a Euro])ean who was destined to mould for a time the fortunes of Siam and to lead the country into a political maze in which she came near to losing hei'self. The histories of India and the Far East are rich in romantic tales of European adventurers wafted by curious chances from the humble condition of soldier, sailor or merchant, to dizzy heights of pOAver where they controlled the destiny of millions and Avhence they very often descended Avith a suddenness as amazing as their elevation, but feAv such, stories can equal that of Constantine Faulkon, the son of a Cephalonian innkeeper, aa4io ran aAAuy to sea in an English ship and arriAung, after man}- Aucissitudes, in vSiam, rose to be the Chief Minister and trusted adAnser of King Phra Karai. Under the guidance of this man, to AAdiose great al)ilities and numerous other good qualities the natiA^e and foreign chronicles of this period of Siamese histoiy one and all l)ear AAutness, the country for a time ])ros[)ered exceedingly. The Portuguese and 192 SIAM Diitcli traders already established were encouraged to extend the scope of their enterprise and the English and French East India Companies were also induced to set up factories at the capital. The King himself became the principal merchant in his own country and owned a fleet of merchant ships with which he did business, greatly to the profit of himself and of his First Minister. In addition to the native inhabitants, Ayuthia had at that time a large population of Malay, Annamese, Kambodian, Burmese, Indian and Japanese settlers, the descendants of war captives and persons who for one reason or another had fled from their own country, and an extensive trade was carried on with China and Japan, Sumatra and India. The city was therefore selected as the most central spot for the establishment of a Roman Catholic Mission which was being organised in France with the ambitious design of converting the whole of the Far East and, in the beginning of 1662 a.d., three French bishops with a staff of priests arrived to in- augurate the work. These were well received by the king and very soon the mission had secured a consider- able number of adherents. In order further to strengthen their position the priests obtained the countenance and official support of Louis XIV of France, who sent complimentary letters and envoys to Siam and had the pleasure of receiving the first Siamese am- bassadors ever sent to Europe. The bishops received much assistance from Faulkon who presently entered into correspondence with Colbert, the Minister of France. The interest which had been aroused in the mind of the French King in the spiritual welfare of Siam, in time became diverted to things temporal and a scheme was set on foot for securing the supremacy of France in that far-away country through the agency of the priests, who appeared to believe that with material HISTORY 193 support from France they could convert the King him- self to Christianity. Six French ships of war and a body of 1400 soldiers were therefore sent to Siam, ostensibly to assist in over-awing the Dutch who were making themselves unpleasant from their stronghold of Malacca. The ports of Bangkok and Mergni, the gates of the country, were garrisoned by the French troops and the King was jirevailed upon to attach a select few to his own person. The missionaries then opened with their spiritual batteries but found that the conversion of the King was a more difficult matter than they had expected. Their obstinate insistence with him and his apparent subservience to Faulkon, who by this time had been created a count of France, ended by alarming the Siamese. Remonstrances were made against the ad- mission of an ever-increasing number of foreigners into the service of the State and, these ])assing unheeded, a conspiracy was formed, the King was taken prisoner at the summer palace which he had built at the historic city of Lopl^uri and was dethroned, Faulkon was killed, the European troops driven out of the countiy, and Siam was saved from a condition which must shortly have become that of a French dependency. This coup cVetat having been accomplished, the con- spirators proclaimed as king one of their number, an officer of high rank named Phra Pet Rache, who soon restored trancpiillity. He also revived foreign trade, disorganised by the recent commotions, by renewing diplomatic relations with France and by improving those already in existence with othei- European nations. He did not live long, however, and when he died the legitimate dynast}^ was restored to the succession. A son of King Karai and a grandson occupied the throne in turn for a few peaceful years. The latter died young, leaving two small sons, and while the nobles were deliberating as to the succession, 194 SIAM an imcle of the lads who, though he had long held the title of Uparach Mongkut, or Heir-presumptive, would probably have been passed over, settled the matter by suddenh^ storming the palace at the head of his own followers, overpowering the guard, scattering the little princes and the nobility and proclaiming himself king. civil war was the result of this action but the people soon found that the power had been seized by the strongest member of the royal family and ended by accepting the situation ; the youthful princes dis- appeared and when the King died he was succeeded by his own sons. Ever since the end of the 16th century a.d. the war between Siam and Burma, with the exception of various unimportant frontier raids, had been in abeyance, the Burmese kingdom being torn with internecine strife and therefore too weak to avenge the victories of King Karet, and the Siamese being occupied with the develop- ment of trade and commerce and with their own internal troubles. But about the year 1759 a.d., the great Alaung Phra liaAung reunited Ava and Pegu and the outlying provinces of Burma, renewed hostilities by r)ccupying Martaban, Mergui and Tavoy. He shortly afterwards im-aded Siam from the south, defeated a Siamese army at the crossing of the Meklong river near the head of the gulf of Siam, and appeared before Ayuthia. Here, however, he was taken suddenly ill and, withdrawing his forces, died before he could regain his own country. A few years of peace followed when a raid into Pegu by the Chief of Chieng Mai gave the signal for a resumption of the war. Sin Byu Shin, a son of Alaung Phra liad inherited the throne and the warlike qualities of his father. He sent one strong force to punish Chieng Mai and at once set about collecting another at Tavoy. As soon as Chieng Mai and incidentally AVieng Chan and other Lao States, HISTORY 195 had been reduced to submission, the two armies advanced simnltaneonsl}^ upon Aynthia, that from Tavoy following the old Snphanburi route and that from Chieng Mai descending the river Menam Chao Phaya. After several enconntei’S with the inhabitants the forces met at Aynthia and sat down before the city. A large Siamese army had been assenil)led within the walls and this, sallying out, engaged the Burmese divisions as they came ii]5. The Siamese were however defeated in each case and very soon found themselves hemmed in behind their ramparts with supplies effectn- all}^ cut off. The king of Siam at this critical moment was Somdet Phra Maha Bowarn Sncharit, a son of the Uparach i\[ongkut. Though nnaccustomed to war, he showed a good front and. encouraged his yieople to a rigorous defence. All through the dry season the enemy maintained a steady blockade and when tlie rains brought the aniinal floods, though forced to retire to higher ground, they patrolled the waters in hundreds of boats and thus effectively maintained the im^estment. flflie Siamese had hojied that the floods would cause tlie raising of the siege but were disap])ointed, for the Burmese held on and, as the waters srdosided, threw up new earthworks near to the avails maldng the invest- ment closer than ever. Flying columns of the invading army pillaged the surrounding districts and drove off a Lao force which attem])ted a diversion in favour of the besieged. At last in 17(35 a.d., the heart of King Sncharit failed him. He tried to leave tlie city l)ut was driv^en hack, he opened ])arley with the enemy but v\as rebuffed. Tlie Burmese, reinforced from Ava, delivered, an assault in force, overcame the weakening defence, ajid in the confusion and massacre which followed, the King escajied unattended, only to die of exposure a few days later. Thus the city of Aynthia finally succumbed to the 196 SIAM Burmese. For four liundred and seventeen years the seat of powerful inonarchs, the metropolis of an Empire and one of the greatest emporia of trade in the Far East, amid the smoke of a vast conflag’i’ation her tall gilded spires and graceful palaces now disappear for ever from the pages of history. A great amount of treasure and many thousands of captives, including members of the royal family and several European traders and mission- aries, fell into the hands of the Burmese conquerors and were by them transferred to Ava. But though Ayuthia had fallen Siam was by no means beaten and when, therefore, Sin Byu Shin withdrew his army to meet a threatened Chinese invasion of Burma, the Viceroy who was left with a small garrison to rule the country, soon found himself in serious difficulty. AVith the fall of the capital all the outlying provinces had quietly assumed independence while the more central districts became infested with robber bands which plundered the countiy and continually united in harassing the army of occupation. Again, as in 1565 a.d., the hour of Siam’s adversit}" ])rought forth the man gifted with the qualities necessary to retrieve the fortunes of the kingdom. Phaya Tak Sin, an official who derived his title from the ancient city of Taksila Nakhon, had escaped from Ayuthia l^efore the end of the siege and had betaken himself with a band of about 1000 men to the hills of Nakhon Nay ok not far distant. There he established himself for a time and thence he descended after the fall of the capital to do ])attJe with the Burmese Viceroy. Having marched through tlie south-west provinces and having by various methods secured the adherence of those districts, he advanced upon Ayuthia, defeated the A^iceroy and in the al)sence of any scion of the royal family, made himself King. The village of Bangkok where stood the fortress once occu])ied by French trooj^s, having been 197 HISTORY 13ronounced by the soothsayers to be a j^lace of good omen, Avas chosen as the site of the neAv capital and A^ery soon became a populous city. The King AA^as seldom there, lioAA^eA^er, for AAotli untiring energy he led his armies on a series of campaigns Avhich Avithin ten years stripped from the outlying jirovinces their neAv found inde])endence and made him master of the AAdiole country from far doAAUi the Peninsula u]) to the northern confines of Luang Prabang, the proAunces of Martaban, Mergui and Tavoy remaining, hoAA^ever, in the hands of the Burmese. King Sin Byu Shin haAung got rid of his Chinese iiiA^aders made an effort to recover Siam and having heard of the reconquest of the Lao States, sent a force to reassert his authority there, at the same time ordering the Governor of Martaban to collect troo])s for an attack on Bangkok. The enterprise hoAvever AA-as a failure. The Lao of Chieng Mai refused to submit, Wien Chan, though occupied, could not be properly garrisoned, the Mon levies of MartalAan mutinied and deserted to the Siamese, and the death of Sin Byu Shin himself put an end to the operations. Pliaya Tak Sin iioav dis])atche(l an army to invade Kambodia, over AAfiiich country he as King of Siam, claimed to have suzerain rights, and himself marched aAA'ay to the north-east to expel the AA^eak Burmese garrison from ACien Chan. The Lao, joining Avith the Burmese, olf'ered a s])irited resistance and the city Avas therefore looted on being taken, the celebrated Emerald Buddha now ]>reserved in the Palace ])recincts at Bangkok, being amongst the great treasure brought aAvay. Shortly afteimards, in 1781 a.d. the king carried aAvay by his successes, conceiA^ed an idea Avith AAdiich more than one former Buddhist monarch, including Alaung Phra, had become possessed, namely that he aaus himself 198 SIAM a Biiddlia. This led him into the performance of sncli wild extravagances as constituted a grave public danger and aroused the fear and dislike of his people. The upshot was tliat he was dethroned and murdered b}^ the nobles, and one of his generals by title Somdet Chao Piiaya j\faha Ivrachat Seuk, formerly Chao Phaya Chakkri, in whose veins ran the Ihood of kings and to vdiom in a great measure the military successes of the last decade had been due, was recalled from the army operating against Kambodia and was made king, ascending the throne in 1782 a.d. under the title of 8omdet Phra Budayot Fa. The new king had not long been proclaimed when Bodaw Phra, King of Burma, began to make preparations for the reconcjuest of Siam and the exaction of tribute said to be due from the date of the fall of Ayuthia. When all was ready the war v^as opened with an attack by the Burmese on the island of Puket (Junk Ceylon) consti- tuting a Siamese ])rovince off the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. A lodgment was effected but an army from Nakhon Sri Thammarat (Ligor) speedily recovered the island and ejected the enemy. This was followed by tlie massing of troops at Tavoy, Martaban and Chieng Mai, on com])letion of which operations (1785 a.d.), Bodaw Phra gave the signal fora simultaneous advance, liimself leading the Martaban contingent. King Budayot Fa, however, was equal to the occasion. Mustering the veterans whom, as Pliaya Chakkri, he had so often led to victoiT, he op]>osed the advance at all points. The Burmese commissariat was as usual but ill equijijied and was quite unable to provide food for the large n amber of men in the field, while the Siamese had ]-enioved all local supplies from the different lines of march. The invaders began to suffer heavily from starvation, desertion and disease and, constantly harassed by the enemy, became demoralised. To make matters HISTORY 199 ■worse, Bodaw Plira in a fit of anger executed liis principal general officer. King Bndayot Fa at length boldly attacked the Martaban and Tavoy forces -with all his strength. The Tavoy army was almost wiped out wliile Bodaw Phra with the Martaban contingent was driv^en back over the Burmese border vrith the loss of half his numbers. The Chieng Mai force met with some success but being nnsn])ported, ultimately fell liack on Martal^an leaving the Siamese everywhere victorious. Indeed the Burmese power was for the moment so completely liroken that had King Bndayot followed up his success with vigour he would have found Burma at liis mercy and might have signally avenged former humiliations liy sacking Amarapnra, the capital. But no advantage was taken of the dissipation of the Burmese forces for, though Mergui and Tavoy were attacked and occupied, no invasion was ])ushed home. The last named two jirovinces were held for a few years Imt were ultimately abandoned. Bodaw Phra was, however, cured of his desire to concpier Siam. His attention presently became fixed on Arakan and the doings of the Honourable East India Company in that neighbourhood, and King Bndayot Fa was left in ])eace. In fact, with the final abandonment of Mergui and Tavoy in 1792 a.d. the wars between Burma and Siam which had continued at intervals through so many centuries, may be said to liaise come to an end for, though Chieng Mai, Chieng Tung and the island of Puket were occasionally afterwards bones of contention between the two Powers, subsequent operations in those districts were never on a large scale and were rather the authorised raids of local levies than the undertakings of sei’ious war. King Bndayot Fa now turned his attention to the consolidation of his kingdom and the organisation of better government. Having moved the capital from the west to the east side of the River ]\lenam, he built 200 SIAM himself a palace and surrounded it with a double line of fortifications, between the inner and outer of which a fair city soon arose, recalling both by the style of architecture and by the names of the principal buildings, the past glories of Ayuthia. The submission of the vassal provinces was secured, their rulers drinking the waters of allegiance and swearing fealty in Bangkok. Governors were appointed from amongst the King’s most trusted followers to the charge of the provinces of Siam proper and courts were established for the ad- ministration of justice in accordance with the ancient laAvs of the land, to AA^hich laAvs the king himself made many notable additions. Somdet Phra Budayot Fa reigned for tAventy-seven years and dying Avas succeeded in 1809 by his son Somdet Phra Budalot La, the great grandfather of the present Sovereign. In various Chinese chronicles and records, some of them of great antiquity, mention is made of Siam, of envoys and letters sent to and received from that country and of the exchange of presents betAveen the Emperors of China and the Kings of Siam. The presents sent by Siam are represented in the records of later times, as tribute payable by a vassal state, but Siam AA-as never invaded or conquered by China and the earliest chronicles speak of eiwo^^s passing between the tAA"0 countries bearing messages in AAdiich the rulers addressed each other in terms denoting equality. There is abundant eAudence that to Siam as AA^ell as the other nations of Further India, to stand AA^ell AAntli China appeared an advantage and that any little com- plimentary attention received therefrom AA^as invariabl}" made a matter for boasting and self-congratulation. Also the formalities observed in the offering of j^resents to China Avere identical Avith those exacted by the Kings aaFo made them, from their oaaoi A-assals on occasi(jns on ])ayment of tribute by the latter. Hence HISTORY 201 it seems probable that whatever may have been the nature of the earlier presents, those made in the middle ages and later, were propitiatory offerings made with the object of securing the good will of an acknowledged great Power and therefore to be regarded perhaps as in some sort tribute. It is probal^le that Siam came in time to look upon China with the respect that is sometimes felt by a younger for an elder brother and there can be no doubt that some of the numerous Siamese Kings who found themselves on the throne with small right to be there, sought, in the ratification of their succession by China, an argument to strengthen their position in the eyes of their own people. It is on record (in China) for instance, that King Phra Karet when he had retaken Siam from the Burmese, asked for official recognition by China of his right to the throne. The last mention in any Chinese records of the sub- mission of the so-called tribute by Siam to China occurs in the earliest years of the nineteenth century a.d. in the reign of King Phra Budayot, since when the ancient custom has loeen allowed to fall into disuse. China certainly never made any pretence of assisting vSiam in her wars nor, though she claimed I)oth Burma and Kambodia as her vassals equally with Siam, did she take any step to check the continual onslaughts of the nations of Further India upon each other. A letter has been preserved, however, in which the Emperor of China, writing to the King of Siam about the year 1566 a.d., expatiates u])on the charms of peace and exhorts his friend and younger brother to eschew barl^arous war, the delight of savages, to cultivate the gentle arts, and to live in harmony with his neighbours, but this, coming in reply to a prayer for assistance and arriving at a moment when Siam, hemmed in by enemies, was fighting desjjerately for 202 SIAM mere existence, can hardly have served any purpose other than the gratification of the writer’s opinion of Iiis own epistolary composition. The intimate relations which at present exist hetAveen the tAAm nations have heen the result of commerce alone and date from the beginning of the seventeenth century a.d., AAdien the rice trade Avith China first began and a colony of Chinese merchants AAms admitted to reside at Ajmthia. Military operations in Ivambodia AA’^ere undertaken early in the reign of Somdet Phra Budalot La. Siam ]iad now come to regard as her oaaui the heritage of the birth-place of Indo-Chinese ciAulisation, and con- sidered that she had acquired the right to demand tribute from the descendants of the AA^orn-out Suzerain PoAver. But it appeared on the other hand that the Kings of Annam aAAmy to the east had also beaten the Kambodians and therefore put foimard claims probably about as good as those of the Siamese. In I78G, Iioaa^- Gvev, during the minority of the CroAAui of Ivambodia, the regent of tlie country fomially recognised Siamese supremacy and sent the infant King to reside in Bangkok, himself continuing to gOA^ern the state under Siam. In 1809 a.d. an immsion by Annam took place and to meet this intrusion Phra Budalot La dispatched an army from Bangkok. The campaign AAms brief, liOAveAmr, and ended in an agreement by \drtue of which the Kambodian province of Phratabong (Battain- bong) in AAdiich is situated the ruins of the ancient cayntal of Angkor, aaus annexed l)y Siam, AAUiile the re- mainder of the country became a dependency of Annam. Except for this Kambodian affair in AAdiich neither the Siamese arms nor diplomacy gained much credit, the reign of Phra Ihidalot La aaxis one of peace. In 1825 A.D. he died AAdien the throne aaus seized by one of his sons by a lesser AAufe, the rightful heir, Chao Fa Mongkut, a youth of tAA^entA^-one retiring AAuth a HISTORY 203 younger lirotlier into tlie safe seclusion of tlie priesthood. The new King took the title of Somclet Phra Chao Prasat Thong but lives in history as Phra Kang Klao. His reign of twenty-seven years was chiefly remarkal^le for the re-establishment of political relations with the nations of the West. In 1821 A.n. (hiring the reign of King Phra Bndalot La, the Hon. East India Company had deputed Mr John Crawfnrd as an Envoy to the Court of Siam with a view to making a treaty but nothing had resulted from that mission. In 1820, however, a second attempt was made when Captain Bnrney, a lirother of Fanny Burney the novelist, was received by King Phra Kang Klao, and a treaty of friendship and commerce was made betiveen Great Britain and Siam in that year, proAnding for the settlement of petty disputes, the mntnal surrender of criminals, defining spheres of influence in tlie Malay Peninsula and securing freedom of trade. This treaty vdiich, vdth the exception of that made ivith the Dutch in 1(304 a.d. and of one Avith tlie French at the end of the seventeeth century, Avas the first entered into Avith a Pnro])ean PoAver, AA'as followed in 1833 by another AAotli the United States of America, regulating the treatment of American citizens resorting to Siam. Both the English and American Eiia'o^’s suggested tlie pro])riet.y of estalilisli- ing Consuls in Siam but against this the King Avas obdurate. In 1828 A.D. a Siamese force invaded M"ieng Chan. The capital of that state, Avhich had been looted some forty years earlier on account of its Bnimese sympathies, AAus noAv found to be intrigiung again Avith the AATstern kingdom and trying to foment a general rising among the Lao, AAdierefore its entire destruction Avas resolved upon. The resistance offered to the Siamese arms aatis speedily oA^ercome. The Chief AA'as ca])tnred and. 204 SIAM after the city had been reduced to a heap of smoking ruins, was brought with a large number of prisoners to Bangkok, where he was exposed in^a cage to the taunts and insults of the populace until death terminated his sufferings. Wieng Chan did not recover from this blow. The state was broken up and the jungle has long overgrown the site of the ancient capital. About 1844 A.D. Kambodian i^olitics were again to the fore. Kambodia had shown no more alacrity in paying tribute to Annam than to Siam. Hence frequent commotions and continual fleeings of Kambodian notabilities to Siam to escape the Annamese ire. On one such occasion a child named Norodom, a son of the King, was brought to Bangkok where he was retained and educated at the Siamese court. Some years later, on the death of the king, this child, now grown almost to manhood was declared by Siam to be the rightful heir to the throne of Kambodia. He crossed the frontier with a Siamese army, gained possession of the country and, notwithstanding former arrange- ments, j)laced it once more under Siamese protection. In 1851 A.D. King Phra Nang Klao died and Prince Cliao Fa Mongkut was invited l3y the people to take the crown which he should have inherited before. At the age of forty-seven therefore the Prince left his retirement and was crowned under the title of Somdet Phra Paramindr Maha Mongkut, his younger l^rother 1:>eing created Uparach or Wang Na. The new King had occu])ied the twenty-six years of his monastic seclusion not only in the contemplation of ‘ The Wheel of the Law ’ but also in studying the history and customs of his country, the English language, mechanics and other sciences then almost unknown in Siam, and also the manners and systems of government obtaining in the West. On his acces- HISTORY 205 sion therefore, he brought to bear upon the conduct of affairs, a vei\y unusual degree of education and enlightenment which, together with his naturally high intelligence and with that insight into the actual condition of his people which life as a mendicant monk had given him, soon resulted in numerous reforms all tending to increase the popular welfare. King ]\Iaha Mongkut did much to encourage the growth of intercourse with the outside world and it was during his reign - that the relations at present existing between Siam and the European nations were established. Both the British and the United States Governments had some time previously to his accession, come to the conclusion that the treaties of 1826 and 1833 A.D. were no longer sufficient guarantee for their growing interests in the trade of Siam. In 1850 a.d. England had sent Sir J. Brooke to Bangkok to negotiate a more elaborate treaty and about the same time the United States deputed Mr Ballestier to Siam Avith a similar object. King Phra Kang Klao hoAA'ever had received the envoys Avith scant courtesy and had declined to alter existing relations Avith either country. In 1855 A.D. the fourth year of the reign of Phra 51aha Mongkut, Sir John BoAvring arrived in Siam bearing full poAA'ers from the Queen to negotiate and, if ]A 0 ssible, to sign a neAV treaty betAAuen Siam and Great Britain. His reception aaus A^ery different from that accorded to Sir J. Brooke. Negotiations AA^ere begun Avithout delay and in less than a month after his arrival, during AA'hich short s]>ace of time he had coni])letely gained the personal friendship of tlie King, a treaty Avas executed AAdiich contained man}- A^ery important conditions and AAdiich, Ijy introducing the extra- territorial system Avas destined profoundly to affect the internal as aatU as the external affairs of the country. The treaty provided for the appointment 206 SIAM of a British Consul to reside in Bangkok and for the exercise by that Officer of civil and criminal jurisdiction over all British subjects in Siam. The said snbjects, thus made independent of the Siamese Government, and answerable for their actions to their consul alone, were given the right to buy or rent land within a belt of territory extending from four to about forty miles from the capital in all directions. Import and export duties and rates of land revenue were fixed and the rights of British merchants to travel and trade thronghont the length and breadth of the land were secured. The successful negotiation of the British Treaty drew the immediate attention of the other Powers. Similar arrangements were made with France and with the United States in the following year, with Denmark, and with the Hanseatic Towns in 1858 a.d., Portugal in 1859 A.D., Holland in 1860 a.d., Prussia in 1862 a.d., while Sir John Bowring was commissioned to sign treaties on behalf of Siam with Belgium, Italy, and Norway and Sweden in 1868 a.d. Thus King Maha Mongkut, who found on his accession a condition of sullen unfriendliness and suspicious reserve prevailing toAvards all foreigners, before he died had entered into amicable relations Avith most of the PoAA^ers, had throAvn his country open to foreign trade and intercourse, and had thereby definitely committed it to a policy of reform, at the same time laying the sure foundation of its present prosperity. In the year 1863 a.d., Norodom, AA'liom Siam had ])laced u])on the throne of Kambodia, made a treaty Avith the French, noAv masters of Annam, in AAffiich he accepted French protection, and, true to the traditions of Further India, at almost the same time entered into an exactly similar compact AAuth Siam. Thus both France and Siam found themselves severall}’' pledged to PALACE AT PETCIIABURI. Limestone hills in backs^roiind. . I J HISTORY 207 protect Kambodia against any possible enemy in retnrn for which each claimed the right to conduct all her foreign policy for her. The situation so created was absurd, and after fonr years of negotiation, the issue of which was awaited by King Norodom with composare, Siam admitted the superior rights of France as successor to the rulers of Annam, cancelled her Kambodian treaty of 1863 A.D., and finally abandoned all claim to suzerainty over that State. The reign of King Mafia Mongknt was almost barren of military incident. The embers of the ancient traditional fend with Burma still smouldered on the north-west frontier, and an occasional bootless raid into the Burmese Shan State of Keng Tung famied them into fitful flame. The arts of peace absorbed the attention of the King, the digging of canals, the con- struction of roads, ship-lmilding, and the introduction of printing, and the elements of education finding more favour in his eyes than the vicissitudes of war. His Xinlilic life was given up to improving the condition of his country, and his private leisure was chiefly passed in the study of foreign languages and in dilettante pursuits. His favonilte science, astronomy, was in fact the cause of his death, for an exxiedition to tlie heights of Sam Boi Yot on the east coast of tlie Gulf of Siam to observe an eclijise in 1868 a.d., gave him a chill from the effects of which he did not recover. His late Majesty Somdet Phra Paramindr Maha Chnlalonhorn, succeeded his father while still a minor, and for the first five years of his reign the country was under a regency. During that time the King was completing his education, begun by an English governess, by x)ersonal stud}- on the spot of the methods of government obtaining in Java and India. In 1873 A.D., he took u]) the reins of government and at once began a series of reforms which has continued, though 208 SIAM not without interruption, to the j^resent day, affecting in turn every institution of his country and vastly improv- ing the condition of his people. The abolition of slavery, the establishment of efficient Law Courts, radical changes in methods of revenue and rural administration, the spread of education, reform of the conditions of military service and the construction of railways and irrigation works are amongst the most notable changes of recent years. Improvements in communications and the appointment of trained officials under organised control in place of former ignorant provincial Governors and Chieftains of diverse races and clans, have welded the once loose agglomeration of doubtfully loyal feudatories into a nation of a homo- geneity be^'ond the dreams of any former ruler of Siam. The way of reform was, however, set thick with obstructions, and vast were the labour and patience entailed in the gradual removal thereof. The upper classes who profited b}^ misrule and corruption, did not see their ancient privileges slipping from them without strenuous, if secret, opposition, while for several years the work of reform was seriously interrupted by the action of the French, whose aggressive attitude at one time demanded the close attention of the King and his Ministers to the exclusion of all other matters. Shortly after the retirement of Siam from Kambodia in favour of France, the unofficial advocates of French colonial expansion began to adA^ance the theory that the Siamese ]u-ovinces east of the riA^er Mehkong having at one time formed part of Annam, should be restored to that kingdom, noAv a French Protectorate. This claim AA^as at first ridiculed in Bangkok and unsupported in Paris, l)ut as the desire for a Great Colonial Empire greAV in France, it gained adherents, the more so because an additional argument AA^as noAV put forAAm’d that the Mehkong, as one of the future trade arteries of south- HISTORY 209 \Yest China must at all costs he seized hy France. At length the French Government became convinced that it was really desirable to acquire the country east of the Llehkong and the ‘ incontestable rights of Annam ’ were therefore officially notified to the Siamese Govern- ment. The specious arguments of the French were, lioweA^er, quite mistaken. The territory in question, a part of the State of Wieng Chan, had fallen definitely into the hands of the Siamese as the result of the reduction of that State in 1824 a.d., and any Annamese rights could only have dated from before the conquest of the provinces by Wieng Chan. Moreover, it has now l^eeii clearly proved that the river Mehkong is useless as a means of communication with south-west China. Siam replied to French demands by suggesting that the eastern jirovinces should be regarded as neutral territory until the frontier could be properly delimited and this was agreed upon Avith the inevitable result that either side shortl^y began to accuse the other of violating the comjiact. Siam suggested arbitration AAdiich France declined, and in 1893 a.d., collisions occurred lietAA^en the troops of the rivals. The blood- shed Avhich naturally resulted, France called murder on the ])art of the Siamese. A fleet of French gunboats occupied the approaches to the i\Ienani, and the immediate eA^acuation of the debated territory, an indemnity, and other concessions AA^ere demanded and AA'ere ultimately secured by a humiliating treaty dictated to, and perforce accepted liy the Siamese Government at Bangkok. To ensure the carrying out of the provisions of this treaty, France established a military occupation of Cdiantaburi in the south-east of Siam Avhich, lioAA^eA^er, continued long after all Siamese obligations had been fulfilled. Even iioav Siam aaus not alloAved to return to her interrupted lalxuirs of reform. The relations betAA'een the tAATA countries AA'ere thoroughly 0 210 SIAM bad, and gave rise to difficulties in tlie exercise of French extra-territorial rights which continually threatened further complications and in the multi- plication of which Siam beheld a grave menace to her national existence. Her whole energies were required to prevent the occurrence of unfortunate incidents, but notwithstanding her efforts, diplomatic representations and demands for inquiry, for explanations and for reparation, accumulated until her case appeared almost desperate. Now, however, Great Britain, jealous of the approach of France towards the eastern borders of her Indian Empire, intervened and after lengthy negotiation concluded an agreement with France in 1896 a.d., guaranteeing the autonomy of Siam, and thus removing the fear of imminent annihilation. Thereupon Siam was free to prosecute her reforms, and the last twelve years have witnessed the great strides by which the country has advanced to a high level of civilisation. With the clearing of the political atmosphere relations with France soon began to improve. In 1897 a.d. King Chulalonkorn spent seven months travelling in Europe and during the course of the tour Avas AA^ell received in Paris. In 1899 a.d. a mission Avas sent to Saigon, the capital of Erench Indo-China, in return for AAdiich compliment the Governor-General of the colony visited Bangkok A\diere he Avas royally entertained. Thereafter negotiations AA^ere opened Avith a vieAv to the removal of all difficulties tending to ]AreA^ent the estal^lishment of permanent good relations, and these, after one or tAA*o abortive efforts, led to a treaty AAdiich aaus signed in 1904, by virtue of AAdiich Siam, in return for certain territorial concessions, obtained a mitigation of many of the AA'orst evils of extra-territoriality and the AAdthdraAAul of the Erench garrison from Chantaburi. Since then relations Avith Fnince liaA^e continued to inipiwe and in 1907 a further agreement AA-as negotiated, Siam restoring to HISTORY 211 Kambodia the province of Plira Tabong (Battambong) annexed in 1809, receiving back a part of the territory surrendered in 1904, and, a matter of far greater importance than these exchanges of territory, obtaining a recognition of Siamese jurisdiction over Asiatic French subjects. This last, as a tribute from a once bitterly hostile critic, to the value of recent Siamese reforms and as a lightening of the burden of extra-territoriality, noAv becoming intolerable, is an achievement of which Siam has every reason to be proud, but it cannot be forgotten that since the appearance of France upon her frontier she has been shorn of her eastern territory to the extent of some 90,000 scpiare miles. The tril)esmen of mixed Mon-Annam and Negrito stock, who inhabited the Malay Peninsula in early times, were j^i’obably regarded by the ancient Ivambodians as forming a part of their eni])ire. Later on as dependents of Ligor the same would become, in some sort, the subjects of Sukliothai-Sawankalok. There are indica- tions in Malay history that the enemy who confronted that first Malay invasion of the peninsula from the islands to the south, about lltHJ a.d., was raised amongst the surrounding inhabitants by the orders of a northern Poorer, somewhat indefinitely translated Siam, which seems to have lieen the term applied 1)}^ the Malays to the people of Siam even before these latter became ‘ Thai.’ The rise of jfalacca and the subsequent int]-o- duction of Mohamedanism early enabled the southern parts of the pen insula to establish a ]:)ractical independence and as Mohamedan settlements were gradually effected along the coasts and u]) the main rivers of the peninsula the power of Siam was weakened and broken through- out. Thus, when early in the 19th centiiiy the British, following in the footsteps of Malays, Portuguese and Dutch, set foot on the soil of the Malay Peninsula, Siam held the north, claimed the middle and had finally 212 SIAM relinquished the south hut had uo definite frontier. Subsequent extension of British influence removed the last traces of Siamese authority in some of the middle Malay States, but still no properly defined frontier existed until 1898, when a line was agreed upon which definitely separated the Siamese States from those in which British influence was paramount. Finally, in 1907, Siam, with a view to obtaining a modification of the extra-territorial rights of British subjects within her borders, opened negotiations with Great Britain, offering as her part of the bargain, to withdraw her southern frontier still further northward and to surrender to British protection her three largest Malay De- pendencies, comprising an area of about 15,000 square miles and a population not far short of one million. Xegotiations continued for almost two years, at the end of which period a treat}" was signed and ratified (15th Jul}q 1909), by virtue of which, in return for the above territory, Great Britain abolished her Courts in Siam and placed both her European and Asiatic subjects, with certain safeguards for their just treat- ment, under the laws of Siam and the jurisdiction of the Siamese Courts. Certain British claims to a right of interference with the government of the whole of Southern Siam, which had been maintained for some years, were also withdrawn and, in order that Siam may without loss of time develoji what remains to her of the Malay Peninsula, a loan of four million sterling was made to her by the Federal Government of the British Malay States, the total sum to be expended in rai I way construction. Criticism of the treaty was practically absent before it Avas ratified, though its general form was known at a comparatively early stage of the negotiations while its details were oflicially ])ublished a month before ratification. Afterwards, however, when too late to H.M. THE LATE KING OF SE\^^ vf: -v. HISTORY 213 serve any useful purpose, partizans of both sides appeared and explained at some length how each had got the worst of the bargain. Time alone, hoAvever, can fully prove the advantages and disadA^'antages of the measure but in the meanwhile it is at least eAudent that Siam has thereby gained a long step foiuvard toAvards that place in the ranks of the Avorld’s nations to AA-hich every right-feeling country must aspire. Thus. Avith this last treaty accomplished, the Middle Country stands Avell Avith both her European neigh- bours and, at a heavy cost in territory it is true, has obtained from them a tangible recognition of her advance toAATards good goA^ernment, in Avhich recognition they Avill doubtless at no distant dain be folio AA^ed by the other PoAA^ers. On the 23rd October, 1910, to the consternation and profound sorroAV of the AAdiole Siamese nation. His Majesty King Chulalongkorn died after a A^eiy lirief illness. Though his age aa^rs only 57 he had occujiied the throne for 42 years, during AAdiich period he led his people from an ensla\"ed and miserable condition to one of freedom and comparative enlightenment and guided his kingdom through many perils, to a position Avhere it has receiA^ed the recognition and encourage- ment of the Avorld. His Majesty displayed a devotion and a perseverance in the seiwice of his country sucli as haA’e ncA^er liefore been seen in the despotic ruler of an Oriental state, and it is probable that his constant anxiety for the public Avelfare shortened his life. At a meeting of the Council of Ministers, held immediately after his death, the Crown Prince H.R.II. ]\Iaha VajiraA'udh aatts proclaimed king, the absence of all opposition or demur to the late soA^ereign’s AA'islg proving the Avisdom of the Lrav of Succession of 1887. (See Appendix IV, p. 60'J.) 214 SIAM Social Organization His Majesty King Mongknt (1851-1868), thougli he passed a great part of his life in the celibacy of the monkhood, had a large family after he ascended to the throne. Of considerable intellectual attainments him- self, he devoted much thought to the education of his sons and though he died before any of them had fully grown to manhood, their instruction, continued under the auspices of their brother who succeeded to the throne, was thoroughly carried out, with the result that on reaching man’s estate many of them were well fitted to share in the duties of government, they being in fact the best educated family in the kingdom. Upon the education of the young Prince Chulalong- korn, destined to succeed him. King Maha Mongknt l)estowed especial care. At an early age he was pro- vided with an English governess to whose intelligent nse of her opportunities the Siamese people doubtless owe some part of the immense improvement in their condition brought about during the reign which has just ended. By this arrangement the Prince was secluded from such court influences as might have proved injurious in the formation of his character, with the result that when his royal father died and when, at the early age of fifteen years, lie was called upon to ascend the throne, he did so in the possession of a sound, if elementary, education and with a perception of the duties of his i)osition absolutely unique in the history of his country The years of his minority were passed by the young King in the pursuit of knowledge, in the consideration of the condition of his native land and of the methods of government obtaining in neighbouring countries. He visited Java where the, in many ways admirable, Dutch system of colonial administration was explained SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 215 to him in all its details and he went to Calcutta to study on the spot the working of that curious medley of straightforwardness and paradox, the government of British India. Shortly after his return from foreign travel he assumed the full responsibilities of govern- ment and inaugurated the series of reforms of which the end is not yet. In accordance with the usuage of his country, King Chulalongkorn was married very early in life and before he had reached the age of five and twenty, had a numerous family already growing up round him, a family which increased subsequently until it assumed its present proportions. His Majesty bestowed a care upon the education of his children even greater than his father had done. Tutors and governesses, both Siamese and English, w^ere engaged for them while they were very young and the princes as they grew older were sent to school in Europe. At first they all went to England but latterly some were sent to Germany, Russia, and other countries. In England they usually started at a public school and from there went on either to one of the universities or to some technical in- stitution where they coidd receive instruction in the particular subject selected for each one as his speciality. Guided by a little pamphlet of warning and counsel written by the King, a model of what a father’s advice to his sons should be, the princes nearly all did extraordinarily well. Law, engineering, agri- culture are some of the subjects in which they have specialised while several of them, after passing success- ful examinations, entered the British, German and Danish armies and the British navy and haA^e thus gained experience in the different branches of the profession of arms. Many of them neAV occupy high positions in the gOA^ernment services. In the year 1887 a very ancient laAv AA^as resuscitated 216 SIAM which provided for the appointment of an heir-apparent to the throne, or Crown Prince, by each sovereign during his reign and thus fixed the succession which bad for some centuries been a matter of mucli ambiguity and a perennial source of danger to the public tranquillity. The first prince to occupy this exalted position unfortunately died in 1895, and was succeeded by a half-brother, now His Majesty Mafia Vajiravudh, at that time a boy pursuing his education in England, who returned to Siam in 1902. From that time onward he filled the role of Second Personage in the State, until the much-lamented death of his father called him to assume the dignities and grave responsibilities of the throne. There are many sa^dngs current amongst foreigners illustrative of the large number of princes in Siam and the royal family is certainly a very large one. The title ‘ Prince,’ applying collectively to all its members, has no parallel in Siamese except perhaps in the term Chao Nai meaning ‘ Chief,’ and only employed to express colloquially a ‘Royalty.’ The titles of the individuals are many, and by them the actual rank of the holders is at once distinguishable. The sons and daughters of the king and of the queens are born with the title Somdet Chao Fa while those of the king and of ladies who are not queens are Phra Ong Chao. The children of Chao Fa and Phi^a OngChao are Mom Chao, their children being Mom Raeha Wongs, the next generation Mom Luang and the next are without title of any sort. Princes of the rank of Chao Fa and Phra Ong Chao, on attaining manhood may be given official rank as Krom Phaya, From Phra, From Luang, From Fhun and From Mun, of which the first is the highest. Formerly there was very seldom a holder of the titles From Phaya and From Phra, while ol the other three there were not more than four of each in existence at SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 217 one time, the twelve princes so distinguished, and no others occupying official positions in the king’s service. Now, however, things are different, there being at present two Krom Phaya, four Krom Pliva, seven Krom Luang, eight Krom Khun, twelve Krom Mun and only four Plira Ong Chao, the junior sons of the late king, who hold no other title, while moreover many other members of the roj^al family occupy positions under Government in the military and civil services which by reason of their superior education, they usually fill with distinction and success. Those who are born Mom Chao do not as a rule receive any other title but very occasionally an individual from among these may be created Plira Ong Chao. The lower grades hardly count as royalties and frecjuently dro]> their titles or exchange them for those attached to ordinary official positions usually filled by persons who are not royal. By far the most important factor in the social organisation of Siam is the absolutism of the monarchy, an absolutism which, though outwardly modified by the constitution decreed in 1874, and veiled behind that consideration for his subjects Avhich is His Majesty’s chief concern as it was always that of his father, is as complete in spirit to-day as it was at the darkest period of tyrannical oppression which the nation has eA^er endured. The monarchy demands noAV, as it has always done, the most complete submission of the entire people not only to every decree issued by the king but in theory to his lightest Avhim or caprice, and the hereditary instincts of the race prompt it to render such obedience without question and even without resentment, no matter what sufferings such obedience may entail. This state of affairs don btless had its origin in the fact that the kings of the remote j)ast found their greatest safety in exciting the fears of their 218 SIAM subjects, any show of more gentle methods being almost invariably taken for a sign of weakness and as a signal for unrest and rebellion. Writing of Siam at the end of the 17th century de la Loubere cites instances of the extraordinary cruelties practised by the king for the sole purpose of instilling fear into the hearts of his people, and mentions also the incapacity of the people themselves to imagine a stable government based upon any other foundation. It is only natural that out of this habit of fear and obedience so carefully fostered, a profound national reverence for all authority should have grown up, and that, although in the actual presence of the sovereign all persons were equally of no account, a many- graded social organisation should have been evolved. There was no such thing as an liereditaiy nobility in the land, even the descendants of Majesty becoming merged in the people at the fifth generation, but those a]:>out the Court and officials of the Government, from the highest to the lowest grades, held titles by virtue of their offices and constituted a sort of aristocracy, Irom which, however, the}^ could at any moment be expelled at the royal pleasure. Any person could aspire to the highest official dignity but it was usual for the sons of those who had held high rank to be selected for preferment. TJie members of this society, while tendering the utmost respect and obedience to those above them, exacted an equal consideration from all those below, and there thus existed a sort of social j)yramid round the base of which knelt a submissive populace while upon its slippery sides a throng of anxious courtiers precariously maintained itself, each individual engaged in rendering homage to those above him and to the king at the apex of all. The entire nation including the official nobility and the lower orders was divided into two parts, the SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 219 leaders and high officials of Avhich occupied places at court on the right or left of the throne respectii^ely. One section included all the military forces and the other all the civilian officers and their dependents. There was also a queen of the riglit and a queen of the left. Those who occupied the right side of the audience chamber, to the left of the king seated opposite them, Avere called Officials of the Right. The others Avere called the Officials of the Left. The right Avas considered the more honourable side and where persons of equal rank AA^ere concerned those of the right took precedence. The highest persons after the princes Avere the Gliief Ministers of the right and left. In close attend- ance on the king AA'ere the members of the corps of Royal Pages or Mahatlek, recuited from the families of the high officials and usually marked out for preferment unless they should proA^e uiiAvorthy. The numerous functions of the court Avere attended by croAvds of titled officials of all grades but, apart from these occasions, there aa^s little social intercourse amongst them since a social disposition and any reputation for the cultiAmtion of a Avide circle of friends, infallibly brought upon the person so inclined, the jealousy and dislike of the king. A noticeable trait of character AA^as the merciless snubbing and ostracising by the Avhole community of any indiAudual so unfor- tunate as to incur the sovereign’s displeasure. By very ancient custom, once common to all Further India and to parts of India and Cdiina also, not only Avas all land in the kingdom the actual property of the croAAUi but every human being liAong Avithin the frontiers of the state Avas considered a mere chattel of the king Avho had absolute right to dispose of his person, his property or his life as might seem best to him. Long ago, AAdien communities Avere 220 SIAM small, the ruler exercised his right by demanding personal service from each man for a certain part of each year. Later when the small independent clans grew and became united into settled kingdoms, various modifications were introduced for the exploiting of this great reserve of labour to the better advantage and profit of the crown, and in Siam such modifications took the form of a complicated division of the people into Lek or departments of the public service. A considerable part of the nation was comprised in the Lek Sui, the members of which were exempted from actual personal service but were obliged to con- tribute a part of the produce of their private labour for the support of royalty, such contribution taking the form of timber, lime, woodoil, beeswax, eaglewood, resin, as w^ell as rice, pepper, and all kinds of agricultural produce which, at the time when the Sovereign mono- polised the export trade of the country, was stored in great warehouses pending sale to foreign traders or export in the king’s ships. The wealthier members of the Lek Siii could howe’^^er substitute money for produce and as time passed and the trading monopolies came to 1)6 farmed out this form of payment became ver}- general. The majority of the x)eoi)le, however, belonged to the division from which actual service or corvee labour was required, the division which had originally included the whole adult male x)ox)ulation. These were called Prai, a word which has probably the same origin as ‘ Paik ’ by which, according to Dr Grierson, the Ahoms of Assam, a brancli of the Lao-Tai and therefore relations of the Siamese, designated the individuals forming the rank and file of their corvee system, which veiy closely resembled tliat of Siam. The sons of Prai were them- selves Prai and the force was further recuited by the addition of war captives, criminals from the other Lek and the slaves and servants of deceased princes and SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 221 nobles, who all became Prai on the death of their master. From the Prai the standing army, the Palace Guards, the sailors of the Royal Favy and menials of other public services were drawn, while it also supplied labour for all manner of public works. The fee payable l3y Prai for exemption from service was 17 ticals per ,year and as few of tlie people could pay this sum there were usually many more workmen available than the king had aii}’ use for. The Prai were collected in parties or Wen at different centres all over the country where, under the sup»ervision of an official, they were put to such work as could be devised in the interests of the state. It is almost needless to sa}^ that their labours were, howcA^er, more commonly in the interests of their supervisors. The Prai Avere exempted from the pay- ment of ordinary revenue up to a limit of 6 ticals. No esca]ie from the condition of Prai Avas possible, the status being hereditary. In time of Avar all Lek, AAdiether Prai or Sui Avere liable for military seiwice. A great many further modifications AA^ere by degrees Inmight to affect this system. Thus large numbers of people AA'ere allotted to the different nieml^ers of the royal family and to the high officers of state, the reci])ient undertaking to be responsible to the king for ])ayments made by them and, in the case of Pr-ai, for their Avork, an arrangement AAdiich naturally led to much confusion. Exemptions, jiartial or complete, from liabilities to the king AA^ere also alloAved to the Prai and Siii of many of the princes and officials, another custom which conduced to many irregularities. No machinery existed for the effectiA’e control of the system, the officials entrusted Avith its management Avere paid only a small retaining fee and consequently deriA^ed the greater part of their income from the diversion of the labour or money of the people to their oAvn ])rivate uses and thus, Avhile the country continued to suffer all the incoiiA^eniences and 222 SIAM hardships of the system, the benefit accruing to the Crown therefrom grew continually less. It was cus- tomary to tatoo the arms of all Prai and Sui as soon as the individuals were old enough to render service and each Lek had its own peculiar mark by which its members were distinguishable. Aii}^ youth found with- out a mark could be forced to become Prai, no matter what Lek his father belonged to, unless he were specially exempted. All holders of official positions, with their families were exempt from Lek. At the very bottom of the social system stood the slaves, consisting of such war captives as were given aAvay by the king instead of being made ordinary Prai ; of those who, as children, had been sold out and out by their parents, a fairly numerous class ; and of debt slaves or persons who had pawned themselves and perhaps also their families for the loan of a sum of money down. The first two were l^ound for ever, the}^ and their children, but debt slaves could obtain release on repayment of the sum advanced. For permanent slaves there was a fixed tariff of prices at which they could l^e sold at any time and debt slaves could always be transferred to aii}^ person willing to pay the price for which they had beeu jiiawned. The owners of debt slaves who also belonged to the Prai or Sui, were responsible to the Crown for the labour or money due from them. The condition of slavery was not hard ])rovided the slaves were fairly tractable and did not try to run away. They were rarely sold without their own consent and the young slave children, brought u]) in the family to Avhich they belonged, were usually treated Avith much the same consideration as was the lot of the free children of the household. Moreover if a debt sla\^e Avere unhaj)])y he could transfer himself to another master by prevailing upon the latter to pa^;' the sum in Avliich he stood indebted. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 223 Such was the organisation of society in Siam when King Chiilalonkorn took up the reins of government, an organisation which in spite of the efforts and con- stantly expressed desires of his predecessor, perpetuated many of the most obnoxious customs of the immemorial East, and which it was now evident must either undergo early and far-reaching alteration or bring the whole national edifice to ruin. The young King, bearing in mind the wishes and the precepts of his father, deter- mined to effect the necessary changes, but he also realised that the most powerful of his subjects were strongly interested in the jireservation of the old order, by which they benefitted, greatly at the expense of the lower classes, and that any sudden and drastic change must infallibly alienate from him all those whose co- operation would be alisolutely necessary if he was to accomplish anything towards the regeneration of his country. He was further aware that amongst the women of the princely and official classes there existed an intensely conservative spirit which would watch with jealousy and op])Ose to the utmost, any interference , ivith the privileges to which they considered themselves entitled. Wliile, therefore, the alisolute necessit}^ for action was plain, he felt that it Avas also necessary to moA^e A\dth much circumspection, the more so as he had no inten- tion of ruling his kingdom liy the old method of fear-inspiring tyranny l^ut had early determined that his reign should be marked by the groAvth of an affection and a A^oluntary feeling of loyalty toAAnrds the sovereign, Avhicli had hitherto found little or no j)lace in the domestic politics of the state. Some years Avere required to persuade the small grou]) of more intelligent men Avho stood near the tlirone and on Avhoin he must rely for assistance in carrying out his Avishes, that AvhateA^er reforms might be undertaken it AA'as no ]>art 224 SIAM of His Majesty’s j)olicy to cause a wholesale introductiou of western customs but that his ambition was to endow his people with such enlightenment as should prove conducive to their welfare while at the same time preserving all Siamese customs which were not incom- patible with improvement in social conditions. It may here be said that His late Majesty showed all through his reign, and long ago convinced his people of the fact, that he was passionately attached to the traditions of his country, that his desire was only to adopt such foreign customs as might contribute to the happiness and material welfare of his people and that the very last thing he desired was to see the nation divest itself of its ideals in favour of that veneer of so-called civilisation which has upset the national equilibrium and subverted the morals of more than one Eastern race. The first step in the direction of social reorganisation was a decree modifying the ancient slavery laws and providing that children of enslaved parents should, under certain circumstances, be free. When the shock which this move caused to the privileged classes had subsided, it Avas folloAA^ed by another laAV prohibiting the sale of children, restricting the making of debt slaves, and other decrees affecting this matter aj^peared at intervals all through the reign until finally, in 1905, it A\ns ordered that all children AAuthout exception born of enslaved parents should l^e free, that no person could under any circumstances become a slave in future and that the price of all debt-slaves should be reduced auto- matically by 4 ticals per month until it should be all Avorked off, Avhen the slaA^e should be free. Meamvliile the Lek received attention and although any amelioration of the condition of Prai and Sui struck hard at the priAuleges of the most influential class, Avarious slight innoAaitions AA’-ere made tending to lighten the corvee incubus and to restore to the king and the gOA^ernment SOCIAL ORGANISATION 225 the control of the great nnmbers of Prai and Sui who had been qnietly absorbed by private individuals. At length in 1897, the price of exemption from service for Prai was reduced from 17 ticals a year to six ticals, the amount payable by Sui and this was followed by the exemption of all Lek from service with the exception of those required for the military departments, and by the institution of a poll-tax, still, however, called ka racka kan or ‘ the Price of tlie Royal Work,’ varying from two ticals j)er head in the poorest districts to six ticals per head in the most prosperous. Finally a military law was passed which did away with the military corvee and rendered military service incumbent on the whole manhood of the nation. A far-reaching social reform was effected when it was decreed that bodily prostration in the presence of the Sovereign, always hitherto absolutely insisted upon, no matter what the rank of the subject, was no longer to be practised. With this decree disappeared in a great measure the physical exhibition of profound submission which every person of any position demanded from all those below him in social status, an exhibition which had aroused the contempt of foreigners and which was certainly incompatil3le with the aspiration of the Siamese to the a])pellation of ‘ The Free.’ A great impetus to social intercourse resulted from this change of manners, for the abandonment of the j)hysical attitude of humility, (any neglect of which by an inferior towards a superior liad formerly been considered rudeness and presumption) by enabling persons of slightly different rank to meet on a more or less equal footing, naturally led to an easier interchange of ideas and sentiments, though superiority of position continues to be fully recognised in the forms of speech and in other little ways. The distrust resulting from continual fear of intrigue which caused former rulers to look askance upon any 226 SIAM development of social intercourse, lias long since dis- apjieared and the men of the upper classes now pass much of their leisure in social gatherings and at clubs where the free discussion of all subjects is permitted. At the present day the court is still, however, the centre of social life and any person of high standing who may have forfeited the privilege of appearing at the official, religious, or social court functions which are now very numerous, probably soon finds himself without friends. The Corps of Royal Pages, an extremely well-organised institution, is still regarded as the royal road to advanc- ment. After many changes the tradition of the right and left services survives in the actual positions occupied by the high officials in the throne-room, and in a few of the titles of those whose duties keep them immediately about the person of Royalty, but elsewhere the distinction has lost its originally high importance.* Several orders have been instituted by the kings Maha Mongkut, and Maha Chulalongkorn as marks of distinction and rewards for faithful and diligent service to the Crown. The oldest of these is the Most Ancient Order of the Nine Gems, first conferred by King Maha Mongkut in 1851 a.d. and restricted by its Statutes to persons of the Buddhist religion. The next was the Most Exalted Order of the AA^hite Elephant, founded in 1861 and consisting of five classes, subsequently extended by statute to a special liighest degree, conferred only on persons of royal descent, and seven classes, the insignia Ijeing a star and badge with a white elephant on a ground of dark red enamel, red riband for the first class and red with green and yellow edging for the others. The first order instituted by King (fiiulalongkorn was the Most Honourable Order of the (fi’own of Siam, founded in 1861), the year after the death of King Maha * For a description of the ‘ Wild Tiger Scouts’ Corps,’ founded hy His Majesty the King in PJll, see Appendix IV, p. 609. SOCIAL ORGANISATION 227 Mongkiit. This contained five classes, afterwards ex- tended l3y statute to seven. The star and badge of the insignia contain a Siamese crown on a ground of dark blue enamel, the riband of the first class is blue and that of the others is blue with red and green edging. At the end of the king’s minority, in 1873, the Most Noble Order of Chula Chom Klao was founded. The star of this order contains His late Majesty’s initials and the badge his effigy enamelled in natural colours, on a pink ground ; the riband is rose colour. The order, which has three classes, is restricted to Siamese of noble family, but foreigners of royal or noble birth may be enrolled as honorary members. There is a branch of the order in four classes reserved for Siamese ladies of high station. The Order of Chula Chom Ivlao takes precedence of the Orders of the White Elephant and the Crown. The third Order of His Majesty King Chulalongkorn is the Most Illustrious Order of the House of Chakkri which was instituted in the year 1882 and takes precedence of all the others. It consists of one class only and is restricted to princes and princesses of the royal family of Siam, foreign sovereigns and princes being admissible as honorary members. The riband of the order is yellow. All the orders are highly honoured and much prized. The whole of the insignia are to be seen in the ceiling decorations of the royal tein])le of Wat Tepsurindr in Bangkok. The White Elejihant and the Crown are the orders usually conferred on Eurojieans. There are signs that one of the features of the new reign will be a change in the position of women of the higher class. Whilst the ^voinen of the lower orders have always enjoyed absolute freedom, appearing in public at all times and ])articipating with the men in all the business and pleasures of life, the ladies of the upper class Avere formerly kept considerably in the background, appearing seldom at private social gather- 228 SIAM ings of any but the most intimate kind and never on any account at public or official functions. The fact that His Majesty the late King maintained a very large female household may have had something to do with the restriction of the liberty of the upper class women, but whatever the cause may have been it has apparently ceased to operate. Her Majesty the Queen Mother, the King being unmarried, is tlie first lady in the state and she is evidently in favour of greater freedom. Since her widowhood she has travelled far and wide, both abroad and in her own country, and it is reported that she contemplates a tour of Europe. At the functions connected with the recent coronation Siamese ladies were to be seen everywhere, in the stalls of the royal theatre, at the various ministerial receptions and dancing at the state ball. It is probable that this movement, if persisted in, will result in the practical disappearance of polygamy from Siam and in any case, by widening the outlook and improving the education of the women it cannot fail to have considerable effect on the social and material welfare of the coimtry. But although a great deal has been accomplished in the way of reorganisation, and the condition of the Siamese as a nation has very much improved, more especially during the last fifteen years or so, it must not be thought that the regeneration is an accomplished fact and that the people are now all at once freed from the incubus of ugly social customs which have weighed upon them for so many generations. To decree a change in habits and mannei* of thought and to bring that same decree into universal acceptance and practice are two very different things. Prejudice and privilege have fought against every step, and have found many ways, without open conflict or flat disobedience, of ojjposing the royal will and of obstructing, if not altogether frustrating, its intentions. The ignorance SOCIAL ORGANISATION 229 of the lower orders causes them to realise hut slowly the advantages of freedom and the power which they have of asserting their newly-given right to the same, and hence, more especially in the remoter districts, many old abuses still continue. The leaven is working, however ; every year sees the increase of the band of supporters of social reform, and unless a severe reaction sets in, which there appears no reason to fear, the emancipation of the nation is now only a matter of time. Education The question of education is very closely interwoven with that of social reform. Indeed it may be said that the neglect of education in the past has proved one of the great obstacles to the improvement of social con- ditions, while the evils of those conditions have at the same time been the chief causes of the neglect of education. It is only within the last twenty years, however, that these facts have obtained partial recognition and that efforts have been made to supply the general public with opportunities for olitaining more than the most elementary instruction, and it has scarcely 3'Ct been realised that social changes have made it, to some extent, possible to obtain by learning that social advancement which was formerh' dependent upon interest or the merest luck. Ever since the estalilisliment of Buddhism in the country, a certain amount of instruction has been available to the ])uldic in the monasteries wliere the monks, while cultivating a knowledge of the Pali language, tlie Scri|)tures and other subjects, sometimes deep but seldom of much practical value, also taught the male population reading, writing and arithmetic in their most elementary forms. The foreign missionaries 230 SIAM were, liowever, the pioneers in Siam of education in the usual acceptation of the term hut the scope of their labours was much confined until the accession of King Maha Mongkut who, having himself acquired consider- able learning from the American Presbyterians, placed many facilities in their way and encouraged his people so far as he could without derogation of the national religion, to take advantage of the opportunities offered by these worthies. Secular schools were also established by private enterprise in Bangkok during that reign but the instruction imparted in them was very little less rudimentary than that given by the monks. It was about this time, also, that the practice of sending boys to foreign countries to be educated was instituted, with the object of securing for princes and youths of the higher class, an acc[uaintaiice with the outside world and a general education of a quality which could not be obtained anywhere in Siam. In time the number of boys thus sent abroad increased considerably and technical training was provided in addition to general education, by which it was hoped that specialists would be obtained, capable of managing various de]3artments of government and of imparting their knowledge to the youth of the country. The selection of students for foreign instruction was, however, lacking in system and it cannot be said that the scheme, as at first carried out, was successful, for though the youths proved themselves to the full as intelligent as the English l)oys with whom they came in contact, some of them acquired expensive and vicious tastes which proved their ruin on their return liome, while others failed from one cause or another to make any use of their special knowledge in after life. In the year 1801 II.R.II. Prince Damrong, whose name will be found intimately associated with almost every Siamese reform during the last quarter of a EDUCATION 231 centniy, was sent on a mission to Europe to study tlie question of edncation and, on liis retnrn, a Government Department of Edncation was inaugurated wliicli a little later became the Ministry of Public Instruction. An English gentleman then acting as tutor to the Crown Prince, and who has since achieved eminence in the educational world, was associated with Prince Damrong in this important work, and to their joint labours is to l)e attributed the scheme of national instruction which the Government is now engaged in carrying out and developing. The first object of the new scheme was the provision of a sound elementary or j^rimary edncation Avhich should be ])laced within the grasp of everybody in the country and which should serve as a foundation for secondary and higher courses. The absence of text books in the native language x^i’esented to Siam the same serious problem which had faced Japan in her early years of develojnnent and involved the necessity of adopting a European language and of teaching the same as a medium throngli which higher edncation might be acquired. Tradition and association clearly indicated English as the language best suited to perform this part and it \vas therefore arranged that the secondary education to be provided by the State should consist of two branches, one a course in Siamese l>y which youths could be equipped for the ordinary liusiness of life, and the other a five years’ course in English as a preliminary to the scientific study of some special subject. Further aims of the new Department were the provision of high class schools for the education of the children of the princes and nobility and the foundation of colleges for the training of teachers. Put although thus provided with an excellent scheme, the Department of Education languished during the first years of its existence. Other pressing needs of 232 SIAM the State demanded, and for a time absorbed, the energies of Prince Damrong, while his English coad- jutor left the service of the country, and it was not until rapid development of many branches of the administration revealed an extreme poverty in the matter of competent men required for every grade of the Public Service, that serious attention was once more directed to this most important question. Since then, however, the progress of the Department has been good. In Bangkok at first, and subsequently in the interior, many lower primary schools were opened, the majority of which, by a wise arrangement, were founded upon the old temple schools of the Buddhist system with the monks as teachers. A boarding school for the sons, and another for the daughters of the nobility, was inaugurated, each with a staff of qualified English teachers.* Primary and Secondary schools with mixed Siamese and English teachers were started in the Chpital and the training college, to which a second Avas subsequently added, became filled AAdtli students both cleric and lay. MeaiiAvhile the Medical schools were developed and enlarged and in course of time many other technical institutions such as the Law, Military, Civil Service, Engineering, Suiwe}^ and Agricultural schools were opened, though these last are not directly under the Department of Public Instruction. At the present time the LoAver Primary schools are * The former of these institutions, knoAvn as King’s College, proved a phenomenal success under the able direction of its talented Principal and for many years turned out a steady stream of well-educated, good-mannered youths, a credit alike to the college and to the country. Recently the institution has been re-modelled and transferred from the Ministry of Public In- struction to the Ministry of Justice and now, on a new site at some distance from Bangkok, with new Principal, new masters and new curriculum, it is setting forth to show whether or not it can produce results equal to those obtained in its un- reorganised days. >>< IXTF.KIOK OF A GOVFKX.MEXT SCHOOL. PItolo: Anfonio. J. A 4- \ 1 V 4 ■=S- (' ' ■ • 1 " t! i: -^‘i EDUCATION 233 giving instrnctioii to over 150,000 pupils, tlie Primary schools to some 8000, the special and secondary schools of Bangkok to over 1000, and the training colleges are turning out some thirty certified teachers a year all of whom are immediately absorbed in the secular and monastic Primary schools and in the Secondary schools. The Technical schools are doing good work and most of them have as many pupils as they can do with. The Civil Service school, a most excellent institution, the pupils of which are selected from amongst the most promising schoolboys of the upper and upper-middle classes, is creating an entirely new brand of official, by which the general administration work of the interior cannot but benefit very greatly. The Military schools, which are exceedingly poj)ular with the highest class, provide a training for young gentlemen who wish to enter the army and the navy and, though the military forces of Siam are not perhaps her most valuable asset, yet the discipline wliicli the schools inculcate in young men, who might otherwise be difficult to control, places them amongst the most healthy institutions of the country. The Medical, Law and other technical schools are all doing good work, and if their curricula are not high, the graduates of the schools are an immense im- provement on the apologies for doctors, lawyers and others of fifteen or twenty years ago, while the standard of efficiency rises steadily. The selection of students for foreign education is now determined principally by merit. Two scholarships worth £300 a year each for four years, provided by the royal liounty, are competed for annually by the scholars of the special schools, the conditions attaching to them being the study in Europe of any special subject for which the holder may have a preference, with the obligation of adhering to a settled programme and of subsec[uently placing his services at the disposal of the State. Many of the technical schools 234 SIAM also provide scliolarsliips with the object of enabling the best of their students to complete their education in Europe. Moreover the scholars who now go abroad are more carefully controlled than was formerly the case, so that the bad specimens who at one time brought the foreign-educated youth into disrespect are now of rare occurrence. The necessary work of school inspection has been much developed of late, a strong staff under skilled European suf)ervision having been organised and got into good working condition. Accustomed as they are to bearing their educational methods decried, it is gratifying to Englishmen, and perhaps also a little surprising, to know that after mature consideration his late Siamese Majesty de- liberately adopted those very same methods, and that practically all the foreigners whom he engaged to assist his government in this work of fundamental import- ance, were Englishmen who had gained their own education and experience in British schools and universities. While the government has been busy with its schemes of education, the Foreign Missioiis have no whit relaxed their educational efforts. Both the French Roman Catholics and the American Presl)yterians continue to devote themselces largel}^ to the work of teaching and now have well organised schools in all parts of the country. The College of the Assumption in Bangkok has over four hundred pupils from amongst whom the government still continues to draw many recruits for its various services. The American High School for boys is a well known institution, the great value of whicli is fully recognised by the nation. The schools of both denominations in the provinces show a steady increase, both in number and attendance and, were it not for religious difficulties, would doubtless long ago have been in receipt of regular grants-in-aid from the EDUCATION 235 government. Tlie American school at "Wang Lang in Bangkok, and the convents of the Holy Infant Jesns and the Assumption, were the pioneers of female education in Siam, the first of these being still the largest and most successful girls’ school in the country. Blit even more interesting than the schools themselves is the material upon which these Siamese educational reformers are busy, for upon the cjiiality of the raw material must depend in great measure the value of the finished article, no matter how excellent may be the machinery employed in the manufacture. At four o’clock on CA^ery ivorking afternoon the doors of the Bangkok schools are opened, and vfith shrill vdiistling and cat- calls, some thousands of small boys project thomseHes Auolently into the streets to the disorganisation of the traffic and to the profit of numerous sv^eetmeat sellers, who compress vdtliin the ensuing five minutes the business of their day. All the boys are dressed alike in straiv hats, Avhite linen coats, khaki knickerbockers, and black shoes and stockings. Each carries a satchel or strap filled Avith books, and each one impresses upon tlie obserA-er the fact that the schoolboy, AAdiatCA^er his outAA’ard complexion, is much the same all the AA'orld OA'er. The Siamese urchin appears intelligent, quick- Avitted, and independent, he is gifted Avith the cheerful and casual turn of mind found in his prototype in other countries, he accepts AAuth an equal mind the role for AAdiich he finds himself cast, and, judging by his grinning countenance, does not alloAA’ his destiny as a future regenerator of his country to Aveigli too heavily on his conscience. Of games he has almost none of his OAAUi, but inspired by his English masters, has taken readily to football and to athletics generally. In school he is amenable to discipline, docile, and quick to learn. His manners are naturalh’ good, and his respect for his teachers is great. On the Avhole, in fact, he is good 236 SIAM material and may be generally relied upon to repay tlie cost and tlie trouble of giving him a good education. In the later stages of his development, as a junior clerk in an office or as a student at one of the technical schools, the young Siamese of the middle and upper (dass presents many points of interest. Absolved from the wearing of school clothes, he now affects the national panung with smart, white coat, foreign hat and shoes and stockings or, if a cadet of the Civil Service or Military schools, a neat uniform with trousers. His fancy, which in this country turns very early to thoughts of love, is busy among the girls of his entourage and ideas of marriage are already in his head. His days are devoted to work, not perhaps too strenuous but still work, and his nights to merry-making. He belongs to some club and has his own set, with the members of which he talks endless shop. His sentiments are violently loyal and patriotic, he is inclined to boast of himself and his country and, though he will probabl}^ not say so in their presence, he feels himself very much the superior of all foreigners. Withal he is usually docile in the presence of his superioi’s, his affections are easily aroused, and when so he is a loyal and consistent friend. In considering the question of education in Siam, the fact should never be lost sight of that she is purely and simply an agricultural country, and that since her cultivable area is Avide enough to support by agriculture alone a population at least tliree times as great as that AAdiich she has at present, there is not the least like- lihood that the causes AAdiich have converted other nations from agricultural into industrial communities Avill arise Avithin her borders at any rate for a very long time to come. For this reason her principal endeavour should be to enable her peojile to enjoy peace, justice, and profit in the development of her great agricultural resources, and her Government has done wisely in V EDUCATTON 237 disregarding the scorn which has so frequently been levelled at her for failing to provide all her children with commercial and industrial education, and in devoting her chief educational efforts to the securing of these three great blessings. In a recent book on Siam an unwise person has remarked that the Siamese are distinctly a governing race. This is, of course, nonsense, since a governing race implies a race apt for the controlling of alien peoples, whilst b}^ their national characteristics the Siamese are precluded from the mastery of the first rudiments of this difficult science. Nevertheless, and this is perhaps what the author was trying to say, the efficient government of their own country is what chiefly concerns the Siamese now and in the immediate future, and it is therefore of subjects connected therewith that the higher branch of the national education very properly consists. Should the day ever unfortunately arise when, by stress of population or from other cause, the Siamese are driven from their bucolic pursuits into competition with industrial nations, the instruction and the knowledge will doubtless arrive together with the energy and other qualities, at present lacking, which are necessary to endurance and success under such adverse circumstances. Government It has already been said that the king of Siam possesses over his people and country a power of the most absolute description but tliat, while very particular regarding the full recognition of such power, Ilis i\rajesty tlie King very seldom actually wields it in person except in accordance with the constitutional arrangements which his father made for the conduct of the govern- ment of the country. In the time of the two Chief 238 SIAM Ministers and Conncillors of the right and left, a period which extended from about the middle of the 15th century a.d. down to a few years ago, the actual details of the administration, such as it was, were in the hands of the Sovereign himself, the ministers being no more than the messengers and mouth]3ieces of their master. Occasionally there arose a statesman or a general of such character as to become in a measure the adviser and the confidant of Majesty, and sometimes also the occupant of the throne was a voi faineant who allowed the reins of government to slip from his hands into those of his chief officers, often to his own undoing, but usually the power of the ministers was much circumscribed and they had very little voice indeed in the settling of matters, great or small, connected with the administration. In the reign of King Maha Mongkut, changes were made, with the intention of allowing power to the great officers of the state, but these were not productive of much good effect, and in the early years of the last reign it became evident that the needs of the country had altogether outgrown the old system and that a distribution of the work amongst I)ersons competent to administer and to advise, was absolutely necessary unless further progress and develop- ment were to be seriously hampered. In the year 1892, ten chief Dej)artments of State were created to take the place of the old military and civil right and left divisions, the Ministers in charge of which should form a Council wherein all matters of government should be debated. The departments were for Foreign Affairs, War, Interior, Finance, Royal Household, 9 ustice, Public Works, Public Instruction, Agriculture, and the Ministry of the Capital. The ministers are all of equal ollicial rank and the Sovereign presides at their meetings, acting as his own Prime Minister and reserving the right of veto. The Council GOVERNMENT 239 lias sat regularly evei’ since its inception and all the measures which have so much contributed to the recent conspicuous advance of the country in every direction, have been fully discussed by it before being allowed to become law. There is also a Legislative Council com- posed of a large number of the most influential men in the country by which all new laws of the State are finally considered before being made effective. Under tlie ministries thus formed, the various branches of the administration have been grouped, each with its own staff of officers presided over by a chief or director responsible to the minister who in turn is resi)onsible to the king. Many of these departments were, of course, already in existence in some form or other under the old arrangement, but all required and received con- siderable re-organisation and maii}^ new offices have, from time to time, l)een created to keep pace with increasing requirements. Under the old order an extensive and intricate system of official titles existed, by which the holders of various offices were graded and designated. Every office of any importance carried a title consisting of words,' usually of the classical Pali language, having more or less dire(*t reference to the office and to the official duties of the holder, pi-efixed to which words was one which denoted the rank attaching to the office. Such an official title on being assumed b}^ a man, became practically his name for lie was in future known by it alone, that whi(‘h he originally bore falling altogether into disuse and being very likely forgotten in time by all except his intimates. An officer once ap])ointed was never degraded except for the very worst offences and hence, nnlcss he were promoted, he retained his title to the end of his life. Ollicial incapacity or senility might cause his compulsory retirement from active work, but in such case he retained his title and nominally his 240 SIAM office, wliicli could not be filled until after his death. The higher officials were ranked in five main grades, Somdet Chao Phaya, Chao Phaya, Phaya, Phra and Luang with three special grades Chao Mun, Cha Mun and Cha for the officers of the Corps of Royal Pages. Further subdivisions of rank were distinguished by purely nominal rights over rice lands, called sahdi, which were attached to each appointment, and the amount of which varied from 400 (or from 300 in the case of the Corps of Royal Pages) up to 10,000 rai, a rai being the unit of land-measure and equal to two- fifths of an acre, while yet further subdivisions were indicated by the giving of insignia, such as a golden betel-box or a state palanquin as special marks of distinction. Below these grades were others Khim, Mim, Isiamnan and Pantanai, petty officials who received no patent of nobility with their appointments, and who frequently held their titles not from the king but from the chief of a province, their offices bearing the same relation to him, as did those of the high officers of state to the king. The re-organisation of the services was the signal for a ‘ general post ’ amongst the officials. Many ancient and time-honoured offices went into abeyance, while others which had hitherto had no place in the scheme of government now came into existence. So far as possible the old officials were fitted into the organised offices but many of the senior men, unable to adapt themselves to new ways, retired into private life, retaining only their titles and leaving to younger officers the task of dealing with the new-fangled notions of government, though the newcomers could not assume the official title belonging to the office during the lifetime of the former incumbent. Thus the old official order became confused, and though, as the elders died off, their titles were in most cases confered upon the actual holders of GOVERNMENT 241 office, yet the invention of new titles for new appoint- ments and the frequent promotions, transfers and, be it added, reductions and dismissals entailed by the new system made it impossible to adhere to an arrangement which depended entirely upon the inseparability of the man and his office. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs . — At the time when her machinery of government was reorganised, Siam was entering upon a new x'>hase in her relations with the outside world, the chief phenomena of which were a rapid increase in the number of foreigners resorting to the country for purposes of trade and the advance of the French towards the river Mehkong on her eastern borders. The former of these very naturally brought into prominence all questions re- lating to the treaty rights of foreign subjects, greatly to the increase of business between the re[)resentatives of Foreign Powers and the Government, wliile the latter presented Siam with a series of problems con- cerning foreign affairs wliich she had never before encountered and which, it could l)e seen, threatened her with national disaster unless considered with the utmost care and circumspection. Tims, the re-organised Ministry for Foreign Alfairs, which was placed under the guidance of H. R. II. Prince Dewawongse, a half- brother of his late Majesty, found itself early embarked on troubled waters and tliough tlie ]\Iinister had the assistance of a Belgian gentleman, an eminent inter- national lawyer and ex-Minister of State in his owui country as his adviser, it was, then and for some years to come, only with the greatest difliculty and many hair- breadth escapes that a clear course was steered. In dealing with the rapid advance of the French on the east and the determined claims to Siamese territoiy which were put forward I)y that lAwer, an unfortujiate policy was adopted, the Minister and his adviser Q 242 SIAM placing too miicli reliance on the undoubted legal rights of Siam in the matter and overlooking until almost too late the possibility of a disregard of right and a resort to sheer force by her opponent in order to secure the realisation of cherished schemes of colonial aggrandisement Though actual collisions occurred between the armed forces of the disputants, a state of war was avoided, probably owing to French uncertainty as to the attitude of England in the matter, but Siam lost territory and prestige and a situation of most unjdeasant tension was established in which the French apx'>eared determined to find, in the fancied ill-treatment of French subjects in Siam, a pretext for further aggression, while the energies of the Siamese Foreign Office were continually absorbed in refuting charges of neglect of treaty obligations brought against all departments of the administration. Subsecpient to the first tour of His Majesty King Chulalongkorn in Europe, dij^lomatic relations with the outside world were considerably extended, a Siamese legation was established at St Petersburg in addition to those at London, Paris, Berlin and Washington, and at the same time a Pussian representative was received at Bangkok, where he essayed for some time to influence tlie politics of the country but ultimately re- tired into the background. About this time also diplomatic relations were established with Japan, a Siamese representative being appointed to Tokyo and a Japanese legation established at Bangkok, an arrange- ment by which Siam has benefitted in more ways than one. The Belgian Adviser having retired to Europe after his policy liad been pursued for some ten years with bnt mediocre results. His Majesty’s Government found his successor in a Professor of law at the University of Harvard, a gentleman of long experience in the diplomatic service of the United States of America. GOVERNMENT 243 Tlie choice could not possil)ly have been more fortunate. The Adviser with singular insight discovered at once the weak points in the former policy and set himself to the task of correcting past errors and of repairing the damage which the state had suffered by them. The Foreign Representatives in Bangkok were not slow to perceive the change and with the assistance of the Adviser, H.R.H. the Minister was soon enabled to bring about more cordial relations with them than had ever existed before, the principal results of Avhich AA^ere a rapproachment Avith France and the settlement of all difficulties AAntli that nation, the unreseiwed recogni- tion of several laAvs affecting both natiA^es and foreign subjects, AAdiich Siam had long desired to introduce, but AAdiich for Amrious reasons had been opposed by the PoAvers, and the actiAm co-operation of the foreign Consuls in the enforcing of such laAvs. But the croAvning achieA^ement of the iieAv policy has been the reAusion of the treaties Avith England and AAdth France, liy AAdiich rcAdsion the subjects of those PoAvers have been brought under the jurisdiction of the laivs of Siam. To the great sorroAV of all AAdio kneAv him, the AdAuser died in the spring of 1908, leaAdng un- finished many of the schemes AAdiich had been brought foiward for the iniprovement of the GoAmrnment during the four and a half years that he had been in Siam ; schemes affecting not only the Department of Foreign Affairs but many other branches of the administration. Fortunately, hoAA'ever, his assistant, also a Harvard professor, Avho had accompanied him on his first coming to Siam and AAdio had been closely associated Avith him in his AA^ork there, took up the tasks AAdiich fell unfinished from his hands, and Avith the assistance of this gentleman the GoA-ernment continues to pursue the policy AAdiich has had for it so many beneficial results, 244 SIAM The Ministry of War . — Altliongli tlie inhabitants of Further India are not, . and ajopareiiFy never were, very remarkaljle for warlike qualities, they have from time immemorial been continnally engaged in war. The whole snb-continent is strewn with the remains of cities sacked and destroyed during struggles of supremacy between kingdom and kingdom, while of the existing towns there are few of more than the most modern growth, which have not at one time or another endured the jjains and jndvations of a siege. The art of war, as anciently practised by the Burmese, Siamese, Kambodians, Mens and other more or less allied families and races, was identical with all of them in detail, as well as in general principle. The chief points always dvept in view^ were, to attack only when in superior numbers, to advance, when in the face of the enemy, by a series of stockaded positions, to risk encounter in the open as seldom as ' possible and then only if a safe line of retreat were open, and to count time as if no object at all, but whenever possible to rely for ultimate victory u]3on moral dis- organisation wrought by long suspense in the ranks of the enemy, for the further promotion of which many devices were emx^loyed, such as the exliibition at a distance of an apxiarently overwhelming strength, incessant firing of guns, beating of gongs and the making of other fear-inspiring warlike noises. Whole armies frequently lay within hail of each other for days and weeks, contenting themselves with the interchange of taunts and scurrilous jests, while occasionally a camx^^^iigii would be decided by an encounter of chain j)ions, field in full view of both sides. So long as the issue remained at all doubtful, ruthless massacre of the general pox 3 ulation of an invaded territory was the rule, but when complete victory had been established, all but the most important persons, whether combatants GOVERNMENT 245 or non-combatants, were generally spared to be carried into captivit}^ Horril)le tortures Avere emplo3^ed in the moment of idctoiy but, except as the result of complete surjudse, massacres of combatants AA^ere seldom very extensiA^e, as an army, AAdien once disorganisation had set in, shoAAmd considerable agility in remoAung itself beyond the reach of tlie foe, Avliile, from fear of ambush, pursuit AA^as ahvays diffident and sIoax. Such details as discipline, ])aAy and commissariat had little or no place in the calculations of commanders. The troops AAutli Amry feAv exceptions consisted of raAv, ujitrained leAues summoned from the country districts or tahen by press-gangs ; a feAA^ AA^eapons Avere proAuded by the state but the majority of tlie soldiers liad to find their own arms AAdiich AA^ere consequently of Axarious kinds ; the prospect of loot afforded the only chance of pay, and the food consisted of AAdiat the men could forage for tliemselA^es in the country districts contiguous to the scene of operations. Armies consisted mainly of infantry, but in tlie AA^ars of the more poAA^erful nations, small bodies of caAxalry Avere used, AAdiile the commanders alAAmys AA’ent into battle mounted on elephants. Amongst the independent tribes beyond the frontier of Ihirma and Siam, AAaar according to these principles is still the faATiurite occupation of the months AAdiich folloAV tlie harvesting of the rice-crops, but in the more civilised communities of tlie south it has quite gone out of fashion. Tlie last military ex]:)edition undertaken by Siam under the old condition AA'as against the Shan State of Keng Tung in the reign of King iMaha Mongkut A small number of regular soldiers, that is, of troops maintained in jieace-time in addition to the irregular levies raised for AAmr, has ahvays formed part of the a]ipanage of Siamese Royalty, and as AA'as often the custom at the courts of other despots not we]\ assured of the loyalty of their oaaui people, this standing army. 246 SIAM or rather the best j)art of it, was sometimes composed of foreign mercenaries, the hody-gnard of the kings of Aynthia having been at one time composed of Malaj^s and other Mahommedans, at another of Japanese, and at yet another of Europeans, the last being, how- ever, an institution of very brief duration. Usually, however, the permanent forces of Siam were recruited from the captives taken in war and their descendants, and gradually it became a fixed rule that all such, and eventually all Malays, Mens and Annamese living in Siam, should be invariably told oif for service in the army and navy, each individual jiassing four months of every year on duty, during which period he received a wage just sufficient to provide him with the coarsest food. This form of corvee, to which some obloquy attached, was cordially detested by all those who were bound to it and when, in course of time, efforts were made to introduce the elements of discipline and some slight knowledge of military duty, it was found that the system was useless for purposes of training and that the men provided l)y it were sullen and unteach- able and without the smallest particle of military spirit. It was also found that the numbers so obtained were cpiite insufficient for anything but a skeleton force. The Government, however, persisted for many years in the attempt to make the old system suffice for modern requirements with, so far at least as the navy was concerned, some slight outside appearance of success. But on the few occasions when the fighting capacity of the forces was put to tlie test, the system broke down hopelessly and, after local disturbances, whicli occurred in 1902 in the east and north of the kingdom, had been with great difficulty put doAvn, it became abundantly evident that Avithout complete reorganisation and fundamental alteration of method, Siam could never aspire to the possession of military and naval forces THE SIAMESE ARMY. A MOUNTAIN GUN IN ACTION THE SIAMESE ARMY. THE KOKAT DIVISION AT MANCEUVKES. IPIioto : Lenz. GOVERNMENT 247 ever likely to be aiiytliiiig but a useless burden to her. The return home of several young princes who had received military education in Europe and who naturally burned with the desire to see the country possessed of a serviceable army and navy, ensured the serious consideration of the problem by the Government, with the result that in the year 1904 the ancient right of the Crown to the services of every able bodied man in the country for military purposes, was resuscitated by a Law of Conscription extending the liability for service in the army or navy during peace-time to all the adidt male inhabitants of the kingdom, subject to such exemptions as are usually granted under similar conditions elsewhere. This law, in which the country is considered as a number of military divisions, was at first brought into force in one division only and after a period of successful experiment, was extended until it now eml)races the greater part of tlie kingdom. The civil district authorities provide the military annually with lists of the youths who have reached eighteen years, the age for enlistment. From these the number of men re(juired is selected and the residue is drafted into the reserves, after further selections have been made for the police and gendarmerie services. The payment of rates and taxes above a certain sum carries exemption from liability to serve and at first many people endowed their sons with land and other property in order that the}^ might escape, but the practice is being discontinued as the fathers begin to perceive that a little military discipline for their sons is after all no Ijad tliijig, while to disjiossess themselves of their property in favour of a possibly thankless youth has its drawbacks. At the same time the i)ersonnel of the officers of both branches of the service has l)een entirely reorganised and thanks to the enthusiasm and devotion of Field i\larshal ll.R.lf. the Frince of Nakhon 248 SIAM Chai Sri, of General H.R.H. tlie Prince of Pliitsanulok, General H.R.H. Prince Kampengpetcli, all sons of the late King, and their assistants and to the influence of the cadet schools, has imjiroved very much during the last few years. Colonel Gerini, the well-known authority on Further Indian history, archeology and religion, was for many years ind entitled with all that was best and most useful in the reform and education of the Siamese army. Since his retirement a technical adviser and one or two medical officers are the only Europeans olliciall}" connected with the land forces. The army consists of ten regiments of cavalry, twenty batteries of mountain and field artillery, ten corps of engineers, twent.y regiments comprising sixty battalions of infantry, besides medical, transport, commissariat and other special service troops. It is grouped in territorial divisions, of which there are ten, with head- quarters at the principal town situated within the division. The total strength at present is about twenty tliousand of all ranks, exclusive of reserves, of which there are two, the first entailing two months’ service annually with the colours, and the second fifteen days.* The infantry is armed with a repeatiiig rifle of recent pattern, and a short bayonet, the cavalry carry a repeat- ing carbine and a sword, and the artillerymen are also armed with a carbine. Light mountain guns of seven centimetre calil^re are the onl}^ ordnance at present used by the artillery, these having been found suitable for the peculiar transport conditions which prevail. The arm}^ uniform consists of a grey tunic, and dark blue overalls with blue, red or yellow facings, and Avhen on service each man carries a kna[)sack, the contents of Avhich are rvell adapted to local requirements. Two years rvith the coloui's and * On a war footing the strength of the army rvonld amount to about 70,000 horse and foot with 120 guns. GOVERNMENT 249 subsequent enrolment in tlie first or second reserves are obligatory on all men enlisted. Each man serves in the military district of which he is a native, and arrangements exist wliereljy he obtains liberal leave during the ploughing and reaping seasons. He also receives partial exem])tion from taxation while in the army. The offices of the central stall are situated in a commodions l^nilding at Bangkok, and excellent barrack accommodation is supplied, both there and at all other places where troops are j)ermanently quartered. The nav}’ vns for many years under the control of Admiral de Bichelien, a Dane, vdio during long service in Siam rose to a position second only to that of the Minister of AVar himself. During his regime the shi])S of the fleet were mostly commanded hj officers of his own nationality, many of wliom remain, though the Admiral himself retired in 1003, since which year the naval department has been under the command of lI.R.H. Prince Chao Fa From Khun Kakhon Sawan, one of the late king’s sons, and half brother to His Majesty King Yajiravudh.* His Majesty’s 3 mcht, an armoured tvciii-screw steamer of cruiser type, of 3000 tons disjflacement, 2800 horse- power, 141 knots’ s])eed and carrying 10 guns, is the principal ship of the navy. Tliere are also six steel screw gunboats of from 500 to 700 tons displacement, 10 to 12 knots speed, mid armed with from 0 to 12 guns, the heaviest of vdiicli are 4'7 inch, and one t.b. destroyer, and three torpedo-boats, have recently been added to the fleet. Tiiere are also tAvo steam transports, seAmn armed despatch boats, and a fleet of fifty river- steamers and launches designed for seiwice in inland Avaters. Three forts near tlie mouth of the riAmr * A recentfv promulgated royal decree has raised the status of the Admiral in chief command of the na\*y to that of iMinister of State, so that the Marine noAv constitutes an eleventh Ministry. 250 SIAM Menam Cliao Pliaya are under the control of the navy, and at Bangkok is situated an arsenal and dockyard containing the Admiralty offices, barracks, a dockyard capable of accommodating the largest ship in the navy, slipways, sheerlegs, and workshops. The personnel of the navy includes besides the crews of the ships, two thousand marine infantry, who provide garrisons for the river forts. With the exception of occasional visits to the Straits Settlements and to Hongkong, the fleet is usually confined to home waters, Pnket on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, and Chantabnri on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Siam being the stations most frequently visited. There are those who consider that the geographical and political situation of Siam renders it improbable that such an army and navy as she may be able to create can ever be of much use to her, and that the material at her disposal is not the stuff from which good soldiers and sailors can be made, but tliere is no doubt that as a school of training and as a safeguard of internal l^eace and order, the maintenance of armed forces sufficient adequately to reinforce the gendarmerie and liolice, is not only desiral)le but absolutely necessary, whatever may be the nature and extent of their foreign political value, while the working of the new law as exemplified by the smart appearance and orderly behaviour of the 30,000 men concentrated in Bangkok for the review which was one of the most interesting functions of the coronation celebrations of 1911, considerably astonislied the sceptics and encourages the l^elief that, under good organisation, the Siamese peasant may be turned into a soldier fully equal to all pur[)oses for which he is likely to be required. Self-defence, the preservation of internal order, discipline (more especially amongst the officer class), and the dignity of the Crown, are all arguments GOVERNMENT 251 strongly urging the maintenance of serviceable warlike forces, and provided she can afford to do so, there appears no good reason why Siam should not place her army and navy on such a footing as may seem best to her. The question of funds is, however, a difficulty. There are many demands upon her purse, and irrigation, improvement of communications and other works tending to the development of her natural resources, are of the utmost immediate importance if her future welfare is to be assured. At present she is trying to finance both her economic and her military reforms at one and the same time, and there are signs of an inclination to starve the former for the benefit of tlie latter. But, as she lives up to the very outside edge of her income, she is, of course, aware that without further economic development there can be no increase of funds for military, or indeed for any other purposes ; and hence it is to l)e presumed that tliose most in favour of military progress will be amongst the last to grudge a pro- portionately heavy expenditure in the near future on public works of a remunerative nature. The Ministry for the Interior . — Under the old regime the interior of 8iam was divided into a large number of provinces or Mnang, the general administration of which was in the hands of the chief or Clmo Muang whose ofiice, subject to the will of the sovereign, was hereditaiu^ In theory the power of the cluef was circum- scribed, but in practice, more especially in the more distant provinces, they were subject to very slight control. In fact the authoilty of the king varied inversely with the distance from the capital, the chiefs of the nearest provinces being subjected to a certain amount of interference from the central Government while those of the districts furthest away or most difficult of access were almost independent. The Lao, Kambodian and Malay, as also several of the more 252 SIAM distant Siamese provinces, were in fact regarded, either in groups or singly, as dependencies rather than as integral parts of the kingdom, though their chiefs were of the same official status as those of the more important provinces nearer the capital. With the consolidation of power and extension of administration which began with the present dynasty, the powers of the Chao Miiang were gradually restricted but in many cases the influence of these officials and that of their families were so strong within the limits of their Miiang as to render early efforts at provincial administration of small practical value, and the Central Government con- tinued without much real control over the rural districts until the general development of trade, and the conse- quent oj)ening up of the country which marked the last quarter of the nineteenth century, revealed throughout the greater part of the interior, a disorderly, not to say chaotic state of affairs, not only inconsistent with oft- expressed intentions of good government, but constitut- ing an actual national danger, urgently demanding immediate attention. The necessily for developing the general revenues of the kingdom to keep pace with the increasing demands of an expanding administration, was also becoming acute at this time and furnished another pressing reason for reform in the rural districts. Thus, when the Ministry for the Interior was constituted, it became at onee the centre of a considerable activity. The new department, which assumed many of the duties and traditional x^owers, as well as the titles, of the old Civil Division of the Left, was naturally one of the most important liranches of the Government, a condition wliich was furtlier emphasized liy the apxiointment of H.U.IL Prince Damrong as its liead. This prince, than whom tlie CroAvn lias no more active sipiporter in all schemes for tlie advancement of the country and for the emancixiation of its jieople, had already made a study of GOVERNMENT 253 the question of provincial reform, and in 1889-90 had visited Burma and other neighhonring countries, the local conditions of which were somewhat similar to tliose of Siam, and had investigated the systems of administra- tion in force there. The first-fruits of these studies and immstigations appeared in 1894, when the old Muang or provinces were grouped togetlier to form a nnml)er of administrative divisions to which the name of Monton was applied, and in the appointment of a Resident High Commissioner to the charge of each, with authority over the Chao Muang and acting under the orders of the Minister. From that moment the re-organisation and regulation of the wide powers of the Chao Muang l^egan in earnest. The province Avas split np into a group of districts or Ampo, each under a district ofiicer or Nai Ampl), and hy an excellent law, which was j^assed in 1896, the Acdiole system aatis consolidated and completed hy the introduction of village government modelled to some extent upon that in force in Burma. The title of Chao Muang Avas altered to Pu Wa Rachakan Muang AAdiich may he translated ‘Governor,’ and Ihe semi- hereditary nature of the ofiice Avas abolished, except in the Northern Lao, the Ivamhodian and the Malay provinces, Avhere the hereditary ollice and the title of Chao AAms alloAved to continue. Tlie Avay of this far- reaching reform aauxs, hoAvever, neither easy nor rapid. To find men competent to fill the neAV positions Awas at first a matter of extreme difficulty. TJie selection of High Commissioners aavts not ahA^ays fortunate, and seAmral changes Avere necessary during the first years. In the appointment of governors and district officers the importance of local influence Avas fully recognised and Avherever possible the Chao Muang Avere retained in the first office AAdiile the officials aa4io had occupied the position of Kromakan, (a sort of Justice of the Peace), under them, AAmre usually selected for the second ; hut 254 SIAM * many of these country gentlemen were unwilling to surrender their former privileges and freedom from restraint, while others were quite incapable of perform- ing the duties now demanded of them, and these were consequently compelled to retire into private life in favour of more amenable and more able men. To meet the shortage of officers became for the time the chief object and anxiety of the Minister. Young men of good parentage and when possible, the sons of the old govern- ing families of the provinces who constituted in effect the real aristocracy of the country, were persuaded to enter into training for the service of the Interior and youths of no particular family but who had done well in the schools were eagerly snapped up for the same purpose. The office of the Ministry for the Interior became a forcing house for the production of officials, and racial distinctions were not allowed to stand in the Avay of any who entered it. Siamese, Chinese, Kambodians, Mon, Malays, all were alike passed through the mill, the best of the out-turn being drafted off to man the various departments of the Ministry. A serious difficulty was caused by the reluctance of the young men to consign themselves to permanent residence in the country districts. As almost the whole of the upper and middle classes resided in the capital, all the amenities of life were naturally concentrated there, and even the best provincial towns were singularly lacking in such pleasures and distractions as apjDealed to the Siamese temperament and habits. Moreover there existed an idea, firmly rooted in the customs of the past, that absence from Bangkok and the immediate precincts of the Court meant sure neglect and official oblivion, and that for a man of ambition to immure himself in the jungle was mere foolishness. Thus even when the men had been found, it was not always easy to ^^ersuade them to take up the appointments which offered, or to prevail GOVERNMENT 255 upon them to stay for any length of time at their distant posts, and it was not nntil the indncements offered hy good pay and prospects of ultimate promotion to rank and to a measure of power had been made very clear, nor nntil good houses had been provided at ont-stations, that this reluctance has recently been to some extent overcome. At jiresent the Civil Service of the Interior is in a healthy condition, and is largely recruited from the Civil Service College, Avhence the young men who pass out proceed to appointments as District Officers, from ^vhich position they may rise in the ordinary course of events to be governors with the further prospect of ultimately attaining to the rank of High Commissioner. Patronage, however, is by no means a thing of the past and appointments are still occasionally made lor reasons other than approved merit, some of which are anything but advantageous to the public service. But such errors are becoming fewer and as the properly trained officials, who are naturally all young men, acquire experience and become more nnmerons, tlieir claims to the more responsible posts will doubtless receive the fullest consideration. A matter of scarcely less importance than the organisa- tion of the general administration was the provision of an adequate police force. With the time-hononred custom of collusion between officials and professional criminals strong in the land, from which indeed many of the old chiefs derived considerable profit, it was scarcely to be expected that any genuine effort to suppress crime entirely, woidd be made by the country justices of the old regime, even at the urgent command of the king. But by creating a niono])oly of this form of industry the chiefs no doubt exercised a sort of check and restricted evil-doing to the ranks of their own dependents, for it was very noticeable that with the reorganisation of rural officialdom and the removal 256 SIAM of the chiefs or the curtailment of tlieir powers and authority, violent crime of every description increased to an alarming extent and very soon passed altogether beyond the control of the authorities. To meet this dilhculty tlie Minister for the Interior devised a scheme for the maintenance of a force of gendarmerie in each division which, while leaving the investigation of crime and prosecution of criminals in the hands of the Civil Ollicials, would 2)rovide the latter with a weapon by which their orders could ]je enforced and their authority made manifest in all parts of their jurisdiction. With a Danish military officer’s assistance, the nucleus of such a body was organised, the Minister, with the caution which marked all his reforms, restricting its action during the experimental stage to one DiAusion only, Avhere it could be carefully AAmtched and subjected to such alterations as circumstances might require. The great al^ility and extraordinary eiierg}^ and personal activity of the Danish Inspector-General from the first secured the success of the innovation and after a period of trial, the sphere of action of the force was gradually extended, until it now includes practically tlie Avhole of the country controlled by the Ministry for the Interior. MeaiiAvliile the gendarmerie force has groAvn to a contingent 8000 strong, Avith officers draAvn partly from the army and x)artly trained in the force, with a school for non-commissioned oflicers at Phrai)atiim a few miles out of Bangkok, and Avith a backing of fifteen or tAventy Danish officers, the \Adiole Avell armed and discixilined, adequately housed in barracks and out- stations all over the country and of an efficiency Avhich, though doubtless capable of further improvement, has enabled the authorities materially to check crime. In Northern Siam AAdiere a large proportion of the force is stationed, it Avas severely tested during the trouble AAutli the Shans in 1902 Avhen, though still very young, it GOVERNMENT 257 acquitted itself satisfactorily. In 1909 wlieii co-operat- ing witli tlie Frencli antliorities on the eastern frontier it successfully ‘ rviped the eye ’ of the French ‘ Tirailleurs Annamites/ a handful of ineii under the personal leader- ship of the Ins])ector-General capturing a gang of noted border cut-throats, which had eluded and harassed a strong French force for many months. In selecting the commander of tlie gendarmerie, who now holds the rank of Major-General, H.R.II. the Minister gave a notable instance of that acumen and judgment of character which have been such strong factors in the success of his administration and 'whicli have filled his depart- ment with men as earnest and of as high abilit}^ as are to be found in the country. The peninsular Division of Puket was the last to be brought under the Gendarmerie organisation. By reason of the necessit^y for controlling the Chinese mining population, this Division for man_y years possessed a Police force of its own and, in the days when the gendarmerie was still an experiment only, this Puket force was reorganised and made efficient b}^ an officer of the Burma Police. For some time therefore, it v:as considered unwise to interfere with the Police of this Division but the situation was something ol an anomaly and when the gendarmerie liad been well ]>roved elsewhere and found equal to the difficulties likely to be encountered at Puket, the old force was coiwerted and ])laced in line with that ol the other Divisions. The reorganisation of the revenues of the Interior presented many difficult prolilems, of whicli not tlie least was the ([uestion as to vrlietlier the Ministiw for the Interior or that of Finance should inaugurate and control the said reorganisation. Formerly the revenues were partly under the control of the Ministry of Agri- culture, which managed them exceedingly liadly, and partly under the Finance Department, which contentecl itself with leasing them wheneA^er possible to specidative ii 258 SIAM Chinamen and other capitalists, a course which com- bined much hardship to the people with no small loss to the Treasury and was clearly incompatible with sound administration. When the necessity for fiscal reform in the interior became most pressing, the Ministry of Agriculture was incapable of making the required effort at improvement while the Ministry of Finance was in possession neither of the requisite knowledge of local conditions nor of the means to acquire that knowledge, and hence, after much dis- cussion and some heartburnings. His Majesty confided this very important undertaking to the Minister for the Interior. Prince Damrong at once gave his attention to the matter and after a considerable time spent in making inquiries and gathering information from his rural officers, started an experimental Revenue Office in one of the Divisions, to work under the orders of the High Commissioner. Numerous experiments were tried here with the advice and under the superin- tendence of an English officer whose services had been lent by the Government of India to Siam. The upshot was that, after sufficient experience had been gained, a Revenue Dei)artment was organised, subordinate to the Ministry for the Interior, with its headquarters in Bangkok and with bram^li offices in every Division, Province and District within the jurisdiction of the Ministry, the whole under the general direction of the aforesaid English officer and with the intimate co-opera- tion of High Commissioners, GoA^ernors and District Officers. This Department has proved a signal success. One by one the difficult problems of fiscal reform have been taken up and solved ; the land, fisheries, capitation and otlier taxes have been regulated by new laws, and after ten years work the revenues accruing from the rural districts have been A^ery greatly increased, AAdiile the actual incidence of taxation upon the peoj^le is very little heavier than formerly, the improvement being GOVERNMENT 259 largely due to a better adjustment of the taxes and to a complete revolution in the manner of collection. The success of this department is a tribute to the teachable- ness of the Siamese. In the person of the Director the Prince has one of his most able assistants, who lias trained over three hundred officers forming the personnel of his department and has inspired them with a spirit of industry and enthusiasm which makes them a Yerj efficient and reliable body of men. The Royal Forest Department and the Department of Mines and Mineralogy, though in theory forming parts of the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture have for some years been attached to the Ministry for the Interior. Their organisation and the work which they are accomplishing in the countiy are described elsewhere in this book and all that is necessary to say here is that both have received, from the date of their inception, the earnest care of the Minister and his assistants, and that with the advice of English experts of approved ability and experience they have been built up into efficient and profitable sections of the Government Service, containing in their ranks a number of young Siamese trained in the best Forest and Mining schools and now acqidring experience in practical Avork AAdiich will in time fit them to undertake all the responsibilities of their special branches of the Government Service. In 1009 the Department of Mines Avas restored to the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture. Finance. — The high official of Siam Avho managed the finances and kejit the money of the State AA*as abvays one ol the greatest dignitaries in the land, more especially in the old days Avheii the State purse AA^as the king’s purse, and AAdien, a large part of the reA^enues being in kind, the officer Avas to all intents and purposes the manager of a great monopoly of merchandisej a position AAdiich gave him the control of much of the internal alfairs as Avell as of all the foreign trade of the 260 SIAM coimtiy. For tlie last reason tlie Finance Minister was well known to tlie European mereliants trading witli tlie country in tlie 17tli and 18tli centuries, as the highest personage with whom they came in contact. The office carried with it a long and imposing title abbreviated for ordinary use into Flira Klang, which Europeans, after the careless manner of the times, corrupted into ‘Barkalong.’ With the gradual re- linquishing of trade by the sovereign and the increase of farmed monopolies, the grip of the chief financial authority wpoii the country was somewhat relaxed and in course of time the officer became little more than a Chief Controller of the royal funds. Later on, as the offices of a partially organised government came into existence, the poAver to collect certain moneys, sufficient for their maintenance, Aiaas usually Amsted in the chiefs of such offices, Avho thenceforth managed their oAvn financial affairs, a course AAdiich continued doAvn to the latter part of the 19th century. When, hoAvcA^er, the Senabodi or Council of Ministers Avas decreed in 1892, this system AAns altered and the ^ilinistry of Finance began to gather to itself the reA^enues derived from every service and to assume control over the expenditure of the different Depart- ments. An Accounts’ Department Avas instituted and a ljudget of estimated revenue and expenditure became an annual compilation. The appearance of the Budget, hoAvevei*, rarely synclirouised Avith the beginning of the 3 'ear and as the Treasury Avould disburse no funds not duly and ]Ai’operly sanctioned, tlie Heads of Depart- ments took to utilising revenues Avliich should liaA^e been ])aid in to the Treasury, in order to keep the administration from coming altogetlier to a standstill and, so soon as the budget was passed, drcAv out in a lump sum the Avhole amount allotted for the year, lodging the same in one of the local banks, AAdience it could be obtained without trouble as required. Thus, GOVERNMENT 261 in spite of tlie Ministry of Finance, each Department had a ^^rivate lianking account, disposing of its funds in such manner as seemed to it most suitable, and going its Avay, untrammelled by anytliing in the shape of audit. The pecidiarities of this system were revealed when, shortly after the apxoointment of an English Financial Adviser in 189G, the Heads of De- partments were prevailed upon to conduct their financial operations through a Comptroller-Clenerars Department under the Ministry of Finance ; for when the Amrions banking accounts Avere closed and the balances ■'•efunded to Government, these latter were found to be, in many cases, A^ery large and to contain allotments for office establishments, buildings and sup])lies of all kinds, budgetted for in years gone by, and drawn from the State Treasury but ncAmr expended. During the first fcAV years of the Ministry of Finance, though much money Avas undoubtedly lost owing to lack of control over the sanctioned expenditure, the disbursements were kept Avell Avithin the national income ])y the simple expedient of refusing sanction for anything in the sha]ie of ncAv and unaccustomed outlajx The demands of an expanding administration, hoAvcA-er, soon became too insistent to be further Avith- stood, and the attention of the financial authorities necessarily became directed toAvards increasing the revenue as Avell as merely checking exxAenditure. The reorganisation of the numerous sources of income AAdiich Avere under the control of the Ministry of Finance aaxts therefore taken seriously in hand and to such good purpose that the annual total, including the receipts from the Ministry for the Interior, increased, betAveen the years 189G and 1903, by a hundred per cent and I his, not so much l)y enhanced taxation as by improA^ed administration and by the ademption of measures to secure the ])ayment into the 9h-easury of all moneys collected. Daring the same time, liOAA^ever, the national 262 SlAJVl expenditure rose by leaps and bounds, and befoie the end of that period had more than overtaken the revenue receipts, so that the annually recurring surplus of the years before the era of progress was converted into a frequent deficit. Since 1903 the revenue has increased b}^ a further twenty-five per cent, but the expenditure has kept pace with it, and that in spite of considerable loans which have, from time to time, been taken for the building of railways and other remunerative Public Works. Tlie position at the present moment is not without its serious aspect, for the limit of revenue expansion appears almost to have been reached, whilst the Government, once embarked upon a more lavish s ale of expenditure, stands committed to a progressive increase for some time to come, the mere possibility of any retrenchment of which is naturally looked upon with extreme disfavour. A few years ago the Government began to be somewhat disturbed by the fact that nearl}^ half the State Revenues were being derived from the sale b}^ auction of the opium, liquor and gambling monopolies. Extension of commerce brought with it increasing facilities for the smuggling of opium and the financial equilibrium was frequently threatened by the failure of the opium farmers to pay their revenue, while even the densest intellects began to perceive that the system encouraged drinking and gambling, took large sums of money, the profits of the Chinese mono])oly-holders, out of the country to China, therel)y draining the country of its wealth, and deliberately led the already sufficiently thriftless populace into waste and extravagance. An informal Anti-Gambling League came into existence and owing to the representations of its leaders, licensed gambling was at length sto])ped everywhere except in Bangkok city, where, however, (uving to recent im- provements in steam commnnication by rail and river between the Ckxpital and the rural districts, the revenues GOA^ERNMENT 263 from gambling liaA^e increased someAvliat. Later on it was decided, not without some misgiving, to discontinue the sale of liquor and opium farms and to establish GoA^ernment Departments to control, and gradually to reduce the traffic in these articles. The substitution of the Government Department has only partially been carried out with regard to liquor, but the opium has been taken over entirely and a moderate increase in the land reA^enue has been imposed to proAude a substitute for the State revenues thus lost. The net result hither ;.o has been that gambling, opium and liquor noAv provide less than a third of the total annual income of the State, a proportion AAdiich Avill doubtless be further reduced AAdien the revision of treaties, noAv accomplished Avith some of the PoAvers and under negotiation Avith others enables the Government to adjust its Customs duties in fair proportion to the AA^ealth and commerce of the country. Banking . — In the year 1888 the groAvth of Siamese trade led to the establishment of a regular branch of the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation at Bangkok. Up to that time the only banking facilities available AA^ere the agencies of the aforesaid Corporation and of one Indian and one Chinese bank in the hands of European local trading firms. No paper currency existed except a feAv semi-priA^ate notes issued by King Mongkut, sealed Avith his oaaui private seal and noAv greatly A^alued as curiosities, and the only means of meeting the financial demands of foreign trade AA^ere the import and the export of ^Mexican and Spanish siUer dollars and of Indian rupees. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Coiq'^oration soon acrpiired a good standing and in 1893 a branch of the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China AA\as also established in Bangkok, to be folloAA-ed in 1897 by a branch of the French Banque cle VIndo-Chinc. All three banks are noAV doing a large business in financing foreign 264 SIAM trade, in private loans and deposit accounts and in tlie money affairs of tire Government, wliicli maintains a floating balance with each of them. There is no doubt whatever that the banks bave done a gieat deal to assist the growth of commerce since they were established, but as receptacles for the earnings of the people of the country itself they have achieved next to nothing, and in fact they decline to receive money on deposit from any person who is unacquainted with some European language. In the year 1904 a Siamese Commercial Bank was inaugurated which it was hoped would gradually extend its operations from Bangkok to the provincial towns, where at present there are no banking facilities of any kind. The institution has not, however, been a great success except', apparently, for its originators and its operations have hitherto been confined to the Metropolis. For the assistance of traders in the interior the State Treasury in Bangkok is by way of selling drafts on the treasuries of the provincial towns but simplicity of procedure is not, unfortunately, one of the stiong points of the Treasury Department and traders make small use of the system, preferring to carry money about the country and to accept the conse(|iient risk of loss, rather than take the safer but more tedious course. Currencij . — In many of the remoter districts of Indo-ndna, and on the borders of South-West China, lumps of silver, the shape and weight of Avhich vary in different localities, are still in use as money, though the British Indian rupee and to a iess extent the French piastre, are rejdacing them by degrees. Some of these uncouth coins are simply casts of the small iron pans in Avhich the metal has been melted, others are small bars cut and twisted into a mo]-e or less uniform shape and others again are small jfieces of metal of uniform weight cut off GOA^EKNMENT 265 from a tliiii cylindrical bar of silver. Al^ont a century ago the money of Siam consisted of rounded lumps of gold or silver, roughly resembling small sections of cylindrical l)ars, bent by hammering until the ends approach each other, and stamped on the convex surface vdth a Siamese crown or a ‘C/za/xr’ or other royal emblem. These coins were nsnally made of four sizes in silver, the commonest about equal to a rupee in weight and tlie others a half, a quarter, and an eighth of the same. The first, called hat was known to Enro23eans as a ‘Tical,’ the second as song sailing, the third as sailing, and the fourth as A piece called tamlung equal to four hat was also made but only in small numbers. Coins of similar shape, but of gold, represented higher values, one being equal to twent^y, another to ten, and another to five hat. Early in the 19th century flat silver coins were made in Bangkok, but these were more in the nature of an experiment than of a genuine currency and, though now of interest as curiosities Avere never seriously put into circulation. In 1801, however, a small mint for coining flat money was set up in the Palace and in the following year flat coins corresj)onding to all the above-mentioned values were issued, bearing on one face a Royal Siamese cinwii and on the other the effigy of an elephant snrronnded by the ‘ Chahr ’ or sacred wheel. This issue of flat gold coins was A^ery restricted, and as it Avas found that they soon dis- appeared from circulation, being melted doAvn and made into jeAA^ellery, the issue AA^as stopped altogether, and the silver tical became the most general form of currency. Moreover it aaus difficult to procure gold for minting purposes AAdiile silver could apA’ays be obtained by the simple process of melting doAvn silver dollars imported from Singajiore, three of AAdiicli made fiA'e ticals, and thus Siam naturally fell into line AA-itli the other States of the East and Far West as a 266 SIAM country with a silver-standard currency. Large sums of money were, and still are, considered in so many cliang, an amount not represented by any single coin but consisting of eighty ticals. Old gold coins both round and flat, are now much in request for making cufl-links, watch-pendants and other jewellery and it is probable that a good many are manufactured by enterprising Jewellers to meet this demand. Formerly the only currency of lower value than the silver fuang or one eighth of a tieal was represented by cowrie shells, or hia, of which several hundred were required to equal one tical, but about the date when flat silver money was first made, a copper coinage was introduced consisting of the song pliai, the the att and the solot or 'lot, equal respectively to half, a quarter, an eighth and a sixteenth of a fuang. Of these the phai and the att came into common use, but not very many of the other two were put into circulation. From time to time new machinery and dies were introduced and gradually the coinage improved. In the last reign the effigy of the king first appeared on both silver and copper coins, the reverse side of the former being filled witli the Siamese Royal arms and of the latter with a full length figure of a Thewada or angel, seated in an attitude similar to that of the Britannia on an English j)enn}g but with the trident, shield and other details of the latter represented by Siamese equivalents. It has long been realised that the division of the tical into sixty-four parts, though identical with the system of coinage division in use in British India, is but a clumsy arraugement, and more than once the Government has proposed to introduce a subsidiary coinage based on the decimal system, A copper coin equal to one hundredth part of a tical was made in large quantities to the order of a former Minister of Finance but circumstances prevented its being brought GOVERNMENT 267 into nse until after it had lain in the Treasury vaults for many years. The Gold Standard Law, 1908, how- ever, legalised this coin, called satang, the Pali for ‘a hundredth part,’ and also nickel coins of five and ten satang value, all of which were put into circulation in that year. The att copper coinage was not simnl- taneonsl}^ withdrawn or demonetised and a certain amount of confusion prevailed while the two systems remained in force together hut matters soon righted themselves and the decimal subsidiary coinage is now established. The satang coins of all three denominations are of a uniform design, consisting of a ‘ Gliahr' or sacred wheel on one face and the words 'Siam Raj' with the value of the coin on the other. The coins are pierced through the centre, which permits of their being threaded on a cord for convenience of carriage and of counting. In the year 1902 a new royal mint was built and equipped at considerable expense but owing to defective management the first issues of coin from it were not so good as those from the old establishment. Matters have improved since, however, and the silver money now produced is good though perhaps still capable of improvement. Exchange . — When tlie value of silver began to deteriorate, the currency of Siam depreciated in harmony with that of other silver-standard countries. As the deterioration continued and there appeared less and less likelihood of any consideral)le future recovery, the Government found it necessary to follow in the footsteps of India and Japan and to take measures to counteract the depreciation. Accordingly in 1902 the free coinage of silver was stopped and the sale of ticals for gold was arranged for by law at prices which have lieen gradually enhanced until the value of the tical has been raised from elevenpence halfpenny, the natui-al value of the silver contained in it in 1902, to one shilling and 26 S SIAM sixpence and one eighth at which artificial value it is for the moment station aiw, though the Government does not guarantee that it will not go yet higher. In support of this exchange polic}^ the Government maintains a reserve fund of about one million sterling. With this it purchased from the hanks in the years 1907, 1908 and 1909, over eleven million ticals which were withdrawn from circulation. In 1909 and 1910 the banks bought back the greater part of this silver at the Government rate and the sterling fund now stands practically intact, available for future operations. Results of this exchange policy, are the improved credit of Siam abroad and the saving of large sums in the purchase by the Govern- ment of machinery, arms and otlier supplies in Europe. Unfortunately the adoption of the policy has not hither- to brought much internal advantage, for the price of foreign imported goods has not yet dropped appreciably, as it was expected would be the case, while exporters of rice and other commodities find themselves unable to pay the same number of ticals for their produce as they used to do. It is early, however, to judge of the effects of the measure and it may yet be that matters will adjust themselves and that the country will beiiefit by it as much as the Governmeut has certainly done. The Gold Standard Law of 1908 which decrees the above exchange policy, provides also for the establishment of a gold currency and the issue of a gold coin called a ‘ tot,' a Siamese corruption of the Pali word ‘Das,’ (in English ‘ Ten,’) ecjual in value to ten ticals, but it would seem that the stability of the tical is not yet sufficiently assured to make this step altogetlier safe, and the coin though minted in small c[uantity kas not yet been issued. Paper Currency . — Many years ago the Hongkong and Shangliai Banking Corpoiation obtained permission from the Government to is-ue bank-notes and later the Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China, GOVERNMENT 269 and the Banc/ne de V Indo-Cliine were accorded similar privilege. The notes, thongh never declared legal tender, were soon established in the confidence of the public of Bangkok, bnt outside the capital they were looked upon with some snspicion and were frequently not negotiable. In the year 1902 the privilege of the Banks was withdrawn and the notes were gradually recalled, being replaced by a Government paper-currency issued by the Treasury in accordance with Royal Decree. Currency notes of five, ten, twenty, one hundred and one thousand ticals value, were put into circulation and speedily became very popular thronghont the country, so much so that at the present date over seventeen million ticals’ worth are in circulation. Cash reserves to the extent of seventy-five per cent of the total issue value are held in the strong rooms of the Treasury, Avhile twenty-five per cent is iiwested in various foreign securities. Loans . — When the desiral)ilit}^ of railway construction first dawned upon Siam the question of contracting a foreign loan was also raised and thereafter was periodi- cally discussed at considerable length during seimral years. The ([uestion of funds was not, however, of immediate urgency and railway making began and was continued until some twenty-five millions of ticals had been spent upon it out of ordinary revenue. Meanwhile the Government received much advice on the subject and among other financial experts Lord Cromer gave an opinion whi(di was to the effect that the financial position of Siam appeared a very strong one, and that having no national del)t and no very i)ressing reason to incur one, it woidd 1)e well for tlie count it to avoid boiTOVsfing. Other councils prevailed in the long run, however, and in lOOo the sum of one million sterling was borrowed in London and elsewliere abroad at Oott and carrying interest per cent per annum, by which means the considerable sums of money which had been 270 SIAM annually paid out of revenue for railway construction, became available for increases and improvements in the Army, Navy, Interior and other Departments of Govern- ment. Rather more than three years later, in the beginning of 1907, a further loan, this time of three millions sterling, was raised with much success in London, Paris and Berlin at 98 and bearing interest at 4^ per cent per annum, which monc}^ after providing the sum required for the exchange reserve fund, was likewise largely devoted to railway construction and finally, in 1909, an agreement was entered into with the Govern- ment of the British Federated Malay States for a sum of four millions sterling to be advanced in instalments by the latter Government at par and bearing interest at 4 per cent, to enable Siam to build a railway through the whole length of Southern Siam to link up with the railway of British Malaya. Thus the national debt of Siam at the present moment amounts to rather more than four millions sterling and five years hence will be about eight millions which, considering that her annual income is about four millions, is a considerable responsi- bility. Her credit is, lioweA^er, quite equal to the stress and unless she encounters a series of bad agricultural years, she should have small difficidty in carrying this or even a heavier amount of debt. Weights and Measures . — The unofficially accepted standard weights of Siam are simply the silver coinage. The unit of weight is the hat or tical which equals 236 grains weight, or nearly half an ounce Avoirdu- pois, and herein may perhaps be found the derivation of the word tical which has puzzled many people, for it would seem ]>robable that the word was brought to the country by merchants accustomed to trade on the East coast of India, Avliere the TiJrul, a weight almost exactly equal to that of the tical is still in common use. Idle Tihid, is also mentioned in Syme’s Mission to Ava, as a weight in use in Burma at the time dealt with in GOVERNMENT 271 that work. The cliang which, as has been said above, equals eighty bat or about forty ounces Avoirdupois, is a unit of weight in retail trade, but the Chinese catty equal to half a chang is also much, perhaps more commonly, used. Fifty chang make one hap, known in commerce as a picul (Malay Pihul), the common weight of wholesale trade and equal to 133y lbs. Avoir- dupois. The Siamese word hap means ‘ to carry weights on the shoulder balanced at either end of a carrying- stick,’ hence, a ‘man’s load.’ The silver coins of value below that of the hat supply a series of smaller weights. Weights of brass in the form of a bird are made for use in trade with ordinary scales, but these are not so much employed as the balance known in neighbouring British territory as the dacliing, a graduated rod having a pan at one end and a string close to it l)y which the contrivance is suspended, and with a weight sliding on the rod, the whole working on the same principle as the Fairbairn weighing-machine. For w^eighing quantities smaller than can be dealt with by the fuang, that is less than one eighth of a hat, the red and black seeds of Ahriis precatorius or ‘ crab’s-eye bean’ (in Siamese hun) are used, each of which is very roughly equal to two grains. The employment of this seed for Aveighing small quantities of gold, precious stones, drugs, etc., is not confined to Siam, being common also to India, Burma, and other Eastern countries. Linear measure is based, as has at one time been the case in practically every part of the Avorld, upon the length of certain parts of tlie human body, but Avhereas in Europe at any rate the measures liaA^e long been standardised, in Siam, so far as the law is concerned, each man may be a standard unto himself. Tlie least measure of length is the anu-hrahict, two of Avhich equal a krahiet. Four krahiet make a niu or a finger-width, and twelve niu amount to one keup or hand-span. Two keup make a sank or cidjit, the length from the 272 SIAM elbow to the end of tlie fingers, and fonr of these make a im, the full stretch of a man’s outspread arms. Twenty wei make a sen and fonr hundred sen make a yot. For purposes of land measurement former kings have attempted to standardise the linear measure by establishing a ‘ Royal Sauk,^ possibly the length of their own culnt, but such standards were never rigidly enforced and for private business a salesman is entitled to use such measure as he can induce customers to accept. Some years ago, however, the Ro}^al Survey Department adopted a ird equal to two metres and this measure, according to which the surveys of the country have been made, is now in fairly general use, though it has not been legalised. For Square Measure the unit is the square wd, one hundred of which are equal to one ngan. Four ngan equal one rai or two-fifths of an acre. The measure of capacity ])egins with kliam men or handful, four of which equal a cluing awn and two cluing awn equal a llutnan or half coconut-shell,’ supposed to be about one and a half pints. Twenty tlianan equal a tliang or bucket, and twenty-five thanan make a sat or basket. One hundred tliang or eighty sat make up one kwien or cartload. The difficulties of the rice trade are considerabl}^ enhanced l^y the fact that each buyer keeps his own thanan, the largest half-coconut-sbell he can find, or a wooden measure, which it is his main object in life to convince sellers, contains no more tlian the proper quantity, while sellers on the other hand strive to defeat the buyer with a coconut-shell of diminutive proportions. The cubic measure used in the teak trade is peculiar, the unit consisting of the yok, sixty-four sank in length, one sank Avide and one nin deep, or about eleven and a half English cubic feet. In the midst of the reforms of recent years the Siamese Croveniment has not been unmindful of the fact that reorganisation of the national Aveights and GOVERNMENT 273 measures is a matter of urgency. Three times in the last dozen years or so has a royal Commission been appointed to inquire into the matter and report to the King- as to the direction which reform should take. Advice almost invariably pointed towards the introduc- tion of the Metric System but for one reason and another many years were allowed to pass before a definite resolve was arrived at. At the end of the year 1911, however, His Majesty was pleased to decree that the Metric System shall take the place of the old forms of weights and measures as soon as the change can be made and it is expected that a law to that effect will be promulgated soon. The reform will, of course, benefit trade immensely for it need scarcely be said that the business of the country is considerably hampered by the absence of all legalised weights and measures. Divisions of Time.-— Tlieve are three eras in use in Siam, the Puttha-Sakarat, the Chula-Sakarat and the Ratanakosindr-sok. The first is the Religious Era and dates from the attainment of Nirvana by the Buddha in B.c. 543, the second is the Civil Era dating from a.d. 638, said to have been invented by the hero king Phra Arunawati Ruang of Sukhothai l)ut more probably in- troduced into Siam from Burma, where it is still in use, and the third is the new Civil Era, dating from the establishment on the throne of the present dynasty in A.D. 1781, but devised and brought into use onhAwenty- one years ago, in a.d. 1889. Thus the year a.d. 1910 is 2453 of the Puttha Sakarat, 1271 of the Chula Sakarat, and 129 of the Ratanakosindr-sok. The first is used chiefly in connection with religious matters, the second is the popular form of reckoning, and the third is the official method of computation and is rapidly replacing the second in general use. There is a fourth era, the Maha Sakarat, an old Brahman system, once in use throughout Further India but now practically unknown in Siam except to students of ancient literature s 274 SIAM where mention of this, and of }^et other still older and now practically forgotten eras, appears occasionally. The years are grouped into cycles of sixty years divided into suh-cycles of twelve, to each year of which latter the name of an animal is given, and also into decades numbered from one to ten. Thus the name of each of the twelve animals recurs five times in a cycle but each time has a different decade number attached to it. The Modern Ratanakosindr Era corresponds as re- gal'd s the length of its montiis and the number of its days with the Gregorian Calendar. The year begins on the 1st April and the twelve months are called after the signs of the Zodiac. The months according to the ancient eras are lunar, being reckoned from moon to moon. Those of the Chula Sakarat are known simph' as First month. Second month, and so on up to the Twelfth Month, the Xew Year beginning, however, with the Fifth month. The year consisting of only 354 days, an additional month is added every third year to keep the system in correspondence with the actual seasons. The nights of the month are numbered and not the da 3 "s, and are divided into two sets of fifteen ; the first following tlie waxing and the second the waning moon. The nights of the waxing are called keun and those of the waning ram. ddie week is of seven da_ys, to which names culled from Brahman Mythology and bearing a certain relation to those of the European system, have been given. The twenty-four hours of each day are considered in two equal parts, that is, as twelve hours of day and twelve of night. The hours of day begin after six a.m. and are numbered, ‘one hour morning,’ ‘two hours morning,’ etc., up to six which is usually called simply mid-day without a number, then, ‘ one hour afternoon,’ ‘ two hours afternoon,’ etc., to six or ‘ nightfall.’ From ‘ nightfall ’ the night begins, seven p.m. of the European GOVEKN^IENT 275 system, being called ‘one lionr night,’ eight p.m., ‘ two hours night,’ and so on until twelve hours night or six a.m. is reached. The word ‘ hour ’ is known as mong if a day hour, and as thum if a night hour. The hours of nine p.m., midnight, three a.m. and six a.m. are also commonly called the first, second, third and fourth watches, or yam ninig, song yam, sam yam, and yam rung. An hour is divided into sixty minutes or nati consisting of sixty winati or seconds. Also six minutes are sometimes called hat, but this last expres- sion is not often heard. The Capital The authority of the Minister for the Capital, or of ‘ Local Government,’ as the Department is rather quaintly styled in English, runs throughout the city of Bangkok, its suburbs and the neighbouring rural districts, extending to the sea on the south and in other directions to the borders of the surrounding Divisions of the Interior. Subordinate to this Ministry are Civil Police, Sanitary, Revenue and Harbour Departments and also a general administrative staff, similar to that of a Division of the Interior, by which the ordinary routine government of the city, and the six suburban provinces which lie round it, is carried on. Police . — The Civil Police Force of Bangkok was in- stituted in A.D. 1862 in the form of a body of fifty-five officers and constables, mostly Malays and Indians, placed under the command of an Englishman and located in barracks close to the old fort near the mouth of the Khlong Kut Mai. Passing through many vicissi- tudes, the Force grew in size if not in efficiency and by 1892 had become a body of 1500 men quartered in stations in different parts of the town and suburbs and consisting chiefly of men of Siamese race, with 276 SIAM a Siamese commissioner and other officers. The Force was very inefficient at this time. Many of the con- stables were the slaves of the higher officers and were entirely without training’ even of the most rudi- mentary description. The sense of extreme respect, not to say servility, which every Siamese entertains towards those whom he recognises as his ‘ betters ’ made them chary of interfering with the doings, however nefarious, of persons of good family or con- nections or having interest in high places, while the feelings of contempt which they shared with their countrymen towards all foreigners, led to frequent abuse of their authority where Europeans or Asiatic proteges of the Treaty Powers were concerned ; abuse which caused a reluctance on the part of Foreign Representatives to recognise the Police Department as a responsible institution. It w^as, however, the overbearing attitude towards foreigners which proved the ultimate making of the Force. His Excellency the German Minister to Siam in the year 1890, was in the daily habit of driving a dogcart furiously through the crowded streets, scattering the traffic in all directions and frequently damaging the property of other peojile and his own carriage also. At length his almost daily collision occurred near a police station, whence at the noise of the consequent altercation there issued a few curious constables. A heated and wdldly-gesticulating European meeting their sight, he was at once arrested and dragged within the station, where, in spite of emphatic assertion of his identity in broken English, he was detained (an attempt to break away being checked by the tap of a truncheon on his bald, per- spiring crown) until a jj^^issing European acquaintance explained the situation in the vernacular, and ob- tained his release. The upshot of this contretemps was the engagement of an experienced English police GOVERN]\IENT 277 officer from Ikirma to command the force, followed by a reorganisation which in time became complete in ever}^ sense. The Bangkok police are now a remarkably good body of some 3500 men, well clothed, civil spoken, moderatel,y Avell drilled and of a passable average intelligence. Service was voluntaiy, until, in the year 1909, the force was placed, for recruiting, under conditions somewhat similar to those of the military forces, since when A^acancies have been fdled b}^ conscription mainly, the recruits passing through a course of instruction in the police school before entering upon their duties. Officers are selected by examination after a period of study in a special school which is very popular with the youtli of the middle class. The Avork of the Department now compares AA^ell with that of the police of other large Eastern cities, and is a credit to the countiy as Avell as to the highly gifted and enthusiastic English officer AAdio has commanded the force under the orders of the Minister for the last eight 3 ^ears. The Sanitary Department came into existence in 1897. Like the police, it has had its Aucissitudes, and at first Avas not of much account. It is now an efficient institution charged Avith the cleansing and repairing of roadAA’ays, the disposal of refuse from houses, the control of markets and of food supplies, the carrying out of quarantine and otlier regulations against the spread of disease, and furnished with a Board of hlealtli Office, a Bacteriological Laboratory and seA^eral hospitals. 3die scientific and medical side of the Department is controlled, under the general supervision of the Director (Siamese), by a European (British) Doctor of 5tedicine of high attainments and long experience in the country, assisted by a numerous stall. The Engineering branch of tliis Department, at the head of AAdiich is a French, engineer assisted by 278 SIAM several compatriots as well as by a strong Siamese Staff, is in charge of the maintenance and repairs of the roadwa}^s in the city, and to it has been entrusted the carrying out of a scheme for supplying 13angkok Avith potable water. This question of a water supply has been for many years under considera- tion and is one which very nearly concerns the welfare of the city for, though water is at all times plentiful at Bangkok, it is ahva,ys of a bad quality and during the dry season, Avliich sometimes lasts for six months of the year, is so impure as to cause a very heavy death-roll from cholera, dysentery and other diseases. Many schemes have been proposed from time to time, but the systems advocated AA-ere either found unsuitable or too expensiA^e, and the matter Avas con- stantly postponed. About the year 1903, boring for artesian AA^ells AA^as tried and as AA'^ater AA^as found at depths varying from 400 to 600 feet, it AA^as thought that here Avas a solution of the difficulty. It was found, hoAA^CA^er, that the cost of boring Avells sufficient to supph^ the AAdiole city Avould be A^ery great, and the quality of the Avater proA^ed on analysis to be Amriable and at the best not good enough to Avarrant the expenditure. A certain number of AA^ells AA^ere sunk, and these have proA^ed of some local benefit but the (juestion of a general Avater supply still remained unanswered. Inquiries into various schemes Avhich had been carried out elsewhere, Avere therefore resumed and, after consideralole further discussion it Avas determined to adopt the system AAdiich had been successfully applied at Alexandria and else- Avhere. The ]dians Avere draAAui and estimates AA^ere framed. It aaus found that a sufficient supply of fresh AAOiter coidd be obtained at a ]K)int on the Menam Chao Pliaya River some twenty miles north of the city, and that an open canal coidd be constructed from that point leading to a point just north of the town, GOVERNMENT 279 viience tlie water, after being filtered and ozonised could be transmitted over the greater part of the city, at a cost of about three million ticals, or £227,000. The scheme and the funds for its execution were sanc- tioned l)y Royal Decree in the year 1909 and the work is now in hand. It is expected that the water- works will be formally opened towards the end of 1912. The Bangkok Revenne Department, established in 1898, has grown ont of a small Ollice organised in that year for the collection, by direct Government agency, of various taxes which had hitlierto been farmed. It is now responsi])le for the collection of some five millions of ticaJs annually and, vrorking on lines similar to those of the Revenue Department of the Interior, has improved the position of the tax-payer and at the same time l^rought much profit to the State. The Harbour Master’s Department is the modern substitute for the ancient ohice of (liao Tall, or ‘ Lord of the Landing Place,’ the holder of which was miscalled by early travellers by the J\lala 3 ' title of Shall Bandar. Before the advent of the treaties the holder of this office exercised much power over foreign traders but with the introduction of extra- territorial rights it was shorn of most of its privilege and prestige and gradualh^ sank into insignificance. In the absence of laws and regulations for the control of the Port, the enacting of which had been several times attempted, only to be frustrated by the opposition of the foreign Consuls, the Department liad practically no duties to perform beyond the maintenance of lights at the river mouth and on the bar, which it performed very badly, with the assistance of a small steamboat, the Gladys, once the well-appointed jileasure ^vacht of a former Lord Lonsdale ; tins, having somehow found its Avay into the possession of the Siamese GoA'ernment, lingered on in an unlovely old age, 011 I 3 " prolonged by constant tinkering. In the year 1905 280 SIAM however, a Harbour Regulation was at length assented to by the Consuls and was made law, whereupon the Department was galvanised into action and undertook the control of the shipping in the Port, the regulation of berths, maintenance of fairways and the registration of all Siamese craft both sea and river going, which duties it now performs with fair efficiency. Justice Previous to the institution of the Council of Ministers, one member of which was the Minister of Justice, with powers extending in theory to the control of all the Courts of Justice in the Kingdom, the Head of each Department of the Government had under his orders a Court or Courts, in which the affairs of persons under his authority were dealt Avith, and of which the chief himself acted as first Judge Avhenever he chose to exercise his functions. In the interior each Governor or Provincial Chief had his own courts Avherein cases Avere decided in such manner as he might desire rather than in accordance Avith equity or with the LaAv. The active officials of the courts AA^ere generally persons of mean birth, mere satellites of the chief under Avhom they served, men of little education and less legal know- ledge, AAdio eked out a precarious existence by a slavish obedience to the will of their master, receiAUTig as payment a small portion of the fines they levied or an occasional share of the money paid by parties as the price of their decisions. Rut though the corrupt state of the judicature Avas notorious, the procedure Avas Avrapped up in innumerable forms aiid observances intended to produce a superficial appearance of honesty, and the duties of the courts Avere divided up amongst a number of officials AAdio AA^ere supposed to act as a check upon each other and to render it impossible for GOVERNMENT 281 any single individnal to control more than one of the various stages of any case. Thus each Court had its Prosecutor or Yokrahat, its Recorders or Tarakarn, its Interpreters of the I^aw or Luang Peng and its De- liverer of Judgment or Pu Prap. At the Capital there was a kind of High Court, the Luk Kun^ which controlled the work of the Ministerial Courts and yjassed judgment in cases committed to it after the taking of evidence. The Luk Kun was also the Court of Appeal, the king sometimes sitting there in person to hear appeals. The system had its good points hut Avas unfortunately quite uiiAvorkalde. The numher of cases which found their Avay before the Luk Kim was comparatively small, the great majority being kept pending in the loAA'er Courts until the parties, having expended much mone}^ in bribes and fees, usually effected some sort of compromise. In criminal matters it Avas customary to detain both the accused and the’ conqilainant and sometimes er^eii the AAutnesses in custodA^ pending trial, and only some tAA-elv^e years ago, the yiroAuncial j)risons contained many persons aaJio had got into them as complainants in criminal cases and, having failed to raise amongst their relatiA^es and friends the funds necessary to bring their case to a hearing, had remained in prison in some instances for maii}^ years, AA'orking at prison labour side by side perhay)S AAuth the A^ery individual against Avhoin their complaint had been made. All prisoners AA^re fed by their relatives, the Government not ])roviding food. The prisons Avere small, dark hovels, alAA'aA^s overcroAvded and AAuthout the smallest pretensioiis to sanitation. Discipline, liOAA^eA^er, being practically non-existent, the prisoners could often arrange to sleep outside the jail AAdience, naturally, frequent escajtes I’esulted. , IViih the establishment of the IMinistry of rlustice in 1802, the knell of the ancient judicial system Avas sounded, Init the introduction of reforms met AAutli many graA^e initial dilhculties and it Avas not until the 282 SIAM end of 1894 that a new sclieme of judicial administra- tion had been drawn np and sanctioned and new Courts constituted in accordance therewith, had been established even in Bangkok town. The Conrts then organised consisted of two ]\[agistrate’s Conrts, a central Criminal Court, a Civil Ck)iirt, a Court of Foreign Causes for the disposal of cases in which the com- plainant is a foreign subject, a Court of Appeal and a Supreme Court of Appeal {San Diha). At the same time an Attorney General’s Department was also created, and the Bangkok prisons were taken over by the Alinistiy and reorganised. In 1897 a start was made with the extension of the system beyond the Capital. Tile suburban provinces Avere taken in hand first and AAmrk of an experimental nature Avas carried on there and at Aynthia until experience had been gained, errors corrected and such improA^ements introduced as ap- peared necessary. The outlaying Divisions Avere then gradually brought under tiie jurisdiction of the Ministry and its SAvay noAv extends to the AAdiole kingdom, Avith the exception of the Malay Division of Patani. In 1897, also, a Royal Commission AA^as ajipointed to iiiA^estigate the condition of the rural prisons, AA^iich resulted in the clearing up of maiiA^ cases of long standing and in the release from durance of some hundreds of persons. The Provincial rludicial sclieme as iioav in force provides a Court at the headquarters of each province, (Muancj), and a central Court at the chief toAvn of each DiAusion, {Monton). Appeal can be made from the Muanrj Courts to tlie Monton Court from Avliich further appeal lies to a Special CViurt of Appeal for the ProAuuces, established at Bangkok, Avlience final appeal may be matte to tlie Supreme (\mrt. The system AA^orks fairly Avell, and, judging by the annually published returns of cases dealt AAutli, gets through a lot of AA^ork. It is, lioAvever, very much handicapped by the Axant of GOVERNMENT 283 intelligent, trnstwortliy and experienced men to fill tlie immeroiis judicial offices. The law school which was inangnrated some ten years ago, and which has been supplied with a series of excellent text-hooks prepared by the Minister himself, turns out exery year a dozen or so of young men wlio are considered eligible for the junior judicial appointments. These youths become judges of Muavg Courts, where, though their judicial powers are very limited, their position is one of an independence and a freedom from control which some- times proves too much for their tender years and inexperience. The Monton judges, also, are frequently young men taken from the Mnang Courts before tliey have had time to gain experience. It would be hardly fair to condemn the whole system because of such statements as that made in a recent official report to the effect that many judges are sent to penal servitude for dishonesty in each 3’ear, while a large number of departmental punishments are annuall}^ inflicted in the effort to promote habits of diligence, but it must be admitted that remarks of this nature show that all is not yet well with the personnel of the judiciary. For- tunately, however, the yearly batches of successful candidates for the legal service contain more wliite sheep than black, whilst among the senior judges, who mostly occupy positions in the more important Bangkok courts, there are many officers of consideral^le legal attainments and of marked ability and probity ; offic*ers who would compare favourably with the members of the justiciary of many European countries ; and hence it is reasonable to expect that as years pass and ex] >erience becomes more widely extended, the survivors of the vigorous Aveeding I'^rocess evidently followed by the Ministry of rlustice, Avill constitute a reliable and competent staff to Avhom the country may look Avith confidence for an efficient administration of the I.aAv. In his AA^ork of judicial administration the i\linister is 284 SIAM assisted by an Eiiglisli Judicial Adviser, and by a number of Legal Advisers of various European nationalities, who assist the judges in their work or act as inspectors of the rural Courts. Side by side with the ordinary Siamese Courts are the various tribunals to which the subjects of foreign nations resident in the country are amenable. Until recently these tribunals were roughly of a uniform character and consisted of national Courts established b}^ the European Powers, by the United States of America and by Japan, b_y virtue of treaties with Siam, and of International Courts in certain parts of Northern Siam, having jurisdiction over British, Danish and Italian subjects. Of late, however, France and England have partially abandoned certain of their extra-territorial rights, and apparently intend to do so entirely as soon as the laws of the country shall have been satisfactorily codified, and though this innovation must upon its completion simplify matters immensely, the present transitory state is one of many complications. Thus the French Court still exists to exercise jurisdiction over European French subjects ; International Courts in which French and Siamese judges sit together and administer Siamese Law, attend to all cases in which Asiatic 'French subjects, registered prior to the signing of the last treaty, are defendants or accused, while Asiatic French subjects, registered subsequently to the passing of the treaty, are amenable to Siamese law administered in the ordinary Siamese Courts. The British (V)urt, on the other hand, has ceased to exist altogether and all Bi itish subjects are now under the jurisdiction of lutei’national (V)urts, in which Siamese kludges sit to ailmiiiister Siamese law with the assist- ance of a British adviser, Avho automatically becomes a judge Avith poAA^ers eipial to those of his colleagues A\dien the British subject to be tried lia|Apens to be a European. A British Consular ollicial may Avatcli the trials of all GOVERNMENT 285 British subjects and has the power to intervene in the case and even to stoj) it and try it himself, if it appears to him that a miscarriage of justice is occurring. Meanwhile the other foreign consuls continue to exercise jurisdiction over their nationals and to ad- minister in their Courts the laws of their various countries, but it is hox^ed that before long matters will be simplified by the abandonment of their extra- territorial rights in whole or in part by all the treaty powers. The ancient laws of Siam, in common with those of Burma, Kambodia and in fact all Further India, were derived from the Hindu code of Manu, having been framed in accordance therewith by sundry earnest rulers of remote times and sul)sequently rearranged and brought up to date by their successors. The most celebrated promulgator of such laws, ahvao’s excepting the mythically Amrsatile Arunawati Ruang, Avas King Ramathibodi, the soA^ereign of Ayuthia, who un- doubtedly edited and issued numerous excerpts from the ancient sources, some of which after 500 years of continuous use are still actiAmly in force. In collecting these laAvs and publishing tliem in book form together Avith a selection of the decrees and ordinances of later kings, H.R.H. the Prince of Ratburi, Minister of Justice from 1897 to 1910, has rendered a service to the country which it is impossible to OAmr-rate, for though some of the laws haA^e recently been repealed by enactments more suitable to modern requirements, and mail}" more will disappear when the codes are passed Avhich are going to ])lace the Siamese laws on a modern basis, and do away finally with tlie7’a/so7i cVetre of extra-territoriality, yet these compilations enabled the GoAmrnment to carry out the first reorganisation of the Courts, placed the julncipal laws of the country Avithin the reach of the public, and proAuded text books, Avithout Avhich no systematic teaching could be 286 SIAM undertaken, and to which the Law School and its graduates who, in spite of faults are a vast imjwove- inent on the old judiciaiy, are entirely owing. The Government, however, did not merely content itself with enforcing the ancient laves when reorganising the administration of justice, for included in the volumes published by the ex-Min ister are many enact- ments which have received the Royal assent during the last fifteen years or so, of which a few of the more notice- able are the Law of Civil Procedure ; a Law of Evidence ; Administration Decrees including Rural Government, Police, Harbour, Quarantine, Pawnshop, Hackney Carriages and Anti-Slavery Ordinances ; Revenue Laws ; Mining Laws ; Land Registration Laws and I.iaws of Mortage and of Bankruptcy. In 1908 a new departure was marked by the passing of a Penal Code, the first real step towards a regular codification of the laws of the country. This Code, having been under construction for many years, was ultimately completed mainly by the energy of a very able officer of the French Diplomatic service, engaged by the Government as Legislative Adviser. It has been translated into English and French, has been submitted to a wide criticism and has been universally recognised as a thoroughly sound piece of legislation, reflecting credit upon its compilers and upon the State which has acquired it. The Codes of India, Japan, Belgium, Italy, Hungary and France have all been placed under requisition in the compiling of the work, which is nevertheless informed throughout its 340 sections with the best traditions of Siamese law, and the whole is a combination of Eastern and Western ideas, the suitability of which to the conditions of modern Siam is being proved daily by application in the Courts. The French Legislative Adviser has left Siam but the Code Commission of which he was the Head con- tinues its work of a general codification of the laws, the GOYERXMEXT 287 result to include, as well as the Penal Code now in force, a Criminal Procedure Code, a Civil Procedure Code, a Commercial Code, a Law of Judicial Organisation, etc. A Company Law, an amended Bankruptcy Law and a Xaturalisation Law were drafted by the Commission and jiassed by His Majesty in the year 1911. When the Codes are complete, audit is hoped that another ten years will see all the most important measures jiassed and in operation, the recognition of the Siamese Laws by all the Powers may be expected to follow, and the end of extra-territoriality in Siam will be in sight. Lands and Agriculture ‘The Ministry of Lands and Agriculture of Siam has been through many vicissitudes. In the old Royal Council, constituted in the fourteenth century a.d. and abolished in 1892 in favour of the xiresent arrangement, the Sixth Councillor, who held the title of Chao Phaija Polatep, was in charge of all matters connected with agriculture, including the collection of the land revenues. This office became the Ministry of Lands and Agricul- ture, or Krasuang Kra set rat than, in 1892, the principal duties of which were the asssssment and collection of all taxes levied on the land, and the issue of title deeds, to which was added the control of the Departments of Mines and of Surveys. The Ministry, hovrever, was not a success. The collection of the different taxes on land was in some cases farmed out and in others made direct by Government agency, but both methods were badly organised in the beginning and worse administered afterwards so that the revenues steadily decreased and soon fell into hopeless confusion. At the same time the Mines and Survey Departments, tliough under European guidance, failed to give entire satisfac- tion, while the attempts of the i\linistry to organise the 288 SIAM issue of title deeds and a s\^stein of land registration were of a ridicnlons futility. The Ministry was there- fore broken ii]) in 1897 and its various Departments transferred to the care of the Minister of Finance. By 1899 however, it liad beconie clear that reform wi h regard to land administration was a matter which would brook no further delay, and that amid the multiplicity of his duties the Minister of Finance could not possibly devote the time and attention to the subject which were necessaiy. The Ministry of Lands and Agriculture was therefore resuscitated, after remaining in abe 3 ^ance for two 3 ^ears and the Departments of Land Revenue, Land Records, Surveys, Mines and Forests were formally made over to it, though tlie new Minister assumed active control over the Land Records and Surve}^s only. The next few years were occupied in preparation by cadastral survey and by the compilation of suitable Land Record Regulations, for the establishment of a s}- stem of Record of Rights over land, and of Registration, and after numerous experiments such a system was inaugurated, the first new title deeds being issued in 1901. Since that date practically the whole of Central Siam has been cadastrall}^ surve^md, the owners of the greater part of the most valuable rice-j^roducing lands of the country have Ijeen provided with title deeds, and a Department of Land Records and Registration, working b,y methods allied to the Torrens System, has been estal^lished with offices at various rural centres. Unfor- tunatel^y owing to faidty administration and, more particularly, to insufficient inspection, the settlement work was neither so well nor so promptly carried out as it should have been, and it ap|')ears astliough, having got the work under way the Government forgot the importance of it in the press of other measures of reform, and neglected the ill-fated Ministiy of Lands and Agriculture until it was on the verge of relapsing once more into its old state of confusion and incompetence* GOVERNMENT 289 Circumstances, however, have lately reminded the country again of the importance of its land question, hig changes in the personnel of the Ministry have been made, the title deeds and Registration work have been overhauled and placed on a satisfactory basis, and steps have been taken to give to agriculture generally that attention, without which it must shortly fail to produce the wherewithal to finance the State. The Royal Survey Department, though recently trans- ferred from the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture to the Army Department, may be mentioned in this place. Instituted in the year 1885 with a small and poorly trained staff, it has grown into a large and important branch of the administration, employing several European (British) surveyors as well as a considerable number of Siamese, the whole under the immediate control of a military officer as Director. At first recruited from the army and from amongst the floating Bangkok European population of government officials, sea captains, business men and others, the staff was far from efficient and the work accomplished was not of a high class. Gradually, however, the personnel was improved and of late 3 ^ears the Department, acting under the orders of the Minister of Lands and Agriculture, lias done valuable service in the making of the cadastral survey, which covers an area of 8(J0O square miles, and in topogra 2 :>hical work extending over some (>0,000 square miles. The revenue survey work being now practically accomplished, the Department is mainh’ devoting its energies to topo- gra])hical and military work, and it is lor this reason that it has recently been replaced under the orders of the Commander-in-Chief of the army, the position which it occupied for a brief period at the time of its inauguration. A survey school has been one of the adjuncts of the Survey Department for many years and has turned out a large number of surveyors. The T 290 SIAM education provided was always elementary, however, and not much effort appears to have been made until quite lately to produce Siamese officers capable of high- class work or of holding responsible loositions in the service. Under the new arrangements an effort is being made to officer the Department with Siamese and it is probable that Europeans will not be employed in this work for many years longer. The Royal Irrigation Department, one of the branches of administration attached to the Ministry of Lands and Agriculture, came into existence in the year 1904. It was organised by an officer of the Netherlands India Waterstaad, lent by the Dutch Government to Siam, Avho, after holding the position of Director for six years, was recalled to fill a high position in his own service and was replaced by a Siamese officer. The personnel of the Department comprises foreign engineers of experience in irrigation work and also Siamese trained at Amrious engineering schools in Europe. The Avork Avhich has been, and is being accomplished by these officers is referred to in Part IV. The De])artment of Agriculture AAdiich is about six years old, has not achieved very much. It grcAV out of the a])pointment of several Japanese experts lent to Siam by the Ministry of Agriculture of Japan, to introduce improvements in the Siamese methods of silk groAving, Avhich experts, being also trained agri- cultural s])ecialists, Avere presently entrusted Avith the starting of an experimental school of Agriculture, in addition to their sericultnral duties. The scheme did not flourish however, and though the Department still exisfs, under Siamese control, it is accomplishing nothing of importance and most of the Japanese experts liaA^e returned to their own countiy, leaving both sericulture and agriculture in Siam much as they were. The GoA^ernment has lately obtained the seiwuces of an American expert to report on the agricultural condition GOVERNMENT 291 of the country and to reform this important hut sadly neglected branch of the public service. A technical school under the control of the Minister of Lands and Agriculture was inaugurated in the year 1907 and this institution has already produced youths educated in the elements of irrigation engineering, scientific agriculture, mining engineering and other subjects, who have found employment in Government service. The standards of the school are not high however, and better organisation will be ret[uired before it acquires aii}^ real value as factor in the national education. Public Works The Ministiy of Public Works includes the Northern and Southern Railwa}^ Departments, and the Post and Telegraphs Department, and also a Department of Works for the construction of xuiblic buildings and roads. The Railway Dej^artments and their work are dealt with in Part IV, under the heading of Transx:>ort. The Postal system now in vogue was inaugurated in 1881 under Royal decree. Before that date there had been no Government })ost olhces, foreign mails from Siam being sent thither from Singapore through the instrumentality of the British Considate. Letters could be posted in Bangkok for the outer world, Imt were stani[)ed Avitli a British Straits Settlements stain surcharged with the letter ‘ B,’ specimens of which are now rare, and in conse(pience much prized by stanq^ collectors. In 1885 Siam ’joined the Postal Union, and in that year a new hiAv aaus passed re])lacing the first decree, and x^roAuding for the X)uox)er organising of tlie Dex^artment. An official of the German Postal Service Avas engaged to assist in the management of the Department and under his guidance, at first as Adviser 292 SIAM and later as Director, it lias grown steadily until every place in the interior of any importance at all has been brought into postal communication with the capital. Much to the regret of the whole Service, the Director was compelled on account of ill-health to resign his position in 1909, but the Department is being efficiently managed by his Siamese successor. No contracts for the foreign mails have been made with any foreign shipping company, the masters of vessels carrying letters by jirivate arrangement with the Government, but for the service of the towns in Southern Siam, the Siam Steam Navigation Company, Ltd., enjoys a con- siderable sidisidy, in return for which its steamers deliver mails twice every week at all the ports on both sides of the Gulf. The total number of letters, post- cards, packages, etc., passing through the post offices in a year amounts to about 3,500,000 inland and 2,000,000 foreign. There are IGO post offices in the country, and the staff of the Department numbers about 700. The tariff for foreign postage is 14 satang or about 2^ pence per half ounce weight ; inland postage is unduly high, amounting to about 12 satang, or about two pence per half ounce, while letters posted in Bangkok for delivery there are chai-ged with C satang, or about a ])eimy for the same weiglit. Before the exchange value of the local currency was fixed, difficulty was experienced in maintainingforeign postal rates consonant with those laid down by the Postal Union, and at the same time representing a fai] revenue, and stamps of new Amines AAmre frequently issued, much to the delight of collectors, l)ut to the confusion of the postal accounts with foreign countries. The Postal LaAV of 1885 AAms repealed by a more complete enactment passed in 1897. The first telegraph line of any importance Avhich aaus opened in Siam AAms that Avhich connects Bangkok Avith Saigon, the capital of French Indo-China. This line Avas engineered b}" the AAmll-known M. Pavie, at one GOVERNIMENT 293 time engaged by tlie Siamese GoA^ernmeiit for this work, and since then one of tlie first Frencli authorities on Siam, wliose studies of the Siamese and explorations of the conntiy have been of immense value to all who are interested in the ethnology, archmology, and other scientific aspects of this part of the world. At the present da}^ Siam has two other routes of telegraphic communication with the outside Avorld in addition to that of Saigon, one of Avhich crosses the frontier of Burma, and thence reaches Moulmein, Avhile the other enters the British Malay State of Kedah and thence communicates Avith Penang. Her inland telegraph lines link up all the more imjAortant proAuncial towns Avith the capital and the total length of line in the country exceeds 3,500 miles. In its early days the Telegraph Department Avas very badly organised, and a great deal of money Avas Avasted in the purchase and trans^Aort of expensive material AAdiich AA'as ncA-er used. Union Avith tlie Postal Department brought better management, but cA'cn then the difficulties caused by the AA’ild nature of tlie country to lie traversed, the profuse and ra]iidly gi-oAving vegetation, and the excessiA^e heat and alternating humidity and dryness of the climate, delayed the initial construction Avork, and made subsequent maintenance a matter of costly and unremitting laliour. So great Avere these difficulties that, a few }"ears ago they ap])eared to lie overcoming the energy of the Department, the lines being jiei-mitted to fall into a state of disreyiair AAdiich rendered many of them practically useless, lint a remonstrance on the ]iart of the Foreign PepresentatiA^es, made in the interests of trade, put the Department on its mettle, and lirought about a great and general improvement Avhich has since been aaMI maintained. The Posts and Telegray)hs’ Department is conducted at a loss to the Government, the annual expenditure amounting to about £9(),t)00, and tlie receipts to £92,000. 294 SIAM The recurring deficit is, however, being reduced and will j)robably l)e converted into a surplus in the course of the next few years. The Works Dej^artment of the Ministry of Public Works has until lately been mainly concerned with the capital, where, since the beginning of the present century, enormous improvements have been made by the construction of roads, l)ridges, and drains, by the reclaiming of land for open sj^aces in the city, and by the erection of handsome public offices and buildings. The public works of the interior were formerly left entirely to the management of local officials, for which reason, as well as because they were starved for funds, practically no serious Avork aaus accomplished there. Recently, hoAvever, the. Ministry has appointed District Engineers to the charge of Public Works’ branch offices in several of the Monton, a more reasonable amount of money has been alloAA^ed, and at the present moment considerable actiAuty is being displayed in the con- struction of public buildings, substantial houses for officers, and in the ojAening up of roads, the building of bridges and other nseful Avorks in the interior. The European element in the DeiAartment of Works is Italian. If there is one thing more striking than another amongst the changes Aviought during the last feAv years in Siam, it is the great improvement in the j)ersonnel of every grade of almost ewery l)ei)artment of the public services. Fifteen years ago tlie GoA^ernment had to be content AAuth a A^ery poor class of servant and the old custom still prcAmiled AAdiereby the Heads of Depart- ments regarded ap])ointments under their control as so much munificent provision made by the Government for their poor relations, rather than as yiositions from the holders of Avhich a certain amount of Avork should be considered due. Thus many hopelessly ignorant and incompetent persons encumbered the Government KOAD-BKIDGE IX NORTHERN SIAM, SWINGING FOOT-BRIDGE IN CENTRAL SIAM. GOVERNxMENT 295 offices, and as all siicli clung tiglitly to the skirts of their patron, the periodical migrations of Ministers of State from one Department to another caused a general post amongst the lower officials which threw the services into grotesque confusion and gave rise to the humorous stories of tide-waiters converted without warning into school-inspectors and other changes of like nature, wdiich were at one time current. It cannot he said that the vice of nepotism has been altogether eradicated even now, but it has been reduced wdtliin bounds and few thoroughly inefficient persons are now found holding positions of any importance by virtue merely of their connection with high officials. In the selection of men for appointments, capacity now usually counts first with favouritism second, and a capable officer need not expect dismissal from a position which he fills satisfactorily, when the ]\finister or Director to whom he is subordinate is replaced by another Chief. In the early days of reform many Europeans were engaged as Advisers or Teachers, but in the absence of Siamese officers of technical training or experience in administration it was found necessary to appoint seA^eral of these foreigners to executive positions at the head of Axarious Departments. AVithiu the last few years, hoAV- ever, the Siamese liaA^e reached a standard of capacity, and of the other cfualities AAdiich go to the making of a reliable Government official, AAdiich appears to justify the appointment of Siamese officers to fill many of these places and the ])resent tendency is markedly towards the gradual elimination of Europeans from positions of actual control. Thus, though foreign Advisers Avill probably be retained to assist the Avork of the. dilTerent Ministries for some years to come, AAdiile the GoATrnment Avill for a long time be unable to do Avithout foreign engineers, schoolmasters, forest oflicers, medical officers, police officers, suiweyors, and otliers on the estalilish- ments, it is probable that tlie foreign official as Chief 296 SIAM of a Government Department will very shortly be an anomaly of the past. This, of course, is as it should be. A Government that is under the necessity of en- gaging foreigners to administer its De]:)artments, even temporarily, is in a parlous state, but a Government condemned to suffer such a state of affairs indefinitely, is lost. The salvation of Siam as an autonomous State demands imperatively that she should learn to govern, and should govern, herself, and, though Siamese officers may not in every case be able at first adequatel}^ to fill the place of the Europeans who have done the pioneer work, eveiq^ well-wisher of the country must welcome the spirit which is calling forth men willing to assume responsibility and hope that time will prove them equal to the tasks they are undertaking. PART IV INDUSTRIES OF SIAM Agriculture and Fishing are the two main industries of Siam. Indeed so much is this the case and so far do these absorb the attention of the inhabitants of the country, that the number of 23eople who are not in some way concerned with either of them and who are engaged in other permanent occupation is almost infinitesimal. It may, in fact, safely be said that, outside Bangkok, nearly every man, except he be a monk, is either a cultivator or a fisherman, while even in the capital a large pro])ortion of the iidiabitants derive their chief support from the rents of fields, orchards or fisheries. There are seasons, however, when the cultivator cannot INDUS'nilES 297 farm and tlie fislierman cannot fisli, and at sncli times varions other industries are fitfnll}" engaged im The Siamese is not in the least addicted to work for work’s sake, hnt a man mnst have something to occii})}- him during the long weeks of the hot weather when the fields are baked to the hardness of rock and when the inland fisheries are dry, as also when the rain storms of the wet seasons are stimulating the crops and preventing sea fishing. MoreoA^er, advancing civilisation is in- creasing the AAoants of the people, while the regular payment of taxes is not noAv to be aAmided, so that a little extra money OA-er and above the earnings of the plough or the nets is not altogether despised in these parts. Hence not a few persons turn their hands during a part of the year to boat-building, pottery, brick- making, silk-growing, paper-making, AAXAod-craft and other minor industries, suspending the same as soon as the time arnA-es for the resumption of their snbstantiAm occnpations. Apart f]'oni the foregoing there are, Iioaa"- eA^er, a feAv industries of a more or less professional nature Avhich demand the whole time of their Amtaries and the earnings of which amount to more than mere adA^entitions pocketmoney. These are Rice-mill- i]ig. Distilling, Sugar Iveilning, Mining and Forestry, but such is the disposition of the Siamese that these lucrative trades are left almost entirely in the hands of immigrant Chinese or, in the case of the last-named occupation, of ti-ibesmen from the northern mountains. The Chinaman indeed not only monopolises most of tliese industries l)ut ])lies many of the smaller trades, to the exclusion of all but a feAv of the iiatiA^es of the country. Thus the shoemakers, tailors, carpenters, blacksmiths, tinsmiths, carriage-builders, biackhuA^ers, even market-gardeners and manual labourers, are usiiall}^ Chinese, Avliile a A^ery large proportion of the shopkeepers, pawnbrokers and petty traders are also of that nationality. 298 SIAM AGRICULTURE AND PLANTING Bice . — From time immemorial the plains, valleys and parts of the hills of Siam have been devoted to the cultivation of rice and the present inhabitants of the country continue to plough, sow and reap there after the same methods and with the same kind of imple- ments, as were employed by their predecessors a thousand years ago. To say that rice is the principal product of the country conveys but a feeble and in- adequate impression of the supreme position of this cereal in the land. It might in fact almost be said that rice is Siam’s only product, for though she exports timber, tin, fish, cattle, i^epper and copra, and grows tobacco, maize, millet, sugar, cotton, betel and a great variety of fruits, yet her rice production preponderates so entirely and her commerce, politics and social con- ditions are now, and have always been, so profoundly influenced by rice, that all these lesser products amount by comparison almost to nothing. The Englishman wliose idea of a staple food is formed from a knowledge of the part played by bread in the economy of his owm country, can have but small conception of the import- ance of rice to the Siamese. It constitutes not merely the princijDal but almost the sole food of everyone from the highest noble to the lowliest plebeian ; horses, cattle, dogs, cats and all other domestic animals live on it ; it is used for making beer and s])irits, it enters largely into all ceremonial, while religious and superstitious observances in connection with its cultivation provide the i^eople with their most frequent occasions for holidays and festivals. The onl}^ recognised means of investing money was, until the recent introduction of banking in accordance with European methods, the purchase of rice fields, and the nobles are graded according to certain (nowadays purely nominal) grants of rice-land conferred by the king with every patent of INDUSTRIES 299 nobility ; dealings in rice and the ownership of rice- fields are the causes of most of the civil litigation in the law-courts, and the result of the last or the prospects of the next rice-harvest, provide the most absorbing topics of conversation and discussion at all times. It is rice which forms the cargoes of the thousands of boats ever passing up and down the river Meiiani Chao Phaya and the freight of the goods-trains which daily reach Bangkok from the interior ; it is rice which supplies the grist of the numerous mills of the metropolis and of many provincial towns (the furnaces of which mills are fed with rice-husk) ; it is rice which is carried away in the ocean-going steamers always to be seen loading in the Port of Bangkok or the Koh Si Chang roads ; and it is from rice that the Government derives, directly or indirecth", almost the whole of its revenue. In the histoiy of the country also, rice has loeen an important factor. Many of the ancient invasions which swept over the land were caused by the desire of one ruler to possess the rich rice-lands of another, while the demands of agriculture v^ere frequenth" the cause of the usually indecisive nature of the wars in which old Siam so often indulged. Throughout the rainy season the peasant of ancient Further India diligently worked to obtain his crop of rice ; then, with the coming of the cold weather, having reaped and garnered his grain, he took his trusty sword and spear and Avent on the raid Avith his chief in the liA^ely ho])e of loot, of unlimited opinm to smoke and of the smallest modicum of danger to be encountered. The approach of the next ploughing season carried his thoughts irresistil)ly liomeAvards ; there Avei’e fields to be cleared, ploughs to be made, and spirits, AAnthout AAdiose goodAA'ill no crop aaus to be expected, to be pro- pitiated ; and moreover aaui* Avith the rain falling Avas hardly amusing, besides being dangerous on account of the damp. And it thus hap])ened that an army in the field usually began to dAvindle aAvay Avith the coming of 300 SIAM the rains, quite regardless of the war in which it was engaged. The number of species of rice cultivated in Siam is usually put at four, though some of the numerous varieties into which these are subdivided are, by many authorities, considered as distinct species. These varieties are upwards of one hundred in number, the chief distinguishing qualities being difference of colour, size, or flavour of the grain, the absence, or varying length of the awn, and what not. The recognised species are kept quite separate in cultivation, but little care is taken as regards the varieties, many of which are often found growing freely intermingled in one and the same small fiehl The four species are khao san the common rice of low-er Siam, /c/mo nio glutinous rice grown throughout the country, but not in large quantities exce})t in the north, where it takes the place of common rice as ordinaiq^ food, khao deng literal^ ‘ red ’ rice, which when boiled, appears other than white, owing to the fact that the thin membranous glumes udiicli adhere to the grain when husked, are of a red, yellow, purple, or black colour, according to the variety of the sj)ecies. The above three species are all quasi-water plants : the fourth is the khao rai kong or hill rice grown l)}^ the dumllei'S among the mountains including Lao, Lawa, Karien, and Kaclie. Who shall say wlien the cultivation of rice first began in Siam ? Tradition and record, so far Ixack as they go, show it already in a flourishing condition there. It may have been introduced from China, where rice was certainly very much cultivated 5000 years ago, or from India wliere it is almost as old, but it is more likely that its use dates back even beyond 5000 years for, as wheat is found among the relics of pre-liistoric man in Europe, so, it may safel,y l)e asserted, did rice form a part of the belongings of his Asiatic contemporary. It is j)robable indeed that the inhabitants of Siam in the Neolithic INDUSTRIES 301 age, traces of whose existence ahoniid in the form of the polished celts peculiar to that period, already knew the uses of rice and planted a semi- wild, undeveloped form of it in the mountain valleys and upland marshes, which were all that then appeared aliove the sea of what is now Siam. Rice has been found growing wild, apparently indigenous in China and in India, and may therefore be fairly concluded to have been indigenous in Indo- China also, seeing that this country lies between the other two, and is now peculiarly the home of the rice plant, and to have crept I33' slow degrees into cultivation simnltaneonsl}^ in all three places. However this may be, it is certain that at the comparative!}" recent date of the first appearance of the Lao-Tai ancestors of the Siamese on the upper reaches of the Menam Chao Phaya, the cultivation of rice had already been known to them for centuries, while the more civilised Khmer with whom they came in contact hact brought great areas of the vast plains of the lower Mehkong and '\Ienam valleys into a state of cultivation which would compare favourably with that which obtains there to-day, a condition x>i’omoted doubtless by the close connection Avhicli at that time existed between Kambodia and the rice-growing countries of tlie East. The wealth and greatness of the pre-Siamese Khmer kingdoms were built ujion rice, even as the wealth and prosperity of modern Siam rest solely upon it. At the time when the former were at their zenith, the area under cultivation in the iMenam valley must have been very great, but with the irru])tions of the Lao-Tai tribes and the disorganisation which thereuxion ensued, much of the land went out of cultivation and it was not until the founding of Ayuthia brought comparatively peaceful times, that the resinnjition of rice cultivation once more brought to the country riches and consef|uent develop- ment of civilisation. Even at the present da}', however, the Siamese have not reclaimed more than a part of the 302 SIAM lands wliicli provided the Khmer with the means to build their beantifnl cities and temples, and to carry on their extensive trade with China and India. Great treeless plains, overgrown now with reeds and grass, surround the site of many a long vanished Khmer town, and across these can with some difficulty be traced the course of ancient irrigation canals, all vestige of tradition concerning which has been so completely lost that the peasantry who, with the recent more rapid development of rice-growing are beginning to work these plains, ignoring the significance of the slight depressions now visible in the contour of the land, believe themselves to be on virgin soil which has never before been ploughed excej)t by sea-waves. It would occupy too .mnch space to describe separately each of the numerous varieties of the local species of rice, but one or two are worthy of note if only as showing the wonderful adaptability of nature to cir- cumstances. As a rule the young rice-plants growing in a nursery must be transplanted as soon as they reach a certain height, that is, before they become so large as to choke each other, and in seasons of drought the entire sowing is liable to be lost by reason of the inability of the farmer to prepare his sun-baked land in time, after the first showers have tempted him to sow his nurseiy. A variety of common rice kliao san is, however, to be found which, upon reaching a certain size ill the niirser)^, stops growing though remaining perfectly healthy, until the heavy rain has come to soften the earth, when it can be transplanted and resumes its growth apparently quite unalfectecl. It can be imagined how popular is this variety of rice in disti'icts liable to an irregular rainfall, where, but for its peculiar qualities, the farmers would frequentK secure little or no return for their labour. Again, in many parts of the country, the land on which rice is grown is liable to floods of greatly varying severity. THE GREAT CEXTRAL REAIXS EROAI THE WEST, SHOWIXG THE RICE FIELDS OF SIAM. RICE-LANDS IN FLOOD-TIME. INDUSTRIES 303 Here the ordinary rice-plant would frequently be destroyed and a variety is therefore used which has been evolved in the course of centuries of selection. The variety grows at first as ordinary rice, but when the floods come its growth is accelerated to keep pace with the rise of water. The straw, large and light, acts as a float and keeps the head of the plant above water, and as the flood slowly subsides, lies on the surface throwing out at the nodes, lateral shoots that terminate in ears, and fibrous rootlets which draw from the water the additional nourishment demanded by the luxuriously growing plant, which the original roots in the soil can- not supply. Thus a crop is secured, however severe the floods may be, though the resultant grain, owing doubt- less to the rank growth of the plant, is small and inferior in quality to that produced on irrigable and drainable land. It is said that these two varieties which to some extent compensate for the absence of artificial irrigation, are also found in the marshy plains of lower Bengal but in no other rice-growing countries. The Siamese, in common with other Oriental rice growers, apply an extensive nomenclature to their staple product. The generic term is Miao ; the seedlings when they first apx>ear above ground are kra and when full grown have become ton khao ; the grain fresh winnowed is khao plcuak, the paddy of commerce, and Avhen husked is khao Idang or khao san according to the thoroughness of the operation ; the husk is klap and fermented rice is khao nak. The early and late crops are distinguished as khao hao and khao nak that is, light and heavy rice, and connoisseurs can determine at sight to which of these classes a sample of grain belongs. A still further distinction is made according to the process l)y which the rice lias been cultivated, that transplanted during growth being known as khao na suan or garden rice, and that not so treated as khao na muaiuj or provincial rice. 304 SIAM Cultivation of rice is conducted in Siam in three different ways, by planting in small fields on which a moderate and even supply of water can be maintained thronghont the season, by sowing broadcast in larger fields subject to irregular supplies of water and some- times to heavy floods, and by sowing or dibbling in rough, mountain-side clearings. The first method, called na dam — from na a rice-field and dam to dive (illustrative of the action of plunging the seedlings into the soft mud) — which is practised with slight variations throughout the rice-growing world, is by far the most productive and prevails wherever it is possible sufficiently to control the water supply. The second, na wan, from n-an meaning to sow, common to parts of Burma and Cochin China, demands less labour than na dam but produces less grain and that of an inferior quality ; it is a primitive method nearly related to the third or jungle-clearing, dibbling process called na pa (pci meaning jungle), which last is without doubt the most ancient form of rice cultiva- tion, and is practised by the wild tribes of Siam as well as by those of Burma, China, India, Tonquin and elsewhere. The fields devoted to the ?? a da??? process are surrounded each by its own small dam a foot or so high, and thus form a series of shallow pans. All through the dry season these lands are an arid waste of baked, cracked, heat-stricken clay, but with the first showers heralding the rains, the soil becomes soft, the cracks fill in and grass immediat ly springs up. Then the husbandman prepares, in a corner of one field, the nursery where shall be raised seedlings sufficient to plant up the whole of his land. The soil of the nursery is churned into a mixture of wet mud and manure, on the well-smoothed surface of Avhich the seed is thickly sown. Germination takes place almost at once and in a few days the nursery is a thick, brilliant green mat of young rice-plants for SIAMESE PLANTING OUT YOUNG RICE- SEEDLINGS IN IRRIGATED EIELD. I 1 INDUSTRIES 305 the reception of which the farmer and his family now prepare the rest of the land. The embankments are examined and made water-tight and as soon as the soil is sufficiently moist, it is ploughed. Enough water is then admitted, or opportunely falls as rain, to cover the field entirely to a depth of some inches and a rake harrow is then introduced by which means the weeds and grass uprooted by the plough are removed and the soil churned into a thick, porridge-like mass. As each small field is brought to this condition it is planted up, the seedlings which have now grown to about eighteen inches long being treated by a process called taivn hra demanding no little skill on the part of the husbandman. Some hundreds of the plants are firmly grasped al^out the middle with both hands and gently dravm from the mud, the l^undle is then svuing in the air and brought down heavily against the raised foot of the o]3erator, the mud adhering to the interlaced roots being thus shaken off, then dumped upon a little platform, or on a single-legged stool stuck into the mud, where it is shaken into shape and tied about with a wisp of grass, and finally svmng down again to the ground a compact, symmetrical packet {mat hra) with scarcely an injured seedling in it. Anon the bundles are carried to the field where planting is going on and are there dej)osited at intervals. Those engaged in planting untie them as they are required, and, separating the seedlings Q)eng hra) into wis]5s of four or five together {haiD hra) plunge these, with a single movement of the hand, or with the aid of a stick, deep into the mud where they are thereafter left to grow. With the completion of planting, active opera- tions in the field are for a time suspended, all that is now necessary being an occasional inspection of the dams, the preparation of granaries made of bamboo matting, coated inside with mud and covered u 306 SIAM with thatch, and, when the crop begins to ripen, the scaring of birds. For the na wan process the land is ploughed as for na dam, but is harrowed without being flooded. No nursery is used but the grain is sown broadcast as soon as the weeds and grass have been removed, the opera- tion being thereupon completed. The na pa method entails the maximum of labour and yields the minimum of profit. Some time before the rains begin, a patch of jungle is selected and the trees on it cut down and left to dry. After a short interval the dried timber, bushes and grass are burnt and the land thus cleared of everything except stumps. If the jungle is thin and the roots in the soil not numerous, a plough is then brought into requisition but in most cases this is not possible and the ground has to be broken up by hoeing. When this has been accomplished, the seed is sown broadcast or in holes made with a stick, half a dozen grains to the hole. An additional labour is entailed by the rapid growth of weeds which have to be removed several times while the crop is young. A clearing is used for two seasons only, as the soil is found to become so soon exhausted as to render a third soAving almost fruitless ; among the mountains the clearings are almost invariably upon the slopes, some tribes carefully selecting the steepest possible acclivities, the gradient being, through long habit, a matter of indifference to them AAdiile AAulking. Also, on account of the AA^ood ashes available as manure, dense tree jungle is considered the best land and is there- fore chosen rather than more open country, although the clearing of it is often a matter of great difficulty. In the outlying districts, AAdiere jungle surrounds or is contiguous to, the fields, the damage done by birds is often very considerable. Green parrots are sometimes a scourge in these parts, great flocks of many thousands INDUSTRIES 307 of birds flashing back and forth over the yellow fields and settling among the golden ears, with beantifnl but disastrous effect. They are not, however, allowed to rob unmolested, for the clay pellet from the bow of the watcher seated on a slightly raised platform among the crop, speedily finds them out or, if ‘ browning ’ with this small missile fails to scare them, a large ball of baked earth, lannched from the whippy end of a long bamboo, soon sends the whole flock sweeping away with discordant cries to the next clearing, and so on until it arrives at a field, the watcher of which is asleep, where it settles nndistnrbed and in a few minntes of eating and scrambling makes a large hole for somebody in the season’s profits. The reaping season brings everybody into the fields again, wielding sickles and reaping-knives the shape of which varies in different parts. The crop is cut, leaidiig a long stnbble, then bound into small sheaves and is stacked on the winnowing ground, a circular spot, either in the fields or near the village, bared of all growth and beaten down hard and level. The sheaves are often brought to the winnowing ground on light bamboo sledges drawn by the plough cattle, vdiich latter are also noAv required for the threshing. This last is effected by driving the animals yoked together, round a j)Ost to which the innermost is fastened, and spreading the sheaves out beneath their feet to be trodden upon until the grain is all detached from the straw. Winnowing is performed by the simple process of j)onring the grain on to the ground from a raised X)latform, the empty hnsks and the chaff being blown away in the descent. When the wind is high the raised platform can l)e dispensed vdth. The methods of reaping and winnowing are the same all over the country, except in those districts where the floods are heaviest and where reaping has sometimes to be done from boats. 308 SIAM The grain is now piled up in shining yellow heaps on the winnowing ground and in this condition it is, in the southern districts, bought by the dealers for the rice-mills. In the North it is carried away and stored in the granaries until the harvest and the subsequent period of idleness and merrymaking is quite over, when the great rice-boats carry it also to the mills. Enough grain is in all cases retained for food during the coming year and for next season’s seed, upon the selection of which latter little or no particular care is bestowed. According to an ancient custom which exists through- out Further India and in fact in all countries where uncertainty of climate makes it imperative to take advantage of all favourable weather, agricultural operations in Siam were, and still are in the outlying districts, performed communally, that is, by numbers of the villagers working in concert in the fields of their neighbours in succession, and these labours in common, usually confined to transplanting and reaping, are made the occasion of much friendly intercourse and are looked forward to with pleasure. Thus, upon an evening, a farmer will visit his friends, and, informing them that his hra is well grown and his fields ready, will formally ask them to assist at the planting. The family soothsayer has been consulted, and has j)ronounced the day to be a lucky one ; the Pu Yai Ban, or village Headman, has been informed ami has given his consent, plenty of good white rice and a special brand of dried fish have been prepared, in fact, no expense has been spared that the planting may ])e fittingly accomplished. The neigh- bours, whose fields perhaps receive their water later and therefore are not ready, willingly agree to take part and the next morning sees the whole party, the size of which varies with the area to be planted, out in the fields in their l)lack working clothes and large white suii-hats. The men are set to pulling up, tying and INDUSTRIES 309 carrying the Kra, and the women, lined ont in the fields, receive the bundles, open them and plunge the young plants in the mud. Thus the work goes on all day, enlivened by a flow of badinage and laughter, the not over delicate jokes of the young men evoking prompt repartee of equal humour and breadth from the girls, who fire off their wit without looking up from the inelegant stooping attitude entailed by their occupation. Unfortunate is the youth who shall now deliver to the maidens untidy or mud-clotted bundles. Upon him descends a deluge of feminine sarcasm, withering him in the sight of his delighted companions. Indeed, the clums}" rice cultivator is an object of general derision and, whereas the young man who is handy with plough and sickle stands well with the elders and is admired by all, the bungler at this, the most important duty of manhood, goes through life with the heaviest of handi- caps. It is the same with the other sex ; the girl who can plant her rai of land a day, has no lack of suitors and, if comeliness is added to her other charms, is always much in request for working parties as a draw for the young men. True, her attractiveness may not be evident to alien eyes as she stoops and waddles bare-legged in the water in her tight-fitting long black coat, diminutive panung and large white hat, all freely bespattered with mud, but to the youths of her ovm condition who watch her there, she embodies all the female charm tliey have been taught to recognise, while her industry and deftness indicate the comfortalile home, the well-cooked rice and the general hap])iness in store for the fortunate man wlio shall get her. Ill the evening the workers, washed clean from the mud of the fields and dressed in dry clothes, partake of the superior rice and fish of their host, on which they do not fail to compliment him, then, after a smoke, more chaff and perlia]is a round or two of semi-improvised 310 SIAM verses touching on the incidents of the day, the party breaks up, to meet again and go through the same routine next day. Reaping and winnowing by con- certed action are conducted in the same way, when, the weather being fine, the ground reasonably dry and the sexes indiscriminately mingled, there is even more room for jollity than the planting season affords. In the neighbourhood of the capital the small peasant proprietor tends to disappear, giving place to the great land-owner of the royal family or the nobility, and for this reason (as well as because the farmers round Bangkok are becoming more and more impressed with the advantages of getting the utmost produce out of their land), the old custom of communal labour is falling into disuse, the work being done by large numbers of Lao coolies who come down from the hills every year and hire themselves out for the season. The rice-growing implements in use at the present day, differ little, if at all, from those emploj^ed b37- the remote ancestors of the actual occupiers of the land. They consist of a heavy knife with handle at right angles like an English hay-cutting knife, for clearing long grass off the land ; the plough, tai, made of two pieces of wood generally cut by the farmer himself in the nearest jungle, joined together with cane and having the point shod with a small iron share expressively called hoa vni or ‘Pig’s Head’; the harrow krat, an exaggerated hay rake drawn by cattle, upon the back of which the driver stands that his weight may keep the six or eight l)road wooden teeth deep in the soil ; a planting stick, sometimes used where the water in the fields is too deep for planting to be comfortably done with the hand, merely a light rod with a forked end to hold the plants ; the hoe, cliauy, the same as used elseAvhere ; the sledge consisting of a light, neatly made platform mounted on runners, all of bamboo, used H.R.H. PRIXCK DAMROXG IX A LIGHT BULLOCK CARRIAGE. ■ 'C i..' , -• A ':i f ■ "i. •' 1 i INDUSTRIES 311 only in those parts of the lower plain where, at reaping time, the water is still ont or the soil too soft for the wheels of a cart. The knife used for reaping varies great- ly in shape in different localities ; the Siamese and Lao use a sickle called kio, not unlike the European article but varying in size and shape in each district, while in the southern peninsular provinces there are two forms, one a flat knife set at right angles to the end of a long stick called penud in East Coast Malay, and the other a thin blade set in the convex edge of a flat board pierced by a bamboo stick. The latter is called kek in Siamese and pengetam, (from Ketmn, a crab) in Malay and is used almost exclusively by women, who are often wonderfully expert with it and get through an astonish- ing amount of reaping, although it cuts no more than a single straw at a time. The Siamese cart deserves special notice. The bullock- cart, the commonest form of it in most parts of the country, is a well-balanced, trim machine with a large curved tilt of bamboo matting brought well over in front and behind. Two poles, set together in the form of a V, support at their apex the yoke and near their base the body of the cart and the axletree is also attached to them. The wheels have rims, spokes and axles of hard red wood and the axletree protrudes beyond the axles and fits into outriggers attached to the cart fore and aft the wheels, distributing the weight in such manner as to enable the structure to withstand the unlimited bumping and thumping to which it is subjected whether travelling across country or along the rough roads. This outrigger arrangment is ]:>robably of Kambodian origin, being found all through that country and Siam, though apjmrently unknown in the Shan States or Burma. The light carts used as private conveyances are often beautifully built, those of the Chantaburi province in particular, being highly finished 312 SIAM with, polished lacquer work. The great kwien, or wagon, of the lower plains is a remarkable machine. The form is roughly that of the ordinary bullock-cart but the V-shaped poles form a smaller angle, the body is long, deep and very narrow and the tilt is not usually brought over in front or behind. The wheels are about seven feet in diameter, the top of the tilt is often as much as ten feet from the ground and the outriggers are enormous, wide-spreading affairs two or more feet from the body of the cart and turned up at the ends into fantastic points. Buffalos are used to draw it and a kwien rolling sedately over the open fields with its body swaying and the great horns of its cattle waving, is an impressive object. With all its appearance of size however, its cariying capacity scarcely exceeds that of the more modest bullock-cart, since the deep, soft soil which prevails Avhere it is used, forbids anything but a light load. The Siamese cart has usually been built, all but the wheels, by the driver himself and contains no part which cannot soon be replaced in case of accident, from the nearest patch of jungle. The rim of the wheel has no tire, but is made in sections dovetailed into each other and tightened up with wedges. Cane lappings do duty for nails throughout the structure, which is thereby made very strong, Init apt to give forth the most fearful groans at every movement. The wheels also, with their wooden axles working on Avooden axletrees, produce piercing shrieks AAdiich at times reach far beyond mere noise. The carter loves this music, Avhich frightens olf Avild lAeasts and ‘ spooks ’ along the lonely jungle roads, announces his approach to his far distant friends, and enables him to recognise his oaaui cart among a thousand. A powerful screech enhances the value of a cart and tricks are knoAvn by Avhich the tones can be arranged to suit different tastes. The traveller’s tale of the villagers Avho tune their cart AAdieels before KWIl'^X OK BUFFx\LO CART. CENTRAL SIAM. Photo : Antonio, PLOUGH BUFFALO. CENTRAL SIAM. INDUSTRIES 313 starting on a journey as a violinist tunes his instrument is, however, to he discredited. The draught-cattle of the country are the ijonderous water-buffalo in the lower plains and among the high mountains, and small, lightly-built, skittishly inclined bullocks everywhere else. For ploughing a single buffalo or a pair of bullocks is used. Attempts have more than once been made to introduce modern implements and machinery for the cultivation of rice, and scientific farming companies have been started in different localities but, owing to imperfect management and other causes, these have not succeeded, and melancholy iron ploughs and threshing machines rusting in deserted farmyards are all that noAv remains of them, the lands they were intended to exploit having long since reverted to the conservative native and his ancient tools. At the present moment, however, the government is offering grants to assist private enterprise in the search for a power-driven plough which shall work satisfactorily on hard unmoistened soil and thus enable the cultivator to get his land ploughed earlier than is now the case. Experiments with steam and petrol motor ploughs have been tried but have hitherto failed on account of the high cost involved, but several engineering firms are still pursuing the matter and hope to find a solution of the problem before long. Coconuts . — The coconut-palm was at one time largely grown round Bangkok and inland in Central Siam but within the last tAventy-five years or so the ravages of the dread coconut-beetle have been so terrible that the tree has almost entirely disappeared from that part of the country. Coconuts are noAv imported into Bangkok in large numbers, the coconut-palm tax has been removed from the reA^enue schedules and Central Siam has apparently accepted as final the defeat inflicted upon it by the beetle. Yet a reasonable amount of care and 314 SIAM forethought is all that was ever required to check the virulence of the insect pest and even now there is no reason why, with proper precautions, the coconut-palm should not thrive as Avell in Central Siam as it does further south. In Southern Siam, for reasons which are not precisely known, but which would appear to be connected with the prevalence of salt sea winds, the coconut-palm grows magnificently, is very little affected by beetles, and its cultivation is rapidly extending. The tree prefers a light sandy soil and in many places on the east coast is grown right on the seashore with its roots washed by the breakers. The nuts are planted, after being coaxed into sprouting in a damp, shady spot, about twenty-five feet apart, in regular rows, and be,yond an occasional clearing of the ground and a periodical search for beetles, require little subsequent attention. On good soil fruit may be expected when the trees are six years old but the average age of first bearing is from seven to eight years. The growing of coconuts is perhaps the easiest form of agriculture in the world. As soon as the trees are high enough the owner builds a house amongst them, and thereafter has little to do l^eyond occasionally shooting the squirrels which damage the fruit considerably at times, and at inteiwals picking those of the nuts which have begun to turn ])rown. This latter ox^eration is often performed by monkeys trained for the x^''-ii1^ose, a good strong animal whose education has been well attended to, com- manding a high price. The grower counts upon obtain- ing from fifty to a hundred nuts a year from each tree, and on a x^i'ice of l)etween 5s. and 6s. 6d. per hundred, or in other words something like £16 10s. gross profit per acre, so that coconut cultivation in Siam is an extremely profital:)le, as well as a j^leasant, occupation. It is probably one which will attract European planters now that the country has been thrown ox:»en to per- INDUSTRIES 315 manent settlement by foreigners. Tire Island of Koli Sainni off the east coast of Southern Siam, is supjiosed to produce the finest coconuts in the Avorld and those of many places on the mainland close by are very little, if at all, inferior. Rubber . — In Siam the planting of rubber is an entirely new industry. Though situated close to the Malay States under British protection, the centre of the world’s rubber planting industry, and though in daily com- munication with Singapore where the prospects of rubber cultivation have formed the chief topic of conversation since 1906, the Siamese have only in the latter part of 1909, begun to realise the true significance of the matter and the importance which it may have for their country. A certain quantity of wild rubber of inferior quality, collected l^y hillmen in the forests of Northern Siam and bought up by traders, has been exported from Bangkok for many years past and more than one species of rubber-producing tree has been known and tapped in Southern Siam. But in both cases tlie source of supply is a variety of the Ficus family, of very slow growth, and it was for some reason taken for granted that no part of Siam was suitable for the cultivation of the Para, Castilloa and other rubber trees adapted for plantation purposes. It has lately been demonstrated by experi- ment that in the most southerly districts of Southern Siam there is a very large area of available land on which the best kinds of plantation rul:»ber thrive as well as in the neighbouring British Malay States. At present there exists in this tract one well-establislied Para rubber plantation where about 1100 rai, or 450 acres have been planted and where a force of some 150 labourers is employed, and several applications for large areas of land, required for this purpose, are now before the Government. Pepper . — The cultivation of pepper is one of the most 316 SIAM ancient industries of tire country. As far back as history goes it has been an article of export, and has formed part of the complimentary gifts sent to foreign countries by embassies from the Court of Siam. In the seventeenth century the monopoly of the pepper trade was one of the chief bones of contention between the foreign merchants in Siam, and it was largely by giving this to the French that Faulkon, shortly before his downfall, hoped to strengthen their position in the country. At that time the output was probably more than three thousand tons a year but at the present day it is much less, the market, during the last fevf years especially, having been so uncertain as to damage the industry considerably. Pepper growing is confined to the littoral provinces of Southern Siam, and is almost entirely in the hands of Chinese settlers. Its cultivation demands a good deal of care and is an expensive branch of agriculture. The vines, which are groAvn on poles set a few feet apart, have to be carefully tended and watered and the intervening ground requires constant weeding. The plant yields fruit at the age of about three years and when in good condition is very prolific. The leaves are large and glossy and of a dark green colour. The flowers are borne on a raceme on which the berries afterwards cluster thickly. As these enlarge they are thinned out, and the unripe fruit then removed, being dried in the sliell, forms the black pepper of commerce. The berries which remain turn a yellowy green when ripe and after being dried, with the outer shell removed, are termed wiiite pe])per, the A^alue of which is nearly double til at of black. Tobacco is grown in several districts though not much in the central plains. In some localities it is cultivated in the rice-fields during the dry weather but the best crops are raised in the light, rich, alluvial soil on the banks and islands of the upper reaches of the INDUSTRIES 317 Menam Chao Phaya and its tributaries. In Northern Siam tobacco is the principal agricultural product after rice. The output of the whole country is not however equal to the amount consumed and a considerable quantity is imported from China. The methods of cultivation are rough. The seed is sown in beds and the seedlings are afterwards planted out in ground which has been well ploughed and hoed. Little weed- ing is done as the plants grow up and no precautions are taken to Avard off the attacks of insects, A\Nerefore much of the crop is often lost, AAdiile that whicli reaches maturity frequently consists of malformed and stunted plants. The loAvest leaves are stripped off the plant as soon as they attain full size, the plant continuing to grow, and this operation is continued until the leaves produced are too small to be AA^orth collecting Avhen the mutilated stem is left to floAAm- and produce seed as best it can. When still green the leaves are cut up into coarse shreds and the tobacco thus made is exposed to the sun on mats or racks until dried. At present the best Siamese tobacco is rough and strong, and efforts to introduce it to the notice of Europeans in the form of pipe-tobacco and cigarettes have met AAuth indifferent success. It is probable, hoAvever, that Avith other methods of cultiA^ation and Avith greater care bestoAA^ed upon the cutting, drying and curing processes, a tobacco equal to that produced in Burma, India, JaA^a or Borneo could be obtained. At present the AAdiole cro }3 is con- sumed locally in the form of cigarettes Avrapped in lotus floAA'er petals, or in the spathe of Indian corn. Sugar . — Once upon a time Siam Avas a great sugar- groAving country. In the first half of the I9th century this AAus her principal article of export to Europe, and Sir John BoAAuing Avhen he visited Bangkok in 1855, predicted that sugar AAmild soon become the chief agricultural product of the country. His conjectures 318 SIAM did not however become facts for, in common with other cane-sugar centres, Siam has been hopelessly defeated by beet. Sugar-cane is now grown only in small patches and that for purely local consumption in the raw state or for the making of coarse molasses, and the only remains of the once flourishing cane-sugar industry are the melancholy ruins of a number of sugar mills on the banks of the Menam Noi and Nakhon Chaisi rivers, one of which for many years figured in an edifying lawsuit between the Royal Survey Department, who had used the half-ruined chimney thereof as a trigno- metrical point, and the owner, who demanded an exorbitant rent therefore on pain of removal of his property. A good deal of coarse jaggery sugar is however extracted from the juice of Palmyra and coconut palms, the industry being chiefly noticeable on account of the peculiar method adopted for taxing it. Small earthenware pots of a peculiar shape and uniform size are made to the order of the Government and the makers of this unrefined sugar are compelled by law to use these, and no other pots as moulds into which to run their sugar when made, flflie price of the pots includes the cost of their manufacture and also the revenue on the sugar, and severe penalties are imposed on those who expose any sugar for sale otherwise than in the Govern- ment pots, or who attempt to manufacture pots of the prescribed shape. Betelnut . — The Areca or ‘ Betelnut ’ palm is grown in every joart of the country, biit in few districts is the production sufficient to meet the enormous demand which the chewing proclivities of the Siamese create. In some parts of Southern Siam, however, the supply exceeds the demand, and a certain quantity of betelnut is exported thence to other parts of the Kingdom and to Singapore and Penang. In the sul)urbs of Bangkok the CRUSHING SUGAR CANE, y 1 I I INDUSTRIES 319 betelnut palm is grown in gardens where the trees are planted in orderly rows inter-planted with such other frnit-trees as are fonnd to thrive in the thin shade which they cast. In the provinces the trees are grovm in rough plantations, round about the houses of the peasantry, and on any patch of available waste land. With its smooth straight stem, graceful topknot of leaves and hanging bunches of fruit sometimes full fifty feet from the ground, the betel is one of the most graceful of all the palm family. Once planted in a moist situation it requires al^solutely no care, and though it is possible that by selection and manuring the fruit might be improved, the Siamese cultivator has never thought it worth while to take any trouble about it. The betelnut is used fresh, dried or pickled. When fresh the edible or rather chewable kernel is yellow and soft, when dry it is brown and extremely hard and has to be cut up or pounded before it can be used, and when pickled it is soft and brown and rotten-looking. The trees yield fruit at the end of their third year and bear usually once, but in some places twice a year, from a hundred to five hundred nuts. There appears to be a ready and constant demand for betelnut both in India and China, and it is probable that plantations of these palms in Southern Siam would be found highly profitable. Hitherto, however, European planters have not taken any interest in this product of agriculture. Cotton . — This has been cultivated in Siam from time immemorial, all tradition as to when and by whom it was introduced having long been lost. It seems probable, however, that the i>lant was first brought to the country from India, where it is known to have been in use at least 2500 years ago, and whence it ])rol:>ably accompanied the early Telingana settlers to Pegu and Kambodia. Several A^arieties of the species Gossypium Tlerlaceum are used, and it is belieA^ed that Gossypium 320 SIAM Hirsutum is also found in Siam, though this species seems to he otherwise confined to the American continent. Cultivation is carried on chiefly in the north, hut has of late years declined very much owing to increasing facilities for obtaining foreign cotton goods everywhere. The quality is good, however, though rough, and given sufficient incentive to development, the plant could he grown with success in all parts of the country except perhaps in Southern Siam, and there is no reason why cotton should not some day become an article of export. Experiments made by the Department of Agriculture in 1906-07, with seed collected from distant parts of the country, gave good results, though the staple was found to he rather short. The plant, which is treated as an annual in most countries, is here often allowed to remain in the ground for two or even three years, bearing crops of diminishing value twice each year, and growing into a straggling, woody shrub from six to eight feet high. This treatment is prompted by the indifference of the cultivator, indifference which however brings its own punishment, for the roots of the cotton, after three years growth, are plunged very deep in the earth and can only be removed by extensive digging operations. The cotton produced in Siam is nearly all dressed, spun and woven into cloth locally, but a small quantity of the raw article is exported overland into China and Burma. A tree-cotton, the fibre of which is known in commerce by the name of Ka/pok, is grown to some extent, but can hardly be said to be cultivated, though as it commands a good and steady price and flourishes in the damp climate of Southern Siam, it may attract the attention of planters in the future. Hesainum is grown sometimes in the rice-fields before the rice season and sometimes on high land. It is easy of cultivation and finds a ready sale but is not much grown on the lower plains. It is valued for the oil A DURIAX AIAKKET. Photo Antonio. I i INDUSTRIES 321 contained in the seed, which is extracted hy means of rough wooden presses worked hy hand or by bnllock power. The oil is used for cooking, more especially in those parts of the conntiy where coconut oil is not easily obtainable. The residue, after the oil has been extracted, is used for feeding cattle and as a manure. A certain amount of impressed seed (about 4000 tons) is annnally exported from the country. The remaining vegetable products of Siam may be classed rather as horticultural than as agricultural produce. Beans, Onions, Maize and Millet are grown to a certain extent in fields but more often in small garden patches. A few hundred tons of beans and onions are annually available for export, maize and millet are grown for home consumption only ; the betel vine {'plu), called in Mala^-a ‘Sirih’ and in India ‘Pan,’ the leaf of which is chewed with the lietel-nut, is largely grown in gardens, more especially in the neighbourhood of Bangkok, where the consumption of it is so great that one large market is devoted entirely to its sale. The vine recpiires much care, yields leaves fit for use when about a year old and continues to do so for him years, at the end of which time the foliage becomes small and of too strong a flavour to be of value. Chrdamoms are grown in and exported from, the Chantaljuri district and nutmegs are cultivated in Southern Siam. Yams and gourds of many kinds are grown in garden patches and chillies and egg-plants or ‘ lirinjals ’ are to be found in most villages. Tapioca is a common article of garden produce in the south and Indigo is groivn in small quantities in various parts. The fruits of Siam are veiy numerous in kind and abundant in c[uantity. They include Durians and i\Iangosteens, Mangos and Pine- apples, Oranges and Pummelos of many kinds, Custard- Apples and Bullock-hearts, Grenadillas and Soursops, Jack-fruit, Litchis, Tamarinds and Guavas, ]\raprang or X .322 SIAM Marion, Ngaii or Rambntan, Laiigsat, Kratorn, and many others. The orchards round Bangkok are well kept and highly profitable and more care seems to be given to fruit-growing in Siam generally than is the ease in other tropical countries. Irrigation Works The question of irrigation is one with which the future of Siam is altogether bound up. Although the export of rice has increased considerably of late years, there are abundant signs that a time is approaching when, unless serious steps are taken considerably to enlarge the annual output, this one great asset of the country will no longer enable it to meet the liabilities which progress creates on a continually increasing scale. Some twelve years ago, with from five to six hundred thousand tons of rice annually available for export, Siam had a regular yearly surplus of revenue which enabled her to lay up a considerable reserve of capital. Now with a rice export of some seven to eight hundred thousand tons, she has to meet a frequently recurring deficit which has eaten largely into her reserves and which, if allowed to continue, must in the immediate future seriously check the administrative and general progress which has been so marked during late years and by the continuance of which alone she can continue to exist. The liabilities which she has recently incurred in borrowing money from abroad and the efforts which she is bound to make and, indeed, is now making, to re-adjust her foreign treaties and thus to rid herself of the incubus of extra-territoriality, entirely forbid all thought of retrogression or of any relaxation of her efforts at reform, and to secure the funds which are absolutely INDUSTRIES 323 essential to coiitiiined progress, immediate and rapid development of lier resources, that is of her rice-pro- duction, is a matter of imperative necessity. At the present moment rather more than eight and a half million rai, or about three and a half million acres, are estimated to be under rice cultivation in the whole country, which area produces the entire food supply of the inhabitants and also the rice available for export. Meanwhile a good deal more than twice that area of excellent arable land remains unoccupied and fallow. Although the rice planted in the plains cannot live without the presence of an abundant supply of water, more especially during the first months of its growth, and although the rainfall is insufficient fully to meet this demand about twice in every five seasons, yet no true irrigation works are to be found anywhere except in some of the valleys in the north where the water from the streams is occasionally diA^erted from its course and distributed oA^er small areas. True, the iietAA^ork of creeks and channels elseAvhere referred to as existing in the southern part of the great central plain, liaA^e giA^en access to lands formerly uninhabitable for AA^ant of communication and, by admitting the AAuter of the rivers on to the said lands during flood time, liaA^e rendered the cultiAution of rice possible on a con- siderable part of them, but these, though excellent wateiways, are not irrigation Avorks, since they neither bring the AAUter to the land at such an elevation as to alloAv of its distribution oA^er the fields at any time when recpiired, nor do they, in any but the most inadequate AAuy, enable the flood-AAuters, AAdiich they introduce (sometimes AAuth disastrous effect), to return to the riA’-ers from AAdiich they have come. They are, in fact, mere inundation canals and though, in a year of sufficient rainfall and of average flood, they are of assistance to the crops, they are of small use in averting 324 SIAM loss ill tlie bad years when rainfall and flood are deficient or excessive. The most recently constructed of these canals, the Ivlang Rang Sit system, opened in 1896, brought under cultivation about three hundred and fifty thousand acres of first rate rice-land and incidentally made the fortunes of the concessionaries, one of whom, a Eurojiean, whose career opened behind the counter of a Bangkok chemist’s shop, is now a large landed proprietor in his own country. Many rude implements have been devised for raising water from the canals on to the fields, implements which, when Avater is only slightly deficient, enable the culti- vator to supplement the suppl}^ and to tide over short spells of drought, but Avhich, in the event of serious failure, are poAA^erless to arrest total loss of crop. Of these the commonest is a long-handled basket-shaped shovel of bamboo Avicker-AA^ork, suspended from the apex of a tripod and just touching the surface of the Avater brought in a small channel to the dammed edge of the field to be irrigated. The operator pushes the shoA^el baclvAAvards and foiward through the arc of a circle, and at each ]aus1i shoA^els up about a gallon of AA^ater and discharges it OA^er the little dam and on to his land. Sometimes the sIioaM, instead of hanging from a tri])od, is sus])ended by ropes l^etAA'een two men standing on either side of the channel and is sAAuing baclvAA^ards and foiwards hy them, at each SAving picking up and discharging a shoA^elful of AAuter. In years AAdien the rainfall is insufficient the efforts of the peasantry to save their crops by means of these al)surdly inadequate instruments, Avitli the hot sun scorching the rice-plants and pitilessly drying up the tiny rivulet made with so much exertion, are at once ridiculous and pathetic. A rather more satisfactory implement is a kind of tread- mill AA'here tAA^o men, AAulking on pedals fixed to the axle bar, reA^oh^e a AAdieel on AAdiich runs an endless band INDUSTRIES 325 fiiiTiislied with paddles or scoops which, passing through an inclined trough, one end of which is in the water ' while the other protrudes on to the field to he irrigated, rise and pour out a small hut constant stream of water. AttemjDts wHch have heen made to introduce windmill pumps have failed, the tropical winds l)eing found too capricious for the maintenance of any regular supply of water on the fields. It is many years since the Government first began to he aware that the time Avas approaching when cultiAm- tion according to the primitiAm methods of the ancients could no longer suffice foi* the needs of the State and AAdien the great question of irrigation AA^ould liaAm to he seriously considered. The matter aaus much debated and the ahoAm mentioned Klong Rang Sit concession, an outcome of early deliberations, aatts at first helieA-ed to he a solution of the difficulty. It AA^as thought that the system AA^ould sup]Aly all requirements and that it might in time he extended to coA^er the greater part of the plains of Central Siam. A feAV 3^ears’ experience Iioaa^- CA'er, made it apparent that tlie difficulty aaus not thus easily to he surmounted. The lands thereby brought under cultiAmtion, though more ]Arolific than most other parts, AA^ere found to he by no means rendered immune by Aurtue of the lock-gates confining the AA^aters of the neAv canals, to the Aucissitudes caused liy excessiA^e or deficient rainfall, AAdiile it aatts noticeable that by the rapid silting up of tlie new canals, lands opened up by the system soon became once more cut off and inacces- sible. It AA^as found indeed that the best of inundation canals did not much improA^e matters, and it became increasingly evident that by true irrigation alone conld the desired deA^elopment be attained. After this failure of practical experiment the question once more became academic, and continued to be discussed spasmodically for some years, during AAdiich matters AA^ent from bad to 326 SIAM worse, the existing canals being entirely neglected and * allowed to silt up to such an extent as largely to discount the annual increase in the rice production of the country which should have resulted from a rapidly improving revenue and police administration. At length the goA^ernment took the decisive step of procuring the assistance of a European irrigation expert to report on the situation and to advise as to the best means for improving the same. The results Avere firstly the reA^elation of a state of affairs entirely unsatisfactory from the hydrostatist’s point of vieAv and secondly a recommendation couched in the most earnest language, urging the immediate introduction of a sound system of true irrigation. In a masterly rej)ort the foreign expert put foiward a feasible scheme, based upon lengthy obseiwation of the conditions actually present, touching the soil, the geography and the available AA^ater supply of the country. It Avas sIioaaui that the great central plain Avas admirably adapted for irrigation, that the Avater supply Avas plentiful and that time, money and expert superintendence Avere alone AA^anting to create a great irrigation system AAdiich AA^ould not only render the lands iioav under cultiA^ation independent of flood and rainfall and therefore of greatl}^ enhanced productiA^eness, Init AA^ould increase the actual area of land aAmilable for rice cultivation to almost double its present area. The cost of the scheme, AAdiich included the repair and utilisation of all the existing canals, Avas placed at about three millions sterling, to be spread OA^er from five to seA^en years, and it aaus pointed out that Avitli this system in full AA^orking order, the total annual reA^enues of the country derived from land AA^ould be enormously increased. Much further consideration folloAA^ed the submission of this report, the upshot of AAdiich AAUS that a Department of Irrigation aaus in- augurated in the year 1904 and entrusted Avith the INDUSTRIES 327 labour of making the preliminary investigations neces- sary for the realisation of the proposed scheme and in the meanwhile of repairing all the old canals, rendering them fit for service once more as communications and suitable for subsequent embodiment in the main system. A lack of funds has in some degree hampered the operations of the new Department but the pre- liminary work has been steadily pushed forward, with the result that many of the old canals have been furnished with locks and deepened by steam dredging, while extensive surveys and hydrostatic measurements have given results which justify the beginning of actual construction of the great irrigation system in the immediate future, or, in the event of sufficient money not being forthcoming for this, the adoption of one or other of several minor schemes affecting portions only of the irrigable area, which have been prepared by the Department. Fisheries and Fishing As every meal which a Siamese eats, from the time of his weaning till death puts an end to his earthly career, consists principally of rice, so almost every mouthful of rice is made palatable and helped down by fish in some form or other. Fresh, salt, dried, pickled and decayed, are some of the forms in which, roasted, fried, boiled or raw, almost ever}^ creature of the water is daily assimi- lated by high and low, rich and poor. The Buddhist teachings deprecate the destruction of any form of animal life and the Siamese cosmology provides a special place of future punishment for the breakers of this law, with a department reserved for the peculiar treatment of those who destroy or who sanction the 328 SIAM destruction of fish. But since man must live, and a continual diet of plain boiled rice, even if eked out with other vegetable matter, is neither nourishing nor interesting, popular opinion has long since sanctioned an evasion of the law and, under the specious pretence that the taking of fish from the water and their sub- sequent loss of life are not strictly cause and effect, a considerable percentage of the population make a living by catching fish and the whole nation eats it and hopes for the best. Not the least important of recent ad- ministrative reforms of Siam has been the passing of a very complete and comprehensive Fisheries Act regulating the methods by which, the times when, and the places at which, fishing may be carried on, and incidentally fixing the revenues payable by fishermen of every degree. Prior to the passing of this law the fisheries constituted a State monopoly and were farmed out to wealthy Chinese, whose methods of subletting their rights and collecting their rents and duties left very much to be desired and were the causes of frequent nomplaints of injustice as well as of occasional dis- turbances of the peace. The new Act has proved of great benefit to the pid3lic and under its wise provisions all l^ranches of the industry are extending. Sea-fishing is carried on all round the coast of the gulf but assumes its greatest importance in the shallow waters near the northern shores. The Fisheries Act contains an interminable list of nets and traps for the Tising of which licenses of different values are necessary. The most productive of all traps is the Foil Lemii, constructed in water about twelve feet deep and con- sisting of two long converging lines of stakes, the narrow opening at one end of which leads into a ring of stakes and baml^oo screens enclosing an acre or more of water. Shoals of fish, more especially the yla tu, a small species of pilchard, are guided by the avenues of stakes INDUSTRIES 329 into the confined space where the fish assemble, some- times in enormous numbers, and whence, all egress having been stopped by nets, they are removed by the fishermen at regular intervals. These, however, are l^y no means the only fishing-stakes to be seen in the waters of the gulf. Outside the wide mouths of the rivers, converging lines of poles are planted, each pair of lines ending in a couple of stout posts to which, when the tide is on the turn, a bag-net, sometimes exceeding a hundred feet in length, is attached, and into this fish of all kinds and also innumerable ]irawns, crabs, cuttle-fish and other queer creatures are carried by the fast flowing waters. In other places the shallow sea is planted thick with thin poles, apparently at random, which, shortly after immersion, become encrusted from the bottom to the surface of the water with a large kind of mussel, imry much prized as food. In other places, again, long sticks passed through the centre of a small, flat circular net with a cane rim, are planted out in rows, the nets resting on the sea liottom and having a piece of bait in each. These contrivances are taken up ei^ery evening and usually eacli one brings to the surface one or more large cralis which are sold alive in the markets. Poll Lemu fishing is always something of a gamlile. The construction of the traps and drying apparatus are costly operations and a large staff of fishermen must be engaged and partly paid in advance at the beginning of the year. If the season is a good one, all is well ; the traps are filled with fish every day, the drying sheds are never empty and tlie fortunate speculator sees junk after junk sailing away China-bound with cargoes of his providing. Sometimes, however, the i^la tu, for reasons unknown to man, is present only in small slioals or fails altogether to put in an appearance, in which cases the end of the season finds the lessees of the fishing onlj^ just able to cover their outlay or altogether 330 SIAM ‘ broke.’ The very precariousness of the industry, how- ever, has charms for the hazard-loving Chinese who usually finance it, and with the opening of each new season there is no lack of investors ready to try their luck. Further down the gulf the use of fishing stakes is restricted by the depth of the water to the estuaries of the rivers, and here seining becomes the most important branch of the industry. From every river mouth along the coast there issues at break of day, all through the fishing season, a fleet of boats which sails away on the morning breezes out to the fishing grounds beyond the horizon. Each river has its own peculiar shape of boat and the coasting trader of experience can mark his whereabouts to within a few miles by merely noting the rig of the fleet through which his vessel may chance to be passing. Nets of all sorts and sizes are used by these deep sea fishers, the largest being the uan which is worked by twenty men or more. On the western side of the gulf the boats which carry these great nets are frequently accompanied to sea by one or more men, whose business it is to discover the exact whereabouts of the fish and who, on arriving at the fishing grounds, leave the boat, each in a tiny canoe, and paddling swiftly away presently slip overboard and disappear. Down in the green depths these divers can, if fairly expert, both see and hear the fish, if there is a shoal in the immediate neigbourhood, and one of them having done so at once rises to the surface and indicates by signs the j)resence and size of the shoal and the direction in which it is travelling. No sooner are such signals perceived on board the waiting vessel than every man jumps to his place and seizes his paddle when, with admirably-timed stroke, the great boat is driven pkinging through the water, describing a wide circle round the diver and paying out net as it goes. When INDUSTRIES 331 the circle is complete all hands assist in drawing the net and if a good shoal has been enclosed, the wildest excitement prevails as the confined space contracts. In mighty lianls the net comes on hoard, and with yells of trinmph and delight the fishermen knock the larger fish on the head as they flounder and tumble in the foaming water. Flocks of sea-gulls, attracted by the commotion, hover overhead, darting every now and then upon the seething mass within the nets and carrying off a silvery prize to be devoured at a distance amid much scpiabbling and outcry. The sea breeze which springs up about midday gives the signal for the return of the fleet shorewards. The wind freshens as the boats near the land, and is usually blowing strong when they dash over the foaming bar and into the smooth waters of their native river, bringing the result of the day’s work to the wharves of the fish buyers, usually Chinese, where it is appraised, bid for and ultimately bought and delivered over to the pickling tubs, perhaps before nightfall. Line fishing in the sea has a considerable number of followers more especially on the southern coasts. It is usually done from small canoes holding two men, and very large catches are often made. The setting of night-lines for sharks and rays is a special branch of the fishing industry. A long line of very strong cord is used with hooks placed at intervals along it. Each end is attached to heavy weights which are sunk to the bottom and marked by buoys. The lines are visited at intervals by a stout sailing-boat manned by a strong crew, when, seeing that sharks and sword-fish sometimes here attain a length of twenty feet and rays a breadth of eight feet across the body, a sport is frecjuently had which roughly tests both vessel and men. The flesh of these monsters of the deep is cured and exported to China, the Siamese themselves not being very partial to this form of diet. 332 SIAM For a foAv days during tlie months of April or May the waters of the gulf swarm with a small species of squid, the taking and eating of which keeps all the seaside dwellers busy. At this time everyone who owns a boat of any degree of seaworthiness puts off from the shore in it at nightfall with a hand net and a few resin torches. A mile or so from the shore the squid are found floating on the surface and there the fishers stop and spend the night scooping up the repulsive-looking but tasty morsels, by the light of the smoky torches, as fast as they can work their arms. Drying, curing and pickling is far from the least arduous part of the fishing industry. Most owners of Poll Lemu have their own outfit of drying stages, pickling vats and salting pits, but fishers with other methods usually sell their catch to the factories. Upon the arrival of a catch at the factoi\y, it is inspected without loss of time by certain old ladies, the leaders of gangs of female fish-cleaners, who bid against each other for the right to prepare it for curing. A bargain having been struck at the best possible figure, the operator calls her following around her and attacks the great lieap of fish forthwith, beheading, ripping and cleaning with extraordinary dexterity. Meanwhile the pickling vats are got ready by the simple process of stirring up the noisome fluid contained in the tubs, which is seemingly never changed from the beginning of the season to the end. A little more Avater is added and the fish, as tliey are cleaned, are packed aAA^ay, each layer being sprinkled Avith salt, slices of lemon, pepper, etc. Twenty-four liours in the A^ats, and the fish are remoA^ed and spread on a series of screens made of long strips of bamboo. These are laid out in the sun on trestles, and after one day’s exposure the fish is usually considered sufficiently dried. Should the day be cloudy, hoAA-eA^er, and a further exposure therefore rendered necessary. INDUSTRIES 333 the screens are rolled up with the fish still upon them and stored until next day. The final operation is the packing, the fish being pressed doAvn tight into large round baskets which are sewn up with cane strips and rolled into a corner to await export. The amount of fish cured and dried is not less than 40,000 tons in a good year, of which some 20,000 tons are consumed in the country and the remainder shipped via Singapore and Hongkong to China. The article thus roughly mannfactnred is, as ma}^ be expected, of an indilferent cpiality and subject to rapid deterioration. It suffices, howcA^er, for the needs of the people and apparently also for those of the peasantry of China by AAdiom nearly all that is exported is eaten. A superior quality is procurable in small quantities but CA^en this is inncli inferior to the cured fish of Europe. Kapi, a condiment used xerj largely in Siamese food preparation, is a fish-paste made of all kinds of fish AA’hen too small or too bony to be otherAAdse used. It is, in fact, a by-product of the fishing industry, the Avooden hapi-troiigli seiwing as receptacle for all the scraps and oddments and for the rare and AA’-onderful marine creatures other than ordinary fish A\diich the nets bring in. The contents of the trough are pounded and kneaded, the latter operation being often performed Avith the feet of the compounder, and Avhen the mess thus formed is half dry the process is repeated Avith the addition of a liberal C[uantity of salt and the AA'hole alloAved to ferment. The result is a purple-gray paste containing a good deal of sand and giAung off a vile odour of peculiarly nauseating proiierty. This paste is either made into little flat cakes and dried or stored in the Avet state in jars. In these forms ha pi finds its AA^ay into the farthest inland corners of the country AAdiere its bouc[uet permeates the atmosphere of the rural bazaars and, at the hours of cooking, proclaims its AAudespread 334 SIAM use as a flavouring essence. A superior quality of kapi, free from sand and made of pounded and putrid prawns, finds favour with the more refined classes while a peculiar sauce piquante made from kapi and chillies is a condiment used by all Siamese. The kapi of the Siamese and the ngapi of the Burmese are identical in all but name. At times, in places far distant from the sea, the stock of kapi gives out, but the countryman, unwilling to forego his favourite relish, substitutes a mess of rotten beans similar, though somewhat inferior to kapi in taste, and falling very little short of it in the matter of smell. The inland fisheries are almost more productive than those of the sea. The rivers and canals swarm with fish all the year round, w^hile the broad marshes and even the rice-fields, though for the most part quite dry during half the year, are found to be teeming with aquatic life as soon as the waters are out. The problem which is annually presented by the presence of fish, often of great size, in marshes and pools which, dr}^ for many months, receive tlieir only supply of water from the rainfall, is one Avhich has been pondered by many people and sometimes Avith astonishing results. But AA^hether the ingenious theory is accepted, that the spaAAui is dropped by birds passing over the AA-ater and develops instantly into fish of the largest size, or that the fish AA^alk laboriously oA^erland (and several species can, in fact, do this to some slight extent), or AAdiether, as is now generally believed by naturalists, both fish and spaAvn of certain kinds remain buried in the mud during the dry season AAnthout loss of Autality, the fact remains that great SAvamps AAdiich liaA^e no connection with the rivers do contain A^ast quantities of cat-fish ‘ of sorts,’ snake -headed pla cliaion, eels and other fish, a never-failing food supply for the people and a source of considerable reA^enue to the Government. INDUSTRIES 335 The schedule of implements with which fresh-water fish are caught occupies many pages of the Fisheries Act and even then does not include them all, many of the least important being exempted from the restrictions of the law. Indeed, the ingenuity of man has for ages been exercised to its utmost to devise methods of securing an adequate supply of fishy food, and all sorts and variations of nets, traps and hooks are the present- day results. Most of the great inland swamp fisheries or naung are annually leased by the government and these are therefore closed to the general public, but in the rivers and canals anyone may fish to his heart’s content, provided he has furnished himself with a license covering the particular implement to the use of which he is addicted. The seine net is used in the rivers but of these there is not a large number. The most common and perhaps the most profitable of large nets is the bag-net called jpong 'pang which is worked in the main rivers where the ebb and flow of the tide is strong. A row of stout posts strengthened with guy-ropes is planted in the stream and to these the nets are attached in sets of from four to twelve ‘mouths,’ stretching sometimes more than half way across the river. The opening of each net is some six yards across, the body is very long, sometimes over thirty yards and ends in a bag of cloth or in a sort of elongated wooden barrel. The nets are set at the turn of the tide and are taken up at the slack. The chaun yai or ‘great spoon,’ is another large net used in the main rivers. This is a triangular affair composed of two long and strong bamboos fastened together at one end to form an angle of about forty-five degrees, with a heavy net stretched between. It is w^orked from a boat anchored broadside on in mid stream, being thrust down into the water to form a triangular barrier with the base some forty feet across 336 SIAM on the bottom and the apex at the gunwale of the boat. At intervals it is laboriously spooned up against the current when any fish it may contain are deftly jerked to the apex and thence into the boat. The chaun lek or ‘ small spoon ’ resembles an ordinary shrimp net both in appearance and in the manner of using. Another common form of appliance is a square net supported at each corner by two rods which cross at right angles in the middle at which point they are attached to a rope whereby the apparatus is suspended from a pole. These are of all sizes and are used every- where. They are lowered into the water and, after an interval, raised again, ensnaring any fish which happen to be passing over them at the time. In the largest the pole is fixed on the bank protruding over the water and a high platform is erected above it ; here sits the fisherman watching for the fish to come over the net and keeping his hand on a windlass ready to haul up at a moment’s notice. The smallest are about two yards s([uare and hang like an inverted open umbrella from a short stick held by the operator. Nets very much resembling these are used on the canals in Holland. The uan lak or ‘ drag net,’ is a plain oblong net stretched between two sticks and held vertically extended l^y two or more men who draw it at full stretch through the water. From a pole at the door of almost every riverside house and from the mast of most river boats, a fine- meshed net is often to be seen hanging to dry in the sun. This is the he taut or ‘ casting net,’ used through- out Further India and perhaps most common about the waters of Central Siam. This is not usually a net liy which permanent livelihood is earned but is rather a sporting reciuisite, or the means of procuring a dish of fresh fish when other sources of supply are not available. The net is circular in shape and varies from six to A LAO FISHING PARTY. FISHING. CHIENGMAI DISTRICT. FISHING VILLAGE ON THE GULF OF SIAM. (Shovvin,!^ appliance for holcliipi^ large square drop-net.) INDUSTRIES 337 fifteen feet in diameter. Round the rim which is turned inwards and looped up here and there, is sewn a leaden chain and to the centre a long cord is fastened. The fisherman holds the loose end of this cord in his hand or ties it round his wrist, takes up the net fold by fold in his two hands with the slack thrown over one arm and, standing in the bows of his canoe, casts it out with a long swinging motion so that it falls fully spread upon the water. The weight of the rim causes the net immediately to assume the form of a bell and to sink in this form to the bottom, enclosing any fish which may happen to be beneath it when it falls. By drawing gently on the central cord the bell is closed up and the fish are detained by the looped rim and drawn into the boat. This net is also used in the shallow streams of the north where it is cast from the bank. The action of casting is one of the most graceful imaginable and looks as easy as it is graceful, but the novice will find at the cost of frequent duckings that in common with other simple-looking accomplishments, it makes much practice necessary before proficiency can l3e acquired. By the annual pa^-ment of from two to five ticals, the fee depending on the size of the net, the right may be acquired to use a casting net in any unreserved water. Along the banks of some of the larger canals there grow extensive patches of floating weed which are the known resort of many kinds of fish, and the fishing rights over these command a high price. On stated occasions the fortunate lessee calls his friends together to assist at a battue of the fish beneath his weed patches. Having enclosed this space with bamboo screens, and cleaned away the weeds, men, women, and children, armed with nets, fish-spears, baskets and other con- trivances, jump into the water and, with much shouting and laughter, catch and throw out the fish, of which Y .338 SIAM a shilling heap soon accnmnlates on the hank, to he packed in boats and sent off to the nearest market. Here and there among the rice-fields the owners dig pits in which, as the flood waters recede, great nnmhers of fish seek refuge. The increasing heat evaporates the water until only a thick solution of wallowing fish and slimy mad remains. Then comes along a fat Chinaman ivlio inspects the mixture, strikes a bargain with the owner, hales the whole ‘ boiling ’ into his boats, and departs with it all alive to Bangkok. Rod and line fishing is practised thronghont the kingdom, but the number of people who earn a living by this means only is small and seems usually to consist of old men and ’women who are past other work. As a rule the gentle art of angling is followed as an easy and i^leasant way of assisting the larder and, though its exponents undoubtedly derive a keen pleasure from their occupation, it is not at any time indulged in as .a pastime merely and nothing more. In the canals and meres of Central Siam the famous pla chaivn, most delectable of fish in Siamese estimation, is taken with the angle, the fisherman standing on the bank and using a strong eighteen-foot rod, a short line, and a live frog as bait. On the deep rivers during the dry weather, canoes, each containing a solitary fisherman, are to be seen anchored by a stone beneath a shady clump of bamboos or drifting with the current in mid- stream. Their occupant uses a short rod and long- line and has recourse to various means for calling the attention of the fish to his bait, such as beating a small tin witli a stick or gently splashing the Avater Avith his hand. These fish, cjAiite accustomed to the continual presence of boats and men upon the surface of the AAUters, far from l3eing frightened by such noise and commotion, are attracted to the spot AAdience these proceed, apparently aAAure that such phenomena are DRAWIXC; IX rHK CASTJX(i xixr, CATCHING SMALL FRY WITH THE HELP OF BASKETS. CATCHING MUD FISH IN TIDAL WATERS. INDUSTRIES 339 frequently accomjianied by tlie’ appearance of scrax^s of boiled rice or other food in tlie immediate neiglibonr- hood. Ill tlie rapid currents of tlie bill streams, an artistic method of da^iping with a grasshopper is often very deadly, while large nnmliers of small fish are taken with a short whippy rod and caddisworm bait. The European angler has done little' or nothing in Siamese waters, though in the rivers of Northern Siam it is x^robable that good s}iort could be had with fly and spoon. Trimmers of various kinds, constructed of short lengths of bamboo, or of dried gourds, are commonly used, and nigiitlines with a number of baited hooks, are set in all the lakes and marshes. Of fish-traps the variety is endless, perhaps the commonest being a mere clump of bushes stuck in the river and daily surrounded Avitli bamboo screens and searched for the fish which use it as a refuge or a resting-place. Cage-trajis, on the jirinciple of the English eel-xiot, are of many designs and are used under the banks of all riA^ers and canals and in the channels in the rice-fields. Trajis AAuth a falling door are set in the Aucinity of all riA^erside Aullages and Aveirs full of iiiAuting passages leading into cages of Aurious shapes and degrees of ingenuit}^ are j^l^ced across the mouths of the smaller streams. A quaint deAuce consists of a canoe AAntli a ])lank along the side and slanting doAAm from the gunAAule into the AAuter, paddled gently along the inland creeks near the AAuter’s edge at Ioav tide, AAdien many fish lie iq^ in the shalloAvs. These, surprised by the Ijoat gliding between themseNes and the safety of dee}9 AAuter, dash Auolently out and striking tlie sulnnerged plank slide up it and into the boat AAdiere they are instantly knocked on the head by tlie AA'atchful sportsman. When the tide is Ioav in the creeks near the sea and only a slialloAv stream courses along the middle of the muddy bottoms, troops of young 340 SIAM men and maidens come splashing down them, each one carrying a hell-shaped basket some tAYo feet wide at the mouth, Avhich they dump doAvn into the Avater at every likely spot, thereupon thrusting an arm through a hole at the top and searching the interior for cat-fish, praAAuis, yla cJiawn or other mud-loAung creatures. With much laughter and talking, and plastered with wet mud from to^) to toe, the fishers hurry along, vying AAoth each other for the likeliest spots and all intent on filling the small creels carried on the back, before night or the tide overtakes them. Along the north country streams a series of dams, one behind the other is sometimes constructed, each dam having a single opening, aboA^e AAdiich is built a platform and a little hut AAdiere the fishermen camp out, relieving each other in turn at the duty of staring doAvn into the clear Avater as it rushes through the channel, and capturing Avith a hand net or a spear, the fish which attempt to pass through. An apparently AA^earisome occupation this, but one Avhich seems to afford amusement and presumably also a meagre sustenance to its votaries. There is no close time for fish in Siam and the campaign against them is only intermitted AAdien Avater is absent in AAdiich to prosecute it. It might seem there- fore that in the end the fish must be exterminated but no sign is anyAAdiere apparent of such a catastrophe and the numbers AAdiich are annually caught and devoured by man appear so small in comparison AAdth the teeming millions AAdiich escape his artifices as to liaA^e absolutely no effect upon the supply. It is probable, hoAA^ever, that irrigation AA^orks, by draining the SAvamps and meres and by curtailing the annual floods, may at some future date deprive tlie Siamese in some small measure of fresh-AAnter fish. INDUSTRIES 341 Hunting and Trapping The Siamese, cliiefl.y on account of the Bnddliist law, which forbids the taking of life, is rarely a keen follower of the chase and hardly ever resorts to hunting or trapping as a sole means of livelihood. It is one thing and quite bad enough, some say, to take fish, which, though certainly living creatures, are cold-blooded and of a rudimentary intelligence and after all are not usually killed, but are merely removed from the Avater. It is quite another matter to shoot, stab or club to death, Avarm-blooded and breathing creatures Avliich fly in eAudent terror before the huntsman, employ an instinct AA4iich is near intelligence in trying to elude him, and dying look upon their slayer Avith frightened eyes that cause him disquieting qualms. It is not difficult to understand Iioav the indulgence extended by public opinion to a fisherman is AAnthheld from a hunter, more especially AAdien it is borne in mind that the public must and Avill haA^e fish but can usually manage Avithout game. HoAA^eA^er, there are breakers of commandments among the folloAvers of every faith and a feAv Siamese are sportsmen, AAffiile here and there a man is found aaTo makes a Ihung by killing and trapping AAuld animals. Beasts of prey are trapped and shot in self defence and deer are hunted, more especially AAdien the rising Avaters cut them off in the plains from their jungle retreats and render them comparatiAmly easy Auctims to the hunters. Among the lesser animals the hare, in spite of a reputation for superior intelligence and cunning supported by many xiopular legends of the ‘ Brer Rabbit ’ type in AAdiich he figures as hero, is specially singled out for the diA^ersion of sj)ortsmen. In the scrub jungle surrounding Aullages, AAliere he loA^es to linger, Ioav hedges are made, sometimes of great length, converging by deAnous AA^ays toAA^ards a small enclosure. The youths 342 SIAM of tlie village, armed with clubs, beat the jungle from a distance towards this maze and the bares having been driA^en within it, course along beside the hedges until the small enclosure is reached Avhen, Avdth a Avild shout, tAvo or three men in ambush leap out behind them, hurry them into the enclosure and there dispatch them with sticks. Wild ele]Dliants are numerous in Siam both in the mountains and on the plains. While all are considered the especial property of the king, only those Avhich inhabit the plains are preseiwed, the others being left at the disposal of the hillmen or any other sportsmen A\dio may care to pursue them. The elephants of the plains can scarcely be considered as Avild, for a large Government Dei)artment has them, as Avell as the royal domesticated animals, under its particular care. The herds, of which there are several comprising some 300 individuals, are alloAved to AA^ander at aauII but are kept constantly under supervision and can at any time be rounded up for inspection by the officers of the De]3art- ment. The people are forbidden under pain of severe punishment to driA^e or in any AA-ay molest the animals, eA^en AAdien their crops are threatened by them. Indeed it happens eA^-ery year that the herds iiwade the fields of young rice in some neighbourhood or other, destroying large areas of crop Avhich the OAvners are not alloAA^ed to protect and for AAdiich they usually fail to obtain any compensation. Outside tlie modern city of Ayuthia and on the ground of many a historic fight of the old Avars Avith Burma, tliere stands a great square enclosure of huge teak logs and massive AA^alls, the latter surmounted by a ro}"al pavilion, and here are held the periodical elephant catchings Avhich haA^e furnished copy for many a Euroj^ean magazine article. These diversions are regarded in Siam, not merely nominally but actually, INDUSTRIES 343 as the sport of kings, and most perij^atetic scions of foreign royalty who have visited the country have wit- nessed the taking of elephants from the pavilion on the keddah walls, in company with His Majesty the King. On such occasions Ayiithia wears a holiday aspect. Its numerous canals are thronged with boats of every description, many thousands of people coming from Bangkok by river to see the sport and enjoy a picnic on the water. Excursion trains run during the three days of the catching, bringing croAvds of holiday-makers for Avhose coiwenience steam-launches ply between the raihvay station and the keddah. The keddah itself flutters with bunting and a troop of seiwants prepare the pavilion to receHe the royal sportsmen. Soldiers are on duty at A^arious points and the blue-uniformed myrmidons of the Elephant Department are eA^eryAvhere. The king arriA^es escorting his royal guest and folloAA^ed by Court officials and members of the royal family and passes, smiling, through the gaily-dressed croAvd draAvn respectfully aside, to his seat in the pavilion. Mean- AAdiile and for many days before, the elephants liaA^e been sIoaaTv driA^en up from their distant feeding- grounds and are noAv out on the plain before the keddah, shepherded by attendants mounted on large and Avell-trained tuskers. At a aa^oitI from Majesty orders are passed and the herd moves forAvard and enters the V-shaped palisade AAdiich converges toAA’-ards the entrance of the keddah, a narroAv opening through AAdiich only one animal can pass at a time. DriA^en on from behind, into the ever diminishing sjiace, tlie huge beasts, of AAdiich there may be some 150 ]u-esent, noAv l^egin to crush and push against each other and a deafening uproar ensues, continuing unabated for hours until, with titanic lieaAdngs and strugglings, the Avhole herd has passed through the narroAv entrance and has arriA^ed, furious from s])ear-pricks of attendants and 344 SIAM Imstlings of the tame animals and trembling with outraged dignity, in the interior of the keddah. On the second day the catchers enter the enclosure, seated upon tuskers of proved reliability and, having selected from the herd the dozen or so of young males which it is desired to capture, proceed to the difficult task of passing a noose of strong rattan cable over the hind feet of these. This is done by driving and following the herd round and round the interior of the keddah with the noose held ever readj^ on the end of a long pole, forcing the docile tusker close up to the selected animal and, while the latter lifts his feet in walking, slipping the loop over one of them and as far up the leg as possible. The tusker then turns tail and retreats, paying out slack cable the end of which is seized by assistants who dash into the arena and make it fast to one of the palisades. Meanwhile, the noosed animal walks round with the herd until, the cable running taut, he is brought up standing, and with a roar of rage and fear begins a long and fruitless struggle against the fate which has overtaken him. The captives having been made, a small exit is opened in the keddah wall opposite to the entrance and the remainder of the herd is driven out into the open, where it is received by the shepherd tuskers. The prisoners are then taken in tow, not without furious resistance and desj^erate attacks upon their captors, and are hustled and shouldered, amid derisive cheers from the thousands of spectators massed upon the walls, out of the enclosure and away to the stable, the scene of their future education. The third day of the catching is entirely devoted to frivolities. The herd, now thoroughly exasperated by unmannerly hustling and by constant proddings with spears at the hands of the riders of the shepherd males, and containing more than one female rendered desperate by the loss of her offspring, is marshalled in the open ELEPHANT CATCHING IN THE “ KEDDAH (Trained lubkers going in with leg-nooses.) WILD ELEPHANTS IN “ERAAL” AT AA'UTHIA- INDUSTRIES 345 ground outside the keddali and separated from the crowd only by the tame tuskers. Anon a young man, gaily dressed, carrying an umbrella and smoking a cigar, slips between the docile guardians and strolls, an object of admiration to the whole vast assembly, across the open towards the angry herd. The elephants shrink back, all heads turned towards the intruder and all ears outspread. Suddenly with a bellow an old cow rushes out, tail and trunk erect and ears spread wide, and makes for the pedestrian. He, intrepid fellow, waits till she is towering close above him, then with a flirt of his parasol in her face, darts back between the tuskers who receive the baffled female on their foreheads and drive her back to the herd. This performance is repeated again and again with such variations as the human performers, stimulated by the presence of ro^mlty and by a thirst for glory, can devise. Sooner or later one of the elephants eludes the tame tuskers and appears suddenly, furious and trumpeting, amongst the crowd. In the general stampede which ensues, the great beast appears bewildered and, unable to select a victim for its wrath, usually stands stock still until all have reached points of safety. Sometimes, however, excessive fool- hardiness or a false step and a fall, fixes the attention of the elephant upon one individual who is overtaken and with a sweep of the trunk or a side kick is knocked out of existence in a trice. Unless one or more of such gruesome incidents occur, the day’s enjoyment in the popular estimation is incomplete. With the close of the third day the crowds disperse by railway and river and the morrow’s dawn finds the keddali deserted and the herd of wild elephants already far on its way across the plain back to the feeding grounds. Once iqion a time the destruction of crocodiles was a recognised business in Siam, and Pallegoix records how, so late as 1852, many persons practised the art of taking 346 SIAM them alive, apparently for amnsement’s sake. Now^ however, the crocodile is rare in Siamese waters near the haunts of men and doubtless it will soon be alto- gether extinct except in the marshes of the far interior. Occasional!}^, however, one is reported in the environs of Bangkok and steps are at once taken to secure it. The services of a witch-doctor are secured and a large party, anticipating a day’s entertainment, accompanies him in boats to the haunt of the animal. Arriving at the spot the witch-doctor begins operations by burning joss sticks and repeating incantations appropriate to the occasion. Finally he fastens a live monkey securely to a plank, cuts off its hands, and sets it afloat. Either the power of the incantations, the cries of the cruelly mutilated animal, or the blood with which the water is at once sprinkled, acts so strongly upon the crocodile that, in spite of the number of boats full of noisy excited spectators, he almost invariably comes to the surface,, when he is instantly secured with rope nooses and carried off in triumph. It is chiefly amongst the non-Buddhist tribesmen of the highlands that the true hunting spirit is to be found. In the mountainous jungles, game of all kinds is abundant and man, unhampered b}^ religious scruples and spurred on b}^ hunger, wages against it a continual war of trap, knife, and missile. Even the eleidiant, wilder and fiercer here than are his brothers of the plain, goes down before the savage hunters of the hills, for the diminutive Semang shoots him in the foot with a tiny poisoned arrow, the wily Karien hamstrings him from behind a bush and the Ivainuk riddles him with balls from an old Tower musket. The majestic bison and the rhinoceros also fall victims to the hillman’s guile, while pig, deer and other animals are beaten out of the jungle, and then shot in the most approved style. With the liillman, trapping is a fine art. All kinds of INDUSTRIES 347 wild animals as well as many of the larger birds are caught with pitfalls, nooses, cage-traps, springes and other contrivances. Most are killed in the trap but now and then a tiger, Malayan tapir, sambar, Sclioin- bnrgk’s deer or barking deer, is taken alive and sold in the plains, while pea fowl, pheasants and many other birds are frequently kept in captivity. To the European hunter of game, Siam is ]3ractically a sealed book. A few tiger, rhino and bison and more often various kinds of deer, have been bagged by Forest Officers and others whose calling takes them into the wilds but, though game is plentiful, the best districts are difficult to reach, while the presence of dense jungle and total absence of Khahar, are obstacles difficult to snrmonnt, so that the white sportsman rarely ventures beyond the snipe-grounds round about Bangkok, where enormous bags are secured by week-end shooting parties. Forestry Mention has more than once ]3een made of the dense vegetation which clothes all the monntains and many of the valleys and plains of Siam and, in the notes upon the Flora of the country, the nnmerons orders of ])lants which are represented in different localities hy forest trees, often of great size and mnch commercial value, liaA^e been enumerated. It may not, however, have been made sufficiently cleai- how great is the area under forest of one kind or another in proportion to the cultivated or otherwise open part of the country ; how, in fact, more than three quarters of the total area is practically uninhabited land in which wild nature works nntrammelled and of which, though teeming with her spontaneous products. 348 SIAM the greater part is, under present circumstances, practically without profit or advantage to the State. In Central Siam, it is true, the forest area is small compared with that of the open and cultivated land but in the other three main divisions of the country the presence of mankind is marked by little more than mere patches and narrow belts of cleared land along the banks of streams and in other favourable spots, at the edges of which the natural forces stand arrayed, prepared to obliterate even these poor traces whenever human effort may be relaxed. The forests of Siam, which in most respects closely resemble those of Burma, may be considered in two main divisions, namely ‘ Evergreen ’ and ‘ Deciduous ’ forests, each of which may be further divided into three distinct classes or types, these coming under ‘ Evergreen forests ’ : (1) Littoral forests, (2) Tropical Evergreen forests, (3) Semi-temperate Evergreen forests ; Avhile the division ‘ Deciduous ’ forests includes (1) Laterite forests, (2) Dry mixed forests and (3) Teak forests. Littoral forests are confined to a small area in Siam, being present only at such spots on or near the sea- shore where the land is low-lying, formed of mud and covered with salt-water swamps. The largest of them are situated round about the mouth of the Menam Chao Phaya river and along the northern shore of the Gulf of Siam ; also in parts of the Chantaburi and Puket Montons. They are composed almost entirely of arboreal species of the order Ehizoplioracece, some thirty or more species, collectively knoAvn as Man- grove, being x>i’esent. Most of them attain to consider- able size and, with closely interlacing roots and branches, form the most impenetrable of jungles. Although these forests are practically uninhabitable on account of the vast numbers of mosquitos which INDUSTRIES 349 infest them, and although they produce no timber of any durability, yet they are not without economic value, for their wood is peculiarly adapted for use as fuel. In former times the littoral forests along the northern shore of the Gulf, in places some ten miles wide and in total area about 100 square miles, have been regarded as common lands to which any person might resort to cut fuel for private use or for sale, subject only to an octroi duty on conveying the same up the river to Bangkok. Of late years, however, money has been invested by individuals in cutting waterways through the dense jungle, whereby inner regions have been made accessible and jirescriptive rights have grown up which the Government appears inclined to recognise by the issue of permanent title deeds, though it is probable that in so doing the State is abandon- ing what might with conservation be made a prolific source of rcA^enue. The species which proAude the best fuel are those knoAAUi in Siamese as Mai Kongkang, Mai Same, Mai Kahun, and Mai Lam. These are all of raj^id groAvth, in scA-eii years attaining a girth of about 20 inches, but in consequence of the increasing demand for firewood in Bangkok, few trees in the accessible parts are alloAved to reach that size and Avere it not for the extraordinary vitality of the plants, the roots of which send forth fresh shoots as soon as the tree is felled, it is probable that the forests AA^ould before long be quite Avorked out. The bark of seA^eral species of the trees AAdiich groAv in mangroA^e SAAumps yields the A^aluable tanning and dyeing substance knoAAui in com- merce as cutch, and at various places on the island of Borneo this is extracted at a considerable profit, the Aulue of the timber as fuel l3eing in no AA^ay impaired thereby. In Siam, ImAA^eA^er, this property of the bark of the BliizoiDlioracece does not appear to be knoAAUi and the AAdiole of the bark of the trees felled for fuel is AA’asted. Both in America and in Europe the 350 SIAM supply of oak and hemlock bark for tanning is constantly diminishing and it would therefore seem to be worth the while of the Siamese Government to encourage experi- ments in the cutch-joroducing capacities of its littoral forests. Wherever the sea beach assumes anything of a slope, and mud gives place to sand, the Mangrove disappears and is replaced by the graceful Casuarina tree for which, however, no use other than that of ornament has yet been found. Tropical Evergreen forests consist of two broad belts, the one passing up from Chantaburi along the eastern frontier districts to Udon, and the other from the most southerly point of Southern Siam up through the whole of that part and along the frontier districts in the west of Central and Northern Siam. The eastern belt touches the coast in the south and follows the line of mountains thence to its other extremity on the Mehkong river, its width varying from four or five to nearly one hundred miles. The western belt clothes the mountains as also by far the greater part of the valleys and plains of Southern Siam, informs the wild scenery of the upper ]\[eklong riA^er A^alleys, is conterminous Avith the ever- green forests of the Tenasserim Division in Burma and merges at last into the semi-tropical evergreen forests of the far north of Siam. These forests abound AAuth timber trees of many species, the potential value of Avhicli is almost incalculable but Avhich, in the absence of means for extraction, are actually AA^orth little or nothing. Let the traA^eller ascend a hill near Chantaburi or at Kabin, or anyA\diere in the Patani, Chumporn, or Nakhon SaAvaii divisions, and scenes of almost exact similarity unroll themselves before him ; mile upon mile of dense green forest unbroken saA^e for occasional patches of rice-fields, spreading across plains and up the sides of mountains ; forests Avdiere the gigantic INDUSTRIES 351 Dipterocai'pus turhinatus (Mai Yang) and Ilopea odorata (Mai Takion) stand up consx^icnons with their canopies of dense and vivid foliage, where Rosewood,* Box- wood,! Ebony,! and Brazilwood or Sapaii § are massed together with trees of a hundred other species all inter- laced b}^ rattan canes or perhaps by huge guttapercha- yielding climbers. Beneath these masses of foliage is a rampant undergrowth of shrubs, bamboos, cane-brake and smaller plants, of which those belonging to the Ginger Zvngiheraceae are perhaj^s most common, and here the Rhinoceros, the Bison and the strange Malayan Tapir may be met with, monkeys of man}- kinds may be seen gambolling in the trees, and the Giant Hornbill may be heard winging noisily overhead. The hnman inhabitants of these forests are few and are almost entirely persons engaged in the collection of wood-oil, canes, bamboos and other minor forest produce, and in the felling of timber, of which the more valuable kinds are extracted to some trifling extent. Tlie various species of trees which compose the forests are not mingled in the same proportion throughout ; thus in the Peninsnlar regions Lagerstroemia tomentosa {Mai Intanin) and another tree called in Siamese Mai Kiam, both excellent hardwood trees, preponderate, while in the tro]^ical evergreen forests of the eastern districts, Mai Taikien and Mai Yang are more especially abundant. Again, in the western forests of Central Siam Xylia xyJocarpa known as Mai Deng or ‘ red wood ’ in Siamese is the principal timlier tree, while this is also the favourite locality of the Sapan and box-wood. Practically nothing has been done in tlie direction of conservation in these forests, with which, in fact, the Royal Forest department is not in any way f ]VIai Dam. § Mai Fang (Mai. Sepang). * Mai Pa Yung, t Mai Put. 352 SIAM concerned. It is to be expected, however, that this very valuable asset of the country will not forever remain nnexploited and already a European company is extract- ing timber from one district in Southern Siam under a concession recently obtained from the Government. Hence it would be well if these forests were before long brought under the administration of the Forest Depart- ment, in order that the Government may be x> repared to make the most of its property when the time comes. The world’s supj)ly of timber is said to be in danger of running short and it has recently been prophesied that eighty years will see the practical exhaustion of soft timber of the kinds at present in use. Long before then the world will have discovered that the evergreen forests of Siam contain many species of soft wood trees, and as the timber trader finds the woods of his own lands becoming insufficient to supply his wants he will most assuredly turn his attention to other and more distant sources of supply, amongst which Siam will take a prominent place. Semi-temi^erate evergreen forests occur at a high elevation on the mountains of Northern Siam and con- sist of a mingling of the trees of the temperate zone with those of the Tropical forests. Here are found bamboos and palms of numerous species interspersed among groves of pine, oak and chestnut. These last are of many species and though closely related to the European varieties, are all evergreens. Such forests are compara- tively free from undergrowth and often have a park- like apijearance very pleasing to the view. The trees do not as a rule attain to the size of the monsters of the Trojjical forests and have not hitherto been made use of to any extent as timber. A certain quantity of resin is extracted from the pine trees for the making of torches and the concoction of a rough native medicine for healing wounds, and a few logs of ornamental or INDUSTRIES 353 scented woods Avliich command a high price are occasion- ally extracted for sale. Otherwise the forests of this category are without recognised value. Laterite forest is the name given to the jungles which contain trees peculiar to the laterite soil and which completely cover the greater part of Eastern Siam and occur in belts and patches elsewhere, excei3t in Southern Siam. The vernacular name for such forests is Pa Mai Teng Lang, derived from the trees Sliorea ohtusa {Mai Teng) and Pentaeme siamensis {Mai Lang) which, together with Dipterocaigms tubereulatus {Mai Pluang), predomi- nate therein. These forests are thin and contain a great deal of open space and being deciduous, wear during the months of the hot season, a dry and scorched appearance. Both Mai Teng and Mai Lang are of some value as timber and are extracted for local use and for sale. In the absence of all control the trees have been recklessly felled and now are seldom found of anything but insignificant size except in places where there is no population anywhere near. The undergrowth consists chiefly of grass which becomes completely dry during the hot weather and causes forest fires of Avide extent, effectually preAxnting the groAvth of A^oung trees to take the place of those AAfliich are annually extracted. During the months of April and May the atmosphere in the neighbourhood of these forests is alAA^ays hazy and charged Avith smoke and after nightfall long lines of fire are Ausibly AA^orking their AA^ay sloAAdy across the plains and up the sides of the hills. Mai Teng yields a good deal of resinous pitch but it is not obtained in sufficient quantities to more than satisfy local needs. ]Many trees other than the feAv AAfliich liaA^e been mentioned, are found in these Laterite forests luit they are in no AAuy remarkable and liaA^e not yet been discoA^ered to be of any economic A^alue. flflie forests knoAAui as Pa Mai Bencliapan, or ‘ the z 354 SIAM jungle of the five kinds of trees,’ Forets Clairieres, or Dry Mixed forests, occur in those parts of the country where the soil is not lateritic hut where other conditions are the same as in Laterite forest tracts. The chief features of these are the abundance of bamboo thickets and their general open and thin nature. They contain several species of good timber trees but most of them are too heavy to be extracted by the primitive methods of the people, and too close-grained to be worked with the only tools which they have at their disposal. The Mai Kahak, however, one of the many species of Lagerstroemia found in Siam, is easy to work, and being very plentiful provides a great deal of timber for local use and a certain amount for sale. These forests make excellent grazing grounds and it is in' them or rather on their outskirts that most of the cattle of Siam are raised. The Dry mixed forests pass by imperceptible degrees into the great Deciduous Forests of Northern Siam, which contain many valuable timber trees and where alone the Government has hitherto taken steps to control the action of timber workers. The teak tree (Tectona gi^andis), which is one of the most valuable in the world, grows abund- antly in these forests where it has been worked and used locally from time immemorial. About the year 1882, the attention of foreigners, chiefly that of the British who were already working teak in Burma, was attracted to the forests of Siam and an export trade in teak arose which, after the annexation of Upper Burma by England and the consequent cJiecking of the teak trade there, assumed large proportions. At the same time the price of the article increased rapidly whereby the trade acquired additional impetus and soon the forests were being attacked in all directions and subjected to indiscriminate girdling and felling. At that time the forests were regarded by the Government as the property of the Hereditary Lao Chiefs who ruled in different parts of Northern Siam, and these INDUSTRIES 355 persons, entirely disregarding the necessity for con- serving the teak against extinction, sold and gave away forest rights in a manner wdiich, if allowed to continne, must have ended by exliansting them and thus depriving Xorthern Siam of the principal source of its revenues. At this juncture the Siamese Government stepped in and took over the forests, assuming entire control and com- pensating the chiefs in money for the loss of their rights, and an officer of the Imperial Forest Department of British India was engaged to examine and report on the condition of the property. The officer arrived in the country in the year 1895 and made an exhaustive inspec- tion, during the jDeriod occnj^ied by which the lessees of the forests, foreseeing changed conditions, exerted them- selves to the utmost and succeeded in girdling and felling a large ciiiantity of undersized timber. As the result of his inspection the British expert strongly advised the immediate formation of a State Forest Department, which much-needed step was taken without undue delay and in 1896 a staff of forest officers consisting for the most part of men borrowed from India and Burma, armed with Royal decrees and acting under the general orders of H.R.H. the Minister for the Interior, was set to work in Xorthern Siam with headcpiarters at Chieiig Mai. There was much to be done, for not only had the workings of the forest lessees to be constantly inspected as a check upon the girdling of foiffiidden trees and other commonly recurring infringements of lease, but the girdling and felling of trees in niileased forests which, in the absence of control, had become a general practice, had to be stopped without delay and the stopping gave rise to many boundary disputes. Moreover much survey and explora- tion work was necessary to place the new Department in possession of full information as to the nature and extent of the forests placed under its control. The terms and conditions of the leases, made by the Lao Cliiefs when 356 SIAM they yet owned the forests, were intolerable to the new Department and negotiations were soon opened with the lessees, which resulted, in 1897, in a considerable curtailment of their rights. Girdling was restricted from this time on, and in 1901 when the old leases expired and, after an immense deal of discussion, had been partially renewed, this operation was altogether forbidden and the energies of the timber companies w^ere confined to felling the trees alread}^ girdled, and to extracting logs felled in former years. Girdling, or the cutting of a deep ring round the tree near the base, the preliminary operation in the business of teak extracting, is performed tw^o years before the trees are felled, during wdiich time they die and become seasoned and this operation had been carried on to such an extent under the old conditions that, after it had been entirely stopped, the number of logs annually extracted from the forests continued unabated for maii}^ years. Recently, liow^eA^er, owing to the Avorking out of the old timber and to the issue of leases over neAv areas, girdling has been resumed but is alloAA^ed only under strict su] 3 ervision by the Forest Department. As noAv arranged, lessees are permitted to operate in one half only of the area leased, the other half being kept oA^er until the first shall have been AA^orked out. Many large forests are not leased at all ]3ut, OAAung to the absence of the necessary regulations, these are not constituted forest reserves in the strict sense of the term as under- stood in India. What Avitli the curtailment of leases, the inspection of workings and the checking of girdling and illegal felling of trees b,y persons not authorised to extract timber at all, the Forest Department may be said to haA^e saved the teak industry of Siam. But it has done more than that, for that same industry is noAv yielding over a million and a half of ticals annually as revenue of the kingdom and the AA'orking of the forests INDUSTRIES 357 lias been so arranged that the income to the State from teak shall remain more or less constant for many years to come. Some clay, no doubt, the attention of the Goyernment will be directed to the development and protection of the valuable forests of timber other than teak with which the country is so largely clothed, but that day is not yet, and until the forests of the north cease to maintain their anniial 3deld of some hundred and twenty thousand teak logs, it is probable that the less valuable kinds of timber and other forest produce will receive but scant benefit from the Forest Department, of which the establishment is, in fact, far too small to deal with the various new ]iroblems which would immediateh" confront it, were the scope of its labours extended. Apart from the w^orkings of the regular forest lessees, a certain cpiantit_y of teak is extracted b}- parties contract- ing with the Government, which either bu}^s the timber from the contractor at a fixed rate after it has been got out, or divides it into two ecjual portions, one of whicli accrues to either party to the contract. Government timber thus ol^tained is sold at different trade centres on the river but as this s^^stem of contracts demands the services of a considerable staff, less is done in this w^a}^ than might, and should, be the case. The Forest Department at present consists of one conservator, thirteen dejuity conservators, twentAmiine assistant conservators and a numlier of rangers, foresters and guards. The teak-growing area is divided into ten districts, to the charge of each of wliicli a deputy con- servator is appointed. The conservator has his head- quarters in Bangkok. During the dry weather, wlien girdling and felling are proceeding, the Department has its most active time, the conservator and practically tlie Avhole staff being occupied in travelling and inspect- ing the workings, exploring nev' forest areas and surve,y- ing. For the counting and measuring of logs and the 358 SIAM collection of duty, establishments are maintained at the different revenue stations, the principal of which is at Pahnampoh, the point where the rivers of Northern Siam finally join to form the Menam Chao Phaya. The most important lessees of the teak forests are five European firms, of which four are British and the remain- ing one -Danish. The capital invested in the industry by these corporations is not far short of two millions sterling and a strong force of employes is maintained by each of them. In all there are some fifty Europeans at work in the forests and the number of Asiatics amounts to several hundreds. The lumbermen are chiefly of the Kamuk tribe, amongst whom this form of labour has now become traditional. Many elephants are used for hauling, and consequently an elexhiant is valuable property in Northern Siam, one such animal representing an assured income to its owner. Elephant stealing is a common form of crime and at times is so frequent as seriously to hamper the oj^erations of the forest lessees. In former days the energies of the lessees were chiefly confined to those forests Avhich were situated near to the livers and, while these vrere worked out as completely as possible the tracts which, owing to difficulties of trans- port promised less profits, were left practically untouched. The restrictions now imposed by the Government have, however, caused attention to be diverted to the more distant ]iarts and to tlie contrivance of means whereby the cost of extraction may be reduced. The result is that, with hauling machinery, rails and other substitutes for elephants, several localities have recently been taken up which a few years ago were not considered worth working. Two years, or ratlier more, after a teak tree has been girdled and thereby killed, it has (as already said) become sufficiently dry and seasoned to be extracted from the forest. It is then felled, roughly trimmed into logs, TEAK- LOGGING IN SIAM. HAULING HY MEANS OE A TRAMWAY. INDUSTRIES 359 hauled to the nearest watercourse, probably dry or nearly so at the time, and there left until the ensuing rains shall fill the stream and float it out. In May or June the waters rise and the logs come down, assisted by the foresters through the places irhere a ‘ jam ’ might occur, until they reach the larger and more open rivers. So long as rapids are to be encountered the logs are floated singly, but when these have been passed they are fastened together into rafts of from one to two hundred logs, in which form they make the long journey down to the timber mills at Bangkok. At various points on the river just above the capital the rafts are tied up until required at the mills, and at these stations, notably that in the bend of the river at Pakret, from five to ten thousand logs are often to be seen at one time. The period which elapses between the felling of a teak tree and its arrival at the mills is usually between three and four years. A comparatively recent decree has defined the purposes for which teak timber may be granted free of all charge.. These are, for the building of public rest-houses, for bridges constructed by private enterprise as charitable works and for religious edifices of all kinds. The amount of timber annually requisitioned for these purposes is surprisingly large and considering that teak is one of the most durable of timbers, resisting for many years the ravages of climate and insects, vdierefore buildings constructed with it do not require to be replaced or even repaired for a very long time, the ultimate disposal of the free-granted timber remains something of a mystery. Mines and Mining — Gold, Tin, and Gems The mining industry in Siam is controlled l^y an Administrative Department inaugurated by Royal 360 SIAM Decree in the year 1890, the Head of which takes his instructions from the Minister for the Interior. During its first years the department was fully occupied in overhauling the mass of concessions which had been made previously, in introducing the elements of order and system amongst them, and in exploring the country with a view to obtaining a rough knowledge of the mineral resources of the kingdom. These were found to be heavy labours, for the concession hunter, unused to any but the most perfunctory control, was loth to lay bare before the Government his schemes for development of his sometimes irregularly acquired rights, or to fulfil with punctuality the easy conditions under which he held the same, while the absence of information, the want of communications and the withholding (at first) of assistance by the civil authorities and local magnates made the work of exploration one of frequent disappoint- ment and failure. In time, however, these difficulties were in a measure overcome and a Mining Act was passed in 1901 substituting a uniform system of pro- specting licenses and mining leases for the old irregular method of concession, and securing to the Government n proper control of, and interest in, all future pro- positions. Gold , — The tale of gold-mining in Siam is interesting and romantic. It is a peculiarity of gold that beyond all other minerals the mere report of its presence is apt to fire the imagination, not only of the professional miner, but the ignorant layman, and to this quality is due the fact that such reports, backed by the exliibition of s])ecimens of the metal itself, have led all sorts and conditions of men in Siam to the indulgence of dreams of wealth, followed by many efforts to realise the same. i\ow the wide, though very thin, dissemination of gold throughout the country has naturally been the cause of continual rumoui's of the possible existence of vast INDUSTRIES 361 wealth, first in one, then in another, unexplored quarter, with the result that at one time it was rather the rule than the exception for Europeans connected with the conntr}" as well as most Siamese of wealth to hold, or he interested in, some gold-mining concession or other. The majority of these persons spent their own money in prospecting and developing their property, invariably met with complete disappointment and, having burnt their fingers, returned to less inspiring but more profit- able avocations ; but a more astute minority, passing on, not Avithont further embroidery, the tales AAdiicli had first caught their fancy, entangled the public in the matter and Avith the lieaAw money of excited speculators in their pockets, stood aside and aAA^aited Avith calm, the almost ineAutable collapse of the undertaking. Thus came into existence the AYattana, the Kabin, the Bang- tapan, the Tomoh and many other gold mining companies each of Avhich, after an opening flourish and the expenditure of much capital, droojAed and declined through A^arious stages of liquidation and reconstruction to ultimate extinction. Places, the names of AAdiicli once Avere heard upon the Paris Bourse and the London Stock Exchange, are uoav forgotten Avilds of jungle, Avhere perhaps a feAv stolid Chinamen AAxash a little gold for a scanty living, and Avhere only rotting machinery, trans- ported there from far distant countries at A^ast expense, recalls the hopes tliat once centred round them. Tin . — By far the most important mining industry of Siam is the extraction of tinstone from tlie alluAdal deposits and lodes AAdiich alAound in Southern Siam, as in the more southerly parts of the Malay Peninsula. The Siamese, hoAvever, averse from all forms of labour other than agricultural, take little part in the industry AA'liich is, or Avas until the recent appearance of European enterprise, almost entirely in the hands of Chinese. The Chinese in fact, draAvn thither by the mines, early 362 SIAM established colonies throughout the tin-bearing provinces and now form no inconsiderable part of the population of those parts. Many large fortunes were made by individuals amongst the settlers and, in one instance at least, a family was founded, the scions of which, having in troublous times acquired control of an entire pro- vince, achieved a position of practically independent sovereignty and presented the curious spectacle of Chinese Chiefs or Rajas ruling over a mixed population of Siamese and Malays. Until comparative!}^ recently, the kings of Siam exercised little more than a nominal control over the tin-producing provinces and though the mines were tolerated because of the revenues which they contributed to the Bangkok Treasuiy, small assist- ance was given either in development of the mines or in the preservation of law and order in the districts where they existed. Consequent!}^, while the tin-bearing areas in the British-protected Malay States were being actively developed and were arousing a world-wide interest, those of Siam attracted little or no attention and were left in unchallenged possession of the Chinese miners who continued to work them by the primitive methods of their forefathers. Some ten years ago, however, the Government turned its attention seriously to the problem of administering these distant but wealthy provinces, and with the establishment of a branch office of the Mining Department at Puket and the inauguration of a scheme of Public Works, the prospects of tin-mining began immerliately to improve. Active prospecting work was undertaken, which revealed the presence of enormous supplies of ore hitherto quite unknown. European mining men were attracted to the neighbour- hood and, under the terms of the Mining Act, several new mines were opened up in accordance with up-to-date methods and with modern machinery. The industry, which in 1895 was stationary or slightly declining, took AN OPEN (ok “ I'ADDOCIv ”) TIX-MIXE IX PUKET, y I- ■ ' 1 i INDUSTRIES 363 a turn for the better and the annual output, then some 3600 tons, is at present over 5000 tons. This, however, is but the beginning of the development. Great quantities of known ore yet remain untouched while vast stretches of country have never yet been prospected, and there can scarcely be a doubt but that in a few years’ time the present annual production of Siamese tin will be much increased. Apart from the lode-mining, dredging and hydraulic- ing, which have been undertaken by European com- panies, the old Chinese system of mining by open-cast workings, more like quarrying than mining, is almost universal. At many points in the Western Provinces, the remains of A^ery ancient shaft-mines exist bnt these are supposed to be A^estiges of pre-Chinese colonists from India and the only modern shaft Avorkings con- trolled by Asiatics are those of a foAv Macao Chinese Avho have learnt the method in Australia. The alluAual mines, locally called Mueng Sa, are of all sizes, some of the Avorkings being mere pits AAdiiie others are great trenches thirty or forty feet deep, many yards AAude, as much as 500 yards long and employing a thousand men. The depth of the mine depends upon the thick- ness of the OA^erburden AAdiich has to be removed before the tin-bearing stratum or ‘ karang ’ is reached. This, when laid bare, is simply shoA^elled into baskets by the miners and carried up a long inclined plank-Avay to the sluices. Puddling machinery is being gradually introduced l)ut the usual method is to heaA^e the ‘ karang ’ straight into sluices a hundred yards long where, as it is carried doAvn by a stream of Avater, it is subjected to a continuous raking, the lieaA^y tinstone I'emaining l^ehind and the mud and sand passing on and out onto the tailings. A large proportion of tin ore is not lioAveA^er alluvial at all bnt is found on the hillsides in the more or less 364 SIAM decomposed granite. This is worked by the process known as Mueng Slaan which consists in laying bare the tin-carrying rock by open-cast working and then causing water to flow over it, carrying it down and through a series of sluices arranged below. Consider- able ingenuity is displayed in conveying the water supply to the top of the cuttings ; water courses are carried from great distances round the shoulders of the hills, through projecting spurs and over deep gullies, the last by means of fragile-looking wooden aqueducts, supported on a maze of bamboo scaffolding, sometimes more than seventy feet high. As the water pours over the face of the cutting the miners loosen the rocks with iron pikes and assist the stream in carrying it down. The dressed ore is smelted on the spot or at the nearest village, in small earthern blast-furnaces bound round with iron, whence the tin is run off into pigs of about 90 lbs weight, in which condition it is exported. The fuel used is charcoal, the preparation of which from wood felled in the surrounding jungle, itself forms a considerable industry and one which, for want of supervision, has denuded the forests of much valuable timber. Lately a Singapore Smelting Company has established an ore-buying agency at Puket under European management, by which a good many local furnaces have been thrown out of work. The value of the annual tin ])roduction of Siam is about £700,000. The Government reA^enue is secured by a royalt}^, fixed from time to time according to a sliding scale based u])on market juvices, and amounting roughly to about ten ]>er cent of the gross Aaalue. Gems . — The gems of the Chantabui’i district liaA-e been knoAvn for many centuries. l)e La Loubere, Acriting in 1714 a.d., mentions sappliires as one of the ]U'oducts of Siam and adds that the gems Avere usually found in the possession of monks who AA^ere A^ery INDUSTRIES 365 secretive as to wlience they were obtained, and em- ployed them as charms, their value as jewels not being fully appreciated in the absence of persons able to cut and polish them. It is recorded in Finlayson’s Journal and by Crawfiird that in the early part of the nineteenth century the gem mines were being worked in a small way and as a royal monopoly but that the stones recovered ivere of a poor quality. Some time about the middle of last century the mines became known to certain Shan and Burmese traders who visited the locality and, with experience gained in the gem mines of Burma, soon demonstrated that the Chantabuii gravels were a good deal more valuable than had hitherto been supposed. Stones which they procured there found their way to Burma and attracted many experienced miners to the spot. The spirit of gambling which has always per- vaded the ruby mines of Burma spread to Chantaburi and Burmese and Shan speculators leased the mines from the Government and brought over their own men to work them. One after another they failed, howcA^er, until in 1880 a financial genius rose amongst them aaOio, gathering all the mines into his hands and gaining control of the opium, gambling and other monopolies of the district, conducted business at a profit for many years. This person induced some thousands of his felloAv countrymen to join him and a considerable colony greiv up, Avhere the customs and ivays of life peculiar to the Shans Avere reproduced in eA^ery detail and Avhere he ruled in almost complete indejiendence for many years. His colony increased and the gems from his mines, more especially sapphires, apjieared not only in Siam and Burma but in the Calcutta market. In 1895, lioAveA'er, the GoA^ernment made a concession of the district to a British company, the Shan lessee, shorn of many of his priAuleges, soon fell into embarrassed circumstances, the output of the mines declined, and 366 SIAM the population began to decrease. Since that time the property has changed hands frequently. Company after company has tried to carry it on and, though all sorts of efforts have been made to restore its former prosperity, all have been fruitless and gem-mining in Siam is to-day a declining industry. There is much speculating in claims, a single pit often changing hands many times before any attempt is made to work it. The brisk working season is during the rains Avhen water is available everywhere with which to work the gravel. At other seasons, many of the diggings are quite dry and the gravel has to be carted to the nearest river for examination. No Government statistics of the produce of the gem mines have ever been- compiled but it is estimated that the present annual outturn, including garnets, topazes, spinelles, and zircons as well as sapphires and rubies, amounts to about £35,000 in value. The most valuable gems produced are sapphires, the rubies being usually of poor colour and full of flaws. Mining at all the different diggings is carried on by means of pits a few feet wide and reaching down to twelve feet below the surface. By recent adjustment of frontiers a large part of the Chantaburi gem-bearing area has become French protected territory. The above-noted gold, tin and gem workings constitute the only mining enterprise of any importance in Siam. SiNer, iron, lead, copiier and coal have been referred to in Part I (Geology and Minerals) as existing in different parts of the country and as having at one time and another, been mined with more or less, usually less, success, but operations with regard to those minerals are at the lu’esent time so minute as to call for no special mention here. INDUSTRIES Other Industries 367 Rice-m illing . — The only Siamese industry which can he called a mannfactnre is rice-milling. The first steam rice-mill on the hanks of the Menam Chao Phaya was hnilt at Bangkok in 1855, the original engines, long since replaced hy more modern machinery, heing still carefully preserved hy the present Chinese owner as the ‘ Good Joss ’ which hronght fortune to his grand- father. The nnmher of mills now running is over sixty and more are continually heing hnilt. The industry has within recent years extended to the provincial towns, and mills have l^eeii opened at Tanyahnri, Petriu, Tachin, Lakon (Xakhon Sri Thamniarat), Singora and Aynthia. The owners of the mills are of Siamese and of various other nationalities, Chinese largely predominat- ing ; the employes are Chinese, with European (usually Scotch) engineers in general charge of the technical work. Every mill is hnilt on the edge of a river or canal and has a wharf to which the paddy is hronght in boats to he milled. When comj)etition is keen in Bangkok the mills send huyers out far up all the waterways to intercejk and hargain for the paddy before it reaches the town, and a continual war is carried on between the huyers and sellers, the former trying to keep prices down and the latter struggling to force them up. The sellers must liai-e mone}^ and the millers must have grist and the fight resolves itself every year into a trial as to which can hold out the longer. Efforts are frequently made hy the millers to form a ring for the purpose of keeping prices down l^ut, owing to lack of cohesion amongst the various nationalities concerned, the attempt has never been more than partially success- ful while similar compacts made amongst sellers to force prices up, usually fail also to liaA^e more than a very temporary effect, in consequence of internecine rivalry. 368 SIAM The Government has more than once threatened to intervene on behalf of the sellers and, by postponing revenue collection and in other ways to enable them to withhold supplies, but snch assistance has never become actually necessary and many years’ experience shows that the sellers are very well able to look after their own interests. The signal defeat vdiicli a combination of local circumstances has enabled the millers of Rangoon to inflict repeatedly on the rice-growers of Burma, has never been experienced in Siam. On arrival at the mill wharf the paddy is taken from the boats, carefully measured and carried by mannal labour into the mill storehouse. "Thence it is transferred into the mill and when it reappears in the form of rice, is packed in sacks and returned • to the 'wharf, again by mannal labour. The paddy is brought by the ‘ Ivwien,’ literally ‘ cart-load, ’ a measure containing eighty baskets, each of Vvdiich holds about 42 lbs of grain. A considerable portion of the rice mannfactnred is of the Cjiiality known as ‘ cargo rice ’ or grain only partially milled with a thin-colonred pellicnle of nitro- genous composition adhering closely to it and wdth a good deal of the husk still present. The remainder is ‘ wdiite rice,’ milled until the nitrogenous pellicnle is entirely removed and only the white starchy interior ])art of the grain left. With improvements in machinery the quantity of ‘ cargo rice ’ made is diminishing while tiiat of ‘white rice’ is increasing. "The milled rice is sold by the ‘ Koyan,’ probably a corruption of ‘ Kwden,’ which equals 22 piculs or 2933 lbs of cargo rice and 23 ]:>icnls or 3069 lbs of white rice. The high polish noticeable on the rice used for food in Europe is not put on in the mills of Siam ]3ut is obtained by further milling after arrival of the grain in Europe from abroad. The carriage of the grain to and from the mills by hand is no doubt an expensive process but it is a form of INDUSTRIES 369 labour rendered sacred by usage and tlie miller wlio should have the temerity to replace the Chinese coolies who perform this work by steam power would have to face combined opposition and probable boycotting. The rice mills, which are all built of timber and galvanised iron, are very high. Tlie grain is hoisted up to the top, is there fed into the milling machinery through which it passes and, descending by its own weight, ultimately returns to the ground floor in the form of rice, having in its downward passage been husked, winnowed, and ground clean. The old-fashioned millstones have been replaced by pairs of cast-iron discs about five feet in diameter, covered on the opposing faces with a mixture of corundum (emery) and cement, the upper disc fixed and the lower revolving rapidly. These remove tlie husk from the grain. Ingenious processes of shaking and fanning then separate the husk from the rice and divide the whole grains from the broken. Finall}- the rice is passed between a rapidly revolving cone, faced, like the husking discs, Avitli corundum and cement, and a more or less close-fitting stationary Avire casing, by the action of AAdiich machine the outer pellicule is rubbed off the grain and the Avhite rice of commerce produced. The fine particles removed from the grain in this last operation form the valuable by-product knoAvn as rice-meal. Boat-building as an industry has declined since the early days of the nineteenth century, when the great junks employed in the China trade and the sailing A^essels of the king and other Siamese merchants were built on the banks of the Men am Cliao Phaya, but a large number of river-lioats and sea fishing boats are still annually launched at Bangkok and at many of the inland riverine towns, wliile, recently, steam launches and sea-going Avooden steamers liaA^e been built in Bangkok. Doaaui the AA^estern sliore of the Gulf of Siam, 2 a 870 SIAM less than a century ago, the rivers of the Malay de- pendencies were veritable nests of pirates, who were exceedingly proficient in the art of building fast-sailing ohipB and great sea-going canoes in which to pursue their nefarious business. These pirating days passed away long since and the descendants of the rovers, still partial to a sea life, have become law-abiding sailormen and fishermen, employing the shipbuilding skill of their race in fashioning trading schooners and fishing boats. Steam traffic has now taken most of the coast trade but fine ships are still occasionally built, while the fishing boats constructed by this primitive people are of a grace, speed and sea-worthiness difficult to surpass. The foundation of all Siamese-built river boats, and of most of the smaller sea-going craft, is the dug-out or hollowed trunk of a tree which in small canoes forms the entire vessel and in large boats is the keel and bottom upon wliich tlie rest of the structure is super-imposed. By tliis arrangement a vessel is secured which never leaks however often it may strike against snags or rocks, which, Avith its broad, round bottom, is quick to turn in narrow waterways, is of shallow draft and Avhen grounded is easy to x)ush over a muddy bottom, a vessel, in fact, admirably adapted to the purposes for Avhich it is required. The timbers used for boat building are the tliingan and mai tahhien for dug-outs, and teak or mai tahhien for superstructure. Probably the largest dug- outs in the w^orld are the Siamese royal state barges. These are of tliingan wood and each boat consists of a single tree. They are 150 feet or rather more in length and al)out eleven feet beam and are made in exactly the same Avay as the smallest canoe, the tree being hollowed out Avith adzes, submerged in Avater until thoroughly soaked and then opened out over fire. The symmetry of these Royal barges, AAdiich are Avithout superstructure ROYAL LARGE IX SIAM. IPhoto Antonio. \ 5 J INDUSTRIES 371 of any kind bnt are sini])ly one piece of timber, is quite perfect. In ordinaiy boat-bnilding no metal nails are ever used, tlie planks wlncli form the snperstrnctnre being fastened to the ribs by means of strong wooden pegs or treenails of viai talxhien. A well-bnilt boat of this construction requires no repair for twenty years or more, beyond a little occasional caulking, bnt the same cannot be said for the large numbers of boats which are now built in Siam on European lines. The best of these latter are short-lived in comparison with those built according to native models, their thin planking being ill adapted to the extremes of climate and rough usage to which they are subjected. A good deal of amateur boat building is done in the monasteries, the monks in their leisure hours producing some of the very best of the smaller river craft. Pottery . — It is probable that the making of pottery is one of the very oldest arts practised in Siam, for though no pottery which can with any assurance be placed earlier than fifteen hundred years ago has actually been found in the country, the recent discovery in Kambodia of primitive earthenware pots and other articles together with later neolithic celts, leads to the inference that the early races which impartially inhabited both countries were possessed of at least a rudimentary knowledge of the properties and uses of burnt clay. Amongst the ruins of many of the cities of the north, terra-cotta jars, pots, statuettes, pedestals, etc., are commonly found, executed in a rude bnt forceful style and probably dating back to about the seventh century a.d. In the days of Sukhothai-Sawankalok’s prosperity the art of making porcelain was introduced into that king- dom from China, and Chinese ex])erts were induced, l)y King Arunawati Ruang, it is said, to settle at the capital and to ply their handicraft there. Porcelain kilns were established on the bank of the river a few miles above 372 SIAM Sawankalok city, and the industry apparently persisted there for some six or seven centuries, that is down to the middle of the eighteenth century a.d. Owing to the absence of suitable clay the quality of the porcelain Avas never good and though the AvorkmanshijA and the glazing were at first of superior quality, the industry Avoiild seem to have declined into the manufacture of coarse and rough crockery only, some time before the Burmese conquest put an end to it altogether. TJie sites of the ancient kilns are marked by huge heaps of shards and misshapen or illl^urnt pottery, the refuse thrown out of the kilns and discarded by many generations of potters and, though the quantity of finished SaAvankalok AAmre as now to be found in different parts of the country, is surprisingly small, it is clear from the size and number of these heaps that a great deal of the ware must have been manufactured from time to time. It is even possible that it AA^as exj^orted, and that the ancient jars found amongst the Dayaks of Borneo and held in so much esteem by them at the present day Avere made at Sawankalok for, though it is generally held that these come from China, the fact that they are called ‘ Siamese Jars ’ by the Dayaks themselves seems to point to a Siamese origin. Gerini further maintains, and indeed goes far towards ])roving, that the coarser pieces of the celadon Avare knoAvn as ‘ Martaban ’ throughout the Mohammedan Orient Averemade at SaAvankalok, and were exported from the toAAuis on the West Coast of Further India in the neighbourhood of Moulmein or Martaban. The older SaAAmnkalok AA^ares Avere almost ahvays of a uniform dirty Avliite, pale grey blue, or yelloAV, and AA^ere frequently ‘ crackled.’ Later, it seems probable that polychrome became fashionable and that floral and religious designs AA^ere Avorked out in many colours on the better class productions. But by the time this stage had been reached the industry had fallen into decay, and SIAMESE PORCELAIN, 1 I INDUSTRIES 373 the imitative Chinese had hegiiii to supply a better article from China, decorated for the Siamese market with all the coloured designs most in demand, or brought over jhain and afterwards painted by Siamese craftsmen. Subsequent to the Burmese conquest these imitations altogether replaced the genuine wares and nearly, if not quite, all the coloured porcelain, now sold to collectors as ancient Siamese ware, is undoubtedly of Chinese manufacture and is Siamese only in design. The only branch of the pottery industry now practised in Siam is the manufacture of earthenware pots, pans and jars, some of which are roughly enamelled, while most are plain terra-cotta. Large red porous jars of some 20 gallons ca])acity are made in considerable quantity and are exported to neighliouring countries, where they are known as ‘ Siam Jars,’ a very different article from the ‘ Siamese Jars’ of the Dayaks of Borneo. The beautiful blue, 3’ellow and red glazed tiles used for the roofs of Wats and royal buildings are still made in different parts of the country, but here again Chinese imitations are supplanting the genuine article. Terra- cotta charcoal-stoves, porous water-goglets and pots of a great variety of shape and of many degrees of fineness are made to supply local demands. Mention should also be made of the very elegant earthenw-are tea]iots on which the Siamese set great store. These are imported from Cdiina in a rough and unfinished condition, and are fitted in Siam with brass handles and rims, and polished by a peculiar secret process until the terra- cotta is absolutely smooth and shining with a high lustre. The finished article commands a good price and old teapots of this kind are often considered of more value than if made of silver. Silk . — The production of raw silk is a very old industry in Siam, while silk-weaving has been considered a polite occupation for female leisure from the remotest 374 SIAM times, the old chronicles and stories abounding with allusions to the use of the loom by ladies, even of the highest rank. Weaving is still an almost universal employment for women but in the absence of scientific knowledge, Siamese silk-growers have fallen behind their foreign competitors and a large part of the silk now locally woven is imported from China, Japan and else- where. A good deal of native silk is however still used, a small quantity finds a market abroad, and the silk- growing industry though in a poor way is by no means dead or dying. Indeed the attention which the Govern- ment has recently given to this industry has revealed signs that its vitality is strong and there is reason to believe that with care and encouragement Siamese silk may yet rank with the best. The investigations of sericultural experts, engaged by the Government from Japan some eight years ago, have shown that the silk- worm of Siam is naturally robust and a good silk producer and a series of experiments have proved beyond doubt that the quality of the product can be immensely improved by a little care in rearing the worms and in reeling. By the instalment of a laboratory and an experimental station and school at Korat, one of the centres of the silk-growing industry, something has been done to instruct growers in means of improving the quality and increasing the out-turn of raw silk by the prevention of disease, regular feeding, better accommoda- tion and by attention to other elementary but hitherto sadly neglected matters. Such instructions, however, have not yet borne fruit, for the silk annually exported from Bangkok still continues insignificant both in quality and quantit}^ - Situated on the banks of the river Menam Chao ITiaya at Bangkok, are many saw-mills where the teak which comes down from the north, and also a certain amount of other timber obtained in various INDUSTRIES 375 parts of the country, is cut up and j)repared for export or for local consumption. The majority of the mills are small and are equipped with primitive machinery hut nine of them, of which four are owned hy British, one by Danish, one by French and three by Chinese firms, are large, well-found establishments furnished with highly efficient steam-driven machinery and capable of turning out a large amount of work, ddiese are all under the supervision of European engineers and employ upwards of 1000 persons of Siamese, Burmese and Chinese nationality. The mills are chiefly occupied in converting round teak logs into squared timber for export, but a good deal of plank and scantling cutting is also done. The arrangement of the mills is that of timber mills in other parts of the world. They are fitted with over-head travelling cranes by which the logs are taken up and carried to the circular-saw racks. Sawdust and refuse timber constitute the fuel on which the steam generating furnaces are fed. About 100,000 tons of timber pass through the mills annually, of which about 85,000 tons are exported and some 15,000 tons consumed locally. PART IV {Continued) COMVERCT^] AND TRADE Ancient Commerce. ~I\i very early times, long before any ICuropean had ever set foot in Siam, in fact at a period when the European was an iron-encased semi- savage, too much absorbed in knocking out the brains of his neighbours and in keei^ing his own skull uncracked to bother about trade or foreign travel, this country had already a Avell-established commerce with the countries contiguous to her frontiers and was in trade relations with China and with India. According to old records. Southern Siam at)pears to have been the main ])oint of 876 SIAM attraction for tlie earliest foreign traders, for while ships from the Indian Coast regularly visited 'Junk Ceylon’ and other parts, carrying thence tin, gold and spices ; a fleet of Chinese junks annually called at various ports and settlements on the east side of the Malay Peninsula, many of which exist no longer except as names in ancient chronicles. Later, when Ayuthia rose to fame, the Indian merchants established an overland route from their west side ports of call to the capital while the junks, extending their beat further to the northward, ascended the Menam Chao Phaya to do business at the capital. Early European Traders. — When, early in the sixteenth century, the Portuguese filibustering merchants first visited the countiy, the}^ found at all the ports as well as at the capital, long-settled communities of Indian and Chinese merchants engaged in a profitable trade. They lost no time in entering into competition with these and so rapid was their advance that in twenty years’ time the factory or trading settlement, which they founded at Patani in 1516, contained over 300 Europeans, while at Ayuthia itself the wdiite population had become so considerable by the year 1548 as to supply a battalion of volunteers for the King’s service against Pegu. Marvellous stories of the overflowing wealth of the Far East, combined with manifest j>rofits reaped by those who returned thence, raised in these early times a great desire throughout Portugal to participate in merchant ventures over-seas, and in all the seaport towns of that country vessels were continually fitting out and sailing away with the blessing of the Church, upon high adventu]-e to the Orient. Though ostensibly undertaken for trading purposes, these expeditions were all lavishly supplied with arms, and investors took much comfort in the knowledge that though trade might fail, the merchants would find COMMERCE AND TRADE 377 plenty of opportunities for despoiling wicked pagans, to the glory of God and to their own enrichment. Nor were they at all mistaken, for the leaders of the adven- turers, often finding that to get rich by lawful commerce was a more lengthy process than they liked, resorted without hesitation to pillaging defenceless towns and to piracy on the high seas, whereby they amassed great wealth and incidentally brought the hatred of the East upon their race and caused the name of Portugal to stink in the nostrils of all Asia. Siam received a liberal share of the attentions of these pious gentlemen. Up and down the west coast of the Mala}^ Peninsula and round the shores of the Gulf they cruised, and gathered a rich harvest from the junks which they met and the towns which they visited, so that in spite of the fact that many individuals of their race had settled in Siam, had started mission work and had even attained to positions of trust in the king’s service, the -coming of the Dutch and English into the Eastern seas was hailed with joy by the Siamese, as a possible deliverance from the horrid Portuguese scourge. When the Dutch and English East India Companies began operations in Siam, they soon ousted the Portuguese from their monopoly of the trade and there ensued a very keen competition between the merchants of all three nationalities which, with much bitter feeling and not a little actual bloodshed, continued all through the seventeenth century. By ancient custom, the foreign trade of Siam was a royal monopol}’ and much of the revenue Avas paid in the form of produce, such articles as tin, pepper, stick- lac, gum-benjamin, beeswax, ebony, rosoAvood and others being supplied from the different proAunces in AAdiich they AAxre produced. These Avere all stored in the royal Avarehouses and Avere exported by the royal shi])s or sold to foreign traders, Avliile all export trade by priA'ate indiAuduals aaxts discouraged. It folloAA^ed that. 378 SIAM as no business could be done except by the royal favour, no efforts were spared l^y any of the foreign factories to keep the King Avell disposed, and each party strove, by insinuation and accusation, to bring discredit upon the others. At first the Dutch and English used the port of Patani as their emporium and seldom went further north. After some ten years or so, however, the trade of Patani declining, they moved up to Ajmthia where they established factories and where, for a time, they drove a thriving business. The Dutch, however, ultimately got the upper hand, and both Portuguese and British trade declined, until the houses of these latter nations had to be given iqi, though many independent merchants (interlopers as the East India companies dubbed them) continued to trade on their own account. In 1C80 a French factory was established but, its object being rather political than commercial, was without any direct effect upon the trade of the country. Indirectl}^, however, its results were far-reaching and disastrous, for it was owing to French ambitions that, a few years later, a revolution took j)lace in Siam, one result of which was the complete dislocation of all trade with Europeans and the practical closing of tfie country to foreign merchants other than Chinese. The sea-borne trade of the country, however, by no means declined because Europeans no longer had a share in it. On the contrary commerce witli otlier countries of the Ear East increased rapidly and soon a large fleet of juuks was devoted solely to the Chiiio-Siamese tmde. At the same time a number of ships were Imilt by the king, which carried his produce to Cochin-CUiiiia, the Malay Peninsula ports, Java, Sumatra and even to the coast of India. Gcjasion- ally, European ships visited Siam but the treatment they met with did not encourage them to return. Towards the end of the eighteenth century efforts were made to re-aAvaken French interest in the country and in the COMMERCE AND TRADE 379 History of Siam by M. Turpin may be read the incite- ments of that patriot to his countrymen to re-establish themselves in the country ; to demand payment of century-old debts said to be still due to the French Company and, if gentle arguments failed, to take the whole kingdom, which, he said, could be accomj)lished with ease by a couple of thousand French soldiers. All this, however, came to nothing, and when John Crawfurd visited Bangkok, now the capital, in 1822, he found a large and flourisliing foreign trade with scarcely a single European ship engaged in it. llie First Commercial Treaties . — The making of the treaty of 1820-27 l)etween the Hon. East India Company (British) and Siam was the first serious step towards reviving European trade. This treaty, and the articles subsequently added thereto, secured the right of all British ships to vAit the ports of Siam and to trade, subject to the payment of such duties as might from time to time be ordered, but left the question of the settlement of British subjects in Bangkok or any other part of the country entirely in the hands of the King. The United States Government elfected a somewhat similar treaty in 1833. Resulting from these rearrang- meiits, the number of Indian merchants in Bangkok increased considerably and vessels Hying the British and American flags a])peared more frequently in the Menam Chao Bliaya. By 1810 one English house of business had been successfully estal)lished, receiving merchandise, principally cotton- 3 ^arn and piece-goods, from Liv^erpool direct and des])atching thither some half-dozen ships a year with caigoes (T tea, and sugar, ivory, gamboge, dye-woods, tin, lead, spices, etc. The American trade, whicdi was in the same commodities, was considerably smaller. At this time and for some years subsequently, a large quantity of sugar was exported, twenty or more ships owned by British subjects 880 SIAM annually carrying cargoes of this product to Singapore and Bombay. All this however, represented a very small proportion of the foreign trade of the country, which continued to be carried in the King’s ships or in Chinese junks as before. Indeed, considering the numerous disadvantages under Avhich British trade was conducted, the treaty notwithstanding, it is a matter for some surprise that it persisted at all. The commercial clauses of the treaty, inadequate as they were, Avere often disregarded by the Government and the British trader AA^as placed in a position Avhich compared most unfaA'ourably AAuth that enjoyed by the Chinese. Thus, the British Avere bound by treaty to the payment of heavy tonnage dues, from wliich the Chinese were exempt. The British could neither build ships, occupy lands or houses, export rice, the chief product of the country, charter vessels, or travel in the interior, AA^hile the Chinese did all of these things Avithout hindrance of any kind. Moreover the Government prohibited the export of timber and salt and farmed the trade in a number of other articles in direct infringement of the treaty and, by selling monopolies to the Chinese, effectually debarred the British from obtaining cargoes except on payment of ruinous prices to the very persons against AAdiom.they Avere in competition. The situation in time became almost intolerable and moreoAmr efforts on the part of the Hon. East India Company to improve this state of things by revision of treaties Avere frustrated by the interest AAdiich the Chinese Avere able to make with the king and the cliief officers of State. Efforts made by the United States GoATrnment, to reAuse the treaty of that nation Avith Siam, met AAoth no better results. Later Commercial Treaties . — The accession of King Maha Mongkut in 1881, lioAA^eA-er, brought about an immediate change in the asjAect of affairs, for that COMMERCE AND TRADE 381 monarch having given inncli time to the study of European science, languages and customs, was not only imbued with strong European sympathies but had grasped the fact that to encourage the notoriously evil practices of a few Cdiinese monopoly-holders at the expense of trade with the civilised world, and contrary to the often expressed desires of the governments of at Ifeast two j)owerful nations, was the worst kind of policy, and one which, if persisted in, must infallibly plunge his country into innumerable difficulties. He therefore early revealed an inclination to better the position of the European merchants resorting to Siam and when, in 1855, Sir John Bowring was sent to Bangkok by the British Government to negotiate a new treaty, that officer found little difficulty in concluding an arrange- ment which placed British trade with Siam on an entirely new footing and this, followed shortly after- Avards by similar treaties Avith most of the PoAvers, Avas in fact the key that opened the great resources of Siam to the commerce of the Western AA^orld. This important document not only secured to all British merchants a treatment in all respects equal to that meted out to others, provided for the appointment of a Consul to guard their interests and enal)led them to penetrate into the interior of the country, to buy their goods AAdiere they pleased and eA^en to grow their oAvn produce in certain districts, but, in a series of elaborate schedules it definitely fixed the import and export duties, the octroi, the reA^enue on all kinds of produce and, in fact, all the taxes AAdiich British subjects could be called upon to pay. Thus, as Sir John himself recorded in the account of his mission, ‘ it Avas clear that the treaty in- A^oHed a total reA'olution in all the financial machinery of the goA^ernment, that it must l)ring about a total change in theAAdiole system of taxation, that it took up a large proportion of the existing sources of reA^enue, that 382 SIAM it uprooted a great number of privileges and monopolies wliicli bad not only l^een long established but which were held by the most influential nobles, and the highest functionaries of the State.’ It is probable that neither the King, rather frightened at the magnitude of his innovations, nor Sir John, breathing anxious prayers that his endeavours might prove a universal blessing, anticipated to the full the far-reaching effects of the treaty or the enormous advantage, notwithstanding the drawbacks of Consular jurisdiction, which the measure was shortly to confer upon the trade, the wealth and the general progress and popular welfare of Siam ; but had they been able to foresee the prosperous condition to which the country has since attained as a direct result of their labours, the pleasure inspired in the hearts of tliese two statesmen by the sound of distant guns salut- ing the new treaty would certainly have been many times enhanced. Growth of Ewropean and Decline of Chinese Trade. —The years which followed the new treaties brought an expansion of foreign trade, at first not very conspicu- ous, but later becoming increasingly evident with every year that passed. The Chinese trade however, never throve after the making of the treaties with European Powers but, bereft of the support of the many corruptions by which it had formerly lived, and exposed to the com- paratively honest and quite relentless competition of white men, it languished and declined. Gradually also, the once proud fleet of over four hundred junks engaged in the China trade was reduced by the competition of European-ow-ned steamers to less than a hundred. The square-rigged vessels of the king and the nobility were the next to go. In spite of their excellent build and many sea-worthy qualities they failed, after a time, to maintain the unequal struggle again modern progress and, one by one, were sold out of the country or were COMMERCE AND TRADE 383 beaclied, stripped of their fittings and left to rot in the mud of the river on whose waters they had long so proudly floated. Before 1800, they had finally dis- appeared and the only sailing vessels of European rig now visiting the port of Bangkok are the Norwegian and British Ininher ships, which sometimes call for cargoes of teak, and a few small coasting schooners from the Malay States. During this period, over 55 per cent, of the foreign trade of Siam was carried in English bottoms. The value of the trade which in 1885 amounted to £1,900,000 exports and £1,350,000 imports, continued to increase and in 1894: had risen to £2,450,000 exports and £1,710,000 imports. Steam vessels had lieen known to the Siamese for some time before 1857, the year of the treaty, and indeed, one small steam launch had been constructed in Bangkok in 1855, but as carriers of merchandise, steamers were uidviiown until, in the seventies, an ii’on vessel of some 400 tons, part owned in Siam and named the ‘ Chao Pha 3 "a,’ began to ]>ly regidarly l)etween Singapore and Bangkok. Consular trade reports of thirt^^-five 3 'ears ago expatiate on the maii}^ advantages offered by this vessel, her speed, ])nnctuality and the magnificence of her accommodation. Having run for man}" }’ears and carried amongst her passengers. Princes, Ministers of State, Foreign Envo,ys and maii}^ other distinguished travellers, she now lies a wreck in the month of one of the peninsular East Coast rivers where the curious may find her, a little eight-knot wrought-iron tramp, whose accommodation would not nowada}'S l)e tolerated by the humblest jiassenger from Singajiore to Bangkok, but whose plates, lieing of a date when safety was considered be.f'ore cheapness in shipbuilding, are, in s]>ite of her hoaiy age, singularly well preserved. This pioneer of Siamese steamer trade was not left very long without competition. The Chinese merchants of Singapore as 384 SIAM well as various Englislimen gradually discovered that facilities for trade with Siam were many and that the profits to he made in it were good, and other vessels were sliortl}" placed on the Bangkok-Singapore run. By 1884 the total number of vessels, steamers, and sailing ships, excluding junks, to clear the port in the twelvemonth, had risen to over 400, of which more than half were under the British flag, the remainder being largely Siamese, with occasional Dutchmen, Frenchmen or Germans. British Shipping . — Near the end of the eighties a branch of the great Holt line of steamers was established between Singapore and Bangkok, and a few years later a company called the Scottish Oriental Company Ltd., opened up a regular and direct trade with Hongkong and the southern China ports. For some time these two local lines had everything their own way, and by 1897 had driven out of the carrying trade all but a few privately owned or heavily subsidised vessels. In 1897 the share of British shipping in the carrying trade was 74 per cent of the whole, but at that date it began to decline and in 1900 had fallen to 38 per cent. Growth of Commerce . — In 189G, three years after the trouble witli the French, when many persons believed that Siam as an independent kingdom would shortly disappear, a further impetus was given to foreign trade by the signing of the Anglo-F rencli agreement guaran- teeing the autonomy of Siam, which released for local investment much wealth wliicli had been withheld owing to the uncertainty of the situation. It was owing largely to this fortunate arrangement that, between 1894 and 1904, the total value of trade of the port of Bangkok increased by £3,000,000 exports, and £2,700,000 imports. In fact, it considerably more than doubled itself, and that the limit of ex])ansion had not even then been readied, is shewn by the fact that by 1910 the exports had again increased by £1,030,000 and the COMMERCE AND TRADE :385 imports l3v £802,000, tlie totals amounting, for the year (1909-10), to £7,74C),000 and £5,272,000 res]:>ectively. The annual grand total of the exports and imports of Bangkok surpasses that of Greece hy three and a half millions sterling and that of Persia by one and a half millions. The trade of Portugal is just about doul}le that of Siam though its po])ulation is about a million less. The total value of the trade of Japan is six and a half times that of Siam, but its population is seven times greater. German Sliipping . — Occasional German ships visited Bangkok in the days Avhen England and Siam between them did nearly all the carrying trade. German ships anywhere were few and far between in those early times, and German interest in Siamese commerce being almost nil, were usually better employed elsewhere. The great develojiment of the Siamese rice-trade, however, brought several Germans to take a share in it and led to the establishment of more than one German-owned rice mill. This naturally brought about an increase in German slapping, with the result that by the year 1897 a few German steamers were in the habit of coming regidarly to Bangkok, and about 8 per cent, of the annual steam tonnage of the port was German. The visit of the King to the West in that year brought Siam prominently to the notice of Europe, at a time when the Xortli German Lloyd Company was in search of means to establish Ljcal branch services, for the advantage of its Far Eastern commerce. The Bangkok trade, though a small fraction of tlie British carrying trade, would make a consideraljle ditt'erence to that of Germany if it could be diverted in- to German bottoms, and negotiations were therefore set on foot which resulted in the purchase of Holt’s Bangkok steamers and of the whole of the Scottish Oriental 386 SIAM Company’s fleet, the Germans paying very long prices in order to obtain a position which should enable them to grasp the entire trade. There remained, however, a few British and Norwegian tramp steamers and, in the somewhat drastic efforts which they made to exclude these, the North German Lloyd Company exasj^erated the rice-millers, and caused them to resort much to the chartering of outside vessels. Furthermore, a second German Company and the Japanese Nippon Oyusen Kaisha both entered into competition for the trade, and violent freight wars resulted, followed by almost equally disastrous compromise. The North German Lloyd therefore though they ]>aid dearly, failed in their object of capturing the trade, German tonnage entered inwards in the port of Bangkok in the year 1908-09 being but 50 per cent, of the whole, followed by the Norwegians with 22 per cent., British with 18 per cent., and Danish, Siamese, French and others aggregating 10 per cent. Moreover the Siam branch of the North German Lloyd, far from adding to the profits of the main line, caused a serious reduction of the same. Expo)‘ts from Bangkok. — ^In the exports of Bangkok as revealed by the statistics for 1908-09, the two articles, rice and teak, very far exceed the aggregate of ail the others, these two together reaching the value of £G,900,0()0 or over nine-tenths of the whole export trade. It is remarkable that when Siamese commerce first began to attract notice, neither of these articles Avere to be counted upon as exports at all. In the beginning of European trade Avith Siam, the commodities for Avhich the merchants (piarrelled and intrigued, were sugar, ])epper, cardamoms, gamboge, gum-benjamin, ivory, tortf)ise-shell, ebony, rose-Avood, sapan-Avood, and eagle- Avood, all articles of luxury AAfliich, on account of iheir rarity, commanded fabulous prices. Great risks of sliipAvreck, disease, and AA^ar Avere encountered by the COMMERCE AND TRADE 387 men who sailed in search of these commodities, hut the profits accruing to those who were fortunate enough to bring home a full cargo were so great that volunteers were never to seek for maiming the tiny, ill-found vessels annually venturing forth on vojuiges iWiich, under the best of circumstances, took years in the accomplishment. The statistics of the Bangkok Custom House still contain most of the aliove articles though tlie quantities now exported are usually trivial and, in addition to these, there are several articles entered, the presence of which can hardly fail to arouse speculation in the mind of the uninitiated as to the uses for wlucJi these same may be intended. Such articles are liirds'- nests, tigers’-bones, tigers’-glue, deer-horns in veh'et, rhinoceros’-horns, sharks’-fins, and armadillo-skins, all of which are not only exported but appear to command in most instances an extraordinarily high price. Thus bird s’-nests are valued at about £2 ]>er lb., tigers’-gliie at 5s. per lb., deer -horns at £8 the ];air, rhinoceros’-horns at £3 10s. per lb., and sharks’-fins and armadillo-skins at about Is. per lb. A further glance at the statistics shows that these commodities are nearly all slii]»ped to Hongkong or the Chinese ports, that is, they are for Chinese consumption. Now the Chinese phaimacopoeia sets an immense value upon the strengthening qualities wliich are supposed to reside in certain ])arts of many animals. ITie ‘ celebrated edible birds’-jiest,’ being made entirely from a gelatinous substance secreted during tlie breeding season by certain species of martin, issup]>osed to contain all the strength of the unfortrmate little architect in a concentrated form, while i hinoceros’-liorns and deer-horns, which by their rapid growtli A'isibly al)5orl) the substance of the owner, are deemed to consist simply of vital energy in a peculiarly condensed form. The tiger is the very incarnation of ferocity and strength and if, as European doctors hud, mere essence of beef 888 SIAM supplies a powerful stimulant, how much more invigor- ating’ must be a decoction the glue obtained by boiling down the king of beasts. In fact all these mysterious articles of commerce are in demand for the sole purpose of compounding the invigorating tonics usually pre- scribed by the celestial medical faculty in cases of exhaimtion of the vital forces. The modern export trade of Siam, which may be said to date from early in the 19th century, at first consisted chiefly of cargoes of pepper and other spices, woods of various kinds and re-exported Chinese tea, but more especially of sugar. No accurate records of the com- merce of these distant days have been preserved, but tlie writings of Neale, Bowring and others make it abuudantly clear that the sugar trade was once one of the big things of the country. The masters of ships frequenting Bangkok took all the sugar they could get for their owners and then bartered the guns and other ships’ furniture in their charge for extra consign- ments, which they ultimately disposed of to their own consideraltle profit, whereby it came about that most of the guns mounted in the old riverine forts guarding the approach to Bangkok jrore the arms of many Eurox^ean States though they ’were fondly supposed by their rightful owners to have l)een jettisoned at sea during storms. In time, however, the boom waned, and the sugar growing and refining industries fell off to such an extent that Iry 1880 the ex])ort had dwdndled to a mere nothing. But in the meanwhile the rice trade had grown uj) and had come to occu])y the attention of merchants to the ])ractical ex ‘lusion of all else. The Rice Trade . — The best Siamese white rice is sent to Singax)ore, whence it is distributed through the }dalay Archi])elago and the countries adjacent thereto. It commands a better jjrice than the produce of French Indo-C'hina and of Burma, though this may be more on COMMERCE AND TRADE 389 account of the local reputation it has acquired tlian because of any real present sn])eriority. Ordinary Siam wliite rice finds its way, via Singapore and Hongkong, to most parts of the world. Great cjuantities are taken by China and occasionally, in years of scarcity in Japan, a brisk market is found in that country also. Cargo- rice, which is rice that has been roughly husked but not properly milled, is both shijij^ed direct to Europe and transhipped at Singapore for the same destination, Germany and Great Britain taking the major part. About 90,000 tons, valued at l)et\veen five and six hundred thousand pounds, were sent direct to India during 1907, but this was something out of the usual and as a rule from one thii*d to a half of the cargo-rice exported goes via Hongkong to China. The total amount of rice of all kinds exported from the country during the four years ending with 1908-09, averages al^out 850,000 tons a year, the highest recorded export in an}’- year being that of 960,01)0 tons for 1908-09. This is a large amount, l)ut tlie country should l^e, and undoulotedly in future will l)e, able to export much more. The rice- lands of Siam are no whit less fertile than those of Burma, while the Siamese is to the full as able and intelligent a cultivator as his Burmese neighljour ; both countries are rice-growing centres and sixt}' years ago were in Amry similar conditions as regards cultivated area, po])ulation and government, Siam, if an}fihing, holding a slight adAvantage in all these respects. Yet at the present day the annual rice export of Burma, about 2,000,000 tons, is a good deal more than doid^le that of Siam. The causes of the present great disjvxrity are to be found in the facts that AAdiile the India GoAmrnment has spent money freely in proAuding Burma A\dth irrigation AAmrks, the Siamese Government has only just begun to deA'ote some of its income to this most ])rofitable form of iiiAmstment. While in Burma CA^ery possible 390 SIAM inducement and facility have been offered and even forced upon the peasantry to increase the output of the cultivated lands and to add to their extent, in Siam only the smallest of efforts have been made in this direction ; and finally while the population of Lower Lurina has more than doubled itself since the British occu])ation, that of Siam remained stationary, or perhaps declined, during the course of the nineteenth century. Xow, lioweAmr, Siam is folloAving the footsteps of Burma ; the importance of irrigation Avorks has been fully realised ; cadastral suiweys, land registration and a Amstly improved revenue administration are already bringing about an increase in the area under cultivation, and hygienic measures are being taken to remoAm the causes Avhich in the past haAm hindered the natural increase of the population. Without any very striking assistance from the (Government but in consequence of the increased business demand for the commodity, the amount of rice annually aAmilable for export has about doubled itself since the opening of the present century, a fact which encourages the hope that, AAuth adequate State assistance it Avill be only a matter of time for Siam to range alongside of Burma, Avhich country be it remembered, holds easily the first position amongst the rice-exporting communities of the Far East and probably of the world. llie Teak Trade . — Bangkok has exported a certain quantity of teak for many A^ears, but it Avas not until the closing of the teak forests of Upper Burma after the annexation of that country b,y England in 1885, that the Siamese trade assumed important dimensions. Up to that time the trade had been chiefly in the hands of ('bines'^ merchants and the timber sent out by tliem was so unreliable in quality that Siamese teak Avas veiy little in demand. The iiiA^estment of European capital in the industry and the consequent em])loyment of COMMERCE AND TRADE 391 trained European foresters, together with the inaugura- tion of a Government Forest Department soon had the effect of increasing and regulating the output and at tlie same time of improAung the quality, and Siam teak is noAv in request and is considered equal to the best produced elseAvhere. The average annual export of teak from Bangkok during the liA^e years ending Avitli 1887 AA^as under 20, 000 tons, valued at £130,000 ; that for the fiA^e years ending 1909-10 AA^as 85,000 tons valued at nearly £1,000,000, figures AAdiich indicate clearly the groAA'tli of the trade. Teak is exported both in steamers and in sailing ships, being taken on board at the timber mills in Bangkok, Avhere it has been saAAui into squares, planks, shingles and scantlings, and carried to Europe, Bombay or Hongkong. The quantity yearl}^ aAmilable for export fluctuates, as the supply floated out from tlie forests on the annual floods and rafted doAAui to Bangkok depends largely upon the abundance or deficiency of the rainfall in the interior. Not all the Siamese teak export is from Bangkok, for about 40,000 logs, AAdiich come from the forests of the north-AA^est districts, are annually rafted doAvn the SalAAdn riA’-er into Burma. The largest annual ex])ort of Siam teak on record aaus for the year 1904-05, since AAdiich time the groAving activity of the Royal Forest Department has caused a slight continual diminution. Cattle Trade. — For many years Bangkok carried on a brisk export trade in cattle, the Singapore meat supply being almost entirely draAAm thence. In the year 1897, 28,000 head of bullocks, Amlued at about £80,(>00, AA^ere ex])orted. ddie trade aatis chiefly in the hands of Asiatic British subjects ; the animals AA'ere cheap, being mostly stolen property, no quarantine regulations had to be observed, coni]jlaisant ship-masters AA'ere careful not to offend the shippers liy enforcing cA^en the most elementary precautions for the protection and safe transit of their living freight, and the trade aaus a most profitable one. 392 SIAM A few years ago, however, the Siamese Government introduced quarantine regulations entailing detention of the animals, with incidental feeding, for some days prior to export. The rural police began to check cattle theft, thereby endangering the main source of supply, and the scandalous treatment of animals in transit caused a public outcry, which compelled masters of vessels to insist on j)roper precautions for protecting and feeding the beasts. Prohts immediately fell oh, and the trade began to diminish, being further assisted in its down- ward course by outbreaks of rinderpest and anthrax in the interior. Finally the introduction of a system of cold storage at Singapore gave the finishing blow to the trade and in 1907-08 practically no cattle were exported.* The trade in hides and horns, though apparently also declining, still amounts in value to about £100,000. General Exports . — The export of valuable woods other than teak, including box, ebony, sapan and rose-wood, once so much sought after in Siam, has declined steadily for a longtime and now amounts to some £15,000 in value, but a trade in the chea])er sorts of timber is springing u]) and bids fair to assume considerable proportions in the near future. The value of this cheap timber exported, rose from about £1500 in 1906-07 to £7000 in 1908-09. The amount of fish available for export varies with the <‘onditions which affect the sea-fishing industry. In an average year the value of the export amounts to about £100,000, but it frequently falls very far below that sum while in bumper years it far exceeds it. Almost the whole of the export goes to China. The annual export of pepper from Siam amounts to about 1400 tons, valued at from forty to fifty thousand pounds. The price fluctu- ates consideral)ly but with a general downward tendency * Since then, it is true, there has been a slight revival on account of the demand for draught animals in the British Federated Malay States and between four and five thousand head were shipped fioin Bangkok in the year 1910-1911. COMMERCE AND TRADE 393 and is, at the present day, about lialf what it was twenty years ago. Other exports are onions, raw silk, silk cloth re-exported after being dyed in Bangkok, gems, tree-cotton and sundries, all of which are individually unimportant. Imports to Bamjkolx . — In the days when the sea-borne trade of Siam was chiefly in the hands of Chinese, the annual fleet of junks brought in siks, cotton cloth, tobacco, tea, refined sugar, and notions of all kinds and the merchants, mooring alongside each other, spread their wares in booths on the awning-covered decks and converted their ships into a large floating l)azaar, whither the l:)eauty and fashion of tlie city repaired by water and passed long hours in shopping and examining the novelties of the season. This custom has long since passed away, however, the Chinese tea, silk and gim- cracks, which are still largely imported, are consigned to the shops of Sam Peng, the Chinese quarter, and the waters of the port are given over to steamers, lighters and cargo-boats, while the import warehouses are filled to overflowing with goods more consistent with the demands of a progressive and civilised community. First and foremost among imports come cotton goods of various kinds, the value of which may be ])laced at al)out £1,100,000 a year. These come cliiefly from Great Britain and Bombay and have now almost entirely replaced home-made cotton clothing. Silk goods to the value of £210,000 are brought from China, Japan, Bombay and to a small extent from Europe. Provisions, £470,000, are mostly Euro])ean ])roduce. Metals and machinery to the value of £400,000 are imported, chiefly from England and Germany. Petroleum oil from America, Burma and Sumatra (Dutch) is annnaily con- sumed in the country to the value of £4< H ),( K H ). Of gunnies or canvas sacks for the packing of rice, £200,000 worth are imported chiefly from India. C'hina su])])lies sugar to the extent of £200,000. Foreign liquor includes 394 SIAM 8am slm or rice spirit from China, wines from France, Germany and Spain, brandy from France, whisky from the British Isles and Germany, and beer from Germany, Denmark and England. The taste for foreign liquors lias of late }Tars increased considerably amongst the Siamese and. to meet and encourage this, various brands of the most horrible firewater labelled ‘Finest French Brandy,’ ‘ Best Scotch Whisky ’ and what not, are manufactured in Germany and placed upon the Siamese market, at the modest price of eight-pence or so per liottle ! An attempt is being made by the government, in encouraging the local distilling of honest, if nasty, rice-spirit, to check the consumption of this poison, but the success of the endeavour is not yet assured. Some £120,000 worth of opium is annually imported from India. Until quite recently the importation and sale of opium was farmed out and produced a A^ery large pro- portion of the public rewenue. The system fostered the smuggling of opium vdiich Iiecame in time a very lucratiAm trade. In 1907 the farm was abolished and a government department now controls the import trade, and armed Avith a neAv and drastic hiAv, is maintaining a contest Avith the smugglers, the ultimate issue of which Avas for a long time doubtful. Chemicals and drugs imported represent about £70,000 in A^alue ; hardAA^are, cutlery, etc., another £70,000 ; cane and bamboo manu- factures (mostly from Hongkong) yet another £70,000, and other imports such as paper, cement, furniture, jeAA^ellery, leather goods, oils and paint, rope, soap, tobacco and sundries make up together rather over £1,000,000. About 75 per cent, of imports come from A’-arious parts of the British Empire, but since much of the cargo for Siam from Europe and America is transhipped at Singapore or Hongkong, a certain amount of j)roduce of other foreign countries must be included here. Imports, from Great Britain direct, amount to £1,000,000 COMMERCE AND TRADE 395 in value, or rather more than one sixth of the wliole. Tn the almost complete absence of local manufacturers, the whole nation depends altogether upon imported goods for the supplying of all its wants other than food stuffs. In the village market-places throughout the kingdom, the trade marks of Manchester cotton-sellers, tlie familiar legends on the tiiis of English-made biscuits, German dyes and Swiss milk, and the flash advertise- ments of British and American tolmcco dealers meet the eye. The peasant goes clad in English or Indian calico, wears on his head an Austrian straw hat, makes fiis tea in an Austrian enamelled iron kettle and ])ours it into a thick, stoneware cup, gilded with what he takes to I)e words of powerful foreign magic, though these are in fact no more than the invocation ‘ Foi-get me not,’ or the dedication ' For a good child.’ AVhen the hillman turns out the havei’sac wdiich seiwes him for a pocket, it will ])robably be found to contain, besides the betel-nut, the cheA\dng-cutch and the inevital)le hair-pulling tweezers, indispensable adjuncts of every outfit, a box of Japanese matches, a crumpled packet of ‘ Cycle ’ or ‘ Eagle ’ cigarettes, a little Austrian tin box with a grossly dis- torting mirror in the lid, and perhaps a coarse German imitation of a steel pocket-knife. Coiiimerce of Southern Siam . — Fifteen years ago the trade of Siamese ])orts other than Bangkok did not in all probability exceed £800,000 in value, including the tin exports from the west coast of Southern Siain. The west coast ]9orts of Trang, Puket, Paleaii, etc., have had trade relations wdth Penang ever since the founding of that settlement, but the administration of these districts was of old consistently neglected by the central govern- ment of Siam and left entii'ely in the hands of local dignitaries, or of courtiers appointed from Bangkok, apparently in order that they might have opportunities of enriching themselves as quickly as ]) 0 ssible. These 396 SIAM individuals did tlieir utmost to suppress all trade wliicli was not to tlieir own immediate and peculiar advantage, and the resources of the country were tlierefore closed to all hnt their own creatures. Nevertheless, and in spite of tlie absence of all administrative encouragement and of the ]iresence of officials of an astounding rapacity, a sort of trade did mainage to exist, carried on almost entirely in sailing vessels owned by Chinese merchants, though its volume was subject to violent flnctuations, at times amoimting to complete temporary extinction. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, however, even these distant provinces began to feel the effect of the reforms which ivere being organised by the central government in Bangkok. The ups and downs of trade due to official corruption or caprice became less disturb- ing, and in time were replaced by a sIoav but steady upward trend. As prospects improved, Europeans became interested in the commerce, and a large part of its bulk became diverted from the old sailing vessels to steamers. The exports Avliich consist of tin, pepper, rice, live stock, and a little copra, were Amlned in 1907 at about £1,000,000, of Avhich sum tin alone accounted for £600,000. The imports, cotton goods, silks, provisions, o])iuni and ilce (to Tongka) totalled about £650,000. Tlie groAvth of commerce on the east coast is CA^en more recent than on the Avest. Ten years ago it con- sisted of nothing but a little pepper, betel-nut, copra and dried fish, small quantities of AAdiich AA^ere carried to 8inga])ore in tAAX) or three ancient and dilapidated steamers oAvned 1)y Chinese, and in a number of small sailing vessels, and tliere exclianged for cotton goods and sundries. In LSOcS, the government, then iDeginning to administer the coast districts, found it necessary to secure communications Avith the capital and to that end subsidised a suitalde steamer to run regularly from Bangkok to SingajAore calling at the ])rincipal settle- COMMERCE AND TRADE 397 iiieiits on the coast. This service for a long time failed to attract attention hut h}^ perseverance the owners at last secured a footing and began to divert trade from the sailing vessels. In time the new facilities which were offered for rapid and regular transport caused the Ao:)liime of trade to take an np^vard turn which became a rapid increase, when another ship was put on. Tlie sn])sidised vessels soon grew into a fleet and several small steamers from Singapore came to take a share in ihe growing commerce. Rice and paddy, liA^e-stock, tin and timber were added to the list of merchandise. Increasing wealth lu’onght a demand for more imports and, in 11)07, the Siamese subsidised fleet of seven well-found new steamers with many outside vessels, carried exports and imports exceeding £1,000,000 in value from and to tlie east coast j^orts. The resources of districts concerned are being activeh" develojoed and the sea-borne trade thus laboriously created, will doubt- less increase very much in the near future. Overhnid Trade . — The overland trade of Siam with foreign countries is small and increases very sIowIa^ or not at all. It is (*arried on with Rurma on the east and with the British Shan States and French Territory on the north. There is practically no trade across the eastern frontier. The total value of ex])orts and imports together amounts to some £40(.),()(J() yearly, of wliicli amount teak, floated down the Salwin from Xorthern Siam to Moulniein in Burma, contributes about one (juarter. Siam exports teak ri(( Moulniein to the extent of about 20,()00 tons a year, or nearly one fourth part of tlie total annual export of this article. The other exports are chiefly cattle, silk-goods, and treasure. The imports overland are almost entirely Kurojiean goods brought from Burma for sale in Xorthern Siam. Most of this import trade is in the hands of regular merchants having houses at Cliieng 398 SIAM Mai or some other centre, but a good deal is also done by gangs of Shan and Burmese pedlars, who perambulate the country from end to end, carrying packs of cotton goods and the usual hawkers’ assortment of odds and ends, replenishing their stock from time to time at Moulmein or Rangoon. A few Chinese mule caraA-ans occasionally find their way as far soutli as Siam passing through the French provinces of Sipsong Fauna and Mong Sing. They bring with them silks and brocade, furs, copper pots, dried persimmons, Avalnuts, imitation jade ornaments, and Chinese notions of various sorts. They liaA^e also lately imported a certain amount of rubber collected from the hill tribes Avith AAdiom they have been in contact en route, and this they dispose of to the merchants of Chieng Mai. The rul)ber is probably of the description known as Rambong in the trade, that is. the produce of the Ficus elastica. It is of fairly good cpiality for Rambong, but the quantity is small and is not likely to increase \ery much. It is prob- able that Avith the penetration of the railAA^ay to the chief towns of Northern Siam, the OAmrland trade Avith Burma and China Avill at last disajjpear, for though teak Avill still be exported to Moulmein, the AAmnts of the people of the interior so far as European goods are concerned Avill then be much more cheaply supplied from Bangkok. At present the freight on goods passing up river from Central to Northern Siam is quite prohibitive. Customs . — One of the principal obstacles encountered ])y Europeans trading AAntli Siam in days before the existence of treaties Avas the excessiAm delay caused by l)rocrastinations of the officers charged Avith the control of sliipping and the collection of customs. It Avas ap- ])arently the rule to prevent a vessel from unloading not only until after the legalised customs dues had been ])aid, but until as much of the cargo had been given u]) in illegal fees and in bribery as could possibly be COMMERCE AND TRADE 899 extorted. Even tlie most subordinate officers and attendants liad to be Avell considered before the nnlia})py merchant Avas permitted to dispose of his AAVires. BoAvring records the saying of a AAutty Frencli priest that ‘ shi])S trading to iffingkok shonld bring three cargoes, one of ])resents for those in high places, one for bribes to the customs officers and one for purposes of trade.’ This peculiar state of affairs came to an end in the reign of King Mongkut Avho, as has already been intimated, shoAA’^ed as much encouragement to European merchants as his pi'edecessor had done the reA^erse. The treaties made in this reign secured the establish- ment of a properly organised Customs Department and the reasonable treatment of merchant shijAs of eA^ery nationality, and fixed the import and export duties at rates either ad valorem or commensural)le Avith the then Auilue of the goods concerned. A certain number of articles of export AAdiich A\^ere subject to inland transit duties at the time AAdien the treaties AA-ere made, AA^ere exempted from the liability to export duty in consideration of such transit dues. The articles so taxed AA^ere A^ery numerous lAut mostly of small importance and as it AA^as found that the collection of transit duties on these Avas not ])roductive of much revenue, AAdiile it aaus a source of considerable vexation to the tax-payers, a decree aavts made a feAv years ago exempting from such duties a large number of the articles AAdiich can, in consequence, noAv be exported free of all taxation. i\Iore than fifty years have elapsed since the exj)ort and import duties Avere fixed by treaty and the incidence of the rates, A\diich at that time ap])eared fair and equit- able, has naturally altered considerably A\dth the changes Avhich time has brought in the values of commodities and in the relative importance of the customs and the other sources of revenue. The alteration has all been 400 SIAM to the disadvantage of the government and to the benefit of the merchant, and had the rates not been so fixed by treaty, there can be no donbt bnt that the government would have re-arranged them long ere now, and that rightly, in order to maintain that relation to surrounding conditions and values Avhich was originally aimed at. Only by revision of the treaties, how’-ever, could such re-arrangement be made and revision of the treaties was until lately impossible in this respect, so that the government, in view^ of a regular rise in the value of all exports, had for many years to be content with custom dues of constantly decreasing proj)ortion both to the value of exports and to the total revenue of the kingdom. If the case of rice alone be considered it will be found that the price of the article has risen so much during the last fifty years that if the export duty originally fixed at four ticals per hwien (or about 8 per cent, ad valorem) had been increased to preserve a constant ad valorem incidence, the customs revenue now available from that article would be about £45(),()00 a year instead of the actual ,£ir)0,0()0. The fixed tariff allows a duty on all taxable im])orts of 3 per (*ent. ad valorem and this with the scheduled export duties results in a total custom ]-evenue of about £400,000 a year or one-tenth of the revenue of the State. If it be rememl)ered that in Great Britain, a so-called Free Trade Countr.y, the Customs produce more than a fifth of the total revenue, the unduly small ]>ro]:)ortion of the customs of Siam to her total income is at once apparent. By the terms of the Franco- Siamese ti-eaty of H)07, and the Anglo-Siarnese treaty of 1901) the former treaty provisions regarding customs, duties and general taxation have all been sw^ept into limbo so far as French and I British subjects are concerned, and doubtless arrangements will before long be made wdth the remaining Powders, as the result of which the government w411 Ire at liberty to effect such fiscal re- COMMUNICATIONS 401 organisation as will provide for an income from customs sufficient to jiistif}^ the abolition of some other sources of revenue, Avhich are out of place in a progressive admini- stration or which press niidnly upon the people. That His Majesty the late King fully realised the importance of trade to the welfare of Siam, and con- sistently encouraged commerce during his long and wise reign, even more than his august father had done before him, the extraordinary recent development of the seaborne trade eloquently testifies, as do the following- words spoken in 1907 in a speech made by His Majesty at a banquet given to the leaders of the foreign com- mercial commimity of Bangkok. His Majesty said : ‘ The pioneers of Siamese commerce have in truth been the merchants of foreign countries, owing to intercourse with vdioin, as we see to onr great satisfaction, the spirit of commerce is now at last avrakening in onr own people. It is highly beneficial to the commerce of onr country that the merchants of all nations should meet and trade here, alike to their own advantage and to that of onr State. We fully appreciate the great advance of the commerce of Siam and, knowing that there is no more important factor in promoting tlie material j^rogress and welfare of a country than successful commerce, we have ahvays had deeply at heart the encouragement of trade within onr dominions.’ PART IV {Continued) Communications and Transport Watericays and Boats . — The physical nature of Central Siam is such that for several months of each year almost the whole of it is covered with water, varying in depth from a few inches to eight or ten feet, while the even flatness and low level of this region has caused 402 SIAM the rivers which flow across it to divide into innumerable channels, and creeks subject to strong tidal influence, which therefore alternate between extreme sluggish- ness and great rapidity of flow. The people of this district, having so much water about them, have naturally acquired habits which may rightly be termed aquatic and, in the total absence of roads, the making and maintenance of which, under the conditions there prevailing, would always be matters of much difficulty and expense, have long been accustomed to use the water as their principal means of traffic and communication. Successive rulers of the country who have given their attention to the improvement of communications, have therefore sought to improve existing waterways and to open new ones rather than to make roads and there has been created by degrees a very complete system of canals connecting the various rivers and creeks and giving access from the main river in the neighbourhood of the capital, to all parts of the rich low-lying country to the north, east and west of it. Natural and artificial water-courses thus forming the highways it follows that the majority of the inhabitants are found living upon the banks of such. The houses ciusier beneath the shade of tall bamboos or taller palm-trees at the edges of rivers, creeks and canals and give something of the impression of long, continuous villages stretching almost without interruption from town to town. Behind the houses lie the ojDen rice-lands with usually at the other side of these a great expanse of reeds and grass jungle, extending to the horizon or to the line of another water-course, with its comple- mentary cultivated lands and riparian villages. The provincial toAvns are simply larger clusters of houses standing in serried rows on the banks of a maze of water- ways, or floating on pontoons upon the water itself. COMMUNICATIONS 403 while ill Bangkok, the innumerable canals still exist on which the houses stood in the not very remote days before streets had been made, and before the new city of masonry houses began to replace the intricate confusion of thatched lints and wooden mansions which, in the last century, it ivas the fashion to call the Venice of the East. The rivers and canals are the arteries of nearly all the traffic of the country and are continnally thronged with innnmerable boats and iTSsels of many descriptions. Notwithstanding the recently constructed railways, nine- tenths of the xirodnce of the country is carried by water to the markets, while the various journeys and errands which take people abroad upon the roads in the other countries, are here all performed in boats. The Siamese children learn to swim almost before they can walk and the whole population is familiar from earliest youth vdth the management of boats of all kinds. Indeed it would appear that the physique of the nation has undergone certain modifications in consequence of the large portion of existence vdiich has been passed by countless genera- tions in rowing, paddling, and sitting in boats, for it is a matter of common remark that the shoulders of the vSiamese women are squarer and stronger than is usual in other lands, while in both sexes a tendency is notice- able towards development of the arms ont of proportion to the somewhat attenuated lower limbs. Rowing as practised in Europe is not a pojmlar form of boat propulsion in Siam and is only jn’actised in the Rda Xua or ‘ Boats of the North ’ which are rowed dovm, and poled iqi, stream. The implements generally used are the paddle, Pai, and a form of sweep called Cheoic. The paddle is used for small canoes thronghont Central Siam, and for boats of all kinds by the Malays of Southern Siam. The Siamese paddle is long and slender and has a sqnare-ended blade, that of the ilalay is shorter, has a cross-piece for handle and a wide sharp- 404 SIAM pointed blade shaped like an exaggerated spear-liead. Both races exhibit a deftness in the use of this implement only to be expected from people a great part of whose lives are passed upon the water. The manoeuvring of a Siamese royal barge manned by a hundred paddlers, and the handling of a great Malay canoe by its crew of thirty stalwart fishermen, are both, in their different ways, perfect exhibitions of supple strength and concerted action. The Glieow is common to Kambodia and Toncpiin (as well as to Siam) but is not used in Burma, and nothing quite like it is seen outside Further India though the crossed sweeps of the common Chinese ‘ sampan ’ and the implement of the Venetian gondolier are other variations of the same idea. It is a long flexible sweep with a cross-piece at the handle end and its fulcrum is a stout stanchion rising some eighteen inches above the edge of the boat, to which it is attached by a figure-of-eight grommet of cotton twist. Tho oj^erator stands erect in the boat facing the bow a]id works the sweejD with a long pushing stroke ending with a jerk. A single sweep used for some boats of the smaller and lighter kind, gives a most powerful impetus and in the hands of an expert becomes also a steering apparatus of peculiar accuracy. There are few j)eople in Siam who do not understand and practise the art of sailing in some form or another, for though the days of the old square-rigged merchant sliips have long x^ast away and the oj)en seas of China and India no longer know the Siamese sailor, the coast- hig trade in the Gulf, the fishing industry and travel- ing upon inland waters give ample ox3j)ortunities for the exercise of this accomplishment. Indeed the tight little vessels of one sort or another, which run in and out of all the rivers of Siam to brave the treacherous winds of the Gulf, I)reed a sailor quite as skilful and as daring: as may be found elsewhere. kaja’s boat on the pataxi river. A FULLY- LADEN RICE-BOAT. [Photo ■. Lenz. THE SMALLEST KIND OF HOUSE-BOAT USED IN SIAM. COMMUNICATIONS 405 Apart altogether from the people who, living in houses at the water’s edge, go about their daily avocations on the water, a considerable part of the population lives altogether in boats. In some of the larger canals of Bangkok, large covered boats of good capacity are always to be seen moored close together in serried rows, in each of which the owner with his wife and family, lives permanently or for long periods, and on board of which cooking and other ordinary household occupations are conducted in full view of the passer-by. These are for the most part rice-boats from the interior which, having discharged a cargo at some mill, are awaiting an opportunity to return upstream, possibly with a load of merchandise for sale to the country folk. Others which are furnished as shops, the interior being fitted with pigeon-holes for the reception of rolls of cloth, skeins of yarn, hardware and all manner of im])orted goods, have come in to the metropolis to restock. Others again, may be np from the coast witli cargos of fish, of firewood obtained from the swamps along the shore, of Chak or Xipah roofing- thatch or of salt. These boats are of all sizes and of many distinct types. Tlie most common perhaps is the Riia Kao or ‘ rice-boat,’ a bulky double- ended vessel, broad of beam and deep of draught, strongly built of linge ])lanks of teak or Mai Takien, and covered in amid-ships Avith a neat dome-sliajied structure of plaited bamlAOo strips, caulked and varnished and made C[iiite Aveather-proof. The boAv and the stern are decked and open to the air but liaA-e removalfie coverings AAdiich can be draivn over them at Avill. A foot-board skirts the sides, connecting the fore and aft parts and proAuding a foot-hold for jioling AAdiich is necessary in some AA^aters. The boats are coated Avitli deep red-broAvn Avarnish, the decks are liighh' ]iolished from the friction of bare feet and from lieing continually sat upon, and the AAdiole effect is one of neatness and 406 SIAM cleanliness. The elaborate carving and other ornament with which the rice-boats of Burma are embellished is almost entirely absent. The boats have a single re- moveable mast forward of the covered waist, two or more stanchions on which long sweeps are worked, and are steered by a rudder hanging upon hinges. The Bua Bet is a boat somewhat similar to the Bila Kao but longer, of less beam and altogether more graceful. It is vei' 3 " commonly used on the rivers and is also built for sea-going. The Bua Kua, or ‘ boat of the north,’ is of altogether different construction . Built for traffic on the northern rivers where the current is rapid and where rocks and shallows are frequent, it is much longer and of much less beam than the others and has a draught of only a few inches. The bow is low and only slightly turned up, while the stern curves up into a great flat tail some eight feet high, the last x^art of which is peiqDendi- cular. Amid-shix^s it is closed in like the Bila Kao and the afterpart is also enclosed with a roof and walls and makes a room in which the steersman sits and where his family usually liA^es. The fore-x^art, which is narrow, is htted with stanchions for the short oars with which the boat is rowed down stream and is used, to- gether with the broad side foot-boards, as the walk of the crew when x'^oling ux3 stream. Sweex^s and masts are absent and steering is effected by means of a long broad- l)laded oar x^assed through a hole in the after-room, and projecting fbe u])turned tail and far out astern. The Bila Chalom conies from the coast where it is considered one of the best boats for sea-fishing. It is a double ender with very iq^right bow and stern-x:»ost, usually decked in fore and aft, and of good beam. It is sometimes covered in amid-sliix)s with the oauI roof of matting common to other boats, but this is not always the case. It is xu'oxielled by four sweex^s and carries a removalile mast and a large square-sail with which it COMMUNICATIONS 407 makes astonisliingi}" good sailing, and is peculiar in having two detachable rudders one on each side of the stern-post, only that one wdiich is on the same side as the wind being used, the other being carried cocked njr on end above the stern. There is always a niiiltitiide of cpieer-looking sailing-craft anchored in the main river in the reach immediately above that which forms the Port at Bangkok. Here are Malay schooners, Chinese junks, pen ja jap (in Siamese, Rila Yayap), small two- masted Malay fjoats, and big sea-going Rila Pet. The schooners are graceful vessels built on European lines, with masts well raked l3ack and carrying the sails common everywhere to boats of this class. The junks are of the usual build of their type, rigged with a main-mast set amid-ships and a fore-mast ]3lanted right in the bows and raked far forward, and carrying two huge ribbed scpiare-sails. The Rda Yayap are boats of slendei build, with the stern projecting over and behind the rudder out of all proportion to the vessel, and carrying a deck-house in which the crew eat and sleep. A wide staging projects on either side of the bow giving the fore-deck a scpiare shape. All these vessels are j Link-rigged. The Rda Pet also carry main and fore-masts but have the mainsail well dipjied and very liigh peaked, and the fore-sail very small and fulfilling no more than the object for which the fore-sails were apparently originally intended, that is steadying the sliip and assisting the steering. Further down the river is the ancliorage of the wooden sailing lighters which are a feature of the Port of Bangkok, l)ut wliicli are lieing gradually supplanted by steam lighters built of steel. The wooden lighters are cumbersome, tub-shaped con- trivances of al)out 2t)() tons displacement, junk-rigged and manned exclusively by Chinamen. Their sailing is singTilarly haphazard and erratic, they habitually ignore all the rules of the Port and the masters of the steamers 408 SIAM frequenting Bangkok would gladly see the last of them consigned to the shiphreaker. In and out among the larger craft a host of small boats comprising many types is constantly on the move. Almost before the dawn monks appear paddling tiny canoes from house to house and from boat to boat, with the begging-bowd deposited before them read}^ to receive the alms of merit-makers. As the sun rises above the morning mists, the boats of the market-gardeners begin to appear ‘ cheowed ’ by two or four women and carrying a heap of fruit and vegetables in the waist. About the same time, in Bangkok and other towns not far from the sea, the Riia Chalom of the fishermen appear, sailing like a flock of birds vdien the wind is good, and when not, plunging along to the sweep-strokes of four sturdy oarsmen. Sellers of pork, shell-fish, sweetmeats, and hot coffee, turn out in their little canoes and go thread- ing in and out of the throng calling their wares. Licensed Rita Chang or hire-boats swing along on their single long sweep, manoeuvred with surprising skill by the boatman standing on the raised stern. These make their profits chiefly by short journeys, ferrying over the river or carrying women to and from the markets where the day’s provisions are bought, and clustering round the landing stages, yet always within hail of the would-be passenger. The private Riia Clieoio of the upper classes are a feature of eveiy tovm and in Bangkok are very numerous. They have a little house amidships in which the passengers sit, and are propelled by two or four men usually dressed in neat sailor costume. Many of them are highly ornamented and upholstered and have windows fitted with curtain blinds. Though Bangkok is now a city of bridges and streets, there are many houses of the well-to-do opening direct upon the canals or the river, whence they are approached by dainty landing stages. The occupants A LORCHA OR CARGO JiOAT, BANGKOK. [Phoio ■. Laiz. SOME yUEER BOATS OX THE AIIHIKOXG RIVER. FRUIT-SELLERS BOATS ON THE MENAM. COMMUNICATIONS 409 of these still use the Rua Clieow which to some extent holds its own against carriages and motor cars as a means of getting about the town. In the proAuncial centres they are still the only conveyance of the upper classes. The house-boat, knovm to the Siamese as Rila Pie-nic or ‘Picnic-boat,’ is an exaggerated Rila Cheoio, the house amidships fitted with sleeping accommodation, and the fore and aft decks roofed with awnings. It is used for long journeys but, though the acme of comfort for travelling, is heavy and unmanageable unless towed ])y a steam launch. It is many years since the steam launch became popular in Siam. The waters of Bangkok are daily ploughed by many hundreds of them, every business firm and not a few private individuals main- taining one or more. The launches of the Royal Nav}- number over a hundred and several Inland Transport companies supply daily services between the capital and many of the provincial towns. In the boats of these latter motor engines are now displacing steam, and indeed motor boats are becoming very popular with all classes. The king and other wealthy persons ovui many of the best and most modern types, and the annual races for motor boats which were instituted a few years ago arouse the greatest interest amongst all classes. Steam tOAving on the riA^er aaus an immenselA" profitable business before competition cut doAAUi prices and eA-^en noAv it is still remuneratiA^e. EA^eiy morning poAA^erful tugs depart upstream from Bangkok toAAung empty rice-boats and other craft, often to the number of a hundred or more on one rope and, running at the rate of some four miles an hour, ascend the main riA^er for seA^enty or eighty miles, dropx^ing at each canal entrance a group of boats AAdiich, hoisting sail, are soon s]>read out in a line of AAdiite AAungs, gliding across the flat landscape toAA^ards the more distant fields of the rice- groAA'ers. EA^ery eA^ening similar half-mile-long trains 410 SIAM arrive from up comiti\y but these are all loaded down to the gunwale with rice. All vessels, whether inland or sea-going, which frequent Bangkok, are registered there, and the number thus enumerated at present exceeds 160,000. The boats of the inland waters and coasts of Southern Siam differ in many respects from those of the central districts. The rice-boat and the Rua Pet are replaced in the rivers by the craft called in Malay Prahu Daud, and Praliu Kepala Belalang, shallow-draft, broad-bottomed boats, with houses amidships constructed of plain plank walls and thatched roof, and having the floor below water-level. The former has a broad square deck carried out far beyond the bow, and tilted high into the air to form a steep inclined plane down which the boatmen walk when poling. The latter is without the inclined poling deck, has a sharp prow, somewhat resembling the head of the grasshopper from which the l)oat takes its name, and is usually paddled. The Praliu Daud has a carrying capacity of from two to ten tons of paddy and the ‘ grashopper-head ’ averages a good deal smaller. The Rila Chalom is used on the coast as far south as Bandon and the sea-going Rua Pet as far as Singora. The equivalents further south, in the Malay provinces, are the Penjajap or Ya-Yap and the Payoncj already mentioned, holek of two kinds and Sagor. The Payong is the original Prahu of the Malay ])irates, the blood-stained craft of writers of ‘ Fiction for Boys,’ gliding with its crew of desj:»erate savages over Avaters fitfully lit by the lurid glare from burning ships, and in fancy chased and captured by every youthful reader but, in fact, long ago reduced to the humble role of fishing or cargo boat. The kolek, an open boat with u])right stem and stern and long straight gunwale, is the ordinary seining boat of the east coast of Southern Siam. The kolek linchong is one of the most graceful vessels in the world ; its keel is a perfect curve rising COMMUNICATIONS 411 high out of the water into tapering points fore and aft, thus giving the craft the appearance of a crescent moon resting lightly on the water. It is used chiefly for line and small net-fishing and, with its Ingsail and foresail supported on the most slender of masts, is a very fast sailer and a good sea-hoat. The Sagor on the contrary is a singularly ungraceful and clumsy-looking craft, consisting of a dug-out hull with a high built-up free board, cut off scpiare at the bow and stern. In his well-known work Five Years in Siam and elsewhere, Warington Smyth has analysed with tlie sympathy and insight of an expert, the Aurtues and failings, the achieA^ements and shortcomings of the sailors of Siam, and has described Avith the pen of an enthusiast the build, rig, and qualities generally of the vessels in Avhicli the Avater traffic of the country is carried on. Shiijping Lines. — The tAvent.y miles or so of the river Llenam Chao Phaya, Avhicli separate the port of Bangkok from the sea, form an excellent l)road and deep AAuter- way for steamers l)ut a Avell defined bar at the river- mouth forbids tlie entrance of more than tAvelve and a half feet draught. Proposals for deepening the channels through the bar liaA^e frequently been placed before the Government, but hitherto none have been adopted, and- ineaiiAvhile A^essels frequenting the poi’t usually discharge a part of their cargo in the roads of Sichang, formed by an island group a foAv miles south-east of the river mouth, and on leaAung take up the greater part of their fresh cargo there. It is for this reason tliat the fleet of Bangkok lighters exists and it seems iiossible that the profits of the lightering business may be in a measure responsible for the non-dredging of the bar. There are tAA'o channels by Avhich A*essels of tAA^eh^e and a half feet draught can cross at high tide, the Avestern of AA'hich is the more generally used. This AA^oidd 412 SIAM appear to liave deepened by some eighteen inches during the last hundred years as the records of mariners at the beginning of the last century show that ships of eleven feet draught then had great difficulty in warping over the bar even with the tide at its best. The fairway is marked by three lightships which show red lights at night. A pilot brig is anchored just outside the bar and the passage, though tortuous, is fairly constant and is buoyed. As a consequence of the presence of the bar the Bangkok steamers are small, and many of them have been specially constructed with Avide beam and flat bottom for the negotiation of this obstacle. Ships of more than 2000 tons are seldom seen in the port, the feAv large vessels AAdiich annually take rice direct to Europe loading the Avhole of their cargo in the roads outside the bar. The regular shipping is made up of the fleets of the local branch of the North German Lloyd and of the Rickmers Line, of the Danish East Asiatic Company, Ltd., the Siam Steam NaAugation Company, Ltd., Avith a fleet of seA^^en small but neAv and AA^ell-found vessels, the Siam Coast Navigation Company and a number of NorAvegian and British vessels 0 A\med or chartered by the different mercantile firms. Most of the steamers have passenger accommodation and one, AAdiich makes a fortnightly vo^^age to Singapore and back, is devoted entirely to passenger traffic. The steamers of the Koh Guan ConnDany Avhich pl}^ betAveen Rangoon and Penang have for many years been in the habit of calling at the ports and toAvns on the Avest coast of Southern Siam. The Eastern Shipping Company, Ltd., a Penang concern, maintains a regular service of sea-going launches of very ancient construction and almost inconceivable filthiness, Avith the coast toAvns of Satun, Palean, and a fcAV places further north. The ra})id groAvth of trade on this coast within the last tAvo or three years has attracted the attention of Singapore COMMUNIC ATI ONS 413 shipping conii^anies and the Straits Steamship Compaii}^ Ltd., probably the most abl}^ managed and most prosperous shipping concern located in this part of the world, is making an effort to secure a share of the traffic between Singapore, Penang and the Siamese coast towns, more especially" Trang, the terminus of the trade routes across the peninsnla and the centre of a growing tin-mining industry. Roads. — Outside the town of Bangkok there are very few made roads anywhere in Siam and none at all in the central part. In the capital itself less than sixty years ago there were no streets, the sole means of com- munication being by Avater or on elephant back, along tracks Avdiich Avere soft mud Avhen the tide A\"as out and runnels of AA^ater AAdien it was in. Of the eighty odd miles of streets and suburban roads noAv in existence, most haA"e been made AAnthin the last decade. During the dry' season the open plains to the north of Bangkok are eA"eryAAdiere fit for cart traffic and many- rough tracks are then in use, AAdiile on the higher lands there are AA"ell-knoAvn, rough but serviceable Avays AAdiich are practicable all the year round. The OA^erland trade routes from Burma into Siam, notably" those betAA"een Moulmein and Raheng and between Mergui and the AA"estern shores of the Gulf, are of A-eiy ancient establish- ment, the latter, of Avhich the eastern terminus AA’as the city" of Pipli uoav knoAAui as Petchaburi, being the route by" AA"hich all trade from India and Europe found its AA"ay- to Siam before the sea route round the peninsula became AA"ell knoAA-n, AA"hile the former is the main line AA"hich has been folloAA"ed by- the Burma trade from the earliest times doAA"ii to the present. These are, hoAvever, merely jungle tracks and little has been done to remove their many- difficulties bey"ond the occasional construction of temporary- Avooden bridges by ])rivate makers of merit. In the old days of the Pipli route,. 414 SIAM elephants were sometimes used as means of transport and it was on the hacks of these animals that in the 17th century, a.d., the first French missionaries to Siam made their painful journey from the port of Tenasserim. Most of the merchandise, however, was then, and still is, carried by porters, the best agency for negotiating the innumerable obstacles of the routes. Before the railway had penetrated to Korat on the j^latean of Eastern Siam, large numbers of pack bullocks brought out the produce of that section of the country, along well defined routes, mostly converging on the towns of Saraburi a few miles east of Ayuthia, many large caravans of a hundred head or more of cattle annually making the journey down, and returning with loads of cloth and other foreign imports sent to Saraburi by water from Bangkok, Bullock transport is however, slow and unwieldy and inferior to any other except perhaps elephant ; and it is not surprising that the old bullock-paths are now almost deserted in favour of the railwa}^ which carries goods in two days from Korat direct to Bangkok. Within the last few years the government has begun to exhibit some activity in the making of roads in the more distant provinces of Northern and Southern Siam where com- munications by water are poor or altogether absent, and where, for strategic or commercial reasons, it has become desirable to open up remote districts or where the exist- ing tracks and bridle-paths have been found to be insufficient for the present volume of traffic. The rising of certain Shan clans of the North in 1901, showed liow next to impossible is the adequate administration of outlying districts inhabited by unruly hillmen in the absence of communications, and hence one consequence of this unpleasant incident has been the construction of new roads and the improvement of such as already existed, in many parts of the Lao States. Of these the most noticeable are the military road from Raheng to THROUGH THE RICE-FIELDS BY ELEPHANT. MODERN ” SIAM. RAILWAY TERMINUS, BANGKOK. VIEW OF GOODS YARD AND ENGINE SHEDS. COMMUNICATIONS 415 Laklion, 110 miles ; from Cliieng Mai to Lamplium, 36 miles ; from Chieng Mai to Laklion 80 miles, and the roads between Utaradit, Pre and Nan. The fact that motor cars are beginning to be used in Northern Siam is perhaps the best iiroof of a general extension and improvement of the roads in that part. In Southern Siam the roads connecting the chief towns of the various provinces with their outlying villages are all being improved and rendered fit for cart traffic, while a trunk- road between Singora and Patani and others connecting Siugora, Patalung and Nakhon Sri Tammarat on the east with Trang on the west coast, in all about 240 miles, are now approaching completion. Raihcays . — About the }"ear 1880 the ambitions of France in Further India and her very evident determina- tion to make a strong bid for the trade of the eastern part of that region and of South-west China, created alarm in the breasts of British merchants and caused a certain amount of agitation in favour of securing the trade of the Shan and Lao States, Yunnan and Siam, before it should be too late, by means of railways con- necting those parts with British Burma and constructed with British capital. Advocates of various routes from Burma to Yunnan arose and amongst these were Messi’s Holt Hallet and Colqiihoun ivho strongly favoured a line from Moulmein following the jn’esent trade route to Raheng in Siam, thence running past Laklion, whence a branch to Chieng Mai could be made, up due north out of Siam, along the Mehkong river and finally through Yunnan and right awaj^ into the heart of China. With a vieiv to promoting this route, its advocates explored Northern Siam, embodied the results of their travels in books of much interest and in lectures which they gave before various geographical and commercial bodies in the Lnited Kingdom. F^ltimately, however, the merits of their route ivere found inferior to those of another 416 SIAM which did not enter Siam and the project, to which they had given much unremunerated labour, had to be abandoned. Their work had the effect, however, of bringing the importance of railway communications in his dominions prominently before His Majesty the King of Siam and, in 1887, with the assistance of the Governor of the Straits Settlements, a contract was entered into by His Government with a British firm which resulted in the survey for a line from Bangkok to Chieng Sen on the Mehkong, the northernmost town in the country. The first railway in Siam was not made, however, in pursuance of this ambitious project but was, in fact, a modest private undertaking con- necting the Capital with the village of Paknam near the mouth of the Menam Chao Phaya. The Paknam Railway Co., Ltd. was organised in 1891 and began work in that year. The line, twelve miles long, was completed and was opened by the King in 1893. The Company’s property consists of a narrow gauge line of light material, stations constructed of timber at Bangkok and Paknam with a few tiny wayside stations inter- mediate, two locomotives, some half-dozen passenger carriages and one goods van. The line runs through ]>erfectly level rice-fields and except for wooden bridges and culverts here and there, cost very little to build. From the first the railway was highly popular with the country people and though it has practically no goods traffic it has proved a financial success the magnitude of which has increased with the lapse of time. On the completion of the northern survey, the question of construction of State railways fell into abeyance and it was not until necessity arose in another direction that the Government once more bestirred itself in the matter. The action of the French in approaching and encroaching upon the eastern frontier of Siam, and the plans which they began to discuss for diverting the trade of Eastern RA1L\¥AYS 4ir Siam from Bangkok to Saigon, alarmed the Siamese Government and it was presently decided that the construction of a railway to the eastern provinces was a matter of immediate national necessity in order that the frontier might be made easih" accessible in case of military necessity and that trade at the same time might be secured to Bangkok, Tenders were thereupon invited for the construction of a line from Bangkok to Korat, a distance of 164 miles, and a contract was subsequently given to an Englishman with experience of such work gained in Ceylon and in the Malay States. The first sod was cut by His I\rajesty the late King, in 1892 and it was hoped that rapid progress would be n>ade with the line, but ill-luck seems to have fastened upon the undertaking at an early stage and it was not until the spring of 1897 that the first section, about 45 miles, was opened for traffic. When the construction began, a Royal Railway Department was instituted, the principal duty of which was to control the work of the contractor. 44ie German gentleman who was appointed to direct this department had been an unsuccessful tenderer for the contract, which fact was scarcely likely to conduce to future harmony between the contractor and the Government. It did not, in fact, do so for differences arose almost at once and a condition of affairs very shortly supervened which, going from bad to worse, bid fair to ruin the whole enter]')rise. The unsuccessful German competitor, in his capacity of 1 )irector of Railways, criticised and condemned the work of liis British rival, possil:>ly with more zeal than tact, while the contractor, impatient of control, more |)ar- ticularly when exercised by this particular individual, hastened to ascribe all delays as well as other more serious shortcomings to undue interference on the part of the Government. At length in 1896, matters between the Department and the contractor havincr reached an 2d 418 SIAM impasse, tlie Government cancelled tlie contract, stopped tlie Avork and took over the construction in addition to the direction of the line. The claims Avhich were at once put foiAvard by the contractor became the subjects of a lengthy arbiti-ation, ultimately decided against the Government. Fortunately, there Avas amongst the numerous staff AAdiich the Director of RailAA^ays had engaged, scA^eral highly competent engineers, in Avhose hands the interrupted AA^ork of the contractor Avas speedily put in order and pushed forAA^ard, the first section (from Bangkok to Ayuthia) being opened a fcAv months after the change. The lieaA^y Avork upon the hilly sections beyond aa^s also j)ut in hand Avithout delay, and before the end of ]900 the AAdiole line, 105 miles in length, AA^as in full Avoildng order, though l:y that time the march of events had robbed it of much of its strategic A^alue. MeaiiAAdiile, hoAvever, the original scheme of a railAA^ay to the north had been revived and Avork had been begun on a 20 mile section branching from the Ivorat line a little above Ayuthia and carrying railhead to the ancient toAvn of Lopburi some 70 miles north of Bangkok. This branch AA^as opened for traffic in 1901. At the same time CA^ents in Southern Siam and the groAving need of communications betAveen the provinces on the Avest of the Menam Chao Phaya and the capital, caused a further deA^elopment of railAAmy policy, Avith the result that in 1900 the late king ordered the construction of a Jline starting from the Avest side of the river at Bangkok and running Avest to Ratburi and thence south to Petchaburi, 94 miles distant, (‘onstituting the first section of a future Peninsular Railway. This work aauis pushed on rajiidly and AA^ell, and in 1903 the AAdiole section Avas completed and opened. Thus eleA^en years after beginning AA^ork, the Siamese State RaipA^a^^s consisted of 285 miles of com- pleted lines AAdiich, though by no means a great achieve- ment for so long a ]ieriod, Avas at least more than a RAILWAYS 419 mere lieginniiig, and very consiJeraljly more tlian was ])rognosticated tlie hostile critics of eA^erytliiiig Siamese, who greeted the ince])tion of the railway policy and the early misadventures which attended its realisa- tion with scepticism and ridicnle. Hitherto the cost of constrnction of the line with its complement of bnil dings and rolling-stock had been defrayed entirely ont of revenue, but it was now felt that, while military and administrative requirements in Northern Siam rendered the extension of the northern line imperative, the growing demands of other Dejiart- ments of Government could not be neglected and that the Government having spent 27,500,000 tieals, or about a million and a half sterling, woidd he well advised to resort to liorroAving for further raihva>' construction. In 1903, therefore, the first foreign loan of Siam Avas raised, consisting of one million pounds, and since that date railway construction has been more rapid than formerly, while more ordinary revenue has been available for other pur])oses. In 1905 the section liOpburi — Paknampoh, 73 miles, was added to the Xorthern Line, and this was followed at the end of 1907 hy the further section Paknampoh — Phitsaiiulok, 87 miles, opened hy the late King Chulalongkorn, who, in his speech at the conclusion of the ceremony, enui](uated the motive of Siamese ralKayv ])olicy in the following words : ‘ The construction of^ railways has not only the greatest influence upon the development of a country, hut is also the most striking evidence of that (level )]>- ment. , . . Py hringing the dilferent parts of a country within close communication the railway renders ])ossible that close and heneficial sui)ervision which is necessary to effective administration. P.y furnishing rapid and easy means of transportation, it adds materially to the A'alue of the land and its products. . . . The railwav wherever it goes carries wdth it enlightenment and 420 SIAM encourages the growth of that national feeling which is so important an element in the welfare of a country. ... I trust that the work will continue to advance with rapidity for, as I have already stated, progress in this work means progress in the development of the country and the prosperity of the people, Avhich I have so mmdi at heart.’ In 1908, the section Phitsanulok-Bandara, 42 miles, Avas o]3ened and thus 202 miles were added to the main raihvay of the country in the six years folloAAung 1903 ; while during that same period a great part of the tunnelling, bridging, and other heavy Avork for the next sections, the heaviest and most expensi\"e part of the AAdiole Northern . line AA^ere also hand and brought to an advanced stage. Moreover, a third line of GoA^ernment railwaA", connecting the eastAA^ard and south-eastAvard x>i'o^dnces Avith the capital, was taken up during this period, a section of this, Bangkok- Petriu, 39 miles, being com]4eted and opened for traffic early in 1908. When the final accounts for the traffic on the Northern Raihvay Avere made uf> for the year 1908-09, they shoAved that the line had reached a })oint beyond AAdiich its extension could not be expected to ^yy I’eason, partly of the sx^arseness of the lyopulation and partly of the expensiA^e nature of the Avurk recjuired to carry the line through the hilly country at the edge of AAdiich it had arrived. It AA^as therefore determined to suspend further construction and to make the terminus for the time being at tlie foot of the hills a fcAV miles beyond Utaradit, wdth a short, AvestAvard branch to the ancient city of SaAvan- kalok. These remaining sections AA^ere ox)ened by His yiajesty the King, then CroAvn Prince, toAA^ards the end of 1909. At the x^i*esent moment, therefore, the GoA'Crn- ment RaipA^ay iJepartment controls over 580 miles of single raihva}^ line of 1'455 metre gauge on the east side of the Menam Chao Phaya, and 1 metre gauge on RAILWAYS 421 the west side, with a rolling stock consisting of GO locomotives, 200 passenger carriages, and 1000 goods and ballast waggons. There are palatial offices in llangkok and stations every few miles along the lines. The rails ])ass over hundreds of bridges, the three largest of Avhich are handsome steel structures built on masonry piers and between 140 and 200 yards long. Tlie whole system represents an invested capital of fifty million ticals or close on three million sterling. Engaged upon the construction are Siamese, British, German, Italian and Danish engineers. Of the material, rails and bridge girders are now partly from England, lo('omotives all from Germany and carriages and Avaggons from England and Belgium, though at one period of the construction all material was bought in Germany. The financial management of the Railways Avas for some years a cause of friction betAveen the Financial and the Pulilic Works De])artments of GoA^ernment, the raiBvay director adAmncing the theory that money allotted to raihvays in the annual financial budget of the Kingdom must be under his absolute control and to he accounted for only to llis l\lajesty the King and not under any circumstances to llis Majesty’s Ministry of Finance AAdience the budget issued. Further- more, after the (*ancellation of the railway contract the Director insisted that the purchase of all material must be left to himself alone, to be conducted Iia’ ]irivate tender, or Avithout tender at all, as seemed to him best. The efforts of the ]\linistry of Finance to obtain the bare infor- mation as to hoAv the large sums of money annually Avited for railAA'ays Avere being spent, evoked from the Director an outcry of injured honesty, and from the German ^linister resident at Bangkok, a whirlAvind of indignant objection, so that the GoA^'ernment Avas fain to accjuiesce in this unusual situation until the failure of a Leijizig bank, inA’olving the loss of a sum of Siamese money, Avhich should liaA'e been in the Bangkok Treasury, effect iA'ely 422 SIAM demonstrated the unsouiidness of the system and brought about the introdnction of a better system of control. While the construction of the railway is the work of engineers of various nationality, the management of those parts of it Avliich are oi:>en for traffic has long ]jeen in the hands of Germans and has suffered some- what from excess of officialism. When the first section Avas opened, the i)eople, to whom, by nature, even the mildest of restrictions are irksome, were to some extent restrained from using the railAvay by the numerous useless regulations to Avhich passengers Avere subjected and by a too frequent interference Avith their moA^ements by fussy individuals, panoiilied in the martial uniforms common to German railAA^ay officials. Experience has, liOAveA^er, brought a measure of Avisdom and raibvay traA^elling is iioaa- a fixed institution Avith the people, more esjAecially since the abolition of gambling houses in the provinces has caused the peasantry to resort in large numbers to those of the Capital. As regards goods traffic the results hawe 1)een disappointing. It is estimated that not more than four ])er cent of the produce which is lArought from the country into Bangkok is carried b}^ the railAAmy. Water transport, though sIoav, has many facilities AAdiich the railAAmy cannot offer and here again there ai*e indications that irksome regulations and insuf- iicient care and attention on the ])art of the department and its employes haA^e discouraged the use of the line. That the State railways Avill, IioAvever, ultimately be succ-essful and profitable there can l)e no doubt. Already they have carried ]>ros])erity into more than one formerly desolate and unproductive region, the toAAms and villages along the line have increased in size and AA^ealth since they have been connected Avith the capital, a consider- able trade in live-stock has s])rung up Avhich had no ])]-evious existence at all and the management of the service is continually improving and becoming better adapted to the requirements of commerce. The net RAILAVAYS 423 proceeds from traffic of all kinds amounted, for the year 1908-1909, to 2, 530, 77 7 '45 ticals, or about one hundred and ninety-two thousand pounds sterling, providing a small sum for the renovation fund and 4|- per cent, interest on the capital expended. For x^urposes of administration the value of the railways cannot be over-rated, and a considerable part of the recent imxu’ove- ment in the government of the interior could never have been brought into effective operation without them. In the spring of 1909 the Siamese Railwa\^ Depart- ment signed an agreement with the Government of the British Federated Malay States by which it secured a loan of four million sterling for the xDurpose of extend- ing the railway from Petchaburi southwards througli Southern Siam to link up with the Federated Malay States railway system. The political advantages of this agreement to England are considerable, for by it she obtains that influence throughout the length of the Siamo-iMalay Peninsula to the exclusion of other foreign powers for which she has been working for many years. Its adA^antages to Siam are also manifest for it ensures the immediate ox^ening ux^ of the fertile regions of Soutiiern Siam AAffiich must otherwise liaA^e been in- definitely delayed and it brings the Siamese capital apxDreciably nearer to the AA'orld’s great mail and traffic route through the Straits of Malacca. The suiwey Avork for this southern extension, AAdiich Avill be OA^er six hundred miles in length, has been completed, con- struction is in x^rogress at many x^oints and the section Avliich crosses the x'^eninsula from Trang on the Avest to Singora on the east, is ox^en for traffic. The contracts for material for this raipA'ay liaA^e all been made after o]^en tender and liaA’-e mostly gone to Germany and Belgium. Transport of the material from Eurox^e is in the hands of the East Asiatic Co. Ed. (T)anish). In the beginning of 1912 the GoA’ernment decided to push on Avith the Xorthern PailAA’ay in the direction of 424 SIAM Chieng Mai and work at railhead began again after having been suspended for two years. It is expected that the extension to Chieng Mai will cost about a million and a half sterling and will occupy about six years. The increasing necessity for developing the resources of the Chieng Mai neighbourhood is the principal reason for undertaking the extension. PART ART That the Siamese were at one time skilled in the pro- duction of objects of high artistic value is abundantly testified by the innumerable treasures of native work- manship which are stored up in tlie museums and in the private collections of the wealthier class. That they are so now is not, however, so evident since it is larely that artists of any great capacity are met with at the present day, while the results of the labours of such as there are can very seldom compare favourably with the productions of the past. The explanation of this